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One may see history as only only a succession succession of of chances chances or con;unctures or conjunctures may easily easily see history as -but, so, there is nothing to study, there are no correlations to there is are to there no to be correlations be but, if if so, nothing study, made between events, fact there there is rope of of sand, sand, aa series series in fact a rope is only events, and in only a of one can can do nothing but which one do nothing but narrate narrate.• ••. of non sequiturs sequiturs which .
. .
optical illusion disease of it is is the the optical But it the occupational illusion or or the the research research of the occupational disease student to that only details matter, are to imagine student the details that the the details details are matter, and that only the imagine that all statesman has has no purpose but but is value that the all of the statesman no cohesive is cohesive purpose of equal equal value--that merely a a bundle of contradictions contradictions--and that everything everything is the rule rule bundle of and that is under under the merely of chance, play of little chances chances-history reducing the play chance, under the of of absurdly absurdly little history reducing
itself at the finish to of circumstance. circumstance. the finish to an irony irony of Herbert Butterfield, Herbert Butterfield, 1959 1959
itself at
1 I
have always thought that basic division division among among human beings have that a a basic is always thought beings is between preoccupied with question "How" and those prebetween those those preoccupied the question those prewith the with the is a a great great "How" age. But occupied with the question This is "Why" This age. "But occupied question "Why." "Why" will doubtless doubtless in course again again remains unanswered, in due course unanswered, and will "Why" remains claim attention. Muggeridge, 1958 claim attention. Malcolm Muggeridge, 1958
•
THE CONTOURS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
•
•
William Appleman Appleman Williams Williams was born born in in William and studied studied at United the United at the and
Adantic, Iowa, Atlantic, Iowa,
States and the University of of the University States Naval Naval Academy Academy and Wisconsin. His His books books include include AmericanWisconsin. Russian Relations, Relations, 1781-1947; Russian 1781-1 947; The Tragedy Tragedy of American Diplomacy; Diplomacy; and and The Great EvaGreat Evaof American is at present Professor Professor of History at sion. He is sion. of History at present at the University University of of Wisconsin. Wisconsin. the
•
The The Contours Contours of American History of American History
*** WILLIAM APPLEMAN WILLIAMS
With Foreword by by the the Author Author With aa New Foreword
Q QUADRANGLE PAPERBACKS QUADRANGLE Quadrangle Books // Chicago Quadrangle Books Chicago
In meOlory for Oly of m.y father, and for mother; my m.other; memory of my father,
parents me by by example example the wisdom and parents who gave gave Ole the in both meanings the life life inherent in meanings of of Napoleon's neglected axiom: Napoleon's neglected You comm# yourself, and then zhen-you see. commit yourself, you see.
THE CONTOURS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. © 1961, 1966 by by William Appleman Williams. WilliaDls. This originally published published in 1961 by by the World book was originally Publishing Company, Cleveland, is reprinted and is here Publishing Company, Cleveland, reprinted arrangement. by arrangement. edition published published QUADRANGLE PAPERBACK edition 1966 by by Quadrangle Quadrangle Books, Books, Inc., Inc., 12 East Delaware Place, Chicago Chicago 6O611. 60611. Manufactured in 'the the United Place, States of America. States First First
Concerning Matters Concerning Such Matters as Authors, Authors, Reviewers, Reviewers, Readers, Readers, as and the Book Itself and Even the Itself Foreword: Foreword:
R
AYMOND CHANDLER
and William Faulkner of the the and William shared some of Faulkner shared
RAYMOND same insights insights into the nature nature of being an historian and and aa of being an historian into the writer, and they warned against reading the the reviews reviews oof one's one's own writer, they warned against reading books. Both men understood understood that a writer's writer's creativity, books. that a creativity, integrity, integrity, to defend defend are perpetually perpetually threatened threatened by and performance the urge performance are by the urge to or himself, and to be praised by by his his peers and superiors. or assert assert himself, and to be praised superiors. peers they realized realized that that the natural And they these natural the more an author fulfilled these author fulfilled more an and healthy healthy needs needs by by satisfying satisfying his his reviewers, reviewers, the the more he he would would write to and for for his his reviewers. reviewers. The writer writer would thus warp his his to and write thus warp own insights perceptions, and away from his true and turn true audience. audience. turn away from his insights and perceptions, The writer and the the reviewer reviewer are are engaged engaged in writer and in separate dialogues separate dialogues protagonist-the reader. The writer's writer's responsibility responsibility with the the same protagonist with the reader. is directly and honestly, the highest is to to offer offer himself himself directly at the level highest level honestly, and at reviewer's of he can the reading reading public. of performance can reach, to the reach, to performance he public. The reviewer's is to do the the same it. order to guide the the obligation is in order to inform to do inform and guide obligation reader's dialogue with with the the author and the the rerereader's dialogue the writer. writer. When the author and viewer substitute each other other for reading public, public, they deny their their for the viewer the reading substitute each they deny separate purposes and responsibilities. responsibilities. separate purposes II was was impressed with the of this this insight by the validity offered by insight offered impressed with validity of Chandler and Faulkner Faulkner long before I began to write books. I found I write books. found before I to Chandler long began the vast vast majority majority of formal and public public exchanges between authors authors the of formal exchanges between and reviewers reviewers to to be be dull, dull, childish, petty, or irrelevant. A good and or irrelevant. childish, petty, good were aa few few many managed qualities. There were to display all those those qualities. managed to display all many neither the the bluster bluster nor nor the the blood blood conexciting personal personal duels, conbut neither duels, but exciting I1
2 2
The American History History Contours of The Contours of American
tributed to to any any fundamental of the the reader's dialogue reader's dialogue enrichment of fundamental enrichment tributed with the author. The tiny number of such confrontations that did did with the author. The tiny number of such confrontations that help the reader involved an investment of time and energy by the help the reader involved an investment of time and energy by the author he could could have have used used far more creatively creatively in way that that in a a way far more that he author that I will will describe I later. describe later. verified The from Chandler Chandler and Faulkner was further further verified and Faulkner The warning warning from when II disregarded disregarded it. it. II doubt any man has has either either the the conconif any doubt if when fidence or the discipline to ignore the reviews of his first book. of reviews his first the book. to fidence or the discipline ignore Certainly did not. not. But But in them II gained a fuller underfuller underin reading gained a reading them Certainly II did standing of what Chandler Faulkner were were talking about. Some and Faulkner of what Chandler and talking about. standing reviewers mistake mistake the the public public or professional for personal arena. arena. the personal or professional for the reviewers There purpose, and potentially great value, in aa and in a legitimate There is is a value, potentially great legitimate purpose, serious between professionals. professionals. Ted Williams Williams could could confrontation between serious confrontation and teach other to raise their batting batting averages. averages. The raise their and did other men how to did teach tough, candid, private exchanges between Maxwell Perkins between Maxwell Perkins and and tough, candid, private exchanges and between F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest HemingF. Ernest Tom Wolfe, and between Scott Fitzgerald Wolfe, Hemingway, were I have read personal personal correspondence have read were fruitful. fruitful. And I correspondence way, between historians historians that that engaged and enlarged enlarged the of both both the minds minds of between engaged and improved their their subsequent work. men and and improved subsequent work. But personal relationships relationships have have nothing nothing to to do do with with such direct direct personal But such reviewing, and the attempt to promote that kind of a dialogue in a to that of and the kind reviewing, attempt promote dialogue in do a good thing aa review review has provided many many examples of trying to to has provided of do a examples trying good thing in the wrong place. place. The reviewer has the the the wrong in the wrong in the reviewer has way and in wrong way extremely difficult task of helping the reader to initiate and sustain of difficult task the reader to and initiate sustain helping extremely his own creative relationship with are very very few his creative relationship with .the author. There few There are the author. serious writers writers from from whom we cannot learn something, even if if it serious cannot learn it something, even is sometimes is negative, and and the reviewer fails fails unless engage the reviewer sometimes negative, unless he he helps helps engage the reader reader in in that process. the that educational educational process. Any book, book, however however excellent, be ostensibly destroyed by by can be excellent, can Any ostensibly destroyed using one of two simple techniques. The reviewer can list the one two of reviewer the can list using simple techniques. author's or incidental judgments which which are are eccentric eccentric author's secondary incidental judgments secondary or or otherwise or at odds with received received truth, truth, combine these with with aa otherwise at odds with combine these compilation that inevitably during of the the slips errors that occur during compilation of slips and errors inevitably occur the the process of publication, publication, and present present the the sum total total as as substansubstanprocess of tive other proceprocetive failures which demolish the author's author's work. work. The other failures which demolish the a fulcrum involves finding dure involves outside the the author's conceptual fulcrum outside author's conceptual finding a system and applying the lever offers lever of of routine routine intelligence. This offers system applying the intelligence. This the reader the the reader the illusion illusion of destruction. of professional destruction. professional
Foreword Foreword
33
Such wrecking may meet psychological needs needs exercises may meet certain certain psychological wrecking exercises of the men who undertake them, and may even provide temporary the of undertake them, and may even provide temporary distractions they should not be be confused helpdistractions for for others, but they should not confused with with helpothers, but ing the the reader reader understand, understand, evaluate, what the the and benefit benefit from from what evaluate, and ing has created. they are particularly indefensible when author author has created. Hence Hence they are particularly indefensible when by professionals professionals before before an professionals. pedormed by audience of of professionals. an audience performed as either an excuse Other use aa book Other reviewers reviewers use or an an opporbook as excuse or either an opportunity to begin their dialogue with the reader about issues to own their about the reader issues with tunity begin dialogue and subjects that are largely-if not totally-divorced from the and that are if divorced from the not totally subjects largely be author's work. The reviewer has the right, and should author's work. enreviewer has the right, and should be encouraged, to to initiate independent relationship initiate and and sustain sustain his his own independent couraged, relationship confuses, and hence mismiswith the the reading reading public. public. But with and hence But he he only only confuses, leads, public when he he does the guise of reviewing. the public does so so in of in the leads, the reviewing. guise with their their own labors they Such reviewers reviewers are are so so involved labors that that they involved with are unable to establish any significant rapport are particularly unable or to establish particularly any significant rapport or his work. Yet such simpatico empathy with the author and the with author and his such is work. Yet empathy simpdtico is essential reviewing. This does not mean that the reviewer essential to to creative reviewer creative reviewing. This does not that the even accept accept all must praise praise or or even must a is a all that the author author says. that the (There is says. (There great misconception, misconception, somehow, to underunderorder to that to in order to identify, somehow, that great identify, in is of of necessity necessity to to agree or acquiesce. neither stand, is But neither or approve stand, agree or acquiesce. But approve or a acts. One a secular nor a moral imperative unites the two secular logic a two acts. nor moral the unites logic imperative can still disagree.) Yet the reviewer has to undercan understand understand and has and still reviewer to underYet the disagree.) of simpdtico simpatico if he is stand the author in the the fundamental is to stand the author in if he to fundamental sense sense of speak creatively and helpfully about the author's work to the to the and author's work about the speak creatively helpfully reading public. public. Opposition praise that that are based on on no no more more or praise are based reading Opposition or than personal projection, preference, preference, or pique do help third third than not help do not or pique personal projection, parties reach reach their their own conclusions. conclusions. parties reading the the reviews reviews of book, AmeriAmeriThe experience of my of reading first book, experience of my first can-Russian Relations, Relations, 1781-1947, and considering them seriously, can-Russian 1781-1947, and seriously, considering also suggested to me that that authors are probably probably capable of writing writing authors are also capable of suggested to some most critical critical and reviews of their own work. work. of their useful reviews some of of the the most and useful This may may not not be be true true of produce nothing beyond the of those This those who produce nothing beyond the is proverbially said to be in every man, but it is one book that it is in but one book that is proverbially said to be every man, most likely the case case with with aa good many writers writers who are engaged are engaged most good many likely the of learning an act and in creative effort. is an act of effort. Writing a sustained in a sustained creative learning and Writing is I and know as aa display of insight and ego, and I maturation as of as well well as maturation ego, insight display with an exciting many writers have discussed past work with exciting discussed their their past writers who have many combination candor, affection, ruthlessness, and imagination. of candor, combination of affection, ruthlessness, imagination.
44
The of American American History History Contours of The Contours
Those who doubt this proposition profitably read read the the corcorThose doubt this might profitably proposition might respondence of Malcolm Lowry, and particularly his essay replying respondence of Malcolm Lowry, and particularly his essay replying to the negative commentary commentary prepared prepared for for aa publishing that to the negative house that publishing house was considering his manuscript.* was his manuscript.* considering by way of saying saying why decline to provide aa running All this by All this to provide way of why II decline running commentary on the reviews that were printed response and in response were that on the reviews and commentary printed in reply, in hope and disappointment, and in fear and anger when and in in and fear and when reply, anger disappointment, hope Contours published in in· 1961. Contours was was first insistence of first published 1961. The gentle of an an gentle insistence unusual editor, Ivan Dee, who is also a rare human being, peris also a rare unusual editor, Ivan Dee, being, persuaded me to all those those documents. the experience verified suaded documents. And the to read read all experience verified the remark remark once once made made by by Merrill Jensen, aa colleague whose mind mind the Merrill Jensen, colleague whose and heart warmed my my life, the temptation temptation and and warmed that the heart have informed and have informed life, that to review review the reviewers is irresistible. to is almost almost irresistible. the reviewers correct, and and II am not But and Faulkner Faulkner are not concerned But Chandler are correct, concerned Chandler and to and for the reviewers. I have been, and I remain, remain, with writing the reviewers. I and to and for have I with been, writing on a dialogue with the reading public about concerned to to carry a with the on concerned reading public about dialogue carry the way we Americans have lived our individual and collective the way Americans have lived our individual and collective lives, about thinking and as we have, have, of thinking and acting the consequences about the lives, acting as consequences of and about can use use that that knowledge knowledge to and deepen and to extend extend and about how we can deepen our the present present 'and the future. *and the future. our humanity in the humanity in of the reviewers made stimulating stimulating and helpful II think think that that aa few of the reviewers and helpful that dialogue, even though they disagreed in varycontributions to even contributions to that in though they disagreed dialogue, varying degrees, and ways, with what I offered the reader. The trench and I offered with the reader. trench ways, ing degrees, by other whose posture posture and was warfare initiated initiated by warfare other critics, and thought critics, whose thought was almost negative, contributed little either to the the dialogue almost wholly contributed little either to wholly negative, dialogue to their their own conversation with between myself the reader between reader or or to conversation with myself and the the reader. reader. The mistakes mistakes they discovered did did not not destroy destroy my my subsubthe they discovered stantive argument. Most of their criticisms of my analyses and of stantive their criticisms of argument. my analyses and sloppy reading of my actual interpretations were based upon were based of actual upon sloppy reading interpretations my to carry weight presentation, upon upon insufficient insufficient factual evidence to factual evidence the weight presentation, carry the or of sufficient simpatico to grasp of their rebuttal, or upon the lack of their the lack of sufficient to rebuttal, upon simpdtico grasp fully the nature of the alternate explanations I offered. the of nature the alternate I offered. fully explanations Nothing II can will transform transform them into attentive write will can write into close and attentive close and Nothing my research notes into readers. Transcribing all my readers. research notes into supplementary Transcribing all supplementary *M. 1946: Selected • M. Lowry Lowry to to J. Cape, January Selected Letters Letters of of Malcolm Malcolm J. 2, 1946: Cape, January 2, edited by Lowry, edited by Harvey Margerie Bonner Bonner Lowry Lowry (New York: Breit and and Margerie Lowry, Harvey Breit (New York:
57-88. Lippincott, Lippincott, 1965), 1965), 57-88.
Foreword Foreword
55
text and commentary commentary for for them them would would fill at least volume text fill at least another another volume as large as this. The willingness to be simpatico is a challenge that as this. as large willingness to be simpdtico is a challenge that he is each must meet meet for for himself. each man must himself. If If he is psychologically strong psychologically strong enough to do so, so, then then the the only issue is whether he musters the issue is whether he musters the enough to only courage to face a idea that might change his mind and thereby to a face new idea that his and mind courage might change thereby his life. life. his My reply to the the reviewers, reviewers, finally, is simply to invite the reader My reply to finally, is simply to invite the reader (old and new) to give this book his close and attention; and to this book his close and sustained sustained attention; new) (old give to engage me in dialogue about what we Americans have and and to engage in dialogue about what Americans have been and done, done, what what the the consequences have been, been, and been and what what we consequences have can learn that experience experience that will help help us us go beyond our learn from that can that will go beyond our present limitations and use our creative powers more effectively and limitations and use our and creative more present effectively powers more morally. morally. more The book book would be somewhat I had had just just written would be somewhat different written it, different if if I it, six months months to to revise factual or if I I had taken taken six or if revise it The factual it extensively. extensively. slips would be would be be longer longer in in order order be corrected. It would corrected. It oversights would slips and oversights to provide more detailed expositions of some points that to provide detailed expositions of some points that are are to offer examples in probably cryptically presented, and and to in further examples offer further cryptically presented, probably support of and judgments. judgments. And the of some interpretations events the events support interpretations and since would be be integrated the analysis. But none these 1960 would since 1960 into the none of of these integrated into analysis. But are primary, substantive matters. II have have not not changed my are primary, substantive matters. mind changed my about the validity validity of of my my broad broad conceptual framework or periodizaabout the or periodizaconceptual framework tion of or about the relevance and usefulness of my my tion our history, or of our and of about the relevance usefulness history, interpretation of central events, ideas, and institutions. I think that of think and that central events, ideas, institutions. I interpretation the book, carefully read read and our the and seriously extends our considered, extends book, carefully seriously considered, knowledge of of ourselves. ourselves. knowledge There is some point, however, however, in responding directly directly to to one one some point, There is in responding was put to me by the great majority of the several question that of the several was the to that question put by great majority hundred readers wrote personal personal letters letters after after they they had had finished finished hundred readers who wrote the book, book, and by aa similar with whom II have have .talked .talked and by similar number with the and wealth Some of these men and enjoyed wealth and directly. women of and these enjoyed directly. in low incomes and the pain of living in aa power; others endured of the endured incomes others low and living pain power; of of world largely shaped and controlled by others. Most of them, of Most world largely shaped and controlled by others. them, class. course, were members members of of that area we call the middle middle class. call the vast area that vast course, were felt the the book Yet all were troubled troubled by book the questions them were Yet all of of them they felt by the questions they should we do now, had raised raised but but had had not not answered: now, and answered: What should had here? go from here? where do do we go where of way of wrote this this book book II argued that History History was aa way When II wrote argued that
66
The of American American History History The Contours Contours of learning, aa way way of mustering knowledge, and will will to to of mustering courage, and knowledge, courage, learning, break free of the past. I see no reason to change that view. I see break free of the past. I see no reason to change that view. I see only more pressing pressing need need to to break urgency, that that a more free a greater break free-a greater urgency, only a is, those of values, and practices and practices to honor of our traditional ideals, honor those our traditional ideals, values, is, to to create create new that remain more insistent necessity to insistent necessity that and a a more remain creative; creative; and visions, virtues, and procedures to replace those that have reached that have to those reached and visions, virtues, replace procedures their potential and survive only as conventions and rationalizations as and rationalizations and survive conventions their only potential that impede the building building of an American American community. of an that community. impede the We already have a Great Society. Indeed, this is aa good good part part of this is of already have a Great Society. Indeed, our trouble. trouble. We are role-players in a huge huge and powerful system in a and powerful are role-players our system that is creating the actors it needs out of that is increasingly capable of increasingly capable of creating the actors it needs out of serve. But But acting the part part the human human beings beings it it is is supposed to the acting the supposed to serve. written by by the destroys both our essential humanness and essential both our the system humanness and written system destroys our our essential essential Americanness. Americanness. The nature the pervasive pervasive strength of contemporary and the nature and indusstrength of contemporary induslie at the heart of the problem. Critics such as Walter trial society trial lie at the of the Critics such as heart Walter problem. society hence Lippmann this power, power, and its consequences, consequences, and and hence and its Lippmann recognize recognize this see that it beyond the to the the Good Good see that it is is necessary to the Great Great Society Society to necessary to go go beyond Society. But it it is is not not enough high as a Good Society. aim only as a to aim as high Society. But only as enough to Society. For the the Good Society is also predicated upon upon the the existing also predicated For Society is system, existing system, and for nothing more more than greater material material it can and can offer offer nothing than greater for that that reason reason it ease, aa more our limited of our relaxed acceptance limited scope and significance more relaxed ease, acceptance of scope and significance and hence a further hedonizing, privatizing, in the system, a in the hence further and and system, hedonizing, privatizing, and Good Society can give us greater narrowing of our existence. The of our existence. can us narrowing Society greater give fulfillment, but only only in role. It It is beguiling but but in a a more limited a beguiling limited role. is a fulfillment, but tranquilizing objective. tranquilizing objective. be an American community. comOur true true goal should be an American goal should community. Now coma process munity is process as achievement, and the the process process is is a as well as an well as an achievement, is munity more important. Community as process is the ever-deepening undermore as is the underimportant. Community ever-deepening process the standing nature and potential potential as of our our nature as human beings, and the standing of beings, and sustained creation ways of living together together that appropriate sustained of ways creation of of living that are are appropriate to that potential. to and potential. that nature nature and conflicts within within and between human beings beings The fundamental fundamental conflicts and between in society in out of propensities that that are to arise out of contending are common to society arise contending propensities all all men and women. These can be described described and in can be and discussed discussed in several several ways, but in in thinking thinking about community it it seems useful about community seems useful ways, but to so by to do by defining defining two two sets paired opposites. opposites. One of these do so sets of of paired of these involves the polarities involves the tension between power and love-between tension between and love between polarities power
Foreword Foreword
71
the exercise will over and the of oneone~ of one's exercise of one's will the over another, the confluence confluence of another, and self with another. Power is a mine~his relationship. Love is an self with another. Power is a mine-his relationship. Love is an I~Thou relationship. relationship. The other polarity involves involves the between other polarity I-Thou the tension tension between acquiescence (or passivity) and participation (or involvement). and participation (or passivity) acquiescence (or involvement). between the two sets sets Clearly there is is an an interrelationship the two Clearly enough, enough, there interrelationship between of opposites. True love is predicated upon full mutual involve~ True love is of full mutual involveopposites. predicated upon ment, and pure power power for acquiescence by by another. and pure for one one requires another. ment, requires acquiescence love, and and passivity and involve~ These polarities of power and These polarities of power and love, and involvepassivity ment, operate within a broader context. All living organisms need ment, operate within a broader context. All living organisms need and seek their environment. an integrated seek an and Hence with their environment. Hence integrated relationship relationship with between human beings beings can established-at least for an an ecology can be at least for be established ecology between basis of of power and passivity, as well as through aa time-on the basis time on the and as well as power passivity, through basic involved, participating, participating, and reciprocal love. and reciprocal love. Those Those are are the the basic involved, patterns, and hence the two irreducible forms of functioning and hence two the of irreducible forms patterns, functioning government are benevolent benevolent despotism There are are and democracy. government are democracy. There despotism and of course between these primary modes, and pathologi~ of course gradations gradations between these primary modes, and pathological each, but but such patterns are are derivative not extensions of of each, cal extensions such patterns and not derivative and independent. independent. Thus there two kinds kinds of community. One is is the there are are two of community. the community community established through through the the practice practice of benevolent despotism. established of benevolent is It is despotism. It predicated upon power for the few and acquiescence by the many; for the few and the predicated upon power many; acquiescence by is sustained by an understanding on on the the part part of the few few and it sustained by and it is an understanding of the that they can hold their power only by resolving the tension can hold that their the tension they power only by resolving of the many. Such action between power power and and love, between care of the many. Such action love, by by taking taking care creates aa reciprocal reciprocal bond bond between between the many and the few. Stratifica~ creates the many and the few. Stratification, limitations, exclusions are tolerable, and even creacrea~ and exclusions and even are made tolerable, limitations, and tion, tive in respects, by by the the spirit and practice; of noblesse oblige. in some some respects, and tive of noblesse oblige. spirit practice pay for for their their power power (and wealth) with adulterated The few pay an adulterated with an (and wealth) love. accept the responsibility for meeting the fundamental fundamental the for the love. They meeting They accept responsibility as an economic and political requirements requirements of of living living together and political economic together as organized society. they also grant the many a rudimentary a the And also rudimentary grant many organized society. they and within within certain limits, the the few few respect: within certain limits, within specified areas, and specified areas, respect: leave the many alone alone to to their their own devices. passivity their passivity the many devices. For their leave are rewarded rewarded with with an an opporoppor~ about power, therefore, the many are the many about power, therefore, tunity, restricted though it is, to create a limited community of a limited it is, to create restricted community of though tunity, their own based based on on participation participation and resulting culture culture and love. love. The resulting their vital and has often been vital of the the many under benevolent benevolent despotisms despotisms has often been of many under also crude and circumscribed. warm, if if crude and also circumscribed. warm,
8 8
The of American American History History Contours of The Contours
Many benevolent despotisms despotisms have existed in well the West have existed in the West as as well Many benevolent as in the East, and a good number of them have generated impor~ as in the East, and a good number of them have generated important material, material, intellectual, problem tant and cultural cultural improvements. intellectual, and improvements. The problem the) with benevolent benevolent despotisms has never been whether or not with whether or never been not has the) despotisms could or did function. They can and they have. The difficulties are are or did have. difficulties could function. They can and they practical and moral: can the form sustain itself as one kind of kind form itself as one of and can the sustain moral: practical community, and does it offer the resolution of the tensions between of the tensions between it the resolution and does offer community, between passivity passivity and participation, that that is power and is and participation, and love, and between love, and power most appropriate to our nature as human beings? So far, at any most appropriate to our nature as beings? So far, at any rate, the to both both these is no. no. They break down answer to the answer these questions rate, They break questions is because they they fail fail to to satisfy satisfy the the demands demands for for love participation. and participation. love and because This judgment should should not not keep us from from recognizing that aa sizsiz~ This judgment recognizing that keep us able part part of of American American history history (from the establishment of the of the establishment the able (from colonies through the the election election of Jackson) can in many many can in of Andrew Jackson) colonies through be considered part of of the fundamental the general fundamental respects considered part of general history history of respects be benevolent despotisms. despotisms. Nor should blind us us to achieve~ to the the great should it it blind achievebenevolent great ments of that period. period. But But we do do have have to to confront confront the the truth truth that, that, ments of that despite the framework government, power of the the of representative framework of power of representative government, despite the real, operational, and consequential consequential kind kind was was divided-at divided at the the local local real, operational, and and the national level level-on basis between the many many on a a highly skewed basis and the national between the highly skewed but the the most the masters and and the most obvious obvious examples, the the few. few. To cite cite but masters examples, ruled the the slaves, metropolis ruled the territories, territories, and the the metropolis ruled the and even ruled even the slaves, the by an aristocratic hierarchy. Jeffersonians were dominated dominated an aristocratic were Jeffersonians by hierarchy. were largely responsible and and benevolent well as Yet the Yet few were benevolent as as well the few as largely responsible powerful, intelligent, and competent; and they did create what powerful, intelligent, and competent; and they did create what can be called called an American community can fairly an American of the the aristocratic aristocratic fairly be community of generated economic variety. They also .generated and cultural economic and cultural development. variety. They also development. Indeed, American American mercantilism mercantilism may may be be the the highest highest achievement achievement in in Indeed, the entire of benevolent despotisms: its creators and rulers of the entire history benevolent its and creators rulers history despotisms: the paradox paradox inherent inherent in the very actually resolved resolved the in the of combination of actually very combination by accepting peacefully the transition benevolence and and despotism benevolence the transition despotism by accepting peacefully to aa closer of democracy. to closer approximation democracy. approximation of But these these aristocrats based on not create But aristocrats did did not create a a community love on love community based and participation. participation. Neither Neither did successors, whose and did their their successors, whose approach approach was was largely to competing competing for power and wealth. wealth. That is why why for power That is keyed to largely keyed of creating a community today we still still confront the challenge of confront the a as today challenge creating community as ideas aa democracy. The ideas and the ideals that compose the related ideals the that the related democracy. compose conception the Great no more more of the Great and Good Societies Societies are are really conception of really no
Foreword Foreword
99
than an to adapt adapt the the mercantilism of the an attempt mercantilism of than the Founding Fathers attempt to Founding Fathers to contemporary circumstances. They are thus simply variations circumstances. are thus of contemporary They simply variations of benevolent despotism. despotism. If realized, therefore, therefore, they they would offer us us no no If realized, benevolent would offer more than than an an affluent of power power and affluent version version of more and acquiescence. acquiescence. The second kind of community, both process and and achieveachieve~ second kind of community, both as as process ment, is neither aristocratic nor stratified, skewed nor paradoxical. ment, is neither aristocratic nor stratified, skewed nor paradoxical. It is equitable, straightforward democratic and is democratic and equitable, It and loving. This loving. This straightforward and essence kind of nature per per se of community kind in its its nature se and and as as the the essence involves, in community involves, of the method realizing it, different hierarchy hierarchy of Love of realizing method of of the a different of values. values. Love it, a comes before power and and participation participation before before passivity. Equity and before power and comes Equity passivity. equality come before before efficiency efficiency and and ease. ease. equality for great great adventures he is is made for Man is adventures and is and great achievements; he great achievements; not made for mammoth, centralized organizations. He creates creates best best for mammoth, not centralized organizations. in not under under direction by. And he most nearly nearly in conjunction he most direction by. with, not conjunction with, approaches love in evolving relationships with other beings, in love with other human beings, evolving relationships approaches rather than than in associations with with other other in organized rather and structured structured associations organized and role-players. It is easy to say, of course, that these are verities imposIt is to of are verities that these course, easy say, role-players. impossible to to realize. answer is is that never before before have been able able realize. The answer sible have we been that never to realize realize them. them. to real choices. But we now confront can But confront these these possibilities as real choices. We can possibilities as provide ourselves with the material basis for a truly human life life ourselves a with the material basis for truly provide and also produce enough to help other beings achieve the the also produce to other human achieve and beings enough help same position. can do so, moreover, while simultaneously We do while same so, moreover, simultaneously position. decentralizing our economic political institutions, as to to so as and political economic and institutions, so decentralizing our enable us to live at the scale, and in the kinds of relationships with with the kinds of enable us to live at scale, and in the relationships ourselves and to our our nature. nature. each other, and each ourselves other, appropriate appropriate to We can longer take take refuge, refuge, or or seek escape, in in the the question question can no no longer seek escape, of whether whether or or not not we can truly human. human. can become truly of We can. can. The question not we will. will. whether or or not is whether question now is to
W.A.W. w. A. w.
Madison, Wisconsin, 1966 Wisconsin, 1966 Madison,
•
Contents Contents
History as a as a PREFACE: History INTRODUCTION:
Way Learning of Learning Way of Britt'sh Mercantilism Mercantilism as as the the Political Political Economy Economy of of British English Backwardness English Backwardness
17 17 27 27
NEW MEN AND OLD PROBLEMS
28 28
THE ROOTS OF THE ENGLISH POLITICAL ECONOMY
32 32
RELIGION AND THE RISE OF MERCANTILISM
36 36
THE MATURATION OF THE ENGLISH WELTANSCHAUUNG
40 40
SHAFTESBURY AND THE CRISIS CRISIS OF ENGLISH MERCANTILISM
50 50
THE IDEOLOGY AND POLITICS OF THE CORPORATE WELFARE
53 53
JOHN JOHN LOCKE AND THE DECLINE OF CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY
61 6l
THE DILEMMAS OF SUCCESSFUL MERCANTILISM
65 65
THE DECLINE OF MERCANTILISM AND THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
69 69
The Age Age of of Mercantilism: Mercantilism: 1740-1828 1740-1828
75 75
I. the Rising Rising Order I. The Triumph of Order Triumph of the
77 77 78 78
THE SOUTH AND THE RISE OF AN AMERICAN GENTRY
NEW YORK AND
PENNSYLVANIA: FINISHING SCHOOLS FOR THE
AMERICAN NABOB NEW ENGLAND AND THE IDEOLOGY OF
85
CALVIN'S CALVIN*S
CORPORATE
SOCIETY
93 93
COLONIAL MATURITY: THE ACHIEVEMENT OF BRITISH MERCANTILISM
102
Contents Contents IDEOLOGY AND INDEBTEDNESS: INDEBTEDNESS! THE LEVER AND FULCRUM OF
INDEPENDENCE
105
THE TRIUMPH OF AMERICAN MERCANTILISM
114
II. A New Reality for Existing Ideas Reality for Existing Ideas
II.
lIS 118
THE DREAM AND THE REALITY OF INDEPENDENCE
119
PANDORA*S BOX THE WEST AS AMERICA'S PANDORA'S
125
THE GENTRY AND "THE ABSOLUTE NECESSITY OF SOME GENERAL SYSTEM"
III. of the the Existing Existing Order Order III. The Adaptation Adaptation of
138
149 149
CONFLICTING PHILOSOPHIES AND POLICIES OF THE CONSTITUTION )'{OVEMENT MOVEMENT
150
THE CONSTITU'I'ION CONSTITUTION AS A FEUDAL AND MERCANTILIST INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT
157 157
THE DOMESTIC WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE
162. 162
WASHINGTON'S STRATEGY OF EMPIRE
171 171
JOHN ADAMS THE STATESMANSHIP OF JOHN
174 174
IV. Transformation of Reality and and the the Inception Inception of of New IV. The Transformation of Reality Ideas 180 Ideas i 80 THE FOUNDING FATHERS AND THE FRONTIER THESIS
lSI l8l
THE ACHIEVEMENTS AND DILEMMAS OF JEFFERSONIAN JEFFERSONIAN MERCAN-
TILISM
185 185
A CLASSIC WAR FOR TRADE AND TERRITORY
192. 192
VICTORY DISGUISED AS STALEMATE
196 196
THE SPROUTING SEEDS OF LAISSEZ FAIRE
200 2OO
V. V. The Fulfillment the Passing Fulfillment of of the Order Passing Order CRISIS AND COMPROMISE IN A RENEWED STRUGGLE FOR THE WEST CllISIS
ADAMS, MONROE, MARSHALL, MARSHALL, AND CLAY CLAY-PROTAGONISTS PROTAGONISTS OF AN ADAMS, MONROE, AMERICAN SYSTEM
204 204 205 205
20 7 207
Contents Contents DOCTRINE AS AS THE MANIFESTO OF THE AMERICAN THE MONROE DOCTRINE EMPIltE EMPIRE
~I5 215
THE UNRESOLVED DILEMMA OF AMERICAN AMERICAN MERCANTILISM
219 219
The Age Age of of Laissez Laissez Nous Faire: Faire: 1819-1896 1819-1896 The I. The The Triumph Triumph of of the the Rising Rising Order Order
227 227
I.
JOHN TAYLOR AND THE VICTORY OF JOHN
225 225
LAISSEZ FAIRE LAISSEZ
227 227
POLITICS MARTIN VAN BUREN AND THE NEW POLITICS
235 235
LIBERTY AND BONDAGE IN THE SPIRIT SPIRIT OF JACKSONIAN JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY
239 239
II. A New Reality Reality for for Existing Existing Ideas Ideas
II.
246
THE THEORY AND THE REALITY OF THE MARKET PLACE
246
RELIGIOUS HERESY AND THE ASSAULT ON SLAVERY
250
THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTHERN PREDICAMENT
255
THE EARLY STRUGGLE OVER DEFINING FREEDOM UNDER LAISSEZ LAISSEZ FAIRE
259 259
III. Adaptation of of the the Existing Order III. The Adaptation Existing Order
264
HENRY CLAY AND THE ATTEMPT TO REVIVE AND ADAPT MERCANTILISM
265
LAISSEZ FAIRE AND THE FRONTIER THESIS
270
PRESIDENT POLK AND A WAR FOR LAND AND COMMERCE
276
EASTERN LABOR ACCEPTS THE FRONTIER THESIS AND THEREBY INTENSIFIES THE SECTIONAL CONFLICT
279 279
IV. of New the Inception and the IV. The Transformation Transformation of of Reality Inception of Reality and Ideas 284 Ideas 284 THE WELTANSCHAUUNG OF LAISSEZ FAIRE ENGENDERS A CIVIL WAR
285
SENATOR DOUGLAS AND THE ATTEMPT TO RECONCILE LAISSEZ FAIRE AND THE CONSTITUTION
290 290
Contents Contents AS TIlE THE PHILOSOPHER AND POLITICIAN OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN AS 'l'R.IUMPHANT LAISSEZ FAIRE TRIUMPHANT LAISSEZ
295 295
THE SOUTH REFUSES REFUSES TO ACQUIESCE ACQUIESCE IN LINCOLN'S POLICY OF
CONTAINMENT
297 297
RECONSTRUCTION AS AS A A NATIONAL PHENOMENON
3<3O
CROSSCURRENTS OF RECONSTRUCTION
305 305
AS AN ESSENTIAL FEATURE OF LAISSEZ FAID FAIRE REGULATION AS
308 308
PARADOXES OF SOUTHERN REHABILITATION
312 312
CRISIS IN THE NORTH DEPRESSION AND CRISIS
313 313
300
SECRETARY OF STATE SEWARD AND THE ADAPTATION 01' OF THE
FRONTIER THESIS TO INDUSTRIALISM
317 317
V. of the the Passing Order Fulfillment of V. The Fulfillment Passing Order
320 320
A BALANCE SHEET FOR LAISSEZ NOUS FAIRE
321 321
THE INTERESTS AND THE IDEAS OF THE GIANTS
326 326
FUNDAMENTAL CRITICISM FROM WITHIN THE SYSTEM
330 330
REFORMERS ATTEMPT TO SUSTAIN THE SYSTEM
333 333
THE PERSISTENT DILEMMAS OF EXPANDING THE MARKET PLACE
338 338
The Age of The Age 1882of Corporation Corporation Capitalism: Capitalism: 1882I. The Triumph I. of the the Rising Order Triumph of Rising Order
343 343 345 345
THE CRISIS OF THE 1890S 1890$ AND THE SPECTER OF CHAOS
346 346 354 354
THE INCEPTION OF AN AMERICAN SYNDICALISM
356 356
THE NATURE AND THE POWER OF THE LARGE CORPORATION
MARK HANNA AS THE ENTREPRENEUR OF THE CORPORATION SYSTEM
360
THE REASSERTION OF THE EXPANSIONIST THEORY OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND THE WAR WITH SPAIN
363
Contents Contents II. A New Reality for Existing Existing Ideas II. Ideas Reality for
371 371
VARIOUS APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEMS OF THE CORPORATION
POLITICAL ECONOMY
372 372
RETHE UNDERLYING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXPANSION AND REFORM
376 376
LEADERSIDP THE BEGINNINGS OF AN UPPER-CLASS LEADERSHIP
378 378
THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN SYNDICALISM
384 384
THE CHALLENGE OF DOMESTIC RADICALISM
386 386
m. The Adaptation Adaptation of of the the Existing Order Existing Order
390 390
III.
THE KEY ROLE OF THE PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT
390 390
THEODORE ROOSEVELT AND THE RISE OF AN INDUSTRIAL GENTRY
391 39!
THE INTERESTS AND THE IDEAS OF THE REFORMERS
395 395
JOHN DEWEY AND THE ROLE OF PRAGMATISM IN THE ADAPTATION JOHN
TO CORPORATION CAPITALISM
402 402
THE PROGRESSIVES TURN BACK TOWARD THE FRONTIER THESIS
406 406
IV. IV.
The Transformation Transformation of the Inception of New and the of Reality Inception of Reality and Ideas 413 Ideas 413
THE APPLICATION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OPEN DOOR POLICY
414 414
THE PROGRESSIVE COALITION GOES TO WAR
420 420
WILSON'S
DIFFICULTIES
WITH
THE
RADICAL
CHALLENGE
TO
CORPORATION CAPITALISM
422
THE CENTRAL ROLE OF HERBERT HOOVER IN THE MATURATION OP OF AN INDUSTRIAL GENTRY
425 425
THE NEW DEAL AS THE CONVERGENCE AND CONSOLIDATION OF OLD TRADITIONS-NOBLESSE TRADITIONS NOBLESSE OBLIGE AND REFORM, REFORM, SYNDICALISM AND EXPANSION
V. The Fulfillment the Passing Order of the Fulfillment of V. Passing Order THE NEW DEAL AND THE EXPANSIONIST PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY
439 439 45 1 451 452 452
Contents Contents mE A SMALL, THE BELATED CONSOLIDATION OF A CLASS-CONSCIOUS SMALL, CLASS-CONSCIOUS INDUS1'lUA.L GENTRY-AND ITS FUNDAMENTAL WEAKNESSES GENTRY- -AND ITS INDUSTRIAL
465
465
THE TRIUMPH OF A A SYNDICALIST OLIGARCHY AND THE ONSET OF
4~ 469
THE COLD WAR CONCLUSION: History History as as aa
Way Breaking the of the Past the Past the Chains Chains of of Breaking Way of
479 479
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
489 489
INDEX
497 497
•
Preface: History Way of as a a Way of Learning History as Learning
Preface:
To study study history seek in in some some degree degree to get beyond is always to see\ to get the history is always to beyond the and preoccupations preoccupations of present; it it demands demands for for success success an an the present; of the of self-transcendence. self-transcendence. Arthur O. Lovejoy, 1939 effort Arthur O. Lovejoy, effort of 1939
limitations limitations
Ir
and exhilarated their triumph triumph over Axis Powers Powers exhilarated by over the the Axis by their in I 945, Americans seemed to have assumed that their train Americans seemed to have assumed that their traK:LIEVED 1945, ditional dream of of becoming becoming aa world world unto unto themselves themselves was about about to ditional to be having become become disillusioned isolationist), be realized. realized. Far from having disillusioned (or (or isolationist), that their their earlier earlier visions they appeared visions of of Manifest Manifest confident that they appeared casually casually confident reality of of the the present. present. Though Destiny were were materializing as the the reality Destiny materializing as Though vaguely uneasy uneasy about about the the full its powers, powers, most most Americans full extent extent of of its Americans vaguely as aa self-starting magic lamp; lamp; even even looked upon the the atom bomb as looked upon self-starting magic it produce their long-sought City on the without being rubbed the without rubbed it their on would being produce long-sought City Hill in the form of of aa de facto facto American Century Century embracing the Hill in the embracing the globe. globe. It was generally generally taken taken for granted that that such such benevolent AmeriIt was benevolent Amerifor granted world would bring peace and plenty without the the canization of the world canization of the plenty without bring peace of oldoldmoral embarrassments distractions of administrative distractions moral embarrassments and administrative most irrational irrational fashioned the most created the fashioned empires. so, having having created empires. And so, to man, Americans proceeded with startling rationweapon with to known Americans man, startling rationproceeded weapon as their principal strategic weapon. ality to abandon the mass army the mass as their to abandon army principal strategic weapon. ality then generously their bomb, bomb, they offered to to help help Armed only with their generously offered they then only with to are "We are willing to help everyone become like themselves. themselves. more like become help willing everyone of State people who believe believe the the way explained Secretary State do,'* explained Secretary of way we do," people 17 17 LIEVED
18 18
The American History History The Contours Contours 0/ of American
the way way they they want want to to live." live." Dean Acheson, live the "to continue continue to to live Acheson, "to Had Americans applied their intelligence, humanitarianism, and Americans applied their intelligence, humanitarianism, and power to the paradox of plenty without purpose within their own to within the paradox of plenty without purpose their power society the needs needs and fellow humans of their their fellow and to to the and aspirations aspirations of society and possible that their self-centered throughout the the world, world, it self-centered dream that their dream it is is possible throughout would have have been been transformed a vision vision of of brotherhood brotherhood among would into a transformed into among men. Instead, Instead, they they calmly they had had disarmed, a conconthat they men. asserted that disarmed, a calmly asserted fusion of the truth as to befuddle even even their their opponents. fusion of the so complete to befuddle truth so opponents. complete as On the hand, American American leaders kept the one that The Bomb kept one hand, leaders explained explained that the barbarian barbarian at bay while while he under the the economic and the economic and was collapsing at bay he was collapsing under On the other hand, political pressures exerted by the United States. the United States. other the exerted hand, political pressures by they righteously condemned his to disarm while they kept disarm while failure to his failure they kept they righteously condemned a monopoly monopoly of nuclear weapons. Their promises of self-restraint a of Their self-restraint of nuclear promises weapons. served only to add add aa touch touch of to the the double double standard served standard of of of arrogance only to arrogance to and destructive as their their morality, morality, aa morality morality as destructive as their their as dangerous dangerous weapon. weapon. Some years after the the Russians Russians accepted accepted the American logic the American later, after years later, logic own hydrogen hydrogen of and produced their their of disarmament-by-nuclear-fusion disarmament-by-nuclear-fusion produced to confront confront its dilemmas bomb, the the United its own dilemmas United States forced to States was was forced bomb, with more candor and concern. But even throughout an even earlier, with candor and concern. But earlier, throughout an be called called The Years Years of Babbitt's Confidence, Amerera might be of Babbitt's Amerera which which might Confidence, icans had become increasingly increasingly perplexed, perplexed, anxious, icans and frustrated. had become frustrated. anxious, and McCarthyism, aa particularly particularly virulent virulent epidemic of the antiantiof even McCarthyism, the Not even epidemic cope with the harsh realities of intellectualism of the frontier, could the the harsh realities of intellectualism of frontier, could cope with attempting to exorcise their fears, overcome aa world world in revolution. In in revolution. to their In attempting exorcise fears, overcome their spiritual and intellectual intellectual malaise, malaise, and and resolve resolve their their dilemmas, dilemmas, their spiritual and Americans in turned more formally in surprising Americans and numbers next next turned formally and surprising numbers to history history for their predicament predicament and directly to a for an and a an explanation of their directly explanation of not- aa panacea) panacea) for program (if the future. future. for the (if not' program result, and despite despite the natural charms charms and and cultivated As aa result, the natural cultivated coquetry coquetry of psychology, sociology, became involved of psychology, involved in in and economics, Clio became economics, Clio sociology, and another of many affairs in search of her her many another affairs with with a a society search of of reassurance reassurance society in retired to to write and security. and service officers officers retired write memoAmerican foreign security. American foreign service for today's randa for in the form of history books while while randa in the of form today's diplomacy history books diplomacy historians took become acting foreign service historians service took leave leave of of absence absence to to become acting foreign officers. Many Many businessmen businessmen underwrote underwrote the the reconstruction reconstruction of of selected officers. selected of of their past, while some historians a thriving business portions a their made while historians business portions past, thriving of of carefully culled segments the heritage heritage of America. And conof America. conof the carefully culled segments of vinced of the the validity vinced of validity of of the the underlying underlying assumptions of such activiof activisuch assumptions
History as as aa History
Way of Learning Learning Way of
19 19
ties, numerous legislated history history into numerous communities communities legislated into the the curriculums curriculums of their schools. schools. of their Many interpreted this that America America observers interpreted enthusiasm as as a a sign this enthusiasm Many observers sign that was solidly afoot on the road to salvation. Without denying the afoot on the road to salvation. Without denying the was solidly is nevertheless considerable rea~ virtues and values of history, there virtues and values of history, there is nevertheless considerable reason to whether the the evidence that persuasive. persuasive. Even Even the most to doubt doubt whether son is that evidence is the most reveals the persistance of casual review of this particular particular renaissance of this casual review renaissance reveals of the persistance two phrases, proves," used used to to establish establish two shows" and and "history phrases, "history "history shows" "history proves," ex post post facto facto the the validity validity of policy or or attitude attitude already a policy of a entertained already entertained as the study of the past and by the writer. Instead of being treated writer. the Instead of treated as the of the and study by being past to present in which thinking, reasoning, and reflection might lead in which and reflection lead to thinking, present might reasoning, insights and perception, history appeared more often to be viewed and to be viewed more often insights perception, history appeared as aa grab bag from which to to snatch priori opinion. opinion. as from which an a for an a priori snatch footnotes footnotes for grab bag one of most misleading misleading-and dangerous But History History is is one the most of the and hence hence dangerous knowledge if if viewed, viewed, or practiced, as as aa process process of -approaches to knowledge of or practiced, approaches to reaching back into the past for answers sufficient unto the present back into the for the sufficient unto answers past reaching present and the the future. For although although historical consciousness can can be be aa future. For historical consciousness tool with which to improve our lives and our world, powerful tool with which it to lives and our our world, it powerful improve is a demonic demonic sorcerer's apprentice unless the history history little more than than a is little unless the sorcerer's apprentice become conscious conscious is more than a brief brief in of which which we become in of is something than a something more particular proposal. The purpose of history' is not defense of of some defense some particular of is not history proposal. purpose C. Wright Wright to explain our situation to as what situation so settle down as what C. so that that we settle explain our Mills has called Cheerful Robots in This Best Possible of All Wodds. Mills has called Cheerful Robots in This Best Possible of All Worlds. is its its function function to us into orbit around Neither is distant some distant Neither around some to propel into orbit propel us to help us underunder~ Utopia. Indeed not. History's tradition is Indeed not. is to help us Utopia. History's great great tradition stand that each each of of us, and stand ourselves ourselves and and our so that our world world so us, individually individually and in our fellow men, can formulate relevant and in conjunction relevant and with our can formulate fellow men, conjunction with reasoned alternatives become meaningful meaningful actors making hishis~ in making actors in reasoned alternatives and and become tory. tory. it Considered in this this light, History is is aa way way of of learning. Considered in such, it learning. As such, light, History begins by leaving the present; by going back into the heretofore, into the back the heretofore, by present; begins by leaving going by beginning beginning again. again. Only Only by what we were is is it it possible possible grasping what by by grasping of to see changed, to to understand process and the the nature nature of the process to understand the see how we changed, are. we what some perspective on what are. the modifications, and to gain the and to modifications, perspective gain the present not one one of of staying staying in present and in the The historical is not historical experience experience is into the is of going back into the past relooking back. Rather back it one one of is it Rather back. past and regoing looking consciousness turning to the present with a wider and more intense consciousness intense more and a wider with to the turning present of the restrictions outlook. We return return with with aa broader broader our former of the of our former outlook. restrictions of arme^ a and awareness the alternatives to us and Mrn~..1 with a sharper us to alternatives open awareness of of the sharper open ties,
20 20
The American History History The Contours Contours of of American
perceptiveness with with which which to to make our choices. In In this this manner our choices. manner it it perceptiveness is possible to loosen the clutch of the dead hand of the is possible to loosen the clutch of the dead hand of the past and past and transform transform
it a living tool for the present and the future. it into into a living tool for the present and the future.
enterprise, this this essay in review interpretareview and interpretaAs with with any such enterprise, essay in any such
be misjudged in two ways. In the first place, it is not tion is tion is apt to apt to be misjudged in two ways. In the first place, it is not intended be, and offer, aa detailed detailed reconstruction of the the reconstruction of intended to not offer, to be, does not and does That work, work, which which might be compared to the product American past. past. That to be the American compared product might in the the natural is aa continuous process of the the research research lab lab in of continuous process natural sciences, sciences, is sustained by all historians. This essay draws extensively upon such sustained by all historians. This essay draws extensively upon such addition, independent research investigations by by other In addition, other scholars. scholars. In independent research investigations in the primary primary sources has been been pursued pursued in in many many areas the AmerAmerareas of of the in the sources has essay is the result of standican Basically, however, the result the is the of standican experience. however, essay experience. Basically, ing back and thinking about the available knowledge of America's of back the available about and America's knowledge ing thinking past in to grasp relationthe relationand significance of the in an an effort effort to the nature nature and past significance of grasp the ships-the causes and the consequences-of what is known. It is thus is of what known. the the It is thus causes and consequences ships (I) a fundamental description of an to provide provide three three things: a fundamental an effort effort to description of things: (i) reality-of American society the structure and circumstances-the the of American society the structure and circumstances reality at various various periods; periods; (2) the definition exa characterization at characterization of of the definition and and ex(2) a planation of world entertained entertained by by Americans Americans at different stages at different of the the world planation stages in their development; and (3) various explanations the way way such in their of the such development; and explanations of (3) various views of world arose arose out of the remembered out of the immediate immediate and remembered views of the the world reality and in turn changed that reality. reality and in turn changed that reality. By its very nature, nature, an an essay this type its very of this invites misunderstanding essay of misunderstanding type invites By of Any effort effort to to comprehend history a second of a the history second kind. kind. Any comprehend and survey survey the ·a few central outlooks and of a nation by defining and elucidating a of nation by defining and elucidating -a central outlooks and difficulty involved in picking picking attitudes is attitudes is risky because the great involved in of the risky because of great difficulty huge and that they they the crucial the crucial themes. are so so huge and spongy themes. Some concepts concepts are spongy that absorb squeezed they squirt a never-ending stream when a stream absorb everything; squeezed they squirt never-ending everything; of homogenized homogenized tables of contents. Others are are so hard of so narrow and hard tables of contents. Others that they they leave leave nothing nothing but but aa peep-hole peep-hole into the garden of evidence; that into the of evidence; garden is superb but the the field is often often irrelevant. irrelevant. the focus the focus is field is superb but The tool used in the present present study is the the concept cleanWeltantool used in the of W study is concept of schauung, or definition of the world combined with an explanation or of the definition world combined with an explanation schauung, of how it it works. of works. Every such an adult has sane adult has such an inclusive inclusive conception Every sane conception of the of the world world which which cuts cuts across and subsumes personal motives, across and subsumes personal motives, group group class ideologies. This point needs to be emphasized, interests, and class be for This needs to interests, and ideologies. point emphasized, for in recent recent years psyin years many many historians historians have have relied relied extensively on the the on extensively psyof the the irrational chology of their analyses analyses and interpretainterpretairrational in in developing chology developing their
History as as aa Way Learning History of Learning Way of
21 21
tions. As aa result, they seem to have have confused consciousness of seem to confused consciousness of result, they purpose with with conspiracy. neither contingency nor madness is conspiracy. Now neither contingency nor madness is purpose absent history, but but the vast majority majority of figures on absent from history, the vast of significant significant figures on the stage history act and purposefully (if usually of history the act consciously and stage of consciously purposefully (if usually routinely) within their conceptions of the world. Hence to assert, within their of the Hence world. to routinely) assert, conceptions or that the the choice choice of lies between irrationality, or assume, of interpretations lies between assume, that interpretations irrationality, chance, and to distort distort the the nature nature of history almost almost and conspiracy is to of history chance, conspiracy is beyond recognition. History written from that point of view bethat of view bebeyond recognition. History written from point comes little more than a bag of tricks dumped upon the living. little comes than a bag of tricks dumped upon the living. This to make make sense American This essay reviews and and attempts out of sense out of American essay reviews attempts to by reference reference to to three three conceptions the world world which which are are history by of the history conceptions of traditionally associated with economic thought and action. The apassociated with and economic action. traditionally apthought proach is open to two criticisms: it can be charged that this means is to two it can means criticisms: be that this open proach charged that all thought is can be be claimed that it it implies all thought is economic, that it can claimed that and it economic, and implies that ideas no life own. There There are are two these that ideas have have no life of of their their own. two answers to these answers to caveats. caveats. First, ideas which which originate as instruments of specific interinstruments of First, some ideas originate as specific interests break their their narrow narrow bounds bounds and and emerge as broad, broad, ininests ultimately ultimately break emerge as clusive of the the world. world. Herbert this point point clusive conceptions Herbert Spencer conceptions of Spencer made this in fashion. "I not think," he answered answered aa critic, in convincing "that "I do do not think," he critic, "that convincing fashion. laissez-faire is to be regarded simply as a politico-economical prinis to be as a laissez-faire politico-economical prinregarded simply ciple only, but as a wider principle-the principle of letting as of but a much wider the letting principle ciple only, principle all the benefits benefits and evils of of their their own acts: acts: not not only all citizens and evils citizens take take the only consequent on conduct, but but such such are as are are consequent as are such as such as industrial conduct, on their their industrial consequent upon their conduct in general." consequent upon their conduct in general." Secondly, be obvious that ideas ideas persist time a long it should should be obvious that for a long time Secondly, it persist for as after relevance is and therefore may act as act is gone, and therefore their immediate immediate relevance after their may gone, and independent variables in later circumstances. For this reason, and For this in later circumstances. variables reason, independent it because of practical problem problem of organizing any history, it written history, of the because the practical of organizing any written is an arbitrary choice as to which-reality or existing ideasideas or to is always which an choice as existing reality always arbitrary will be first. This This essay with an of an an existexistoutline of will be discussed an outline discussed first. opens with essay opens ing idea and proceeds to discuss the way it was altered fundamentally the altered and it was idea to discuss fundamentally proceeds way ing by circumstances. circumstances. by Following this this introduction, introduction, which with the rise and and decline decline deals with the rise which deals Following the revoluof British mercantilism two centuries prior to to the revoluof British the two centuries prior mercantilism during during the three defined in tion of American history is presented as being defined in three as is presented tion of 1776, American being history 1776, view a basic periods, each of which is and powered by a basic view of is characterized characterized each which by powered periods, of of Mercantilism, 1740-1828; the of the the world. They are: are: The Age of world. They Mercantilism, 1740-1828; the Age tions.
22 22
The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
of Corporation Age of Laissez Nous Nous Faire, Faire, 18I9-I8¢; and the the Age of Laissez Corporation Age of 1819-1896; and Age I882-1960s. Within each of these epochs interrelaCapitalism, the interrelaof these each epochs the Capitalism, 1882-19605. Within tionships of ideas and reality are seen to develop according to aa to seen develop according to tionships of ideas and reality are dynamic which is described as having several stages. dynamic which is described as having several stages. At this point point the historian confronts his most most specific problem of of confronts his the historian At this specific problem synthesis and presentation. Unless he breaks the process of change of change synthesis and presentation. Unless he breaks the process phases he he cannot write about it save going to to and into a constant constant going save in in a about it into phases cannot write fro that exaggerates the diffuseness tenuousness of of reality. and tenuousness diffuseness and fro that reality. He exaggerates the can reality too thatey"-as as too complex-too err by can err "thisey and thatey" making reality complex too "thisey by making well as it into an oversimplified schematic system. Yet by Yet schematic as by an it well into system. by oversimplified by forcing forcing organizing his report or or reconstruction reconstruction in of stages he the form of in the his report stages he organizing risks creating a jerky and artificial impression of what is in reality of is in a artificial risks and impression reality creating jerky process. a continuous and interrelated a continuous and interrelated process. The present present essay attempts to to strike a balance balance between these between these strike a essay attempts by defining enough stages to provide a sense and feel of dangers a sense and to feel of provide dangers by defining enough stages the changes while at the same time describing the predominant outthe outthe while at the time same describing predominant changes look and the age question. Thus each of the three each of and practice in question. the three look of the practice of age in with a section on the Triumph of the Rising broad divisions divisions opens on the the broad a of with section opens Triumph Rising Order, in which an made to characterize the reality, in which the essential an effort essential reality, effort is is made to characterize Order, assumptions, and policies of the then accepted of the then assumptions, theory, theory, and accepted conception policies of conception of the world. all views views of arise during and out of an the world. Since of the Since all the world world arise and out an of during order order that they replace, replace, and order and cannot as the that they save as the old old order cannot triumph triumph save dies, these dominant ideas are confronted almost immediately with these dominant are ideas confronted almost dies, immediately with a reality reality different from the used as as data own construca different from the one one used data in in their their construcThis confrontation, confrontation, discussed as A New Reality tion. This tion. discussed as for Existing Reality for Existing vivendi through through aa third third stage, Ideas, eventuates in a eventuates in a modus vivendi Ideas, stage, The Adaptation of of the the Accepted Accepted Order. adjusted and the Order. So So adjusted and established, established, the Adaptation accepted outlook next literally literally transforms transforms reality reality and doing so so outlook next in doing and in accepted gives birth birth to to new assumptions As this moves ideas. As this challenge gives assumptions and ideas. challenge moves toward its own ultimate toward its ultimate triumph, triumph, however, however, the the existing outlook existing outlook fulfills itself practical and ripens and fulfills itself in in practical and intellectual intellectual affairs. affairs. ripens Lest Lest there there be be any misunderstanding, each the three each of of the main epochs three main any misunderstanding, epochs of Mercantilism, -of of Laissez Faire, and of Corporation Laissez Nous Faire, and of Mercantilism, of Corporation is described, Capitalism-is described, analyzed, and discussed under the discussed under the followfollowCapitalismr analyzed, and ing headings. ing headings. I. The Triumph of I. the Rising Rising Order Order Triumph of the II. A New Reality for II. Existing for Ideas Reality Existing Ideas III. III. The Adaptation of the Accepted Order of the Adaptation Accepted Order
History as as aa History
Way of Learning Learning Way of
23 23
IV. Transformation of of Reality the Inception of IV. The Transformation and the Reality and Inception o New Ideas Ideas Order V. The Fulfillment V. Fulfillment of of the the Passing Passing Order is possible possible and and indeed accurate, therefore, therefore, to to speak an Though it it is of an indeed accurate, Though speak of overriding an equal is placed placed on on conflict conflict and and outlook, an overriding outlook, emphasis is equal emphasis change, upon the efforts of men to recognize and direct or inhibit to recognize and direct or inhibit change, upon the efforts of such changes, and and upon upon the explanations of such changes, of of new explanations the development development of reality which come ultimately to replace the formerly accepted order. which come order. the to reality replace formerly accepted ultimately The method of history is to by-pass by-pass and nor to to of history is neither and dismiss neither to dismiss nor pick and choose according to preconceived notions; notions; rather a choose according it a is it rather is to preconceived pick study of the past so that we can come back into our own time of the of of so time that into our we can come back study past troubles having with the of the the past past their dilemmas, troubles their dilemmas, the men of shared with having shared by having learned from their experiences, having been buoyed up by learned from their been having buoyed up experiences, having their courage and creativeness and sobered by their their creativeness and sobered by their shortsightedness courage and shortsightedness and failures. then be better equipped to redefine our and failures. We shall shall then our own to redefine be better equipped dilemmas problems as and possibilities and to dilemmas and problems as opportunities and possibilities and to opportunities proceed with positive rather than negative programs and policies. with and rather than proceed positive policies. negative programs This reflection and reflection This enrichment enrichment and and improvement research and improvement through through research is the being human, and it it is the heart historical is the essence essence of the historical of being of the heart of is the human, and method. method. ourselves from predilections and tomorrow Let Let us us abstract abstract ourselves and tomorrow from today's today's predilections morning's headlines, therefore, and begin again again by the mind and begin headlines, therefore, morning's entering the by entering of Anthony Anthony Ashley First Earl of Shaftesbury, as he grappled of as First Earl he of Ashley Cooper, grappled Cooper, Shaftesbury, with the the problem problem of of ordering the British Empire after the Cromwith after the the British Empire ordering time is middle of of the the 17th century wellian Revolution. Revolution. The time wellian is the the middle iTth century and of is rising on the far-Hung the Age of Mercantilism the Age of Mercantilism is rising foundations of the far-flung foundations the Age Exploration. In purthe of Discovery his conscious conscious and purand Exploration. In his Age of Discovery and poseful efforts to manage trade and the affairs of the colonies, the to the affairs of efforts trade and colonies, poseful manage Shaftesbury deepen and and consolidate a maturing maturing is struggling to consolidate a Shaftesbury is struggling to deepen policies that that conception of of the the world world and formulate programs programs and policies and to to formulate conception will be with concerned with course concerned will be appropriate is of of course effective. He is appropriate and effective. rest on the his own power power and But to there is is to to rest the his to stop and fortune. fortune. But stop there his with is Our concern is with his lowest rung of of the the ladder ladder of concern lowest rung of understanding. understanding. the conception of the sources of that power, its relationship to the reality to its reality relationship conception of the sources of that power, be used, should be it can can and should used, and of his his time, purposes for which it for which the purposes of time, the the best for its the best means for its employment. employment.
THE THE CONTOURS OF AMERICAN HISTORY
Introduction: British Mercantilism Mercantilism as as the the
Introduction: British
Political Political Economy of English Economy of English Backwardness Backwardness
God no law law of Nature. alters no Go d alters of Nature.
John Preston, Preston, Puritan Puritan theologian, John theologian,
c. 1620. 1620.
c.
The rebellions rebellions of of the the telly belly are are the first remedy remedy or preventhe worst. or prevenThe first worst. The to remove by all means possible that material cause of sedition, tion, is is to remove all means that material cause tion, of sedition, by possible which is want and poverty in estate. To which which purpose purpose serveth serveth the is want which and poverty in the the estate. the opening and well balancing of trade; the cherishing of manufactures; well the trade; opening cherishing of manufactures; balancing of increase of any estate the banishing of idleness. idleness. .•• The increase the be upon estate must must be of any banishing of upon the foreigner, for for whatsoever whatsoev~ is somewhere gotten gotten is somewhere lost. is somewhere the foreigner, is somewhere lost. Sir Bacon, Sir Francis Francis Bacon, Of Seditions and Troubles, 1628. Troubles, 1628. Of Seditions .
.
.
Commerce, affair of of state, state, was was widely widely different different from from the mercantile as an an affair the mercantile Commerce, as as aa point point of of policy policy and government, government, concon. . . [and trade, as [and hence] hence} trade, sisted of of many many articles. articles. •.. Many Many of of these these things things did not lie sisted did not lie within within the prospect of the merchant, merchant, much less less within power, care care or his power, the prospect or within his of the consideration; and, distinction being being made between the between the and, therefore consideration; therefore (the (the distinction magistrate's and the the merchant's proposed that, he proposed instead of a merchant's duty), that, instead of a magistrate's duty), he of the Pn'vy Council, a select Council might be established Committee be a established Council Committee of the Privy Council, select might care of of the our colonies, and the to trade and navigation the trade to take the welfare colonies, and ta\e care welfare of of our navigation of the kingdom. [This] Council should consist of such gentlemen gentlemen as as Council should consist the of of such \ingdom. [This] would be more concerned in generality of the trade of the nation, the the trade in the the generality would be more concerned nation, of of and the the profit profit of of any any particular particular in the and the right than in it, than of it, management of right management sway with with private private merchants. merchants. trade, which might might possibly possibly have have too too much sway trade, which The First First Earl Earl of of Shaftesbury Shaftesbury Charles II, to King II, 1670. to 1670. King Charles 27 part part
.
.
.
,
.
.
The American History Contours of The Contours History of American All ways of increasing Money are these these in any the imaginable All the any Country Country are imaginable ways of increasing Money in it from two: it in Mines of our Own, or to it from our to get or our to dig in Either to Mines it two: Either Own, get of dig Neighbours . •.. Nor, considered, do Gold and Nor, indeed, indeed, things things rightly rightly considered, Neighbours. is got Silver Trade.• with what is Enrich with the Mine Mine equally Silver drawn drawn oue out of by Trade got by of the equally Enrich • • . IOches more Gold and Silver, but in but in having Gold more do not not consist in having consist in Riches do Silver, having having more proportion than our Neighbours, or than than our the World, rest of the rest than the in proportion more in World, or Neighbours, of the a greater whereby procure to the to ourseltles ourselves a to procure enabled to we are are enabled of the Plenty of greater Plenty whereby we Conveniences reach of the reach within the comes within than comes Conveniences of of Neighbouring Neighbouring Life than of Life John Kingdoms and States. and States. Locke, 1691. John Locke, 1691. Kingdoms
28 28
.
.
.
The populous and colonies may the . .. colonies come when time may The time when the may become populous may come with politike, forgetting forgetting sciences strong and sciences arts and the increase increase of with the of arts strong and politics, their will then consider then confederate to the the mother their relation relation to mother country, confederate and consider country, will nothing further further than standing on ambition of their ambition on to support than the the means means to of standing support their nothing their Grew, Nehemiah their legs. Grew, legs. English Mercantilist, 1707. English Mercantilist, 1707. .
.
.
NEW MEN AND OLD PROBLEMS
ANTHONY
ASHLEY COOPER, COOPER,
more usually usually known as Ashley as Lord Ashley more
n or Earl of Shaftesbury, was aa man of the world world in or the first Earl o the ArrHONY Shaftesbury, was the
first
of
in
the world world had had become become immense. immense. Short in stature, he an age an Short in stature, he age when the was smart in substance in style. Samuel Pepys, was smart in and sophisticated Samuel substance and in style. Pepys, sophisticated that fabulous guide to to the the upper upper reaches reaches of of mid-seventeenth-century mid-seventeenth-century that fabulous guide society, had right: Shaftesbury was "a of great great English had "a man of him English society, right: Shaftesbury was and business, and yet of pleasure and drolling too." Fleeing from Engof too/* business, yet pleasure and drolling Fleeing from England to overthrow overthrow Charles Charles II II was was discovered, discovered, ShaftesShaftesland after after his his plot plot to of aa maidservant. maidservant. His His reaction reaction bury's disguise disguise aroused aroused the the suspicions suspicions of bury's was typically typically suave: suave: he he told told his his aide aide to to "go "go and and make love love to to her" her" was so So that that having having been been compromised compromised she she would would hesitate hesitate to to turn turn ininformer. former. No doubt doubt other other men of of his his time time employed employed similar similar diversions diversions in in moments of does not not account account for for ShaftesShaftesof crisis, crisis, and and the the episode episode does bury's importance importance in in British British and and American American history. history. But But it it does does bury's provide aa sense sense of of the the man's man's temperament temperament and and style, style, and and it it does does provide dramatize dramatize his his central central role role in in the the ferment ferment going going on on in in England England after after the collapse of of Oliver Oliver Cromwell's Cromwell's commonwealth commonwealth and and the the restoration restoration the collapse of of the the Stuart Stuart monarchy. monarchy. Other Other such such glimpses glimpses reinforce reinforce this this estimate. estimate.
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
29 29
host aa formal formal dinner as blase blase as could host He could dinner so as that one so memorable one as memorable that Prince and kept kept the for over over Prince Cosmo de de Medici Medici asked the menu for asked for for and thirty a yearly yearly bottle bottle of to mark of wine wine to years, sending thirty years, sending Shaftesbury Shaftesbury a the anniversary. Yet he was also a hero to Englishmen for his sucsuc~ for his the anniversary. Yet he was also a hero to Englishmen cessful fight for the Act of Habeas Corpus and his vigorous resistance cessful fight for the Act of Habeas Corpus and his vigorous resistance to the the abuses of Charles treason, to abuses of II. When acquitted of of treason, Charles II. charges of acquitted of charges was greeted his release release from the Tower Tower of from the his of London London was with "halloawing "halloawing greeted with and in the the court, observers of of the time reported that and hooting" and observers the time court, and hooting" in reported that "the rabble lighted lighted bonfires, bonfires, the bells rung," rung," and there was "the rabble "such was "such and there the bells that never never such insolent defiance defiance of public rejoicing the city in the of such an an insolent public rejoicing in city that authority before before was was seen." seen." authority Since English Revolution Revolution had had left left aa wound wound as yet unhealed unhealed the English Since the as yet on the political political and and social of those in authority, the on the social nerve-endings in of those authority, the nerve-endings description is probably exaggerated. For all that, it is true. Shaftesis true. Shaftesit is For all that, description probably exaggerated. pobury not not only idea of conceived and of an and executed executed the the idea an organized only conceived bury organized political in the city, but he gathered about him from the litical following in the the from but he about him city, following gathered in aa few years carried carried countryside aa nucleus nucleus of that in of leadership few years countryside leadership that 1688 and then took power through the Glorious Revolution of the as Glorious Revolution of 1688 and then took through power as the Whig Whig Party. Crown, indeed, was caught between Shaftesthe The Shafteswas between Crown, indeed, Party. caught bury'S powerful threat to to its prerogative and and the the incompetence of its prerogative bury's powerful threat incompetence of in to to reorganize reorganize domestic affairs most of of its its own advocates. most advocates. Called domestic affairs Called in and to to guide guide the consolidation and expansion of of an empire the consolidation and and further an empire further expansion bewhich had had been been neglected neglected during the Revolution, Shaftesbury which the Revolution, Shaftesbury beduring came Chancellor of His Majesty's Exchequer in 1661, and President Chancellor of His Majesty's Exchequer in 1661, and President before of the Trade and Plantations in the Council of Trade in 1672, of and Foreign Council of Foreign Plantations 1672, before ultimately being being driven and death death in Holland in in 1683' exile and in Holland driven into into exile ultimately 1683. During the same span of years he played played aa key key role the in founding role in founding the span of years he During the colony through it it all of South and through all was was an an active South Carolina Carolina and active member colony of participating in scientific experiments and of the Royal Royal Society, in its its scientific of the Society, participating experiments and wealth in practical development. investing in their their practical his wealth development. investing his Yet Shaftesbury's significance is is only only half half explained by aa sumsumYet explained by Shaftesbury's significance his more more striking For throughout mary catalogue of his achievements. For catalogue of striking achievements. throughout mary as friend, physician, and confidential those years years he he had his side confidential at his side as those had at friend, physician, advisor none none other other than than John John Locke, more often in the the often known in advisor Locke, more as "America's American history comes United States American "America's philosopher." comes United States as history philosopher." into much sharper focus once that Locke derived derived many many it is realized that once it is realized into sharper focus Shaftesas an an intimate intimate member of of Shaftesof from his his experience experience as of his his ideas ideas from ideas formed an important bury's mercantilist mercantilist entourage. important entourage. Those ideas bury's element in the of thought that exerted exerted so so much influence influence the system of that element in thought system
30 30
The American History History Contours of The Contours of American
upon the the Founding men, indeed, became For many Fathers. For indeed, Locke became many men, upon Founding Fathers. the philosopher of the Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxon Weltanschauung that emerged that the philosopher of the Weltanschauung emerged hand, his of an from English Revolution. Revolution. On the his statement statement of one hand, an the one the English from the experimental, neo-hedonistic individualism based on the value of the value of based experimental, neo-hedonistic individualism labor and the rights of property pointed the way toward toward the Adam labor and the rights of property pointed way the same time, Smith's for laissez..faire same time, laissez-faire capitalism. Smith's manifesto manifesto for capitalism. At the as aa trustee for however, Locke's broad defense of the the existing existing state state as trustee for defense of Locke's broad however, society and his harsh judgment on those did not behave as society and his harsh judgment on those who did not behave as natural natural
men served to justify justify the and invest its defenders defenders invest its status quo the status served to men quo and
with an which often righteous into righteous transformed them into often transformed with enthusiasm which an enthusiasm crusaders against social innovations and ideas. ideas. innovations and new crusaders social against Considerably more taciturn taciturn and withdrawn than than Shaftesbury, and withdrawn Shaftesbury, who Considerably more lived at the center of society, wived several and in at lived the center of in other other ways several women and wived society, ways was temperamentally temperamentally inclined the introspection which Locke inclined toward toward the Locke was introspection which of his his principal principal tools in exploring exploring and analyzing analyzing the the served as as one tools in served one of nature of and society. society. Though by no means a recluse, and no a and nature of man and recluse, Though by certainly not his attractiveness attractiveness to to women, women, this this not indifferent indifferent about about his certainly propensity to think things over stopped on the near side of the him to near side think over of things propensity stopped So several opportunities for permanent liaison-sexual or political. liaison or sexual for several So political. opportunities permanent too, no no doubt, did the example of and disdisof Shaftesbury's the example difficulties and too, doubt, did Shaftesbury's difficulties son, his confinement in the Tower, and his appointments with a in confinement the with a his and his son, Tower, appointments Perhaps even more persuasive persuasive was was the ambivalence ultimate exile. even more exile. Perhaps the ambivalence ultimate of Locke's Locke's own early early life. Born of of stout Puritan ancestors with stout Puritan of life. Born ancestors with by no means unusual strong Royalist sympathies, a combination a combination by unusual strong Royalist sympathies, despite the which links with vigorous dissent, the stereotype links Calvinism Calvinism with despite stereotype which vigorous dissent, Locke obtained an education education at which challenged his tradiobtained an at Oxford Oxford which tradichallenged his tional outlook at the the same up several Intional outlook and at same time time opened several careers. careers. Inopened up clined strongly the ministry, he nevertheless nevertheless exhibited clined toward the exhibited abilities abilities strongly toward ministry, he medicine, and philosophy. and interests interests in in science, and and secular secular philosophy. science, medicine, therefore, Shaftesbury they met met in in Oxford in 1666, When they Oxford in and 1666, therefore, Shaftesbury and Locke each other with common interests compleconfronted each Locke confronted other with interests and and complementary personalities. Shaftesbury's patronage of patronage offer of mentary personalities. Shaftesbury's resulting resulting offer to political philosophy, and also pulled Locke away from religion from to also away pulled religion political philosophy, and enabled and encouraged enabled him to develop his medical and scientific to his medical and scientific encouraged develop interests. to high-level high-level economic, political, and scientific disinterests. Privy scientific diseconomic, political, Privy to called upon to co-operate cussions, and called upon to in developing Shaftesbury's in cussions, co-operate developing Shaftesbury's those areas, in those areas, Locke grappled with the the fundamental plans in fundamental questions plans grappled with questions of with the of man and society and with the practical problems the society practical problems confronting confronting the leaders England. leaders of of England.
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
31 31
Shaftesbury other English English leaders leaders were were confronted the confronted with with the Shaftesbury and other necessity and the opportunity to refine and extend the policies and and the to refine and extend the policies and necessity opportunity of the the programs which, however modified, had survived survived the the turmoil turmoil of which, however modified, had programs English Revolution. Their basic predicament was something of a English Revolution. Their basic predicament was something of a paradox. In political sense, the revolution revolution had never been been coma political In a had never comsense, the paradox. pleted. Not uncommonly, the coalition against the the Crown had had incoalition against inuncommonly, the pleted. cluded conflicting conflicting interests interests and approaches to to the the ideal ideal society. But cluded and approaches society. But unlike many movement the dominant the movement unlike dominant group within the revolutions, the many revolutions, group within As a consequence, lacked positive program. a firm firm consensus on any lacked a consensus on a As positive any consequence, program. Cromwell's regime disintegrated. disintegrated. Cromwell's regime Behind the dilemma of to do do after after replacing replacing one one king with the dilemma Behind of what what to king with social troubles which would another lay fundamental economic and another troubles fundamental economic and social which would lay have made it of leaders leaders to to have have erected it difficult have for any difficult for a erected a any group group of framework of government and program. of government a long-range framework and undertaken undertaken a long-range program. Though it a large large navy, established colonies, the beginbeginit had had a a few few established colonies, the navy, a Though visions of more of all three, nings of an industrial economy, and an of of industrial all and visions of three, nings economy, England was still a predominantly agricultural nation. Compared still a nation. England predominantly agricultural Compared with other of that that time, it was was aa relatively relatively backward, backward, underunderother nations with nations of time, it its coastline, and abroad, developed, poor society. Challenged at its own at and abroad, coastline, developed, poor society. Challenged by stronger, ambitious nations, nations, it it was plagued at by disorganidisorganiat home by was plagued by stronger, ambitious zation, poverty. The familiar phrase "Merrie "Merrie Old Old Engand poverty. familiar phrase zation, unrest, unrest, and Engnot very very accurate: accurate: life but merry for the land" for the great life was was anything but land" is is not merry anything great majority. Though there had been positive economic economic changes been many changes majority. Though there many positive 1558, England's progress since the coronation of Elizabeth I in since the coronation of Elizabeth I in 1558, England's progress toward aa diversified balanced economy social structure structure toward diversified and more more balanced economy and social had not proceeded far enough to overcome its inertia sustain had not proceeded far enough to overcome its inertia and sustain such momentum-let generate alone generate let alone its own momentum such improvement through its improvement through recovery from the civil war. civil war. from the recovery of mutual Neither any new sense community and ethic mutual ethic of sense of of community Neither had had any of the actuality) responsibility emerged to replace ideal (and the ideal actuality) of (and the replace the emerged to responsibility the integration of feudalism manorialism. ReRefeudalism and manorialism. so characteristic characteristic of the integration so secular interinterligious groups quarreled among with secular themselves and with among themselves ligious groups quarreled ests which in turn clashed clashed with Despite aa general, though with each each other. other. Despite in turn ests which general, though be done, it was extremely extremely reluctant, agreement agreement that that something had to to be done, it reluctant, something had coalition to to organize a new coalition to difficult and others others to difficult for for Shaftesbury organize Shaftesbury of a that restore the His ultimate objective, that of building a ultimate His restore the monarchy. building objective, monarchy. political party oriented toward the general welfare, posed an even the toward oriented welfare, posed general political party greater challenge. From the the economic imbalance to to the the ideological ideological economic imbalance greater challenge. land. troubled a free-for-all, England was a troubled land. was free-for-all, England
32 32
The American History History The Contours Contours of of American
In these fundamental pervasive respects, respects, therefore, Shaftesand pervasive In these fundamental and therefore, Shaftesbury and Locke, along with their contemporaries, were confronted were confronted bury and Locke, along with their contemporaries, by the kind of problems that that their their ,predecessors faced a a of problems the same same kind predecessors had faced by isolacentury before. Their feeling of backwardness, weakness, and and isolacentury before. Their feeling of backwardness, weakness, tion only reinforced aa natural natural inclination inclination to to approach the difficulties difficulties tion approach the only reinforced I6605 with a very similar oudook and to of of the the post-revolutionary post-revolutionary i66os with a very similar outlook and to employ the same same specific solutions. These assumptions, assumptions, of the many of specific solutions. employ many ideas, and policies are are usually usually grouped together under under the the heading heading and policies ideas, grouped together mercantilism. mercantilism. As with broad and inclusive terms, terms, mercantilism mercantilism can can be be and inclusive all such As with all such broad criticized on two grounds. grounds. Sometimes it is is employed indiscrimion two Sometimes it criticized employed indiscriminately to lump together together all programs, and actions that all the the ideas, actions that to lump ideas, programs, nately I550 and I783. Used in this way, the concept developed between the Used this and in of between way, 1783. concept of 1550 developed mercantilism is is misleading because it existence of aa the it suggests the existence of because mercantilism suggests misleading of explaining a sudden change rigid system and raises the false issue of a sudden false issue and the raises explaining rigid system change in the the late eighteenth century. Other scholars scholars have have chosen chosen one one in late eighteenth century. Other specific aspect of the epoch between Elizabeth I and George I Elizabeth and of between the III epoch George III specific aspect by conand drastically restricted their definition of mercantilism of and their definition restricted mercantilism condrastically by is just just as as unsatisunsatiscentrating on that that particular particular feature. This usage usage is feature. This centrating on was no general oudook characteristic factory, for it that there it implies that outlook there no was for characteristic factory, general implies of those those years. of years. But since was such the term term a Weltanschauung, since there there was such a since the But Weltanschauung, and since is firmly associated with that period, it seems useful mercantilism is mercantilism firmly associated with that period, it seems useful it specific substance and meaning. For For to retain retain the to the name and and give and meaning. give it specific substance considerable understanding understanding of history develops considerable of American history from develops from definition and explanation explanation thinking of of mercantilism mercantilism as as the the general general definition thinking of and acted by Englishmen Englishmen between between 1550 I550 of the the world world developed acted upon developed and upon by and I763 reviewing its through the the interplay interplay of its development of 1763 and reviewing development through circumstances, interests, this setting the broad broad and ideas. ideas. It It is is in that the in this circumstances, interests, and setting that significance of Shaftesbury Locke becomes becomes apparent. and Locke Shaftessignificance of Shaftesbury and apparent. Shaftescarrying the the past past into the age age of the Restoration and trying trying bury was carrying into the of the Restoration and bury it to modified circumstances. Locke was preparing to adjust to it to modified Locke was to circumstances, adjust preparing to into the the next next century. Yet synthesize that that adaptation adaptation and project project it it into Yet synthesize century. both both men were were initially by the the assumptions shaped that had shaped initially guided guided by assumptions that earlier efforts earlier the same efforts to to solve solve the same problems. problems. THE ROOTS OF THE ENGLISH POLITICAL ECONOMY
Two ancient ancient themes themes lay lay at the center of the the outlook which Shaftesat the center of outlook which Shaftesto to sustain and develop more extensively as English bury struggled sustain more as bury struggled develop extensively English
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
Mercantilism. Mercantilism.
3"3 33
One was was the injunction to promote the the gengenthe Biblical Biblical injunction to promote eral welfare and and common good of God's corporate world and its eral welfare of God's world and its good corporate creatures. was the the growing propensity to define God's creatures. The second second was growing propensity to define God's which the the individual individual Christian resided. estate as the civil civil society as the estate in which Christian resided. society in In this fundamental sense, therefore, the rise of mercantilism is the the In this fundamental sense, therefore, the rise of mercantilism is to retain and adapt an original Christian morality story of a struggle a story of struggle to retain and adapt an original Christian morality as an during dynamic secularization secularization of religious outlook the dynamic an of a a religious outlook as during the was transformed transformed into into aa life and ininagrarian life of commerce and of commerce society was agrarian society dustry. dustry. During origins and an epoch which extended extended its origins and early evolution, an During its early evolution, epoch which from time of of Edward II down to to the the outbreak outbreak of the time from the the English of the English mercantilism retained retained aa strong religious charRevolution in in 1640, Revolution 1640, mercantilism strong religious charof thinking, of making basic sense of acter. Religion Religion was acter. was the the way of of sense of basic thinking, way making the world, world, and and economic economic development occurred within that framethe framewithin that occurred development to the the work. The gradual gradual shift shift from a self-contained work. from a self-contained agriculture agriculture to production of wool (and later, cloth) and to the opening up of wool of and to the (and later, cloth) production opening up of was undertaken and managed mining, trade, and manufacturing and was undertaken mining, trade, manufacturing managed by men who entertained entertained aa deep deep sense of God's God's will. were fafasense of will. Few were by natics, but most were believers. but most were believers. natics, This religious ethic, moreover, was based on This religious was based on a a corporate ethic, moreover, corporate concepconception of which stressed the relationships and responsibilities tion which of society the and stressed society relationships responsibilities does this this raise raise serious between man and and man. man. Not only condoubts conbetween serious doubts only does cerning the cliche that the Protestant Ethic, and particularly Purithe cliche the Purithat Protestant Ethic, cerning particularly it emphasizes the point point tanism, accounts economic progress, progress, but but it for economic accounts for tanism, emphasizes the that the various dements of mercantilism first appeared in an inin of first mercantilism an inthat the various elements appeared becomplete and unorganized manner. Thus Edward I, who ruled beruled I, complete and unorganized manner. tween 1272 expelled some foreign foreign economic enterprises, economic enterprises, tween and 1307, 1272 and 1307, expelled unfocused the English wool trade trade in in Antwerp, several unfocused the Antwerp, and made several English wool integrated moves to to control control domestic commerce. domestic commerce. integrated moves doBut the the long war with with France France (1333-1360), (1333-1360), combined with with doBut long war mestic unrest unrest at home, prompted prompted-and enabled-Edward III to to go Edward III at home, and enabled mestic go even were his his efforts in his his own time, time, efforts significant even further. further. Not only significant in only were but they they established precedents in body of of common law that the that the in the the body but established precedents cite more more than centuries American colonists were often than four four centuries to cite often to colonists were American later; definition of of treason, treason, for for example, derives from from American definition the American later; the example, derives also initiated various policies concerning Edward Ill's III's reign. Edward various initiated also policies concerning reign. later Englishinfluence on later the political economy that that had had aa similar Englishsimilar influence the political economy the to balance to fix wages and prices and to balance the reremen. He attempted fix to men. wages prices attempted not suffer lationship between them so that the laborer not suffer unduly would the laborer so them that between unduly lationship
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from wartime wartime inflation; he demanded demanded that that every return he in return from every man work inflation; in this quid pro quo indicates, mercanmercanwhen jobs jobs were available. As were available. As this when quo indicates, quid pro grounded in the idea a mutual, mutual, corporate tilism was of a idea of was grounded in the corporate responsibility. responsibility, was based on such reciprocal respect and God's way and obligation, God's way was based on such reciprocal respect and obligation, and Jerusalem provided the the example followed. to be be followed. Jerusalem provided example to II endeavored and 1399, I399, Richard Richard II During his reign reign between between I377 endeavored 1377 and During his to co-ordinate and extend extend the the somewhat random policies policies of of his his somewhat random co-ordinate and to predecessors. Further economic pro6ress demanded an organized predecessors. Further economic progress demanded an organized powers had had to to be be countered countered more more effort; the competition competition of of foreign effort; the foreign powers social and economic conflict within effectively, and the increasing economic conflict and within social and the effectively, increasing had to to be be England, by the the Peasant's Peasant's Rebellion Rebellion of of 1381, 1381, had England, symbolized symbolized by controlled and and moderated before it it sl.ould rip society apart. Hence should rip controlled moderated before apart. society Richard favored and traders traders by Navigation Act Act the Navigation Richard favored English by the English shippers shippers and of and tried to acquire enough gold and silver to keep England silver and to to of I38r, and tried 1381, keep England acquire enough gold out and at at the the same buy needed needed items items from out of of debt debt and time buy same time from foreign foreign countries. His drive to to establish establish what the Crown called a "well and called a "well and His drive what the countries. was an effort to accumulate at a national righdy governed kingdom" accumulate at a national an effort to was rightly governed kingdom" level the for England's England's present present security level the social and economic social and economic capital security capital for and future progress. Quite naturally, and for that matter, for future progress. and that matter, logically, Quite naturally, logically, Richard those who opposed or disrupted disrupted the the program program Richard disciplined disciplined those opposed or and rewarded rewarded those it. His courts openly and courts His decreed those who supported it. supported openly decreed that those those who "serve the general weal stand in special favor with that in "serve the weal stand favor with general special the law." the law." Critics of King's policy policy fought back by privileges the King's Critics of the seeking privileges fought back by seeking within the and by initiating theoretical and popular arguwithin the system system and by initiating theoretical and popular arguIt is essential to realize, however, that this ments for free trade. ments for free trade. It is essential to realize, however, that this not concerned concerned with with free free trade trade as is understood understood campaign was not it is as it campaign Free traders the early period wanted wanted to to break the today. Free break down the traders of of the today. early period domestic domestic system of corporate centralized direction, and direction, and system of organization, centralized corporate organization, to win for themthemreciprocal responsibility responsibility in in order order to win special reciprocal special advantages advantages for selves. selves. Far from agitating for trade, they were enthusifrom agitating for open enthusiworld, trade, open world. they were astic advocates astic an expanding expanding but advocates of of an but stricdy strictly English English empire. empire. The same imperial imperial vigor vigor characterized the outlook and actions actions of of characterized the outlook and of the voyages Henry VII between between 1465 I509. He commissioned the voyages of Henry 1465 and 1509. John Cabot and other adventurers, negotiated negotiated comcomother explorers and adventurers, John explorers and mercial treaties with mercial treaties with Denmark and in numerous and other numerous other countries, and in countries, and ways encouraged Englishmen to to shove, their way way shove, elbow, ways encouraged Englishmen elbow, and wiggle wiggle their into scramble for this increasing emphasis on trade into the the scramble for empire. trade As this empire. increasing emphasis was the dynamic element in Engand empire element in the dynamic indicates, commerce was empire indicates, Engtilism
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
land's land's
35 35
economic evolution. Although territorial expansion within the the economic evolution. Although territorial expansion within
was undertaken undertaken at time into overseas overseas areas areas was islands and home islands and into a later at a later time for the same reasons, commerce commerce was was the the activity that provided the same reasons, for the activity that provided the added increment of capital which underwrote further added increment of capital which underwrote further development development at home. at home. basic issue was simple: the merchants merchants be be alHence the the basic Hence issue was Should the alsimple: Should lowed to unf=hecked with n9 effort effort being being made to to control control and lowed to run run unchecked with no and the social balance the the economic changes at;;~ balance economic changes which folfolsocial consequences aiyj the consequences which lowed in in the of their their activities? From almost point of lowed the wake of of activities? From almost every every point by England's England's existing existing traditions traditions was negview, the the answer answer supplied was negview, supplied by ative. The king's king's specific political objectives ative. and general reinforced specific and general political objectives reinforced that outlook; he could risk neither neit;~er unlimited unlimited power power in in the the hands that could risk hands of o outlook; he the nor the the probability of their excesses provoking the merchants merchants per per se se nor their of excesses probability provoking classes (and (~d in in die the old old agrarian rebellion in in the the lower lower classes rebellion aristocracy). agrarian aristocracy). the economic freedom for the merchants merchants From the economic angle, for the untrarnmeled freedom angle, untr.unmded did not produce produce general general economic improvement. Food Food production, production, did not economic improvement. for was sadly rush to for example, and to wool-raising in the the rush example, was sadly neglected neglected in wool-raising and mining. Finally, even the merchants came to realize that they had the realize even that came to merchants mining. Finally, they had to have have aa more more unified unified and and balanced balanced society in order to attract other to other to attract in order society segments to support the Crown Crown in undertakings that that of society in undertakings segments of society to support the would help them to expand their overseas operations. It should be would be them to should their It overseas help expand operations. apparent, therefore, that mercantilism was anything but the narrow but the narrow that was mercantilism apparent, therefore, anything the need need ideology of the commercial commercial interest, for while while it of the it stressed stressed the interest, for ideology by the merchants, it defined the problem for trade and was supported for trade supported by the merchants, it defined the problem as one directing such as to produce the good. as one of of directing the common good. such activities activities so so as to produce By the the beginning the sixteenth however, any of the sixteenth century, English century, however, any English By beginning of to reap reap the the rewards rewards of the Age Age of of Discovery Exploration effort to effort of the I>iscovery and Exploration was hindered by several France was hindered by several difficulties. difficulties. Spain, Portugal, and France Spain, Portugal, were more more firmly established throughout throughout the the new imperial world. were imperial world. firmly established in America America Their control the gold gold and or mined in Their control of of the and silver silver stolen stolen or by the the English discomplicated the brought on Crown's disthe troubles troubles brought on by English Crown's complicated tressing habit of financing its by debasing the currency. the The of its needs habit needs currency. by debasing financing tressing in Dutch, for part, were were approaching a position position of of dominance in for their their part, Dutch, approaching a this the realms shipping, and trade. Confronted by this reality, and trade. Confronted of fishing, the realms of by reality, fishing, shipping, articulated aa cardinal cardinal tenet tenet of of mercantilist mercantilist thought: thought: the English the soon articulated English soon to was to welfare The best-if only-way to get wealth and welfare wealth the only to best if not not the way get take them them away from somebody. take somebody. away Even this this was was not not an productive approach, for EngEngan immediately Even approach, for immediately productive run services to run an empire land had to to develop develop the the goods and to and services land had empire and goods
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The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
to take the markets conquered or by colonizacreated by or created colonizaof the markets conquered take advantage to advantage of tion. Seemingly suspended in limbo between the old world of Chrisworld of Christhe old between tion. Seemingly suspended in limbo tian feudalism manorialism and and the the new age of commerce, and manorialism tian feudalism and commerce, age of England's domestic affairs and institutions were confused and inwere confused inEngland's domestic affairs and institutions efficient. And any effort to grapple with these difficulties was comdifficulties was comefficient. any effort to grapple with these Catholicism. plicated by Henry VIII's break with Catholicism. plicated by Henry VIIFs break with Roman
RELIGION AND THE RISE RISE OF MERCANTILISM RELIGION
Prior to to his his break break with with Prior
Rome, VIII seemed o>llcceedtr seemed t,..' oiicceedRome, Henry Henry VIII ing with the staggering task of carrying through an English Reforof Refortask the with English through carrying staggering ing mation within within the the universal universal Catholic But the the fundamental Church. But fundamental Catholic Church. mation was much broader. broader. Whether Whether viewed from within within or without issue was or without viewed from issue the framework the Papacy-that is, considered by Luther and considered that Luther and of the the framework of is, by Papacy Calvin by the the Jesuits-the central religious, intellectual, and central and the or by Calvin or intellectual, Jesuits religious, practical problem was to cope with the general breakdown of with the breakdown how to of was general cope practical problem the old old church explanation of of man and the the world. Henry's world. Henry's its explanation the church and and its his subjects subjects rupture with with Rome dramatically dramatically confronted confronted him and his rupture with the need to to decide decide what what to put at the center center of their individual to put at the of their the need with individual and collective place of universal church. church. Salvation having of the the universal in place collective lives Salvation having lives in been taken out of the hands hands of of the Papacy, the the issue became that that of issue became of the the Papacy, taken out been of was to to be be dropped dropped-in the lap lap of of the the state in the the hands hands where it it was in the where state or or in of the the individual? this was was only only half half the the difficulty; for if the of individual? But But this difficulty; for if the with such responsibility, then the state were be charged state were to to be with such was the charged responsibility, then was be discharged according to social (that is, inclusive responsibility to to to be discharged according social (that is, inclusive responsibility values or by the principles of arbitrary and corporate) or by the principles of personal, corporate) values personal, arbitrary monarchy? monarchy ? Henry's answer, he had been moving toward which he had been answer, toward Henry's moving throughout throughout his that the his reign, reign, was was that the state the form God's monarchy monarchy assumed state in in the form of of God's assumed the role role and the the functions the old universal church. Henry the of the functions of old universal church. What Henry his own blunt blunt way was to the processes processes of this had done had done in in his to sanctify of this way was sanctify the world. Small wonder that that his his earlier polemics against Luther were were world. Small wonder earlier polemics against Luther withdrawn from the the royal royal stationer replaced by discourse withdrawn stationer and and replaced a new discourse by a on the the divine right of kings. God was not wholly excluded from divine right of kings. was not excluded from wholly this seen to to be be operating operating at one this modified but now He was seen modified outlook, at one outlook, but further removed. stage further removed. special religious institution no longer A no institution stage special religious longer it had been been first first blended ultimately integrated integrated with with aa existed; blended and ultimately existed; it secular secular organization. laws might might be passed, the the only only whatever laws be passed, organization. And whatever effective means by by which which the and the the state could again again be be dIective the church church and state could was by denying God's direct will in secular affairs. This separated God's direct will in secular This affairs. separated by denying '
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
37 37 assault organized and and carried, even though though Henry Henry was was assault was finally carried, even finally organized neither the the victim. victim. the conscious neither conscious instigator nor the instigator nor He nevertheless opened the gate to to the the conflict by dealing dealing nevertheless opened the main gate conflict by out to his his supporters. As in in earlier the confiscated confiscated church out the church properties earlier supporters. As properties to years on the this act act raised raised the whole question the European the whole continent, this European continent, years question of private property property in in its to the the state and to to religious religious of private its relationship to state and relationship values. Originally church leaders property no no more more values. leaders had had considered considered property Originally church than aa necessary necessary evil. Aquinas modified modified this this tradition tradition than evil. St. St. Thomas Aquinas in he asserted was aa positive positive asset, both natural natural in two respects: it was asserted it first, he asset, both respects: first, and good; he promptly promptly declared that the the state to regulate regulate then he state had declared that had to good; then property for doctrine was accepted for the the common good. This doctrine property accepted and good. This generally honored, if also evaded, for many centuries. if also for centuries. honored, evaded, generally many But confiscation revived, as among the the Anabaptists and the the confiscation revived, But as among Anabaptists and Levellers, the earlier stress on common property. property. In In England, England, this this earlier stress Levellers, the outlook ultimately ultimately won literary treatment and presentation in Sir outlook literary treatment and presentation in Sir Others considered this aa dangerously retroThomas More's More's Utopia. considered this Others Utopia. dangerously retrogressive theory and set out to sanctify private property per se. Those Those se. set to out gressive theory sanctify private property per undertook that that effort themselves, and the the rerewho undertook effort differed differed among among themselves, sult was was aa long period of confused and contradictory competition. sult confused and of long period contradictory competition. Both Luther Luther and Calvin Calvin exemplified In his his notorinotoriBoth the ambivalence. ambivalence. In exemplified the of the peasants for revolting against their masters, ous castigation ous of the their for masters, castigation revolting against peasants for also attacked rulers for to honor honor for example, Luther also for their their failure failure to attacked the the rulers example, Luther the corporate values responsibilities of their religion. no At the of their and values corporate religion. responsibilities time, furthermore, did Luther construct aa hierarchy hierarchy of of labor labor which Luther construct furthermore, did time, implied that that godliness godliness came with worldly success. success. with worldly implied Calvin was even firmer in that any any calling calling offered offered even firmer Calvin was in his his emphasis emphasis that aa satisfactory place in which to exercise one's discipline in the Lord's in the Lord's in one's which to exercise satisfactory place discipline two with way. Even more significantly, he insisted that a with a he insisted that man way. significantly, callings was by the true principles of Christ to choose the one Christ to choose the bound of the true callings by principles which contributed most to to the the common good. for many years And for which contributed most many years good. those who took took Calvin's to honor honor the injunction. the injunction. those Calvin's name struggled struggled to Later this stress on corporate values in in this stress Later Protestants Protestants de-emphasized corporate values de-emphasized never himself favor goods, but Calvin himself never but Calvin individualism and worldly favor of of individualism worldly goods, did did so. so. it reached climax in after Henry's Henry's a climax When it reached a in England century after England aa century took three death, this confusion and conflict over private property took three over conflict this confusion death, private property divided principal forms. Oliver Cromwell's revolutionary army divided Oliver Cromwell's forms. revolutionary army principal sharply over conservatives charged charged the the over the the issue. issue. Some upper-class upper-class conservatives sharply Anabaptists and Levellers with subverting the rights of property. the with Levellers property. rights subverting Anabaptists
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The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
The Levellers replied that that property property was was being being protected at the the cost cost Levellers replied The protected at of political rights, social welfare, and human beings themselves. But of political rights, social welfare, and beings themselves. But of the Levellers' program, program, while opposing opposing the the thoroughgoing thoroughgoing nature nature of the Levellers' while other leaders accepted limits on the rights of private of the on limits leaders other upper
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39 39
at the of men's men's lives, lives, and their ideas, as well well as as their their the center center of at and they took their ideas, as they took interests, into politics. interests, into politics. For the time, aa combination combination of events favored Henry's conviction conviction the time, For of events favored Henry's that aa divine monarchy should provide meaning meaning and divine monarchy that should provide and direction for direction for English society. As he bluntly stated in his defiant reply to the As he stated to in his defiant the English society. bluntly reply Pope in in 1533, that this realm is manifestly declared "It is and expressed this realm Pope 1533, "It manifestly declared and expressed that is an empire." Reflecting the same attitude, the classic of England is an of the same the classic attitude, England empire." Reflecting religious images the flock the family family were from of the flock and and the were transferred transferred from religious images of the church to the state. And in its more practical aspects, Henry's the church to the state. in its more practical aspects, Henry's solution anchored in rule from from the the was anchored in the solution was the traditions traditions of of English English rule time of and Richard Richard II. of Edward II and time II. England's economic conditions at the time time of break with with of Henry's economic conditions at the England's Henry's break and contradictory. Domestic diversification and confused and Rome were confused and Domestic diversification contradictory. begun in a moderate way as the wool trade shifted to growth had had a to in moderate as the wool trade shifted growth begun way as the metal and the cloth business and and became became more more complex, and the cloth business as and the metal and complex, other were organized. organized. The nation nation nevertheless nevertheless remained remained other industries industries were aa backward and poor poor country whose international exploits were as as country whose international exploits were yet insufficient to accelerate It is is conceivable that insufficient to accelerate its its improvement. conceivable that yet improvement. It a nation nation could development with bare miniminia bare a could accomplish economic development with a accomplish economic centralized control coercion. But But at three things of centralized at least mum of and coercion. least three control and things would be be required: required: aa long long period peace defined defined as than just just would of peace as more than period of the absence war; extensive outside assistance; and a highly of open a the absence of extensive outside and assistance; open war; highly enthusiastic pervasive agreement among the enthusiastic and and pervasive the vast vast majority of agreement among majority of the upon the objectives sought and the means to be employed, to be the and the means the society society upon employed, objectives sought a consensus that would substitute for in effect effect serve serve as as a substitute for centralized centralized a consensus that would in power and authority. authority. power Such did not not prevail prevail for England during for England Such happy circumstances did during happy circumstances the sixteenth centuries, and the the result result was aa steady seventeenth centuries, the sixteenth and and seventeenth steady growth in mercantilist thought Nothing illustrates illustrates this this action. Nothing in mercantilist thought and action. growth as clearly as the Tudor response to the economic and social crisis crisis to the social as the economic as response clearly that developed near the the end VIII's reign. Between 1500 of Henry end of that 1500 reign- Between Henry VIIFs developed near with and 1522 a great burst of activity in the wool trade with Antwerp the wool trade of in a burst and Antwerp activity 1522 great brought aa corresponding life. But by by in English advance in economic life. English economic brought corresponding advance 1550 the nation the edge edge of stagnation and violence. violence. of stagnation nation was again again on the 1550 the obvious English traders persisted in trying to force the the price in trying to force traders persisted despite obvious price despite English The the dilemma warnings that they had almost saturated the market. market. almost had saturated that they warnings about to was very very real: real: the to collapse, yet England England had to to the boom was about was collapse, yet served to crisis served export wool or "fall dangerously sick." the crisis to Hence the sick." "fall or wool dangerously export a.
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The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
strengthen even further two of the fundamental ideas of mercanstrengthen even further two of the fundamental ideas of mercanto prosperity prosperity and tilism: that exports were were the the key key to social stability, and social tilism: that exports stability, was more dangerous than a surplus surplus and the corollary that nothing than a more was and the corollary that nothing dangerous of goods. of goods. Abandoning hoc approach, undertook aa leaders undertook the ad ad hoc England's leaders Abandoning the approach, England's general, co-ordinated program to reorganize and rationalize the rationalize the to reorganize general, co-ordinated program by establishing specifications and standards entire woolen industry and standards entire woolen industry by establishing specifications of production and marketing, and by limiting (and hence hence size (and its size and by of production and marketing, limiting its destructive competition) through the the principle principle and institution institution of of destructive competition) through apprenticeship. This system of industrial training, for which John apprenticeship. This system of industrial training, for which John Locke later later manifested manifested vigorous enthusiasm, also provide to provide also served served to Locke vigorous enthusiasm, some unemployment. Going beyond these these proposals, proposals, over unemployment. some control control over Going beyond the parliament parliament then then laid laid an entirely new emphasis emphasis upon upon the the imiman entirely the portance of maritime activities (shipping and fishing) and stressed and and stressed of maritime activities fishing) (shipping portance go abroad in search markets and precious metals. metals. the need need to to go of new markets and precious abroad in search of the This legislation consolidated and practices practices of of earlier the outlook outlook and earlier This legislation consolidated the monarchs. Englishmen were henceforward to argue about to about were henceforward who monarchs. argue Englishmen should but not to dispute the validity the central to the but not should control central government control the government dispute validity of its active role in in society. state or or its active role This crucial crucial struggle of the the national national state society. This struggle matured during the reigns reigns of I, and James II of Elizabeth Charles I, and James Elizabeth I, matured I, Charles during the (1558-1641). Hence it is useful to consider those years as a unit unit it those Hence is useful to consider as a years (1558-1641). save for emphasis on Elizabeth's role in in the personthe era. save for some emphasis Elizabeth's role era. Her personality, temperament, and style were magnificently appropriate to the ality, temperament, and style were magnificently appropriate to the tradition and circumstances. She the final of tradition and the the circumstances. She symbolized final stages symbolized the stages of the past past and transformed them them into the beginnings beginnings of the and transformed into the of a a new epoch. epoch. THE MATURATION OF THE ENGLISH WELTANSCHAUUNG
Elizabeth's reign marked the apex of of early mercantilism as as aa the apex Elizabeth's reign marked early mercantilism broad broad conception of the the world world still still fundamentally oriented around conception of fundamentally oriented around ideal of Her sucsucaa religious religious ideal of corporate corporate morality responsibility. Her and responsibility. morality and cessors, James I, I, were also capable capable and strong rulers Charles II and James were also cessors, Charles strong rulers who knew what they were about, even though though the the English Revoluabout, even they were English Revolution is usually usually associated associated with their names names as failure. tion is with their as a a mark of of failure. particularly concerned with the the welfare welfare of of the James II was particularly concerned with the lower lower James his paternalism classes; his paternalism was morally sincere and prompted many sincere and of classes; morally prompted many of his actions. Taken together, his actions. together, those rulers effected consolidathose three three rulers effected the the consolidation of the tion of the mercantilist mercantilist outlook. outlook. Four ideas ideas formed formed the the core the core of of this this Weltanschauung. First, the Weltanschauung, First, state the institution wealth and w~lfare. Second, state was the institution for for achieving wealth welfare. Second, achieving
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
41 41
and as by the the first, did not not happen by itself: itself: as implied fortune did first, good implied by good fortune happen by it was the of men making good policies. As should be apparthe result it was result of should be apparmaking good policies. ent, the did not not believe believe in in the the famous hand the mercantilist mercantilist did hidden hand famous hidden ent, of Adam Smith. Third, the state had an obligation to serve society of Smith. Third, the state had an obligation to serve society by accepting and discharging the responsibility responsibility for general welwelfor the the general by accepting and discharging the fare. does not not mean that was aa rudimentary rudimentary form fare. This This does that mercantilism form mercantilism was of it sometimes joined in in mixed mixed enterprises, of socialism. socialism. Though it sometimes joined Though it enterprises, it as individuals or in in corporate usually delegated opportunities to individuals or to men as usually delegated opportunities corporate associations. Fourth, the world was defined and finite, finite, associations. as known and world was defined as Fourth, the by science and theology. theology. Hence chief aa principle principle agreed upon by the chief Hence the science and agreed upon way for for aa nation to promote promote or achieve its its own wealth happiness nation to and happiness wealth and or achieve way was to take them them away away from other country. to take was from some some other country. Two phrases phrases of of the time capture the spirit of this maturing merthe time capture the spirit of this maturing mercantilism. manor of appears in the the cantilism. One, "this manor of England," One, "this repeatedly in England," appears repeatedly of the the age age and perfectly the national literature of literature of national the sense and delineates delineates perfectly sense of self~onsciousness and The other, self-consciousness and integration. an ancient ancient Roman other, an integration. The axiom from Marcus Marcus P. was used almost as often to dramatize dramatize axiom to was used as P. Cato, almost often Cato, opportet patrem lamiNas tlendacem the drive markets: drive for the for export markets: export opportet patrem famtlias vendacem esse, non emacem-"it behooves the husbandman to be a seller non a and be seller and emacem "it to behooves the husbandman esse, not aa buyer." Surrounded by turmoil and danger (there was one was one not and Surrounded turmoil buyer." by danger (there pea~e between 1600 and 1667) and beset by internal tensions year of of tensions and and beset between 1600 internal year peace by 1667) and discord, devoted its energies and abilities to to and and abilities its energies discord, English English leadership leadership devoted an to translate translate that that image and that rule of thumb into reality. effort to into an effort and that rule of reality. image This to unity, unity, balance, balance, and been gathering This urge and self-sufficiency urge to gathering self-sufficiency had been strength many years. years. The Tree an essay essay pubpubfor many Tree of Commonwealth, an of Commonwealth, strength for 150~ argued argued that that aa man should to lished about himself to lished about 1509, not indulge should not indulge himself every of these fruits;" rather "pull at his his liberty of every from this this tree tree at of these fruits;" rather "pull from liberty of should practice restraint restraint for as others others he practice should he for the the common good. good. And as before him, him, Richard in 1597 that such a balanced balanced such a before Richard Hooker emphasized 1597 that emphasized in order was was neither neither fortuitous fortuitous nor nor the the result result of intervention, divine intervention, of divine order but was was rather rather the the "work principle was was written into written into but "work of of policy." policy." The principle rule. . • • an Privy Council in 1622: the rule. of the 1622: "This "This being an Order the Privy Council in Order of being the noW Whosoever had had aa part part of of the in profitable profitable times times ..• must now the gain Whosoever gain in in of Trade ... bear a part of the public losses, as may as a the of of the decay Trade bear in the losses, may public part decay of the the good good of the public public and the maintenance the best conduct of the and the maintenance of conduct to to the best trade." general trade." general Beginning with for a century a half, half, with Elizabeth Elizabeth and continuing century and a continuing for Beginning erect the framefive the mercantilists to accomplish five tasks: erect the frametasks: to the mercantilists sought accomplish sought work of political and and economic modify, centralize, economic system; of a a political work centralize, and system; modify, .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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consolidate the older but but still units oof society; and still useful useful units the older consolidate society; encourage encourage and direct the development of a new political economy; balance that balance a that of direct the development political economy; evolution; and expand the resulting system conabroad. Early and conthe resulting and expand Early and evolution; system abroad. tinuing attention was given to economic and administrative affairs. administrative and affairs. tinuing attention was given to economic passed legislation legislation encouraging Thus food of 1563 Thus the the Parliament Parliament of encouraging food 1563 passed to improve improve production, a relief measure for the poor, an act designed act designed to production, a relief measure for the poor, an the navy navy as as aa means wealth, tariff tariff regulations, and more wealth, of securing the means of regulations, and securing more an elaborate elaborate Statute of Artificers Artificers calculated calculated to to put the nation nation to to an Statute of put the work in and balanced manner, and a concerted concerted for a and called called for balanced manner, work in a a rational rational and trade and colonization. effort to colonization. SimiSimioverseas trade and expand effort to diversify expand overseas diversify and larly a national system of weights and measures, monetary standards, larly a national system of weights and measures, monetary standards, taxation, and law were established. Administrative Administrative reforms reforms were established. codified law and codified taxation, sense entirely rational or equitable, and innovations, in no or rational in no sense and innovations, though equitable, entirely though created hierarchy capable capable of more in a a far of acting far more an organizational created an acting in organizational hierarchy all this, the functions routine and manner. To accomplish all the effective manner. functions routine and effective this, accomplish and of the the old and guilds were destroyed old towns towns and and the or the authority guilds were destroyed or authority of the central central government. These and similar actions transferred to These similar to the actions transferred government. created the and substance of aa national national system political of political substance of created the form form and system of economy. economy. Agriculture key problem problem because because it a key it lagged behind the new was a lagged behind the Agriculture was is wrong to think enterprises in commerce and industry. It It is simply to in think simply wrong enterprises industry. oudook that the farm. Along with of mercantilism mercantilism as the farm. of as an an outlook that ignored ignored Along with other mercantilists, Sir Josiah Child, Josiah Tucker, other leading Sir and Josiah Child, Josiah Tucker, and leading mercantilists, acShaftesbury stressed the need for a balanced economy. They the need a stressed for balanced economy. They acShaftesbury cepted as a matter of course the axiom enunciated by George Coade. the as a matter of course enunciated axiom Coade. cepted by George this Kingdom," Kingdom," "Between the Landed and Trading in this "Between the Interest in Trading Interest Coade explained, "there ever has been and ever will be an inseparable ever has an been and ever will be explained, "there inseparable Affinity. They naturally furnish each other with all the Conveniences Affinity. They naturally furnish each other with all the Conveniences of Life, of real Preference Preference can can be be given either to the one one or or the the and no real to the Life, and given either other." other." if initially initially approached as nothing more than Even if than the the ideology approached as nothing more ideology of the trading is not of the trading interest, interest, this this side of mercantilism side of mercantilism is not surprising. surprising. Mercantilists personal merging coma personal Mercantilists represented of landed landed and and comrepresented a merging of mercial operations, and they they realized vital to to mercial realized that that agriculture was vital operations, and agriculture was self-sufficiency in in war war and peace, peace, and and to to solving the problem of the of self-sufficiency solving problem winning export markets. Agricultural improvement, explained explained export markets. winning Agricultural improvement, Malachy Posdethwayt, would "render the price of the necessaries of would "render the of the of necessaries Malachy Postlethwayt, price life or even life no more than th.m one half, half, or third what it it is at the the even one one third is at This will present. This will inevitably general price reduce the the general of labor labor . . . present. inevitably reduce price of .
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and will not this render all fabrics and will not this render all our and manufactures our fabrics manufactures cheaper cheaper •.•.?? Hereby cannot fail ... to augment the value value of of our exwe fail cannot ... to our exHereby augment the ports beyond that of our imports; this will gradually increase the ports beyond that of our imports; this will gradually increase the devoted balance of of our our trade." deal of of official balance trade." A great official attention attention was was devoted great deal to increasing food production. Land reclamation, conservation, and to increasing food production. Land reclamation, conservation, and by the the technological improvements encouraged and and supported were encouraged technological improvements were supported by government, and territorial expansion complemented such and territorial such domestic domestic government, expansion complemented efforts. efforts. Commerce and industry enjoyed favors. Elizabeth ordered and industry Elizabeth ordered similar favors. enjoyed similar foreign merchants, merchants, for example, to to spend their profits before leaving for example, their before foreign leaving spend profits the despite the was overpopulated, the country. the fear was fear that that England country. And despite overpopulated, England skilled the skilled foreigners were encouraged accelerate the to immigrate and accelerate foreigners were immigrate and encouraged to was a classic example of economic denation's development. This nation's of deThis a classic economic was development. example cisions furthering religious and intellectual toleration, for most of cisions most of and intellectual for toleration, furthering religious As for tariffs, they were seen such were strong Protestants. such artisans seen artisans were were for As Protestants. tariffs, they strong as the the fountain prosperity and power. "So now," explained as fountain of of prosperity and power. "So it it is is now," explained "that, by reason of the abundance of the Protectionist Protectionist Act Act of the of of 1562, of the abundance reason 1562, "that, by foreign wares brought into this realm from the parts of beyond the the wares of the into this realm from foreign beyond parts brought seas, the said artificers are not only occupied, and thereby utterly utterly said artificers are not and thereby less occupied, seas, the only less impoverished . . . [but] divers cities and towns within this realm realm within this and divers towns cities impoverished [but] greatly endangered, and other countries notably enriched." Beginand enriched." other countries greatly endangered, notably Beginproscription against certain goods goods for a stated ning with with aa specific stated for a ning specific proscription against certain was rapidly generalized. Protectionist advocates time, the program the advocates time, program was rapidly generalized. Protectionist asserted the tariff tariff would provide revenue revenue and asserted that that the and employment, would provide employment, protect and foster young and important industries, the strengthen the protect and foster young and important industries, strengthen military power power of the nation, nation, and produce aa system through of the that through and thus thus produce military system that its would create create new capital improveits exportable for further further improvesurplus would exportable surplus capital for By the the end end of period, the the Book Book of of Rates Rates under under ment at the period, at home. ment home. By of the James with aa wry tongue-in-cheek justification justification of the of the James II opened opened with wry tongue-in-cheek be agreeable agreeable to the rule nature to to prefer prefer our policy: "If our own "If it it be to the rule of of nature policy: people before A more more rhetorical rhetorical remark remark could could hardly hardly before strangers "A people strangers ...." have been been made. made. have Several reasons account the practice practice of opportuniof delegating Several reasons account for for the delegating opportunities and responsibilities to to private individuals and corporations. and responsibilities individuals ties corporations. private overbe overPolitical motives motives were were important, but they they should not be should not Political important, but emphasized. In both its forms, general and joint-stock, the corporathe In both its and forms, corporageneral joint-stock, emphasized. to be be organized put to to tion enabled larger amounts tion enabled larger amounts of of capital organized and put capital to work in rational and manner. Considered one in one and fruitful Considered in work in a a more rational fruitful manner. accumulate capiway, mercantilism mercantilism was was aa set policies designed to accumulate of policies set of designed to capi* way, .
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tal at the the national level and to this this end. a means to end. and the the corporation national level corporation a be grievEven the practice of granting monopolies, which to came to be which of Even the practice grievgranting monopolies, ously abused and thereby to provoke serious resistance, was aa natural natural ously abused and thereby to provoke serious resistance, and obvious way to to initiate initiate projects projects in a rapid rapid and vigorous manner. and vigorous manner. in a and obvious way Mercantilism's emphasis on corporate responsibility is dramatized is dramatized Mercantilism's emphasis on corporate responsibility by the the Statute of Artificers Artificers (1563) various Poor enacted Poor Laws enacted and various Statute of (1563) and by was an throughout the the age. artificers was an concerning artificers age. The legislation legislation concerning throughout balance and order order in in the the elaborate effort some balance and sustain sustain some create and elaborate effort to to create process of economic development and in its attendant social conprocess of economic development and in its attendant social consequences. Wage Wage rates rates (and relationship to to prices), their relationship prices), migration migration (and their sequences. of employment, and the the within the the country, country, terms terms and conditions of and conditions within employment, and principle of a seven-year apprenticeship were all into an all written were written into an a of seven-year apprenticeship principle integrated system enforced by the strengthened national government. the national enforced government. by strengthened integrated system Poor Laws complemented this involved involved legislation by prohibiting prohibiting Poor Laws legislation by complemented this begging, placing pauper children in apprenticeship, establishing in children a begging, placing pauper apprenticeship, establishing a system of collecting and distributing alms among the aged and inthe of and alms inand aged distributing system collecting among firm, putting the poor to to work work in in special special enterprises. and putting the poor firm, and enterprises. some respects respects harsh harsh and in their impact on on Though in in some their impact and confining Though confining in may be remarked that slow starvation, alienation, the individual the individual (it be slow remarked that starvation, alienation, (it may also have have their their peculiar peculiar disadvantages), disadvantages), these these laws laws and vagabondage vagabondage also and were predicated upon the idea that poverty, instead of being a perwere the that instead of idea a predicated upon poverty, being personal was a function of the economic system, and that the general sonal sin, a was function the of economic and that the sin, system, general was the the responsibility responsibility of the government. government. Prior Prior to welfare was welfare to 1640, of the at 1640, at was shared by Catholics, any rate, such a conception of welfare a such of welfare was shared any rate, conception by Catholics, Protestants, and and others others who stressed more secularized of aa stressed a a more secularized idea idea of Protestants, natural law law binding binding on on all natural all men. men. Following Calvin's very closely, pre-Revolutionary Puritan Puritan Calvin's ideas ideas very Following closely, pre-Revolutionary leaders such as as William Perkins defined a calling as "a certain kind leaders such William Perkins defined a calling as "a certain kind of and imposed imposed on by God, of life, ordained and on man by for the the cemmon common life, ordained God, for John Cotton were good." William Gouge, Richard Richard Sibbes, William Gouge, Cotton were and John good." Sibbes, and other Puritan divines other Puritan divines who stressed same conception a mumuthe same of a stressed the conception of tually responsible responsible corporate corporate community. All agreed that aa specific tually community. All agreed that specific calling was was subordinate the general general welfare; welfare; even had subordinate to to the even men who had calling several callings them "not it selfe, but several to choose choose among "not for for it callings were to selfe, but among them for the good for the the whole whole bodie." bodie." of the good of This outlook provided This outlook provided the intellectual framework framework within which the intellectual within which issues like particular issues like unemployment acquired meaning. famous One famous particular unemployment acquired meaning. described the report described the country as populated populated by by far too many many men far too report country as who "cheat, roar, hang, hang, beg, carp, pine and perish," many and many and "cheat, rob, rob, roar, beg, carp, pine perish," and tal at
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leaders with the the problem problem of do not not live live idly idly leaders wrestled wrestled with those "which "which do of those at home, and are burdenous, burdenous, chargeable and unprofitable to this at home, and are chargeable and unprofitable to this realm." Unemployment Unemployment and its camp follower, social unrest, threatrealm." and its camp follower, social unrest, threatened lower classes well as as the the Crown and the the ened England-the as well classes as Crown and England the lower privileged orders. The anxiety reinforced the feeling that England privileged orders. anxiety reinforced the feeling that England by God, the was overpopulated; blessed by was "the people, do swarm swarm in in the God, do overpopulated; "the people, blessed land, young bees bees in Francis Bacon Bacon spoke a large as young a hive." hive." Sir for a in a Sir Francis land, as spoke for large majority when he he concluded concluded that that the the "material of sedition "material cause cause of sedition majority [was] want and and poverty poverty in that such and that in the the state," such "rebellions "rebellions of of state," and [was] want the belly the worst-" worst." Lower-class revealed the the the revealed Lower-class spokesmen belly [were] [were] the spokesmen anguish of the suffering more personally: personally: "Alas, of the should "Alas, Man! What should anguish suffering more world is hard." we do? do? The world is hard." who concluded expanBacon was Bacon was only one of of many concluded that that expanwriters who only one many writers difficulties and the sion the best best solution solution of both the the specific sion offered offered the and the of both difficulties specific as a preacher general problem. Though more often remembered a who more as often remembered general problem. Though preacher wrote somewhat poetry when not not in the pulpit, John wrote somewhat erotic erotic poetry in the pulpit, John Donne supported expansion because it would "sweepe your and because it would streets, and supported expansion "sweepe your streets, wash your your doores, from idle persons, and the children of idle persons, wash idle from idle children of and the doores, persons, persons, closest advisers, advisers, and imploy them." William William Cecil, one of of Elizabeth's Elizabeth's closest Cecil, one imploy them." argued that "by surpluses] tumults tumults will will of vent vent [for lack of argued bluntly "by lack [for surpluses] bluntly that follow." And Sir Gilbert, an early leader in the expan· the leader follow." Sir Humphrey an in Humphrey Gilbert, expanearly sionist movement, movement, explained would "prove sionist a that his his operations explained that "prove a operations would general benefit unto our country" by finding or establishing enterunto our entergeneral benefit country" by finding or establishing prises "to the great great relief relief and no small "to the of no small number and good prises good employment employment of of the natural subjects of this realm." the natural of this realm." subjects of This expansionist push of early seventeenth produced This of the the early seventeenth century century produced expansionist push a vigorous vigorous drive drive for exports and colonies. Designed Designed to to achieve mara and colonies. achieve marfor exports bases for and extension the kets, resources, resources, and and bases for the the security extension thereof, thereof, the kets, security and concampaign integrated set Though conaround an set of of ideas. ideas. Though an integrated campaign developed developed around sidered necessary the strictly military sense for defense, the navy sidered in the necessary in strictly military sense for defense, the navy be seen primarily as an an instrument rapidly came to of economic economic imimbe instrument of came to seen rapidly primarily as provement. The basic basic objective objective was aa strong merchant marine and aa marine and provement. strong merchant large, regularized regularized trading trading empire. objectives can be seen seen in in can be Both objectives empire. Both large, the for 1563. which declared that "it is necessary for the the legislation of declared that is of which "it the necessary legislation 1563, restoring'of the navy to to have day more more in ordained to to in the the week ordained one day have one the navy restoring'of be aa fish day and and that that day to be Wednesday." Sometimes referred to be referred be fish day Wednesday." day about as much about Lent," the the Wednesday Wednesday fish reveals as to as law reveals to fish law as "political "political Lent," the influence of economics religioD, as single as does does almost almost any on religion economics on the influence of any single episode in English English history. history. episode in
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The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
This economic empire empire as means to as the the means to an overseas overseas economic of an This concept concept of improvement at home synthesized the mercantilist's concern for agriconcern for mercantilist's the at home agrisynthesized improvement culture with his his support It gave meaning to to the the for commerce. commerce. It culture with gave meaning support for territorial wars against Wales and Ireland and brought about aa about Ireland territorial wars against Wales and brought change in English thinking about precious metals. Breaking with metals. with Breaking change in English thinking about precious the bullionists, emphasized the the acquisition acquisition of money to to balance balance of money the bullionists, who emphasized their international accounts, the mercantilists viewed money viewed as a a their international accounts, the mercantilists money as means of the domestic economy itself. All such itself. All such specific domestic economy of developing means specific developing the a favorable ideas and policies were were synthesized the doctrine doctrine of of a favorable in the and policies ideas synthesized in balance of trade. John Hales offered a somewhat transembellished transsomewhat embellished offered a of trade. balance John Hales by many many other between lation of was borrowed other writers writers between borrowed by that was lation of Cato Cato that 1550 he weare no good good husband husband that bie more more will bie that will weare no and 1660: 1660: "For "For he 1550 and in market than he selleth Hales there againe." selleth there in the the market than he Otherwise, Hales againe." Otherwise, warned, "We should the strangers." enrich the and enrich ourselves and should empoverish warned, strangers." empoverish ourselves William Lane was even even blunter, blunter, arguing that foreign sales must be be that sales must William Lane was foreign arguing greater, for by "so shall our commonwealthe be yerely gainers be "so commonwealthe for much shall our yerely gainers by greater, of us, to lyve lyve off and they not of them, and they not not of off them and and they and we to of them, us, and they not off oflf us." us." Colonization was aa fundamental part of view that wealth the view of the that wealth fundamental part Colonization was to be taken away from others and integrated into a self-sufficient had to into a had be taken and from others self-sufficient integrated away William Penn once did not not found empire. As William once remarked, found remarked, England empire. England did in order order to to be be praised praised by by later later historians historians as as the the disinthe colonies the colonies in disinterested mother of independent parliaments. "Nothing is more terested mother of is more independent parliaments. "Nothing A. L. Rowse, Britain's distinuntrue," concludes Oxford Professor A. concludes Oxford Professor L. distinBritain's untrue," Rowse, guished historian historian of of Elizabethan Elizabethan expansion, the Victorian Victorian "than the guished expansion, "than saying that that empire came into being in a fit of absence of mind: mind: that that into in a of fit absence of saying being empire nothing is apt to come into being in that way. It was the result much is the result into being in that way. It nothing apt to a rather of a conscious, deliberate and tenacious campaign ... on the rather of conscious, deliberate and tenacious campaign ... on the part of of the of the the elect elect spirits of the nation." nation." part spirits charters were colEarly were distinctly distinctly feudal in nature, nature, defining the colfeudal in Early charters defining the as "a "a fief fief held onies as onies the Crown of England." And just just as the other held of of the of England." as the other of mercantilist elements of in the elements mercantilist thinking thinking were pulled together were pulled the early together in early seventeenth century, so too too were were the the first to tighten up seventeenth first efforts efforts made to century, so tighten up the colonial relationship overthe colonial relationship between between the the mother mother country and the and the overcountry seas possessions. seas possessions. Virginia's was put put under under the Massacharter was the Crown, Crown, MassaVirginia's charter chusetts chusetts was was subjected to the the first in aa long series of regulations first in series of and subjected to regulations and long conceived to to pull it back de facto pressures conceived pull it back from the the near near edge of of de pressures facto edge independence, and Maryland's Maryland's charter charter stated that all its stated explicitly all its independence, explicitly that to be exports were to be marketed marketed in or through through England. England. And Charles Charles II in or exports
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Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction;
in 1634 to bring bring all colonies under under aa central comuhvsion moved in all the the colonies central comnuusion 1634 to empowered to legislate on matters "concerning either the state pubto on either the state pubmatters "concerning empowered legislate lic of the said colonies, or utility of private persons and their lands, o the lic said colonies, or utility of private persons and their lands, goods, debts, and successions." successions." debts, and goods, As with with the the affairs trade, this movement to the affairs of of trade, to consolidate consolidate the this movement was greatly greatly accelerated intensified by by the the serious colonies was colonies deserious deaccelerated and and intensified pression of of 1622. r622. Itself Itself the the dramatic culmination of period a 7o-year dramatic culmination of a pression yoyear period of fluctuation between good bad conditions, of fluctuation between the depression and bad conditions, the depression good and heightened all fears and hopes of the era. Writing against that all the the fears era. and of the heightened Writing against that hopes background, Thomas Mun provided provided one and one of of the the most most striking background, striking and influential statements statements of of the mercantilist outlook. that doinfluential the mercantilist that dooutlook. Arguing Arguing mestic, or internal, trade trade did more than than balance or internal, itself out did little balance itself out little more mestic, real wealth, wealth, and precious without producing producing any without that precious and that increase in in real any increase eve of the English metals did not buy buy improvement, Mun, on the metals did not the eve the on of English improvement, Mun, Revolution, worked out a magnificent synthesis of the mercantilist worked a the out of mercantilist Revolution, magnificent synthesis Weltanschauung. thing," he he explained, explained, "is to possess possess "is to main thing," Weltanschauung. "The main goods; if you have them you will get money. that hath ware if ware have will He hath them that goods; you you get money. by the the year." year." Lacking Lacking mines mines at at home or colonies, hath money money by hath the colonies, or in in the he argued, ordinary means to increase increase our wealth and and he "the ordinary our wealth means therefore therefore to argued, "the wherein must ever observe the treasure is the treasure is by foreign trade, observe we must wherein ever by foreign trade, to strangers strangers yearly yearly than consume of of their value." rule to to sell rule sell more to their value." than we consume "Behold then," he he concluded in aa powerful powerful and phrase, "the "the "Behold then," and famous famous phrase, concluded in is the great revenue of true form and worth of foreign trade, which of true revenue form and worth of foreign trade, which is the great the King . . . the school of our arts, the supply of our wants, the the the King the school of our arts, tfae supply of our wants, the employment of of our our poor, poor, the improvement of lands, ... the of our our lands, the improvement employment terror of our enemies." terror of our enemies." Accepted by by the majority of of Englishmen, credo of merthe great of merthis credo great majority Englishmen, this Accepted cantilism provide an the solution of of the to provide automatic solution nevertheless failed failed to an automatic cantilism nevertheless nation's problems. development takes takes time, under even under nation's Economic development time, even problems. Economic reinforced aa the best best conditions, of 1622 1622 only and the the depression the conditions, and only reinforced depression of natural impatience. was strengthened the growing natural by the growing strengthened by impatience. The feeling feeling was feeling that the was not providing equitable and efficient and efficient the Crown that not equitable providing feeling in the in the leadership. Such dissatisfaction and latent unrest appeared unrest Such dissatisfaction latent appeared leadership. great attacks on monopoly and in the campaign for freer domestic for freer domestic the attacks on in campaign monopoly great to realize objectives were sought trade. But it is is vital vital to that these these objectives realize that trade. But it sought within the the mercantilist mercantilist framework not as part of of a a new system framework and and not as part within system of economic political philosophy. of economic and political philosophy. Though such criticism had been been voiced years earlier, least fifty voiced at at least such criticism earlier, fifty years Though of Elizalast in the last years of Elizaa major major assault monopolies erupted the in a assault on monopolies years erupted .
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beth's reign. Elizabeth's troubles can be sensed by realizing that such favors had been extended far beyond the area of new, major, or key industries. monopoly on on the import and resale of of steel steel in in the import and resale industries. A monopoly or key an underdeveloped country, for example, could be defended by defended an underdeveloped country, for example, could be by rational economic But the the same policy made same exclusive exclusive policy rational economic argument. argument. But little sense applied to to the the making making of of flasks, little sense when applied flasks, powder-boxes, powder-boxes, and the printing printing of the Psalms of David David or the law the paper, or of the or the law of or to to the of the Psalms of paper, realm. realm. Edwin eminent Protestant merchant who protested protested an eminent Edwin Sandys, Protestant merchant Sandys, an monopolies on on religious religious and typical leader leader was a a typical and secular secular grounds, grounds, was monopolies as to their in the campaign. "All free subjects are born inheritable their are inheritable in the born as to "All free campaign. subjects to the the free free exercise lands," reasoned, "so exercise of of their in their industry he reasoned, "so also also to lands," he industry in those trades whereto they they apply themselves and whereby they are to and are to trades whereto themselves those whereby they apply live." Another applied the idea of balance in nature the idea of balance nature Another anti-monopolist in live.'* anti-monopolist applied to the at hand. more equal of wealth wealth distribution of to the specific hand. A more situation at equal distribution specific situation but "too much fulland was not only more equitable, but "too and opportunity fullwas not more equitable, opportunity only ness doth puff up up some presumption, and too much emptiness too doth puff ness some by by presumption, emptiness leaves the rest in perpetual discontent, the mother mother of of desire in perpetual leaves the rest of inindesire of discontent, the novations and novations and troubles." troubles." Other the same in later debates. MonopoOther speakers themes in later debates. sustained the same themes speakers sustained Monopolies were criticized being based based "upon misinformation and untrue untrue lies were and criticized as as being misinformation "upon as "tending to the general hurt of pretences of public good," and the of of to hurt as "tending general pretences public good," one of of his his more more striking analogies, Sir John Colepeper others." Sir others." In In one John Colepeper striking analogies, Egypt," he he compared to aa plague. the frogs "Like the of Egypt," compared monopolies monopolies to frogs of plague. "Like thundered, they "have gotten possession of our dwellings and we our thundered, they "have gotten possession of dwellings and have scarcely a room free they sip sip in in our our cup; they dip have free from from them; them; they cup; they scarcely a dip in they sit by our nature of the in our our dish; fire." The secular secular nature sit by our fire." of the dish; [and] [and] they r645, where another writer whole attack whole attack emerged a pamphlet in a of 1645, another writer emerged in pamphlet of summed up accusathe specific with the the accusaspecific charges up the charges against monopolies with against monopolies tion that practice "trencheth native Rights Rights of of the freethat the the practice tion the native "trencheth upon the freeupon the born born subject tending to the di~ution of Trade." These men to the diminution of Trade." These subject ... tending its abuses. They wished wished were not not attacking mercantilism per per se, were abuses. They se, only only its attacking mercantilism to the themselves and and other further access further access to the system other Englishmen, for themselves system for Englishmen, but they they entertained no thought thought of of abandoning controls or but entertained no all controls or of of abandoning all as free trade. embarking upon what later came to be what be as later to known free trade. embarking upon On the the other other hand, hand, the religious the gradual secularization of of the the religious gradual secularization of a concept of a corporate society weakened the sanction for the ideal the the ideal sanction for concept corporate society of a common good. was not destroyed, but of good. The idea not immediately idea was immediately destroyed, but men came to to assault the King's King's Christian responsibility in in the the name assault the Christian responsibility beth's reign. Elizabeth's troubles can be sensed by realizing that such favors had been extended far beyond the area of new, major,
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of their their individual individual natural natural right right to private property property as as under under of to private as well well as At least for a time, the banner corporate Christian duty. of their their corporate the banner of least a for Christian duty. time, all elements of the revoluhowever, the resulting ideology provided the however, resulting ideology provided all elements of the revolumovement with with aa common language language and hence aa sense sense of and hence of as well as the same enemy. Some groups sharing the same objectives sharing the same objectives as well as the same enemy. groups retained the the original original sense sense of religious responsibility that of corporate retained corporate religious responsibility that the thought thought of Calvin and and Luther. Luther. Others, Others, parparwas so in the so strong of Calvin was strong in their own in ticularly in the lower lower classes, in the in faiths of of their classes, developed ticularly developed faiths Anabaptism, millenarianism, even mysticism. mysticism. But But again, many and even millenarianism, and Anabaptism, again, many as then then formulated, placed were infused with aa secular which, as were outlook which, infused with secular outlook formulated, placed on mutual obligation and general welfare. Lacking far welfare. far less less emphasis on mutual and Lacking emphasis obligation general on aa program program aa firm one ideal consensus on ideal of of the or on firm consensus on one the common good good or for its realization, the the ideology its its realization, for Revolution left left its the English of the English Revolution ideology of triumphant advocates with the fundamental problem of providing of advocates the with fundamental triumphant providing problem any intellectual moral cement intellectual and and moral cement for for the the new regime. any regime. was, like These considerations the English English Revolution considerations suggest like These that the Revolution was, suggest that most revolutions, the product of an alliance between elements of the the of most of the an alliance between elements revolutions, product class and a larger segment of the middle and lower classes. upper a class classes. and of the middle and lower upper larger segment that divides eve of of revolution revolution does does not not run run The line line that divides a a society on the the eve society on horizontally, separating classes into two neatly defined and wholly and classes defined into two wholly horizontally, separating neatly into antagonistic Neither does it run run vertically, vertically, splitting does it it into antagonistic groups. groups. Neither splitting it as agriculture armed camps according to functional differences such to such as functional differences agriculture camps according revolution is is aa diagonal, and and industry. fault line line of of revolution diagonal, cutting cutting down industry. The fault class lines. This was was parparacross the the society across functional and class lines. This society through through functional in 1640, for economic devdopment after ticularly true of England after ticularly true of England in 1640, for economic development 1550 distinction between pure agrarian agrarian. the distinction confused the had thoroughly between pure thoroughly confused 1550 had predominant pattern pattern and pure pure commercial-industrial commercial-industrial operations. operations. The predominant trade-and vice versa. was one one of in trade of landed was landed interests interests involved involved in versa. and vice as part part of the long-term drive for Evaluated as of the for general economic Evaluated long-term drive general economic improvement, characteristic involvement this characteristic in land land and trade casts involvement in trade casts improvement, this considerable the argument among English as to to historians as considerable light argument among English historians light on the whether the by aa "rising a "falling or a caused by the revolution revolution was caused whether "falling gentry" or "rising gentry" either side, side, gentry." the gentry not aligned a group Since the as a gentry were not aligned as group on either gentry." Since in misleading misleading terms. terms. The question is asked in such such the debate is cast cast in asked in the debate is question is to give more aa way way that that it it is a satisfying It seems is impossible answer. It seems more impossible to give a satisfying answer. a revealing to ask whether it struggle between the "risen gentry" ask whether it was a the "risen to between struggle gentry" revealing in fact is not not surprising surprising to find some and the fact it it is to find and the "rising "rising gentry." gentry." For in gentry who were were commercial, commercial, industrial, leaders supfinancial leaders industrial, and financial supgentry porting the Crown, even though the majority of these groups even the of these the Crown, though majority groups porting tionary tionary
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favored the the Revolution. favored Revolution.
They gained access to such such activities access to activities had gained They had and through royal favor. Other predominantly agrarian Other and profits favor. predominantly agrarian profits through royal gentry sided with the parliamentary forces for economic or ideoideoor economic forces for with the parliamentary gentry sided classes divided in the logical reasons. Members of the lower in divided much the classes of the lower logical reasons. Members same way. Some supported the Crown in keeping with the tradition, the with in same way. Some supported the tradition, keeping and practice, practice, of but socially responsible government. a quasi-feudal of a and quasi-feudal but socially responsible government. a means means to but more Others viewed the a similar similar but to a Others viewed the Revolution as a Revolution as modern state, and aa final final group, joining with the "middling sort," modern state, and group, joining with the "middling sort," saw way to to improve their individual individual position position and and fortune fortune in in it as saw it a way as a improve their keeping with with their their natural natural rights rights as as Englishmen. Englishmen. keeping CRISIS OF ENGLISH MERCANTILISM SHAFTESBURY AND THE CRISIS
Though by many many of and harshly harshly his contemporaries of his denounced by contemporaries and Though denounced many historians, Shaftesbury was probably the central criticized the central was criticized by historians, Shaftesbury probably by many figure in England's effort to retain merc;mtilism's original sense of retain sense to of effort in mercantilism's original figure England's corporate responsibility during the revolutionary crisis. true the crisis. A true revolutionary corporate responsibility during was also also an farmer knew his an imaginative he was and his seeds farmer who knew seeds and and soil, soil, he imaginative and successful merchant, industrialist, industrialist, and and colonizer. colonizer. Having Having matured matured successful merchant, played aa key key role revolution in the the revolution revolution of role in in the the revolution in of 1640, he played 1640, he which restored restored Charles Charles II to the the throne; throne; and political and his his ideas, II to which orideas, political organization, and friends were crucial factors in the Glorious Revoluand were in the crucial factors Glorious friends Revoluganization, which consolidated consolidated parliamentary parliamentary power power against against the the tion of of 1688 tion 1688 which monarchy. monarchy. Born higher higher in in the traditions of of "this manor of thall in in Born the traditions "this manor of England" England" than the hierarchy of government, Shaftesbury was educated by "a the of "a educated hierarchy government, Shaftesbury by strong Puritan" Puritan" tutor, tutor, who turned turned him him less less toward dissent and and toward dissent strong revolution than toward the precepts of noblesse oblige. Bacon's of noblesse oblige. Bacon's revolution than toward the precepts writings were were probably probably the in his his early early the strongest secular influence influence in writings strongest secular training. This This background background predisposed the ideal to the ideal of of training. predisposed Shaftesbury Shaftesbury to stewardship and role of the tendency tendency was strengthand the the role of trustee, trustee, and the stewardship strengthened by death of of his his mother mother when he he was was seven old. Two ened the death seven years by the years old. years later was fatherless fatherless-"fatherless but aa baronet baronet and the the owner he was later he "fatherless but owner years of aa large recalled, "a time of which estate." As Shaftesbury of "a time of business business which large estate." Shaftesbury recalled, overtook forced [me] to learn the world faster than overtook me early world faster to learn the than early ..• forced [me] my book." book." my Not too too surprisingly, not one the early early revolurevoluof the one of surprisingly, Shaftesbury Shaftesbury was not to join the King. It was not tionary leaders. But neither did he rush leaders. neither he did It was rush to the not tionary join King. until die spring of that until the of 1643, that he finally took the field with the forces forces took field with the the spring 1643, finally of the Crown. His of the His family his connections associations and and his in London connections in family associations .
.
.
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seem sufficient the hesitant proved aa relucrelucsufficient to to explain decision. He proved hesitant decision. explain the tant reactionary, reactionary, however, however, and the year year went went over to Oliver tant and within within the over to Oliver Cromwell. Though vigorous-even comCromwell a vigorous even ruthless-field ruthless field comThough certainly certainly a mander, Shaftesbury had mander, Shaftesbury had
little for Cromwell's religious little enthusiasm enthusiasm for Cromwell's religious zeal or his Puritanized version of the personalized, centralized zeal or his Puritanized version of the personalized, centralized state. state. Breaking with with the the great great leader, went into once again he went into opposition leader, he Breaking again opposition once and began to devote his energies to the basic problems problems devote his the basic and abilities abilities to began to energies and unresolved by by the Revolution. unresolved the Revolution. The great virtue of of revolutions revolutions is they create circumstances the circumstances is that that they create the great virtue in which which aa society's problems can can be are not to to be be in not are be solved. solved. They society's problems They criticized or or damned for for failing to produce a model community on criticized a model to failing community produce the morning after the the final final battle. battle. It It is that they open the way the the way is enough morning after they open enough that for men to to re-examine their values values and in aa spirit of refor re-examine their of reand difficulties difficulties in spirit dedication and and creativity. For it is the essence of being to dedication to human it For the essence of is creativity. being assert that that mere mere existence insufficient unto unto life. life. Shaftesbury's assert existence is is insufficient Shaftesbury's recognition of truth and his decision to commit his considerable considerable of this and his this truth decision to commit his recognition influence powers to to the the central of reconstructing reconstructing England influence and and powers issue of central issue England as aa better better society is the the measure his greatness. greatness. as measure of of his society is The dilemma created created by the failure the revolution to establish failure of revolution to establish of the by the any institutional framework for society had priority. And since for since institutional framework had any society priority. Shaftesbury insisted that "poverty and necessity [were] no faults" no faults" insisted that and Shaftesbury "poverty necessity [were] but rather rather the the consequences consequences of poor system, of the the individual of a poor it individual but of a system, it with this problem that he was concerned. With considerable was with considerable this problem that he was concerned. anxiety, he took a leading leading role in'the restoration of the Stuart kings role in of the took a 'the restoration Stuart kings anxiety, he in the person of Charles II. "We do now sit down just where we did did sit in the person of Charles II. do just begin," he admitted, and put to keep keep history from drifting he admitted, his oar in his oar to begin," history from put in drifting in aa vicious circle. His His principle principle of around in "It of action action was simple: around vicious circle. simple: "It belongs to to us to have have some care into whose whose hands hands we commit the the us to care into belongs management of the commonwealth." commonwealth." Appointed Appointed Chancellor His of the Chancellor of of His management Majesty's Treasury in in I66I, the Treasury of the 1661, Under-Secretary of Majesty's Exchequer Exchequer and Under-Secretary he set to the the business of governing governing business of he set himself himself "steadily "steadily and actively actively to England." An astute foreign representative in England concluded concluded astute in representative England foreign England." within two two years years that that Shaftesbury was "almost the only man that that the was "almost within only Shaftesbury [I see] to look after business, and with the ease and mastery that that the ease with to look after business, mastery [I see] at him." [I] him." [I] wonder at Shaftesbury, however, was by by no means the the only leader only important important leader Shaftesbury, however, welfare road of of the effort to to lift England onto onto the the high road of welfare lift England of national effort the national high and happiness. Downing, although although as hateful, as "mean, Sir George "mean, hateful, George Downing, happiness. Sir n and treacherous" walked the nevertheless provide nevertheless a man as as walked the age, treacherous" a provide^ age,
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The American History History The Contours Contours of of American vigorous and brilliant leadership in the intellectual and bureaucratic bureaucratic and brilliant leadership in the intellectual vigorous work of formulating and administering specific policies. Benjamin of work formulating and administering specific policies. Benjamin as one of Shaftesbury's close assoWorsley played an important role close of assoone as Shaftesbury's Worsley played an important role ciates. And Sir Josiah Child and Sir William Petty were moulders moulders ciates. Sir Josiah Child and Sir William Petty of public opinion in addition to their services as confidential advisors; of public opinion in addition to their services as confidential advisors; their ideas influenced many many people people of of the time and were were to to influence influence the time their ideas influenced well. later historians historians and as well. later and economists economists as His range range of Shaftesbury nevertheless deserves of deserves special emphasis. His special emphasis. Shaftesbury nevertheless interests and activities spanned spanned the spectrum and marked marked him the human spectrum interests and activities as aa unique unique figure an age virtuosos. Involved banking, in banking, Involved in of virtuosos. as even in in an figure even age of commerce, agriculture, agriculture, and industry, he he also science and also supported and industry, commerce, supported science as aa patron patron and the Royal Royal Society. His talent talent philosophy as of the and member of Society. His philosophy for organization made him an an excellent excellent adminisand organization adminisfor innovation innovation and trator. Perhaps most important important of of all, all, he he brought brought to to each those each of of those trator. Perhaps most activities aa considerable of political sophistication. activities of considerable degree political sophistication. degree In therefore, Shaftesbury the outlook and and actions, In his his outlook actions, therefore, exemplified the Shaftesbury exemplified whole man who took took the the long view. His domestic and foreign polidomestic view. His whole foreign polilong cies the complementary halves of classic mercantilism. mercantilism. In doof classic cies were were the In docomplementary halves mestic affairs, he quickly to put the operations of the Treasury of the he the mestic moved to affairs, Treasury operations quickly put on aa fair regular basis, basis, repaying repaying government on fair and and regular loans strictly acgovernment loans strictly according to chronological sequence without favoritism. Next he to without favoritism. Next he cording chronological sequence restored and strengthened the policy of inspecting manufactured restored the of manufactured inspecting strengthened policy goods quality and tried tried to to regulate prices within for quality within reasonable reasonable goods for regulate prices the tax structure on limits. Finally, he made great efforts to revise limits. Finally, he structure on great efforts to revise the tax more equitable and realistic grounds and to establish a routine and realistic grounds and to establish a routine equitable effective system of collection. effective collection. system of Shaftesbury fully accepted the key assumption of of mercantilism mercantilism Shaftesbury fully accepted the key assumption that foreign policy was was the the key to domestic domestic welfare. welfare. Beginning Beginning with with that foreign policy key to his the Navigation Navigation Law of which re-enacted the his role role in in framing re-enacted the of 1651, framing the 1651, which Elizabethan system national monopoly monopoly of imperial comElizabethan based on aa national of imperial comsystem based merce merce and development, development, he he quickly became aa key in empire figure in quickly became key figure empire By itself, however, the the act proved insufficient unto affairs. affairs. By of 165I act of insufficient unto itself, however, 1651 proved its associated disorders England's difficulties. difficulties. The revolution revolution and its associated disorders England's had disrupted domestic progress, progress, sidelined the Dutch sidelined England while the disrupted domestic England while the French were and the were expanding expanding apace, and encouraged (and enand enapace, encouraged (and the abled) the American colonies to strike out on their own. strike colonies to out their abled) In In response, jealousy and frustration reinforced the merthe logic frustration reinforced of merresponse, jealousy logic of cantilist ideas, cantilist and together these considerations overpowered Cromthese considerations Cromideas, together overpowered well's in a a Protestant alliance with the the Dutch. Dutch. well's religious religious interest interest in Protestant alliance
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Shaftesbury rust war the Dutch the first war against Dutch Shaftesbury vigorously vigorously supported against the supported the (1652-1654) as a to recover lost ground and enforce the rea as move to lost and recover enforce the re(1652-1654) ground enactment of the navigation acts. Though rewarding in some reof the enactment navigation acts. Though rewarding in some respects, and hence serving to verify the axiom that the way to wealth spects, and hence serving to verify the axiom that the way to wealth was through through taking the war war did not was it away from did not else, the taking it somebody else, away from somebody provide aa fundamental to England's problems. fundamental solution solution to economic problems. England's economic provide Despite the diversification had taken taken diversification and and improvement which had Despite the improvement which by no no means inconsiderable-Charles place since since 155o-and was by II it was means inconsiderable Charles II 1550 and it place stepped a country still, or at any rate once again, plagued in a ashore in or once at rate still, stepped ashore any again, plagued country by economic is it not the the general complaint and and economic difficulties. it not difficulties. "For "For is by general complaint St. out-cry of the City," commented the Reverend David Barton of the of St. of the Reverend Barton commented David out-cry City," Margarets as late as 16~, "that there is a universal decay of Trade?" as late of as is a Trade?" "that there universal Margarets 1669, decay Pessimists that trade trade was totally lost," and even even the the wailed that Pessimists wailed was "almost "almost totally lost," and more hopeful hopeful bemoaned bemoaned "the of parting every year with with more of "the necessity necessity parting every year of trade because we vast sums to make the balance of sums of of money vast trade even, the balance even, because money to import more than we export." Barton no doubt spoke for the the much no more than Barton doubt import spoke for export." of "the true cause of the dismajority when he gave his explanation he the of "the of dishis true cause majority gave explanation temper; Either a Foreign Foreign Nation Nation ingrossing abroad, or or the the Either a Trade abroad, temper: ingrossing Trade Magistrates neglect of Trade at home must bear the blame." at blame." of bear the Trade must Magistrates neglect THE IDEOLOGY AND POLITICS OF THE CORPORATE WELFARE
Shaftesbury his colleagues and his from faced strong Shaftesbury and opposition from colleagues faced strong opposition specific interest groups as they labored to re-establish and improve interest specific improve groups as they labored to re-establish the mercantilist mercantilist system. opposed such efforts to to subthe subsuch efforts system. They They steadily steadily opposed vert the common good in the name of private property. "Private vert the of private property. "Private good in the advantages," Fortrey, "are impediments of often impediments of "are often warned Samuel Samuel Fortrey, advantages," warned public profit." the merchant merchant trades for trades for profit." Shaftesbury public agreed: "Where the Shaftesbury agreed: loses." Openly Openly attacked by a great Profit, the the nation nation loses." of Profit, in 1662 a deal of 1662 by attacked in great deal :.t group of merchants who complained complained that the new naviganavigaa group of London merchants that the tion system of his Majesty's trading tion "destructive of his Majesty's trading subjects," subjects," system was "destructive other mercanmercanShaftesbury refused to to surrender surrender his his ground. ground. He and and other Shaftesbury refused tilists also the challenge challenge to to their their prpgram pr9gram inherent in the the power power inherent in also saw the tilists of the the largest joint-stock companies and trading corporations. Their Their of and corporations. largest joint-stock companies trading response to that danger was twofold. First, they tried to keep the to the to tried was that twofold. First, keep response danger they and the big companies from squeezing too much out of the economy too out of economy big companies squeezing a private their own over from creating private empire of their which neither neither the the over which from creating a empire of Crown nor the Parliament effective authority. authority. Second, they nor the had effective Parliament had Second, they in a worked to centralize control the empire empire and its its policies policies in of the worked to centralize control of and committee responsible to Parliament as wdl as to the as committee to well to the Crown Parliament as responsible
The American History History 54 The Contours Contours of 54 of American composed, Worsley's phrase, of men more "concerned the "concerned in in the men. more in Worsley's phrase, o composed, in generality of the Trade of the nation and in the good of the manageof the in the and of the nation good managegenerality of the Trade ment of the profit of this or that particular Trade." Trade." in the of it it than than in ment profit of this or that particular Shaftesbury and his his colleagues colleagues fully fully agreed agreed with that "there with Petty "there Petty that Shaftesbury and is but a certain proportion of trade in the world," and with Child with the Child is but a certain proportion of trade in world," that "foreign trade produces produces riches, riches power, power, power power preserves preserves that riches, riches "foreign trade our trade trade and religion." Their on markets English markets for for English Their emphasis and reEgion." our emphasis on was therefore therefore aa central part of of Restoration Restoration mercantilism. products was mercantilism. central part products Sir the fear fear of unrest contingent upon ununof unrest Sir George Peckham stressed stressed the contingent upon George Peckham way of of avoiding avoiding employment, explicitly explicitly defining defining export export markets markets as a way as a employment, riots among those who "live here idly to the the annoy the whole whole of the "live here riots annoy of idly to among those well as the formal formal policy policy memoranstate." the pamphlets, pamphlets, as as the as well state." And the dums, were were filled with the better vent," vent," and and propro"a far for "a search for far better the search filled with dums, posed policies which would "cause a mighty vent" for English goods, for a vent" which would "cause English posed policies mighty goods, ships, services, and loans. ships, capital, capital, services, and loans. The navigation navigation acts acts of the next were designed to achieve of the next ~ntury achieve century were designed to to the system were the laws of x660-166x which that goal, but basic the laws of 1660-1661 to the were basic that but which goal, system (I) all trade was to be carried in English specified three restrictions: to be all trade was three carried in restrictions: specified (i) English (including colonial) ships; ships; (2) foreign merchants were excluded (including colonial) (2) foreign merchants were excluded the colonies from the trade trade of of the the colonies; certain goods in the and (3) from the colonies colonies; and goods in (3) certain only to England or to other English colonies. could be be exported or could to to other colonies. Two England English exported only years after this, the Staple Act England the depot for all trade after the the made all Act for trade this, years Staple depot England vice versa). versa). Domestic Domestic polpolfrom to Europe from the colonies to the colonies later, vice Europe (and (and later, icies supplemented these principal laws. The old centralized, paternalicies these laws. old centralized, paternalsupplemented principal part of of the istic were scrapped, scrapped, and and the the greater istic monopolies the empire monopolies were greater part empire was opened in fact if not in law to all Englishmen. Free at if was in fact not in law to all Englishmen. Free trade, trade, at opened original meaning of fewer restrictions within the system, least in its least in its original meaning of fewer restrictions within the system, became became very very much aa reality reality for within the the empire. for Englishmen empire. ManEnglishmen within bounties (or (or ufacturers were were given encouragement in in the the form ufacturers form of of bounties given encouragement subsidies) and protection protection in the form of tariffs. And the in the the colonies, of tariffs. colonies, subsidies) in their their turn, in turn, were were guaranteed guaranteed military military security security and aa virtual virtual monopmonopoly English market. market. of the the English oly of that "the of land land rents rents Bluntly warning warning the the King in 1669 "the decay Bluntly King in 1669 that decay of and trade" trade" remained unchecked, Shaftesbury launched a campaign remained unchecked, a launched Shaftesbury campaign to of commerce with consolidate the the affairs to consolidate affairs of with those those of colonies and of the the colonies and an integrated integrated and balanced balanced system. recommended assistproduce an He assistproduce system. ance for manufacturing ance for manufacturing and "all promoting of "all encouragement to the the promoting of encouragement to shipour fishery plantations, the the increase our plantations, of our increase of our shipfishery and advancing advancing our seamen.*' Upon ping and multiplying our seamen." Upon successfully its ping multiplying our successfully forcing forcing its
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creation in 1670, in 16]2 assumed the presidency of creation in the presidency of 1670, Shaftesbury 1672 assumed Shaftesbury in thereafter he brought the Council of Trade and Plantations. Council of the Plantations. Shortly Shortly thereafter he brought Locke as secretary to the the organization. Collaborating easily with in as Locke in secretary to organization. Collaborating easily with Worsley and Locke, Shaftesbury made recommendations which often and recommendations which often Locke, Shaftesbury Worsley to the the private private interests of the the led to to "pronouncements led interests of "pronouncements ... contrary contrary to that he was openly and militantly merchants" for the simple reason merchants" for the simple reason that he was openly and militandy welfare of Colonies and and Plantations concerned with with "the concerned "the welfare Plantations of our our said said Colonies and of the Trade Navigation of these our of the Trade and and Navigation our kingdoms." of these kingdoms." "In the beginning beginning America America was world," Locke Locke was was to to remark remark "In the was the the world," in passage of of his a revealing in a on Government (first Second Treatise Treatise on his Second revealing passage (first it had had been been the problem of the drafted no no later drafted of the the problem later than than 1681), and it 1681), and at the center of the whole American part part of the empire that lay American of the the whole of that at the center empire lay the time time that about his his official mercantilist system mercantilist at the official set about that Shaftesbury system at Shaftesbury set Founded by men thought of themselves as labors as in 1660-1661. labors in of themselves 1660-1661. Founded who by thought creating a schism in the state, Massachusetts and its satellites had a satellites had schism in the its Massachusetts and state, creating manifested considerable considerable independence by 1630' restricted by by manifested Severely restricted independence by 1630. Severely an economic geography which limited its the an economic geography its agricultural operations, the which limited agricultural operations, to deVelop an economy-and an outlookarea very began to area outlook soon began very soon develop an economy and an which was more competitive competitive with with that of the the mother country than than which that of mother country it was complementary to it. The term "New England" far was far it was to it* term England" complementary than aa romantic, nostalgic name; it quickly became an accurate an accurate more than it became romantic, nostalgic name; quickly descriptive term. descriptive term. The English English Revolution accelerated such such developments Revolution accelerated throughdevelopments throughcolonies by by cutting off the emigration people and and money money out the out the colonies of people cutting off the emigration of and forcing the colonists to strike out on their own. And what began the their colonists to strike out began forcing in the minds of some a positive virtue. By the as a necessity became a positive virtue. By the as a necessity became in the of were quite time of the Earl of the the Restoration, others were of Sandwich time Earl of Sandwich and others Restoration, the quite their fear fear that that New England put together together aa outspoken in their England would put outspoken in and become become "mighty rich and and powerful not at at system of its own and of its powerful and not system "mighty rich all careful of [its J dependence upon Old England." England." Shaftesbury all careful of Shaftesbury [its] dependence upon recognized the the difficulties difficulties in in dealing dealing with with shared such anxieties and recognized shared such anxieties the situation. the situation. Perhaps nothing illustrates the maturity of of Shaftesbury's mercanthe maturity Shaftesbury's mercanPerhaps nothing illustrates firmness as his preference for a policy of patient firmness tilism as of a as for tilism as clearly his policy patient clearly preference pending the broad, complementary political econeconthe political of the the broad, integration of pending complementary integration of and persistence of just omy of two regions. Certainly the evolution evolution of the two just persistence regions. Certainly omy such aa pro-British pro-British attitude attitude on the the part part of many American American colonists colonists of many such attiPhiladelphia tends tends to to verify verify his north of his analysis. of Philadelphia north Shaftesbury's attianalysis. Shaftesbury's the with as as contrasted with the tude also to explain why mercantilism, contrasted to also helps tude mercantilism, helps explain why .
.
.
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The American History History The Contours Contours of of American
a more relaxed imperialism that developed after 1740, operated in relaxed in a imperialism that developed after 1740, operated As a philosophy of the general welfare over the long haul, manner. the manner. As a philosophy of the general welfare over long haul, mercantilism was driven to every immediate immediate situation situation to to to exploit less driven was less mercantilism exploit every the last last degree. the degree. Though often ridiculed ridiculed or contemptuously dismissed, the consticonstior contemptuously dismissed, the Though often tution which assisted by Locke, prepared for the colony for the assisted which Shaftesbury, tution colony by Locke, prepared Shaftesbury, of Carolina reveals reveals another facet of this concern with corporate of this concern with another facet of South South Carolina corporate responsibility and the common good. good. While that the the the criticism criticism that While the responsibility and the charter of South Carolina was a neo-feudal document is largely true, is charter of South Carolina was a neo-feudal largely true, one it misses the the pointindeed, point-indeed, several several points. points. For one it nevertheless nevertheless misses that he was not thing, Locke's association with the project suggests he that was not with the association Locke's project suggests thing, the unrestrained individualist Americans Americans often picture him. him. The often picture the unrestrained individualist document the weakness of the the generally generally prevalent prevalent idea idea weakness of also suggests document also suggests the that the by-passed any any connection with feudalism. Over feudalism. Over connection with that States by-passed the United United States fact that that such such aa thesis ignores aa great part of the early early and above of the thesis ignores and the fact above the great part history of the country, it would appear that the interpretation is based that is based the it would of the interpretation appear country, history on about the the differences between feudalism and manomanofeudalism and on a a confusion differences between confusion about rialism and the relation of the two. Manorialism was a system a system of of rialism and the relation of the two. Manorialism organizing production production-almost exclusively agrarian agrarian production. production. It almost exclusively It organizing was an no necessary connection with with feudalfeudalwith no was an economic economic system system with necessary connection cases existed independently and without ism; and existed independently without leading and in in some cases ism; leading to feudalism. to feudalism. political system and philosphilosFeudalism, on the other other hand, hand, was a political was a on the Feudalism, system and ophy involving an interlocking network of freedoms, duties, and an network of freedoms, duties, and ophy involving interlocking obligations between individuals inhabiting specified areas of land. between individuals of areas land. obligations inhabiting specified Anchored to balanced relationships, was composed composed of of the idea idea of it was to the of balanced relationships, it of imperium weakest individual individual was was aa whole whole series in imperio. series of imperium in imperio. The weakest usually bound to between himself and aa to several several superiors himself and usually superiors standing standing between final authority, but the highest lord had reciprocal obligations to final but the had lord authority, highest reciprocal obligations to the lowest in the the order. not only could a given vassal also the lowest man in a order. And not could vassal also only given a lord; be a be by the the ninth ninth century whole concept had the whole of vassalage lord; by century the vassalage had concept of lost lost much of of its its implication implication of unfreedom. of unfreedom. that aa fief-the territorial area held This rightly so, This suggests, the territorial fief area held so, that suggests, and rightly vassal by a vassal was also a lord-had many things in common with who also a lord had many things in with by the It was an area ruled ruled by by the later later city, state. It an area city, township, county, and state. township, county, local leaders leaders under local under specific and within within explicit imconditions and and imspecific conditions explicit and plicit limits limits specified by aa superior power. But the the lord lord accepted plicit specified by superior power. accepted duties and As a political system designed reciprocal duties responsibilities. a reciprocal responsibilities. political system designed
57 57 to solve the problem of ruling large areas under the assumption that to solve the problem of ruling large areas under the assumption that this a small was the the only unit of of direct direct government, government, this a state was small state feasible unit only feasible cardinal principle principle of was the very backbone backbone of of feudalism feudalism was cardinal the very of England's England's North America. America. colonization in in North colonization It to realize realize that that the the republicanism republicanism of the 16th and 17th is essential It is essential to of the i6th and I7th centuries was political theory clearly derived from feudalism. was aa political centuries from derived feudalism. A theory clearly more extended representation began with demands from within extended representation from more with demands within began the system; the other part of the transformation transformation involved no more more the other part of the involved no system; the than shifting the unit of government from the individual (who than shifting the unit of government from the individual (who took the vows of fealty the state vows of to an an overlord) took the other subdivisubdivistate or or other to the fealty to overlord) to to the the nation, nation. American leaders were were sion, a similar which took took a oath to American leaders similar oath sion, which not only only conscious of this this heritage heritage of of their but not conscious of their own constitution, constitution, but they understood that the theory that small states were both necessary understood that the were both small states that they necessary theory and more more desirable with the the explicit explicit emphasis expansion and desirable conflicted on expansion conflicted with emphasis on in contradiction opened the in mercantilism. mercantilism. Their Their resolution of this this contradiction resolution of opened the way for the republican empire which they ultimately established. way for the republican empire which they ultimately established. During years, Shaftesbury the relationship the intervening defined the relationship During the intervening years, Shaftesbury defined between the the colonies colonies and and the within aa framework between the mother mother country framework country within he assumed that each of reciprocal obligations. obligations. Given a system, such a he each of reciprocal Given such assumed that system, party would enjoy its realm of freedom and yet contribute to the would and to its own realm of contribute the freedom party enjoy yet Both factors are revealed in Shaftesbury's subtle plan are in common good. Both factors revealed subtle good. Shaftesbury's plan particular South would dewhereby the and in dethe colonies, in particular South Carolina, Carolina, would colonies, and whereby in a manner that would subvert the Spanish velop their trade in their trade a the Emmanner that would subvert velop Spanish is both our design design and your interest," he he pire. "Planting Trade is both our pire. your interest," "Planting and Trade explained to whose short-range the to colonial distorted the colonial critics critics whose view distorted explained short-range view you will will purpose of various restrictions of various restrictions on "and if if you on exploitation; purpose exploitation; "and way open you to to get therein follow our directions follow our to you therein shall lay a way directions we shall lay a get open to in that country with their consent, and withall the riches in withall the Spanish that their riches with consent, Spanish country out hazard to to yourselves." yourselves." And despite realize to realize out any his inability inability to any hazard despite his the broad broad plan plan in in his his own time, Shaftesbury's vision was ultimately the vision was time, Shaftesbury's ultimately the commerce of and Baltimore. Baltimore. verified by verified of Charleston Charleston and by the the colonies, was basically basically conconBoth at at home and in the and in Both colonies, Shaftesbury Shaftesbury was cerned with the problem of working out some resolution of the the of out resolution the of some cerned with problem working tension between the Crown and Parliament, between the the indiinditension between the Parliament, and between vidual and the state. more aware vidual state. Growing ever more aware that that Shaftesbury's and the Shaftesbury's Growing ever to the the arbitrary arbitrary power power of of the the Crown, Crown, leadership posed posed aa major major threat threat to leadership after he II finally dismissed him from office 1673, shortly after he Charles II office in in Charles dismissed 1673, shortly finally had helped helped carry carry through, through, for the Asian Asian trade trade and other other commercial for the commercial had Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
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objectives, a third war against the Dutch. "[1 am] only laying down objectives, a third war against the Dutch. "[I am] only laying my gown," openly warned the King, putting on "and putting warned the King, "and Shaftesbury openly my gown/* Shaftesbury my sword." my sword." rhetoric, Shaftesbury True an assault assault on launched an to his True to his rhetoric, quickly launched Shaftesbury quickly to Catholicism. the King's personal and dynastic ties He ties to Roman Catholicism. the King's personal and dynastic argued (with considerable foresight) that a king of one faith could of one faith could that a king argued (with considerable foresight) not successfully rule a population having a fundamentally different not successfully rule a population having a fundamentally different commitment. having opposed righteousCromwell's crusading commitment. And having crusading righteousopposed Cromwell's turned his his back back on post-revolutionary distortion of ness, he distortion of on the the post-revolutionary he also also turned ness, Calvin's original concept concept of by such Richard such preachers as Richard of calling. Calvin's original preachers as calling. Led by Baxter, many many Protestants, Puritans, replaced with Protestants, including Baxter, replaced with including some Puritans, another the Elizabethan Elizabethan and and early view that that poverty poverty Stuart view another analysis early Stuart analysis the by the economic system. They now began began to to assert assert that that was caused the economic was caused by system. They was a function of sin, especially lust and laziness; their poverty lust their new a function of was laziness; sin, especially poverty religious virvirthesis defined worldly success a sign as a of religious success as defined individual, thesis individual, worldly sign of tue. Though himself something of a Deist, Shaftesbury nevertheless a of himself nevertheless tue. Deist, Shaftesbury Though something was remained true true to to the the old old concept of aa corporate welfare that that was remained corporate welfare concept of rooted in injunction to to labor faithfully in in one's labor faithfully one's calling Calvin's injunction in rooted in Calvin's calling in behalf of the common good. Shaftesbury's combination of Deism and of combination of the behalf Deism and good. Shaftesbury's a deeply welfare the corporate of responsibility for the a sense of religious sense corporate welfare responsibility for deeply religious was aa forerunner the attitude of colonial colonial Episcopalians such as of the attitude of was forerunner of such as Episcopalians James Madison; they were to separate church and state while reto church were state while reJames Madison; they separate taining the the essence the theology. essence of of the theology. taining Despite the neo-orthodoxy of of his views, Shaftesbury supported the neo-orthodoxy his own views, Despite Shaftesbury supported toleration within within the the non-Catholic non-Catholic community community with with two two arguments. toleration arguments. derived from from the the post-Revolution post-Revolution assumption England The first first derived that England assumption that had become become underpopulated, underpopulated, and its logic was strictly mercantilist. had and its logic strictly mercantilist. More people people would produce produce more goods goods and wage rates; rates; and at at lower lower wage would increase increase England's England's ability ability to win markets markets away away this in in turn turn would this to win from the the Dutch was encouraged the Dutch and the the French. French. Thus slavery in the encouraged in slavery was colonies, home-folk home-folk were were urged to produce produce large large families, colonies, families, emigration urged to emigration of skilled skilled labor of was discouraged discouraged and restricted, and in the Poor Poor labor was and restricted, in 1622 the Laws were were revamped to integrate the paupers paupers into national economic economic into national revamped to integrate the production through projects. production government work projects. through government For the the same reason, reason, many many mercantilists suggested that that immigrants immigrants mercantilists suggested be by guarguarbe encouraged by promises promises of of religious religious toleration as by toleration as as well well as encouraged by antees of employment. antees Sir William Petty, for example, argued that Sir William for employment. Petty, example, argued that in matters of opinion." Shaftesbury "indulgence be granted in matters of "indulgence must be granted opinion." Shaftesbury offered a far far more thorough offered thorough proposal. proposal. Advising Advising the the King King that that the the
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nation's welfare not so on anything, on this this side welfare "depends so much on nation's side of of "depends not anything, on as on the multitude of your subjects," he recommended that heaven, as on the multitude of he that recommended heaven, your subjects," immigrant nonconformists Turning the the welcomed and and tolerated. nonconformists be be welcomed tolerated. Turning immigrant logic about, he then proposed to populate the colonies by allowing he then proposed to populate the colonies by allowing logic about, dissidents to emigrate the liberty of their misat home to dissidents at and "enjoy emigrate and liberty of their mis"enjoy the taken consciences." taken consciences." Shaftesbury powerful theological toleraalso made a a powerful for toleraShaftesbury also theological argument argument for astion. Men were were always to know more more of he astion. of the the Truth, Truth, he always striving striving to serted, but but "it far different different thing thing to to believe, believe, or persuaded "it is is a a far or be be fully serted, fully persuaded of the truth truth of of the doctrine of Church, and to swear never to of the the doctrine to of our our Church, and to swear never endeavor to it. Willing Willing to the witness witness of if Proviendeavor to alter" alter" it. Provifor the of it, to "burn "burn for it, if him to to it," dence should call him should call considered dence nevertheless considered it," Shaftesbury Shaftesbury nevertheless other equally devoted. devoted. In In this this commitment he found the other men equally found the commitment he strength 'to fight militantly against all attempts to limit Protestant "to Protestant all to limit fight militantly against strength attempts dissent, to stand for the right of of "every of nonconnonconand to the right stand for other sort sort of dissent, and "every other formists [to] have the liberty to assemble, for the exercise of their have formists the to the for exercise of their assemble, [to] liberty own manner of of worship." worship." also active in reforming less Shaftesbury active in the law. law. Though Shaftesbury was also Though less reforming the famous efforts in behalf of the Habeas Corpus famous than his important than his in the behalf of Habeas efforts Corpus important Act (1679), labors to to save the Chancery were his labors Act save and and reform Courts were reform the (1679), his Chancery Courts possibly more significant. The Courts were corrupt and inefficient were and inefficient Courts possibly significant. corrupt at the time of the the Restoration, Restoration, and vigorous superat the time of and Shaftesbury's Shaftesbury's vigorous supervision restored reputation, enhanced their performance jusvision their reputation, of jusrestored their enhanced their performance of tice, and undoubtedly saved them for their later evolution into the tice, and undoubtedly saved them for their later evolution into the Court of Equity. In many ways, for that matter, he conceived of the of of the Court Equity. In many ways, for that matter, he conceived of the basic substitutes the old old religious in law as one of the basic law as one sanction in substitutes for for the religious sanction behalf of corporate sense the common good. being disdisa corporate behalf After being of a sense of of the good. After missed by by the Crown, he threw down his his challenge challenge in in those those very very missed the Crown, he threw asserted,' "and by the terms. "The King King is king by law," he he flatly is king terms. by law," flatly asserted, "and by the his cottage." cottage." During During the the same same same the poor poor man enjoys in his law that that the same law enjoys in the attack the very very principle principle of right. year, 1675, he carried of divine divine right. carried the attack to to the year, 1675, he "In he cried, this doctrine doctrine be be true, true, our Magna Charta a word," our Magna Charta "In a "if this word," he cried, "if is of no use;-our use;lour laws laws are but rules among ourselves during the the of no is ourselves during are but rules among King's pleasure." King's pleasure." he had had Shaftesbury had been been moving toward this this climax ever since since he climax ever moving toward Shaftesbury had issue of of personalized personalized governbroken with with Cromwell Cromwell over the same issue broken over the government. He had had done moreover, on the the broadest broadest possible possible grounds grounds done so, ment. so, moreover, traditional religious -an effort to provide aa secular for the the traditional religious an effort secular substitute to provide substitute for ideal and practice of of the the corporate welfare. Taking one of his cues cues one of his ideal and practice welfare. Taking corporate
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from James James Harrington, the leading leading philosopher philosopher of of history history during during from Harrington, the the epoch of the Revolution, Shaftesbury then added two ideas of his of his two ideas added then the of the Revolution, Shaftesbury epoch an extensive study of earlier societies, Harringown. Arguing from earlier of own. Arguing from an extensive study societies, Harringin the the ton had that revolutions revolutions were were caused caused by by aa shift shift in had concluded ton concluded that nature and distribution of economic power. Thus any revolutionary Thus nature and distribution of economic power. any revolutionary by government had to to stabilize altered economic economic relationships the altered stabilize the relationships by government had creating appropriate political institutions. This could best be done best be done creating appropriate political institutions. This could by dividing powers and responsibilities of government and of government the powers and responsibilities by dividing the them in of aa different different economic weighting each each of economic and social social of them favor of in favor weighting bloc within within the bloc the society. society. Seeing deeper the heart heart of of the the matter, matter, Shaftesbury realized into the Shaftesbury realized Seeing deeper into that such would not not work without an an institutionalized orinstitutionalized ora system work without that such a system would ganization capable of actually running the government and at the the and at the of actually running government ganization capable was equally equally same time standing beyond the the power power of of the the King. same time King. He was standing beyond concerned to find an organization organization that that would would give the individual aa the individual find an concerned to give sense purpose, commitment, responsibility, and involvement in the the involvement in of purpose, sense of commitment, responsibility, affairs of the nation. nation. Groping Groping and he concluded and fumbling his way, of the concluded affairs fumbling his way, he that the the political political party party was was the the answer. answer. that By modern academic standards, of the the politpolitmodern academic standards, Shaftesbury's By Shaftesbury's theory theory of ical party was not not very very sophisticated, but it cut through to the but cut ical party it to the through sophisticated, that the party had to be concerned with, and oressentials. be concerned that the had to essentials. He argued and orwith, argued party ganized on the basis of, ideas and policies which offered its members the which offered its on basis and ideas members of, policies ganized aa set of significant set of Such clearly delineated standards standards and and objectives. Such clearly delineated significant objectives. purposes provided the best guarantee that government would neither the best that neither purposes provided guarantee government stagnate, nor become become aa meaningless into tyranny, scramdegenerate into meaningless scramstagnate, degenerate tyranny, nor He was correct, for the dangers he foresaw ble for and pelf. for place ble and was correct, for the dangers he foresaw place pelf. causes of the alienation of men from other other men and and are precisely are the causes of the alienation of precisely the from their their own humanity. humanity. from Convinced that the the restored restored monarchy monarchy was was devolving toward just just Convinced that devolving toward Whig Party. Drawing such aa tyranny, such the Whig tyranny, Shaftesbury organized the Shaftesbury organized Party. Drawing on his his deep the whole whole of his enemies on of the of England enemies deep knowledge England (even knowledge of (even his was unmatched), unmatched), he he built built an between citicitiadmitted that it it was admitted that an alliance alliance between classes in in London and leaders of of the the English English countrycountryzens of of all all classes zens and the the leaders was aa powerful powerful coalition; had side. It was side. It so strong, that had coalition; so indeed, that strong, indeed, in better health it might have brought about the Shaftesbury been been in better health it have about the Shaftesbury might brought to ten years sooner. sooner. Glorious Revolution Glorious Revolution some five ten years five to the Green Ribbon as the Ribbon Club (and in respects carrycarryOrganized in some respects Club (and Organized as the ing on the traditions of Harrington's Rota Club), Shaftesbury and traditions of Rota ing Harrington's Club), Shaftesbury and his his lieutenants, at the King's Head Tavern, brought modern at the lieutenants, meeting Tavern, brought King's meeting
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politics into existence. They provide voters voters with with were the the first to provide first to They were and their pamphlets and public and their pamphlets and public be the the envy envy of many contemporary All this rallies would would be rallies of many politicians. All this contemporary politicians. was to one specific purpose: the supremacy of elected parliaments. was to one specific purpose: the supremacy of elected parliaments. liberties, lives, lives, Without that that victory, victory, Shaftesl:>ury Without "our laws, warned, "our laws, liberties, Shaftesbury warned, and estates become in time at at the the will the prince." prince." estates should should become and in a a short short time will of of the Shaftesbury also pushed pushed many reforms; perhaps the most Shaftesbury also many specific specific reforms; perhaps the most important was his parliaments at his demand for for regular at short intervals. short intervals. important was parliaments regular He also bribery and practice of of rigging rigging elections through also fought and the the practice elections through fought bribery a uniform uniform election system the rotten borough. He likewise rotten borough. the likewise demanded a election system By 1681 he was ready to to have have Parliament and secret voting. By and secret voting. 1681 he sit in in was ready Parliament sit defiance of dissolution the King. Thoroughly frightened (and defiance of the dissolution by by King. Thoroughly frightened (and properly so), back by by raising raising the of another another the Crown struck struck back the specter properly so), the specter of civil issuing warrants warrants for the arrest It thus thus civil war and and issuing arrest of for the of Shaftesbury. Shaftesbury. It to adopt the frightened and divided his followers and forced and divided his followers and forced him to adopt the frightened ill, Shafteslife of hunted animal. of a a hunted life animal. Beaten and desperately ShaftesBeaten down and desperately ill, November, 1682. months later later bury fled in November, fled across across the the Channel Channel in 1682. Two months bury he died exhaustion and of exhaustion died of a sense he of failure. failure. and a sense of his ideas, ideas, He was was in in fact fact triumphant. individual acts, acts, his triumphant. Shaftesbury's Shaftesbury's individual sense of corporate welfare. and his his party party saved for England a crucial and crucial welfare. saved for a sense of England corporate To Americans Americans he he bequeathed bequeathed two legacies: aa concept responsiof responsitwo legacies: concept of bility and self-discipline for the common good, and his influence on for the influence his bility self-discipline good, John Locke. Shaftesbury was one of the most liberal of his men of his one of the most liberal John Locke. Shaftesbury time, and he he fortunately transmitted some of his attitude attitude and ideas of his ideas time, fortunately transmitted In the beginning Locke was aa vigorous, to the young Locke. even to the young Locke. In the beginning Locke vigorous, even dedicated Royalist; unquestionably unquestionably Shaftesbury modified those those dedicated Royalist; Shaftesbury modified views. Unhappily, Unhappily, the was limited. whatever reason, the influence views. influence was limited. For For whatever reason, Locke grasp or or act that central insight act on Shaftesbury's failed to Locke failed to grasp insight that Shaftesbury's central well as a6 a a wealthy wealthy corporate responsibility is key to to aa meaningful meaningful as as well the key is the corporate responsibility life; the polarities conformity and unrestrained unrestrained of conformity he offered instead the offered instead life; he polarities of individualism. individualism. politics into existence.
free transportation transportation to to the polls, the polls, free
JOHN LOCKE AND THE DECLINE OF CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY JOHN Developing his his own thoughts on government as Shaftesbury's Shaftesbury's thoughts on government as Developing career came Locke significantly significantly modified modified his his a dramatic to a dramatic end, career came to end, John John Locke two significant respects, both revisions being patron's tradition in both revisions in two tradition being significant respects, patron's concerned with the central of resolving resolving the tension between between the tension concerned with the central dilemma of in so so eminently so, moreover, moreover, in eminently the individual and the the state. did so, state. He did the individual and simple persuasive aa manner that he convinced convinced a great great many many that he simple and persuasive
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people that the problem no longer existed. The result the reward reward result and the people that the problem no longer existed. were momentous: Locke's philosophy eclipsed the more rigorous the were momentous: Locke's philosophy eclipsed rigorous by Shaftesbury, in the the process process and evolved by and substantial outlook evolved substantial outlook Shaftesbury, and in became the central theme of a later American Weltanschauung. But American became the central theme of a later Weltanschauung. But in fact, Locke begged the whole issue. in fact, Locke begged the whole issue. Both and practically, Locke's individualism was deBoth theoretically theoretically and practically, Locke's individualism was dependent upon expansion and empire. And only by setting the aside the and empire. setting aside only by upon expansion pendent entire question the relationship relationship between between the the mother country of the entire country and question of for citizens citizens of the Metropolis the colonies could he he define of the freedom for the define freedom colonies could Metropolis as the the crucial As aa result, result, the tension between the the individual individual the tension issue. As as crucial issue. access to and division the rewards rewards and centered upon upon the the access of the to and division of state centered and the the state of Fundamental questions concerning the nature and allocathe nature and allocaof empire. Fundamental concerning questions empire. tion of in society were discounted by Locke because discounted were because tion of responsibility in by society responsibility he assumed the existence existence of profitable empire. Pointed a stable stable and profitable of a he assumed the empire. Pointed toward aa hedonism his followers became followers soon soon became hedonism of that character, toward of that character, his utilitarians and and ultimately ultimately embraced pragmatism. embraced pragmatism. utilitarians At the the same time, Locke Locke undercut undercut the the very very individualism individualism he he proprosame time, defined the relationship between the state and claimed between the the He and so loudly. defined state claimed so relationship loudly. the individual in such such aa way way that that the was in charged individual was in reality the the individual individual in reality charged with justifying justifying his his resistance resistance to the state instead of the state being to the state instead of the with state being held strictly accountable to the individual according to a corporate a to the individual to held accountable strictly according corporate was nothing for Hobbes Hobbes and others had had value system. and others This was value new, for system. This nothing new, susadvanced similar arguments before before the Revolution, but but Locke the Revolution, advanced Locke sussimilar arguments tained the tradition while while clothing it in liberal rhetoric. tained the tradition liberal it in rhetoric. clothing Going even further in this this direction, direction, Locke defined defined the the natural natural further in Going even did not not cause by asserting and acting upon one who did man as as one cause trouble trouble by and asserting acting upon different standards. This axiom extensively reinforced the authoristandards. different This axiom extensively reinforced the authoritarian bias bias of philosophy. For For by by this this reasoning reasoning it it became became ununof his his philosophy. tarian to exercise one's individuality manner or or for for aa purpose purpose natural to natural exercise one's in a a manner individuality in true that these which conflicted with the the accepted norms. While While it it is which conflicted with is true that these accepted norms. be broad, broad, and may may even be extended under the the circumlimits may limits extended under even be circummay be that they they stances of empire, it it is stances of an expanding or secure secure empire, is also true that also true expanding or become progressively narrower under under less less permissive conditions. become progressively narrower permissive conditions. that point, point, unfortunately, unfortunately, conformity within at that And at becomes, within conformity becomes, Locke's Locke's philosophy, the only acceptable form that responsibility can the that form philosophy, only acceptable responsibility can assume. assume. of stout stout Puritan Born of within that Born Puritan ancestors ancestors and and educated educated within that outlook, outlook, to maturity as a a talented Locke came to maturity as talented if orthodox conservative. if orthodox conservative. He feared disorder hardly feared disorder hardly less Hobbes, and and in less than than Hobbes, in 1656 his disgust 1656 his disgust
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
63 63 ~rupted in a description of the nation as this "great Bedlam Enga in of the this nation as Bedlam erupted description "great England." By 1660 he was was "a monarchist," "a of the the "a wholehearted 1660 he land." By wholehearted monarchist," "a man of always a sophisticated trimmer, Right, an extreme authoritarian." But an extreme authoritarian." But a Right, always sophisticated trimmer, and constantly fretting about his reputation, to the the and about his Locke adjusted constantly fretting reputation, Locke adjusted to circumstances the Restoration Restoration without without risking risking his his career supof the circumstances of career in in supAs port of political commitments. of Shaftesbury's intellectual and and political commitments. As Shaftesbury's intellectual port Locke himself himself remarked: are not so easily got out of their Locke remarked: "People are not out their so easily got of "People old forms as some some are are apt to suggest." old forms as apt to suggest." was gone, Locke's mercantilOnce Shaftesbury's restraining hand hand was mercantilShaftesbury's restraining gone, Locke's ism became became much narrower narrower in in outlook outlook and and oriented more ism oriented ever ever more class. His policy paper closely to the property interests of the upper to the closely property interests of the upper class. His policy paper in problem of unemployment and and pauperism pauperism was harsh harsh the problem in 1697 of unemployment 1697 on the by any His and severe: appalling document, judged by severe: an an appalling standards. His document, judged any standards. monetary proposals proposals had had the of extracting extracting sizable the effect sizable sums sums from from effect of monetary the citizenry the benefit benefit of the Crown and and aa few of the the for the few special citizenry for special groups. groups. his foreign policy reveals reveals even more the the extent to which which his his And his even more extent to foreign policy individualism and democracy relied on the principle principle of of imperial imperial individualism and on the democracy relied expansion. expansion. Locke's totally relative relative definition wealth was was based based on on an everLocke's totally definition of of wealth an everexpanding not "do not he explained "Riches,*' he empire. "Riches," expanding empire. repeatedly, "do explained repeatedly, proporconsist having more more gold but in having more more in and silver, in proporconsist in in having in having silver, but gold and tion than than the the rest the world, or than our neighbors." neighbors." Hence Hence "our of the tion rest of than our "our world, or which is greater or or less, growing rich rich or poor depends depends ... only or poor is greater less, only on which growing our importations of consumable consumable commodities." or exportations our commodities." Locke Locke importations or exportations of completed the the argument that agriculture would decay argument by by explaining completed agriculture would decay explaining that if to sustain By Locke's Locke's arguif trade an indefinite indefinite expansion. trade failed failed to sustain an expansion. By argument, the way to to achieve welfare was was to to take take enough achieve welfare the only from ment, enough away only way away from others to to raise the national national average. raise the others average. Given this analysis of wealth wealth and welfare welfare and how to attain to attain Given this analysis of them, Locke understandably emphasized property rights, a labor a labor Locke understandably them, emphasized property rights, of theory of value, the sanctity of natural (i.e. normal) behavior, and natural of the and value, behavior, sanctity normal) (i.e. theory right to wealth imthe power of the state itself. to itself. An individual's wealth individual's imof the state the right power plied that he controlled his labor and his property without qualificahis labor without his controlled that he qualificaproperty plied tion. Men were justified, said Locke, in in criticizing the existing said Locke, state were justified, tion. criticizing the existing state of this individualism, they did did so so but when they of this in the of affairs affairs in the name of individualism, but from other point of view they became unnatural men and hence of became unnatural hence other from any they point any beyond the pale. Thus all their loyalty loyalty to the state which to the state which all men owed their the pale. beyond and extended the protected these rights and standards and extended the national and standards national emthese rights protected in dire and unique circumstances, such individualism pire. When, such and in individualism dire circumstances, unique pire. When, .
.
.
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was threatened, threatened, men men could their loyalty loyalty-but only after a but only after a revoke their was could revoke majority had reached that conclusion. conclusion. majority had reached that Locke with Harrington's thesis that an extension no doubt doubt agreed Locke no agreed with Harrington's thesis that an extension of voting rights need not position of property-holders: o property-holders: the position subvert the o voting rights need not subvert weighted representation, a division of government powers, and and of government powers, weighted representation, a division imperial expansion would prevent such an outcome. Most EnglishMost outcome. Englishimperial expansion would prevent such an as philosophers philosophers of men read and Locke Locke as a once of a once dangerous read Harrington dangerous Harrington and revolution which which had had become become aa reassuring reassuring status American status quo. revolution quo. American colonists, on on the the other other hand, ultimately found writers the the those writers in those found in hand, ultimately colonists, logic and justification for a conservative revolution. logic and justification for a conservative revolution. as contradictory contradictory as as it it might might appear. This Considered in in not as This is is not appear. Considered England, or in any other country that was the metropolis of a going the of a that was or in other metropolis going any England, country empire in revolution had had been been stopped stopped and and stabilized stabilized short short which aa revolution in which empire of the radical objectives proposed by a sizable group of its supa sizable of of its radical the truly group objectives proposed by suptruly porters, Locke's system could offer no justification for continuedno for offer continued could Locke's justification system porters, or new-revolution. For by by definition he advanced advanced no no objective objective bebeor definition he new revolution. For yond hedonistic pleasure and avoidance of pain; and the citizens of of the avoidance hedonistic and citizens of yond pleasure pain; the mother mother country enjoyed such rewards. Only the colonial subjects the such rewards. colonial the Only subjects country enjoyed of the empire for revolution revolution in in Locke. of the could find find a a sanction sanction for Locke. Even Even empire could was invalid as long as their position for them, them, however, the appeal for was invalid as as their the however, appeal long position improved, least held held its own. Locke authorized revolution revolution only only at least its own. Locke authorized or at improved, or in terms and under the most extreme circumstances; inin negative terms and the most extreme under circumstances; innegative is taken deed, over half the American Declaration of Independence half the over of American Declaration is taken deed, Independence up in in satisfying criteria. those criteria. up satisfying those "God gave gave the world to Locke admitted, admitted, in common ... ," the world to men in ," Locke "[but] gave it to the use of the industrious and rational (and He it the use of the to industrious rational gave "[but] (and labor was to be his title to to it), not to the fancy or covetousness of kbor was to be his tide it), not to the fancy or covetousness of the the quarrelsome and contentious." From this premise he argued that contentious." this premise he argued that quarrelsome is present present enjoyment enjoyment of of what what this this while "the civil society while "the end of of civil society is world was equally equally true that "the world affords," it was first and and fundamental "the first fundamental true that affords," it ... is the preservation preservation of as will law ... is the the society, far as consist of the and (as will consist (as far society, and with with the the public public good) person in it." Otherwise Otherwise there there would of every in it." good) of every person be be "no peace, with all no enjoyment, all men and and peace, no security, security, no enmity with enjoyment, enmity safe possession safe of nothing, nothing, and those stinging swarms of misery and those of possession of misery stinging which attend attend anarchy anarchy and and rebellion." rebellion." Locke Locke could could hardly hardly have been have been in his his emphasis: of civil civil society being to avoid stronger in emphasis: "".... the the end end of to avoid stronger society being and remedy those inconveniences of the the state state of nature ... by setting remedy those inconveniences of of nature ... by setting known up a authority which every one of the society ought to obey." obey." which the one of up authority society ought to every thus asserted asserted that any society had to be considered just until Locke thus that any had to be considered society just until .
-
.
.
.
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aa majority majority of of men exercised their senses reason to reach aa exercised their and their their reason senses and to reach man who differed prematurely, he pointed different conclusion. A differed prematurely, he pointed different conclusion. the principles out, degenerate, and himself to and declares "becomes degenerate, to quit declares himself out, "becomes quit the principles nature, and be aa noxious noxious creature." creature." Under Under those those circirof human nature, and to to be of cumstances "the execution of law of of nature nature is that state put of the "the execution the law is in state put cumstances in that into hand, whereby whereby everyone everyone has has aa right right to punish the the into every man's hand, to punish every man's to such a degree as may hinder its violatransgressors of that law kw as of that to a its violasuch hinder may transgressors degree For Locke, Locke, therefore, therefore, individualism was aa right right and a liberty liberty tion." For and a individualism was tion." reserved to a status quo defined by a certain set to those those who accepted a a set reserved status defined certain by accepted quo of natural truths upon by a majority. Within such a framea a of natural truths agreed such Within frameagreed upon by majority. is aa far narrower set of limits than it work, and and it it is far narrower set of limits than it appears at first first work, appears at glance, the natural laws of property and labor were deemed sufficient the of were deemed natural laws sufficient and labor glance, property to guide pursuit of of happiness. men's pursuit to guide men's happiness. elements be seen, Locke's individualism As can can be the elements contained all all the individualism contained seen, Locke's perof the the kind kind of of laissez laissez faire later with such of faire advocated later with such advocated a a century percentury suasiveness by Adam Smith famous essay The Wealth of Wealth suasiveness by Smith in in his his famous of essay Nations. Both Both men are are often of as advocates of weak or Nations. of of as advocates weak or often thought thought less than than half minimal government, government, but but this impression is true. Given Given this impression half true. minimal is less a national national system capable of obtaining riches, Locke and Smith adadof and a Locke system capable obtaining riches, vocated aa modification authority and regulations vocated of government modification of regulations government authority within part of the system. system. Even in that sense, however, both both one fart within one in that sense, however, of the men made it quite clear that the state had very definite duties toward duties toward it quite clear that the state had very definite property and and the the maintenance maintenance of order. Neither Neither of proposed of them proposed of order. property that the the government abandon its its responsibility responsibility for for sustaining that should abandon sustaining government should was not not and extending such an an imperial and basic question question was extending such imperial system. system. The basic relaxation, for upon that point whether there there should be an for upon that point whether should be an internal internal relaxation, they were were agreed; the issue was whether the system was large large and issue was whether the system was they agreed; the strong enough and sufficiently developed to to permit permit such liberality such liberality enough and strong sufficiently developed without provoking provoking another another general crisis. without crisis. general THE DILEMMAS OF SUCCESSFUL MERCANTILISM
Just such an early campaign for domestic laissez coincided laissez faire faire coincided such an for domestic Just early campaign I~S. A with the reception given given to to Locke's in the the 16905. ideas in with the favorable favorable reception Locke's ideas
A
in EngEngcombination of events had had produced produced aa striking striking improvement combination of events improvement in
Restoration. The thirty years years after the Restoration. economy after the the thirty economy during during the been efforts of men like like Shaftesbury and Downing had been compleand compleDowning Shaftesbury men and money money more general factors. Internal peace freed mented by freed Internal more factors. by general peace new of and the expansion of for the the rehabilitation rehabilitation of the for of old old enterprises expansion enterprises trade. wars in manufacturing and the re-export trade. The war& undertakings in the re-export undertakings manufacturing
land's land's
efforts of
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against the Dutch brought concrete gains (if only psychological against the Dutch brought concrete gains (if only psychological ones) buttressed the of the the mercantile mercantile system, enforcement of and buttressed the enforcement system, ones) and which in itself was was systematized rationalized. Finally, the Engand rationalized. in itself which Finally, the Engsystematized and lish had developed developed far enough beyond beyond the initial stage the initial of far enough colonies had lish colonies stage of survival to play aa positive positive and contributing part in the empire. the empire. and contributing to play survival part in As aa result, result, Englishmen Englishmen began began to agitate more more vigorously for freer freer to agitate As vigorously for trade. Monopolies Monopolies and confined trade again came under trade under confined trade. and severely again severely attack. But include the the cry cry for international for international not include did not the demands attack. But the demands did free trade trade as came to to be be defined in later "It is necessary," "It later years. is defined in as this free this came years. necessary," explained Nehemiah Grew, "so far as it may promote the Interest, the as it "so far Interest, may promote explained Nehemiah Grew, not of any Company but of England, that every English merchant not of any Company but of England, that every English merchant should it is that all English plantations plantations should be bound, bound, should be be free, all English so it should be is that free, so bound II mean mean to to trade England alone." alone." bound trade with with England Supporting trade within the system, within the freer trade an English this drive for freer drive for system, an English Supporting this court that "all people are at liberty to live in this this at to live are in "all court ruled ruled in in 1705 that liberty 1705 people place, and their skill and industry are the means they have to get the means have are and their skill and to they place, industry get their bread; bread; . • . consequently consequently it it is is unreasonable unreasonable to restrain them them to restrain their from trades within place." Six later, in an Six years their trades within this from exercising this place." in an years later, exercising their even more important decision, Lord Chief Justice Parker sustained even important decision, Lord Chief Justice Parker sustained be robbed of his his own that argument: free man ... should that should be robbed of "no free argument: "no property or or his his liberties customary rights rights ... [and these] free customary or his his free liberties or property [and these] have always been taken taken to the have to freedom extend to freedom of of trade." trade." As the to extend always been no doubt knew, he was exaggerating; America is not the only judge he is not no doubt America the was knew, judge exaggerating; only society which the the courts courts follow the economy in which and the follow the the elections. elections. society in economy and mercantilists, such Brewster, were were bebeEven some mercantilists, Francis Brewster, as Sir Sir Francis such as ginning to favor modifications of the old regulations though they to favor of the old modifications ginning regulations though they were not abandon their their basic basic ideas. will find find were to abandon not ready ideas. "Trade indeed will "Trade indeed ready to its own Channels," its Brewster admitted, "but it may be to the ruin Brewster it to the ruin Channels," admitted, "but may be of of the the Nation Nation if not Regulated." These difficulties dilemmas were were if not difficulties and and dilemmas Regulated." These produced by by the very success success of for the very as true true for of the the system. This was as produced system. This as for colonial as for domestic aDairs. As the empire prospered, so did the colonial domestic affairs. the the empire so did prospered, Americans. Given extremely access to to the market, favorable access the English Americans. English market, extremely favorable full share share in aa full the shipping business, increasing manufactures and in the manufactures business, shipping increasing services services from England, as well as the protection afforded by the as well the as afforded England, protection by the Royal Navy (and the King's Army), the colonies enjoyed their the the colonies their Royal Navy (and King's Army), enjoyed own accelerated accelerated improvement. It is is misleading misleading to to think them as of them think of as improvement. It but a nothing but a conglomeration of log cabins, possum caps, and handof and handnothing conglomeration log cabins, possum caps, corn cakes. cakes. They They had produced produced cities, and leaders leaders grown grown corn fortunes, and cities, fortunes, .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
61 67
of their own, and and the the stratification an established was their own, of an stratification of of established society society was visible to all. visible to all. This prompted steadily increasing concern This progress in England. concern in progress prompted steadily increasing England. American industry was feared particularly ominous, and called called feared as American as particularly ominous, and industry was forth aa series of laws laws designed to strangle the rival posthaste. The series of to the forth rival designed strangle posthaste. The Woolen Act Act of was prefaced by the explanation that such of 1699 was Woolen the that such 1699 prefaced by explanation products of of America were "exported from thence to Foreigne Foreigne America were thence to "exported from products Markets heretofore from England which will inevitably heretofore supplied from Markets will which supplied England inevitably sink the the value value of Lands and to the the mine ruine of the Trade and tend sink of Lands tend to of the Trade and and Woolen Manufactures this realm." year later the Board Woolen Manufactures of of this realm.'* A year of later the Board of Trade explicitly that America ruled explicitly that all Trade ruled all manufactured items in manufactured items in America "ought be imported imported from this kingdom." kingdom." Perhaps Perhaps the greatest to be from this the greatest "ought to testimony to the progress of the American colonial economy to of the the came American colonial testimony economy came progress in 1751 and 1764, England sought to stop the colonials from in when to the colonials from 1751 1764, England sought stop as a sign of printing their money. Sometimes interpreted their as a own Sometimes money. interpreted sign of printing weakness, the need of more money was in fact an indication that the the need of more that the was in fact an indication weakness, money colonies bursting the bonds. They They were on the the verge verge colonies were were bursting the imperial were on imperial bonds. of creating their own system within the British Empire. of creating their system within the British Empire. Americans thus benefited in in their fashion from same Americans thus benefited the same their own fashion from the wars that that gave the English economy an extra boost. For just as they wars as the extra For an boost. they English gave economy just had gained at the expense of the Dutch in r654 and 1663, so the at had the of the so the Dutch and in gained expense 1654 1663, English "substantial and permanent gains ... at the expense won and at the ... "substantial expense English permanent gains of France, France, the the greatest greatest industrial nation of of industrial nation of eighteellth-century eighteenth-century Europe." often is is the the case wars, and and particularly in nations case during Europe." As often during wars, particularly in nations which escape physical damage (as did England between 1660 and and did which between England escape physical damage (as 1763), increased demand opened opened the way for ideas. Quickly the increased for new ideas. the way Quickly 1763), the adapted and applied to to industrial undertakings, these these innovations innovations and applied industrial undertakings, adapted created jobs and and aa greater market. Opportunities for created new jobs domestic market. Opportunities for greater domestic for employment multiplied and the competition among capitalists for and the capitalists competition among employment multiplied a share labor force force increased. a share of the labor increased. of the As far hack as the 1630s, had sensed what the the concon~ sensed what far back as the 1630$, Thomas Mun had be for would sequences of such a pressure on the labor market he for labor market a the of on such pressure sequences a nation," traditional mercantilist mercantilist thought. thought. "The riches riches of nation," ran ran an of a traditional its people exargument typical typical of of the the era, out of of the the lahar labor of "arise out of its era, "arise people ex~ argument of ported to foreign markets." The logical, and practical, outcome of and practical, logical, ported to foreign markets." subsistence wages. that thesis policy favoring and bare hare subsistence wages. a policy that thesis was was a slavery and favoring slavery the effective effective demand generated But low wages also also put put aa ceiling But low wages generated ceiling on the to among the workers. persistent emphasis emphasis on exports a persistent workers. And a exports tended to among the
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produce a produce a
The American History History The Contours Contours oj of American
rise in (because of of delays in domestic rise domestic prices delays and shortages) shortages) prices (because in turn decreased domestic demand even that further and thereby that in turn decreased domestic demand even further thereby created conditions radical agitation. unrest and and radical to unrest created conditions favorable favorable to agitation. Such theoretical possibilities were were becoming practical realities realities by the 1740s. theoretical possibilities 17405. by the becoming practical It was becoming apparent that, despite its general success, the its the It was success, that, general despite becoming apparent system was producing a domestic imbalance. On the one hand, the one the the imbalance. domestic was a hand, system producing of purpose purpose manifested by earlier mercantilist leaders drive and earlier mercantilist leaders manifested by drive and sense sense of was giving way to the spirit of irresponsibility and the ethics of the the ethics of the to of the was irresponsibility spirit giving way On the other, greater incentives had to be offered in order scramble. to be offered in incentives had order the scramble. other, greater disto sustain demand and or social social disto avoid "large-scale sustain demand and avoid emigration or "large-scale emigration _turbances." turbances." Whether systematic treatises or "contributed systematic treatises or Whether they they "contributed ephemeral pamphlets," concludes Professor A. W. Coats, "many A. Professor concludes Coats, "many pamphlets," -ephemeral contemporary authors were, consciously unconsciously, groping groping or unconsciously, authors were, consciously or contemporary level-one which their way way towards the concept of an optimum wage level one of an which towards the their optimum wage concept would reconcile reconcile the the interest the agricultural agricultural producers, producers, the the exexof the interest of would porters of manufactures, and the wage earners themselves." earners of and themselves." the manufactures, wage porters In these respects, therefore, the the mercantilists mercantilists were were no longer longer united united In these respects, therefore, basic policies which they were confident led to opulence and on a few confident led to on a few basic policies which they were opulence and power. Their growing concern the optimum optimum kind kind and and degree over the concern over Their growing power. degree of regulation necessary to to sustain of the the country of sustain the the improvement improvement of regulation necessary country was extended and intensified of being being other factors. several other Instead of was extended and intensified by factors. Instead by several characterized by by competing ideas about the objectives of national about the of characterized ideas national objectives competing and individual individual life, and the the means means appropriate reaching those those and for reaching life, and appropriate for goals, English politics came to be typified more and more by shifting more to be typified goals, English politics by shifting coalitions organized organized (and the basis personal and and coalitions basis of of personal disrupted) on the (and disrupted) The very success of mercantilism prompted men to group interest. to group interest. very success of mercantilism prompted -overlook that it was aa man-made system, overlook the the fact fact that to assume it was assume system, and to was aa natural natural order would operate indefinitely instead that it it was instead that which would order which operate indefinitely with little or no attention. attention. little or with The result result was was aa progressive progressive intensification intensification of of bureaucratic bureaucratic infightinfighting, corruption, and legislation for interest rather than and for than for interest rather for corporate ing, corruption, legislation corporate welfare. Along Along with the rising rising advocates laissez faire, growing welfare. with the advocates of of laissez a growing faire, a of mercantilists number of policy than became less mercantilists became less interested interested in in policy in exexthan in ploiting existing opportunities. As aa result, result, problems problems of of empire empire were were ploiting existing opportunities. or handled in aa negative negative and and unimaginative unimaginative way. way. Such an slighted handled in Such an slighted or it almost approach made it that any any later almost certain certain that to compensate later effort effort to approach compensate the neglect for the for neglect would take take on the character of of an ali-encompassing the character all-encompassing to reassert .campaign the power Metropolis over over the the colonies. colonies. reassert the of the the Metropolis campaign to power of
,
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
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THE DECLINE OF MERCANTILISM AND THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
This of the the standards standards and and performance performance of mercantilism This decay of mercantilism decay of served to to strengthen the continuing battle for laissez and invigorate served the battle for laissez strengthen and invigorate continuing faire. concluded that that mercantilism mercantilism had had served its Its advocates advocates concluded faire. Its served its purpose and be abandoned. But they they also that the the and should should be abandoned. But also insisted insisted that purpose empire was the foundation of this ability to have more freedom at was the foundation of this at to have freedom more empire ability home; hence they were not opposed to a tightening up of the empire hence were not a the to of home; they opposed empire tightening up itself. were to to become become less free in that the mother itself. The colonies colonies were less free in order order that the mother country might enjoy enjoy more more liberty. country might liberty. This shift from the the mercantilist mercantilist conception conception of toward an shift from This of empire an empire toward imperialistic outlook became increasingly apparent after 1715. English outlook became after imperialistic increasingly apparent 1715. English investments were protected protected by by strict currency investments were strict controls controls over over colonial colonial currency established in and through a law of 1731 which colonial in 1751 established a colonial law of which made 1751 through 1731 as copper, furs, property legally forfeit for debts. Articles such for forfeit as and debts. Articles such property legally copper, furs, and special forest products were added to the list of goods reserved for forest were added to the list of reserved for products special goods England. And the principle itself became law in 1742 with an official the principle itself became law in 1742 with an official England. proclamation emphasizing emphasizing the duties of of the the colonies toward the the the duties colonies toward proclamation mother country. mother country. by the the This imperialism of the laissez-faire outlook was This imperialism of the laissez-faire outlook reinforced by was reinforced problem of governing and controlling events in the vast areas taken of and in the vast events areas taken problem governing controlling from France France directly, directly, such such as and was was from as Nova Scotia Scotia and Canada, Canada, and accentuated by the the difficulties and directing the westward accentuated by difficulties of of limiting and the westward limiting directing the colonists the French French began began their their retreat. retreat. of the once the colonists once movement of Many Englishmen argued that these issues could not be handled in Many Englishmen argued that these issues could not be handled in the way way that the mercantilists mercantilists had had dealt with commerce and the the the that the dealt with original colonies. Territorial administration with the the colonies. Territorial administration and relations relations with original Indians the exercise exercise of from London. called for from London. Indians called for the of extensive extensive authority authority the colonies colonies themselves themselves had had reached the point where they they had nad And the reached the point where the begun to think of themselves as having the ability, the need, and the the as the to think of themselves need, ability, begun having right to conduct many of their own affairs. to of affairs. conduct their right many All those perplexing issues merged in two debates to in two issues merged debates which came to All those perplexing the a climax in England after the final victory over France in 1763. One final France in a after over in climax 1763. victory England was aa vigorous argument between between mercantilists advocates of of and advocates mercantilists and was vigorous argument laissez best way way for England to to retain retain its its supremacy for England over the the best faire over laissez faire supremacy time among the world empires and at the same time keep from being the at the world being keep empires among a struggle between overtaken by by the poor countries. countries. The second between second was a the poor overtaken struggle the question of leadership George III and his opponents over over the in his opponents leadership in question of George III
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The American History History The Contours Contours of of American
England. way, these these two concon~ an extremely Interwoven in in an complex way, extremely complex England. Interwoven f1icts promoted promoted an attempted tightening up of the British empire. the British of an attempted empire. tightening up And that ultimately provoked provoked and and encouraged encouraged the the colonists colonists in turn turn ultimately that in to initiate creation of American empire. empire. of an an American the creation to initiate the by David Hume's assertion that England Touched off that find assertion Hume's Touched off by David England would find to maintain the world supremacy it enjoyed at the it impossible it at the it enjoyed impossible to maintain the world supremacy moment, the intellectual and theoretical argument soon settled settled soon down moment, the intellectual and theoretical argument to aa debate between Adam Smith Steuart. Taking Sir James Smith and Sir debate between to James Steuart. Taking place during I7505 and discussion determined the determined the this discussion the 1760s, the 17505 and the 17605, this place during the climate of many years years before before the the publication the of the of opinion for many climate publication of opinion for big books books which which summarized the conflicting views. Smith's Smith's Wealth summarized the conflicting views. big of Nations appeared appeared in in 1776, nine years after Steuart's Inquiry into into Steuart's Inquiry of Nations years after 1776, nine the Principles of of Political Political Oeconomy; but the the publication dates are are the Principles publication dates Oeconomy; but of if taken as signifying the beginning of the disagree~ very misleading the the as if taken beginning disagreevery misleading signifying ment. The books books were were the in an argument lasting statements in the final final statements ment. argument lasting nearly twenty years. nearly twenty years. The basic basic significance the differences between Smith and Steuart differences between Steuart of the significance of is reopened the central issue posed by Shaftesbury issue central the is clear: clear: they posed by Shaftesbury and they reopened rec~ similar mercantilists and offered different conclusions different conclusions and recoffered mercantilists similar early early ommendations. mercantilism originated as the articulate the as mercantilism articulate ommendations. Though originated Though statement needs and of the the commercial commercial interest, three desires of of the and desires statement of the needs interest, three of its mature Weltanschauung are nevertheless of para~ other aspects of are nevertheless of other its mature Weltanschauung paraaspects First, trade was the dynamic element in the the element the mount importance. in trade dynamic importance. First, as~ nation's early development. Second, the mercantilists correctly the mercantilists nation's early development. Second, correctly asserted that was an interrelated system composed of conflict~ of serted an that society interrelated conflictwas system composed society ing, competing, and co-operating co~perating interests; and for that reason reason men for that interests; and ing, competing, and to accommodate and balance had consciously to manage their affairs had to their affairs to and balance accommodate consciously manage to advance the general welfare. Finlly, the the various parts and to the various parts welfare. advance the general Finlly, the mercantilists generalized their ideas beyond their own interests to mercantilists their interests to generalized their ideas beyond include the entire partly because because of include the entire nation. nation. This This was partly of their their conception conception of society of as an an integrated organic) unit unit and partly because because of of and partly society as integrated (even (even organic) parts were were interrelated. their personal personal awareness awareness that their that all all the the parts interrelated. At the the crucial crucial juncture juncture of the Restoration, Restoration, Shaftesbury realized of the Shaftesbury realized that in one one of two ways. could sustain that mercantilism mercantilism could could develop It could of two sustain develop in ways. It the the image the ideal of society or it could ideal of the general it could welfare, or image and the society and the general welfare, slide back into a slide back into a narrower ultimately extreme on group narrower and ultimately extreme emphasis on emphasis group and personal personal interest. to the broader ideal. interest. Shaftesbury held fast the broader His fast to ideal. His Shaftesbury held protege Locke turned turned toward toward aa hedonistic hedonistic individualism. individualism. A century protege century later, when Shaftesbury's had materialized materialized as theoretical alternatives alternatives had as later, Shaftesbury's theoretical flicts
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
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the two to England, England, Smith while roads open two roads Smith argued the for individualism individualism while open to argued for Steuart the broader vision of purposeful action for the the broader Steuart upheld vision of upheld purposeful action for the general welfare. welfare. general As with with Shaftesbury Locke, Steuart and Locke, Steuart and and Smith Smith shared shared one one Shaftesbury and crucial assumption: whatever the local or domestic means crucial assumption whatever the local or domestic means of of achievachieving welfare, could not not be without an an empire. empire. The The it could be accomplished welfare, it ing accomplished without key difference lay in the view view shared by Shaftesbury that in the difference lay shared by and Steuart Steuart that key Shaftesbury and conscious, positive positive policies policies were necessary to to sustain were necessary sustain the the reality of conscious, reality of corporate, mutual responsibility within to improve the mutual responsibility within society and to the corporate, society and improve general welfare. also agreed, that welfare. The four four protagonists however, that protagonists also general agreed, however, self-interest was the main engine of human action. This did not mean the main self-interest was not of action. This did mean engine that they pocketbook determinists; were quite that were pocketbook that aware that determinists; they they were they were quite aware ideas an important part in defining self-interest. Steuart was an ideas played in was self-interest. Steuart important part played defining willing to grant, moreover, that it was often "the combination of to that it was often "the combination of grant, moreover, willing every private interest which forms the public good." interest which the forms every private public good." Beyond that point, point, however, however, Steuart's views diverged Steuart's views Beyond that dramatically diverged dramatically from those of Smith. from observation those of Smith. He was from was convinced convinced from and analysis observation and analysis that the economy of the capitalist system suffered from an the exchange of that the suffered from an exchange economy capitalist system As it did so, it produced inherent tendency to get out of balance. inherent to out balance. it it of As did so, get tendency produced social unemployment, political political unrest, unrest, and and the the probability of social unemployment, probability of revolution. Denying Denying that that the between contradictory self· revolution. the competition between contradictory selfcompetition interests provided an corrective for inevitable ininan automatic interests provided for this automatic corrective this inevitable to act consciously and rationally to stability, he insisted that men had he insisted that had to act consciously and rationally to stability, keep the system functioning satisfactorily. keep the system functioning satisfactorily. food, other Steuart's responsibility "to provide food, "to provide other Steuart's acceptance of the the responsibility acceptance of exist, necessities and employment, not for those those who actually actually exist, and employment, not only necessities only for but also those who are to be be brought brought into for those dramatized but are to into existence" existence" dramatized also for moral imhis reassertion-contrary Locke and and Smith-of the moral imreassertion contrary to to Locke Smith of the his perative that had been been so early mercantilism that in early mercantilism and that that had so strong strong in perative hard to Shaftesbury labored so Steuart's. sustain. Steuart's. to reinvigorate had labored so hard reinvigorate and sustain. Shaftesbury had in theoretical theoretical thought signified the high high point point of mercantilism in of British British mercantilism thought signified the sophistication in its the national national well-being over the the concern for and in its ~oncern for the well-being over sophistication and long run. Entertaining no thought of total regulation and quite of total and no run. quite regulation thought long Entertaining willing to to give give individuals area for for independent a broad broad area individuals a action, independent action, willing was the the product product of of policy, policy. Steuart nevertheless insisted insisted that that welfare welfare was Steuart nevertheless not of nor of workings of Newton's Great Great of Newton's automatic workings the automatic of the of Providence Providence nor not Smith's "hidden Clock nor even even of the mysterious mysterious powers powers of of Adam Smith's Clock nor of the hand." hand." Though it came came out in curious ways, Adam Smith had had considerconsidercurious ways, out in Though it :
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The American History History The Contours Contours of of American
able for the power of Steuart's argument. In In his his public public rereable respect respect for the power of Steuart's argument. marks, Smith almost never admitted the existence, let alone the let alone the the never admitted existence, marks, Smith almost of Steuart. Yet his correspondence makes makes clear clear that that intelligence, intelligence, of Steuart. Yet his correspondence was the antagonist. In particular, he implicitly acknowledged Steuart he Steuart was the antagonist. In particular, implicitly acknowledged the strength of Steuart's argument about the inherent instability of the strength of Steuart's argument about the inherent instability of He also also refused refused to to attack an important important capitalism. as such, action as state action attack state such, an capitalism. point often overlooked by the more careless or enthusiastic advocates point often overlooked by the more careless or enthusiastic advocates At several points, indeed, he emof laissez-faire free enterprise. of laissez-faire free enterprise. At several points, indeed, he phasizes that the state is responsible for key key actions. others, his his actions. In In others, for state that the is responsible phasizes remarks suggest that he was attacking the corruption of the ideal the of ideal the that he was remarks corruption attacking suggest of mercantilism mercantilism as as much as per se. se. as the the outlook outlook per of This is certainly certainly true true in that Smith predicated predicated the crucial sense that in the crucial sense This is his entire on the existence of an empire. Along with many with of an the existence his on entire system empire. Along system many Scotsmen, Smith was at once a nationalist and a British imperialist. a and British a nationalist at once Smith was Scotsmen, imperialist. In prepared aa special for Lord Lord of Roman colonies In 1766 even prepared colonies for he even special study 1766 he study of to further the efficiency Shelburne, an undertaking designed the to further and an Shelburne, efficiency and undertaking designed productivity of the empire. Smith's basic argument was that "Britain that Smith's was the basic of "Britain argument empire. productivity was already rich country there really really was no no need need for was a rich and hence hence there for country and already a the government to safeguard advantages which we were not in which the were to not in government safeguard advantages danger of losing." He nevertheless stressed the constant need to the of nevertheless constant stressed need to losing." danger extend the market; accepting accepting the of the mercantilists, the extend the market; the assumptions of mercantilists, assumptions entire argument argument on existence of he hinged hinged his he his entire of an the existence an expanding on the expanding "vent "vent for for surpluses." surpluses." By Smith's emphasis, the key to Nations is Wealth of to The Wealth Smith's own emphasis, the key is of Nations By the axiom that "the surpluses must be sent abroad." Thus, he the axiom that "the surpluses must be sent abroad." Thus, as as he the existence existence of the empire empire which which made it it possible possible explained, it was was the of the explained, it to rely upon the the division of labor labor than than upon mercantilist to rather upon division of rely rather upon mercantilist policy to and increase the wealth wealth of the rich rich country. to sustain sustain and increase the of the policy country. "A rich nation," always in competition of of rich he concluded, "must always in every nation/' he concluded, "must every competition commerce and and manufactures, manufactures, have have an advantage an equal, or superior equal, or superior advantage over aa poor within which which Smith was one." This over This is is the the context context within Smith was poor one." to ultimately willing to acquiesce in the political independence of the in the the of ultimately willing acquiesce political independence American colonies; a large part of the empire remained undisturbed, American of the remained colonies; a undisturbed, large part empire was confident, would retain retain its economic and, he he was its vital vital economic and, confident, England England would supremacy over America. America. supremacy over the simplest In the that is to say, upon which which is to the "hidden "hidden hand" hand" upon sense, that simplest sense, say, the to sustain sustain laissez nothing more nor less less than than Smith relied relied to faire was laissez faire was nothing more nor an empire which the an a priori advantage in dewhich gave the Metropolis a an dein empire gave Metropolis priori advantage over other velopment over other countries. Under those circumstances, the countries. those the velopment circumstances,
Introduction: British British Mercantilism Mercantilism Introduction:
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balance of trade was was "very to England. Men could o trade balance could "very advantageous" advantageous" to England. Men "in the way that they judge most proceed to indulge themselves to themselves "in the way that they judge most indulge proceed As with John Locke, Smith based his advantageous to themselves." to themselves." with John Locke, Smith based his advantageous individualism on empire and the absence of factions in the body individualism empire and the absence of factions in the body politic; faction, according to Smith, "obstructs all public business" politic; faction, according to Smith, "obstructs all public business" easy workings workings of a natural natural order. thereand disturbs the easy disturbs the and of a order. Ironically, Ironically, therefore, Smith was in in this this at the French physiocrats who at one one with with the French physiocrats fore, wanted aa strong government to protect aa predominantly predominantly agrarian to protect wanted strong government agrarian society, Englishmen such as Viscount Viscount Bolingbroke Bolingbroke who with Englishmen such as society, and with argued the the necessity King to clamp down on on a strong of a Patriot King to clamp necessity of argued strong Patriot factions that were threatening threatening to to tear tear society asunder. that were factions asunder. society Clearly George III III took cue from Bolingbroke rather rather took his his cue from Bolingbroke Clearly enough, enough, George than from but in in his his insistence on an an end and on on from Smith; than insistence on end to to faction faction and Smith; but the retention retention of of the he was acting on the cardinal axioms of the empire the he was the cardinal axioms on of empire acting As a firm believer in divine right, George III Smith's a believer Smith's own argument. firm in divine III argument. right, George was also to reassert reassert the the prerogative prerogative of assert also anxious anxious to the Crown and was of the and assert his own personality. personality. Emphasizing the virtues of laissez faire, many his the of laissez virtues faire, many Emphasizing of the King's critics (both (both then then and found it an easy matter to of the and later) King's critics later) found it an easy matter to mer~ present him in an unfavorable unfavorable light. light. But the breakdown in an But the of merbreakdown of present cantilism did did involve involve corruption and the loss of purpose and cantilism and of the loss corruption purpose and responsibility. Hence, while it is easy to argue that George Ill's is to Ill's while that it George argue responsibility. Hence, easy was worse the disease, disease, cure unrestrained individualism for such such unrestrained cure for individualism was worse than than the the issue is not that simple-the disease was very real and very the issue is not that simple the disease was very real and very dangerous. dangerous. Even the the Americans were ultimately to discover discover that that the the assumpEven Americans were assumpultimately to in its its longtion that that empire empire solves all problems proves less tion solves all longsatisfying in problems proves less satisfying run results its momentary momentary profits profits and and pleasures. pleasures. As the the last last run results than than in in its of Ameriunderstood very of the the great Steuart understood mercantilists, Steuart early what Amerivery early great mercantilists, canil of to learn only after they had had used used aa after they cans of a later century were to learn only a later century were wea,pon of that threatened threatened the the individual individual and destruction that mass destruction of mass weapon corporate welfare welfare of of unborn unborn generations. the living bear, in in For the living do bear, generations. For corporate those "of Steuart's phrase, a responsibility for the welfare "of those for welfare the a Steuart's moving responsibility phrase, moving to be be brought brought into into existence." existence." who are are to of the James Madison, the commanding the American gentry Madison, the gentry James commanding mind of then and the of the Founding Fathers, ultimately adopted and then and the sage of the Fathers, ultimately adopted Founding sage the adaptell the mercantilism of Steuart as the morality and the policy the as of Steuart the mercantilism policy morality adapte/1 by whu whit hh to the feeble confederation into into aa mighty mighty colonial confederation feeble colonial to transform transform the by with republican empire. Before the final break wi:th London, moreover, break the final Before moreover, London, republican empire. great reluctance that Madison's Madison's predecessors predecessors it was 0nly reluctance that it was with great only with
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abandoned abandoned
The Contours Contours of of American American History History The
their desire and and effort effort to to re-establish re-establish the the outlook outlook and and
their desire
the
policies of of Shaftesbury Shaftesbury and and Steuart Steuart in in the the councils councils of of the the British British the policies Government. And even even the the determined determined rebel rebel minority minority who conconGovernment. ceived, sustained, sustained, ceived,
and finally finally realized realized the the idea idea of of independence independence and shared the same basic image of America as a mercantilist empire. shared the same basic image of America as a mercantilist empire. Through its its defeat defeat in in Britain, Britain, mercantilism mercantilism was was reborn reborn in in America. America. Through
•
THE AGE OF
MERCANTILISM 1740-1818
Private Vices, Management of Politician, may maY' dextrous Management the dextrous a skillful Private Vices, by by the of a skillful Politician, be turned into Public Benefits. Bernard Mandeville, 1714 into Public turned Bernard Mandeville, 1714 be Benefits. Mercantilism thus meant primarily primarily that, that, under pressure of thus meant under the the pressure Mercantilism of new intellectual enlightenment in various spheres, spheres, people people were, were, for for the first in various the first intellectual enlightenment to aims which they had long time, directing their deliberate attention their deliberate to had attention aims which time, directing they long cherished unreflectingly. August Heckscher, cherished Heckscher, I93> unreflectingly. August 1935
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I. the Rising of the L The Triumph Order Triumph of Rising Order
Shall Shall
we whine and cry cry for for relief, relief, when we have have all'eady tried it it in vain? in vain? already tried George Washington, I774 George Washington, 1774
We do do not to be be independent, not want to want no no revolution. revolution. independent, we want Joseph I775 Hewes, 1775 Joseph Hewes, We have it power to the world world over over again. it in in our power to begin again, begin the Thomas Paine, Paine, I776 1776 We must must rebel rebel some time othe,., and and we had had better better rebel than time or or other, rebel now than at time to come,' if put off for ten or twenty years, ant! let them at any to we time ten or let and come; if any put off for twenty years, go on as as they have begun, begun, they will get get aa strong strong party party among among us, us, and go they have they will plague us us aa great great deal deal more than they can can now. than they now. plague Joseph Hawley to Adams, I776 to Samuel Adams, 1776 Joseph Hawlcy
T THOUGH
ShaftesHOUGH it far-fetched in it might have the I6705, in the 16705, Shaftesmight have seemed far-fetched bury's strategy to subvert Spain's American empire by capturing to subvert American bury's strategy Spain's empire by capturing its trade bullion) had proved its validity validity within within two generations. its trade (and (and bullion) generations. proved its His similar that the the commercial commercial colonies develop His colonies would develop similar expectation expectation that also being verified. closer closer economic and social verified. was also to England social ties ties to England being South Carolina neighbors were redirecting the Carolina and its its southern southern neighbors redirecting the rivers trade down the Ashley and Cooper rivers Indian and Spanish Indian trade the Ashley Cooper Spanish Pennsylvanians and New Engtoward the the wharves wharves of toward of Charleston; Charleston; Pennsylvanians Engin payment payment landers pieces of of eight eight to landers were carrying to London in Spanish pieces carrying Spanish British ships of the the home marine were makfor manufactures; for manufactures; and British ships of ing regular trading voyages along the coast of of South America. coast the ing regular trading voyages along 77
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The American History History The Contours Contours of of American
Working within the the framework framework of attitudes and and policies established of attitudes policies established Working within during the Restoration, the American colonies and England had colonies American the the Restoration, England had during Far more relaxed in tone and constructed a complementary empire. in tone relaxed more and Far constructed a complementary empire. later observers observers-and certainly not not routine than and certainly it appeared to routine than it many later appeared to many aa rightly tighdy ruled imperialism-this mercantilism had produced a sura had surruled imperialismthis mercantilism produced prisingly close approximation to the idea, and even the ideal, of a prisingly close approximation to the idea, and even the ideal, of a commonwealth. Though himself to to independence independence he committed committed himself commonwealth. Though he sooner than than most most colonists, colonists, Samuel began with nothing more more with nothing sooner Samuel Adams began than aa determination to reform reform the Massachusetts. And affairs of of Massachusetts. the affairs than determination to to include colonial even when he broadened broadened his his attack attack to include England's even when he England's colonial policy, his initial objective was no more than to re-establish the to re-establish than the old more old no his initial was policy, objective mercantilist system with the kind of liberal rule that Massachusetts rule that liberal Massachusetts the of kind with mercantilist system had enjoyed Governor Thomas PownalL Pownall. had under Governor enjoyed under Pownall's outlook, like like that and his friend friend and of Benjamin PownalTs outlook, that of Franklin, his Benjamin Franklin, fellow speculator in Ohio lands, was that of the nabob. Such rising nabob. the was that of in fellow Ohio lands, rising speculator upper-class colonials assumed they ultimately inherit the inherit the would ultimately colonials assumed they would upper-class to further their economic and empire; in the meantime they sought their economic further and the to in meantime they sought empire; social welfare by making making alliances with various various groups English in English alliances with social welfare by groups in society and in the British government. Though they did not verbalize did not verbalize and in the British society government. Though they or as formally, and lacked the power to act on it it it as as explicidy explicitly or as formally, and lacked the power to act on it overtly, the great majority majority of the basic assumptions basic assumptions shared the the great of colonists colonists shared overtly, of the the nabob nabob and and aspired aspired to him. Like leaders, most most emulate him. Like their their leaders, of to emulate of them were hesitant or until the of were hesitant toward independence until or indifferent the indifferent toward independence of them never morning of the break with England. many of of the with And break never morning England. many to fight the war began. for Franklin Franklin and his his fellow fellow bothered to bothered after the fight after began. As for was only only with with great that they they joined joined Adams nabobs, it it was reluctance that nabobs, great reluctance a bid bid for for an and his his revolutionary revolutionary allies Virginia in in making allies in in Virginia an making a independent independent empire. empire. THE SOUTH AND THE RISE RISE OF AN AMERICAN GENTRY
Further developed than any of its its neighbors, neighbors, Virginia was the the Further developed than any of Virginia was leader of symbol and the the leader the colonies Negro of the of Pennsylvania. south of colonies south symbol Pennsylvania. Negro the mainspring was the mainspring of handled the the great slavery was of that that society. Slaves handled slavery society. Slaves great tobacco, rice, rice, and indigo that provided provided the the security the crops 'of of tobacco, for the crops indigo that security for indebtedness of the region, wealthy indebtedness region, and and their their masters of the contributed masters contributed wealthy in social, political, and economic a practice practice and leadership in affairs. As a economic affairs. and social, political, leadership as an institution, as Negro slavery in the American colonies developed in the American colonies institution, Negro slavery developed within of English within the the logic logic and politics politics of English mercantilism. mercantilism. Slavery was the the Slavery was gravest weakness of that system: the frayed and raveled end of the weakness of that the the and end of raveled gravest system: frayed
The Age Age of Mercantilism of Mercantilism
79 79
strand of mercantile economic theory which the importance importance of mercantile economic theory strand which stressed stressed the of aa large, cheap, and controlled labor force that could produce aa and controlled o labor force that could produce large, cheap, this instance, theory was eminendy staple export. And in for export. in this was eminently surplus for instance, theory staple surplus as well as persuasive. African chiefs proved only ready practical as well as too ready persuasive. African chiefs proved only too practical to supply such exports. They had been doing it for centuries. such human to supply exports. They had been doing it for centuries. Scrambling for empire empire along circle route the globe, globe, route on on the Scrambling for along every every great great circle English traders traders entered the dirty business in organized fashion fashion entered the in an an organized English dirty business the Royal After Charles II II chartered when Charles chartered the African Company in 1672. Royal African Company in 1672. After broken in in 1697 laissez faire put its foot in that monopoly that in laissez faire its foot monopoly was broken 1697 (as (as put the English door), the the industry became even more extensive and dethe became even more deextensive and English door), industry graded as other Englishmen joined colonists colonists from Rhode as other and Rhode from Salem Salem and Englishmen joined graded Island to parlay parlay the the normally normally narrow narrow margin margin of profit into into aa Island to of profit lucrative and lamentable lucrative and lamentable commerce. commerce. Most 17th-century Englishmen harsh and about Most were harsh and offhand offhand about 17th-century Englishmen were The vigorous nationalism and anti-foreignism of mercanslavery. nationalism and of mercanslavery. vigorous anti-foreignism tilism reinforced Negro bebethe existing reinforced the tilism discrimination against the Negro existing discrimination against the cause of different color, religion, and culture. Yet at no time did his different cause of his did and culture. Yet at no time color, religion, the planters Virginia or or other manage to to conconthe of Virginia other southern southern colonies colonies manage planters of vince themselves themselves that that slavery was beyond morality. For that matter, vince was that For matter, beyond morality. slavery by questions its economic economic southerners were were periodically periodically assailed southerners assailed by about its questions about slaves (the advantages. Many thought that that the the cost of slaves "Profits arising cost of Many thought advantages. arising (the "Profits so very great") explained the persistently unfavorable thereon [are] so thereon the very great") explained [are] persistently unfavorable balance of the region. region. Others Others hence indebtedness, of the balance of trade, and hence trade, and indebtedness, of was efficient, adding that the southern questioned whether slavery questioned whether slavery was efficient, adding that the southern economy diversified skills, needed more men with with diversified and skills, industry, industry, and economy needed initiative. initiative. by the of social Such were reinforced the sense sense of economic doubts doubts were reinforced by social and Such economic in the philosophy corporate responsibility which which was the secular secular philosophy was strong corporate responsibility strong in consciously modeled on that that of the English English gentry, and in the in the of the modeled on consciously gentry, and religious doctrines of the Anglican church. George church. George established Anglican doctrines of the established religious Washington and and other other planters planters of colonial era the era anticipated the late late colonial of the anticipated the Washington of the Declarademise long before before the the inspiring inspiring rhetoric rhetoric of the Declaraof slavery demise of slavery long tion of Independence reminded reminded the the colonists their responsibilities responsibilities of their colonists of tion of Independence as free a leader who saw the need to diversify the the to the need a leader As free Englishmen. as diversify Englishmen. both his region, Washington combined both an economic and economy of economic his of region, Washington economy of slavery. a moral moral argument his candid slavery. candid critique in his a critique of argument in institution. the Yet many many influences to sustain the dreadful to sustain dreadful institution. influences converged Yet converged as straightforward as Patrick Henry, many planters Though not Patrick as as not Henry, many planters straightforward Though the hard else else do the hard work; shared his preference for for having someone shared his preference work; having
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he spoke bluntly about about "the general inconvenience inconvenience of without of living "the general he living without spoke bluntly them." Others Others had had frenzied which transformed legitiwhich transformed them." frenzied imaginations legitiimaginations mate (and intelligent) concern about the difficulties incident to the difficulties incident about to concern mate (and intelligent) scenes of orgiastic violence, biological decay, and emancipation into and emancipation into scenes of orgiastic violence, biological decay, Yet-during rate-it was wholesale poverty. poverty. Yet at any it was colonial era, the colonial wholesale era, at any rate during the to have been the most powerful. the economic arguments that seem the most been have the economic arguments that seem to powerful. Washington's program program for a diversified diversified agriculture and for developing agriculture and developing a Washington's local industry made a great deal of sense, but the majority the of the local industry made a great deal of sense, but the majority of planters could not translate Their debts to London into reality. it into could not translate it reality. Their debts to planters being inmiddle-men, which Jefferson later as being later spoke of as inwhich Thomas Jefferson middle-men, spoke of value of their tobacco tobacco deherited for of their the value increased as as the defor generations, herited generations, increased clined. These These economic away their their freedom of of scissors snipped economic scissors clined. snipped away Washington admitted admitted (and he was an maneuver. As an exceptioneven Washington maneuver. As even exception(and he ally efficient and wealthy planter), "goods [were] for the most exally efficient and wealthy planter), "goods [were] for the most exceedingly dear bought." Probably Probably most planters tried raise more more tried to to raise dear bought." most planters ceedingly of their own food, and some with a few acres planted a with acres of their some experimented food, and planted experimented to abuse their for the West West Indies Indies market, market, but but the majority continued continued to abuse their for the the majority land crops. with the the same same old land with old commodity commodity crops. As tobacco declined in in value value on on the European market, market, the the planters planters the European tobacco declined sought a solution within the traditional framework of mercantilism. of solution framework a within the traditional mercantilism. sought to limit limit production production and improve quality. virgin They proposed to and improve They proposed quality. With virgin land open to the west, however, not many of them could comof not could land lying to the comwest, however, many lying open the discipline discipline to to restrict restrict their But they did combine mand the their output. did combine they output. to raise raise more more of with the the idea quality their efforts efforts to idea of their of quality the staple of the staple with syscontrols and inspections, and with with the the traditional traditional mercantilist mercantilist sysand inspections, controls tem of depots. Together with the steady exhaustion of tem of centralized centralized depots. with the exhaustion of Together steady the soil, this campaign to expand production reinforced the existing the soil, this campaign to expand production reinforced the existing to the they did elbow drive drive to the west west for for more land. land. When they did 110t not simply simply elbow onward, the the planters over them out out and and onward, and speculators planters and speculators leapfrogged leapfrogged over the yeomen yeomen and and frontiersmen, frontiersmen, and and thus different the thus southerners of different southerners of classes classes came into into common conflict with British regulations limiting limiting conflict with British regulations expansion beyond beyond the the mountains. mountains. expansion Such an emphasis production steadily emphasis on expanding steadily strengthened expanding production strengthened the conclusion drawn from earlier the conclusion that gang proearlier experience that labor proexperience gang labor the only vided to make a Though it was vided the way to profit on on staple crops. a profit it was only way staple crops. Though to to raise tobacco, and later cotton, on smaller units of cultipossible raise later cultion smaller units of tobacco, cotton, possible vation, this this profitableness profitableness of labor became became one the chief chief of gang one of of the vation, gang labor or It should arguments-or excuses-for maintaining the slave system. excuses for the slave It should arguments maintaining system. not be imagined, however, that that the the planters planters were were unique not be defendin defendimagined, however, unique in
The Age Age of of Mercantilism Mercantilism
81 81 ing slavery. Southern yeomen aspired to own their own slaves Southern their slaves yeomen aspired to ing slavery. the ambition), (many realized the and white white workers workers in in such cities as such cities as (many realized ambition), and Charleston organized organized against Negro labor labor (as in the shipbuildCharleston free Negro against free (as in the shipbuilding yards) at early date. at an an early date. ing yards) In later years, after coming coming under under militant militant attack from the the critics critics In later attack from years, after by emphasizing emphasizing the the achieveachieveof southerners often of slavery, often replied slavery, southerners replied by culture. Though justifying Negro Negro slavery in ments of their culture. of their ments not justifying Though not slavery in America and often exaggerated, the the argument had aa certain validity. often exaggerated, America certain validity. argument had For the the best was exceptionally exceptionally good; it was was mature, mature, best of of the the south south was good; it responsible, respectful respectful of learning, civilized, and urbane. urbane. Moral withof learning, Moral withcivilized, and responsible, out priggish, the the planter planter aristocracy probably comprehended out being being priggish, aristocracy probably comprehended as well as most most of England the verity verity of of original the sin at at least least as well as the New England of the original sin by theocracy. though their reforms may have been weakened And their have been reforms weakened theocracy. though may by an overly developed propensity to compromise, such men did avoid an to did such avoid overly developed propensity compromise, the arrogance of self-righteous Long before tradition the before the the tradition arrogance of self-righteous crusading. crusading. Long 1660, southof the Cavalier belatedly imported after Cavalier was of the was somewhat somewhat belatedly after 1660, southimported erners had begun begun to to advance advance their version of the life of the the erners their own version of the life of it evolved rapidly through the 18th century. English gentry, and it evolved the i8th English gentry, century. rapidly through Like many many other that of William Byrd other Southern at Like Southern mansions, of William mansions, that Byrd at less elegant but nevertheless comparable to Westover, Virginia, was to was less but nevertheless Westover, Virginia, elegant comparable those of many English vista of of the the of many fine vista those estates. Commanding English estates. Commanding aa fine James River, its bold and imposing structure featured a mahogany its bold featured a structure and James River, mahogany imposing volumes. And in in stairway housed aa magnificent magnificent library of 4,000 library of 4,000 volumes. stairway and housed as Annapolis to the north, great homes like the the ports, such the like homes the ports, such as Annapolis to the north, great by William typified aa Hammon-Harwood house house designed William Buckland Buckland typified designed by similar pattern of living. Though this southern architecture might similar pattern of living. Though this southern architecture might be described as aa solidly rendered in in good be described rather rather as good solidly appropriate style rendered appropriate style was justly justly admired. admired. taste than than as as great it was taste art, it great art, was likewise St. Michael's church an impressive likewise an in Charleston Charleston was St. Michael's church in impressive as aa group they symbol gentry's culture. culture. Presumably Presumably because because as the gentry's of the group they symbol of prone than than some to discuss every issue issue were far discuss every colonials to other colonials were far less less prone some other in vocabulary, because because they they separated state church and state a theological in a separated church theological vocabulary, the considered to by law, and because Jefferson came to be considered the and because Thomas law, Jefferson by that the symbol it has been assumed that the has often often been entire society, of the the entire society, it symbol of for whom or men for southern were Deists in all all but but name or aristocrats were Deists in southern aristocrats class. Bu~ James of their their class. James sitting in church church was was one the chores chores of one of of the sitting in Bu^: were Madison others among the southern gentry were' deeply, southern the and many others Madison and 'deeply, gentry among many tradition of although not ostentatiously, in the the Anglican Anglican tradition religious in ostentatiously, religious although not to the corporate church. While vigorously opposed to bishops running the church. While running bishops vigorously opposed corporate
82 82
the the
The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
state, and increasingly tolerant of dissent, they retained a strong state, and increasingly tolerant of dissent, they retained a strong sense of inclusive Washington's Farewell Farewell social morality. Christian social sense of inclusive Christian morality. Washington's Address, for example, emphasized that such an ethic ethic was essential such an essential for example, Address, emphasized that to sustaining the ideal and the practice of the general welfare. welfare. of the the and the ideal to general practice sustaining was typical typical of the many many planters planters Samuel Matthews of Virginia was of the of Virginia Samuel Matthews whose names names do not get into every history book, but neverbut who into neverdo not whose book, every history get social responsibility. responsibility. He managed managed theless exhibited a strong strong sense of social sense of theless exhibited a took an part in his own own affairs affairs with with care care and active part in local an active local and success, his success, took government, and tried to anticipate and prepare for the development for the and development prepare government, and tried to anticipate of the the region. Although they may have sent their sons to England of region. Although they may have sent their sons to England Byrd and William Fitzhugh for and William also as Byrd such as an education, for an education, men such Fitzhugh also worked to and lower In all these schools. In lower schools. all these colonial colleges to establish establish colonial worked colleges and respects, they labored to improve life in the the present present as well as as well as to to respects, they labored to improve life in coatdevelop a tradition and found a family dynasty with its own with its a found coatand a tradition family dynasty develop of-arms. as for the tradition, tradition, they they proved proved so that so successful successful that for the o-arms. And as some back..country southerners ultimately rebelled against those those rebelled who southerners some against ultimately back-country ignored abused it. or abused it. ignored or This several contrasting This southern southern aristocracy developed several contrasting though aristocracy developed though complementary extreme, some of merchants of its its merchants life. At one of life. one extreme, styles of complementary styles and professional represented an an almost almost exclusively urban and and and exclusively urban professional men represented North commercial influence, influence. Joseph Joseph Hewes and and James Iredel of of North commercial James Iredel Carolina typified typified that that pattern. pattern. Further Further south, the Charleston merCarolina Charleston mersouth, the chants Henry Laurens revealed an even greater greater like Henry an even chants and and factors factors like Laurens revealed similarity them came came their British British counterparts. of them to their Indeed, many many of similarity to counterparts. Indeed, so much in common with their trans-Atlantic to feel that they had so with to feel that they had in their trans-Atlantic to break break the the conprototypes that they were were extremely disinclined to that they conextremely disinclined prototypes nection. Christopher Gadsden in in Charleston Charleston was notable excepa notable nection. was a Christopher Gadsden exception, becoming becoming aa vigorous vigorous advocate of independence. independence. advocate of tion, On the hand, many many planters planters were were practically practically pure pure agrarians. the other other hand, agrarians. of the patroons along the Hudson Similar in their their outlook outlook to to some of the patroons Similar in along the in in upper upper New Yark, these men stayed close to to the land in thought the land in thought York, these stayed close as in routine. routine. This view of of life and its as well well as as in This mode of of life associated view its associated the world world ultimately prompted to take up and adapt the the them to take the ultimately prompted up adapt basically feudal philosophy of the French physiocrats. Though placfeudal philosophy of the French physiocrats. basically Though placindividual freedom ing great and local freedom and local self-government, ing emphasis on individual great emphasis self-government, the economic, of their counthey dominated the political, and and social social life life of their couneconomic, political, they ties ties and regions regions in in an an aristocratic that was often benevolent aristocratic style that often benevolent style almost always always effective. effective. In In later later years, years, the the leaders of this and almost this group leaders of group
The Age Age of oj Mercantilism Mercantilism
83 83
in the south were Virginians Virginians like like John John Taylor Taylor of of Caroline and south were in the Caroline and John Randolph Randolph of Roanoke; in in the the north, north, New York's York's George Clin~ of Roanoke; John George Clinton was the outstanding was the ton figure. outstanding figure. in doing so, aa significant number of planters Despite the difficulties the difficulties in of planters Despite significant number doing so, were by 1740 developing still another pattern of life which resembled still another of life were which resembled by 1740 developing pattern that of English gentry. gentry. Whether Whether in Virginia, or the English of the in Maryland, or other that other Maryland, Virginia, southern this group maintained city houses, were governed this southern colonies, maintained were colonies, group city houses, governed as to to their their clothes clothes and and lace, an~ and coaches, silver and and anas manners and coaches, silver lace, manners ecdotes and similarly similarly extended extended their their the latest latest London fashions, ecdotes by fashions, and by the other and tastes. tastes. Charleston was perhaps perhaps the the exemplar exemplar of interests and other interests Charleston was of this more cosmopolitan existence; yet as the center of government as this more the center of existence; cosmopolitan yet government and society as as well well as of trade trade fairs, and boasting boasting the the College College of as of and society of fairs, and William and founded in 1693, Williamsburg was also a focus in William and Mary founded was a also focus Mary 1693, Williamsburg of the the urban-commercial-agrarian urban~ommercial~agrarian life; and Annapolis, Annapolis, in in those days of those days life; and aa far more important important port than Baltimore or Norfolk, developed far more than Baltimore or Norfolk, developed port along similar similar lines. lines. along Like its English predecessor, this colonial gentry diversified Like its this colonial also diversified English predecessor, gentry also its activities. Virginia Virginia began began offering offering bounties on cotton economic activities. its economic bounties on cotton (and on linen cloth) in 1730, and within a few years some entre~ linen in and a few entrewithin cloth) 1730, years (and preneurs were beginning to experiment with wheat and other crops to were other with wheat experiment crops preneurs beginning as to their staples of tobacco, rice, and indigo. Local a supplement their as a to of and Local tobacco, rice, supplement staples indigo. manufacturing emerged emerged alongside this extended extended agriculture. Robert alongside this agriculture. Robert manufacturing in aa Baltimore Baltimore ironworks, ironworks, Colonel proCarter invested invested in Colonel Scarburgh Carter Scarburgh produced shoes and malt, and George Washington loomed woolens shoes and woolens and malt, duced George Washington loomed as part of of his his plantation plantation enterprises as well well as as drawing as an an integral drawing integral part enterprises as up plans plans for the future Virginia's iron industry. Such as Such men as of Virginia's iron industry. for the future of up Johnson of of Maryland Maryland and Virginia of Virginia and Robert Robert Beverley Thomas Johnson Beverley of thought along the same same lines and brought brought forward idea~, lines and forward specific specific ideas, along the thought as Johnson aa plan plan for Potomac Canal Beverley aa proproa Potomac Canal and Beverley as with for a with Johnson gram for a Virginia mercantilism. Washington rapidly assumed assumed for mercantilism. a Washington rapidly gram Virginia the leadership of this It was by by no no means means all talk; by by 1775 all talk; the this group. 1775 leadership of group. It iron. Maryland and Virginia had 82 blast furnaces producing iron. blast and 82 furnaces producing Maryland Virginia Washington made it it evident that the the image the Men such of the evident that as Washington such as image of that was gentry and balanced society and balanced a diversified diversified and ideal of of a the ideal and the society that gentry associated with with it it was was steadily steadily gaining gaining strength translated associated strength and being being translated the into during the 18th century. In another way, the founding another the In into reality i8th founding way, century. reality during that the mercantilism of Georgia in 1732 revealed the persistence of the mercantilism that of of revealed the in persistence Georgia 1732 three almost Shaftesbury had done so to consolidate almost three generato so consolidate done much had generaShaftesbury
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The American History History Contours of The Contours of American
tions tions
earlier. with the the idea idea of planned economy, economy, a planned of a earlier. Beginning Beginning with Georgia's leaders emphasized the importance of corporate developof the leaders corporate developimportance Georgia's emphasized ment. Undertaken for "the more direct and better convenience of convenience better of direct and more ment. Undertaken for "the the inhabitants," the colony's road-and-ferry legislation specified that that the inhabitants/' the colony's road-and-ferry legislation specified to work on on such projects. the citizens their responsibility responsibility to such projects. the citizens recognize recognize their And commodity-inspection laws were instituted on the ground that the ground that commodity-inspection laws were instituted it was "in the interest of the colony that all lumber exported be it was "in the interest of the colony that all lumber exported be honestly and slavery was legalized legalized in in 1750, and faithfully After slavery made." After 1750, faithfully made." honestly the Georgia aristocracy moved moved even rapidly toward toward their their own even more more rapidly the Georgia aristocracy version of attitudes and which had been maturing in of the version the attitudes and policies policies which had been maturing in the older the older colonies. colonies. Virginia Carolina had work laws laws underwriting had similar similar work South Carolina and South Virginia and underwriting labor on roads, canals, canals, and public buildings. buildings. South South Carolina's Carolina's legislabor and public on roads, legisfor "regulating the price price and and assize of bread" bread" was was an lation of assize of an of 1749 lation 1749 for "regulating the avowed manifestation responsibility to control to of the the corporate avowed manifestation of control corporate responsibility "covetous evil-disposed persons" persons" who acted their own "for their acted only "covetous and and evil-disposed only "for gain and lucre" and thus "deceived and depressed . . . especially and and lucre" and thus "deceived depressed gain especially the poorer sort of people." Virginia's law "to prevent the exporta"to the of law the sort prevent poorer exportapeople." Virginia's tion of bad and and trash trash tobacco" tobacco" emerged emerged from from the basic tion of bad the mercantilist's mercantilist's basic .conception of political economy; such conduct contributed directly contributed of such conduct conception political economy; directly "to the great great decay decay of of trade" trade" and thereby weakened weakened the "to the entire colony. and thereby the entire colony. laws on on price-fixing its limitation rate And Georgia's limitation on and its on the the rate Georgia's laws price-fixing and of interest were likewise "to encourage trade." interest were of "to trade." likewise designed encourage designed Intellectual policy responses Intellectual and to this this increasing and policy colonial maturmaturincreasing colonial responses to ity took two principal forms. Those who wholeheartedly accepted took two Those ity wholeheartedly accepted principal forms. the framework of the the British British Empire Empire maintained the of the the outlook outlook of of the maintained the nabob nabob who ruled through aa combination his local wealth ruled at at home through local wealth of his combination of and his his connections the Metropolis. view exhibited exhibited and connections in in the of that that view Metropolis. Men of no particular particular impatience impatience for the independence they assumed for the that they assumed independence that would come in in the future. Largely Largely because because of in the the the future. of opponents opponents in colonies ready to his supremacy once indepenindepencolonies who stood stood ready to challenge challenge his supremacy once dence arrived, the nabob nabob was against a break break with counthe mother with the mother counarrived, the against a all but try under all but the most extreme circumstances. As aa classic the most extreme circumstances. classic figure try figure of of this this group, of South once asserted he "felt South Carolina asserted that that he "felt Laurens of Carolina once group, Laurens much more pain" it finally arrived than pain" over over independence it when arrived than independence finally over the death of over the death a son. reflected the political of a son. This This attitude attitude reflected the normal normal political evolution of the the upper upper class colonial system and occurred in evolution of class in in a a colonial occurred in system India as well as in America. Most India and other other British British possessions as as in well America. possessions southern as well well as majority of in southern planters, planters, as as the the majority colonial leaders leaders in of colonial .
.
.
The Age Age of of Mercantilism Mercantilism
Pennsylvania and Pennsylvania of the the world. world. of
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held and and acted acted upon upon this this conception New York, York, held conception
On the the other other hand, hand, some some southern Gadsden and southern mercantilists mercantilists like like Gadsden and Washington infused the attitude and role of the nabob with aa vigorvigorinfused the attitude and role of the nabob with Washington ous that moved rapidly toward independence. Ultiself-consciousness that ous self-consciousness rapidly toward independence. Ultimately they were joined by planters like George Mason of Virginia were joined by planters like George Mason of Virginia mately they North Carolina entertained aa more more narnarand of North Willie Jones Carolina who entertained and Willie Jones of rowly agrarian view of of the the world. world. The age, and exexrowly agrarian view age, intelligence, intelligence, and panded interests these native native mercantilists the interests of of these all help to explain mercantilists all panded help to explain the outlook. It was not not only only that that many of them them were were difference in their outlook. in their It was difference many of their society young, but that they they came to also that but also to maturity and young, maturity when their society and had established and aa style of their own. their class class had a tradition established a their tradition and style of their own. typical of younger generageneraRichard Henry Lee, for for example, Richard was typical a younger of a Henry Lee, example, was . tion tion impatient for leadership in a vigorous society. for in a impatient leadership vigorous society. the decline the tobacco tobacco market, market, such and decline of With the of the intensified and such men intensified western lands lands and and invested in nonagrinonagriextended their their interest interest in extended in western invested in reasons, they an cultural cultural enterprises. for similar similar reasons, manifested an also manifested enterprises. And for they also increasing desire to enter the general world market with their surdesire to enter their surthe market with world increasing general pluses. Acutely Acutely aware aware of possibilities of the possibilities contiof the of an an undeveloped undeveloped contipluses. to be surmounted and faced up nent, they recognized the problems the and faced to be surmounted nent, they recognized up problems to them persistently persistently and and astutely. Both Johnson and Washington to Both and Johnson Washington astutely. concluded the diversified the Potomac Potomac that the diversified economic of the concluded that economic development development of waterway to the west would help to weaken the institution of slavery of the the to weaken institution west to would slavery waterway help as well well as to sustain the position and the power of the coastal gentry of the coastal as to sustain the and the as gentry power position as expanded inland. that argument argument implies, implies, they they had had as the colonies expanded inland. As that the colonies a vision vision of an American American empire from an early date. a of an an date. early empire .
NEW YORK AND PENNSYLVANIA:
FINISHING SCHOOLS
FOR THE AMERICAN NABOB deIn no similar of leaders in the the middle middle colonies leaders in colonies deIn contrast, similar group contrast, no group of veloped and committed itself to this emerging American mercanmercanto this and committed itself emerging veloped in 1776. tilism until just before before the Declaration of of Independence until just the Declaration tilism 1776. Independence in Even then then they were exceedingly reluctant revolutionaries. Many key revolutionaries. reluctant were Even key Many they exceedingly for a figures in Pennsylvania and York fought hard for a comprohard New in comprofought Pennsylvania figures many of of them, them, reconciliation reconciliation must have have mise with England. To many mise with England. of relentless sea a to safety from a rising sea of relentless seemed aa Jacob's ladder from to seemed ladder Jacob's rising safety that the is not not surprising the competitors it is critics. Thus it and lashing surprising that competitors and lashing critics. mixed terms in in terms of expansionists among thought primarily them thought primarily expansionists among English companies, nor nor that that aa significant of and colonial colonial companies, significant number of English and
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these nabobs nabobs ultimately ultimately left America to become important to become left America leaders in in these important leaders England and other parts parts of their inception, inception, these these of the the empire. and other empire. From their England middle colonies were the the middle colonies were
home and hearth of of the nabob. the loyal and hearth loyal nabob. depot in the 1620S, Established by the the Dutch Dutch as in the a fur-trading as a Established by 16205, New depot fur-trading York remained a comparatively small colony for many years. Exfor small York Exremained a many years. colony comparatively tensive commitments commitments in in men, men, money, and interest were not forthand interest were not forthtensive money, coming; both the government and and the the Dutch Dutch West India India Company the government coming; both Company an empire empire in Asia, Africa, were initially initially more more interested in an in Asia, and were interested in Africa, and to salvage some of its investment by capturBrazil. Moving belatedly of investment to its Brazil. Moving belatedly by captursalvage some ing more English and French French trade America, the the Dutch governgovernin America, trade in ing more English and ment in free port port in in all all but but name. a free ment name. The in 1638 1638 made New York a strategy worked brilliandy but not immediately and not for the not but not for the worked immediately brilliantly strategy York began to expand Dutch. Always a center of the fur trade, York to a the fur New of center Dutch. trade, began Always expand and diversify its commerce. comcould accurately farmers could and Tenant farmers commerce. Tenant diversify its accurately comfields "lie fallow and waste," but agricultural plain that many but fields "lie fallow and that surwaste," agricultural surmany plain pluses and shipping services provided enough capital to launch the to and services launch the provided enough capital pluses shipping In a short time the port attracted, city's booming economic growth. a time the In short economic growth. port attracted, city's booming and an increasing of sailors, merchants, and and produced, and sailors, merchants, increasing population produced, an population of laborers. wild ethnic mixture with with aa speculative oudook ethnic mixture a wild were a laborers. They speculative outlook They were on vulgar and unfocused unfocused cosmopolitanism that life and a sometimes on life and a sometimes vulgar cosmopolitanism that further weakened the colony's loyalty to the Dutch. Dutch. further weakened the to the colony's loyalty Had the the French acted vigorously, vigorously, pushing pushing down the valleys the river river valleys French acted from Canada, the history of the world might have become a different the have a from of world the become different Canada, history might story. But But however however poor poor an English English king king he he became became as as James II, James II, story. York the Duke of performed magnificently magnificendy in the in seizing of York performed New York seizing in 1664. sorry preview what was in his in a sorry of what in store store for for his 1664. Providing preview of Providing a his at home, subjects the Duke then then mismanaged mismanaged the job of ruling his the job of ruling home, the subjects at conquest. was no no match match either the entrenched entrenched landed landed aristocaristoceither for for the conquest. He was racy, the the rising rising merchant merchant interest, the restive restive and aggressive or the lower interest, or racy, aggressive lower class. Giving up in frustration and failure, he sold off great chunks class. in frustration sold he off chunks failure, Giving up great of the original fail again. again. of the grant and went went home to to fail original grant York Having defeated defeated their their second the New York second "mother "mother country," Having country," the so, patroons proceeded to consolidate their local control. they did to consolidate their local control. As did so, patroons proceeded they created an integrated they created integrated gentry typical of the age of mercantilism. mercantilism. of the they gentry typical age of economic investments investments in in commerce and and shipThus, as they Thus, as they made economic shipping, they they married into the the rising elite of of merchants merchants and and lawyers in married into ping, rising elite lawyers in New York. astride one of York. Sitting the most most extensive rapidly extensive and rapidly of the Sitting astride York gentry beexpanding trade centers centers in the colonies, this New York in the colonies, this expanding trade gentry be-
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came highly highly prone prone to to take take its was not not that that its well~being for came It was granted. It well-being for granted. they were lazy lacked initiative; it was was simply their fortunes or lacked that their fortunes initiative; it lazy or they simply that seemed to to billow as naturally naturally as of their their ships in aa fresh fresh billow as as the the sails seemed sails of in ships trade wind. wind. trade
Handling everything everything from luxury furs to beeswax, from luxury furs to dried Handling beeswax, dried and porkers porkers on on the the run, their exports of agricultural com~ their of run, exports agricultural commodities and semi-finished semi~finished raw raw materials materials provided provided the the basis basis of modities of a a commerce with Europe and West Indies dramatized the the with Europe commerce and the the West Indies that that dramatized general the colonies. by the the I740S of them them of the colonies. And by some of development of general development 17405 some had begun manufacturing while while others to invest invest in had in banking and manufacturing others begun to banking and turned their attention to to speculative opportunities in west. their attention turned the west. in the speculative opportunities Since at least least acknowledged cor~ Since they the same same tradition tradition of of the the corpothey at acknowledged the rate Anglican religion that guided many southerners, it might be that rate it Anglican religion guided many southerners, might be assumed that that the the New York York gentry evolved a similar conception assumed evolved a similar of gentry conception of social responsibility. This This was the case. the impact impact of social responsibility. was not not the of Under the case. Under disorganized and shifting outside authority, extensive and mixed and mixed outside extensive and disorganized shifting authority, immigration, and and almost almost unchallenged power, the the New Yorkers Yorkers local power, immigration, unchallenged local created aa caricature of the the gentry. Politics became a treacherous and caricature of created gentry. Politics became a treacherous and generally pointless pointless scramble within the the aristocracy. aristocracy. James James De Lancey scramble within generally Lancey commanded one keeping the upstart lawyers one faction faction dedicated to keeping the upstart dedicated to lawyers and merchants merchants in in their their place. place. He was was opposed William LivingLiving~ and by William opposed by ston to rally support among the smaller merchants to the merchants ston who attempted smaller attempted rally support among and the laboring class. The primary primary result result of was even the and even of his his strategy laboring class. strategy was to create sense of solidarity and organization among his a growing of create a to sense and organization among his growing solidarity ultimate opponents; led by such popular figures as Isaac Sears and Isaac Sears as and ultimate led such opponents; by popular figures Alexander McDougall. the upstate upstate yeomen yeomen and tenant tenant for the Alexander McDougall. As for farmers, they generally ignored by both both factions factions and only were generally farmers, only ignored by they were slowly to organize organize their philosophical and practical practical their own philosophical began to slowly began opposition. opposition. Though De Lancey Lancey played played an important part part in King's in founding an important founding King's Though College, and a few others indicated some awareness of the responsi~ the indicated awareness of some a few others and responsiCollege, bilities of the gentry, most New York York aristocrats aristocrats continued continued to to devote devote bilities of the gentry, most De son most of their energies to trade and the gay life. Lancey's the life, trade to and most of their Lancey's son gay energies was something of an extreme, but nevertheless typical, example. was something of an extreme, but nevertheless typical, example. and women," Principally concerned concerned with with "cock~fighting, horseracing, and women," "cock-fighting, horseracing, Principally to frighten as to he once carousing invasion of Philadelphia frighten a carousing invasion of he once led led such such a Philadelphia as the fathers city-as mothers (and doubt even even as well well as as its its mothers the fathers of of that that city (and no doubt such side to some of There was a more favorable side to such favorable a was There more some its daughters). o its daughters). revelry, however, because, in conjunction with the great (albeit un~ with the in because, conjunction great (albeit unrevelry, however, venison, venison,
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nerving) tradition tradition oof the the sailor on shore York to it helped shore leave, to sailor on leave, it helped New York nerving) establish a pattern of entertainment that was broader in every sense in broader was that sense a of entertainment establish every pattern of word than than any any to to be in the the other cities. other colonial colonial cities. be found found in the word of the As might be expected expected in York also a commercial commercial center, also in such such a As center, New York might be supported the evolution of the daily newspaper and the tradition the tradition of of supported the evolution of the daily newspaper aa free slandering and scandalous) press. Beyond that, the the city free (if city (if slandering and scandalous) press. Beyond that, was culturally backward. Cadwallader Coldein's Hz"story of the was culturally backward. Cadwallader Coldein's History of the Five N atz"ons, aa review review of of the the Indians the wars incident to to taking taking wars incident and the Indians and Five Nations, was the the only book produced the colony that was worthy their land, land, was in the was worthy their colony that produced in only book painters as Kilburn of as Lawrence Kilburn such painters of serious while such attention. And while serious attention. and John provided many portraits for the elite, for the their subsuband Wollaston provided elite, their John Wollaston many portraits jects were seemingly averse even to the kind of tension that helps of tension the kind to that even were averse helps jects seemingly create aa great graphic image. Yet, in in aa way way that that was revealing, revealing, create great graphic image. Yet, in most most of of their their likenesses was the the wide wide expanse the focus likenesses was of shimshimthe focus in expanse of mering light ricocheting off the satin waistcoats that covered the full the that off satin waistcoats covered the full mering light ricocheting sense, at any rate, the artist did transmit a hint of bellies; in this did the artist transmit in a hint this at of rate, sense, bellies; any New York gentry opthe deeper reality, for many members of the the of York members the for many gentry opdeeper reality, posed independence even after began. after the the fighting independence even fighting began. posed Though many of of them them reacted reacted similarly, the Pennsylvania Pennsylvania leaders leaders similarly, the Though many with a far broader image included men of of aa vastly vastly different a broader included different style with far of style image of the good life. For despite the fact that Benjamin Franklin's amatory life. For the fact that the Franklin's good Benjamin despite amatory abilities and adventures might opposite, William and adventures abilities indicate the the opposite, William Penn Perm might indicate as what he he always always referred referred to to as as "The Holy Holy founded Pennsylvania as founded Pennsylvania Experiment." Under more appropriate circumstances, Penn might more Perm appropriate circumstances, Experiment." might of the the great benevolent despots. despots. Governing that have been been one one of have in that great benevolent Governing in style, and guided by his Quaker faith in the goodness of men and and faith in the goodness of and style, guided by his Quaker geo~ his sophisticated mercantilism, he made the very best of the his sophisticated mercantilism, he the very best of the geographical resources at his disposal. at his graphical and human resources disposal. overEstablished between between 1680 Established 1680 and and 1682, 1682, Pennsylvania rapidly overPennsylvania rapidly took older by 1740 them for for political political colonies and by took older colonies was challenging 1740 was challenging them and economic leadership. England's England's post-Restoration post-Restoration economic economic leadership. economic boom the colony helped the off to to aa quick within two years and within two years start, and helped colony get get off quick start, Political and religious religious Philadelphia boasted boasted more than than 350 Philadelphia dwellings. Political 350 dwellings. in England controversies in the Continent Continent helped maintain controversies on the to maintain England and on helped to flow of of immigrants, immigrants, and the settlers encouraged aa steady steady flow the early settlers others early encouraged others to share the to share the bonanza. bonanza. Penn exploited these favorable circumstances these favorable circumstances exploited As aa through judicious judicious mercantile mercantile policies astute propaganda. propaganda. As through policies and astute pioneering master of what later public-relations experts were to call master of later what to call were pioneering public-relations experts the "soft sell," his advertising advertising campaigns campaigns in in Europe Europe combined the "soft a combined a sell," his
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promise of a candid candid and psychologically of wealth wealth and and grandeur with a and psychologically grandeur with promise clever that the lazy and untalented might better where that the and clever warning untalented might better stay warning lazy stay where by they were. Western Europeans responded eagerly. Encouraged were. Western they Europeans responded eagerly. Encouraged by leaders of their own such as Francis Daniel Pastorius, Germans such as Francis Daniel Pastorius, Germans leaders of their (and some Dutch) arrived arrived with outlook sympathetic the estabsome Dutch) with an an outlook to the estabsympathetic to (and lished Quaker religion. Unusually content with with their their own company company lished Quaker religion. Unusually content own skill skill and capable building thriving of building and their own communities by capable of by their thriving communities in carpentry, farming, weaving, pottery, and and shoein shoecarpentry, farming, weaving, wood-working, wood-working, pottery, making, these and women were willing to to accept political these men and were willing the political making, accept the and leadership of aristocracy on coast. social leadership and social of the the Quaker on the the eastern eastern coast. Quaker aristocracy This involved no great sacrifice, for they had their society and involved no This had their for own sacrifice, great they society and culture, and those those who became became particularly particularly successful managed to to successful managed culture, and into the inner councils of government. into the move quietly inner councils of quietly government. These were so generally satisfying, and accounts of These experiences so generally experiences were satisfying, and accounts of that in Europe some Germans worried lest their their them so so persuasive, them that in some Germans worried lest persuasive, Europe sons abandon promising futures the opportunities abandon promising for the in sons futures at at home for opportunities in America. Perhaps nothing is as revealing of the evolution of life in is as of evolution of life in America. the Perhaps nothing revealing as aa sharp of complaint complaint written written by by aa German the colonies the letter of colonies as sharp letter to shame him into abandoning family to a son in England. Trying to a in son shame into to family England. Trying abandoning a plan plan to emigrate to to Philadelphia, a brother disparaged the amto emigrate a brother a Philadelphia, disparaged the bition. "From appearances," he wrote snidely, "you wish perhaps wish bition. he wrote perhaps appearances," snidely, "you by just that to become nabob." Apparently attracted an English to become an attracted English nabob." Apparently by just that prospect, the errant brother sailed for Pennsylvania. prospect, the errant brother sailed for Pennsylvania. Other immigrants from adaptable; less adaptable; Other immigrants and Ireland Ireland were were less from Scotland Scotland and they were more driven by religion, more harried by memories of they were more driven by religion, more harried by memories of less sophisticated their image earlier troubles, and less in of success success in in their earlier troubles, and image of sophisticated in America. Finding seacoast and its immediate settled, immediate hinterland hinterland settled, the seacoast and its America. Finding the to the them spilling they tramped through to of them some of on through the frontier, frontier, some spilling down tramped on they across the the Appalachians uplands on the the way. the southern across into the southern uplands way. HardAppalachians into were, many reserves of they working as of energy had reserves as they energy which they many had they were, working than the turned toward politics and more aggressive the Far more and expansion. toward politics turned aggressive than expansion. Far Germans whom, ironically, they got their deadly long rifles), Germans (from (from whom, ironically, they got their deadly long rifles), ecothese predominantly predominantly Presbyterian Presbyterian settlers mixed religion and ecothese settlers mixed religion and nomic grievances into a back-country brew that finally fermented that brew a into nomic finally back-country grievances into opposition to to Quaker rule. into overt overt opposition Quaker rule. Anything but radicals, they wanted little than aa greater little more than wanted but radicals, greater they Anything their was share in the existing government. More representation their share in the representation existing government. taxes on general cry, and their specific complaints converged taxes and and their specific complaints converged general cry, the excises (such as those on the liquor they Indians. Opposing some those as excises some Indians. they liquor (such Opposing
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made), they concentrated on more help against the Indians on getting made), they concentrated getting more help against the Indians who checked their freebooting into the the Ohio valley. advance into checked their valley. And freebooting advance as they began began to to produce produce surpluses from the the rich they added added rich land, as they land, they surpluses from farm~to-market roads and canals would serve to the argument that and would canals roads serve that farm-to-market to the argument speed up the war against the red men. the red men. the war against speed up as well well as Many of the shopkeepers shopkeepers and workers in Philadelphia, as in Philadelphia, of the and workers as Many the seaboard gentry, resisted resisted such pofor economic demands for such demands economic and and pothe seaboard gentry, litical reasons. engaged in and developing in enjoying reasons. Busily litical enjoying and developing existing Busily engaged existing opportunities, or organizing to win a greater share of them, them, they they share of win a to greater opportunities, or organizing had little inclination to weaken their position. But one group own But one group of had little inclination to weaken their of position. Quaker opposed aggressive rewestern expansion the releaders opposed Quaker leaders expansion (and (and the aggressive western sulting violence against the Indians) for reasons of religious prin~ sulting violence against the Indians) for reasons of religious principle. One can quarrel with their assumptions assumptions but but not not with with their their with their can quarrel ciple. logic or motivation. Their hospitals, secondary and higher schools, or Their motivation. higher schools, hospitals, secondary logic and philanthropic philanthropic projects projects revealed a commitment commitment to to the spirit of the spirit and revealed a of noblesse oblige unsurpassed unsurpassed in confronted America. When finally noblesse oblige in America. confronted finally with the the ultimate ultimate choice premise of of nonnoncentral premise of abandoning their central choice of with abandoning their violence or giving up political power, they chose the latter. Easy or violence as giving up political power, they chose the latter. Easy as it to call such men impractical, as conveniently conveniently persuasive persuasive as it is is to and as call such as impractical, and the label may be he after the Indians Indians are no longer problem, aa little a problem, the label may are no after the little longer a reflection suggests that those Quakers bequeathed America one of reflection those America that one of Quakers bequeathed suggests its great moments of philosophic insight and moral courage. For the its of and moral For the great courage. philosophic insight Indians were, all, human beings, beings, and they did society Indians and they after all, have a did have a society were, after which the the colonists colonists and sons destroyed. their sons which and their destroyed. of their their leaders Had the the expansionists as Benjamin such of leaders as expansionists and such Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris tried the Quaker program Franklin Robert Morris tried the Quaker program of of gradual, gradual, equitable, and peaceful dealings dealings with latter~ and peaceful with the the Indians, and the the latterIndians, they equitable, they and day of the the Quakers Quakers would more persuasive. recent would seem critics of seem more day critics persuasive. A recent that Americans assertion Americans enjoyed free security well as as free assertion that as well free land land enjoyed free security as throughout most of their history, and that these factors explain the of most their and that these factors throughout history, explain the nation's development development is hardly half the story. What is missing nation's half the is is hardly is story. missing is the pattern pattern of of total total war war developed and put into operation against the and into developed put operation against the Indians Indians and then by the the the then transferred to later transferred to later opponents. Initiated by opponents. Initiated a colonists in colonists in a mood of of gluttony of self-righteous out of for arrogance out self-righteous arrogance gluttony for land they land they often never even let alone alone cultivated, total often never even cleared, such total cultivated, such cleared, let war extracted extracted a a terrible terrible physical physical and price for also and moral It also moral price for security. security. It planted in in the the American American mind an an assumption assumption of that that of omnipotence planted omnipotence was to to prove out against this policy policy and and stood out Quakers stood costly. The Quakers prove $:osdy. against this
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ethic at time at a a time ethic
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and in way that that does does credit to their and in a a way credit to their intelligence, intelligence, their values, and their courage. their values, and their courage. Poor Richard's Richard's aphorisms that morality. For Poor were faint faint echoes of that echoes of aphorisms were morality. For this very very reason, reason, no no doubt, appealed to many men were this to who were doubt, they they appealed many rising to top in Pennsylvania's bubbling bubbling pot of opportunity opportunity and and the top in Pennsylvania's to the rising pot of success. But in other the issue in political economy was But as as in other colonies, success. the issue in was colonies, political economy not should there be be any but rather what kind. Pennsylvania should there not rather what kind. Pennsylvania controls, but any controls, regulated various phases of the market system, established governvarious of the market phases regulated system, established government loan offices and land banks, and also encouraged local wagement loan offices and land banks, and also encouraged local wageand price-controls affecting affecting butchers, butchers, innkeepers, bakers, and other and price-controls innkeepers, bakers, and other revealed the spirit spirit concentrated or monopoly trades. trades. A law or monopoly concentrated the of 1725 law of revealed 1725 that was was so prevalent in was passed passed to to prepreso prevalent in the that the southern southern colonies; it was colonies; it vent the the export of inferior flour which would threaten "the credit of inferior "the vent flour which would threaten credit export of and the benefits thence thence arising." the benefits our trade of our trade and arising." Combining (and controlling) natural resources resources and and the colony's Combining (and controlling) the colony's natural its skilled labor force, Pennsylvania's seaboard gentry skilled its ambitious, labor ambitious, force, Pennsylvania's seaboard gentry developed diversified economy based on food proproa highly on surplus highly diversified developed a economy based surplus food duction processed flour), rough manuduction (including manulivestock breeding, breeding, rough (including processed flour), livestock facturing, phases of international trade. trade. Guided all phases and all of domestic and international Guided domestic and facturing, and by aa generally Philadelphia's leaders gained mercantilist outlook, leaders gained outlook, Philadelphia's by generally mercantilist rapidly on their rivals in Boston and York. This intracolonial in on their rivals Boston and New York. This intracolonial rapidly competition played played an important role ultimately determining atan important in ultimately role in determining atcompetition titudes toward toward British after 1763. As the old leader falling the old leader British policy after As titudes falling policy 1763. behind, Boston Boston proved proved to the most militant and aggressive op· to be be the most militant behind, aggressive opponent of the Crown's decision to tighten up the empire. In the the empire. In the ponent of the Crown's decision to tighten up meantime, Pennsylvania's Pennsylvania's rapid rapid progress progress provided provided context context and and meantime, springboard Franklin's fabulous fabulous career. career. for Benjimin Benjamin Franklin's springboard for of laissez advocate of Though respects he to· be an laissez an advocate he appeared in some respects appeared to-be Though in actually aa nabob wanted free trade in in the the faire, Franklin was free trade nabob who wanted was actually faire, Franklin same that the the English English gentry demanded greater access to the access to the demanded sense that same sense greater gentry to living opportunities of the came so by close to so close the empire. living by empire. A man who came opportunities of the rule the what-is-is-right what-is-is-right credo, that on major issues he broke the rule broke on issues the that credo, major exout to but once, accepted the the empire to sustain, set out but Franklin accepted sustain, exonce, Franklin empire and set His pand, and exploit its opportunities. succeeded. His twenty-five He succeeded. twenty-five pand, and exploit its opportunities. years as printer, culminating in his his becoming becoming publisher publisher of of The as a a printer, years culminating in established his Pennsylvania Gazette and Poor Poor Richard's Richatd's Almanac, Almanac, established his Gazette and Pennsylvania found four to learn fortune. the way he had time to learn four languages, found he had time the fortune. Along languages, way Along the Philadelphia Philadelphia Library, Library, the the American Philosophical Philosophical Society, the Society, and
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an academy, organize the the Junto, Junto, aa private private intellectual an intellectual club and organize club in in academy, and which many many rising rising leaders their economic and political economic and their which leaders developed developed political ideas. He retired an age most men at an business at ideas. retired from active business from active age when most were just just reaching for the the top and turned turned to to sophisticated scientific were sophisticated scientific reaching for top and tinkering, empire politics, and majestic schemes of land speculation. of land schemes speculation. tinkering, empire politics, and majestic as well as his more Franklin's famous famous experiments experiments with with electricity, Franklin's electricity, as well as his more to prosaic modifications of existing and gadgets, were a a tribute ideas and tribute to modifications of prosaic gadgets, were existing ideas his learning to his his speculative, almost childlike curiosity. There his and to learning and speculative, almost childlike curiosity. There is nothing inherently wrong with an attitude, attitude, but but it not it should should not with such such an is nothing inherently wrong
be with that that of a scientist scientist the the design design of the be confused of the science. To a confused with of science. the essence essence of the discipline, criterion experiment is this criterion and by is the of the by this discipline, and experiment Franklin was was only only aa lucky, clever, amateur. amateur. albeit clever, Franklin lucky, albeit This once-in-an-epoch combination of the dedicated the of dedicated amateur's This combination amateur's once-in-an-epoch expertise with the casual flair and style of the dilettante is what what of the the dilettante flair and with casual is expertise style so irresistible. The frontiersman needing a better fireplace proved a better frontiersman so irresistible. The needing proved fireplace as did made Franklin Franklin into into the the same kind of of hero hero as did the the member of same kind made of a a was searching for proof that the scientist was European salon the for that salon who was scientist was proof European searching aa good himself. But But praiseworthy praiseworthy though interest like himself. it is, an interest fellow like is, an though it good fellow different from an understanding in the results results of in the an different from of science science is is vastly of vastly understanding of the method method and willingness to its discipline. Because of his a willingness the to accept its Because and a of his accept discipline. role in this vital vital distinction, it may may very very well that AmerAmerin blurring role well be be that distinction, it blurring this to think think that that playing playing with with nature, or technoica's later propensity to ica's later propensity or technonature, the same thing as the scientific goes back back to logical facility, is the as the scientific spirit same thing to facility, is spirit goes logical Franklin. Franklin. In it is think of Franklin as only is difficult a scientist In any of Franklin as a if only difficult to to think scientist if event, it any event, because he invested so much time and intelligence in land speculation. time because he invested so intelligence in land speculation. Along with with his his British British allies, regular associates in those those one of of his his regular associates in allies, one Along enterprises was whose name, name, appropriately ~ppropriately was Thomas Wharton, Wharton, whose enterprises enough, business at at the the University of PennPenna school of business school of enough, now graces graces a University of Academy. As the the leader sylvania which which originated originated as as Franklin Franklin Academy. of leader of sylvania such ventures, Franklin delicate-albeit such ventures, Franklin carried carried on an intricate intricate and and delicate albeit on an militant-struggle control of the Ohio frontier hence the the militant of the frontier and for control and hence struggle for continent. continent. of Franklin's was the the British The essence essence of Franklin's outlook outlook was British mercantilism mercantilism he borrowed borrowed from from Sir William Petty. a who thought Enghe a Sir William As man Petty. thought England's radical radical John John Wilkes Wilkes an and who maintained maintained for for land's an "outlaw," "outlaw," and many years that George III was "the best king any nation was ever that III was "the best nation ever was many years George king any blessed with," in no sense a revolutionary. revolutionary. Working Working blessed Franklin was in sense a with," Franklin within the framework and in close association with Engwithin the existing and in close framework association with existing Eng-
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lish leaders, he hoped to to outflank rivals like Virginians he hoped outflank domestic domestic rivals like the the Virginians by George Washington and place Pennsylvania in the direct direct and by George Washington place Pennsylvania in the as the the center of a mammoth British Empire. line of of succession succession as line center of a British Empire. In In his view, sustained expansion would keep the people busy farming his view, sustained expansion would keep the people busy farming way turn them from domestic manufacturing manufacturing while while crecre~ and in in that that way and turn them from domestic acing aa limitless market for British manufactures. It would would also also "con"con~ limitless market for British manufactures. It ating tinuously draw off" the unemployed unemployed in cities and thus off" the in eastern eastern cities and thus tinuously decrease the chances of of urban urban unrest. the chances decrease unrest. Franklin abandoned this truly truly magnificent very late and Franklin abandoned this magnificent strategy strategy very late and with great reluctance. Only his broad mercantilist vision and his with reluctance. his broad and his mercantilist vision Only great so opportunism kept him from becoming a Loyalist along with him from a with so opportunism kept becoming Loyalist along many other in Pennsylvania, York, and England other men in New and New York, many Pennsylvania, England their careers ideas within within the the assumpassump~ also developed who had had also and ideas careers and developed their tions of Franklin later later admitted, the strength of the the nabob. tions nabob. And as of as Franklin the admitted, strength of those precepts it difficult, even for a with his perception made those with his it even for a man difficult, precepts perception chance, to to adapt political economy economy to to the the circumcircumof the the main chance, of his political adapt his stances of independence. independence. This offers an important clue to the the clue stances of This insight an offers to insight important at. reason why the leaders of the revolution were younger men, or the reason of the or leaders revolution were at. why younger men, any rate with a clearer conception of a self~efined corporate rate men with a a clearer of self-defined any corporate conception society. society. lish leaders,
led led
NEW ENGLAND AND THE IDEOLOGY
OF CALVIN*S CALVIN'S CORPORATE SOCIETY
Though they they had had insisted insisted on self-contained their separateness on their Though separateness and self
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times realized, the times realized, the
England Puritans were more Puritans were more concerned New England concerned with problems of political economy than their theological polemics their than with of theological polemics political economy problems to America for might indicate. For that matter, many of them came to of them America indicate. that For for matter, many might as well as to attain longimmediate and personal economic reasons well as as to attain longimmediate and personal economic reasons range ideological objectives. range ideological objectives.
Though carried to to the the near of fanaticism their theology, fanaticism by near edge by their edge of theology, Though carried such nevertheless were were Englishmen had matured during matured during such men nevertheless Englishmen who had mercantilism. While still in the pre-Revolutionary of mercantilism. While still consolidation of the in pre-Revolutionary consolidation England, they they argued with considerable justice that that their their triumph triumph considerable justice England, argued with would not not upset upset the political economy of mercantilism mercantilism but but would would would the political economy of success. As only organize and administer it with greater rigor and it with success. administer and As greater rigor only organize with Calvin, they distinguished aristocracy, monarchy, and democand democwith Calvin, they aristocracy, monarchy, distinguished racy as the three three forms forms of and concluded concluded in in agreement of government as the agreement government and racy that aa mixture mixture of and democracy the with him and offered the with him that of aristocracy democracy offered aristocracy best compromise. best compromise. John Winthrop's the general general welfare welfare was was strong and ininof the sense of John strong and Winthrop's sense cluded the realization realization that that the the relationship relationship between between prices prices and wages and wages cluded the be taken taken into working out a general system had to out a had to be into account account when working general system of economic regulation. John John Cotton had aa similar concern for the of similar concern economic regulation. for the Cotton had and the economic policies calculated to promote it, and calculated to and the economic and common good policies promote it, good Cotton Mather advanced aa theory theory of of taxation based on the the principle principle Mather advanced taxation based Cotton be of progressive rate that the receipts would the a progressive rate and that the assumption of a and the would be receipts assumption used for public benefits. benefits. Another Englander sounded for public used Another New Englander sounded like like Shaftesbury and other English mercantilists mercantilists of the IJIh other English of the Shaftesbury and lyth century: century: "Whilst for their private profit, the public good is "Whilst men are are all for the all their private profit, is public good neglected and languisheth." As his contribution to this discussion, his contribution to this discussion, neglected and languished!." is not not the the Increase fact that that social Mather emphasized Increase Mather the fact welfare is social welfare emphasized the by automatic product product of profits. "Sometimes," he noted, noted, "one automatic of profits. "one man by "Sometimes," he seeking to advance advance himself himself has has brought brought great on whole whole nanaseeking to great misery misery on tions." And the the persistence persistence of outlook was was revealed century tions." of this this outlook revealed a a century or Commerce," concluded an an essay relater. later. "Trade or the good on the Commerce? concluded essay on good republic, "is an Engine Engine of of State, draw men into business, for the "is an to draw into business, for the State, to public, advancing and and enabling the Rich, the support Poor, the Poor, of the for the of the Rich, for advancing enobling of support of for the the strengthening and 'fortifying of the State." for the State." of fortifying strengthening Considered in this context, the characterization characterization of Considered in this of Calvinism and Calvinism and context, the as philosophies philosophies based based on on making making fine takes Puritanism as Puritanism fine distinctions distinctions takes a deeper on a can be be seen, seen, there there were two two crucial as can crucial significance. For as deeper significance. decisions constantly it had to be deterdecisions demanding to be made. First, be had be to made. it to deterFirst, constantly demanding mined whether whether critics critics were were attacking the idea and ideal of such aa mined the idea and of such ideal attacking
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corporate or merely merely proposing proposing different for buildbuilddifferent means means for community or corporate community ing and sustaining it. Second, it was vital to decide when "enobling and it. it was vital decide to when Second, ing sustaining "enobling to subvert subvert "the of the the Poor." Poor." Or, Or, to to illustrate illustrate the Rich" began to Rich" began the "the support support of less than the problem problem in a way which calls attention to the Puritan's a the in way which calls attention to the Puritan's less than issue of liquor. Winthrop puritanical outlook on life, consider the outlook on life, consider the issue of liquor. Winthrop puritanical and Mather agreed that that the the "wine Mather agreed and "wine is is from from God, but the the Drunkard Drunkard God, but is was in deciding how to to hinder hinder the Devil." from the Devil." The difficulty is from difficulty was in deciding the Devil Devil without without denying the God. denying God. Rather than than to to view view New Englanders Englanders as as either either all or all all Rather all ideology ideology or more accurate to describe them as practicality, it it seems seems more accurate to describe them as men living in practicality, living in unremitting tension between, on hand, the the terrible and terrible and unremitting tension between, the one one hand, on the correct and, the anxiety confidence their ideal that their confidence that ideal was was correct on the the other, other, the and, on anxiety by a fear of destroying the ideal by enforcing it too rigorgenerated a fear of it too tie ideal generated by rigordestroying by enforcing it undone by outsiders. John Cotton came to face ously or having or it Cotton to face undone outsiders. came ously having John by this dilemma as as aa result result of his understanding and friendship with this of his and with understanding friendship his relarelaHutchinson. Winthrop Winthrop had the same problems in Anne Hutchinson. in his had the same problems tionship with Roger Williams. Both finally came on the with on the Williams. Both down men tionship finally Roger to the ideal. But they did so with a rending side loyalty side of a of enforcing to the with ideal. But did so they rending enforcing loyalty reluctance which, which, given their outlook outlook and and experience experience as reluctance as committed committed given their had led the colony through extreme extreme difficulties, more aa men who had is more led the difficulties, is colony through tribute to their their consciousness consciousness of is proof proof of of of the tribute to the dilemma than it it is dilemma than their blind their blind fanaticism. fanaticism. The point is not not that that Williams Williams and were Hutchinson were and Anne Hutchinson point is is to get beyond the stereotype of the Puritan. wrong. The issue issue is to get beyond the stereotype of the Puritan. wrong. chooses between between the contestants, it it should be apparent one chooses should be However one the contestants, apparent that the the Puritans were aa great deal more more than than bluenoses dedicated bluenoses dedicated that Puritans were great deal to spoiling everyone's good time. they wanted was aa good good to spoiling everyone's good time. What they time with with an rather than a complete than a time an equal on the the good complete emphasis on good rather equal emphasis say that that they they sought is to to give give up up stress the time. chimera is stress on on the rime. To say a chimera sought a the intellectual and moral moral struggle: asked the the right right questions the intellectual and questions struggle: they they asked and struggled the right right answers. for the answers. struggled for Nevertheless, like like the the little with aa curl the middle of of her her curl in in the little girl Nevertheless, girl with forehead, had aa kink their ideology; in their Puritans had kink in these early forehead, these ideology; when early Puritans ideal the ideal they wrong, they went very, very, very very wrong. wrong. Devoted to to the went wrong, they went they went deby a strong moral sense, they deof community guided a a corporate of a sense, they strong corporate community guided by the veloped a great talent for misinterpreting any opposition. From the a for talent misinterpreting any opposition. veloped great Indians as as agents outset, for they were prone to to view view the the Indians were prone for example, outset, agents example, they even though to test convictions-even their of the Devil waiting waiting to test their their convictions the Devil of though their of men were red theology implied very strongly that the red were members of the that theology implied very strongly
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the Invisible Invisible Church. Church. But externalized Evil, thus that definition definition externalized But that the Evil, thus making it object to be overpowered rather than an internal, huthan rather an it an an to be internal, huoverpowered making object be contained until transformed (or, in the case of man weakness weakness to in the case until transformed to be contained of (or, to deal with them as co-equal Children of God). the Indians, of Children the Indians, to deal with them as co-equal God). to place place Evil Evil outside outside their their system This propensity to not only This propensity dissystem not only distorted the Puritans' own doctrine, it inclined them toward a toward a solution solution torted the Puritans' doctrine, it inclined was aa which involved their system over others. others. Here was which involved the the extension extension of of their system over subtle of religious religious and for mercantilism and secular secular ideas, mercantilism subtle convergence ideas, for convergence of also emphasized the necessity necessity as as well as the the desirability of expanwell as also desirability of emphasized the expanexternalized secular evil by by sion political affairs. secular evil affairs. It It externalized in economic and political economic and sion in arguing that domestic poverty could could in the last be overcome in the last analysis domestic poverty overcome analysis be arguing that only by taking wealth away away from Far from more from others. from wanting others. Far no more only by wanting no taking wealth to be left alone, alone, New Englanders Englanders developed their than to a solution solution to to their be left than developed a religious and secular difficulties which prompted vigorous action which secular difficulties and action prompted vigorous religious cause. against an external external cause. against an Even so, in the the same way that that they they were were at at first first ambivalent Even and in same way ambivalent so, and toward Williams and Anne Hutchinson, Hutchipson, they they were cautious were initially toward Williams and initially cautious 1620S and 1630S in the demand brought forward in the the in opposing forward in 1620$ and the for brought 16305 for opposing wealthy as broader participation participation in in political political affairs. Raised by affairs. Raised broader men as by wealthy well as the middle and lower classes, this attack on restricted as by the this attack well middle lower restricted classes, by easily have have succeeded. But when the hesigovernment might might easily the rulers succeeded. But rulers hesigovernment tated, only a small number of the critics stepped forward and deforward a number of and small the critics detated, only stepped clared themselves themselves free free men. men. Convinced that such indicated such caution clared caution indicated Convinced that aa lack lack of of conviction, the oligarchy shut the the gate and slammed slammed conviction, the swung shut oligarchy swung gate and by which bolt. Not even halfway covenant covenant of of 1662, the bolt. even the the halfway home the 1662, by which to partial partial church church memthe children of the admitted to the the converted were admitted children of converted were by that that time time the the leaders leaders had consolidated bership, reopened it. For For by consolidated bership, reopened it. their position position and the meaning meaning of the old ideal. their and altered altered the of the old ideal. Embarking upon upon aa campaign righteous persuasion persuasion which of righteous often which often Embarking campaign of became outright intimidation, and upon aa bloody bloody trail trail of of persecution, persecution, and upon became outright intimidation, the the church punished the the courageous, the bold, bold, and church fathers fathers punished exiled the and courageous, exiled early as terrified the the timid. timid. As early as the terrified the 16505, old man was an old doubled was doubled 1650$, an hours and then lashed times with with aa tarred tarred over in in irons for 16 hours over irons for lashed 100 times and then the Rich, the Poor," Poor," rope. Far from "enabling Rich, and support[ing] rope. "enobling the support [ing] the this horrible travesty this horrible travesty on on the the ideal of aa corporate corporate community ideal of culcommunity culyears later the witchcraft witchcraft trials. is of course minated some 20 years in the later in trials. It It is of course true, and fortunate, that not not many people were were killed, but that that is is true, fortunate, that killed, but many people the half only half the ledger. were saved. Unless, perhaps, it was WinNone saved. it was WinUnless, only ledger. perhaps, is aa story which suggests that on on his his throp himself; himself; there there is about him which throp story about suggests that
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deathbed he he saw his his mistake. mistake. Asked warrant for banishdeathbed Asked to to sign a warrant for the the banishsign a heretic, he "No, I have done too much of ment of of another another heretic, he refused: ment I have refused: "No, done too of that work already." that work already." During those same years, Winthrop Winthrop and his successors and his same years, consolidated successors consolidated During those
their political position at within the the empire. Winthrop's at home and their and within political position empire. Winthrop's by an an episode had to attitude is wonderfully attitude is revealed by in which he had which he to wonderfully revealed episode in
borrow the the royal ensign from ship so that the captain of a visiting borrow from a royal ensign visiting ship so that the captain of flying over over the vessel vessel could he had could report the that he had seen seen it it flying in London that report in allegiance binds binds us us not not to to the laws of the colony. the "Our allegiance the laws of England," colony. "Our England," explained Winthrop, than while while we live live in in England." explained longer than Winthrop, "any "any longer England." While he he agreed with those thought it desirable desirable those Englishmen While who agreed with thought it Englishmen to exercise exercise to
refused more authority authority over more over New England, Shaftesbury refused England, Shaftesbury
His assumption assumption that colonists to panic panic over the colony'S to over the that the the colonists freedom- His colony's freedom. would come to accept the the basic principles of the empire was generto accept would was of the basic principles generempire regions, New Englanders Englanders fought fought ally in other correct. As in other colonial colonial regions, ally correct. effectively for for local authority while while accepting the restricmore or or less the less effectively restricmore local authority accepting tions of Navigation Acts compensating rewards trade tions of the the Navigation the compensating rewards of of trade and the Acts and and naval protection. naval protection. In militant resistance, resistance, Massathe century In the that followed followed Winthrop's Massacentury that Winthrop's militant chusetts and its neighbors neighbors evolved a dynamic and stratified society and chusetts and its evolved a stratified society dynamic by the merchant aristocracy. Poor farm land, boundary restricled by the merchant led restricPoor farm land, boundary aristocracy. tions in charters, and opposition of of the the French, French, Indians, Indians, and in their their charters, tions the opposition and the New Yorkers Yorkers (and (and each each other) combined to make New Englanders Englanders other) combined to sea. There was some agricultural farming, into miners of the into miners of the sea. There was some agricultural farming, as as well as tree harvesting, city men owned or in or speculated as tree well and some some city speculated in harvesting, and of New England produced more poets, poets, pampamland; but the the boulders boulders of land; but England produced phleteers, and politicians than landed gentry. Fishing, shipbuilding, phleteers, and politicians than landed gentry. Fishing, shipbuilding, in flour, lumber, and and alcohol, alcohol, and and processing operations operations in and colonial colonial and flour, lumber, processing international trading created created the private fortunes, training the training international trading the private fortunes, the grounds decision makers, makers, and the the economic economic weather weather for for the the of decision grounds of entire region. region. entire Slave trading was was an an integral part of of the the system. old-time Slave trading system. Some old-time integral part wheel of Though an merchants even called of commerce." it "the first wheel commerce." Though called it "the first merchants even exaggeration, profits on "black ivory" purchased purchased many prayer "black ivory" the profits many a prayer exaggeration, the book and Bible and spilled spilled into collection plates plates from Providence Providence into collection Bible and book have seen," critic of miserable business, business, to Boston. of the the miserable cried one one critic to Boston. "We have seen," cried in a gold and iron, a perpetual perpetual "molasses alcohol, rum and slaves, "molasses and alcohol, iron, in slaves, gold As that that comment suggests, and unholy and round of of commerce." commerce." As suggests, New unholy round in it was simple Englanders developed a complex economy; it a simple only only in complex economy; Englanders developed
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essentials. Codfish were graded exported to the appropriate to the and exported Codfish were graded and appropriate market, top fillets went for flour and tobacco down the coast, and the tobacco went for flour and fillets market, top coast, and to the the Mediterranean Mediterranean for to the the Indies. the rest and wine wine or or to for salt salt and the rest to Indies. Whale-chasing was in its its own right right and ultimately created and ultimately successful in created was successful Whale-chasing aa young candlemaking industry in Rhode Island. Naval stores and Island. Naval Rhode in stores and young candlemaking industry as well as for traders ships were supplied on order for England well as as for traders in in ships were supplied on order for England Boston. At the center of the whole system were the merchants Boston. At the center of the whole system were the merchants who the handled everything from marine insurance to to retail retail sales sales across marine insurance across the handled everything from counter, rising body body of the ropes ropes colonial lawyers of colonial the rising and the counter, and lawyers who knew the of the term. of such in both the term. an economy senses of of both senses such an economy in be gained by comparConsiderable into New England can be Considerable insight England can gained by insight into comparit, instead of contrasting it, with the Southern colonies. obing the Southern colonies. with The obof instead it, it, ing contrasting vious differences be overemphasized to the point of serious to the of can be vious differences can serious point overemphasized misunderstanding, for there were many similarities. Both were misunderstanding, for there were many similarities. Both were classes were were oppocket-deep in the business business of Both upper upper classes of slavery. in the slavery. Both oppocket-deep by the lower orders within their regions. And both groups posed within the their both lower orders of regions. posed by groups of leaders valued valued artistic artistic achievement. achievement. Thomas Hancock's Hancock's great great house house leaders on Beacon Beacon Street in Boston, Boston, for was the the merchant's version on Street in for example, merchant's version example, was of Mount Vernon. John Singleton Copley, furtherVernon. New England's of furtherEngland's John Singleton Copley, more, was colonial painter. painter. Gifted artists with with the colonial was the Gifted among colonial artists more, among colonial exceptional visual perceptiveness, Copley had a unique ability to a had visual unique ability to exceptional perceptiveness, Copley create the the illusion that is is more real than reality. reality. His portrait of create illusion that real than His portrait of SamSamuel Adams, Adams, for for example, example, calls an image image of reveals the the of Calvin Calvin that calls up uel that reveals up an any written written study of the man. essential far better better than does any than does of the essential Adams far man. study These two two societies held yet Though These societies held other elements in common. Though elements in yet other it ever more difficult to maintain the rate of both groups found to both found ever difficult maintain it the rate of groups growth within England's England's mercantilist mercantilist empire empire that that they had grown grown growth within they had accustomed to, to, neither neither of of them reacted by by embracing independence accustomed them reacted embracing independence en Finally, and perhaps perhaps most had an an en masse. masse. Finally, most important of all, each had all, each important of outlook rooted in in aa religious religious conception as aa outlook rooted the good of the good society conception of society as by their and balanced, corporate system originally their Puritan Puritan and shared by balanced, corporate system originally shared as Anglican ancestors in England. Perhaps it it is ancestors in is not not as as surprising Anglican England. Perhaps surprising as it sometimes it therefore, that that Massachusetts Virginia sometimes appears, Massachusetts and and Virginia appears, therefore, ultimately struck the alliance which defeated defeated Great Britain. Or, Or, in in struck the alliance which Great Britain. ultimately another way, one the another that one of the great philosophic and literary documents that of way, great philosophic literary of of American history history is is the the correspondence between John and John Adams and correspondence between Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson. As also also in in Virginia, moreover, the took the the the New Englanders Englanders who took Virginia, moreover, lead in the revolutionary to that that lead revolutionary movement were in the were men committed committed to essentials.
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ideal of responsibility ideal of corporate corporate responsibility
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and welfare. welfare. Jonathan Jonathan Edwards, and Edwards, Samuel Adams, Adams, and and John John Adams played played particularly particularly important important roles roles society and the political econin sustaining the morality of a corporate the in sustaining morality of a corporate society and the political economy of balanced mercantilist mercantilist state. All were were products products of of the the edua balanced of a state. All eduomy by the leaders. cational founded by cational system the early and its its secular secular leaders. system founded early theocracy theocracy and Learning was was not part of religion in in the the basic basic sense a part not only of religion sense (how else Learning only a (how else could the the Bible Bible be be emphasized?), emphasized?), but but it was considered vital for the could it was considered vital for the training of preachers and general prosperity prosperity of of the of preachers and for for the the general the society. training society. Massachusetts as Fines neglect of of education levied in Fines for for the the neglect in Massachusetts education were were levied as early within five teachers were given special as 1642, and within five years teachers were early as 1642, and years given special consideration. Whether Whether Harvard founded for or religious religious for secular consideration. Harvard was secular or was founded is not really the issue; both were part of the corporate objectives is the not both the were of issue; objectives really part corporate entity in 1636. entity in 1636. But this early early devotion devotion to the corporate was weakened weakened as But this ideal was as to the corporate ideal England extended their Massachusetts and the other other colonies in New England Massachusetts extended their and the colonies in was not but boundaries and prosperity. Religion boundaries and their their prosperity. not abandoned, abandoned, but Religion was gods" of of the Valley and merchants the wealthy wealthy "river the the Connecticut the merchants "river gods" Connecticut Valley and the of Boston, and and Providence Providence gradually gradually redefined redefined the the meaning meaning of Salem, Salem, Boston, of term, the the elect. membership of the in CalCalthe crucial crucial term, elect. From signifying signifying membership in it came to the upper vin's corporate religious community vin's came to the it mean upper corporate religious community class Furthermore, since the leaders dominated the class of of that that society. society. Furthermore, since the leaders dominated the to equate the elect elect with the elected. By political system, they began began to elected. By with the political equate the system, they this casuistry they gave themselves a happy aura of liberalism in an in an a aura of this liberalism casuistry they gave themselves happy age when laissez faire was beginning to challenge the corporate the laissez faire was beginning to challenge age corporate emphasis in mercantilism. mercantilism. emphasis in Jonathan Edwards Edwards assaulted assaulted their vigor with tremendous their outlook outlook with tremendous vigor Jonathan and passion. Perry Miller's Miller's description campaign is is and of the the campaign Professor Perry passion. Professor description of appropriately bare bare and and explicit: Edwards "demonstrated to New "demonstrated to explicit: Edwards appropriately that they ceased to to believe proEnglanders of of 1734 believe what they they pro1734 that they had ceased Englanders result the the society was sick. sick. He did not merely merely fessed, a result did not that as as a fessed, and that society was religious call them them hypocrites, he proved that they were." In In defining call defining religious they were." proved that hypocrites, he as an an affair affair of heart, in in considering commitment as that only the heart, of the commitment only God considering that is worthy worthy of of worship, value on intellect and on is the intellect on the in placing worship, in high value placing high in assertvaluing and respecting respecting self-government, asserteducation, in valuing education, in self-government, and in ing that there were positive, pragmatic consequences of being sober, of there that were sober, being consequences positive, pragmatic ing Edwork-in all these respects honest, responsible, and willing to in all these work and to honest, responsible, respects willing side a monument to positive side wards was was aa man who left left his his life to the the positive as a life as wards of Perhaps even important, having having ultimately ultimately even more important, of Puritanism. Puritanism. Perhaps in in turning recognized that the principal danger of his outlook lay his outlook of the that turning lay principal danger recognized
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politics into aa crusade, he did that he he could could to unto moderate moderate that all that that undid all crusade, he politics into happy tradition. happy tradition. Intellectually, or theologically, Edwards reasserted and insisted insisted Intellectually, or theologically, Edwards reasserted that Calvinism was a religion for none but the strong at heart; the but at for none it that Calvinism was a religion heart; it strong confronted men with a harsh world and offered them no quarter. and offered no with a harsh world confronted quarter. Either they lived together as of God or they lived lived totoor they children of the children as the lived together Either they as animals. "Frauds and trickishness in trade," Edwards thungether gether as animals. "Frauds and trickishness in trade," Edwards thundered, the casual "in taking casual callousness callousness "in dered, supplemented any advantage taking any advantage supplemented the that men can can by by any means obtain, to get get the the utmost utmost possible possible of of their their that obtain, to any means and their their neighbor needs." neighbor for what they they have to dispose have to for what of, and dispose of, neighbor needs." neighbor Worst of of their neighbor's poverty poverty to their neighbor's to of all, "take advantage Worst all, men "take advantage of extort unreasonably from him those things that he is a necesis under under that a neceshim those from extort things unreasonably sity of procuring." Edwards explained this this decay decay by by man's man's natural natural sity of procuring." Edwards explained to confuse his interests with those of the Lord, a propensity tendency the a of with those to his interests confuse Lord, propensity tendency encouraged even justified justified by the false theology of English of such such English false theology and even by the encouraged and as John Taylor and Daniel Whitby. Edwards was not preachers was as and Daniel not John Taylor Whitby. preachers England theologians in recognizing that these alone in that these alone among New England theologians recognizing among ideas with the the parallel economic progress progress of of the mother the mother ideas emerged emerged with parallel economic country and the colonies. Jonathan Mayhew of Boston saw the conof Boston the and the colonies. conJonathan Mayhew country nection and candidly tailored tailored the corporate cloth to fit of Calvinism the corporate cloth of and candidly fit Calvinism to nection so Edwards. the individualism Locke and Smith. Adam Smith. so of John Locke and Not the individualism of Edwards. John Accepting the challenge to that was was implicit this the challenge to Christianity in this implicit in Christianity that Accepting evolving laissez-faire business ethic, he attacked its theological (and he its laissez-faire business attacked ethic, theological (and evolving hence intellectual) premises. hence intellectual) premises. Men like their American American admirers had done a very very like Taylor admirers had done a Taylor and their simple and effective thing; they raised once again the obvious quessimple and effective thing; they raised once again the obvious quesis truly truly predestined, predestined, how then then can can he he tion about tion about Calvinism. If man is Calvinism. If be asked to be be good? to be be tenable, tenable, they they concluded, be asked to the doctrine doctrine to For the concluded, good? For it had to grant that that men were open to persuasion persuasion by and God's agents it had to grant by God's open to agents and therefore had aa will volition of of their own. As they therefore will and and volition their own. admitted, they admitted, the disarming of insufficiency insufficiency theirs was aa religion theirs which the in which religion in plea of disarming plea was enough to excuse excuse any any but the most blatant failure to honor honor the the but the most blatant failure to enough to way of the Lord. Lord. of the way replied with with aa torrent moral scorn by the hellEdwards replied torrent of of moral the hellscorn directed directed by fire a fire logic of a deep and brilliant believer. Neither cause and effect of brilliant believer. Neither cause and effect logic deep nor the experience nor the will can be made intelligible of free free will can be and coherent, coherent, experience of intelligible and he he insisted, an inclusive inclusive conception of the universe. Suffering without an the of universe. insisted, without conception Suffering has has no significance no dignity outside such such aa world, and tolertolerworld, and significance and no dignity outside based on ance based on indifference, indifference, or lack of of any positive position, ance or the the lack is any positive position, is
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nothing but but an of the the whole whole point point about about an evasion evasion of nothing
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toleration. For like like toleration. For suffering, toleration is meaningful only the person involved toleration is the when suffering, person involved meaningful only truly cares about the the issue; otherwise it it becomes becomes an insufferable arroarrocares about an insufferable issue; otherwise truly gance. Hence the essential corporate character of Christian society: the essential corporate character of Christian society: gance. is benevobenevowhat belongs belongs together, together, whether whether or or not not it it is belongs together together belongs to assert the claim lent or lent or pleasant. adethat man is is adeassert against this the claim that pleasant. And to against this is to commit the the most most grievous grievous sin sin of of all. is an an end end quate to commit all. No man is quate is in himself. in and of of himself. Yet of this this religious revival that that came came the other Yet the other side and revival side of conflict and religious conflict as the the Great Awakening also also had to be to be known as conseGreat Awakening had significant significant consequences for America's developing thing, for America's For one one thing, self-consciousness. For quences developing self-consciousness. in England society, Edwards's targets were were powerful powerful figures Edwards's targets in New figures England society, and their vigorous faith faith in ultimately prompted prompted their vigorous their own self-interest self-interest ultimately in their to favor a war for independence. Having reached that many of them of reached that to a favor war for many independence. Having success. In aa conclusion, they made important contributions to its to its In success. contributions conclusion, they important quite different way, religious leaders like George Whitefield of of like different Whitefield leaders quite way, religious George England influenced a large number of colonists. Whitefield had none influenced a England large number of colonists. Whitefield had none His sermons (a of Edwards's moral integrity or intellectual rigor. His of Edwards's moral sermons (a intellectual rigor. integrity or term might be performances) combined the free-will argumore apt term free-will the be combined apt argumight performances) save himself himself with with the the idea idea that that salvation that man could ment that could save salvation meant to Calvin's ideas and and ideals. a have-your-cakehave-your-cakea return return to a Such a Calvin's original ideals. Such original ideas and-eat-it-too doctrine had aa broad broad appeal. appeal. Scotch-Irish and-eat-it-too doctrine had Scotch-Irish Presbyterians Presbyterians and Congregationalists join with with men of of the the Dutch Reformed could join Reformed Congregationalists could to this this approach; to Church in in responding for example, it seems, seems, for responding to example, to approach; it as well as Sam Adams in have inspired Patrick Henry in Virginia in have inspired Patrick Henry in Virginia as well as Massachusetts. Massachusetts. "I my field work," recalled recalled one Englander who "I was in in my one New Englander field at at work," in my by this theology. "I dropped my my tool tool that my was roused this theology. that II had in was roused by "I dropped to make ready ready quickly quickly to to hand and ran to my my wife, wife, telling her to ran home to hand telling her Whitefield preach at Middletown, Middletown, then then run run to to my my go and hear Mr. Whitefield hear Mr. preach at go pasture for my horse with all be too too should be that II should for my horse with all my pasture my might, might, fearing fearing that his well as late." worked up such a lather on himself as as on his as well a lather on himself such late." Having worked up Having he rode rode animal, the the man was was caked caked with with aa thin film of of mud when he thin film animal, by the arrival of of other into the cloud cloud of raised by other men and women of dust the arrival dust raised into the fashion. reacted in in the the same fashion. who had reacted as to "the well as to "the Whitefield consciously consciously spoke rabble" as "the rabble" as well to "the Whitefield spoke to this in if In rhetoric and impact, if not in motivation, this great and the rich." rich." not the In rhetoric motivation, impact, great went men like was an Christianity, and some like John Wise an equalitarian and was John equalitarian Christianity, as aa democratic political phiphion to secularize it even even more explicidy democratic political secularize it on to explicitly as
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losophy. In that very limited sense, therefore, the the Great Great Awakening Awakening losophy. In that very limited sense, therefore, was aa colonial version of the Levellers' far more rigorous, radmore far and radthe version of Levellers' was colonial rigorous, and ical, religious enthusiasm. But only an insignificant of Levnumber of an Levical, religious enthusiasm. But only insignificant in America, America, and ellers of colonial colonial radicals radicals in and to to speak ellers developed in speak of developed in as Isaac Sterns or Sam Adams is to distort the referring to such men is to distort the as Isaac Sterns or referring to such term beyond useful meaning. or useful term serious or meaning. beyond any any serious COLONIAL MATURITY: THE ACHIEVEMENT OF BRITISH BRrrISH MERCANTALISM
But in less rigorous rigorous way, movement based based on the individual's the individual's a movement But in a a less as a way, as discovery (or rediscovery) of self within a group, the Great the Great self of within a Awakgroup, discovery (or rediscovery) ening did reinforce and extend the rising self-consciousness that the self-consciousness that the did extend the reinforce and rising ening By the colonists were exhibiting in economic and political affairs. and in affairs. economic colonists were the political By exhibiting 17408, the English gave way way before before the the persistent persistent 17405, when the government gave English government entreaties pressures of the South Company and officially South Sea Sea Company of the and pressures entreaties and officially supported the penetration of Spain's empire in the the the New World, of the World, the Spain's empire in supported penetration increasing American colonies were mature mature societies infused with with an an increasing societies infused colonies were American confidence. the war erupted into a general general into a war against confidence. When the Spain erupted against Spain at France, for example, Massachusetts European conflict aimed for aimed at conflict Massachusetts France, example, European planned, financed, Louisburg. Costing a campaign and won a financed, and against Louisburg. campaign against Costing planned, £50,000, this assault captured the fort which commanded more than the fort than ^50,000, this assault captured conthe trade routes and and fishing the North North Atlantic and conof the the Atlantic and trade routes grounds of fishing grounds trolled access to the the St. the interior the continent. interior of of the and the trolled St. Lawrence Lawrence and continent. access to give it the itself at to give Massachusetts gorged at the forced to it up in When forced 1748, Massachusetts gorged itself up in 1748, table of table of frustrated frustrated ambitions. ambitions. clashes occurred occurred during next decade PennSimilar the next as Virginia, Similar clashes decade as during the Virginia, Penndisagreed with London's policies on sylvania, and London's New York with sylvania, disagreed policies on the Indians westward expansion. with the outbreak of the the outbreak Indians and westward And with the of the expansion. the conflict the French French and Indian Indian War in in 1756, took on some of conflict took of the 1756, the characteristics of aa struggle struggle between between two two English-speaking empires. characteristics of English-speaking empires. was Following the mercantilist trading with with the the enemy mercantilist axiom axiom that that trading Following the enemy was permissible if the opponent gave up more than he got, the colonials the the if colonials than permissible opponent gave up got, in and Pennsylvania (and expanded) in Boston Boston and their comcontinued (and Pennsylvania continued expanded) their merce with Indies. England was furious. Firing merce with the the French French West Indies. furious. was England Firing might use it in to enwrits of writs of assistance as one might use grapeshot, assistance as it moved in to engrapeshot, force its its restrictions. force restrictions. Hiring James Otis, a lawyer crony of Sam a of Hiring James Otis, lawyer crony to defend them, the the merchants merchants accepted Adams, to defend them, the challenge. all Adams, accepted the challenge. As all good are wont to to do, it with with "a torrent of of imim"a torrent do, and doing good lawyers lawyers are doing it petuous eloquence," an earthy Otis transformed transformed an economic conflict conflict petuous eloquence," Otis earthy economic into a a noble noble constitutional into constitutional issue. issue.
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British had warned warned of of aa rising rising militant militant self-consciousness British officials officials had self-consciousness fifteen years earlier. "Whether wanton prosperity or "Whether grown or grown wanton by by prosperity reported Lt. Gov. George Clark of New York in whatever •.• ," whatever in York ," reported Lt. Gov. George Clark of 1741, colonists were were by by their acts reinforcing reinforcing "a jealousy which which the colonists their acts "a jealousy 1741, the has obtained in England, that the plantations are for some years for some years has obtained in England, that the plantations are not without thoughts of throwing off their Dependence on without thoughts not of thro their Dependence on the the Crown wing off to prove the point, point, William Bradford of of England." England." As if if to of PhilaWilliam Bradford of Philaprove the American Magazine Magazine the the same year, and and by by 1757 delphia the American started the same year, delphia started 1757 it was was referring referring to to the the colonies nation." Governor Morris it "as a Governor Lewis colonies "as a nation/* Lewis Morris Jersey agreed with Clark that some colonists of New Jersey of Clark that colonists were were "grasping agreed with "grasping at the of Government." at the whole whole authority of Government." authority to explain explain this this concern. concern. Colonial had Statistics help to Statistics help Colonial population population had in I700 to about 1,400,000 in 1750. mushroomed from in And in to about from 250,000 250,000 1,400,000 1750. 1700 having produced irrelevant one-seventieth one-seventieth of world's pig pig and and an irrelevant of the the world's having produced an I7OO, the the colonies colonies were racing toward toward the the one-seventh one-seventh bar iron in 1700, bar iron in were racing By that that time, their production production share they they would would turn turn out share out in in 1775. time, their 1775. By In aa more more was more than than that that of of England and Wales combined. was and In Wales combined. England general sense, the colonies had evolved an economic system. Howthe colonies evolved an economic system. general sense, by the the particularism particularism of each ever compartmentalized ever it might be by of each might be compartmentalized it colony, the resources, skills, and attitudes of the colonists had created created the and had the colonists attitudes of resources, skills, colony, as well well a common and interdependent economy. a and interdependent shoes as economy. They They made shoes as iron, furniture as well as ships, and guns as well as rum. Their as as as as well well rum. Their furniture and as iron, ships, guns own lumber, a settlea family settleand food food could could sustain or a sustain a lumber, livestock, livestock, and family or ment. And their trade with Europe, Africa, and the West Indies their trade with Europe, Africa, the ment Indies were so brought them other goods as so as capital. colonies were other goods well as as well brought capital. The colonies far along toward integration integration that that one the most most common comcomfar one of of the along toward plaints concerned the lack of a compulsory system of weights and plaints concerned the lack of a compulsory system of weights measures. measures. also revealed revealed in in the the growing Such maturity was was also of difdifSuch maturity awareness of growing awareness classes and groups. groups. This was not not surprising: the ferences between classes ferences between This was surprising: the colonies had been been founded (consider founded as as sharply divided societies societies (consider colonies had sharply divided acres the planter planter and and the and aa man with with 1,000 the indentured indentured servant), the 1,000 acres servant), and or aa ship to mortgage could always get wealthy faster than the could the man to faster than or always wealthy get ship mortgage or save aa and clear the trees from his family plot or clear save to stop the from trees his who had to family plot stop for someone else. else. stake building ships ships for while building stake while tavern-keeper named Thomas Morton observed and observed and A Plymouth Plymouth tavern-keeper the first setless a after less than a generation after the first setprotested such stratification such than stratification generation protested led an Pate tlements were established. and John Pate led established. William Davyes dements John Davyes in Maryland in 16]6. Almost simultaneously, unsuccessful rising in Almost in unsuccessful simultaneously, 1676. Maryland rising fifteen years earlier. .
.
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John Culpeper headed aa similar movement in Carolina and in South South Carolina similar movement and John Culpeper headed was saved from severe severe punishment only Shaftesbury interwhen was saved from interShaftesbury punishment only vened in behalf. New York small merchants organand small merchants organin his vened artisans and his behalf. York artisans in Massachusetts the ized protest movements further north. ized protest movements further north. And in Massachusetts the struggle over the land bank revealed similar internal divisions as internal divisions revealed the bank similar as land struggle over well as between the bank and and the the English a conflict well as a the bank a conflict between government, a English government, consideration which encouraged the supporters of the to feel feel consideration which encouraged the supporters of the bank to that domestic welfare might might depend winning independence. on winning that domestic welfare independence. depend on Far from being radical radical uprisings, uprisings, these these rebellions rebellions revealed revealed aa perperFar from being sistent concern restore and the ideal the practice practice ideal and the to restore and strengthen sistent concern to strengthen the which responsibilities benefits are of aa corporate in which are of responsibilities and benefits society in corporate society shared. Led by Nathaniel Bacon in Virginia I&;6, the the first first shared. Led Bacon in Virginia during during 1676, by Nathaniel terms. major colonial uprising defined its objectives in exacdy defined its those terms. colonial uprising exactly those major objectives in While the complained with particular bitterness the bitterness about the rebels While rebels complained with particular about the is anylack of against the Indians, their list of grievances list of lack of support their the is Indians, grievances anysupport against thing but but aa call for laissez laissez faire most certainly program of a program not a call for faire and most of certainly not thing Levellers. Rather Rather did they damn the the governor for "specious prefor Levellers. did they governor "specious pretences of of public public works," works," for to initiate initiate measures for "fortificatences measures for for failing "fortificafailing to tion, towns, or trade or for "liberal arts, or sciences," for abusing the for or trade or for "liberal or sciences," tion, towns, arts, abusing the system of justice, and for violating the Crown's rights by making of and the Crown's for a rights by making a system violating justice, personal monopoly of the beaver trade. Such fidelity to the accepted to of beaver trade. the the fidelity personal monopoly accepted code of mercantilist state them every to assert of a a corporate code assert state gave right to corporate mercantilist gave them every right that "we cannot cannot in our hearts hearts find spot of rebellion or in our that one single of rebellion or find one single spot treason." treason." Just the Regulator the North and a century of the later, the Just a Regulator movements of century later, South Carolina backcountry manifested a similar outlook. Pointing a Carolina similar outlook. manifested South backcountry Pointing out that men stole their horses and then sold them to the Dutch and out that stole their horses to the then sold and the French, they demanded protection for their their property punishthe French, they protection for property and punishthose who violated violated the regulations of of the They also the empire. ment for for those the regulations also empire. They the government government from which which they they petitioned for for an equitable share in in the equitable share petitioned requested such public benefits benefits as better poor poor laws, pricesuch public as schools, laws, priceschools, better requested control and quality-inspection and bounties bounties for agriculture. control for agriculture. laws, and quality-inspection laws, Their attack on church particularly revealing, they rereattack on Their for they church leaders leaders is is particularly revealing, for quested aa vigorous vigorous reassertion reassertion of corporate ideals wholesale a wholesale of the the corporate ideals and a quested distribution of Bibles. Bibles. A program typical of of Anglican distribution of mercanAnglican mercanprogram more typical tilism would be be difficult difficult to to imagine, it is not surprising that and tilism it is not imagine, surprising that such the mother country the revolution finally such men supported when the the revolution mother supported finally country began. began. That phrase, revolution," is is in many respects respects aa misnomer for "the revolution," for in many phrase, "the
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there was no no single to go war. There There were different there decision to to war. were 13 single decision go to 13 different governments in America. Founded as separate colonies, developing in America. Founded as governments separate colonies, developing different though complementary interests, and and having having waged their different though complementary interests, waged their respective battles against Royal governors and the mother country, battles respective against Royal governors and the mother country, these reluctant to up any their self-deterthese governments were reluctant to give of their self-detergovernments were give up any of remination. Massachusetts typified their attitude when in mination. Massachusetts typified their attitude in 1754 it re1754 it fused to support Franklin's proposed union on the grounds that fused to support Franklin's proposed union on the grounds that "it "it would be be subversive of the the most most valuable and Liberties of the would subversive of valuable rights rights and Liberties of the other hand, hand, the colonists did did several several Colonies Colonies included included in in it." it." On the the other the colonists have aa vision vision of future. have of sharing a common future. sharing a happiness we are are ready ready to to figure to ourselves!'' ourselves!" "What scenes of happiness scenes of figure to well imagine," cried aa not not atypical cried in 1759. colonist in "You cannot cannot well atypical colonist 1759. "You imagine," wrote another year later, health, plenty plenty and wrote another a a year a Land and "what a Land of of health, later, "what all ranks, vastly improved within the contentment this this is contentment is among the all within ranks, among vastly improved And as early as 1755 an American geographer last ten years." last ten as named as American an years/' early 1755 geographer Lewis Evans commented that that Massachusetts headed toward an Lewis Evans commented toward an Massachusetts was headed so was Virginia. Worried and upset "at the empire of its own. But of "at its the own. and But so was Worried empire Virginia. upset largeness" of his debts, delayed and frustrated in his plans for western largeness" of his debts, delayed and frustrated in his plans for western as early anxious to development and and land land speculation to as 1761, and anxious development speculation as early as 1761, and diversify the economy of the entire region, George Washington had the had the entire of diversify economy region, George Washington begun to think as a leader leader of American system. he comto think as a an American of an begun system. When he plained about poor or damaged imports from England, his his London about from or poor plained damaged imports England, him to send them back. Finally he exploded: agents told told back. he it was to send agents exploded: it Finally impossible. "can a person, imports bare requisites only, "can bare How a who impossible. person, requisites only, imports necsubmit to be aa year year out out of particular article of clothing, or or necto be article submit of any of clothing, any particular essary for family use .... It is not to be done. We are obliged to be are for not done. It is to use. ... obliged to essary family acquiesce." acquiesce." IDEOLOGY AND INDEBTEDNESS: THE LEVER AND FULCRUM
OF INDEPENDENCE
Washington and his peers like George George Mason along the PotoPotoAs Washington and his along the peers like Valley grew ever more more restive, the British emBritish government mac Valley restive, the grew ever government embarked upon program to further. Loyal Loyal Englishmen a program barked to confine confine them further. Englishmen upon a as as early as 1747. had been the virtue of that approach virtue of that had the been suggesting 1747. early as approach suggesting "The colonies this Time are to aa State considerable State of of considerable arrived to are arrived colonies at at this it would Maturity," judged judged William William Douglas in Boston: Boston: "perhaps Douglas in "perhaps it Maturity," for the be for the Interest Interest of the Nations Nations of of Great Britain, and for Ease the Ease Great Britain, be for the of the Great Britain, of Great Britain, to to reduce reduce of the the Ministry the Court Court of at the of or Managers Ministry or Managers at
them to general uniformity." uniformity." to some general them
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This with uniformity uniformity is is the basic explanation explanation of of English the basic This concern concern with English policy after the final defeat of the French in North America in 1763. in North America French in the after of the final defeat 1763. policy George III and his supporters not the mere hangers-on the mere at and his hangers-on at (though not George III supporters (though Court) wanted a uniformity that had its roots in the doctrine of the in the doctrine its roots of the Court) wanted a uniformity that had it as Patriot King King for for its its own divine right of kings. He sought as a a Patriot divine right of kings. sought it as a way to get money from the colonies in order to win sake, and in order to sake, and as a way to get money from the colonies as the prehis political battle in England. Others saw such control such control as the prehis political battle in England. Others requisite for laissez faire in England: if policy was to be abandoned requisite for laissez faire in England: if policy was to be abandoned home, then then policy policy had to triumph triumph throughout throughout the the for had to for interest interest at at home, empire. Men could not pursue. their enlightened self-interest unless self-interest their unless could not enlightened empire. pursue. was aa stable foundation on which to to make their their rational rational there was on which there stable foundation calculations, one which would would withstand withstand the the violence of their their violence of one which calculations, For quite different competition and the shock of their mistakes. For of their shock mistakes. and different the quite competition reasons, therefore, therefore, the the king king and his enemies agreed that that of his enemies agreed and many reasons, many of to be be brought brought into line. the colonies had to into line. the colonies had Having placed restrictions restrictions on settlement of west in of the the west on the the settlement in first placed Having first 1761, England announced on October 7, 1763, its to extend its decision decision to announced October extend 7, 1763, 1761, England and enforce edicts and laws in laws followed such limitations. and limitations. Other Other edicts enforce such followed in aprapid succession during the next two years. Typical of the new of the the next two succession aprapid during years. Typical proach was was London's London's revocation revocation of controlled price price system for of a a controlled system for proach its principle" principle"-aa clear indication of of the Indian Indian trade trade as clear indication the as "doubtful "doubtful in in its were more more the rising rising laissez-faire laissez-faire outlook in England. England. The colonists colonists were the outlook in directly by aa revenue usually known as as the the Sugar revenue law law usually directly antagonized antagonized by Sugar to wipe out the margin of profit in Act (1764), which threatened of to out the which in Act (1764), threatened wipe margin profit by restrictions on colonial the West Indies Indies trade. trade. It was followed the new It was followed by restrictions on colonial money (1764), that the the colonists colonists help finance the the money (1764), and demands that help finance maintenance of of British British troops troops in in North North America America (1765). maintenance (1765). the Then Parliament passed its its first tax in in the first direct direct tax Parliament passed the form of of the Stamp Act, another revenue measure measure which raised raised the the cost cost of of legal legal another revenue Stamp Act, Almanac, and even even playing playing documents, and Franklin's Franklin's Almanac, documents, newspapers newspapers and to raise the cost business, but but it cards. This not only only threatened threatened to raise the cost of of business, it cards. This not soured aa man's game of had to to a friendly man's anticipation of a of cards-he cards he had soured anticipation of friendly game ante up time for Finally, just just when the ante an extra extra time for the the King. the colonists colonists King. Finally, up an thought they they had won aa general victory in their bitter fight over the the in their bitter thought general victory fight over Stamp Act, England passed the Townshend Acts (1767). Consisting the Acts Act, Stamp England passed (1767). Consisting glass, lead, lead, paint, paint, paper, paper, and and tea tea of imports such of taxes taxes on colonial colonial imports such as as glass, was the national drink much as coffee is today), the legisla(which was drink national as coffee the the is (which today), legislaand courts to enforce the colcoltion also also erected courts to erected special tion commissions and enforce the special commissions lection of the money and punish offenders. of the and lection offenders. money punish
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The colonists, whose self-consciousness had been been self-consciousness and and confidence confidence had colonists, whose by the the victory victory over were affronted by the intensified by intensified over the the French, French, were affronted by the The new legislation inclusive nature nature of these regulations regulations and taxes. inclusive of these and taxes. legislation also jarred jarred their their identification identification with the empire, intensified the the also with the and intensified empire, and economic difficulties they were experiencing in a postwar depression. economic difficulties they were experiencing in a postwar depression. with aa call for aa meeting meeting Massachusetts struck back on June Massachusetts struck back call for 6, 1765, June 6, 1765, with and organize of the of the colonies colonies to to determine determine the the strategy the forces forces of a of a strategy and organize the counterattack. Though Though not that time time the the unchallenged leader of counterattack. not at at that of unchallenged leader colonial that he he became few years, years, Samuel Adams was was colonial resistance resistance that became in in a a few Samuel Adams nevertheless the of this first step toward independence nevertheless the moving moving spirit spirit of this first step toward independence and empire. with Virginians like Richard Richard Henry and Lee, empire. Together Together with Virginians like Henry Lee, England allies made Mason, and his and Washington, and Adams his New allies made Mason, and Washington, England the Revolution. Revolution. the as everything Although has been been explained and interpreted he has Although he explained and everything interpreted as from aa Leveller hence a radical of his time) to aa neurotic neurotic from Leveller (and to hence a radical of his (and time) a father image, Adams is best understood as aa true true haunted by a haunted father is best as understood by image, Calvinist and thoroughgoing mercantilist. an early age, he Calvinist and mercantilist. From an early age, he thoroughgoing from his received religious religious training training as a strict received as a from his strict Congregationalist Congregationalist His father was aa mother who had had "severe religious principles." principles." His mother "severe religious father was deacon of Boston's Old Old South Emerging from backof Boston's South Church. this backdeacon Church. Emerging from this ground, he developed views on the relationship between religion views he on the between religion ground, developed relationship hand, he he and that were subtle and complex. and politics the one one hand, complex. On the politics that were subtle staunchly advocated and defended the "free exercise of the rights defended the of the "free exercise staunchly advocated and rights of conscience," vigorously opposed opposed any participation by by the the of and vigorously conscience," and any participation organized in secular Yet he he was was against secular affairs. affairs. Yet church in allowing against allowing organized church to hold hold public public office because of what he their Catholics to of what he considered considered their office because Catholics to Rome was was meaningless, meaningless, divided loyalties; their commitment to divided either their loyalties; either case they were hypocrites, they would would follow the Pope in which which case in or they follow the Pope they were hypocrites, or dein aa conflict with the the electorate. the same time, he deof values electorate. At the values with in conflict of time, he fended aa modicum of state support support to to organized Protestantism on of state fended organized Protestantism the ground that the the church played aa vital role in maintaining aa fum church played in maintaining firm vital role the ground that in providing insurance against anarchy. corporate ethical system and in insurance ethical anarchy. against system providing corporate with Calvin, a militant militant spokesman for the the As with Calvin, Adams was a spokesman for supremacy of civilian authority over military leaders and institutions. over leaders institutions. civilian of military authority supremacy "to step he was was always willing "to forth arose he crises arose ethical crises And when ethical always willing step forth As he acknowledged in old cause of morality and religion." he of the good old in the cause acknowledged morality religion." good Christian in later his central central purpose purpose was to "the Christian to make Boston Boston "the in later years, years, his as Sparta" of the world. "1 am in fashion and out of fashion, as the the "I in fashion of the world. of fashion, Sparta" "I will stand in a letter of 1768. "I will stand he in a revealing letter of he commented whim goes," revealing 1768. goes,"
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alone. II will will oppose this tyranny tyranny at at the threshold, though the fabric fabric the threshold, alone. though the oppose this I perish in its ruins." Co-ordinated with the other of liberty fall, and with and Co-ordinated the of I in its ruins." other liberty fall, perish Christian aspects of his thought, his very candid remarks about "the "the remarks about candid of Christian his thought, his very aspects Sparta" and his willingness willingness to pose the the issue issue in terms of of an either-or in terms an either-or to pose and his Sparta" choice indicate that Adams became a revolutionary in the circumin a the circumchoice indicate that became revolutionary
he was was aa Calvinist dedicated stances of precisely because Calvinist dedicated of his time precisely because he stances his time to the ideal and the reality of a corporate Christian commonwealth. to the ideal and the reality of a corporate Christian commonwealth. Calvin had followed followed that his ideas and logic and his ideas and that course, himself had Calvin himself course, and logic would propel propel aa true true follower follower along the same same path. There seems would seems path. There along the little doubt that the the words words of Jonathan Edwards Edwards carried carried the the spirit little doubt that of Jonathan spirit of true Calvinism into the the well-prepared well-prepared mind of Adams. of Samuel Adams. of true Calvinism into the ideas Locke, and and HarOnce there, there, it it infiltrated ideas of of Shaftesbury, HarOnce infiltrated the Shaftesbury, Locke, rington to to produce produce aa man who signed many of militant polemics polemics of his his militant signed many rington as as "A :RELIGIOUS POLITICIAN." RELIGIOUS POUTICIAN." Though he accepted of natural natural rights based and based statement of Locke's statement rights and Though he accepted Locke's also his political theory and practice on that principle, that and on Adams his also principle, political theory practice stressed explicitly the dangers of individualism. Hence he set himhe of individualism. set stressed the himdangers explicitly else ... but but self firmly against men who defined as "nothing defined liberty self firmly against liberty as "nothing else their own liberty!' liberty." Adams was not aa laissez-faire laissez-faire individualist individualist who was not their thought that that the the competition between enlightened would self-interests would enlightened self-interests thought competition between produce the general welfare. "Liberty no can truly possess," he can no the man welfare. truly possess," he "Liberty produce general amplified, "whose is by irregular and inordinate "whose enthralled mind is enthralled inordinate amplified, by irregular is no no great great privilege to be be free violence passions; since it is free from external external violence since it passions; privilege to if the dictates of the the mind are by aa force within, which which are controlled controlled by force within, dictates of if the reason." "Religion and public liberty of the people erects and the above reason." of erects itself itself above public liberty "Religion people are intimately concluded: "their are interinterests are "their interests are he concluded: interconnected," he intimately connected," woven; they cannot subsist subsist separately." woven; separately." they cannot Given the existence of corporate commonwealth, of a a Christian the existence Christian corporate or commonwealth, or the possibility of reforming reforming such that had slipped the such a a society possibility of society that slipped away away is nothing nothing in in Adams's Adams's thought thought to justify aa from the to justify the ideal, there is ideal, there rerevolution. "The man who dares against the the laws laws of a rerebel against of a revolution. dares to to rebel public ought asserted, because because under those circirto suffer suffer death," he asserted, under those death," he public ought to is founded depraved and cumstances "sedition "sedition is the depraved cumstances founded on the and inordinate inordinate it is weak, feverish, thing." But if such passions of of the the mind; a weak, if such is a But feverish, sickly mind; it passions thing." sickly aa corporate corporate Christian republic did or had had decayed past the Christian republic did not not exist, exist, or decayed past the of to power of internal reform, then the same criteria enabled to internal then criteria Adams the enabled reform, power advocate revolution. revolution. Indeed, Indeed, his his principles principles forced forced him to to do do so. advocate so. Thus the true true commonwealth became aa public enemy. any of the commonwealth became any opponent opponent of public enemy. its agents and allies in the cast Britain, and Adams ultimately cast its allies in the and Britain, ultimately agents .
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colonies, in in that very role. role. Flatly Flatly declaring that "the Colonies were that very colonies, declaring that "the Colonies were by mother country," by their charters different states their charters made different states the mother by by the country," was sedition the that the the new British policy was Adams concluded concluded that British policy sedition against against tie original and true principles of the empire commonwealth. and true original principles o the empire commonwealth. asNever sympathetic to "utopian Adams asof levelling," schemes of sympathetic to "utopian schemes levelling," sumed aa causal causal relationship relationship between betw:een property property and "These freedom. "These and freedom. must stand and fall fall together." together." Thus move to to tax tax the the stand and must Thus Britain's Britain's move colonists was was critically important: it "greatly obstructed" their trade colonists critically important: it "greatly obstructed" their trade and the economic economic situation uneasy." As As for Boston in and made the in situation "very for Boston "very uneasy." particular, it it "lived by its its trade" therefore had had the "lived by trade" and conand therefore the "deepest particular, "deepest conthe conclusion conclusion was cern" the new policy. policy. For cern" about about the obvious: For Adams, was obvious: Adams, the acquiescence in such economic restrictions would every in such economic would make restrictions acquiescence every by depriving him of the basis of his freedom. colonist aa "bond colonist "bond slave" slave" by of the his freedom. him of basis depriving The Masters Masters of that the of Harvard the new in 1']65 Harvard agreed, agreed, asserting 1765 that asserting in in commerce," regulations "made it useless for the people to engage it the in for useless to commerce," regulations engage people by them as as faithful and for that reason reason the the laws for that "be evaded faithful laws could could "be evaded by subjects." subjects." It doubtful that that Adams sought seems doubtful It seems immediate independence independence sought immediate 1770. His early polemics and letters stress the the idea prior to to His idea of and letters stress of forcing prior 1770. forcing early polemics to return to mercantilism. Take the natural and extensive England to return extensive to the natural and mercantilism. Take England that purpose purpose profits of he told told them, and be be satisfied. satisfied. For that system, of that For that them, and profits system, he (though perhaps from the outset for independence), the from outset for (though perhaps independence), Adams organized a propaganda network and a local political party party supplea a network and local political organized propaganda suppleby an extralegal police force known as the Sons of Liberty. Liberty. mented as the mented by an extralegal police force Sons of John Adams, he used used Aided by key allies such key allies as as James Adams, he James Warren and John by such it in in the the form form this machinery pressure (much this to maintain of it maintain constant constant pressure machinery to (much of Boston merchants. merchants. of physical physical intimidation intimidation by by his his street mobs) on Boston of street mobs) His purpose was was tp tp keep keep them in in line the economic His purpose line on on the economic embargo embargo against and to to make them do the without the British goods, business without do business against British goods, and pocketbook motive of the the stamps decreed in 1765. decreed in the pocketbook motive of 1765. Counting Counting on the stamps merchants, he he assumed assumed this would prompt prompt the the Boston to put put traders to Boston traders this would merchants, to keep similar pressure on the merchants merchants in in other other colonial colonial ports ports to similar pressure on the keep them from taking all the profits. He also incited the profits. also encouraged, from prodded, and incited talcing all encouraged, prodded, the Sons Liberty and and other groups throughout throughout the the similar groups the Sons of of Liberty other similar the same colonies to exert exert their their own power for the purposes. for colonies to purposes. power it should Lest the importance of be overemphasized, overemphasized, it the great Lest of Adams be great importance road its colonies traveled its own road to to be made clear that each the 13 traveled be colonies clear that each of of the 13 bullied independence. could no have singlehandedly bullied have Adams more could singlehandedly independence. the same time than at the than or bamboozled bamboozled them into thing at or the same thing into doing doing the
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Pope. He had had help, and lots he could maneuvered his his election election as he have maneuvered as Pope. could have lots help, and of from several sources. Other lower. and middle-class leaders in and of it, lowermiddle-class several from sources. Other leaders in it, the seaboard cities organized their own political clubs and street clubs and the seaboard cities organized their street political used his his own organization organization in gangs, and deployed deployed them them as as Adams used in gangs, and Boston. Charles Thompson, for referred to to as as "the is often often referred "the Boston. Charles Thompson, for example, example, is Sam Adams of Philadelphia." Isaac were Sears and John of Philadelphia." Isaac Sears John Lamb were clever and militant militant leaders leaders in York, and in in 1770 clever and in New York, Alexander 1770 Alexander McDougall became aa hero hero in jail for his role role in in opposing for his to in jail opposing supplies supplies to McDougall became in the city. And further south, Patrick Henry and the British British troops Patrick the the further and in south, troops city. Henry George provided similar disfor agrarian Clark provided similar leadership leadership for agrarian disGeorge Rogers Rogers Clark sidents. sidents. Upper-class leaders leaders such such as Joseph Galloway Dickinson as Joseph John Dickinson Galloway and John Upper-class of Philadelphia, Philip Schuyler and Robert Livingston of New of Robert Livingston of Philadelphia, Philip Schuyler York, and the majority of southern merchants were initially willing merchants were and the of southern York, initially willing majority to support the kind of vigorous resistance to British policy advocated to British the to kind of resistance advocated policy support vigorous by Adams. Adams. But never went went beyond idea of the idea of forcing But they forcing England beyond the they never England by to restore restore the as one put it, it, "is one of of them put the old to old order. little rioting," "is order. "A litde rioting," as that point, however, such nabobs were openly aa good thing." Beyond nabobs such were openly good thing." Beyond that point, however, that the the colonies fall afraid, as Governor colonies would fall Governor Morris Morris explained, afraid, as explained, that "under the worst of all possible dominions ... the dominion of "under the worst of all possible dominions ... the dominion of a a riotous mob." was even willing, in years, to to earlier years, the earlier mob." Franklin even willing, in the riotous Franklin was up of and "make as a night night accept tightening up as good a tightening of the the empire good a accept a empire and of it of it as as we can." can." Persuaded, prodded, prodded, and by its militant elements, intimidated by its more militant and intimidated Persuaded, elements, to the classic this coalition England to to back back down. down. Turning to the this coalition forced forced England classic Turning mercantilist weapon of economic sanctions, it adopted and ultimately it and of economic mercantilist sanctions, weapon adopted ultimately (and strong-arm) organizations the the strategy enforced by extralegal (and enforced by extralegal strategy strong-arm) organizations of refusing refusing to to import import British British goods. by Washington, Washington, Mason, Lee, of Mason, Lee, goods. Led by Henry, Virginia Virginia effected the general general consolidation of this this and Henry, consolidation of effected the in 1769. This non-importation cut deeply into England's into movement in This cut England's non-importation deeply 1769. trade, which dropped in one year. expected, a ^£1,000,000 almost a trade, 1,000,000 in dropped almost year. As expected, British merchants merchants and manufacturers reacted vigorously, vigorously, demandBritish manufacturers reacted ing aa modification of policy. policy. It to deteror change determodification or It is difficult to is more difficult ing change of mine the the effects of the the concurrent agitation by by Wilkes Wilkes and other effects of other mine concurrent agitation but since they were using the American issue radicals in radicals in England, issue England, but since they were using the for their own purposes it probably encouraged British leaders to for their purposes it probably encouraged British leaders to retreat. Even more important effects in England, however, however, retreat. these effects than these in England, important than the experience non-importation provided provided was the that non-importation experience and organization organization that the Americans. for the Americans. for
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Combined with with the the scrambling for position position between between and within and within scrambling for the English parties, these direct and indirect results of non-importathe these direct and indirect results of non-importaEnglish parties, of all tion produced repeal of Act (1766) tion successive repeal o the the Stamp and of all produced successive Stamp Act (1766) and
kept but one of of the Acts (1770). the Townshend Acts but (1770). And though though England England kept New York and Rhode aa tax tax on tea, the American coalition collapsed. York and Rhode tea, the American coalition collapsed. Island abandoned non-importation, and the other hurried abandoned non-importation, Island and the other colonies colonies hurried to reopen reopen their their own trade. trade. Unfortunately Unfortunately for for those those who favored favored such such to compromise, neither Sam Adams nor the British Government would neither the British would nor Government compromise, leave them alone. campaign to leave alone* Adams launched launched a a determined determined campaign to establish and mercantilist mercantilist American American empire. a corporate establish a Christian and corporate Christian empire. was thus thus aa revolutionary withLike his his allies allies in Virginia, Adams was in Virginia, Like revolutionary withwhile other popular leaders in the colonies out being a radical. a out And while radical. other leaders in the colonies being popular spoke wanted aa greater greater share of upper-class upper-class for interest interest groups that wanted share of spoke for groups that well-being and political authority, only a tiny an 1 and I insignificant group a an well-being political authority, only insignificant group tiny of individuals offered anything remotely resembling radical individuals offered of a radical anything remotely resembling a an program. Some of Adams's counterparts in other colonies stressed of other an Adams's in colonies stressed program. counterparts extension of popular popular government government more more heavily heavily than than he he did, for extension of for did, example, but none none challenged challenged the the assumptions assumptions of the existing existing order. of the order. example, but Had the revolution come come aa generation later, it is very probable that the revolution it is very probable that generation later, one wing wing of the popular popular movement would would have have developed such an an one of the such developed attack established institutions. institutions. But whether judged judged within within the the attack on established But whether predominant mercantilist outlook, or against against the of the the the standards standards of outlook, or predominant mercantilist in England, the calaissez-faire philosophy philosophy that was gaining power the cothat was in laissez-faire England, gaining power lonials were radical. In In either case, the matter were far far from the matter from radical. the crux crux of of the lonials either case, replaced by by social social was the private property property be the Levellers' Levellers' demand that that private be replaced was so that the Christian concept of commonwealth could property Christian of could so the that concept property be fully had not not reached reached that that point point by by 1']76. colonials had be 1776. fully developed. developed. The colonials Hence they they emphasized emphasized freedom of action and empire. "It is the the action "It is freedom of empire. business of America to take care of herself; her situation depends her situation depends business of America to take care of herself; and upon her virtue," Adams declared the end of at the "Arts and declared at of 1770. her own virtue," 1770. "Arts upon manufactures, ordered by commerce, have raised raised Great to its its Britain to Great Britain ordered by commerce, have manufactures, present pitch pitch of will avail herself of imitating of imitating avail herself of grandeur. grandeur. America will present Brackenridge her." A year year later, Philip Freneau Freneau and Hugh her." later, Philip Hugh Henry Henry Brackenridge to the the Rising Rising caught the the spirit of that outlook in their militant Ode to spirit of that outlook in their militant caught on manuGlory of America. Adams's mercantilist emphasis on mercantilist And Adams's America. emphasis of Glory that facturing was typified in the expanding enterprises that were developin the was developenterprises expanding facturing typified ing in Boston Society for Encouraging in every Industry Society for Encouraging Industry colony. The Boston ing every colony. there was if ever mercantilist title if there one) and Employing Employing the the Poor title ever mercantilist Poor (a and one) (a The New in 1]69. York Society for established school in school a spinning established a Society for 1769. spinning
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the Promotion Promotion of of Arts, Arts, Agriculture, and the Agriculture, and
Oeconomy began grant to grant Oeconomy began to premiums for domestic production and apprenticeship schools in and schools domestic for in apprenticeship production premiums 1765. hy 1775 The United Company of Philadelphia for Proof for And United ProCompany Philadelphia by 1775 1765. 400 female female employees. moting American American Manufactures had 400 Manufactures had Even employees. Even moting to the the Tea more significant was the the way Americans reacted reacted to in which which Americans more Tea significant was way in threat to well Act of a specific American manufacturing as well to American of 1773 as a Act manufacturing as specific threat 1773 as as aa general to the the system. as general danger danger to system. Many Americans feared that principle behind behind the India the East the principle that the East India Americans feared Many Company's monopoly on tea would gradually be extended to other be extended tea would to on other gradually monopoly Company's goods thus give give England England control of all wealth. Adams all colonial control of colonial wealth. and thus goods and in December, his Boston Boston Sons recognized and his chance: Sons and seized seized his chance: in December, 1773, 1773, his recognized of Liberty Liberty chucked chucked the the tea tea into into Boston retaliated Harbor. England Boston Harbor. of England retaliated in kind, combining combining the the Coercive with Acts against Boston itself itself with in kind, Coercive Acts against Boston all the colonies. The latter law not the Quebec Act directed against latter the colonies. all law not Act directed the Quebec against only took part of the west north of the Ohio river and gave it to river the Ohio of west north it to the took of gave only part Canada, but it closed off the rest of the trans-mountain area and the rest of the trans-mountain area off it and but closed Canada, granted Canada full freedom. This This combinafull religious in Canada combinaCatholics in religious freedom. granted Catholics as a martyr, a basic basic tion gave everything he needed: a city a as a he needed: tion Adams city martyr, a gave everything religious and ideological issue, and a fundamental economic and a fundamental economic and religious ideological issue, grievance. Calling explicitly for for "AN AMERICAN COMMONgrievance. Calling explicitly WEALTH," he warned of English control over over colonial colonial Protestant warned of Protestant he WEALTH,*' English control churches, emphasized the danger of Catholic infiltration from of Catholic infiltration the from churches, emphasized danger Canada, and called flatly for continued westward expansion. westward and continued called flatly for Canada, expansion. "An empire for the the is rising in exulted, calling America," Adams exulted, empire is calling for rising in America," annexation of Canada, Nova Scotia; and the fishing banks. "We annexation of Canada, Scotia^ and the fishing banks. was ready ready even even can subsist of all the world." world." He was all the can subsist independently independently of then to to "fight it and trust to God for Most other other for success." success." Most it out, trust to then out, and "fight Americans were were not. in Virginia his allies allies in in the Americans Without his the not. Without Virginia (and (and in York), Adams would have have failed failed streets Philadelphia and and New York), streets of of Philadelphia to defeat nabobs and the indifferent, defeat the the nabobs and their their compatriots-the to indifferent, compatriots the loyal, loyal, the the cautious, the general populace. Perhaps it the it the fearful fearful among the cautious, and the among general populace. Perhaps is too too much to that the hinge of empire broke on the September is to say of the that the broke hinge empire say September George Washington Washington walked walked into Continental day in 1774 the Continental into the day in 1774 when George of the the Congress wearing his his blue-and-buff blue-and-buff uniform uniform as as commander of Congress wearing Fairfax Volunteers. Yet the symbolism of the act must have the have Fairfax County Volunteers. Yet of the act must symbolism County been almost great to to his his contemporaries as it it appears back been as great almost as contemporaries as appears looking looking back the knowledge knowledge that less than than two two years he was at the at that in the scene scene with with the in less he was years to be Long before be commander-in-chief to an American army. commander-in-chief of of an before army. Long of the the Declaration Jefferson had finished his last revision of finished his last revision Declaration of of InInJefferson
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dependence, was in in the the field field against against the the enemy. enemy. One One dependence, Washington Washington was as early as February, 1775: frustrated had foreseen the result had frustrated loyalist foreseen the result as early as February, 1775: loyalist "Adams, with his his crew, crew, and the haughty Sultans the south juggled the haughty Sultans of of the south juggled "Adams, with the whole conclave of the Delegates." the whole conclave of the Delegates." As aa planter planter who had opposed the British and British years before 1763, opposed the years before 1763, and who had worked out broad and specific plans develophad worked out broad and specific plans for for American American development, Washington Washington concluded it "highly necessary that concluded it that something ment, "highly necessary something be done." done." Deeply Deeply concerned was "starvshould be should concerned that that Britain's "starvBritain's policy policy was well as as draining draining the coffers of of the the ing" manufactures, as colonial manufactures, as well the coffers ing" colonial trader and Washington saw terms. trader and the the farmer, the issue issue in in absolute absolute terms. saw the farmer, Washington at stake," he declared to George on April "Our all all is is at declared to 6, 1769' stake," he April 6, 1769. George Mason on Other came to conclusion during the next Other southerners the next to share share that that conclusion southerners came during five years. Jefferson's witty definition of a planter as "a species as "a five of a of definition years. Jefferson's witty planter species of was acproperty annexed to certain mercantile houses in London" acannexed to was certain mercantile houses in property cepted by by Oliver Mason, and and caught Oliver Wolcott, and others, Wolcott, Thomas Mason, others, and caught cepted the spirit of the growing support for freedom, property, and empire. the and of the for freedom, property, empire. spirit growing support Thus it was that that on Washington prepreit was on July July 17, 17, 1774, 1774, Mason and Washington pared the Fairfax County Resolves, the southern manifesto of indeindeof the Fairfax the southern manifesto County Resolves, pared pendence. Objecting to being being treated treated as as "a "a conquered country" pendence. Objecting to conquered country" enjoying the "reciprocal" and "mutual benefits" after of a century after a and "mutual benefits** of the century "reciprocal" enjoying as a program of mercantilism., they described the imperialism a of new as described the mercantilism, they program imperialism "calculated to reduce us from of freedom freedom and to "calculated to a state reduce us state of and happiness from a happiness to slavery and misery." Calling for a "firm union" of the colonies, they the colonies, they slavery and misery." Calling for a "firm union" of trade with by November, if the the demanded an an end to all all trade with Britain end to Britain by November, 1775, 1775, if new policies policies were were not not revoked. Significantly, they included slaves revoked. Significantly, they included slaves in this to be be enforced by extralegal extralegal in enforced by this total total nonintercourse nonintercourse that that was to associations empowered empowered to in the to embargo violators in the colonies. colonies. Finally, associations Finally, embargo violators they urgently urgently recommended recommended "temperance, fortitude, frugality, frugality, and they "temperance, fortitude, industry, and every encouragement their power, power, particularly particularly in their and ... every industry, encouragement in by subscriptions premiums, to and of arts to the arts and the improvement improvement of by subscriptions and premiums, manufactures in in America." America." manufactures On the next day, Washington served as chairman of the county county of the served as the next day, Washington determeeting called to consider the document. Exhibiting the same deterthe the document. called to consider Exhibiting meeting mination he later showed showed in in battle, he rammed it through without without it through he later mination battle, he discussion. within aa fortnight, the local militia which which had been been local militia discussion. And within fortnight, the it is Since is drilling under his was officially recognized. Since it command was under his officially recognized. drilling that true, despite one of the great myths of American history, that American of the of one true, history, great myths despite ideas Washington was firm advocate political parties parties based based on on ideas advocate of of political was a a firm Washington as the and principles, principles, it is perhaps perhaps useful to see see him as the Shaftesbury of useful to and it is Shaftesbury of .
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the American Revolution. In In any event, he he the American Revolution. any event,
and Adams symbolized symbolized and
the two mainstreams of of colonial that engulfed the colonial society two mainstreams in engulfed England society that England in defeat. defeat. TIm THE TRIUMPH OF AMERICAN MERCANTILISM
converged on Philadelphia in 177~ and Washington As they Washington they converged Philadelphia in 1774, Adams merchant caught the the nabobs play. A New Jersey nabobs in in a a classic classic squeeze Jersey merchant caught squeeze play. analyzed his (and his his group's) dilemma with with great perceptiveness his (and great perceptiveness analyzed group's) dilemma
A
the Congress. that the the colonies and on the colonies could insisted that could and eve of of the on the eve Congress. He insisted should their differences differences with the King King in to preserve preserve in order order to with the should adjust adjust their the imperial and hence hence their their own wealth wealth and welfare. welfare. "We the system and imperial system ourselves," he he pointed pointed out, out, "have the lived and enjoyed all the "have happily ourselves/' happily lived enjoyed all The alternative was the "blood liberty that men could or can wish." alternative or wish." the "blood could that can liberty would be be brought brought on on by nay and "the sedition, that would and destruction" destruction" that sedition, nay by "the daily buzzed buzzed into our ears" by the the advocates treason that advocates of indeinto our ears" by is daily treason that is of independence. Yet Yet the the coming he concluded concluded fearfully, might Congress, he fearfully, might pendence. coming Congress, be swayed by the wanted "a empire." men "a new the who wanted be empire." swayed by As aa member of the Congress Congress thoroughly its composition, aware of of its of the thoroughly aware composition, "Mr. Zoo from Jersey. Magnificently led Galloway agreed with "Mr. Z" New with from Jersey. Magnificently led Galloway agreed by himself, one group of delegates sought a "remedy which would a which one would of delegates sought "remedy by himself, group redress the justly complained lay the basis of" and thereby redress the grievances the basis thereby lay grievances justly complained of" constitutional union union between between the for the two for "a "a more solid solid and constitutional two councountries." Supported by men like Hancock, Silas Deane, Robert Silas Deane, tries." like John Robert John Hancock, Supported by Morris, and John Rutledge, Galloway's strategy suggests a striking a Morris, John Rutledge, Galloway's strategy suggests striking Peace-No by Leon analogy the policy policy of advocated by with the No War" advocated of "No Peace analogy with Trotsky when the the Bolsheviks Bolsheviks were were threatened conquest threatened by by German conquest Trotsky in in 1917 1918. 1917 and 1918. Opposing him, were men whose plan "was to "was to concluded Galloway, whose plan him, concluded Galloway, were Opposing throw off connection with with Great off all throw all subordination subordination and and connection Great Britain." Britain." Sam and John public heroes heroes of this group, group, but but of this the public John Adams were the they were in in fact partners with with Gadsden, from fact partners Gadsden, Washington, they Washington, and Lee from the the south, like Roger Roger Sherman and and George from the the Clinton from south, and men like George Clinton colonies both "Mr. Z" and and Galloway Galloway colonies around around Massachusetts. Massachusetts. Actually, Actually, both oversimplified the the composition There was aa third third of the the Congress. oversimplified Congress. There composition of John Dickinson John bloc bloc composed of men such as John Dickinson (Philadelphia), such as composed of (Philadelphia), John Robert Jay, James Duane, and Robert Livingston (all from York) and New James Duane, Jay, Livingston (all York) existed before before negotiate aa return to the system as who wanted to to negotiate the system return to as it it existed 6 6 17 3. i? 3Galloway the initiative presented his his seized the initiative September 28, and presented Galloway seized September 28,
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plan to to co-ordinate the colonies and then then establish establish aa new union union with with co-ordinate the colonies and plan Great vigorous open open debate and even more of vigorous Great Britain. Britain. A month of debate and even more strenuous private private negotiations negotiations (and rallies staged by strenuous intimidating rallies (and intimidating staged by it by one vote on October 23, 1774. Thompson) finally defeated In Thompson) finally defeated it by one vote on October 23, 1774. In the tradition tradition of of all all great revolutionaries, Adams, Adams, Washington, Washington, and and the great revolutionaries, Declaring for for "life, Lee their victory victory with with ruthless elan. Declaring ruthless clan. Lee exploited "life, exploited their liberty, and property," they jammed through a militant attack on the liberty, and property," they jammed through a militant attack on the Quebec law the principles (and some of into illegal Act, legislated Quebec Act, legislated into illegal law the principles (and some of the language) Fairfax Resolves, Resolves, and and established traditional the of the the Fairfax established traditional language) of mercantilist regulations regulations on prices "so no undue advantage" or mercantilist on prices "so that that no undue advantage" or suffering would result for for any members of the nation. would result nation. members of the new suffering any Massachusetts promptly prompdy set the pattern pattern for with aa Massachusetts set the for other other colonies colonies with formal legislative legislative call call for for American American manufactures. manufactures. Arguing Arguing that that the the formal colonists were now aa "family," the revolutionaries declared that the colonists were the that the revolutionaries declared "family," less liberty, happiness, and welfare of families depended on "the welfare of on "the less families liberty, happiness, depended occasion they have have for any articles occasion they did for any articles belonging to others." Not only only did belonging to others." to those heirs of Calvin and the the Puritans thus beat beat Thomas Jefferson heirs of those Calvin and Puritans thus Jefferson to the idea "happiness" as a more felicitous synonym for the idea of of using for as a felicitous more using "happiness" synonym the same subsulr "property" wonders if if John John Adams suggested "property" (one (one wonders suggested the so in a context of images that stitution to to Jefferson), Jefferson), but but they did did a context of stitution in so they images that Tudor mercantilism. Specifically, the recipe went back to early for went back to the mercantilism. Specifically, early recipe for happiness included a call to improve "the breed of sheep"; to charge a call breed to to improve "the of sheep"; charge happiness included "only reasonable prices"; prices"; to to manufacture manufacture nails, nails, steel, tin-plate, saltsaltsteel, tin-plate, "only reasonable peter, paper, guns, powder, glass, buttons, and dyes, and to refine to refine peter, paper, guns, powder, glass, buttons, and dyes, salt. salt. As this mercantilism bore bore aa subtle and subtle and this document document suggests, British mercantilism suggests, British did not not cause complex relationship to the It did the American American Revolution. Revolution. It cause relationship to complex to the the imimthe conflict in the narrow sense because it it had had given the the narrow sense because conflict in way to given way perialism of laissez ffaire. But British British mercantilism mercantilism had had provided provided the the aire. But of laissez perialism protection and the essential by which which aa scattered of and the essential assistance assistance by scattered group group of protection militant, and self-conscious pitiful settlements matured into into 13 self-conscious settlements matured strong, militant, 13 strong, pitiful It also equipped the the leaders of that that society a set of atatstates. set of with a states. It also equipped leaders of society with be undertitudes, assumptions, and ideas about policy that can only be underand ideas that can about titudes, only assumptions, policy American mercantilism. mercantilism. Thus when English English leaders leaders stood as as an stood an American it up and ran toward dropped mercantilism, the Americans picked it ran toward the mercantilism, up picked dropped independence. independence. of the the crucial role played played American leaders leaders were were very very conscious crucial role conscious of American of the world. by imperial expansion in the mercantilist conception of the world. in mercantilist the conception by imperial expansion it "likely" only 20 (in When he was only John Adams thought thought it "likely" (in 1775), 1775), John
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that "the great seat soon be the colonies. colonies. "the great would soon be in in the that seat of of empire" empire" would Members of Parliament sensed the vigor vigor of of this this thinking among the Members of Parliament sensed the thinking among the colonists, and often asked informants about about the the growth growth of of this this and often asked their their informants "an independent empire." British ministers anticipated drive toward drive toward "an independent empire!' British ministers anticipated by its drive to to exexFrederick Jackson Turner in America by its drive in explaining Frederick Jackson Turner explaining America pand. Americans, wrote Lord Dunmore to Lord Dartmouth to Lord Dartmouth on on pand. Americans, wrote Lord 240 1774> "for ever imagine that the Lands further off are December 24, December 1774, "for ever imagine that the Lands further off are still better than those those upon upon which which they they are settled." Could are already still Could better than already setded." any skeptics have heard heard John months later, later, John Adams exactly exactly eight eight months skeptics have any nabobs their doubts would have have vanished. vanished. Strongly that any their doubts would Strongly implying implying that any nabobs hankered after with England better had better who still reconciliation with still hankered after a a reconciliation England had see their tailors for aa get off the fence and either sail for London or for or see their tailors the sail for off fence and either get set for the the Second Second Continental Continental Concalled for of blue-and-buffs, set of Conblue-and-buifs, Adams called to get on with the business of writing "a constitution to form gress "a to to with the of on constitution business form writing get gress for aa great for empire." great empire." On January January 9, 1776, Paine followed with Common Sense, Sense, 9, 1776, Thomas Paine followed with the great propaganda document of the era, a truly artistic work. Like a artistic work. document the Like the of era, truly great propaganda Federalist Papers Papers of of aa decade later, it was also guide the Federalist it was also an accurate guide decade later, an accurate the was to the the general way in which colonists world. It the world. It was in which about the to colonists thought thought about general way only common sense, Paine asserted, that there was "something that there Paine sense, asserted, only "something a Continent to be be perpetually perpetUally governed governed by by an an absurd, in in supposing Continent to absurd, supposing a island." than one-third tonnage of trade of Britain's Since more of the the tonnage Britain's trade island." Since more than one-third of built by by the obvious to to empire carried in the colonists, it was obvious in ships colonists, it ships built empire was carried him that that farmers, planters, and other Americans would "always have have other Americans farmers, planters, and "always of Europe." Europe." Such magnificent a market market while a while eating custom of Such magnificent is the the custom eating is sarcasm (perhaps produced by an extra decanter of brandy, he since he sarcasm (perhaps produced by an extra decanter o brandy, since never wrote without such for thinker's thinker's and writer's writer's wrote without such medication never medication for by an a mercantilist mercantilist empire comcramp) was followed followed by outline for an outline for a empire comcramp) by which to to measure and plete with with aa national national debt, national bank bank by a national measure and debt, a plete use it, a navy. use it, and a navy. Southerners quickly joined joined the the chorus. have their chorus. "Empires their zenith zenith Southerners quickly "Empires have -and to aa dissolution," explained William Henry and their their descension William Henry descension to dissolution," explained has made choice Drayton of South South Carolina; choice Carolina; "The Almighty Drayton of Almighty . . . has of .... [It] bids of the present generation generation to the American Empire the present to erect erect the Empire [It] bids the most most glorious of any upon fair, by the the blessings blessings of of God, to be of be the fair, by God, to glorious any upon Record." was, Sam Adams had had long long bebeRecord." Ever practical practical man that he was, that he out fore out Canada and the fishing banks for the early attention fore singled the the Canada for attention banks singled early fishing they received military campaigns Conin the the military received in in the the Articles Articles of of Conthey (and in campaigns (and as an acceptable federation which which specifically mentioned Canada federation as mentioned acceptable specifically colonists,
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member). And even at that that early Rogers Clark Clark coneven at date George conmember). early date George Rogers westward expansion. expansion. centrated his attention attention on on westward centrated his in the the "Prudence" might well well dictate, "Prudence" might as Jefferson dictate, as Jefferson explained explained in as Locke made abundantly clear), Declaration of Independence (and as Declaration of Locke made Independence (and abundantly clear), be overthrown light that established not be established governments that should not "for light overthrown "for governments should and transient transient causes"; but then an independent empire was no light but then an and was no causes"; light independent empire and transient transient cause. cause. Following Following Locke a schoolboy copying his Locke like and like a schoolboy copying his lesson, Jefferson then recited the "long train of abuses and usurpathen of and recited the train abuses lesson, Jefferson usurpa"long tions" which which justified justified the the act the colonists colonists from being tions" act and and saved saved the from being unnatural men. men. And as good agrarian naturally would, classed as unnatural classed as as any any good agrarian naturally would, particularly when he he was was aa young young revolutionary revolutionary writing a manimaniwriting a particularly The alliance between festo, Jefferson equated property and happiness. alliance between and festo, Jefferson equated property happiness. Virginia could not have have been been symbolized more Massachusetts and Virginia Massachusetts could not symbolized more aptly or revealingly. or aptly revealingly. Distinguished and and honorable honorable advocate reconciliation that he had had that he of reconciliation advocate of Distinguished been, Joseph had already acted on his appreciation of the facts: Hewes his the had acted on of facts: been, Joseph already appreciation left now," now," he he remarked remarked on on March 20, to fight "Nothing is left "but to 20, 1776, fight "Nothing is 1776, "but it out." out." There of course great deal deal more more left do, and and perhaps perhaps was of left to to do, There was a great it course a the most task was was to to come terms with with the fact that that the harsh harsh fact most difficult difficult task to terms come to the in the 18th century. were not welcomed by their elders the i8th were elders in not their welcomed new empires century. by empires
II. Reality for Ideas for Existing II. A New Reality Existing Ideas
There an overweening fondness for for representing country as this country a as a There is is an representing this overweening fondness scene of of liberty, equality, fraternity, union, harmony, and benevolence. scene benevolence. union, harmony, liberty, equality, fraternity, But let your sons sons or mine deceive themselves. This country, li^e like all deceive themselves. This country, or mine not your all But let not others, has heen parties and feuds feuds for for near years. near two hundred years. a theatre been a theatre of others, has of parties
John Adams, Adams, 1817 John 1817 No time to be lost in and maintaining maintaining aa national spirit in in raising national spirit in be lost time is is to raising and America. Power to govern the the confederacy, as to all general purposes, to all as to govern America. confederacy, general purposes, should granted and and exercised. John should be be granted exercised. John Jay, Jay, 1783 1783 Unless speedy and adequate provision he beyond that be made beyond that of the Unless some speedy of the adequate provision Confederation the most most dismal dismal alternative alternative stares stares me in face. in the the face. Confederation the James James Madison, Madison, 1783 1783 We are are fundamentally fundamentally wrong. wrong. The first first Thing he done done is is for for Conto be ConThing to John John Adams, Adams, 1786 1786
to have gress to have aa Revenue. Revenue. gress
I 1
hope our our land land office office will will rid our debts, first attenrid us us of our first that our attendebts, and that of our hope tion to the a naval naval force force of sort. the beginning tion then, will he, then, will be, to beginning a of some sort. Thomas Jefferson, Jefferson, 1785 1785
Something must be be done, fabric must must fall; fall; it is tottering. or the the fabric it certainly done, or Something certainly is tottering. George George Washington, 1786 Washington, 1786
THE DREAM AND THE REALITY OF INDEPENDENCE
I
NFUSED with ambition, driven driven by what they they conTTNFUSED with enthusiasm enthusiasm and and ambition, conby what the necessities necessities of or simply carried along sidered the of circumstance, carried JL sidered circumstance, or simply along by by events, the went to to war war for life, liberty, and property (alias the colonists colonists went for life, events, liberty, and property (alias
happiness). While most were of the the difficulties While most were aware aware of difficulties confronting happiness). confronting them, many many were nevertheless extremely assertive. were nevertheless and assertive. them, optimistic and extremely optimistic Though often sneered the upstart, upstart, the the European European powers powers imimsneered at at the Though they they often mediately raised raised their of America's America's rapidly their guard. mediately expanding rapidly expanding guard. Aware of ships in commercial power power (it listed almost 40 per cent of the in commercial the empire (it listed almost 40 per cent of empire ships 1775), they disliked disliked the the prospect of such vigorous competition. such vigorous 1775), they Spain competition. Spain prospect of in particular feared the impact of revolution in the world. in particular feared the impact of revolution in the colonial colonial world. the crucial spoke candidly of its concern to even France, And even crucial ally, France, the ally, spoke candidly of its concern to limit plans of of conquest conquest of of the Americans." "the plans limit "the the Americans.*' to reassure reassure such but he he was was not not too too successsuccessFranklin Franklin tried tried to such skeptics, skeptics, but ful. For one he kept insisting rather bluntly "that no other ful. one thing, no other he rather "that thing, bluntly kept insisting it prudent to quarrel with us." Men considerably power will judge will it to with us.*' power considerably judge quarrel prudent the discrepancy between less brilliant than Vergennes could less brilliant than Vergennes see the could see discrepancy between of modesty and claims to omnipotence. They were likeprotestations were likeof and claims to protestations modesty omnipotence. They wise able to draw the the obvious conclusion from the persistent persistent use use of of able to wise obvious conclusion from the It was more than a coincidence that the phrase, "this rising Empire." that the "this than a It coincidence more phrase, rising Empire." it was by advertisers advertisers in newspapers, by by southern used by southern it was used in Philadelphia Philadelphia newspapers, by intellectual leaders in England. planters, and intellectual in New leaders planters, by England. The war momentarily momentarily sapped of this this cockiness. with the the cockiness. As with sapped some of the most most courted midshipman who awakes awakes on morning as courted as the on graduation midshipman graduation morning the Navy Navy only to become become by by sunset the lowest officer in the man in sunset the lowest ranking ranking officer only to in the the fleet (which puts puts him aa notch notch or two below below a good many enenor two in fleet (which good many the Americans Americans discovered that with with independence they listed men), listed so the discovered that men), so independence they became aa relatively relatively backward, backward, underdeveloped, underdeveloped, and weak nation* nation. became to restore the mercantilism Having begun by demands on England the mercantilism England to restore Having begun by the argument by creatcreatof the years years prior prior to to I763, of the Americans won the argument by 1763, Americans build ing circumstances in which they would have to devise and build to devise have in which circumstances ing they their own mercantilist mercantilist system. their system. of their For that that very very reason, reason, as well as as because because of their personal personal and For as well group ambitions, they never stopped thinking and talking acting never stopped thinking talking and acting group ambitions, they retreated of in terms of Joseph Galloway, one of the nabobs retreated one the in terms of empire. who empire. Joseph Galloway, acto England England at at the the outbreak the war, war, provided provided an an amazingly amazingly acto of the outbreak of
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curate prophecy this pattern pattern of events. Entitled Entitled "Cool Thoughts on on "Cool Thoughts of events. curate of this prophecy of the Consequences of American Independence," and published and in the of American Independence," published in Consequences 1780, it is a remarkable document that justifies a long excerpt. "When a that justifies long excerpt. 1780, it is a remarkable document to pursue, pursue, she shall a separate interest of of her her own to distinct interest she have a and distinct shall have separate and to her own benefit her views will be enlarged, her policy exerted to her benefit.... her views will be enlarged, her policy exerted She readily perceive perceive that manufactures are are the the great foundation She will that manufactures will readily great foundation means of wealth, of of acquiring the great of commerce, is the that commerce commerce is commerce, that acquiring wealth, great means is necessary necessary to safety.... and that ... It It is is impossible to her her own safety. and that wealth wealth is impossible to conceive will not not exert capacity to manuto promote exert her her capacity to conceive that that she she will promote manu.... Laws will be granting bounties facturing and commerce be made will and commerce. bounties granting facturing to encourage be laid to discourage or prohibit prohibit laid to duties will will be and duties to it, and discourage or encourage it, By these measures her manufacturing will foreign importations. her these measures foreign importations. By manufacturing will until she not only increase, commerce will be extended will be extended .•. until she shall shall not her commerce increase, her only supply wants, but but those Britain herself, with all Great Britain those of of Great her own wants, all herself, with supply her the manufactures with her her own materials." materials." the manufactures made with they were were to to get with that that happy happy future, states Eager as they the states future, the Eager as get on with confront~d by serious difficulties. England was too were immediately were confronted serious difficulties. was too by England immediately be defeated by random efforts and without aid. Some strong to and be without to defeated efforts aid. men by strong By the were disillusioned the summer of were for example, disillusioned early. of 1777, Silas early. By 1777, for example, Silas Deane was thinking thinking about about "an and of friendship "an accommodation accommodation of friendship and alliance" with with England that would lead to a three-way integration alliance" to a that would lead England three-way integration is easy easy to to foresee of political political economies economies with with Russia. Russia. "It of "It is that Great foresee that Great Britain, America, Russia united will command not barely and will Russia united not barely Britain, America, Europe, but the whole whole world world united." but the united." Europe, This was was certainly certainly the the clearest, and perhaps perhaps the the earliest, statement clearest, and earliest, statement was accepted as policy policy by by one of an idea and objective objective that that ultimately of idea and one ultimately was accepted as King: group of Americans led Alexander Hamilton Hamilton and Rufus of Americans led by Rufus King: group by Alexander America would become become the member, and closest closest associate the strongest America associate strongest member, a British British imperial imperial system that encompassed the of the the Metropolisj Metropolis, in of in a system that encompassed the globe. Thus did group of nabobs modify modify and and sustain image did one one group of nabobs their image sustain their globe. of the good of the smaller number of of that persuasion were ready ready that persuasion good society. society. A smaller to the empire empire long before the war was and clung to go back into the before into the war won go back long clung to the idea Americans to the peace treaty. treaty. But most idea for a generation after the for a the peace most Americans generation after only did did the the honored their vision of of an honored their vision an independent independent empire. empire. Not only alliance it the the revolution revolution alliance with France sustain sustain this this dream, but without without it with France dream, but would very probably have have failed. failed. very probably An equally troublesome problem had had its origins in in the troublesome its origins the varied varied and equally problem in the conflict of economic and vigorous particularism of the states, of the the in and conflict of economic states, vigorous particularism class interests, and in the personal rivalries of the leaders. In aa class in the and rivalries the In of leaders. interests, personal .
.
.
.
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.
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utter disgust, disgust, John Jay vented vented his in aa bit bit of of utter moment of his dismay of John Jay dismay in classic description. "What with clever wives, or pretty girls, with clever classic description. or wives, or pretty girls, or you do it, very little is pleasant walks, or too too tired, busy, or or too too busy, or you do it, is walks, or tired, or pleasant very little done, much postponed, and more neglected." As a result, an early done, postponed, and more neglected." As a result, an early and growing began to develop around idea that that the the consensus began to develop and around the the idea growing consensus had either to revised in had either be revised to be in fundafundamental respects replaced by by aa new agreement agreement and organization. It or replaced mental and organization. It respects or is conceivable, perhaps even possible, that that the the government the even possible, is of the conceivable, perhaps government of original Articles of Confederation Articles of Confederation original
Confederation have discharged those and tasks. To could have Confederation could and similar similar tasks. discharged those had to persuaded or have done done so, have it would would have to have or have had have persuaded so, however, however, it to surrender their powers powers over internal taxation taxation forced the states states to surrender their over internal forced the persuaded, and and the the Congress Congress never never and were not not so the tariff. tariff. They and the so persuaded, They were use of force. Even those minimum requirements considered the the use considered of force. had those Even had requirements been met, very doubtful that such government would have it seems been seems very would have doubtful that such a a government met, it had either power or prestige to to manage manage the either the the power and had or the the prestige the commercial commercial and was so clearly in the minds of the revolucontinental that continental empire the revoluthat was so in the of minds empire clearly tionary leaders. leaders. tionary Sometimes praised and and defended an institutional institutional framework Sometimes praised as an defended as framework by that protected protected the the individual individual and the group group against usurpations that and the against usurpations by the rulers, rulers, the would very probably have the the Articles have of Confederation Articles of Confederation would very probably been workable workable only by indirectly power. been and centralizing centralizing power. only by extending and indirectly extending That might might easily easily have have led to more undemocratic government than led to undemocratic government than far the Constitution did. Though personal and social welfare were were far the Constitution did. Though personal social welfare more adequately provided for under the Articles than many historians adequately provided for under the Articles than many historians nevertheless doubtful that the the Confederation was have allowed, it is have is nevertheless doubtful that Confederation was allowed, it to aa dynamic, relatively underdeveloped appropriate to and relatively dynamic, expanding, underdeveloped appropriate expanding, and is precisely precisely what America America became became from the country. Yet that that is the moment country. Yet it independence. At any any rate, rate, aa good number of of the the it declared declared for for independence. good number because so so little positive nature nature states of a a positive little of states stopped attending Congress stopped attending Congress because half the politically active adult populapopulawas accomplished, and at active adult was at least least half the politically accomplished, and tion ultimately ultimately supported the movement to create a stronger, more to create a tion the stronger, supported centralized government. centralized government. In the meantime, meantime, however, however, the bickered among themselves states bickered the states In the among themselves as vigorously as they fought England. This (and pouted) almost as almost as they fought England. This (and pouted) vigorously as particularism drew its from many roots. Founded as its strength roots. strength many particularism as separate units, their political and economic experience was gained their economic units, gained as experience separate political small societies dealt with each other other as entities. with each as independent which dealt small societies which independent entities. ideas and Their sense identity was deep and intense. Modern ideas intense. of identity and Their sense of deep of the reflection of the original original emotions of rights are a feeble are but feeble reflection States' rights but a emotions of States'
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phenomenon. In political theory theory of of that was both both an that age an In addition, addition, political age was phenomenon. caboose of immediate experience. It tagged along from engine and a It from and a immediate of caboose tagged along experience. engine the age of feudalism upon to the intelintelto supply called upon and was was then the feudalism and then called supply the age of to rationalize and reinforce existing circumstances and lectual power circumstances lectual power to rationalize and reinforce existing objectives. Primarily and directly derived (though by no means no means objectives. Primarily and directly derived (though by exclusively) the French French philosopher philosopher Montesquieu, Montesquieu, it asserted it asserted from the exclusively) from that democratic republican governments governments were were irrevocably limited and republican that democratic and irrevocably limited to small to small societies. societies. Three broad groupings groupings of would-be states the states formed formed the and would-be of states states and Three broad protagonists in in aa broader broader fight influence and predominance predominance in for influence in fight for protagonists be understood, understood, this this alignment alignment has be described described the new nation. has to to be the nation. To be in two functionally (or economically) and ideologically (or two ways, in ideologically (or ways, functionally (or economically) by the border between philosophically). Divided from the others the others border the Divided from between by philosophically). Maryland and and Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, the economic life the southern states life of of the the economic southern states Maryland as large-scale staple-crop agriculture. North was primarily organized as was North primarily organized large-scale staple-crop agriculture. of that that line line the the states were principally principally occupied manufacturing, in manufacturing, of states were occupied in banking, and commerce of all kinds. This fundamental pattern is fundamental all kinds. This commerce of is and banking, pattern merely modified, modified, not not invalidated, the existence existence of of surplus-producinvalidated, by merely by the surplus-producthe ing agriculture in the north and merchants (and mechanics) in the and in the north merchants ing agriculture (and mechanics) in and ideology ideology became south. crossover of of economics south. The crossover became increasingly economics and increasingly was not not aa crucial factor. Far important, but between between I7J6 and I787 crucial factor. it was Far important, but 1776 and 1787 it in those years was the rapid development of aa more important more those in the of was important years rapid development surplus producing diversified agriculture west of the mountains. This the diversified west of This mountains. surplus producing agriculture rise of of aa happened very very quickly played aa major major role role in in the the rise happened quickly and played to establish establish aa strong central government. movement to strong central government. In the meantime, however, the the revolutionary to In the leaders seemed seemed to meantime, however, revolutionary leaders abandon their their mercantilism of free free trade. trade. But But most Ameriabandon in favor favor of mercantilism in most Americans considered free cans considered free trade trade aa tactic tactic for the strategic objective for attaining strategic objective attaining the of having having an empire empire of of of their their own. own. Lacking an established established governLacking an governarmy ment, aa developed and an an effective effective army ment, developed and integrated integrated economy, economy, and and navy, had to to have have help. Free trade the new confederation confederation had trade apnavy, the aphelp. Free the obvious peared the way to to get at the least possible possible cost cost and risk. obvious way it at the least and risk. peared get it be free to all," Adams, "as to make it "Trade must must be free to "as to it all," explained explained Sam Adams, the interest of of each to protect protect it, able to protect it. This the interest each to till [we] are are able to it. This it, till [we] protect the the United United States do by navy." States must do a navy." by a than the the Making it it quite clear that that "nothing less is is at at stake stake than Making quite clear "nothing less the sea, sea, at at least of naval power," John dominion of of the least the the superiority of naval superiority power," John Adams, Arthur could unite Arthur Lee, even Franklin Franklin could unite on empire even Adams, Lee, and even empire even also though they disagreed on other issues. Like Sam, John other issues. Like Adams also Sam, John though they disagreed
The Age Age of of Mercantilism Mercantilism
123 123 thought of free trade as a useful weapon for "preserving the respect" of free trade as a useful for the thought weapon "preserving respect" of thus avoiding avoiding any of becoming becoming the ward of an of France, chance of the ward of an France, thus any chance on the seas," Adams ally. Seeking "to produce a balance of power "to a balance of power on the seas," Adams produce ally. Seeking as quickly it could be built. built. It It was was aa tool tool for for wanted aa navy as it wanted could be navy as quickly as No doubt he fashioning "the foundations of lasting prosperity." doubt he fashioning "the foundations of lasting prosperity.'* so were were others outside New was concerned the fisheries, then so for the was concerned for but then others outside fisheries, but American mercantilists mercantilists saw England. and other other American in free saw in free England. What Adams and trade was was aa temporary temporary means to obtain obtain help, help, check competitors, and trade means to and check competitors, break into the pattern pattern of of world trade while while they they established break into the world trade established America America as power respected and feared by Europe. Europe. as an an independent feared by independent power respected and They may have dreamed, for a or two after aa victory victory like have for a like or two after moment dreamed, They may all British and French Saratoga, that America would demolish that would all America British and French demolish Saratoga, restrictions. But But only only aa minute minute minority minority really really believed believed that that free free trade trade restrictions. by the rest of the world. few pessimists argued would be be accepted would the rest of the world. A few accepted by pessimists argued try anything they thought a navy navy that America America was was too too weak to that to try else; they thought a anything else; some had been attracted was aa "wild, visionary project." attracted was And some been mad had "wild, visionary project." by the world of of Adam Smith. even such physiocrat free free the world Yet even such ostensibly Smith. Yet by ostensibly physiocrat quickly realized that such a policy could easily traders as as Jefferson traders could realized a that such Jefferson quickly easily policy prevent the the United United States developing its its own system. States from from developing prevent system. Though every law law was framed nor nor wholly wholly enforced, enforced, not every was perfectly Though not perfectly framed the legislation of the Congress and the states revealed the prethe preof the the and the states revealed legislation Congress The general drive for dominance of the mercantilist outlook. of drive for more the dominance mercantilist outlook. general signify aa desire to establish representation in did not establish desire to not signify in government government did representation was a more responsive, weaker governments; the objective weaker governments; the objective was a responsive, and more by responsible, institution institution that the various various things wanted by that would do do the things wanted responsible, the farmer mechanic as as well well as as by by the landed and and comcomthe landed the mechanic the farmer and the asmercial gentry. gentry. These broad governmental mercial These groups all sought sought broad governmental asgroups all sistance. Some of the moderate moderate reflected the of the sistance. the new state state constitutions constitutions reflected successes of the lower and middle middle classes. relocated classes. State State capitols successes of the lower and capitols were relocated in a further inland, inland, election redrawn in increased and redrawn further were increased election districts districts were more equitable way, more frequent required, and elections were required, more frequent elections equitable way, was often often strengthened against the the legislature executive and the executive the strengthened against legislature was judiciary. judiciary. in the Though it produced produced significant results (if of the form of (if only only in significant results Though it political campaign should frustrated intensified ambitions), this should this frustrated and and intensified ambitions), political campaign the farmers farmers of the became the plaything of not be misunderstood. No state the plaything state became not be misunderstood. In several several cases, that matter, matter, and particularly particularly and the mechanics. In for that and the mechanics. cases, for Massachusetts and and New York, the gentry gentry in the the south, also in in Massachusetts in York, the south, though though also conin enforcing price tightened its effective control. Early failures failures effective in its control. enforcing price conEarly tightened
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troIs are misleading, for even governments have have encountered encountered even modern modern governments difficulties in that area. paper-money inflation, which the which won the And difficulties in that area. paper-money inflation, support of some groups, had been the avowed program of one group one the of avowed program group support of some groups, had been end of the of mercantilists since at least the 169os. the end of the since at least the of English 1690$. By By the English mercantilists protective tariffs tariffs and war, the the states were passing passing navigation and protective and acts and states were war, navigation acts granting bounties and to special the economy. of the sectors of and subsidies subsidies to special sectors economy. granting bounties Several as in in New central banking Several states states authorized authorized central institutions, as banking institutions, York, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts. momentarily A and Massachusetts. York, momentarily Maryland, Pennsylvania, at an successful campaign campaign to to establish a national national bank bank also began at also began an establish a successful early date. Supported by Thomas Paine, George Washington, and and date. Paine, George Washington, early Supported by well as James Madison, commercial spokesmen as by more narrowly as well Madison, as narrowly commercial James spokesmen by more Robert Morris, the Bank of North America was founded founded in such of America North was in the as Robert Bank such as Morris, 1781. And even the agrarians successfully repealed its Pennsylwho even its the successfully repealed agrarians Pennsyl1781. vania charter wanted to to re-establish the state state loan loan office office of of colonial re-establish the colonial charter wanted vania so much whether as it was and times. The real was not so whether was not as it how and times. real struggle struggle by whom. by Morris rather rather than Alexander Hamilton Hamilton was the central £gure the central in Morris than Alexander figure in the creation of this first quasi-public bank. Morris wanted the bank to to the creation of this first quasi-public bank. Morris wanted the bank "exist view the our country" country" in the "salvation for ages," in his "exist for since in "salvation of of our in his view ages," since understood the bank's role role in in some measure on it. it. He also also understood the bank's some measure depended depended on to the the cause of our attaching powerful individuals individuals to cause of our country "many powerful country attaching "many by the principle of and the the immediate the strong of self-love self-love and sense of immediate sense of by strong principle private interest." Morris enjoyed his full share of both of those Morris interest." full of those his share of both private enjoyed had aa vision nation reserves of but he he also reserves of human action, also had of the the nation vision of action, but com"twenty years hence, time and habit have settled and habit settled comwhen time have and hence, "twenty years pleted the Federal Constitution of America." Morris failed in his of the Federal in his Constitution America." Morris failed pleted effort, Hamilton, though though neither more astute astute nor nor more original, original, but Hamilton, neither more effort, but was more more fortunate. was fortunate. undertook such traditional Private individuals individuals and and groups Private also undertook such traditional groups also mercantilist objectives objectives on their exerted pressure on the mercantilist their own and exerted the state state on pressure in to extend (as in poor laws) or increase such benefits. governments to extend or benefits. increase such governments poor laws) (as like Matthew Carey were beginning Men like to work Carey and Tench Coxe were beginning to if somewhat rudimentary, theories out general, out and advocate if advocate general, and rudimentary, theories and to explain explain and accelerate systems. programs to the establishing accelerate the of such such systems. programs establishing of of mercantilism J;Ilercantilism was was so accepted that, that, The Weltanschauung so generally Weltanschauung of generally accepted as Madison later later complained regarding Virginia, Virginia, some states ultias Madison states ulticomplained regarding so rigorous and extensive mately went overboard overboard and passed laws so extensive mately passed laws rigorous and as political and economic economic that they they almost themselves as that almost literally isolated themselves literally isolated political and units. units. trols are misleading, for
The Age Age of of Mercantilism Mercantilism
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This for mercantilism This enthusiasm enthusiasm for of realities of mercantilism combined combined with with the the realities war and postwar era to produce produce aa series of fundamental and the the postwar era to series of fundamental difficulties raw conflicts English mercantilism, several raw difficulties and several of interest. conflicts of interest. English mercantilism, the essentials of which the colonists had evolved the essentials of which the colonists had taken taken over, over, evolved principall y from an initial the interest interest (and hence policy) policy) from an initial statement statement of of the principally (and hence the capital of the groups. Lacking Lacking much much land, trade was the commercial commercial groups. of was the land, trade capital con~ accumulating element in the British While there was aa conin the British system. was While there accumulating element system. flict city merchant merchant and and the squire, it, was re~ between the the city flict between rethe country it was country squire, solved the interpenetration of the two groups and the realization the solved by the realization of the two and by interpenetration groups that land could not wealth for general land simply that not create create enough simply could enough surplus surplus wealth for general economic growth. growth. economic by conquest conquest and was Then, was won by it was land was and colonization, Then, when land colonization, it physically removed from England. Neither the rich nor the poor removed the from nor Neither the rich poor physically England. basic assumptions of their their had to to bother bother themselves had themselves with with adjusting the basic adjusting the assumptions of to the the increased riches. They They ruled ruled the the new land land as political theory as increased riches. theory to political an and argued to divide the additional wealth and an empire and how to wealth divide the additional empire argued welfare without fretting over adjusting representative representative welfare without fretting over the the question of adjusting question of there~ government to the circumstances. For many generations, to the new circumstances. For many generations, theregovernment fore, they remained ignorant of -or cheerfully evaded-the con~ conthe fore, they remained ignorant of or cheerfully evaded of tradiction between, between, on the one the mercantilist mercantilist principle principle of tradiction on the one hand, hand, the wealth and welfare through expansion and, on the other, the political political wealth welfare through on the other, the expansion and, be republican republican (or democratic) axiom that a state had to to be that a state had axiom be small small to to be (or democratic) and the the moral moral definition that had had corne and definition of welfare that come down from of welfare Christianity. Christianity. Americans were not not so while they they could could expand so fortunate. Americans were fortunate. For, For, while expand they also continental their trade trade without raising such a continental had a their without raising also had such issues, issues, they empire of at their their back back door. avoid it impossible to door. This of land This made it land at impossible to avoid empire it was necessary several theoretical theoretical and issues. First, it was several and practical issues. First, necessary to practical comadapt a theory of economic growth and welfare that stressed com~ a stressed that of and welfare economic adapt growth theory merce as the dynamic dynamic element situation in which land, land, and and as the a situation element to to a in which merce was available for the the taking. taking. Second, the hence wealth, wealth, was hence available almost almost for Second, the conflicts between political, moral, and economic theories had some~ sometheories and conflicts between political, economic moral, to be be resolved that republicanism could be be sustained within sustained within how to so that resolved so republicanism could aa contiguous contiguous empire. empire. the the
THE WEST AS AMERICA'S PANDORA'S BOX
From the beginning, this during the very this rough-and-tumble struggle during rough-and-tumble struggle very beginning, the Confederation era toward a centralized mercantilist government mercantilist the Confederation era toward a centralized government developed the issue the western western lands. This came to to lands. This issue of around the of the developed around
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symbolize not the concern the upper upper class about the the atclass about atconcern of of the not only symbolize only the also the struggle between titudes and actions of of the the lower but the also between but titudes and actions lower orders, orders, struggle commercial and landed landed interests, the dilemma dilemma of versus of expansion commercial and interests, the expansion versus In its origins, the self-government, and even the question of slavery. its of In origins, the slavery. self-government, and even the question issue was whether American claims to western and southern lands issue was whether American claims to western and southern lands to commercial freedom on Mississippi should be abandoned and to should be the Mississippi abandoned on the and commercial freedom in return return for aid from from Spain. in for aid Spain. Congress priority to and the the fisheries. They were were to Canada Canada and fisheries. They first gave Congress first gave priority "essential to the welfare" of Confederation. Formal Formal claims the Confederation. claims to "essential to the welfare" of the to Florida were abandoned. Buoyed up by military gains, Conwere tacitly Florida tacitly abandoned. Buoyed up by military gains, Conto trade any claims to navigation gress in October, trade any claims to then refused refused in October, 1780, gress then 1780, to navigation through Orleans into the Caribbean. Spain would not talk talk would into the Caribbean. New not Orleans Spain through "Not a single nail would drive," John Jay seriously on those terms. a nail would on those terms. drive," John seriously single Jay reported from Madrid. With another turn in military affairs, Conanother in With turn from Madrid. Conaffairs, military reported he gress again reversed itself. itself. On February it advised advised Jay February 15, 15, 1781, Jay he gress again reversed 1781, it 310 north latitude in return could up navigation rights below below north could give latitude in return 31 give up navigation rights it approved for in August "such further for significant further approved "such August it significant help. help. And in be persuasive or necessary. cessions" be cessions" as or as might necessary. might persuasive many ways ways Jay Jay was aa pivotal pivotal figure those years, years, Now in in many figure during during those watch him closely closely from from the the outset. For while while he he and and it it is to watch is crucial crucial to outset. For was also aa was unquestionably unquestionably aa vain vain and he was and ambitious ambitious conservative, he was also conservative, an American vigorous and intelligent man who very soon became and an soon became American vigorous intelligent very way of of mercantilist deeply deeply concerned the difficulties difficulties in mercantilist to remove in the concerned to remove the the way On these latter grounds he balked at his the nation's nation's development. the these latter grounds he balked at his development. doubt he he was was offended offended by by the the last instructions last instructions from from Congress. Congress. No doubt in Spain, but his casual treatment he he was was given casual treatment had deeper his policy given in Spain, but deeper policy had origins than aa scar Taking the view that that scar on his his ego. the long-range origins than long-range view ego. Taking America America would would hold hold the the Mississippi Mississippi boundary, boundary, he told Conhe frankly Confrankly told was "less than Congress Congress itself apparently was was gress that he he was "less certain" certain" than itself apparently gress that of the my of the wisdom in in giving up the the navigation of the the river. river. "In "In my giving up navigation of opinion," he bluntly bluntly said, render a future war with Spain a render with future war said, "[it opinion," he "[it will] Spain will] unavoidable." unavoidable." once again itself As victory became apparent, Congress once reversed itself victory became apparent, Congress again reversed closed off off negotiations negotiations with with Spain. aspects of this episode and closed Two this of episode Spain. aspects are final decision by Congress Congress was ways are important. in many decision by was in important. The final many ways one of the the first one of key compromises between the commercial groups, first key the commercial between compromises groups, 'who were ·who were not not primarily primarily concerned with the west (many concerned with of them the west (many of were were openly the southern atdid atsouthern agrarians openly antagonistic), antagonistic), and the agrarians who did tach tach great importance to the region. Though defeated, the northerners to the the northerners great importance region. Though defeated,
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remained in in the Confederation. Jay's Jay's behavior behavior makes makes it it clear, morethe Confederation. remained clear, morenot-as has often been said-a pro-English over, that he was that he not has as often been said a pro-English over, is possible possible to to make make more more Federalist. Armed with with this it is Federalist. this insight, insight, it sense out of the later fight over western policy and commercial issues. of the later fight over western policy and commercial issues. sense out In the meantime, however, the the American peace In the American objective the peace in the meantime, however, objective in possible. American negotiations was to to expand expand as as far far as as possible* American leaders leaders negotiations quite and purposefully purposefully worked worked out out their their arguments arguments "by consciously and quite consciously "by to first principles" because because by by that that strategy strategy "our pretensions recurring to first principles" "our pretensions recurring [are] placed upon a more more extensive basis." Adams Adams was was firmly extensive basis." conupon a [are] placed firmly convinced that could restrain" his countrymen from going that "nothing could restrain" vinced his from "nothing countrymen going to the the Gulf Gulf of of Mexico. Mexico. Nor did he wish wish otherwise. Other clear to clear did he otherwise. Other northerners such Robert Livingston (who called as Robert such as northerners called boundaries "the boundaries "the Livingston (who So did many southfirst point of discussion") added their support. of first added their So did southpoint discussion") support many Rutledge, for boundaries erners as, for instance, erners "the boundaries for whom "the as, for instance, Edward Rutledge, are everything," and Madison, fretted about the "dangerous are and who fretted about the Madison, everything," "dangerous phraseology which may be be used which may used in in designating limits." Jay our limits." phraseology Jay designating our vigorously supported these demands, explaining that that America was America was demands, explaining supported these vigorously formidable people." people." going to to expand into "a "a great and formidable expand into great and going But while united united against against England and France, the gentry gentry and and But while and France, the England in land speculation those commercial financial groups involved commercial and and financial those involved in land speculation groups to aa turned on each the west. west. This once led led to each other for control turned other for control of at once of the This at in which the attendant bitter fight between two interest groups bitter between which interest groups in the attendant fight usual popopersonal economic motives played played aa noticeable noticeable role. role. The usual economic motives personal also very prominently displayed. But this litical shenanigans were this litical shenanigans were also very prominently displayed. conflict between between those the west west primarily primarily as as an was also a conflict was also a saw the those who saw be controlled by and for interests in and those those area to to be east and in the the east area controlled by for special special interests that the the region rather quickly quickly become aa selfselfassumed that who assumed would rather region would governing part of the Confederation. division here not on on here was not of the Confederation. The division governing part aa simple of land land against commerce. Many southerners Many southerners struggle of simple struggle against commerce. be brought brought along agreed that the west west should should be that the along slowly. slowly. agreed duel beIn phase, however, however, the the form of beof a a duel the fight took the In its first phase, its first fight took tween the the Virginia Virginia expansionists expansionists and the rest rest of the states. resolustates. A resoluof the and the tween in December, tion was was finally its claims ceded its claims in effected when Virginia tion December, Virginia ceded finally effected to 1783, on condition that Congress would not turn over to others others them over turn that would not condition on Congress 1783, as Franklin), but would instead use the wealth for the (such for wealth the use new instead the would as but Franklin), (such the dethe debenefit of the Confederation. conditions suggest, these conditions of the Confederation. As these benefit suggest, concluded cision reluctantly concluded factors. Virginians from several several factors. resulted from cision resulted Virginians reluctandy claimed. Squatters that they could not not control they claimed. the empire control the that Squatters and empire they they could conditions and marauders were taking the land creating the land the were already marauders creating the conditions already taking
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for aa major Indian war. war. Virginians Virginians also also fretted the problem problem about the fretted about for major Indian of maintaining republicanism in a large state and were openly were in and a state of maintaining republicanism large openly was in danger of splitting up into fearful that the Confederation of was in fearful that the Confederation splitting up into danger example, only three or more smaller units. At At the end of of 1783, for example, the end or more smaller units. three 1783, for only five states had delegates in Congress. "Unless some speedy and "Unless five states had delegates in Congress. speedy and be made beyond that of the Confederation," adequate provision beyond that of the Confederation," adequate provision be the face." face." Madison warned, "the most dismal stares me in in the dismal alternative alternative stares "the most Madison warned, by Virginia Virginia of its lands lands was was in the This in many of its This cession cession by respects the many respects in America. The apex of the small-state theory of republicanism of in America. the of small-state theory republicanism apex finest practical statements that political political and economic outlook economic outlook of that statements of finest practical were the related 1783-1784 proposals by Jefferson, its then leading its then were the related Jefferson, by leading 1783-1784 proposals exponent, for organizing and governing the territory. finally the As and for territory. governing finally organizing exponent, 1784 divided the trans-Appalachian west passed, the Ordinance of divided the of the Ordinance 1784 trans-Appalachian west passed, each entitled to immediate self-governinto ten relatively relatively large states, to entitled each immediate into ten states, self-governlarge the population population matched the ment. Statehood would come when the matched the ment Statehood would smallest of states, and they were to pledge eternal union to and were eternal union of the the original smallest they pledge original states, with the the existing Confederation. And in a provision provision that in a with that symbolized symbolized existing Confederation. the climax the early antislavery sentiment in America, the sentiment in climax of of the a conconAmerica, a early antislavery of southerners, Jefferson proposed sensus led and primarily composed of and primarily sensus led southerners, Jefferson proposed composed to exclude from the the region region after to after 1800. exclude slavery 1800. Though it was was dropped slavery from Though it dropped passage, this this slavery proscription was from the the final law just just before before passage, from final law slavery proscription was reintroduced into the later, and in other respects quite different, in reintroduced into the other later, respects quite different, Northwest Ordinance Ordinance of seems just just to link it it with with hence it it seems Northwest of 1787; to link 1787; hence Jefferson's original proposals. Jefferson's original proposals. planter and his But while while his market and social interests as But social interests as a a planter his market and his as aa physiocrat physiocrat strongly inclined Jefferson Jefferson toward education as education small toward small strongly inclined states states and local dominated by benevolent arisarislocal self-government a benevolent self-government dominated by a tocracy, became aware aware of dilemmas he either either sensed or rapidly sensed or of the the dilemmas tocracy, he rapidly became of of that that outlook. was one resolve such such Territorial expansion outlook. Territorial one way to resolve expansion was way to offered economic relief to to the the planter and protection protection difficulties, for it it offered economic relief difficulties, for planter and advocated against the lower lower' orders orders to the aristocrat. to the aristocrat. Jefferson against the Jefferson advocated such such expansion, and intrigued intrigued for for it, date. But from an an early date. But as as it, from expansion, and early in his indicated in his Notes Notes on Virginia (one of the early literary and indicated of the and Virginia (one early literary of the the new nation), nation), he also sensed the physiocratic physiocratic analytical classics of he also sensed the analytical classics in arguing for free free trade arguing for the same time nonsequitur in trade and at at the time opposing nonsequitur opposing a navy. navy. a side of the millennium, of the millennium, at rate, free free trade trade was was possible possible This side at any any rate, o several ways. A nation could maintain a large navy through one of several nation could maintain a through ways. large navy and enjoy free trade free trade within its nautical empire, or it could make within its nautical or it could make enjoy empire,
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an alliance a power power of that sort, or through cirwith a alliance with an of that fortuitous cirsort, or through fortuitous cumstances and aa naval naval force enough to control certain key cumstances force strong strong enough to control certain key areas (such Caribbean) it as the the Caribbean) areas it might exploit extensive commercial (such as might exploit extensive commercial as a neutral. But all these possible solutions pointed away liberties a liberties as neutral. But all these possible solutions pointed away physiocracy and toward toward mercantilism. For that that matter, matter, so did from physiocracy mercantilism. For so did the kind power and required for of power the kind of and organization for territorial territorial expanorganization required expanhis vision to the the sion. Jefferson never gave gave up sion. solution to vision of of an an idyllic Jefferson never idyllic solution up his problem, and in indeed ultimately ultimately retreat the in 1819-1821, did indeed retreat into into the problem, 1819-1821, did isolation it implied, implied, but but in the circumstances within the the south isolation within south that that it in the circumstances he rapidly rapidly modified modified his his practice practice along of independence of mercantilist independence he along mercantilist resulting discrepancy discrepancy between between his his rhetoric rhetoric and his actions actions lines. The resulting lines. and his but not not incomprehensible incomprehensible figure. perplexing but made him aa perplexing figure. Within three three years, years, Jefferson's Jefferson's noble statement oof the the small-state noble statement small-state on the verge of defeat. That evolution culminated philosophy was was the evolution of That culminated defeat. philosophy verge the forces of American American mercantilism mercantilism established established themselves themselves on when the forces of Constitution Hill in in 1787. Jefferson's own retreat points up aa key key Constitution Hill retreat 1787. Jefferson's points up of of 178,3-1784 aspect of this shift: the reaction against his view this shift: the came view of his reaction aspect 1783-1784 against from within within the the mercantilist a unit, as well well the south south and the as a bloc as mercantilist bloc unit, as as from the the small of northern traders who thought primarily as small group of northern traders group thought primarily in terms of with Great Britain. of an accommodation in terms Great Britain. accommodation with This movement away of Confederation was ininthe Articles Articles of Confederation was away from the fluenced by several factors: Britain's refusal to reopen its economic fluenced several factors: to its economic Britain's refusal by reopen empire title to to the the Misto America, of tide Miscontinued assertion assertion of America, Spain's Spain's continued empire to sissippi and its navigation, the rapid economic and psychological its sissippi navigation, the rapid economic psychological development of of the the west, west, and the manifestations of only of serious, if only the manifestations serious, if development as yet social unrest unrest which that the the aggregate aggregate as which suggested symptomatic, social yet symptomatic, suggested that statistics of recovery did did not not tell tell the the whole whole story about its of economic its statistics economic recovery story about viability or its geographic distribution. Because Because it crystalit crystalor its class distribution. viability geographic and class lized attitudes which had had been maturing for it led because it attitudes which been maturing for years, led lized years, because to aa stalemate the Confederation, and because because this this in turn in turn inside the to stalemate inside Confederation, and provoked aa concerted to change that system, system, the the central central event event drive to concerted drive change that provoked to be be Jay's Jay's negotiations negotiations with with Spain the Mississippi over the would seem to Mississippi Spain over question. question. Jefferson's Ordinance Ordinance of no sooner passed than than sooner been passed of 1784 Jefferson's 1784 had no three things things happened happened simultaneously. simultaneously. Northern Northern speculators three speculators and left it. James a revise conservatives opened a campaign to revise it. James Monroe left conservatives to opened campaign with talks Philadelphia to reconnoiter the west. Jay opened talks with to west. reconnoiter the And Jay opened Philadelphia he was charged charged by Congress with with obtaining the right right Spain in which he obtaining the Spain in by Congress of through Orleans and recognition by Spain that and Orleans New of navigation recognition by Spain that navigation through
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the Mississippi itself, not the Mississippi itself, not the two nations. the two nations.
its bank, was was the between the boundary eastern bank, its eastern boundary between
The to revise revise the the Ordinance in no sense jugsense a a jugof 1784 was in Ordinance of effort to The effort 1784 was a gernaut powered by a monolithic motive and guided by a oneoneguided by gernaut powered by a monolithic motive it was at at least track organization. organization. Among other considerations, considerations, it least track Among other passively supported by a good many southerners their own reareafor their southerners for passively supported by a good many sons. Without question, question, however, however, the Pennsylvania the speculators sons. Without speculators from Pennsylvania and were militantly militantly active active in pushing the the in opening states were other states and other opening and pushing doubt their pocketbook nerve nerve had had suffered one of battle. No doubt suffered one of its its their pocketbook battle. so spastic seizures, and they wanted Congressional control of the west west control the of so wanted and seizures, Congressional they spastic that they they could their quivering-in some cases desperately quakcases their in could dip that desperately quakquivering dip ing-hands into into that that great great reservoir of healing healing wealth. wealth. Yet Yet it it is is imposreservoir of imposinghands in terms of speculasible to to explain the revisionist movement wholly terms in movement of revisionist the sible wholly speculaexplain tors, men who were were truly truly indifferent the issue. issue. to any indifferent to other aspect of the tors, aspect of any other Speculation actually honed the edge of several existing policies. honed the several of edge existing policies. Speculation actually around men like like Timothy Pickering were were old old comOne group comTimothy Pickering group around mercial nabobs to whom the the west west meant meant almost except almost nothing nabobs to mercial nothing except was aa hierarchal hierarchal society ruled by by danger. Their primary objective Their primary objective was society ruled danger. aa conservative oligarchy that had intimate-if not formal-economic, that had intimate if not conservative oligarchy formal economic, political, and ties with England. Others Others were closer closer to with England. social ties and social to Rufus Rufus political, King and Alexander Hamilton, who had begun to modify this view had and Alexander to Hamilton, begun King modify this view into and subtle outlook. They feared and disliked subtle a more and outlook. into a more complex feared and disliked complex They popular government, but they they nevertheless nevertheless had accepted the results results popular government, but accepted the as it established an independent American society. On the of the war as it established an independent American society. of the the in terms terms other hand, visualized the the future of the the United other future of States in United States hand, they they visualized North Atlantic Atlantic of an Anglo-Saxon empire empire run run from their side side of of an Anglo-Saxon from their the North of the these reasons reasons they government basin. For For all basin. all these favored a a strong central government they favored strong central close relations relations with with England and preferred preferred to to strike maintaining close strike England and maintaining with members members of gentry. some kind kind of of compromise of the the southern southern gentry. compromise with But in the early days any rate, rate, was was ready ready to to consider consider But Bang, King, in the early at any days at secession and what what he he termed termed aa northern northern "sub-confederation" as aa secession "sub-confederation" as last resort. resort. last King was not not only only the the early this group proposed leader of of this King early leader group who proposed of the many of the specific ideas later advanced by Hamilton (such ideas later advanced as an Hamilton an many specific by (such as alliance with England to alliance to penetrate and control Spain's colonies), and control England penetrate Spain's colonies), but the clearer clearer thinker thinker and more more astute astute politician of the the two. two. but he was the politician of the Ultimately accepting the triumph of a wholly American mercanof a American mercanUltimately accepting triumph wholly tilism, he then then laid laid the the foundation of aa new party the foundation of tilism, party sustaining sustaining the conservative tradition tradition and representing conservative the economic interests that the economic interests that representing
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were effecting transition to industrialism. For For the the time, time, however, however, the transition were to industrialism. effecting the King wanted to control the west as a check on social unrest and to wanted the control a west as check on social unrest and King the cost the east. His problem problem was to accomplish this of labor cost of labor in in the the east. His was to accomplish this while retaining control of the area, avoiding war with England, and while retaining control of the area, avoiding war with England, and reaching some agreement agreement with leaders. with southern southern leaders. reaching from Spain gave King his Jay's inability to to win quick concessions from Jay's inability quick concessions Spain gave King his it might might appear, and to to some did opening. But But while while it some southerners southerners did opening. appear, and appear, that that Jay shared King's the foreign foreign secretary was in in outlook, the Jay shared appear, King's outlook, secretary was fact with John of still still fact an an astute astute spokesman and co-leader co-leader with John Adams of spokesman and in the the north. nabob to to an an another another group north. Jay's a nabob from a group in Jay's maturing maturing from American mercantilist mercantilist had had been rapid and By the end American been rapid and thorough. the end thorough- By the political of I783 of once and and for all the for all and 1783 he had embraced once political economy economy and ideology of American mercantilism. the beginning, Jay and of American the mercantilism. From ideology beginning, Jay and law and supreme many other early American leaders saw the other American leaders saw and some the law some supreme many early judicial institution as the secular cement that would replace institution the that a state state as secular cement would judicial replace a religion in such a corporate society. the other hand, Jay's deep a in such the other On hand, Jay's deep religion corporate society. Anglicanism undoubtedly undoubtedly lay that general general view. view. behind that Anglicanism lay behind as March, I783, he told the bluffing and and As early he told the British to stop British to March, 1783, early as stop bluffing accept the new facts of empire politics: America was "like a globe, the a of "like facts America was globe, accept empire politics: not to to be welcomed European European opposition be overset." a not as a overset." He even even welcomed opposition as "a national spirit." "Good will blessing because it strengthened because national will come it "a blessing strengthened spirit." concluded in of typical typical mercantilist mercantilist philosophy. philosophy. out of evil," out of in a a bit bit of evil," he concluded Foreign antagonism would make "our yeomen .•. as of "our yeomen ... as desirous desirous of Foreign antagonism are," and and increasing powers of as' our our merchants merchants now are," the powers of Congress increasing the Congress as* produce aa situation manufactures would then then situation in in which "domestic manufactures which "domestic produce be more encouraged:' ready to to go against to war against likewise ready be was likewise encouraged." Jay go to Jay was the Barbary pirates: it as aa great Besides, evil.... Besides, the it "does "does not not strike strike me as great evil Barbary pirates: a it may nursery for the foundation for a foundation for it a nursery for seamen, and lay become a seamen, and lay the may become respectable navy." China and to the the China "the turn turn to also encouraged navy." He also encouraged "the respectable India trade" that Robert Robert Morris Morris and aa few others several started several trade" that others had started India years before. before. years important These aspects aspects of of Jay's Jay's outlook it possible to These outlook make it possible to draw important the distinctions northern leaders. King, for example, thought the for northern leaders. distinctions among thought example, King, among the other Barbary interference in trade was "magnified." On the other hand, trade interference in hand, "magnified." Barbary raids on the the and whatever the apparently extent of of his his private private raids vast extent and whatever the apparently vast of die gross national income while he was in charge of the Treasury, Morris income while he in national Treasury, charge gross the land emerges as a vigorous vigorous American mercantilist. mercantilist. As with the land specspecas a emerges sense exdoes ulators of that group, group, the the Weltanschauung does not in any sense exin ulators of that any Weltanschauung their positions cuse the private morals; morals; they they misused misused their positions to to of private cuse the flabbiness flabbiness of
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improve their their own neither does does their political economy their political But neither own fortunes. fortunes. But economy improve explain their misconduct, and their outlook was far more American American far was explain their misconduct, and their outlook than the the view view of merchants and leaders who thought thought financial leaders and financial than of other other merchants terms of Unlike Hamabout the United States primarily in of England. in terms about States primarily the United England. Unlike a foundation foundation laid Ameriilton or wanted "to laid for for an Amerisee a "to see Morris wanted ilton or King, King, Morris can. navy." navy." Along Along with with men like and of New York and Samuel Shaw of like Samuel can John of Baltimore, vigorously supported trade with with Morris vigorously O'Donnell of Baltimore, Morris supported trade John O'Donnell Asia, and in the the jealousy jealousy such provoked in in England. England. activities provoked such activities reveled in and reveled Asia, over the prospects of "an independent of "an the prospects He was was enthusiastic enthusiastic over independent empire" empire" in America. America. in Jay, also, prior to to 1784) Morris Livingston (and Morris and and Livingston also, prior 1784) exemplified exemplified (and Jay, those northerners northerners who who steadily steadily broadened an initially more narrowly narrowly broadened an those initially more Livingston, commercial outlook into into aa mercantilist mercantilist Weltanschau,ung. commercial outlook Weltanschauung, Livingston, as aa trader and speculator and purpurfor example, began as trader and for speculator who saw and example, began sued business operations within a general theory of economic a of within economic sued his his business general theory operations view, development maturation. In occurred in in a a succession his view, succession of of In his maturation. development occurred of activity. Arguing that the stages defined by particular kinds of kinds that the activity. Arguing stages defined by particular newly independent independent states states were were in he was was at in the the commercial commercial stage, at stage, he newly first disinclined to throw his influence behind any broad program first disinclined to throw his influence behind any broad program to encourage manufacturing. According According to to him, him, and and despite the to encourage manufacturing. despite the growing number of of manufacturers manufacturers who agitated policy, for such a policy, such a growing agitated for was premature premature and artificial. It would undercut undercut the the the attempt the artificial. It attempt was rate of profit and thereby rate of commercial retard the the accumulation commercial profit of accumulation of thereby retard would in in turn capital at at home (and That would from abroad). turn decrease decrease capital abroad). That (and from the general rate of growth and and actually delay the the of economic economic growth estabthe estabgeneral rate actually delay Through the 1780S, lishment manufacturing on aa solid lishment of of manufacturing solid footing. the footing. Through 17805, however, Livingston's thinking evolved along classic mercantilist evolved classic mercantilist however, Livingston's thinking along lines, offered aa striking of how aa restricted illustration of restricted interest interest lines, and offered striking illustration idea could idea did break break through through its limitations. could and did its own limitations. But Jay and John John Adams were giants among northern mermerBut Jay were the the giants among northern cantilists. perfectly in in sentiment, respecting public cantilists. "We concur concur so so perfectly sentiment, respecting public affairs and what ought Jay wrote wrote Adams on on Novemaffairs ought to be done," to be done," Jay ber I, at the of ber 1785, at the end of a long, searching exchange on American a on American i, 1785, long, searching exchange I to enlarge on those heads." It problems, "that I find occasion "that find no to occasion on those heads." It problems, enlarge was as well well that that Jay was just just as enjoyed the comfort of his rapport with the his comfort of with Jay enjoyed rapport Adams at by aa harried harried at that that hour, hour, for for he was was soon burst in soon burst in upon upon by and almost almost frantic frantic Monroe just just back back from from his his trip trip to the west. to the west. He had seen seen the the west, vigorous vitality vitality and and independence its vigorous conwest, and its independence confirmed his ones. firmed his old old fears fears and added added some new ones.
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133 133 Easterners to suffer this kind of traumatic traumatic experience experience for for were to Easterners were suffer this kind of case illuminates all of them. Even many generations, and Monroe's and Monroe's case illuminates all of them. Even many generations, before he on his trip, he he had had questioned questioned Jefferson he left left on before his trip, on the the wisdom wisdom Jefferson on of granting home rule to Kentucky and the other settled west of granting rule to Kentucky and the other settled areas areas west the region like aa of the the mountains. of mountains. He argued for handling more like region more argued for handling the recolony. This attitude and and mercantilist mercantilist outlook was also This imperial outlook was also recolony. imperial attitude vealed in his support for the vealed in his the agitation the existing to strengthen support for existing agitation to strengthen the government under was ready, ready, by under the the Articles of Confederation. Articles of Confederation. He was government by the end of to pass pass navigation navigation acts acts designed to "take some share of 1784, the to share "take some 1784, to designed in the the carrying tariffs "to encourage domestic industry in and tariffs "to encourage domestic industry trade," and carrying trade," in line." in any line." any Indeed, militancy and thoroughness of mercantilism the militancy and thoroughness of Monroe's Monroe's mercantilism Indeed, the is exaggerate. His His formal formal reports reports to the Congress the is difficult difficult to to exaggerate. in the to the Congress in 1785 assumed that "the oldest and wisest" spring and summer of and wisest'* "the of oldest that assumed spring 1785 states would continue that kind kind of political economy, and urged urged the the states continue that of political economy, and United States respond in kind. The object object of he pointed United States to he to respond of trade, in kind. trade, pointed out, was "to obtain, if if possible, the principal share of the carriage "to obtain, out, possible, the principal share of the carriage of the materials materials of of either either party." America should retaliate of the should retaliate Hence America party." Hence vigorously: "strike more deeply into their commercial system "strike more into their commercial system..... vigorously: deeply Essentially wound their gen[ eral] commercial interests, and at at the the their genferal] commercial interests, and Essentially in every same time time promote promote those those of of these States. . . . Press in same them Press these States. every vulnerable part, part, and to the the utmost utmost extent our extent that that our vulnerable and . . . pursue it to pursue it interest admit of, until we obtain what we seek." seek." interest admit of, until obtain what Wearing these Monroe saw the west west as Pandora's box box a Pandora's as a these spectacles, saw the Wearing spectacles, Monroe was wild, wild, exciting, exciting, and of troubles the gentry the east. It was troubles for for the of of the east. It gentry of welirresponsible, yet it it was was necessary necessary for for the the gentry's wealth and welgentry's wealth irresponsible, yet difare. arose in practical and the double double diterms the fare. Thus arose in practical and immediate immediate terms lemma of mercantilism: how to to reconcile reconcile the political the political of American American mercantilism: commitment to to republicanism republicanism and representative government with and representative government with a compromise the time effect compromise of expansion effect a the necessity at the same time and at the same expansion and necessity of between the the landed landed and and the the commercial mercantilists. Monroe's Monroe's between commercial mercantilists. original answer was close close to to the the one in his his panic panic but in answer was one finally original finally adopted, adopted, but it into to it into over the the west he almost almost fumbled the chance to put the chance west he over fumbled away put away operation. operation. Monroe's program program had had three three main points. points. First, Monroe's First, repeal Jefferson's repeal Jefferson's to the west and substitute a small-state, approach the west substitute to small-state, self-government self-government approach straightforward colonial policy for the short run, ultimately giving for the short colonial run, giving ultimately straightforward policy it calmed down and as it local government and statehood statehood to west as the west local to the government and accepted eastern modes, manners, and leadership. eastern modes, Second, support manners, and support leadership. Second, accepted .
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the Spain, England, and the Indians in order to forestall the west west against against Spain, England, and the Indians in order to forestall the area secession and prevent area from penetrating influence from secession and prevent foreign penetrating the foreign influence and perhaps even leading to annexation. Third, combine these two these two and perhaps even leading to annexation. Third, policies with a system of mercantilist legislation and risk the chance the risk chance policies with a system of mercantilist legislation that to a program such a the northerners northerners who opposed that the try to program would try opposed such establish ties to to England. close ties with close confederation with their own confederation establish their England. Patrick enthusiasm. Charles Charles Pinckney with some some enthusiasm. Patrick Henry Pinckney responded with Henry responded of that also favorable, was also of South Carolina was South Carolina favorable, remarking remarking very very simply simply that any other approach "would destroy the hopes of the principal men of the the "would other hopes principal destroy any approach in future fortunes fortunes of of their their the future in establishing in the the Southern Southern States States in establishing the but the families." were there speculators in the south, in the but the there were Not only families." Not south, speculators only as a capital fund to retire the national southern saw the west fund to the a retire national west as the saw southern gentry capital gentry debt, debt. Monroe subtheir particular subshare of of their a good and hence hence a debt, and particular debt. good share "Under sumed '"Under his broad broad mercantilist in his mercantilist conception: sumed all such interests all such interests in conception produce of that the direction "the produce wrote Madison, he wrote of that the direction of of Congress," Madison, "the Congress,'* he be in trade the source of great natural wealth and country will of source natural trade the wealth and be in will great country to the United States." This realization that the west was strength realization the States." This that west was to the United strength becoming an area of commercial agriculture was perhaps the most of commercial area the an most agriculture perhaps becoming important observation observation that his excursion excursion that Monroe made during during his important the beyond the mountains. mountains. beyond Preoccupied with these these general of the the western western problem, problem, general aspects aspects of Preoccupied with Monroe did not immediately immediately attack Jay. His His first opponent was was Monroe did not attack Jay. first opponent Jefferson, who had had fathered fathered the the illusion illusion that that the the west west would would stay stay Jefferson, in the the Confederation under aa relaxed relaxed and and narrowly narrowly agrarian in Confederation under agrarian system. system. he remained remained in in the the country country instead instead of of accepting accepting the the job job of of Had he handling relations relations with with France, France, Jefferson Jefferson might might have have fought fought any any handling with all all his his considerable considerable abilities. abilities. revision of of the the Ordinance Ordinance of of 1784 revision 1784 with On balance, balance, though, though, this this conclusion conclusion seems seems doubtful. doubtful. Jefferson Jefferson wanted wanted the west as as badly badly as as any any other other American-empire American-empire man in in or or out out of of the west he departed to take up his duties in Paris Virginia, and even before and even before he to take his duties in Paris Virginia, departed up he he agreed agreed on on the the necessity necessity of of legislation legislation to to establish establish parts parts of of aa mermercantilist system. system. cantilist In In any any event, event, Monroe and and his his alliance alliance of of mercantilists, mercantilists, which which inincluded cluded northern northern and and southern southern speculators, speculators, revised revised Jefferson's Jefferson's law law and produced 1787. Monroe Monroe described described produced the the Northwest Northwest Ordinance Ordinance of of 1787. it it was was based, based, he he explained, explained, it almost almost perfectly perfectly in in aa letter letter to to Jefferson: Jefferson: it on "a "a colonial colonial government government similar similar to to that that whfich] wh [ich] prevailed prevailed in in these these States to the revolution, with with this this remarkable remarkable and and important important States previous previous to the revolution, difference difference that that when such such districts districts shall shall contain contain the the number number of of the the :
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least the thirteen thirteen original the time time being being they they o the least numerous numerous of states for for the original states shall be admitted into the the confederacy." admitted into shall be confederacy." The distinction emphasized by by Monroe Monroe is one. It distinction emphasized is an an important It important one. separated southern mercantilists from those northerners who, like separated southern mercantilists from those northerners who, like to rule rule the the west west and conquests Gouverneur wanted to Gouverneur Morris, and other other conquests Morris, wanted "like with no no plan plan for self-government. Perhaps a province" "like a for final final self-government. province" with Perhaps was part part of that led early gentry gentry this difference this difference was the same outlook that the early of the led the same outlook to criticize and anticipate demise. What sometimes criticize slavery to its demise. sometimes goes slavery and anticipate its goes put back back in unnoticed in in emphasizing emphasizing that that the the west west had had been been put unnoticed a in a most certainly certainly had) had) is is the the significant compromise checkrein (as checkrein it most (as it significant compromise between northern the issue issue of between northern and and southern on the of slavery. mercantilists on southern mercantilists slavery. It was banned in the the Northwest Northwest Territory. Territory. This It was banned in This agreement agreement opened opened the way way for the later later compromise the Constitutional Constitutional Convention. for the the in the Convention, compromise in It also way that that American American mercantilists mercantilists would would solve It also indicated indicated the the way solve the dilemma of an expanding nation would the of freedom freedom and nation would and expansion; an expansion; expanding provide enough for aa republicanism republicanism which inwealth and and welfare which inwelfare for provide enough wealth cluded slavery. cluded slavery* Sprouting in this this fashion, idea that expansion was key the key the idea that expansion was the fashion, the Sprouting in to prosperity prosperity and republicanism soon matured and to and republicanism to govern came to soon matured and came govern the meantime, conAmerican politics politics for at least American for at and cona century. In the least a meantime, and century. In his efforts to revise the legislation concerning the currently with with his to revise the efforts currently legislation concerning the west, Monroe lashed out at what he considered a fundamental attack attack at a lashed out what he considered fundamental west, on this expansion. Ever Ever since returning from west, of expansion. the west, from the on axiom of since returning this axiom Monroe had had heard heard rumors rumors that jay's talks with Spain were going that Jay's talks with Spain were going badly. Prior Prior to to the the late he discounted Then, them. Then, of 1786, late spring discounted them. 1786, he badly. spring of as aa northerner in opened aa bitter bitter assault on Jay in June, he opened northerner who was assault on June, he Jay as by abandoning abandoning the west. Though willing to the south to destroy the west. south by Though willing destroy the Monroe admitted his analysis analysis was was "presumptive he neverneverMonroe admitted that that his only/' he "presumptive only," the manwas "an on foot theless charged that there there was foot under under the "an intrigue theless charged that intrigue on "1 have have aa conviction my own mind," mind," he wrote wrote agement in my of Jay." conviction in agement of Jay." "I has managed managed this negotiation dishonestly." Jefferson, "that "that Jay this negotiation Jefferson, dishonestly." MonJay has it roe's assumption about the of the the trouble trouble was but it was wrong, the cause roe's cause of wrong, but assumption about in the says a great deal about the gnawing fears that some leaders in the leaders a fears that deal about the says great gnawing south entertained concerning concerning the the lawyers in the north. the north. and merchants merchants in south entertained lawyers and surclan that Jay fought back in a style and with an elan that was rarely surwith back a in rarely style Jay fought was he that passed among the Founding Fathers. Bluntly denying that he Fathers. the Bluntly denying passed among Founding confronted secretly and literally literally selling selling the west down the the river, the west river, Jay Jay confronted secretly Monroe and the Pickering-King Pickering-King group group with with an almost irrefutable almost irrefutable and the Monroe that declared he analysis and recommendation. Without hesitation he declared that hesitation recommendation. and analysis
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a "treaty disagreeable a "treaty disagreeable
to one half of of the the nation nation had had better better not not be be to one half made" because it would lead to disunion and catastrophe. This made This and disunion lead to it would made" because catastrophe. it that he was not not simply pro-English conservative, but an an a pro-English it clear he was clear that conservative, but simply a American mercantilist ready to compromise. American mercantilist ready to compromise. Jay then reminded Monroe that neither England nor France was Jay then reminded Monroe that neither England nor France was willing to let America inside their respective empires. This This meant, meant, willing to let America inside their respective empires. he pointed pointed out out with with great great patience, commerce was was not not able to able to that commerce he patience, that for the as a way of accumulating capital for the further further function effectively function effectively as a way of accumulating capital next explained the west west development of of the the United United States. that the States. Jay explained that Jay next development could not perform that that function by itself* itself. It its could contribute It could contribute its all by function all could not perform share when the settled regions had an opportunity to earn to had an earn the settled share only when opportunity regions only capital of goods for goods commerce. The exchange a general in a exchange of goods for goods capital in general commerce. was nothing nothing more than aa definition the old of the old colonial colonial system, definition of and was more than system, and aa revolution revolution had been fought fought to that bondage. bondage. end that to end had been best Looking about for for aa workable workable answer, answer, Jay that the concluded that the best Jay concluded Looking about solution in in sight was in temporarily abandoning America's maxiAmerica's maxiin was solution temporarily abandoning sight on the in New Orleans return for Orleans in and in in return for the Mississippi mum claims claims on Mississippi and access the Spanish empire in the Western Hemisphere and in Asia. in Western in Asia. the access to to the Hemisphere Spanish empire Trade with would not not only meet the the existing existing emergency emergency but but Trade with Spain only meet Spain would in their would give Americans an additional bargaining weapon would Americans an additional in their bargaining weapon give space, negotiations with with England England and France. Provided aa breathing breathing space, France. Provided negotiations the country could pull itself together, erect a mercantilist system, the itself erect a could mercantilist and together, country pull system, and to take the Mississippi and Orleans. then go on the New take and then on to Orleans. go Mississippi Finally, Jay hit hit hard hard at and others Indian question. question. at Monroe and others on the the Indian Finally, Jay did this turn the charge of dishonesty back on his Not only of his critics, critics, only did this turn the charge dishonesty back but it the basic ethical issue in mercantilism's theory proit raised but basic in raised the ethical issue of promercantilism's theory of ducing domestic welfare through expansion over peoples. "Our over other domestic welfare other peoples. ducing through expansion sevpeople," he boldly reminded reminded the the southerners, committed sevhe boldly "have committed southerners, "have people," eral unprovoked eral of violence violence against against them." them." Aware that the acts of that the unprovoked acts Canadians Canadians were were thoroughly thoroughly disgusted with American behavior in American behavior in disgusted with foreign affairs-"Were Matchioavell alive," alive," one affairs old Matchioavell "Were old one of of them them conconforeign in anger, cluded to learn cluded in might go to the the Americans Americans to to school school to learn anger, "he might go to Politics the imperialPolitics more crooked crooked than than his his own"-Jay own" Jay emphasized the emphasized imperialism of of the the Confederation Confederation itself. already itself. Randolph Downes had had already Randolph blasted his fellow with a searing description of aa law law blasted his fellow Congressmen with a of Congressmen searing description for in 1783: for "imperial aggressiveness and outright effrontery passed in and passed 1783: "imperial aggressiveness outright effrontery this takes a front rank exthis document takes a front in the of American American exrank in the annals annals of pansion." The criticism criticism had had little effect. Congress Congress continued the little effect. continued in in the pansion." tradition. "You empire tradition. ''You are are aa subdued people," it the Indians Indians aa subdued people," it told told the empire
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year later. now, therefore, declare to conditions, later. "We shall shall now, to you the conditions, year therefore, declare you the on which which alone can be received into the peace and protection on alone you can be received into the peace and protection you uncon~ of the the United seem that the principles of unconof United States." States." It It would would seem that the principles of ditional surrender and total war appeared rather early in American ditional surrender and total war appeared rather early in American
history. "Would it be wiser," wiser," Jay asked Jefferson, to exex~ it not not be Jefferson, "gradually Jay asked "gradually to tend our want of should make our settlements tend as want settlements as of room room should it necessary?" make it necessary?" As that that remark Jay was perceptive and intelligent AmeriAmeri~ As remark suggests, a perceptive was a and intelligent suggests, Jay can mercantilist who was was trying trying to develop aa program program that would can mercantilist to develop that would produce aa strong nation and of political economy, and and and system who of produce strong nation system political economy, was at the same time time aa man keenly keenly aware aware of trying to solve) was at the to of (and solve) (and trying his outlook. outlook. Jefferson the the moral moral dilemma inherent in the dilemma inherent evaded the in his Jefferson evaded he did his life. Madison had a far better grasp issue, as as he did throughout far his had a better life. Madison issue, throughout grasp of had "a of the and told told Monroe the situation "a situation and that Jay Monroe rather rather sharply Jay had sharply that train of reasoning which which has has governed governed him. him. ... was mistaken, train of reasoning If he he was ... If mistaken, his integrity and probity, probity, more the error." error." Jay his for the more than than compensate integrity and Jay compensate for was wrong wrong on on one one significant point: he underestimated the extent was the extent he underestimated significant point: surplus~producing and the the rapidity of the the west's maturation as as a a surplus-producing west's maturation rapidity of agricultural society. also one judgment that can can be be dede~ He one also made agricultural society. judgment that bated endlessly. assumed, quite in keeping with his uppeHlass bated He his in with assumed, quite endlessly. upper-class keeping conservatism, that the west west was was an underdeveloped society that that the an underdeveloped conservatism, society that should be be brought brought along slowly until it came of age politically, should of age politically, along slowly until it economically, economically, and socially. socially. too assumed assumed this. Therein lies the crucial importance But Monroe too lies the crucial importance this. Therein of the fight between them: it jarred all American mercantilists the into of fight between them: it jarred all American mercantilists into compromise in order to build the stark that they had to the stark realization to build realization that to compromise in order they had the kind that they wanted. And in in this this important respect, the kind of of society society that they wanted. important respect, as aa catalyst catalyst in in the the growing Jay's to Monroe served consensus answer to served as Jay's answer growing consensus for a stronger for a as Madison, such as central government. Southerners such Madison, stronger central government. Southerners Richard Henry Henry William Grayson, William Lee, Richard Grayson, Edward Rutledge, Rutledge, Henry Henry Lee, in Lee, Washington understood that Jay was correct correct in understood that Lee, and George Jay was George Washington it assuming that the United States could ultimately take what it take the could that United States ultimately assuming wanted from if it survived the immediate crisis. But they But the crisis. if it immediate wanted from Spain survived they Spain overt and the great risk involved in any realized better involved in realized better than than Jay any overt great risk Jay the formal commitment to his They that the west might knew that west the his policy. commitment to formal might policy. They their own easily revolt (and that some hotheads had already written their had written hotheads revolt that some already easily (and as be if his analysis should be accepted as policy marching songs) should if his accepted policy and analysis marching songs) him in the translated into treaty. Hence they blocked in the Congress a treaty. blocked into a translated Congress they outlook. although they shared his broad outlook. broad shared his although they history.
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This recognition of of the the need need to the existing while west while to control control the This recognition existing west the east strength and cohesion-a combination that would that a combination cohesion and east gained the gained strength in the the then generate further expansion-played an important role in then important role generate further expansion played an rapid growth of the movement for more powerful govcentral govfor a a more the movement powerful central rapid growth of sense, for example, the stalemate over aa ernment. In the immediate over stalemate the for ernment. In the immediate sense, example, treaty with Spain undermined the effectiveness and the prestige of o and the prestige treaty with Spain undermined the effectiveness the Congress. this consensus not produce produce any immediate did not But this consensus did the any immediate Congress. But relaxation of of the tension within within the the evolving evolving mercantilist mercantilist coalition. coalition. the tension relaxation For its its members members were were fully aware that going slow in the west deFor fully aware that going slow in the west deto accelerate economic development pended upon upon their their ability ability to the economic of accelerate the development of pended the eastern Unless they they could could accumulate accumulate capital individually the eastern states. states. Unless capital individually and simultaneously prevent or control eastern social and collectively, and collectively, and simultaneously prevent or control eastern social unrest, they they would be unable unable to to meet meet either the needs needs or or the either the the demands would be unrest, west, let the requirements for their their of the west, minimum let alone the for alone satisfy of the requirements satisfy ideal solution problem. solution to to the the problem. ideal Thus faced with the necessity necessity of of dealing Thus they were faced with the and quickly and they were dealing quickly effectively with the corporate, inclusive crisis in commercial and in with the inclusive crisis and commercial effectively corporate, manufacturing affairs that had had matured almost coincidentally with matured almost affairs that manufacturing coincidentally with be understood understood if if it it is is defined the western cannot be the western issue. This crisis defined crisis cannot issue. This as no more than-or primarily as-a postwar economic depression. as a postwar as no more than or primarily economic depression. was one of its its features, but the basic question was whether This the basic This was one of but was whether features, question the established of the seaboard metropolis was threatened the the seaboard established economy of threatened was metropolis economy limited growth growth or or actual stagnation because it was was with severely with actual stagnation because it severely limited proscribed or isloated by the British and French empires. Many meror the British and merisloated French proscribed by empires. Many cantilists, aware by were aware late 1785 and early cantilists, including including Washington, by late Washington, were 1785 and early 1786 that the postwar depression seemed to be over and that recovery that the seemed to be over and that recovery 1786 postwar depression of them them-and of aa kind had begun. begun. What worried worried all kind had of all of and frightened a frightened a many-was the cause and the nature of that recovery. good was the cause and the nature of that recovery. WhatWhatgood many ever their social social theories ever their theories or philosophies, they they saw recovery or political saw recovery political philosophies, as based on the as being the creation of an an unbalanced, unbalanced, quasi-colonial, creation of being based quasi-colonial economic relationship with Great Accurately enough, enough, they they Great Britain. Britain. Accurately relationship with realized that this selfrealized that this threatened threatened their existence as their very a strong, as a very existence strong, selfgoverning governing society. society. THE GENTRY AND "TIlE "THE ABSOLUTE NECESSITY OF SOME GENERAL SYSTEM"
The phrase phrase "independent purposely not used in the was purposely not used in the "independent empire" empire" was sentence. Some American leaders preceding sentence. leaders retained retained the basic outoutthe basic preceding of the nabob and were look of were therefore therefore strongly They strongly pro-British.' pro-British. They
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could join join the truly American American mercantilists mercantilists in drive for could the truly in a a drive a strong for a strong domestic government government and and agree that it should be used against indomestic that it should be used agree against in-
ternal unrest unrest if none the the less any vigorous vigorous if necessary, while ternal less opposing necessary, while none opposing any great majority of American leaders policy against England. But the the great majority of American leaders policy against England. did view the problem problem from perspective of did view the from the the perspective of their their own mercantilmercantilism. of several plausibly be as the the most most ism. One of several men could could plausibly be singled out as singled out important figure figure in in rallying rallying important
this consensus consensus to to the the action that led led to to action that
this
the Constitutional Convention in Such a choice would ultithe Constitutional Convention in 1787. 1787. Such a choice would ultimately have be made between Jay, John John Adams, Adams, and Madison. have to to be between Jay, and Madison. mately coming of the revolution revolution itself, the movement for strong As in in the the coming of the a strong for a itself, the central government government had 13 centers, and once again the north and central the and once north centers, 13 again the south provided the the synthesizing synthesizing leadership. leadership. This time the the honors honors the south provided This time probably go to Madison and the Virginia gentry. to Madison the probably go Virginia gentry. To emphasize the difficulty, and the somewhat artificial nature, emphasize the difficulty, and the somewhat artificial nature, of such judgments, it may be that no no one one analyzed and defined defined of such judgments, be noted it may noted that analyzed and Gerry of Massachusetts. Rethe crisis neatly than the crisis more neatly than Elbridge of Massachusetts. ReElbridge Gerry viewing the economic tactics of the war, free trade and recithe economic free trade reciof the when tactics and war, viewing procity treaties treaties with with the the most-favored-nation used in in clause were were used most-favored-nation clause procity an break into into European empires, Gerry concluded that an effort to break effort to concluded that European empires, Gerry they had become positively positively dangerous. dangerous. America America was aa backward backward they and hence its treaties with the the country, he explained to Jefferson, treaties with he to and hence its Jefferson, explained country, small, relatively unindustrialized powers of Europe meant little. little. unindustrialized of small, relatively Europe powers And should nations negotiate negotiate treaties with London or or Paris, Paris, should such such nations treaties with the American economy economy would be be placed placed in in aa very very unfavorable unfavorable the position. The policy policy had to changed. "We otherwise be to be otherwise must be be changed. position. their Tributary this favoured Nation System to me aa their favoured Nation System appears Tributary ... this appears to System to catch at any any rate, rate, of Cobwebs to in that that era, catch Flies." Flies.'* And in era, at System of Americans saw themselves themselves as one of of the the flies. flies. as one Americans John explained similar truths to to Jefferson Jefferson and, also explained similar truths and, along John Adams also along of Montiwith Madison, Madison, seems to have the future Montifuture sage with seems clearly have given sage of clearly to given the cello an intensive intensive course For that that matter, in mercantilism. mercantilism. For cello course in matter, Adams was aa vigorous the entire entire American seaboard. seaboard. As Conto the instructor to was vigorous instructor as 1783, his logic logic and industry industry "have gress officially told him as as early early as officially told 1783, his gress had aa very effect." Convinced as early as 1780 that that England as as effect." Convinced had England 1780 very good early good would pose pose aa threat even after independence had been won, won, and after independence threat even would determined to to build build aa "genuine of American policy," policy," Adams determined system of "genuine system warned as persistently campaigned for a navy and as early as 1781 that a for 1781 that early as navy persistendy campaigned lest the pro-English merchants have to be closely watched lest be to would have merchants the closely pro-English they lead America back into the Empire. Asserting America's the back into America lead Empire. Asserting they .
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"natural to the carrying trade," he undertook to "brace "brace up" undertook to "natural right up" right to the carrying trade," he the Confederation in order to "encourage manufactures, order to the Confederation in especially "encourage manufactures, especially navigation laws, to build aa navy, of in to pass and iron," wool and of wool navy, and in iron," to pass navigation laws, to build all respects to construct a new empire. all respects to construct a empire. Though of the the the years than during active than less active hence less and hence older and years of during the Though older revolution, Sam Adams vigorously supported the same program. revolution, program. vigorously supported the a high Jay's role was more significant. Not only was he he a officeholder high officeholder Jay's role was more significant. Not only in or Madieven Adams or not even no one, but perhaps in the the Confederation, one, not Confederation, but perhaps no as far in constructing a mercantilist son, a mercantilist in far to go as he to as ready as he was as constructing son, was ready as go system date. Unless America did so, he explained an early at such such an early date. Unless America did so, he explained system at "we shall soon find ourselves in to in the the situation situation in 1783. to Congress 1783, "we shall soon find ourselves Congress in wishes to see us, viz., as unimportant consumers in as consumers to see all Europe wishes in which which all us, viz., unimportant Europe of to furfuruseful laborers and as as useful laborers to and productions of her her manufactures manufactures and productions and was in nish her in "a "a delicate delicate situation," America was raw materials." her with nish with raw materials," America situation," urged immediate he and urged in 1786, immediate action. action. warned Washington he warned early in 1786, and Washington early others, Jay looked forward to the day when AmeriAs forward the to looked Ameriwith so so many As with many others, Jay day cans could make their their agreements with other other countries and countries "more "more and could make cans agreements with to their [own] views and Wishes." more correspondent Wishes." to views more and their correspondent [own] as vigorous. for Many were almost almost as in 1785 southerners were Many southerners vigorous. Arguing Arguing in 1785 for of aa "deep and radical change" in the Confederation, Monthe need need of the in and radical the Confederation, change" "deep roe advocated putting "the of each each State roe "the political State . . . advocated putting economy of political economy entirely under the hands of the union. means, necessary to the union. The under hands the of means, necessary to entirely enc. domestic domestic [manufacturing] [manufacturing] by by aa tax tax obtain the the carrying carrying trade, trade, to to enc. obtain will depend depend entirely entirely on on on foreign foreign industry, industry, or or any any other other means means ... will by January, January, 1786, Monroe emphasized his concern the union." union." And by the 1786, emphasized his concern to come "upon "upon the the ocean ocean as a commercial commercial people' people." Against Against this this backbackto as a as SecSecground, Monroe's Monroe's ultimate ultimate selection selection of of John John Quincy Quincy Adams as ground, retary of of State State seems seems almost almost aa routine routine projection projection of of his his mercantilism. mercantilism. retary was more directly directly occupied occupied with with specific specific projects projects in in Washington was Washington and .and around around the the Potomac Potomac River River Valley Valley designed designed to to develop develop the the comcommercial mercial and and industrial industrial resources resources of of that that region region and and open open up up aa central central communications to the the Mississippi. Mississippi. Such Such aa plan, plan, he he argued, argued, communications route route to would lead lead to to the the decline decline of of slavery slavery as as the the south south developed developed aa diversidiversified fied economy, economy, and would centralize centralize the the entire entire country country around around the the home of of the the gentry. gentry. "The earnestness earnestness with with which which he he espouses espouses the the is to is hardly to be described," Madison noted, "and surely undertaking be Madison "and described," undertaking noted, hardly surely he could could not not have have chosen chosen an an occupation occupation more more worthy worthy of of succeedsucceeding ... than than the the patronage patronage of of works works ... which which will will extend extend comcoming merce, link link [the [the seaboard's] seaboard's] interests interests with with those those of of the the Western Western merce, .
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and lessen lessen the the emigration emigration of of its its citizens citizens by by enhancing enhancing the the and profitableness of situations which they now desert in search of of situations which they now desert in search of profitableness better." better." For all all his his localized localized activity activity in in Virginia Virginia and and Maryland, Maryland, WashingWashingFor ton was was keenly keenly aware aware of of the the general general crisis. crisis. "Something "Something must must be be ton done," he he wrote wrote Jay Jay in in 1786, 1786, "or "or the the fabric fabric must must fall; fall; it it certainly certainly is is done," tottering." As he he thought thought about about the the new new government government that that was was tottering." needed, he he concluded concluded that that basic basic natural natural resources resources should should be be conconneeded, trolled and and dispensed dispensed by by the the central central government government according according to to aa trolled by the the principle principle of of first first plan of of balanced balanced development development rather rather than than by plan come, first first served, served, and and the the public public welfare welfare take take the the leftovers. leftovers. come, Hugh Williamson Williamson of of North North Carolina Carolina was was another another active active mercanmercanHugh So was was the the member member of of the the gentry gentry from from MaryMarytilist from from the the south. south. So tilist land who concluded concluded that that it it was was vital vital to to establish establish aa system system which which land it possible possible to to "feel "feel ourselves ourselves superior superior to to the the ComComwould make it would mercial frown frown of of britions." britions." That That accomplished, accomplished, "imagination "imagination itself itself mercial be capable capable of keeping pace pace with with our increasing wealth wealth would scarcely scarcely be would of keeping our increasing and importance." importance." And from from Yale, Yale, Ezra Ezra Stiles Stiles wrote wrote Jefferson Jefferson in in the the and social unrest unrest that that was was simmering simmering in in some some same vein. vein. Aware of of the the social same of the the colonies, colonies, Stiles Stiles recommended recommended aa strong strong central government of central government and expansion as the proper remedies. and expansion as the proper remedies. Thomas Jefferson Jefferson also toward mercantilism. mercantilism. Free Free also moved further further toward trade was "impossible," and true reciprocity presented "difficulties trade was "impossible/* and true reciprocity presented "difficulties not free," he admitted admitted under insurmountable." "Weare the hamunder the "We are not insurmountable." free," he of theory theory mering of logic, "to question on principles "to decide of Jay's decide this this question principles of Jay's logic, mering only." Hence he accepted accepted the the arguments a "navigation for a of Adams for Hence he "navigation arguments of only." act act against a program Britain." Such Such a Great Britain." probably very probably program would very against Great reiterated lead to that reason reason he reiterated for that lead to wars, and for concluded, and wars, Jefferson Jefferson concluded, his force." naval force." o some some naval of "the "the necessity his earlier earlier acceptance necessity of acceptance of But leader at juncture. crucial juncture. at that that crucial not a a leader But Jefferson was simply Jefferson was simply not "I at a loss what to do," he admitted to Jay on January 27, to admitted "I own myself what to loss he a at do," 27, January Jay myself 1786. What in fact he did do was follow Madison, Monroe, Jay, and do follow he did in fact Monroe, Madison, Jay, 1786. of outlines of the broad outlines Adams. their analysis Adams. Having analysis and the accepted their Having accepted their he first a war on the Barbary pirates. He the a war their program, first proposed he pirates. Barbary proposed program, other alliance with other even to organize, dickered to even advocated, and dickered advocated, and organize, an alliance across the interested Then he turned to westward expansion across to westward he turned interested powers. expansion powers. surAsia. Not too surof Asia. Mississippi the markets markets of and the to the the Pacific Pacific and Mississippi to states for smaller prisingly, Jefferson began about this time to argue for smaller states to time this about argue prisingly, Jefferson began control. in to control. easier to be easier in the the west because they west because they would be
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Throughout this period, period, Jefferson Jefferson was was still still trying trying to to break break into into Throughout this for the French mercantilist system and thus open a vent for American a vent and thus the French mercantilist system open tobacco and surpluses. Though successful in in specific and other other surpluses. tobacco instances, specific instances, Though successful he never did crack the system itself. He also stressed the the importance stressed also he never did crack the system itself. importance of reopening the West Indies trade. He considered it "indispensably considered it of "indispensably reopening the West Indies trade. necessary" and saw in a mercantilist system the the weapon that would weapon that necessary'* and saw in a mercantilist system force England to Integrating territorial expansion force England to capitulate. capitulate. Integrating territorial expansion and commercial he outlined a broad broad strategy he folfoloutlined a commercial expansion, strategy which he expansion, he lowed many years. years. "Our vicinity to to their their West Indies Indies possessions, possessions, "Our vicinity for many lowed for and to to the the fisheries, is aa bridle naval force, our small naval which aa small bridle which and force, on our fisheries, is part, would hold in the mouths of the most powerful of these counof these counthe most of mouths hold in the would powerful part, tries. II hope will rid rid us us of our debts," concluded in in of our office will tries. our land land office debts," he concluded hope our aa letter to Jay, "and that our first then, will be, to the will attention to the first attention that our letter to "and then, be, Jay, beginning of of aa naval naval force force of sort." of some sort." beginning Others concerned about the commerce of the commerce of the the Indies. about Indies. were equally concerned Others were equally Like Jefferson, Robert Morris wanted westward expansion (it would wanted westward Morris Like Robert Jefferson, expansion (it would attract and "secure the Indian trade") as well as "secure Indian as and the well as attract Canadian Canadian capital trade") capital the island business. John John and conthe Samuel Adams were especially island business. and Samuel conespecially cerned to to reopen reopen it, it as as an part of of "the an integral cerned since they viewed it "the it, since they viewed integral part natural system of the commerce of the United States," as well as natural of of the the United as as commerce well States," system specifically important to Boston. Others stressed the argument that to the Others Boston. stressed that argument specifically important access the Indies would establish a re-export re-export system access to to the Indies would establish a system embracing embracing "all parts of of the the world." world." "off parts Several other developments merSeveral other accelerated this this merdevelopments strengthened strengthened and accelerated cantilist drive toward aa powerful central government empowered cantilist drive toward powerful central government empowered to to co-ordinate co-ordinate the the landed landed and commercial-manufacturing interests commercial-manufacturing interests in in one system at the the same time expand it it in all directions. in all time expand directions. One system and at of these of these was the increasing increasing activity manufacturing and an associassociwas the in manufacturing and an activity in ated agitation ated government aid. John Adams had reported reported in for government aid. John in 1780 agitation for 1780 that that Europe Europe was worried worried lest the greatest greatest manumanulest America America "become "become the facturing country, and thus thus ruin ruin Europe." Though America had America had facturing country, Europe." Though not not even approached that strength by 1786, there was aa great great deal deal of of approached that strength by 1786, there interest and activity. interest activity. And the the corporation, modification of of the the as a a modification corporation, as old old joint-stock joint-stock company, appeared as means of a means as a of solving company, had already already appeared solving the the problems problems of of capital and organization. organization. accumulation and capital accumulation New York's York's Central Central Committee of in 1785 of Mechanics Mechanics was founded founded in 1785 thereafter became the and soon thereafter Manufacturing Society of York. the Manufacturing of New York. Society An Association Association of of Tradesmen and Manufacturers was in Boston Manufacturers in Boston was matched by the Pennsylvania by the Society for the Encouragement for the of Pennsylvania Society Encouragement of
The Age of of Mercantilism Mercantilism The Age
Manufactures and Useful Arts. Arts. Manufactures and Useful
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And mechanics mechanics in cities began began in both both cities demand protection protection against against English English imports for such of their imports for such of their own wares as naval supplies and leather goods. provided wares as naval Southern states states provided supplies and leather goods. Southern north. North North the same kind kind of of aid aid and the and comfort in the comfort supplied the north. supplied in well as Carolina, for iron for example, bounties for as iron production as well Carolina, for example, gave gave bounties production as for staple crops. Connecticut Connecticut and and New Hampshire their for staple crops. Hampshire encouraged encouraged their nascent manufacturing manufacturing in ways. Pennsylvania Pennsylvania and and MassaMassanascent in similar similar ways. chusetts went went even further, offering straight cash loans and even chusetts even further, and loans even cash offering straight granting land for some factories. Other companies projected major land for some factories. Other granting companies projected major as with with the the Great transportation systems, the Potomac Great and the Potomac Company transportation systems, as Company and Dismal Swamp undertaking. Similar charters were granted for Dismal Similar charters were Swamp undertaking. granted for ventures on on the James River River and and for bridges ventures the James and in in South and for South Carolina, Carolina, bridges like one authorized the Charles Charles River River in like the the one over the authorized over Massachusetts in in in Massachusetts 1785. Some of these projects, like Washington's Potomac operation, of these like Potomac 1785. projects, Washington's operation, demanded interstate co-operation of a fairly fairly extensive nature. The demanded interstate co-operation of a extensive nature. rest served the need need for national rest served to a national to increase and dramatize for a increase and dramatize the economy. economy. In way, Noah Webster a unified unified In a a different for a different way, also campaigned Webster also campaigned for system. His first spelling book of I783 was timed perfectly, first book of was timed system. 1783 perfectly, and spelling the introduction spoke pointedly of the intellectual tools by the introduction spoke pointedly of the intellectual tools needed needed by "this infant Empire." Another of his many volumes followed shortly, "this infant Empire/' Another of his many volumes followed shortly, and he he went went on the the road road from Massachusetts south peddle his his and to peddle from Massachusetts south to rhetoric and and his his ideology ideology along with his his word-books. word-books. His His prefaces prefaces rhetoric along with as well as his speeches apparent that that he he was was dedicated to dedicated to as well as his it apparent speeches made it one object: in this the EMone to "encourage this country, "encourage genius that] the country, [so object: to genius in [so that] will no longer be indebted to aa foreign foreign indebted to PIRE OF AMERICA will l&nger be kingdom for books." Following Following the the same politics, Webin politics, for books." same approach kingdom approach in burlesque on government" government" ster described the Confederation Confederation as as "a "a burlesque ster described the and vigorously the campaign for aa stronger, national and truly national stronger, truly vigorously supported supported the campaign for institution. institution. Two other which reinforced reinforced that were manimanithat movement were other events events which festations of of social discontent and and anxiety; social discontent festations Adams, among among Jay and Adams, anxiety; Jay as omens to be ignored at the the risk risk of of others, viewed them as to be others, viewed only at ignored only losing independence. First in origins was the Society of the Cincinof Cincinthe the in was First Society origins losing independence. of General General Henry in I783 the direction Henry Knox nati, organized under the direction of nati, 1783 under organized in in war. and other conservative veterans of the war. Though of the conservative veterans and other extremely Though in extremely all of camaraderie some respects founded on the rather ghoulish camaraderie of all the rather some founded ghoulish respects the society leaders of of the also soldiers who have the leaders survived combat, have survived soldiers combat, the society also conservative about entertained vague but but vigorous ideas about conservative ideas entertained somewhat somewhat vague vigorous to to
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coups wild or or grandiose led to to wild that led visions that of visions the type and the d'etat, and grandiose type of coups d'etat,
speculative investments. A broad reacted the country of the section of cross section broad cross country reacted speculative investments. in it "might in time, negatively. Led by Sam Adams, who thought it time, Adams, thought "might negatively. Led by £lady and officially revive the old feudal system," Massachusetts derevive the old feudal system," Massachusetts flatly officially denounced the Society as potentially "dangerous to the peace, liberty the to nounced the Society as potentially "dangerous peace, liberty and of the United States in general." and safety safety of the United States in general." Washington the organization, in the basic changes effect basic to effect organization, changes in managed to Washington managed but into 1786 on into but the the fears and opposition fears and Thus, 1786 and 1787. 1787. Thus, lingered on opposition lingered while itself vigorously supported the idea of a stronger the Society while the Society itself vigorously supported the idea of a stronger government wanted such changes, and agitated for such many men who wanted changes, many government and agitated for the of a a new government of the the virtues virtues of the same same thing that one one of government thing argued argued that would to control the case factions. As had been been the case its ability to such factions. lie in in its control such would lie ability with at the time of the Restoration in England, many in the Restoration the at time of with Shaftesbury England, many Shaftesbury to be American mercantilists in the the circumstances of 1786 circumstances of be American mercantilists in 1786 began began to seriously worried that the strife between factions would combine the factions that strife between worried combine seriously with the with the particularism to destroy the government of the the states states to and destroy the government and particularism of lead to to aa voluntary or forced return to some kind of colonial status. lead forced return to of or some kind colonial status. voluntary this juncture juncture James began to to take the lead protake the At this in proMadison began lead in James Madison moting a more powerful government capable of dealing with the a of the with moting powerful government capable dealing country's many problems and opportunities. "The necessity of harand of harcountry's many problems opportunities. necessity of the the States," to mony in commercial regulations in the the commercial he explained States," he mony regulations of explained to Jefferson on January 22, 1786, "has been rendered every day more "has been rendered more Jefferson January 22, 1786, every day apparent." Madison Madison and and other other leaders leaders of of Virginia Virginia and and Maryland Maryland first first apparent." by extending Washington's ecothought to approach the problem to the thought approach problem by extending Washington's economic nomic collaboration to the the political political level level and and thus thus counteract counteract the the collaboration to particularistic mercantilism of the states. Virginia adopted resolumercantilism of the states. Virginia adopted resoluparticularistic tions to tions defining defining the the dangers dangers and and calling calling for for aa regional regional meeting meeting to discuss discuss the the crisis. crisis. Even before before it it convened, convened, however, however, the the Potomac Potomac gentry widened widened their their appeal appeal to to include include all all the the colonies. colonies. Worried Worried gentry that that other other states states would would procrastinate, procrastinate, or or openly openly oppose oppose the the projected projected conference, and that that nothing nothing would would come come of of the the effort, effort, Madison Madison exexconference, plained his his deep deep concern concern to to Jefferson. Jefferson. plained Madison had been such aa summary summary statement statement of of been working working toward toward such his 1784. Free Free trade, trade, he he had had concluded, concluded, his political political economy economy ever ever since since 1784. was aa chimera: chimera: "all "all others others must must concur" concur" before before it it could could work, work, and and neither neither England England nor nor France France would would voluntarily voluntarily dismantle dismantle their their own successful successful systems. systems. Hence the the "only" "only" thing thing to to do do was was to to create create aa pass "retaliating "retaliating regulations regulations of of trade." trade." Thus Thus government that that could could pass government convinced of "the "the absolute absolute necessity necessity of of some some such such general general system," system," convinced of
The Age Age of of Mercantilism Mercantilism
145 145 was aa government with the power "to counteract foreign with the power "to counteract foreign government manufactures," plans," "encourage ships and and seamen," seamen," "encourage "encourage ships plans," "encourage manufactures," (and enforce) "frugality" in peace, peace, and provide revenue, inspire and provide revenue, inspire (and enforce) "frugality" in enact "embargoes in war." If such needs could not be satisfied within enact "embargoes in war." If such needs could not be satisfied within then Madison Madison was willing to to change form of the Confederation, the was willing the form of Confederation, then change the government. government. concerned with the narrower the northern northern Far more concerned with the narrower view view of of the merchants "so exclusively occupied in British commerce" than about "so exclusively merchants in British commerce" than about occupied the sophisticated sophisticated mercantilism borrowed the feasibility of the the mercantilism he he had had borrowed feasibility of and adapted James Steuart other Englishmen, Madison Sir James Steuart and and other adapted from Sir Englishmen, Madison letter to Jefferson on March 18, summed up up his his analysis analysis in in a a letter to Jefferson on March 18, 1786. 1786. "Another unhappy unhappy effect the present present anarchy anarchy effect of a continuance of a of the continuance of will be be aa continuance the unfavorable balance of our of our commerce will continuance of of the unfavorable balance on it, which by draining us of our metals furnishes pretexts the us of our metals furnishes for the it, by draining pretexts for pernicious substitution of paper money, for indulgences to debtors, of substitution to for debtors, pernicious paper money, indulgences In fact," he concluded concluded in in aa sentence that for taxes. In for postponements of taxes. sentence that fact," he postponements of foreshadowed his famous essay No. 10 in the Federalist Papers, his famous foreshadowed Federalist 10 the No. in essay Papers, "most of our political political evils be traced traced up up to to our ones, of our evils may our commercial commercial ones, may be as our moral may to to our political." as most of of our moral may our political." at meeting which which had had finally finally been been arranged for at he awaited As he the meeting awaited the arranged for Annapolis, Madison began to grapple with the central dilemma with central the Annapolis, began to grapple posed by the expansionism the contradiction contradiction between of mercantilmercantilbetween the posed by the expansionism of ism (and of economic interest) and the political theory as(and of economic interest) and the political theory which asin a small state. He serted that republicanism could work only serted that republicanism could only in a small state. concluded that the existing ratio between between population land concluded that the low ratio population and land existing low would prevent lower-class rebellion or aristocratic tyranny for some for prevent lower-class rebellion or aristocratic tyranny years. But the conclusion with the problem of the problem left him with of postponing But the conclusion left postponing years. possible. "No problem problem in political Oeconomy Oeconomy such in political a crisis as long as possible. such a crisis as long as has appeared to me more more puzzling," he admitted admitted to Jefferson on to Jefferson has puzzling," he appeared to that which which relates relates to to the the most proper proper distribudistribuJune "than that June 19, 19, 1786, 1786, "than tion of inhabitants of peopled. . . . What is is to to a Country tion of a of the the inhabitants Country fully fully peopled. be done this surplus?" surplus?" His right back back drove him right answer drove first answer be with this done with His first on the the barbs the old partition of of "a more equal old dilemma. dilemma. For "a of the barbs of equal partition achieved be property" which ease the problem could achieved only could the ease would which only problem property" by some communal arrangement. by expansion or by arrangement. by expansion or Here was heart of the matter matter for all mercantilists: mercantilists: Were the the for all of the the heart Here was the build Levellers correct correct in that the only way to build a corporate to that the in insisting Levellers corporate only way insisting restrictions on private Christian commonwealth commonwealth was was through private severe restrictions Christian through severe for property? If so, that meant extensive losses and restrictions restrictions for losses extensive that meant If so, property? his object his object
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.
.
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Madison and and other other upper-class upper-class leaders. leaders. Unwilling Unwilling to this to accept Madison accept this to answer, Madison turned back toward expansion as the way to have have as the toward way expansion answer, Madison turned back and the the enjoyment enjoyment of private property. property. Expansion not welfare and of private welfare Expansion would not all, in the narrow economic sense, only supply enough property for only supply enough property for all, in the narrow economic sense, and of resources for national development, but but these these concona surplus and a surplus of resources for national development, the corposiderations would make it to honor honor the the demands of of the easier to it easier would make siderations corpoleft Madison rate ethical Or, at least, so ran the logic. But that that left ethical system. rate system. Or, at least, so ran the logic. by the argument that republicanism in large large once confronted in that the confronted once again republicanism argument by again states-or degenerated into lower-class movements into lower-class or empires-quickly states empires quickly degenerated for property, or upper-class oligarchy, or personal or upper-class for communal communal property, personal tyranny. tyranny. oligarchy, or Madison had not not squared this mercantilist circle by the the time circle by time of of this mercantilist Madison had squared 1786. Neither had any of the Annapolis Convention in September, Neither of in the Convention September, 1786. any Annapolis the other Even worse, many states had not bothered to other delegates. the delegates. Even worse, many states had not bothered to send representatives to to the the meeting. Evidence of the antagonism of the send representatives meeting. Evidence antagonism and suspicions between individual states and regional and states individual and between regional groupings, groupings, suspicions extent to to which which 13 brands of merthis unconcern of merthe extent indicated the this unconcern also also indicated 13 brands cantilism were competing for the market. But men like Tench Coxe market. But like the Coxe cantilism were competing for from Pennsylvania and Alexander Alexander Hamilton from Hamilton from New York gave Pennsylvania and gave hope. Coxe Coxe was was almost ready with with aa broad mercanMadison some almost ready broad mercanMadison some hope. tilist program program that both Hamilton Hamilton and draw upon upon and Madison Madison were were to tilist to draw that both dangers in Hamilton's perperwithin five five years. in Hamilton's within years. And though though he saw dangers sonal verve, Madison realized that that they they Madison also sonal drive drive and administrative administrative verve, also realized were the twin cylinders powerful engine engine for change in the a powerful for basic were the twin of a basic change in the cylinders of government. government. was needed, for his well Convinced that aa bold bold act Convinced that act was his own future future as as well needed, for as that of country, Hamilton proposed to the authority as for for that of the the country, Hamilton proposed to usurp the usurp authority In aa way way of and issue issue aa manifesto another meeting. meeting. In of Congress manifesto for for another Congress and that that revealed revealed his his persistent persistent concern with the the morality morality of of governgovernconcern with ment and the of tyranny, the risk risk of tyranny, Madison caught caught the coattails of the the coattails of the New Yorker before coup d'etat. before he he went went the last step and suggested a the last and a d'etat. step suggested coup 'Perhaps himself would would have hesitated, but but as one of of his his Hamilton himself have hesitated, as one Perhaps Hamilton friends later friends later remarked, remarked, his views became became "more & more enlarged his views more enlarged the crisis crisis of destiny." and comprehensive as we approached of our our destiny." comprehensive as approached the Madison and the at Annapolis did agree, however, the other other delegates at delegates Annapolis did agree, however, that that some kind kind of of decisive decisive action delay," action was essential. essential. "Every "Every days days delay," Madison fretted, increased the that nothing nothing would would be be done the chance chance that done fretted, increased in time time to avoid a catastrophe. in to avoid meeting adjourned after the meeting catastrophe. Hence the adjourned after a general preparing a militant militant call call for general review review of the Articles Articles of for a of the of preparing Confederation at a Confederation at a new convention. convention.
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147 147
Though group they they certainly had a suf~ as individuals individuals or or as as a a group Though as certainly had a sufficiency of personal ambition and economic interest, men who comcom~ o and economic interest, who ficiency personal ambition posed the coalition for a strong central government were also posed the coalition for a strong central government were also motivated by by an an upper-class upper~lass awareness of aa very crisis in in the the motivated awareness of real crisis very real to establish within existing were determined and were determined to establish a a better better one one within system and existing system was the philosophical For them the of the the era. era. For the issue issue was them the philosophical assumptions assumptions of not mercantilism versus laissez it was was the mercan~ not mercantilism versus laissez faire; the failure failure of of mercanfaire; it tilism as at the the level particularistic states. All of them as applied of 13 tilism level of of them states. All applied at 13 particularistic as their their colonial were worried the west, west, which which they they talked talked about were worried that that the colonial about as area, was on the verge verge of revolt or They on the of internal internal revolt external conquest. or external area, was conquest. They were determined prevent the disintegration of were determined to to prevent of the the revolutionary the disintegration revolutionary victory whatever to its ultimate form whatever their and their differences its ultimate differences as as to form and victory direction. direction. Hence it it is was Hence is doubtful doubtful that Massachusetts was that Shays' Rebellion in in Massachusetts Shays* Rebellion a traumatic traumatic experience experience for for the leaders of a Constitution the established the Constitution established leaders of the resort to to violence But Movement. That Movement. and dramatic. dramatic. But That resort violence was was shocking shocking and it was also merely the most recent episode in a long pattern of it was also merely the most recent episode in a long pattern of classes that discontent and unrest among the middle and lower discontent and unrest among the middle and lower classes that in mutinies mutinies in in originated before the the revolution, revolution, manifested itself in manifested itself originated before the Army the war, war, and had returned. returned. the after peace and continued continued after Army during peace had during the It re-emphasized re~mphasized a a fear fear that been aa long-term long~term resident resident in in their their It had been that had social and impact of Shays' social and class effect of class consciousness. consciousness- The greatest Shays' impact greatest effect was aa weakening weakening of the confidence of those those who had had ignored the was of the confidence of ignored the Annapolis meeting on the assumption that mercantilism at the state at the state mercantilism on the that assumption Annapolis meeting their problems problems and realize their ambitions and and level and realize their ambitions level would would resolve resolve their desires. They clearly reacted by becoming actively interested in aa interested in desires. They reacted clearly by becoming actively stronger national government. national stronger government. But it is often often forgotten forgotten that crushed quickly it is that the the rebellion rebellion was crushed But quickly and completely. Shays did not rally the countryside. This suggests the and did not countryside. This suggests completely. Shays rally that it an influence influence on the the Constitution beyond the the that had an it had Constitution Movement beyond way that is sometimes thought. Having quashed it, began to men that is sometimes began to thought. Having quashed it, way well as as how to to think about to prevent prevent future outbreaks as as well future outbreaks about how to think of control them routinely. Jefferson Jefferson provides provides aa good example of them more more routinely. control good example little of this reaction. At first first he he was was disturbed disturbed and worried; worried; very of this reaction. At very little blood the with his famous remark about about watering watering the tree of of liberty with the blood the tree his famous remark liberty event. It be found found in his early about the the event. It was of patriots can letters about can be of patriots in his early letters the work of "mobs" and was "absolutely unjustifiable." Furthermore, the work of "mobs" and was "absolutely unjustifiable." Furthermore, similar outout~ it emphasized the danger danger of losing the the west west through through similar of losing it emphasized the breaks. breaks.
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But Jefferson Jefferson was was soon by letters conservatives other conservatives from other letters from soon calmed calmed by But who took took aa more balanced view view of the event. be allarmed," "Don't be event. "Don't of the more balanced who allarmed," wrote John John Adams, wrote Adams,
"".... all be well, and this this Commotion will Commotion will all will will be well, and terminate in Government." Jefferson saw the Government." to the in additional additional Strength terminate Jefferson saw Strength to the point. "Unsuccessful rebellions indeed generally establish the establish the indeed rebellions the point. "Unsuccessful generally incroachments on the the rights of the people which have produced incroachments on rights of the people which have produced them," he wrote Madison after reflecting on the letter from Adams. after them," he wrote Madison reflecting on the letter from Adams. "An of this this truth truth should honest republican republican goverrender honest should render "An observation observation of governors so mild in their punishment of rebellion, as not to discourage to discourage as not of their nors so mild in rebellion, punishment them too too much." much." them Jefferson's next reaction reaction was was no revealing: he worked out he worked out an an less revealing: no less Jefferson's next explanation of the revolt in classic mercantilist terms and recomexplanation of the revolt in classic mercantilist terms and recommended appropriate mercantilist policies for preventing such outmended appropriate mercantilist policies for preventing such outbreaks in the future. The cause, concluded, was the lack lack of export of export he concluded, was the breaks in the future. The cause, he markets. That That not not only only had rendered the the specific specific groups unable to unable had rendered to markets. groups pay their taxes or or their their debts, the taxes debts resulted resulted and the the debts taxes and but the their taxes debts, but pay from the corporate economy's inability to raise capital, including from the to raise corporate economy's inability capital, including government revenue, in the traditional way. Another consequence in the traditional Another revenue, way. government consequence was the the inability to finance vigorous wars against the Indians, was finance to wars the and Indians, and vigorous against inability that further the men who fell in behind Shays. The remedy that further upset the men who fell in behind The upset Shays. remedy was "to the Mediterranean" and to to establish establish aa national national system system "to open was Mediterranean" and open the strong wring concessions from England France. to wring concessions from and France. strong enough enough to England and Jefferson's analysis of Shays' Rebellion and his programmatic reof Rebellion and his Jefferson's analysis Shays' programmatic response the fundamental the Constitution Constitution fundamental strength of the sponse symbolized symbolized the strength of Movement. Movement. Neither Neither its tactics nor its procedures procedures were were wholly wholly demoits tactics nor its demowas not cratic, but itit was not aa conspiracy in any meaningful sense of that in sense of that cratic, but any meaningful conspiracy term. It was term. It was aa well-organized well-organized campaign by a coalition of America's a coalition of America's campaign by upper-class leadership leadership determined determined to apto establish establish the the institutions institutions apupper-class to an American propriate to an American mercantilist empire. just as Jefferson's mercantilist And propriate empire. just as Jefferson's retreat from the retreat from the doctrines doctrines of free trade and compartmentalof agrarian free trade and agrarian compartmentalized was ized self-government was powered by the appeal and logic of exthe and self-government powered by appeal logic of exso would would the pansion, so the new new national national government government rely on the same pansion, rely on the same in its search for engines in its search for prosperity, democracy, and the general and the engines prosperity, democracy, general welfare. welfare. .
.
IIII. I I. The Adaptation the Existing Order of the Adaptation of Existing Order
It may may be said that founded on on different different prinprinbe said that the the new Constitution Constitution is is founded ciples, and will have I admit to be be and will have a a different the difference admit the difference to different operation. operation. I material. It It presents presents the the aspect aspect rather rather of a feudal feudal system system of of republics, republics, material. of a if such aa phrase phrase may be used, of aa Confederacy of independent independent than of used, than if such may be Confederacy of what has been the progress and event of the feudal States. And what has been States. the progress the Constiand event of feudal Constitution? In In all all of of them struggle between between the and the the tution? a continual continual struggle the head them a head and inferior members, until a final victory has been gained in some instances until has been in some instances a inferior members, final victory gained of them form of by others, by in others, the other other of them.. •.. This This form one, in Government, by the of Government, by one, effect its must operate not within aa small small but but an in to effect in order order to not an its purposes must within operate purposes extensive sphere. sphere. extensive //
ciples,
.
.
.
sphel"c, and and you you take greater variety variety of panies and ininExtend the in a a greater Extend the sphere, ta\e in of parties terests; you make less probable probable that a majority majority of will have have it less that a the whole whole will terests; you ma\e it of the such aa comaa common motive rights of of other other citizens; citizens; or to invade commotive to invade the or if the rights if such it will will be more difficult for all all who feel feel it discover it to to discover mon motive be more motive exists, exists, it difficult for their strength, and and to each other. other. their own strength, in unison to act act in unison with with each
James Madison, Madison, 1787 James 1787 If we remain remain one people, tmder an efficient government, the period is is the period one people, under an efficient government, far off defy material injury from external annoyance; not far not material external from annoyance; off when we may may defy injury may take such an may as will cause the the neutrality when we may an attitude will cause attitude as neutrality we may ta\e such at any resolve upon be scrupulously scrupulously respected; respected,· when belligerent at time resolve to be belligerent any time upon to nations, under under the the impossibility impossibility of making acquisitions will not not us, will nations, of making acquisitions upon upon us, lightly hazard giving us provocation; when we may choose peace peace hazard the the giving us provocation; may choose lightly or interest, guided guided by by justice, justice, shall shall counsel. counsel. as our our interest, or war, war, as
//
George Washington, 1796 1796 George Washington, [Our success] furnishes aa new new proof proof of the falsehood falsehood of Montesquieu's of Montesquieu's of the success] furnishes [Our a small in doctrine, that a r{'public can be pt'eserved only in a small territory. a can be that doctrine, territory. The republic preserved only rNlerse Thomas Jefferson, Jefferson, 1801 the truth. truth. reverse is is the
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CONFLICTING PHILOSOPHIES AND POLICIES POLICIES OF CONFLICTING PHILOSOPHIES THE CONSTITUTION MOVEMENT TOE CONSnTIJTION
AS THEY OPENED their their proceedings by electing electing George Washington George Washington proceedings by .ll. president, and by going into secret session, the members of members the of secret into and session, by going president,
A
the Constitutional Convention presented an imposing cross section of the American upper class. While a few of the delegates confined their philosophies and programs within the perimeters of of their inter· their intertheir philosophies and programs within the perimeters ests, most of them revealed the breadth of vision and the sense of the and sense of ests, most of them revealed the breadth of vision long·run so characteristic characteristic of of class-conscious class.conscious leaders. leaders. Had essentials so long-run essentials they not been class-conscious in this fundamental sense, they might might fundamental this not in been class-conscious sense, they they never have compromised their immediate-interest conflicts; indeed, never have compromised their immediate-interest conflicts; indeed, it to imagine being architecture being is very difficult such institutional institutional architecture it is imagine such very difficult to achieved men of any society who were not so guided by a con· not so a conachieved by of were men guided by by any society sciousness of class. Thus it seems appropriate to view the Constitu· the Constitusciousness of class. Thus it seems appropriate to view tion as the result of aa long, long, difficult, and at times bitter bitter bargaining bargaining tion as the at times result of difficult, and session which finally produced a consensus on a program advanced session which finally produced a consensus on a program advanced by the key figures of the the American gentry who who were guided by by the the the key were guided American gentry by figures of precepts of mercantilism. of mercantilism. precepts Leaders were supported their such as and Washington Leaders such Madison and in their as Madison Washington were supported in conception of the Constitution Movement, both in and out of the conception of the Constitution Movement, both in and out of the convention itself, itself, by by men men from the north well as convention from the north as as well other southerners. southerners. as other William R. Alexander Martin, and Hugh Williamson of R. Davie, William Alexander and Williamson of Davie, Martin, Hugh North North Carolina, and John Blair of of Virginia, Virginia, joined joined such as such men as Carolina, and John Blair Thomas MifHin, Morris, and Thomas Fitzsimons Fitzsimons of of Penn· Robert Morris, and Thomas PennMifflin, Robert sylvania, and Hampshire in and John of New Hampshire and in advocating John Langdon sylvania, Langdon of advocating and accepting most most features features of program. The point point at issue here here of such such a a program. at issue accepting is not not the the party to which is party to which these these men ultimately ultimately adhered, nor the the adhered, nor conflicts conflicts between their economic economic interests variations in in their their between their and the the variations interests and social social philosophies, philosophies, but but rather the proper proper kind kind of political economy economy rather the of political and and government that they thought the new nation ought to have* have. that the new nation government they thought ought to And in in this this sense, even though they were not members of the can· even were not conmembers of the sense, though they vention, John Jay and the northerners northerners who who and John vention, John Jay John Adams symbolized symbolized the entertained the entertained the same basic views. same basic views. Two other other groups groups participated participated in making of the Constitution. in the the making of the Constitution. One included included such such men as as Timothy Ames, and Fisher Fisher Ames, Timothy Pickering Pickering and and in the and was was represented the convention by Rufus King. These men convention by Rufus King. These men represented in the Constitutional Convention presented an imposing cross section of the American upper class. While a few of the delegates confined
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had aa well-developed well-developed and interest, philosophy, philosophy, and and proprohad and sophisticated sophisticated interest, gram to which they were deeply committed and which they to which were adgram they deeply committed and which they advanced with vigor. Shippers with auxiliary interests vanced with vigor. and merchants merchants with Shippers and auxiliary interests in land and finance had been been exceedingly reluctant land speculation in finance who had speculation and exceedingly reluctant revolutionaries, or even loyal nabobs who had returned after the had returned after the revolutionaries, or even loyal nabobs war, they to define their future Excontinued to define their in terms future in of England. terms of war, they continued England. Exceedingly political affairs, presented conservative in in social social and and political affairs, they ceedingly conservative they presented the superficial superficial appearance aristocrats; living with the of American American aristocrats; well, with appearance of living well, fine they feared popular fine homes and appointments, feared and and despised appointments, they despised popular government. Centered middle colonies, Centered in in New England and the the middle colonies, government. England and but supported by but supported by
allies in and elsewhere the allies in Charleston Charleston and elsewhere throughout throughout the facilistates, they wanted a strong central government to protect and wanted a and facilicentral to they strong government protect tate their but their their political political economy economy was defined by by the the tate their interests, was defined interests, but wi$ England. narrow idea of profits profits at at home through connections narrow idea of with connections England. through eve of of the the convention convention through the War of of 1812, their the eve From the 1812, their through the secession in order oudook prompted them them periodically to threaten outlook prompted secession in to threaten order periodically to rejoin rejoin the British Empire. Empire. to the British A second particularistic segment of American American leaders leaders was narsecond particularistic was narsegment of rowly agrarian in oudook. Represented in the convention by such in such the outlook. in convention rowly agrarian by Represented as George George Mason Mason and Randolph of of Virginia, Virginia, spokesmen and Edmund Randolph spokesmen as by Luther and John Mercer of and many issues and on many of MaryLuther Martin Martin and issues by John Mercer Maryland, all of whom refused to sign the Constitution itself, these all of to Constitution refused itself, these land, sign the Americans were guided by the ideas of men like John Taylor of Americans were guided by the ideas of like John Taylor of Caroline, John Randolph Governor George Clinton of Roanoke, and Governor Caroline, John Roanoke, and George Clinton Randolph of of New York. York. Both and through his writing, influence and of Both in his personal in his through his writing, personal influence John Taylor was the the foremost philosopher of the group. group. While While of the foremost philosopher John Taylor was Examination verbose and turgid, his tracts on An Examination and often verbose often turgid, his ponderous ponderous tracts of the Late Proceedings Proceedings in (I793) and and an Inquiry into the into the in Congress the Late an Inquiry of Congress (1793) Public Measures Measures (1794) (1794) were were Principles and Tendencies Certain Public Tendencies of of Certain Principles blasphemous) than than the the polemics polemics more important (as well well as less blasphemous) more as less important (as written by by J. Thompson Callender others. And Taylor's and others. Callender and written J. Thompson Taylor's grand grand Inquiry into into the Principles and Policy Policy attack Adams, An Inquiry the Principles on John attack on John Adams, of the the United States (1814), definitive the definitive the Government United States Government of of the of (1814), was the statement doctrine in American history. in American of the the agrarian-physiocratic doctrine statement of history. agrarian-physiocratic In the United States, in France England, physiocphysiocas in France and England, well as the United as well In States, as econthe life life and the racy represented represented aa concerted the econto sustain effort to concerted effort sustain the racy omy of feudal medievalism in an age of science, commerce, and of in an feudal medievalism of science, commerce, age omy the industry. Under such circumstances it became the highly sophistiit became circumstances such highly sophistiindustry. in an cated outlook and program program of interest engaged of an agrarian cated outlook and engaged in agrarian interest states,
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emotional as well practical assault on existing existing reality. reality. It It was, was, to to assault on well as as practical emotional as borrow the phrase of a sympathetic French scholar, the idea and the idea and French borrow the phrase of a sympathetic scholar, ideal utopia" transferred to the the 18th i8th century. transferred to of a a "feudal "feudal Utopia" ideal of century. American physiocracy physiocracy can understood only by abandoning the can he be understood American only by abandoning the common but mistaken view that feudalism and manorialism were manorialism were common but mistaken view that feudalism political system the same Feudalism was essentially aa political of the same thing. system of thing. Feudalism was essentially nth century lost most most of organization of the nth as the which as as early century had lost early as organization which its unfreedom. Based Based upon upon the the hierarchic organization hierarchic organization of unfreedom. its denotation denotation of of mutual mutual obligations responsibilities, feudalism posited the the overoverfeudalism posited and responsibilities, of obligations and all corporate organization of individually defined units of society. defined units of As of all society. individually organization corporate a social was highly highly stratified; other hand, hand, it the other it feudalism was a social order, stratified; on the order, feudalism was possible, possible, though not routine, to move upward in the system. the in to move not was routine, system. upward though But as as economic economic organization was concerned, as aa feudalism as as far far as But concerned, feudalism organization was social system not only could exist without manorialism, political and without exist could not and social manorialism, only system political it just that that in in various various parts parts of of Western Western Europe. while it did did just Thus, while Europe. Thus, America would most part part to to have have skipped manorialism manorialism for the the most America would seem seem for skipped York and parts of the south), south), it it most certainly certainly (it did exist in of the (it did exist in New York and parts did not by-pass feudalism. did not feudalism. by-pass Starting the classic classic assumption of small founded on states founded with the small states on Starting with assumption of agriculture, the physiocrats derived their philosophy from the Stoics, the their the derived Stoics, agriculture, physiocrats philosophy Aristotle, St. Aquinas, and and Locke. for example, St. Thomas Aquinas, Locke. Taylor, Aristotle, Taylor, for example, understood quite quite well well that that Locke Locke was conservative political political thinker thinker a conservative understood was a with strong government at the top of who combined combined individualism the at of individualism with top strong government the system. And on more than one occasion, John Randolph ended the ended more one than occasion, John Randolph system. a soliloquy in praise praise of Locke and individualism with with aa climax climax of a of Locke of and individualism soliloquy in love liberty, I hate equality." Such this sort: an aristocrat. I this "I am an sort: "I I love I hate aristocrat. liberty, equality." Such also appropriated Locke's theory of the the mind American physiocrats physiocrats also American appropriated Locke's theory of in its in meaning. Accepting the proposition that its narrowest narrowest meaning. Accepting the proposition that men learned from reality, learned they took that the they knew it to to mean that the reality took it reality, they reality they was all all there there was was to to learn, learn, or, best, that that there there was no no possibility possibility at best, or, at of developing a theory of than aa conflicting-interest subtle than any more subtle developing a theory any conflicting-interest definition of reality. that the the only only true true ideas were agrardefinition of This meant that ideas were reality. This agrarian ian ideas; hence their their philosophy philosophy was the ideology of an an interest interest was the ideas; hence ideology of group. group. external affairs, In external the physiocrats physiocrats believed believed in justice in commutative commutative justice affairs, the to be in which exchanges had to be equal, for value. value. Internal justice, value for Internal justice, exchanges had equal, value on the the other other hand, hand, was was distributive the standing of the the distributive according to the standing of according to various To secure both kinds of justice, the govern~ various orders orders of of society. secure both of kinds the society. justice, govern^ment had to be strong to be by the the highest which controlled by order which strong and controlled highest order
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would use use its power to to intervene necessary in and economic its power would intervene as in social economic as necessary social and affairs. While their contributions were valued and respected, inferior While their valued contributions were and respected, inferior well~efined limits. Yet the ranks could participate only within could participate ranks only within well-defined limits. Yet the also believed that land qualified a man as a full member physiocrats as a full member physiocrats also believed that land qualified a of natural society; circumstances providing providing surplus land, as of natural in circumstances as in in society; in surplus land, it did America, this this made them them democratic the broad broad sense. But it in the sense. But did democratic in America, not change the basic basic axiom axiom of rights and liberties for the not of restricted and liberties restricted rights for the change the no doubt that the the great majority of Virlower there is lower orders. orders. And there is no Virof doubt that majority great it their business as well as their ginia's landed aristocracy made it landed aristocracy as their as well their business ginia's to keep a firm hand on of state. theory to firm hand on the the implements of state. theory keep a implements Thus, while the the physiocrats physiocrats argued unrestricted competition, competition, for unrestricted Thus, while argued for they declared that merchants, manufacturers, shippers, and bankers declared that and bankers merchants, manufacturers, shippers, they were ineligible to compete. principle of distributive justice did were to The of distributive ineligible compete. principle justice did not apply to those categories. Perhaps the most difficult dilemma not to those difficult dilemma the most apply categories. Perhaps by the physiocrats was problem of for confronted the physiocrats confronted by was the markets for the problem of finding finding markets their agricultural surpluses without at the same time encouraging their same the time without at agricultural surpluses encouraging they relied relied on mershippers and manufacturers. manufacturers. Even on foreign Even if if they shippers and foreign meras was their wont, and insisted upon natural money (precious chants, as their was and insisted natural wont, chants, money (precious upon metals or in the the transactions, transactions, they were still their metals or specie) still impaled on specie) in they were impaled on their definition in the the carrying trade and its attendant occupations of those definition of those in trade and its attendant occupations carrying as immoral and parasitic parasitic "traffickers." as immoral and "traffickers.'* The best the physiocrats physiocrats could could do was to to oppose such evil evil best thing do was oppose such thing the within their own society. Hence it is not very difficult to understand within their it is not very difficult to understand society. even when why such as Randolph for commerce, such men as wars for commerce, even why Randolph opposed opposed wars the trade the exportable western agriculture. the of western trade involved involved the agriculture. surpluses of exportable surpluses doSince it would offer aa wider wider market, they reluctantly reluctantly tolerated tolerated doSince it would offer market, they mestic manufacturing were small and local, naif nasmall and if the the enterprises mestic local, if manufacturing if enterprises were tive workers workers and raw materials materials were used, and labor was was not not if the tive and if the labor and raw were used, employable in in agriculture. they much preferred preferred territorial territorial exexBut they employable agriculture. But exhaustion and pansion in problems of and to to soil exhaustion the problems to solve solve the of soil in order order to pansion maintain aa low ratio between between population population and and wealth. wealth. While strongly maintain low ratio strongly individualistic, in some respects liberal liberal and democratic, the even in some respects democratic, the individualistic, even the reasons was for these and similar reasons the strictly physiocratic doctrine similar was for these and doctrine strictly physiocratic limited outlook of an interest group. group. an interest limited outlook of Taylor, Randolph, and even Patrick Henry nevertheless nevertheless capitalcapitaleven and Patrick Henry Taylor, Randolph, ized its emotional and on its superficial correspondence and ized on its on on its emotional appeal superficial correspondence appeal the country. with existing existing reality reality throughout throughout much of of the country. Defining Defining with farm, and its inhabitants one great America as inhabitants its as "one "one great America farm, family," great family," great as ,·the chief hinge upon upon Taylor proceeded logically to define property "the chief as to define hinge Taylor proceeded logically property affairs.
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which social But to to the the physiocrats physiocrats property property social happiness which depends." But happiness depends." was nothing but land. Since there was only one interest, there was there was one was there was nothing but land. Since interest, only party-the agrarian. Following his no call for more than one political the no call for more than one political party agrarian. Following his own rules, Taylor later played role in in changing eleca key own rules, Virginia's elecchanging Virginia's key role Taylor later played a in In tion laws to make make sure sure that that Jefferson would win in 1800. this 1800. In this laws to tion Jefferson would fashion, other at least, satisfaction at to their their own satisfaction and to least, Taylor Taylor and other fashion, and southern physiocrats physiocrats could Mason's dictum that that "never "never with Mason's could agree southern agree with was [there] a government over a very extensive country without extensive without a over a was country very government [there] destroying the liberties of the people" and yet at the same time justify at the time justify and yet liberties of the people" destroying the as long as the agrarians ruled, there would be no no an For there be the as as an empire. For ruled, agrarians long empire. despotism. As for wars, Taylor defined only two legitimate excuses: two defined excuses: for As wars, legitimate only Taylor despotism. defense promote emigration to richer richer lands." lands." "to promote and "to defense and emigration to was one words "which But "which are are innately of those those words one of But since since corporation innately corf oration was despotick," Taylor understandably became obsessed with the the finanobsessed with finanbecame despotick," Taylor understandably cial manipulations manipulations involved involved in banking or or government-funding in banking cial government-funding operations. For same kind kind of of reasons, fully trusted trusted never fully For the the same reasons, Taylor Taylor never operations. On the Madison's politics and and ultimately ultimately went into open opposition. the went into Madison's politics open opposition. that of whether main domestic issue facing American physiocrats, that American of main issue whether domestic physiocrats, facing as serfs the consequent consequent prospect of freedom, to define Negroes as to define Negroes serfs (with freedom, prospect of (with the as under feudalism) or property per per se, se, Taylor honored the the as under feudalism) or as as property Taylor honored and looked end origins his thought. of his looked forward forward to to the the end thought. He accepted origins of accepted and until he upon of slavery; least, he he did did so of at least, so until the attack he concluded concluded that that the attack upon slavery; at was in an assault by the the corporations corporations and it was it in reality directed by assault directed and the the "traf"trafreality an fickers" upon upon an which the the south was creating. fickers" an agrarian south was agrarian utopia creating. Utopia which was almost identical with Taylor's, Jefferson's position position on was on slavery identical almost with Jefferson's slavery Taylor's, was no unwavering disciple of physiyet the the master master of of Monticello Monticello was no unwavering of yet disciple physiocracy. But neither was he a firm mercantilist. This ambivalence in But a neither was he firm mercantilist. This ambivalence in ocracy. Jefferson suggests that his most famous protagonist, Alexander Hamthat his most famous Alexander Jefferson suggests protagonist, ilton, a comparable comparable spot the other the spectrum at the other end end of of of the ilton, occupied occupied a spot at spectrum of America's America's constitutional constitutional coalition. Jefferson's demon took took the form coalition. Jefferson's the form of of aa life-long hankering after utopia realized after the the physiocrat's feudal Utopia realized life-long hankering physiocrat's feudal with the aid aid of of science. his dream was "to pracwith the he wrote in 1785, science. As he wrote in "to his was 1785, practice tice neither neither commerce or navigation, but but to to stand, with respect to or navigation, with stand, respect to on the footing of China." Even later in his career Europe, precisely the of China." later in his career Europe, precisely footing he described described Taylor as the the man with with the the answers: answers: "But he Taylor as "But II fear," fear," he concluded "it is "it is the voice of one crying in the wilderness." concluded sadly, the voice of one crying in the wilderness." sadly, for guidance as "the greatTurning for guidance to to Madison, he described described as "the greatMadison, whom he Turning est man in the in the world," world," Jefferson cherished his his dream the same est and at dream and at the same Jefferson cherished time time became rather rather more than than half American mercantilist. mercantilist. His half an an American His
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entire career be understood understood as attempt of physiocrat to to use use career can entire can be as the the attempt of a a physiocrat mercantilist means means to to realize realize his feudal utopia. mercantilist feudal his Utopia. Hamilton borrowed and policies to Hamilton also also borrowed and manipulated mercantilist policies to manipulated mercantilist create state. But he was more narrowly driven by his own a strong create a strong state. But he was more narrowly driven by his ambition, and vision of good society less balanced, balanced, and his his vision of the the good was far far less ambition, society was democratic, or independent. Hamilton's devil was the image himof himdemocratic, or independent. Hamilton's devil was the image of self of an an American-British American-British empire empire embracing most of at the the head head of self at of embracing most the world. world. His His foreign domestic policies policies became the and domestic became increasingly increasingly foreign and weighted against the nascent nascent manufacturing predominant agraragrarand predominant against the weighted manufacturing and ian interests in pro-English mercantile mercantile faction. His grand grand ian interests in favor favor of of the faction. His the pro-English object was aa scheme involving his his leadership of aa joint joint aggression aggression scheme involving object leadership of with the against Spanish America. it came to to aa the English when with And it came America. English against Spanish specuquestion of investing his own funds, Hamilton preferred land of land Hamilton his funds, question specupreferred investing lation American manufactures. manufactures. Professor John C. many to American lation to in many C. Miller, Professor John Miller, in ways the most subtle and convincing biographer of Hamilton, has the most of subtle and Hamilton, has ways convincing biographer put it as kindly as possible. "Hamilton was never prepared to purit as to as was never "Hamilton put kindly prepared purpossible. chase American nationalism at the price price of Anglochase at the American nationalism of exacerbating exacerbating AngloAmerican relations." Yet, given the relationship relationship between two the two American between the relations." Yet, given the societies, that was the only bid that would win the prize. that bid that the the would win societies, prize. only Jefferson, other hand, the comparative imbalon the the other understood the hand, understood Jefferson, on comparative imbalwas in the last resort willance between and America, and willand the last resort ance between England and was in America, England costs and the implications of modifying it. Hence he ing to accept the he it. to the and the Hence costs ing accept implications of modifying moved toward toward support for American shipping and manufactures. manufactures. support for American shipping Whatever its on the the pro-English pro-English carrying Whatever its short-run short-run impact trade, and carrying trade, impact on was designed designed even on the merchant and consumer, his his embargo even the small small merchant and consumer, embargo was to preserve preserve and extend America's economic independence. it and extend to America's economic independence. And it to create composite political political economy. actually did did function function to create a a composite economy. The actually real irony irony of of the embargo is that it a good it antagonized not so real is not so much that the embargo good antagonized a led it led many of of Jefferson's at the the time, time, nor nor even even that that it followers at Jefferson's own followers many debut rather economic deto the the War of of 1812, the economic that it rather that it stimulated to stimulated the 1812, but velopment of which ultimately destroyed Jefferson's physicof groups Jefferson's physiovelopment groups which ultimately destroyed cratic cratic society. society. as American American minister to France, France, Unlike Jefferson, was abroad minister to abroad as Unlike Jefferson, who was Hamilton, during the the Constitutional presented Constitutional Convention, Convention, candidly Hamilton, during candidly presented while his his mind and logic were his views the good But while views on on the his logic were society. But good sOJ:iety. "damned sharp," as Robert Morris later remarked, the majority of the later Robert Morris as remarked, majority of sharp," as well of as as well as of the delegates had different ideas of the abstract good the of abstract ideas the different good delegates execufor an almost omnipotent the practical possibilities. His the His call call for an almost omnipotent execupractical possibilities. be tive, and his advice that the states "ought to be extinguished, to advice the states and that his tive, extinguished, new "ought
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modified, or or reduced to aa smaller plan. Some men his plan. scale" doomed his smaller scale" reduced to modified, agreed with him, or at least with the essentials of his position, but but of his essentials the with position, agreed with him, or at least
peddled to to the the knew that a government government could not be be peddled could not that such knew such a people. Others had more fundamental objections, chief among them chief them among people. Others had more fundamental objections, aa strong commitment to representative government. strong commitment to representative government. The idea of of balanced balanced government was also also deeply entrenched in in The idea deeply entrenched government was the thinking thinking of the delegates. delegates. Those had not not read Harrington read Harrington Those who had of the the had very probably seen the argument as advanced by Francis Hutchehad very probably seen the argument as advanced by Francis Hutcheson (A of Moral Moral Philosophy), Philosophy), or John Witherspoon Witherspoon in in his his or John son System of (A System &ctur.es Moral Philosophy. Philosophy. Witherspoon's was classically classically advice was on Moral Lectures on Witherspoon's advice direct: "Hence good form form of must of government, "Hence it it appears that direct: government, must every good appears that every be complex, so that the one principle [or monarchy, aristocracy, or or one that the be so monarchy, aristocracy, principle [or complex, democracy] may check the other." Hutcheson agreed that the elethat the eleHutcheson the other." check agreed democracy] may ments of government "should be divided." proalso prodivided." John "should be ments of government John Adams also vided aa clear and statement of the same theory. Published in Published in the same and of clear analysis statement vided theory. analysis 1786 and widely read, his essay Defense of the Constitution of the Constitution A and his of Defense of essay widely read, 1786 Government the United a hardheaded, hardheaded, even pessieven pessiwas a States was United States Government of of the mistic analysis based on on sex, and wealth. wealth. mistic sex, hunger, analysis based hunger, and provides aa further to modify modify the the common view view Adams provides illustration to further illustration that the Fathers were men relied on practical that the Founding who relied exFathers on were practical exFounding perience as against theory. For as Adams and others made perfectly as For as and others perience against theory. perfectly the study of history history and and clear, they they defined experience to include the defined experience to include clear, study of political science as well as the learning-by-doing involved in running science the as well as involved in political learning-by-doing running a was the the key key to to their a business. business. Intellectual achievement was Intellectual achievement "I their success. success. "I in a letter to his must study politics and war," Adams explained must a to letter his war," study politics explained in may have have the the liberty to study study mathematics wife, "that my sons "that my sons may and mathematics and wife, liberty to philosophy ... navigation, navigation, commerce, and agriculture, in order order to to commerce, and agriculture, in philosophy their children give a right right to painting, poetry, poetry, music music ... and children a to study give their study painting, porcelain." Reflecting Reflecting on on the the ancients, ancients, as well as Harrington, as on Harrington, as well porcelain." Bolingbroke, and Locke (all read several times), Adams of whom he he read several times), Bolingbroke, (all of concluded concluded that between the the rich poor "the controversy that "the rich and the the poor controversy between ... as as the the creation, the globe." It was was [[was] was] ... as old old as and extensive extensive as as the creation, and globe." It the of history the engine and the cause of of despotism, despotism, anarchy, and the cause engine of history and anarchy, and tyranny. tyranny. the mercantilist's To resolve resolve the mercantilist's dilemma, dilemma, how bow to property to use use private private property to achieve achieve the to the corporate corporate welfare welfare and yet prevent interest and facinterest and facyet prevent tion tion from running roughshod over the common good, stressed over the Adams stressed running roughshod good, the of a firm the importance firm and active of justice. justice. He also argued active sense sense of also argued importance of that that a representative representative government of divided and balanced departof divided and balanced government departthey they
.
.
.
.
.
.
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ments offered best "check monarchy, oligoligoffered the the best "check and ments and control" control" against against monarchy, archy, and anarchy. Yet while he emphasized the need for a central and while Yet he archy, anarchy. emphasized the need for a central it for government with aa powerful powerful executive, he also took it also took for granted executive, he government with granted was beyond that the principle and practice of popular government that the principle and practice of popular government was beyond challenge. he candidly his belief belief in existence and Since he avowed his the existence in the and challenge. Since candidly avowed was personally personally inclined to be be abrupt, abrupt, virtues of of his class, and virtues his own class, and was inclined to touchy, and good many many people people accused and even even arrogant, a good accused Adams of of touchy, arrogant, a truest defenders defenders of being aa monarchist. monarchist. He was was in in fact one of of the the truest fact one of being representative representative
government nation ever ever had. had. the nation government the
THE CONSTITUTION AS A FEUDAL AND MERCANTILIST INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT
Despite the the idea a strong, balanced national national the consensus consensus on on the idea of of a Despite strong, balanced government, the members of the Constitutional Convention faced the the the die faced members of Convention Constitutional government, need to to make several broad compromises. One involved the extent to need to the extent several broad involved compromises. it acwhich they could consolidate the government and still have acwhich could consolidate it the and still have they government cepted by the public. Not only were Hamilton's the public. abanviews abanHamilton's extreme extreme views cepted by only were doned, but Madison's desire for a national veto over state legislation but Madison's for a over state desire national veto doned, legislation many critics critics thought thought the the final was likewise up. Even Even so, likewise given was final degree so, many degree given up. of centralization was far too extreme. Another group of centralization was far too extreme. Another of compromises group of compromises in society, and concerned the between the interests in the conflicts concerned the various conflicts between various interests society, and between the existing sovereign states, over their relative power between the existing sovereign states, over their relative power inside the new government. government. Both the large states and their smaller the inside the and their smaller large states Both^ neighbors feared discrimination 'at each other's hands, but these these neighbors feared discrimination at each other's hands, but by the the formula formula of of proportional proportional antagonisms were finally resolved resolved by were finally antagonisms the House of and equal the power in in the of Representatives in the standing in power Representatives and equal standing the diviSenate. In practice practice this this worked divifurther the to strengthen even further Senate. In worked to strengthen even sion within the the three branches of the government, of authority sion of three branches of the government, and authority within even within within the the Legislature. even Legislature. Still compromise dealt with the the definition dealt with definition and recognition another compromise Still another recognition the of of antislavery feeling among the importance of of slaves. slaves. Here the antislavery feeling among the importance southerners' ethical, as well southern played a vital role. as well a role. vital The southerners' southern gentry ethical, gentry played as opposition manifested manifested itself itself in important ways. ways. in two important as economic, economic, opposition On the they insisted making the for politpolitthe census census for in making one hand, insisted that that in the one hand, they a man. Though as three-fifths the ical purposes purposes aa slave be counted counted as three-fifths of of a ical slave be Though the allocation of of demand was means of of protecting protecting their their interest in the the allocation interest in was aa means of basic also reflected the basic feeling of representation in the Congress, it it also reflected the the in feeling Congress, representation the that the Negro was was aa human being being who should ultimately ultimately the gentry the Negro gentry that if is misleading be freed. Hence the arithmetic is callous arithmetic the seemingly be freed. Hence misleading if seemingly callous
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interpreted in a narrow framework. Southerners also accepted the interpreted in a narrow framework. Southerners also accepted the near certainty the slave trade would would be be prohibited prohibited within within aa slave trade that the near certainty that of the Negro generation, and that, too, amounted to a tacit definition of definition the a tacit to Negro generation, and that, too, amounted as a human being. As in the land law of 1787, the south compromised the south as a human being. As in the land law of 1787, compromised in the the writing the Constitution. not an docuan antislavery Constitution. Though of the in Though not antislavery docuwriting of it did open the way toward the ment in the active sense, therefore, ment in the active sense, therefore, it did open the way toward the if the the practice practice was was viewed the end as an an institution, as the viewed as of slavery end of institution, as slavery if as aa personal personal sin of the the master, as abolitionists abolitionists gentry rather than sin of than as master, as did, rather gentry did, did later years. years. in later did in The persuasive mercantilism of of the the delegates manifested of most most of delegates manifested persuasive mercantilism itself in ways. Export for example, were explicitly explicitly in many itself taxes, for example, were many ways. Export taxes, also forbidden to interfere in the national proscribed; the states were in to interfere the national states were also forbidden the proscribed; as was the system of import duties. Direct taxes were authorized, as taxes were of duties. Direct was the authorized, system import to regulate commerce, coin money and determine its value, power determine its to coin commerce, value, money power regulate government emit bills bills of of credit, credit, and relations. The government emit and conduct conduct foreign foreign relations. to enact a "uniform Rule" on citizenship, was also a Rule" enact "uniform to was also empowered a citizenship, a empowered "uniform on bankruptcy, bankruptcy, "the Weights and "the Standard Standard of of Weights and "uniform Law" on Measures," and promote the Progress of and useful useful Arts" Arts" "to promote of Science Science and the Progress and "to Measures," And finally, as an arbiter for the by patent and copyright laws. an as arbiter for and laws. the finally, by patent copyright system, "one supreme Court" was explicitly authorized. "one was authorized. Court" system, supreme explicitly This reference to judicial system Court to a a judicial a Supreme This direct direct reference system and a Supreme Court to which had come to the underscores the the extent extent to underscores to consider Americans had which Americans consider the law the equivalent of religion as the cement of mercanthe secular secular equivalent of religion as the of their their mercanthis tilism. Lawyers Lawyers and merchants merchants from from the the north north had developed tilism. developed this a long long period period of and it is not surprising to find view over view over a of experience, it to is not surprising find experience, dis~ had filed briefs against the Crown in in hopes hopes of men who had filed briefs of settling against the settling disputes of basic interest being willing to give the law such a vital role basic interest being willing to give the law such a vital role putes of in their in But the also accepted the principle principle and their own system. the agrarians and system. But agrarians also accepted the for example, the case the practice practice of of judicial judicial review. review. In the In Virginia, case of of Virginia, for example, the Caton v. v. Commonwealth (1782) was decided decided on the judicial the basis basis of of judicial (1782) was supremacy and by by the the court the unconstitutionality unconstitutionality of court declaring of a a supremacy declaring the law. law. While this this conception bind the the various various essential to the law of the kw was essential to bind conception of of mercantilism the positive positive elements of a common standard, mercantilism to to a it lacked lacked the standard, it in building building the welfare that that oror~ and dynamic impetus in the common welfare dynamic impetus ganized religion had had provided provided in an earlier earlier age. age. Many of the Found~ in an the of Foundganized religion Many ing Fathers Fathers were were individually individually men of religious faith, but they they of strong ing faith, but strong religious also believed in and state. Hence they tried also believed in the the separation of church of state. church Hence tried separation they to in the to provide provide an alternative ideal of justice. It alternative in the ideal of secular secular corporate It corporate justice.
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was, as kind of internalized restraint restraint that had to as they the kind of an an internalized that had to knew, the was, they knew, be developed if self-interest and private property were to function if be self-interest and developed private property were to function means to the general general welfare. welfare. Along with Adams, Adams, satisfactorily as as means to the satisfactorily Along with Jay, Jefferson, Jefferson, Jay,
Monroe, and persistently and other other mercantilists, Madison persistently Monroe, mercantilists, Madison of aa strong justice: the the ideal had emphasized the vital vital role role of sense of of justice: ideal had emphasized the strong sense be pursued vigor if to produce produce the the to be to with vigor if the the Constitution Constitution were were to pursued with good national welfare"-that welfare" that he he sought. society "the national good society-"the sought. an integral part of Madison's effort establish This was an This concern concern was to establish of Madison's effort to integral part aa government would combine requisite stability and enwhich would combine "the "the requisite government which stability and engovernment, with with the attention due ergy in government, the inviolable and inviolable attention due to to liberty ergy in liberty and The result of his disciplined intellectual to the form." the republican to intellectual form." result of his republican disciplined was aa series of letters letters and essays in application the problem problem was to the in and short short essays series of application to The Federalist Federalist that remain as of the nation's most most brilliant brilliant statestatethat remain as one one of the nation's ments of grand theory historical change. are a grand ments of a of sociology and historical They are change. They theory of sociology and in the Engalso examples of concise writing also one of of the the magnifkent the in of concise Engmagnificent examples writing lish lish language. language. one Starting Madison defined defined the problem as with fundamentals, as one the problem fundamentals, Madison Starting with facof controlling faction. faction. Now to in Madison's Madison's day, a a facof controlling to a a mercantilist mercantilist in day, tion did a political political party. party. As the the term term was was employed then, tion not mean a did not employed then, interest group defined by functional criteria a faction a criteria an interest faction was an functional group defined by outright aggrandizement. bent on preferential preferential treatment treatment or bent or outright aggrandizement. Madia and specified landed interest, son used the son even even used the word interest "a landed interest and specified "a interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, that such were [[and] and] many lesser interests." interests." Quite factions were such factions aware that Quite aware many lesser conditioned by the psychological make-up make-up of of their members, parparconditioned by the psychological their members, ticularly their their leaders, leaders, and accident of of birth birth which deposited the accident and by deposited ticularly by the particular place place in political economy, Madison a man in a particular a in a a given in a economy, Madison given political source ~·the most most common and durable durable source nevertheless concluded nevertheless concluded that that "the of property. of has been been the the various various and unequal distribution distribution of property. factions has of factions and unequal Those who hold those who are are without without property property have have ever ever Those hold and and those formed distinct interests interests in in society." formed distinct society." Dismissing aa solution based on the same views views on everyeveryon imposing solution based imposing the Dismissing to the problem of of prepreone, Madison Madison presented presented aa fourfold the problem answer to fourfold answer one, ideal of It put first the ideal of venting faction from ripping society asunder. first the It asunder. faction from put venting ripping society be had to be justice, for which a constant personal and social struggle to social and for a which constant struggle personal justice, well as as well waged. This meant practicing practicing self-restraint as adhering adhering to to This meant self-restraint as waged. division the the principles of equity and common law. came the division Next of law. and the equity principles of the government. a system of powers within the system of checks and government. Such a powers within of tenure of as they were in terms of tenure of office office and balances, staggered were in terms as balances, staggered they
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methods of would do to prevent prevent any or interest interest faction or do much to of access, methods any faction access, would from capturing complete control of the government. Then Madison Madison the from capturing complete control of government. worked out broader balance the states, people, and and the people, between the balance between out a a broader worked states, the the central government. Sometimes called "Dual Federalism," his the central government. Sometimes called Federalism," his the and plan was to divide the national system between the people people the the plan was to divide the national system between developing it, it, what what Madison did was to to draw on the the old states. In old Madison did states. In developing feudal principle of interlocking powers and responsibilities. feudal principle of interlocking powers and responsibilities. He realized that that this this was was an an innovation. may be be said," he wrote wrote to to "It may innovation. "It realized said," he Jefferson, "that the Constitution is founded on different prindifferent is founded Constitution the new "that prinJefferson, operation. II admit the the difference to ciples, and will have aa diiferent difference to different operation. ciples, and will have be material. It presents presents the the aspect rather of a feudal system of refeudal a of rerather of be material. It system aspect publics, if such a phrase may be used, than of a Confederacy of a of Confederacy of publics, if such a phrase may be used, than independent states." states." independent Not only may the the concept feudal be used, it provides the the most most be used, it provides Not concept jeudal only may is aa accurate insight into the true of the the Constitution. Constitution. It It is nature of true nature into the accurate insight document based on feudal Just as in the feudal age, the as in the feudal based on feudal principles. document age, the principles. Just individual citizen was beholden to, but but was was also the responsibility also the beholden to, citizen was individual responsibility the same of, highest lord lord (or (or the national government). government). He had the the national the highest of, the relationship with his state government (a lower lord), which in turn turn lower with state his in lord), government (a relationship had (as a vassal to the top lord) reciprocal ties with the national ties the a the with had to vassal national top lord) reciprocal (as as the the citizen participated directly and actively government. citizen participated government As long directly and long as actively at both and as long as the states remained significant as both levels, at the elements states remained significant elements levels, and as long in political economy the system, the individual individual was protected protected in the the political of the system, the economy of the same time time able able to to play play aa meaningful meaningful role role in and at at the in governing governing himself. himself. Madison ultimately ultimately realized realized that that aa crisis would occur and if crisis would occur when and if the citizen ceased to to have have significant leverage on the the political political econeconthe citizen ceased significant leverage corporation replaced replaced the the individual omy. fact as as the This happened the corporation in fact individual omy. This happened in in the in the narrow economic the. state sense and subsumed the. economic sense state as as the the element element of social social decision-making the broader broader sense. sense. While he did not of decision-making in in the did not foresee that particular particular form form which which the was to did foresee that the crisis crisis was to take, Madison did take, Madison recognize two two other was inherent inherent in other dangers. a feudal Conflict was in a feudal system recognize dangers. Conflict system of organization. of what," he he asked rhetorically, "has been the the asked rhetorically, "has been organization. "And what," the feudal Constitution? In them aa conconprogress and event event of of the feudal Constitution? In all all of of them progress tinual tinual struggle between the members, until until aa the head and the the inferior inferior members, struggle between final victory has been final victory has been gained gained in one, in others, by in some instances instances by in others, by by one, the other of of them.'* the other them." This brought Madison right back to the old Madison back to old the brought right of maintaining problem of balance between between the various elements elements the balance the various problem maintaining the and to to the dilemma defined defined by the expansionism inherent in mercanthe in inherent mercanby expansionism
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tilism as as tilism
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opposed to the the theory theory that that republicanism republicanism could could exist exist only in opposed to only in states. states. by standing on Madison resolved both difficulties Madison resolved both difficulties by feudal theory standing feudal theory on its head. asserted that a large state would weaken the inits head. He simply simply asserted that a large state would weaken the influence would provide inherent protection protection for private of faction, fluence of for private faction, would provide inherent and-as he explicitly said of the west-would provide "a mine rights, rights, and as he explicitly said of the west would provide "a mine of the United United States is capable] under proper proper of vast vast wealth wealth to to the States [which [which is capable] under management, both both to gradual discharge discharge of the domestic to effect effect a a gradual domestic debt, of the debt, management, and to a certain period, liberal tributes to federal to furnish, for a certain period, to the the federal liberal tributes furnish, for form of to effect effect its purtreasury.... This This form of Government, in order its purorder to Government, in treasury. poses, must operate not not within a small but an must operate an extensive within a small but extensive sphere." poses, sphere." "Extend the sphere," he concluded, you take "Extend the a greater "and you take in in a concluded, "and sphere," he variety greater variety probable that a majority majority of of of parties interests; you of it less less probable that a parties and interests; you make it to invade of other the whole will have have aa common motive motive to the whole will other invade the of the rights rights citizens; or a common motive will be difficult if such or if it will such a motive exists, be more more difficult citizens; exists, it for it to discover their their own strength, and to act in unison all who feel for all feel it to discover act in and to unison strength, with each other." with each other." Madison meant meant exactly exactly what he said referred to to the the new Madison what he he referred said when he government as "the Empire," and the opponents of the Constitution as "the of the and the Constitution government Empire," opponents to mean mean aa sustained policy of expansion. .As interpreted his language to his language of expansion. sustained policy As interpreted one of those who led led the the fight against the government, Patrick one Patrick of those the new fight against government, Henry decried drive for way or he mocked mocked this drive or other," decried this for empire. "Some way other," he Henry empire. "Some theD;1, "we must be a great and mighty empire." Insisting rethat rethem, "we must be a great and mighty empire." Insisting that publicanism was "only calculated for a territory but small in extent," publicanism was "only calculated for a territory but small in extent," Luther Martin of Maryland the Constitution on those those attacked the Constitution on Luther Martin of also attacked Maryland also it the the work work of wanted "one grounds. He thought "one great of men who wanted great thought it grounds. to aggrandize rulers elevate its and calculated to its rulers and extensive extensive empire, aggrandize and elevate empire, calculated and chief officers far herd of to enrich enrich of mankind, and chief officers far above above the the common herd mankind, to with wealth, becircle them them with with honors honors and glory." them with wealth, becircle glory." Though voted for George for ratification, ratification, George finally voted Randolph finally Though Edmund Randolph Lee, and the north as George Mason, north such such as in the and those those in Richard Henry Mason, Richard George Henry Lee, the bitter every opponent accepted Clinton bitter end. end. Almost Almost every Clinton fought to the opponent accepted fought to Madison's description description of the new arrangement arrangement as a feudal feudal system as a of the Madison's system between that it would produce a running war between and agreed with it would with that him running produce agreed the central government and that the the states states states. They and the the states. the central government They assumed that others was of lose-and people also. of others was ambivawould lose also. The response the people would and the response lent. Though worried about rights, Elbridge Elbridge Gerry individual rights, about individual lent. Gerry Though worried by proper amendment," thought the plan had "great merit, and, the had amendment," merit, and, by proper plan "great thought to could be While he he wanted wanted "an "an energetic be accepted. could energetic government" government" to accepted. While
small small
.
.
.
The American History History 162 Contours of The Contours 162 of American exercise absolute control control over commerce," James James Monroe recogrecogover commerce," "an absolute exercise "an in Madison's feudal system. Sam nized the danger inherent feudal Adams in Madison's nized the danger inherent system. had similar recognizing the the truth truth in Madison's description in Madison's had similar "doubts"; "doubts"; recognizing description as aa feudal feudal system, system, he he fretted fretted about of "imof plan as the dangers about the "imof the the plan dangers of peria in imperio:' Still, Adams admitted that it was "highly valuadmitted that it was "highly valuferia in imperio!' Still, able" because its power power "to regulate commerce, commerce, to to form treaties." treaties." "to regulate because of of its able" was generally generally pleased document, "especially Jefferson was the document, with the in "especially in Jefferson pleased with He reported that he "read and pecuniary and foreign concerns." that "read and concerns." and reported foreign pecuniary contemplated its provisions provisions with with great great satisfaction." satisfaction." Along Along with with contemplated its Adams and good many many others, more desired more a good and a Adams however, Jefferson Jefferson desired others, however, explicit the individual. individual. for the explicit protection protection for The kind of of close given the Jefferson and and the document by close attention attention given The kind by Jefferson that the ratification of the Constitution cannot be the Constitution cannot be that ratification of the Adam suggests suggests explained by reference to a political and propaganda coup. Madison a and Madison reference to propaganda coup. political explained by admitted that that the the country in the the dark" until the docudark" until admitted was "certainly the docucountry was "certainly in was signed and released, and that initiative cl~ar1y favored the ment was initiative and that and favored ment the released, clearly signed as also did the sense of general crisis and the feeling that advocates, the as did the crisis also sense of that advocates, feeling general something had to to be be done. done. Yet Yet the the opponents opponents of the Constitution of the Constitution something had upon the the traditions traditions and interests interests of were re~ognized leaders drawing were of drawing upon recognized leaders small state and appealing to a broad cross section of small to a state government and broad cross section of government appealing American society. American society. The willingness willingness of the pro-Constitution coalition to to compromise compromise of the pro-Constitution coalition in their favor. Their opponents probably decided the issue probably decided the issue in their favor. Their opponents won to protect the individual his basic basic amendments designed designed to amendments individual and secure secure his protect the property, and with the general rights of of speech, defense. Combined with and defense. the general rights speech, property, of urgency, sense of this understanding understanding about about the the first ten amendments sense first ten amendments urgency, this was very the determining very likely likely the even though though it highly it seems seems highly factor, even determining factor, that half probable that half the the voting voting population population favored the new system. favored the probable system. like Sam Adams helped helped Nevertheless, the the favorable favorable decision decision of of men like Nevertheless, a few bargains as did did a -as bargains struck within such such key key states Virginia struck within states as as Virginia and New York. York. And it it is to remember remember that that the vote on is important the vote on important to the the lowest lowest order order of of the Constitution can only Constitution can be described described as as the only be democracy: men given given the to say nothing more than yes or the chance chance to than or democracy: say nothing yes no on such such a a basic basic decision not participating participating very very extensively extensively in decision are are not in the the management management of their own affairs. affairs. of their THE DOMESTIC WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE
Once the the Constitution Constitution was ratified the formality electing ratified and the of electing formality of as the first as the first President disposed of, American leaders Washington President American leaders Washington disposed of,
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began began
163', 163:
their struggle to create government for had a their create the the government for which which they struggle to they had a charter. efforts were were marked by militant, militant, and at times impas-. charter. Their Their efforts marked by and at times impassioned, conflicts over the the issues conflicts over issues of of independence, economic developsioned, independence, economic development, balance and justice, representative government, and expansion. expansion. balance and ment, justice, representative government, and those controversies, Alexander Hamilton was As aa key in those Hamilton was controversies., Alexander figure in key figure the most most audacious, undemocratic, and and immediately immediately successful the successful leader leader audacious, undemocratic, in American history. He generalized generalized aa highly highly sophistiof aa faction of faction in American history. sophistiby the the pro-English pro-English commercial commercial and and financial financial cated program devised by cated program devised interest into a prospectus prospectus for the nation nation and such interest into a for the and thereby created such thereby created antagonisms and discontents discontents that the hard hard core his interest that the core of of his interest antagonisms and was ultimately power forever. forever. group driven from from power group was ultimately driven deliver America America into the hands the Hamilton did not scheme Hamilton did not scheme to to deliver into the hands of of the struggled to consolidate the domestic power British. He merely British. to the consolidate domestic of merely struggled power of his faction and then achieve and an intimate rapprochement his faction and then achieve and dominate intimate rapprochement dominate an with the was aa capital-accumulating the British with British Empire. Since commerce commerce was Empire. Since capital-accumulating sector the economy, economy, part of Hamilton's interest-defined program program sector of of the of interest-defined Hamilton's part and policies contributed to the general development of the United and the to the of United contributed policies general development initial support from men who recognized States. States. It also gained It also him initial from recognized gained support that consequence of his his specific and whose whose immediate immediate inthat inconsequence of specific proposals proposals and terests were by the the legislation he sponsored. But Hamilton terests were favored he favored by But Hamilton sponsored. legislation balwas not not an American mercantilist mercantilist concerned concerned with a balwas an American with building building a anced political political economy. economy. Despite his famous report on the subject, on the anced his famous report subject, Despite of the he never never pushed pushed manufacturing manufacturing as the economy he as an an integral economy integral part part of to accelerate development. and opposed the the efforts efforts of of others accelerate its in fact others to and in fact opposed its development. Hence it is a fundamental mistake to assess Hamilton on the the it is a fundamental mistake to assess Hamilton on basis of long-range consequences or the of either the immediate basis either the immediate or the long-range consequences and benefits of the work work of of such mercantilists as as Adams and and Madison. Madison. benefits of the such mercantilists After all, Madison and and aa majority majority of of the the gentry gentry (and even some After all, Madison (and even of the physiocratic physiocratic followers followers of broad objective the broad of Taylor) of the objective supported the Taylor) supported of Hamilton's program program to to fund debts of of the the Confederation Confederation and and the debts fund the of Hamilton's assume the obligations of of the the states. states. The legislation legislation would not not have have the obligations assume it is is simply wrong passed without without their their votes, votes, and and for for that that reason reason it simply wrong passed hero to picture Hamilton as a solitary, embattled, and far-sighted hero as a to Hamilton embattled, far-sighted solitary, picture It is is not not evcm let alone alone even sensible, saved the the new government. who saved sensible, let government. It to praise praise him as leader for for sGmething that would equitable, to a unique as a something that unique leader equitable, have been been done have done anyway. anyway. Having sensed nature of outlook and the the limited limited Hamilton's outlook of Hamilton's the nature sensed the Having in the first initiative in character of his his program, program, Madison took the the initiative the first Madison took character of of an issue that Congress of 17B9. Asserting that it was issue of "the greatest it of greatest Congress 1789. Asserting
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magnitude" that that "requires attention, and united exer· exerand our our united our first first attention, "requires our magnitude" tions," called on on April April 8, the construction construction oof an an inde· indefor the he called tions/* he 8, 1789, for
17B9,
pendent, balanced political economy. free of free the theory balanced political theory of pendent, economy. Dismissing Dismissing the trade, and bluntly warning warning that that England's power economic power and bluntly trade, superior economic England's superior manacles, and nearly had bound deand very in "commercial had bound Ameri~ "commercial manacles, America in very nearly de· feated the object object of he called for immediate for immediate he called our independence," feated the of our independence," a mercantilist mercantilist system action on broad front. front. He recommended to action on a a broad recommended a system to in man· protect commerce, to sustain and extend the "rapid advances in manthe advances to extend sustain and "rapid protect commerce,
50
ufacturing" through duties running up to to 50 per per cent, provide to provide cent, to running up through duties ufacturing" a revenue because the fisheries, and to to secure secure the a revenue for for the the government, fisheries, because government, and they were, were, "perhaps, the best nurseries for seamen of any employment best seamen of the nurseries for they any employment "perhaps, whatever" (and he wanted wanted "a for seamen, to lay lay the the foundafounda"a school school for whatever" seamen, to (and he even wanted a duty on beer that "would be tion of on even a of a wanted beer a navy"). that "would be tion He duty navy"). such as to manufacture to root to take to induce the manufacture take deep such encouragement induce the encouragement as deep root teach those those in every in the the Union." Union." He sought, in short, "to teach in state in short, "to sought, in every state nations who have declined to enter into commercial treaties with enter into with have declined to treaties commercial nations us, that we have have the power to to extend or withhold withhold advantages as their their extend or the power advantages as conduct shall deserve." conduct shall deserve." A good many southerners joined representatives representatives from the the north north southerners joined good many use "the fostering hand of gov· in supporting Madison's efforts to "the to use hand of Madison's efforts in fostering govsupporting the common good in an independent empire. ernment" ernment" to to create in an create the Men independent empire. good from New Jersey Jersey and Pennsylvania agreed agreed that that the the issue issue was was "the from and Pennsylvania "the prosperity and welfare of the United States," and "deemed it prudent of the United welfare and it States," prudent prosperity which she was held held to emancipate our country the manacles manacles in to from the in which she was emancipate our country from by foreign manufactures." President Washington pledged his assist· manufactures." President by foreign Washington pledged his assistance to aa Delaware promotion of manufactures. And ance to Delaware society for the the promotion of manufactures. society for having campaigned of the the Constitution just such in support for just Constitution for such having campaigned in support of purposes, Tench Coxe, Coxe, aa leading political economist of his day, was economist of his purposes, political leading day, was "to foster encourage, but not to force agitating for a program a "to not and to for but "foster force agitating encourage, program manufactures" as a way way of binding the the north north and and south together and and manufactures" as a of binding south together guaranteeing a prosperous independence. a guaranteeing prosperous independence. Hamilton would have have none of programs. Mustering his folfol· of these these programs. Mustering his lowers in in Congress, he blocked Madison by substituting a moderate lowers he blocked Madison a moderate Congress, by substituting revenue bill that that could could be be praised praised for revenue tariff tariff bill for its its protective principles protective principles without his own objectives. without danger direct to his he proposed danger to objectives. Then he proposed direct taxes the middle and lower classes, aa public public debt, national taxes on the lower classes, and a a national debt, and bank. bank. Despite Despite their their awareness of centralcentral· that Hamilton's awareness that Hamilton's methods methods of the debts izing the debts immediately immediately favored the mercantile mercantile and banking banking facfav favored the izing us, that
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tions, Madison Madison and mercantilists, and the narrow narrow and other other mercantilists, of the and even even some some of dons, agrarians, were willing to contribute this extra subsidy to the north agrarians, were willing to contribute this extra subsidy to the north because they the necessity and the broader benefits of the because realized the they realized necessity and the broader benefits o the actions. Madison imisted, however, on the equity and other Madison on challenging insisted, however, challenging the equity and other implications of Hamilton's methods. In stressing the importance of of Hamilton's methods. In implications stressing the importance of justice to those "original sufferers," the first holders of Confederathose to the first holders of the the Confederajustice "original sufferers," tion debt, and to the states (including Virginia) which had paid paid and tion to the states had which debt, (including Virginia) also about the part of their arrears, Madison was no doubt thinking part of their arrears, Madison was no doubt thinking also about the possibilities of Hamilton. But But of organizing some general to Hamilton. possibilities organizing some general opposition opposition to reason to Madison's sincerity: politics and justice there is is no reason there to question and Madison's question sincerity: politics justice are only in the mind of cynic. are compartmentalized in the the cynic. entities only of the compartmentalized entities arguing that that the the funding Madison raised raised another basic issue Madison another basic issue in in arguing of funding of the state and the the creation of aa national bank involved the power power the state debts debts and creation of national bank involved the of government under under the Constitution. Regardless Regardless of the national of the national government the Constitution. of the proposals, proposals, and and whether whether one or disapproved the one approved or them, approved disapproved them, where there there Madison insisted the people people had decide in insisted that that the in cases cases where had to to decide was aa question about the government's was the constitutionality of the the government's question about constitutionality of authority to act. Otherwise, Otherwise, he protested, the the feudal between to act. he protested, balance between feudal balance authority the citizen, and the the national would be upset the the states, be national government would citizen, the states, and upset government by a series of ad hoc interpretations that extended the power of one a series hoc of of one that extended the by interpretations power had to play by the rules or else the game element in the the system. else element in One to the the had rules or system. game play by became aa crude crude scramble scramble for power. Madison's interto interbecame for power. Madison's objections objections to preted powers thus went far beyond a narrow concern for States' thus far a concern for States* went narrow preted powers beyond rights, and was aa much more fundamental and sophisticated opposifundamental and rights, sophisticated opposition than than Taylor Taylor and other physiocrats offered. tion and other physiocrats offered. beMadison also of the the United United States States bealso opposed Madison Hamilton's Bank of opposed Hamilton's cause he was not not convinced convinced that was necessary. necessary. Along Along with cause he that it with John it was John the Adams, he he realized realized the the useful useful role role of basic financial financial institutions institutions if if the of basic Adams, was to grow and prosper. But both men feared that such economy that such to feared But both was economy grow prosper. as it it would be be by by private private entrepreneurs, aa bank, bank, managed managed as entrepreneurs, would exert aa preponderant preponderant influence influence on on the the economy economy and thereby usurp exert thereby usurp Since part of the effective power of the people and the government. of the and the of the effective government. Since power people part to hold precisely such an indirect as as the large corporation did come indirect to hold precisely such the large corporation did well as American government, government, Madison Madison and and Adams as direct in American well direct sway sway in be credited with aa high high degree perception and foresight. foresight. must be of perception credited with must degree of On the the other other hand, hand, Hamilton's Hamilton's arguments arguments that that the the Bank would serve aa positive positive and creative creative economic function were were much stronger economic function serve stronger actions.
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than the the criticisms than criticisms
made by by physiocrats physiocrats such They simply such as as Taylor. made Taylor. They simply ~redit and banks could play even did not understand the role that even did not understand the role that credit and banks could play in let alone their function in a balanced such an in such an agrarian society, let alone their function in a balanced agrarian society, economy. Hamilton's Hamilton's role role in the Bank was in in many ways in establishing many ways establishing the economy* the most most positive and creative act of his career. Granted that Robert Granted that his career. Robert act of and creative the positive Morris prepared the the way, way, Hamilton sustained the idea and the idea Hamilton sustained Morris had had prepared created the the institution. institution. created In the matter matter of of manufactures, manufactures, however, however, Hamilton Hamilton has has received received In the never revealed, either in the far more repute than he deserves. in the either He never far more repute than he deserves. revealed, famous report on the subject or in his other actions, the kind of famous report on the subject or in his other actions, the kind of support for manufacturing with with which which he he is is credited, or for American American manufacturing credited, or support be expected expected of mercantilist. Indeed, Indeed, the the which might might be American mercantilist. an American of an which Congress ordered on January IS, 1']90, to prepare a report on a to ordered on him prepare January 15, 1790, report on Congress 1791. Durmanufactures. Hamilton Hamilton did did not until December, until not comply manufactures. December, ijgi. comply ing the the intervening two years, years, moreover, moreover, his his other other actions cast grave actions cast grave ing intervening two doubts on his interest interest in a balanced and independent a in developing balanced doubts on his developing independent mercantilist economy. First he he encouraged the English English to to resist resist the the mercantilist encouraged the economy. First renewed efforts of Madison and Jefferson (the latter had become renewed efforts of Madison Jefferson (the latter had become Secretary of State) to modify British trade trade restrictions. he restrictions. Then he Secretary of modify British State) to turned to to direct taxes, instead instead of to import duties, to raise additional of to turned to raise additional direct taxes, duties, import revenue. revenue. his famous Report on Manufactures actually the mercanmercanon Manufactures Nor is is his famous Report actually the tilist document that Hamilton's admirers have claimed that it it is. tilist that Hamilton's admirers have claimed that is. Dismissing protective tariffs and outright prohibition of selected tariffs of selected outright prohibition Dismissing protective imports offering no no assistance, emphasized the value of of as offering the value assistance, Hamilton emphasized imports as bounties bounties paid by the the American American government to selected selected enterprises. paid by government to enterprises. But bounties could only paid from domestic domestic taxes taxes such as the the bounties could be paid such as only be discrimination whiskey excise; they involved an obvious involved an obvious kind kind of of discrimination excise; and they whiskey selected taxpayers. against the distribution distribution of the favors favors of the Likewise, the against selected taxpayers. Likewise, would depend upon political approval from Hamilton's group, and Hamilton's depend upon political approval group, and they did not provide any real protection against the shiploads of not real the they provide any protection against shiploads of goods. lower-priced English lower-priced English goods. As a matter matter of of equity well as as of of economics, economics, therefore, therefore, the the bounty bounty as well equity as proposal was not very favorably received. Sensing the similarity benot received. proposal very favorably Sensing the similarity between Hamilton's old system Hamilton's proposal proposal and the the old grants of monopolistic system of monopolistic grants that caused so during Elizabeth I's reign, reign, the the that had caused so much trouble trouble during Elizabeth Fs great majority majority of of American manufacturers manufacturers reacted reacted negatively. And great negatively. their their suspis:ions by the speculative, monopolistic monopolistic intensified by the speculative, suspicions were intensified
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character of Hamilton's Hamilton's own Society for Useful Useful Manufactures Manufactures incharacter of inSociety for corporated in with fishermen fishermen and Amerin New Jersey. and other other Amercorporated Jersey. Along Along with icans forced with the the British, such men began to look look forced to to compete icans British, such compete with began to to Madison Madison for leadership in an American system. for leadership to in building an American system. building They also reacted favorably favorably to to Jefferson's that the the also reacted Jefferson's strong They strong argument argument that long-range solution of their difficulties was "to find markets." Here solution of their was difficulties "to find Here markets." long-range they turned to France, for economic economic reasons, but because because turned to not only France, not reasons, but they only for they agreed with John Adams that it was the "natural ally" of the the with that it was the "natural ally" of John they agreed United States in a world dominated by the economic and naval United States in a world dominated by the economic and naval power of Great Britain. outbreak of the French French Revolution of Great Britain. The outbreak Revolution of the power gave added the argument. Most Americans at first responded added force to the force to Most at first Americans gave responded argument. favorably to that upheaval. Even so conservative a leader as to that Even a leader as John so conservative John favorably upheaval. was to to recall that the the great majority were Marshall Virginia was Marshall of of Virginia recall that great majority were pleased and enthusiastic. And Washington's early attitude, reinand enthusiastic. pleased Washington's early attitude, reinforced recent difficulties with England, was also favorable to forced by recent with favorable was also difficulties to by England, France. France. On the other hand, Washington was was aa cautious the other an took an cautious man who took hand, Washington extremely long-range long-range view view of American empire. the developing Fearof the extremely empire. Feardeveloping American ing the that war war would the nation, nation, or or perhaps perhaps rip rip the possibility would destroy ing possibility that destroy the it up into antagonistic subdivisions even if it were not conquered, it into if were subdivisions it not even antagonistic up conquered, he concluded America had to to stay of the developing conflict conffict he that America concluded that out of the developing stay out betw.een England England and and France. France. Whatever his assessment of the the facfacbetween assessment of Whatever his tors, he decided to give ground to the English on commercial issues to decided to the on commercial issues tors, English give ground in to preserve preserve peace, peace, secure the Western the order to secure the Western frontier in order frontier which the British and the Indians continued to violate, and gain time for the the British the Indians continued to violate, gain time for material and psychological psychological maturation maturation of the nation. nation. On April April 22, 22, of the material I793, he the country would "pursue conduct friendly a conduct he declared declared that that the friendly country would "pursue a 1793, and impartial toward the the belligerent powers." impartial toward belligerent powers.'* Other just emerging as nations nations from an an experiOther societies, likewise just societies, likewise experiemerging as ence as were to follow a similarly neutral policy after World after a neutral ence as colonies, to follow were colonies, similarly policy and for the same basic reasons-they were and priweak and for the reasons War II, same basic II, they primarily concerned with establishing themselves as independent naas themselves with concerned independent namarily establishing that earlier tions. And in a comparable fashion, many Americans of that earlier of Americans in a tions. comparable fashion, many time initially exhibited considerable revolutionary the revolutionary for the favoritism for considerable favoritism time initially exhibited side of Both attitudes particularly strong among attitudes were particularly side of the the conflict. conflict. Both strong among those who also opposed Hamilton's anti-republican program program those also opposed Hamilton's openly openly anti-republican formal ororas formal which hurt hurt them Beginning to to coalesce coalesce as which them economically. economically. Beginning as Democratic-Republican Societies) ganizations (usually known as Societies) Democratic-Republican ganizations (usually
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which were were encouraged encouraged and helped by hy Madison his supporters, Madison and his and helped which supporters, men combined praise for the French with criticism of Hamilton and Hamilton o criticism with the French for combined praise his allies in America. America. allies in his Americans that persuasion persuasion received the new Citizen Gen~t, received Citizen of that Americans of Genet, the French representative, with a favoritism that frightened many conthat a with favoritism French representative, frightened many conPresident soon reacted servatives and even aroused Washington. reacted President soon The servatives and even aroused Washington. Gen~t tempotempomilitantly against the Democratic-Republican Democratic-Republican Societies. Societies. Genet against the militandy by his outrageous disregard of American rarily eased the crisis of rarily eased the crisis by his outrageous disregard neutrality. Pro-Revolutionary though they were, the enthusiasts had neutrality. Pro-Revolutionary though they were, the enthusiasts no comparable fervor for for war. they did their attacks attacks on continue their did continue war. But But they no comparable fervor Hamilton. These responses suggest two crucial first, Amercrucial points: Hamilton. These responses points: first, suggest two icans the Revolution were more anti-British than anti-British than Revolution were icans who approved approved the as their and vigorous vigorous political political acpro-French; second, wild rhetoric rhetoric and actheir wild second, as pro-French; tion indicated, they were were more more excited and upset about events excited and events in in tion indicated, they upset about America. America. Sensing that such was the weary of out of trying to work out the case, such was case, and weary trying to Sensing that aa compromise compromise with with Hamilton Hamilton within within the cabinet, Jefferson Jefferson resigned resigned the cabinet, as Secretary Washington's attempt attempt to to as of State State on December 31,1793. Secretary of 31, 1793. Washington's establish and mercantilist coalition coalition immediately lost its its and maintain a mercantilist establish maintain a immediately lost Hamilton saw saw the the opportunity opportunity and and moved to to seize momentum. Hamilton seize it it for for office, Jefferson Jefferson fired a broadside broadside at his own. But just just before before he left office, his fired a own. But he left at the New Yorker. His Report Report on Commercial Commercial Privileges Privileges and Restricthe Yorker. His and Restricwas an an important two reretions of of December 16, tions in two 16, 1793, 1793, was important document in policy of the spects: it Jefferson's move away from the it documented documented from the of the Jefferson's spects: away policy physiocrats (though he was his emotional comto retain retain his and social social comwas to emotional and physiocrats (though he it signified his mitment to vision of utopia), and to their their vision mitment of an and it an agrarian agrarian Utopia), signified his to accept the essentials of the mercantilist program. Adwillingness to the the essentials of mercantilist Adwillingness accept program. that he mitting that he preferred preferred the of free free trade trade (arguing (arguing that that the ideal ideal of mitting America would gain the most that way), Jefferson acknowledged America the most that gain way), Jefferson acknowledged that that it it was unworkable unworkable unless unless every every other other country also adopted it.. country also adopted it . Hence aa system of "heavier and heavier" shipping discriminations of "heavier and heavier" discriminations system shipping and protective protective duties duties had had to be put put into those who to be into effect effect against against those refused fair treatment refused fair to the United States. Jefferson may may have have entertreatment to the United States. Jefferson entertained to his his tained aa fond fond hope hope that that such retaliation would would open the door such retaliation the door to open agrarian utopia, but he explicitly recognized that such a system but he that a such agrarian Utopia, explicitly recognized system would encourage well as of the the househousegeneral manufactures manufactures as as those as well those of encourage general hold only did he accept this result, but he recommended hold variety. Not did he this but he result, variety. only accept the state that that the state governments governments should by opening should "co-operate "co-operate essentially, essentially, by opening the resources of the resources of encouragement encouragement which are under their controL" are under their control." He
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also noted a program program might might easily attract foreign manu· also noted that that such such a easily attract foreign manuJef· facturers would bring bring capital capital along with their knowledge. facturers who would with their along knowledge. Jefferson probably retained his attachment to home manufactures, ferson very very probably retained his attachment to home manufactures, is that proposed to to aid but the the crucial point is but crucial point he formally that he aid the the other other formally proposed kind. John Taylor of Caroline, high priest of the physiocratic faith, kind. John Taylor o Caroline, high priest of the physiocratic faith, recognized this began to to criticize Jefferson this important and soon shift and soon began criticize Jefferson recognized important shift as one one who had had fallen away from the true very vigorously fallen away from the true church. church. very vigorously as realist, and blossoming blossoming politician, politician, Jefferson Jefferson no no doubt realized As aa realist, doubt realized that organized organized manufacturing manufacturing was was beginning beginning to benefit from the that to benefit from the interrelatedness of the country country and the conflict new economic economic interrelatedness of the and from conflict from the in By the time that that Jefferson Jefferson resigned, resigned, for both in Europe. the time for example, Europe. By example, both 2,000 workers. Washington Boston employed over and Philadelphia Boston and workers. over 2,000 Philadelphia employed Washington was particularly pleased by the rapid rapid increase was small workshops increase in in small particularly pleased workshops by the throughout the the nation. nation. Enterprises Enterprises of that kind kind produced produced the the bulk bulk of that throughout of manufactures for decades, but but the of American American manufactures for several several decades, the corporation corporation form was increasing popularity for industrial and and form of of organization in popularity for industrial organization was increasing in commercial operations. operations. Within more than than 20 were operatcommercial Within a decade more a decade were operating, North Carolina Carolina and Massachusetts Massachusetts had passed special laws had passed special laws ing, and North facilitating their creation and expansion. their creation and expansion. facilitating the offensive offensive with Jefferson's Armed with took the Madison again Jefferson's Report, Report, Madison again took against Hamilton on January 3,1794. Since free trade "required what on Since free trade against January 3, 1794. "required what did not not exist-that should be general." Madison Madison proclaimed proclaimed his his it should did exist that it be general," mercantilism. "To allow trade to regulate itself is not therefore to allow mercantilism. trade to regulate itself is not therefore to be admitted as a maxim universally sound. Our own experience has a be admitted as universally sound. experience has us that, certain cases, the same thing thing with allowing one taught us is the with allowing one in certain it is cases, it that, in taught nation to regulate it for another." Madison thus reached same the same nation to regulate it for another.** Madison thus reached the conclusion that had advanced he Wealth of in T advanced in The that Adam Smith Smith had conclusion of Nations. Both Both saw that an industrial country had aa dedean advanced advanced industrial Nations. saw that country had its economic with aa relatively backward cided economic dealings cided advantage in its advantage in dealings with relatively backward country. country. Having presented presented the the essence his argument, argument, Madison bluntly bluntly of his essence of Having was specified the source of the nation's difficulties. was being of the nation's difficulties. England the source England being specified for "very tyrannical," and and "extremely atrocious." As for and tyrannical," "extremely atrocious." "very arbitrary arbitrary and Hamilton's commercial faction, Madison concluded concluded that its ideas ideas that its Hamilton's commercial faction, Madison "might not be be an an American American opinion." was appealing not opinion." Madison was appealing not "might not of Hamilton's only to the manufacturers were skeptical of Hamilton's prowho manufacturers the to skeptical proonly northern and south* fessed in their activities, but but also to the the northern southalso to their activities, fessed interest interest in ever more insistent insistent ern merchants and producers producers who were becoming becoming ever ern merchants and had West trade. Britain be done to reopen the Indies trade. Britain that something the Indies to done be that reopen something
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closed in 1783, and had never relaxed its its regulations regulations on aa general general it in closed it 1783, and had never relaxed basis. basis. Hamilton Representative William William Smith of of Hamilton answered answered through through Representative Maryland, who often gave the speeches that Hamilton prepared. that often gave the speeches prepared. Maryland, than Since did not not discriminate discriminate against Since England against America more than England did against anyone else, he argued, it therefore did not discriminate not discriminate against anyone else, he argued, it therefore did against America. (Congressman Smith was bluntly accused of "subagainst America. (Congressman Smith was bluntly accused of "subterfuge and a spirit of quibbling" for mouthing such sophomoric terfuge and a spirit of quibbling" for mouthing such sophomoric sophistries.) As for American manufactures, Smith continued for continued for sophistries.) As for American manufactures, Thus appeared HamilHamilton, they they were the question." of the "out of were "out Hamilton, appeared Hamilquestion.'* ton's appendix. his earlier earlier Report on Manufactures; Manufactures; an addition addition ton's to his Report on appendix to that clarified the meaning meaning of of the earlier document beyond serious document beyond serious the earlier that clarified the question. question. to make it perfectly clear they Hamilton's went on on to clear that it perfectly that they Hamilton's supporters supporters went agreed on "shunning everything that may wear the appearance wear the of that on may appearance of agreed "shunning everything <:ommercial warfare" with with England. Appropriately enough, in view in view commercial warfare" England. Appropriately enough, in of the the non-intellectual non-intellectual origins that policy, policy, Fisher Fisher Ames spoke of of that origins of spoke in openly anti-intellectual accents. "We follow experience too little," he follow too he anti-intellectual accents. little," experience openly complained, the vision vision of theorists aa great too much." Andeal too of theorists much." An"and the complained, "and great deal to defeat Madison by ridicule. "The gentleother opponent attempted other to ridicule. defeat by opponent attempted gentlethe resolutions were like like some kinds of of amphibious animals. for the men for resolutions were some kinds amphibious animals. If you attack them on the the land into the the water; you attack attack If you attack them if you land they water; if fly into they fly by water water they they fly to land." It was a funny remark, but it was them by a to land." It was but it was fly funny remark, heart of the issue: American meralso one that cut through to also one that cut through to the of the issue: the heart mert:antilism versus versus pro-British pro-British commerce. commerce. cantilism managed to proWhile he While he finally to block block Madison's Madison's comprehensive finally managed comprehensive prowide gram, not hold all his his allies allies any longer. By could not hold all gram, Hamilton could any longer. By aa wide unmistakmargin, 58-38, the Congress authorized an an embargo margin, 58-38, the Congress authorized embargo and unmistakwell as Britably revealed revealed its its impatience impatience with with Hamilton Hamilton as as well the Britas with with the ably ish. high that was openly proposed and ish. Feeling ran so so high that secession secession was and Feeling ran openly proposed discussed. In In private discussed. private talks talks with John Taylor Taylor of of Caroline, King with John Rufus King Caroline, Rufus even made aa direct direct bid bid for pacific dismemberment of the the country. country. for pacific dismemberment of outer edges The outer of the the coalition had attempted to coalition that that Washington edges of Washington attempted to build to break break off and establish two new nations. nations. And build seemed about about to off and establish two as if if that that were not as not trouble trouble enough, west began to reassert reassert its its the west enough, the began to to threaten threaten independent action to get what it wanted. demands and to to action what it wanted. independent get the attitude attitude he had revealed Maintaining the the fight between revealed during Maintaining during the fight between Monroe and Jay, Jay, Washington continued his efforts to develop the continued his efforts to Washington develop the west to to west slowly and to come to some general settlement with the Indians. settlement with the Indians. slowly general
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WASHINGTON'S STRATEGY OF EMPIRE
Before blaming Washington all the the troubles troubles that followed it Before blaming for all that followed it Washington for should be remembered that he had neither a strong nor a free hand. hand. be remembered that he had neither a strong nor a free should Jefferson, for for example, of the the had been been dickering over the the conquest Jefferson, example, had conquest of dickering over Floridas (including ever since Floridas since 1787. His diplomatic (including New Orleans) 1787. His Orleans) ever diplomatic maneuvers included emigration and covert support included encouraging maneuvers and covert encouraging emigration support As for the InIn~ for expansionist other westerners. westerners. As for Kentuckians and and other for the expansionist Kentuckians dians, Jefferson that they they would would be be thoroughly thoroughly defeated defeated if assumed that if dians, Jefferson assumed not literally Westerners generally agreed, and began to not and to literally destroyed. destroyed. Westerners generally agreed, began back Jefferson national leadership. leadership. back for national Jefferson for collapsed when Washington's efforts to stabilize west all efforts to the west stabilize the all but but collapsed Washington's the Indians the American American General Arthur St. Clair in in NoN~ the Indians defeated defeated the General Arthur St. Glair vember, 1791. Westerners were convinced that the British were in~ were convinced that the inWesterners British were vember, 1791. triguing to reconquer the entire Mississippi basin. Between the drive to the entire the basin. Between drive triguing reconquer Mississippi for New Orleans, Indian problem, and the the general for for the Indian sentiment for Orleans, the problem, and general sentiment expansion, Jefferson wrote that the Kentuckians were "restrained that wrote the were "restrained Kentuckians expansion, Jefferson by aa pack pack thread." Washington stopped the KenKen~ from hostility by from hostility thread." Washington stopped the tuckians and their sympathizers sympathizers with with aa blunt blunt warning to keep the tuckians and their to warning keep the peace or face a tw~front war. or a face two-front war. peace to While the President's President's final had superficial similarides to final strategy While the strategy had superficial similarities the proposals proposals offered offered by by Rufus King and and other other pro-English pr~English leaders, the Rufus King leaders, it actually quite quite different. different. As one British acts acts as as it was described British was actually one who described "hostile and cruel," Washington was not looking toward some in~ in"hostile and cruel," Washington was not looking toward creasingly close and and permanent permanent relationship relationship with with Britain. Britain. He wanted wanted creasingly close ease the the to avoid war, check check British British influence on the the Indians, to avoid war, influence on Indians, and ease redcoats out out of of the the western western frontier posts. Concluding Concluding that a settlesett1e~ that a redcoats frontier posts. ment along those lines lines would stabilize the situation and thereby thereby stabilize the situation and ment along those sent John Jay create the the circumstances circumstances for he sent John Jay create for steady development, he steady development, to to London. London. But Jay's Jay's mission mission was was only half the the program. program.. It It was was also also only half necessary to to place place the the nation a complete de"in a state of of military nation "in complete state military denecessary fense, and to provide provide etlentually, measures, as to be as seem to be now and to such measures, fense, eventually, such pending in in Congress, if negotiations negotiations in a reasonable reasonable in a for execution, execution, if pending Congress, for he knew, knew, Washington Washington Was undertaking time prove prove unsuccessful." time was undertaking unsuccessful." As he a delicate delicate and risky risky maneuver. maneuver. succeed. chance it it had to to succeed. Hamilton's intrigue intrigue wrecked wrecked whatever whatever chance Hamilton's the not fear need assured the English that they need not fear the growth He privately assured that the growth they English privately "it that "it of manufactures manufactures in America and minister that British minister of and told the British in America told the even was the policy of this government in every contingency, even the settled in of this was settled policy every contingency, government
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in that that of open conflict to avoid avoid entangling Great Britain, with Great an open of an conflict with in Britain, to entangling itself with European connections." While this was not promise to not a a promise this was to While itself with European connections."
was aa clear that abandon force dealing with clear indication indication that it was in dealing with England, force in abandon England, it was opposed to an open break. Confident that America Hamilton that Confident break. America Hamilton was opposed to an open would fight alone if it ever came to it, the British relaxed and gave would fight alone if it ever came to it, the British relaxed and gave Jay nothing more crumbs. a few than a few diplomatic diplomatic crumbs. Jay nothing more than Almost in America America was was satisfied with the It proprothe treaty. satisfied with Almost nobody treaty. It nobody in vided no no immediate, fundamental relief for American American trade; trade; for that for that relief for vided immediate, fundamental rematter, it to threaten threaten new limitations the power power to to relimitations on the it seemed seemed to matter, taliate. The one big big gain gain concerned west, where where the English the English the west, The one concerned the taliate. agreed to to give give up up the the frontier many thought thought that that should But many should forts. But frontier forts. agreed have been years earlier. particularly diswere particularly disSoutherners were earlier. Southerners done ten have been done ten years gusted by the failure to gain satisfaction for the slaves that were the for that slaves were satisfaction the failure to gain gusted by taken or freed. taken or freed.
many merchants pointed out that the the West out that merchants pointed West And many still closed. still closed. Jay his work work on grounds. It It preserved peace, the peace, defended his on four four grounds. preserved the Jay defended secured the western western forts forts and boundary, won access to the access to the East and boundary, East secured the basis, and thus broke "in India Asian) trade on an unrestricted and thus broke India (or on an "in trade unrestricted basis, (or Asian) in such a way that promised the "further exupon the navigation act" that a the the in such act" "further exway promised upon navigation tension throughout the British system. Hamilton's of commerce" tension of the British commerce" throughout Hamilton's system. was far England's right to stand stand argument was far different. different. He emphasized argument emphasized England's right to fast with "a question of national safety," "a of fast because because it it was was struggling with national safety? struggling question whereas America America was was concerned concerned only with "a commercial whereas "a question of commercial only with question of a few merchants joined convenience individual security." convenience and and individual merchants joined security." Not a a majority majority of of farmers that Hamilton was placing the a in concluding that farmers in Hamilton was concluding placing the safety of England above the independence of America. of safety England above the independence of America. to accept the treaty treaty was complicompliWashington's problem whether whether to Washington's problem accept the cated cated by the armed protests protests against the whiskey whiskey tax which had had tax which by the against the just as in London. erupted in in July, as Jay arrived in London. The President President erupted July, 1794, 1794, just Jay arrived erroneously interpreted that action and the wild, vulgar, and both that action and the wild, interpreted both erroneously vulgar, and of incipient extensive protests against the treaty extensive protests as signs revolution. against the treaty as incipient revolution. signs of In at at least least two In two ways, ways, however, however, that that extreme extreme conclusion provoked conclusion provoked action which temporarily temporarily relaxed relaxed the tension. Not only action the tension. did Washingonly did Washington's decision to use troops troops produce produce aa sudden among the the ton's decision to use sudden soberness soberness among whiskey distillers, but the the absurd mismanageat times absurd and at times hilarious hilarious mismanagedistillers, but whiskey ment of of the by Hamilton, Hamilton, who had had jumped jumped at the chance the campaign at the chance campaign by to to get back on horseback, horseback, did than aa little little to to make the the New did more than get back Yorker less awesome figure. Yorker aa less figure. Even so, that his his decision decision to to press press for for ratificaratificaso, Washington Washington knew that Indies were were Indies
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tion of of the the treaty was "very business indeed." was again tion serious business indeed." He was treaty was "very serious again helped by his opponents. Those critics who went beyond the his critics went beyond the existing helped by opponents. existing broad limits permissible personal generated aa reaction reaction in limits of of permissible broad abuse generated in personal abuse
He
favor President. And despite favor of of the the President. the efforts of such efforts of such opponents to despite the opponents to block the the treaty treaty by by refusing refusing to to appropriate block the necessary a funds, a appropriate the necessary funds, maneuver which which Madison Madison himself himself deemed deemed unwise, unwise, Washington Washington maneuver gained further continued to to reassert reassert his his control over the the situation. continued control over situation. He gained further strength he won concessions concessions from from Spain Florida boundboundon the the Florida strength when he Spain on ary and commercial rights rights on the and in Orleans. and commercial the Mississippi in New and Orleans. ary Mississippi benefits were being formalized formalized (October, And even as those those benefits were being even as (October, 1795), 1795), General Anthony Wayne routed the Ohio Indians and cleared the the General routed the Ohio and cleared Indians Anthony Wayne territory for settlement, commerce, and the fur trade. for the and fur trade. settlement, commerce, territory Washington was was suddenly, and in in part part fortuitously, a position position in a Washington suddenly, and fortuitously, in to retire retire gracefully. farewell advice, he admonished his countryto As farewell his admonished he advice, gracefully. countrytheir fears fears and take take advantage the opportunity that to calm men to calm their of the advantage of opportunity that theirs to become the the leading leading power power of was theirs to become the world. world. Cautioning of the Cautioning not to economic differences to produce produce to allow them not allow geographic differences to geographic and economic that it would be wise to maintain an explicit disunion, he suggested that it to maintain an he be wise disunion, explicit suggested system of religious "national morality" as cement for the country the of "national as cement for system religious country morality" as well well as guide to to the the common welfare. welfare. And he particularly as a guide he was particularly as a insistent the citizenry citizenry take responsibility for modificatake direct for any insistent that that the direct responsibility any modifications in constitutional framework. shifts in the the shifts in in the the constitutional tions framework. Irresponsible Irresponsible balance of authority would" create, whatever the form of government, of balance would whatever the of authority "create, government, in aa real real despotism." Changes shoultl be effected effected "by should be despotism." Changes "by an amendment in the way which the Constitution designates." "Let there be change no the way which the Constitution designates." "Let there be change by usurpation," he urged, urged, in defense of termed in a of what Madison termed a clear clear defense by usurpation," he a feudal feudal system republics. a of republics. system of government for for questioned the the viability viability of of one one government As for for men who questioned "so Washington judged judged that that "there be "there will a sphere," will always "so large always be large a sphere," Washington reason to to distrust the patriotism" until they critics until reason distrust the of such such critics they were patriotism" of u it. "If lf proved correct. There was was no present present reason reason to to re-examine re-examine it. correct. There proved is one people, people, under under an an efficient efficient government, period is the period we remain remain one government, the not far off," he confidently predicted, may defy material he confidently not far off," defy material predicted, "when we may attitude injury from external annoyance; annoyance; when we may may take take such such an attitude from external injury as will cause cause the neutrality we may may at any time time resolve resolve upon upon to to be as will at any the neutrality the scrupulously respected; belligerent nations, under the imposwhen nations, imposbelligerent scrupulously respected; sibility of making acquisitions upon us, will not lightly hazard hazard the the sibility of making acquisitions upon us, will not lightly as our or giving us provocation; when may choose peace or war, as we choose us war, may peace giving provocation; for interest, guided by justice, justice, shall being aa call call for counsel." Far from being shall counsel." interest, guided by
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isolation, what what Washington was aa mercantilist mercantilist manifesto manifesto for for issued was Washington issued or an unchallengeable empire. Whatever one thinks of the logic, or of of the thinks one of an unchallengeable empire. Whatever logic, the goal itself, Washington's Farewell Address remains one of the one of the the goal itself, Washington's Farewell Address remains Mercantilism. great documents of America's Age of Mercantilism. great documents of America's Age of
isolation,
THE STATESMANSHIP OF JOHN JOHN ADAMS As who entertained entertained the the same Washing~ as Washingsame Weltanschauung one who As one Weltanschauung as ton, John Adams tried several times to create a mercantilist cabinet mercantilist create a to times cabinet several tried Adams ton, John
as well northerners. Failing Failing that, he listened including listened well as as northerners. southerners as that, he including southerners to those like businessman Albert Gallatin of Pennsylvania carefully of Gallatin Albert like businessman to those Pennsylvania carefully and members of of the the Madison Madison and Madison group. were active active members who were group. Had Madison as at least once they con~ Jefferson given him more overt assistance, least once as at conovert more him assistance, they Jefferson given sidered a great deal of private and social pain might have been sidered doing, doing, a great deal of private and social pain might have been avoided. Instead, Adams became became the first President President faced faced with with aa the first avoided. Instead, two opposition parties and confronted abroad Congress controlled by confronted abroad controlled by opposition parties Congress by two major empires, each of which offered cause for war. Finding of which offered cause for war. each two by major empires, Finding no men with quite the the will will or the sense justice to to help him, Adams or the of justice sense of with quite help him, and acted acted courageously burned burned his his political bridges ahead ahead of of him and political bridges courageously It was one of the greatest alone to secure peace for the country. one of the greatest acts alone to secure peace for the country. It acts of leadership, and set of statesmanship that few of American a standard standard of American leadership, set a few statesmanship that have equaled. have equaled. he took took office, office, Adams was was confronted confronted at As soon soon as as he at home and and by major major opponents. opponents. Hamilton the cabinet and set about abroad abroad by left the Hamilton left cabinet and set about to run through his his control control of the Federalist Federalist Party. run the to the country of the country through Party. He came uncomfortably close to doing so. the same time, Madison to the close At so. Madison time, uncomfortably doing his political politi~ lieutenants as John Beckley of VirVir~ and those those of of his such as lieutenants such John Beckley of ginia and Frederic A. C. Huhlenberg of Pennsylvania commanded A. C. Frederic of ginia Huhlenberg Pennsylvania enough national strength to create additional difficulties create additional difficulties for for Adams. Adams. enough national strength to parallel existed affairs, where England An almost almost exact exact parallel existed in in foreign where foreign affairs, England and France France alternated raising the with American American in raising alternated in the greatest havoc with greatest havoc objec~ ships, sailors, and commerce. never wavered wavered from his commerce. Adams never his objecsailors, and ships, tive of keeping tive of America neutral while gaining strength enough to America neutral while gaining strength enough to keeping win practical to trade with both belligerents. practical recognition of the right recognition of the right to trade with both belligerents. But Hamilton possible, aa GarganGargan~ Hamilton wanted wanted war against France and, if possible, and, if against France tuan invasion of South America invasion of America with the British. with the and Madison and British. Madison favored France for as well well as reasons Jefferson for economic economic as as ideological Jefferson favored ideological reasons to France gained gained steadily a time time after were (exports for a after 1794) and were (exports to steadily for 1794) and anti-British. Neither militantly anti-British. Neither of however, wanted wanted to to rush rush of them, them, however, militantly into war. war. into
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Riding the current current of of popular popular reluctance reluctance to to "\\tar, to go -war, Adams Riding the go to maneuvered between between the the two two blocs. blocs. Choosing Choosing his his men carefully (the maneuvered carefully (the politics was important, but the outlook of the men more so), he was more so), he important, but the outlook of the politics dispatched John Marshall, Charles Pinckney, and Elbridge Gerry to dispatched John Marshall, Charles Pinckney, and Elbridge Gerry to Paris negotiate aa new treaty treaty of When they they to negotiate Paris to and friendship. of trade trade and friendship. failed, the result result of blunder and pride and and as the of a a French French blunder and their their own pride failed, as nationalism, Adams realized realized he trouble. A general general wave wave of in trouble. he was was in of nationalism, to push push for anger against gave Hamilton Hamilton an opportunity to France gave an opportunity for anger against France war. war.
admitted that ultimately be necessary, but but Adams admitted that it it might be necessary, might ultimately
disagreed vigorously with Hamilton. Hamilton. Aware Aware that the British British were were that the disagreed vigorously with again acting in the west as well as continuing their seizures of in the west as as their of well seizures again acting continuing American commerce, thoroughly mercantilist mercantilist American advocated a a thoroughly commerce, Adams advocated strategy designed protect the to protect United States either the United States against against either strategy designed to
European European power. power. "We ought," he recommended, recommended, "without loss of lay the the to lay "without loss of time, time, to ought," he foundation for Navy to to aa size to guard guard foundation for an an increase our Navy increase of size sufficient sufficient to of our our coast, protect our Having no about the the our our trade." trade." Having illusions about no illusions coast, and protect British-they determined "to the commerce of the the British they were were determined of "to engross the commerce engross to themselves"-Adams Hamilton as best he could. world to world could. themselves" Adams fought best he Hamilton as fought direct help help from from Madison and Jefferson. Jefferson. Finally, in FebFebHe got Madison and Finally, in got no direct over 1798, acted on his own and broke with Hamilton over ruary, Adams broke with Hamilton acted on his and ruary, 1798, assigning top priority to building up a navy. "1 have always cried, "I have always cried, assigning top priority to building up a navy. Ships! accurately recalled in later later years. "Hamilton's recalled in Ships! Ships!" Ships!" Adams accurately years. "Hamilton's hobbyhorse was Troops! Troops! Troops!" hobbyhorse Troops!" or not, not, the the point a Humorous or launched a crucial. Hamilton Hamilton launched was crucial. point was it major campaign campaign to to consolidate consolidate his power at at home and then then ally his power ally it major with England France and conquer parts parts of of Spanish with and to to conquer Spanish against France England against America. "Nothing but an can save in both both he cried, America. save us," an open cried, in us," he open war can "Nothing but By "us"-at least according according to Britishfear fear and and determination. to the the British"us" at least determination. By Hamilton meant "the of weight weight and character character [who "the men of Hamilton meant of fortune, fortune, of [who wise as the only wise favored] a close connection with Great Britain a the close with as Great Britain connection only favored] system American politicks." politicks." In a brilliant, brilliant, albeit fanatic, of American albeit nearly In a nearly fanatic, system of outburst driving leadership, Hamilton jammed jammed through through major major outburst of of driving leadership, Hamilton the program. His supporters voted increases in the Army elements of of his in voted increases elements his program. Army supporters a land and a tax to pay for loans. They They also approved land tax to pay for them, them, and also approved new loans. with the then then moved against their opponents-real and fancied-with the their real fancied against opponents no Naturalization Act, the Alien and the Sedition Act. While While Sedition Act. Naturalization and the Alien Act, Act, the Act, were doubt a more ominous cast by the crisis, the first two were a the first cast the doubt given ominous crisis, by given in 1789. all countries countries in pieces of to all commonplace pieces familiar to of legislation 1789. legislation familiar commonplace
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The American History History The Contours Contours of of American
They remain on the the other other hand, hand, was was sedition law, The sedition so today. remain so law, on today. The They vicious a vicious a
s:atch-all bill obviously obviously designed designed to to put Hamilton's critics critics .catch-all bill put Hamilton's out of circulation. out of circulation* his ethical ethical and philosophical philosophical Adams have vetoed vetoed the bill: his the bill: should have Adams should principles demanded such action. On the other hand, Madison and Madison and the other hand, principles demanded such action. Jefferson should have been giving Adams open and co-ordinated help co-ordinated help open Jefferson should have been giving against Hamilton: their ethical and philosophical principles deagainst Hamilton: their ethical and philosophical principles demanded such All three three men failed at aa crucial crucial moment in in failed at action. All manded such action. the development of aa corporate, corporate, social responsibility to to accompany social responsibility the accompany development of the political economy of mercantilism. But private and group group interest interest the political economy of mercantilism. But private triumphed over public duty, and civil civil war war seemed certain. seemed almost almost certain. over public duty, and triumphed Hamilton and of his talked of marching into into of marching associates talked his associates some of Hamilton and some Virginia and dividing it into smaller states. Virginians openly constates. Virginians into smaller conit and openly dividing Virginia sidered sidered secession. secession. Though not at their explicit purpose, Madison Madison and all their and it was at all was not explicit purpose, Though it Jefferson finally acted at that moment of passion in a way that did of in a that at that did acted Jefferson finally way passion strengthen Adams's hand. They wrote, and maneuvered into formal into maneuvered hand. formal Adams's strengthen They wrote, presentation by by two states, aa pair pair of of manifestoes manifestoes that that defined defined the the two states, presentation crisis blunt terms and probably checked the rush to the checked in exceedingly and rush crisis in blunt terms to probably exceedingly violence. In In view his early and persistent attachment to the of his attachment to violence. view of the persistent early by John John Taylor it is not surprising that utopia defined of Caroline, is not defined by Caroline, it Utopia Taylor of surprising that by Kentucky in I7gB) were the most Jefferson's resolutions (adopted in were resolutions the most Jefferson's 1798) (adopted by Kentucky right to judge for for extreme. Arguing that the the state "an equal to judge state had "an extreme. equal right Arguing that itself, as well of infractions [of the Constitution] as of the mode and well as the as the and itself, of infractions [of of Constitution] redress" Jefferson Jefferson raised of secessecesmeasures of redress/' measures of the clear raised the clear implication implication of sion by claiming the right of a state to declare "void and of no force" the a state to sion of declare "void and of no force" by claiming right the national national government. to maintain maintain such laws such laws by concerned to by the government. More concerned the revitalizing his idea of a feudal balance and aware that the union union by idea a of feudal balance and aware that by revitalizing his Jefferson's argument was not very well received in other states, was not very well received in other states, Jefferson's argument Madison's Madison's resolutions in Virginia milder. Emphasizing the resolutions in were milder. Virginia were Emphasizing the danger the feudal feudal balance balance "into an absolute best, aa of warping "into an absolute or, at best, or, at danger of warping the mixed to shock the nation nation into into blocking blocking mixed monarchy," he was was trying shock the monarchy," he trying to Hamilton's drive power. Hamilton's for consolidated drive for consolidated power. that time, By that Britain. an alliance alliance with with Britain. time, Hamilton was discussing By discussing an Adams was "This man is was outraged: is stark mad, or had stark mad, or II am." am." He had outraged: "This taken later termed taken enough he later termed the the "fools intri"fools who were were intrienough from what he to plunge alliance with us into into an alliance endless war war guing to with England, guing plunge us England, and endless with all the the rest with all of the the world world ... and, what was was worse all the the rest of worse than than all and, what civil war, rest, a civil war, which which II knew would be be the the consequence of the of the rest, consequence .
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measures the the heads heads of of that that party party wished wished to to pursue." pursue." Reporting that measures Reporting that to do us justice," he moved France had had indicated indicated "a "a disposition France disposition to do us justice,'* he moved rapidly to to sign a treaty treaty and thereby thereby water water the the sand under Hamilton's Hamilton's sand under rapidly sign a feet. feet. Magnificently courageous in conception and the in conception and execution, execution, the Magnificently courageous maneuver avoided avoided war. war. It his public public career. career. maneuver It also also cost cost Adams his Hamilton saw to to that. Defeated by Jefferson in of 1800, that. Defeated Hamilton the election in the election of 1800, by Jefferson retreated to to Massachusetts Massachusetts where where he he groomed his son for Adams retreated his for son groomed in 1797 that he, future leadership. himself had had written written in future that Jefferson himself he, leadership. Jefferson 1797 too, was "happier at home." It was probably true. By temperament at home." It was true. too, "happier probably By temperament of thought action, he he disliked politics despite despite his his more aa man of than of of action, disliked politics thought than early "spice of ambition" and the gift of guile that has helped many of ambition" a and the of has that early "spice helped many a guile gift political leader. was most at ease pursuing his intellectual leader. He was at his most ease when intellectual political pursuing the master of Monticello. he perperinterests pleasures as social pleasures interests and and social as the Yet he Monticello. Yet master of sonified the dream dream that that was was already beginning to haunt Americans: aa sonified the to haunt Americans already beginning society of free and independent made 'equal and prosperous by free of and and men independent society -equal prosperous by the bounty bounty of nature. Holding Holding that that vision himself, Jefferson the of nature. extended vision himself, Jefferson extended his ambition sense of and a sizable willingness to put his his a sense into a of duty to his ambition into a sizable willingness duty put ideas into ideas into operation. operation. Without the the work work of and others like them who others like Without of Madison, Madison, Beckley, Beckley, and built the political organization organization that that elected elected him, him, it built the political it seems seems doubtful doubtful of Virginia. that Jefferson would have gone beyond the leadership of that have the Jefferson Virginia. leadership gone beyond Assisted by the failure policies (and Yorker's Assisted the New Yorker's failure of of Hamilton's Hamilton's policies by the (and the vicious fight with Adams), Madison and a band of energetic vicious fight with Adams), Madison and a of energetic and talented local local leaders put together coalition of planters, a coalition of mechanics, talented leaders put mechanics, planters, together a merchants, yeomen, and manufacturers that ruled ruled the the country for manufacturers that merchants, country for yeomen, and 30 It was was aa classic of interests interests and ideas ideas under under the the classic merging 30 years. years. It merging of Weltanschauung of mercantilism. mercantilism. Organized Organized in the city as well well as as in the city as Weltanschauung of through the back country country and the the tidewater, tidewater, that that first Republican first Republican the back through as party attracted like Fitzsimons Fitzsimons of Pennsylvania as of Pennsylvania Hamiltonians like attracted Hamiltonians party it had won such early as election of of 1800. Within aa decade decade it such as the the election 1800. Within early John Quincy William Plumer, Plumer, and William northerners as as John northerners Adams, William Quincy Adams, L. (probably the wealthiest merchant in America). Jefferson's in wealthiest the merchant L. Gray America). Jefferson's Gray (probably to was name in 1798 and 1799 to change the party's to Whig attempt to the and in Whig party's change 1799 1798 attempt of and appropriate, for it represented the same convergence of landed the it for convergence represented appropriate, had urban groups of both upper and lower classes that Shaftesbury that lower classes both of urban Shaftesbury upper groups organized in the the 16]oS. 16705. organized in It doubtful that that Jefferson ever became a mercantilist mercantilist in in the the It seems seems doubtful Jefferson ever of an full philosophical philosophical sense. sense. He always honored the image of agrarian the full agrarian image always :
178 178
The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
utopia in which property in land would guarantee liberty, prosperity, Utopia in which property in land would guarantee liberty, prosperity, and happiness. Yet under the the tutoring tutoring of pressure and the the pressure of Madison Madison and Yet under and happiness. of the changes that were taking place in America, Jefferson accepted in of the changes that were taking place America, Jefferson accepted policies between between 1791 and and employed and policies and mercantilist programs 1791 and programs and employed mercantilist 1820. Perhaps he actually changed his views during those years. More those 1820. Perhaps he actually changed his views during years. he continued through that period to to view view mercantilism probably he mercantilism as as a a that period continued through probably way to achieve a good society modeled on the feudal vision 'of the way to achieve a good society modeled on the feudal vision of the physiocrats. Ultimately realizing that the attempt was subversive subversive physiocrats. Ultimately realizing that the attempt of he repudiated the political economy of avowed objective, of its its avowed objective, he repudiated the political economy of mercantilism and tried to to work out an an appropriate effective and effective work out and tried mercantilism appropriate and physiocratic program. program. physiocratic he entered the White however, Jefferson Jefferson was fully was fully When he White House, entered the House, however, prepared to follow Madison's lead in such matters. "If the commercial the "If lead in such matters. commercial to follow Madison's prepared regulations had had been been adopted adopted which our legislature legislature were at one one which our were at regulations time proposing," proposing," he he wrote wrote in after Madison's campaign of 1794 Madison's of in 1797 after time campaign 1794 1797 had been defeated by by Hamilton, Hamilton, "we have at this this moment have had been defeated "we should should at been standing of safety respect as can eminence of been on such such an an eminence as ages ages can safety and respect standing on never recover. having wandered wandered from that, our should our object never from that, should recover. But But having object little loss possible, and peace to get back, with with as now he be to as possible, as litde loss as and when peace get back, shall be restored, restored, endeavor endeavor so to form our commercial shall be so to form our commercial regulations regulations be their their mechanical result." that justice justice from that shall be from other other nations nations shall mechanical result." was thinking of an embargo and other that time time he at that he was an And even and even at of other thinking embargo measures to America's "native capitalists." to strengthen measures "native America's capitalists" strengthen While Jefferson had strong and intellectual ties with with While emotional and intellectual ties Jefferson had strong emotional France them a grand attachment to an extremely attractive France (among a them attachment to an attractive (among grand extremely woman), the vigor of his skepticism about Britain Britain was was not merely the the the vigor of his not merely woman), skepticism about side of that involvement. As early as 179I, for example, he reverse reverse side of that involvement. As early as 1791, for example, he had offered an astute analysis of the unbalanced relationship with astute analysis of the unbalanced relationship with had offered England the reasons reasons it be changed. changed. Unless Unless it it were were should be it should England and the changed, he concluded, concluded, Britain's preponderant economic power in in Britain's preponderant economic power changed, he commerce, would seriously restrict commerce, finance, finance, and manufacturing seriously restrict manufacturing would American American development perhaps even undercut political even undercut selfdevelopment and perhaps political selfgovernment. He wanted wanted aa national the "handmaiden national commerce of commerce as as the "handmaiden of government agriculture"; therefore, he added, it "will be cherished by me both both "will be cherished by therefore, he added, it agriculture"; from principle is within within my well as as principle and duty." day is as well time, as duty." "The day my time, yours," he he reassured reassured William William Short in 1801, "when we may say by Short in yours," 1801, "when may say by what laws laws other other nations nations shall treat us us on the sea. shall treat sea. And we will on the will say say it." even Washington it." Not even anticipated more. more. Washington anticipated Whatever the the temporary American restraints, Jefferson Jefferson expected temporary restraints, expected American
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expansion to the whole whole northern, northern, if the southern con~ to "cover "cover the if not not the southern conexpansion tinent." He could not "contemplate either blot blot or could not tinent." with satisfaction satisfaction either or "contemplate with of civilizing the mixture on that that surface." while he he spoke mixture surface." Thus, of the Thus, while civilizing spoke Indians, he he urged urged his his countrymen upon them" until they to "press Indians, countrymen to "press upon them" until they were out the way. way. With most time, he he concon~ out of were of the his time, most Americans of his Americans of sidere~ re-colonization re
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.
IV. IV.
The of Reality and Transformation of The Transformation Reality and the Inception Inception of of the
Ideas New Ideas
The our association, association, the shaken hy passions• .•• be shaken local passions. it will the less less it will he The larger by local larger our .
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Thomas Jefferson, Jefferson, 1804 r804
We are are going going to to fight fight for for the of our our national the reestahlishment reestablishment of national character character •.. for for the protection of of our maritime citizens citizens . .. to to vindicate vindicate our our maritime our right the protection right to aa free free trade, and open open markets markets for for the productions of our soil soil now now the productions to trade, and of our perishing on our hands; ••• in fine, to see some indemnity for past in some inon to see our hands; fine, indemnity for past inperishing juries, some security against future aggressions, by the conquest of all the some juries, conquest of all security against future aggressions, by the British dominions dominions upon upon the continent of of North North America. America. the continent the British . .
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*
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*
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Jackson, 1812 1812 Andrew Jackson,
Acquiescence in the practice practice and and pretensions pretensions of British Government the British in the Government of the Acquiescence ••. would recolonize our commerce suhfecting it to a foreign Authora commerce hy . . . would recolonize our it to by subjecting foreign Authority • ••. Experience Experience warns warns us fatal tendencies tendencies of unthe fatal a commerce us of commerce unof the of a ity. restricted Britain, and and restricted her pleasure and policy restricted with her with Great restricted by Great Britain, and by pleasure policy elsewhere. Whilst the limited limited Market Market would would continue continue overcharged elsewhere. Whilst the with overcharged with our exports, disproportionate imports from it, would drain from our the disproportionate drain would us it, from exports, the from us imports the precious metals, metals, endanger monied Institutions; Institutions; arrest arrest our our internal the precious our monied internal endanger our improvements, and and would the cradle, cradle, the which would strangle in the the manufactures manufactures which strangle in improvements, promise so so vigorous growth. James Madison, 1812 1812 James Madison, vigorous growth. promise .
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Shall this What! great mammoth of the American American forest forest leave native What! Shall this great leave his his native of the with the shark? contest with the shar%? mad contest
element the water element and and plunge plunge into into the a water in in a
.lohn 1806 of Roanoke, John Randolph Roanoke, 1806 Randolph of not believe in the the practicability 1/ do do not helieve in practicahility of of aa long long continued continued union. union . •• • 17 am therefore ready ready to to say, say, "Come out from among among them, them, and and he ye separate" separate." out from be ye therefore .
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Timothy Pickering, Pickering, 1804 Timothy 1804 180 tRO
The Age Age ot Mercantilism of Mercantilism
181 181 17 \now know and sec see every every day day the extent of geographical feeling and the the extent and the of geographical feeling necessity of ot prudence, prudence. it preserve and the Union. mean to to preserve and invigorate the Union. necessity if we mean invigorate
Albert Gallatin, Gallatin, 1816 rSr6 Albert
FRONTIER THESIS THE FOUNDING FATHERS AND THE FRONTIER THESIS
De Tocqueville's remark that Americans were S SET"haunted by visions of what will be," Jefferson's persistent conET ALONGSIDE
Tocqueville's remark that Americans were "haunted by visions of what will be/' Jefferson's persistent concern with with his physiocratic dream the perplexing question of cern his physiocratic dream raises raises the of perplexing question
classic didactic presentawhy no one provided aa classic one provided didactic statement fictional presentastatement or or fictional why American Utopia. Utopia. Americans were strong on propaganda American Americans were on strong propaganda and vague assertion, but but weak on firm conceptions. and That loyal on firm vague assertion, loyal conceptions. That nabob and royal royal Governor Governor of Massachusetts, Thomas Pownall, Pownall, had had nabob of Massachusetts, as much as He defined America merely as aa said about said about as as anyone. defined America as anyone. merely as they actually ''New System of Things and Men, which treats all "New of and all which treats as Men, System Things they actually and perfect perfect Good of Policy, are, esteeming nothing the the true true End and of Policy, are, esteeming nothing but that that effect which produces, as equality of Rights, so equal but effect which of so as produces, Rights, equal equality Liberty, universal Peace, and unobstructed intercommunication of universal and intercommunication of unobstructed Peace, Liberty, Human Society." happiness in in happiness Society." The same absence of of some people were were of particulars, of how people same absence idea of some idea particulars, of strikes the reader of the famous poem "The Rising Glory of to litlc. the reader to strikes of the famous poem live, Rising Glory of America" by Freneau and Brackenridge. They spoke of empire of America" by Freneau Brackenridge. They spoke empire "Stretch'd out from from thence thence far burning line," of "num'rous "num'rous "Stretch'd out far to to the the burning line," and of ships of trade," trade," but but not not of Hector St. John de de the society itself. Hector St. John of the ships of society itself. Crevecover little more more in Letters from frona An American American Farmer. Farmer. in Letters said little Crevecover said He saw as the the circumstance that "tended the "tended to to regenerate" circumstance that saw empire regenerate" the empire as colonist: laws, aa new mode of a new social of living, social system." colonist: "new kws, system." Of living, a about the new system, however, he he said nothing. He merely talked about said nothing. the merely talked system, however, by a surplus of property: "to become aa the existing order revived of "to become a the revived order property: by surplus existing free man, invested with with lands, to which which every every municipal municipal blessing blessing is is free lands, to man, invested annexed!" annexed!" that James case might might be for saying James Fenimore be made for A stronger saying that stronger case of novels. in his Cooper defined the American utopia in his series of novels. Yet in in series the American defined Utopia Cooper eastern aristocfact he outlined two American American utopias. One the eastern aristocwas the fact he outlined two Utopias. in 1800. The idealistic in was hardly hardly either or idealistic racy, and either unique that was and that unique or racy, that was not a other was frontier of of Natty Natty Bumppo. Bumppo. But that a society. society. other the frontier was the a It was aa man and and aa few a rudimentary ecology. few comrades comrades establishing It was establishing rudimentary ecology. tion tion of the of the
182 182
The of American American History History Contours of The Contours Cooper's women were were singularly in substance substance and almost almost lacking in singularly lacking Cooper's As for the men, D. H. Lawrence described literally absent in fact. described a a Lawrence D. literally absent in fact. As for the men, typical one rather aptly: "hard, isolate, stoic, and aa killer." killer." Bumppo Bumppo typical one rather aptly: "hard, isolate, stoic, killed only necessary, and with aa piety, piety, to to be but piety piety be sure, and with killed when necessary, sure, but only when is not not necessarily necessarily piety piety toward toward men; men; toward nature nature and animals is toward and animals transferred to humans, the produces an an appalling often produces attitude often the attitude transferred to humans, appalling arrogance. arrogance. Notes on Virginia remains for serious consideraOnly Jefferson's Notes on Virginia remains for serious consideraOnly Jefferson's of human beings. beings. But here here also also tion. Here, at any rate, was aa society tion. Here, at any rate, was society of was the traditional stress on property, land, and freedom within freedom within a a was the traditional stress on property, land, hierarchical order. labor in in the the earth are the chosen earth are the chosen hierarchical "Those who labor order. «Those he had people, whose breasts breasts he he has has people of a chosen chosen people, had a ever he if ever of God, God, if people made his peculiar deposit deposit for virtue." But virtue." for substantial substantial and genuine his peculiar But made genuine a stratified, community that definition of the the good as a that definition of stratified, corporate corporate community society as good society in land was far less significant a utopia based on property far less as a in land was based on private significant as Utopia private property than the vision which had been by one of the English one wing of the been advanced advanced by than the vision which had wing English Revolution, that that of of aa corporate corporate Christian based on Christian commonwealth based on Revolution, social property. Along with a few others, Sam Adams sustained parts social property. Along with a few others, sustained parts of but even even he he cramped it into a conservative, propertyinto a of this this ideal, conservative, propertyideal, but cramped it as for Adams, expansion was the only bound form. for Jefferson for Adams, form. And for the only bound Jefferson as expansion was exway that the benefits of the system could be extended. Indeed, that the be benefits of could extended. the exIndeed, system way pansion was the only thing that made sense of Jefferson's famous that sense of was the famous Jefferson's pansion only thing motto about its own decisions. each generation motto about letting decisions. Either Either generation make its letting each the documented his total naivete, which is of course absurd, the phrase his total documented which is of course naivete, absurd, phrase or that there had to resources for everyone to to or it there had it meant that to be be room and and resources for everyone start over. start over. Like Like Cooper, to accept accept the as the the the frontier frontier as therefore, Jefferson Jefferson had to Cooper, therefore, else already already only possible American Utopia. utopia. All All else an American definition of of an only possible definition existed. this meaning was aa process process of of becoming, becoming, existed. But But the the frontier frontier in in this meaning was not of being, not of and hence substituted motion for structure as its end. hence substituted motion for structure as its end. being, Motion as for structure is possible possible only so long as there as a a substitute substitute for structure is so as there long only is unlimited room to is unlimited to move in. discipline in. When confined confined without without the the discipline by an ideal, such social motion produces aimlessness provided an such social motion or chaos chaos ideal, provided by produces aimlessness or or the final -or perhaps perhaps the final ordering ordering of of some Utopia, utopia. And when it it actually actually so confined, to be be so confined, Jefferson's had nothing guide it it but but came to south had to guide Jefferson's south nothing to the himself and the image of aa feudal feudal Utopia utopia created for it created for it by Jefferson himself and image of Jefferson by trapped the the south, by definition utopia of John Taylor. for by of the Utopia definition the John south, for Taylor. That trapped The first act of that Taylor and Jefferson or stagnate. to expand or act of that first Taylor Jefferson had to expand stagnate.
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183 1 83
southern expansion was of necessity aa move move to the freedom southern of necessity to acquire expansion was acquire the freedom of action itself. Secession was that to extend of action to extend itself. Secession was that first first act act of of expansion. expansion. But the industrial and agrarian of the north and west also But the industrial and the north and west also agrarian utopias Utopias of on expansion for success. Free farmers were Jefferson's ideologifor success. Free were farmers expansion Jefferson's ideologibecal camp merchants and industrialists could cal and industrialists could choose choose befollowers; merchants camp followers; tween the the expansion explicit in mercantilism or inherent in laissez tween in mercantilism or inherent in laissez expansion explicit faire. Men who had had neither neither the nor the the wealth wealth to faire. the education education nor to live live as as aristocrats naturally placed a similar emphasis on the frontier. For aristocrats a similar emphasis on the frontier. For naturally placed that matter, matter, the frontier in ways took took the place of of formal that the frontier in some some ways the place formal by surviving and sucsuceducation; a kind kind of nonintellectual learning learning by of nonintellectual education; a surviving and ceeding part of American attitude date. That of the the American an early attitude at dateThat at an ceeding became part early Jefferson, valued the highly and to the intellect intellect so so highly did so and did so much to Jefferson, who valued establish the the University University of should also ,have contributed to establish have also of Virginia, should contributed to Virginia, is an an often that side ledger is side of the educational that of the of educational ledger facet of often neglected neglected facet his physiocracy. physiocracy. his As should conception of should be it be apparent, this conception defined it of the the frontier frontier defined apparent, this enter and and occupy. not as but as as a a boundary not an area as an area to to enter boundary but Reinforcing occupy. Reinforcing frontier as as aa the old toward England, England, such the old antagonism of the the frontier such aspects antagonism toward aspects of utopia would seem to do a great deal to explain America's steadily would a deal seem to do America's to steadily Utopia explain great ocgrowing that it with any nation occonviction that it could live with other nation could not not live growing conviction any other cupying any significant part of the North American continent. the continent. American of North cupying any significant part be through Lewis could be Viewed through this attitude attitude could Lewis Carroll's Carroll's looking-glass, looking-glass, this defined But like the very expansionism implicit in as isolationism. defined as But the like isolationism. very expansionism implicit in mercantilism's static view of the world, this definition of utopia as mercantilism's static view of the world, this definition of Utopia as a frontier produced aa policy policy that anything but It a isolationist. It frontier produced but isolationist. that was anything was militantly, militantly, even even aggressively, aggressively, expansionist. was expansionist. Jefferson quickly to a western western advance. conadvance. His conto initiate initiate a Jefferson moved quickly fidential message message to to the the Congress of January 18, 1803, requested of fidential 18, 1803, requested January Congress money for an extension territory which which "to provide of territory extension of for an an expedition money provide an expedition "to the rapid increase of our numbers will call for." Avoiding all the call for." numbers will increase of our Avoiding all rapid not euphemisms, this meant that he was preparing expansion not only that this he meant only euphemisms, preparing expansion but west across the bef()Ye he France south, but that France he knew that west across the Mississippi south, Mississippi before was willing to sell the Louisiana Louisiana Territory. Territory. His bold His argument was sell the argument was bold willing to neceseven though though his procedure was was aa classic of guile: classic of even his procedure guile: expansion expansion was necessary prosperity. The Indians, for example, for democracy Indians, for example, would sary for democracy and prosperity. thus be removed, and control of the Mississippi would end the the be removed, control of the Mississippi thus interests of question of egress to world markets. "The interests of commerce," markets. of to world commerce,** egress question Jefferson concluded reference to the Pacific Pacific trade, trade, "place the to the in reference concluded in "place the Jefferson relied relied
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principle object within the constitutional powers and care care of of ConConprinciple object within the constitutional powers gress, and that it should incidentally advance the geographic knowlthe advance knowlit should geographic incidentally gress, and that gratification." edge of continent can not but but be additional gratification." be an an additional can not our own continent of our edge Expansion, not science, was the engine of the Lewis and Clark Clark of and the was the engine Expansion, not science, Expedition. Expedition. Had Jefferson and other Americans been been forced to choose choose beforced to beother Americans Jefferson and tween aa war with France France and no further further expansion at that that time, time, and no war with tween expansion at they might have worked out some clear conception of the kind of they might have worked out some clear conception of the kind of society they wanted to build. But the fortuitous ease with which society they wanted to build. But the fortuitous ease with which they acquired 828,000 square miles of of the the Louisiana Louisiana Territory Territory the 828,000 square miles they acquired the to convince convince them them that that expansion was aa safe cheap cureserved to safe and cheap cureserved expansion was 24 to 7 was was an all for needs and and difficulties. vote of of 24 Senate vote to 7 difficulties. The Senate an all for their their needs its ideological index national sentiment in its on expansion as sentiment on index of the national of the ideological as expansion in well as its obvious obvious economic economic aspects. well as its aspects. his Although may appear bit surprising in view of of his a bit surprising in appear a they may Although they vigorously expansionist messages of 1801 and 1802, Jefferson's qualms and of 1802, Jefferson's qualms vigorously expansionist messages about the purchase may may have have been been completdy the purchase of the the constitutionality about constitutionality of completely too astute miss the the implications implications of of the the move sincere. He was to miss was far far too astute to sincere. for the balance of that Madison kept worrying of republics that Madison about. feudal balance for the feudal republics kept worrying about. had done and obviously paraphrasing But as and done in in 1787, But as Madison Madison had 1787, obviously paraphrasing resolved the in Madison's argument as his his own, the dilemma in Madison's own, Jefferson Jefferson resolved argument as His second inaugural address, 4, 1804, was favor of March favor His second was of expansion. inaugural address, 4, 1804, expansion. aa hymn hymn to to Madison's theory. The taxes taxes to pay for the expansion, for the to pay Madison's theory. Jefexpansion, Jefferson explained, made·'expansion expansion possible; possible; the the expansion ferson explained, made expansion would lower taxes. can limit limit the to which which the prinlower the extent extent to the federative federative printaxes. "Who can "The larger our ciple may operate effectively?" he concluded. he concluded. associple may operate effectively?" larger our association, the less it will be shaken by local passions." ciation, the less it will be shaken by local passions." Westemers enthusiastically embraced this this expansionist theory of Westerners of enthusiastically embraced expansionist theory democracy prosperity. A Kentuckian boasted, for that Kentuckian boasted, for example, democracy and prosperity. example, that his countrymen were "full enterprise and and although not poor, poor, are are his "full of of enterprise countrymen were although not ever the the old were, Mexico glitters in in greedy plunder as after plunder as ever old Romans were, Mexico glitters greedy after is all was not the word word our our Eyes-the all we wait wait for." It was for." It not so so much the Eyes the word is that it was the enough of their fellow fellow that they as it the dection election of of enough of their they awaited as to control control Congress. expansionists in 18IO and ISU; came in 1810 and expansionists to 1811; Congress. That came meanwhile the the region region developed devdoped rapidly as a producer of agricultural as a of producer rapidly agricultural for commercial surpluses commercial markets. markets. Continued of the the Continued settlement settlement of surpluses for and as wdl as of Kentucky and Appalachian Upper Ohio regions, as well as of and Appalachian Upper regions, Kentucky and 1810. Tennessee, tripled the the population population of of the west between between 1800 and the west Tennessee, tripled the Moving along the Mohawk River route, the trail to Pittsburgh, River the trail to route, Moving along Pittsburgh, and
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the Wilderness Wilderness Road in in the Valley, aa good good many the the the Shenandoah Shenandoah Valley, of the many of increasing number of immigrants simply by-passed the east. These of increasing immigrants simply by-passed the east. These as aa safety valve for the eastern people made the the west west function function as people safety valve for the eastern seaboard in the truest sense. The cities and regions in the seaboard truest sense. other settled cities and other settled regions never to contend with them as economic, political, or had to never contend with them as economic, political, or social social problems. problems. Westerners were soon soon enjoying revivals under Westerners were their own religious enjoying their religious revivals under the leadership of men like whose Cane Cane Ridge the like James James McGready, leadership of McGready, whose Ridge rivaled anything George Whitefield Whitefield had had produced produced Meeting of of 1801 1801 rivaled Meeting anything George in colonial in colonial New England. Methodist and and Baptist churches grew England. Methodist grew Baptist churches rapidly, and in Kentucky finally merged with Barton W. Stone's in with Barton Stone's rapidly, Kentucky finally merged followers to form form the the Christian Although some western followers to Christian Church. Church. Although some western ministers were were vigorously vigorously anti-education, anti-education, the the revivals revivals not not only ministers led only led to the the rise of aa large number of religious schools (thus delaying rise of to of schools large religious (thus delaying secular but also also provided provided an secular state-supported for an impetus state-supported education), impetus for education), but the organization in 1810 of the American Board of Commissioners the in of 1810 the of Commissioners American Board organization for While the the Board's the MediterMediterMissions. While for Foreign Board's activities activities in in the Foreign Missions. ranean and the Far East East ultimately contributed to the character (and the Far ranean contributed to character the ultimately (and .the of American foreign policy, the immediate result of of the problems) of American result the immediate problems) foreign policy, such religious religious enthusiasm enthusiasm was was to the west's self-conscioussuch to strengthen the west's self-consciousstrengthen ness. As aa partner partner on on the the frontier, provided reassurance in the the ness. reassurance in frontier, God provided wilderness and strong sanction action against against opponents wilderness who and strong sanction for for action opponents blocked the way to to more land trade. the way blocked land and and trade. THE ACHIEVEMENTS AND Dll.EMMAS DILEMMAS OF JEFFERSONIAN MERCANTILISM JEFFERSONIAN
This rapid economic economic development in the the west west produced produced an export This rapid export development in from Tennessee Mississippi as lSoI. Kentucky, Kentucky, as 1801. as early Tennessee and Mississippi early as Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio were were shipping the Indiana, Michigan, surpluses down the shipping surpluses Mississippi by by 1806. Pittsburgh, which which was was rapidly rapidly becoming becoming 1806. And Pittsburgh, Mississippi in western workshop," workshop," had had its its first first iron-rolling mill in as "the "the western known as iron-rolling mill operation by 1811. rBn. It It was was not Pittsburgh, however, however, that undercut that undercut not Pittsburgh, operation by Washington's plan plan for for aa Virginia and industrial industrial complex complex that that iron and Washington's Virginia iron would subvert subvert slavery. slavery. That was torn torn up by the businessmen who built built aa textile textile the businessmen That blueprint up by blueprint was inventors industry in England and by the American inventors who produced the American in and produced by England industry the crop. of the the cotton that handled handled the processing of Althe rough the cotton gin crop. Alrough processing gin that with in line to though antislavery sentiment continued to grow in line with continued sentiment grow though antislavery Jefferson's cry cry of of anguish anguish-"We to be pitied"-southern are truly "We are pitied** southern Jefferson's truly to trade trade
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180r
planters, after the slave uprising as the the Gabriel of i8or Gabriel Plot Plot of planters, after the slave uprising known as in Virginia, tightened up their controls and turned their gangs their turned of controls in Virginia, tightened up their gangs of
black labor into the the fields with renewed renewed confidence. they 1820 they confidence. By fields with labor into bkck By 1820 had captured the British market. But they also sold increasing also sold But had captured the British market. they increasing amounts to to northern northern industrialists. By the the time Jefferson rerethat Jefferson time that industrialists. By amounts tired in 1809, there were over 80 cotton mills in the country. And one one tired in 1809, there were over 80 cotton mills in the country. of them, the Boston (Waltham) of them, the Boston Manufacturing Company, Company, had (Waltham) Manufacturing organized all one integrated into one all its its operations system. integrated system. operations into organized Other were producing producing nails nails and cards cards by by semisemiOther manufacturers manufacturers were automatic machines, an estabestabSeth Thomas clocks clocks had become an automatic and Seth machines, and lished half of of the the immigrants almost half lished commodity. Indeed, almost immigrants who came commodity. Indeed, between 1783 and 1812 established themselves in jobs. themselves in nonagrarian established between and 1812 nonagrarian jobs. 1783 Usually as the inventor of the cotton gin (which he probably he of the cotton known inventor as the gin (which probably Usually was not), Whitney actually actually made aa far far more important important contribucontribuwas Eli Whitney not), Eli tion to America's industrial industrial development. Along with with Simeon Norths North, tion to America's development. Along he worked out out the idea-and the production production line-for line for interchangehe and the the idea interchangeable parts parts in in manufactured manufactured goods. goods. Starting with guns, the application able Starting with guns, the application of the principle became in respects the the key key to of the in many to modern principle became many respects industrial Other Americans were beginning to make maindustrial society. society. Other Americans were beginning to chines, a particularly important element element in in economic economic independence. independence. a chines, particularly important I800 and 18I6, banking operations expanded from 29 29 Between 1800 1816, banking operations expanded from institutions to Society was becoming stable enough for life into 246. institutions stable for life in246. Society enough becoming surance companies to to begin begin entering the field their surance companies field alongside entering the alongside their the corporation corporation form of of organization maritime predecessors. predecessors. And the maritime organization received aa big big boost boost from the law of I8lI, which perperreceived the New York law of 1811, mitted mitted general general incorporation incorporation without without special special applications applications and restrictions. Most of of the the early corporations were in transportation, restrictions. in transportation, early corporations an an indication that the the merchant merchant capitalist and the trader indication that the commercial commercial trader capitalist and played key roles in in the the early American ships handled over over played key roles early economy. economy. American ships handled cent of 90 of the the nation's nation's trade trade by by 1805, and exports exports had had zoomed per cent 90 per 1805, and to $108,000,000 $I08,~ooo by by 1808. John Jacob Jacob Astor's Ameri1808. Three years Astor's Amerilater, John years later, can Fur Company Company had established base on the the Pacific Pacific at the established a a base at the mouth of the the Columbia River, by Jefferson providclose co-operation River, close Jefferson co-operation by providing a striking the evolving mercantilism of of die the ReReindication of of the ing striking indication evolving mercantilism publican party party leadership. leadership. publican In the meantime, meantime, however, however, the central issues politics and and governthe central issues of of politics government were defined defined by by the the problems problems of building such American of building such an American mercantilist mercantilist system. of wealth wealth and welfare, welfare, the the a prime source of system. As a prime source great western reserve of land presented several of those probreserve of land those several of great presented prob-
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lems. policy, for to provoke provoke arguIndian policy, lems. Indian for example, continued to example, continued argube more more equitable those ments between those who wanted wanted to ments between those to be and those equitable and expansion. Despite the excited, even wild, enthusiasm who stressed stressed expansion. even wild, enthusiasm Despite the excited, for land, number of Americans were about the the a surprising for of Americans were uneasy land, a surprising number uneasy about policy of unrestrained conquest and tried to halt the aggressive of unrestrained conquest and tried to halt the aggressive policy destruction of of Indian Indian society. often borrowed rhetoric destruction their rhetoric borrowed their Jefferson often society. Jefferson but his his practice was rather rather different. economic policy policy toward toward but different. His His economic practice was was "glad the Indians provided aa good his attitude. the Indians provided of his attitude. He was "glad good summary summary of the good good and and influential influential individuals among them them in debt; bebeto see see the to individuals among in debt; cause we observe observe that that when these beyond what the incause inthese debts the debts get what get beyond dividuals can can pay, pay, they they become become willing to lop them off by a cession dividuals a to them off cession lop by willing of of lands." lands." Land policy was in in essence problem of resolving three competing essence a a problem three competing of resolving policy was claims in workable program. program. As aa source wealth, the the land land could claims in a a workable could source of of wealth, be used private or riches. And, given for the be used for the accumulation of private or social social riches. accumulation of And, given Was crucially important a system politics based based on a of politics on property, land was system of crucially important property, land in maintaining the political balance of a large nation. Designed to in the a balance of nation. maintaining Designed to political large provide national national revenue, revenue, the the establish on the the soil establish settlers settlers on soil and and also also provide that the the evolving the law law of of 1820. in the culminated in 1820. Concluding evolving pattern pattern culminated Concluding that earlier credit stimulated speculation, the Congress re-estabearlier credit system stimulated re-estabthe system speculation, Congress per acre acre and lished cash payments while while lowering the price price to to $1.25 lished cash payments $1.25 per lowering the sales of 80 acres and more. Speculators still accumulated permitted of accumulated 80 acres and more. Speculators still permitted sales fortunes, but the the law law worked well to dramatize the central central dramatize the well enough fortunes, but enough to problem of of creating national economic economic system. Westerners dedea national system. Westerners problem creating a government aid aid in in transportation manded government commerce. transportation and commerce. Both in in theory practice, the the principle principle of of government assistance Both theory and practice, government assistance widely accepted. accepted. South example, passed passed had become widely South Carolina, for example, Carolina, for for "the a typical typical law in 1808 a "the establishment establishment and encouragement" law in 1808 for encouragement" of finance various various enterprises, enterprises, of manufactures. manufactures. Pennsylvania Pennsylvania helped helped finance granted to others, proclaimed "the "the duty and proclaimed cash subsidies subsidies to others, and duty and granted cash the interest all governments to prevent fraud, and promote the of all to interest of fraud, prevent promote governments interests just and useful commerce." typical writer in Maswriter in of just and useful commerce." A typical interests of "are the sachusetts thought it "manifestly erroneous" that that people people "are the sachusetts thought it "manifestly erroneous" judges of their interests, and consequently should be allowed to to be allowed should of their and interests, judges consequently to "subversive regulate them unobstructed." Such laissez faire was "subversive to faire laissez them unobstructed." regulate in the end aim of all governments." governments." As the the governor governor pointed pointed out out in the end and and aim of all of execut1R09, the state had accepted the responsibility of "making and executthe the state "making responsibility 1809, accepted ing just and practicable practicable laws inspection on on manufactured manufactured articles." articles." laws of of inspection ing just comment in his John summarized the situation accurately in his the situation Adams John accurately
The American History History 188 Contours of The Contours 188 of American that "democrats and aristocrats aristocrats all unite" on basic axioms axioms of the basic on the of all unite" that "democrats and mercantilism. mercantilism. National centered on issues: internal internal improvements, four issues: on four debate centered National debate improvements, banking and monetary policy, commercial discriminations, aid banking and monetary policy, commercial discriminations, and aid to manufacturers. Mechanics and merchants alike petitioned for alike merchants to manufacturers* Mechanics and petitioned for continued trade discriminations, predicting "a total stagnation in our "a total stagnation in our continued trade discriminations, predicting or abandoned. abandoned. shipbuilding" and commerce if these were lowered or shipbuilding" and commerce if these were lowered Any relaxation relaxation would would be be "a blow," explained still others, fatal blow," and "a fatal others, and explained still Any to the agricultural and the mechanical would be be "extremely the mechanical would "extremely injurious injurious to the agricultural classes of citizens." Jefferson responded by maintaining the the of our our citizens." classes Jefferson responded by maintaining by undertakundertakdiscriminations that he he had in 1793 recommended in had recommended discriminations that 1793 and by ing the the naval the Mediterranean Mediterranean pirates pirates that that he he had had sugsugwar against naval war against the ing gested even earlier. These policies did not completely solve the crisis not solve the did crisis These even earlier. completely gested policies confronting a weak weak and and backward backward country country caught caught in the middle of in the middle of confronting a time, as the profits profits of neutral trade trade brought brought aa aa world world war; war; yet yet for a time, for a as the of neutral flamboyant prosperity, prosperity, two two purely purely domestic domestic issues priority. issues gained gained priority. flamboyant Both of these, internal internal improvements and national finance, became and national Both of these, finance, became improvements the principal principal concern vigorous defender civil of civil defender of Gallatin. A vigorous the concern of of Albert Albert Gallatin. an educational system, and religious liberties liberties and advocate of educational a strong of and religious and a advocate system, strong Gallatin had favored internal improvements banking ever and central central banking ever favored internal Gallatin had improvements and 1790s. since his in the the Pennsylvania legislature during the the since his service service in Pennsylvania legislature during 17905. Other Jeffersonians such as Worthington of Ohio Senator Thomas Worthington of Ohio Other as Senator Jeffersonians such and of Patents William Thornton advocated similar advocated and Superintendent of Patents Thornton similar William Superintendent plans and provided important but Gallatin Gallatin was the and provided the central central important support, plans support, but in both areas. His plan was simple: use the receipts from land figure in both the areas. was from land His plan figure receipts simple: use sales to promote economic development, and then sustain, control, to sales then sustain, control, promote economic development, and balance it through assistance to to manufactures by aa national national balance it manufactures and by through assistance financial system. financial system. Gallatin's masterpiece masterpiece was his his majestic majestic report report of April 8, Gallatin's of April on 8, 1808, 1808, on aa national national transportation network designed designed to to communications network transportation and communications His proposed proposed tentenstrengthen the the sense and reality of "community." sense and strengthen reality of "community." His acyear plan plan made Hamilton appear fumbling amateur. a fumbling amateur. Having year appear a Having accepted stress on expansion, Gallatin sought the Madison's stress to make the cepted Madison's expansion, Gallatin sought to theory work. work. Concerned intimate Concerned with a "still "still more intimate with "justice" and a theory "justice" and of interests," to minimize minimize the dangers of of community tried to the dangers interests," he tried community of easy communications" throughseparatism ''by speedy and and communications" separatism "by opening opening speedy easy throughthe nation. nation. He proposed proposed four avenues: coastwise out the four main avenues: coastwise from Maine to to Georgia; the mountains through New York, York, PennsylPennsylacross the mountains through Georgia; across vania, and Virginia Virginia into and Tennessee; across the four into Kentucky the across four and vania, Tennessee; Kentucky
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major isthmian blocks (Cape Jersey, and the isthmian blocks and the Cod, Delaware, major Delaware, New Jersey, (Cape Cod, Dismal in Virginia and North Carolina) ; and into the Great Dismal Swamp in Swamp Virginia and North Carolina) and into the Great Lakes Lakes region. region. he reported on manufactures. manufactures. Stressing Two years later, in in I8IO, 1810, he years later, reported on Stressing their vital importance to he vital importance their to balanced balanced growth and independence, growth and independence, he recommended aa program program of recommended of cash cash subsidies and other other government subsidies and government to accelerate their development. But, as as he he realized, realized, the aid to accelerate their aid the longdevelopment. But, longbe provided by an expanding home home market market range solution would be solution would an expanding range provided by stable enough to encourage stable establishand by the establishinvestment, anti enough to encourage large large investment, by the economic independence independence vis-a-vis England's superior superior ininment of ment vis-a-vis England's of economic did Madison and others, Gallatin understood dustrial dustrial system. As did Madison and understood Gallatin system. others, perfectly the the unfavorable unfavorable consequences of free a relatively relatively free trade trade to to a perfectly consequences of backward, underdeveloped underdeveloped economy. This very issue of England's This issue of backward, England's economy. very As power over American economy subverted his his program. program. As the American over the power economy finally finally subverted he put put it, it, his ten-year plan plan became became "inexpedient" during a war with his ten-year he a war with "inexpedient" during the most advanced power in the world. world. advanced industrial the industrial power in the In the meantime, Gallatin encountered difficulties at home. While While In the Gallatin difficulties encountered at home. meantime, sales in Ohio and with that he secured initial grant from land he secured an an initial with land in and that from sales Ohio grant to the Ohio money began construction of the National Road west to the Ohio the construction west of National Road money began promptly ran ran into into the the kind kind of particularistic opopRiver in in 1806, River he promptly of particularistic 1806, he portunism that produced a hodgepodge of pork-barrel legislation portunism that produced a hodgepodge of pork-barrel legislation instead program. Here, Here, of course, was the side other side a coherent the other of a coherent program. instead of of course, it of Madison's expansionist solution to the danger of faction. For it of Madison's expansionist solution to the danger of faction. also weakened weakened the the sense sense of and made it to difficult to it difficult also of community community and establish on private private and group property property interests that underunderinterests that a check establish a check on and group by such such men as as John John Quincy cut the But supported cut the general welfare. But Quincy supported by general welfare. Adams, who also also favored favored integrated development in preference to to in preference Adams, integrated development a patchwork patchwork of of local projects, Gallatin preserved the the initiated and preserved a Gallatin initiated local projects, idea of idea of a a truly national system. truly national system. Jefferson the principle principle of internal improvements, of such such internal Jefferson accepted improvements, accepted the as well as canals, but he raised the issue issue of of emphasizing education the he raised but as well as education canals, emphasizing would a that So did Madison, who feared that such a plan constitutionality. feared such did So Madison, plan constitutionality. their case his "feudal republics." Both put their case unbalance his Both men put of republics." unbalance "feudal system system of the directly: if the Congress undertook a ten-year plan of the magnitude of a undertook if the magnitude ten-year plan directly Congress and with the consequences in Gallatin's Gallatin's program program without without inherent in and with the consequences inherent explicit public approval in the form of a constitutional amendment, a constitutional form of in the amendment, explicit public approval started then aa process of interpreting interpreting the the constitution constitution would have have started then process of of other some other form of tyranny. that could in monarchy or or in that could end end only tyranny. monarchy only the national Both men had had similar reservations about about continuing national similar reservations Both continuing the ;
:
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bank. But But understanding that it Gallatin's argument it and accepting bank. argument that accepting Gallatin's understanding and would balance and stabilize the monetary system, and agreeing that that would balance and stabilize the monetary system, agreeing . . no no destroying it would cause "mu~h individual and probably probably .... destroying it would cause "much individual inconsiderable public injury," Madison concluded that the bank the concluded that bank inconsiderable public injury," Madison be maintained. maintained. Jefferson, other hand, overcame should be never overcame the other on the should hand, never Jefferson, on two fundamental reservations, and his skepticism helped block aa two fundamental reservations, and his skepticism helped block Madison, but but with with more more insistence, worried recharter in he worried in I8n. 1811. Like Like Madison, recharter insistence, he become an an institution institution that that cut all regional regional lest the cut across across all in time the bank bank in time become lest he reasoned, the and political political lines. Doing so, it would subvert subvert the and lines. Doing reasoned, it so, he as an authority of the states and hence replace or override override or them as an hence and the of states replace authority outside institution in political economy. would do so, It would in the the political institution so, moreover, moreover, outside economy. It the constitutional framework. This would not not only recast the the entire This would entire the constitutional framework. only recast balance of power that that the the constitution but the the bank bank would would balance of power constitution established, established, but which was was not effect the in any not in as an an institution effect the change institution which way directly any way directly change as to the people. feared the end result would be aa kind kind responsible result end be the would to He feared the responsible people. of imposed on both the individual and the government. the the both individual of "vassalage" on government. "vassalage" imposed Jefferson'S was extremely perceptive, and basically basically his his Jefferson's analysis extremely perceptive, analysis was was valid. Any economic organized on a national national criticism was economic institution institution organized on a valid. Any criticism basis but controlled by a group of private private citizens would basis but essentially citizens would by a essentially controlled group of that affected aspects of without of society make economic affected all without economic decisions decisions that all aspects society its being defined Constitution or by public public its powers or checked in the the Constitution defined in checked by powers being but an participation and direct responsibility. This was anything and direct This but was an participation responsibility. anything irrational or or irrelevant argument by an agrarian who did not underirrational an did underirrelevant argument not by agrarian was an analysis of the relationship bestand economics. stand It was an astute astute analysis of the economics. It relationship between economic power and political consequences, and its social tween economic power and its social and and political and consequences, Reour industrial corporations, corporations, together our modern industrial Federal Rewith the the Federal together with serve Board itself, have verified it. serve have Board itself, verified it. In his In his own physiocratic physiocratic way, Jefferson had had raised raised once again the the once again way, Jefferson use private private property property crucial issue mercantilists: How does crucial issue for for mercantilists: does one one use to accomplish ends without without giving way to to the view? to social ends the narrower narrower view? accomplish social giving way But to to raise raise the was not not enough, enough, and Jefferson's Jefferson's position position the question question was had a fundamental his own intelligent weakness. He answered fundamental weakness. answered his intelligent of danger analysis with an anti-intellectual there anti-intellectual conclusion conclusion that that there analysis of danger with to have way to have the the benefits of the bank while while controlling was no way benefits of the bank its controlling its potential harm. harm. Without any Jefferson's position position strengthened doubt, Jefferson's potential any doubt, strengthened the of businessmen coalition of such as as Henry Kentucky and and the coalition businessmen such of Kentucky Henry Clay Clay of Isaac of Maryland as John Taylor Isaac McKim of and agrarians such of as such John Maryland agrarians Taylor of his western Virginia and his western followers the bank for the the followers who fought the for bank Virginia fought of their greater glory principles. Symbolizing their interests interests and principles. such greater glory of Symbolizing such
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opposition, of New York York in in lSI! cast the the Vice-President Clinton Clinton of 1811 cast opposition, Vice-President deciding vote against rechartering the bank. vote deciding against rechartering the bank. Despite their his physiocrat physiocrat compatriots were their victory, and his Despite Taylor and victory, Taylor compatriots were by that that time contradiction between between their their theory theory time caught in a a difficult difficult contradiction by caught in and the reality of their world. world. Given the general general attack attack the mercantilist and mercantilist reality o their Given the by Britain Britain and France France on American Randolph American shipping, and Randolph by shipping, Taylor Taylor and had two two choices: could go to war, war, or or they they could choices they had could simply they could go to simply acquiesce acquiesce and its power in British domination domination of in British of the the seas seas and its comparable industrial comparable industrial power vis-a.-vis the the American American economy. As the philosophers of a faction, vi$4-vis As the a of faction, economy. philosophers by quite route, to to an an agreement agreement their logic took them, their a different different route, them, by logic took quite a no war with England. Put with the the pro-British pro-British merchant merchant group: with war no with group: England. Put simply, the opposition to the of 1812 was a coalition of the the to the War the a of of 1812 was coalition simply, opposition groups that had never wholly accepted an American mercantilism. that had never an American mercantilism. groups wholly accepted Neither Jefferson nor Madison a war war with Britain. Neither Madison wanted with Great Great Britain. wanted a Jefferson nor They were not fanatic Anglophiles. But both men did fear the longnot fanatic But did fear both the They Anglophiles. longrun consequences of the economic imbalance between the two systems run of the economic the imbalance between two consequences systems the relationship by and sought by economic economic power power to break out out of to break of the sought by relationship by persuading England to acknowledge America's right to trade trade to to America's persuading England acknowledge right throughout the the British British Empire Empire and and with with other nations. When they they other nations. throughout first came to to power, power, Madison Madison and Jefferson Jefferson kept kept Rufus Rufus King first in King in London, hoping that his long associations and sympathies London, hoping that his long associations and sympathies would facilitate some kind facilitate kind of its of equitable settlement. England continued its England continued equitable settlement. next they Monroe on on aa special just economic warfare. economic warfare. So So next sent Monroe mission, just they sent special mission, as had sent backed him up economic with economic as Washington but backed sent Jay, Jay, but up with Washington had measures to to indicate the seriousness of their their policy. indicate the seriousness of measures policy. to consider consider the that Jefferson and Madison draft treaty refused to Madison refused the draft Jefferson treaty that anything more than than aa basis basis for disnegotiated as for further further disMonroe negotiated as anything cussions. considerable justification, justification, Monroe Monroe insisted he had had that he insisted that cussions. With considerable be obtained without recourse recourse to to war. war. secured everything that could could be obtained without secured everything that But Madison Madison favored using the measures that, that, at at the the request request the economic economic measures favored using But during the the negotiations. negotiations. Madison of the British, had had been been postponed" the British, of postponed during admitted that they would cut into the wartime prosperity but wartime would cut into the admitted that prosperity but they No be "efficiently fostered .... emphasized that manufactures would fostered. would that be manufactures "efficiently emphasized more desirable." feelings hurt hurt and his event his confidence confidence be more can be event can desirable." His His feelings undercut, Monroe came came home. home. Taylor Taylor and Randolph Randolph welcomed him undercut, of the mercantilism mercantilism of as aa potential in their their campaign as against the campaign against ally in potential ally the Madison and Jefferson. Arguing that nothing more than the parasitic that Madison parasitic Jefferson. Arguing nothing full fury was at turned his his full fury on the the carrying trade trade was at issue, issue, Randolph Randolph turned carrying mammoth administration. ''What!'' he demanded. "Shall this great "Shall this administration. "What!" he great :
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of element and plunge into the native element his native the leave his forest leave the American American forest of the plunge into water in a mad contest with the shark? . . . I, for one, will not for shark? ... will the not contest with water in a I, one, will come out mortgage out withwithand my liberty....• You will my liberty my property property and mortgage my out constitution." out your your constitution." .
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A CLASSIC CLASSIC WAR FOR TRADE AND TERRITORY
Randolph's broken by the British, was broken lance for for physiocracy British, who by the Randolph's lance physiocracy was attacked the a.s.s. Chesapeake. War seemed on seemed ununon June 22, 1807, June 22, 1807, attacked the USS. Chesapeake. avoidable. satisfaction we demand," us the the satisfaction do not not give "If the the English avoidable. "If demand/' give us English do Jefferson wants to to enter take Canada, enter the the will take Canada, which wants Jefferson snapped, snapped, "we will Union; with Canada, we shall have the Floridas, have shall the with and when, Canada, Floridas, Union; and when, together together we shall have any with our our neighbors; difficulties with and it it is is no longer shall no neighbors; and longer have any difficulties the way of preventing them." (As an example of a society an of a them." of the only example (As society only way preventing blaming its almost unsurpassed.) this would seem almost its troubles on others, troubles on others, this unsurpassed.) blaming As one that impressment one who had understood that had always impressment "materially always understood "materially any injurer d] our navigation, more indeed than than indeed our more Gallatin restrictions," Gallatin any restrictions," navigation, injure[d] come for a showdown. Declaring himself argued that the time had a for that the time had Declaring himself argued to accept the label "political heretic," John Quincy Adams willing to label the willing accept "political heretic," John Quincy Adams Jefferson "hearty wishes for [the] success" of his countergave for of success" his wishes counter[the] gave Jefferson "hearty measures. "Who shall he thundered, limits to to the the "to set set limits shall dare," measures. thundered, "to dare," he commerce and naval power power of country?" Jefferson and Madison this country?" commerce and naval of this and Madison Jefferson retaliated with with an embargo calculated to bring bring British British leaders leaders back back retaliated an embargo calculated to to the the negotiating negotiating table table more more inclined inclined to to compromise. compromise. This This did did play play to of a major major part part in in bringing bringing on the English English panic panic and and depression depression of on the a IB
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Cramer's Magazine Almanac Almanac in hands and bid the Cramer's Magazine in 1810, 1810, "join "join hands and bid the onejarring world defiance." This, though a bit oversimplified world defiance." This, though a bit oversimplified as as any jarring any onesentence summary has to be, is what happened during the following sentence summary has to be, is what happened during the following as in most of their mercantilist mercantilist conflicts, Americans two years. two in most of their conflicts, Americans years. Acting Acting as quite and purposefully purposefully went went to to war war for their export export trade, trade, for their consciously and quite consciously to check engrossing of home for more land, land, and and to for check Britain's the home Britain's engrossing of the was aa war war for for economic market for manufactures. It for manufactures. market It was economic independence independence and expansion undertaken after a long long period period of experiand after a of frustrating expansion undertaken frustrating experiences unrewarding negotiations concerning everything from the ences and unrewarding the from negotiations concerning everything West Indies to the the persistent decimation of the complements Indies trade trade to of the decimation persistent complements sea. Quite passion of American of American ships of passion at sea. it was was a a war war of Quite naturally, ships at naturally, it and anger. and anger. Despite has been been written the War of all that that has written about about the of 1812, Madison 1812, Madison Despite all provided the best interpretation of the various elements that produced the best the that elements of various provided produced interpretation bears out judgment. it; extensive analysis the evidence an extensive this judgment. of the evidence bears out this it; an analysis of in November, November, 18u, Madison Calling the the Congress into special session in 1811, Madison Congress into Calling special session emphasized his "deep sense of the crisis" created by Britain's "war his sense of Britain's "war created the crisis" by emphasized "deep on our requested war preparations, he our lawful lawful commerce." commerce." Having war preparations, he Having requested of then asked continued support for "the just and sound policy then asked continued and for "the sound policy of support just securing to our manufacturers the success they have attained." Reattained." Reto have manufacturers the our success they securing plying on a South of support on January to a resolution of South Carolina Carolina resolution 8, 1812, 1812, to support January 8, plying for policies, Madison explained that seemingly strange reference for his his policies, Madison explained that seemingly strange reference in general outlined the the nature the war. war. to manufacturing manufacturing and in to nature of of the general outlined in the practice and pretensions of the British "Acquiescence "Acquiescence in the practice and pretensions of the British by every be Government," he declared, declared, "is that can "is forbidden forbidden by can be Government," he every view that taken of Having mentioned he went went on to to mentioned impressment, taken of the the subject." impressment, he subject." Having stress the economic factors. would stress the explicitly factors. "[Such "[Such acquiescence] acquiescence] would explicitly economic us of of the the recolonize our commerce. . . • [And] recolonize our commerce. experience warns us [And] experience fatal tendencies with Great and Great Britain, a commerce unrestricted with of a commerce unrestricted fatal tendencies of Britain, and by her her pleasure pleasure and policy policy elsewhere. elsewhere. Whilst the limited restricted by Whilst the limited restricted dismarket would would continue continue overcharged with our the disour exports, market exports, the overcharged with drain from us us the the precious precious proportionate imports imports from it, it, would drain proportionate immetals, endanger our monied monied Institutions; Institutions; arrest internal imarrest our our internal metals, endanger our provements, and would strangle in the cradle, the manufactures the manufactures the in would and cradle, strangle provements, the evil evil be vigorous aa growth. be conconwhich promise promise so which so vigorous growth. Nor would the The fined to commerce, our or our manufacturers. or our manufacturers. our agriculture, to our fined our commerce, agriculture, Shipowners and Shipbuilders equally sufsufmariners must be equally Shipbuilders and mariners Shipowners and ferers." ferers." Although the the main main engine of the drive was the the western western the war drive engine of Although .
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agrarian demand to world world markets, markets, some element element of of free alXess access to for free demand for by Madison did in fact support the resort to every group mentioned the resort did in fact to Madison support every group mentioned by force. A good many Pennsylvanians, for example, along with other with for other force. example, along good many Pennsylvanians, northerners, rather rather liked liked the idea of of aa fight fight with with "those modern "those modern the idea northerners, calicoes for sale throughout the Buccaneers, who have carried their for sale calicoes their have carried throughout the Buccaneers, .... Who have wrapped the four world at the point of the bayonet have the four world at the point of the bayonet. wrapped flames for a monopoly manufactures." And corners of the earth earth in in flames of manufactures." for a of the corners monopoly of Jersey legislature emphasized the connection between imthe New Jersey the legislature emphasized the connection between imcommerce." Henry pressment and "lawful commerce," of "lawful and the the disruption Henry Clay's Clay's disruption of pressment expansion carried to the of the the impassioned the forefront forefront of carried him to for expansion cries for impassioned cries war will will give commerce western agrarians pushed for war. "A war us commerce western give us agrarians who pushed for war. almost as and he announced announced on on December 31, as and character," 1811, almost 31, 18I!, character," he though he were making a Year's Resolution for the country. the Year's Resolution for a New were he country. making though thundered America had to have have aa "vent" its surpluses. for its "vent" for America had to "Sir," he thundered surpluses. "Sir," wish to avoid foreign collision you had had at his critics, critics, "if collision to "if you wish avoid at one one of of his foreign you you better abandon give up all all your commerce; surrender all abandon the the ocean; better commerce; ocean; surrender give up all your your prosperity." your prosperity." So many congressmen congressmen repeated this theme theme in its imaginable in all all its So many imaginable repeated this Annals of Congress was at times a veritable gusher variations that that the times a veritable at the Annals was variations of Congress gusher of mercantilist rhetoric rhetoric about the necessity necessity of markets. of export about the markets. A of mercantilist export was war annul the Declaration of Kentuckian said annul the it was war "or of Kentuckian said it "or formally Declaration formally our Independence." Tennessean blamed blamed the the depression of 1807our depression of Independence." A Tennessean 180718ID and added that it was not over yet. North over that it was and added not 1810 on on "no "no markets," markets," yet. North Carolinians had aa preference preference for arguing that that it of it was a a question Carolinians for arguing question of Roberts "the profits of both planter planter and merchant." And Jonathan "the profits of both and merchant." Roberts Jonathan Crawford of and John John of joined William William H. of Pennsylvania of Georgia H. Crawford Georgia and Pennsylvania joined C. Calhoun in warning warning that that war was was the G Calhoun from South the only South Carolina Carolina in only hour of had alternative to "absolute recolonization." The hour alternative to "absolute recolonization." of decision decision had is inevitably destined to come, cried Langdon Cheves: "This nation come, cried Langdon Cheves: "This nation is inevitably destined to a naval be power." be a naval power." as Clay Clay talked talked openly openly about about expansion Such militants militants as into Spanish expansion into Spanish America America and Canada. the propriety propriety of offensive war, war, Canada. As for for the of such such an an offensive William William Giles of Virginia Virginia asserted the "wise of the the Giles of "wise framers" asserted that that the framers" of mind: "those patriotic men had had Constitution Constitution had it it in in mind: "those virtuous virtuous and and patriotic too too much wisdom to to restrict restrict Congress to defensive defensive war." war." "Canada," "Canada," Congress to remarked "is the by March, 1812, a group group remarked Clay, Clay, "is the avowed object." And a March, 1812, by object." was meeting meeting to to plan plan the the states that would would be the states that be carved carved out out of of the northland. as northland. Other members emphasized Florida and even Florida even Cuba as emphasized desirable of a desirable objects of conquest, and a few stressed the virtue of using few the virtue of stressed objects conquest, using agrarian
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to finish it is is true true that that war as as an an excuse excuse to finish off off the the Indians. Indians. Though Though it
inciting the Indians, that point is not the British British were were not not in the in fact fact inciting the Indians, that point is not Ameritoo significant in understanding the war spirit; a good many too in significant understanding the war spirit; a good many Ameri-
cans thought they still and acted that they cans still were were and acted accordingly. thought that accordingly. to account the delay going Several factors would appear Several factors would appear to account for for the in going delay in to war. Randolph's militant militant opposition the pace pace for for aa time. time. war. Randolph's to slowed the opposition slowed Arguing that that "it was our for territory, territory, our our own want want of "it was our own thirst thirst for of Arguing moderation," that provoked the Indians, he he also the that provoked the Indians, also warned warned of of the moderation," danger of a slave rebellion and attacked the the subversion of republican republican of a slave rebellion and attacked subversion of danger principles that that would would accompany accompany such war for for empire. Stressing the a war such a principles empire. Stressing the "danger population," which which was already the black from the black population,'* was already arising from "danger arising excited by the the ideas of the French Revolution the rebellion rebellion in ideas of excited by the French and the Revolution and in Santo he mocked those were "talking of taking he Santo Domingo, mocked those were of who Domingo, taking "talking Canada [while] some of of us were shuddering shuddering for our own safety us were at for our [while] some safety at home." Although Although Calhoun Calhoun replied replied with open scorn a public public home." for such such a with open scorn for blunt discussion discussion of the confession of of failure failure as confession a planter, as a of the planter, Randolph's Randolph's blunt problem probably some votes among his own generation of won some votes his problem probably among generation of southerners. Directly accusing Madison of embracing the policies of southerners. the of Madison of Directly accusing policies embracing his own, urged Congress to conEnglish mercantilism mercantilism as as his conown, Randolph English Congress to Randolph urged sult good old old planters" planters" and and then forget about "the good sult "the then forget war. about war. northerners, including including John John Jacob and other other A good Astor and Jacob Astor good many many northerners, Yorkers, indicated that they agreed with James A. leading indicated New that with Yorkers, James A. leading they agreed we will submit to the Bayard of Delaware: "Postpone the war, and of Delaware: to the and will submit the war, Bayard "Postpone think that that embargo till November." November." This to think This group seemed seriously seriously to embargo till group seemed in a bit longer. economic pressure would bring victory if persisted a bit would in economic pressure longer. bring victory if persisted Others to employ employ the a delay in order order to the classic Others wanted classic mercantilist mercantilist wanted a delay in trading with with the the enemy a time time in to build build up up device in order order to device of of trading for a enemy for of how large army and and navy navy strength more rapidly. rapidly. The question an army large an strength question of to raise and deploy them also heart and at heart and how to also divided divided men who at raise and deploy them favored the the war. Madison's request regular army army met the regular to increase increase the favored war. Madison's request to would undermine undermine representarepresentastiff resistance resistance from those those who feared feared it it would stiflf tive government. the debate over whether whether to to build a coastal coastal build a debate over tive government. And the fleet, a squadron that could control the Indies force, aa big the West Indies could that control a force, fleet, squadron big after colonies, or merchantmen and send them scurrying after and send or simply arm colonies, scurrying simply that firm so divided the Congress that no firm the no anything flying a Union Jack divided a so Union Jack Congress anything flying decision was reached. reached. ever was decision ever lack deal to Those two prolonged debates a great great deal to do with the the lack Those debates had a two prolonged when war was force in of any well-organized and prepared force in being of being prepared any well-organized of almost all so, too, did the general cockiness of almost all finally declared. But did the cockiness But declared. so, too, general finally
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the pro-war pro-war congressmen. congressmen. the
They had aa timetable timetable for victory that that for victory They had would have made a modern tank commander hustle. Only the hustle. tank modern commander a would have made Only the survivors of Hamilton's pro-English faction seriously considered faction considered survivors of Hamilton's pro-English seriously organized opposition to the conflict. Their Hartford Convention of organized opposition to the conflict. Their Hartford Convention of 1814 considered separation but abandoned the idea, at least for the 1814 considered separation but abandoned the idea, at least for the through had had the the war war not not moment; they might have have tried it through tried to to carry moment; carry it they might ended within a few few months. months. Instead, they turned turned their their support in ended within a Instead, they support in behind Rufus Rufus King's King's campaign reassert northern power in northern power to reassert in behind campaign to domestic politics. politics. domestic VICTORY DISGUISED AS STALEMATE
While America suffered extensive did not not conquer extensive damage, While America suffered damage, did conquer Canada, to break break open the British economic empire, it is the British economic is and failed failed to Canada, and open empire, it neverthdess aa mistake mistake to to conclude the country country lost lost the the War of that the of conclude that nevertheless 1812. For one one thing, thing, it it had the world's world's strongest strongest industrial had fought industrial 1812. For fought the In the process it had gained power to a draw and a negotiated peace. In the it had a and a to draw process gained negotiated peace. power cohesion, confidence, and strength. Understanding this, Britain signed Britain and this, confidence, cohesion, strength. Understanding signed and then a boundary convention in 1818. aa commercial treaty in and then a in 1815. convention in 1818. commercial treaty boundary 1815, Accepting the balance of forces on the Great Lakes, it also extended the it of Great the forces on also balance extended Lakes, Accepting the 49th the Rockies Rockies and left the the Oregon moot to the and left the 49th parallel Oregon territory parallel to territory moot for ten ten years. This decision provided a symbolic contrast with a for This decision contrast with symbolic years. provided England's prolonged occupation of the old frontier posts after the of old the frontier after the England's prolonged occupation posts also recognized the significance of the Revolutionary War. Spain the also of the Spain significance Revolutionary recognized war; if it entertained any doubts, Jackson's wild if it entertained any wild foray into war; doubts, Andrew Jackson's foray into a jolting reminder that his victory at Orleans Florida in a Florida in 1818, that reminder his at New Orleans 1818, victory jolting was no no fluke, was no no doubt that America America had had was doubt convincing evidence that fluke, was convincing evidence by Britain. Britain. Spanish leaders abandoned Florida not been tamed by not been tamed leaders abandoned Florida Spanish to aa generous boundary shortly and by February and agreed 22, 1819, agreed by shortly February 22, 1819, to generous boundary settlement running running clear clear to the Pacific. Pacific. settlement to the America America emerged the war with manufacturing industry industry to to a manufacturing with a emerged from the complement its strength shipping and a firm in agriculture and shipping and with with a firm complement its strength in agriculture and the policies consensus on on the policies of candidly to to consensus of mercantilism. mercantilism. Writing Writing very very candidly in 1816, Jefferson indicated though Benjamin Austin of of Boston in indicated that that though 1816, Jefferson Benjamin Austin he might to his his physiocratic physiocratic dream, he realized realized that that it cling to it now dream, he might cling must now place place the the manufacturer manufacturer by by the the seemed beyond reach. "We must beyond reach. side of the the agriculturist." "I contend for the the interests whole side of contend for interests of the whole of the agriculturist." "I of this this community," was rapidly rapidly being being people of declared Calhoun, people Calhoun, who was community," declared as the as the leader of a generation of southerners. "I acknowledged leader a of new of "I southerners. acknowledged generation here to am not not here to represent represent my own state. I renounce the idea." John state. I renounce the idea." my John
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Quincy commerce, and manufactures of agriculture, Quincy Adams spoke spoke of agriculture, commerce, and manufactures as "linked in union union together," together," and the duty "linked in as and defined defined the of the the Congress duty of Congress as being "to conciliate them in harmony together." Monroe con"to conciliate as being them in harmony together." Monroe con"the systematic curred, stating flatly that since manufactures required curred, stating flatly that since manufactures required "the systematic it was was "of importance" and the government," care of and fostering of the "o great fostering care government," it great importance" to provide such assistance. A French diplomat caught the to provide such assistance. French diplomat caught the significance significance of what called "this political principles," principles," and and recognized recognized he called of what he "this fusion of political fusion of age. that American American mercantilism mercantilism had of age. that had come come of Nothing the persuasiveness of this this sense of community revealed the sense of Nothing revealed community persuasiveness of more clearly the tariff tariff debates debates of of 1816 keeping than the more 1816 and and 1818. 1818. In In keeping clearly than with their earlier views, views, Madison and Monroe to the the their earlier with Madison and Monroe responded responded to petitions for continued protection by supporting tariff legislation for continued tariff petitions protection by supporting legislation that promised promised to to strengthen political economy. Pennsylthat a national national political strengthen a economy. Pennsylvanians and other northerners had pushed such such bills years, vanians other northerners had pushed bills for for several several years, 1816 and the surprising feature of the tariff debates in the superficially and feature of in the tariff debates 1816 superficially surprising and 1818 was the the extent extent and vigor of In reality, of and 1818 was of southern southern support. In and vigor reality, of support. course, the southern gentry had provided the most striking leaders of the southern had most leaders of the course, gentry striking provided the Revolution, American mercantilism the eve mercantilism ever of the American ever since since the eve of Revolution, and their advocacy of an inclusive conception of political economy was an their of inclusive of advocacy conception political economy was neither new nor Some southerners were no doubt interested neither nor strange. were no doubt southerners interested strange. in developing manufactures in their region, particularly in textiles manufactures in their own region, particularly textiles developing and other but the main southern support came from other small and small industry, but from the southern industry, support men with a broad national outlook. a with broad national outlook. to realize realize Along with Americans, such had come to with other other Americans, such southerners southerners had Along by I816 the danger inherent in Britain's both absolute and relative by 1816 the danger inherent in Britain's both absolute and relative preponderance of industrial power. power. Certainly Englishmen of industrial preponderance enough Englishmen Certainly enough were telling them about typical: were about it. it. Lord Brougham's warning was Brougham's warning was typical: telling them to incur a loss loss upon upon the the first exhe thought it "well worthwhile to first exincur a he "well worthwhile thought it portation of of [English manufactures], in in order, order, by by the the glut, glut, TO portation [English manufactures], STIFLE IN THE CRADLE THOSE RISING MANUFAClike Calhoun Calhoun TURES IN THE UNITED STATES." Southerners Southerners like and Thomas Newton, Newton, and even William Downes, Downes, realized that realized that even William to national national defense the domestic manufactures manufactures were were essential defense and the essential to domestic a also viewed tariffs as a source of general economic welfare. They tariffs as source of welfare. also viewed economic general They revenue to pay for the war and to to finance internal improvements. finance internal revenue to pay for the improvements. tariff was was based based on the the vision vision of of aa strong, strong, Their the tariff Their support of the support of combalanced economy that would insure the independence and the the the insure balanced that would independence economy of the nation. mon prosperity nation. of the prosperity as the the most intelligent war ended, Calhoun emerged the war As the ended, Calhoun intelligent and emerged as
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forceful candidate to become become the merof American merleader of the new leader candidate to forceful by few of his peers, he quickly cantilism. With a keenness rivaled he of few his rivaled a keenness cantilism. With peers, quickly by recognized the the dangers dangers inherent in Madison's Madison's theory preserving of preserving inherent in theory of recognized America was "a democracy and and prosperity prosperity by "a surface surface by expansion. expansion. America democracy prodigiously great in proportion to our numbers," he explained he in explained in prodigiously great in proportion to our numbers," 1817: hence "the rival jealousies of the States," and the "selfish the "selfish 1817: hence "the rival jealousies of the States," instincts our nature" nature" might might easily tear the country apart into of our instincts of easily tear the country apart into warring competitors. competitors. warring Openly might be be the the price disproving of disproving disunion might that disunion worried that price of Openly worried was limited to small states, Montesquieu's theory that republicanism small limited to was that states, republicanism theory Montesquieu's Calhoun revealed a "deep for the the need most to take need to take "the "the most solicitude" for revealed a Calboun "deep solicitude" be ignored in a small state, enlarged views." "Selfish interests" could a small in be could interests" views." "Selfish state, ignored enlarged perhaps, but but an an empire required aa strong "the common awareness of of "the strong awareness perhaps, empire required was "necessary" for each group and region good." It "to concede concede for each was It region "to "necessary" group good." to accumulate something" to others. Such compromise was essential to essential was accumulate to Such others. compromise something" cllifuse universal opulence": many many needs were "on the capital needs were "on "to diffuse universal opulence": the capital "to too great a scale for the resources of the States or individuals." There the States or There for individuals." scale the resources of too a great were "higher and more more powerful than private private profit profit considerations" than were "higher and powerful considerations" or regional regional gain; the very "strength and political prosperity of the of and the or the political prosperity gain; very "strength ~as at stake. republic" at was stake. republic" Calhoun understood and and admitted that "what the "what is is necessary for admitted that Calhoun understood necessary for the common good may apparendy be opposed to the interest of parthe of be to interest good may apparently paropposed ticular sections." he insisted the necessity necessity of ticular But he the equity and the sections." But insisted on the of equity and to as the condition of our greatcompromise: "It must be submitted "It be must submitted to the condition our as of compromise: greatness." Probably no other other American ness." leader except American leader John Quincy Probably no Quincy except John central dilemma dilemma of Adams looked looked so so squarely into the the central of mercantilism, mercantilism, squarely into the constant between private property and corporate constant conflict the conflict between private property and the the corporate welfare. And like Adams, Calhoun realized that the common good welfare. like Adams, Calhoun realized that the good would give to private private interests interests and were the tension and ambitions ambitions were the tension give way way to not controlled by everyman's everyman's commitment to the the larger not controlled by Such commitment to larger goal. goal. Such to the the general general welfare was not not only Americans dedication to dedication welfare was for Americans only for "the condition condition of of our the measurement of great"the greatness," it our greatness," it was the measurement of greatness for any That it it set high aa standard ness for mercantilist society. for standard for set so so high any mercantilist society. That its adherents adherents was the the triumph triumph of the mercantilist mercantilist Weltanschauung. its of the Weltanschauung. Madison was of of course course aware of of the the problem, problem, but he approached approached but he it more indirecdy. Perhaps he it that it was impossible impossible to to concluded that it was indirectly. Perhaps he concluded achieve achieve and maintain so high high aa level of public public responsibility responsibility without without maintain so level of severe restrictions private property, property, or that it was placing severe restrictions on private even that it was or even placing impossible under any circumstances. In any event, he emphasized circumstances. In he impossible any any event, emphasized
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more and more the of preventing preventing his his "feudal and more the importance more of "feudal system importance of system of in later years as "Dual Federalism," republics," which he referred to which he to in later referred republics," years as "Dual Federalism/* from drifting into monarchy monarchy or the great great system from of or anarchy. "In the drifting into system of anarchy. "In political economy, having for national welfare," wel£are," for its its general object the economy, having political general object the national in a brilliant summary of his position in 1819, "everything he wrote in a he wrote brilliant summary of his position in 1819, "everything is related related immediately immediately or remotely to thing; and, or remotely is conto every other thing; and, conevery other thing, if not limited by some obsequently, over anyone a power some obif not limited by power over any one thing, sequently, a vious and precise precise affinity, affinity, may may amount amount to to power power over other." vious over every every other." broad plan plan of improvements, which he strongly of internal Hence aa broad internal improvements, which he strongly favored, could be started a constitutional amendcould not not safely started without without a constitutional amendfavored, safely be ment. Private Private property property and balanced balanced government were implicitly at ment. were government implicitly at issue, and public should should declare Writing a decade the public and the declare itself a decade itself directly. issue, directly. Writing later, in the winter predicted aa major major crisis crisis in the winter of of 1828-1829, Madison predicted later, 1828-1829, Madison that time, he concluded, expansion would in about aa century. century. By in about that he would time, concluded, expansion By great majority majority of people would would be have come to an end, have to an the great be of people end, and the without property that was productive; under those circumstances was without that those circumstances under property productive; war would would be be very very high. high. the danger of monarchy monarchy or the or class class war danger of In his capacity as President, Madison clearly followed the political political as In his Madison followed the President, capacity clearly economy of mercantilism. In that vein, he supported the postwar of In mercantilism. that he the vein, economy supported postwar to continue continue economic economic pressure pressure against order to efforts to efforts to Britain in in order against Britain even the booming commerce with with break into empire trade. trade. Not even into the the empire break the booming and through through Cuba Cuba eased Americans' determination re-establish eased the the Americans' to re-establish determination to their predominance in the West Indies and extend it beyond them. in the it Indies and extend their predominance beyond them. Madison judged the restrictions "unjust"; perhaps even more imimMadison judged the restrictions "unjust"; perhaps even portant, he thought the restoration of this trade essential to his to his portant, he thought the restoration of this trade essential efforts "to restore harmony to the discordant parts of the United efforts "to restore harmony to the discordant parts of the United States." For the the time, time, however, however, retaliatory retaliatory legislation legislation was unsuccessunsuccessStates." For was not not reopened reopened until ful. until 1830. ful. Trade was 1830. Other national efforts were more immediately rewarding. Oppoefforts were Other national immediately rewarding. Oppoa tougher tougher law law that sition to to the trade produced produced in that offered in 1819 sition the slave slave trade offered 1819 a rewards for information about the death about violations violations and death for information and established established the rewards the early early antislavery penalty for smugglers. And the for American smugglers. impulse antislavery impulse penalty joined hands with the the mature mature spirit of commercial to proprocommercial expansion hands with spirit of joined expansion to colony. Founded by by the the duce by 1822 the first first American overseas 1822 the overseas colony. duce by this outpost reAmerican Colonization at Monrovia, Africa, at this American Colonization Society Africa, Monrovia, outpost reSociety ceived slaves and enterprising traders with little discrimitraders with little discrimislaves ceived expatriated enterprising expatriated as aa solution to the the slavery problem it less nation. But it was far far less solution to But as nation. slavery problem was later as the the entering entering wedge wedge for the effective than later to to become as for the it was effective than it American penetration penetration of of Africa. Africa. American
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The American History History The Contours Contours of of American
THE SPROUTING SEEDS LAISSEZ FAIRE FAmE SEEDS OF LAISSEZ
More immediate its consequences, however, was was the the consensus consensus in its immediate in More consequences, however, among Madison, Gallatin, and Calhoun that prompted the re-estabamong Madison, Gallatin, and Calhoun that prompted the re-establishment of of aa central Bank of need was was great. States. The need of the the United United States. central Bank lishment great. The war had powerfully powerfully extended accelerated the the development development and accelerated extended and The war had of the the country, and such economic growth generated monetary of country, and such economic growth generated monetary problems that required some kind of general solution. Local and that problems required some kind of general solution. Local and regional banks could and did create credit, credit, but but they did so ways so in in ways did create and banks could they did regional that rendered it unreliable and expensive. Many of the banks were of the were banks and that it unreliable rendered expensive. Many as profit-making ventures, and their directors had narrowly conceived their directors had narrowly conceived as profit-making ventures, little of public public responsibility. Even the ones, the more stable stable ones, little or or no sense of no sense responsibility. limited they were were in in their range of economic range of their geographic limited as as they geographic and economic operations, simply could not facilitate the balancing of credit within of the credit could not within facilitate balancing operations, simply result was aa general inthe nation nation and with other countries. The result and with other countries. the general inflation loss of flation and and loss of confidence. confidence. Moving the crisis, John Jacob Astor and aa few of of his his meet the to meet crisis, John Jacob Astor Moving to friends such as Stephen Girard of Pennsylvania proposed to create to Girard of create friends such as Stephen Pennsylvania proposed their own private private national national bank bank in in New York. York. Madison opposed opposed the the their move because because the the institution institution would been "free all legal have been "free from all move would have legal obligations to cooperate with public measures." Supported by Clay, to with measures." public Supported cooperate by Clay, obligations in opposing the that he he had had been been wrong wrong in who candidly admitted that candidly admitted opposing the recharter of bank of Calhoun took the lead in creating the lead in of 18I!, took recharter of the the bank Calhoun a i8ir, creating a bank over which the the government would have some authority. would have new bank over which government authority. Angered and and disturbed disturbed by by the laissez-faire banking banking of war period period the laissez-faire of the the war Angered -it you of of your your rights"-he explicitly aimed to establish it "divests "divests you he to establish explicitly rights" an that could the economy. an institution institution that could "remove "remove those those disorders" disorders" from the economy. Madison approved the bill bill in Madison in 1816. 1816. approved the Even so, narrow business business views of narrow views entrenched entrenched so, speculators speculators and men of themselves in the private private half board of and almost in the themselves half of of the the board of directors directors and almost was fully organized and established. Inwrecked the before it wrecked the bank before it was established. Infully organized of deed, their policy of loose credit (for higher profits) helped bring their loose credit deed, policy (for higher profits) helped bring on the the panic panic and depression had of 1819. Postwar development depression of 1819. Postwar development had the renewed renewed movement into the west and the heavy with the boomed with into the west the heavy for foodstuffs demand for foodstuffs in in Europe. Europe. Twelve Twelve thousand thousand wagons reached wagons reached in 1817, in the Pittsburgh in the previous previous year year the north of the region of Pittsburgh 1817, and in region north Mississippi into almost 110,000,000 of goods into $10,000,000 worth of Mississippi had shipped shipped almost goods New Orleans. Orleans. Land speculation speculation was literally fantastic. Touched off literally fantastic. Touched off
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by the rapid decline of European European markets markets and by the the decline of the rapid and accelerated accelerated by by failure of big mercantile houses like Buchanan and Smith of Baltifailure o big mercantile houses like Buchanan and Smith of Baltimore, the the boom boom collapsed. more, collapsed. A Kentuckian Kentuckian reported reported from west that that "a gloom hangs hangs from the the west "a deeper deeper gloom over us than was was ever ever witnessed by the prices us than over witnessed by the oldest oldest man." man." Cotton Cotton prices
A
were almost the frontier almost halved. were halved. People either left left for or demanded demanded for the frontier or People either government help. Relief laws were passed throughout the west, and Relief laws were the and west, government help. passed throughout the entire country turned turned on on the bank as it tightened its credit entire country the the new bank as it tightened its credit was walking walking into controls. Cheves knew what what he he was controls. Langdon into when Langdon Cheves in an to save and reform reform he took took charge of the the bank bank in he in 1819 an effort effort to save and charge of 1819 in it an act of public public service which he he it collapsed. It before it it before was an for which act of service for collapsed. It was was ever what he he had had to to do restrict new ever afterward afterward damned. was damned. For For what was restrict do was loans, in old old ones, reorganize the the entire call in in other and in entire operaother ways loans, call ones, and ways reorganize operation. His His policies did a great deal to save the economy from further tion. did a to save the from further deal policies economy great difficulties, but but they an enmity local and and regional regional also created created an difficulties, they also enmity among among local banks-and their publics publics-which was never never to to be and their banks which was be forgotten. forgotten. The bank became "THE MONSTER," MONSTER," and none of later its later bank became of its and none virtues or image. In this fundamental fundamental or services virtues services ever ever changed In this that image. changed that sense, therefore, therefore, the panic of which had had been been brought brought on by the panic on by of 1819, sense, 1819, which the mercantilists' mercantilists' fear private property too much (as well well the fear of of limiting too (as limiting private property as by by the of special had the the ironic effect of of touchtouchas the pressure ironic effect pressure of special interests), interests), had ing off a vigorous drive to be done with mercantilism and replace a off to done with mercantilism and drive be replace vigorous ing it with the the philosophy philosophy of of laissez nous faire, as we please." please." it with "let us do as laissez nous us do faire, "let Southerners, example, began turn away away from Calhoun's merfor example, to turn Calhoun's merSoutherners, for began to cantilism toward Taylor's physiocracy. And westerners such as such as cantilism toward Taylor's physiocracy. westerners Thomas Hart Hart Benton Benton of of Missouri Missouri began began to to fill fill hours hours of of congressional congressional debate with with declarations declarations of their independence. independence. debate of their Though it signified the rise rise of of manufactures manufactures to to aa position position of of signified the Though it parity, the division of the congressional Committee on Commerce on die the division of Committee parity, congressional of the and Manufactures Manufactures in a breaking breaking apart the and in 1819 also symbolized apart of 1819 also symbolized a merintegrated thought of mercantilism. Having been nurtured by merbeen nurtured of mercantilism. by integrated thought Having cantilism, to become become aa faction and step faction and about to cantilism, manufacturing step manufacturing was about forth as ima spokesman faire. A similar similar meaning forth as a for laissez laissez faire. meaning was imspokesman for works of the plicit in translation and publication publication in America of of the of in the in America the translation plicit of ideas of a French French economist the ideas Jean Baptiste Baptiste Say, carried the economist who carried Jean Say, a the early early physiocrats their logical conclusion. to their and the Smith and Adam Smith logical conclusion. physiocrats to Say of trade trade and and unrestricted enterunrestricted enterfreedom of that complete Say argued argued that complete freedom prise would produce welfare and happiness for everyone. Despite for would welfare Despite everyone. happiness produce prise
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The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
vigorous attacks on the new "let-us-alone policy," its its spokesmen spokesmen vigorous attacks on the new "let-us-alone policy," began to pick up support from other reformers proposals were whose proposals were began to pick up support from other reformers at least antimercantilist. at least implicidy implicitly antimercantilist. Philanthropic movements had been a part part of English mercantilism mercantilism of English been a had movements Philanthropic in America; from an date, and had continued in that tradition tradition in America; that continued in had and from an early date, early but some of the new leaders began to to stress charity in place place stress private leaders began but the new some of private charity in of benevolence of the earlier period. As a move to curtail to curtail a earlier period. the of the public benevolence of the public acts social unrest its function function remained remained similar, of its its acts social unrest its similar, and many many of produced significant social gains. Yet in being handled by private handled in Yet by private being produced significant social gains. the new approach approach citizens and dealing more more with with individuals per se, individuals per citizens and dealing se, the did in outlook. Similar implications outlook. Similar did indicate indicate an an important implications change in important change were apparent in the campaigns for debtor relief, in the broad list in the debtor broad list the for were in relief, campaigns apparent to conscientious to war) adof reforms (from temperance temperance to to adconscientious objection of reforms (from objection war) vocated by a group group in in Mount Pleasant, Pleasant, Ohio, Ohio, and in in the the growing vocated growing by a opposition to throughout the the north. north. to slavery slavery throughout opposition Such were particularly particularly noticeable noticeable in proceedings of the proceedings in the of Such tendencies tendencies were the New York York State Convention of though of 1821. 1821. For though Constitutional Convention State Constitutional the as the the the substitution of tax tax payments property ownership for property the substitution of ownership as payments for criterion for voting was was not not of antimercantilist, the the general general of itself itself antimercantilist, criterion for voting tone of the debate debate indicated growing strength in individualism a growing tone indicated a of the individualism strength in was as the works John Locke, Locke, briefly briefly used used and laissez and It was as if if the works of of John faire. It laissez faire. in 1775 as a for the in and 1776 as a convenient authority for the right of revoluand convenient of revoluauthority right 1775 1776 tion and then mercantilists like James Steuart, tion then shelved in favor shelved in of mercantilists like Sir Sir James favor of Steuart, as a guide for exploiting were being being taken were taken down again a as for again guide exploiting and enjoyenjoying the opportunities that mercantilism mercantilism had had created. created. For For while while some some ing the opportunities that of Locke's were quite influential during the revolutionary of Locke's ideas ideas were quite influential during the revolutionary period, it it was was not until the the 1830S he established the not until that he established himself himself as as the period, 18308 that philosopher of of individualism. individualism. philosopher Similar implications Similar implications of of laissez faire appeared delaissez faire in New York's York's deappeared in termination termination to to proceed proceed independendy with the construction of the the with construction of the independently Erie Canal Eager to take advantage Erie in 1817. Canal in to take its geographically of its 1817. Eager advantage of geographically favorable position position to its role role in developfavorable to consolidate consolidate its the developin exploiting exploiting the ment of of the the west, and impatient with Madison's fears about inwith fears Madison's about inwest, impatient the terpreting the Constitution into tyranny, the state undertook the Constitution into terpreting tyranny, the state undertook the its own. Mercantilist Mercantilist in project on its being aa government government enterprise, enterprise, in being project the the approach nevertheless indicated rising spirit let-us-alone. indicated the the rising of let-us-alone. approach nevertheless spirit of It of one It was, was, indeed, preview of of the principal forms laissez one of the principal that laissez forms that indeed, a preview nous faire would take take after after the nous faire the collapse of mercantilism at the of mercantilism at the collapse
The Age Age oj Mercantilism of Mercantilism
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national level. level. national
such, and because it was ultimately As such, and particularly particularly because it was ultimately so successful, it unquestionably helped to destroy that order. it so to order. successful, unquestionably helped destroy that For the the time, time, however, however, the the Weltanschauung of mercantilism reFor reof mercantilism Weltanschauung
mained predominant. general attitude, the general mained Hall attitude, Tammany predominant. Revealing Tammany Hall Revealing the issued manifesto for for renewed renewed concern with the the "national economy," a manifesto issued a concern with "national economy," and called policies to keep the for policies called for and to keep the nation nation "one "one great Quite family.*' Quite great family." aware of the increasing interest in what he called the policy of of "let aware of the increasing interest in what he called the policy "let It requires, he us alone," reiterated his judgment. It us Madison reiterated old judgment. his old alone," Madison requires, he commented adversely adversely in in 1819, and "a similarity of circumstances, commented circumstances, and similarity of 1819, "a an of interchange interchange among commercial nations, which an equal freedom of nations, which equal freedom among commercial have never never existed." Monroe, Adams, Adams, Clay, Clay, and and Calhoun and have existed." Monroe, Calhoun agreed, agreed, and they sustained American mercantilism mercantilism for decade. But But sustained an an American for another another decade. they assured their to maintain maintain it their very very successes successes assured it any longer their their inability inability to any longer than that. that. than
v.
V.
The Fulfillment Fulfillment of the Passing of the Passing Order
The [Missouri] question question could be settled settled no no otherwise a comcomotherwise than than by could be The [Missouri} by a 1821 promise. John Quincy Adams, 1821 Adams, John Quincy promise. Whatever may be in -favor favor of of unrestricted unrestricted comabstract doctrine doctrine in the abstract be the Whatever may .•. has never occurred, and cannot be expected. [itl cannot has never occurred, expected. [it]
merce, merce,
.
.
.
It believed that the greater greater the expansion, within within practicable practicable limits, limits, the expansion, that the is believed It is and it easy to say what what are are not not so, so, the the greater greater the which the advantage not easy to say and it is is not advantage which the will derive from it. it. ... It It must must be be obvious obvious to to all, derive from the States States individually all, individually will that further expansion is carried, provided it be not beyond the just be not the it that the is the further carried, just beyond expansion provided limit, the greater will be the freedom of action to both [[National National and and to both the greater the freedom will be limit, of action State] governments. governments. James Monroe, Monroe, 1822 1822 James State} .
.
.
The views views and policy policy of of the North Americans Americans seem vainly directed the North vainly directed toward supplanting us in navigation in in every every quarter the globe. globe. in navigation of the supplanting us quarter of Lord Liverpool, 1824 Liverpool, 1824 say that that the the period period which which he [Washington} [Washington] predicted predicted as as not say Must we not has arrived? then not far far off arrived? John Quincy Adams, 1826 then 1826 off has John Quincy Adams, It is most most desirable desirable that that there should be be both foreign there should a foreign a home and a both a market. But, But, with respect to superiority, 1I cannot cannot entertain with respect to their their relative relative superiority, entertain market. a doubt. doubt. The home mark.et first in order, and paramount paramount in is first in order, in importance. market is importance. // is
Henry Clay, 1824 Henry Clay, 1824
204
CRISIS CRISIS
AND COMPROMISE IN A RENEWED STRUGGLE FOR THE WEST
its own right as the worst economic crisis yet Ssuffered by inAmericans, the panic and depression of 1819 also IGNIFICANT in
its
own
right as the worst economic crisis yet
suffered by Americans, the panic and depression of 1819 also SIGNIFICANT
marked the beginning of fundamental transition transition in marked the beginning of a a decade decade of of fundamental in American society. the one hand, the Weltanschauung of AmeriAmerican the one AmeriOn the of hand, society. Weltanschauung can mercantilism was translated a can mercantilism was translated into into a
series of philosophic and and of philosophic practical manifestations that documented its power and achievement. practical manifestations that documented its power and achievement. Even by Andrew Andrew Jackson Jackson in in 1828, Even when when defeated defeated by for example, 1828, for John example, John Quincy Adams was supported by 44 per cent of the voting public. public. Quincy Adams was supported by 44 per cent of the voting Yet Jackson's Jackson's victory victory measured measured the which the various Yet the various the extent extent to to which elements of created by American mercantilists had broken elements of the the system had broken mercantilists created American system by into segments that were defining the common good in terms of their into segments that were defining the common good in terms of their own particularist interests. particularist interests. The first developments produced the the first collision collision of these conflicting of these conflicting developments produced crisis the admission Missouri as as aa slave state. crisis of of I81SJ-I82I slave state. over the admission of of Missouri 1819-1821 over Representing the culmination of internal southern migration into the of southern culmination internal migration into Representing the old Missouri matured as an agricultural and comthe old northwest, comand Missouri as matured an northwest, agricultural mercial political economy dominated by slaveholders and merchants mercial political economy dominated by slaveholders and merchants who were by yeomen yeomen accepting slavery. Since Alabama were supported who Since Alabama supported by accepting slavery. had just just been into the Union as a slave state, had been received Missouri a slave the Union as received into state, Missouri leaders anticipated no opposition. opposition. Instead, they walked walked onto leaders onto glowInstead, they glowanticipated no ing coals of what was thought to be the dead ashes of the Hamilcoals the Hamilof what of was to be ashes the dead ing thought tonian faction. that expectation was valid, valid, for for men tonian faction. To some some extent extent that expectation was such as had stopped American problems problems in in such as Rufus Rufus King defining American King had stopped defining terms of with England. They still toward London, of relations terms leaned toward relations with still leaned London, England. They but primarily primarily they were concerned to strengthen their place place in in the the but concerned to they were strengthen their American political political economy. economy. The new group group still still composed a faction, American The new faction, composed a but it more broadly broadly based in the the maturing maturing commercial-manuit was but was more commercial-manubased in facturing the economy more supporters far more sector of of the counted far and counted supporters economy and facturing sector outside England than than had its predecessor. predecessor. had its outside New England Thus major crisis crisis developed on February February 13, Thus a a major when, on James 1819, James developed when, 13, 1819, Tallmadge of of New York York introduced a resolution resolution in to in Congress introduced a Congress to Tallmadge its to free prohibit the admission of Missouri as a slave state and to free all its all a slave state and the as admission of Missouri prohibit existing slaves within aa given period. Tallmadge was in rein many slaves within many reTallmadge was existing given period. spects an innocent incendiary incendiary who apparently apparently intended no intended to to start start no an innocent spects that to slavery more than than aa slow humanitarian opposition opposition to that more slow fire fire of of humanitarian slavery series
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The Contours Contours of 0/ American American History History The
might illuminate illuminate his his own own career career more more brightly. brightly. Instead, Instead, itit erupted erupted might into a blazing struggle between two sectors of the political economy. o the two sectors a between into political economy. blazing struggle King seized seized control control oof the the issue issue with with the the idea idea of of ending ending what what he he King
termed the the southern southern monopoly monopoly of of government. government. Candidly Candidly admitting admitting termed that he was "very imperfectly acquainted" with the issue of slavery slavery of issue the with that he was "very imperfectly acquainted" per se (upon which he had "not bestowed much consideration"), consideration"), per se (upon which he had "not bestowed King's immediate immediate objective objective was was to to re-establish re-establish the the influence influence of of the the King's northern commercial-manufacturing commercial-manufacturing interest interest in in national national affairs. affairs. He northern was not not sympathetic sympathetic to to slavery, slavery, but but that that issue issue was not not his his primary primary was concern. concern.
Nor did did many many of of his his associates associates and and supporters supporters give give it it aa Nor high priority. As were beginning to see the west as a see the west a to as were men who As beginning high priority. practical reservoir of economic and political wealth, they were among were and of reservoir economic wealth, they among political practical the first first eastern eastern conservatives conservatives to to redefine redefine the the west west as as aa necessity necessity and and the an opportunity opportunity instead instead of of aa liability. liability. They They were were beginning beginning to to view view an the frontier frontier as as their their Utopia, utopia, just just as as had had the the gentry gentry ever ever since since the the 1760$. IJ60S. the it began, began, and and even even throughout throughout its its two-year two-year life, life, the the Missouri Missouri When it Crisis was was more more aa fight fight among among political political leaders leaders than than aa great great national national Crisis issue. It It had had some in:Buence on the congressional congressional elections of 1820, elections of on the some influence issue. 1820, but obviously did not result in a mass attack on either slavery or the on either or the a mass attack in not result but did slavery obviously south. King King turned to northern northern antislavery advocates for support advocates for turned to south. antislavery support after his campaign. Even more more important, was the the it was he launched launched his after he important, it campaign. Even strength of the antislavery feeling among southern leaders that proleaders the southern that of prostrength antislavery feeling among was aa vided to the the final vided the the key final compromise. admitted that that it it was key to compromise. They They admitted "deplorable active support and pointed to their their active of the the colonizacolonizaevil," and "deplorahle evil," pointed to support of as proof of their concern. tion tion program as of their concern. proof program Concerned Concerned about the danger about the of upsetting the balance balance of the Conof the Condanger of upsetting the stitution, and about the parallel adjustments between the the about various stitution, parallel adjustments between the various the political elements elements of of the most southern leaders were southern leaders were not not political economy, economy, most contrite only about slavery, but manifestly anxious to to compromise. only contrite about slavery, but manifestly anxious compromise. A of them agreed good with a a resolution resolution from Kentucky which many of good many agreed with Kentucky which the danger defined the as that defined that of a congressional of a of power; danger as congressional usurpation usurpation of power; fear that a.a fear that Congress the conflict conflict with with the the power Congress would emerge emerge from the power to subordinate subordinate any to state "to "to perpetual reduce it it to to any state perpetual vassalage, vassalage, and reduce the condition the was a province." condition of of a aware that that the the struggle was province." And quite quite aware struggle far more about about control far control of the west of the west than than over over the the institution of institution of slavery, ready to settle for dividing the southerners were always to settle for the slavery, most southerners always ready dividing the latitude continent along latitude line line 36° westward from the Missisfrom the Missisalong the 36 30' 30' westward the final final result. sippi. the support of northerners result. Losing the of northerners sippi. That was the Losing support who were antislavery but not not pro-faction, defeated. antislavery but pro-faction, King King was defeated.
The Age of Mercantilism The Age of Mercantilism
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John Quincy and Madison Madison were nevertheless such as Men such as John were nevertheless Quincy Adams and deeply disturbed oy the implications of the crisis. "Should aa state disturbed the of of the crisis. "Should state of deeply by implications parties arise founded on geographical boundaries, and other physical arise founded on and other parties geographical boundaries, physical and permanent distinctions which which happen happen to to coincide with them," and coincide with them," permanent distinctions those great masses Madison fretted, Madison "what is is to control those to control fretted, "what repulsive masses great repulsive from awful shocks against each other?" Adams feared that nothing awful from shocks against each other?" feared that nothing would. Jefferson Jefferson agreed, agreed, but but embarked upon aa course action that that would. of action embarked upon course of helped to to destroy destroy the the very very corporate of mercantilism mercantilism that that might might ethic of helped corporate ethic have averted war. Recommending Recommending that that the of VirVirhave averted civil civil war. the University University of teaching its students to be self-conscious ginia define education as define education as teaching to be self-conscious its students ginia southerners, and and advising to send their sons his compatriots sons to to such such send their southerners, advising his compatriots to reliable schools northern institutions, institutions, he reliable a schools instead instead of to northern he encouraged of to encouraged a Rethoroughly conservative, even negative, kind of regionalism. Reof even kind conservative, thoroughly negative, regionalism. pudiating his his earlier earlier support he denounced prodenounced profor manufactures, manufactures, he pudiating support for In view of his tection and the virtues of physiocracy. his tection and emphasized In view of the virtues of emphasized physiocracy. remark that that John Taylor of Caroline followed the true philosophy remark true of the Caroline followed John Taylor philosophy was unfortunately in the wilderness, Jefferson's Jefferson's actions actions but was but the wilderness, unfortunately crying crying in suggest that he decided to join Taylor and transform the wilderness the wilderness that he to decided and transform suggest join Taylor into paradise. Certainly that was was the the impression impression and the a southern southern paradise. into a and the Certainly that advice bequeathed to to his he bequeathed advice that that he his successors. successors. Implicitly, therefore, Jefferson Jefferson finally provided aa definition of the the definition of Implicitly, therefore, finally provided society. It was a version of the physiocratic feudal utopia ungood unIt a feudal was of the version Utopia good society. physiocratic by outside outside influences and maintaining maintaining itself itself through through contaminated contaminated by influences and the magic magic of free trade. Together with Taylor, the the frontier with of the frontier and free trade. and Taylor, Together Jefferson thus created the illusion that ultimately became the rorothus that became the the illusion created Jefferson ultimately south-a land of magnolias, mammantic fiction of the ante-bellum a mantic fiction of the ante-bellum south land of magnolias, mies, and maidens watched watched over by benign benign and benevolent benevolent barons. barons. and maidens over by mies, Had he freed his his slaves he instead to Africa), instead freed slaves (even Africa), and sending them to (even sending thus honored honored the the vision vision of feudal Utopia utopia (for (for serfs were not not slaves), a feudal serfs were thus of a slaves), of American then the image the of him as an apostle would then as an American democracy democracy would apostle of image of was unable unable to have more more substance. But in in the the end end he he was freedom define freedom to define have substance. But terms of personal property property in in the form of beings. save the form of other in terms other human beings. of personal save in ADAMS, MONROE, CLAY PROTAGONISTS OF MARSHALL, AND CLAY-PROTAGONISTS ADAMS, MONROE, MARSHALL,
AN AMERICAN SYSTEM For the time, however, however, the and the of the consequences For the time, the implications consequences of implications and the positions positions taken by King King and Jefferson were overshadowed by by taken by the Jefferson were the last American mercantilism. mercantilism. Perhaps the of American the last accomplishments Perhaps the accomplishments of in most striking of these was the role of internal improvements the of internal of role these most improvements in striking
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sustaining national development despite an extended period of of ecoecosustaining national development despite an extended period nomic sluggishness and rapidly increasing immigration. Roughly nomic sluggishness and rapidly increasing immigration. Roughly 140000 people entered entered America America from abroad during every year year of of from abroad during every 14,000 people 1820S. Their spirit and skills no doubt put a Boor under the the a under the floor doubt the 18205. Their spirit and skills no put 1824) when corn for con£dence Americans at corn sold sold for at a a time time (e.g., of Americans confidence of (e.g., 1824) of eight cents a bushel, wheat for twenty-five, and a barrel of Bour a barrel flour eight cents a bushel, wheat for twenty-five, Such figures can be misleading if to mean aa brought $1.25. if read read to $1.25. Such figures can be misleading brought maintained and even even prolonged, desperate desperate depression. country maintained depression. The country prolonged, extended the development throughout the the decade. decade. its resources of its resources throughout extended the development of But measured against growth during during the the the years of the the rapid But measured years of rapid growth against the embargo, and particularly the immediate postwar years, the figures the immediate the and years, postwar figures particularly embargo, indicated rate of progress. a slower economic progress. of economic slower rate indicated a many mercantilists concluded that these proconditions prothat these conditions concluded mercantilists A good good many vided the the best best argument argument against laissez faire. "Whatever may be the be the laissez faire. vided may against abstract in favor of unrestricted unrestricted commerce," President abstract doctrine doctrine in favor of commerce/' President the Monroe remarked his annual message of of December December 3, in his annual message Monroe remarked in 1822, the 3, 1822, necessary conditions have "never occurred, and cannot be expected." cannot and "never have conditions occurred, expected." necessary Unlike an increasing number number of continued an increasing also continued of southerners, Unlike southerners, Monroe also to favor protection for manufactures. Anticipating the day favor tariff tariff protection for manufactures. to day Anticipating the manufacturing country country on an an extensive extensive that America America would be "a manufacturing that be "a arguscale," and having given given "full and having the opposition "full consideration" consideration" to to the scale," opposition arguin December, ments, he recommended "additional protection" in he "additional December, 1823. ments, protection" 1823. the the growing propensity of manufacturers to the And despite of manufacturers to view the despite growing propensity policy for for them them to manipulate for for the narrow advantage advantage tariff as a policy tariff as a to manipulate the narrow of their their interest faction, most most supporters the act of interest or or faction, of the of 1824 act of still supporters of 1824 still the framework of of mercantilism. mercantilism. viewed it it as viewed as within within the also intensified his labors labors in in behalf behalf of program of of Henry Clay intensified his of the the program Henry Clay also internal "an Ameriinternal improvements improvements and tariffs tariffs that that he began began calling calling "an American System." can conwill regulate itself!" he he sarcastically System." "Commerce will regulate itself!" sarcastically conceded to to his his critics. critics. "Yes, the extravagance extravagance of ceded of a a spendthrift "Yes, and the spendthrift heir will regulate itself ultimately." ultimately." Clay Clay argued the conconheir ... will that the regulate itself argued that of internal well as the delegation stitutionality internal improvements, as well as the of stitutionality of improvements, as delegation of such as as those commerce, was was settled by precepreceexplicit those over over commerce, settled by powers such explicit powers his efforts efforts in dent, Congress were mainly directed toward holdholdin Congress were mainly directed toward dent, and his to pass pieces of legislation. He ing votes to various pieces of legislation. ing enough enough southern votes pass various was aided by by Hezekiah Niles Niles and Matthew Carey, advocated Carey, who advocated the Niles Weekly Register the American System in in Niles and System incessantly incessantly Weekly Register and countless articles pamphlets. countless articles and pamphlets. More sophisticated popular arguments were advanced advanced by Frederick sophisticated popular arguments were by Frederick .
.
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List, who was was accurately accurately described by aa contemporary contemporary as as aa "highdescribed by "highclass publicist." Probably Probably the the most respectable theoretical theoretical argument argument most respectable whose for American System came from Daniel Raymond, the American for the from Daniel System came Raymond, whose Thoughts on Political Economy (1820) was the most systematic on Political Economy (1820) was the most systematic enenThoughts deavor to recapitulate the ideas British mercantilists mercantilists and and apply deavor to recapitulate the ideas of of British apply the efforts of List and them to to the the American American scene. them In reality, scene. In reality, the efforts of List and of the the English as Petty, Petty, Raymond were feeble feeble echoes such as echoes of Raymond were English giants giants such Child, and and none none of and Steuart, overcome the the suspicion of them could overcome them could Child, Steuart, and suspicion that they was merely that were spokesmen an industrial faction that that was for an industrial faction merely spokesmen for they were using the the rhetoric rhetoric of of mercantilism mercantilism for the objectives of for furthering using objectives of furthering the an interest interest group. an group. Intellectually well as therefore, Clay received his as well as politically, Intellectually as politically, therefore, Clay received his most effective help from from Monroe and Adams. Adams. Both Both men realized realized most effective help Monroe and to mercantilism mercantilism than than economics, economics. Monroe perthat there there was that was more more to Monroe perthat "one of interrelated and balanced sisted sisted in in his his conviction balanced conviction that "one system" of interrelated and system" parts would would accomplish purposes" and the and "promote national purposes" parts "promote the accomplish "great "great national welfare of whole." Despite its rambling and redundant length, of the welfare the whole." its and redundant length, Despite rambling on internal one Monroe's message of is one Monroe's special of 1822 on internal improvements special message improvements is of the illuminating and rewarding documents documents of the era. the most of era. most illuminating of the and rewarding Written to to explain his veto of a particular bill, the essay was a noble Written a a noble the was his veto of essay explain particular bill, whole idea plea for would save for a a constitutional idea constitutional amendment that save the the whole that would plea of and mutually responsible system. of an an interconnected interconnected and mutually responsible system. warned of of three three basic nation. Monroe warned basic dangers the nation. dangers confronting confronting the Continued without a sense of corporate responsibility a Continued expansion without of sense expansion corporate responsibility would produce feelings, and prejudices" prejudices" that that would "sectional interests, interests, feelings, produce "sectional might disrupt "the bond of union itself." But undertaken without a might disrupt "the bond of union itself." But undertaken without a constitutional amendment, internal improvements would also upset constitutional amendment, internal improvements would also upset the balance produce tyranny ultimate the balance of of the the Constitution and produce Constitution and tyranny and ultimate was clearly speaking for for violence. Furthermore-and here Monroe was violence. Furthermore and here clearly speaking vigorously against the implicaimplicathe southerners had reacted reacted so the southerners who had so vigorously against the tions of as well as for of property propertythe Missouri well as tions of the Missouri Crisis, for all all men of Crisis, as such action establish action without without a constitutional amendment would establish a constitutional such ominous precedents precedents for for the the outright outright seizure seizure or other infringement or other ominous infringement of private property. of private property. should not But Monroe's the rights private property property should not Monroe's concern of private But concern for for the rights of for southern be wholly attributed to the rising vehemence of southern concern for be of concern to vehemence attributed the rising wholly before that five essay came four or five years before that slavery. For one thing, his came four or his For one years essay slavery. thing, conflict bebeoutcry began began its crescendo. More importantly, importantly, the the conflict its first first crescendo. outcry was a tween the the rights rights of property and the a dilemma the common good of property tween good List,
class publicist."
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implicit in mercantilist thought. Monroe put his his finger the conconfinger on the implicit in mercantilist thought. Monroe put flict and asked for a public resolution. Without an amendment, Without a resolution. flict and asked for amendment, public was no warrant to to allow property "to be examined by by men of there was of "to be allow property there no warrant to layoff the roads and science; . . . to authorize commissioners off the roads to lay science; ... to authorize commissioners take the the land at aa valuation necessary, and to to concanals; ... conif necessary, valuation if land at ... to to take canals; Nor was there any sanction to go into business struct the works." to into business struct the works." Nor was there any sanction go on any such such amendment, scale. Failing on such such an an extensive extensive scale. amendment, Monroe Failing any expansion to provide aa way way could only back on on the magic of to provide of expansion the magic fall back could only fall of expansion out of the impasse. impasse. America America had a "system had a out of the expansion "system capable capable of over aa vast vast territory territory not not only weakening either either [state or without weakening over [state or only without national] government, but enjoying the peculiar advantage of adding of the but advantage adding peculiar enjoying national] government, thereby new strength vigor." and vigor." strength and thereby to devalue property rights rights John was more devalue property was more willing Adams John Quincy willing to Quincy in general welfare. first annual annual message Deof DeHis first welfare. His favor of of the the general in favor message of was thus the great statement of the philosophy cember the of the statement thus was cember 6, 6, 1825, philosophy and great 1825, the domestic program of American mercantilism. mercantilism. Two issues issues lay of American the domestic program lay at of the the problem: problem: "the dominion of over himself" "the dominion of man over himself" as as at the the heart heart of well as people and nature, the responsibility responsibility of of the the and the as over well over other other people nature, and present generation for "the millions of our posterity." of our "the unborn unborn millions posterity." Hence present generation for as heretofore, take counsel from their duties, Americans "must counsel their as take "must still, Americans still, heretofore, duties, rather than than their fears." Adams was unquestionably unquestionably aa Calvinist, and their fears." rather Calvinist, and the rigors of that philosophy no doubt cramped his personal style, of doubt the that his cramped personal style, rigors philosophy was also a man who belied belied the the common assumption but he but also a that a a he was assumption that America to become truly Calvinist in fear. Calvinist lived lived in fear. He challenged to become America challenged truly It was was Jefferson Jefferson and his followers unique by its fears. fears. It his followers by mastering unique mastering its up to to the the tension tension that that freedom involved. They They not face face up who did did not freedom involved. disciplined. Adams insisted insisted that that denied was possible possible to to be be free it was denied it free and disciplined. was the meaningful definition of freedom. was the only definition of freedom. only meaningful of civil "The great great object object of his civil government," declared in in his government," Adams declared first annual message, "is the improvement of the condition of those annual "is first the improvement of the condition of those message, who are the social social compact." that end recommended are parties to the end he he recommended parties to compact." To that "laws promoting "laws promoting the the improvement improvement of of agriculture, agriculture, commerce, and commerce, and manufactures, the the cultivation cultivation and and encouragement mechanof the the mechanmanufactures, encouragement of ic[al] of the elegant arts." His Secretary the elegant arts." His of the the Treasury, ic[al] and of Secretary of Treasury, Richard Richard Rush, Rush, filed report which which expanded this filed a supporting on this supporting report expanded on "intimate ~'intimate connection" between manufactures wealth, the the connection" between "and the manufactures "and the wealth, of the power, and the the happiness happiness of the country," country," and proposed "timely and and power, proposed "timely to "organize the whole of the the judicious measures" measures" designed whole labor" labor" of judicious designed to "organize the in order order "to country "to lift lift up up [its] condition." Speaking direcdy condition." on country in [its] Speaking directly on
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own, his message message with with aa set of detailed detailed proproconcluded his set of own, Adams concluded posals embracing roads and canals, a national university, scientific and roads a national canals, university, scientific posals embracing proof that that men exploration and research, and literature. And as and research, and literature. as proof exploration could put the common good above personal and party considerations, could put the good above personal and party considerations, cabi~ he proceeded to make presidential presidential appointments appointments (even he in the the cabi(even in proceeded to net) on basis of quality rather rather than political allegiance. the basis of quality than political on the net) allegiance. were the results of for an American System. Nor were the results of this an American this movement for System limited to such rigorous and documents. Notwithstanding such rigorous and moving limited to documents. Notwithstanding moving his reluctance without full his to move very reluctance to far without full constitutional constitutional sanction, sanction, very far and despite the growing opposition from southerners, Monroe did did and the from southerners, opposition despite growing approve the General Survey Act of 1824. and that law introduced the and that law introduced General of Act approve Survey 1824, aa period period of River and and lighthouse appropriof extensive extensive involvement. involvement. River lighthouse appropriby aa whole whole series of government interventions ations were ations were followed followed by series of interventions government mixed enterprises* enterprises. Government Government in the the form of stock purchases in in form of stock purchases in mixed became an economic partner, partner, for example, in the Chesapeake became an economic and for example, in the Chesapeake and Delaware the Louisville Canal (around the falls on the Delaware Canal, on the the Louisville Canal the falls Canal, (around Ohio), the development of the Dismal Swamp route, and the Chesathe the of the and ChesaDismal Ohio), development Swamp route, peake and and Ohio Canal. Canal. peake In In four four years as much the Adams Administration almost as Administration spent years the spent almost as had been allocated in the previous on internal internal improvements as had in the allocated been improvements previous twenty~four. Indeed, by 1826 the government was the largest 1826 the the was twenty-four. Indeed, by largest single government single the country. It handled more funds, em~ economic entrepreneur in economic entrepreneur in the It more handled funds, emcountry. played more people, purchased more goods, and borrowed more ployed people, purchased more goods, and borrowed operating investment capital For and investment other enterprise. than any enterprise. For any other operating and capital than to have believed in weak and minimal generations that are reputed minimal generations that are reputed to have believed in government, the the Founding Founding Fathers and their their first first offspring created Fathers and government, offspring created a rather rather large and active active institution. coincidence of ground-breaka of ground-breakinstitution. A coincidence large and ing ceremonies July 4> to symbolize their accomaccomceremonies on July both their 1828, was to ing 4, 1828, symbolize both plishments and and the the persistence persistence of pattern they they established. Only the pattern established. Only of the plishments aa few few miles where Adams turned dirt for for the the PotomacPotomacfrom where turned dirt miles away away from first railroad railroad to to the west. Ohio Canal, the first the west. were to to begin other men were Canal, other begin the the principle of government assistance to to private And the companies private companies government assistance principle of was to to know no no greater greater application than in in the of land land the pattern was pattern of application than grants to railroads unless, perhaps, it was in the direct and indirect the indirect it in direct was to railroads unless, grants perhaps, subsidies and World to corporation subsidies to during World War II and enterprise during corporation enterprise II. War II. In their own time, time, Monroe and Adams also also facilitated facilitated and apIn their apof national bank. proved the continued rec(YVery and maturation of the national bank. the maturation the continued recovery proved rehabilitated its it from its worst enemies enemies and rehabilitated its Having saved its own worst saved it Having
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routine operations, routine operations,
Langdon Cheves resigned. He had had taken taken as as much Cheves resigned. Langdon as he could stand and far more than most men would have abuse have most than more far abuse as he could stand and In Bray endured. Nicholas Biddle of Philadelphia succeeded him. In him. succeeded endured. Nicholas Biddle of Philadelphia Bray as one one to to whom the world has has Hammond's recent recent words, words, "as the world *as naive naive as Hammond's like Adams been singularly kind may be;' Biddle was somewhat like in in been singularly kind may be," Biddle was thinking that the effective and responsible performance of public of public thinking that the effective and responsible performance duties was sufficient to its perpetuation. its own perpetuation. sufficient to duties was But Biddle was was quite quite unlike unlike Adams in in being being aa man who reveled reveled But Biddle in pleasures of while discharging its duties. could write write duties. He could of life in the life while the pleasures discharging its casual female acquaintance a bit witty, flirtatious flirtatious doggerel to aa casual female acquaintance a bit of of witty, doggerel to seem as brittle as as baked baked that made made Adams's Adams's labored at poetry poetry seem as brittle efforts at that labored efforts He could also be as unyielding as a granite crag to stocka raw clay. to as stockcould also be as raw granite crag unyielding clay. holders who complained complained that profit reports reports were were too too skimpy. his profit that his holders skimpy. Biddle managed the bank bank to the development development of of the the councounfacilitate the to facilitate Biddle managed the try without the wild ups-and-downs so often characteristic of an so of often characteristic an without the wild try ups-and-downs expanding economic system. did a better job than the directors than the did better a directors economic He job system. expanding of the Bank Bank of of England. England. Under Under his his leadership the bank bank not not only only of the leadership the established aa national national system of credit balancing which assisted the credit established of assisted the balancing system and probably more, but sought with conwest as but as much as the east, as the and with west coneast, sought probably more, siderable success save smaller banks from from their their own inexperience inexperience siderable success to to save smaller banks It was ultimately his undoing, for what the militant militant and greed. for and It his what the greed. undoing, ultimately of laissez nollS faire came to help without without advocates advocates of laissez nous to demand was help faire came In their minds, at any rate, that was the working responsibilities. In was the their at that minds, responsibilities. any rate, working definition definition of of democratic freedom. democratic freedom. attempt to to destroy bank by by bleeding bleeding it it to death Their Their first first attempt the bank to death destroy the local taxes taxes was was blocked blocked by by Chief Chief Justice John Marshall, Marshall, who through local Justice John through wrote the the legal legal proprowrote the principles of American mercantilism mercantilism into into the principles of cedure Even before before Marshall laid down the law of cedure and the of the the land. land. Even Marshall laid such guideposts, such however, the the lower lower courts courts had had affirmed those affirmed one of those one of guideposts, however, in cases During the principles in cases dealing with labor-union labor-union action. the coloaction. During coloprinciples dealing with nial nial and revolutionary periods, some local local mechanics mechanics had had organized organized revolutionary periods, by trades trades (in particular the and tailors), tailors), and and by by 1799 the shoemakers shoemakers and by (in particular 1799 they were bargaining with employers and using such with and they bargaining collectively collectively employers using such the strike as the boycott to to strengthen poweapons as strike and the the social social boycott their poweapons strengthen their sition. strike of sition. A strike of this this kind kind in raised the issue whether in Philadelphia raised the issue whether Philadelphia the mercantilist industrial the mercantilist England was in industrial code code of of Tudor England was to to apply apply in America. first upheld in all all particulars, it was used to declare America. At first in it was used to declare upheld particulars, that that even combinations to raise wages' were were illegal illegal conspiracies conspiracies combinations to raise wages the against the common good. against good.
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That total proscription proscription was by aa New York York court That total was modified in modified by court in 1809 by a decision legalizing organizations to improve wages. But a decision 1809 by legalizing organizations to improve wages. But further was "too and which which action which which was further action "too arbitrary and coercive, coercive, and arbitrary and as precious as any they went to deprive their fellow citizens of rights went to deprive their fellow citizens of rights as precious as any they as conspiracy. The distinction was rein~ contend for" was defined for'* was defined as conspiracy. The distinction was reincontend forced a Pittsburgh which proscribed mechanics forced by decision in in 1815 by a Pittsburgh decision 1815 which proscribed mechanics impoverish or a third third from acting direct means means to from to impoverish or prejudice acting "by "by direct prejudice a to do do acts prejudicial to Later cases cases person, or or to to the the community." acts prejudicial person, community." Later during upheld that that view. England, such an outlook the 1820S i82os upheld such an view. As in in England, outlook during the its explicit explicit references references to the corporate was not not only in its was mercantilist in to the only mercantilist corporate responsibility of labor organizations, and in its clear attack on the the attack on of labor and its clear in responsibility organizations, but its implicit meaning was very similar monopoly power of guilds, similar of but its was monopoly power guilds, very implicit meaning -labor would benefit benefit with with and general improvement improvement of labor would of and from from the the general the political economy. the political economy. Marshall's were important because he he Marshall's Supreme Court decisions decisions were Supreme Court important because such a national system and because he, was concerned was to strengthen concerned to because a national and such he, strengthen system too, ruled ruled against against monopolies monopolies in in the the economic a member economic sphere. too, sphere. As a land, insurance companies, of the Virginia Virginia gentry gentry with with holdings holdings in of the in land, insurance companies, canals, banks, and even early railroad ventures, Marshall was aa firm firm and even railroad Marshall canals, banks, ventures, early a "paternal legislature" that advocate mercantilism. He favored of mercantilism. advocate of favored a "paternal legislature" that would support internal improvements through mixed companies and would internal mixed support companies and improvements through ways encourage encourage and regulate the economy. Thus he upheld in in other other ways he and regulate the economy. Thus upheld the sanctity contracts and included included charters of contracts the of incorporation charters of sanctity of incorporation within that definition. that definition. within On the the other other hand, hand, he he sensed the potential potential danger corporations sensed the of corporations danger of being given given aa certain certain kind kind of by of "immortality" and "individuality" being "immortality" and "individuality by in any event, that that aa corporation such rulings. such declared, in rulings. He explicitly any event, corporation explicitly declared, Acts of of should "not in the the civil should "not share the country." share in civil government of the country." Acts government of incorporation did not not confer confer an that gave an individuality gave "political "political incorporation did individuality that that Marshall was power or political character." a political or a It would appear Marshall was character.'* It power appear that trying through through such specific restrictions restrictions to to prevent prevent the development the development such specific trying the "invisible of of of what later as the "invisible government" described as later Americans Americans described government" of large corporate He also invalidated monopoly charters, also invalidated charters, large corporate enterprises. enterprises. monopoly as case of v. Ogden concerning aa steamboat steamboat as in the case in the of Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) (1824) concerning York. These bear aa striking resemblance franchise in New York. resemblance franchise in decisions bear These decisions striking to open open up up the the to the of the the struggles England to to the key in England documents of struggles in key documents time system created by mercantilism, and yet at the same time prevent and at the created mercantilism, prevent yet system by anyone balance of of the the political economy. the balance element from from destroying political economy. any one element destroying the the nanaMarshall had had already already pointed pointed out out in the case case concerning in the Marshall concerning the 5*
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bank v. Maryland, Maryland, 1819) corporation is "a corporation is that "a bank (McCullock 1819) that (McCtdloc^ v. of effecting somenever used for its own sake, but for the purpose never used for its sake, but for the purpose of effecting something else." Thus the the bank bank was because the the governgovernwas constitutional constitutional because else.'* Thus thing with such powers, on the due execution ment was the due execution was "intrusted "intrusted with such ample ment powers, ample of which happiness and the nation vitally dedenation so so vitally of the and prosperity the happiness of which the prosperity of added somewhat later that the purpose of the Constitupends." the of Constituthe that later He added somewhat purpose pends." tion was was "to an uniform uniform and general system." and general "to maintain tion maintain an system." ''Throughout 'Throughout this vast republic, from the St. Croix to the Gulf of Mexico, from of Mexico, to Gulf the St. Croix the vast from this republic, to be be collected expended, the Atlantic Pacific, revenue collected and expended, is to revenue is the Atlantic to to the the Pacific, armies are be marched marched and Marshall's support for and supported." armies are to to be support for supported." Marshall's expansion, which became explicit in his decision in the case of in the case in of his decision became which explicit expansion, American Insurance Insurance Company v. Canter (1828), implicit in was v. Canter in American implicit Company (1828), his mercantilism mercantilism and sharpened by by his his fear fear of of what would happen happen and sharpened his if that "the price of of labor until labor will will cheapen, "the price fretted that if it it stopped. He fretted cheapen, until stopped. it affords bare subsistence to the the laborer." laborer." a bare subsistence to it affords a Marshall's thoroughly mercantilist decisions were were delivered delivered in in a mercantilist decisions a Marshall's thoroughly was as vigorous as his philosophy. For that matter, most prose that For that matter, most prose that was as vigorous as his philosophy. of the great art art of the Age Age of the conconthe great Mercantilism appeared in the of Mercantilism of of the appeared in stant discussions debates over the problems problems of political econeconof the the political stant discussions and and debates over the omy. of the the speeches the Missouri example, for example, Missouri Crisis, Crisis, for omy. Some of during the speeches during were magnificent rhetorical achievements. Rufus King and William Rufus were rhetorical William achievements. magnificent King Pinckney were particularly powerful and stylish. John Sergeant and were of stylish. John Sergeant of Pinckney particularly powerful Pennsylvania won a unique accolade from Randolph of Roanoke, a accolade from of Roanoke, Randolph Pennsylvania unique best could could crack crack syntax: like aa whip, whip. UN ever spea^ speak again! again/ "Never who at his best at his syntax like Never speaJ^ speak again!" cried Randolph, half-persuaded by the peragain!" cried Randolph, half-persuaded by the performance. formance. also provided provided aa good good many documents of John of John Quincy Quincy Adams also many documents So had Madison, whose letter to Jefenduring literary significance. So whose had letter to Madison, Jefenduring literary significance. ferson of 24, 1787, which he he reviewed reviewed the the proceedings proceedings of of October October 24, ferson in which of 1787, in of rethe constitutional convention, outlined outlined the the "feudal the constitutional convention, "feudal system of resystem publics," and summarized his his theory theory of of expansion, expansion, provided a typical typical publics/' provided a of display of his abilities and set a high standard of performance. his abilities a set of standard display high performance. produced several that were Adams nevertheless nevertheless produced several items items that were superior. His superior. His for example, can be diary, be resisted resisted only only by by those those whose whose feeling for diary, for example, <:an feeling for life is so underdeveloped as to count nonexistent. And his his Report Report life is as to so underdeveloped as nonexistent. count as Upon Measures is many respects respects the classic docudocuis in in many the classic Upon Weights Weights and Measures ment of of the the Age Age of of Mercantilism. Mercantilism. It It is is philosophy, philosophy, ethics, political ethics, political economy, policy integrated integrated in in aa government government report report that he wrote wrote that he economy, and policy tional tional
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while executing executing aa particularly particularly heavy load of of duties as Secretary of while duties as heavy load Secretary o State. State. Pointing out that that men began in terms terms of of Pointing out began by by measuring everything in measuring everything detheir own bodies, bodies, Adams argued that the formation of society their that the formation of deargued society manded that that they beyond this this egoistic egoistic universe universe of One's manded of the self. One's the self. they get get beyond identity must be sustained through a sense of proportion based upon be must a sustained sense of based identity through proportion upon rean acceptance of standards designed to order "the multiplying o to an standards "the order acceptance designed multiplying relations between and man now superadded to those between between man and lations between to those superadded man and things." be just" just" and Such "standards and "uniform" "uniform" "standards should should be things." Such and upon upon the the because of the happiness happiness and of their because their great "influence upon upon the great "influence is of because morals of of nations." nations." The issue morals issue is "momentous importance" of "momentous importance** because it affects elements as of affects such such apparently it as the disconnected elements the safety safety of apparently disconnected seamen welfare of individual housewife. housewife. "The home, . and the seamen and the welfare of the the individual "The home, the market, market, the have to other: aa contradictory, the the shop" to trust trust each each other: contradictory, shop" have double house, it cripples hand," and and standard "enters double standard "enters every it every hand," every house, cripples every thus effects the "well-being of every man, woman, and child, in the effects the thus the and in child, "well-being of every man, woman, No other philosopher or political economist in the community." other philosopher or political economist in the community." humanized the the elementary problem of of world ever personalized and ever personalized world and humanized elementary problem mundane but vital element weights and and measures-or of measures or any but vital element of other mundane weights any other their system-in a comparable was, and and their manner. The document was, system in a comparable manner. remains, aa magnificent triumph of the Weltanschauung of mercanof the mercanof remains, magnificent triumph Weltanschauung tilism that that transcends transcends its its time time and place. tilism and place. '
nn: MONROE DOCTRINE AS THE MANIFESTO THE nn: AMERICAN EMPIRE OF THE played aa key key role role in formulating the Adams also also played in formulating the Monroe Doctrine, Doctrine, American mercantilism mercantilism a statement expansionism inherent inherent in a in American statement of of the the expansionism it that was dearly manifesto of of the American empire. that the manifesto the American Though it clearly the empire. Though is as the cornerstone of American diplomacy, most most is generally treated as of the cornerstone American treated generally diplomacy, It is is thus thus analyses the doctrine its negative negative aspects. of the doctrine emphasize analyses of emphasize its aspects. It presented as a defensive statement of the territorial and administraa territorial as defensive the administrastatement of presented North and and South no further colonization, tive integrity of North tive further colonization, South America: America: no integrity of claims, and in return America no transfer extension of and America or extension of existing in return no transfer or existing claims, interfere in European affairs. This standard not interfere in European standard interpretation would not affairs. This interpretation it were were conconneglects three three major major facts: facts: the the men who formulated formulated it neglects with European European commercial and economic cerned as much with economic expansion cerned as commercial and expansion it as as aa positive, positive, as for colonization; they viewed viewed it as with with its schemes for its schemes colonization; they in the hemisphere, expansionist statement of American supremacy in the statement of hemisphere, supremacy expansionist
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and Monroe actually intervened intervened in in European with the very and Monroe actually politics with the very European politics speech in which he asserted that Europe should stay out of same should of that he asserted in which same speech stay out Europe American affairs. American affairs. Aware political economy of the the United United States was estabStates was estabthe political that the Aware that economy of lished, and properly interpreting interpreting the the results results of the War of of 1812 as of the as and properly lished, being fundamentally favorable to its position in the hemisphere, in the hemisphere, being fundamentally favorable to its position they could American leaders leaders reached reached an If they could exexobvious conclusion. conclusion. If an obvious American clude further penetration as as Spain's clude further European authority collapsed, collapsed, Spain's authority European penetration then the would remain remain as the predominant predominant power power in as the in the United United States States would then the hemisphere. hemisphere. Monroe Monroe thus thus reasserted the expansionist thesis at at reasserted the the expansionist thesis of December 2, 1823, which announced the the end end of which announced the of December of his the his message 2, 1823, message doctrine. Having urged urged further and infor manufactures manufactures and infurther support doctrine. Having support for as well as warning Europe off Latin America ternal improvements, Latin of? America as well as ternal Europe warning improvements, while he he encouraged the Greek revolution, he he concluded with this this concluded with Greek revolution, while encouraged the well-nigh classic paraphrase of Madison's theory. "It is manifest that "It is of manifest Madison's that classic theory. paraphrase well-nigh by enlarging the basis basis of and increasing number of of the number our system, of our system, and by increasing the enlarging the States, the system itself has been greatly strengthened in both its both has been in its the itself States, greatly strengthened system [state and national] branches. Consolidation and have and disunion disunion have [state and national] branches. Consolidation thereby been rendered equally impracticable." been rendered equally impracticable." thereby was equally Madison's theory familiar with with Madison's exone who was of exAs one theory of equally familiar pansion (he mentioned it in his eulogy of Madison), his of it specifically in mentioned eulogy pansion (he Madison), specifically to acquire acquire Cuba, and expected the the United United States States to Adams fully Cuba, Texas, Texas, and fully expected other of territory in North America. But he was at least as in tidbits of But he other tidbits North America. was as at least territory concerned with with establishing establishing American commercial commercial supremacy as he concerned he supremacy as was with with blocking further colonial nawas colonial experiments blocking further by European experiments by European nations. This balanced expansionist sentiment behind the Monroe This balanced behind tions. sentiment the Monroe expansionist revealed in the congressional congressional discussions about Doctrine was well well revealed Doctrine in the discussions about Oregon which some thought was threatened by Russia as well as threatened by Russia as well as Oregon which thought by England. England. Francis have been been exof Massachusetts Francis Baylies Massachusetts might exby Baylies of might have to concern pected to concern himself himself with of the the with the the "magnificent pected "magnificent prospects" prospects" of Napoleon to his Pacific hut he he also Pacific commerce, also quoted to emphasize commerce, but quoted Napoleon emphasize his support territorial expansion: expansion: he he "never uttered words words of more for territorial "never uttered of more support for " wisdom than commerce, and he said, said, '1 than when he 'I want want ships, and colonies.' colonies.' .. ships, commerce, Robert Wright Robert of Maryland Maryland called called for for expansion because "there "there is is Wright of expansion because less danger less of separatism of or 30 States than in a a confederacy of or 20 than States danger of separatism in confederacy 30 a smaller in one of smaller number." in number." of a Senator James Senator James Barbour political science Barbour agreed. advance in in political science agreed. "Our advance has cancelled the has already cancelled the dogmas of theory. have already of have We asceralready dogmas theory. already ascertained that republics tained ... that are not necessarily limited to small terriare not limited to terrismall republics necessarily .
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tories. . . . Whether America is must is capable o Whether America indefinite extent, extent, must capable of indefinite be left to posterity to decide." And speaking for a growing consensus, to to decide." be left posterity speaking for a growing consensus, John of Virginia Virginia accurately that "all contemplate concluded that "all contemplate John Floyd Floyd of accurately concluded It would provide land for for with joy" continued westward expansion. with joy" continued westward expansion. It would provide land farmers, the fur trade," "engross the whale whale and protect fur trade," farmers, "procure "procure and protect the "engross the trade .... All this rich commerce trade," and and "control the South "control the Sea trade. South Sea All this rich commerce trade," be governed, governed, if if not not engrossed, by capitalists at Oregon." could could be engrossed, by capitalists at Oregon." Adams shared commercial interest in the Northwest, and and it such commercial interest in shared such the Northwest, it contributed to to his about the Monroe Doctrine. Even more his thinking contributed about the Monroe more Doctrine. Even thinking in his mind, however, was the importance of trade with with Latin in his mind, the importance of trade Latin however, was By 1820, Adams, in his instructions instructions to American America. America. By in his to American 1820, when Adams, as "deserving "deserving of of particular particular attention," this trade trade agents, described it it as attention," this agents, described had developed into a significant commerce that vigorous European a had into commerce that developed significant vigorous European intervention perhaps even even destroy. Baltimore intervention would would curtail curtail and and perhaps destroy. Baltimore specialized in flour and furniture, but Salem, York, in flour and Philadelbut New furniture, York, PhiladelSalem, specialized Orleans, shipped shoes, cotton textiles, fertilizer, phia, and even and even New cotton Orleans, shipped shoes, textiles, fertilizer, phia, pitch, and lumber into cities as as Rio Rio de de Janeiro. carrying and lumber into such such cities Janeiro. The carrying pitch, was also American shippers carried Asian goods to trade was also important. trade American carried Asian important. shippers goods to Chile, Argentine beef to Cuba, and European items to the entire to the beef and entire to items Chile, Argentine Cuba, European region. British British agents reported to Foreign Secretary Canto Foreign George Canregion. agents reported Secretary George ning that Americans controlled the Argentine flour market, that that the Americans controlled flour market, that Argentine ning "greater than that of any other natheir tonnage tonnage in in Uruguay Uruguay was of their that was "greater than any other nation," and that Peru's commerce with Asia "has been entirely ention," and that Peru's commerce with Asia "has been entirely enby the North Americans." grossed grossed by the North Americans." of this this strong Henry Clay half Aware of that in in half predicted that strong position, position, Henry Clay predicted a century Americans, "in relation to to South America," would "occupy a "in relation South America," century Americans, "occupy as the the people people of of New England do to to the the rest rest of the same position of the same England do position as of Clay's Clay's remark unquestionthe United United States." the States." The implications remark unquestionimplications of as much as the validity of ably southerners in in 1820 disturbed some southerners 1820 as as the ably disturbed validity of his to upset upset Latin Latin Americans Americans in the 20th in the 20th century. was to his prediction century. prediction was His enthusiastic establish an an American American System emHis to establish enthusiastic campaign System emcampaign to bracing the hemisphere was important for several reasons. Promising several reasons. the for hemisphere important Promising bracing "mercantile profits," an an influx the for the influx of of Spanish markets for "mercantile profits," Spanish gold, gold, and markets also farmers and other entrepreneurs entrepreneurs of of the the Mississippi Mississippi west, west, he also and other farmers assured his countrymen that that the the expansion of America's America's ideological his countrymen assured ideological expansion of as well as economic security. principles would provide military as well as economic Being security. Being provide military principles be like the United he argued, not be the new countries countries would not like the United States, States, he argued, the prone to oppose its basic policies. its basic to policies. prone oppose was wary wary of of Clay's rambunctious ideological assertiveness, Adams was Clay's rambunctious ideological assertiveness, tories.
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but he he was agreed on the importance of of commercial commercial activity. but was fully activity. fully agreed on the importance His instructions of May 1823, to an American American agent was His instructions of May 27, agent who was 27, 1823, to an being sent to Colombia left no doubt about his basic strategy. The basic about his doubt no left to Colombia sent strategy. being American American
political economy was was now strong strong enough take ad. to take adenough to political economy vantage of its great relative superiority over the emerging the over new relative its of emerging superiority great vantage nations. "As and manufacturers, are already so far "As navigators nations. navigators and manufacturers, we are already so far advanced in aa career career upon upon which are yet yet to enter," he he ex· to enter," exwhich they advanced in they are plained, "that we may, for many years after the conclusion of the the conclusion of the may, for many years after plained, "that war, maintain maintain with them aa commercial intercourse, highly beneficial commercial intercourse, with them war, highly beneficial to both both parties, as carriers to and for them of numerous articles of of to and them articles of carriers for as to parties, manufacture and and foreign produce." manufacture foreign produce." As he noted, Adams was aware that the United United States that the was aware States he explicitly As explicitly noted, had reached the point point anticipated by Washington in his Farewell in his Farewell had reached the anticipated by Washington Address: the the Weltanschauung the political political economy of mercanmercanand the Address: economy of Weltanschauung and tilism had built a nation strong enough to secure many of its objecits secure of to tilism had built a nation strong enough many objectives through through economic economic power. power. And on on becoming becoming President he President he tives proceeded to act upon the fact, recommending in I826 that the 1826 that act the in to the fact, recommending upon proceeded United States and take the lead proposed conference of in a a proposed conference of take the lead in attend and United States attend the new Spanish-American republics. Explaining to the Congress to the the Spanish-American republics. Explaining Congress what Washington had meant, pointedly drew the obvious the obvious what meant, Adams pointedly Washington had conclusion. not say," he asked rhetorically, "that the period he asked "that the conclusion* "Must "Must we not say," rhetorically, period which he predicted as then not far off has arrived?" The answer which he predicted as then not far off has arrived?" answer was obviously proposed to to adjust the nation's nation's foreign "Yes," and Adams proposed adjust the obviously "Yes," foreign policy to to fit the new circumstances. would fit the circumstances. Economic Economic predominance policy predominance would without limiting limiting America's America's freedom action. mean effective effective control control without of action. freedom of But Adams ran ran into stiff opposition. his proproBut into stiff Southerners disliked disliked his opposition. Southerners posal on several counts. They understood the domestic implications several understood the counts. domestic posal They implications of his of remarks about mature economy-it his remarks about a mature a weakening meant a of economy it meant weakening of their of their position. position. Many of them also coveted Cuba as new slave terrialso as coveted slave terriMany tory, and they they were not interested encouraging the revoluwere not interested in the general in encouraging tory, general revolutionary fervor lest it it triumph triumph on fervor lest the island on the island in in the the form form of of a a colored colored tionary republic~r at home as Even more significant, howor at as slave slave revolts. revolts. Even republic significant, however, the criticism criticism leveled leveled at by aa good good many northerners. at Adams by northerners. ever, was the many cornered him with They with his earlier opposition his own earlier to indiscriminate indiscriminate They cornered opposition to Far Far from representing merely a delaying by the the expansion. a action by expansion. representing merely delaying action the debate south, the debate over the Panama Conference was a fundamental over the a Conference was fundamental south, about America's argument mercantilist foreign foreign. policy policy and America's mercantilist and its its impli. argument about implifor future cations for domestic affairs. cations future domestic affairs.
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THE UNRESOLVED DILEMMA Dn-EMMA OF AMERICAN :MERCANTILISM MERCANTILISM
Neither Adams nor nor other other leaders any longer the issue: Neither leaders could could any evade the issue: longer evade absolutely essential to American American democracy and so absolutely essential to Was expansion expansion so democracy and prosperity that it had to be sustained despite the fact that it might it had that be the fact sustained that it to despite might prosperity well subvert basic principles principles of of self-government, self~government, and even the the subvert the the basic well and even existence of the the union? union? Adams might might draw between existence of draw a a distinction distinction between territorial expansion trade connections connections but but that did that did territorial and expanded expansion and expanded trade not enable him to wriggle free of the dilemma. For he wanted not enable to wriggle free of the dilemma. For he wanted Texas Pacific coast, coast, and understood perfectly perfectly the political the Pacific and he Texas and the the political he understood consequences America's greater dealing with with of America's in dealing economic power consequences of power in greater economic underdeveloped nations. Nor was he unaware of the implications the of nations. was he of Nor unaware underdeveloped implications of all the to spread American ideas, principles, and instituthe agitation all to and instituAmerican ideas, principles, agitation spread tions throughout throughout the the world. world. tions on the the Fourth of July, July, in in fact, had delivered As early as 1821, he had delivered Fourth of 1821, on fact, he early as aa devastating criticism of that kind of expansion. The true America, of criticism kind true that of America, devastating expansion. he warned, warned, "goes not abroad monsters to he to destroy abroad in of monsters in search search of "goes not destroy..... She well knows that by once under other than her her well knows that by banners than once enlisting other banners enlisting under own, they even the banners independence, she would even the of foreign banners of she would own, were they foreign independence, involve beyond the the power power of in all the wars wars of involve herself, of all the of extrication, herself, beyond extrication, in interest and intrigue, intrigue, of of individual and ambition, interest and individual avarice, ambition, avarice, envy, envy* which assume the colors the standard standard of which freedom. . . . assume the of freedom. colors and and usurp usurp the She might become the dictatress of the world; she would no longer become no the dictatress of she the would world; might longer be the of her her own spirit." the ruler be ruler of spirit." Having rendered rendered this this unequivocal judgment, Adams might might well well Having unequivocal judgment, have squirmed years later Woodbury of have squirmed five five years of later when Senator Senator Levi Levi Woodbury Hampshire rose rose in in Congress to ask the President adhered New Hampshire President still still adhered ask if if the Congress to or so employed at to that at little employed that standard. standard. "Are so moonstruck, so little to "Are we so moonstruck, or home, as, eloquent language language of our President President on another another in the the eloquent of our as, in home, occasion, ... wander around search of monsters in search of foreign ... to to wander abroad in around abroad occasion, foreign monsters to destroy?" Representative Alexander Smyth of Virginia spoke to for of Alexander Virginia spoke for destroy?" Representative Smyth still opposed any effort "to propagate our system on the on the still others "to our others who opposed effort system any propagate other side of the Atlantic." "If be aa mode of destroying civil civil side of the Atlantic." "If there of destroying other there be liberty," he echoed Adams, "it is by leading this Government into into liberty,'* he echoed Adams, "it is by leading this unnecessary wars." wars." unnecessary The hour hoUr of one area, area, moreover, the mermerof decision In one decision had arrived. arrived. In moreover, the flan. All the cantilists with great moral courage and elan. All the key cantilists responded with moral key courage responded great leaders opposed the rising tide of laissez-faire aggressiveness against leaders the tide laissez-faire of aggressiveness against opposed rising .
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the Indians. or related political inherent "difficulty" the the inherent Indians. Whatever Whatever the "difficulty" or related political with dealing with them equitably, problems connected equitably, warned Madproblems connected with dealing with
to humanity" humanity" to such efforts. have ison, efforts. "They to make such "it is is due due to ison, "it "They have claims magnanimity, and, may add," add," Monroe agreed, "on the magnanimity, claims on on the and, II may agreed, "on the justice justice of this nation, nation, which must all least Calhoun Calhoun all feel." feel.** At least which we must the of this of humanity humanity did, and vigorously asserted principle of that "on "on every asserted that and vigorously did, every principle ought to to be be exthe continuance of similar advantages of exeducation ought of education the similar advantages continuance of For the doubters, he had extensive evidence tended to them." had extensive he evidence the tended to them." For doubters, was "almost uniformly favorgathered experienced teachers. "almost uniformly favorIt was teachers. It from experienced gathered from able, both as as to to the the capacity docility of of the the youths. youths. Their Their progress progress and docility able, both capacity and appears be quite equal to to that white children children of of the the same age; that of of white to be age; appears to quite equal to be equally susceptible of acquiring habits of and they they appear of habits of to be and acquiring equally susceptible appear put an end to the "evil" of "the industry." Hence the nation should end the "evil" an to of "the should Hence the nation industry." put of our our population, which forces" the Indians out incessant pressure of forces" the Indians out incessant pressure population, which of despite treaties to the the contrary. treaties to of their their homes homes despite contrary. Clay agreed, vigorous efforts prevent efforts to to prevent and Clay Adams and agreed, and made vigorous Georgia from uprooting Indians who were accepting the ways of the were accepting ways of Georgia from uprooting Indians American civilization. But confronted with a choice between federal American civilization. But confronted with a choice between federal troops in the defeat of the acquiesced. defeat of in the or the the Indians, the south south or Indians, Adams acquiesced. troops them west. It was a wrenching choice, and perhaps Georgia drove a drove west. It was choice, Georgia wrenching perhaps a fateful one; seeing one state defy the national government with a the fateful one; state national one seeing defy government with and also succeeded. impunity, Mississippi followed the same course the same course followed also succeeded. impunity, Mississippi Far more more than than either either the the Kentucky the South or the Far of 1799, Resolutions of South Kentucky Resolutions 1799, or Carolina proclamation proclamation nullifying nullifying the the tariff tariff of it the actions of 1832, Carolina it the was actions 1832, of and Mississippi that laid laid out the route route to to secession. of Georgia out the secession. Georgia and Mississippi that this implication, implication, for he ultimately ultimately conconPerhaps Adams sensed sensed this for he Perhaps cluded reforms took priority over over further expansion. cluded that that domestic domestic reforms took priority further expansion. In respect, at at any rate, Adams proved proved capable capable of breaking free In that that respect, of breaking free any rate, of of the dogma of mercantilism. had not been the the expansionist of That mercantilism. not the been expansionist dogma had admitted is the passion case case with with Monroe. He had admitted that that "so "so seducing is the seducing passion union. But But he he for extending territory" that for our territory" that it it might destroy the extending our might destroy the union. had held held fast to the the concept of mercantilist empire, denying that fast to of mercantilist that concept empire, denying the contrary," he proproexpansion subverted republicanism. "On the subverted republicanism. expansion contrary," he claimed claimed on May believed that that the the greater expansion, "it is is believed the expansion, 1822, "it 4, 1822, May 4, greater the within not easy to say are not not so, within practicable it is is not limits, and it so, practicable limits, easy to say what are the the greater the States will derive derive the advantage States individually greater the advantage which the individually will from it. It must be be obvious all, that that the the further it* ... It obvious to to all, further expansion is expansion is be not carried, provided it it be beyond the just limit, the greater will not beyond the just the will carried, provided limit, greater .
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be the of action action to to both both [national and state] governments." the freedom be freedom of [national and state] governments.*' is no no There could be no misunderstanding Monroe's choice. There could be no misunderstanding Monroe's choice. "There "There is object," he asserted in in his his last message on 1824he asserted on December 7, last annual annual message 7, 1824, object," "no which, as a people, can desire, which do not as a do we not "no object we can which desire, object which, people, possess, or which is not within our reach." In Monroe's mind, at Monroe's or which In at is not within our reach." mind, possess, was one "of our institutions." any rate, expansion institutions." one "of our was any rate, expansion Clay came to whether the the beneficent beneficent results expansion of expansion to doubt results of doubt whether Clay came were so by 1828 concern" a "great so "obvious." "obvious." He and and Adams shared shared by 1828 a were "great concern" in fundamental over the implications of the expansionist thesis. But fundamental over the implications of the expansionist thesis. But in respects it it was most astute devastating was Clay the most astute and devastating respects Clay who made the analysis of the danger and proposed proposed the most relevant relevant remedy. remedy. Even of the the most analysis danger and as he sensed epoch has and called as early as 1820 "a new epoch has arisen," called 1820 he sensed that that "a arisen," and early as America "deliberately "deliberately to to contemplate" the changed situation. "The America situation. the changed contemplate" call he concluded in 1832, "is as unavailing, as the as the call for for free free trade," he "is concluded in as trade," unavailing, 1832, cry of a spoiled child in its nurse's arms, for the moon, or the stars a or of the stars child for the in its nurse's arms, moon, cry spoiled .... It has never existed, it never will exist." that glitter that glitter. ... It has never existed, it never will exist." Clay that free trade defined defined in that manner was was little little understood that in that free trade Clay understood more than euphemism for a massive massive commercial commercial empire. was, a euphemism than a It was, more for a empire. It "in he concluded, British colonial colonial system "in effect," are "the British that we are effect," he concluded, "the system that invited to adopt." he quoted a British leader to the the invited to a leader to make Then he British adopt." quoted point absolutely clear: "" 'Other knew, as well as nations knew, as well as [ourselves], 'Other nations point absolutely clear: [ourselves], by "free trade" was was nothing nothing more nor nor less than, by by what we meant by what "free trade" less than, means of advantages we enjoyed, to get a monopoly of the means the great a of to great advantages enjoyed, get monopoly of all their markets for for our and to prevent them, one all their markets to one our manufactures, and manufactures, prevent them, and all, becoming manufacturing manufacturing nations.' nations.' "" It thereand ever becoming It was thereall, from ever fore aa choice, concluded Clay, between making making the the home market market fore choice, concluded Clay, between "first or embarking a search "first in in order" for order" or worlds ... ... for on a search "for "for new worlds embarking on races of consume this immense [surnew and "unknown races of mortals this immense mortals to to consume [surplus] of of cotton cotton fabrics." fabrics." plus] did Clay Clay thus thus attack the very very plan plan that had adNot only adattack the that Adams had only did vanced in for structuring America's future relations with Latin in 1823 for vanced America's future relations Latin with 1823 structuring America, but but he picture of of the policy he drew an an amazingly accurate picture the policy America, amazingly accurate American manufacturers manufacturers would would advocate and help help establish within American advocate and establish within less less than than 65 years. For For by by the the 1890s, became deeply deeply 65 years. 18905, when they they became worried by by precisely precisely such such surpluses, manufacturers of of textiles textiles and worried surpluses, manufacturers other to Asia Asia and Latin Latin America America for and to to turned to other goods for markets, markets, and goods turned their own government government for in exploiting exploiting their their their aid and assistance for aid assistance in "great the economy of underdeveloped underdeveloped countries. over the countries. "great advantages" advantages" over economy of
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Both in its early early part part and the 19th century, their their end of at the the end of the in its and at Both ic^th century, in American system differed considerably from the one Clay had had the from one in differed American system Clay considerably mind. mind. Yet mercantilists had built an political economic and political an economic had built American mercantilists Yet American flexible enough to survive 60 years of sustained system strong and o 60 sustained years system strong and flexible enough to survive exploitation and misuse by the advocates of laissez nous faire who exploitation and misuse by the advocates of laissez nous faire provided many many of the central triumphed in in I828. of the central ideas ideas even provided 1828. They They even triumphed to restore restore some balance, balance, that later turned to to in in an effort to an effort that later Americans Americans turned of the the meaning, and purpose to to their their society. and purpose accomplishments of society. The accomplishments meaning, three Adamses, Adamses, Madison, Madison, Jefferson, Jefferson, Washington, Washington, Gallatin, three Gallatin, Calhoun, Calhoun, and Monroe Monroe comprised comprised aa truly truly magnificent the relereleto the and testimony to magnificent testimony vance and of the mercantilist Weltanschauung, and to and to of the mercantilist vance and the the quality Weltanschauung, quality the spirit and energy of the Americans transformed it into who transformed it into of the and Americans the energy spirit In fundamental fundamental institutions and and an an established established political institutions economy. In political economy. respects, and to an extensive degree, Americans have been, and have still Americans to an extensive and still and been, respects, degree, are, off the intellectual and economic capital accumulated and economic accumulated the intellectual off are, living capital living during the the Age of Mercantilism. Mercantilism. Age of during This durability of of their their ideas easier to to it easier ideas makes it of some of This very very durability recognize and understand their failures. Perhaps the most apparent the most and their failures. understand Perhaps recognize apparent in their argument that that representative representative weakness of of their their outlook outlook lies lies in their argument weakness all depend depend government, economic economic prosperity, prosperity, and personal happiness happiness all and personal government, so rigorously and advanced on expansion. They formulated this idea and on idea so advanced formulated this rigorously expansion. They persuasively that Americans have never been been it have never so vigorously that Americans it so and persuasively vigorously and able it critically critically in in an an equally equally disciplined disciplined spirit. Until able to to examine Until examine it spirit. past the the 20th 20th century, rate, it an integral integral the middle of the it became at any became an middle of past century, at any rate, The power part of their emotional and even psychological make-up. of their emotional even psychological make-up. part power and persistence of ideas in the face of changing reality was never of and persistence ideas in the face of changing reality was never in the overt form of slogans more amply documented. Whether cast more amply documented. Whether cast in the overt form of slogans about an economy or ideology and about an expanding or in the more complex in the and expanding economy complex ideology myth of the thesis hinged upon upon of the the frontier, thesis that that wealth and welfare wealth and welfare hinged frontier, the myth a reminder expansion reminder of of the the Age Age of of Mercantilism. Mercantilism. expansion provided provided daily daily a in reality the most most But the history was in But the frontier frontier theory of history theory of reality only only the of American American mercantilism. mercantilism. It striking symptom of the the basic basic failure failure of It striking symptom of had been the crucial crucial problem problem of of conhad been formulated formulated as as an an answer answer to to the conto achieve the general welfare. But trolling private private property property in in order order to achieve the But trolling general welfare. it in fact fact an evasion-and was in subtle or sophisticated oneit was evasion and no very subtle or one very sophisticated of that central central issue. of that For, given and a continent issue. For, continent easily given a easily conquered conquered and it was it not too difficult to accumulate the lowest ruthlessly exploited, not too difficult to the accumulate lowest ruthlessly exploited, necessary amount of of public public wealth while at the same allowing wealth while at the time allowing same time necessary
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private individuals to acquire unlimited riches. riches. For For the the individuals and and groups groups to private acquire unlimited same reasons, the expansionist thesis the mercantilists mercantilists also also enenthe expansionist of the same reasons, thesis of couraged a nonintellectual approach to affairs. Problems a affairs. nonintellectual to human Problems couraged approach could be solved by growth. growth. For For men who valued valued intellectual intellectual achievesolved by achievecould be ment so and it as vital in providing men with aa sense sense and knew with so highly, in ment it as vital highly, providing of purpose and and meaning, this was perhaps the greatest irony of their their of purpose this the of was meaning, perhaps greatest irony own labor labor and influence. and influence. ecothe mercantilists knew, the the construction As the a successful of a mercantilists knew, construction of successful ecoof personal fortunes was not the nomic system and the acquisition the and was not the of fortunes nomic system personal acquisition greater part of their Weltanschauung. Beyond those goals they were of were those their Weltanschauung. Beyond greater part goals they public welfare and the the spirit spirit of true corporate concerned with with the the public of a a true concerned welfare and corporate commonwealth. were caught in their their own the mercantilists commonwealth. Hence the mercantilists were caught in argument: if property was was essential to the the individual's sense of of if property essential to individual's sense argument: identity, then it was by the same logic the basis of any public idenit then idenof the the basis was identity, any public by logic tity; the the sense of ours ours was was as vital as as the sense of as vital But granted the sense of mine. mine. But sense of tity; granted that the world war and and revolution revolution were were extremely the circumstances that circumstances of of world extremely difficult the temptations temptations of continent extremely great, it is difficult and the it is of a a continent extremely great, nevertheless true that the the mercantilists never overcame their bias bias in in nevertheless true that overcame their mercantilists never favor property. of private favor of private property. That they came as close as with men like like Madison, That did and with as close as they Madison, they they did-and Calhoun, and John Quincy Adams it was very close-is enough to to was close is enough and it Calhoun, John Quincy very justify high praise. They defined the problem so clearly that no one one the that defined so no clearly justify high praise. They problem can the plea plea of ignorance. A harsh judgever know them and enter harsh judgof ignorance. can ever enter the perhaps unnecessary, unnecessary, for brought after the the fact fact is is perhaps their failure failure brought ment after for their its in the the triumph of laissez laissez faire. that faire. For them that its own consequences consequences in triumph of in the final showdown to was punishment enough. Unwilling to make was the final in punishment enough. Unwilling a £uller to social property in in the the name of corporate of a corporate a social property fuller commitment to commonwealth, they had no effective defense against the the who had defense men effective commonwealth, they against demanded that that private private property property and interest interest be be given full scope full scope and given unrestrained liberty in the name of individualism. the individualism. in of unrestrained liberty
THE AGE OF
LAISSEZ NOUS FAIRE 1819-1896 1819-1896
'* Our age age is wholly of of a different different character, takes ananis wholly its legislation character, and its legislation ta%es Society is full of excitement; competition competition comes comes in place of other other tum. turn. Society in place is full of excitement; of monopoly; and intelligence for fair fair play play and an an intelligence and industry monopoly; industry ask as% only only for Daniel Webster, Webster, 1824 open field. field. Daniel open 1824
1. the Rising of the L The Triumph Order Rising Order Triumph of
The policy policy of individuals, partnerships, partnerships, and and States, as much as as States, as of leaving leaving individuals, possible to secure their interest, in their way, is the only good secure to their own the in their own is interest, possible way, only good evidence that government is founded in justice, and not not evidence the government that the is founded in reason reason and justice, in error fraud. John Taylor error or in or fraud. of Caroline, Caroline, 1824 John 1824 Taylor of It is said to be be the of the the the age age of
It is said to
ISt person singular. singular. ist person
Ralph Emerson, 1827 Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1827 I care care for for nothing nothing about about clamors, 1 clamors, think just just thinly
and right. right.
sir, mark mel II do precisely precisely what what 1I mar\ me! Jackson, 1828 Andrew Jackson, 1828
sir,
JOHN TAYLOR AND THE VICTORY OF JOHN
LAISSEZ FAIRE
liberating, and creative, the soazing spirit and animal D vigor of the Age Age of Laissez NallS Faire transformed America DYNAMIC, YN AMIC, liberating, and creative, the soaring spirit and animal of Laissez Nous Faire transformed America vigor of the
from an established in the the society society of into the the established newcomer in of nations nations into world's leading leading industrial in less less than than three three generations. generations. Yet world's industrial country country in its twin dogmas its dogmas of expansion and competition competition exacted a high high price price of expansion exacted a for success. Civil war, war, grave social disorders, and the progressive for success. Civil the social disorders, progressive grave disillusionment and alienation alienation of of aa sizable of society disillusionment sizable segment segment of society were the scars to its its heirs. open field the field scars and open heirs. The open it bequeathed open wounds it bequeathed to for became first battleground and finally the for fair a military fair play first a finally the play became military battleground restricted arena by the the giant giant corporation. restricted arena dominated by corporationFor aa time, time, however, however, the majority of of Americans were probably probably the majority blessed with with more liberty than any in the modern age have in the blessed modern, than men age have any liberty 227 227
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known. In In aa spectacle that was at once terrifying and ennobling, ennobling, known. spectacle that was at once terrifying they came unbelievably close to shaping themselves and their world their world themselves to shaping they came unbelievably close in their own image. This breaking away from the mercantilist conthe mercantilist from conin their image. This breaking away elaborated ception of a corporate commonwealth was recognized and elaborated recognized ception of a corporate commonwealth upon by artists as well as by crossroad wits well as as well wits as as as politicians, as well politicians, by crossroad upon by artists formal philosophers. Perhaps none of them, even the accomthe most accomformal philosophers. Perhaps none of them, even the plished or famous, captured the realities and the implications of of the plished or famous, captured the realities and the implications Laissez Nous NOllS Faire Faire more more accurately accurately and with with greater greater insight Age of of Laissez insight Age than Erastus Erastus Salisbury Field, an amateur painter painter from Massachusetts Massachusetts an amateur than Salisbury Field, mastered the the techniques techniques of primitivism long before Grandma of primitivism who mastered long before Moses charmed Americans of his contribution contribution of the the 20th 20th century. charmed Americans Moses century. As his to the the centennial of independence, Field prepared aa Field to celebration of centennial celebration independence, prepared Monument by 9 feet) entitled Historical of the the massive work Historical entitled massive work (I3 of (13 by 9 feet) was aa startlingly accurate and eerie image American Republic. Republic. It eerie accurate of It was American startlingly image of the United in the the Age of Laissez Faire. Nous Faire. of Laissez the United States States in Age Field's conception of the the foundation American society of American a foundation of Field's society was a conception of rectangular, three-story groundwork done in a severely simple and a in done severely simple rectangular, three-story groundwork imposing which heightened the sense of organic organic sense of classical style heightened the style which imposing classical by the mass itself. that base strength and durability created But from the mass itself. that base and created by strength durability arose eight separate and wildly polyglot towers. only did they did towers. Not arose and only they wildly polyglot eight separate shapes, but the various various difier from each each other but the other in their styles differ in their styles and shapes, levels revealed variations variations of design. of a a vaguely levels of a given of a tower revealed basic design. vaguely basic given tower Near the the top, seven of the towers were once again connected, in aa of the were once seven towers top, again connected, in on sweeping steel modified figure-8 pattern, by railroad tracks laid tracks laid modified figure-8 pattern, by railroad sweeping steel bridges over trains sped purposefully from tower tower to tower. over which trains to tower. bridges sped purposefully The eighth column, lower than the rest and unconnected unconnected save save eighth column, lower than the rest through the common base but placed strategically was base but placed strategically center-front, center-front, was through the reserved for Constitution and Abraham Lincoln. for the the Constitution reserved Lincoln. And on a a of troops troops majestic mall mall in in the the foreground appeared aa sizable sizable body majestic foreground appeared body of on parade. parade. on Though undistinguished as Field's painting painting as formal formal art, art, Field's Though certainly certainly undistinguished creates well as as aa ram-like ram-like image. weakest creates aa strange The weakest as well strange charm as image. of the the painting aspect painting as primitive image the lack as primitive is the direct lack of of any aspect of image is any direct visible connection between Lincoln's and the the other columns. visible connection between Lincoln's tower tower and other columns. is a This a serious This is because it it was was the the professional professional politician politician serious omission omission because as as the the railroads as much as railroads which provided provided the the connecting tissue (and tissue (and connecting the for nerves) for the various elements of society during the time of laissez elements of of various the time laissez nerves) society during faire. And Lincoln faire. keen, sophisticated, and Lincoln was most certainly a keen, certainly a sophisticated, and generally triumphant politician. generally triumphant politician.
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The politician as he is known and and thought thought of the 20th 20th century century of in in the politician as he is Onrushing divergent streams of ecois of laissez a creature creature of of ecolaissez faire. faire. Onrushing is a streams divergent nomic development, undercurrents of frontier savagery, and the and of the nomic development, undercurrents frontier savagery, and steady pressure exerted by a surplus of wea1th-to-waste eroded steady pressure exerted by a surplus of wealth-to-waste eroded distorted corporate philosophy of mercantilism. mercantilism. Leadership the corporate distorted the Leadership philosophy of ceased to be defined by the problems and responsibilities of general of general ceased to be defined by the problems and responsibilities development; the encompassing encompassing view, view, based based upon intersense of of interdevelopment; the upon aa sense defined by by aa system equity related wholeness wholeness and related and community of equity and defined system of community and and balance, failed to to withstand withstand the forces it had done to so much to and done so it had the forces balance, failed create. Leadership became became instead instead aa task task of of representing representing aa specific specific create. Leadership the system and attempting to secure secure its through element of the element of its objectives system and objectives through attempting to compromise with the other elements. conflict and compromise conflict other elements. with the the change, change, the the politician became aa separate, professional Given the separate, professional politician became This did not that the politician became functionary in society. in did the This that not mean functionary politician became society. irrelevant his role merely changed. His function was inor inferior; inirrelevant or role function was his His inferior; merely changed. and honorable. It could of course be exdispensable, legitimate, of exIt could course honorable. be dispensable, legitimate, ploited for narrow gain gain or special pleading. his for narrow at his or distorted distorted into into special ploited pleading. But at best the politician became became aa competent and honest spokesmundane best the politician honest competent spokesbroker, and and could by disciplining disciplining a statesman man and broker, could become statesman by become a and see it as part (albeit himself to to stand stand outside himself outside his interest and see it as part his own interest (albeit the most important part) part) of the entire system. Yet is illuminating the most important it is of the entire system. Yet it illuminating the Compromise was initiated initiated and sustained by to note to note that that the sustained by of 1850 Compromise of 1850 was Henry Clay, who matured within the framework of American had of matured the framework American within Henry Clay, politicians of as mercantilism. Compared mercantilism. with politicians the new era era such such as of the Compared with Thurlow Weed and Amos Kendall, or even Martin Van Buren, the the Kendall, or even Martin Buren, leaders of broader vision vision and and greater of mercantilism leaders of broader mercantilism were men of greater long-range implicatiltns and consequences their perception of of the the long-range of their perception implications and consequences of actions. actions. these reasons, reasons, many many of like Madison Madison and John Quincy For these of them, them, like John Quincy about the practical results results of the ideas ideas Adams, had worried worried about the practical of applying Adams, applying the of early as neither Adams nor nor Clay Clay were were of laissez faire as laissez faire as early as 1819. 1819. But neither able to structure of mercantilism against its able to sustain the force force of sustain the the structure of mercantilism of its against the they were were confronted confronted by by the the splintersplintercentrifugal triumphs. By 1826 1826 they triumphs. By centrifugal ing of political economy along several lines of tension. North of the the political of tension. several lines ing economy along Atlantic society wanted internal improvements, a protective tariff, Atlantic wanted internal society improvements, protective tariff, and aa land policy that that would control in the way the in land policy control westward expansion way expansion to leaders had come that of its that John John Jay outlined in 1785. Most of its leaders to had in outlined Jay 1785. it as the to their accept the west, and some of them already it the key to their saw as the of and west, key already accept future But they they wanted to its development future well-being. to guide development and guide its well-being. But
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connect it it to eastern progress progress in relationship. This attiThis attia subsidiary in a connect to eastern subsidiary relationship. tude weakened their ties with the westerners, even though the latter the even latter with the ties tude weakened their westerners, though shared the seaboard's desire for and were were internal improvements for internal seaboard's desire shared the improvements and willing to bargain and compromise on the details of the tariff. the of details tariff. on the willing to bargain and compromise Both north and south the Ohio River, however, westerners Ohio River, south of of the Both north and however, westerners emphasized the clash between established entrepreneurs the and the emphasized the clash between established entrepreneurs and rising on-the-make small capitalists. They valued the liberty to the liberty to get get rising on-the-make small capitalists. They valued rich more more than than the the opportunity opportunity to build aa commonwealth. Hence to build rich unrestricted rights than they defined democracy far more in of unrestricted in terms terms of far more defined democracy rights than they an increasing in terms of responsibilities. But But so, did an in terms of .corporate so, too, too, did increasing corporate responsibilities. number of and small in the the east. east. While many many tradesmen in small tradesmen number of mechanics mechanics and disintegrating mercantilism were functional (such as of functional (such mercantilism were as of the the forces forces disintegrating the manufacturers manufacturers against against the the shippers) with the the and sectional sectional (as the (as with shippers) and south versus versus the the most most persuasive persuasive was an intensifyan intensifyone of of the south the north), north), one class antagonism between large, well-established, upper-class ing between class well-established, upper-class large, antagonism ing entrepreneurs and of the the and smaller, smaller, upward-moving operators. Some of upward-moving operators. entrepreneurs as Andrew Jackson of Tennessee and Martin Buren latter, such Martin Van of Buren as Tennessee Andrew such latter, Jackson York, had by the the 1820S become wealthy wealthy men; men; but but in their of New York, in their 1820$ become of had by careers attitudes they provided models for emulation and for emulation models their attitudes careers and and their they provided symbols of leadership for others had similar aspirations. Such for who similar others had of Such symbols aspirations. leadership class was aa particularly dynamic force because it united it united class consciousness force because consciousness was particularly dynamic lines that were otherwise men across that were otherwise divisive. divisive. across lines Still conflict emerged the coastal upper class. Still another another conflict coastal upper within the class. emerged within Planter of the Taylor-Randolph variety could agree with of the could Planter agrarians agrarians Taylor-Randolph variety agree with their northern northern counterparts counterparts on the usefulness of land-prices their the usefulness in of high high land-prices in the west, west, but They denied the need of internal imthe but not not much else. denied the internal imelse. They need of provements by by the the national national .government, the in the provements tgovernment, charged charged inequity inequity in allocation of those that had been undertaken, and asserted they allocation of those that been undertaken, and asserted they would ultimately ultimately destroy destroy free (and perhaps perhaps property property free government government (and by subverting the central principle of in rights) by central principle that "imperium of that rights) subverting the "imperium in imperio" which Randolph heart of the Constitution. called the the very of the Constitution. imperio" which Randolph called very heart defined the the tariff the weapon weapon with which northnorthRandolph also also defined tariff as as the with which Randolph erners were to reduce reduce the the south to "a of worse than erners were about about to south to "a state state of worse than colonial bondage.'* In his his own way, therefore, Randolph the colonial bondage." In made the therefore, way, Randolph same analysis of the the state political economy that had state of the political of the that had Adams analysis of economy offered when preparing offered preparing the the Monroe Doctrine, applied it but he applied it Doctrine, but inside the inside the country instead of externally in relation to the Spanish instead of the in relation to country externally Spanish colonies. "If "If you the last from our our pockets," pockets," he roared roared colonies. last shilling you draw the shilling from the tariff of 1824, "what are the checks of the conduring the tariff debates of debates are "what the checks of the conduring 1824,
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stitution to us? us? A fig for the constitution! the scorpion's sting stitution to fig for the constitution! When the scorpion's sting stop to chop is probing us to the quick, shall us to the we shall of probing quick, stop to chop logic?" logic?" None of his audience had to guess as to his answer. audience had to his guess as to his answer. While in in agreement agreement that tariff could could make southerners that the "the the tariff southerners "the serfs of the system," Calhoun was nevertheless reluctant serfs of the system/' Calhoun was nevertheless reluctant to to abandon abandon the achievements national corporate outlook. But But the ideals and the the ideals and of a a national achievements of corporate outlook. in South two events pushed him in two events pushed in that that direction. South direction. His His constituency constituency in Carolina increasingly Taylor-Randolph analysis and Carolina the Taylor-Randolph analysis and increasingly accepted accepted the political ultimatum. ultimatum. Senatorial tenure thereby confronted confronted him with a a political him with Senatorial tenure thereby and the possibility of of White White House tenancy tenancy were at stake. the the possibility were at stake. At the same time, time, and and without without any direct pressure, Calhoun interpreted the the same direct Calhoun any interpreted pressure, Harrisburg Convention (1827) proceedings of the Harrisburg of the the Tariff Tariff (1827) Convention on on the proceedings as aa sign that the northern conception of protection was undergoing as that the northern of sign undergoing conception protection concluded that that instead instead of of being being viewed as aa dualdualaa basic basic change. change. He concluded viewed as and for developing the general political purpose tool for defense for tool defense and the for purpose general political developing economy, it was was rapidly rapidly being defined as a lever extra as a lever for for lifting economy, it being defined lifting extra out of the south's pocket. Calhoun's estimate of the trend profits out the was the of of trend south's Calhoun's estimate profits pocket. he probably exaggerated the extent to which it accurate, though had he to it the extent accurate, though probably exaggerated developed by I827. Northern industrialists were formulating their their were Northern industrialists developed by 1827. formulating policy as manufacturers per per se far more than than as one element element of of a as manufacturers se far as one policy balanced and and corporate corporate society. balanced society. Loyal to mercantilist outlook, the tariff tariff could could to that that mercantilist aware that that the and aware outlook, and Loyal among its adherents, John Quincy provoke a serious crisis a serious crisis Adams provoke among its adherents, John Quincy soon compromise. But the the older older generation of leaders leaders a compromise. soon advocated advocated a generation of lacked sufficient support to maintain such a balanced program. lacked sufficient support to maintain such a balanced program. This breakdown of the Weltanschauung of mercantilism, mercantilism, in in which which the the of the breakdown Weltanschauung of attitudes and policies policies of businessmen were as as subversive as subversive as attitudes and of northern northern businessmen of the the physiocratic physiocratic outlook the seaboard was the resurgence the in the oudook in seaboard south, south, was resurgence of positive the negative of the the coming of laissez laissez £aire. the positive the half of faire. On the negative half coming of western and northern entreside, the the southern northern entresouthern agrarians side, agrarians and many many western to aa strikingly different exexpreneurs shared shared an active active commitment to preneurs strikingly different planation of of how individual, national development could individual, group, development could planation group, and national be and extended. For aa time, at any any rate, the new outlook outlook be speeded extended. For rate, the time, at up and speeded up was aa binder that proved proved stronger than the differences over specific over than the differences was binder that specific stronger policies. issues issues and policies. Derived from the the assumption assumption of a natural emphatically natural order order so so emphatically of a Derived the and persuasively asserted by John and the French physiocrats, Locke asserted physiocrats, persuasively by John and then then refined, refined, codified, presented in in the the magnificent rhetocodified, and presented magnificent rhetoconvincing syllogisms syllogisms of Jean Baptiste ric and convincing ric of Adam Smith and Jean Say> Baptiste Say, is
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the philosophy philosophy of of laissez laissez faire faire promised promised wealth, wealth, welfare, welfare, and and happihappithe ness through through the the freedom freedom to to do do what what one one wanted. wanted. Men were were thus thus ness to hear: hear: by by following following their their bellies, bellies, their their told what what they they hankered hankered to told egos, and and their their pocketbook pocketbook nerve nerve they they could could become become moral moral agents, agents, profits, contribute their share to the general welfare, and the to their share contribute general welfare, and profits, at the the same same time time extend extend and and strengthen strengthen the the area area of of liberty liberty and and freefreeat as with with mercantilism, mercantilism, laissez laissez faire faire clearly clearly originated originated as as the the dom. Just Just as dom. short-run rationalization rationalization and and long-range long-range Utopia utopia of of various various rising rising and and short-run special interests. But similarly integrating those elements into a special interests. But similarly integrating those elements into a hierarchy of values, values, the the W eltanschauun g of of laissez laissez faire faire was was no no more more Weltanschauung hierarchy of a narrow narrow philosophy philosophy of of the the bank bank account account than than its its predecessor predecessor had had a been. been. by aa rich rich and and voluptuous voluptuous continent, continent, it it But teased teased and and tempted tempted by But was all all too too easy easy for for men to to emphasize emphasize economic economic liberty, liberty, particularly particularly was since Calvin's Calvin's successors successors-to say nothing nothing of of his his heretical heretical followers followersto say since to read read worldly worldly success success as as had already already revealed revealed aa strong strong propensity propensity to had a sign sign of to God's God's favor. favor. According According to to the the Scriptures Scriptures as as well well a election to of election as to to Adam Smith's oj Nations, Nations, therefore, therefore, it it was was moral moral to to Wealth of Smith's Wealth as pursue one's self-interest because the Hidden would reconcile Hand would Hidden reconcile because the one's self-interest pursue conflicts into into the the general general welfare. welfare. Competitive Competitive free enterprise all conflicts free enterprise all thus become become the the master master carpenter carpenter of of aa moral moral community. thus community. This outlook became became prominent prominent in in the the debates over AmeriAmeriThis new outlook debates over policy toward toward the the Greek Greek Revolution Revolution of Daniel can policy can of 1822-1823. Daniel Web1822-1823. ster's resolution send an Ameri~an agent agent to to encourage the revolt to send the resolution to an American ster's revolt encourage met with with little little enthusiasm enthusiasm from President Monroe or or Secretary met from President Secretary Adams, but a good many congressmen responded to his argument a but to his Adams, good many congressmen responded argument the MediterMediterfor behalf of America's "diverse for action action in in behalf of America's "diverse interests in the interests in ranean." northerners agreed that the move "contemplate d] ranean." Other Other northerners that the agreed "contemplate [[d] opening new commercial relations." Aid for Greece would help commercial relations." for Aid Greece would help opening "form aa powerful the check upon the barbarous barbarous dependencies of the powerful check upon the dependencies of J in those seas, and give facility to that com[non-Christian Turks in those seas, and give facility to that com[non-Christian Turks] mercial enterprise mercial which now finds way only finds its its way to one one port of enterprise which only to port of European Asiatic Turkey." Thus was the heathen also defined was the heathen also defined as as European Asiatic Turkey." an econonuc a good economic despot. like David P. David P. westerners, like despot. And a good many many westerners, of Illinois, Cook of added their their support a crusade to a crusade for for Christian Christian liblibIllinois, added support to also erty which also promised foreign markets. Arm in arm, in arm, religion and erty promised foreign markets. religion and laissez faire faire had mustered laissez mustered for for their their first first campaign for freedom. freedom. campaign for But southerners like like George But southerners of Georgia and Joel Poinsette Joel Poinsette George Cary Gary of Georgia and of South Carolina Carolina were skeptical of of the the alliance as well alliance as well as as opposed skeptical of opposed egos,
accumulate accumulate
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to any action. Poinsette Poinsette in particular warned warned that that the the abstract direct action. in particular to abstract any direct discussion of other people's freedom native tendency tendency to to unbase unbase other people's discussion of a native "has a freedom "has the mind; to throw it completely off balance; and its discussion to throw it completely off balance; and its discussion is the mind; is therefore to to be be approached approached and with the utmost caution." caution." and conducted therefore conducted with the utmost They stressed the connection between a crusading religious and They stressed the connection between a crusading religious and political attitude and the interests of commerce and manufacturing political attitude and the interests of commerce and manufacturing even in later later years, years, when northerners turned their attack on even more more in northerners turned their attack on tyrants. Poinsette's about the desirability of planters as as evil evil tyrants. Poinsette's thesis the desirability thesis about of planters proceeding with with some some care care and humility when when entering entering upon upon an an and humility proceeding examination of the freedom freedom of not invalidated, however, of the examination of others is not others is invalidated, however, by such between the the private private interest interest and a connection such a connection between and the the general by general idea. idea. Yet ironies of American history, it was in one of the Yet in one of the most most striking striking ironies of American history, it was qua southerner, southerner, who became became John Taylor of Caroline, the southerner of the southerner Caroline, John Taylor qua Weltanschauung. Though he the philosopher-king of the new the of the Weltanschauung. Though he philosopher-king to aa feudal feudal world his inspiration inspiration (and his utopia), looked looked back back to for his his world for Utopia), (and his basic program offered offered convenient convenient and and powerful powerful his basic ideas ideas and and program weapons for advocates of laissez faire. faire. "Abolish privifor the the advocates of laissez exclusive privi"Abolish exclusive weapons ... ," he thundered in 1822, "and vindicate the inviolability lege he thundered in the "and vindicate ," 1822, lege inviolability of property, property, even even against against legislatures." policy of leaving indiindiof "The policy of leaving legislatures." "The as much as possible to secure their viduals, partnerships, and States, secure their to and as as viduals, partnerships, States, possible the only only good own interest, in their he added added in their own way," "is the in 1824> interest, in 1824, "is good way," he is founded in reason and justice, evidence that the the government evidence that justice, and government is founded in reason not in fraud." not in error error or or fraud.*' Along with a high percentage percentage of of southerners, Taylor's views views atatsoutherners, Taylor's Along with a high tracted V an Buren Buren and and many other northerners. northerners. William William M. Gouge, tracted Van Gouge, many other was aa southern patronage appointee President Jackfor example, for southern patronage of President Jackexample, was appointee of was consulted consulted on many issues. Like Taylor, he he son who was son economic issues. Like Taylor, many economic flatly asserted that "corporations are unfavorable to the progress of flatly asserted that "corporations are unfavorable to the progress of national wealth." wealth." Ogden Ogden Edwards, Edwards, aa delegate delegate to to the the New York national was another thesis constitutional convention of of 1821, His thesis constitutional convention another supporter. 1821, was supporter. His was simple: have too too much legislation." legislation." Edwards Edwards defined defined the the was simple: "we have watchful sentinel sentinel to to guard guard us us from governor, for "a watchful for example, as "a governor, example, as evil." again following Taylor, men like Edwards and Van like Edwards evil." And again following Taylor, by Buren combined combined their their individualism with aa system controlled by individualism with Buren system controlled well-organized and powerful political machines and headed by headed and machines by well-organized powerful political reconstrong leaders. to reconleaders. As John discovered when trying John Locke had discovered trying to strong cile aa strong with the right of revolution, this this was obviously cile the right of revolution, obviously strong king king with faire. in the philosophy laissez faire. a dilemma, even a contradiction, a a in the of laissez even dilemma, contradiction, philosophy of .
.
.
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But Edwards provided aa typical typical resolution. resolution. He advocated a situation advocated a situation But Edwards provided in which "the people may lie down and rest in security." While an rest in an and lie in which "the people may security." the apt image in connection with governmental action in the affairs of in affairs action o apt image in connection with governmental the political economy, it did not apply to the individual's enterprises. individual's the political economy, it did not apply to the enterprises. be able able to to forget poli~ Edwards bespoke bespoke the the popular popular desire desire to about polito be Edwards forget about tics in to concentrate business. on business. in order concentrate on order to tics Taylor had aa powerful powerful protege protege in the west likewise west who was likewise in the also had Taylor also fond kind of secular morality in Edwards's use of of the the Edwards's use of secular the kind fond of of the morality typified typified in politics. "1 can hardly hardly figure to mymy~ term "evil" "I can with politics. "evil" in in connection connection with term figure to self," Hart Benton Benton of of Missouri, "the Senator Thomas Thomas Hart concluded Senator Missouri, "the self," concluded ideal statesman more perfect and complete [than more statesman ideal of of a a republican perfect complete [than republican Taylor ]." A vigorous vigorous businessman businessman and and probably probably the the best best constituconstitu~ Taylor]." tionallawyer in the nation, Benton was a classic figure of the Age of a the Age classic Benton was tional in the nation, figure lawyer NOllS Faire. understood that the govern~ of Laissez Laissez Nous that the understood of Faire. He thoroughly governthoroughly ment continued have three important responsibilities responsibilities under under the the to have three important ment continued to had to to maintain maintain the basic framework framework of a system o a new outlook: it had the basic outlook: it system of money money and the rule rule of law); it to preserve preserve the the (such it had to of law) that of as that and the (such as by acting against monopolies and by helping competitive situation situation by helping competitive by acting against monopolies new'or into the the scramble; and it to be agent it had had to the agent new' or weak be the weak entrants entrants into scramble; and of and protecting the market place, which was the key which of expanding the and the market place, expanding protecting key to the producing the general welfare. to the individual the welfare. individual competition general competition producing a politician politician of Highly responsible and his outlook, and effective as a of his effective as outlook, Highly responsible Benton pushed pushed through through some of attacks in in earliest successful successful attacks Benton of the the earliest government operation operation of of lead lead mines mines behalf of laissez faire. faire. He ended of laissez behalf ended government in in favor private companies. calmly explaining explaining in Missouri favor of of private Missouri in companies. And calmly that the had been worth "all the blood and that the War of of I8I2 1812 had been worth "all the blood and treasure" treasure" that the west had contributed because removed British influence the that west had contributed because it it removed British influence in the in the fur Benton demanded that the governmental governmental system of fur trade, that the trade, Benton system of by George George Washington, be trading initiated by trading posts, posts, designed designed and initiated Washington, be discarded in favor favor of wide~pen competition discarded in of wide-open and all all competition among among any any and with Astor's Astor's American Americans. Benton's Benton's close Americans. close association association with Fur American Fur Company no doubt influenced his his campaign, campaign, but but it not modify modify doubt influenced it did did not Company his commitment to to free his free competition. competition. His constant constant efforts efforts in behalf of western farmer su~ in behalf the western of the farmer included included supfor the of pre-emption, port for the right pre~mption, relief relief acts acts for had for those those who had port right of their land difficulty in in meeting their land payments, and for lowering the price and for the difficulty meeting payments, lowering price of land that not purchased purchased within specified time time after being of that was not within a a specified after being market. He also also agitated put on the the market. the Indians, put Indians, agitated militantly militantly against against the and vigorously pushed commercial and territorial expansion. commercial territorial vigorously pushed expansion. And ;
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convinced that that "the monarch and and the republican can no longer "the monarch the republican convinced can no longer was willing willing to when breathe the the same atmosphere," Benton same atmosphere," breathe Benton was to use use force force when to carry carry out such an the and if necessary to if it it became became necessary and out such an enlargement of the enlargement of market place of capitalism and freedom. of market place capitalism and freedom. MARTIN VAN BUREN AND THE NEW POLITICS POLITICS
Benton the vast vast majority supBenton was was symbolic westerners who supof the of westerners symbolic of majority of ported the from the the Hermitage Hermitage for for President. President. Beginning well the Hero from ported Beginning well Jackson's western western followers before the the election of 1824, before election of followers organized organized 1824, Jackson's by stressing achievements and his success such such support and his success his military support by stressing his military achievements in from aa log cabin to planter's mansion. mansion. He was winningly in rising was winningly to a a planter's rising from log cabin vague on everything which were were undistinguished his hates, hates, which undistinguished vague except his everything except by anything except their violence. But he was a hero of he a hero of economic economic their But was violence. by anything except as one of his lieutenants remarked, "one cup independence and, of as "one one of lieutenants his and, remarked, independence cup of generous whiskey produces more military ardor, than can be allayed can be more than allayed generous whiskey produces military ardor, by aa month of reflection and reason." of reflection and sober sober reason/* by In one important respect, respect, however, more aristocratic Cal~ one important In the far far more aristocratic Calhowever, the houn did to democratize presidential politics politics than than either either did more houn more to democratize presidential the narnar~ Jackson Buren. For he was or Van Buren. For he the one one who destroyed was the Jackson or destroyed the rowly based and tightly controlled caucus system through which based which controlled caucus rowly system through tightly candidates were were selected. it is Buren is misleading to view Van Buren candidates selected. Thus it misleading to view as the man who engineered engineered Jackson's election. Directly and indiindias the election. Jackson's Directly as if not more, though, as with rectly, others contributed with others if as contributed as much not more, though, rectly, Calhoun, that had not been the 'original intention. VanBuren's more that had Van Buren's more not been the original intention. Calhoun, is his grasp of the viable and and more considerable considerable warrant of the viable his grasp for fame fame is warrant for age of laissez faire. Charging Monroe new role of the politician in an role of the politician in an age of laissez faire. Charging with "heretical" for having embraced mercantilism, and dede~ "heretical" sins with sins for mercantilism, and having embraced scribing Adams's views on by quality as "pernicious," Adams's views on appointment "pernicious," scribing appointment by quality as groundwork of his philosophy philosophy from Taylor Van Buren took the groundwork of his took the Taylor and Jefferson and out to to organize a working working consensus consensus of various of the tie various and set set out Jefferson organize a interests accepting accepting that that outlook. interests outlook. York and and Washington Washington reveal reveal in New York Van Buren's Buren's operations operations in busi~ and clarify the regional regional and national coalition coalition between between rising and national rising busiclarify the nessmen, yeoman farmers, southern planters, and northern northern mechanmechan~ southern planters, nessmen, yeoman farmers, ics that that is is generally generally labeled Democracy." It It was an ics labeled "Jacksonian "Jacksonian Democracy." unstable alliance between aa rising rising bourgeoisie bourgeoisie on the the make and a unstable alliance between har~ quasi-feudal landed landed aristocracy the established established hardirected against quasi-feudal against the aristocracy directed the the bingers of an industrial order. Jackson personified the ambition, the of industrial order. ambition, Jackson personified bingers name his attitude, and the objectives of those groups and justly gave his the those of attitude, justly gave groups objectives
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to the But Van Van Buren in many many essential respects the the essential respects Buren was was in the movement. to movement. But man who who managed to consolidate and sustain a combination that a combination sustain that and to consolidate managed persistently threatened to, and ultimately did, disintegrate in in violent violent persistently threatened to, and ultimately did, disintegrate antagonisms. antagonisms* Van Buren's Buren's personal personal career provided aa miniature miniature of triumph the triumph of the career provided Van of laissez faire. Beginning as the son of a tavern keeper, he entered he entered of laissez faire. Beginning as the son of a tavern keeper, law at ultimately became a "very rich man" with the with all all the became a law at 14 and ultimately 'Very rich 14 and upper-class graces; "as polished and captivating aa person person in the in the upper-class graces; "as polished and captivating SOj:ial as America America has known," remarked remarked aa contemporary. contemporary. ever known," has ever social circle circle as As aa confirmed worshiper at the shrine of Jefferson he shrine of at the As confirmed worshiper Jefferson and Taylor, Taylor, he was unencumbered with philosophical philosophical second thoughts. "It is only "It is second thoughts. was unencumbered with only that the wages of of when the the wages disturbed . . . that of society is disturbed when order of the natural natural order society is inadequate." To avoid any misunderstanding, misunderstanding, let labor become it avoid any let it labor become inadequate." be emphasized that Buren's definition of labor the same labor was of the same Van Buren's definition be that emphasized as Robert Rantoul's, which included bankers and and similar businessmen similar businessmen included bankers as Robert RantouTs, which in the category of those "who do something for a living" living." a do of those in the approved for something approved category VanBuren himself had had intimate with the the financial After all, ties with intimate ties financial After aU Van Buren himself community. community. Gifted with aa fine fine sense timing and tactical understanding, of timing and tactical sense of Gifted with understanding, Van the strategic axioms of laissez-faire politics. Buren axioms of laissez-faire also understood Buren also understood the politics. strategic his most notable victory was the building of an effective Perhaps the an notable of effective was his most victory building Perhaps alliance between New York York business the state's interests and the state's aspirbusiness interests alliance between aspirsome ways, of course, that was not too difficult in ing mechanics. In of In that too not difficult in some mechanics. course, ways, ing view of labor's commitment property rights rights and laissez faire. faire. "The to property and laissez view commitment to of labor's great of the William the struggles of the the Democracy," struggles of great object object of Democracy," explained explained William was one of the most militant spokesmen of the amamLeggett, who the one of was most militant of the Leggett, spokesmen bitious mechanics and smaller businessmen, "has been to confine the and bitious mechanics smaller businessmen, "has been to confine the action of the General Government within the limits marked out in action of the General Government within the limits out in the Constitution." that the of rational depends the Sure that the "prosperity Constitution." Sure rational men depends "prosperity of on themselves," themselves," he he wanted wanted little more than than "a of legislation little more "a system system of legislation which all to the free their talents which leaves leaves all to the free exercise of their exercise of talents and industry industry within the the limits of the law." Freedom Freedom of and the the general within limits of action and of action the general law." "protection property" were key axioms axioms of that outlook. of property" the key were the of that outlook. "protection of Van Buren Buren integrated the mechanics the aristocrats and the aristocrats in mechanics and in a a integrated the as autocratic and political machine (The Albany Regency) that was was that as autocratic and political (The Albany Regency) as any centralized as any the the mercantilists mercantilists ever ever organized. organized. Mavericks were centralized Mavericks were not tolerated. simply not tolerated. contemporary the rules and A who the knew and rules simply contemporary methods first hand methods of of The Regency Regency at hand left left aa very very candid description at first candid description of its its procedures: of procedures: "Except the powers powers he would swear to the swear allegiance "Except he allegiance to .
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that be, it was was useless useless for to look look for for an Unlike that for him to an appointment." be, it appointment." Unlike the mercantilists, however, Regency wanted to establish The wanted the mercantilists, however, to establish free free Regency competition. "Equal rights for all," demanded an articulate mechanic, competition. "Equal rights for all," demanded an articulate mechanic, "and privileges for Identical standards standards of law for none." "and special none." Identical of natural natural law special privileges to political affairs. As William Marcy of The Regency's were applied were applied to political affairs. William Marcy of Regency's all was was fair politics as as well well board of bluntly, all directors explained of directors fair in board in politics explained bluntly, as war: "To the victors go go the the spoils in love love and and war: the victors as in the enemy." of the spoils of enemy." Buren's tie tie with with eastern became even impor~ Van Buren's eastern mechanics even more more impormechanics became tant as manufacturing and to institutionalize as manufacturing tant and commerce commerce continued continued to institutionalize themselves in in the the factory systems centered in urban urban and wholesaling centered in themselves factory and wholesaling systems society, for union movement slowly gained strength as aa rerethe union for the as society, slowly gained strength success of the employers. Boasting I6 sponse to the continued to the continued the memof 16 success sponse employers. Boasting ber units, units, the General T rade Union Union of Boston had had counterparts counterparts in in the General ber Trade of Boston York, Baltimore, Carpenters, leather workand Philadelphia. New York, leather workBaltimore, and Philadelphia. Carpenters, coopers joined joined hands with ers, sailpump-makers, bakers, bakers, and and coopers sail- and pump-makers, hands with ers, as Workingmen's weavers, tailors, and ironworkers. Organizing as ironworkers. weavers, tailors, Workingmen's Organizing to guarantee Parties, they lien laws, and monetary Parties, laws, and standards, to sought lien they sought monetary standards, guarantee wages under all circumthemselves some minimum amount of of wages themselves under all circumstances, longer credit arrangements (six months was not too unusual credit unusual too months was not stances, longer arrangements (six as practice) for purchases, tax revisions, antias existing for consumer antitax revisions, consumer purchases, existing practice) monopoly laws, an end to imprisonment for debt, the ten-hour day, an end to the ten-hour for debt, monopoly laws, day, imprisonment more equitable arrangements for militia duty, and freedom from freedom more for militia and from equitable arrangements duty, competition prison labor. with prison labor. competition with it as by which which They education, viewing viewing it also stressed stressed education, as the the lever lever by They also reB.ec~ they could become successful entrepreneurs: education for they could become successful entrepreneurs: education for reflection's sake was not not their their objective. It would would be be unfair unfair and tion's sake was and inaccurate inaccurate objective. It to describe their approach their definition of to describe their as anti-intellectual; definition of anti-intellectual; their approach as be nonintellectual. nonintellectual. They They were were concerned concerned with with education tended to be tended to education more than than rudimentary vocational training; allowing for differmore the differfor the training; allowing rudimentary vocational ences of time and and the the nature nature of of the the economy economy their might of time ences their approach approach might of commerce and and busibusibe compared of our be that of to that our modern schools schools of compared to ness. Concerned to train train infantry for the battle against the "arisness. for battle the "arisConcerned to the against infantry for public public tocracy of talent and and place," place," labor labor spokesmen of talent tocracy spokesmen agitated agitated for just disposition, disposition, virtuous habits, and schools that would inculcate inculcate "a "a just virtuous habits, schools that this standard, a rational rational self-governing standard, a to this character"; disciplined disciplined to self-governing character"; in open be able able to of themselves open competitheir sons would be to take their take care care of themselves in sons would competition. tion. of the the upper upper classes, apof Massachusetts Massachusetts apleader of As aa leader classes, Horace Mann of proached education as an effective means of social control as well of social control as means as well effective education an proached
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as aa philosophical ideal. Warning his peers that that social unrest would would social unrest as philosophical ideal. Warning his peers become a serious danger unless the lower orders were given a share become a serious danger unless the lower orders given share of the the increasing wealth, he argued that education solve the solve the of increasing wealth, he argued that education would problem. While the rich would remain rich, the lower classes would classes lower the would remain rich the would While rich, problem. respond to training of their minds by improving their fortunes fortunes minds by to the the training of their improving their respond of and away from the "wanton destruction of the property the of destruction the from "wanton and turning property of turning away others." Thus the the order would be be saved and improved. saved and others." Thus order would improved. "What the capitalist capitalist find find for the security for the of surer guaranty can the "What surer security of guaranty can his investments," Mann asked rhetorically, "than is to be found in is be "than to in asked rhetorically, his investments," the sense intellectually enlightened?" enlightened?" a community the sense of of a morally and intellectually community morally Such Lawrence Stevens and Abbot Lawrence as Thaddeus Thaddeus Stevens leaders as Such economic economic leaders an early date date saw the logic and accepted the responsibility, and from an the saw the and early responsibility, logic accepted helped to spread Mann's ideas. Putting his principles into action as into his action as to ideas. Mann's Putting principles helped spread to the official of education education in Massachusetts from 1827 to 1837, in Massachusetts the official leader leader of 1827 1837, the school pushed the the construction construction of of 50 50 and pushed Mann lengthened school year year and lengthened the public (and free) high schools. new public schools. (and free) high Other as Yale-graduate Yale-graduate Josiah extended adult adult Other men such such as Josiah Holbrook extended education the lyceum This may been more more education through movement. This may have been lyceum movement. through the actively like Ralph offered lecturers lecturers like since it it offered intellectual, since Ralph Waldo Emeractively intellectual, son in the early years, years, emphasized natural science. the other other science. On the son and, the early and, in emphasized natural hand, its tended to become ceremonial and social affairs to social its meetings ceremonial affairs tended become hand, meetings as forums practical and immediate immediate which served of practical which served as the discussion for the discussion of forums for issues. Whatever Whatever the balance between production of of heat the heat and the the production issues. the balance between the stimulation and discipline of thought, the had a wide the a stimulation wide of movement had thought, discipline following. Established basis by by 1831, it claimed some a national claimed some national basis Established on a 1831, it following. 3,000 units in 15 IS states within four years. units in states within four years. 3,000 Even the radical wing wing of of the labor movement based based its prothe more radical the labor its program on Mann's equation equation of property rights. rights. Thomas of education education and and property gram Skidmore's plan, Rights of Property (1829), Skidmore's plan, presented presented in to Property in his his Rights of Man to (1829), proposed to sustain true laissez faire by outlawing practice of of to sustain true faire laissez the practice proposed by outlawing the inheritance. A similar spirit permeated permeated Stephen Simpson's statement inheritance. similar spirit statement Stephen Simpson's of an individualistic of theory of value in the Workingman's individualistic labor labor theory in the of value Wor\ingman's ManHe ual (1831). indignantly explained that it was "a perversion" to to "a perversion" that it (1831). indignantly explained accuse labor of of "contending accuse labor for an equality of wealth or a community for "contending equality of wealth or a community of property." of the slogan the Workingman's of the property." Hence the slogan of Party "equal Workingman's Party-"equal education education ... equal equal property property ... equal privileges"-should not be be should not equal privileges" as a interpreted as a rallying rallying cry for early socialism. It was an exhortation for socialism. It an exhortation interpreted cry early to establish the to establish the framework framework for thoroughgoing laissez for thoroughgoing laissez faire. faire. .
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JACKSONlAN DEMOCRACY LIBERTY AND BONDAGE IN THE SPIRIT SPIRIT OF JACKSONIAN Jackson's inaugural reception reception was was aa magnificent magnificent manifestation manifestation of of Jackson's inaugural this same Swarming into the White House from all parts of same spirit. spirit. Swarming into the White House from all parts of the country, exuberant the formality the his exuberant of invitations, invitations, his country, and ignoring ignoring the formality of followers footstools, tapestries tapestries into into turned satin-covered satin-covered chairs followers turned chairs into into footstools, throw-away napkins, and windows into doors. Appropriately perand into windows doors. throw-away napkins, Appropriately permissive (and justly concerned for his personal well-being), Jackson missive for his personal well-being), Jackson (and justly concerned abandoned the market place place of in favor of more secure quarthe market of revelry abandoned revelry in favor of more secure quaralso took took the the part part of of Peggy Peggy Eaton, Eaton, ters at Tavern. Jackson Jackson also at Gadsby's ters Gadsby's Tavern. long a vivacious vivacious barmaid barmaid who had a cabinet cabinet official a after a a long had married official after married a in her difficulties in breaking the established and satisfying courtship, the established and her difficulties in in satisfying courtship, breaking patterns of Washington's social elite. But But the the inaugural reception of Washington's social elite. patterns inaugural reception a classic documented the unfettered triumph triumph of nous faire the unfettered documented faire in in a classic of laissez laissez nous manner. manner. Taking office with with aa general philosophy of "individuals of leaving Taking office leaving "individuals general philosophy as much as possible to themselves," Jackson selected his and States States as as possible to themselves," Jackson selected his key advisors by this this criterion. a group group of bankers, railrailadvisors by criterion. As a successful bankers, of successful key also road-builders, land land speculators, and general promoters which also and which road-builders, speculators, general promoters included the director director of nation's telegraph telegraph monopoly, monopoly, the the Genincluded the of the the nation's of, the the eral's friends persuasive spokesmen spokesmen for, eral's were persuasive friends were and examples for, and examples of, Age of Laissez NOllS Faire. "Things will take their course in the the of Laissez will course in Faire. take their Nous Age "Things well as as in the natural natural world," moral as as well in the of moral Kendall of world," explained explained Amos Kendall the Kitchen Kitchen Cabinet, Cabinet, and and cautioned the Congress to "be content to to the to "be content cautioned the Congress let and private private business let currency business alone." alone." currency and This triumphant philosophy became became the the editorial viewpoint of of This editorial viewpoint triumphant philosophy Democratic Review. Review. "The best best govgovthe party's party's key magazine, The Democratic the key magazine, is that which governs essay ernment ernment is that which announced the the leading least," announced leading essay governs lea.st," in the the first has been the fruitful parent of nineninefirst issue. the fruitful of in issue. "Legislation has been "Legislation parent the evil, moral and physical, physical, by by which which mankind has has tenths of all the of all tenths evil, moral been affected the creation of the the world." world." Even aa "strong and been since the affected since creation of "strong government, in term, is active is the term, the common sense sense of of the active democratic democratic government, in the not in an evil evil differing only in degree and mode of operation, and not in of operation, differing only in degree and its its nature, nature, from a strong strong despotism:' eagerly Jackson's supporters supporters eagerly despotism." Jackson's spread the gospel applied the doctrine of of good works. LowerLowerthe doctrine and applied spread the good works. gospel and the great proclaimed the great echelon Polk proclaimed leaders such as James echelon political such as James K. Polk political leaders faith of freemen" and closed ranks behind Buren's Van Buren's ranks behind faith of "enterprising and closed freemen" "enterprising leadersh~ to to control control the the Congress. leadership Congress. this
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Elsewhere a good many ordained ministers began began to to expound expound the the ordained ministers Elsewhere a good many
faire as were aa newly book doctrine of discovered book it were as though of laissez laissez faire doctrine newly discovered though it Elements of Political Economy proof the Bible. Francis Wayland's Political Elements of the Bible. Francis Wayland's of Economy progain all he can." claimed that that "every all he can." The Reverend Reverend to gain is allowed allowed to claimed "every man is John McVickar revealed that the principles of public wealth were of wealth were public John McVickar revealed that the principles as those for accumulating private riches. Gilbert Vale, the same And riches. Gilbert Vale, the same as those for accumulating private turning his education to secular purposes, became an an ininhis religious religious education to secular purposes, turning fluential economist in support of the cause. Stressing the fluential circuit-riding circuit-riding economist in support of the cause. Stressing the to take take care poor, he he proproimportance of of having enough land of the the poor, care of land to importance having enough vided aa succinct the success this secular secular missionary of this of the success of succinct summary vided missionary summary of us alone," he reflected with some pride, generally movement. "Let reflected with "Let us movement. "is, generally alone," he pride, "is, speaking, the language of the merchant, the manufacturer, and the the the and the of the merchant, manufacturer, language speaking, farmer; or, at least, no more than than remove remove impediments." do no least, do farmer; or, at impediments." Jackson himself took took charge of removing the major impediments. major impediments, Jackson himself charge of removing the were to to halt halt government subsidies to small-arms manuHis first subsidies to small-arms manufirst acts acts were His government facturers and veto aa bill bill for internal improvements in Kentucky. for internal in and veto facturers improvements Kentucky. Though a political broadside aimed at Henry Clay's fortress, clearly a political broadside aimed at Henry Clay's fortress, Though clearly Jackson's veto the Maysville Maysville Road project project was was also also an an ideological of the veto of Jackson's ideological manifesto. Bluntly Blundy proclaiming proclaiming the danger inherent whole in the the whole the danger inherent in manifesto. principle, he admitted that piecemeal grants had some justification. had that he admitted justification. piecemeal grants principle, But even those were were approved were "unsafe." Unless they But with great "unsafe." Unless even those they were approved with great to the subversion of the fedfedcaution, they "would of necessity lead of to the subversion "would lead the of caution, they necessity eral there was no warrant at all for continuing to all eral system." there no warrant at for And was system." continuing to as a business venture. Sure of his strength, Jackoperate the projects a the as business of Sure his venture. operate projects strength, Jackson poured poured salt in the the wound by by challenging engineer aa son salt in to engineer challenging Clay Clay to constitutional such vetoes. constitutional amendment outlawing such vetoes. outlawing At the time, Jackson Jackson fully understood the the same time, the role role of of the the govfully understood govexernment (and particularly of the President) in sustaining ernment of the and ex(and particularly President) in sustaining and the tending the basic basic framework framework of of aa laissez-faire economy. laissez-faire political tending political economy. While willing willing to to compromise the specific he issue of the tariff, of the tariff, he compromise on the specific issue moved vigorously, force, against South Carolina's Carolina's vigorously, openly openly threatening against South threatening force, to carry to the point of national inclination inclination to laissez faire faire to the point of nullifying carry laissez nullifying national laws. Such action, to say United laws. action, Jackson Jackson slashed back, "is slashed back, "is to that the the United say that States are are not States a nation": nation": it the existence existence of of not a it was "incompatible with "incompatible with the the in a a similar the Union." Union." Arguing vein, he he used used troops troops against strikers similar vein, strikers Arguing in against in his who, in his view, view, were were interfering government by by stopping with the the government who, interfering with stopping work on the of the construction of the construction the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. and Canal. Chesapeake manifested a similar concern by Jackson manifested a similar the national for the concern for national system Jackson system by trade treaties with signing trade treaties with Siam and Great Britain and by demandGreat Britain demandsigning by
The Age of Laissez Nous Nous Faire Faire The Age of Laissez
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its American overdue damages its long damages against against American long overdue shipping. And concluding that Indians "can not live in contact with with live that Indians "can not in contact shipping. concluding aa civilized community and prosper," he defied Chief Justice Marcivilized community and prosper," he defied Chief Justice Marshall's effort to retain equity in the new order and drove them effort to retain some some equity in the order and drove them shall's west where they would not interfere with the free progress and west where they would not interfere with the free progress and prosperity of democracy. Culminating in a particularly cruel forced prosperity of democracy. Culminating in a particularly cruel forced too successful march, the Indians were were forced to give up their successful the Indians their all all too forced to march, give up efforts to to adapt to the white man's the white man's system. efforts adapt to system. This between the the minimum demands demands of a national tension between This tension of a national system system and the it was was supposed to possible came to an early freedom it an and the freedom to to make early possible supposed climax in crisis over over the the national banking system. group in the the crisis One national banking climax system. group so in within the Jacksonian coalition coalition approved the bank within the Jacksonian said so in bank (and approved the (and said an able report) because it stabilized the monetary an able congressional it stabilized the because monetary congressional report) base of while at the same time providing an exof economic economic activity base activity while at the same time providing an expanding credit (or capital) However profound credit (or truths of of the truths capital) system. system. However panding profound the laissez faire, such heretics doubted that credit could regulate itself. laissez such itself. heretics credit could doubted that faire, regulate whereof they spoke, they wryly observed observed as men who knew whereof And as they wryly they spoke, that some people were were always richer than the rest. some people that richer the rest. than always Jackson galloped galloped on. the truth that had had been on. Sure Sure of of the truth that to been revealed revealed to Jackson 1819 when he and Benton had been hurt by the Panic of him during the Panic had of he and been hurt Benton during 1819 by fact tight credit, credit, he was convinced convinced that that precious precious metals would in he was in fact metals would tight provide aa natural self-enforcing money money system. natural and self-enforcing provide system. Supported Supported and constantly encouraged by several special interest groups, he thunthunconstantly encouraged by several special interest groups, he "THE MONSTER." Wall-Street bankers natdered on to destroy to destroy dered Wall-Street bankers naturally approved Philadelphia's power. power. And an attack attack on such an on Philadelphia's urally approved such class and funcpoliticians like Buren and Kendall Kendall screened screened the like Van Buren functhe class politicians mechanics tional differences between agrarians, businessmen, and mechanics tional differences between agrarians, businessmen, behind an ideological ideological dance dance of sophistries. behind of the the seven seven sophistries. laissez. nous nous In performance that that laid crippled spirit of laissez a performance laid bare In a bare the the crippled spirit of faire, Jacksonians denied that men were were the Jacksonians denied their their central central axiom that faire, the possimasters of of their their own fate. retreated before the possifate. Instead, before the masters Instead, they they retreated bility that a national bank might undermine the government a undermine that the national bank might government and bility It was a sensible and legitimate fear, but the democracy. a the surrender It sensible but surrender fear, democracy. legitimate praise said more about the men of than all lyrics in all their in praise of laissez laissez faire faire than their lyrics said about the of individual. Jackson Jackson faced the British Indians with with the free the Indians of the faced the British and and the free individual. great courage, but he quailed before the vastly more significant chalbut he the chalbefore vastly great courage, significant quailed lenge restraining one's one's own freedom of action of society's action in in favor favor of of restraining freedom of lenge of society's the as as had the the well-being. Instead of controlling and using the bank, and of had Instead bank, using well-being. controlling the to their mercantilists, the Jacksonians abandoned the field to their fears. field fears. the mercantilists, Jacksonians
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A similar became evident of the the in other other quarters; evident in similar retreat retreat became many of quarters; many articulate of the laissez-faire philosophers philosophers and withdrew and artists artists withdrew the laissez-faire articulate of on the of Boston, Boston, there to carry carry into the edge there to into their their own community edge of community on Ralph Waldo Emerson's axiom, "TRUST TO to its YOURSELF" to its Ralph Waldo Emerson's axiom, logical (and almost deadly) conclusion. Mixing the romanticism of the romanticism of logical (and almost deadly) conclusion. Mixing Samuel Taylor Coleridge with a travesty of Calvinism to produce Calvinism to produce a a Samuel Taylor Coleridge with a travesty of thempotent ideology called transcendentalism, transcendentalism, they they began to talk talk to to thembegan to ideology called potent selves to others, others, an or to God. By thus transcendtranscendto God. selves instead of to an other, instead of other, or By thus ing society itself, they abstracted into a set of principles which ing society itself, they abstracted man into a set of principles which they ultimately ultimately presented presented as absolutes. as moral moral absolutes. they This of innate justified aa self-reliance that defined defined self-reliance that innate ideas ideas justified This doctrine doctrine of as being being immoral. the poet poet William Cullen restraint as William Cullen Thus fortified, immoral. Thus restraint fortified, the Bryant could simultaneously campaign for a nationalistic assertion a for nationalistic assertion could simultaneously campaign Bryant of thoroughgoing laissez faire and trade, and free trade, laissez faire and free and of American American verse, verse, thoroughgoing the repeal repeal of all laws limiting interest interest rates. rates. Usury Usury was thus thus defined laws limiting defined of all the as never went went of free free expression. as an an essential essential ingredient expression. Emerson never ingredient of as a newspaper that far Bryant performed more intelligently as a more that far (and intelligently newspaper (and Bryant performed editor), but his his pseudo-mystical pseudo-mystiJ:al doctrine doctrine of constantly of individualism individualism, constantly editor), but teetered on of substituting personal exhilaration and impulse of exhilaration on the teetered the edge substituting personal impulse edge social morality. morality. It It liberated liberated men, but it so in for rationality and it did did so in for rationality and social men, but the name name of of an oversoul whose whose influence influence in in this was rather rather this world world was the an oversold less than even the Hidden Hand that guided the of Adam the system that guided less than even the system of Smith. Smith. "1 experiment," Emerson Emerson explained: with "I simply "an endless endless seeker seeker with explained: "an simply experiment," my back." back." He did uphold the value of calling no Past did uphold the value at my Past at of education, no it education, calling it "the mother of of national national prosperity," prosperity," but but only only to politics. to discount discount politics. "the mother to the the system loss of Any accommodation "a loss so much integrity." of so accommodation to system was "a Any integrity." While capable of being defended under several easily imaginable defended under of several While capable being easily imaginable was unrewarding its own circumstances, the view view was within its even within circumstances, the unrewarding even vision of order. Emerson framework unless matched matched by framework unless of a a new order. Emerson by some vision it had had educated educated denied need. The state state had had no no justification justification once denied the the need. once it aa man. man. At that that point point "he no library, he has has not not done think"he needs needs no for he done thinklibrary, for is aa prophet; no statute statute book, book, for he is a lawlawing; he is for he for he is a church, for prophet; no ing; no church, giver; no no money, he is value." is value." for he money, for giver; stated a theory the withering Having thus thus stated of the withering away the state of the state Having theory of away of the Age in the of Laissez in Laissez Nous Faire, Faire, Emerson had to come to terms to come to terms Age of its existence with existence and services. services. He did did so so by by making making personal personal proppropwith its the touchstone erty the touchstone of of his his compromise. ... is, in its effects ... in its effects is, erty compromise. "Money "Money and laws," he declared, beautiful as roses. Property Property keeps the "as beautiful as roses. laws," he declared, "as keeps the most most
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accounts of the the world, world, and is always moral." Men of tremenand is accounts of of such such tremenalways moral." as Emerson could survive these contradictions by dous survive as Emerson could these dous artistry contradictions artistry by living living off their reserves of imagination and powers of abstraction-and their reserves of off imagination and powers of abstraction and their property. property. Those needed more with the the realities realities Those who needed more communion their communion with of human society either changed their outlook, struggled to some of society either changed their outlook, struggled to some resolution of the dichotomies, or simply crumpled under the strain. resolution of the dichotomies, or simply crumpled under the strain. such As aa competent poet who lacked lacked the the power power to transcend such to transcend competent poet 40 troublesome details, details, Jones Jones Very Very disintegrated and spent the last last 40 troublesome disintegrated and spent the years of his life of his life expounding a doctrine doctrine of of "will-less "will-less and elucidating expounding and elucidating a years In aa terrible terrible way, he managed managed to to transcend transcend life life itself. itself. existence." In existence." way, he was Margaret Fuller, an exceptionally talented of the group, an the talented woman of Fuller, Margaret exceptionally group, was went to to Europe and was reborn in a tempestuous fortunate. She She went more fortunate. and in a was reborn Europe tempestuous affair. her husband husband and child in a disaster proaffair. Losing at sea, and child in a disaster at she prosea, she Losing her most poignant commentaries on the entire tranvided ~ne one of of the vided the most tranon the entire commentaries poignant only come ten years scendentalist movement. "Had II only scendentalist movement. earlier...•. ... So come ten So years earlier has been wasted by abstraction." much strength has been wasted abstraction." strength by Nathaniel Hawthorne Hawthorne ultimately ultimately reached reached aa similar conclusion. Nathaniel similar conclusion. The Scarlet Letter (the Perhaps grasping the implications of the of Scarlet Letter Perhaps grasping implications adultery (the adultery is an that never never became became human or he is an abstraction abstraction that or comprehensible) comprehensible) he recognized that he always stood just outside his characters and the that he his and stood outside characters the recognized always just preserve his society that he created for them live in. in. To preserve that he indecreated for his own indethem to to live society pendence, he almost destroyed them. His always verged he almost women on always verged on pendence, destroyed them. His in the end contented themselves a substisubstiaa passionate passionate act but act but in the end contented themselves with with a as having having ideas ideas about washing dishes. tute, such such as about washing Like Margaret dishes. Like tute, Margaret in her early years, Hawthorne's emancipated Fuller Fuller in her early years, Hawthorne's emancipated women had emancipated themselves from life. from life. emancipated themselves his societies institutional substance. substance. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, Even his societies lacked lacked any any institutional was great. last Hawthorne's achievement achievement as an artist artist was Hawthorne's as an in his his last great. And in works he became fully fully aware his own weakness. weakness. Comprehending works he became aware of of his Comprehending the breakdown breakdown of Christian of a a corporate the of Calvin's vision of Calvin's original corporate Christian original vision commonwealth, he he came came finally that the residue needed needed understand that the residue to understand commonwealth, finally to to be be transformed of community. Perhaps this this into a a new conception to transformed into community. Perhaps conception of insight was all that a of his experien~e could grasp; it could a it was a all that a man of his experience grasp; insight crucial truth, truth, but but he he remained remained content content with with the though the evasive, crucial evasive, though it provided. provided. pleasant, duality that it duality that pleasant, Far more more involved of men, men, and incomparably the in the the society Far involved in society of incomparably the greatest poet of laissez faire, even Whitman finally recognized even Walt of laissez faire, finally recognized greatest poet a way way that that dramatized Jackson's Jackson's the one-sidedness his outlook. In a outlook. In of his the one-sidedness of fight, Whitman was prone prone to to evasion of the real issue in real issue of the evasion in the the bank fight,
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follow the path path of of least the transcendentalists, transcendentalists, he he Like the resistance. Like follow tie least resistance. started with "a simple, separate person" only to end up with the with to the started with "a simple, separate person" only up demand that that society reform itself in his image. Whitman's politics politics demand society reform itself in his image. were typically laissez-faire. "Under the specious pretext of effecting of were typically laissez-faire. "Under the specious pretext effecting 'the of the whole community,' "" he he pontificated, 'the happiness pontificated, "nearly "nearly happiness of the whole community/ all the the wrongs and intrusions intrusions of been carried carried of government all government have been wrongs and through." Social reform thus became a matter of personal regenthrough." Social reform thus became a matter of personal regeneration: men should "not look to precedents and legislative bodies should "not look to precedents and legislative bodies eration: for concerned by by aa problem, problem, therefore, therefore, Whitman walked walked for aid." aid." When concerned as many of his heirs from Twain to William Faulkner away, to William Faulkner Mark heirs from of as his many away, became "a way farer were to the open road." farer down the "a way to do, and became were open road." do, and In this respect, and as indicated by his wild enthusiasm for nationnationenthusiasm for wild his indicated In this as and by respect, a to the Civil War, Whitman was a poet of the the alistic prior of was Civil the alistic expansion to War, poet expansion prior were process by by which which democracy and prosperity were liqked to frontier process and frontier prosperity democracy linked to was also the first poet of the an foreign policy. But he the first poet also the of But was an aggressive he aggressive foreign policy. city, which he intimately from the grinding sorrow its slums slums sorrow of of its city, which he knew intimately from the grinding to the joy of walk or or aa ride ride through through its its exhilarating exhilarating the wonderful a walk to wonderful joy of a diversity of wet grass. grass. Vastly Vastly more more aware aware of the of the of cement, and wet cement, iron, iron, and diversity realities of life than a man like Emerson, he he infused the language language infused the realities like Emerson, of life than a with aa vernacular vernacular vigor vigor and that surpassed freedom that with and inventive inventive freedom any surpassed any European achievement. despite, or perhaps because of, his his or because achievement. And of, European despite, perhaps bisexuality, he it possible to treat sex as a subject in American in he as a made to sex American it treat subject bisexuality, possible literature. literature, the degree degree that they sculpted and painted painted nudes, or infused infused To the that they nudes, or sculpted and their portraits portraits with the essence femaleness, as their with the of femaleness, as Thomas Sully did essence of Sully did be in his of actress Fanny Kemble, American artists should in his study of artists should be actress Fanny Kemble, American study credited advance. Sully was typical of the best of them, credited with with a a similar similar advance. Sully was typical of the best of them, for the not-herself-not-anyone for his his image of Kemble also also revealed revealed the image of not-herself-not-anyone character of a a great well as her awareness that she she character of stage personage personage as as well as her awareness that great stage could work at could at aa higher artistic level level than her audiences could underunderthan her audiences could higher artistic stand or or tolerate. stand few of and sparse tolerate. A few of Ralph Earl's disciplined Ralph Earl's sparse disciplined and of Jackson sketches as good. Cole carried sketches of Jackson were were almost almost as carried good. And Thomas Cole the the basic basic ambivalence his work, painting literal literal ambivalence of faire into into his of laissez laissez faire work, painting for the landscapes the entrepreneurs entrepreneurs who patronized patronized him, him, while while for for landscapes for himself scenes of religious and ethical decay himself he composed composed great of scenes ethical great religious decay sapping the the strength of empires. the wholeness similar concern for the concern for wholeness sapping strength of empires. A similar and interrelatedness interrelatedness of things typified typified the the sculpture Horatio of things of Horatio sculpture of Greenough. Asserting that "God's world has a distinct formula for that "God's a for world has distinct formula Greenough. Asserting function" every function" long before Frank Lloyd Wright designed his fame before his fame every long Lloyd Wright designed
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on the the same axiom, Greenough insisted that that true could same axiom, true achievement on achievement could Greenough insisted by "mastering the principles." come only come only by "mastering the principles." Yet the the Age Faire that were art triumphs of the the art of Laissez Yet Laissez NOllS Nous Faire that were triumphs of Age of were those those of as William William Sidney Mount appropriate to to it it were such men as of such appropriate Sidney Mount and Caleb Bingham. Mount's injunction to "paint and George Bingham. Honoring George Caleb injunction to Honoring Mount's "paint pictures that that will will take take with with the the public public-never the few, but never paint for the few, but pictures paint for Fur Traders Descending the Missouri gave the many," Traders Descending the Missouri the Bingham's Fur many," Bingham's gave Americans, and and any any others others who were interested, some truly magmagwere interested, some truly Americans, nificent nificent
images of the Age of Laissez Nous NOllS Fake. Faire. And no no one one the Age of Laissez images of in his drawing The POUler of Music, surpassed Mount's comment, Power Mount's in his Music, comment, of surpassed drawing on the the poignancy of race race relations relations in United States. the United States. Spiritually in the on poignancy of Spiritually so yet practically practically and physically so the white white and yet intimate and and physically so intimate so distant, distant, the the Negro Negro shared momentary relationship through a and the shared a a momentary man and relationship through a fill all of them with an awareness of the deeper song that seemed to to the that seemed fill all of an them with awareness of deeper song tragedy. tragedy. A similar laissez faire provided by by such similar sense sense of architects as as of laissez faire was such architects was provided Robert Dale Owen, Owen, who favored favored the the Gothic it allowed allowed Gothic style because it Robert Dale style because Practical aa "free of anachronism." anachronism." Books like Asher Asher Benjamin's "free play Books like Benjamin's Practical play of House Carpenter and 1857) jourenabled joureditions between between 1830 House Carpenter (14 1830 and (14 editions 1857) enabled neyman builders to combine Greek and Gothic exteriors with the with the and exteriors to Gothic builders combine Greek neyman wildest kind interior eclecticism. buildings provided provided the the kind of of interior Such buildings wildest eclecticism. Such three-dimensional footnotes footnotes for James Fenimore Fenimore Cooper's Cooper's astringent for James three-dimensional astringent in aa country in which and comment. "You are in 'Tfou are which every comment. every man swaggers swaggers and country in talks, knowledge or no knowledge; brains or no brains; taste or no or or no taste no no brains or talks, knowledge brains; knowledge; are all ex nato connoisseurs." taste. They ex nato all connoisseurs." are taste. They
II Reality for Existing Ideas Ideas for Existing IL A New Reality
[Government] was was not not intended intended to create systems of agriculture, to ..• create systems of agriculture, [Government] ..• can doubt that . ..• A system system manufacturing, or trade . can doubt men trade. that. or Few manufacturing, competition, without without the the aid aid founded on on private private interest, interest, enterprise, enterprise, and competition, -founded of legislative grants or regulations by law, rapidly prosper. or would regulations by law, rapidly prosper. of legislative grants Martin Van Buren, Buren, 1837 Martin 1837 .
.
.
We are are for for leaving leaving trade trade free; free; attribute of freedom. its freedom. attribute of its
We
.
.
.
.
.
.
and the right to to combine combine is is an indispensable the right indispensable William Leggett, Leggett, 1837 William 1837
[A corporation] mere artificial ina mere invisible and inindeed, a is, indeed, artificial being, being, invisible [A corporation] is,
it is aa person, person, for for certain purposes in contemplation of law, in contemplation certain purposes it is of law, and been recognized as such such by decisions of the decisions this court. and has has been court. of this recognized as by the Chief Justice B. Taney, Chief Justice Roger Taney, 1839 Roger B. 1839
tangible; yet yet tangible;
The Union, next to to our our liberty, most dear. May we always always remember dear. May Union, next liberty, most can only be preserved by distributing equally that be the benefits it can that it benefits and only preserved by distributing equally the John Calhoun, 1830 the Union. burdens of burdens Union. C. Calhoun, John C. of the 1830
11 the
State cannot sUf'tlive the anti-slavery agitation, the state state then let let the cannot survive the anti-slavery agitation, then William Lloyd Lloyd Garrison, William Garrison, 1836 1836
// the State
perish. perish.
THE THEORY AND THE REALITY OF THE MARKET PLACE
AAS
GENERALLY PRESENTED l!RESENTED and accepted, accepted, the the Weltanschauung Weltanschauung of laissez of presumed to to be be aa based on what was presumed laissez faire faire was based not obvious obvious truth. truth. Individualized Individualized free in an an simple if not free competition simple if competition in open and fair fair society society would produce produce specific specific happiness the open happiness and the
n
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general welfare. But But the the assumption of free free competition competition was was actually actually general welfare. assumption of predicated upon three other unspoken premises: that domestic s0three other predicated upon unspoken premises: that domestic society was sufficiently balanced and unfettered to insure that such ciety sufficiently balanced and unfettered to insure that such to exexconflict remained creative, that market place place continued remained creative, conflict the market that the continued to pand, and other nations nations accepted acted on the key key axioms. axioms. and that that other and acted on the pand, accepted and All other things being being equal, ran the would other things All the argument, argument, competition equal, ran competition would generate progress. generate progress. Yet as Madison, Monroe, Monroe, and mercantilists often pointed as Madison, Yet and other other mercantilists often pointed out, these essential essential other other things things never were equal. Various individunever were Various individuout, these equal. als and groups were were always always insisting that they they needed and groups als needed assistance, assistance, insisting that either to enter the game game as or to remain competitors. enter the either to as an an equal or to remain Often equal competitors. Often they did need it. Even under the most favorable circumstances, the did need it. Even under the most favorable circumstances, the they very process of competition led to the destruction, failure, or bare of led or bare to the destruction, failure, very process competition successful. While of life, survival of the less of the it promised a survival less successful. While it life, promised a diversity diversity of therefore, the dynamic of the system carried it toward a situation in the of it in carried toward a the situation therefore, dynamic system social which aa few triumphant elements political and few triumphant the political dominated the and social elements dominated which economy. the system system always required aa considerable considerable amount economy. Hence the always required to keep it in working condition. these of tinkering in order Since these of tinkering in order to keep it in working condition. Since realities contradicted the central premise (and (and corroded the Utopia) utopia) contradicted the corroded the realities central premise it was was not not unnatural unnatural that constantly on the of of the the system, that men were were constantly on the system, it lookout to and eradicate eradicate the the one one to find one evil-or discover the find and the one evil or to to discover lookout great equalizer-and thus establish necessary conditions unfor unthe necessary establish the conditions for great equalizer and thus inhibited progress progress toward toward perfection. inhibited perfection. diffiSuch troubled advocates still another another diffiof laissez laissez faire faire faced faced still Such troubled advocates of culty. Usually thought of as a philosophy and a system of individuala a of individualof and as system philosophy culty. Usually thought by which meant the being, the ism, the competition the single which is is meant ism, by competition and single human being, conflict of of laissez laissez faire occurred at many different levels. at levels. In In faire actually occurred different conflict many actually as addition to the individual, there were organized groups such as were such to the there addition individual, organized groups such corporations, labor unions, and reformers; political subdivisions such subdivisions labor reformers; political unions, corporations, as states; social and economic economic units units which became became as parties and the the states; social and parties and or regions; and, in the broadest sense, nations self-conscious the broadest in sections or self-conscious sections sense, nations regions; and, several in the the world world arena. These units units also also competed on several themselves in arena. These themselves competed levds: political, and intellectual-social. And given the intellectual-social. levels: economic, economic, political, given the be too not it it should not be too argument that competition produced welfare, should that competition produced welfare, argument served surprising to realize that laissez faire served subtly (though perfaire that laissez to realize subtly (though persurprising suasivdy) to condition condition men to accept armed conflict righteous conflict with righteous to accept suasively) to attitudes. attitudes. of the of Hence Van Buren's the principles principles of restatement of Hence Buren's sanguine sanguine restatement the realities laissez faire became President President did did not not match the realities he he became faire as as he laissez
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soon the faithful, not he reminded reminded the "was not encountered. Government, soon encountered. Government, he faithful, "was intended to . . • create systems of agriculture, manufacturing, of or intended to ... create systems agriculture, manufacturing, or trade." "Few men can doubt," he concluded, their own interest "that their he can doubt," trade." "Few interest concluded, "that as the general welfare of of the promoted by by be promoted the country well as as well as the country would be general welfare .•. A system founded on private interest, enterprise, and competi... system founded on private interest, enterprise, and competiby tion [which], without the the aid legislative grants grants or or regulations aid of of legislative tion regulations by [which], without law, would rapidly rapidly prosper." prosper." law, would Honoring the the identical Chief Justice Justice Roger Roger B. B. Taney, identical faith, faith, Chief Taney, who Honoring had served earlier as Jackson's attorney attorney general, militant rendered a a militant as Jackson's had served earlier general, rendered in the Charles River Bridge case. Dedecision monopolies the River in case. Charles decision against DeBridge against monopolies claring that restrictive charters delayed progress, and that the country that charters the restrictive that delayed progress, claring country to the the last last century obliged to to stand stand would be back ..• and be ... to be obliged be "thrown would "thrown back century and not destroyed, he announced the new political still" if the announced if they were he not were still" destroyed, political they all competitors. competitors. But Taney's economy and opened the the market market place place to to all But Taney's and opened economy also confirmed the corporation as a legitimate unit of compeopinion a the as unit also confirmed of legitimate opinion corporation compein the long tition. And that that aspect of the court's decision amounted of decision the court's in the tition. aspect long run to to aa death for the indefor death sentence for individualized individualized laissez laissez faire, sentence for the inderun faire, pendent businessman proved incapable holding his his own against against of holding businessman proved pendent incapable of the corporation. the corporation. In the short run, however, however, it polity which which short run, it was Jackson's economic polity In the Jackson's economic brought on many of Buren's troubles. After destroying the Van on of Buren's troubles. After brought many destroying the national bank bank with with his his veto, veto, Jackson transferred government funds national transferred Jackson government funds to selected banks. Already Already expanding expanding their their loans in competition to state banks. loans in selected state competition rewith other local and regional banks, the favored institutions the favored institutions rewith other local regional banks, sponded by by further themselves. Accentuating Accentuating his his aa priori priori further extending sponded extending themselves. commitment to hard money, money, the economic orgy led Jackson Jackson to hard the resulting resulting economic orgy led by which which he he lived up to to his his ancient to issue to issue his his specie of 1836, circular of lived up ancient 1836, by specie circular for precious preference for precious metal metal and at at the to stabilize the same time time sought stabilize preference sought to return to principles of Middle the wild boom. His return the wild boom. to the the monetary of the the Middle monetary principles Ages would no no doubt doubt have have pleased John Taylor Taylor of but it of Caroline, it Caroline, but Ages pleased John had less less happy the political effects on the happy effects political economy. economy. Unfortunately coinciding poor crop crop a drop with a in exports a poor Unfortunately drop in exports and a coinciding with the the deflationary monetary circular counterbalanced season season in in 1835, circular counterbalanced 1835, deflationary monetary from the the treasury treasury surplus the effect distributing over the of distributing effect of five millions over five millions from surplus to the states states (because to the it removed the specie from the banks), and it removed the the (because specie banks), major crisis. Jackson played a key key role the development role in in the a major of a crisis. As Jackson played development of had joyfully the specjoyfully anticipated, the maneuver toppled many of the maneuver of the anticipated, toppled many speculators ulators whom he he thought thought selfish, unprincipled, and evil. But it also evil. also But it selfish, unprincipled, bowled over a a good bowled over good number of of upright upright mechanics, mechanics, farmers, and and farmers,
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small entrepreneurs. leaders such as Leggett Leggett of of New York York Labor leaders small such as entrepreneurs. Labor had urged and praised the specie circular in the belief that it would and the liad urged praised specie circular in the belief that it would an honest honest wage, undepreciated by by inflation and give the mechanics an the mechanics inflation and wage, undepreciated give them~ the discounts on the notes of weak banks. But they soon found the discounts on the notes of banks. But they soon found themselves by increasing increasing prices prices and growing numbers of unun~ confronted by selves confronted and growing numbers of employed in in northern northern cities. cities. Van Buren's cherished alliance between Buren's cherished alliance between employed began northern businessmen planters, began businessmen and and mechanics, northern and southern southern planters, mechanics, and to break break apart under the the pressure pressure of of class class consciousness consciousness and and regional regional to apart under economic conflicts* conflicts. economic as the the Equal Party even before the the Organized even before the shock shock of of the Organized as Equal Rights Rights Party politics Panic depression, the the more more radical radical wing wing of Panic and depression, of New York York politics provided an early example example of the proliferation proliferation of parties an early of the of political provided political parties that was of laissez faire. Often quick that of the was characteristic characteristic of the age of faire. to laissez Often age quick to multi~party systems, Americans criticize European countries for their criticize countries for their Americans European multi-party systems, r835 and they conducted conducted seem prone prone to to forget forget that that between and r8¢, between 1835 1896, they in aa very similar fashion. Economic and social their own politics politics in their and similar Economic fashion. social very conflict the characteristic of the age, and and it took political political form form conflict was was the characteristic of the age, it took as the r820s, a mechanics' organization held the bal~ as as early the a as when held the balmechanics* 1820$, organization early ance power in Though with steadily decreasing ance of of power in Philadelphia. with sigPhiladelphia. Though steadily decreasing significance, the phenomenon continued into the 20th 20th century. the continued into the nificance, century. phenomenon Standing thoroughgoing reform reform in the tradition laissez of laissez for thoroughgoing in the tradition of Standing for New York dissidents challenged the aristocratic governors faire, the aristocratic dissidents challenged the faire, the governors VanBuren's Regency machine machine and vigorous of Van of and demanded more vigorous Buren's Regency of direct action against local and regional financial powers, a system direct action against local and regional financial powers, a system of in Februtaxes, and election by direct popular vote. For a moment in Februtaxes, and election by direct popular vote. For a direct ary, 1837, r837, when the depression struck hard, they to direct turned to tk e depression struck hard, they turned ary, threateningaction. Urged Urged on on by by posters posters that were blunt blunt and threatening that were action. "BREAD, RENT, and prices must come Their prices and FUEL! Their "BREAD, MEAT, RENT, downl"-the response was militant. Crowds raided raided grocery stores and militant. Crowds dou/nrthe grocery stores response was for aa period period of of aa few led some conservatives a general general fear a to fear for conservatives to few days days led for property uprising. But But the the movement's movement's respect (and ambition) property ambition) for respect (and uprising. the existing existing checked critique of of the a fundamental of a fundamental critique short of well short checked them them well order. order. like of leaders Such leaders like the effectiveness effectiveness of also limited limited the conservatism also Such conservatism combined Frances Wright, aa striking and inspiring who combined woman Frances Wright, inspiring striking femininity and criticism in in an an explosive and social social criticism package. Mechanics explosive package. femininity did not but did not take take and upper-class upper-class reformers to her appeals to her reformers responded and appeals but responded basic reforms with equal enthusiasm. Indeed, they asked up her more enthusiasm. with reforms her basic more Indeed, they equal up attacks on the her more fundamental attacks the her to play down some of her to play some of her
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system. early proletarian proletarian leaders Walsh of of New as Mike Walsh such as leaders such system. And early York, argued that the shift from Monroe and Adams to Jackson and to from shift who that the Jackson York, argued and Van Buren was "nothing but a change of masters," attracted an attracted of a an but and Van Buren was "nothing masters/' change The shock of the panic passed and the labor even smaller following. and the of the labor shock even smaller following. The panic passed moyement remained an association would-be entrepreneurs association of of would-be movement remained an entrepreneurs organorganized to secure reforms that would open the way for them to to scramble for scramble ized to secure reforms that would open the way to the the top. Depressions only dramatized labor's commitment to to to top- Depressions only dramatized labor's laissez any firm of an an alternative alternative order, firm conception laissez faire; faire; lacking order, conception of lacking any by competing competing for remaining jobs jobs they responded such crises crises by the remaining for the to such they responded to rather than by seizing to change the system. the opportunity rather than by change the system. opportunity to seizing the by the the gales utopian experiments Buffeted by sank in of laissez laissez faire, Buffeted in faire, Utopian experiments sank gales of continental property. They appeared irrelevant, if not the sea if the sea of of continental not irrelevant, They appeared property. stupid dangerous, to to men who assumed assumed that that welfare, welfare, and and wealth, wealth, or dangerous, stupid or were aa matter time and labor. Albert Brisbane's image of an Albert Brisbane's were of time and labor. matter of an image of had America organized organized in in self-sufficient self-sufficient communities communities of of 1,600 souls had America 1,600 souls little whose immediate problem was was to dispose of to dispose little appeal to immediate problem of appeal to men whose cotton while John Humphrey Noyes was and wheat while cotton and wheat surpluses. And was John Humphrey Noyes surpluses. undoubtedly correct correct in jealousy provoked provoked by by proppropin arguing that the the jealousy undoubtedly arguing that erty and sex caused a good share of men's troubles, the majority a of the sex caused men's share troubles, erty good majority preferred the competition to to pre-empt rights over a disciplined the competition over a such rights preferred disciplined pre-empt such struggle their impulses in aa co-operative co-operative commonwealth. commonwealth. to sublimate sublimate their impulses in struggle to As with Whitman, most most Americans Americans evaded the challenge of Noyes's Noyes's with Whitman, evaded the As challenge of by blaming their at Oneida, York, communal community at New Oneida, York, by blaming their community troubles on property holders holders or joining the the free-for-all in joining on other other property or in troubles free-for-all for for more property. property. more RELIGIOUS HERESY AND THE ASSAULT ON SLAVERY
Having destroyed the bank, bank, that that primeval primeval monster monster in the garden in the destroyed the Having garden of Jacksonian safari the secular the Jacksonian of laissez laissez faire, safari in in search search of of the secular and inand infaire, the stitutional evil that would would explain the malfunctioning malfunctioning of the system stitutional evil that of the explain the system
began to converge with with aa moral moral crusade developing out of John to converge crusade developing out of John began Locke's definition of of the the natural natural (and unnatural) man, man, the the breakbreakLocke's definition (and unnatural) philosophical ruminations ruminations of the trantrandown of the philosophical of Calvinism, of the Calvinism, and the scendentalists. the sustained sustained vitality of the the revival revival movement of of scendentalists. As the vitality of 1799 had suggested, the age faire was was 1800 had in the of laissez laissez faire 1799 and 1800 suggested, religion religion in age of a series in essence of variations variations on on the Arminian heresy heresy that had essence a series of the Arminian in that had Calvinism plagued Calvinism (and Jonathan Edwards) in the England in the New Jonathan (and plagued Edwards) England of the of the 1730S by the the secularization secularization of of God's God's 17305 and 1740s. 1740$. Encouraged Encouraged by in the of Adam Smith and his will the philosophy will in philosophy of his followers, religious the religious followers, the
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advocates of of free free will will soon soon reduced reduced Calvin's to aa code code advocates social morality Calvin's social morality to of personal righteousness righteousness that that paralleled paralleled and and reinforced the indiof personal indithe reinforced vidualism of of Locke. became ipso facto the Locke. The free vidualism free man thereby thereby became if so facto the He was also the natural man. moral man. man. was also the natural man. moral A more portentous portentous distortion philosophy distortion of of Calvin's Calvin's corporate corporate philosophy would be difficult to imagine, particularly in a society which had would be difficult to imagine, particularly in a society which had come to define freedom liberty in in terms terms of right to to vote vote to define come freedom and and liberty of the the right and the become an independent entrepreneur. was the right and to become an independent Here was right to entrepreneur. Here to laissez American hishisthe bedrock bedrock meaning meaning of of the the transition transition to the laissez faire. faire. American and 18¢ largely the the story tentory between 1828 and between 1828 the multiple is largely of the tory 1896 is story of multiple tensions among an attempt attempt to the criteria the sions to apply of laissez criteria of laissez faire, faire, the among an apply the realities of of the recognition that the implicathe situation, and a a growing realities that the situation, and implicagrowing recognition tions of the effort were subversive very freedom freedom it it was effort were of the tions subversive of was supposed of the the very supposed is free holds proppropto create guarantee. For to a man is create and guarantee. For if if he if a he holds free only only if is a mere product of material wealth. erty, then he is a then The new mere material wealth* of erty, product Weltanschauung liberated him only to set a horrible trap. a liberated him to set horrible Weltanschauung only trap. Nothing dramatizes dramatizes the the distortion of Edwards's theology more more distortion of Edwards's theology Nothing ironically than the role of his brilliant and devoted student, Samuel than the role of Samuel and devoted brilliant his student, ironically Hopkins, in transmitting the of the Great Awakening to in transmitting the spirit Hopkins, spirit of the Great Awakening to men had abandoned the corporate ethic for the Arminianism Arminianism and and who had abandoned the for the corporate ethic secular faire of Hopof Stoddard laissez faire and Whitefield. Whitefield. For For himself, secular laissez Stoddard and himself, Hopkins did the equation equation between between morality morality and laissez-faire did not and laissez-faire kins not make the individualism. His His attacks slavery stemmed from a corporate a attacks on from individualism. stemmed on slavery corporate philosophy that held all Americans responsible for slavery philosophy that held all Americans responsible for slavery and hence mutual and and institutional institutional solution. His to devise a mutual solution. His hence obligated devise a obligated to approach pointed toward some form of emancipation compensated approach pointed toward some form of emancipation compensated by the the national gradual integralead into national government which would would lead into gradual integraby government which tion of Negro with with the the rest of the the political political and social social economy. tion of the the Negro rest of economy. This to slavery did not with not disappear This institutional institutional approach disappear with approach to slavery did Hopkins. Even Even some of the transcendentalists like like William William Ellery the transcendentalists some of EUery Hopkins. a similar analysis. And Channing, example, initially similar analysis. for example, initially (1835) Channing, for (1835) made a while quite different in being York businessmen instead of instead of businessmen while different New York in being quite Unitarian ministers, ministers, Arthur Arthur and Lewis Lewis Tappan beginning in the the beginning Unitarian Tappan in six years, also that kind kind of the short of six years, short space favored that solution. In In the also favored of solution. space of the kind however, both the Tappans and Channing had embraced the kind had embraced both the however, Channing Tappans laissez of of that typified the convergence of laissez that the of individual individual moralizing convergence moralizing typified faire, the morality of natural law, transcendentalism, and of natural the secular secular morality law, transcendentalism, faire, preacher who took took the the evangelical Arminian Protestantism. Protestantism. As aa preacher Arminian evangelical ethic fervor of Hopkins and and Edwards but but abandoned abandoned their their corporate of Hopkins fervor corporate ethic
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in Charles G. Finney was a key in favor favor of of individualized individualized religion, religion, Charles G. Finney was a key entrepreneur of that merger. Finney asserted that had aa that every of that every man had entrepreneur merger. Finney asserted responsibility for helping to erect a framework within which every within a framework which to erect every responsibility for helping other individual had a chance to save himself. Until late in life, Until in himself. late other individual had a chance to save life, moreover, Finney also believed that he and his associates had the his he and associates had the moreover, Finney also believed that truth that could save anyone. truth that could save anyone. Religion thus embraced the the task task of reforming the world the moral moral world of reforming thus embraced Religion so that faire could the political, political, social, ecoin the function in so that laissez laissez faire could function social, and economic spheres. Theology had to the the decline mercandecline of of mercanhad been been adapted nomic adapted to spheres. Theology tilism and triumph of been so faire. And having and the of laissez laissez faire. so tilism the triumph having been accommodated, it began began to as aa powerful powerful engine the function as to function accommodated, it engine driving driving the change on its logical the purification purification of of the the entire on toward toward its entire conclusion, the logical conclusion, change 1730S like Stoddard were system. While ideological pioneers of the of like the Stoddard While were 17305 system. ideological pioneers probably aware that they were changing the essence of Calvin's essence the aware were of that Calvin's changing probably they doctrine to conform conform to to their their economic interests, it it is is unlikely that economic interests, doctrine to unlikely that of the 1820S and 1830S realized that they were altermany Americans that were the realized alterAmericans of 18205 they 18303 many ing their religion. religion. They were not They were were simply not hypocrites. simply men ing their hypocrites. They They were of their their era had never never been trained or or led of era who had been trained or encouraged led to to encouraged or examine-let relationship between their interests their examine let alone alone question-the the between interests relationship question and their and their ideas. ideas. Just Jackson had had defined asserted the the essential essential supremacy as Jackson defined and asserted Just as supremacy of the national national framework framework of political economy economy against freeof the of the the political the freeagainst the element like South Carolina, so religious leaders dom of a single of a element like South Carolina, so religious leaders like like single Finney and Theodore Dwight asserted the the moral imperatives moral imperatives Finney and Dwight Weld asserted of the Only moral moral men could general welfare welfare of the order. order. Only could attain attain the the general through the indulgence of their various self-interests. Since only free through the indulgence of their various self-interests. Since only free be moral, moral, the the slaveholder was by by definition the most most men could could be slaveholder was definition the immoral. But But free free men had also into evil evil ways. ways. Having Having thus thus immoral. also slipped slipped into declared open declared whole of (or as as they they the whole of human error season on the error (or open season termed it, the moral moral reformers undertook aa good termed reformers undertook crusadit, sin), sin), the many crusadgood many ing into the the jungle jungle of of man's base camp man's fallibility. Their base ing expeditions expeditions into fallibility. Their camp was a privately recreated universe universe roughly roughly comparable comparable to to the environthe environprivately recreated of the ment of the Old Testament-once again it it was was the People Testament once again the Chosen Chosen People against all in aa fight fight for all comers for righteousness. comers in against righteousness. Some reformers reformers no no doubt doubt saw themselves as heroes in the romantic the romantic themselves as heroes in novels of Sir Sir Walter novels of that enjoyed such tremendous popularity Walter Scott Scott that such tremendous enjoyed popularity the United in the in United States, but then then many many southern did the the southern slaveholders slaveholders did States, but same. same. Each group brought more to Scott than it took away. It seems It to than Scott it took seems group brought away. more probable probable that that they they were transition either made the the transition were men who either
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from mercantilism already possessing a strong moral system, or mercantilism already from possessing a strong moral system, or emerged in the world of laissez faire and proceeded, either either by by conconin the world of laissez faire and proceeded, emerged viction or revelation, to to define in terms terms of religious morality. or revelation, viction define it it in of religious John morality. John Quincy Adams offers a good illustration of the first category which a offers Quincy good illustration of the first category which further that the the older group was strongly inclined toward an an older group further suggests inclined toward was strongly suggests that institutional resolution of the slavery issue. institutional resolution of the slavery issue. Younger men like Finney and Weld were were advocates of laissez laissez like Finney and Weld advocates of Younger faire. But conviction, they they could be But being of religious faire. could hardly being men of religious conviction, hardly be expected to to become entrepreneurs entrepreneurs in ordinary sense. in the saw the ordinary sense. They expected They saw trustees whose whose basic basic interest interest and in a themselves as trustees themselves as and responsibility responsibility in a more than laissez-faire world was was the the business of reform. reform. It laissez-faire world than business of It appears appears coincidental, for example, example, that Tappan brothers brothers also also established established the Tappan that the coincidental, for the first in the country. Their emphasis on the the first credit-rating system in the the Their credit-rating system emphasis on country. by which to play play the the need for a set of fixed well-defined rules rules by for a fixed and set of which to need and well-defined a great to explain from game does a received from deal to the support great deal game does explain the support they they received class. Men of that group wanted guarantees that their the middle the middle class. that their of that wanted guarantees group enterprise would be rewarded. the steady transformation of would be the of rewarded. transformation And enterprise steady the abolitionist campaign for free land land abolitionist crusade for free the crusade into into an an antislavery antislavery campaign suggests that the the siteven more strongly sitelement in in the the underlying suggests even strongly that underlying element was the cltanschauung of laissez faire. uation was uation the W faire. of laissez Weltanschauung secuSeen through the prisms of the secuthe prisms Seen through of religious forms and language, religious forms language, the lar principles principles of as a utopian revelation. Though a revelation. lar of laissez as laissez faire faire appeared Though Utopian appeared fears of of economic competition played an overt overt role to some extent, extent, role to fears economic competition played an most of the violent and bigoted reaction against the increasing of the violent and bigoted reaction against the increasing nummost of ber in 1824 (7,912 in in 1836, 3li9,~ in in 1850) ber of immigrants 1850) immigrants (7,912 1836, and 369,980 1824, 76,242 76,242 in was anti-Catholic in origin. It was grounded in the view of CatholiCatholiwas anti-Catholic in origin. It was grounded in the view of cism as worst of of the the old corporate and institutional religions institutional religions as the the worst old corporate cism liberty and violated freedom. headed by freedom. The and violated evil men who crushed crushed liberty headed by evil ^ie combined antiburning of a Massachusetts Massachusetts convent in 18}4, antiof a convent in 1834, the burning Catholic and actions of of men like Lyman Beecher, Beecher, and like Lyman Catholic and antislavery antislavery actions the formation of the the Native Native American American Association Association in in 1837 the formation of 1837 were similar antagthoroughly entwined entwined aspects the same outlook. outlook. A similar of the antagthoroughly aspects of of 1827-1831 onism manifested itself onism manifested the anti-Masonic anti-Masonic agitation itself in in the 1827-1831 agitation of of in New York. York. Here Here again again the the relationship relationship between between the the axioms axioms of in laissez faire and the of the the enemy enemy is is apparent. Going rapthe definition faire and definition of laissez rapGoing apparent. idly politics, the the anti-Masons became the the first third party party to to first third anti-Masons became into politics, idly into convention (1831). stage an open national nominating convention an national (1831). nominating stage open Other reformers concentrated the dangers tobacco, alcohol, alcohol, of tobacco, concentrated on the Other reformers dangers of a and and meat-eating. While the crusades for temperance a pure pure for crusades and the While temperance meat-eating. t
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race remained serious politics for for American politics in American forces in race remained serious forces dom~ nearly a century, the antislavery campaign soon became the the became soon doma century, the antislavery campaign nearly inant the general general drive to establish establish aa proper moral frameframe~ drive to theme of inant theme of the proper moral work for laissez faire. The sermon was appropriately simple: abolish abolish work for laissez faire. The sermon was appropriately simple: slavery and the free system would flourish beyond all Along all dreams. dreams. Along slavery and the free system would flourish beyond with Weld and Finney, William Lloyd Garrison completed the with Weld and Finney, William Lloyd Garrison completed the to aa wholly wholly individualized definition of the problem. problem. transition to of the individualized definition transition the evil, mitigated their Slaveholders became the their sin. sin. The and nothing Slaveholders became evil, and nothing mitigated trouble was bad mtfn, not an institution. an institution. was bad trouble men, not the State cannot sursur~ Garrison hurled the the absolute challenge. "If State cannot "If the absolute challenge. Garrison hurled vive the agitation, then let the State perish." Even though Even the State let vive then the anti-slavery perish." though anti-slavery agitation, they were slavery, the majority of Americans drew of Americans the great were uneasy over slavery, great majority they uneasy over back from the reform threatened whose reform threatened the such extreme abolitionists whose extreme abolitionists back from such it was supposed to save. Garrison and others were very system Garrison others were to save. it was supposed very system by northerners northerners in from physically attacked leaders from in several several states, attacked by states, and leaders physically all parts of country, whatever views on slavery, grew their views whatever their of the the country, all parts slavery, grew increasingly concerned to limit the impact of the agitation. But ab~ the the of to But absoconcerned limit agitation. impact increasingly lutist finally provoked the irrevocable act: in 1837 abolition~ act: in lutist language the irrevocable abolitionlanguage finally provoked 1837 ist editor Elijah Lovejoy Lovejoy was was murdered murdered by by aa mob in Illinois. in Alton, ist editor Elijah Alton, Illinois. Men like Garrison were were exhilarated. tragedy gave gave them them aa like Garrison exhilarated. The tragedy the issue directly. martyr and forced the the COUDtry issue more directly. and forced confront the to confront martyr country to It brought the the abolitionists abolitionists new converts the wealthy wealthy and and It also also brought like the converts like talented Wendell Wendell Phillips, Phillips, some of them them becoming becoming key key leaders leaders in in talented some of movelater transforming transforming abolitionism abolitionism into a more general general political political movelater into a ment. Weld further further stirred stirred the by publishing publishing his expose of of the fire fire by ment. his expose American Slavery I See It, in 1839. As an indictment the evil, the American As I See It, in 1839. an indictment evil, Slavery tract typified extreme individualist nature of the of the slaveholder, his tract the extreme individualist nature slaveholder, his typified the was of the abolitionist movement. And despite despite the the fact of the abolitionist movement. fact that that Weld was willing to the Negro Negro as capable of achievement, to accept a man capable as a of equal willing accept the equal achievement, he offered offered no no plan pIan for with the the results results of he for dealing of emancipation. dealing with emancipation. reveals the the crucial role of philo~ Perhaps nothing so so reveals of laissez-faire crucial role laissez-faire philosPerhaps nothing ophy understanding the whether they agreed with with in understanding the abolitionists: abolitionists: whether ophy in they agreed Weld about to be be an an inin~ the capabilities the Negro, Negro, or or held about the of the held him to capabilities of ferior person, as most ferior person, as most did, did, they simply assumed that he would take assumed he take that they simply his place as a his place as a competitive in the the system. Preferring to unit in to ignore competitive unit system. Preferring ignore the the moral implications of to starve, starve, the moral implications of the the freedom freedom to the abolitionists abolitionists also also escaped the need need to to think responsi~ think seriously about their their own responsiescaped the seriously about bilities as liberators bilities as liberators~r the possibility possibility that that an institutional or about about the an institutional to slavery approach to might produce effective and more moral moral and more approach slavery might produce more effective
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results. But the the abolitionists in the the mainstream mainstream of of what what is abolitionists were results. were in is It was a radicalism that degenerally called American radicalism. called American radicalism. It was a radicalism that degenerally fined individual's freedom from restraint restraint as the crucial crucial element element the individual's freedom from fined the as the of the good society. It rejected the idea of restrictions or discipline of the good society. It rejected the idea of restrictions or discipline being accepted to establish sustain the the circumstances in order order to and sustain for establish and circumstances for accepted in being individual creativity. That was dismissed conservative individual and group That was dismissed as as conservative group creativity. or reactionary. reactionary. Such aa radicalism radicalism relied on expansion expansion to to underwrite underwrite or relied on its in keeping with that pattern the the its individualized individualized freedom, and in that pattern freedom, and keeping with abolitionist soon embraced such aa program. abolitionist movement soon embraced such program. In the meantime, the crisis by Lovejoy's Lovejoy's murder marked In the crisis generated murder marked meantime, the generated by the high point of the early abolitionist movement. In little more than of the the In than abolitionist movement. little more early high point a decade the idea direct action to it had introduced decade it introduced and a and sustained sustained the idea of action to of direct resolve aa national issue and had had established established an definition of national issue resolve an absolute absolute definition of democracy many men, not an the excluded many that excluded if not an entire entire section, men, if section, on the democracy that grounds that it (or they) were evil. But it also strengthened the it that were the evil. But it also (or they) grounds strengthened less wing of of the the antislavery movement. Men who were were extremist wing less extremist antislavery movement. appalled by Garrison's vulgarity, irresponsibility, and questionable Garrison's and vulgarity, irresponsibility, appalled by questionable sincerity to political political action support of program to to end end turned to action in in support of a a program sincerity turned slavery within a Constitutional framework. Organized in 1838-1839 a Constitutional in within framework. slavery Organized 1838-1839 around James James G. Birney, Birney, an ex-Kentucky the Liberty Liberty slaveholder, the ex-Kentucky slaveholder, Party won an immediate response in York. Despite its its more immediate in New York. Party response Despite moderate tone policy, it interpreted by edgy southerners as it as a and was southerners tone moderate interpreted by edgy policy, political force that might someday turn the power of the central of central the political force that might someday turn the power government against them in of abolition. abolition. Northern purists, purists, on in favor favor of government against the other hand, slandered an agent of the the Devil. Devil. as an the other hand, slandered it it as agent of THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTHERN PREDICAMENT
The impact of these these early ideological, and political political attacks attacks moral, ideological, early moral, impact of by the the abolitionists because they they hit the south during increased because hit the south during abolitionists was increased by aa critical juncture in seaboard area's development. old seaboard the area's in the critical juncture development. The old south seemed have entered last stage as a its decline of its decline as to have entered the the last south seemed to stage of center of prices, for Slave prices, for example, center of commodity commodity agriculture. example, had agriculture. Slave fallen to $400 by 1828. produced in Virginia, among other in Virginia, 1828. This produced fallen to among other $400 by consequences, a generation of leaders seriously interested in interested in of leaders new seriously consequences, generation working out some program for ending slavery. Though largely for out Though largely ending slavery. working program alliance upper-class conservatives, conservatives, these negotiated aa tenuous tenuous alliance these men negotiated upper-class with western western yeomen, yeomen, aa coalition that they they hoped hoped would give give them coalition that with the power power to adjust Virginia's Virginia's economy to the the new industrial industrial and the to adjust economy to agricultural order. They were opposed by established planters who established order. planters opposed by They agricultural
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feared aa wholesale wholesale assault property rights rights as well as upon their their as upon as well assault on feared on property existing position, and were appalled by the prospect of a sizable of a the sizable who were and prospect appalled by existing position, plurality of free Negroes. In many respects, therefore, the situation plurality of free Negroes. In many respects, therefore, the situation as the the moment moment of of truth truth for for Washington's Washington's old old idea idea can be be understood understood as can in that manner end that Virginia should diversify its economy and and in that end manner that Virginia should diversify its economy slavery and maintain its position of nationalleadership. slavery and maintain its position of national leadership. The Convention Constitutional Convention in the the Virginia two groups clashed in The two Virginia Constitutional groups clashed of the crucial crucial debates in American American history. history. Erupting Erupting debates in of 1830 one of in one of the 1830 in in a depression depression in in tobacco, tobacco, cotton, prices, the the slave prices, the context context of in the of a cotton, and slave favor of of those those who proposed proposed an an conflict seemed veer in first to to veer in favor seemed at at first conflict in political institutional approach to emancipation. But entrenched in But entrenched to institutional political emancipation. approach and power, and and making making effective use of the specter of the of aboliabolieffective use and social social power, specter of by free Negroes, as well as emphasiztionism and dominated as well as free tionism and a a society dominated Negroes, emphasizsociety by defenders of of ing the the defenders the expense of compensated emancipation, the compensated emancipation, ing expense of slavery finally won. debate continued in the first sessions of the the of in first continued the sessions won. debate The slavery finally however, both because of the continuing strength new legislature, legislature, however, both because of the continuing strength of the group and to the the crisis crisis provoked the antislavery and in of in response provoked when response to antislavery group Nat Turner sparked aa slave uprising aa free Negro preacher preacher named Nat slave uprising Turner sparked free Negro in Pointing to the key role of the free Negro in all slave revolts, all the free in in 1831. of to role slave the revolts, Negro 1831. Pointing key and to to the operations of others like William Johnson others of like and the free-wheeling William Johnson free-wheeling operations (a barber barber who became became aa model model of laissez-faire enenof Natchez (a of Natchez of laissez-faire trepreneurship), the proslavery group overrode its critics. the overrode its critics. trepreneurship), proslavery group Antislavery organizations all but vanished the south within vanished from the all but south within Antislavery organizations five Slavery's victory was consolidated by the revival of comfive years. the consolidated by revival of comyears. Slavery's victory modity prices, the increasing intensity and vitriol of Garrison's atand vitriol the of Garrison's atmodity prices, increasing intensity tacks, and the developing division of the west into northern and the tacks, developing division of the west into northern and good many commentators have concluded that that southern southern sections. sections. A good have concluded many commentators the combination the Erie Erie Canal and the the cotton gin produced produced the the the of the combination of Canal and cotton gin Civil War, War, and in a highly highly generalized the observation observation has has Civil in a sense the generalized sense it overlooks cotton validity. But But it overlooks the the crucial of foreign role of crucial role for cotton markets for validity. foreign markets for the and for the food crops of farmers, and it it neglects neglects the the food crops of northern northern farmers, simultaneous expansion of the home market. market. That revival simultaneous expansion of the exrevival and and exof the pansion of the market was the key to to the the rapidly rapidly divergent developthe key pansion divergent developand 1846. the west west between between 1825 ment within within the 1825 and 1846. Little more than a a fort in 1833, Little fort in Chicago exploded exploded into a city city within within into a 1833, Chicago been wilderness became $15,000 lots along the a decade. decade. What had been wilderness became lots $15,000 along the a In such a young and booming country Illinois-Michigan Canal. In such Canal. and Illinois-Michigan young booming country visitor recalled (one recalled that neither "an old man nor nor aa that he saw neither "an old (one foreign foreign visitor a in in Illinois could almost handcraft his career by gray hair") a man Illinois could almost handcraft career his gray hair") by
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reading law law in in aa crossroads young crossroads general store. But But even even so, so, many reading many young general store. region, along with some of their fathers and grandfathers, the region, of the men of with and some o their fathers along grandfathers, were moving on to to the the bkck black earth the Iowa Iowa Territory risking were of the and risking earth of moving on Territory and across the plains the tortuous struggle through the Indian country the tortuous struggle through the Indian country across the plains and mountains to make a claim in Oregon's lush Willamette Valley. a claim in Oregon's lush Willamette Valley. and mountains to to get the appropriate appropriate agricultural tools and Already beginning beginning to and Already get the agricultural tools machinery from American manufacturers, manufacturers, the the upper upper Mississippi from American machinery Mississippi Valley was aa region region committed the principles principles and of committed to and myths to the Valley myths of laissez-faire individualism individualism with with an that was was uncritical and unreunrelaissez-faire an ardor uncritical and ardor that strained. Promising Promising freedom freedom and prosperity, the was rerestrained. and prosperity, frontier was the frontier inforced of all that was was good good and and necessary. necessary. And it it did did as the the symbol inforced as all that symbol of bring wealth, politi~ freedom, acceptance to to many and social social acceptance wealth, political freedom, and bring many men and women, and more particularly to their children. But it also also and more and women, it children. But their to particularly produced a paradoxical mystique. One half of it was as hard-souled a as of hard-souled it was half produced paradoxical mystique. as in the the world, world, with with one eye roving roving for next unclaimed unclaimed one eye as any for the the next any in watering-place or likely looking acreage and one hand on aa gun. gun. or one hand on and watering-place likely looking acreage c0Though the other half was in contrast and humane and cothe other half was in warm and and contrast Though operative, its fundamental nature was one that encouraged the its the that fundamental nature was one operative, encouraged but subtly vital problems problems of of social and evasion the less of the evasion of less obvious social and obvious but subtly vital be killed and the land was to be personal relations. Indians were to be relations. were and the land to Indians to be killed personal taken. By creating a mirage of an infinity of second chances, the the taken. a of of an second chances, By creating mirage infinity frontier propensity to to evade evade his his frontier almost almost institutionalized institutionalized everyman's everyman's propensity fundamental problems and responsibilities. fundamental problems and responsibilities. Yet in providing wealth wealth and personal personal satisfaction the in providing for many, Yet satisfaction for many, the frontier also worked its magic on easterners who never ventured west west frontier also worked its magic on easterners never ventured of King's of Baltimore Rufus King's Baltimore or or Charleston-or Charleston or Concord. Concord. Extending Extending Rufus earlier appreciation of the of controlling west, earlier the west, the importance appreciation of controlling the importance of so through easterners began began in the 1830S the means means of through to stress of doing easterners in the stress the doing so 18305 to politics (VanBuren), absentee landowners), and economics (the landowners), and politics (the absentee (Van Buren), economics education (the leader a Massachusetts Massachusetts leader education Everett, a (the abolitionists). abolitionists). Edward Everett, was "the principle of of our "the principle our institutions," who thought that expansion institutions," thought that expansion was argued that educational bring massive massive returns returns on the the control would educational control would bring argued that investment. "We can," our he exhorted investment. exhorted Boston Boston capitalists, can,*' he capitalists, "from our surplus, contribute toward the establishment and endowment of of the establishment contribute toward surplus, those seminaries, where the west shall be trained of the the west shall be trained and those the mind of seminaries, where instruof education as an instruenlightened." more candid education as candid definition definition of enlightened." A more to find. control would would be ment of be difficult find. difficult to of social social control Tidewater planters harbored harbored the the same fears of brawling southsouthof the the brawling Tidewater planters same fears the west less of a problem: that part of the west adapted west, but they had a of had less that but of west, adapted they part problem:
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the political political the
The of American American History History Contours of The Contours
economy of of the Making his his father's poverty~ father's povertythe older older south. south. Making economy
induced dream come true, true, Stephen Austin established a colony established a F. Austin in induced dream come colony in Stephen F. Texas as the first in capturing the Mexican and Pacific trade. It and Pacific Mexican trade. as the the It Texas first step in step capturing quickly attracted northern yeomen, eastern businessmen, southern southern eastern attracted northern businessmen, yeomen, quickly planters, and freebooters from every region. But that venture was planters, and freebooters from every region. But that venture was only the the most the general general process process by by which, which, of the most dramatic dramatic example example of only without any plot or or conspiracy but only only the the magnificent magnificent flowering without any plot conspiracy but flowering seIf~interest, the the southeast. southeast. of self-interest, of southwest saved saved the the southwest By 1834 the new states states along the gulf gulf coast producing more more coast were were producing By 1834 the along the com~ cotton than than the the Atlantic Atlantic seaboard. Committed to to aa capitalistic capitalistic comcotton seaboard. Committed
modity agriculture based on the southwest began to to imim~ southwest began slave labor, on slave labor, the modity agriculture based its and Virginia. Virginia. Old planters, planters, and Carolina and and its slaves from South South Carolina slaves from their sons, thus prospered prospered with Virginia slaves in in Virginia the new. new* By with the their sons, thus By 1837, 1837, slaves pound in as low as as 10 in brought $1,100; in 1820 a pound 1820 and as cents a from 17 in $1,100; from 17 cents brought 1827, the price of cotton jumped above 30 cents in the 183°5. Coupled 1827, the price of cotton jumped above 30 cents in the 18305. Coupled with the antislavery agitation, this fantastic fantastic transformation the transformation of of the with the antislavery agitation, this port port
old trans-Mississippi cotton cotton economy and the the old south south into into a a new trans-Mississippi economy and concurrent of the northwest frontier of Pittsburgh and of frontier concurrent extension extension of the old northwest and old Pittsburgh Cincinnati into into aa trans-Mississippi trans-Mississippi west west populated populated by by merchants, merchants, Cincinnati manufacturers, and farmers produced vital political consequences. vital and farmers manufacturers, political consequences. produced As an even more more agricultural the rest rest of nation (90 (90 of the the nation an area area even than the agricultural than per cent as against 'JO per cent), the south became increasingly aware as the cent south became aware per against 70 per cent), increasingly but aa third third of white populapopula~ of circumstances. It the white of its its special It had but of the special circumstances. tion and only aa tiny fraction of the country's industrial production. tion the industrial and only fraction of tiny country's production. of the the Yet through through its international cotton it earned Yet earned much of its international cotton sales sales it The paradox produced on the part of the nation's needed needed capital. nation's the the of capital. paradox produced part a steadily south increasing self
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miliarity with with the north. Simms, example, became a great great planter planter the north. for example, became a Simms, for miliarity with 15 children, and his stories stressed the positive aspects of and his with stories stressed the of such children, positive aspects a grand existence. So, too, the work of John P. Kennedy. One of existence. a the P. work of John of So, too, grand Kennedy.
15
such
Kennedy's novels, Swallow Bam, Barn, was was an an early version of the novels, Swallow Kennedy's early version of the and devoted magnolias-and-maidens myth: its aristocratic whites devoted magnolias-and-maidens myth: its aristocratic whites and blacks drifted about a feudal utopia so profitable that one ever ever drifted a about blacks feudal Utopia so profitable that no no one mentioned money. mentioned money. More practical practical leaders leaders began balanced to talk talk about about the the need need for a balanced for a began to southern economy. Ultimately leading to a revival neo-mercantilist southern economy. Ultimately leading to a revival of of neo-mercantilist thinking, the result of this outlook outlook was was aa firm picture of the the first first result of this of the firm picture thinking, within the the national national system of laissez south as as one competing south unit within laissez competing unit system of faire. Rising in in the the Congress December 27, 27, 1837, Calhoun preprefaire. Rising Congress on December 1837, Calhoun sented six resolutions designed to establish the rules rules for six resolutions sented at establish the for competition designed to competition at His restatement restatement of the old old Madisonian Madisonian this sectional-national sectional-national level. this level. His of the view that that the the Constitution Constitution had had created created aa "feudal of republics'* republics" view "feudal system system of was accepted. was his his protest protest against against Garrison's propaganda. A So was was Garrison's propaganda. accepted. So majority could could also also agree national government not that the the national should not majority agree that government should be used used by by one one element element of to attack another. the be of the the attack Even the system to another. system in a modified form. safeguards for existing slavery were accepted for a form. were modified in safeguards existing slavery accepted But came to to his his proposal proposal to it came But when it to denounce denounce those those who opposed opposed expansion because it extend slavery, Calhoun met defeat. it might extend because met defeat. That expansion might slavery, resolution was was tabled. tabled. resolution In respects, of of course, effort to to win aa consensus consensus on In some respects, Calhoun's effort course, Calhoun's the expansion of the market place was blocked by outright abolithe of the market blocked expansion by outright aboliplace tionists and others others who feared the political political influence influence of of the the slavery feared the tionists slavery issue and by by men who favored but thought unwise to to it unwise issue favored expansion thought it expansion but raise the the issue bluntly. Jackson, Jackson, for for example, example, wanted Texas Texas in the in the raise issue so so bluntly. worst way way but to move too too fast. fundafast. The fundaworst but considered considered it it dangerous dangerous to to mental explanation of Calhoun's defeat, however, would seem to be be mental of Calhoun's defeat, however, explanation eastern found in unorganized consensus of western agrarians and eastern in an unorganized of western consensus agrarians businessmen who defined the market market place place in in terms of individual individual terms of businessmen defined the the corporation. corporation. free free labor labor and the THE EARLY STRUGGLE OVER DEFINING FREEDOM UNDER LAISSEZ FAIRE free individual individual Each of major national national units-the planter, the the free Each units the planter, of these these major was entrepreneur, and the organized businessman-was beginning to the businessman and beginning to organized entrepreneur, define the national national system system in circumstances that that favored favored of the define the in terms terms of the circumstances dealso be his particular ability to compete. But laissez be decould also faire could his particular laissez faire ability to compete. But
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fined gave all such elements to comfreedom to comelements equal fined as as a a system all such that gave equal freedom system that pete throughout the nation. Calhoun asked for a consensus on that a for on asked consensus that the nation. Calhoun pete throughout principle, even though he was well aware that the planter would the that would well aware planter principle, even though he was But the the rising institutionalized never win win in of institutionalized leaders of areas. But never in certain certain areas. rising leaders industrialism and the entrepreneurs of food-crop were and the industrialism food-crop agriculture agriculture were entrepreneurs of of rules that gave them a basic advantage already favoring a set a basic advantage already favoring a set of rules that gave against their toughest toughest competitor. began aa system-shaking against their competitor. Thus began system-shaking argument about principles. about first first principles. argument At moreover, aa second basic issue second basic issue was formulated the same formulated same time, At the time, moreover, unit of when the p>rporation was was openly as a a legitimate of when the Corporation legitimate unit openly accepted accepted as competition. Jacksonian Democracy revealed its fundamentally revealed its Jacksonian fundamentally Democracy competition. this view. view. Chief laissez·faire in promulgating promulgating this Chief Justice laissez-faire nature nature in Justice Taney, Taney, the old crony of William Leggett, Leggett, the the old Federalist of Jackson the Federalist crony himself, and William Jackson himself, left-wing leader of reform in York, agreed completely that in New leader reform that of York, agreed completely left-wing groups were were legitimate legitimate competitive the framework elements within within the framework competitive elements groups are for trade free"; Leggett declared in of trade declared for leaving of laissez in laissez &ire. faire, "We are free"; Leggett leaving 1837, "and the right to combine is an indispensable attribute of its to combine is an attribute of its "and the indispensable 1837, right year. freedom." ruling in identical ruling the same handed down an an identical in. the same year. freedom." Taney Taney handed In that specifically specifically opened banking to all citizens, he a decision to all In a decision that citizens, he opened banking sanctioned the corporate form sanctioned the corporate form of of organization. organization. and "There yields aa profit profit so is perhaps no "There is business which so certain which yields certain and perhaps no business business of of banking banking and exchange," he explained, liberal as as the he liberal the business exchange," explained, proper that that it it should be open open (from his own experience) experience); "and "and it is proper it is should be (from his as far practiPible to to the the most competition and its as far as as practicable most free free competition its advantages advantages Michigan and shared by by all of people." people." Free banking acts shared Free banking classes of acts in all classes in Michigan and New York extended extended the the principle incorporation laws laws that that of general principle of general incorporation states North Carolina had adopted like North Carolina and Connecticut states like Connecticut had earlier. New adopted earlier. courts not not only form in in 1838, but for purposes of York courts the form for purposes of only approved 1838, but approved the competition in the the market market place corporations such corporations competition in place explicitly explicitly equated equated such with sanction. The corporation, with the the individual. individual. Taney Taney added the the final final sanction. corporation, he an opinion opinion of indeed, aa mere artificial being, he explained of 1839, in an artificial being, "is, indeed, explained in 1839, "is, is aa person, person, for for certain purposes in in invisible intangible; yet invisible and intangible; it is certain purposes yet it law, and has been recognized recognized as by the the contemplation of law, has been such by as such contemplation of this Court." decisions decisions of of this Court" business organizaorganizaThough not yet the the predominant predominant institution not yet institution of of business Though tion, partnerships remaining both more numerous and characteristic both numerous and characteristic tion, partnerships remaining the key of the of key segments the economy, economy, the the corporation gained of the segments of steadily gained corporation steadily favor. 1860, for example, iron manufacturing was rapidly adoptfavor. By for iron 1860, By example, manufacturing rapidly adoptthe ing the form, other elements in the industrial economy the and other elements the in industrial of form, ing economy of the ;
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north, such as railroads, railroads, were were also in this this direction. Further such as also moving direction. Further north, moving in facilitated the rationalization and acceptance of the factory the facilitated by rationalization and by acceptance of the factory system, system, Large the growth of manufacturing was revealed in of the in many growth manufacturing was revealed many ways. ways. Large capital investments, the integration of various phases of production, capital investments, the integration of various phases of production, be unique unique or unusual by by the the and output were were ceasing to be mass output and mass or even even unusual ceasing to 1840s. expanding the the market through and and beyond beyond their their market through Steadily expanding 18405. Steadily respective regions, the manufacturers manufacturers gave tremendous impetus to a tremendous respective regions, the impetus to gave a wholesaling, credit credit organizations, and newspaper newspaper advertising. wholesaling, organizations, and advertising. Perhaps the most striking northern industrial industrial developthe most of northern Perhaps striking aspect aspect of developmost crucial, was the the establishment establishment and ment, as well as as well as the the most extension and extension ment, crucial, was of the railroad For in to being being aa business business in in its railroad system. of the in addition addition to its own system. For right, railroading acted as an accelerator of other industries. Not only acted as an accelerator of other industries. Not right, railroading only the market for manufactures, but it underwrote new did it it enlarge the did for market it new but underwrote manufactures, enlarge construction work, work, facilitated facilitated and encouraged the up and construction and encouraged the filling filling up and mature settlement the trans-Appalachian trans-Appalachian region, region, and provided the the of the mature settlement of and provided farmer with better better connections connections with cities and centers. farmer with the cities centers. with the and export export responding to to more more direct Recognizing these benefits, as these benefits, as well as responding direct well as Recognizing entreaties, pressures, and enticements, both the states and the the and and both the states entreaties, pressures, enticements, as early as the national government government began began subsidizing the railroads as national the the railroads as early subsidizing 1830s. Liberal grants grants of of eminent eminent domain, cash gifts, gifts, and of the the right domain, cash 18305. Liberal right of credit facilities were extended extended by by Georgia Georgia and and Virginia Virginia as by facilities were as by credit well as as well Indiana and Michigan. Michigan. In In aa few like Michigan, for that matter, Indiana that few states like for states matter, Michigan, the government built railroads railroads and disposed of private to private the then disposed and then of them to government built part with rebates on iron duties entrepreneurs. Congress did its (and entrepreneurs. Congress did its part with rebates on iron duties (and later aa general general exception), land grants, grants, and gifts of other other raw later gifts of exception), land materials. materials. This industrialism turned turned the the economist This rising economist of industrialism rising momentum of a Daniel Raymond completely away from mercantilism mercantilism toward toward a Daniel Raymond completely away from theory of laissez faire based on of the the manufacturing manufacturing of laissez faire based on the the freedom freedom of theory more striking illustration of corporation. of the the change even more change was striking illustration corporation. An even provided by by Henry Henry Carey, Carey, son of persistently persistently mercantilist mercantilist Matthew. son of provided Wealthy and at an an early and socially early age-an appropriate age an appropriate acceptable at socially acceptable Wealthy successes of mercantilism-Carey presented his symbol of the earlier his of mercantilism of the earlier successes presented Carey symbol economic an essay Harmony of Nature (1836). in an views in economic views of Nature (1836). essay on The Harmony Arguing aa rather sophisticated version version of of Smith's Smith's laissez laissez faire, rather sophisticated faire, he Arguing welstressed principles: happiness happiness and the the general interrelated principles: stressed three three interrelated general welof property fare most effectively effectively produced produced by by giving giving men of property the the fare were were most in particular by natural natural law, particular freedom theirs by that was theirs of action action that freedom of law, and in by recognizing that even even greater greater (and faster) rewards would be (and faster) by recognizing that
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gained by encouraging and the industrial industrial corporation and accepting and corporation and gained by encouraging accepting the other business enterprise. enterprise. other large large business Carey's political economy the ideas into the ideas and an insight and insight into Carey's political economy provides provides an actions of Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, whose oratorical powers oratorical whose of actions of Daniel Webster Massachusetts, powers and abilities lawyer and class made for the the upper as a and general counsel for a lawyer and abilities as upper class general counsel him one of the the key key politicians politicians of of the the northern northern business business community. him one of community. Webster did not follow Carey in the way that lawyer a young Webster did not follow Carey in the way that a young lawyer plagiarizes Blackstone-in that respect his mentors were the wealthy the wealthy plagiarizes Blackstone in that respect his mentors entrepreneurs who retained retained him him-rather help views help rather it it is is that that Carey's Carey's views entrepreneurs to clarify the particular kind of nationalism which Webster adto clarify the particular kind of nationalism which Webster advocated and represented after to support the tariff tariff in over to after swinging and represented vocated in support the swinging over 1828. is often suggested that changed his his basic basic ideas as his his Webster changed ideas as that Webster 1828. It often suggested It is constituents shifted from shipping to manufacturing. manufacturing. This This interpretaconstituents shifted from shipping to interpretation explains him as a of regional particularism and laissez a as man of laissez faire faire tion particularism regional explains a spokesman of government intervention, and coinof coinwho became and became a intervention, government spokesman cidentally aa unionist unionist instead instead of a sectionalist. sectionalism of a cidentally Though such an analysis is correct in the Webster shifted the sense sense that is in that Webster such an shifted correct Though analysis from trade to protection, and the rhetoric of regionalism the of rhetoric and dropped free trade to protection, from free dropped regionalism for the the metaphors metaphors of of nationalism, nationalism, it nevertheless produces a serious for it nevertheless serious produces a misunderstanding of the nature of his nationalism and that of the nature his nationalism of the of that of the misunderstanding industrializing north. Webster denounced labor organizations and denounced labor north. Webster and organizations industrializing smeared questioned the the wisdom of of general those who questioned smeared those general incorporation incorporation laws as and other other industrial kws as "un-American." "un-American." Manufacturers Manufacturers and industrial leaders leaders wanted aa national national system, system, to to be just as as they they sought government wanted be sure, sure, just sought government aid in the form form of of tariffs tariffs or railroad subsidies. they defined defined in the aid or railroad subsidies. But they that system quite narrowly and explicitly because all they did was to to that system quite narrowly explicitly because all they did was extend their particular version of laissez nous faire to the entire extend their particular version of laissez nous faire to the entire society. society. As such, neither they nor Webster Webster advocated the ininadvocated the such, therefore, therefore, neither they nor clusive, balanced kind kind of nationalism that that had had been been charcharof corporate clusive, balanced corporate nationalism acteristic of the the mercantilists, mercantilists, or Daniel's resounding resounding phrases phrases acteristic of or that that Daniel's implied. Primarily concerned concerned with the freedom freedom to industrialize the the with the to industrialize implied. Primarily entire entire economy, such nationalists to prefer prefer overseas overseas nationalists soon soon came to economy, such economic expansion to the the acquisition economic of additional additional territory. Their expansion to acquisition of territory. Their opposition to to the the latter kind of of expansion has led some commentators latter kind led has commentators opposition expansion to conclude that to conclude that they they were anti-expansionists anti-expansionists in in general. But not not only general. But only were they the strict they expansionists expansionists in sense of policy, but in the strict sense of foreign foreign policy, but were also also expansionists in their relationship with other elements they in their with other elements they expansionists relationship of of American society. ostensibly nationalistic nationalistic maneumaneuof Webster's Webster's ostensibly society. One of
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vers, for example, was aa grandiloquent gesture of against the the of defiance defiance against example, was grandiloquent gesture 184~I850; yet it in old during the Hungarian Revolution of the in Revolution of it old regime regime during Hungarian 1848-1850; yet fact represented represented just just such such aa policy policy of and commercial fact of ideological and commercial ideological he had had advocated advocated at at the the time of the Revolution. expansion as he time of Greek Revolution. the Greek expansion as And northerners northerners of his outlook wanted to to control control the trans~Missis of his outlook wanted the trans-Mississippi west under a similarly restrictive program. sippi west under a similarly restrictive program. his constituents constituents wanted wanted aa national national industrial system Webster and his Webster industrial system in which the government would provide direct and indirect subsidies the in which government would provide direct and indirect subsidies would not limit that that group's group's to the the favored favored element, and which not limit which would to element, and efforts to integrate the entire political economy on its own terms. to terms. efforts integrate the entire political economy on its Neither Webster nor large northern businessmen wanted the slavery Neither Webster nor large northern businessmen wanted the slavery issue to violence, but their concept a in violence, to erupt the Union offered but their of the offered a issue erupt in concept of It was Henry Clay, not less than reassuring future to the south. less than reassuring future to the south. It was Henry Clay, not a~cepted industrialism to deal deal Daniel Webster, and attempted industrialism and Daniel Webster, who accepted attempted to in a truly national manner. He tried very hard to adjust the with it tried very hard to adjust the with it in a truly national manner. rein~ ideology of laissez faire to the realities of America through a a reinideology of laissez faire to the realities of America through vigoration of of his mercantilist American American System, then to institu~ to instituhis mercantilist System, and then vigoration tionalize that resolution in a political party. But he was defeated by defeated by tionalize that resolution in a political party. But he the coalition of competing competing units formed Jacksonian Jacksonian Democracy, units that that formed coalition of the Democracy, to disintegrate even though that alliance alliance was was soon war. in civil civil war. soon to even disintegrate in though that
vers, for
III. III.
The Adaptation Adaptation of the of the Existing Order Order Existing
The great object [of the American System secure the the indeindeis to to secure the American The great System]J ••• is object [of pendence of our country, to augment its wealth, to diffuse the comand its to the comto our wealth, diffuse country, augment pendence of forts of civilization throughout the society . .•• That . .• can be best can be the best civilization society* throughout forts of accomplished by protecting the the arts arts among introducing, encouraging, encouraging, and protecting among by introducing, accomplished By • .. blending and connecting connecting together together all all its parts in in creating us its parts us,. ..• ... By creating blending and with. each prosperity of the whole. whole. ••. And, And, mixing the an the prosperity each in in the an interest interest with of the mixing the farmer, manufacturer, mechanic, artist, engaged in in other those engaged other voca· vocaartist, and those manufacturer, mechanic, farmer, Henry r830 tions together. tions Henry Clay, Clay, 1830 together. .
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AlIII want I ain't ain't greedy greedy for for land. land. All /
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is jist what what jines jines mine. mine. is jist Frontiersman, r840 c. 1840 Frontiersman, c.
this floor floor [of [of Congress know the the advantages advantages of of having having Members of of this Congress]J •.• ](now a "West" to go go to, to, where where they forced from from many many of of the embar· a "West" to were forced the embarthey were .
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rassing circumstances, circumstances, from from family family influences, from associated associated wealth, influences, from wealth, rassing from those which, tn the old settled country and from in the old settled those thousand thousand things had which, things country had the tendency efforts and enterprise young the efforts the our young of keeping enterprise of of our tendency of peeping down the men.
Congressman Brinkerhoff of of Ohio, r845 Jacob Brinkerhoff Ohio, 1845 Congressman Jacob
Foreign powers powers do do not not seem seem to the true true character our Govto appreciate character of Govof our Foreign appreciate the ernment. Our Union is is aa confederation of independent independent States, States, whose ernment. whose confederation of policy is peace with each other all the the world. world. To enlarge enlarge its is peace other and all with each its limits limits policy is to peace over over additional additional territories is to extend extend the the dominions of territories and ininof peace creasing millions. President James Polk, 1845 President K. Polk, creasing millions. James K. 1845 You must abolish the system system or or accept consequences. abolish the its consequences. accept its Orestes Brownson, 1840 Orestes Brownson, 1840 never shall Never, never shall you you extend your your institution of slavery one inch beyond beyond institution of one inch Never, slavery its its present present limits If you you will will drive drive on on this this bloody [Mexican war war of limits.• ••• . . . If of bloody [Mexican]
J
to annexation, conquest annexation, we will will establish establish a cordon free states states that shall cordon of that shall conquest to of free 264
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surround you; you; and then then surround until they melt until they melt
we will up the fires of liberty on every side, will light light up the fires of liberty on every side, your present chains, and render all your people people free. free. and render all your chains, your present
Congressman Delano of of Ohio, r846 Columbus Delano Ohio, 1846 Congressman Columbw We do do not to stand stand still still and and have throats cut. not intend intend to have our cut* our throats
Jeremiah Alabama, 1849 r849 Clemens of of Alabama, Jeremiah Clemens
ATI'EMPT TO REVIVE HENRY CLAY AND THE ATTEMPT AND ADAPT MERCANTILISM
denied the necessity, desirability, or morality of any S sustained effort to co-ordinate and direct the affairs of society, SINCE
INCE THEY denied the necessity, desirability, or morality of any sustained effort to co-ordinate and direct the affairs of society,
the advocates of laissez impaled on an the advocates of laissez faire faire were were impaled on the the horns horns of of an the system failed to function satisfactorily. when the failed to function satisfactorily. system
obvious dilemma obvious
Their them to with fundamental Their warrant warrant authorized authorized them issues: to deal deal only fundamental issues: only with that is, defining the market place, certifying the units of competition, the that is, defining market place, certifying the units of competition, and rules of Though they the rules and specifying the game. of the were dedicated dedicated specifying the game. Though they were to many and freedom freedom of to liberty of action, indeed throw throw open and did did indeed action, and liberty and open many gates in the proponents at the the society, in the the same faire were were at of laissez laissez faire society, the gates proponents of by their philosophy. In at any any time narrowly narrowly confined time confined by that respect, their philosophy. In that respect, at rate, they less free free than the mercantilists, deal with with were less than the could deal rate, mercantilists, who could they were aa basic basic question the need usefulness of bank by by like the need and usefulness a national national bank of a question like concentrating on controlling its power, and who could approach and could its approach concentrating power, controlling slavery political economy rather an institutional as an institutional problem of the the political slavery as economy rather problem of than as sin. a personalized as a than sin. personalized As revealed revealed in assertion that that the the open open conflict of self-interests self-interests in their their assertion conflict of produce the the general welfare, and in the persistent use of of would produce in the persistent use general welfare, well as moral terms judgment-by Jackson and the mechanics, as well as as of judgment and the moral terms of mechanics, by Jackson conby Emerson and the abolitionists-the of laissez faire were conwere of laissez faire the Emerson the abolitionists men by stantly thrown back on of a result, thrown back first principles. on first result, every every spot spot of stantly principles. As a rethe trouble became a sore point at one sense, sense, of the reof course, In one at issue. trouble became a sore point issue. In course, sulting tension was was aa powerful powerful engine provoked It provoked of development. development. It sulting tension engine of their with the advocates of laissez laissez faire to change reality to conform with their the to advocates of faire to change reality aa priori priori ideas and ideals, thus generating a tremendous momentum ideas ideals, thus generating a such a a drive to manhandle nature and provide better life. But such drive to to a better life. But to nature and provide a override men who reshape reality reality could could easily become aa crusade to override crusade to easily become reshape disagreed with faire. And that that could could lead lead to to with the the axioms axioms of of laissez laissez faire. disagreed violence. violence.
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Fearing just just such such an Henry Clay Clay struggled between an eventuality, struggled between eventuality, Henry Fearing 1834 and 1851 to re-establish and institutionalize the key ideas and the ideas and and institutionalize to re-establish key 1834 and 1851 The effort was neither policies of his mercantilist American System. effort was neither of his American mercantilist System. policies as irrelevant as feeble feeble as failure might For indicate. For ultimate failure irrelevant nor nor as as his his ultimate as might indicate. one thing, the serious depression which began shortly after Van after one thing, the serious depression which began shortly raised basic questions about the ability Buren's inauguration Buren's in 1837 1837 raised basic questions about the ability inauguration in of personal happihappiits promises concerning on its of laissez laissez faire faire to to deliver deliver on promises concerning personal ness and the general general welfare. welfare. And the President's repeated repeated assertion assertion the President's ness and the of did little generate recovery recovery or or to the to satisfy of laissez-faire little to to generate laissez-faire dogma satisfy the dogma did demands various groups and sections for assistance other assistance or for or and sections other demands from from various groups special treatment. special treatment. Clay did not not need need much encouragement to view view such critics as such critics as encouragement to Clay did potential supporters for the American System. believed in his in American He believed the for his System. potential supporters by 1839 was aa much approach and wanted to to be there was President. And by and wanted be President. 1839 there approach larger industrial base upon which he could build than there had had he could build than which there base industrial larger upon or 1828. Hence he was in a position to exploit the inbeen in a to he inbeen was the or 1828. Hence in in 1824 position 1824 exploit as the population ratio in favor creasing political importance of cities ratio of cities in the as favor population creasing political importance of to Ii in to 10-4 by 1830 in 1800 to 1 i by of the 1800 to the farm farm dropped 10.4 to 15 to (and dropped from 15 1830 (and 5.5 to by 1850). Industry was also beginning to proprowas to to Ii by was also was to sink to 5.5 sink to 1850). Industry beginning to vide aa steadily increasing and more stable market for labor, comfor vide stable and more market comlabor, steadily increasing mence, and agriculture that that strengthened his arguments arguments about about the the and agriculture mence, strengthened his interrelationships of the economy and the primacy of the the and the of the of home interrelationships economy primacy market. This important factor, and helps helps to to explain perwas an the permarket. This was an important factor, and explain the sistent Whig strength despite the party's rather poor showing rather sistent Whig the in strength despite party's poor showing in national elections. national elections. Clay's policies had an obvious appeal appeal for many businessbusinessan obvious economic policies for many Clay's economic also won aa following the north, north, but but his program also men in in the his program following among among merchants and other leaders in the south. of merchants other commercial in the commercial leaders south. And some of the as much commercial as the large planters, whose whose operations were as commercial as large planters, operations were agrarian, responded favorably. Such of both not only only Such men of both sections sections not agrarian, responded favorably. but were were further further Jackson's destruction of the the bank bank but had opposed destruction of opposed Jackson's united the bond bond of North-south philosophic philosophic united by of social social conservatism. conservatism. North-south by the to the the outbreak the this nature persisted to and economic economic ties of this nature persisted ties of outbreak of of the Civil War and and were were aa force as well as a source of Civil force for for compromise well as as a source of compromise votes votes for and the Whigs. Clay also attracted a good many for Clay the also a attracted Clay Whigs. Clay good many northern northern mechanics responded to to his his emphasis emphasis on mechanics and laborers laborers who responded for the also won strength west protection for the home market. market. He also in the the west protection strength in of his because his concern And his strenuous because of concern for for internal internal improvements. strenuous his improvements. efforts to distribute the efforts to distribute the surplus surplus revenue from land the states states revenue from land sales to the sales to
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helped to to moderate moderate the the westerners really wanted wanted free westerners who really free land, and land, and helped at Webster Webster and that the Whigs were little looked at who looked and concluded concluded that the Whigs were little
more than than spokesmen business firms Appleton for big firms such such as as the the Appleton spokesmen for big business Glass Com· Company in textiles or the Boston and Sandwich Company in textiles or the Boston and Sandwich Glass Company. pany. Despite such to organize a real real party. party. He such support, was unable unable to Despite support, Clay organize a Clay was had no no access to national national patronage, and no no programmatic access to had coalition patronage, and programmatic coalition had been brought together together in in the Congress. Hence Hence the the Whigs, Whigs, in had been brought the Congress. in had to on personal followings, their winning the the election election of of 1840, to rely on their winning 1840, had rely personal followings, ideological persuasiveness, persuasiveness, and political techniques techniques borrowed borrowed from and political from ideological Jackson Buren. Picking up the central philosophical theme the central theme Jackson and Van Buren. Picking up philosophical of the the Adams Federalists-"What become of poor without without Federalists "What would of would become of the the poor the rich?"-such intellectuals as Edward Everett and William the rich?" -such Whig as intellectuals Edward Everett and William Whig Ellery developed aa somewhat sophisticated argument argument somewhat sophisticated Ellery Channing Channing developed that there there was was an an identity of interest between labor and capital. that of between labor interest and identity capital. Stressing reciprocal relationship between classes, the reciprocal advanced classes, they Stressing the relationship between they advanced aa diluted version of the old old mercantilist, mercantilist, corporate corporate Weltanschauung diluted version of the Weltanschauung that they distorted to to fit world of of laissez-faire laissez-faire capitalism. capitalism. By By that fit the the world they distorted combining with the business aristocracy to establish and maintain aa with the and business to establish maintain aristocracy combining floor under under free they explained, the mechanic and the the floor free enterprise, and the mechanic enterprise, they explained, yeoman (and sons) would would win either way they they played played their their their sons) either way yeoman (and their would underwrite a never.ending hand. Since Since such an agreement a hand. such an never-ending agreement would underwrite prosperity, they they could relax with with aa share share of the rewards that could either either relax of the rewards that prosperity, if not relative, terms, or they would steadily increase in absolute, steadily increase in absolute, if not relative, terms, or they could rapidly accumulate accumulate enough capital to to become could rapidly become independent enough capital independent Granted an the entrepreneurs on of the on aa larger scale. Granted an acceptance larger scale. acceptance of entrepreneurs was persuasive. persuasive. Indeed, it was still still capitalist the argument argument was Indeed, it capitalist system, system, the a brief Calhoun enjoyed brief to be alive in in the the 1¢oS. be very even Calhoun to enjoyed a 1960$. And even very much alive flirtation with with some some elements of northern northern labor by proposing proposing aa elements of labor by flirtation variation on the same theme: theme: in version, labor to gain gain by by his version, in his labor was to variation on the joining responsible responsible southern southern planters planters to defeat the the grasping business to defeat grasping business joining community. community. this Whig Strikingly effective in the deeper significance of of this Whig in 1840, deeper significance 1840, the Strikingly effective a more social philosophy was that it the foundation for a for foundation laid the that it laid social was philosophy of laissez permanent alliance between eastern and western advocates of laissez western advocates eastern alliance between permanent that prepared faire. In therefore, it it was was the the ideology prepared a real In a real sense, faire. sense, therefore, ideology that was success the way way for the Republican Party. Its more immediate success immediate Its more the for the Republican Party. facilitated by Whig Whig astuteness astuteness and disingenuousness in in presenting presenting and disingenuousness facilitated by a western as a western their presidential candidate, William Henry Harrison, William Henry their Harrison, as presidential candidate,
268 268
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farmer had emerged from aa log become aa cabin to to become farmer who had log cabin emerged from military hero and a democratic friend of the common man. man. Combined Combined military hero and a democratic friend of the with their for Vice-President John Tyler of Virginia, Virginia, aa of John their selection Vice-President of with selection for Tyler of States' southerner had turned against Jackson, this States' rights rights southerner who had turned against Jackson, this campaign strategy thoroughly frustrated and the Democrats. and defeated defeated the frustrated Democrats. campaign strategy thoroughly "We have have taught them to conquer us!" cried one Jacksonian one in us!" cried them to Jacksonian in conquer taught anguish and disgust. and anguish disgust. Clay the new Congress a driving driving determination with a to determination to entered the Clay entered Congress with legislate his national program into law. Had Harrison lived, Clay Harrison lived, Clay legislate his national program into law. might have have won aa trial his might have least he trial for for his he might at least have succeeded; succeeded; at might to the ideas of John American System. But Tyler's militant loyalty to of the ideas But militant American John loyalty System. Tyler's Taylor of definition of of southern southern innarrow definition and his his own narrow inof Caroline Caroline and Taylor terests blocked plan to integrate the tariff, a bill for distributa bill the for to distributterests blocked Clay's tariff, integrate Clay's plan to the the states, and aa new national national bank. bank. Clay Clay ing land-sale funds to land-sale funds states, and ing resigned in March, 1~, apologizing for his arrogant aggressiveness for his in March, 1842, apologizing arrogant aggressiveness resigned it as as aa manifestation manifestation of of his in the explaining it concern for in his concern the Congress for and explaining Congress and the nation, nation, and turned to to strengthening his own the party then turned the and then strengthening the party (and (and his position) for election of of 1844. the election for the 1844. position) Clay'S subsequent defeat in 1844 often ascribed ascribed to to the the impact of is often defeat in 1844 is impact of Clay's subsequent the slavery issue in York, where the 15,812 votes won by Birney's votes where the the issue in New York, 15,812 by Birney's slavery cost Clay Clay the the state While Liberty Party are said said to have cost to have state by by 5,106. 5,106. While Party are Liberty plausible, dramatic, and arithmetically impeccable, the argument the is and arithmetically impeccable, argument is plausible, dramatic, not convincing. After all, Clay could also have won the election by also not have the could After election all, Clay convincing. by capturing aa mere votes from Polk. Polk. Thus it it seems seems more likely mere 2,554 2,554 votes likely capturing that Clay where aa complexity specific the east, in the that lost New York in of specific east, where Clay lost complexity of and the renewed renewed vigor of laissez reflected the and general laissez faire. faire. general developments vigor of developments reflected For York bankers and their their associates were not not For one one thing, bankers and associates were thing, New York as the depresanxious to with another national bank. with to compete bank. And anxious another national as the compete depression ended rising swell swell of prosperity that that lasted of prosperity lasted until sion ended in in a until the a rising the Panic Panic of 1857, Clay's program of balanced national development became of of balanced national became 1857, Clay's program development less to other as well. wanted to be left left free less attractive attractive to other groups well. They to be free groups as They wanted to exploit their advantages. to their exploit advantages. The attitudes of mechanics mechanics and laborers, who in in the attitudes of the modern sense and laborers, sense of the the term term were becoming more more numerous with with the growth of were becoming the steady steady growth of the the factory that outlook. by the the of outlook. Encouraged system, typified factory system, typified that Encouraged by of the v. ruling of the Massachusetts Massachusetts Supreme Court in in Commonwealth v. ruling Supreme Court Hunt (1842) that unions were of themselves "not unlawful," they were of that unions themselves "not unlawful," (1842) they reorganized and reopened for aa ten-hour day. Within Within the campaign ten-hour day. reorganized campaign for reopened the
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two years, the New England England Workingmen's Workingmen's Association for example, Association years, for example, the local unions unions for regional conference mustered 200 delegates mustered from local a regional for a conference delegates from in Boston. Van Buren's tie with York labor was strengthin Boston. Buren's strong tie with York labor New was strong strengthby this by several had ened by this revival, ened and by several associated associated events. events. Labor Labor had revival, and thrown its to the yeomen worked the large upstate its support to thrown the who worked the support yeomen large upstate manors on long-term long-term and and unrewarding manors contracts from aristocrats. from the the aristocrats. unrewarding contracts that conflict violence, the the Democrats benefited as that And as conflict erupted into violence, Democrats benefited erupted into H. Seward used troops troops against against the the when Whig Governor William William H. Seward used Whig Governor yeomen. yeomen. Seward an exceedingly politician, furnishing a classic classic Seward was an astute politician, exceedingly astute furnishing a example of professionalization of of the the role, role, and his principled principled of the the professionalization and his example advocacy of by mercantilist of laissez-faire laissez-faire freedoms freedoms supported internal mercantilist internal advocacy supported by improvements had had won the urban immigrants the support of urban and improvements immigrants and support of well as as of businessmen. Under he farmers as well farmers as of businessmen. Under different different circumstances circumstances he as his might have pushed Clay into the White House, particularly have as his into the White House, particularly might pushed Clay political partner partner was was the the cynical but exceptionally exceptionally efficient efficient Thurlow cynical but political New York. But Seward's power was seriously weakened by by Weed of of York. But Seward's power was seriously weakened the revolt revolt of of the farmers, by by the debts incident to his his laglagthe farmers, the the rising incident to state debts rising state ging program of internal improvements, and by the tacit approval of internal tacit and the program ging improvements, by approval by Whigs to the the anti-foreign anti-foreign agitation agitation in (or in outright support) support) given Whigs to (or outright given by York City. The Democrats gained immeasurably. since New York And since Democrats City. gained immeasurably. Birney's vote no significant increase, Clay very probably vote showed no Birney's significant increase, Cky very probably lost the nativist nativist issue issue in lost on the in the the east. east. In the moreover, Clay Clay could couid have election the broader broader sense, the election In have won the sense, moreover, York. But his without New York. without But his his inability to carry Pennsylvania and his inability to carry Pennsylvania loss Indiana, Illinois, Illinois, and and Missouri about tells more loss of of Michigan, Missouri tells more about Michigan, Indiana, expansionist the election than does the antislavery issue. The rising the election than does the rising expansionist antislavery issue. sentiment defeated Clay. Whig Whig anti-foreignism, which lost PhilPhillost sentiment which defeated Clay. anti-foreignism, the as well as York City, for example, was but the negative adelphia well as but for as New York example, negative adelphia City, side of nationalistic fervor. though slavery had become side of that that nationalistic fervor. And though slavery had antias aa result result of entwined in in the the issue of Calhoun's Calhoun's antientwined issue of of expansion expansion as a Te~as, it had come about in a complex British campaign to acquire it about in British had complex campaign to acquire Texas, against expansion. expansion. Neither Neither were way. Not all all antislavery were against way. antislavery men were all expansionists proslavery. A good many in in both still both groups all groups were still expansionists proslavery. good many exsouthern pro quo between northern and southern exwilling to accept a quid northern to between a willing accept quid pro quo iman and pansion. For that matter, a large plurality of westerners, an imFor that a of westerners, matter, large plurality pansion. of northeasterners, northeasterners, probably probably wanted Texas Texas as as badly badly portant minority minority of portant that Birney's as did the southerners. realized that Birney's party party is realized as it is did the southerners. And when it
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was already toward expansion northerners and westerners, and westerners, for northerners was expansion for leaning toward already leaning as well as Texas, Clay's and that the Democrats promised Oregon as as well and that the Democrats Texas, Clay's promised Oregon defeat is to to be be seen a broader broader context. context. in a defeat is seen in
LAISSEZ FAIRE AND Ar-.'"D THE FRONTIER THESIS LAISSEZ
Thus the election election of of 1844 key insight into the the shifting a key Thus the insight into shifting 1844 provides provides a nature of laissez-faire politics. politics. From concerning concerning itself destroying with destroying itself with of laissez-faire nature mercantilist restrictions restrictions in the market place, it the it was turning to market place, mercantilist in the turning to the expansion of the market market place place for benefit of of everyone. ostensible benefit for the the ostensible of the everyone. expansion as the the way way to to adapt the system to Americans saw More and this as and more saw this more Americans system to adapt the the troublesome troublesome realities realities of provided the the Texas provided situation. Texas their situation. the of their expansion had had dramatic example, but the the main main consideration that expansion consideration is is that dramatic example, but become the lowest common denominator of America's America's laissez-faire laissez-faire denominator of the lowest become politics. Politicians were quick to grasp and exploit the meaning of politics. Politicians were quick to grasp and exploit the meaning of this. While While many the specific interests of their constituency this. stressed the specific interests of their constituency many stressed or region, others developed a more inclusive view whole of the a inclusive view of more the whole or others region, developed process and its relation to American development. and its relation to American development. process The consensus key politicians politicians it did as it did key consensus was impressive, including as impressive, including York as well as Illinois, and from Massachusetts and and New York as Ohio and as well and Illinois, from Massachusetts and well as as Mississippi. Mississippi. Many Many leaders leaders like from Michigan as like Seward and as well and from Michigan Benton talked about commerce and farms; others took the talked candidly about commerce others took Benton the farms; candidly high ground of emotion and theory. Convinced that they could "run that of emotion Convinced could and "run high ground theory. they farther than any other faster, and fly sail smarter, dive deeper, than any other faster, sail smarter, dive deeper, and fly farther earth," many Americans concluded that people on the face of the the face the on of that Americans concluded earth," many people expansion was a natural and inevitable reward for their superiority. a natural and inevitable for their reward expansion superiority. to personal interests or or extended to regional regional And whether limited limited to extended to personal interests and national national levels, the argument of economic necessity won wide and the wide levels, argument of economic necessity acceptance. Anticipating the day, which he thought less than a generthe acceptance. Anticipating day, which he thought less than a generbe the the "first nation on on the the earth," ation away, ation earth," away, when America would be "first nation Walt Whitman shared belief that that such was shared the the general such expansion general belief expansion was as well well as as necessary. necessary. "It is for for the the interest of mankind mankind morally just just as "It is interest of morally its power extended-the the that its territory should be extended that should be the farther farther the power and territory better." better." Or as as Jackson had said, was to to reiterate, reiterate, American Polk was American said, and Polk Jackson had expansion "extended the area "extended the area of of freedom." freedom." expansion Similar keen Similar keen and revealing revealing arguments the south and south and arguments came from the west at would create a "great and west. Openly afraid that that staying home at would a create and Openly afraid staying "great fearful pressure" and Mary Mary fearful pressure" on society, society, Thomas R. R. Dew of of William William and defended in 1836 lest "the great safety valve of College defended expansion in lest "the of valve College expansion 1836 great safety the the west will will be be closed/' closed." By By 1845, Congressman Jacob Brinkerhoff of of Brinkerhoff 1845, Congressman Jacob
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adapted the the thesis thesis for north. Urging Urging vigorous action in Ohio had adapted the north* for the in vigorous action Oregon and Texas, he described such areas as "a home for he described such areas as "a our for our Texas, Oregon prosperity." "Members on this this floor Boor ... know," know," he added, "the he added, "the adadprosperity." vantages of having a 'West' to go to." And Secretary of the Treasury of having a 'West' to go to." vantages Secretary of the Treasury Mississippi, who was was no no enemy of northern northern Robert of Mississippi, Robert J. J. Walker of enemy of expansion, integrated integrated many many such arguments into such arguments into his his departmental expansion, departmental report of year. As might expected of of the the same year. be expected a land of a land speculator report might be speculator and banker banker with railroad investments, Walker firmly believed that that with railroad investments. Walker firmly believed prosperity would "be best promoted" promoted" by by wide-open wide-open laissez laissez faire. faire. "be best prosperity Attacking the the fallacy market, and and thus the of the the home market, thus emphasizing fallacy of Attacking emphasizing the necessity of further expansion, expansion, he he also also argued that Texas was "a of further "a that was Texas necessity argued safety valve" through which which slavery would evaporate. Madison valve" through would As Madison safety slavery evaporate. him, Walker seemed to think that the the diffusion slavery before him, before seemed to think that of slavery diffusion of and turn turn the the Negro Negro into a wage wage laborer. laborer. it and would weaken it into a Despite their their many many other other differences, Tyler and Polk agreed on the on the Polk agreed differences, Tyler Despite expansionist axiom of laissez faire. Both also included the south as of axiom laissez faire. also the as Both included south expansionist unit of the system in full and good standing. Tyler a competing a unit of the full and in competing system good standing. Tyler turned to to expansion as the rebuild his his political health after turned the way to rebuild expansion as way to political health after Clay left the administration. In favoring this remedy he played a key key left the In he administration. this Clay favoring remedy played a role in expansion as the solution to America's problems. role in emphasizing as the solution to America's emphasizing expansion problems. perhaps because because the north and Tyler was most successful in in Asia, the north most successful Asia, perhaps Tyler an interest interest in and its approaches. the west west shared the in that that area area and its continental shared an continental approaches. Missionaries, for example, were concerned to carry their "principles" for were their to concerned Missionaries, carry "principles" example, the Indians seductive and "doctrines" the more seductive to the of Oregon and "doctrines" to Indians of Oregon and the Hawaii and China. their powers powers of of persuasion persuasion heathens of of Hawaii China. In In Hawaii, heathens Hawaii, their led marriages, and land titles. Together traders, with traders, led to to churches, land titles. churches, marriages, Together with whalers, and their own versions versions of the true true of the carried their and shippers-who whalers, shippers who carried gospel-the missionaries soon a situation to the the similar to created a soon created situation very very similar gospel the missionaries coincident colonization of of Texas. the circirhave forgotten Texas. "Could II have coincident colonization forgotten the "I cumstances of my visit," visit," one remarked of of Hawaii in in 1833, one tourist tourist remarked of my cumstances 1833, "I should myself in England." in New England." have fancied should have fancied myself in Pioneer farmers, planters, and speculators were more interested interested in Pioneer farmers, planters, speculators were the open acres of Texas, Canada, California, and Oregon. BusinessBusinessof the acres California, Texas, Canada, Oregon. open to such a source source of profitable trade, trade, as a of profitable such colonization colonization as men also looked to also looked were beinvestment, and and speculative ventures. although they beAnd ventures. investment, although they speculative the ginning to show interest in European commerce, the traders, shippers, in interest to traders, commerce, shippers, European ginning naval leaders, of American manufactured goods even exporters naval and even leaders, and goods exporters of concentrated the Pacific Pacific coast, Asia. Supported by concentrated on the coast, Hawaii, Hawaii, and Asia. Supported by the many westerners and southerners as a national effort, the expedition national a as southerners westerners effort, expedition many .
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Commodore Charles Wilkes in was specifically specifically charged charged to in 1839 to Charles Wilkes 1839 was of access, and in every respect adapted to the find harbors, harbors, "easy to and the find of in access, every respect adapted "easy of the the United United States engaged in the whale-fishing, whale-fishing, reception of of vessels in the States engaged vessels of reception and the general commerce" of Pacific. and the of the the Pacific, general commerce" by Robert Morris Morris and Building on the foundation laid and John John Jacob Jacob Building on the foundation laid by Robert as Thomas H. Perkins, Astor, later northeastern merchants such Astor, later northeastern merchants such as Perkins, petitioning the the Congress Gideon Nye, Nye, and and Asa Asa Whitney Whitney were by 1838 were by Gideon Congress 1838 petitioning as well well as as from Boston for vigorous diplomacy their from Canton in their for vigorous Canton as from Boston from diplomacy in behalf. Supported by naval naval officers such as as Commodore Laurence Laurence behalf. officers such Supported by as Peter the navy navy Kearney missionaries such Parker (who saw the Peter Parker and missionaries such as (who saw Kearney and as the the allies allies of ultimately laid laid and and who ultimately and commerce commerce as of Christianity, Christianity, and in the the name of this unorthodox unorthodox trinity), trinity), their their claim to of this claim to Formosa Formosa in Tyler subtly extended the the campaign produced official results. Tyler official results. soon produced subtly extended campaign soon Monroe Doctrine to the importance of markets the of Monroe Doctrine markets to Hawaii, and, stressing Hawaii, and, importance stressing as well well as carrying trade, trade, for as the the carrying for American American manufactured manufactured goods goods as secured aa treaty treaty with with China Americans the privileges of the privileges secured that won Americans China that of as well as trading rights in key ports. extraterritoriality in well as as trading rights extraterritoriality key ports. keeping with what he he termed Having thus thus acted acted in termed "the "the magnitude with what in keeping Having magnitude and of our national concerns, actual and prospective, in in actual of national and importance our concerns, prospective, importance China," Tyler attempted to repeat the performance in Oregon, the in to China," Tyler attempted repeat performance Oregon, California, thereby win win the the Presidency in his his own and thereby and Texas Texas and California, and Presidency in right. Making Making aa similar appealing to potentially ininall potentially similar campaign to all campaign appealing right. terested groups, he held forth "a wider and more extensive spread to terested he held "a forth wider and more extensive groups, spread to the principles of civil and religious liberty." Tyler's mention of rethe of civil and of mention reprinciples religious liberty." Tyler's was also politically astute and hishisligion was was of course sincere, but it it was of course also politically astute and sincere, but ligion torically revealing. Many Protestants favored expansion into Mexico favored torically revealing. Many Protestants expansion into Mexico as well as in order order to into Catholic as well as Oregon the gospel to carry south into Catholic Oregon in carry the gospel south countries; and more more than than aa few American American Catholics they Catholics thought countries; thought they could could handle handle church better than than the the native native hierhierchurch affairs affairs in in Mexico Mexico better leaders of the Democratic archy. never had had aa chance. chance. The leaders of the Democratic archy. But Tyler Tyler never Party had had no more intention intention of permitting him to their program program to steal of permitting steal their Party of cripple of expansion for all all sections sections than than of of allowing to cripple expansion for allowing Van Buren to it the annexation of Texas. Texas. it by annexation of by blocking blocking the This mushrooming enthusiasm for expansion provided provided aa dramatic dramatic This for expansion mushrooming enthusiasm the vigorous to the contrast vigorous and perceptive criticism of laissez faire that contrast to faire that criticism of laissez perceptive had been developing 1837One such critic was Edgar Allan Poe, since since such critic was Allan Poe, developing Edgar 1837. who came as as close close to to being being completely completely alienated American alienated from from American to its potential as anyone the society and yet utterly devoted devoted to in the its as society yet utterly potential anyone in nation's would have been a key figure in the misnamed nation's history. He would have a been in the history. key figure
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"lost the 192os, later movements movements that that criticized criticized "lost generation" of the or in in later generation" of 19205, or force, he he struggled with the mature capitalism. brilliant creative mature creative force, capitalism* A brilliant struggled with the art and existence: how to subordinate the parts central problem problem of of art central and existence: how to subordinate the parts in order to achieve overall meaning and significance of the whole the in whole of order to achieve overall meaning and significance of the individual ele~ while at retaining the at the the same time while time retaining the integrity integrity of the individual elements. His triumphs triumphs and which fathered symbolism and ments. and insights, insights, which fathered symbolism and as one great other movements, mark mark him him as other important one of of the the truly important movements, truly great artists. artists. As typical assault on the Weltanschauung in his his assault on the of typical campaigns campaigns in Weltanschauung of national~ laissez faite, pins in the utilitarians utilitarians and wild nationallaissez Poe stuck stuck pins in the and the the wild faire, Poe istic expansionists. But while while all his serious work reveals reveals another istic all his serious work another facet facet expansionists. But of his condemnation debasement of love, for example, or the of his condemnation (the of or the debasement for love, (the example, The Pit and the utter isolation his famous story of isolation of of the the individual), utter the of and his famous Pit individual), story is perhaps perhaps the the most most subtle yet devastating devastating fictional attack Pendulum is Pendulum fictional attack subtle yet as aa horror horror story, the key on laissez ever written. written. Presented Presented as laissez faire faire ever on the key story, to the kind of horror that and the tale is the to tale is the kind of horror that it it really portrays. Captured and really portrays. Captured by the the rulers rulers of that demands ideologiimprisoned by a system absolute ideologiof a demands absolute imprisoned system that cal Poe's protagonist holds to his own values through to cal conformity, his values holds Poe's through conformity, protagonist extended interrogation, aa trial, trial, and and aa series series of rigorous ideological ideological extended interrogation, of rigorous hero, "conveyed my soul the lectures. The experience, soul the lectures. relates the the hero, to my "conveyed to experience, relates revolution" as as the the only way to deal with such a society. idea of of a a revolution" a idea deal with to such society. only way Overcome by by "nausea," he awakens a torture contorture chamber awakens in in a chamber con"nausea," he is "without hope"; his humanity is all but destroyed. vinced that he vinced that he is "without hope"; his humanity is all but destroyed. The familiar despite his rational efforts, he avoids avoids his rational familiar sequence follows: despite efforts, he sequence follows: in the pit only by "accidentally" discovering it; then he is death is death in the pit only by "accidentally" discovering it; then he razor~sharp pendulum pendulum which which is is lowered lowered strapped pad beneath beneath aa razor-sharp a pad to a strapped to at an agonizingly slow rate while while it widens its its arc arc and and toward him at it widens slow rate toward an agonizingly clear through thus picks picks up to make an an incision incision dear thus through up enough enough momentum to his By that that time, time, he he recalls, suffering had nearly nearly his backbone. backbone. By recalls, "long "long suffering annihilated ordinary powers powers of of mind. mind. II was an imbecile-an imbecilean all my annihilated all my ordinary idiot." idiot." his food Escaping this this destruction rubbing his his fetters fetters and food on his destruction by by rubbing Escaping for thus putting putting the of a pack of rats to work for him, he to a of rats of thus the gluttony him, pack gluttony of the the chamber chamber are realizes that that the the fiery fiery movable movable walls walls of are squeezing realizes squeezing pit. Only Only the the fortuitous of aa conquering conquering general arrival of fortuitous arrival into the the pit. him into general forces of saved by by armed resistance, by the the forces of a rescues him: he he is is saved rescues resistance, and by of as as a description and critique foreign revolution at that. Just a that. at revolution lust critique of description foreign accidental first the laissez the story would be a classic: from the first accidental a classic: be would the laissez faire, faire, story "first in which the in the market place, place, through through the the "first survival the episode the market survival in episode in American American
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time II thought" prompts the the hero to use use the others to the greed of others time hero to to greed of thought" prompts accomplish his private objectives, to the deadly constriction of the constriction the to of his the deadly accomplish private objectives, market place. place. If by chance chance he he survives, the individual individual is then is then market If by survives, the out the pattern of the alienated and finally destroyed. Poe lived out the of the alienated and finally destroyed, Poe lived pattern story, dying alone in the streets of Baltimore. story, dying alone in the streets of Baltimore. While such aa tragic tragic death, most notable notable ideological While avoiding Poe's most death, Poe's ideological avoiding such compatriot came to the same philosophical conclusion: must **You must compatriot came to the same philosophical conclusion: "You or accept consequences." Originally an enabolish the system its consequences." enabolish the Originally an system or accept its thusiastic and and effective effective intellectual leader of of Jacksonian thusiastic intellectual leader Jacksonian Democracy, Democracy, Orestes A. Brownson Brownson of of Massachusetts dramatically came came forward forward Massachusetts dramatically Orestes A. with an an all-encompassing critique of and its in the movement and in 1840 of the its all-encompassing critique 1840 with philosophy. "All over the world," he announced in one of those in of he announced one "All over the those world," philosophy. sentences is halfway halfway into into the the next next reader is the reader sentences that that explode explode when the the workingman is poor and depressed, one: over the world ... the is and "All over the world one: "All workingman poor depressed, wealthy." Then while aa large portion of non-working men ... are wealthy." while the non-working of the ... are large portion he struck at the the philosophers individualism like like Emerson. struck direcdy of individualism he Emerson. philosophers of directly at it cannot abolish inequality nOr "Sel£-culture a good thing, but it cannot "Self-culture is is a but abolish good thing, inequality nor restore men to rights." restore to their their rights." Brownson next next mocked the of the the irrelevance irrelevance of the laissez-faire laissez-faire slogan Brownson slogan become [ s] an independent proprietor." middle that "every an that become man independent proprietor." "The middle "every [s] class," he he explained, a firm firm champion of equality "is always class," explained, "is always a champion of equality when it humbling aa class above it, it, but but it it is is its it concerns concerns humbling class above its inveterate inveterate foe foe when it concerns elevating aa dass it." "No matter what party party you you it concerns elevating class below it." matter what what you elect, property is always the basis support, no matter matter no men the what is basis support, you elect, property always of your your governmental action." Quite Quite aware of the the rising expansionist of aware of governmental action." rising expansionist litde or chance fever, and realizing that fundamental reforms that fundamental reforms had little or no chance fever, realizing until it was checked and reversed, Brownson tried to counter until it checked tried to counter it it by reversed, by out how the the large enterpointing out the growing of the business enterpointing growing dominance of large business prise had had changed changed the the role role of of the the frontier. frontier. prise Further expansion the contradictions contradictions of of laissez laissez Further not solve solve the expansion would not faire. "The wilderness has receded, receded, and and already the new lands lands are are faire. wilderness has already the the reach beyond the of the the mere laborer, laborer, and the the employer reach of at has him at beyond employer has his corporate his mercy." Brownson's alternative co-operative and corporate alternative was a a co-operative mercy." Brownson's Arguing that nation religious commonwealth. Arguing that "God gives to every religious gives to every nation an aristocracy," and that that "a of Wellington Wellington is is much more more "a Duke of aristocracy," and to vindicate than an Abbot Abbot Lawrence," likely vindicate the the rights rights of labor than of labor Lawrence," likely to Brownson became a Catholic in 18.44> Catholic in to work thereafter to 1844, and sought sought thereafter out out some programmatic programmatic approach approa~h for for such But by that time a society. that such a But time society. by entrenched expansion had entrenched itself as the popular answer to America's itself as the to America's expansion popular .
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problems. Everybody Everybody wanted wanted expansion; the argument was about about expansion; the argument was problems. expansion where and for whom. where for and whom. expansion can hardly hardly Hence Henry Henry Clay's Clay's irresolution taking Texas Texas can irresolution over over taking It was Calhoun who was, in many ways, seem anything but pathetic. seem anything but pathetic. It was Calhoun was, in many ways, the truly tragic and moving figure of the age. There may well have the truly tragic moving figure of the age. There may well have associates such as Duff been, among his close close associates such as a conspiracy Duff Green, of been, Green, a among his conspiracy of sorts to to acquire Texas, and perhaps even than Texas, Texas, but but sorts and perhaps even more more than acquire Texas, Calhoun himself was was open open about his desire desire to to annex the republic. republic. Calhoun himself about his annex the he seems to have have wanted halt vital consideration The vital consideration is is that that he call a seems to a halt wanted to to call at that that point: point: Texas would provide provide the the south south with with political political parity, parity, at Texas would com~ economic surety, economic and a a buffer buffer against and comabolitionism and surety, and against English English abolitionism mercial expansion. against the immediate future, mercial Given these these hedges the immediate future, expansion. Given hedges against to count count on constitutional revision, revision, political political comhe was willing he comon constitutional willing to promise, and the amelioration brought about by American developthe amelioration about American promise, brought developby in which he ment. But his blatant defense defense of of slavery April, 18% ment. his blatant which he in April, slavery in 1844, in vigorously asserted that the slave enjoyed a better life than the free the asserted a the free that slave life than better vigorously enjoyed Negro, only played into of his his opponents opponents in in the north. into the the hands hands of the north. Negro, only played psyJusdy emphasizing that free Negroes were physically and psythat free were Justly emphasizing Negroes physically and chologically free, and sliding over the embarrassing facts that such and that such over the facts chologically free, sliding embarrassing Negroes were only rarely rarely granted to place place were only or allowed allowed to Negroes granted citizenship citizenship or aa foot foot on the the ladder of laissez-faire many northerners and laissez-faire success, and ladder of northerners success, many as proof westerners misread misread Calhoun's Calhoun's argument against the British the as westerners British proof argument against of to extend extend slavery a general of a southern conspiracy indefinitely. general southern slavery indefinitely. conspiracy to came, Calhoun actually opposed the the war with with Mexico Mexico when it it came, Calhoun actually opposed as a danger to the Union and republican government. viewing it it a to the Union and as danger republican government. viewing And he Polk's reassertion extension of of the the Monroe he attacked and extension reassertion and attacked Folk's as aa Doctrine, which openly challenged all European influence, Doctrine, which openly challenged all European influence, as thought it it guaranteed guaranteed "broad principle, truly." "broad and and dangerous truly.'* He thought dangerous principle, an indefinite an of future future wars. wars. indefinite number of Cal~ had recognized recognized the before 1820, even before the dilemma even As one one who had 1820, Calhoun was the 18405 ever more desperately to find find houn was by desperately to 18405 struggling struggling ever by the some way preventing expansion tearing the the country from tearing some of preventing country apart apart expansion from way of that understood that empire might easily into sections. He understood sections. into antagonistic easily empire might antagonistic subvert republicanism than preserve preserve it. His opposition to it. His rather than subvert opposition to republicanism rather that of the quick annexation of Oregon, for example, was part of that for the of annexation part example, Oregon, quick than aa betrayal betrayal of of the the south's with the the west. west. concern rather than south's bargain concern rather bargain with Calhoun's argument was was quite straightforward: before any before more Calhoun's argument any quite straightforward: between expansion territory was added, the whole relationship between expansion and territory was added, the whole relationship be resolved in a way that would guarantee republicanism had to that in a resolved be to had guarantee way republicanism
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of the not his his self-government or not the country. all sections for all sections of country. Whether or self-government for by solution through a veto by each major section over legislation over section veto each solution through a major legislation by by the others would have worked in practice, the main point is that the is the others would have worked in practice, that point he cannot be understood understood as merely aa fanatic fanatic southern slaver. But But southern slaver. he as merely cannot be in their acquisitive drive to take Oregon and Texas, the expansionists in their acquisitive drive to take Oregon Texas, the expansionists clearly. discounted the out so so clearly. Calhoun saw and pointed that Calhoun discounted the dangers pointed out dangers that result was was aa bitter bitter struggle the spoils victory. of victory. over the The final final result spoils of struggle over PRESIDE}.o"T POLK AND A W AJJ. FOR LAND AND COMMERCE PRESIDENT WAR
opposed to to internal improvements Polk had office in I8.t5 opposed internal improvements in 1845 Polk had come come into into office and the the tariff tariff and and almost almost fanatic about the the acquisition most of of most and fanatic about of acquisition of Oregon and all of Texas and California. His aggressive impatience California. and His and all Texas of aggressive impatience Oregon was typical Jacksonian laissez faire, and his his intrigues, pressures, was laissez faire, of Jacksonian intrigues, pressures, typical of ultimatums, and provocations gave Mexico no chance to first settle chance to Mexico no first settle and ultimatums, provocations gave its problems and gradually accept the loss of its and then the loss then gradually of its its own internal internal problems accept northern provinces. provinces. northern
the earlier debate over the relationship over the of the earlier debate Aware of relationship
between expansion between attention calling explicit explicit attention expansion and republicanism, republicanism, and calling to it, Polk made his own position clear in his inaugural in his clear to Polk his address. it, position inaugural address. Recalling that opinion prevailed with some that that our that "the our system "the opinion . . . prevailed with system ... Recalling could not operate successfully successfully over extended territory," territory," Polk over an an extended could not operate Polk judged judged
this well founded." to further the "ex"not well further the this view view "not founded." Anxious Anxious to "exand profitable profitable commerce with with China, China, and other of other countries countries of the East," as well as to get Texas and Oregon for the agrarians and the East," as well as to get Texas and Oregon for the agrarians and businessmen, Polk would that such Polk was "confident" "confident" that such diplomacy businessmen, diplomacy would provide "additional is confidently be"It is "additional strength provide security." "It strength and security." confidently bebe safely to the the lieved," concluded, "that may be he concluded, our system "that our extended to lieved," he system may safely extended utmost bounds bounds of our territorial territorial limits, that as be exexutmost of our as it it shall shall be limits, and that tended the of our our Union, from being weakened, will will tended the bonds bonds of so far far from Union, so being weakened, become stronger." become stronger." In sending to the long the army south to the Rio Rio Grande into into territory army south sending the territory long claimed claimed by an openly openly provocative act. Polk committed committed an Mexico, Polk by Mexico, provocative act. Convinced that that the result in the loss Convinced loss of of Texas would "inevitably the loss result in the loss "inevitably of of New Mexico and and the the Californias," further Mexican officials were further officials were Californias," Mexican antagonized by the racial arrogance of Americans both north and the of racial Americans both north and antagonized by arrogance south. south. "The haughtiness of these republicans," remarked one Mexiof these remarked one Mexihaughtiness republicans," can leader leader in can well as bitterness, "will them to to in sorrow as as well as bitterness, "will not not allow allow them look us as as equals, but merely as inferiors." Finally, after look upon upon us but as inferiors." after equals, merely Finally, American forces blockaded the the river, river, Mexico attacked just as as Polk forces blockaded attacked just Polk to to start the on his initiative. was ready the war start his own initiative. ready tensive tensive
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277 277
Blossoming under the the hothouse effects of of war war hothouse effects outburst of the outburst of the Blossoming under enthusiasm easy victories, victories, aa movement movement to to take take all of Mexico and easy enthusiasm and all of Mexico swept parts of particularly New York. York. the west west and and parts the northeast, of the northeast, particularly swept the is a gorgeous prospect," judged the New York Ha-ald, "It a is "It "this gorgeous prospect," judged the Yor^ Herald, "this annexation of all Mexico .... Like the Sabine virgins, will learn learn annexation of all Mexico Like the Sabine virgins, she she will ravishers." And spokesmen the "western began to love her ravishers." love her to "western spirit" of the spokesmen of spirit" began to talk taking everything Arctic Circle to the the talk of of taking to the Arctic south to from the Circle south everything from Isthmus But less than aa week after the war started, Polk of Panama. Isthmus of Panama. But less than week after the war started, Polk with Britain Britain over Oregon. Clearly realistic move, move, compromised with a realistic over Oregon* compromised Clearly a and by some some agrarians and businessmen looking one supported for and one and businessmen supported by looking for agrarians markets in in England, antagonized many expansionists it nevertheless markets nevertheless antagonized England, it many expansionists in the the west west and the north north who concluded that the and the in the southerners southerners concluded that well as were going back on their bargain to reoccupy Oregon back on as well as were their to going bargain reoccupy Oregon as reannex Texas. Texas. Polk added to his troubles troubles by vetoing an internal Polk added an internal reannex to his by vetoing laws reprerepre~ improvements bill bill with with the remark that such laws the arrogant that such improvements arrogant remark sented aa "mischievous tendency." "mischievous tendency." sented Confronted by that time with with the the Wilmot Wilmot Proviso, Proviso, Confronted by that time of the the challenge challenge of which proposed to exclude slavery from any territory won from to from which exclude from proposed slavery any territory Mexico, and which a coalition of westerners and northerners could and could which a and northerners coalition of westerners Mexico, pass at will in in the the House House of adv~ at will other advoPolk and and other of Representatives, pass Representatives, Polk cates were knee~eep in the poisonous harvest of Mani~ cates of of expansion were of Maniharvest in the expansion knee-deep poisonous fest Destiny. Destiny. "The North North can be no no longer fest and will can and will be hoodwinked," longer hoodwinked," a' Chicago newspaper that accurately reflected western western screamed screamed a* Chicago newspaper that accurately reflected feeling. "If no measures for protection and improvement of anything feeling. "If no measures for protection and improvement of anything by our our Southern northern or or Western Western are to be masters ..• be suffered Southern masters are to suffered by northern aa signal signal revolution revolution will will inevitably in Similar anger ensue." Similar erupted in anger erupted inevitably ensue." Indiana and Indiana and Ohio. Ohio. Clearly the effort to extend extend the the market market place place of of laissez laissez effort to enough, the Clearly enough, faire resolve its tensions was was in reality intensifying the faire and and thereby its tensions in reality intensifying the thereby resolve conflicts within the the system well as producing aa war with with Mexico. Mexico. conflicts within as well as producing system as The developing nature of was revealed in aa fiery fiery revealed in of that that competition competition was developing nature speech by Joshua Giddings of Ohio, had already antagonized who had of Ohio, Joshua already antagonized speech by Giddings the south by his his speeches the evil evil slaveholders. the skveholders. "Are the the south by against the speeches against farmers of of the of Ohio, prepared to to give give and Illinois, farmers the West, Illinois, prepared Indiana, and West, of Ohio, Indiana, up the the sale beef, pork, and flour, in order to increase the increase the order to of their their beef, sale of flour, in up pork, and the in bodies deal bodies profits of those raise children for sale, and deal in the of who raise for those children sale, profits limits of women?" As an abolitionist, Giddings Giddings was was indicating the limits an abolitionist, of indicating the inhis to of that specific religious appeal by extending his arguments to inof that arguments specific religious appeal by extending the elude economic of his attack on the planters. as part his issues as of attack economic issues clude planters. part .
.
.
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The of American American History History Contours of The Contours
This marked aa turning turning point the Age Age of of Laissez Laissez Nous Faire: in the Faire: This marked point in the separate moralities of laissez faire-political, economic, and reand rethe faire political, economic, separate moralities of laissez in a campaign to change the ligious-were beginnng to converge in a to campaign change the ligious were beginnng to converge basic rules rules of of the the game game as they were the Constitution. Constitution. in the set forth forth in were set as they basic To be sure, abolitionists such as Garrison (and, until later, until be sure, abolitionists such as Garrison (and, even later, even Phillips), whose politics might be compared to the undeviating and Phillips), whose politics might be compared to the undeviating and of the Arctic Tern, had unsleeping, self-contained, the Arctic Tern, had self-contained, migratory flights of migratory £lights unsleeping, by the connot given the struggle. They were even strengthened even the were connot the by strengthened They struggle. given up up version of David Thoreau. Thoreau. And in going to to jail jail in going version of such as Henry such men as Henry David in to the war with Mexico, Thoreau effectively dramaThoreau in opposition dramawith war to the Mexico, effectively opposition by leaving jail when when tized the the issue (though he weakened his his protest protest by he weakened tized issue (though leaving jail somebody else paid the fine). the else fine). somebody paid But philosophy which which asserted that "any right than than asserted that as a a philosophy But as "any man more right his neighbors constitutes a majority of one," Thoreau's transcendena of Thoreau's transcendenhis constitutes one," majority neighbors tal individualism shared at weakness with with Garrison's one weakness at least least one tal Garrison's individualism shared abolitionism: neither could the antislavery sustained the could have have sustained crusade abolitionism: neither antislavery crusade by itself, nor could both together have done it. important than it. done More both nor could have together important than by itself, as a catalyst Thoreau's private crusade, the Mexican served served as a the Mexican War Thoreau's in catalyst in private crusade, crystallizing three major conflicts within the general system of laissez the of within three conflicts laissez major crystallising general system faire. most general was the the antibetween the faire. The most the rising antiopposition between rising opposition general was slavery elements and the south. Methodists, Baptists, and Presbysouth. elements and the Methodists, Baptists, slavery Presbyterians, for had divided the issue. the various divided over over the But the issue. But various for example, terians, example, had each group of primary antagonists were tensions and within of tensions and clashes within each clashes group primary antagonists were of great importance in determining the outcome of that struggle. of the outcome of that struggle. great importance in determining Agrarians, laborers, and businessmen businessmen had had many with differences with Agrarians, laborers, many differences .:ach and within their own groups. each other other and within their Conflicts of of function function and and groups. Conflicts by clashes between the the interest were example, by for example, interest clashes between were supplemented, supplemented, for small and large large entrepreneurs between the the small and between the banker banker and and the entrepreneurs and upset by by Polk's Polk's opposition to inindustrialist. were so industrialist. Westerners Westerners were so upset inopposition to ternal 20,000 attended attended the the Rivers ternal improvements that nearly nearly 20,000 Elvers and improvements that were also deHarbors held in Harbors Convention in 1847. Convention held in Chicago also deChicago in 1847. They They were to keep termined to the undeveloped undeveloped western territories open for their termined western territories for their keep the open particular, if not exclusive, exclusive, benefit. they were were increasingly increasingly if not benefit. And they particular, interested in the expansion of their markets to the Pacific coast and interested in the of their to the markets coast Pacific and expansion even to Asia. Asia. Steadily increasing in population, wealth, and political even to in wealth, Steadily increasing population, political strength, the the western states wanted kinds of of help help from governwestern states wanted all all kinds from a a governstrength, ment favorable to their their interests. to the the landless and homes homes favorable to interests. "Land "Land to landless and to homeless!" was a to the the homeless!" a cry heard increasingly often and with rising heard often with cry increasingly rising insistence. Coming to view insistence. to view the southern slaveholder and eastern the southern and eastern slaveholder Coining
279 279 business interests antagonistic to their welfare, interests as as almost business almost equally their welfare, equally antagonistic to westerners were angry and prowl for were angry westerners and on the prowl on the allies. for allies. They quickly found two joined with with two important ones. Having quickly found They important ones. Having joined tax on tea and coffee many eastern laborers to oppose Polk's war eastern laborers to oppose Folk's war tax on tea and coffee many as unfair unfair "to laborers," the repaid "to all all free as free laborers," the western western farmer was soon soon repaid farmer was its campaign for with interest. mistakenly concluding interest. Rather with Rather mistakenly that its campaign for concluding that was very very the ten-hour ten-hour day day was was generally (enforcement was the successful (enforcement generally successful was turning turning to to other lax for many lax for labor was other programs. Some many years), years), labor programs. Some elements were attracted organizing co-operative enterattracted by elements the idea idea of of organizing enterby the co-operative to become become entrepreneurs the market place. Starting prises as as a a way in the market place. way to prises entrepreneurs in Starting in Cincinnati the movement had spread eastward to in 1847, Cincinnati in in tta to New movement had eastward 1847, spread by 1850. Almost from the outset, York, Philadelphia, Philadelphia, and and Boston Boston by from the Almost York, outset, 1850. however, the problems of enough capital and commanding the problems of raising and however, commanding raising enough capital enough weakened the the effort. effort. Others a campaign launched a Others launched experience weakened enough experience campaign Designed to increase wages by lowering living for for consumer consumer co-ops. to increase co-ops. Designed wages by lowering living was organized in Boston in 1845. costs, the first Protective Union the first in Protective Union in was Boston costs, 1845. organized There 40 branches branches in Massachusetts within within two two years, years, and There were were 40 in Massachusetts and people in Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan responded almost as in as almost and Illinois, Wisconsin, people Michigan responded fast. fast. But the the most important tie the western western agrarian and the the But most important tie between between the agrarian and free eastern laborer out of the workers' renewed interest in laborer grew free out of eastern the interest in workers* renewed grew land and that revival, the and territorial land territorial expansion. in that revival, the key figure figure in expansion. A key Advocate, George H. Evans, had been editor of editor of the the Workingman's H. had been Evans, Worfyngman's Advocate, George demanding ever since and without success. free land land ever since 1834, without much success. demanding free 1834, and But in the context of the war with Mexico and the Wilmot Proviso, the But in the context of the with Mexico and Proviso, his motto motto of Yourself aa Farm" was was picked picked up by three three groups. groups. "Vote Yourself of "Vote his up by Westerners liked the obvious reasons. So did agrarian polipolifor the did agrarian Westerners liked it it for obvious reasons. ticians. Some of of Tennessee, like Andrew Johnson of them, ticians. Tennessee, knew them, like Johnson of it meant meant to to be hard-pressed yeoman. yeoman. Others Others first-hand what it a smail, be a first-hand what small, hard-pressed among the the politicians politicians saw way to to appeal appeal to farmer and and to the the farmer it as as a a way saw it among labor to businessmen businessmen interested interested in Eastern labor to western development. in western development. Eastern (along with with its its spokesmen leaders) composed the would-be leaders) composed the spokesmen and would-be (along third group. third group. The Age Age oj Laissez Nous Faire Faire of Laissez
EASTERN LABOR ACCEPTS THE FRONTIER THESIS AND THEREBY INTENSIFIES THE SECI'IONAL SECTIONAL CONFLICT landed expansion fact about about labor's in landed was labor's interest interest in crucial fact The crucial expansion was size of of the it up up with with the of reducing reducing the the size the growidea of it the idea growfor himself ing working-force in the east. westerner wanted land for himself land wanted east. The in the westerner ing working-force
that labor that labor took took
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The America:n History History Contours of The Contours of American
(or for his sons and neighbors), but the laborer wanted it primarily (or for his sons and neighbors), but the laborer wanted it primarily for his next-door next-door competitor and for the increasing for the of for his increasing number of competitor and ease immigrants. Hoping to create a labor shortage (and thereby labor a ease to create shortage (and thereby immigrants. Hoping the housing housing pressure pressure and rent levels), launched Evans the rent Evans and lower lower the the levels), they they launched on a second career. Organizing the National Reform Association, the National on a second career. Organizing Association, they petitioned Congress, cornered candidates, and generally generally upset upset they petitioned Congress, cornered candidates, the existing pattern of political affairs. the existing pattern of political affairs. And having expansionist thesis of democracy thesis of the expansionist embraced the thus embraced having thus democracy what might might fairly be called pocketand prosperity in affair of an affair of the the pocketcalled an and prosperity In what fairly be book, they to manifest noticeably stronger doubts manifest noticeably book, stronger doubts they straightway straightway began began to Negroabout the the morality of letting letting the the slaveholder-or free Negro the free slaveholder or the about morality of share in bliss. In In what what aa psychiatrist might term revealing act, term a a revealing in the share the bliss. act, psychiatrist might some of them began began calling calling the the abolitionists hypocrites who used used abolitionists hypocrites of them some morality to cover their their economic interests. But But others became antiothers became economic interests. antito cover morality slavery (though not abolitionist) in theirrhetoric and politics. theirrhetoric and not in And abolitionist) politics* slavery (though James Wilmot of of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, whose the symbol whose name became the of James Wilmot symbol of proscribing slavery from the land taken in the Mexican War, proin the land taken the from War, proproscribing slavery vided aa clear clear indication indication that that the the general general antislavery antislavery drive drive was was not not vided by any particular concern for the Negro. "I plead," he motivated by for "I concern the motivated any particular Negro. plead," he remarked quite bluntly, "the cause and the right of white freedom." the remarked cause of white "the freedom/* right quite bluntly, Labor's of the frontier thesis of prosperity prosperity free-land or or frontier Labor's acceptance the free-land thesis of acceptance of basic foundation for an alliance with and established the basic an and democracy established the foundation for alliance with democracy the expansionists of the west. Whig politicians Seward and Weed, the of the west. Seward Weed, expansionists Whig politicians the one wanting expansion program for and the the the one wanting as a a program for laissez laissez faire faire and expansion as other for the votes votes it it pulled pulled in, in, tried to establish and control control for the other tried hard hard to establish and such Hiring Horace Greeley, an an itinerant newspaper a coalition. such a coalition. Hiring Horace Greeley, itinerant newspaper the famous advice "Go West, Young man who had coined the coined famous advice West, Young Man!" as as 1837, as early they started New-York Tribune in 1841 the Neu/-Yor^ started the Tribune in a as a early as 1837, they 1841 as propaganda vehicle. Greeley soon became an uninhibited advocate vehicle. Greeley soon became an uninhibited advocate propaganda of would control control the of expansion, that it it would the labor labor market market and and expansion, arguing arguing that also provide also provide orders orders for for eastern businessmen. Though eastern businessmen. Seward and and Though Seward ReGreeley laid the the foundation what was was to become the the Rethus laid foundation for for what to become Greeley thus publican Party, Party, they they could could not not outmaneuver outmaneuver Van VanBuren in the the Buren in publican short run. short run. Organizing under the the leadership of Van Buren, Buren, and taking the the and taking Organizing under leadership of accurate accurate and appealing appealing name of Free Soilers, of this this perperof Free easterners of Soilers, easterners suasion entered Attracting some uppersuasion entered the the political political arena arena in in 1848. some upper1848. Attracting class conservatives conservatives who were also elass their economic, also integrating their economic, integrating political, and religious probusiness an antislavery, into an political, religious morality morality into antislavery, probusiness
The Age Age of Laissez Nous Nous Poire Faire of Laissez
281 28 1
oudook, the new party party campaigned vigorously under banner of of under the the banner outlook, the campaigned vigorously "Free Free Labor, Free Soil, Free Speech, and Free Men." "Free Trade, Free Free Trade, Labor, Soil, Free Speech, and Free Men." The party party offered offered internal improvements, free internal improvements, and free homesteads, homesteads, and tariff protection along with denunciation of southern tariff protection along with denunciation of southern slave slave leaders. leaders. It thus thus defined laissez faire faire in terms that that excluded That defined laissez in terms It south. That the south. excluded the was the portentous development American history history since the most most portentous was in American since development in the 1760s had done the same thing in in excludthe Samuel Adams had excluddone the same thing 17605 when Samuel ing mercantilism. For definition colonial mercantilism. For should that definition should that England from colonial ing England by a plurality or majority that of faire be be accepted a conof laissez laissez faire that won conor by accepted majority plurality trol of the national national government, then either it might attack the trol of the the then either it attack government, might south or the south might revolt revolt of or the south might south accord. of its its own accord. Electing 13 to exercise exercise considerable considerable ininElecting 13 congressmen congressmen (enough (enough to befluence in in the and utterly disrupting the campaign the Congress) beand the fluence campaign Congress) utterly disrupting tween the Democrats and the Whigs, Whigs, the the Free Free Soilers advanced aa the Democrats and the Soilers advanced tween was at once almost almost pure pure abstract docstatement of of laissez laissez faire faire that that was at once abstract docstatement trine and yet practical practical enough to satisfy the dirt farmer. Despite and yet to the dirt trine farmer. Despite enough satisfy being often considered insignificant if not not unimportant unimportant before before the the often considered insignificant if being time of or before outbreaks of violence such as as of Samuel such Samuel Gompers, outbreaks of violence time or before Gompers, those in labor thus played a crucial role in American history in 1877, labor thus in American a crucial role those history 1877, pkyed up the expansionist oudook. Nothing dramatizes this when it it took took up the expansionist dramatizes this outlook. Nothing it took three weeks and more effectively than the realization that than weeks the that it took three more effectively realization 63 ballots to the House of of Representatives Representatives in Already to organize in 18491849. Already organize the 63 ballots antagonized by the Wilmot Proviso, the program and the effectivethe effectiveantagonized by the Wilmot Proviso, the program and ness of campaign intensified the south's concern and and south's concern of the the Free Free Soil intensified the ness Soil campaign bitterness. "The madmen of the North and Northwest," concluded bitterness. of the North and Northwest, concluded Richmond Enquirer, Enquirer, "have, the die, the editor of the the 'Richmond -cast the the editor of die, "have, we fear, fear, ast and numbered the the days this glorious Union." and of this days of glorious Union." Already embarked embarked upon upon aa program program of self-conscious reform, reform, the the of self-conscious Already south began began to to think think of itself as as aa besieged besieged society that not not only south of itself only society that could create aa balanced balanced political political economy economy including including industry, industry, but but could create survive. to survive. as have to to embrace program in order to in order that program one that embrace that as one that might might have region started to improve improve its its agricultural agricultural Beginning in the the 1840S, the region started to 18405, the Beginning in methods, liberalize state constitutions the suffrage to extend the its state constitutions and extend liberalize its methods, suffrage to educamore white build factories railroads, develop an educafactories and railroads, white men, more men, build develop an social reforms. reforms. Fully tional system, and carry carry through various social tional Fully aware through various system, and of efforts, many many southerners southerners felt felt northern northern attacks attacks were doubly of these these efforts, doubly and direct "a only was was the the antislavery antislavery campaign "a direct danunfair. Not only unfair. campaign it but in was in 1847, but it gerous attack" just as Calhoun had said it said it was had attack" as Calhoun 1847, just gerous of out of a threatened to to make "a dreary, hopeless minority" out threatened "a fixed, fixed, dreary, hopeless minority" 4'
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The Contours The Contours
0/ American History History of American
people who were trying to to improve do not not intend their society. intend were trying society. "We do improve their people of Alabama, "and have to stand still," cried Jeremiah Clemens our to stand still," cried Jeremiah Clemens of Alabama, "and have our be broken." broken." throats cut." added, "the "the Union can can be throats Calhoun added, cut." "No, "No, Sir," Sir," Calhoun Barnwell Rhett of South South Carolina, Rhett of like Robert Robert Barnwell And extremists extremists like Carolina, who had been been talking talking about about seccession since 1845, it clear that clear that ever since had seccession ever 1845, made it the south least manufacture manufacture its version of of the the Garrison its own version Garrison the south could at least could at repealer. repealer. Supposedly a power power that that adjusted myriad of of competing the myriad selfcompeting selfadjusted the Supposedly a interests into the general welfare, Adam Smith's Hidden Hand was Smith's was interests into the general welfare, instead beginning to trace trace aa vicious vicious circle. circle. "Here it is, this this black black it is, instead beginning to the Free Free Soilers revealed their their question," cried Soilers revealed in anguish as the cried Benton Benton in anguish as question," on the nuptial couch, everywhere!" strength, "forever on the table, the the on on "forever couch, table, nuptial everywhere!" strength, the energy to him him as he ceased chasing the the Sustained as he ceased chasing that came came to Sustained by by the energy that Presidency (he was 63 and physically very weak), and driven by driven was by 63 Presidency (he physically very weak), his deep concern for the nation, Clay returned to the Congress for returned to the for his the concern for nation, Clay Congress deep the last to make aa valiant effort to peaceful adaptaa peaceful to work out out a last time valiant effort time to the adaptato the the American American realities. realities. It It was was truly truly aa noble noble tion of tion of laissez faire to laissez faire In contrast, contrast, Daniel Webster's attempt attempt to to rally national feeleffort. In Daniel Webster's effort. feelrally national ing by arrogant intervention intervention in in the the Hungarian Hungarian Revolution Revolution (fire(firean arrogant ing by an to send troops) was was aa callous and eaters in Massachusetts wanted send troops) eaters in Massachusetts wanted to callous and dangerous application of the expansionist solution to domestic probto solution of the domestic dangerous application expansionist problems. Webster Webster thought but lems. territorial expansion dangerous," but thought territorial expansion "very "very dangerous," he had no qualms qualms about about whipping whipping up up public public enthusiasm he had no enthusiasm for for foreign foreign revolutions-or revolutions for overseas or for overseas economic economic expansion. expansion. By admitting leaving the a free California as as a free state, the remainder remainder of of state, leaving By admitting California the newly newly acquired west to to be be organized by the the actual and the actual settlers, settlers, and organized by acquired west abolishing the trade in District of of Columbia, Columbia, Clay in the the District the slave slave trade abolishing Clay sought sought to satisfy the north. there was was little little left to offer to north. He did-barely. did barely. But there left to offer satisfy the south except the south a stronger Fugitive Slave Act. Hence the comprothe a Slave Act. Hence the stronger Fugitive except compromise mise was accepted by the narrowest of of margins margins over over the the narrowest the oppoonly by accepted only opposition of New York's Carolina's Calhoun. Calhoun. Both sition of York's Seward and South Carolina's and South Both thought it the central issue, and each had drastically different it evaded evaded the central and each had different issue, thought drastically solutions to offer. to aa law which stood beyond solutions to offer. Seward appealed law which stood beyond appealed to the a code code which which justified justified war war or meant nothing. nothing. the Constitution, or else else meant Constitution, a Calhoun asked constitutional limits on the power of the north. asked constitutional the power limits on of the north. The of Clay's weakness weakness of Clay's compromises, compromises, which which in in the were the later later stages stages were by Senator A. Douglas of guided through the the Congress Senator Stephen guided through Congress by Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois was not not that Illinois that they they took risky course between those two course between took a a risky those two
The Age oj Laissez Nous Nous Faire Faire The Age of Lcdssez
views, but but that that they followed an even an even views, they followed
283 283
more dangerous path around around more dangerous path
both of of them. them. both Perhaps the most remarkable remarkable aspect of the whole settlement is the the most Perhaps aspect of the whole settlement is the measure of in an Exof the the south's in result. Exsouth's acquiescence an unfavorable unfavorable result. measure acquiescence tremists failed to rally rally significant for their failed to convention at at tremists their convention significant strength strength for would abide by the terms Nashville, and Georgia announced that it and Georgia announced that it would the terms abide by Nashville, so the north north observed observed them. them. But But the the dynamic of laissez as the so long long as dynamic spirit spirit of laissez nous faire like aa phoenix phoenix from of I850 derose like faire rose from the the Compromise of and denous Compromise 1850 and manded fulfillment. fulfillment. Its Its chosen Seward chosen instruments instruments were were Senators Senators Seward manded and Douglas, and aa mystic mystic young young corporation corporation lawyer from Illinois, and Illinois, Douglas, and lawyer from named Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln. named
IIV. V. The Transformation Transformation of Reality and of Reality and the Inception Inception of of the
Ideas New Ideas
Democracies are prone to to war, war, and and war war consumes consumes them. are prone them. Democracies
Senator William H. Seward, Senator William Seward, I85! 1851 Come on, on, then, slave States. States. ••. We witt will engage engage in in the slave Gentlemen of then, Gentlemen of the competition for the virgin soil of Kansas. the Kansas. soil for of virgin competition Senator William H. Seward, Senator William Seward, 18541854 .
Fellow citizens, citizens, 'Fellow
.
.
cannot escape we cannot history. escape history. President Abraham Lincoln, President 1862 Lincoln, 1862
1/ don't don't J(now know nothin' nothin' 'hout Lincoln 'ceptin dey say say he sot us free, 'bout Abe Lincoln he sot us free, 'ceptin dey know nothin nothin' 'bout dat neither. neither. Alabama Negro, Negro, 1864 'bout dat \now 1864
an' 1I don't don't an'
Times are hard. are hard.
Agriculturist, 1869 American Agriculturist, 1869
I won't won't call caJJ employers employers despots, despots, II won't call them them tyrants, the term term wont call but the I tyrants, but of synonymous synonymous and will capitalist sort of is sort as well. will do as well. capitalist is Pittsburgh millworker, mill worker, 1877 Pittsburgh 1877 It's
a It's II
question of bread or blood, going to resist. bread or we're going to resist. blood, and we're question of Railroad Bagman Andrew Hice, Railroad flagman Hice, 1877 1877
You are are already great continental power of of America, America. But But does does that the great continental power that already the it does not. the commerce of the world. world. .••• content you? you? II trust trust it content not. You want the . . of the The nation nation that most from from the earth and fabricates fahricatu most, sells the earth that draws most most, and sells he the great power power of of the the the most to foreign nations, the most to foreign be and will the great will be nations, must he Senator Senator William H. Seward, Seward, 1853 1853
earth. earth.
284
THE WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAL'UNG OF LAISSEZ FAIRE ENGENDERS ENGE1'I"DERS A CML WAR LAISSEZ FAIRE A CIVIL TONG AFTER
it has has ceased an effective effective weapon weapon of of personal personal ceased to be an to be
it
L recrimination political strategy, Americans remain haunted recrimination or or political ENG strategy, Americans remain haunted by the the Civil One is to conclude that never never Civil War. War. One is sometimes sometimes tempted conclude that by tempted to have so said so much about the same thing that is redundant so many have said so much the is redundant same that about many thing or irrelevant. that persistent persistent involvement involvement is the realizarealizaor irrelevant. Underlying is the Underlying that tion that the war war undercuts undercuts the the popular popular mythology mythology that America is tion that the is that America unique. Only a nation nation that a conflict make aa that avoided avoided such conflict could could make such a unique. Only a serious claim being fundamentally with claim to to being serious In accordance accordance with different. In fundamentally different. the logic and psychology of myth, therefore, it has become necessary the and of become it has logic psychology myth, therefore, necessary to turn the war war itself itself into so different, and into something different, strange, strange, and something so mystic that it could could have have happened only to to the people. that it the chosen chosen people. mystic happened only Whatever the appeals appeals and of that seems Whatever the and sublimations it seems sublimations of that approach, approach, it more pertinent to history as a way of learning to examine the Civil to more a the Civil as to examine of pertinent history way learning through the the convergence moralities of of laissez War through faire laissez faire of the the three three moralities convergence of that began in the late 18305 and reached an early climax in the Free in late that the the in Free reached climax and an began early 18305 Soil movement. As As they they merged merged in in aa consolidated the rereSoil movement. consolidated system, system, the ligious, political, and economic ethics were also distilled into a few ligious, political, and economic ethics were also distilled into a few key symbols. handholds of thought, discourse, discourse, and judgment These handholds of thought, and judgment key symbols. These exbecame the the most potent and yet inclusive inclusive words words of became most potent of the the age: and yet age: expansion, antislavcry, antislavery, freedom. freedom. As As indicated their use as early use as as indicated by early as pansion, by their Jackson's time, as well as by their more formal denotations and and as as their denotations well more formal Jackson's time, by connotations, they implied that the integrated integrated value of laissez laissez value system that the connotations, system of they implied faire was was almost wholly negative. negative. Freedom release was defined defined as as release faire almost wholly Freedom was from restriction. Expansion Expansion and were but the two sides sides two from restriction. and antislavery were the but antislavery evil of the coin that bought such liberty. But while the defining of the of the coin that bought such liberty. But while defining of evil is aa vital vital function, it is is no no more more than than half half the the responsibility responsibility of of any is function, it any philosophy. Lacking a creative vision of community, laissez faire faire a laissez creative vision of community, philosophy. Lacking was weak essential respect: basis upon upon which which it provided no weak in in an an essential was provided no basis respect: it to deal evil in nonviolent way. way. Its persistently were persistently Its solutions deal with with evil a nonviolent solutions were to in a aggressive and acquisitive. and acquisitive. aggressive For these reasons, the the northern northern critics critics of the Compromise of 1850 of the these reasons, For 1850 Compromise of were more influential than than the the southern whose first fuse first fuse extremists whose more influential southern extremists were of these sputtered out at the Nashville Convention. While many of these While at the Convention. Nashville out many sputtered northerners were ostensibly anti-expansionists, their position position was was in in were ostensibly northerners anti-expansionists, their overseas reality far more complex. They favored overseas economic expansion favored economic more far expansion complex. They reality to turn the
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and defined rest of of foreign largely in terms of the transtransin terms of the and the rest defined the foreign policy policy largely Mississippi west. Most westerners and eastern would-be capitalists would-be eastern and westerners west. Most capitalists Mississippi shared the part of on the issue all them the issue all of of them and on of this the latter latter part this outlook, shared outlook, and were vigorous expansionists. Since that region was in fact America's fact in was that were vigorous expansionists. Since America's region colonial underdeveloped) empire, their their view view was was realistic. realistic. colonial (i.e., (i.e., underdeveloped) empire, was also extremely provocative provocative because because it issue But defined the it defined the issue it was also extremely But it in very severe terms: would expansion into the trans-Mississippi in very severe terms: would expansion into the trans-Mississippi undertaken within within the the framework west be of the the Constitution, or framework of west be undertaken Constitution, or be rewritten accordance with with the the abstract abstract would that in accordance law be rewritten in would basic law that basic principles of laissez faire? The compromises compromises under under which the ConConwhich the principles of laissez faire? stitution the clauses of that document pertaining to that document the of stitution was was adopted, clauses to pertaining adopted, representation in the Congress (which counted three-fifths of each three-fifths counted of each in the (which representation Congress slave) of states, the pattern pattern of and the the of legislation, and the and the the rights states, and legislation, and slave) and rights of choi~e between two decisions the Supreme Court all pointed to a to a choice Court all pointed between two of the decisions of Supreme ways of the western western territories. territories. Either they would be Either they would be of handling ways handling the opened to slaveholders as well as nonslaveholders, or the region or the as well as slaveholders to nonslaveholders, opened region into slave were would be areas. Southerners slave and and nonslave nonslave areas. would be divided divided into Southerners were willing to accept either of these solutions. So were a good many a of these solutions. either to good many willing accept northerners. northerners. no one one But the advocates advocates of of antislavery laissez faire faire insisted that no insisted that But the antislavery laissez not accept their version of the axioms of laissez faire should faire their version the axioms of laissez who did did not of should accept be to share share the the territorial as they were as far far as territorial empire. be permitted empire. And as they were permitted to concerned, slavery was a violation of those principles. For them, a For at violation of those principles. concerned, slavery was them, at any rate, the arrival of the Age of Laissez Nous Faire meant that Faire meant that any rate, the arrival of the Age of Laissez to be interpreted-that the the Constitution had to the be interpreted that is, Constitution had rewritten in the is, rewritten-in light of this outlook. ultimately the divergence of opinion Since the of this outlook. Since light opinion ultimately divergence of the basic the Civil was the the defined the the question, defined of the Civil War was basic cause cause of question, the Weltanschauung of laissez Unwilling to within the the faire. Unwilling laissez faire. to compete Weltanschauung of compete within framework and under under the the terms terms of antiof the the Constitution, framework northern antiConstitution, northern slavery advocates of laissez finally undertook undertook to change the the advocates of laissez faire faire finally to change slavery rules in the in the middle of the continent rules in the middle the game-and middle of and in of the of the the continent middle game -by the south to the the expanding market place. place. further access south further access to by denying denying the expanding market to X861, the nation and its politicians In the meantime, from 1851 In the to its the nation meantime, from 1861, 1851 politicians fruitlessly way to to reconcile reconcile laissez laissez faire with the the Constitua way faire with Constitufruitlessly sought sought a tion. But But since hinged on expansion, they never all their their proposals tion. since all proposals hinged expansion, they never broke this broke free impasse. Seward had had the keenest insight into free of of the the impasse. the keenest this into insight factor. determining factor. "1 cannot exclude the conviction," he concluded "I cannot exclude the he concluded conviction," determining as as 1846, as early the popular passion for territorial aggrandizeaggrandize"that the for territorial 1846, "that early as popular passion ment is is irresistible." irresistible." Small wonder, therefore, that he later called he that later called wonder, therefore,
281 287 the struggle between north north and an "irrepressible conflict." Nor the and south south an struggle between "irrepressible conflict." Nor is most leaders of the decade offered little more is it it surprising that that most little more leaders of the decade offered surprising of balancing the gains between competing than Polk's than Folk's strategy of strategy balancing the gains between competing was almost expansionist Any more positive approach elements. Any dismore positive almost disexpansionist elements. approach was credited. One congressman congressman with with aa sense of history expressed the credited. sense of history expressed the attitude with with great great perceptiveness: perceptiveness: any any efforts efforts to co-ordinate and attitude to co-ordinate and disbalance the the country's development "should balance as a a disbe expunged "should be country's development expunged as grace to the the country and to the nineteenth Frankto the nineteenth century." President Frankcountry and grace to century.*' President lin the same his inaugural that he he lin Pierce Pierce vented vented the same spirit in his assertion that spirit in inaugural assertion would "not be controlled controlled by forebodings of of evil from would "not be evil from timid forebodings by any any timid expansion." President James Buchanan Buchanan put put it more bluntly. bluntly. President James it even even more expansion." "Expansion is in the future the policy policy of and only in the future the and our country, of our "Expansion is only country, cowards fear and oppose oppose it." cowards fear and it." Thus the the issue became dangerously issue became for expansion for dangerously oversimplified: oversimplified: expansion 18S0S, moreover, the debate took place the whom? Throughout the the took debate moreover, Throughout 18505, place against aa backdrop prepared by America's first primitive first female female primitive against backdrop prepared by America's artist Harnet Beech Beecher artist in in words er words and and ideas. Uncle Tom's ideas. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Cabin, Harriet Stowe's of slavery, was published in March, 1852. Though Stowe's landscape in of was March, 1852. Though landscape slavery, published the form had not really been Beadle launched the it launched it form had not really been established established (Erastus (Erastus Beadle in it might fairly be called the first dime novel. It was a crude, was a in 1860), it novel. It be dime called the first crude, 1860), might fairly based on manipulajerky, inaccurate, and violent violent morality morality play play based the manipulaon the inaccurate, and jerky, tion of in one black-and-white situation. a few tion of a few type-cast situation. characters in one black-and-white type-cast characters By populating the south exclusively with evil slaveholders and the slaveholders and with evil south By populating exclusively as evil. There was nothing Negroes, Stowe stereotyped the south of Stowe south There was the as evil. Negroes, stereotyped nothing of the anxiety and hesitance of the area, let alone its initial propensity the its initial anxiety and hesitance of the area, let alone propensity moral was provided by her her to accept the Compromise Compromise of to of 1850. provided by accept the 1850. The moral as aa man who could generamisleading picture picture of of the the Negro could in in "one "one generamisleading Negro as tion of and liberty" his place place in as a a fully in society tion take his of education education and fully liberty" take society as principles matured and of the the principles and developed individual. An application matured application of developed individual. to live ever after. of would enable of laissez live happily after. enable everyone faire would laissez faire everyone to happily ever Many southerners thought Stowe no more more than than aa typical typical emanciemanciStowe no southerners thought Many and initially pated female-"part quack and part cut-throaf'-and discut-throat*' and part female "part quack pated initially discounted importance of book. But But the the polemic became aa the book. of the counted the the importance polemic became guidebook enemy-the had already been defined the south-that defined south that had an enemy to an already been guidebook to in the by the value system of laissez faire as it emerged in the program as it faire the value of laissez program emerged by system of the Free Free Soilers and the Perhaps of the Soilers and the generalized spirit. Perhaps antislavery spirit. generalized antislavery as well as essence of laissez faire quite as well as the the nothing defines the of faire essence laissez the defines quite nothing the bank and the parallels between the Jacksonian campaign against the and the the between Jacksonian campaign against parallels the antislavery agitation. Both were negative. Both defined the enemy Both defined were Both enemy negative. antislavery agitation. The Age Age 0/ Laissez Nous Faire Faire of Laissez
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in terms. Both Both were were closely tied to economic objectives. in secular secular moral moral terms. closely tied to economic objectives. Both lacked positive program for dealing with the problem. the problem. for lacked any Both dealing with any positive program name of of expansion and freedom. And both both were undertaken in and freedom. were undertaken the name in the expansion Even administration revealed revealed itself itself Even President President Millard Millard Fillmore's Fillmore's administration as merely cautious (and a bit pro-northern) instead of fundamentally of instead as merely cautious (and a bit pro-northern) fundamentally anti-expansionist. Fillmore allowed Perry to to allowed Commodore Matthew Perry anti-expansionist. Fillmore to American write his own militant instructions for opening Japan to American write his militant instructions for opening Japan commerce, indicated considerable interest interest in in Hawaii, and refused refused indicated considerable Hawaii, and commerce, to sign pledge guaranteeing guaranteeing Spanish control of of Cuba. a temperance Cuba. to Spanish control sign a temperance pledge that expansion was "the principle of of our our Having argued in I829 "the principle Having argued in expansion was 1829 that in aa more more fully institutions," Secretary Everett in of State State Edward Everett institutions," fully Secretary of developed theory features of Charles Darwin's some features of Charles Darwin's anticipated some developed theory anticipated While overrated by the the congressman congressman who called called theory of of evolution. evolution. While overrated by theory it "the most 'manifest document that ever emanated from that ever emanated document from it "the most 'manifest destiny' destiny' the State Department," Everett's despatch refusing to guarantee to the Everett's long State Department/' refusing long despatch guarantee quo in in Cuba was aa manifesto manifesto for for empire. Once out out of of the status status quo the Cuba was empire. Once office, he verbose: "The pioneers pioneers are the way; can are on the who can he was was less less verbose: office, way; tell how far fast they they will will travel?" tell far and travel?" and fast This also infused a loose association of expansionists This vigorous vigorous spirit spirit also infused a loose association of expansionists the Young Americans. Calling for for commercial, known as as the Americans. commercial, territorial, territorial, Calling Young and expansion, they wanted to the United States to make the United and ideological wanted States ideological expansion, they the hub hub of the hemisphere, hemisphere, the crossroads of of the and the the crossroads the world, of the and the the world, patriarch of global republicanism. Other expansionists followed the of Other the followed expansionists global republicanism. patriarch same general line on their initiative. Though they ultimately own same on initiative. line their Though they ultimately general failed, had significant from politicians politicians and and comsoutherners had comfailed, southerners significant support support from mercial groups in the northeast and the upper Mississippi Valley in the the mercial northeast in upper Mississippi Valley in groups their drive to acquire acquire Cuba. of New a similar drive to their Cuba. And a combination of similar combination Englanders, Yorkers, and southerners almost turned Nicaragua southerners almost turned Nicaragua Englanders, New Yorkers, into a Central American Hawaii; Buchanan even recognized a into Central American Hawaii; even recognized their their government before internal internal dissension armed attack dissension and armed attack from from other other government before isthmian ended the venture. the colonizing isthmian nations nations ended colonizing venture. Despite involvement in most such involvement in southward southward territorial territorial expansion, Despite such expansion, most northerners were were primarily primarily interested northerners interested in in overseas overseas economic economic expanexpansion, ideological empire, and control of the the trans-Mississippi trans-Mississippi west. west. control of sion, ideological empire, Their out in which Their views views won out in the the Clayton-Bulwer of 1854, which Clayton-Bulwer Treaty Treaty of 1854, facilitated in Central America while while checking checking facilitated trade trade developments Central America developments in further territorial further territorial annexations by either Great Britain or the United annexations by either Great Britain or the United States. Even so, the commercial push States. southerners supported the commercial so, some southerners supported push the Pacific. across the across Pacific. Their Their trade were reinforced reinforced by by the trade interests interests were the idea idea
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would help help them them hold hold their their own in in the the territorial territorial move would and as a political quid pro quo. The result was west, both directly both and a as result was west, directly political quid pro quo. so that the a China China policy policy designed for "maintaining order there" a designed for "maintaining order there" so that the nation's great economic opportunities would not become "the prey nation's great economic opportunities would not become "the prey of ambition." of European European ambition." Convinced that that they were the the "only powerful race" race" on the Pacific, Pacific, Convinced on the they were "only powerful some farsighted Perry McDonough and northerners like like Perry Collins and farsighted northerners McDonough Collins plans whereby whereby "American commercial Asa Whitney concentrated on on plans "American commercial Whitney concentrated Asia." enterprise [could] penetrate the the obscure depths of Northern Asia." obscure depths of Northern enterprise [could] penetrate Backed President Pierce Pierce and of course the Backed by and Senator Senator Seward, and of course the Seward, and by President Western Union Union Company, Company, Collins proposed aa telegraph system Western Collins proposed telegraph system west to reaching across to Siberia south to India and across to and thence Siberia and and west to thence south to India reaching was aa vision global funnel funnel Paris, Berlin, Berlin, and London. It and London. It was of a a vast, vision of Paris, vast, global ",rith (and the the profits) opening into into the Mississippi Valley. Valley. with the the spout the Mississippi spout (and profits) opening to consolidate the opWhitney stressed a transcontinental railroad stressed a the transcontinental railroad consolidate to Whitney op"Here stand forever," he exulted; "we reach out one portunity. "Here we stand reach out he one exulted; forever," portunity. to all Asia, and the all Europe, hand to all Asia, for all the other all to to other to to all Europe, willing willing for enjoy the great blessings we possess .•• but all [of them] tributary, all the but enjoy possess great blessings [of them] tributary, and at at our our will will subject us." to us." subject to Nor was this this an an irrelevant reality. Not only only were were large large irrelevant Bight from reality. flight from agricultural surpluses being exported, but by 1860, manufactured but manufactured agricultural surpluses being exported, by 1860, per cent America's goods, including iron, amounted amounted to nearly 20 per cent of of America's to nearly goods, including iron, But the south received few benefits from dedirect exports. the dedirect exports. But the south received few benefits from the of such railroads by cash appropriations and veloping subsidizing veloping subsidizing of such railroads by cash appropriations in 1850, acres in massive massive land land grants grants (approximately (approximately 3.75 3.75 million million acres rSso, 35 35 million acres additional projects between between 1852 and 1857, r857, and 174 acres additional projects 174 million 1852 and gross between connection was between 1850 Mobile-Chicago connection gross 1850 and 1871). 1871). A Mobile-Chicago that came too the most offering to late to to the to the the south, too late most significant south, and that significant offering alter pattern of routes. Land was acquired of east-west east-west routes. alter the the established established pattern acquired a gulf-coast to the but such for aa southern route to for the Pacific, such a transcontisouthern route Pacific, but gulf-coast transcontithat south. least not not for nental line never built, built, at for that south. line was at least nental was never Whatever their the north north sectional differences, internal and sectional their serious serious internal Whatever differences, the and the the west west came came to to define ever more clearly in terms in ever terms define expansion and clearly expansion based on manufactures manufactures and and food. of food. of an industrial system an interrelated interrelated industrial system based Despite Buchanan's defense of it as the policy of the "good neighbor" of the of it as the Buchanan's defense "good neighbor" policy Despite hand," they his plan off aa bit bit offering to snip a "helping snip off plan to they opposed opposed his "helping hand," offering a with more of northern Mexico while while that that country country was preoccupied with more of northern preoccupied revolutions that overseas revolutions that internal difficulties, preferring to to encourage internal difficulties, preferring encourage overseas referred such to such promised commercial advantages. Seward candidly referred to commercial candidly advantages. promised .
.
The oj American American History History The Contours Contours of
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governments as as "the outworks of o our system "the outworks of our system of governments
politics." "We have have politics." agreed a westerner, "in the benefits of comaa direct "in the of benefits a comdirect interest interest .•. ," westerner, ," agreed All we want is that that freedom have aa mercial intercourse should have freedom should want is mercial intercourse .... All fair battlefield." fair battlefield.*' .
-
.
ATI'EMPT TO RECONCILE LAISSEZ FAIRE SENATOR DOUGLAS AND THE ATTEMPT AND THE CONSTITUTION
Without too Without too much exaggeration, exaggeration,
it could be said that the key to the key said that to could be
it
understanding the the Civil Civil War lies in the the westerners' westerners' lies in of the the coming coming of understanding term "fair Viewing the undeveloped definition of of that the undeveloped "fair battlefield." that term battlefield." Viewing definition territories of colonial west west through through the the same laissez-faire spectaspectasame laissez-faire territories of the the colonial cles, rising capitalists in the the west west and northeast northeast dedea coalition of rising coalition of cles, a capitalists in manded aa favorable settlement of of this this issue domestic form. form. issue in in its its domestic favorable settlement manded market place of laissez laissez faire be defined defined faire to to be the competitive Was the place of competitive market within the which case slavery case which of the Constitution (in the Constitution the framework framework of within (in slavery it be done according to the the could enter or was it to be or to could the territories), was enter the according to territories), case it should abstract principles of laissez-faire theory (in which case which it should laissez-faire of abstract theory (in principles not)?? Taking the issue, provided aa Senator Douglas of the issue, Senator Douglas provided not) Taking command of magnificent example of the rise of the politician under laissez faire. of the under laissez of the rise faire. magnificent example politician and worked his and lawyer lawyer who had west west had gone A schoolteacher his schoolteacher and gone way up through various state offices to the Senate and a leading to Senate state offices the and a various way up through leading President. But position in the Democratic Party, he wanted to be President. to be Democratic Party, he wanted But to to in the position to resolve realize this this natural and legitimate ambition, Douglas had natural and had resolve realize to legitimate ambition, Douglas a predicament predicament of laissez-faire politics politics based based on on expansion the a at the of laissez-faire and at expansion and to a a free and local selfsame time his commitments commitments to time honor honor his free economy and local selfeconomy government. government. this dilemma because he was was Douglas insight into into this had considerable considerable insight because he Douglas had confronted in Illinois by by aa remarkably accurate microcosm what confronted in Illinois of what microcosm of remarkably accurate was was happening happening across the northern northern half the United States. across the States. Read half of of the the rest rest of the eastern eastern urban urban complex), Chicago for for New York (and of the Chicago (and the complex), and and McHenry McHenry County for the the agrarian north, and the the analogy reveals County for agrarian north, analogy reveals the political pressures and and problems problems that that Douglas Douglas faced. the faced. Farmers Farmers political pressures milk and for the who could could shift shift into into specialty the city and production for specialty production (as milk city (as poultry) benefited from the the changeover crops, but benefited from from commodity but poultry) changeover from crops, commodity the the majority majority were were growing fidgety. Neither pre-emption Neither growing increasingly increasingly fidgety. pre-emption acts had had checked checked the the rise tenant farming. laws nor nor special relief acts rise of of tenant special relief farming. Second-generation immigrants increased increased the the comcomfarmers and fresh immigrants and fresh Second-generation farmers as did the petition, as did the large operators held huge acreages. who held Land petition, huge acreages. large operators prices were were beginning beginning to to rise, required still more capital was and still rise, and prices capital was required
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to buy the new machinery machinery produced produced by by companies like Cyrus Mcto buy the companies like Cyrus McCormick's Cormick's firm firm in in Chicago. Chicago. Periodically victim of malaria, dysentery, dysentery, or or typhoid, and the victim of malaria, Periodically the typhoid, and eternally tired (one wonders how Emerson or Thoreau would have tired Emerson or Thoreau would have eternally (one wonders with the the solitude the farmer was on edge. made out out with solitude of of 160 160 acres), acres), the farmer was on edge. He was was in in no no mood for for irrelevant harangues advice irrelevant harangues or or supercilious supercilious advice He wanted help: internal improvements (including from easterners. from easterners. wanted help: internal improvements (including educational more land educational institutions), the opening colonial of more in the the colonial land in institutions), the opening of west, and vigorous vigorous action Indians. Whatever religious action against his religious the Indians. Whatever his west, against the was not not an or secular concern for for the the slave, the farmer or secular concern an farmer was therefore, the slave, therefore, was against on practical grounds: it was abolitionist. abolitionist. He was it was on against slavery slavery practical grounds: tough competition. he had had no no desire desire to check it it in in a Therefore he a to check tough competition. Therefore way that that would only only multiply multiply his Hence Free meant Soil meant his troubles. troubles. Hence Free Soil way land free well as as slaves, free homehomeaa land of liberated free of liberated Negroes and a a free as well slaves, and Negroes as stead his local local competitors. competitors. stead for for himself-or himself or his well as as in reacted in Many urban urban groups, in the the east in east as as well in Chicago, Many Chicago, reacted groups, in a similar similar way. Their morality was that of the aggressive entrepreneur a Their was that of the way. morality aggressive entrepreneur or would-be would-be businessman businessman of laissez faire. They were, the or of laissez faire. They were, indeed, indeed, the personification of the Arminian heresy that defined Man's secular of secular the Man's Arminian that defined personification heresy Viewing the the south far more free will will as free as God's chosen instrument. instrument. Viewing south far God's chosen as aa section blocked their than as to be be as section that a society that blocked their own success as a success than society to liberated, their antislavery enthusiasm resembled the attitude of of their resembled the attitude enthusiasm liberated, antislavery the farmers. farmers wanted wanted liberty liberty and and were were against southern the farmers. The farmers southern against leadership, but but mainly mainly they they were were concerned concerned with with their freedom their own freedom leadership, of action. This spirit ultimately provoked many eastern labor groups This labor of action. groups spirit ultimately provoked many eastern (if it was not to conclude that the antislavery campaign served not it to conclude that the antislavery campaign served (if the designed) distract men from primary struggle between the the primary to distract from the struggle between designed) to their oudook was but but another owners and the workers. workers. In In that that sense, another outlook was and the owners sense, their the primacy primacy of example of the abolitionist abolitionist over the of the the laissez-faire laissez-faire spirit of the spirit over example morality. morality. as a Acting at once as politician with a constituency and as with such such a as a a politician at once constituency and Acting be political philosopher, Douglas held that the Constitution should be should the Constitution held that Douglas political philosopher, Infaire. Inhonored as the framework competition under under laissez laissez faire. for competition as the framework for honored their domestic domestic left free to regulate regulate their sisting that "the people shall free to be left "the people shall be sisting that face in the concerns in and that self-restraint in the face of of self-restraint that concerns in their their own way," way," extremists was the only way way to work, he argued to make democracy the only extremists was work, argued democracy to mean anything anything at it had to to be be that if at all, if self-determination that self-determination was to all, it preserved at the local level. Slavery as well as antislavery groups well as as the local at level. antislavery groups Slavery preserved of the should equal access place of the trans-Mississippi to the the market market place access to have equal should have trans-Mississippi
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west. Exemplified in the slogan "popular sovereignty," this this approach, west. approach, Exemplified in the slogan "popular sovereignty," as the the after three months of bitter debate, was written into law as into written law was after three months of bitter debate,
Kansas-Nebraska Act of 854. of I1854. Kansas-Nebraska Act Douglas was not proslavery. He opposed broke with with slavery, and broke opposed slavery, Douglas was not proslavery. southern Democrats after they abused the principles of the Kansasof the Kansassouthern Democrats after they abused the principles Nebraska Act. But he he did did believe priority Constitution had priority the Constitution that the believe that Act. But Nebraska he was confident over the the abstract principles of laissez faire, of laissez over abstract principles confident faire, and he free labor prove superior superior in competition. that system of of free in competition. would prove labor would the system that the His critics can be those who might fairly fairly those three groups: into three divided into critics can be divided His might groups: be revolutionaries for the abstract in ranking abstract their insistence insistence in for their be called called revolutionaries ranking the principles of laissez faire above the Constitution; those lacked principles of laissez faire above the Constitution; those who lacked his faith power of free labor; and those whose those free whose of faith in in the the competitive his labor; competitive power was principally determined by political considerations. Their position considerations. Their was determined by political principally position combined opposition opposition defeated Douglas. It checked Seward and It also also checked and defeated Douglas. combined opened the way for Lincoln. Lincoln. the for opened way within its bounds, Though he preferred preferred to its existing to contain contain slavery existing bounds, slavery within Though he Seward the challenge of Douglas'S approach. key to to The Seward accepted the of Douglas's approach. key accepted challenge the contradiction between Seward's policies lies in his policies rhetoric and his lies in the Seward's rhetoric contradiction between that lived his conscious John Quincy Quincy Adams in in an an age lived his conscious emulation emulation of of John age that by different principles. Describing Adams as "this wonderful man," as "this wonderful man," by different principles. Describing surSeward movingly called called him "a father and and aa guide." "a father too surSeward movingly guide." Not too prisingly, therefore, vision was was an American empire Seward's central central vision therefore, Seward's empire prisingly, embracing the world through the the revolutionary power of its econof its econworld through revolutionary power embracing the omy and ideas. His emotional nationalism was anchored in hard hard anchored in and ideas. nationalism was His emotional omy economic analysis. analysis. Disturbed Disturbed as early as r842 by by signs of "decaying as early as 1842 economic signs of "decaying enterprise" and insisted that of and stagnation, America's economy that America's he insisted enterprise" economy of stagnation, he manufactures and commercial commercial agriculture had to have a constantly manufactures to had have a agriculture constantly expanding market. market. expanding But since he also prone to to war, war, But since he also concluded that "democracies are prone concluded that "democracies are on force and war consumes consumes them," them," Seward was reluctant reluctant to rely on to rely Seward was force for such expansion, so for such would threaten threaten an an empire empire so a civil civil war would expansion, and a formed even more directly. formed even directly. Despite Despite his his problems problems as politician in in a politician as a free-soil state, his own antislavery that a free-soil sentiments that state, therefore, therefore, and his antislavery sentiments were determinedly by his abolitionist wife, Seward played upon his abolitionist Seward wife, determinedly played upon by persistently preferred preferred aa compromise that would would allow rising allow the the rising persistently compromise that industrial as it it industrial economy economy to to subvert in a peaceful process subvert slavery slavery in a peaceful process as went on to to greater victories throughout the world. Seward's strategy greater victories throughout the world. Seward's strategy seems to to have old world world of mercantilism to to rereseems have been been to to bring bring in in the the old of mercantilism dress dress the the imbalances imbalances of the new world world of of the of laissez laissez faire. faire.
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Willing the laissez-faire that "the to assert assert the of laissez-faire axiom axiom that "the abstractions abstractions of Willing to are the only permanent foundation of human society," human rights are the rights only permanent foundation of society," he nevertheless realized that that men had those abstractions abstractions he nevertheless realized had to to control control those lest they lest he stressed stressed the the responsibilities they destroy destroy society. society. Accordingly Accordingly he responsibilities of God's trustees and stewards, and insisted that government of God's trustees and stewards, and insisted that the the government had clear care" of society. Such had clear duties duties connected connected with with the the "paternal "paternal care" of society. Such the extreme extreme advocates the to use use the the state men had to state to to restrain of the restrain the advocates of rights of private property property and moderate the the harsh of ununof private and moderate harsh results results of rights restrained competition. competition. In ways, therefore, restrained In many Seward therefore, Seward significant ways, many significant to triumph the prophet prophet of of the the corporation capitalism that was was the was to that corporation capitalism triumph combined the the axioms laissez at the end of the 19th of the at the axioms of of laisscz ipth century. century. He combined faire with an an acceptance acceptance of the large corporation and sought faire with to of the and sought to large corporation cement the the union by reasserting reasserting aa version version of corporate ethic cement union by the old old corporate ethic of the a Christian of mercantilist commonwealth. commonwealth. of a Christian mercantilist up by that vision and the confidence confidence it Buoyed that vision and the it inspired, Seward Buoyed up by inspired, Seward could accept the challenge of competition with the south even though could the of even though with the south accept challenge competition it was was not not his his ideal on, then, then, gentlemen of the slave it ideal solution. solution. "Come on, the slave of gentlemen States," he sang out in one of the great moments of the Age he in of out of the one the of moments States," sang Age of great is no no escaping Laissez Nous Faire: on, then then.... Since Laissez Faire: "Come on, Since there there is escaping will your challenge, I accept accept it of the the cause cause of it in in behalf behalf of of freedom. freedom. We will your challenge, I in competition for the virgin soil of Kansas, and God give engage in for the of and soil Kansas, competition engage virgin give is stronger numbers as it is right." the victory victory to to the the side which is the side which as it in right." in numbers is in stronger in the political political market place into But as as that a But that competition turned the into a market place competition turned frightfully accurate copy of the economic market place, Seward frightfully accurate copy of the economic market place, Seward found it it ever to confine confine the the struggle within constituconstitufound ever more difficult difficult to struggle within tional limits. limits. tional Some groups groups did support such Deeply involved in transtransdid support such efforts. efforts. Deeply involved in forming the commercial-agrarian commercial-agrarian economy economy into industrial-finanan industrial-finaninto an forming the cial system, the majority majority of established businessmen businessmen cial and established of large system, the large and opposed policies policies that that pointed pointed toward toward war. war. And, And, watching watching their their opposed but 44 per per cent the cost cost of living went up up wages increase of living increase but cent while while the wages 12 per cent during the decade of the 18505, laborers concentrated laborers of concentrated cent the decade the 18505, per during as the the on organizing national labor unions and and on strikes strikes (such labor unions on (such as organizing national 1860). But the farmers, successful shoe walk-out in of the of in New England successful shoe walk-out farmers, 1860). England as of themselves with aa vision vision of themselves as smaller entrepreneurs, mechanics with smaller entrepreneurs, and mechanics of America employers-in short, the rising bourgeoisie of America-increasingly in the short, increasingly rising bourgeoisie employers demanded protection protection in in an market place the an expanding against the place against expanding market to in mainthis order to this pressure in order to maincompetition of slavery. Responding to of pressure competition slavery. Responding abolitionists became became increasingly increasingly secular, tain their their influence, the abolitionists tain secular, and influence, the
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the two groups converged in a crusade to rewrite the the two disseparate disseparatc groups converged in a crusade to rewrite the Constitution according of laissez laissez faire. faire. to the the gospel Constitution according to gospel of Walt Whitman sang of this this new and far genfar more genessence o Walt Whitman the essence sang the in a dramatic outburst of 1856. "You young men! eralized morality of eralized morality in a dramatic outburst 1856. young American mechanics, manufacturers, and all all American boatmen, manufacturers, farmers, boatmen, mechanics, farmers, North! You are are either either to to work people of the as North! same as the same work the South, South, the people of defiabolish slavery, or it will abolish you." Whitman's either-or either-or defiabolish slavery, or it will abolish you." nition of problem was was reinforced within aa year Justice Chief Justice reinforced within of the the problem nition by Chief year by Scott decision, the south south Roger Taney's that the the Dred Scott in the decision, that reassertion, in Roger Taney's reassertion, had equal rights as a competitor, and that the market place included the market included and that had as a place competitor, equal rights counterpart of the trans--Mississippi west. This was but but a a counterpart of decision was This decision the trans-Mississippi west. his earlier judgment that that corporations were legal individuals comindividuals comwere his earlier judgment legal corporations both were were quite within the peting in market place. place. And both the limits limits the market in the quite within peting as a system resting on of of Jacksonian Democracy a as of his his conception of Jacksonian Democracy system resting on conception .. the liberties sanctity of property of private the liberties and and sanctity private property.But this time time many many congressmen were carrying and revolvers and But by carrying revolvers by this congressmen were symother weapons during working hours. their armament their hours. As other weapons symduring working bolized, politicians politicians had had been been taken taken over over by by politics politics much as admirals as admirals bolized, and taken over by aa war. war. Originally Originally responding responding to are taken over by and generals to generals are popular pressures, their proposals influenced the voters again the voters who influenced their again popular pressures, proposals by further abstracting alternatives were increased the tension alternatives that further abstracting that were increased the tension by This cycle of interaction was fully established by already extreme. interaction was of fully established by already extreme. This cycle 1854. "1 am in politics," explained one New England leader in supin politics," explained one 1854. "I England leader in supmust go porting aa policy policy of which he personally disapproved, disapproved, "and of which he personally "and 1 I must porting go "1 know and you on." Seward also understood what was happening. on," Seward also understood was happening. "I and you revolution has has begun. begun. 1 know, know," he he admitted in 1858, admitted in a revolution "that a I know, know," 1858, "that all the the world knows, and all knows, that never go that revolutions revolutions never backward." go backward." John Brown concurred his own insane insane way way with this hypothesis. hypothesis. concurred in in his with this John effort to Virginia into His attack Harper's Ferry was an attack on Harper's His an effort to turn turn Virginia into Ferry was another the slaves the nation. Dying with with another Kansas Kansas and thus thus free free all all the slaves of of the nation. Dying the all men who are of all are already already living another the easy indifference of in another easy indifference living in but did succeed in narworld, Brown failed failed to to end slavery did succeed in further further narworld, slavery but rowing the the range range of comproof debate debate about about it. it. Those who argued for for rowing argued comprothe Constitution mise within Constitution lost and men who questioned mise within the lost ground, ground, and questioned the entire outlook outlook of of laissez faire were almost the entire laissez faire almost literally literally ignored. ignored. A of literary masterpiece of the time which probed the implications the time the of literary masterpiece probed implications of this self-reliance that this self-reliance that can can ultimately become self-righteous fanaticism become fanaticism ultimately self-righteous was Herman Melville's Moby DicJ(. Dick. Yet Yet the the book book was hardly hardly noticed; noticed; Melville's Moby it it was not read and acted upon. certainly not read acted and certainly upon.
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Perhaps the natural talent the nation's nation's literary history, the greatest talent in in the Perhaps greatest natural literary history, resolu~ Melville grappled with the central issue of the need for some Melville with the central issue of the need for some resolugrappled tion of tension between between the the individual individual and and society. Though he o the the tension tion society. Though he
offered in Moby Moby Dic% Dick (that came, at the end of his offered no answer answer in (that came, at the end of his career, in Billy Budd), Budd), Melville Melville did make it indi~ in Billy did make it clear clear that the indithat the career, vidualism of to aa horrible horrible and and terrifying terrifying compulsion compulsion of Ahab led vidualism led only only to to control everything in in the of relying relying to control everything the universe. universe. Emerson's Emerson's credo credo of only on oneself oneself produced produced in an almost almost complete distortion in the the end end an distortion only complete back~ of different from Melville in of man and society. from Melville in backsociety* Though Though quite quite different ground, temperament, and ability, Richard Henry Dana's similar and similar Richard Dana's ground, temperament, ability, Henry doubts audience among doubts about about laissez laissez faire faire lost lost him his audience him his England among New England intellectuals. "The whole whole modern system," concluded intellectuals. Dana in 18:;3. concluded in system,* 1853, "seems to me to to be be grounded grounded on on aa false view of "seems to false view of man ..• as as acknowlacknowlof selfedging no God, nor the the need need of a spirit of any There is is a God, nor edging no any...•• There spirit of selfconfidence in it, it, which, which, left to its its natural natural tendencies, tendencies, will inevitably confidence in left to will inevitably bring aa deeper deeper and wider wider woe woe upon upon man than than earth has ever yet earth has ever yet bring known." known." 5
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PHll.OSOPHER AND A?"D POLITICIAN OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN AS THE PHILOSOPHER TRIUMPHANT LAISSEZ FAIBE FAIRE
Though neither the abolitionists nor the the free-soilers gave much neither the free-soilers gave abolitionists nor Though Weltanschauung, thought to such somber estimates of their to such somber estimates of their Weltanschauung, Seward Seward thought clearly tried to counter with his concept of counter them with his concept of stewardship. clearly tried to stewardship. And the philosopherphilosophereven displaced Seward and Douglas Douglas as even the the man who displaced as the Seward and king of laissez faire ultimately tried to meet meet the the criticism by ememof laissez faire ultimately criticism by tried to king hidden author author bracing aa mystic Christianity that as the the hidden that defined defined God as bracing mystic Christianity events. In his earlier years, however, however, Lincoln a~ of all Lincoln apof all forces forces and and events. In his earlier years, peared more more akin to one Friedrich Nietzsche's Nietzsche's supermen akin to one of of Friedrich supermen who peared "I believed himself himself an instrument of of the the hidden hidden forces of History. forces of believed an instrument History. "I always was remarked, and did indicate not indicate did not was superstitious," he later later remarked, always superstitious," he as that he myth which which presents Lincoln as that he had had changed. But the the myth presents Lincoln changed. But does emerging complete in from somewhat obscure origins does obscure in wisdom somewhat origins emerging complete his greatest him (and his society) disservice. It It denies greatest serious disservice. denies him his him a serious society) a (and his of virtue-the capacity to to mature mature and and transcend the limits of the limits and transcend and ripen virtue the capacity ripen the young, his outlook. For there there were were two Lincolns; aggr~ earlier outlook. his earlier Lincolns; the young, aggressive man of faire and the older, more humble humble Lincoln Lincoln who and the of laissez laissez faire sive older, more its trito lead sensed weaknesses of that philosophy philosophy and tried tried to lead its triof that the weaknesses sensed the conce~ umphant advocates toward a more and responsible humane a toward more advocates responsible concepumphant tion of tion of man and society. society.
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Lincoln's progress progress from from aa log cabin through the practice practice of of corpocorpoLincoln's through the log cabin was not particularly unration law to regional political leadership not was ration law to regional political leadership particularly unhis law partner's characterization would usual for his time. And his law partner's characterization would usual for his time. have served countless young Americans of amthat age: of that "His amfor countless have served for age: "His young Americans was a little engine that knew no rest." As with his jokes bition with his jokes and and no rest." bition was a little engine that stories, those those aspects aspects of of his have been been inflated beyond their their far beyond inflated far his career career have stories, concerns significance. (But for what it is worth, most of his humor concerns significance. (But for what it is worth, most of his the defeat of aa poor poor competitor.) Lincoln set himself apart by the the set himself the defeat of apart by competitor.) Lincoln in which he used his great native intelligence. The masterly way native he used The his in which intelligence. great masterly way combination circumunder adverse adverse circumeven under that even was so so commanding combination was commanding that stances he could, and at at one one time time or or another another did, outmaneuver any stances he did, outmaneuver could, and any not win all time. No and all of his rivals and and critics. all the the time. did not critics. He did all of his rivals and the odds But his record is are computed, odds are is amazing man can. can. But his record computed, amazing when the so when it is realized that Lincoln very probably underparticularly that is realized Lincoln it so very probably underparticularly stood tactics would would lose lose him the the famous race famous Senate Senate race that his his tactics stood that that risk as an investment in a bigger with Douglas. Douglas. He accepted in a as an investment that risk with accepted bigger prize. prize. This to abstract himself from himself and the the immediate immediate This ability ability to abstract himself from himself and situation all the while keeping himself in icy focus was probably in focus himself the situation yet all while icy keeping yet probably the determining element in his success. He could estimate, analyze, in could his success. the element estimate, analyze, determining and calculated and ruthlessness of a clinical with the the calculated and impersonal ruthlessness a and act act with of clinical impersonal performer. This persistent pattern of operating is what makes his This of what is his makes persistent pattern performer. operating early definition of himself in the context of the rising antislavery of in of tie definition the himself context rising antislavery early his career. career. and expansionist fervor so and even chilling, of his so eerie, eerie, even aspect of expansionist fervor chilling, an aspect a politician, politician, he set out to For having having defined himself as For defined himself as a he clearly clearly set out to issue of his time. Although he praised determine and exploit the the determine and exploit issue of his time. Although he praised the Founding Fathers for he denied denied that that his his generation generation the their genius, for their genius, he Founding Fathers of could find their "ruling passion" in in of Americans find "gratification" Americans could for their "gratification" for "ruling passion" by "supporting maintaining an that has has been been ere<:ted an edifice edifice that erected by "supporting and maintaining others." certainly it flatly asserted. asserted. As for his own others." "Most "Most certainly it cannot," he flatly for his cannot," he clearly from conception of leadership, it emerges his favorable from his favorable conception of leadership, it emerges clearly of John analysis and praise praise of the strong king. Locke's definition definition and of the John Locke's analysis of strong king. labor theory of value and extended Lincoln Lincoln also also accepted Locke's labor value and of extended accepted Locke's theory it into into full full advocacy it of laissez he explained, "I take laissez faire. faire. "I take it," "that it," he advocacy of explained, "that it is is best for all all to it to leave free to to acquire acquire property as fast best for leave each each man free fast as property as can. Some will as he can. will get wealthy. I don't believe in a law to prevent I in believe a don't law to get wealthy. prevent would do do more more harm than his a man from getting getting rich; rich; it it would than good." In his good." In as well as in his as well as in his own life, Lincoln emerged as the grand philosophy Lincoln as the life, philosophy emerged grand of antislavery figure Even his his attitude the laissez faire. faire. Even attitude toward toward the figure of antislavery laissez
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Negro manifested manifested that that spirit: "All I ask for the negro is that if you Negro spirit: "All I ask for the negro is that if you do not not like him, let let him him alone." was, at until the the war war like him, do alone.** He was, at least least until place as started, the philosopher of the market the philosopher of the market place well as the humorist humorist as well as the started, of the the crossroads. of crossroads. He was was also, also, as rising politician, politician, aa bit bit of of aa demagogue. as a a rising all For all demagogue. For his on principle principle in with Douglas, Douglas, for exampl~ his emphasis in his his debates for example, debates with emphasis on he nevertheless nevertheless appealed appealed to that he to southern southern democrats the ground democrats on on the ground that be they should against Douglas because he he said could be should yote vote against said slavery they Douglas because slavery could excluded from territory. Yet Yet Lincoln not only only said it could be exexa territory. excluded from a Lincoln not said it could be cluded, he insisted insisted that that it be excluded! excluded! Nor is any quesit must is there there any must be cluded, he quesnational political political figure to cast the tion that Lincoln was was the that Lincoln tion the first first national cast the to figure issue in His House-Divided House-Divided Speech-uIt will become in either-or issue either-or terms. terms. His "It will become Speech all one or all the other" other"-came months before before Seward's all one thing, all the Seward's famous famous came months thing, or remark about conflict." remark about an an "irrepressible conflict." "irrepressible Thus Lincoln's Lincoln's assertions assertions that would not not touch touch slavery where he would that he slavery where was failed to carry much conviction in the south.' had it already it was failed He had to in south. conviction the already carry created image of of himself himself as as an patient and peran image created an and an infuriatingly perinfuriatingly patient sistent of slavery. popular sovereignty well sistent executioner executioner of as well sovereignty as Spurning popular slavery. Spurning as he argued that free free labor labor and as abolitionism, and free free entrepreneurs abolitionism, he entrepreneurs argued that to expand. could triumph triumph by by denying the south any chance could did to This did the south chance denying any expand. This not make him an an anti-expansionist; anti-expansionist; it it merely merely made him him aa northern northern not expansionist his open in the the commercial possibilities did his commercial possibilities interest in expansionist (as (as did open interest slaves who had achieved their freefreeof overseas colonies founded for of overseas colonies founded for slaves achieved their dom). Enough northerners understood this and his anti-abolitionist dom). Enough northerners understood this and his anti-abolitionist position regarding the Negro Negro to to elect him. Enough Enough southerners elect him. southerners position regarding the his election into the understood it it to turn his to turn secession. understood the signal election into for secession. signal for ACQUIESCE IN LINCOLN'S POLICY THE SOUTH REFUSES TO ACQUIESCE OF CONTAINMENT
r860, aa southern up sucsucOn November 8, it up southern gentlewoman 8, 1860, gentlewoman summed it cinctly. the hash." hash." Since it did the reasons are "That settles Since it reasons are settles the did indeed, indeed, the cinctly. "That In the the broadest broadest sense, as the heirs of the important. In of the as the heirs and speaking sense, and important. speaking physiocratic forefathers that the the southerners insisted forefathers of of laissez laissez faire, insisted that faire, southerners physiocratic Constitution guaranteed minimum protection protection against any political Constitution guaranteed against any political economy. Its Its leaders leaders interpreted interpreted Lincoln's Lincoln's election election quite accurately quite accurately economy. as victory of of aa movement to abrogate the Constitution as the the victory to alter alter the Constitution and abrogate the southern that compromise, literally in the sense of ending southern expansion, that sense of in expansion, ending compromise, literally all the principles of and philosophically in the the sense the principles a of applying of a and sense of applying all philosophically in south was correct it. all the country. south correct about it. political economy in The about in all the country. political economy
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Lincoln's election symbolize die the did symbolize election did Lincoln's
coming to power of a revolurevolu· to power of a coming tionary coalition. coalition. tionary "Let there be be no no compromise compromise on on the the question extending of extending "Let there question of slavery," he sharply reiterated after being elected. "Have none of none elected. of it. it. slavery," he sharply reiterated after being The tug has to come, and better now, than anytime Stand firm. better Stand firm. The tug has to come, and now, than anytime to wait wait hereafter." Perhaps war and preferred to and preferred Lincoln expected hereafter." expected war Perhaps Lincoln patiently until it came. But perhaps his law partner's estimate patiently until it came. But perhaps his kw partners estimate of Lincoln's was absolutely what "he failed failed to to see see what correct: "he mind was of Lincoln's mind absolutely correct: might be his own position a general general situation] by or a ... by be seen seen [in situation] .•. position or [in his might other his mind mind was precise, and and was so so "cold, men." Perhaps other men." "cold, calm, calm, precise, Perhaps his to exact" that it it lacked lacked the the ability to imagine imagine how things things appeared appeared to exact" that ability to others. and not not planning planning war war himself, himself, he may simply have he may others. If If so, so, and simply have assumed that would not not act act either. either. Possible, yet not not probprobthe south south would assumed that the Possible, yet able. As word "tug" suggests, Lincoln probably thought more Lincoln able. that word As that probably thought "tug" suggests, produce an a firm bluff or and produce the secessionists or cow secessionists and cow the a firm stand stand would would bluff an acceptance of defeat throughout the south. the defeat south. of acceptance throughout Certainly he argued argued this this logic logic very very clearly clearly in in his his inaugural address, inaugural address, Certainly he face the demise of slavery pointing out that the south would have to face demise have the of south would to out that the pointing slavery even if it went went to to war. war. Lincoln's Lincoln's simultaneous slavery reassertion that even if it simultaneous reassertion that slavery in the the territories territories meant to the the would not to compete be allowed allowed to meant to would not be compete in southerners they had had no choice but to They thought they to fight. southerners that that they choice but fight. They thought they had both both the the legal right and the the practical practical need need to expand their had to expand their legal right system. enough of them had come to agree with Jefferson of And them had to with Jefferson system. enough agree Davis's of 185o-that they were were faced faced with Davis's estimate estimate of with "the "the steady 1850 that they steady to the advance a self-sustaining the goal advance of of a of unlimited unlimited supremself-sustaining power goal of power to supremacy"-to enable their their extremists muster sufficient sufficient active to muster extremists to active support, acy" to enable support, to carry secession. and acquiescence, to secession. acquiescence, carry Some southern the Supreme definition leaders had seen southern leaders seen the Court's definition Supreme Court's of the as a person as turning points. points. of the corporation as one one of of the the turning corporation as a legal legal person that it in the market They it favored northern interests interests in understood that favored northern the market They understood place. "No offering offering could to the the wealthy, wealthy, powerful, powerful, and could be be made to and place. ambitious of the ambitious corporations corporations of the populous populous and and commercial commercial states states of of the so valuable," a Georgian Georgian in none the Union so concluded a in 1853, "and none valuable," concluded 1853, "and which which would so to enlarge the influence influence of so serve serve to of those those states." states." Others Others enlarge the stressed the the nonterritorial as being being stressed the antislavery antislavery campaign campaign as nonterritorial side side of of the "If the north had misguided and in in fact fact serving to unite the south. to unite the south. the north "If had misguided serving directed its evils of slavery instead of assailing directed its strength against the the evils of instead of strength against slavery assailing it as a sin sin per concluded one it as not one slaveholder slaveholder in in 185~ "it could could not se," concluded per se," 1854, "it have survived to the survived to the present present day." While probably pushed too far, too far, day." probably pushed
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made one one irrefutable point. A crusade this nature nature of this irrefutable point. crusade of
have changed chattel slavery and created created aa nonviolent nonviolent momo.would have changed chattel slavery and toward freedom freedom for the Negro. Negro. mentum toward for the As the the planter's planter's reaction reaction suggested, the role role of in of abolitionism abolitionism in suggested, the causing the war was much larger in the south than in the north. the the north. causing larger in the south than in developing antislavery oudook prepared it for a showThe north's north's developing antislavery outlook prepared it for a showdown. But nor the majority of entered down. But neither neither Lincoln Lincoln nor the majority northerners entered of northerners the war in in an abolitionist or entertaining entertaining abolitionist abolitionist the abolitionist frame frame of of mind mind or objectives. The south, hand, had had defined the enemy enemy in the other in other hand, defined the south, on the objectives. the image abolitionist. Thus Thus it it reacted reacted violently violendy when aa the of the the abolitionist. image of southerner Hinton Rowan Helper Helper argued argued in in aa coldly coldly factual factual southerner named Hinton way (The Impending Crisis of the South: to Meet It, 18s7) the Crisis to How Meet South: It, of way (The Impending 1857) that middlemiddle- and lower-class lower-class southern whites should slavery that southern whites abolish slavery should abolish in their own interest. interest. Yet Yet his had been been advanced by WashWashin their his argument advanced by argument had ington and Madison and seriously debated as late as 1832. and as as Madison debated late ington 1832. seriously Considering themselves under assault, southern southern leaders leaders had had begun begun under assault, Considering themselves in 1853 and I854 to look back over their history to the political in look to the to back over their political 1854 1853 history economy of for overcoming of mercantilism as a mercantilism as a guide their comparaeconomy comparaguide for overcoming their tive economic weakness in of northern northern power. power. "Throw to tive 'Throw to economic weakness in the the face face of the winds winds the the erroneous erroneous theories theories of of ADAM SMITH," cried a typical the cried a SMITH/* typical critic. Decrying Decrying the bauble of an impracticable trade the "glittering free trade critic. of an impracticable free "glittering bauble system," others emphasized the importance of "commercial indeindeothers the of "commercial emphasized system," importance pendence," and of "bringing up the rising generation to to MECHANand of pendence," "bringing up the rising generation ICAL BUSINESS." A diversified and improved agriculture diversified and improved agriculture combined with "the manufacture of her own products" would place combined with "the manufacture of her products** place the south possible above above the the malign of far as as is influences of the is now possible south "as "as far malign influences Congressional aggression and despotism." despotism." Congressional aggression While this this attitude results by by statistical results dramatic statistical did not attitude did not produce produce dramatic 1860, to create which secession secession seemed an atmosphere it did create an in which did help 1860, it help to atmosphere in it not just just desperately necessary but also feasible fruitful. Had it feasible and fruitful. not but also desperately necessary actually extensive material material results, results, it it might have changed might have changed actually produced produced extensive strathe nature nature of the war. war. But perhaps unplanned, straif unplanned, the greatest, of the the greatest, if perhaps the its was tegic triumph of the laissez-faire antislavery campaign its the laissez-faire of antislavery campaign tegic triumph this making the slave system a hero in the eyes of southerners. this For in of a hero the southerners. the slave eyes system making gave the the conservatives conservatives rather rather than than others others with with new ideas the control control ideas the gave o of the Confederacy. even the superb and noble leadership of noble even the Not of the leadership superb Confederacy. circumstances. No General Robert E. Lee could it under under these these circumstances. could save save it E. Lee General Robert in the the field, northern general general matched matched him man for for man in field, and not not northern the on even a line more moving than Lee's judgment the than Lee's line a even Lincoln Lincoln spoke judgment moving spoke
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Battle of my fault. thought my were I thought fault. I "It's all all my Battle of Gettysburg. my men were Gettysburg. "It's no army wins a war on the defensive, the stratinvincible." and the war on the a wins stratinvincible." But But no defensive, army and other other top top Confederate a defense defense egy of leaders was a o Davis Confederate leaders Davis and egy strategy. strategy. Even it took took Lincoln's Lincoln's revolutionary revolutionary coalition years to to coalition four four years Even so, so, it It seems subdue an enemy that was statistically no match for it. it. for It seems subdue an enemy that was statistically doubtful that Lincoln Lincoln grasped grasped the full significance the war war of what the the full doubtful that significance of would become until after not only then condid he then For not it started. started. For conafter it become until would only did front the social problem of Negro, which which he he had admitted admitted he he of the the Negro, social problem front the to solve, the harsh harsh did not full-face with with the he came full-face but he did not know how to solve, but reality that there was no Union to save. had to a nation nation to create create a reality that there was no Union to save. He to enforce union with with the That he he in the the north north in order to the south. a union south. That enforce a in in order as he he did did is the monument to to his succeeded his political far as is the as far succeeded as political geniusgenius and ruthlessness. As he he did however. he he accelerated a pattern pattern accelerated a did so, and ruthlessness. so, however, of that changed the very structure of the north's revoluthe structure of the revoluthat north's of development very changed development For in mustering the forces of victory he also tionary coalition. the of in forces he For also coalition. victory mustering tionary pushed along the industrialization of the north, and its concurrent the of the industrialization its concurrent north, pushed along organizational changes, to extent that that the within an extent the conflicts to such such an conflicts within organizational changes, the coalition became strong enough to prevent any real program, to real coalition became the prevent any strong enough program, revolutionary or riding into on or moderate, from riding into law and institutions institutions on moderate, from revolutionary the crest of victory. victory. the crest of RECONSTRuCTION AS A NATIONAL PHENOMENON RECONSTRUCTION
In important ways, ways, therefore, the Civil did not produce In some important Civil War did not produce therefore, the an unconditional as is so often an the south is so unconditional defeat defeat of of the south as often assumed. assumed. The south was was beaten beaten in the field, occupied and ruled in surrender, and south in the ruled in surrender, and field, occupied But counterattacking counterattacking with with the the in respects treated treated as in some respects as a a colony. colony. But with the the subversive weapon of economic opNegro problem problem and with subversive weapon of economic Negro opportunity, it it found weak spots in the north's main line. there the north's line. For if if there portunity, spots in of reconstruction presided over by the north, was an era era of reconstruction in in the the south south presided the north, over by there there was just just as certainly an era of reconstruction reconstruction in the north north that that as certainly era of in the bitter and violent violent not really really presided presided over by anybody; was not over by it was a a bitter anybody; it struggle among major elements the new industrialism, the the major of the elements of industrialism, the struggle among the older entrepreneurs older and the agrarians and laborers. and the and laborers. entrepreneurs and bourgeoisie, bourgeoisie, agrarians old sectional The old alignments and economic economic structure structure were disrupted sectional alignments were disrupted by the the railroads, railroads. the the rising rising financiers, the factory, the institution institution financiers, the by factory, and the the corporation. of of the corporation.
Hence the the conservative conservative and radical radical laissezrfaire coalition laissez-faire that supplied coalition that the supplied the
wings of the revolutionary of the revolutionary wings dynamic power of the the Civil Civil dynamic power of
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themselves not at odds with each and the the War found themselves not only odds with each other other and only at but beset by new opponents within the north. As in all revolusouth, but beset south, by opponents within the north. As in all revoluradicals offered offered the the most tions, the the hard core core of of radicals most nearly tions, nearly integrated integrated and policies. policies. Thoroughgoing set of attitudes set of attitudes and of classic classic advocates of Thoroughgoing advocates and entrepreneural laissez-faire capitalism, like individualistic individualistic and entrepreneural laissez-faire capitalism, men like F. Wade of Benjamin F. F. Butler Butler of Benjamin of Ohio, of Massachusetts, Ohio, Benjamin Massachusetts, Benjamin F. Iron) Kelley Kelley and of PennsylPennsylWilliam D. (Pig William and Thaddeus Thaddeus Stevens Stevens of (Pig Iron) A. Griswold Griswold of of New York, York, had had four primary vania, and John four primary vania, John A. objectives. objectives. They to establish establish the the long-term long-term predominance predominance of the Reof the ReThey wanted to publican Party throughout the south and the north, with themselves the the themselves south and with north, publican Party throughout in control that end, also because because they were willing willing and and in control of of it. it. To that and also end, and they were even anxious apply the the principles principles of of pure pure laissez across the the even anxious to to apply laissez faire faire across at home, home, they they wished wished to free the the Negro Negro and then establish establish board at board to free and then in the the political political economy. economy. While While not radicals as an element him as element in all the the radicals not all it as a program, the cry of "40 acres and a mule" for the accepted as a it the a mule" of and for the acres accepted cry program, "40 Negro caught the spirit of this approach. Entrenched in power and the of in this approach. Entrenched Negro caught spirit power having humbled the the south, south, they enact legislation that would could enact they could having legislation that establish the the framework for their kind kind of establish for their of capitalism. capitalism. "Get the rebel States territorial condition," the rebel a territorial States into Stevens advised, into a advised, condition," Stevens "and it easily be be managed." managed." To acquire acquire and hold the necessary necessary can easily it can hold the voting strength, the radicals radicals offered offered aa high high tariff tariff for manufacturing, for manufacturing, voting strength, the dirt farmers, farmers, land and other other subsidies to the railroads, free free land for dirt the railroads, land for subsidies to land and inflationary) money money for entrepreneurs, jobs soft (or soft all expanding for all (or inflationary) jobs entrepreneurs, expanding or land to workers immigrants, control of the the cotton or market and land to workers and immigrants, control of cotton market domestic trade and the the south south as a new frontier frontier domestic to New Englanders, trade to as a Englanders, and With this strategy to northern and politicians. in to northern entrepreneurs this and strategy in entrepreneurs politicians. an edict of mind, the radicals badgered Lincoln incessantly for edict of the for radicals Lincoln mind, incessantly badgered other issues, issues, and used used the the northern northern emancipation, fought fought him on other emancipation, the south while they sought to remake it in their their army to control it in to to while control south the army they sought fme. image of laissez of faire. laissez image of But the radicals lacked power to to transform transform their vision of their vision But the radicals the power lacked the the the true laissez-faire society into reality. Hence, though the Civil Civil the into true laissez-faire reality. Hence, though society brought on by by a revolutionary coalition, it it did did not not become War was brought revolutionary coalition, of the the language language of the French Revolution, a truly truly revolutionary revolutionary war. war. In a In the Revolution, the revoluthe Thermidorian reaction proceeded concurrently with revoluwith the the Thermidorian reaction proceeded concurrently the circumThe result was a society trying to deal with the circumtion itself. a society trying to deal with tion itself. result ideas maturing institutional institutional industrialism industrialism by the ideas stances of maturing stances of by using using the and the the ethic of individualist faire. individualist laissez laissez faire. ethic of
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Property rights and prejudice were that were the the reefs reefs that and anti-Negro anti-Negro prejudice Property rights ripped open the frigate Revolution. In a fundamental sense, a fundamental In Revolution. of the sense, of frigate ripped open course, the conflict between property rights and a laissez-faire revolua and laissez-faire revolucourse, the conflict between property rights tion was the Weltanschauung, just as dias was was aa similar similar diinto the tion was built built into Weltanschauung, just lemma into the mercantilist's outlook. For private property was lemma into the mercantilist's outlook. For private property was (and is) the cornerstone of the laissez-faire system, and hence revolurevoluand hence (and is) the cornerstone of the laissez-faire system, to act on the principle of confiscationaries who proposed proposed to of domestic the principle domestic confiscationaries act on tion of order to to establish the prerequisites prerequisites of of the system the system establish the of property in order tion property in put their hand on on the of Karl Marx's Box. Box. Karl Marx's the lid lid of their hand put The trap it was permissible to private take private if it was permissible to take was apparent: trap was apparent: if to establish or maintain laissez faire, then no property in order laissez or maintain then in no order to establish faire, property sophistry could deny the equal right to take it order to construct take it in in order to to the construct could deny equal right sophistry socialism. Only of the radical leaders-Wendell Phillips was was leaders Wendell Phillips a few socialism. few of the radical Only a one them-proved willing to follow their ideals and their logic their ideals follow their of them to one of logic proved willing to aa candid that socialism rather than than capitalism would socialism rather candid realization realization that to capitalism would provide the of society they wanted. radicals saw the wanted. Most radicals saw the kind of that they the kind society that provide danger and drew back. Conservatives never considered the idea. never the and Conservatives considered idea. drew back. danger Nothing illustrates the triumph of property rights more more clearly than illustrates the triumph of property rights clearly than Nothing the subsequent practice of pinning the label "communist" on even label the of "communist" on the even subsequent practice pinning in the the those merchants merchants and wholly bourgeois bourgeois dirt dirt farmers farmers who in and wholly those 18~s, and later, wanted to regulate the railroads in order to restore the railroads in to and wanted to order restore later, 18705, regulate competition in market place. on the the Negro Negro issue, issue, the the probprobin the the market place. And on competition lem of of property property rights rights was general economic lem was further further reinforced reinforced by economic by general and was in in the the beginning, the social considerations. it was and social considerations. As it did the so did beginning, so antislavery coalition remained predominantly anti-Negro. coalition remained antislavery predominantly anti-Negro. was Lincoln grasped the the troubles troubles of a laissez-faire laissez-faire revolution that was Lincoln grasped of a revolution that caught, on the one hand, in the contradictions of its theory and, the one hand, in the contradictions of its theory and, on on caught, the other, between those ideas the reality reality of the changes changes that that the other, between those ideas and and the of the were taking taking place. place. "The dogmas the quiet inadequate were of the are inadequate dogmas of quiet past past are to the the stormy present," he he flatly his intense argument to in his announced in intense argument stormy present," flatly announced of compensated emancipation. think anew and of 1862 for for compensated and emancipation. "We must think act must disenthrall ourselves, and and then act anew. anew. We must disenthrall ourselves, then we shall shall save save the country." But neither neither Lincoln nor anyone anyone else this vital vital the Lincoln nor else made this country." But breakthrough. Hence the the soul went marching marching on into faire went of laissez soul of laissez faire into breakthrough. of vastly a world world of vastly different different substance proportions. This dichotsubstance and proportions. This dichotomy provides provides the the fundamental American history history after after fundamental insight into American omy insight into Fort Sumter. Sumten Fort Lincoln's Lincoln's failure failure to to present present aa postwar postwar program program meant that he he meant that simply did not have one. But admittedly it was difficult to develop not have one. But it was difficult to simply admittedly develop
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policies that combined combined antislavery and prowhite prowhite attitudes without attitudes without antislavery and as a traditional political at the the same time time classifying the Civil War at as a traditional political classifying the Civil and economic historians have have been ever since conflict. Liberal economic conBict. Liberal historians been trying trying ever since to square this circle. Lincoln's own approach to reconstruction in the the to square this circle. Lincoln's approach to reconstruction in south pointed pointed toward the kind of compromise ultimately south toward the kind of was ultimately that was compromise that Lincoln's death death opened the way way for between 1874 made between 1880* Lincoln's for 1874 and 1880. opened the to execute execute fully even that the radicals, but they they lacked the power power to the lacked the radicals, but fully even that part of program based honoring private private property. property. They of their their program based on on honoring part They the north at the the were never than aa bare bare plurality plurality in were never more than in the north even even at of their their inBuence, proved masters of political political height of southerners proved masters of influence, southerners height guerrilla warfare, the dynamic the north during of the north during warfare, and the guerrilla dynamic development development of mangled the political economy that the and the war war so after the and after so mangled the old old political that the economy on any grounds. radicals could not muster muster aa new coalition coalition on could not radicals any grounds* These northern developments the southern southern conservatives the These northern conservatives the developments gave gave the so, however, in a opportunity to reassert their power. They did to a in reassert their did so, however, opportunity power. They society where industry, and especially the railroad corporation, was where and was railroad the society industry, especially corporation, was not not the the playing an increasingly increasingly important role. The Civil Civil War was important role. playing It was was the the last merchant-agrarian first modern or or industrial war. It industrial war. first last merchant-agrarian produced an rather than than being with war. It It produced an industrial war. industrial system system rather being fought fought with a basic for example, about the one. While there is the is a about While there basic timelessness, for one. timelessness, example, The Badge situation and the Crane's the human crisis Red situation crisis in in Stephen Crane's Badge Stephen of Courage, no one has known combat combat in war would would one who has in a a modern war of Courage, no seriously maintain maintain that that the delineates the the problem problem of bravery, the story of bravery, seriously story delineates or even captures the sense of what Crane's protagonist called "the "the called or even captures the sense of what Crane's protagonist great death," in the context of modern war where machines define where machines define great death," in the context of modern a line as wiggles line on a a radarscope. men as in a wiggles in radarscope. played an an increasing role in in northern northern logistics logistics and As railroads railroads played increasing role order. troop movements, movements, they the coming coming of a new order. also announced of a announced the they also troop They integrated the the market market place place and it and so so made it and integrated extended and They extended possible to specialize and consequently accelerate other economic other economic accelerate to consequently specialize possible by the I870s activities. This This was was aa tremendous tremendous boost boost for for cities, the iSyos activities. dries, and by Railroads the pattern of industrial urbanism was firmly established. Railroads was established. the of industrial urbanism firmly pattern way symbolized of the the corporation a form and way as a rise of the steady corporation as symbolized the steady rise of of economic activity, and revealed the depersonalizing the and revealed economic of organizing depersonalizing of activity, organizing the for labor that went went with with this this institution. the 1870s, for example. 520 institution. By labor that 520 1870$, example, By of 10,395 businesses in Massachusetts were were incorporated. the in Massachusetts of incorporated. But the 10,395 businesses the total of 520 held $13I,I82,ogo of the $I35,~7I2 total capital, and employed held employed capital, $135,892,712 $131,182,090 520 101,337 the 166,588 workers. of the 166,588 workers. 101,337 of The accumulation corporations being being aa major major of capital for such such corporations accumulation of capital for policies that
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task, the financier became became more important both both as active entreentreas an an active more important as a supplier of commercial services. Railroads not only preneur and not Railroads services. as a of commercial and supplier only preneur developed close connections with such investment firms, but generbut investment with such firms, generdeveloped close connections ally reintroduced the idea of thinking about the economic life of ally reintroduced the idea of thinking about the economic life of did so, not as public leaders leaders as the country as public as the as a a system. Yet they so, not they did system. Yet country as in the days of mercantilism, but as private leaders of one of the of one of in the days of mercantilism, but as private leaders the functional groups institutions that were becoming becoming the the competing that were and institutions functional competing groups and units of laissez faire. faire. Hence began losing his effective effective the individual individual began of laissez Hence the units losing his power and of relevance relevance at an increasing increasing rate. at the the same same rate. Yet Yet at at an and sense sense o power time the powers of of private leaders began began to a kind kind of to create create a time of the wide wide powers private leaders harmony in in the the system which tended tended to to reinforce reinforce the ideology of the ideology of harmony system which laissez faire even though though it it ultimately became irrelevant to the the irrelevant to laissez faire even ultimately became reality of the system. of the reality system. Clearly these aspects railroad did not mature mature imim~ did not of the the railroad aspects of Clearly enough, enough, these mediately. It is vital to recognize, however, that they did have an that did to have It vital an is however, they recognize, mediately. eximmediate Given a national transportation system, for a national Given for eximmediate impact. transportation system, impact. ample, general advertising became feasible. feasible. A New York firm firm advertising became ample, general 1879 began making market analyses and promptly responded and in and in market analyses and 1879 began making promptly responded supplying plans, writers, and artists for advertising campaigns. and artists for advertising campaigns. supplying plans, writers, the American National Steel Functional groups groups-such such as American National Steel Manuas the Functional facturers, the Iron Founders Association, the National Board the the National Founders Board of Iron of Association, facturers, Trade-formed basic pattern is well basic Trade formed their their own organizations. The is well pattern organizations. exemplified in the American American Bar Bar Association, Association, organized in the in 1878. exemplified organized in 1878. In sense, the lawyers staunchly upheld individualism, the narrow In the the narrow sense, lawyers staunchly upheld individualism, private property, property, and and laissez great curse of the the world," world," faire. "The great laissez faire. curse of private also accepted they declared, "is too much government." But they they declared, "is too government." they also accepted the individual's to corporate organization and the concurrent the individual's shift shift to and the concurrent corporate organization restriction of of the the market market place. place. Defending Defending monopoly restriction "often a a as "often monopoly as necessity and advantage," they justified trusts trusts as defensive an advantage,*' and an as "a "a defensive necessity they justified weapon of of property property interests the communistic trend." And interests against communistic trend." weapon against the some members were even even then, J. Tilden, corporation like Samuel J. then, like Tilden, corporation lawyers gone into with this this more inclusive inclusive and into politics and lawyers who had gone politics with systematic political economy. economy. Such men personified personified the the of political systematic view of of a a new gentry beginnings of composed of economic giants and proof economic beginnings gentry composed progiants fessional fessional politicians politicians who would would ultimately their power power over assert their over ultimately assert national life. national life. the combination But the Lincoln's death death and and the and combination of of Lincoln's the determined determined and traditional traditional agrarian conservativism of President Johnson gave the President conservativism of agrarian Johnson gave the radicals radicals an opportunity opportunity to to extend consolidate their their power. power. JohnJohnextend and consolidate task, the financier
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son might might have have effected effected aa moderate moderate compromise the south, for son with the south, for compromise with there both active and latent, for such there was considerable considerable sympathy, sympathy, both active and latent, for such a reconciliation, reconciliation, but but his his unyielding position played played into into the hands a the hands unyielding position of men like Stevens and Sumner, and William Pitt Fessenden like of Stevens and Sumner, and William Pitt Fessenden of of by calling up the the specter of aa southern southern Maine. Rallying Rallying support Maine. support by calling up specter of victory-in-defeat, and stressing the the survival of the the Republican Republican Party Party and stressing survival of victory-in-defeat, and the new industrialism, industrialism, the radicals effectively defeated the Presiand the the radicals effectively defeated the Presito impeach impeach him him failed, but it was in in all dent. Their dent. Their effort effort to it was all essential essential failed, but In dramatizing the power the respects an an unnecessary unnecessary attempt. In of the the respects attempt. power of dramatizing as against the executive it provided a classic manifestation legislature as the it executive a classic manifestation against legislature provided of the the spirit of laissez of faire. laissez faire. spirit of The more more important important failure extreme radicals radicals (or revolufailure of of the the extreme (or revolutionaries) was their inability to handle the issue of providing the their to handle the issue of tionaries) inability providing the Negro with property. Once that objective was abandoned, the radical with Once that radical was the abandoned, property. Negro objective program consisted consisted of of three three contradictory pairs of and attiof policies program contradictory pairs policies and attiretudes: high high tariffs great malice and little tudes: and low low land tariffs and and land costs; malice little recosts; great straint; soft money and hard politics. Hence the radicals were soft and were hard the radicals Hence straint; money politics. successful as long long as they could political as they successful only could sustain sustain wartime wartime and and political only as as long as westerners were primarily concerned with real emotions, as with as westerners were real concerned emotions, long primarily estate, until southern whites reasserted their power, and until a a until new southern until their and whites reasserted estate, power, itself combination of financiers, financiers, merchants, farmers established established itself and farmers combination of merchants, and as a competing alliance in the north. as a competing alliance in the north. CROSSCURRENTS OF RECONSTRUCTION RECONSTRUcnON
Having passed passed the the tariff tariff of the farmer Homestead the Homestead farmer the of 1864, 1864, given Having given the Act of of 1862 (along with formal in the the government government Act formal representation representation in (along with ocand aid), and the railroads, railroads, the the radicals radicals ocand subsidized subsidized the and educational educational aid), cupied the south jammed through the 13th, south and jammed through the i3th, 14th, 14th, and i5th cupied the as which ostensibly ostensibly ended the Negro Negro as defined the ended slavery, Amendments which slavery, defined aa citizen citizen and asserted asserted his his right vote. Though not in in to vote. they were not Though they right to any mass movement to Negro and rerethe Negro a mass to liberate liberate the sense guiding any sense guiding a
IsW.
the south, radicals had had considerable considerable support their proprofor their make the the radicals south, the support for most the gram. In the negative sense, which may have been the most have been the In sense, may negative gram. important, many Americans America ns were were preoccupied preoccupied with the exploiting with the exploiting important, many indicated as indicated of their their own opportunities opportunities and simply acquiesced. Yet as Yet of simply acquiesced. in the various individuals by the frequency with which various individuals and groups the with which the groups in by frequency the term term "imperialism" to describe their operations north used to their own describe used the north operations "imperialism" aca good as of their their competitors, good many participated acas those well as those of as well many participated competitors, a of a tively in the reconstruction program. a surprising number of And reconstruction in the surprising program. tively
The of American American History History 306 Contours of The Contours 306 westerners, like like the wool growers hoped to others who hoped to indusand others the wool induswesterners, growers and trialize the upper Mississippi Mississippi Valley Valley at at aa faster faster rate, even supported even trialize the upper rate, supported the tariff. tariff. the about Financial leaders, on on the the other hand, were were less less enthusiastic enthusiastic about other hand, Financial leaders, the radical policy of soft money. Bankers did not like having the did not like having the the radical policy of soft money. Bankers government in the money business, and had opposed the National government in the money business, and had opposed the National gains from Along Banking Act were small. inflation were small. Along from inflation Their gains of 1862. Act of 1862. Their Banking with aa good many of of the corporation industrialists, such the rising with rising corporation industrialists, such good many financial spokesmen were likewise cool to to any wholesale equality equality likewise cool financial any wholesale spokesmen were particufor the Negro; Negro; the other side that attitude attitude was aa desire, of that side of for the the other desire, particularly strong among York merchants, to restore their prewar to restore their York New merchants, prewar larly strong among economic with the the south. the mermerin addition addition to to the south. And in economic connections connections with chants, who were were always inclined toward low tariffs or free trade, tariffs low free inclined toward or chants, trade, always some manufacturers and and politicians were shifting high from high some manufacturers shifting away politicians were away from by the the Panic Panic of or rates. Some of of them had been been frightened frightened by of 1857 them had rates. 1857 or as a war measure. But others began to argue had supported increases a But as war measure. others to increases had began argue supported that the industrial system would need need foreign markets for its that the new industrial for its system would foreign markets surpluses; hence high tariffs would only invite retaliation abroad. invite tariffs would retaliation hence abroad. only high surpluses; In the after the the war, however, these these various were various elements the first elements were In first years war, however, years after the radical program once it was put too weak it the radical once too weak to was to disrupt into program put into disrupt operation. operation. Radical difficulties difficulties began began with collapse of between the alliance of the with the the collapse alliance between Radical Pennsylvania entrepreneurs and England textile and manuNew and and textile manuEngland Pennsylvania entrepreneurs facturing interests. Originally the product of a happy union between a the of facturing interests. Originally product happy union between suplaissez-faire idealism the coalition on suplaissez-faire and self-interest, coalition agreed idealism and self-interest, the agreed on port for the iron iron industry a project project involving involving the the organization for the port industry and a organization of the the Negro Negro to to produce produce cotton Gargantuan plantations manof on Gargantuan cotton on plantations managed by the Freedman's Bureau. would then then be be taxed taxed if Cotton would the Freedman's Bureau. Cotton if aged by exported. The anticipated anticipated result, result, in in conjunction with the the Bureau's Bureau's exported. conjunction with political and educational educational projects, projects, was cheap cheap cotton Engfor New Engcotton for political land, business control the south, of the control of a solid and a solid Republican land, general south, and general business Republican vote from the Negro. Negro. But But southern the vote southern devastation, from the in the weather in devastation, poor poor weather year of the crucial crop, and Britain's ability to find cotton elsewhere of the Britain's crucial to find cotton elsewhere crop, year ability the plan. combined to combined to defeat defeat the plan. a low-tariff Boston with a Boston bounced bounced back back with strategy designed designed to to win win low-tariff strategy the western support and replace York as the financial and merwestern New as York financial and merreplace support cantile therefore, cantile center center of of the the country. a completely In a country. In completely logical logical way, way, therefore, was disrupted by the loyalty of its members to the radical the the radical coalition coalition was its of members to disrupted by loyalty of following the laissez-faire axiom of their particular interests. laissez-faire axiom the their own interests. following particular
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England stressed trade and textiles while while Pennsylvania New England stressed trade and textiles emphaPennsylvania emphairon sized iron sized
and steel. was important, important, but but the radicals and steel Boston's Boston's switch switch was the radicals also weakened by by the the south's increasing ability to resist outalso weakened south's increasing ability to resist outby other divisions in the north, and by a fortuitous food. side control, side control, by other divisions in the north, and by a fortuitous food shortage in Europe. Europe. shortage in Western manufacturers Cyrus McCormick Western like Cyrus manufacturers like favorMcCormick responded responded favorably to the England return to low low tariffs. tariffs. McCormick the New England return to conMcCormick conably to cluded reap more profits indirectly indirectly through that he would reap cluded that more profits through expanded expanded foreign markets for the farmers' than he he would by being being for the farmers' crops would by foreign markets crops than protected against against imported imported machinery. Farmers wanted the overseas wanted the overseas protected machinery. Farmers the south as an an old and pop0sales, and and also also remembered south as old customer remembered the customer and sales, litical might again do business. western litical ally with whom they do business. western And ally with they might again merchants and other businessmen were anxious to restore their merchants other businessmen their were anxious to restore The prewar trade with the south, or to enter it for the first time. trade with the or it to for the first time. enter south, prewar merchants took lead. "Commerce must bear bear the burden of of taxataxatook the merchants the lead. "Commerce must the burden tion and businessmen businessmen are best judges judges of their own wants, tion are the the best of their and wants, and to their their prosperity," prosperity," they declared at aa what will most conduce what will most conduce to at declared they 186s, adding that it "behooves them national meeting in Detroit in national in them Detroit in that it "behooves meeting 1865, adding to take take aa deeper to in governmental interest in affairs." deeper interest governmental affairs." merAfter organizing the National Board of Trade After the in 1868, the merNational Board of Trade in 1868, the organizing (1870) that chant alliance then obtained obtained aa direct law alliance then chant that direct import made import (1870) it possible to ship goods directly before paying paying it inland cities cities before to inland possible to ship goods directly to customs. This This effectively by-passed York in many transactions customs. York New in transactions many effectively by-passed and gave the western competitive a strong and Boston and the western merchants merchants a strong competitive gave Boston position in the southern and territorial markets. Coinciding with in territorial the southern and markets. Coinciding with position the south's lack of capital with which to regenerate and diversify its the south's lack of capital with which to regenerate and diversify its economy, and the Negro's Negro's difficulty in finding at and with with the economy, difficulty in finding employment employment at anything but agricultural this northern coalition businessmen's coalition northern businessmen's labor, this agricultural labor, anything but consolidated slavery of shareof tenant tenant farming, the new economic economic slavery consolidated the fanning, sharecropping, and the planter planter store. to the cotton crop, the the cotton Shackled to and the store. Shackled crop, the cropping, Negro (and his white white counterpart) became perennial to debtors to perennial debtors counterpart) became Negro (and his is aa sigsigtheir new overseers. overseers. While While it reality, there there is it exaggerates the their exaggerates the reality, the Civil nificant measure measure of of truth truth in the idea that the idea that in the Civil War gave nificant gave more freedom-at the short run-to the white white upper upper class the class of of the short run to the in the least in freedom at least the one group did to the slave. Both were liberated, liberated, but the group south than to the it did slave. Both south than it far far more effectively. effectively. the merchant-planter-store merchant-planter-store system involved should be be apparent, As should system involved apparent, the Contransaction. the railroads monetary system in every transaction. in the the monetary and the railroads and every system the financial farmers sequently one group of businessmen and farmers joined the financial of businessmen one joined sequently group were were
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interests in favoring a deflationary money money policy; concluded policy; they they concluded them more than it helped. A similar that inflation it helped. similar coalition, that hurt them inflation hurt more than coalition, led by radicals like like Stevens, based on the expanding expanding on the led and generally Stevens, and generally based by radicals iron industry, preferred preferred to to keep the wartime wartime greenback greenback iron and and steel steel industry, keep the paper-money system and even to expand it. They argued vigorously it. They argued vigorously paper-money system and even to expand that contraction retard economic economic development that contraction would would retard development ("Businessmen ("Businessmen are hungry hungry for money."), operate against everyone are for money."), everyone except unfairly against except operate unfairly bondholders, and hurt domestic manufacturers by by undercutting the and hurt domestic manufacturers bondholders, undercutting the tariff. Since per-capita money declined from $30.35 Since the tariff. the per-capita money supply supply had declined $30.35 in 1865 the argument had considerable considerable relevance. in in 18j6, relevance. to $17.5I 1865 to 1876, the $17.51 in argument had in the Congress on contraction revealed the west west But revealed that that the on contraction But the the vote vote in the Congress to 35 no), and the the combination combination was almost divided (36 was almost evenly 35 no), yes to evenly divided (36 yes of aa good harvest and and foreign-crop foreign-crop failures temporarily damped the of failures temporarily good harvest damped the farmer's insurgency. farmer's insurgency. Thus sustained, eastern and western busibusialliance between and western the alliance between eastern sustained, the to nessmen, including farmers, turned away from the money issue the turned to issue nessmen, farmers, away money including the question of railroad abuses. As much opposed in their way the of in their railroad own abuses. opposed question way to railroad railroad policies policies as as the the western the merchants merchants not not only only to western farmers, farmers, the to initiate initiate the the attack attack on the the lines both sections sections of of the the helped to lines in in both helped York group joined forces with their Boston north, but the the with forces but their New York Boston north, group joined issue. Anger Anger against roads had had and Chicago the issue. the roads Chicago competitors competitors on the against the as early as 1863> and the of Representatives appeared as and the House of as had early appeared 1863, Representatives had passed regulatory laws in I874 and 1878 only to have them ignored ignored have laws to in passed regulatory 1878 only 1874 by the Senate. the Senate. by interests in favoring a deflationary
REGULATION AS AN ESSENTIAL FEATURE OF LAISSEZ FAmE FAIRE
Though impression might first impression indicate otherwise, the farmers, farmers, otherwise, the Though aa first might indicate and merchants, remained within the framework of laissez faire in in merchants, remained within the framework of laissez faire making their attack on railroads. They They wanted wanted to become more more their attack the railroads. on the to become making effective effective (and profitable) entrepreneurs within the they did the system, did (and profitable) entrepreneurs within system, they not want to logic followed followed that that of the master master him* himnot to change it. Their Their logic of the change it. self. For For as reiterated ad nauseam, the key key element element in self. as Adam Smith Smith reiterated in nauseam, the Iaisse2rfaire theory laissez-faire theory was the market place. place. As long it expanded, expanded, the market as it long as as long and as as individuals to it, unrestrained comindividuals had had free free access access to comit, unrestrained long as petition produced produced both both individual freedom and the welfare. individual freedom the general welfare. petition general When some part of it part of it ceased ceased to to expand, however, Smith explicitly expand, however, explicitly for regulation called for to preserve preserve competition. called regulation to competition. Not only railroads by very nature nature part part of of the the railroads their very the strucstruconly were the by their ture of the the whole system's market place, but but they they demanded demanded such such ture of whole system's market place,
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tremendous investments investments that that the market place place in they could tremendous the market in which which they could (i.e., the railroad industry per se) was very the railroad industry per se) was very small. small (i.e., Furthermore, the market Entrance into it was was anything anything but but free. Entrance into it free. Furthermore, the market for was ir~ place for railroads had a saturation point beyond which it railroads a saturation point beyond which it was irplace rational and unprofitable to build any more. On all these counts, but rational all these counts, but unprofitable to build any more. especially that concerning as aa structural part of the the railroads railroads as structural part of the especially that concerning the system's general market market place, first principles principles of laissez faire the first of laissez faire system's general place, the to justified regulation, even demanded The market market place place had had to demanded it. it. The regulation, even justified remain neutral, neutral, or or as as nearly nearly so as possible, possible, so that the various interests remain so as so that the various interests
be constructed be constructed
would be the famous for competition. mobe afforded would afforded the famous "open field" for "open field" competition. A moitself simply indefensible under itself was was simply indefensible under
nopoly of market place of the the market nopoly place
laissez faire. Quite rightly, therefore, therefore, the demanded that structure the farmers the structure farmers demanded that the Quite rightly, of the place be be stabilized that competition could continue of the market market place stabilized so could continue so that competition concentrated on establishto their greater benefit benefit. To this to their greater this end end they on establishconcentrated they ing the railroads railroads and and on on initiating co-operative rules and limits limits for for the ing rules initiating co-operative enterprises to produce or buy certain necessities. Thus, though it to or it certain necessities. Thus, though enterprises produce buy a fraternal fraternal society generally but vaguely interested in started as as a started in but interested society generally vaguely to conconbenefits for agriculture, the the Grange movement began benefits for agriculture, in x86$l Grange movement 1869 to began in cern with the state of the political economy. itself more directly cern itself with the state the of directly political economy. It its approach the farmer it imIt shifted shifted its found it imtwo reasons: for two reasons: the farmer found approach for his real difficulties in social functions and possible to sublimate to sublimate his real difficulties in social functions possible lecture meetings, and and other forward with with lecture meetings, other farm farm organizations came forward organizations carne more vigorous proposals. Grangers Iowa in Iowa more economic and and political political proposals. vigorous economic Grangers in as 1872 in order order to to harvest harvest the beneorganized as early the beneco-operatives as 1872 in organized c~peratives early as fits of purchasing and insurance programs. programs. Two years years later later and insurance fits of mass mass purchasing they were were manufacturing their own harvesters harvesters and them at at and selling they selling them manufacturing their about market price. even started their own started their the market about half half the Californians even price. Californians sufficient capital, banks. Such because of the lack of the lack of of sufficient failed because Such enterprises banks. capital, enterprises failed prices that were too too low, and price-cutting price-cutting by by their their comcomthat were low, litigation litigation and prices farmers thempetition, aa lack the co-operative co-operative spirit the farmers themof the lack of among the spirit among petition, selves, or because the the agrarians became manufacturers manufacturers (and (and raised raised or because selves, agrarians became their prices). prices). their Collaboration with with the the merchants merchants in in an campaign an antirailroad antirailroad campaign Collaboration see the adproved more effective. were the merchants slow to see to the admerchants the slow were effective. Nor more proved the market. vantages of an economic liaison with the large agrarian market. liaison with an economic of large agrarian vantages the direct direct result in 1872 as the was founded result Montgomery Ward and and Co. founded in Co. was 1872 as Montgomery urban businessmen. of discussions between the the Grange and urban businessmen. Spearof discussions between SpearGrange well as as by as well by farmfarmheaded in Illinois by by the the Chicago of Trade as Board of in Illinois headed Chicago Board laissez faire.
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ers, produced on political side a warehousing side a law of on the the political the alliance alliance produced of crs, the warehousing law 1867 that required railroads to load grain from nonrailway elevators, from to load nonrailway elevators, grain 1867 that required railroads pushed through constitutional amendment authorizing regulation a constitutional authorizing regulation pushed through a 1870, and fixed maximum freight and passenger rates in 1871. in and rates in in 1870, and fixed 1871. A passenger freight similar coalition in New York effected the famous Hepburn famous York effected the similar coalition in InvestiHepburn Investigation of states followed all such such examples. followed all Other states examples. Attacking gation of 1879. 1879. Other Attacking excessive rates, rates, discrimination discrimination in between short and long in charges short and excessive charges between long hauls, personal arrogance and the general and corruption and the favoritism, and hauls, general arrogance corruption personal favoritism, of put the the railroads railroads temporarily temporarily on the the dedeof the the system, the assault assault put system, the fensive. fensive* Less was the that outsiders lacked the the outsiders lacked the revelation revelation that Less encouraging encouraging was experience and knowledge to dig out the full story of corporation full to out the of and story corporation knowledge dig experience that the the general general public could help help to and then then affairs so to formulate formulate and so that affairs public could choose between alternate for enforcing equitable and responsifor and choose between alternate plans responsiplans enforcing equitable ble business business conduct. conduct. Georgia Georgia and California reacted reacted to this serious serious and California to this ble in 18]9 by establishing permanent commissions staffed by problem staffed in commissions problem 1879 by establishing permanent by experts to keep a running check on the lines. This was the beginning check the This was the a lines. to keep running experts beginning of that gained acceptance and application in of an and application an approach national acceptance in gained national approach that later years. In two major cases, meanwhile, the Supreme Court upthe later In Court two years. Supreme major cases, meanwhile, upheld the public accountability a way way that that revealed the the axiom held axiom of of public revealed the in a accountability in of an uncompleted revolution. paradox an revolution* of paradox uncompleted By validating an Illinois regulatory regulatory law in the the case an Illinois of validating law in case of of By way way of v.Illinois (1877), Chief Justice Morrison R. Waite explicitly Munn. v. Morrison Waite Illinois (1877), Chief Justice R. explicitly invoked mercantilist precedents. Citing the English invoked mercantilist precedents. law Citing the English common law as enunciated by Lord Chief Justice Hale the period period of as Lord enunciated by Chief Justice Hale during of during the the 167os, taken from the Shaftesbury's in the influence in from the 1670$, and examples Shaftesbury's influence examples taken era of Monroe, Waite Waite reasserted reasserted the the principle principle that that era of Madison and Monroe, "property become clothed with aa public public interest used in does become clothed with interest when used in "property does a a manner manner to it of of public public consequence, consequence, and affect the commucommuto make it affect the nity at also reiterated reiterated aa cardinal principle that had been been at large." cardinal principle that had nity large." He also vigorously defended by Madison Madison and and Marshall. Marshall. "For protection defended by "For protection vigorously against abuses by legislatures, legislatures, the the people people must must resort resort to polls, abuses by the polls, to the against not to the courts." not to the courts." Waite thus had plagued plagued the mercantilists: thus reopened the issue Waite issue that that had the mercantilists: reopened the how can can the the public public welfare welfare be and protected protected if private proppropadvanced and if private be advanced erty is allowed to stand above other values? boldly asserted that is allowed to stand above He other values? that asserted erty boldly it could also reaffirmed reaffirmed the the principle principle that that the courts were were it could not, the courts not, and also bound to to respect respect the the judgment judgment of of the the people people in in such such fundamental fundamental questions. But while his reference to English common law the his while reference to law of of the questions. English
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was valid valid in the broad broad sense, sense, his his use of Lord Lord Hale's was in the Hale's use of judgments was open to serious criticism. For that law to serious criticism. For that law concerned concerned open judgments by law. law. property which which had been been endowed with public public interest endowed with interest by property Technically, at any rate, the railroads stood outside this category. at Technically, any rate, the railroads stood outside this category. Hence his his decision decision (as (as he probably realized) realized) rested on shaky he probably rested on shaky ground. ground. The state laws also also begged begged aa second important part of the the railroad railroad state laws second important part of national system, veritably the the question. As the connecting links links in the connecting in a a national question. system, veritably nervous system expanding market market place, place, the the railrailof Adam Smith's nervous Smith's expanding system of broken into arbitrary fragments political roads could not be be broken could not roads into arbitrary fragments along along political boundaries without serious consequences. Though their without causing boundaries serious causing consequences. Though their was both equitable and relevant within the underlying purpose was both and the relevant within underlying purpose equitable W ~ltanschauung of laissez faire, in operation such particularistic of laissez in such faire, Weltanschauung operation particularistic regulations were were both both illogical inefficient. This and inefficient. was especially This was regulations illogical and especially the central question concerning private property property the case case so so long the as the central question long as concerning private was not such laws could not only disrupt service, they not resolved; such was laws could not resolved; only disrupt service, they could actually cause serious economic dislocations. could cause serious economic dislocations. actually that it it was was aa touchy touchy issue. issue. For For in upWaite and his his court court knew that in upholding the law of a postwar Louisiana legislature that regulated a the law of Louisiana that regulated postwar holding legislature the place circumstances of public consumption, consumption, the for public of slaughtering place and circumstances slaughtering for the majority majority placed placed considerable emphasis on point that any that any considerable emphasis the point the on the butcher could use the facilities. They thus revealed the basic amthe could use revealed the basic amfacilities. butcher They thus bivalence and dilemma dilemma of and reconstruction reconstruction era: era: on of the the entire war and on entire war bivalence the one hand, the ideology of the revolution was laissez faire for the was for the one hand, laissez faire ideology of the revolution private property; public welfare welfare and and the other, considerations of of public other, considerations private property; on the in the economy created the necessity for a corporate outthe changes the changes in the economy created the necessity for a corporate outlook that would would place place equal equal stress on social property. social property. look that stress on clarify one vital issue: of But the the Louisiana law does one vital issue: the the exercise exercise of does clarify But Louisiana law northern power power in the south was by by no means means wholly or absurd or in the south was northern wholly absurd south. selfish. Therein lies the the real tragedy of of reconstruction reconstruction in in the the south. Therein lies selfish. real tragedy For it the north's north's inability resolve the the conflict conflict between its antiantibetween its it was the to resolve For inability to subverted slavery ideals and its commitment to private property property that that subverted to private ideals and its commitment slavery it much the originally revolutionary objectives. failure made it the objectives. That failure originally revolutionary as the Klux Klan and the the Red Shirts the easier succeed as Shirts to to succeed for the easier for the Ku Klux advance guards of a counterrevolution counterrevolution based based on self-interest, advance guards of a self-interest, on social, property rights, and and on race hatred. Yet Yet personal, rather race hatred. than social, rather than property rights, personal, tribute to the to the greater even the whites paid a backhanded tribute a even the southern backhanded southern whites greater paid restore the the paterpaterideal by presenting themselves themselves as as men who would restore ideal by presenting nalism of of the the region's lost gentry. nalism lost gentry. region's
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PARADOXES OF SOUTHERN REHABILITATION REHABtLITATION
Supported by the power of the Congress and the the Presidency the power of the and Congress and Presidency and Supported by backed by the Union Army, the freed Negro dominated the early freed dominated the backed by the Union Army, the Negro early half the the phases of reconstruction. The Negroes Negroes were were in in themselves themselves half of reconstruction. phases was the other half. They were issue, and their legislative program issue, and their legislative program was the other half. They were good society. poor, and they had had aa vague vague image the north north as as the the good of the and they image of society. poor, Hence they they demanded demanded relief relief acts, educational programs, basic public public Hence acts, educational programs, basic investments and and improvements, and political political reforms. reforms. Both Both the the vicvicinvestments improvements, and torious northerners the new southern was southern leadership, which was and the torious northerners and leadership, which industrial rather rather than than planter, planter, had had to operate within to operate within this this context. context. industrial Too lumped together together under under the the tide tide Carpetbagger deand deToo often often lumped Carpetbagger and scribed as corrupt politicians politicians and diggers, the norththe and economic economic grave northas corrupt scribed grave diggers, erners who went went south a varied varied contingent. south actually It erners composed a contingent. It actually composed included brigade, dedicated revolutionaries dedicated sizable quick-profit included a a sizable revolutionaries quick-profit brigade, trying to the south the north] thought, "identical [with in thought, to make the south "identical [with the north] in trying sentiment, growth, and development," and honest politicians honest and sentiment, growth, politicians who development," reformed where where they could and did a great deal to encourage southdeal did a to and could reformed great they encourage southrecovery and and improvement. good many others, perhaps the ern A ern recovery good many others, perhaps the improvement. plurality, were simply men found southern reconstruction an found southern were who reconstruction an simply plurality, underground railway along which to escape from their wives, the their to the which wives, escape underground railway along law, or poor pickings pickings in in the the north. north. But consciously or or unconsciously, unconsciously, But consciously or poor law, all them saw reconstruction reconstruction as as what what some Wisconsin Wisconsin veterans veterans of them all of called the frontier. To many, at any rate, it seemed to offer offer at it the new seemed to called frontier. many, any rate, less labor and risk than the forbidding more opportunities with risk than with less labor the more opportunities forbidding prairie, the mountains and desert, desert, or business market market the business the western western mountains or the prairie, place. place. it did did in produced waste, debts, and As it the north, in the reconstruction produced and north, reconstruction waste, debts, corruption in in the only is is it it factually wrong to blame the south. not only south. But But not to blame corruption factually wrong the the indictment the Negro all the weaknesses and failures, failures, but for all the weaknesses but the is indictment is Negro for aa double-edged After all, Negro in postwar era was sword. After the Negro in the the postwar era was all, the double-edged sword. the product his northern northern and and southern the of American civilization, southern civilization, and his product of Negro did did masters were reaping their own harvest. harvest. In masters In reality, the Negro reaping their reality, the amazingly cite but but one example, the the Negro-based Negro-based reconreconwell. To cite one example, amazingly well. struction Carolina provided provided public public schooling struction governments in South South Carolina governments in schooling for for 500 per cent cent more children. children. 500 per Southern whites Southern initially divided on how to to cope with the the rise rise of whites initially divided on of cope with the the Negro. Upper-class leaders either joined the Republicans (and leaders either the Negro. Upper-class joined Republicans (and won the the epithet epithet Scalawag), to organize organize new parties parties based based or tried tried to Scalawag), or
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Negro vote. vote. Despite Despite their their race race prejudice, prejudice, they they were were willing willing the Negro on the to trade a significant measure of of equality for political and economic trade a to significant measure equality for political and economic "Go in for the niggers," exclaimed them bluntly, bluntly, leadership. in for the niggers," exclaimed one one of of them leadership. office remeaning buy the Negro vote by letting them hold the and reNegro vote by letting them hold office and meaning buy laxing some social taboos. Many their strategy consocial taboos. laxing Many changed strategy when conchanged their fronted with the taxes required required to to finance the Negro Negro legislative the taxes fronted with finance the legislative the State program. Some were were willing willing to to let let "every office in State [of in the program. "every office [of Louisiana], from Governor to the the most insignificant constable, constable, [be] Governor to most insignificant Louisiana], [be] filled a negro" in return return for lower taxes. taxes. But But the the northern northern white white filled by for lower by a negro" in that game, and lower-class white could them in in that outbid them white could always and lower-class always outbid game, southerners withheld withheld their their support. southerners support. Though the racial racial attitudes attitudes of poor whites whites probably probably played played the poor of the Though the to collaboration with the freed the largest part in their opposition freed the in their to with the collaboration largest part opposition it misleading to discount economic and class considerations. Negro, it is is to economic and discount class considerations. Negro, misleading Such did after occur aa relatively relatively short time later. later. collaboration did Such collaboration all occur after all short time During the immediate postwar period, however, a good many poor the immediate a During postwar period, however, good many poor as a lower-class citizen was whites clearly viewed the Negro a was whites the viewed as lower-class who citizen clearly Negro himself-a competitor enjoying special and un· leap-frogging over una and over himself competitor enjoying special leap-frogging fair advantages. it far more likely that economic, class, fair Hence it seems far that seems more economic, class, advantages. likely and racial racial antagonisms each other. other. Joining their upperupperand reinforced each antagonisms reinforced Joining their class rulers, the poor whites formed a political and extra-legal alliance alliance the and class rulers, extra-legal poor whites formed a political that ultimately ultimately defeated the Negroes Negroes and the the Republicans. that defeated the Republicans. But once again again in keeping with with northern northern reconstruction, the in keeping But once reconstruction, the southern white white party party was was pro-industrial pro-industrial and and fundamentally fundamentally conservaconservasouthern the prewar prewar tive. Hence the the irony irony of the disputed election of of the of 18]6. tive. disputed election 1876. As the defender of of the the individual the Democratic Democratic Party defender individual entrepreneur, Party nomentrepreneur, the J. Tilden lawyer who symbolized the inated in in Samuel J. a corporation inated Tilden a symbolized the corporation lawyer cutting edge of the the new industrialism.. the Republicans, Republicans, coming coming industrialism. And the cutting edge of to be by giants giants of of the the new society like be dominated more and more to dominated by society like Roscoe Conkling, Rutherford B. B. Hayes Hayes aa personification personification selected in in Rutherford Roscoe Conkling, sele.cted of the was particularly particularly solicitous solicitous of the older older capitalism. Neither candidate candidate was capitalism. Neither the compromise that that put put Hayes into the House for Negro. The compromise into White for the the Negro. Hayes on was based based on aa common ground; had the parties differed differed the two was parties ground; fundamentals, the deal been impossible. impossible. have been deal would have fundamentals, the DEPRESSION AND CRISIS IN THE NORTH
In the broader broader sense, compromise has has to be underunderthe compromise In the to be sense, however, however, the of stood part of of laissez-faire reaction to the onset of grave onset reaction to the as part stood as laissez-faire capitalism's grave capitalism's of ranks It was a closing of ranks against the economic troubles a economic in 1873It troubles in against the closing 1873.
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general of the the system, against the the agitation and of farmers difficulties of farmers and agitation of system, against general difficulties laborers, and against a general increase in lawlessness and dissatisin lawlessness and and a increase dissatislaborers, general against Far from being the of reconstruction reconstruction faction. embrace of the culminating faction. Far from being culminating embrace the compromise of 1876 (that came came in in the the routine routine election election of of 1880), 1880), the compromise of (that 1876 was only the first scene of the final act. real climax came with The climax act. real came with was only the first scene of the final the great strike and industrial disorders between disorders between the associated industrial railroad strike and associated great railroad 1876 Having destroyed destroyed the the old old planter planter aristocracy and come come and 1878. aristocracy and 1876 and 1878. Having to terms terms with with its the leaders leaders of northern laissez of northern to industrial successor, its industrial laissez successor, the faire had their power power within within their their own coalition. coalition. had to faire consolidate their to consolidate For its extensive to the the victory, victory, the labor the labor For despite contributions to extensive contributions despite its movement never never fully overcame aa skepticism the purposes purposes and and about the movement fully overcame skepticism about revealed that unconsequences of the war. Draft riots in in New York revealed Draft riots war. the that unof consequences derlying resistance and at the same time typified, and were in part and at the time were same in resistance typified, part derlying by, anger over inflation inflation and unemployment. Labor also fought caused and unemployment. Labor also caused by, anger over fought which increased increased the the influx of cheap the Contract Labor Law of influx of of 1864 the Contract Labor 1864 which cheap and manageable manageable immigrant immigrant labor, repression of the of strikes, the repression and and the labor, the strikes, and It also maintained a campaign attack apprenticeship system. It maintained a on the the apprenticeship also attack on system. campaign for the day; and groups still for land land and and some groups still agitated for the eight-hour and agitated for eight-hour day; to monetary reforms that would enable the worker to save enough that the worker to save would enable reforms monetary enough to become an entrepreneur. become an entrepreneur. it declared these objectives, the National National Labor While for all all these While it declared for Labor objectives, the Union's noble willingness to admit and Union's to admit noble and egalitarian women and egalitarian willingness to organize the unskilled along with trade craftsmen Negroes and the with to unskilled trade and craftsmen Negroes organize along trouble was not so much only its other other difficulties. difficulties. The trouble not so only compounded compounded its contradis:;ted its more narrowly that the the Union's Union's reform reform goals that contradicted its ecogoals narrowly economic objectives, but rather that its Weltanschauung of laissez faire faire nomic objectives, but rather that its Weltanschauung of laissez to pursue pursue both both in in any any integrated made it it extremely hard fashion. integrated fashion. extremely hard to While ostensibly the wage wage system, and therefore therefore concerned concerned While system, and ostensibly against against the to to establish co-operative production units, the the Union also wanted establish co-operative also wanted production units, to expand expand and thereby thereby hire hire more workers, workers, fought small small capitalists capitalists to fought for regulations, and and favored for more rigorous favored arbitration arbitration rigorous apprenticeship apprenticeship regulations, over strikes. over strikes. the farmers with the turned to co-operatives, the As with farmers who turned to co-operatives, the labor labor apapproach to to such did not signify any fundamental break such organizations did not break fundamental proach organizations signify any favor of with capitalism private property with in favor socialism. However of socialism. capitalism and private property in a unrealistic it may seem a unrealistic it century later, labor's conception a cocoof a labor's later, may century conception of operative was entirely within the logic of laissez faire: it was the idea the within of laissez faire: it was idea the operative entirely logic of an association of petty capitalists joined in association of a legitimate of petty in a trust. The legitimate trust. capitalists joined was to object to restore and extend their competitive power a more restore extend their in a object competitive power in
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balanced and equitable equitable market market place. place. Although Although disrupted by ecoec0balanced disrupted by nomic and racial opposition to to the the Negro, Negro, and and by by the narrow conracial opposition nomic the narrow conception of by the leaders of movement to of self-interest self-interest held held by the leaders the movement to of the ception emancipate women (v,;ho were willing to serve as strikebreakers), emancipate (who were willing to serve as strikebreakers), the National National Labor Labor Union Union was divided and perplexed over the was basically basically divided and perplexed over It disintegrated disintegrated into into groups with the to cope the new industrialism. how to industrialism. It cope with groups issues, or joined various various pop0that concentrated functional or that on functional concentrated on or local or joined local issues, litical movements such for an inflasuch as as the litical movements the Greenback an inflaGreenback campaign for campaign tionary money policy. Negroes Negroes formed their own union in I&i9, and formed their union in tionary money policy. 1869, an(^ women, after brief regression regression into heterosexual alliance, after their their brief into heterosexual climbed women, alliance, climbed back onto road of of emancipation emancipation to to aa position onto the the high back of separate high road position of separate and standing. and unequal unequal standing. During the depression's worst therefore, the labor movement the depression's worst years, During years, therefore, the labor movement to approximately approximately 50,000 members (about iI in workers). declined declined to in 100 workers). members 50,000 (about But that figure is misleading on two counts: among those in the labor labor But that is the on those in two counts: figure misleading among group were the iron, steel, and railroad workers, who were organized were the and were railroad iron, steel, workers, group organized and and the the seemingly number was and militant, was supplemented small number militant, and supplemented seemingly small by large numbers of of unemployed unemployed adults and aimless youths. With aimless youths. adults and large numbers by a 1875 down to $1.50 jobs almost nonexistent and in to for a almost nonexistent and wages new jobs in $1.50 for wages 1875 of ten-hour day, the crisis had become the most general breakdown ten-hour the crisis of had become the breakdown most day, general capitalism American history. major riot riot erupted York in American in New York capitalism in history. A major erupted in in 1874. Elsewhere great numbers of parvenu tramps roamed the in 1874. Elsewhere great numbers of parvenu tramps roamed the country. Boston leaders compared the situation to "some great fire country. Boston leaders compared the situation to "some great fire or calamity." But the or more serious serious calamity." But even even when measured measured against against the Chicago worse both both in imits immediate immediate imthe depression was far far worse in its fire, the Chicago fire, depression was to rebuild the community. pact and the time time it it took and the sizable took to rebuild the community. A sizable pact number of upper-class leaders the country that of upper-class sensed that number leaders throughout throughout the country sensed they were were threatened threatened with with aa fundamental fundamental challenge challenge to the existing to the existing they order. order. "I call employers won't call them tyrants," tyrants," rere"I won't call them won't call despots, II won't employers despots, marked one term capitalist capitalist is is sort of synony"but the sort of the term one steelworker, marked steelworker, "but synonywell." Even Even the the Governor Massachusetts mous and will do of Massachusetts as well." Governor of do as mous and will that the state's textile workers were "becoming admitted in the in 1874 that state's textile workers admitted '^becoming 1874 growing prematurely prematurely old, losing the the vitality vitality exhausted, old, and ... losing exhausted, ... growing Coal requisite to a healthy enjoyment of social opportunities." Coal miners of social miners to a opportunities." requisite healthy enjoyment and as well as 20 to be defeated their union only to be defeated and lose their union as well as struck lose struck in in 1875 1875 only four per cent of their wages. Other employers were from one to four were to Other cent of their employers wages. per the a strike at months tardy tardy in in paying paying wages. And a major strike at the Cambria months major wages. Iron Works in in Pennsylvania, had integrated integrated its operations its operations Iron Pennsylvania, which had . .
.
.
.
.
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from blast furnaces furnaces and company town town for its workers, workers, failed failed for its to blast a company from ore ore to and a consequences. with pathetic pathetic human consequences. with Then in a move that that could have been been more remarkably remarkably could hardly in a hardly have in 1877 to take a further pay cut symbolic, railroad workers refused a take in to further cut 1877 symbolic, railroad workers refused pay and touched off an industrial war in West Virginia that soon spread that war soon and touched of? an industrial in Virginia spread to other a question of bread bread or blood," explained a PennPennto or blood/' other states. "It's a states. "It's explained a question of going to to resist." resist." Blood Blood it was. sylvania Railroad Railroad worker, worker, "and we're going it was. "and we're sylvania Ordered into Pittsburgh by President President Hayes, confederal troops Ordered into Hayes, federal Pittsburgh by troops confronted unorganized alliance railroad strikers, of railroad an unorganized alliance of fronted an strikers, unemployed unemployed and juvenile juvenile and adult delinquents. delinquents. Stones the steelworkers, and Stones from from the and adult steelworkers, kids provoked provoked rifle fire from the adults begot carnage carnage and and that begot adults and that kids rifle fire from the arson by by everyone. Parts of city became aa shambles. of the the city shambles. Other Other outarson outeveryone. Parts breaks followed and St. Louis. But lacking St. Louis. and But breaks in Baltimore, followed in Baltimore, Chicago, Chicago, lacking any any group of socialists and comclear even from the tiny of socialists the and clear leadership, even comtiny group leadership, munists who belatedly belatedly discovered discovered the the riots riots passed passed away in the crisis, munists crisis, the away in what might might be be called called aa euphoria of bourgeois second thoughts. of second what bourgeois thoughts. euphoria Though labor won some immediate railroads gradually gradually immediate gains gains (the (the railroads Though labor restored the pay cuts), cuts), the results are more difficult to are the pay the long-range results restored difficult to long-range out of agitation against Chinese labor imported estimate. of labor estimate. Erupting Chinese out imported agitation against Erupting for railroad in San Francisco Francisco led to the the formation led to for railroad construction, riots in formation construction, riots which enjoyed enjoyed considerable considerable influence in of the the Sand Lot Party of influence in Party which California a few few years. years. But that episode episode suggests, labor's vision as that California for for a labor's vision But as suggests, to be bigoted. Most of of its its limited and clearly was certainly be bigoted. inclined to clearly inclined certainly limited rising leaders, like Samuel Gompers and Adolph Strasser of the like and Strasser of the Samuel Gompers Adolph rising leaders, cigar turned away any program program that that envisioned envisioned a a workers, turned cigar workers, away from any different and better system outside the confines of laissez faire to to different better system outside the confines of laissez faire position in order. concentrate on strengthening the existing concentrate labor's position in the strengthening labor's existing order. And although it polled polled over million votes votes in the election over a million in the election of of 1878, although it 1878, other reforms reforms as well as as monetary monetary inflation, the Greenand advocated advocated other as well Greeninflation, the back back campaign verve and support. soon lost lost its its verve campaign soon support. In the conservative response to the crisis of 1877 In the the broader broader sense, conservative response to the crisis of sense, the 1877 by aa plurality plurality of of Americans. violence crystalwas accepted Americans. Chaos and violence accepted by crystallized the lized the existing existing anxiety class that that it was being being the middle of the middle class it was anxiety of squeezed between between those those who would destroy destroy the rights of of property property the rights squeezed and others forced to to choose, members others who abused abused them. them. But But forced its members choose, its clearly preferred the chance to exploit the liberties of the entreprethe chance of to liberties the the preferred clearly entrepreexploit neur. leaders became even determined to conconneur. And upper-class became even more determined to leaders upper-class solidate solidate their their control control over the system. federal judge named Walter over the A Walter federal system. judge Gresham who followed into the the Democratic Democratic Party bit followed Tilden a bit Tilden into Party was a
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more extreme outspoken than than most, but he he nevertheless nevertheless typified extreme and outspoken more most, but typified the general attitude of his stratum of society. "Democracy now of attitude the his stratum of society- "Democracy is is now general the enemy of law and order and society itself," he concluded, "and of law the order and society itself," he concluded, "and enemy as be denounced." private attitude was given such should should be as such denounced.'* Gresham's Gresham's private attitude was given public exposure by a young middle-class entrepreneur from Indiana public exposure by a young middle-class entrepreneur from Indiana Hay, who had had been been one one of and who named John of Lincoln's secretaries and Lincoln's secretaries John Hay, aspired to for himself. himself. Hay's Hay's book, book, T he Breadwinners, Br~adwinners, to leadership The aspired leadership for was aa fictional polemic against labor. As As aa novel was feeble feeble art, fictional polemic was it was novel it art, against labor. but it by aa wide wide margin margin aa rival rival interpretation of the crisis of it outsold outsold by but the crisis of of interpretation 1877, Henry F. Keenan's The Money Money Makers. Makers. F. Keenan's 1877, Henry SECRETARY OF STATE SEWARD AND THE ADAPTATION OF I1'.""DUSTRIALISM THE FRONTIER THESIS TO INDUSTRIALISM
Hay to personify personify aa developing bipartisan also came to Hay and Gresham also developing bipartisan consensus on on foreign foreign policy. policy. Both Both saw consensus saw overseas economic expansion overseas economic expansion as the long-range to such dangerous unrest unrest and malfuncas the the malfuncsolution to and the such dangerous long-range solution tioning of the system that caused Gresham's performance later of the caused it; it; Gresham's performance later system that tioning as of State under President Grover as Secretary of State under and Grover Cleveland, President Cleveland, and Secretary Hay's actions in the same post under President William McKinley in actions the William same under President McKinley Hay's post were to this outlook outlook in matured form. form. Though were were to show this in its its matured they were Though they not in to deliver the dramatic results produced by Gresham a position not in a to the deliver results dramatic position produced by and Hay, Hay, the the same basic basic approach key foreign-policy leaders and approach guided guided key foreign-policy leaders during the postwar era. the era. postwar during Expansionists the reconstruction reconstruction period period faced faced several handicaps. several handicaps. of the Expansionists of Seward explained explained the the most most important important of them very simply, remarkof them very simply, remarking that the public "refuses to dismiss" the issues of readjustment the issues of that "refuses dismiss" the public to readjustment ing in pursue world world power. This attitude magnified the the impact impact attitude magnified in order to pursue order to power. This of the overt opposition. Such were afraid afraid that expansion that more expansion of the critics were overt opposition. Such critics undercut the would reopen question of that it it would undercut the of slavery the question or that would slavery or reopen the political and of the Carl the laissez-faire laissez-faire system. and economic economic functioning system. Carl political functioning of in his Schurz neatly combined combined all his opposition to all such Schurz neatly such arguments opposition to arguments in taking any not enough with one South? islands. "Have we not Caribbean islands. enough with taking any Caribbean coalition Can we afford buy another another one?" But the the expansionist one?" But afford to to buy expansionist coalition was only checked; it was not disrupted, nor was it replaced by a nor it replaced not it was was by checked; disrupted, only of anti-expansionists. anti-expansionists. new alliance alliance of chant commerce "I the new empire, empire, grander than before. before. II chant "I chant chant the grander than "colowho "colothe in opening," sang Walt in praise of the American of Whitman praise opening," sang of President nizes the the Pacific." Pacific." William William Gilpin, a friend of President Jackson a friend nizes Jackson Gilpin, had supported the Mexican Mexican War with with great rewho had enthusiasm, regreat enthusiasm, supported the
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turned to to the the campaign reissuing (I873) his treatise treatise on on The MisMisturned (1873) his by reissuing campaign by sion of the North American People. "The un transacted destiny of untransacted "The the North American sion of People. destiny of the American American people," people," he . . is to .... . . rush . . to to the the is to rush .... "... the he cried, cried, ". ... to establish a new order in affairs ... to Pacific Ocean human a order in affairs ... to Pacific Ocean ... to establish regenerate the superannuated nations." Businessmen joined in with Businessmen joined in with regenerate the superannuated nations." petitions "to establish and maintain our ascendancy in Asia," and petitions "to establish and maintain our ascendancy in Asia/' and to "manage so that that the world would would be be tributary to us" us." And it so whole world the whole to tributary to "manage it in his his annual message of President Andrew Johnson Johnson curtly of I868, in annual message 1868, President curtly dismissed the the old old argument our political political system be "that our dismissed cannot be system cannot argument "that applied to area more more extended than our prinour continent." continent." The prinextended than to an an area applied ciple and the system were "of sufficient strength and breadth breadth to to ciple and the system were "of sufficient strength comprehend within their sphere and influence the civilized nations the and civilized influence within their nations sphere comprehend of the world." of the world." Although he was an remarks plainly plainly bore bore he was an expansionist, Johnson's remarks expansionist, Johnson's Although the imprint of Secretary of State Seward. Still concerned to construct Seward. Still concerned to the of of State construct imprint Secretary as the world has has never before seen," seen," Seward understood understood "such empire as never before "such empire the world change the the nature purposes of the need and purposes of territorial the need to to change nature and territorial expansion expansion as became more more industrial. While retaining retaining some the economy as the industrial. While some of of economy became his earlier Latin-American countries countries would eventually earlier belief his belief that would eventually that Latin-American apply and speaking openly of of "our" for statehood, "our" Panama isthmus, statehood, and isthmus, apply for speaking openly he clearly realized that commercial expansion the key key to to making making he realized that commercial clearly expansion was the America "the master of of the the world." world." Instead Instead of needing territory territory for "the master America of needing for colonization, the kind of economic expansion required key land the of new kind economic colonization, expansion required key land bases for the projection, projection, development, protection of of trade and for the bases and protection trade and development, and investment. investment. to insure insure «diminished cost[ s] Internal Internal improvements needed to were needed "diminished cost[s] improvements were of production," and and wars wars should be avoided because the United States of production," should be the United avoided because States "sure to to be be aggrandized by peace" peace" because because it would control was "sure was it would control aggrandized by world was to to argue more than two generations generations world commerce. As Lenin Lenin was than two argue more as 1853 that the the key overcoming later, maintained as as early to overcoming later, Seward maintained early as key to 1853 that British supremacy was to to be Asia. "France, England, British be found found in in Asia. "France, and England, supremacy was and Russia," Russia," were were the the rivals: "Watch them them with with jealousy, jealousy, and rivals: "Watch and baffle bafBe their designs against are already already the the great contitheir designs contiagainst you." you." "You are great nental of America. does that content you? you? II trust it does does nental power America. But But does that content trust it power of not. not. You want want the commerce of the world. world. This is to to be be looked the commerce of the looked for for This is ... on the the Pacific. •.. Pacific.... The nation nation that that draws most from the earth earth draws most from the and fabricates fabricates most, the most to foreign foreign nations, nations, must must be be and sells sells the most to most, and will be be the and will the great power of the earth." of the earth." great power Seward's accomplishments his desires. France was was alSeward's accomplishments fell fell shy alof his desires. France shy of .
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the way ready on the way out of Mexico when he he intervened, his fullout of Mexico when fulland his ready intervened, and handed shove only accelerated the retreat. retreat. He failed to acquire either shove only handed accelerated the failed to either acquire there was was to to be be the Danish Danish West Indies Indies or Hawaii. But in the the 19605 there the or Hawaii. But in no need need to belabor the the significance of his Alaskan success; even at to belabor no of even his Alaskan at success; significance the time, time, some Americans Americans understood its role in outflanking the the understood its role in outflanking the the United United States British in in North North America America and British and in in giving States a a strategic strategic giving the
19OOS
bridge across the top top of Pacific basin. basin. "It comacross the of the the Pacific "It seems seems inevitable," inevitable," combridge mented The New York Times, "that all that commerce should be mented all that should be "that commerce Times, Yor% American." American."
today Seward's vigorous effort penetrate the the And today Seward's vigorous effort to to penetrate
Asian mainland mainland by by establishing establishing aa foothold foothold in Korea seems eerily Asian in Korea seems eerily prescient. Seward confounds the view America had world power power confounds the view that had world that America prescient by external external force of circumstance. circumstance. "thrust upon it" it" by "thrust upon force of to be President Ulysses Ulysses S. whose Much the the same is is to be said said of of President S. Grant, Grant, whose desire to to push overseas expansion theme of of his his two two desire was aa central central theme push overseas expansion was terms in in the White House. House. Grant was persistently persistently concerned concerned for the White terms for Grant was "new markets the products products of our farms, farms, shops, manufacmarkets for for the and manufacof our shops, and tories." Indeed, one one of of his his strong reasons for seeking the nomination nomination the reasons for seeking strong for was to help American American investors their a third term was third term for a to help investors expand expand their overseas operations. With With the tutoring that that he he and and Seward proSeward prooverseas operations. the tutoring vided, other industrial nations recognizing that a competitor a other industrial nations new vided, competitor recognizing that had entered world arena. astutely realized the turn turn entered the the world that the had arena. Britain Britain astutely realized that in 1877, when America began regularly to export of the the trade balance in trade balance to of America export regularly 1877, began more than than it it imported, was more more important in violence in than the the violence more important than imported, was evidence was irrefutable, explained the London Pittsburgh. the The was evidence irrefutable, explained Pittsburgh. into Times, tools and and machinery machinery were cutting cutting into because American American tools Times, because the market in England itself, as well as in Australia and Canada. the market in Engknd itself, as well as in Australia and Canada. the single For that that matter, matter, England England had already provided provided in in 1871 had already For single 1871 the most dramatic of America's rise to world power. Worried world rise to dramatic symbol of America's most power. symbol about Bismarck's unification of of Germany through the defeat of of the defeat about Bismarck's unification Germany through Black into the France, and concerned about Russia's renewed push into the Black renewed about and Russia's concerned France, push Sea region, Great Britain apologized having allowed its shipallowed its for having Sea region, Great Britain shipapologized for "in a builders to to aid the Confederacy. Confederacy. It expressed, "in a friendly It formally builders aid the friendly formally expressed, Majesty's Government." Buoyed up by spirit, the regret felt by spirit, the regret felt by Her Majesty's Government.** Buoyed up by that candid recognition of power, and and having the their power, candid recognition of their that having checked the of Laissez of laborers the leaders of America's Age of Laissez America's and the the agrarians, the leaders laborers and Age agrarians, self-interests and Nous Faire to the the fulfillment their self-interests of their fulfillment of Faire moved on to Nous the maturation maturation of the of the the system's contradictions. system's contradictions. tories." Indeed,
V. The Fulfillment Fulfillment of of the the Passing Passing Order Order V.
"Cast your bucket where you you are" are." .•. Cast in agriculagriculit down in Cast it "Cast down down your bucket where in the professions. ture, commerce, in service, and in the professions. domestic service, in domestic in commerce, mechanics, in ture, mechanics, Booker T. Washington, Washington, 1895 1895 .
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The fourteenth Fourtemth Amendment Ammdmmt .•. means means freedom freedom to go where where one may may to go and to act in in such such aa manner, not inconsistent inconsistent with equal rights rights choose, with the the equal to act manner, not choose, and of others, as his hi's judgment judgment may dictate -for for the the promotion promotion of his happiness; others, as of his of may dictate happiness; pursue such such callings callings and avocations most suitable suitable to that is, avocations as as may be most that to to pursue is, to may be develop his capacities, give to them their highest enjoyment. and their to them his highest enjoyment* capacities, develop give Supreme Court Justice Justice Stephen J. Field, Field, 1877 Supreme Court Stephen J. 1877 .
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We declare the true true purpose purpose of government to to be be the the maintenance declare the maintenance ot of government of that sacred sacred right right of of property property which gives to opportunity to to everyone which gives that to ememeveryone opportunity security that shall enjoy enjoy its its fruits. fruits. ploy his his labor labor and security that he he shall ploy
We
Henry George, 1886 George, 1886 Henry
It was to find find America, America, but but it have been been more more wonderwonderwas wonderful it would have wonderful to Twain, in in The Tragedy it. it. Mark Twain, of Tragedy ot Pudd'nhead Wilson, Wilson, 1894 1894
It
to miss ful to miss ful
We say say to you that that you you have have made the the definition a business too to you business man too definition of of a in its William Jennings Jennings Bryan, limited application. its application. limited ill William Bryan, 1896 1896 The world world should should be be open open to national ingenuity to our our national ingenuity and enterprise. enterprise. President Cleveland, 1893 President Grover Cleveland, 1893
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dilemmas and contradictions inherent in their outG look, and granted their failure to complete the revolution GIVEN IVEN THE dilemmas and contradictions inherent in their out-
imlook, and granted their failure to complete the revolution implicit in the antislavery campaign, the leaders of the Age of Laissez in the the of the of leaders Laissez plicit antislavery campaign, Age to aa remarkable degree. Faire fulfilled fulfilled their their Weltanschauung Nous Faire remarkable degree. Weltanschauung to they formally surrendered power to the spokesFor by the to surrendered 1897, when they by 18g7. formally power spokesconception of the world, they had had begun recover a new conception of a men of of the to recover world, they begun to from their their third major depression, were underselling underselling England England and and third major depression, were world steel had provided major testatestaGermany in in the the world steel market, and had Germany market, and provided major ments to the importance the dignity dignity of of the to the ments and the individual human the individual importance and being. despite the dangers in the romantic And of being. despite the dangers in the romantic exaggerations exaggerations of Emerson and Thoreau, that emphasis on individual and Emerson that men and women Thoreau, emphasis on individual could be dismissed as as merely merely an myth only at the price of of could be dismissed the price an agrarian only at agrarian myth bom of accepting a substitute conceived of statistical data and a born of substitute conceived of data statistical accepting computing machines. computing machines. As suggested by the the conflict conflict between private and social property in in social property between private suggested by the Age Age of of Mercantilism, the word and concept concept fulfillment fulfillmmt have have two two the word and Mercantilism, the the term. term. different meanings meanings that that are different are usually in using combined in usually combined using the bespeaks the logic or or pattern pattern the culmination a given The denotation denotation bespeaks of a culmination of given logic of development. the connotation judgment. of a favorable favorable judgment. But the adds a connotation adds development. But It particularly important important to to keep these two two aspects in is particularly It is separate in aspects separate keep these evaluating the the Age Age of Laissez Nous Faire. Faire. For For while while its its advocates advocates of Laissez evaluating stressed individual individual liberty, of stressed achievement, some of liberty, opportunity, opportunity, and achievement, their actions which represented represented aa fulfillment fulfillment of the axioms of the axioms and their actions which logic of the system did not, by their their own standards, warrant even by of the standards, warrant not, even logic system did the favorable the term. term. of the the connotation of favorable connotation This was apparent, in the the way way that Jackson's that Andrew Jackson's for example, This example, in apparent, for after policy toward toward the the Indians and after attitude and policy and Indians culminated culminated during attitude during the Civil bitter and violent violent antagonism produced one the Civil War. That bitter antagonism produced general western which cost until not end until did not cost $22,3.8gr,w40 western war which $223,891,264, and did general 1882. As one of the the commanders commanders who defeated the natives, General defeated the 1882. As one of natives, General "In of the F. Sheridan harsh judgment judgment of the enterprise. Philip F. a harsh left a Sheridan left enterprise. "In Philip War took in other words," he reported to the Secretary of in 1&]8, "we took to the of other words," he reported 1878, Secretary their mode away their country country and their means of support, broke up their broke up their means of support, away their disease of their habits of life, introduced disease and decay introduced of their habits of living, life, decay among among living, "that they them. . . • It for this this and against against this," this," he he added, added, "that they them. It was for .
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*
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The American History History Contours 0/ The Contours of American
made war." war." Chief Chief Joseph having narnarafter having Perec tribe, of the the Nez Perce made tribe, after Joseph of r877 to to escape provided rowly failed Canadian border, the Canadian across the failed in in 1877 border, provided escape across rowly W all Indians. "1 want to have time to look for for aa moving moving epitaph for time to have look to I want all for Indians. epitaph
see how many them II .can ~an find heart my children and see find..•.. My of them children and My heart many of my is sick and sad." is sick and sad." President A. Arthur candidly acknowledged acknowledged in in 1881, r88r, "the "the Arthur candidly President Chester Chester A. appalling fact" that even then the problem remained unsolved. MerMerunsolved. appalling feet" that even then the problem remained with an an organized and cantilists viewed viewed the the Indians as men with cantilists Indians as society, and organized society, by giving them land a tribal tribal unit unit had hoped the conflict as a land as had to resolve resolve the conflict by giving them hoped to and then encouraging helping them to shift to aa fixed over to shift over fixed them to and helping and then encouraging and out their agricultural economy in which they would work out their own agricultural economy in which they compromises between the two cultures. Laissez-faire leaders pursued leaders cultures. Laissez-faire the between two pursued compromises in aa fundamentally different policy. Dramatized in r87! by the formal formal the Dramatized different by 1871 policy. fundamentally decision to to destroy tribal society and culture, their approach was to their to and tribal decision culture, approach society destroy force the Indian to to accept the institution of private property and and of institution the the Indian force private property accept as an an individual individual entrepreneur. entrepreneur. ultimately enter market pla~e the market enter the ultimately place as Congress acted on that axiom in r88], after Indian resistance had had after Indian resistance in on axiom acted that 1887, Congress but hardly less effeccollapsed, and opened up an era of more subtle but less effecera an of subtle and hardly collapsed, opened up tive economic warfare. tive economic warfare. policy, the the same classic classic concern concern Though it produced produced aa different different policy, Though it with the the with the market place place manifested itself in in connection the market manifested itself with connection with immigrant. Maintaining their great fecundity (population their own ingreat fecundity (population inimmigrant. Maintaining per cent between 1860 and 1890), and confronted with the creased creased 25 cent 1860 and and confronted with the between 25 per 1890), economic and social problems of prolonged depression, Americans a prolonged of a economic social problems depression, Americans to restrict the foreigner's entry into competition. "The nation began to the restrict into "The nation began foreigner's entry competition. has reached point in in its observed a citizen in a letter to a point a a has reached a observed citizen in to letter its growth," growth," the editor York Tribune "where its policy editor of the New York in 188r, the of the Tribune in "where its 1881, policy be to to preserve preserve its its heritage coming generations, not to to should should be for coming heritage for generations, not all the the strangers strangers we can can induce induce to to come among us." donate donate it to all it to among us." but the the Religion continued to play part in such antagonism, continued to a part in such antagonism, but Religion play a in the the economic and social market place place became became immigrant's role role in economic and social market immigrant's the of attack. Native labor opposed the the competition at the the the focus focus of attack. Native labor opposed competition and at same time time agreed agreed with with upper-class the immigrant's immigrant's same spokesmen on the upper-class spokesmen inferiority. Both Both groups the non sequitur sequitur by by invoking the resolved the inferiority. groups resolved invoking the central laissez-faire argument class conflict. central laissez-faire the danger about the of class conflict. argument about danger of Since they Since accepted the the promises of laissez laissez faire, faire, neither neither the the higher higher they accepted promises of orders orders nor the the workers workers wanted wanted such war and the such social social war and feared feared that that the of devolution into social immigrant might precipitate precipitate it. it. That specter of into social devolution immigrant might specter violence violence became became one of the strongest and strongly of the the era themes of era and of the strongest themes strongly .
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influenced the influenced the
323 323
first restrictive legislation of 1882 and the organization first restrictive legislation of 1882 and the organization of American Protective Protective Association of the the American Association in in 1887. 1887. Both the Negro and the Negro's Negro'> response response also also the treatment Both of the treatment of the Negro and the developed within the Weltanschauung of laissez faire. Since 90 per within the Weltanschauung of laissez faire. Since 90 per developed of cent of the Negro population remained in the south until the the cent era Negro population remained in the south until the era the northern antislavery coali~ of the First First World War, War, and of and because because the the northern antislavery coalition had had never never been been vigorously vigorously pro-Negro pro-Negro (and (and had had collapsed), the tion collapsed), the his fate within Negro confronted and grappled confronted and with his fate as a freedman as a freedman within Negro grappled with did so primarily as as an an agrarian. As they they rerethat region. that also did so primarily region. He also agrarian. As established their authority, white southerners immediately established their southerners did did not not immediately authority, white black man was was exclude Negro legally legally from political action. action. The black the Negro exclude the from political lynched, threatened, bullied, and cajoled, and tricked, foxed, and and and and threatened, bullied, foxed, tricked, lynched, cajoled, was also voted at at the the appropriate and hoodwinked; but but he he was also voted times and hoodwinked; appropriate times a places as a pawn in the white man's game. as the in white man's pawn places game. to the the environment: environment: Negroes Negroes acNegro reaction was appropriate reaction was acNegro appropriate to cepted the self-interest philosophy and its definition of success and the self-interest and its of success and definition cepted philosophy to build Negro newspapers newspapers declared, declared, for for began to a parallel parallel society. build a began society. Negro example, that high income was "real success," and the class of 1886 that income was 1886 "real and the class of success," high example, at Tuskegee at Institute chose the slogan chose the "There Is Is Room at at the the Top" Tuskegee Institute Top" slogan "There as their their motto. motto. The Negro Negro community rather quickly stratified itself as rather itself stratified community quickly in of the wealthy white entrepreneur and his aspiring comof the comin replicas his white and replicas entrepreneur aspiring wealthy petitors. At the bottom were were the convict the bottom the miserable miserable and and maltreated maltreated convict petitors. laborers leased out to to such gigantic white white firms leased out the Tennessee Tennessee laborers such gigantic firms as as the their keep, keep, Coal, and Railroad Railroad Company for even Iron and than their even less less than Coal, Iron Company for which was literally infinitesimal. At the top were Negro professional which was literally infinitesimal. the top were Negro professional men and whose incomes far greater those of of and capitalists were far than those incomes were greater than capitalists whose many whites any section. Within aa short time, the the latter group latter group whites in section. Within short time, in any many developed vested interest interest in that was was only very slowly a vested in segregation slowly only very developed a segregation that overcome. overcome. Yet the Negro was was potentially potentially dangerous to white leaders because because white leaders Yet the Negro dangerous to he could vote. This reservoir of power and trouble was tapped tapped in in of power trouble was could vote. he This reservoir as the and to to some extent the lower lower the late extent the interest and late 1880s 18805 as the agrarian the agrarian interest classes a lowering began to to collaborate collaborate if nothing classes (fearing else) began lowering if nothing else) (fearing a across the color line. line. Keeping Keeping well well within within the the perimeter of laissezlaissezthe color across perimeter of the faire in which interest was the benchmark of decision, the of the benchmark which was in interest faire politics decision, politics a as as a minority Negro saw that he held a potentially winning hand held a he saw that minority Negro potentially winning white faction. bloc vote to the the highest-bidding highest-bidding white faction. capable a bloc vote to of delivering capable of delivering a or Neither the nor the the Negro Negro offered strong corporate offered any the whites whites nor Neither any strong corporate or classic laissez-faire laissez-faire was classic commonwealth sentiment program. It It was or program. sentiment or commonwealth
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interest class politics, politics, and was the the fulfillment that fulfillment of of that result was the result and the and class interest and as by such demagogues as Baptist logic. Southern whites, whipped up such demagogues Baptist logic. Southern whites, whipped up by minister Thomas North Carolina, on lectured on or candidly of North Dixon of Thomas Dixon minister Carolina, or candidly lectured of their interests by upper-class spokesmen like Carter Glass of Virginia, Glass like Carter their interests by upper-class spokesmen Virginia, OlI1aborated a drive drive that the disfranchised the that legally in a collaborated in legally segregated segregated and disfranchised Negro. Southerners searched their souls and found their interests. their interests. Negro. Southerners searched their souls The group of Negro leaders likewise. Accepting did likewise. leaders did of Negro The dominant dominant group Accepting was necessary necessary to rise to to aa their minority position, they to rise it was that it their they argued argued that minority position, competitive position within the system in to extend their to extend in order order their the within system competitive position rights and opportunities. Coming from Booker T. T. Washington, Washington, who rights and opportunities. Coming from Booker enjoyed entre into the society of Standard Oil executives, railroad Oil railroad Standard of the into entre executives, society enjoyed magnates, and Andrew Carnegie, the strategy was persuasive. WashWashthe and Andrew strategy persuasive. Carnegie, magnates, his loyalty to laissez faire, took his stand in the south ington avowed stand in the his south took laissez to his avowed faire, ington loyalty as a southerner, and accepted accepted social inequality for the forseeable for the forseeable social inequality as a southerner, and future. by the the power power of of the by their told by their own whites and told the whites future. Blocked Blocked by is preferable," most Negroes spokesman that "white leadership most folis "white that Negroes folleadership preferable," spokesman lowed the to start start climbing up a separate and identical but and a identical but the advice advice to lowed separate climbing up longer competitive ladder of laissez faire. Only much later did other later laissez did of faire. other ladder longer competitive Only Negro leaders leaders effectively challenge Washington's influence. Negro effectively challenge Washington's influence. In the the meantime, meantime, Washington's Washington's position position was was made almost almost impregIn impregnable through the generosity of northern white philanthropists white northern of nable the through philanthropists who generosity liked of labor a code labor quietism included a code of liked his his ideology and quietism and (which included ideology (which even strikebreaking). Offered within the broad framework of aa even within the broad of framework Offered strikebreaking). social humanitarian and extremely hard-headed desire to prevent desire to and hard-headed humanitarian extremely prevent social upheavals by by directing reform, their their help help established established upheavals controlling reform, directing and controlling such educational centers centers as University and as Howard University such educational and Tuskegee. Tuskegee. Judged within weakness of of such its own assumptions, the gravest within its such Judged assumptions, the gravest weakness was aa poor poor and and ineffective philanthropy was that that it it was ineffective second-best second-best for for philanthropy the the wholly legitimate (if the time time revolutionary) revolutionary) laissez-faire laissez-faire for the wholly legitimate (if for of giving principle of Negro aa property property stake in the the freed freed Negro stake in the system. principle giving the system. For granted the premises premises and the the logic of laissez laissez faire, the periodic periodic faire, the granted the logic of of property property is most internally redistribution of redistribution is the the most consistent approach internally consistent approach to to sustaining that political political economy. Though unquestionably noble, sustaining that economy. Though unquestionably noble, is aa feeble wasteful substitute. substitute. philanthropy is feeble and wasteful philanthropy A modified version of such redistribution was first in 1871 modified version of such redistribution was first outlined outlined in 1871 in the of his by Henry George in the form of his single-tax program. But it did did But it by Henry George single-tax program. not stir any not stir response for almost a decade. During that interfor a decade. almost that interany great great response During the competitive lude, the wiles, and and chicanery tremenof tremenlude, drive, ability, competitive drive, ability, wiles, chicanery of and in a position dously wealthy powerful entrepreneurs put them in a dously wealthy powerful entrepreneurs put position
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to destroy or severely in the major areas of the to limit competition destroy or severely limit competition in the major areas of the economy. While like Carnegie (iron and Gustavus While men like and steel) economy. Carnegie (iron and steel) and Gustavus Swift packing, and refrigeration of meat) have with with Swift (processing, (processing, packing, and refrigeration of meat) have some reason come to symbolize the laissez-faire capitalist, the issue reason to some symbolize the laissez-faire capitalist, the issue is actually For one thing, some entrepreneurs far more complex. is one thing, some entrepreneurs actually far complex. For to the corporation outlook and thus thus became archi~ shifted over to the corporation shifted over the archioutlook and became the tects of as well well as the heroes age. Other a new era tects of a era as as the of the the passing heroes of Other age. passing giants, like Jay Jay Gould James Fisk Fisk ("The Gould ("The giants, men like ("The Spider"), Spider"), James ("The Hatchet Man"), and Daniel Daniel Drew ("The ("The Spoiler") were ruthless Hatchet were ruthless Man"), and Spoiler") and predatory, predatory, and incapable incapable of of being defended within the standards standards within the being defended of (or any any other other philosophy philosophy outside jungle). faire (or of laissez laissez faire outside the the jungle). was carried on by by small-tosmall-t~ Finally, bulk of economic activity activity was the bulk of economic carried on Finally, the medium-sized capitalists capitalists whose businesses were undramatic and medium-sized whose businesses and were undramatic even unimportant when considered But they were often even unimportant were considered individually. But often individually. they the first introduce and and perfect key innovations innovations (as the refinement to introduce first to the perfect key (as the refinement of iron which were then taken over by the big operators operators iron into into steel) of which were then over the taken steel) big by to put put many many of of business. business. proceeded to who proceeded of the out of the real real innovators innovators out yet they Most of Most of them died died unknown and carried and have have remained remained so, so, yet they carried the burden burden of of industrialization commercial development. the industrialization and and commercial They development. They also the principles of the laissez-faire market place to also applied the the of to sports, market laissez-faire applied principles sports, place as with with baseball baseball and prizefighting. prizefighting. This processing of as of games into This processing games into was in some respects the classic proof of the triumph enterprises o in the some the of was classic enterprises triumph of respects proof business in in America. America. business The undeniable undeniable achievement achievement of laissez-faire entrepreneur, of the the laissez-faire entrepreneur, from Carnegie the Wyoming Wyoming dry dry goods goods merchant, merchant, is is that he susto the that he susCarnegie to tained the the momentum of development through a longlongtained of economic economic development through a wave depression (and an an era that lasted lasted of steadily wave era of steadily falling falling prices) depression (and prices) that Up to 1893, at any rate, per capita income, real real from 1873 to 1898. ttyfi* Up to 1893, at any rate, per capita income, 1873 to wages, and national product That increase. That to increase. all continued continued to and gross wages, gross national product all tremendous surge changed the the face, the food, tremendous of industrial industrial strength food, face, the surge of strength changed and the ideas of America and provoked serious of re-evaluations of serious re-evaluations of America and provoked and the ideas a terrible terrible diplomacy in in European European and Asian Asian capitals. It also also extracted extracted a diplomacy capitals. It and physical physical injury, in psychic psychic and emotional wounds, cost in emotional wounds, death and cost in death injury, in of a and aa process of moral leaching that carried away a great amount of carried of moral that away great process leaching the was the facts that American idealism. Judged against the facts that the nation nation American idealism. Judged against completely free free from from any of foreign foreign attack, further attack, and further any danger danger of completely graced with fantastic natural wealth and skills, the relative and the relative and natural wealth with fantastic skills, graced be described as exas exabsolute cost of those those economic economic gains can only be described can absolute cost of only gains orbitant. America been been truly unique, it would have pared the the it orbitant. Had America pared truly unique,
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social personal costs costs of to aa fraction their of their fraction of o free free enterprise and personal social and enterprise to actual total. actual total. IDEAS OF THE GIANTS INTERESTS AND THE IDEAS THE INTERESTS
The directed and that ruthless ruthless and expensive sustained that and sustained The men who directed expensive accumulation of capital and industrial construction the most most for the were for accumulation of capital and industrial construction were of age years of whose part young young men of of the the east between 45 east between 50 years age whose 45 and 50 part fathers were business or leaders. Very, very few of or professional fathers were business professional leaders. Very, very few of them were were really self-made in the narrow sense, and all all of of them were were really self-made in the narrow sense, provided aa fantastic public subsidy by the the Civil Civil War (which and public fantastic and (which subsidy by provided even ardent admirers not yet as private private defined as have not even their admirers have their most most ardent yet defined The most important and revealing aspect of the selfenterprise). of the selfand most The aspect revealing enterprise). important myth lies lies in symbolism of age and in in its its influence influence on the age made myth in its of the its symbolism to live live in in aa vastly vastly different clliferent world. later generations that were were to world. later generations that Carnegie was nearest to being the pure laissez-faire entrepreneur. laissez-faire the to was nearest entrepreneur. Carnegie being pure Even when he he formed partnership to to expand a limited Even limited partnership formed a expand and integrate integrate with coke coke fields in 1882, he retained retained tight tight control. control. his holdings, holdings, as fields in his as with 1882, he prices with glee, but but he hated hated pools pools and and would shade with childish He would shade prices childish glee, other combinations. let them hold firmly to the doctrine of let them hold to the doctrine of other combinations. "Only firmly "Only free he demanded. "Keep the field open." Along with he the field free competition," demanded. with competition," "Keep open.'* Along he personified personified the the spirit spirit of one's selfselfJohn of pursuing Rockefeller, he John D. Rockefeller, pursuing one's interest. "Whatever in," he admitted, "I must push ininterest. "Whatever II engage he "I must admitted, engage in," push inan entrepreneur rather ordinately." Frankly admitting that he was he was that rather ordinately." Frankly admitting entrepreneur Jones. A than aa steelworker, he hired than that talent hired that talent in in Captain Bill Jones. steelworker, he Captain Bill brilliant and dedicated individual whose essays on the craft of steelbrilliant dedicated individual craft of the steelessays in London, Jones had making were read before the Royal Society read before the in London, Jones had making Royal Society the the typically typically laissez-faire laissez-faire goal of a salary equal to that of the Presiof to a of that the Presigoal salary equal of the the United happily gave it to to dent of United States. astutely and happily dent States. Carnegie Carnegie astutely gave it him. Together they represented in almost classic form the complehim. Together they represented in almost classic form the complementary halves laissez-faire capitalism. capitalism. halves of of laissez-faire mentary In addition addition to to his In his philanthropy, philanthropy, which was clearly which was somewhat clearly (and (and somewhat subtly) conceived to sustain two other other sustain the the system, conceived to subtly) system, Carnegie Carnegie made two took significant contributions to ideology of faire. He took the ideology to the of laissez laissez faire. significant contributions Adam Smith's Smith's insistence insistence upon the market market place and transtransupon expanding expanding the place and it into lated it lated into aa rule rule of of practical practical operation that might be called called CarCarmight be operation that negie's law of of the the surplus. Maintaining steady steady production production was was negie's surplus. Maintaining he explained, cheaper than shutting down part of the operation, of the he cheaper part shutting operation, explained, if the going price fell cost. "The condition of cheap even if below cost. condition of going price fell below cheap manufacture running full" full." Exports Exports were were the the answer. would manufacture is is running answer. They They would
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undercut foreign ultimately create a larger larger market market undercut and ultimately create a foreign competition competition and at profitable profitable prices. prices. Carnegie Carnegie also played aa at also played
key role in developing role in key developing
to the buyer the single price (not rate) system system whereby the final costs the buyer costs to single price (not rate) whereby final by adding the freight from Pittsburgh, even though were computed were computed by adding the freight from Pittsburgh, even though plant. While While the basingconsumer might might be consumer be ordering from a a local local plant. the basingordering from it originated as part of point system refined in era, it was refined a later in a later era, system was point originated as part of laissez faire's with regularizing the market place and infaire's concern laissez concern with market place and inregularizing the the the
creasing creasing profits. profits. In of their careers, both both John John D. D. Rockefeller In the the early their careers, and Rockefeller and early stages stages of J. Pierpont Pierpont Morgan Morgan also as laissez-faire laissez-faire entrepreneurs. also operated J. operated as entrepreneurs. by day worry Indulging for handling detaiIs-"W ork by his mania for and worry "Work Indulging his handling details day and by night, week in and week out, month after month"-and even in in and week month after and in month" even out, by night, the midst of the oil until his sister was "sick of the the Civil midst of Civil War talking was oil until "sick of his sister talking it," approximately 90 per cent of the domestic Rockefeller captured the domestic cent of it," Rockefeller captured approximately 90 per and 1880. the petroleum business between 1870 business between also entered entered the 1880. He also petroleum 1870 and export market with the same drive for dominance. "I believe it is market with the same is drive "I believe it dominance. for export my duty to make money and still more money," he explained (if to and he still more my duty money explained (if money," he needed to use use the the money my he needed to), the good of my for the to), "and to money II make for good of He did both. fellow man according to the dictates of my conscience." fellow to the both. did dictates conscience." of according my That outlook his firm retained, at until 1889, That outlook indicates indicates why least until at least firm retained, why his 1889, most of capitalist even after he most the characteristics of an an individual even of the characteristics of individual capitalist after he it as a trust in 1882. Given his highly personalized reorganized it as a in trust 1882. Given his highly personalized reorganized to 1882, it seems probable that was pattern of of behavior behavior prior prior to that he was seems probable 1882, it pattern being both both candid any great revolutionary candid and accurate accurate in in denying being great revolutionary denying any intent changed to the trust he changed to the "I discovered discovered something intent when he trust form. form. "I something years, that made aa new world," world," he he told told upper-class upper-class associates associates in that in later later years, "and it at at the the time." time." "and II did did not not know it Morgan, on the other hand, unquestionably conscious of conscious of the other was unquestionably hand, was Morgan, broadening the outlook of the individual capitalist into the inclusive, of the into the the outlook individual capitalist inclusive, broadening be called financial capitalism. capitalism. He corporate view view that that later to be later came to called financial corporate even the horrors horrors of of competition. the perpereven dreamed dreamed about about the so, the competition. Even so, sistence of the of laissez faire was clearly revealed revealed faire sistence of of laissez the Weltanschauung clearly Weltanschauung in the nature, as well well as as the the failure, of Morgan's Morgan's first in 1888first effort effort in 1888in the failure, of nature, as a 18B9 to co-ordinate and consolidate the railroads It was a gentleman's It and railroads to consolidate the co-ordinate gentleman's 1889 of comagreement that broke down in in aa renewed renewed outburst comoutburst of that quickly agreement quickly broke the were petitive mistrust and self-interest. For though they were using self-interest. For and mistrust though they using the petitive form, and exhibiting some of its mature characteristics, the railroads the railroads its of mature and characteristics, form, exhibiting were not not yet yet thinking within the economy the framework of of a a political were political economy thinking within a In defined based on the the corporation. In a remark of the the institution institution of and based defined and corporation.
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that revealed the difference, boasted in in 1887 that as as Leland Stanford Stanford boasted that revealed the 1887 that difference, Leland I corporation president he kept "only such papers as, in case I never never in case such he papers as, corporation president kept "only returned, II cared that other might see." see." And like like Morgan's other people cared that returned, Morgan's people might early attempt, most other efforts at combination or co-ordination co-ordination or combination at early attempt, most other efforts the market. market. collapsed when one member saw a chance for a coup in the collapsed when one member saw a chance for a coup in Though the corporate holding company making its appearits was making appearThough the corporate holding company ance and would ultimately dominate the political economy with a ance and would ultimately dominate the political economy with different outlook pattern of organization, the of laissez laissez the spirit of organization, outlook and and pattern different spirit of and well faire the 1880s into the the 1890s. well into i88os and faire remained remained supreme iSpos. through the supreme through Whether offered by Supreme Court justices justices or or artists, academic Whether offered by artists, academic Supreme Court philosophers or reformers, and varied and clashing clashing though though and varied or crusading philosophers crusading reformers, they often were, the the major major intellectual intellectual and political political testaments testaments of the of the often were, they time originated within that Weltanschauung. One of the most strikmost of the strikthat time within Weltanschauung. originated was the Justice Stephen ing of Justice the work of statements was and influential influential statements Stephen ing and Johnson Field, who had had lived career of laissez-faire indi. indiof laissez-faire career a typical lived a Johnson Field, typical vidualism (including a sojourn on the frontier) before being before a the vidualism on frontier) being apapsojourn (including by President Lincoln. pointed to the Supreme Court to Lincoln. the President Court pointed by Supreme Field recognized recognized very very clearly central importance importance of market the market of the Field the central clearly the as the mechanism for adjusting the conflicts of self-interest place of as the for the self-interest conflicts mechanism adjusting place between the the many many units units of of private private property. property. Competition in the the between Competition in market place place produced produced individual well-being and happiand the the greatest market individual well-being greatest happiness for the greatest greatest number. number. Field's objective was was to that for the to strengthen ness Field's objective strengthen that institution without undercutting the principles of faire by by of laissez institution without undercutting the principles laissez faire going back to mercantilism and thereby reintroducing the idea of back the to mercantilism idea of going thereby reintroducing social stressed the "privileges and immunities which of social property. stressed and He the which immunities of property. "privileges to the citizens of all free governments." Once a state right belong all to the citizens Once a state of free governments." right belong legislature established aa unilateral unilateral right right to to regulate regulate railroad railroad rates, rates, he he legislature established angrily pointed out, the door was open for fixing "the prices of everythe door angrily pointed out, open for fixing "the prices of everymansion." Had he he stopped there, thing from aa calico a city calico gown to a thing gown to city mansion." stopped there, could be the subject of private private Field could be dismissed dismissed as Field a monomaniac on as a on the subject of property, as as aa man who would tolerate limits on its rights. tolerate no limits But on its property, rights. But as as he he had indicated indicated during during his his tenure tenure in in the the California California courts in courts in upholding the the rights he honored of Chinese Chinese immigrants, the ideals honored the ideals upholding rights of immigrants, he of laissez well as as defended materialistic base. was at at of laissez faire faire as as well its materialistic defended its base. He was once sophisticated once and understood understood that the market market that the dedicated, and sophisticated and dedicated, to be be regulated regulated by the simple reaplace was going for the place going to by some agency agency for simple reason it did son that that it did not not work either automatically or either automatically or perfectly. perfectly. Field's to define place as rather Field's strategy define the the market market place as a a national national rather strategy was to than state problem than a state problem and then then insist insist that the due process clause clause of that die due process of
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the 14th the Supreme power and the the and the Court the the power i4th amendment gave gave the Supreme Court That meant that duty to review all restrictions on private property. to review all restrictions on private property. That meant that duty bethe market market place place of of the the system would remain remain one of bethe one unit unit instead instead of system would a coming a wild uneconomic conglomeration conglomeration of of many different wild and uneconomic coming many different It also meant that regulation would would be be milder milder (state) places. It also meant that regulation (state) market places. Congress. His His because of position of the reformers reformers in because of the the weaker weaker position of the in the the Congress. high court his first victory victory came when the first the New York York high court accepted accepted his the M unn Case dissenting argument against Justice in the as its its Waite in Case as Munn dissenting argument against Justice Waite majority view. test (In re Jacobs, Jacobs, 1885) of the state's right to view. In In a a test the of state's majority (In re right to 1885) York regulate the conditions of cigar manufacturing, manufacturing, New York the atrocious atrocious conditions of cigar regulate judges explicitly raised the the specter return to doctrine of a a return to mercantilist mercantilist doctrine explicitly raised judges specter of those ages when governmental property. Such on social social property. Such ideas-"from ideas "from those when ages governmental prefects supervised . . the the rate rate of the price price of a of wages, and a of food, food, and supervised .... prefects wages, the large range of other affairs"-were declared archaic. They disturbed of other affairs" were declared archaic. disturbed large range They the place, and the the "normal adjustments" of the the market and also violated the market place, also violated adjustments" of due process process clause "personal liberty and private due clause which which protected and protected "personal liberty private property." property." During the two years, moreover, even that the the the next next two even Waite Waite agreed During years, moreover, agreed that "right of continuous transportation from one end of the country of continuous to the end of from one "right country to transportation the other and admitted that the corporation was entitled the other is is essential," and was entitled the admitted that essential," corporation under the the due process clause. clause. to "equal to an individual individual under due process as an "equal protection" protection" as by his ideological colleague, Justice Field's triumph was announced Field's was announced by his ideological colleague, Justice triumph in 1889 with a direct reference to Waite's earlier Rufus W. Peckham, Rufus Peckham, in 1889 with a direct reference to Waite's earlier ... [going] citation of English mercantilist law: "no reason exists for citation of English mercantilist law: "no reason exists for ... [going] back to to the century ideas of paternal paternal back the seventeenth seventeenth or ideas of or eighteenth eighteenth century was further in 1897, the Allgeyer Allgeyer v. v. government." It It was in the further consolidated consolidated in government." 1897, in Louisiana case, case, when the the court the "right citizen to to be be the citizen Louisiana of the court stressed stressed the "right of free in tied that that principle principle to to the the in the the enjoyment free of all all his his faculties" faculties" and tied enjoyment of "pursuit happiness" clause Declaration of of happiness" the Declaration clause in in the of Independence. Independence. "pursuit of the ideological to laissez £aire was Another brick brick in laissez faire Another in the ideological monument to with straw from the the natural natural sciences. Because it a relatively relatively it was a made with straw from sciences. Because exoften exobvious and easy comparison to to make, make, the the system obvious system was often easy comparison the of as the counterpart of the plained and favorably presented human the as counterpart favorably presented plained the world world of Darwinian mechanism of nature. Comof evolution in the of nature. Darwinian evolution in petition produced the changes that were necessary for survival survival and for that were the petition produced necessary changes desirable for progress. Most arguments of this kind were taken taken this kind for progress. of desirable arguments Herbert second-hand the English English adaptation adaptation provided by Herbert second-hand from the provided by since it it was Spencer or subtlety. subtlety. But But since little imagination showed little Spencer and showed imagination or this in an articulate and stylish form, this pseudo-theory often in articulate often presented an form, pseudo-theory stylish presented
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often gives the impression established something of aa often of having something of gives the impression of having established in the ideological market of the time. monopoly of the time. market the in ideological monopoly While some like Carnegie Carnegie and railroad exfew railroad exand a a few While some entrepreneurs entrepreneurs like ecutives appear to have thought at the time about their operations their about ecutives appear to have thought at the time operations was actually used by by within this the Darwinist Darwinist analogy this framework, within framework, the actually used analogy was intellectuals, reformers, and some capitalists more in talking about in talking about intellectuals, reformers, and some capitalists their actions actions after the fact to place place the system either to or to after the fact or the to explain explain their system either invidious jungle upon upon its protagonists. Even its protagonists. of the invidious connotations connotations of the jungle in his his law the surplus, relied more more upon upon the ideas Carnegie, as the ideas law of of the as in surplus, relied Carnegie, of economists such Jean Baptiste Baptiste Say, such as as Adam Smith, of classical classical economists Smith, Jean Say, and John Stuart pure of such a closer such supposedly closer reading and John Mill. And a Stuart Mill. supposedly pure reading of Spencerians Yale sociologist sociologist William William Graham the Yale as the and Darwinists Darwinists as Spencerians and Sumner that Smith's principles of self-interest and of self-interest and Sumner suggests that Adam Smith's principles suggests an expanding market place provided the muscle which aa moved an the muscle which market place provided expanding face Darwinism and of Darwinism and Spencerianism. face of Spencerianism. Laissez-faire intellectuals intellectuals and relied more more upon upon their their and ideologists Laissez-faire ideologists relied confronting the dilemma of the moral of their moral dilemma in confronting their system. own resources resources in system. it appeared between the private morality morality Whether it as the the dichotomy the private Whether dichotomy between appeared as of his ethics the market market as an an entrepreneur the individual of the individual and and his ethics as in the entrepreneur in place, in the fantastic discrepancies and inequities in economics and in and in the fantastic economics and inequities place, discrepancies bepolitics, or in the treatment of the freed Negro, this moral issue the or in the treatment of freed this issue moral beNegro, politics, came the the central central theme theme of writers of the Age of Laissez of of the the major came of writers the Laissez major Age Nous Faire. displaying quite different styles perspecand perspecFaire* Though Nous styles and Though displaying quite different tives, and using radically different subject matter, Twain and and different Mark and tives, subject matter, using radically Henry James were alike in accepting this challenge. alike were in this Henry James accepting challenge. FUNDAMENTAL CRITICISM FROM WITHIN THE SYSTEM While While aa great be, and has been, read read into novels deal can can be, has been, into James's James's novels great deal clear that that his his central the beyond what he he put put there, there, it it is is clear central theme theme is is the beyond
human (and (and American) American) values values by by the the protagonists protagonists of the of the "I see see what you age. "I you are are not making," he cried cried out what out in in 1905, age. "oh, what making," he 1905, "oh, are so so vividly you are notl" Laissez had been been "a recipe for for Laissez faire faire had "a colossal colossal recipe you vividly not!" the paythe creating of arrears" that future would have to pay arrears" that future generations have to creating of generations would abuse of abuse of
if they if they were were left left the intellectual, moral, moral, and physical physical resources. resources. Thus Thus the intellectual, James Melville on the the failure of aa romantic tranwith Melville failure of or tranromantic or James agreed agreed with scendental definition definition of self to scendental of self to supply a viable standard even for a viable standard even for supply terms with to terms with reality, reality, let alone for for living living in with coming let alone a society in a with coming to society other human beings. other beings. While James formal philosophical never offered offered aa formal philosophical or programmatic or programmatic James never
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and stated the issue issue in un~ and stated the in unmistakable terms and with with great courage, sophistication, and style. terms and mistakable great courage, sophistication, and style. The greatness of James James lies in his refusal to to retreat. his lies in his refusal retreat. He stood stood his greatness of resolution of of the the problem, problem, he defined resolution he defined
ground even though he realized that the the coming coming corporation even though realized that order ground corporation order would institutionalize the very individual characteristics that appalled appalled would institutionalize the characteristics that very individual misunderstood as running away, and worried worried him so so deeply. and Often misunderstood a running as a deeply. Often away, perspective his long in Europe his were voyages of perspective search of in search sojourns in long sojourns Europe were voyages in on America: America: "1 have always eyes on on my my native land." "I have native land." always my my eyes than aa half-century hal£~entury of of further, further, and And despite and supposedly despite more than supposedly more brilliant, inquiry, neither psychologists, nor neither sociologists, more brilliant, inquiry, sociologists, psychologists, nor historians have have added to the the analysis and insights that James historians added much to that and James analysis insights in The American American Scene perceptive provided in Scene (I907)' provided extremely perceptive (1907). The extremely Morris is correct: the the reason Americans novelist Wright novelist is probably reason Americans Wright Morris probably correct: prefer analyses by foreign aristocrats like the Frenchman Alexis de de aristocrats like the Frenchman Alexis prefer analyses by foreign is that James "is simply Tocqueville or the Englishman Lord Bryce or the Lord is that "is James Tocqueville Englishman simply Bryce holding out the too much for for us." us." He is not mildly too is not while holding out the critical while mildly critical is devassurance that everything everything will turn out just dandy. James will turn devassurance that is out just dandy. James there is is no no universal universal law law of happy astating while while warning warning us of happy us that that there astating endings. endings. crea~ America had had matured under laissez faire, he he insisted, America matured under the creaas the laissez faire, insisted, as tion of to life. Hence its men were "thoroughly a business of a tion business approach life. were to Hence its "thoroughly approach un~ obvious products products of of the the business-block, the business-block business-block unobvious business-block, the mitigated by any other influence definite enough to name." As for for mitigated by any other influence definite enough to name." of realized that that by by defining the women, in terms terms of the women, he realized emancipation in defining emancipation becoming the the equals equals of of men, men, they they were were very very apt to define define themselves themselves apt to becoming the liberty liberty of out faire and laissez faire their only of laissez of their out of existence. Granting only existence. Granting the to pretend pretend that that it a meaningful meaningful the western he refused refused to it was a western frontier, the frontier, he such liberty in itself. he recognized recognized that that such liberty or worth-while or worth-while end end in itself. Instead, Instead, he a necessary it as as a to face alone seek necessary produced an seek it let alone face solitude, an inability solitude, let inability to produced it create create aa society based on a part of life. Yet Yet neither did it of human life. neither did society based part pursuit of of the the kind kind of found on sense of of freedom found of community. sense community. The pursuit lead-if had not not already already led-to a situation the frontier would lead led to a situation it had if it frontier would the "the be to grow up blighted" would be "the only in which "freedom to which the the "freedom in only blighted" grow up of future generations." By freedom in for the the smaller of future store for in store smaller fry freedom By generations." fry itself, that insight insight does more to to account for later later juvenile juvenile delinquency delinquency account for does more itself, that of modern explana99 per per cent cent of explanaamong upper-income upper-income families than 99 families than among tions. tions. James was even even too too much for admirers. Edith Edith Wharton, Wharton, who for his his admirers. James was financial decay in the new industrialists industrialists and financial wrote of moral decay in the the moral wrote of the
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capitalists, and Willa Cather, who shifted the locale of the locale of the drama to to shifted the capitalists, and Willa Gather, the prairie, ultimately retreated to an earlier and more simplified more earlier and the prairie, ultimately retreated to an simplified world. That That was where Mark Mark Twain Twain began, began, but he moved in the in the but he world. was where other direction, toward the and insight insight of his of James. In his the courage other James. In direction, toward courage and Sawyer and and Huckleberry Huckleberry Finn, Finn, Twain prepre~ first books, as Tom Sawyer first such as books, such ferred to to "light off to the territories" (always with with another man, not not another man, ferred "light off to the territories" (always a woman), woman), or drift down the the river river to to aa romanticized romanticized version version of of a or to to drift the old society. William Howells too, what~ Howells whatAnd William the old south's south's corporate too, corporate society. ever his horror and dismay over defined of laissez laissez faire, results of the results over the and dismay ever his horror faire, defined in terms of Silas Lapham, a traditional businessman his solution a traditional businessman his solution in terms of Silas Lapham, whose personal and market~place code happily coincided. Yet in whose personal and market-place code happily coincided. Yet in both Howells went further than James James another sense further than and Twain went Howells and another sense both and to some reasserted the ideal of a Christian commonwealth of a ideal Christian the commonwealth reasserted and to some degree degree in secular logic and and rhetoric. rhetoric. In In the their limited limited the end, in secular logic however, their end, however, socialism heart only, rather than of the heart and the mind of the than heart the rather the heart mind of the socialism was was of only, and the the will. will. Pudd'nhead Wilson But later story of The Tragedy But Twain's Twain's later Wilson of Pudd'nhead Tragedy of story of does confront the moral dilemma just as effectively as James. does confront the moral dilemma just as effectively as James. He first denies his protagonist protagonist the the chance to go go off the river river or or chance to off down the first denies his into the that refusal refusal to to duck off the off into confined and that into west* Thus confined-and into the the west. was aa great great triumph triumph for presented in in frontier was Twain the issue for Twain-the issue is is presented frontier terms of between the and the Negro. Twain terms of relations relations between the white white man and the Negro. never really answered the the challenge, not by presenting aa at least least not never by presenting challenge, at really answered direct solution. But what what he may have been more more significant: he did may direct solution. But he did have been significant: he said that the idea idea of total liberty to pursue happiness was a myth. said of total that the to was a liberty pursue happiness myth. other, and the thing All men were effect slaves All in effect were in to each each other, slaves to the important important thing was to recognize was to this truth truth so the slavery could be be defined defined in so that that the in recognize this slavery could terms. human and creative creative terms. At the the end of of the the book, book, Twain's protagonist remarks that it was Twain's protagonist remarks that it was America confront and grapple grapple with this crucial crucial wonderful to to see wonderful see America confront and with this it would have issue, that it more wonderful wonderful to to have missed have been been more have missed issue, but that the the encounter. By floating Hoating down the the river river or off to the the encounter. By or scampering off to scampering territories, America evaded the central question. It took moral had evaded the central It took moral territories, question. for a courage for a man who loved his country country as as much as admit loved his as Twain to to admit courage this to himself then this to himself and then declare it to to the public. In passing the judg~ declare it the public. In passing the judgalso implying ment, Twain was also a momentum toward toward some catas~ some catasment, implying a trophe. That pattern pattern of of thought thought became became increasingly increasingly evident evident after after trophe. as conservatives conservatives no 1880 as no less than reformers reformers persistently persistently argued that less than argued that
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social violence and chaos unless the the imbalances imbalances and and chaos would would result result unless the laissez-faire were corrected. malfunctioning of of the laissez-faire system corrected. malfunctioning system were to the the Atlantic Atlantic Monthly Monthly in America's A contributor contributor to in I882 that America's 1882 wrote wrote that "happy immunity from those social diseases which are the danger social those diseases which are the "happy immunity danger and the the humiliation of Europe is no doubt humiliation of is passing away:' And no doubt Europe passing away," thinking of such outbreaks of violence as the Haymarket Massacre of such outbreaks as of violence the Massacre thinking Haymarket of 1886 in Chicago urban riots, riots, aa local politician 1886 in of and other other urban local Kentucky Chicago and Kentucky politician ..•. The rich grow fretted times are strangely out of joint that "the "the times fretted that are strangely out of joint. rich grow richer, the poor become become poorer; the nation nation trembles.*' trembles." The same the poor same richer, poorer; the of Henry Henry George's George's powerful analysis either-or theme theme is at the the hean either-or is at heart of powerful analysis Progress and Poverty, Poverty, which which became became aa best-seller best-seller of of Progress the paradox of the paradox of the i88os. in the I880s. Desperately concerned over the decline of democracy, in decline of over the concerned Desperately democracy, and aware of of the of unrest unrest and brooding revorevothe "widespread and brooding "widespread feeling feeling o lution," George concluded that the tendency to barbarism "is an an concluded that the "is to barbarism lution," George tendency increasing one." Ignatius Donnelly, ~ leader of the agrarians, emone." a emleader of the agrarians, increasing Ignatius Donnelly, phasized the the same danger danger of did So did of "terrible convulsions." So "terrible social social convulsions." phasized Henry Demarest Demarest Lloyd, newspaper writer writer who became reform a newspaper a reform became a Henry Lloyd, a (and ultimately aa radical) radical) publicist. publicist. But conservatives like like Presidents But conservatives Presidents (and ultimately Harrison and Grover Grover Cleveland Cleveland commented possibility, Harrison on the the same same possibility, commented on as of Vermont, Vermont, Federal as did did Senator Senator George Federal Judge F. Edmunds of George F. Judge T. Harris, was national commissioner Gresham, and William T. commissioner William who was national Gresham, Harris, of of education education and an an influential influential writer. writer* social violence
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REFORMERS ATTEMPT TO SUSTAIN THE SYSTEM
This broad consensus the upsurge of social social This broad an insight consensus affords affords an into the upsurge of insight into and political political agitation that climaxed the Age Age of Faire. Laissez Nous Faire. of Laissez climaxed the agitation that However haltingly, mutual suspicions and bitter bitter and despite haltingly, and great mutual suspicions and despite great of conflicts of interest, the the conservative and the the liberal defenders of liberal defenders conflicts of interest, conservative and save laissez co-operated in and unsuccessful unsuccessful effort effort to to save a belated laissez faire faire co-operated belated and in a that system. along with with their the enemies the their enemies that Other conservatives, conservatives, along system. Other way for a system. In the crisis, radicals, agitated each in his own In the a in new his for each crisis, radicals, agitated way system. of course, conservatives and liberals stood fast against radicals, the radicals, all conservatives and liberals stood fast of course, all against the but the within the coalition against provide the the left provide the left the coalition but the differences differences within against the era. the era. of the the political fundamental explanation of political ferment ferment of fundamental explanation of the of land one whose of taxing the unearned unearned increment increment of land values values As one idea of whose idea taxing the had its its roots roots in in physiocratic physiocratic doctrine, doctrine, George no sweeping sweeping had George made no attack on private private property, property. "We declare declare the the true true purpose purpose of of governgovernattack sacred that of in 1886, "to be the maintenance of that sacred ment," he maintenance the "to be in he explained 1886, ment," explained
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right of property which which gives everyone opportunity to employ to everyone of property employ opportunity to right gives to his labor that he shall enjoy its He argued in in fruits." its fruits." his shall labor and and security that he argued enjoy security
He classic laissez-faire logic that the decline in propertyholding in decline the classic laissez-faire logic that propertyholding would create a mass of men "who feel no direct interest in the the control of control of in interest no create a mass of direct "who feel That would facilitate the rise of demagogues government." who of rise the demagogues government." That would facilitate a way was offering way of would destroy political democracy. of would offering a George was democracy. George destroy political to avoid such devolution. It maintaining the circulation of property devolution. such It maintaining the circulation of property to avoid appealed to a number of middle-class property owners as well as as well as appealed to a number of middle-class property owners laborers, for aa time time undercut the currency currency ininof the the strength undercut the and for laborers, and strength of flation movement. While George was not not aa radical radical in in the the sense of sense of movement. While flation George was to purify and thereby preattacking the system itself, his program to his the itself, thereby prepurify program system attacking serve both extensive It is misleading and and is very and rigorous. serve it it was was both extensive and very misleading rigorous. It to call such men (including the Populists) either rather supercilious the either to call such rather Populists) (including supercilious backward or or reactionary. reformers acting were vigorous backward acting on vigorous reformers They were reactionary. They the first of laissez faire. the laissez of faire. first principles principles The fulfillment the laissez-faire came with the labor movement came with the laissez-faire labor fulfillment of of the subsequent organization of the American Federation of Labor and of American Labor of the Federation subsequent organization its membership membership to to all but aa tiny tiny the of Labor. Labor. In all but In opening the Knights Knights of opening its minority of so-called workers (bankers, lawyers, doctors, and men so-called workers of (bankers, lawyers, doctors, minority as well as the the of the the liquor were excluded), unskilled as the unskilled well as to the of trade were excluded), to liquor trade skilled, and to Negroes along with the whites, the Knights offered with the and the offered to whites, skilled, Negroes along Knights moral leadership leadership of of aa high high order. Accepting the the principles principles of order. Accepting of laissez laissez moral V. Powderly faire, leaders like Grand Master Terence Master Workman Terence like Grand V. leaders faire, Powderly recognized the the reality and labored to end end it. it. His His of class class conflict conflict and labored to reality of recognized was not an attack on laissez faire; opposition to the wage system the not attack to laissez an faire; opposition wage system it merely aa kind of hard-headed hard-headed idealism the market market place. place. it was was merely about the kind of idealism about He argued that an an interim interim improvement in working conditions argued that improvement in working conditions as an eight-hour day through various reforms such the arbitration arbitration through various reforms such as an eight-hour day and the of disputes of with capital capital would prepare prepare the the way way for the worker worker to to for the disputes with become become aa property property owner owner in the market place through in the market place the organizathrough the organizaof producer tion tion of producer co-operatives. Far from being being an adaptation of of an adaptation co-operatives. Far the Powderly was aa premature premature and fuzzy vision socialism, the socialism, Powderly program program was fuzzy vision of profit-sharing plans. plans. As the the basis basis of of his his ultimately of later later profit-sharing successful ultimately successful competition with the the Knights, Knights, Samuel Gompers offered aa more more competition Gompers offered routine as much as routine laissez-faire laissez-faire objective: objective: accept the system system and get get as as accept the within it. possible within the skilled elite of the labor it. Concentrating on on the skilled elite of the labor possible Concentrating force, his his early the views and programs within the force, early views programs developed developed wholly wholly within assumptions of individual individual private property and the market place. the and market assumptions of private property place. Despite certain certain indications to the contrary, the agrarian protest protest indications to the contrary, the agrarian Despite
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also vigorous rerealso developed within them. them. Like Like many developed within many vigorous within a given system, the Populists accentuated who operate within a operate given system, the Populists accentuated comcertain weaknessess of of the the existing order. Some leaders comcertain weaknessess Some of of its its leaders existing order. the bined the prejudices prejudices and and demagoguery the Jacksonians others bined of the with others Jacksonians with demagoguery of borrowed from aristocratic aristocratic bigots the east east. Thus and in the Thus foreigners bigots in foreigners and Jews were attacked for irrelevant Yet much of the the attacked for irrelevant reasons. reasons. Yet criticism of much criticism Jews were distorted bebePopulists on these these counts counts is is grossly exaggerated and Populists grossly exaggerated and distorted cause from the the narrow narrow and and anemic definition of it derives cause it derives from anemic modern of modern definition it misses misses or or obscures important point point that that the the tolerance. Hence it tolerance. obscures the the important target of their anger anger was was the real malfunctioning malfunctioning of of the the system of their the wholly target wholly real system of that failure; and itself. immigrants became became symbols itself. Jews and of that Jews and immigrants failure; symbols was mistaken and unfair, it was nevertheless though the syllogism the was and it was mistaken nevertheless unfair, though syllogism as such. quite aa different matter from different matter from attacking these groups such. quite groups as attacking these rate of Farmers caught caught the the full of the declining Farmers full impact of rate the of economic economic impact declining 18805. They observed the growth that became apparent in the late that became in late the the observed i88os. growth apparent They ground rules of laissez faire, applied the technology, used the rules of laissez used the the new faire, applied ground technology, in regional crops, and produced specialized new machinery, in and moremachinery, specialized regional crops, produced yet their their share of the the system's income decreased. decreased. Freight Freight rates and share of rates and yet system's income per cent between 186s and 18¢, other industrial prices fell fell about other industrial prices about 67 cent and between 1865 67 per 1896, but farm prices dropped 75 per per cent. During the the same years, but farm prices about 75 cent. During same years, dropped about per cent. cent. And moreover, the exportable surplus wheat jumped jumped 16 the exportable 16 per of wheat moreover, surplus of by 1885, even the Federal land commissioner acknowledged even the "that Federal land commissioner acknowledged "that by 1885, was being being made the prey of unscrupulous speculathe public public domain was the the prey of unscrupulous speculation and the worst forms forms of monopoly through through systematic tion the worst land monopoly of land systematic frauds." frauds." by the the patent patent racket racket (as barbed-wire Farmers were bedeviled by in barbed-wire Farmers were bedeviled (as in wheat and corn, fencing), money on cows cows as and well as on wheat as well as on corn, and losing money fencing), losing interest to per cent cent interest to reduced to making chattel at up up to to 35 reduced to making chattel mortgages mortgages at 35 per states was secure capital for machinery machinery and land that that in was in some states secure and land capital for doubling in price in decade. With considerable justificaa decade. considerable justificain price in less less than than a doubling tion, they they reacted negatively to lectures from from easterners easterners to supercilious reacted negatively tion, supercilious lectures whose knowledge knowledge of of dirt dirt came from formal formal gardens whose croquet gardens and croquet lawns parks and estates. In In an analogy with and summer estates. lawns or or from from city analogy with city parks of his share of his colonialism, the the farmer charged that that aa sizable sizable share farmer accurately colonialism, accurately charged that agricultural production ended up as locally undistributed profits that undistributed ended as profits locally up agricultural production went east to banks banks and landowners. Farm tenancy absentee landowners. and other other absentee went east to tenancy into as was the consolidation of holdings into large was rising rising steadily, of the consolidation was as was holdings large steadily, the the cowof age, the cowfarms. Even Even those individualist craftsmen of the craftsmen individualist those great farms. age, great broken their will boys, resorted to strikes in Texas. And their will finally broken by a Texas. to strikes in resorted by finally boys, movement
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run of the run of bad bad weather weather in in the
late Kansas farmers in in Kansas o farmers thousands of late 1880s, i88os, thousands
and Nebraska Nebraska gave gave up up their their land. land. and As that migration of suggests, the the Populist movefailures suggests, the failures As reverse migration that reverse of the Populist movement was in large measure an uprising of surf/if/in g farmers against farmers of ment was in large measure an uprising surviving against existing leadership. However tenuously, they still held on to to their their existing leadership. However tenuously, they still held land. Cleveland's pious invocations in behalf of "a healthy and free "a land. Cleveland's pious invocations in behalf of healthy and free competition" struck them as arrogant nonsense, and they equated the they equated the competition" struck them as arrogant nonsense, Republicans with Carnegie. Beginning with a revival of the Southern Republicans with Carnegie. Beginning with a revival of the Southern Farmers Alliance Alliance (it had originated Texas in as aa protest protest in 1875 in Texas Farmers had 1875 as originated in (it against absentee in ranching), the agitation spread rapidly the in absentee capital agitation spread rapidly ranching), against capital into the north and and west. west. Employing ideas and and invoking invoking the the names names the ideas into the north Employing the of Jefferson and Taylor, Taylor, Jackson Jackson and the farmers developed farmers developed and Benton, of Benton, the Jefferson and aa program consolidated the general antagonism antagonism against railthe general that consolidated against railprogram that roads and other giant giant entrepreneurs. entrepreneurs. roads and other Conservatives as well well as began to to act. After extended as reformers reformers began act. After extended Conservatives as 1886-1887, a Senate committee rehearings around the country in a Senate in committee rearound the 1886-1887, hearings country ported "that upon no public question are the people so nearly are the "that no so ported people upon public question nearly unanimous as as upon upon the the proposition that Congress undertake unanimous should undertake Congress should proposition that in way the regulation of interstate commerce." commerce." The Interstate Interstate in some way of interstate the regulation Commerce Act was the result. Avowedly a serious comthe a Act of was serious comof 1887 result. Avowedly 1887 promise effort to adjust and stabilize the framework of the market the effort and framework the to stabilize of market adjust promise place within within the the assumptions laissez faire, it attempted remove of laissez to remove faire, it place attempted to assumptions of existing abuses and prevent future inequities in the railroad system. future the abuses and railroad system. existing prevent inequities in During the next three years, moreover, four agrarian states were the three next During years, moreover, four agrarian states were admitted to the the union, union, more funds were provided provided for for agricultural admitted to funds were agricultural science and education, cabinet post post was was added for agriculture. agriculture. science and a cabinet added for education, and a Rapidly gaining strength and confidence, confidence, the the farmers began, as in farmers began, as in Rapidly gaining strength their St. Louis their St. meeting of with the the to work out Louis meeting of 1889, out an alliance alliance with 1889, to Grange, the the Greenbackers, Greenbackers, and some elements elements of Before their their of labor. labor. Before Grange, full as their their power power was was becoming apparent full program but as settled, but program was settled, becoming apparent in the the enactment laws against trusts and monopoly in in enactment of of laws and monopoly in southern southern . against trusts and western western states, F. Edmunds of of Vermont Vermont like Senator Senator George states, men like George F. and George of Massachusetts, feared grave grave social F. Hoar of social disdisMassachusetts, who feared George F. orders if the the system orders if were not not put put back back in in balance, balance, joined joined with with reresystem were formers to formers to write pass the Anti-Trust Act Act write and pass the misnamed Sherman Sherman Anti-Trust of of 1890. Whatever its its weaknesses weaknesses (it did not not offer offer definitions trust definitions of of trust 1890. Whatever (it did or monopoly, or for example), and however it was emasculated and for however it was emasculated and monopoly, example), abused in later abused in later years, years, the the law was was one the major major symbols of the one of of the of the symbols fulfillment of the Age of Laissez Laissez Nous Faire. fulfillment of the Age of as law Faire. It It represented as law represented
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the essential principle oof that that W eltanschauung-competition through~ essential principle the Weltanschauung competition throughout national market place. a national out a market place. Populists also demanded demanded broad educational assistance, for the south broad educational the south assistance, for Populists also as as for other sections, sections, and trade to their exports exports well as for other as well and free free trade to expand expand their and in the home market market for manufactures. and strengthen the home for manufactures. strengthen competition competition in also proposed They proposed aa commodity plan that that would regulate credit plan would regulate They also commodity credit marketing throughout throughout aa given and facilitate the sale sale of of facilitate the marketing given crop-year crop-year and surpluses while giving the farmer in their most farmer short-term short-term loans. loans. And in their most surpluses while giving the dramatic, proposal, they called for for the the dramatic, and generally misunderstood, proposal, generally misunderstood, they called nationalization of of the the commercial of the the market place. Far Far nationalization commercial arteries arteries of market place. from becoming Populists were were in plan to from to the Populists in this this plan socialists, the becoming agrarian agrarian socialists, nationalize the railroad, telegraph, telegraph, and and telephone telephone systems merely the railroad, nationalize systems merely carrying logic of to its its classic Given the the the logic of laissez laissez faire faire to classic fulfillment. fulfillment. Given carrying the absolutely essential role role of open and and equitable equitable market place in an open in of an market place absolutely essential the theory theory and and practice practice of they concluded that the only the of laissez the only laissez faire, concluded that faire, they way to to guarantee the cornerstone cornerstone of by taking taking it out of the was by it out the system guarantee the way system was of the hands of of any enterpreneur. "It battle for liberty," the hands of a "It is battle is simply a for liberty," any enterpreneur. simply explained Populist Populist presidential presidential candidate candidate James B. Weaver Weaver of of IowaIowa James B. explained in secured the power will work out the details." in 1892. out details." secured the the we will work 1892. "Having power "Having While some of of the the reformers reformers ultimately ultimately became became true true radicals, the While radicals, the was radical radical only in the sense that it reasserted and and movement itself itself was in it reasserted sense that the only attempted to act act on on the the basic basic axioms of the the existing existing order. order. axioms of attempted to of The party's party's decision Jennings Bryan Bryan of to endorse decision to endorse William William Jennings Nebraska for for President President in underscored its fundamental attach~ attachNebraska its fundamental underscored in 1896 1896 ment to laissez faire political system. did their their So did to laissez faire and the existing and the ment system. So existing political argument that the unlimited coinage of silver at r6 to r would would at 16 i the to that unlimited of silver coinage argument create more economic this was was the of inin~ the same kind of same kind create more economic opportunity; opportunity; this used had flationary logic that antislavery radicals like Thad Stevens used Stevens radicals like that flationary logic antislavery in the the 1860s. Jackson and Benton Benton as as reliable reliable guides, guides, Bryan Bryan in i86os. Citing Citing Jackson reiterated the and infused with the the infused them with the axioms faire and axioms of of laissez laissez faire reiterated to righteous emotional ardor of the early Jacksonians. "We say to you," the ardor of emotional say you," early Jacksonians. righteous he thundered thundered in his famous famous Cross Gold Speech, you have have "that you of Gold he Cross of in his Speech, "that its application." the definition definition of businessman too too limited limited in in its of a a businessman made the application." By Bryan's Bryan's criteria, criteria, almost almost everyone was aa businessman. businessman. "The man everyone was By in a a country wages ... the attorney is employed for ... the who is country town .•• attorney in employed for wages miners • . . the merchant the cross-roads cross-roads •... . . the . . the the miners the farmer farmer .... at the the merchant at to are business men [as others]. come to speak for this this We are as as much business speak for [as others]. class of of business business men." men." broader class broader sustain to restore Bryan and Populists were were attempting restore and sustain and the the Populists attempting to Bryan .
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the system of laissez the same way that Jackson had made that Jackson same way faire in the in the laissez faire system of he would would maintain maintain the of the the system. Jackson had had clear the framework framework of clear he system. Jackson attacked South Carolina planters and England speculators; New and attacked South Carolina planters England speculators; But Bryan assaulted eastern industrialists financiers. But and New York financiers. industrialists and assaulted eastern Bryan having defeated the mercantilists by splitting the shield of social of the shield social having defeated the mercantilists by splitting property with the sword private property, property, the the true believers of true believers of of private with the sword of property laissez faire found themselves themselves naked naked on on the the battlefield. battlefield. Their Their attempt laissez faire found attempt to use liberty and private property property to to attack attack private private property property and and to use liberty and private the nationalinationaliliberty was doomed from the outset. Such proposals as as the liberty was doomed from the outset. Such proposals zation the communications communications network network appalled appalled the the privates in their their of the zation of privates in a and at least in part social basis of in more social basis of at a and least ranks. Only new own ranks. part Only criticism could any headway headway against faire. of laissez laissez faire. the power criticism could make any against the power of THE PERSISTENT DILEMMAS OF EXPANDING THE MARKET PLACE
This the advocates advocates of reformed laissez laissez faire a reformed as the of a faire This became became apparent apparent as confronted the dilemmas their system in foreign policy and in dilemmas of of their confronted the foreign policy and system was philosophy. Since the continuing expansion of the market place the of Since the market was continuing expansion place philosophy. the sine qua non non of of laissez President Rutherford Hayes exexsine qua the laissez faire, Rutherford Hayes faire, President plained in 1877, the "long commercial depression . . . directed atthe commercial directed atin plained depression 1877, "long tention to in a concerted manner. For that matter, tention to the manner. the subject" in concerted that a For matter, subject" some had already been talking talking to to Grant's some entrepreneurs Grant's Secretary already been entrepreneurs had Secretary relieve of State Fish about policy as of State Hamilton about foreign as a a way "to relieve Hamilton Fish foreign policy way "to business distress." had begun to expand into Canada business distress." Some companies had into to Canada begun expand companies by 1887 total was was 4& 48. Others Others were increasing their their in 1870, in ^ie r tota were increasing 1870, and by 1887 their holdings, or entering the market in China or, like the Singer Sewing or the in China like market the or, holdings, entering Singer Sewing Machine Company, moving into Britain and other other European Machine into Great Great Britain Company, moving European nations. nations. Politicians responded responded quickly. the imimPoliticians reminded of of the quickly. Persistently Persistently reminded of expansion by portance of expansion and the the necessity necessity of government assistance of government assistance by portance such such men as as Charles Charles Dalton of the the textile textile industry Dalton of and H. K. EL Slayton, industry and Slayton, a a dry dry goods John T. Senator John T. Morgan for a a growing merchant. Senator goods merchant, Morgan spoke spoke for growing consensus as 1882. market is is not not consensus of of congressmen as early 1882. "Our home market congressmen as early as to the equal the demands of producing and and manufacturing of our our producing classes equal to manufacturing classes and to the capital to the capital which which is must enenis seeking employment.... We must seeking employment. the field field of our traffic," large of our traffic," he concluded in either-or he concluded in a a typical either-or large the typical "or stop is." warning, "or the business business of manufacturing just just where of manufacturing where it it is." warning, stop the Numerous congressmen analyses and inoffered similar similar analyses and spoke congressmen offered spoke inof China as "our the nations nations to creasingly China as "our India," and of of the to the the south south India," and creasingly of as if only we shall as "twenty duty toward toward shall do our duty do our Indies, if "twenty American Indies, only .
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grasping their their trade." This explicit analogy with with Britain's trade." This is Britain's empire grasping explicit analogy empire is o the one the most revealing aspects of the mature foreign policy of one of most revealing of aspects of the mature foreign policy
laissez faire. India itself, itself, American American attitudes attitudes revealed revealed the growAs for for India the steadily steadily growoverseas economic as aa solution ing interest in in overseas economic expansion solution for for domestic domestic ing interest expansion as troubles. Reporting that he he had had received received "hundreds" of inquiries troubles. "hundreds" of Reporting that inquiries in India urged from American American firms, one State State Department official in India urged firms, one Department official to exploit opportunities for and "huge" his countrymen his the opportunities for "great" and countrymen to exploit the "huge" "great" by Russian Russian products, profits. And though though challenged the Standard Standard profits. challenged by products, the I~S. In Africa, Oil Company market through the Oil dominated the the oil oil market the In Africa, Company dominated through 18905. to establish meanwhile, American businessmen and American businessmen and officials officials struggled to establish meanwhile, struggled was "futility" the principle principle of of equal equal opportunity. Concluding that the that it it was opportunity. Concluding "futility" itself individually with the empire mother countries, to negotiate itself to with the mother countries, negotiate individually empire in European European conconand an of present present duty" duty" to an "abdication "abdication of to acquiesce acquiesce in trol of American leaders like President Chester A. of the the continent, trol A. American leaders President Chester like continent, Arthur and of State Frederick T. Frelinghuysen made and Secretary Arthur of State Frederick T. made Secretary Frelinghuysen to secure commercial rights" the Congo. vigorous efforts efforts to secure "equal in the vigorous "equal commercial Congo. rights" in Concerned with with "our «our business business men who are from the the Concerned are suffering suffering from depressed condition of our export and import trade," they the condition our the of and won depressed export import trade," they in the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. Even though basic objective in the basic Berlin Even Conference of objective though 1884-1885. was not not immediately exploited, both both the the opportunity opportunity was the the general immediately exploited, general outward push push and the specific policy provided provided aa revealing preview and the specific policy revealing preview of the evolution of a vigorous open door policy a decade later. of the evolution of a vigorous open door policy a decade later. the key began to to Viewing the the navy as the to such such expansion, Viewing key to navy as Congress began expansion, Congress debate aa large program and and in in 1884 Naval the Naval established the construction program debate large construction 1884 established John F. F. Miller Miller of California, Chairman of the of the Senator John War College. of California, College. Senator Senate Foreign Relations provided aa neat of Relations Committee, neat summary Senate Foreign Committee, provided summary of the outlook. necesare neceshas come when ... new markets markets are the "The time time has outlook. "The sary to be be found keep our factories running. running. Here lies lies in order order to our factories to keep found in sary to to the of us us our our India. . . If reach out attempt to to If we reach out and attempt India. • ... to the south south of secure this great great prize prize of the jealousy jealousy of of excite the shall excite of commerce we shall secure this be led, perhaps, into into complications, which other peoples, and and we shall shall be other peoples, led, perhaps, complications, which to meet meet our our if we are are prepared from if ourselves from extricate ourselves we shall shall extricate prepared to C. enemies." Cleveland's Secretary the Treasury, John C. of the enemies." And Cleveland's Treasury, John Secretary of Carlisle, constantly reiterated the argument that "prosperity . • . that the reiterated Carlisle, "prosperity argument constantly in largely depends" on the ability to sell "surplus products in foreign sell to the foreign products ability "surplus largely depends" markets at remunerative prices." at remunerative markets prices." While all wanted the the markets, markets, some of of them leaders wanted all laissez-faire laissez-faire leaders While like Men saw in such commercial empire. like Cleveland, Bryan, in such commercial saw dangers Cleveland, Bryan, empire. dangers laissez faire.
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and liberal Republicans such as Carl that the the understood that Carl Schurz Schurz understood liberal Republicans and such as sense the dilemma of laissez faire. dilemma of empire was in a real of faire. laissez dilemma of empire was in a real sense the Without the markets, so their logic logic and and interests them, detold them, deinterests told so their the markets, Without pressions and class conflict would follow; but getting the markets the markets but would and class conflict follow; getting pressions would lead moral degradation, big government, militarism at at to moral lead to would government, and militarism degradation, big home. "It possible," Schurz out again and again, "to demor"to and demorcried out is possible," Schurz cried "It is home. again, again alize infuse aa dangerous element to infuse and to alize the the constitutional constitutional system dangerous element system and power into the government without making a without it a the into making it government power form and name." form and name." Down to such men effected effected an ambivalent and ambivalent and of 1897, to the the spring 1897, such spring of unstable resolution resolution of of their their dilemma. blocked formal colonial formal colonial dilemma. They unstable They blocked annexation of Hawaii Hawaii while while taking a militant stand against any stand a militant annexation of against taking any extension of of colonial influence in South America, in South influence colonial extension of Britain's of Britain's sphere America, sphere yet they control of used the the of Hawaii and used effective control also retained retained effective they also yet American navy navy (steadily being built up to modern battleship to built American up battleship (steadily being strength) further American American economic objectives in in Brazil and to further Brazil and economic objectives strength) to the Caribbean. While magnificently outraged by the coup staged the the While Caribbean. magnificently outraged by coup staged with the the navy navy by nabobs in Hawaii (their (their in Hawaii with the assistance assistance of of the American nabobs by American revolution was product of kind of of colonization that had had a product colonization that revolution was a of the the same same kind though refusing refusing the resulting bid won Texas), the resulting and though bid for for annexation, annexation, Texas), and Cleveland nevertheless nevertheless accepted accepted the predominance that the the American American predominance Cleveland that the revolution established to return the native rulers to revolution to established and and did did nothing return the native rulers to nothing power. power. But most revealing revealing illustration illustration of exBut perhaps the most of laissez-faire laissez-faire experhaps the pansion came in Cleveland's successful armed (naval) intervention in in Cleveland's successful armed pansion (naval) intervention in a Brazilian revolution a Brazilian revolution in that threatened threatened America's America's dein 1~-1~5 de1894-1895 that veloping trade with that that country. pressure for action from trade with for action from veloping Vigorous pressure country. Vigorous such as Standard such firms firms as Standard Oil, S. Crossman Grossman and Brothers, inOil, and W. S. Brothers, intensified tensified Secretary strong fears that the of State State Gresham's Gresham's already fears the that Secretary of already strong depression would cause cause aa social prompt social upheaval, depression would upheaval, and brought brought prompt and effective effective countermeasures. officer was a naval a countermeasures. Replacing naval officer who was Replacing less than less than enthusiastic about the Gresham and Cleveland enthusiastic about the undertaking, and Cleveland undertaking, then then used the the navy navy to to check the rebels. They kept kept the the American American task task check the rebels. They force in Brazilian force on duty duty in waters through through the the height height of of the the yellowyellowBrazilian waters fever fever season prevent any renewed outbreaks. season to to prevent outbreaks. any renewed Cleveland's Cleveland's subsequent Venezuela in its for Venezuela in its subsequent vigorous vigorous support support for boundary dispute with Great Britain judged against the Britain should should be be judged the boundary dispute with against background of of the the Brazilian together, they they made made Brazilian episode. background episode. Taken together, of arbitrary of arbitrary monarchy in monarchy in
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the positive, it that the positive, assertive of the the Monroe Monroe Doctrine Doctrine had had it clear clear that assertive side side of cried Secretary of State Richard become fully ascendant. "To-day," fully ascendant. "To-day," cried Secretary of State Richard Olney (Gresham having died), "the United States is practically practically "the United is States (Gresham having Olney died), sovereign on this this continent, is law the subjects and its its fiat fiat is law upon the sovereign continent, and subjects upon it confines added that "we to which it to confines its its interposition." Cleveland "we added Cleveland that interposition." have determined the territory in question] of right belongs to have determined [that the in of [that territory question] right belongs to In a Venezuela." In added and unmistakable meaning Venezuela." a move that that gave added to and unmistakable gave meaning to its earlier over Civil War disputes, England backed down. earlier apology over its Civil apology disputes, England backed down. case of In the the case of the the Cuban Revolution Revolution which which erupted in 1895, how-" 1895, k w erupted in to further further ever, the the exponents found it it more more difficult of laissez laissez faire faire found difficult to ever, exponents of economic expansion without falling into the quicksand of colonialism. economic into the of colonialism. expansion without falling quicksand Cleveland's strategy was "pacification of the island" under a Cleveland's strategy was "pacification of the island" under a rule that American weakened Spanish that would would safeguard the extensive extensive American Spanish rule safeguard the interests in island and and facilitate continued growth. the in the the island interests facilitate their their continued But the growth. But difficulties of this this approach ultimately involved the leaders of the difficulties of the leaders involved the of approach ultimately new corporation corporation order order in the first many wars they found found it in the it first of of the the many wars they necessary to fight. Perhaps even more than those who led the agrarian led the agrarian necessary to fight. Perhaps even more than those protest movement (many favored such expansion), the the of whom favored such expansion), protest (many of advocates of of laissez laissez faire faire who stood stood out out to to the the end against the the growadvocates end against growing drive territorial and represented the the drive for for territorial and administrative administrative empire ing empire represented finest that Weltanschauung. fulfillment of of that finest fulfillment Weltanschauung. ways the the symbol of the the best best that could faire could that laissez laissez faire As in in many many ways symbol of produce, William James offered leadership in the anti-imperialist William in the offered James anti-imperialist leadership produce, movement, made fundamental contributions to the theory theory of of ininto the fundamental contributions movement, dividualist psychology, and offered an appropriate statement of the the offered an appropriate statement of dividualist psychology, laissez-faire outlook oudook in his pragmatic pragmatic philosophy. philosophy. Along with his his in his laissez-faire Along with friend, William Graham Sumner, James pushed pushed the of his his the axioms axioms of Sumner, James friend, William age as as they they would would go. hand, his basic assumption assumption far as his basic the one as far one hand, go. On the age to that the the world world is is chaos, that the mind serves to guide the the serves only the mind that and that chaos, and only guide claim will, led to attack science and to assert the anti-intellectual claim to to the anti-intellectual attack science assert him led will, that standard he proclaimed proclaimed that contemplation contemplation was was unhealthy. standard he that unhealthy. By By that of values that "truth to an idea." Hence the "cash values of the "cash idea." an is what happens to that "truth is happens ideas" was their final determinant. his appropriately "toughhis And ideas" was their final determinant. appropriately "toughin such minded" man, man, who could a cosmos, exsuch a could survive flourish in survive and flourish minded" cosmos, exhibited many traits of of the the driving entrepreneur, or later social social or what later hibited many traits driving entrepreneur, psychologists have have called authoritarian personality. called the the authoritarian James personality. As James psychologists side of his implied in some of his own comments, this side of his pragmatism this of his some in comments, pragmatism implied in one's one's own image. offered aa way way to get rich rich and reform reform the the world world in image. to get offered
342 342
The American History History Contours of The Contours of American
"We seem free," he he proclaimed, proclaimed, "to use our theoretical as well as as well our theoretical as "to use set free/' seem set our practical faculties . . . to get the world into a better shape, and a better into and our practical faculties ... to get the world shape, all with with aa good good conscience." all conscience." On the hand, James James realized realized that that what what he he called called the the "bitch "bitch the other other hand, goddess did not not always let the the truth happen to the truth happen to the always let goddess SUCCESS" did best ideas. Hence he he had had to to admit error, or or evil, did exist. exist. Drawthat error, best ideas. Hence admit that evil, did ing upon the transcendentalist of the the Romantic Romantic Movement's version of transcendentalist version upon the ing assertion that that the truth from evil evil through truth assertion individual could could separate the individual through separate what James James called called the the varieties religious experience, he one of religious varieties of one of of what experience, he was then then able to offer offer the the individual way out of the dilemma. Yet Yet out of the dilemma. a way individual a was able to at large, and particularly in foreign affairs, James underin society in society at large, and particularly in foreign affairs, James underwas the usual way way that truth happened happened stood that that violence violence or war was the usual that truth or war stood for war-was to an for a moral moral equivalent war was a a to an idea. idea. His His answer-find answer find a equivalent magnificent and moving plea against imperial expansion and its and its magnificent and moving plea against imperial expansion also revealed revealed the of laissez laissez consequences. But But it the central central weakness it also weakness of consequences. social phenomenon, and James was attempting faire; for war was a faire; for war was a social phenomenon, James attempting resolve it it on individual basis. not be to resolve circle could could not be squared. to on an basis. The circle an individual squared. As one of James's major opponents saw the the danger danger of the of the one of James's major opponents who saw romantic and and transcendental transcendental conception individual, Josiah Josiah the individual, of the romantic conception of Royce that men had to commit themselves themselves to to something to commit argued that Royce argued something was essential; the bigger than idealism was than themselves. themselves. Such Such idealism otherwise the essential; otherwise bigger "cash of ideas" ideas" would would always win out. Yet he also understood "cash value value of win out. Yet he also understood always that idealism be the the spur to the most virulent virulent kind of aggresaggreskind of that idealism could could be the most spur to which he never thoroughly worked out, was aa crecresion. His sion. His solution, which he never was solution, out, thoroughly ative regionalism in in which which men could together to to build build aa truly ative regionalism could work together truly But both both James James and were spokesmen human society. and Royce a of a society. But Royce were spokesmen of The took charge of the effort to resolve the passing era. era. took men who of the effort to the resolve passing charge dilemmas of of laissez laissez faire that it it had had to to be be done dilemmas faire were aware aware that done around around some idea idea of of aa corporate system, yet they were determined avoid determined to to avoid corporate system, yet they the well as pendulum of war. Their Their the pit pit of property as of social social property as well as the the pendulum of class class war. proposals, and the their institutions, of their the momentum of created a a system institutions, created proposals, system based based on the the political political economy economy of of the corporation and and aa more more the large large corporation active government active charged with with the the task of maintaining maintaining some check task of some check government charged on the the increased increased power power of private property. property. of private
THE AGE OF
CORPORATION CAPITALISM 1881-
"* The modern modem stoc\ stock corporation corporation is social and economic economic institution that a social is a Institution that touches aspect of our lives; in many ways it is an institutional exour in extouches every it an is institutional lives; every aspect of many ways pression of our way life. •.. Indeed^ Indeed, it it is is not to say say that that we inaccurate to not inaccurate of our of life. pression way of live society. a corporate live in in a corporate society. William T. T. Gossett, Ford Motor Motor Company, Company, 1957 I957 William Gossett, Ford .
Lords Temporal rarely Lords Temporal rarely
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if ever good Lords Lords Spiritual. ever make ma\e good Spiritual. Adolf A. A. Berle, Berle, Jr., Jr., 1959 I959 Adolf
if
I. Rising Order I. The Triumph of the Rising Order Triumph of the
Independent capital capital persists persists as a as a Independent in melt like bubbles in a stream. bubbles a melt stream. lify
force, but the units that compose it compose it
force, but the units that
William William
J. J.
Ghent, 1903 Ghent, 1903
won't meet his men half-way half-way is is aa God-damn fool. meet his A man who won't God-damn fool. ~ark Hanna, lianna, 1894 Mark 1894
Mr. Bryan Bryan said said just just one thing in his big big [Cross [Cross of speech .. .. that one thing in his that Mr. of Gold] Gold] speech as true. said that farmers and and wortyngmen workingmen are are business business me as that farmers true. He said as much as as bankers and lawyers. I life like that. that. men just just as thafs true. true. 1 Well, thats bankers and lawyers. Well, ~ark Hanna, Hanna, 1897 Mark 1897 .
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strik'es strifes
Mr. McKinley McKinley . ... undertook pool interests interests in a general general trust into to pool Mr. in a trust into undertook to or less which should be be taken, more or which every interest should less at at its its own valuation, valuation tafen more every interest whose mass should, under his management, efficiency. and whose mass should, under his create efficiency. management, create .
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f
r
Henry Adams, Adams, 1918 1918 Henry We have record of conquest, colonization unequalled a record have a colonization and expansion of conquest, expansion unequalled by any people in the Nineteenth Century. We are not to be curbed now. are be curbed now. not to by any people in the Nineteenth Century.
Henry Cabot r895 Cabot Lodge, Lodge, 1895 Henry The extraordinary, because direct not merely merely theoretical or sentisentidirect and not theoretical or extraordinary, because of the United States in the Cuban situation can not be mental, interest can not be the in the situation interest States United mental, of ignored . •.. only are our citizens largely concerned in the ownerconcerned the our in owner* citizens are Not ignored. largely only property and in in the ship of but ventures ... but commercial ventures the industrial industrial and commercial of property ship the of trouble social and in the the social the chronic causes disturbance disturbance in chronic condition trouble • . . causes condition of irritation of our our own peoples. peoples. • . . A continuous political conditions conditions of continuous irritation political busiwithin our affects the normal functions of busithe normal our oum within borders injuriously own borders functions of injuriously affects to which this this country ness, and tends delay the condition of of prosperity prosperity to country the condition tends to to delay ness, is entitled. to Spain, is The United United States States to entitled. 1897 Spain, 1897 .
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346 The American History Contours 0/ The Contours 346 History of American It frequently asserted of factories working full at full the output that the asserted • .. that is frequently It is output of factories wording at capacity is greater than the domestic market can possibly consume, can the domestic than is much much market consume, possibly greater capacity year we shall and be confronted shall be with that every be conceded to be conceded that seems to and it it sums confronted with every year an surplus of manufactured goods for sale in foreign markets in foreign an increasing markets increasing surplus of manufactured goods for sale if American operatives and artisans are year be kept the year are to to be \ept employed employed the if American operatives and artisans round. of foreign consumption of the products of the our The enlargement round. The products of our enlargement of foreign consumption of mills has, therefore, become a serious problem of statesa serious statesbecome and workshops mills and of has, therefore, problem workshops The Department manship of State, as well as of commerce. wett as State, 1898 of commerce. Department of 1898 manship as .
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Dependent solely upon local business failed years years ago. have failed should have business we should ago. Dependent solely upon local We were forced to and to seek for export trade. trade. to our markets extend our to extend were forced see\ for export markets John Rockefeller, 1899 John D. Rockefeller, 1899 In the field of be the the keen shall be and commerce commerce we shall trade and In the field %een competitors competitors of of of trade the powers, and they need no warning to be need no be assured and assured and greatest richest and the richest warning to they greatest powers, that struggle, we shall to their their brows. brows. the sweat sweat to shall bring that in in that that struggle, bring the Secretary of State John of State John Hay, Hay, 1899 Secretary 1899
THE NATURE AND THE POWER OF THE LARGE CORPORATION
P POWERFUL
OWERFUL and and productive productive in in the the world world of of things, things, and and capable capable of of sustaining and strengthening the oligarchies that created them, the and that created them, oligarchies strengthening sustaining the large large corporations corporations (and (and their their leaders) leaders) dominated dominated American American the 1896 until past the middle of the 20th century. In its its history from from the until the 20th of middle 1896 history past century. In industrial and financial financial forms, forms, the the corporation corporation transformed transformed the the fears fears industrial of men like like Madison Madison and and Jefferson, Jefferson, and and the the expectations expectations of of others others of like Seward, into a reality that crossed every economic, political, and like a that into crossed Seward, reality every economic, political, and social boundary, boundary, affected affected every every branch branch of of government, government, and and permeated permeated social every aspect aspect of of the the individual individual citizen's citizen's life. life. Ostensibly Ostensibly created created to to every facilitate facilitate the the rational rational and efficient efficient production production of of goods goods to to meet meet the the needs needs of of men, men, the the corporation corporation (like (like the the sorcerer's sorcerer's apprentice) apprentice) ultimately began began creating creating in in men the the demand for for goods goods they they had had ultimately in never seen, seen, observed observed in in use, use, or or even even known they they needed. needed. And in never many cases cases the the original original judgment judgment had proved proved correctthey correct-they did did not not many need need them. them. first seen seen on on the the Undertaking aa shopping shopping trip trip in in pursuit pursuit of of an an item item first Undertaking television also television screen screen produced produced by by aa corporation corporation that that very very probably probably also provided the the air air time time for for the the program, program, aa housewife housewife in in the the 19503 19505 could could provided
The Age Age 0/ of Corporation Corporation Capitalism Capitalism
347 347
easily have put on aa dress made of by aa corporacorporahave put dress made of synthetic fibers made made by synthetic fibers tion that large influence the corporation that built the exercised a that exercised a large tion influence in in the corporation that built the The insurance company car bus) that she used for transportation. that she used car (or for insurance company (or bus) transportation. that underwrote her trip trip may may very well have have financed the car car itunderwrote her that itfinanced the very well parked, and streets upon self, the garage in in which which it the garage it was was parked, the city and the self, city streets upon powered the the car have been been which she she drove. drove. The gasoline which that powered car might gasoline that might have produced by a corporation corporation that could easily easily have have had that could had some in share in some share by a produced the supermarket where she not, the the vegetables vegetables she purthe she shopped. If not, she pursupermarket where shopped. If by the the chased have been been grown on aa contract contract farm could have chased could farm owned owned by grown on corporation also made the or soap with which she that also the detergent which she or with corporation that detergent soap washed the dishes from the vegetables vegetables were the dishes washed from which which the were eaten. eaten. were, superficially, superficially, an independent businessman, businessman, her her Even if if he were, an independent husband was still more intimately involved with these same, or still more husband or involved with these same, intimately was provided similar, Most of the couple's entertainment of Most the was entertainment similar, corporations. corporations. couple's provided was the news they they read read in in their their newspapers newspapers and and by corporations, as was the news corporations, as by magazines, or heard and viewed over the television set that provided or heard and set that viewed over the television magazines, provided the entire entire web of relationships. The political political the starting point in the in the of relationships. starting point by the policies and economic this news news were were defined defined largely largely by issues in in this the policies economic issues and the the programs of the corporations and their leaders. and the and of As man and their leaders. programs corporations to organize or participate in other functional wife, their efforts their own or in functional efforts to other wife, organize participate to check balance this this power power of the corporagroups that that attempted attempted to or balance of the check or corporagroups tion were were at at best best productive productive of of little more than occasional minor minor tion little more than occasional and more generally of an uninspiring and enervating stalevictories, and victories, generally of an uninspiring and enervating stalemate that left the large corporation in its position of predominance. left the its mate that large corporation in position of predominance. The couple's fears for for the were centered centered on one of three three one of the future future were couple's fears of to break break out the pattern pattern of major issues: upon their their inability issues: upon out of of the major inability to by the the adadinstallment produced, packaged, packaged, and promoted promoted by installment living living produced, vertising and public public relations relations adjunct the corporations; upon the the of the corporations; upon vertising adjunct of possibility that the corporation flatten them falter and flatten that the might falter corporation economy possibility economy might in foreign foreign along with its its dividend upon the tension in the tension or upon dividend payments; payments; or along with affairs was very very largely the result result of of the the conflict between the the conflict between affairs that that was largely the to them manithose corporations and the opposition to maniexpansion the opposition of those expansion of corporations and fested by by vigorous vigorous and militant rivals. direct investinvestoverseas direct rivals. With overseas fested and militant of billion 29 billion billion dollars, of overseas of 30 billion ments of of 29 overseas agencies ments sales of dollars, sales 30 agencies of direct 15 per cent), and direct exports of dollars an average profit of an of dollars (with exports 15 per cent), average profit (with of and 20 billion dollars, the overseas economic empire of between 15 the overseas billion between dollars, empire 15 the stake of a to total amounted to a total stake of twice the the United United States States in the in 1957 1957 the same total gross national national product product of of Canada and and was larger larger than than the total gross for the United for the United Kingdom. Kingdom. easily
348 348
The oj American American History History Contours of The Contours
The problems of of that that empire provided most most of the national national headheadof the The problems empire provided 195os, just as very similar foreign fears and antagonisms lines in the fears similar as lines in the 19505, just foreign antagonisms very had greeted the new corporation at the the turn century. the century. turn of of the had system at corporation system greeted the in 1902 of The Americanization of the World, William Writing the Americanization of World, William Writing in 1902 of Thomas of England England termed termed it political, social, and it the the "greatest Thomas Stead Stead of social, and "greatest political, the domestic life," echoed commercial phenomenon phenomenon of times." "In "In the domestic life," echoed our times." of our commercial Daily Mail, Mail, "we his countryman in the the London Daily Mackenzie in his Fred Mackenzie countryman Fred to this: this: The average rises in in the the morning morning from his his have got have average man rises got to England sheets, he shaves and aa Yankee Yankee with 'Williams' 'Williams' , soap shaves with New England sheets, he soap and safety razor, pulls on his Boston boots over his socks from North safety razor, pulls on his Boston boots over his socks from North Carolina, fastens his Connecticut braces, slips his Waltham or Wateror WaterConnecticut braces, fastens his Carolina, slips his in his pocket, and sits to breakfast. There he conbury watch he down to breakfast. conand in sits watch his pocket, bury gratulates his wife on the way her Illinois straight-front corset sets her Illinois corset wife sets his the on straight-front way gratulates off her Massachusetts blouse, and his breakfast, breakfast, where where he he he tackles tackles his off her and he Massachusetts blouse, eats bread bread made from from prairie prairie flour (possibly doctored the special doctored at flour (possibly at the eats special and aa little Kansas City bacon...• establishments on the lakes) lakes) ... and little Kansas on the establishments City bacon. are given Oats..... The children children are 'Quaker' Oats given 'Quaker' "He rushes rushes out. out. . . . [And] at his office, of of course, is at his office, course, everything everything is [And] American. He sits on aa Nebraskan swivel chair, before a Michigan a before sits on Nebraskan swivel American. chair, Michigan roll-top desk, desk, writes writes his his letters letters on on aa Syracuse typewriter, signing Syracuse typewriter, roll-top signing them with aa New York fountain fountain pen, pen, and with aa blottingblottingwith and drying drying them with England. The letter letter copies are put away in files files sheet from are sheet from New England. put away in copies manufactured in in Grand Grand Rapids. Rapids.... he hastily hastily swal... At lunch-time lunch-time he swalmanufactured lows some cold roast beef beef that the Mid-West cow ... lows cold roast that comes comes from the and then soothes his mind with a couple of Virginia cigarettes. cigarettes. To then his of and soothes with a couple Virginia follow his course all day would be wearisome. But when evening his course follow all day would be wearisome. evening comes he . . . finishes up with a couple of 'little liver pills' comes he ... finishes up with a couple of 'little liver pills' [that [that " were] 'made in America.' 'made in America. " were] uneasiness about about AmeriAmeriGermans and and Frenchmen revealed revealed similar similar uneasiness can Novoye Vremya can expansion, and the the high newspaper Novoye Russian newspaper expansion, and Vremya high ·Russian expressed its concern by by pointing to the the example of Great Great its concern expressed pointing specifically specifically to example of is now Britain. "Everything," it lamented, that Great Britain. Great Britain Britain is lamented, "proves "Everything," it "proves that practically dependent upon the the United all international United States, for all international States, and for practically dependent upon to be be under under an an American American intents and purposes purposes may may be intents be considered considered to United States has but but just just entered upon the the protectorate.... The United States has entered upon protectorate. policy of the protected kingdom." While such estimates of exploiting the such estimates policy exploiting protected kingdom." were the reality reality moved ever ever closer closer were obviously exaggerated as as of of 1900, obviously exaggerated 1900, the to to them throughout throughout the the 2oth 20th century in the Western Hemisphere, in the Western century Hemisphere, in world. Very in Europe, Europe, and throughout the rest the world. rest of of the throughout the Very candidly, candidly, and '
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The Age Age oj of Corporation Corporation Capitalism Capitalism
349 349
with considerable pushed its its way into the the considerable forethought, with America pushed forethought, America way into struggle for economic empire between I~5 and I~. This involvefor economic struggle empire between 1895 and 1898. This involvement was dramatized dramatized and by the the war war with with Spain, and in and extended extended by Spain, and in 1899 Notes which which culminated in in the the famous famous Open 1900 culminated 1899 and 1900 Open Door Notes demanded equal opportunity for America's tremendous for America's economic tremendous economic equal opportunity power, aa weapon weapon that that the the nation's leaders felt would nation's leaders felt confident confident would power,
produce world world economic without the economic supremacy the limitations and limitations and produce supremacy without dangers of old-fashioned old-fashioned colonialism. colonialism. dangers of Likewise, even as the nation and as the nation emerged strife and from the the bloody Likewise, even emerged from bloody strife suffering of the depression of the ISgoS, the inclusive nature and of the of and the the inclusive nature suffering depression 1890$, extensive extensive
power of the corporation revealed at home. Its of the was clearly power corporation was clearly revealed at home. Its triumph established a political economy, a system established a new of organized a triumph political economy, organized system of and controlled interrelationships and and influence controlled interrelationships was developed that was influence that developed the presidential presidential campaign of 1896. and put and in operation put in operation during 1896. campaign of during the Whereas laissez had required required at at least two elections to establish laissez faire faire had Whereas establish least two elections to of the the age of the corporation its primacy under under Jackson, leaders of its primacy the leaders the corporation Jackson, the age of scored an victory in their first test. Organized and manmanan impressive in scored their first test. impressive victory Organized and aged by Mark Hanna, one of the new order's more perceptive and one the of more order's Hanna, aged by perceptive and effective this victory established the modern pattern of effective spokesmen, this established the spokesmen, victory pattern of politics as an expensive, extensive, and centrally co-ordinated, highas an and politics expensive, extensive, centrally co-ordinated, highpressure effort. effort. pressure Despite the the flamboyance extremism of the rhetoric rhetoric on on both both of the and extremism Despite flamboyance and 1828), and the emotional sides (itself a reminder of the campaign of emotional the sides (itself a reminder of the campaign of 1828), ardor seriously approached victory ardor of his supporters, of his never seriously approached victory supporters, Bryan Bryan never rise of of the corporation in the election of 18g6. the large industrial corporation in the election of 1896. The rise large industrial had given the urban urban manufacturing manufacturing and and their their centers and commercial centers had and commercial given the spheres of the surrounding agrarian areas preareas a a prein the of influence influence in surrounding agrarian spheres dominance in the political economy would never never be be successfully that would the political dominance in successfully economy that challenged by by aa purely purely and narrowly laissez-faire laissez-faire interest party such such interest party and narrowly challenged as the Democrats Democrats were were under under Bryan. For that that matter, matter, many many western western as the Bryan. For markets farmers responded responded to the Republican argument that that overseas overseas markets to the farmers Republican argument while for would solve their particular problem while bringing their solve for surpluses would bringing problem particular surpluses order real issue issue was was not not whether whether the the new order general prosperity. prosperity. The real general direct it; would triumph, triumph, but but who was was to to control control and and direct it; that that is, is, how would the necessary it was was to maintain an an internal balance, accomplish necessary internal balance, it to maintain accomplish the master meet domestic expansion, and and in what way meet and master in what overseas expansion, domestic and and overseas way and at home its economic, and philosophic competitors at its political, philosophic competitors political, economic, abroad. abroad. of the of the With considerable the beginnings beginnings of the age age of the considerable exaggeration, With exaggeration, the
350 350
The oj American American History History The Contours Contours of
corporation might be dated from the first textile-mill (complete corporation might be dated from the first textile-mill town (complete with minister and teacher supplied on contract by the owner) the estabon contract minister and teacher with by owner) estabsupplied in the century. But the foundations lished But the foundations the 19th lished in in New England igth century. early in England early of the new system were actually started by the post-Civil the started of the post-Civil War by system were actually operations of men like James J. Hill in railroads and associated enterassociated railroads in enterHill like James J. operations of prises, the integrated organization of the Iron near Cambodia Iron the Works near prises, the integrated organization of Pittsburgh, and the development of the Rockefeller and Carnegie Carnegie Pittsburgh, and the development of the Rockefeller After the holdingempires during of favorable favorable holdingthe adoption the 188os. i88os. After adoption of empires during the by Delaware, Maryland, and New Jersey Jersey during during company legislation company legislation by Delaware, Maryland, the same decade and and the the concurrent consolidation of of the the House of of the same decade concurrent consolidation Morgan, the rise of the large life insurance companies and such life insurance such the of the rise companies large Morgan, the American American Telephone Telephone and and Telegraph firms as the firms as it Telegraph Company Company made it clear that the corporation had had moved rapidly rapidly into position of a position into a of dear that the corporation predominance, aa position position that that has never been been challenged in a a has never challenged in predominance, fundamental way. fundamental way. the early however large, large, revealed revealed all the basic basic all the None of of the firms, however early firms, features of corporation either their specific specific organization and of the in their features either in the corporation organization and at large. in the operations or in their impact upon the society the And in at the or their in large. society operations impact upon case of of course, the overall characteristics represented characteristics case of Carnegie, overall the a of course, represented a Carnegie, culmination of the the laissez-faire entrepreneur. For this this very very reason, reason, culmination of laissez-faire entrepreneur. however, he Rockefeller, along along with with Hill, Hill, offer he and offer apt illustraand Rockefeller, however, apt illustraas a function or tions of corporation economy emerged as a tions of how the function or the corporation economy emerged consequence of laissez-nous-faire competition. But each of these enterof each of these laissez-nous-f aire But entercompetition. consequence prises did one or or more more of the essential the corporacorporadid develop of the essential aspects of the prises aspects of develop one it as as an tion that that enabled tion enabled it an institution institution to to create a distinctive distinctive new order create a order it came to to control elements of the system. While the once once it the key of control the elements the the system. key secondary characteristics and indirect ramifications of the corporation indirect and ramifications the of secondary characteristics corporation are today not not wholly features are are numerous, its central even today central features are numerous, even known, its wholly known, clear. clear. the obvious as one one unit unit Beyond fact of obvious fact of authority of size, and power size, of Beyond the authority and power as over the rest of over the rest perhaps the main element the economy, of the the main element introduced introduced economy, perhaps the large by the large corporation ideas about a fundamental fundamental change in ideas about by corporation was a change in economic economic activity activity itself. itself. Laissez-faire Laissez-faire operators and spokesmen operators and spokesmen of individualized individualized and and somethought of of the market place place as the market as a a scene scene of somethought what random activity. activity. But But the and directors the new the spokesmen directors of of the spokesmen and order, though though they they accepted accepted the the traditional of private private traditional premise order, premise of the vital property and the vital role role and necessity of an expanding market market property necessity of expanding defined economic place, defined as making making up up an system. economic activity an interrelated interrelated system. place, activity as It It was not not just just the the sum of parts operating in an esof innumerable innumerable parts in esan operating
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sentially casual casual and and ad hoc political economy had to to be hoc fashion. fashion. The The political be sentially economy had extensively planned, controlled, and co-ordinated through the instituextensively planned, controlled, and co-ordinated through the instituwas to to function function in any regular, regular, tion of large corporation corporation if of the the large tion if it it was in any routine, and profitable fashion. routine, and profitable fashion. This view developed developed in narrow or drive of This view in part from the the narrow or interest of interest drive part from the corporation entrepreneurs to to rationalize rationalize and as much much of the and control control as of corporation entrepreneurs the market market place place as possible-to But it was soon as possible the to make it it their their system. it soon But was system. generalized result of and reflection reflection on broader as the the result of observation observation and on broader generalized as Hand was often issues. that Adam Smith's Hidden Hand issues. They concluded that Smith's Hidden was often They concluded so hidden hidden that it failed failed to to provide provide the which should have that it so the guidance have which should guidance crises. Also, competition proved prevented individual and general individual and crises. in Also, general prevented competition proved in practice to be inefficient, redundant, and wasteful. Finally, from being to be and wasteful. from inefficient, redundant, practice being Finally, directly with both both of these considerations, more associated with of these considerations, they directly associated they grew grew more and the end of laissez faire would be be economic economic fearful that that the and more fearful end result result of laissez f aire would nothnig," breakdown and and social revolution. "The panic of breakdown social revolution. "The panic of last is nothnig," last year year is "compared with the reign of terror that exists warned Hill warned Hill in in 1894, die exists with that of terror 1894, "compared reign is at a standstill, and the people are bein the large centers. Business in the centers. is Business at a are and the bestandstill, large people coming thoroughly aroused." Like the advocates of laissez faire, the Like the aroused." the advocates of laissez faire, coming thoroughly corporation leaders leaders feared feared social upheaval, but but they they provided provided aa difdifsocial upheaval, corporation avoid it. their way, way, therethereferent answer to the the question question of ferent answer to In their to avoid it. In of how to fore, of aa system based on on the the large were the proponents fore, the system based proponents of large corporation corporation were as capitalists accepted, on the evidence of their own experience who accepted, on the evidence of their experience as capitalists well as their casual and distorted knowledge of his ideas, the analysis well as their casual distorted knowledge of his ideas, the analysis by Karl Marx, and to prevent prevent his his prophecy prophe~y of of set about Karl Marx, and set about to made by socialism fulfilled. socialism and and communism being being fulfilled. These broad ideas ideas provided provided the the background background for understanding the the for understanding These broad was and nature and corporation itself. itself. It It was and the the corporation nature the ramifications of the ramifications of remains aa form designed to to accumulate accumulate large form of remains of organization large organization designed to the the amounts of capital, capital, resources, resources, and and labor and apply labor and amounts of apply them to rational, planned planned conduct activity through through aa division of division of economic activity conduct of of economic rational, labor bureaucratic routine. routine. Acting within this framework, this within labor and and bureaucratic framework, Acting corporation leaders directly and indirectly major exerted several several major leaders directly indirectly exerted corporation the main influences on political economy. They consolidated the consolidated influences on the the political economy. They number elements and processes of the economic in a small a small in of the economic system elements and processes system the end II (1947), for example, of giant of end of of World War II firms. By (1947), for example, By the giant firms. all 50 per cent of of all United States produced approximately States produced when the the United approximately 50 per cent a manufactured in the world, a mere 139 corporations owned the mere in manufactured output world, 139 corporations output in the 45 per of all all manufacturing manufacturing assets the country. assets in cent of country. These per cent 45 behemoths further centralized power power within within their their own group group and further centralized behemoths
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within specific corporations. Such centralization centralization meant meant that that the the within specific corporations. Such as well as rights of the participants (directors and managers, as and well as the managers, rights of participants (directors stockholders) were limited in a hierarchical fashion so that control fashion so that a hierarchical control stockholders) were limited in be maintained maintained with with aa comparatively small over many many units units might might be over comparatively small investment and a few firms dominate the general consolidation of the consolidation of the investment and a few firms dominate the general political economy. political economy. In to achieve their various objectives, corporation leaders In striving striving to achieve their various objectives, corporation leaders horizontal, produced two kinds of of integrated two kinds organization. One was horizontal, integrated organization. produced pulling together a number of operations at same stage of at the the of a of number stage operations together pulling was to control the market. production or service. Its purpose the to control was market. The Its or service. purpose production other was was vertical, of production production (from levels of several levels materials other vertical, several (from raw materials to distribution) being acquired and co-ordmated for becoming for and co-ordinated into becoming indistribution) being acquired dependent of the market. In later years, particularly after World after later the In War market. of years, particularly dependent power was was extended further I and the Great Crash of of 19290 extended even such power even further Great Crash and the I 1929, such as giants like the House of Morgan, Procter and Gamble, and inof Procter and the House inas like Gamble, Morgan, giants surance began to aj:quire and operate various real estate and to various real estate surance companies acquire operate companies began (including farm) holdings. holdings. (including farm) well In features and and enterprises, in finance its manifold finance as as well In all all its manifold features enterprises, and in as in the corporation operated within an oligarchic framethe an as in industry, within frameindustry, corporation operated oligarchic work. Individual propertyholders (today stockholders) no no longer Individual propertyholders work. (today stockholders) longer in the age of enjoyed the kind of direct authority they had wielded had direct wielded in the kind of the enjoyed authority they age of laissez the labor neither sought sought nor labor unions faire. And the unions neither nor received laissez faire. received such such power in basic investment or operational operational decisions. in the the area area of of basic investment or decisions. This This power separation of literal ownership from practical control became proproliteral from practical control became separation of ownership 20th century. As it did so, some obgressively greater during the it did so, obgressively greater during the 20th century. servers concluded that corporation leaders were no longer guided by servers concluded that corporation leaders were no longer guided by the philosophy, and ideology ideology of of private private property, property, but but had had in in effect the effect philosophy, and become dehumanized managers abstractly kept the system system become managers who abstractly kept the going its own sake. Another argument maintained that that the the manmansake. Another for its going for argument maintained by aa desire to create create the the agers had become public public servants only by had become servants driven driven only desire to agers good good society. society. the narrowest In these interpretations relevant In the narrowest sense, overlook two two relevant sense, these interpretations overlook factors. to I, and even later in specific cases, a factors. Up to World War and even later in I, Up specific cases, a bloc of voting stock large key decisions often bloc of large enough to sway decisions was was often voting stock enough to sway key held one or or two individuals. held by individuals. And in years the evidence in subsequent the evidence by one subsequent years has has suggested that however small their personal holdings, small their suggested strongly strongly that personal holdings, the directors and managers the directors managers who staff the corporation still think and staff the still corporation thin\ and act as though firm belonged act as though the the firm to them. In an even more fundato In them. an even more fundabelonged mental continued to way, they they have have continued define the the system mental way, to define created and and system created
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ordered by the corporation one based based on private rather than on as one ordered on private rather than on by the corporation as A social property. typical sector of the corporation economy-say social property. typical sector of the corporation economy say the automobile a different phenomenon if automobile industry-would the be a different phenomenon it if it industrywould be were organized operated as Such features as a were a socialized socialized enterprise. organized and operated enterprise. Such features as built-in built-in obsolescence, obsolescence, indifference safety factors, as indifference to to safety and redundancy factors, and redundancy of avoided. For For that matter, automobile production be avoided. of design that matter, automobile production design would be favor of of aa social might be back very very sharply be cut cut back in favor social investment investment in in might sharply in modern public public transportation transportation systems. modern systems. Though may seem the later inefficiency of the it may seem strange in view view of of the later inefficiency of the Though it strange in corporation system, the drive for efficiency was one of the motives the drive for was one of the motives corporation system, efficiency that powered powered the the merger merger mania mania of the period period between and 1903. that of the between 1889 1889 and 1903. Capitalized at 25 millions, for example, the Illinois Steel Company at for the of Illinois Steel millions, 25 Capitalized example, Company of claim of having a plant more efChicago was organized with the with the a efof more claim organized Chicago having plant ficient as larger than that of Carnegie. as well well as that of ficient as Rockefeller's Standard Standard larger than Carnegie. Rockefeller's Oil Company abandoned the ambiguous partnership-trust form it Oil the abandoned it Company ambiguous partnership-trust form had used used after reorganization of gigantic holdholdafter the the reorganization had of 1882 1882 and became a a gigantic and became ing company with clearly clearly apparent J. characteristics. And J. company with ing apparent corporate corporate characteristics. Pierpont Morgan successfully corralled the ski~sh and maverick and corralled the maverick skittish Pierpont Morgan successfully railroad entrepreneurs consolidated and railroad railroad in a a consolidated and centralized centralized railroad entrepreneurs in in the east. "The purpose of this meeting," he blundy told system the in east. of this he bluntly told system meeting," purpose them, "is to cause the members of this association to no longer take take to no "is cause the this association members of to them, longer has been been too too much the practice the law into their own hands into their as has the practice ... as the hands ... is not dsewhere customary in civilized communities, heretofore. This heretofore. This is not elsewhere customary in civilized communities, and no good reason exists exists why why such practice should among a practice should continue such a continue among good reason railroads." railroads." day," judged judged "Consolidation and combination are the the order the day," order of of the combination are "Consolidation and Hill, president president of American Bankers Association in in 1899; Walker Hill, Bankers Association Walker the American of the 1899; and the chief the Census Census Bureau Bureau verified verified this this estimate estimate chief statistician of the and the statistician of in transformation" had had occurred occurred in in the the previous previous in 1900. 1900. "A starding startling transformation" timeof the decade, he one which "set naught some of the timeat naught "set at he reported, one which decade, reported, of honored maxims maxims of political economy, which must readjust readjust many many of of political honored economy, which our and which which may and modify modify influence and our social social relations, relations, and may largely largely influence by such the future legislation of of Congress the States." Joined by States." Joined the future legislation Congress and the of as Belmont, and such firms as Lee, Higginson of Boston firms and such as August men as Lee, Belmont, Higginson August crusade for for what he and Kuhn, Kuhn, Loeb Morgan's crusade he called called and Loeb of of New York, York, Morgan's beconsolidations than 300 consolidations beaa "community of interest" produced more than of interest" 300 produced "community tween 1897 ISW and 1903. 1903. Steel States Steel Morgan's formation of the Gargantuan Gargantuan United United States of the Morgan's own formation the the Company symbolized the entire epoch, but the appearance of the but entire the epoch, appearance Company symbolized
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Amalgamated Copper Copper Co., Co., the the American American Tobacco the Standard Standard Tobacco Co., Co., the Amalgamated
Distilling Co., the National Biscuit Co., the International Harvester Distilling Co., the National Biscuit Co., the International Harvester Co., the reorganization the du du Pont were just just as firm were as imPont firm imof the and the Co., and reorganization of by 1900, the year after 1,028 firms had disappeared, disappeared, the the portant. And by 1900, the year after 1,028 firms a Co. had become a $250 million American Telephone and Telegraph had million American Telephone and Telegraph Co. $250 corporation. Similar expansion and co-ordination completed the inteinteand co-ordination Similar expansion completed the corporation. gration of such firms as Macy's, John Wanamaker's, and Woolgration of such firms as Macy's, John Wanamaker's, and WoolMarshall Field Field and and Sons worth's into the new new political political economy. Sons into the worth's economy. Marshall exemplified the pattern with its wholesale purchasing, functional functional wholesale its with the purchasing, exemplified pattern organization of some some supplying the store, of the factories, store, ownership supplying factories, ownership of organization of and even in its benevolent creation Training of the the Chicago creation of and even in its benevolent Chicago Manual Training School. School. portant.
IB90s
THE CRISIS TIiE SPECTER OF CHAOS CRISIS OF THE iSpOS AND THE
Not did the the many many business of the the 1890s failures of create circirNot only business failures 18905 create only did to such and centralization, but cumstances favorable such consolidation consolidation and cumstances favorable to centralization, but the crisis most remaining remaining doubters doubters that laissez faire faire was was that laissez the crisis convinced convinced most unable to to cope with the tensions and problems of mature industrialindustrialof mature and the tensions unable with problems cope ism. Beginning Beginning with with Black Black Friday, Friday, the the Panic Panic of initiated an an of 1893 ism. 1893 initiated intense and and double-cycle double-cycle depression lasted until until 1898. intense that lasted 1898. Signifying depression that Signifying the end easy investment opportunities and massive profits profits and massive of the the easy investment opportunities the end of that had been provided provided since 17~ by by the the dramatic dramatic and once-over once-over that had been since 1789 west, and and signifying signifying also the comcomdevelopment of the continental continental west, also the of the development pletion of the basic steel, transportation, and power segments of the of the and basic of the steel, transportation, pletion power segments 1890S profoundly shocked industrial the depression of the the industrial economy, of the shocked economy, depression 18905 profoundly even the the advocates the new system. even advocates of of the system. Following upon upon the the Haymarket Haymarket Riot Riot of of 1886, the sequence a of a 1886, the Following sequence of strike of Orleans and general strike of Negro Negro and white workers in white workers in New Orleans and general bread riots and other disturbances throughout throughout the the south the riots and bread other disturbances south and and the north north reached reached aa portentous portentous peak violence in bloody and and in the of violence the bloody peak of While prolonged strike Homestead plant plant in strike against in 1892. prolonged against Carnegie's Carnegie's Homestead 1892. While use troops to use troops in in such most capitalists realized willing to such emergencies, willing emergencies, most capitalists realized that that the the economic economic system system could not be be operated operated on basis of of could not on the the basis private and government government soldiers maintaining production. production. Nor was was soldiers maintaining private the trouble limited the trouble limited to to the the east. Army units units were were also used during during east. Army also used the in the the Utah Utah copper strike. Then, coming after the the same summer in strike* the after Then, copper coming had depression had started, and seeming to verify the worst of the nightand the to worst of the started, depression verify nightseeming marcs mares produced produced by by the the Homestead Homestead affair, affair, the the even even more violent violent and and extensive strike against extensive strike the Pullman Company and the railroads in the Pullmaa the in railroads against Company
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dramatized beyond 1894 beyond any the need need for new approach. approach. for a a new 1894 dramatized any question question the in in many ways the culmination of the old 19th-century Though many ways the culmination of the old ipth-century Though pattern of company towns towns originated by textile textile mills, mills, the of company the circumcircumoriginated by pattern by the the Pullscribed community and society scribed community founded and and controlled controlled by Pullsociety founded model was widely widely regarded regarded before before the the upheaval upheaval as man Company a model as a Company was of, and for, relations. More perceptive architects the industrial relations. More perceptive architects of for, industrial of the of, Hanna, the entreemerging corporation corporation system such as as Mark Mark Hanna, the Ohio Ohio entreemerging system such its weaknesses, weaknesses, but but they they did did not not preneur and politician, politician, understood understood its preneur immediately alter that that general impression of the company. "Oh, of the immediately alter "Oh, general impression company. hell! Model--!," he thundered a group group of industrialists and and hell! Model thundered to to a of industrialists !," he most of his bankers. "Go and and live live in Pullman and and find bankers. in Pullman find out." out." But But most of his associates mistrusted him rather than the supposedly ideal associates initially mistrusted him rather than the ideal initially supposedly solution to to labor labor problems, problems, and not begin begin to modify their their solution did not and they to modify they did opinions until the continuing crisis forced them to admit the need until the crisis them to forced admit the need opinions continuing were further intensified by by of aa broader broader outlook. outlook. Hence Hence their their fears of fears were further intensified what they they thought thought was was aa revolutionary revolutionary march march on Washington by by what on Washington Coxey's Army. The army was actually a rather pathetic and motley a and was rather army Coxey's Army. pathetic motley actually band of relief rather rather than revolution. of unemployed wanted relief than revolution. band unemployed men who wanted Already prone prone to to interpret events in however, such events in either-or either-or terms, terms, however, Already interpret such American leaders leaders responded responded to economic depression its to the the economic and its American depression and associated social unrest by intensifying their efforts to formulate their to associated social unrest efforts formulate by intensifying ideas that crisis and provide practical practical solusoluthe crisis and provide ideas that would would account account for for the tions. As they developed such explanations and recommendations, tions. recommendations, they developed such explanations in solvil:!g they emphasized foreign policy of foreign the role role of solving policy in they emphasized increasingly increasingly the domestic troubles and and consciously program of of a broad broad program initiated a domestic troubles consciously initiated sophisticated imperialism. For that that matter, matter, the the triumphant triumphant corporacorporaimperialism. For sophisticated in a tion in on the John Hay, Hay, in a revealing revealing of what the crest crest of what John tion system rode in system rode if called "a war." Underlying that "a splendid little war." if indiscreet indiscreet moment, moment, called Underlying that splendid little the central century, was the central expansion, and sustaining it on into into the the 20th 2Oth century, expansion, and sustaining it the sine idea that overseas economic economic expansion provided the sine qua idea that overseas qua non expansion provided of domestic prosperity and and social peace. Gradually Gradually transforming transforming this this social peace. of domestic prosperity of the the 18905 into initially conscious interpretation of the crisis into a the crisis of of conscious 18905 interpretation initially Americans assumption-Americans belief or unconscious assumption faith an unconscious of faith-an belief or article article of by the the 20th had established established aa network network of of 20th century of the the middle middle of century had by that literally alliances that literally circled circled investments, branch factories, bases, and alliances factories, bases, investments, branch the globe. Just as the sun on the the British British Union Jack set on never set had never sun had as the the Jack globe. Just know Stars in century, neither did the Stars and Stripes any did the neither in the the 19th any Stripes ipth century, darkness in the the 20th 20th century. darkness in century. evolved a set Also starting in the 1890s, Americans concurrently evolved a set Also starting in the 18903, Americans concurrently
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of attitudes ideas to to rationalize and reform reform the the political economy rationalize and and ideas of attitudes and political economy by the large corporation. But even though they began with created even But created by the large corporation. though they began with by 1917 they the urge themselves, by reform themselves, the to reform 1917 they urge to
had concluded that had concluded that such domestic progress depended upon first reforming the rest of first the rest of such domestic progress depended upon reforming dothe world. And despite periods of enforced preoccupation with enforced with of dothe world. preoccupation despite periods mestic failures, this propensity propensity to to link improvements at at home to link improvements to mestic failures, this conditions overseas remained an axiom with American reformers. conditions overseas remained an axiom with American reformers. Though the full development and convergence of these domestic domestic and and of these and convergence full development Though the foreign programs did not occur immediately, it is nevertheless useforeign programs did not occur immediately, it is nevertheless useful to the underlying underlying assumptions basic features features of of ful to preview assumptions and basic preview the such ideas. such new ideas. For it is is almost impossible to to overemphasize overemphasize the the imalmost impossible imFor example, example, it general-yet dynamic and powerful-concept portance of the very the of powerful yet dynamic very general concept portance choice between between order chaos. Not Not that the the country country faced a fateful order and and chaos. fateful choice faced a that only did it the 1890s; it persisted through I, it World in the War it guide men in did I, persisted through 18905; only guide II, and emerged more persuasive the Great World War and the Great Depression, II, emerged persuasive Depression, to postwar the entire entire approach approach to postwar opopthan ever to guide than ever in in 1943-1944 guide the 1943-1944 to portunities and problems. Only the anarchists and a few doctrinaire anarchists a few the and doctrinaire portunities problems. Only laissez-faire spokesmen spokesmen seemed willing to accept the possibility of the possibility to accept laissez-faire seemed willing of chaos. Arguing that that it it was was both necessary and possible, most Amerboth necessary most chaos. Arguing Amerpossible, icans reformulated reformulated and and reasserted reasserted their traditional confidence in their their their traditional confidence in icans to choose and control their fate. This Romantic axiom had ability This choose control their fate. to axiom had ability been aa central theme of American history history ever the 1820S, and of American been ever since since the central theme and 1820$, But given on the the it into the the new age. it carried carried over over into a consensus consensus on age. But given a Sanctity of private property, and con.fronted by the increasingly of confronted the sanctity by private property, increasingly by obvious failure laissez faire, this faith verified only only by of laissez obvious failure of faith could could be be verified faire, this controlling the market place. While this tangle of ideas produced the of market While this ideas produced controlling place. tangle enough rope for was to to for many over who was ideological rope enough ideological many aa tug-of-war tug-of-war over by what standard it was to be done, all such control and and control the the system what standard it to be done, all such system by contests contests found the the victors victors basing basing their program on on overseas overseas extheir program expansion. pansion. THE INCEPTION OF AN AMERICAN SYNDICALISM Within
this framework, framework, and originating originating largely as aa reaction reaction largely as within the ministry within the the failure the church to sustain failure of of the church to sustain its its ministry against against the old relevance relevance and appeal the source of values values and old appeal as as the source of and inspiration, this
inspiration,
the idea of of religion as the the guide creating an an ordered and balanced balanced the idea religion as for creating ordered and guide for the Social Protessystem a movement known as as the Social Gospel. system produced produced a Gospel. Protestants as well Catholics well as as Catholics tants as
were influenced by Pope Pope were influenced in in such such thinking thinking by
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XIIPs famous encyclical Leo XIII's encyclical Rerum not/arum nOt/arum (1891) on the nature (1891) on the nature and role role of labor in in an an industrial society. Recommending the rereand of labor industrial society. Recommending the of St. Thomas Aquinas, and stressing the ideals newed study of St. of study Aquinas, and stressing the ideals of co-operation and equity between capital and and labor, his ideas ideas were were and cooperation equity between capital labor, his particularly relevant relevant to to the the political economy of the large corporation. particularly political economy of the large corporation. stressing the the role role of of the the Church it offered offered aa Even though though in in stressing Church it different kind of unifying theme, different of unifying a fundamentally such a functional theme, such fundamentally functional and syndicalist approach reinforced reinforced similar provided by similar analyses syndicalist approach analyses provided by It also influenced the large large sociologists and industrial industrial spokesmen. It also the influenced sociologists spokesmen. labor leaders were Catholics, it reinreinof American number of American labor leaders who were for it Catholics, for Labor's position without atforced their their preference preference for forced for improving atlabor's without improving position as in earlier centuries, the advocates tacking private property. Yet just Yet in advocates the as earlier private tacking centuries, property. just of aa Christian problems of of society divided over of Christian solution solution for for the the problems society divided over be based based on private or whether the commonwealth should the commonwealth whether should be social on private or social property. While a minority asserted the stronger logic and the greater a asserted the and the property. minority stronger logic greater equity of influence in in the the of Christian Christian Socialism and exerted some influence Socialism and exerted some equity early years of the century, the great majority in the Social Gospel of the the Social in the early years century, great majority Gospel favored Christian movement favored Christian Capitalism. Capitalism. Even within ministry, such Christian Capitalists accepted within the the ministry, such Christian soon accepted Capitalists soon the necessity necessity and wisdom wisdom of and played a cruthe of American and cruAmerican expansion expansion played a in reinvigorating the missionary movement. Arguing that cial role in cial role that the movement. reinvigorating Arguing missionary it necessary for reforms and creating the the it was necessary for effecting for creating Christian reforms and for effecting Christian which men would to Christ, they also supcircumstances in which circumstances in also would turn turn to Christ, they supmisported economic thought miseconomic expansion. Reverend Francis Francis E. E. Clark Clark thought ported expansion. Reverend sionaries played played aa key key role role in widening of of our Robert our empire." sionaries "the widening in "the empire." Robert E. Speer, secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, of E. Speer, secretary of the Presbyterian Board Foreign Missions, reported that that his his church "welcommercial expansion church accepted expansion and "welreported accepted commercial ally." And Henry presented comes it as an ally." of Princeton Princeton presented as an comes it Dyke of Henry Van Dyke an that sounded sounded like the expand-or-stagnate expand-or-stagnate thesis thesis of of ininlike the an argument argument that exdustrial are an absolute necessity," necessity," he he exan absolute "Missionaries are dustrial prosperity. prosperity. "Missionaries plained, "not only for the conversion the heathen, heathen, but but also, of the conversion of for the "not only also, and plained, a the preservation preservation of of the the Church. Church. Christianity is a for the much more, more, for Christianity is religion that will not not keep." keep." that will religion secular thought Another persuasive persuasive idea in being being aa secular thought idea was different different in Another little weight overthat became a religion, religion, and and in placing little in initially that became a weight on overinitially placing desires the of needs seas expansion as such. Clearly arising out of the needs and desires out as such. seas Clearly arising expansion of various to strengthen their own position within the the of interests to various interests position within strengthen their was efficiency crucially corporation political economy, the idea that that the idea crucially efficiency corporation political economy, of the important prosperity and tolerable functioning the and the the socially to prosperity functioning of socially tolerable important to
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The of American American History History Contours of The Contours
system gained wide wide acceptance. Though some businessmen businessmen had had soon gained acceptance. Though system soon stressed axiom earlier, the general discussion was launched by launched discussion the stressed the axiom the earlier, by general in the 1880s. Then it adapted engineering and scientific journals was it the in i88os. adapted engineering and scientific journals by Frederick Frederick W. Taylor Taylor to to the of management. management. That in turn in turn the needs needs of by opened the way for a theory (and ideology) of rationalizing the of rationalizing the opened the way for a theory (and ideology) that was political economy under the direction of the coporation of the coporation that was political economy under the direction evolved the general Elton Mayo the Harvard Harvard of the of Elton evolved under under the Mayo of leadership of general leadership Business School. initial stress efficiency thus thus led the view view led to to the on efficiency stress on Business School. An initial that the the corporation was the feudal lord of a corporate society. a of new lord feudal that was the corporate society. corporation Finally, and in a way that provided the foundation for all such Finally, and in a way that provided the foundation for all such and discussion, Americans Americans came came increasingly see their their thought to see and discussion, increasingly to thought as one composed of groups-farmers, workers, and business. society businessof as one workers, fanners, groups society composed men-rather of individuals individuals and and sections. sections. Almost unconsciously men rather than than of unconsciously at with accelerating accelerating awareness, they viewed themselves as viewed themselves as at first, but with awareness, they first, but members of of aa bloc bloc that that was by the the political political economy of the defined by of the was defined members economy large Perhaps nothing nothing characterized the new Weltancharacterized the Weltanlarge corporation. corporation. Perhaps more revealingly. For given such an attitude, the inherent schauung such the For inherent more attitude, given revealingly. schauung as well well as was to to aa kind of of thought drift of of syndicalism as as the the conscious conscious drift thought was syndicalism based on balancing, and co-ordinating different funcand different funcbased on organizing, co-ordinating organizing, balancing, In part a typical example of the way interests and tional groups. the a of interests tional In way groups. typical example part experiences influence thought, but also the product of abstract analythe but also of abstract influence product thought, experiences analysis interpretation, that that kind kind of of corporation corporation syndicalism became sis and interpretation, syndicalism became by 1918 the basic basic conception entertained by by Americans. Americans. of society 1918 the conception of society entertained by That outlook provides the explanation of the persistent lie underlying of the That outlook provides underlying explanation persistent conflicts between the the units, units, and of the continued continued difficulty difficulty of of dede~ of the conflicts between veloping any broad truly inclusive program for balancing and di· inclusive for veloping any broad truly program balancing and directing the system. In one sense, the corporation was merely one In the sense, corporation recting the system. merely one the functional exerted more power of the units. But it of it exerted functional units. influence power and influence than the the others, and its organizing and balancing balancing the the than its approach to organizing others, and approach to political economy remained an interest-conscious interest-conscious conception even economy remained political conception even though it it did become progressively progressively more sophisticated. did become though sophisticated. of the as earliest most widely widely read read analyses One of the best, best, as well as as well earliest and most analyses of the syndicalist of the nature of mature industrialism of the natural of mature the natural industrialism and of syndicalist nature predominance of of the the large within it, provided in in was provided it, was predominance large corporation corporation within in a a wry I902 but essentially essentially fatalistic study, Our Benevolent Benevolent FeudalFeudal~ fatalistic study, 1902 in wry but ism, J. Ghent. understood the Ghent. Ghent thoroughly the essential essential ism, by by William J. thoroughly understood of the feature feature of the new order: order: through its co-ordination of technology, its co-ordination of through technology, it could capital, could produce provide plenty plenty for to provide for labor, it capital, and labor, produce enough enough to the everyone. But with the insight that provided the imagery of his with that the of his everyone. insight provided imagery
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title, he also realized that that an or political political and also realized an economic, and social, deeconomic, or social, dethe by the giants would affect every citizen to a sizeable degree. would affect every citizen to a sizeable degree. by giants be he concluded that the the new system was too powerful to to be While he concluded that too powerful system was destroyed and supplanted, and was likely to be moderately benevodestroyed supplanted, and was likely to be moderately benevolent, nevertheless pinpointed pinpointed aa central central problem problem suggested suggested by by his his lent, he nevertheless analogy were the the vassals vassals and of the the with feudalism: feudalism: How were the serfs and the serfs of analogy with the reciprocal obligations of the lords? lords? This to enforce new system enforce the of the This system to reciprocal obligations became aa major major issue issue that that was resolved. became was never never satisfactorily satisfactorily resolved. In several concurrent developments exemplified the the meantime, In the concurrent developments meantime, several exemplified the of organization kind of that Ghent anticipated would would arise within the the kind Ghent anticipated arise within organization that political economy. Often called its advocates the "business form its form advocates the "business called by political economy. Often by city rule of government" the commission commission form form of of in rule was was initiated initiated in of city government" the Galveston, Devastated by a tidal wave, the city was in 1901. the a tidal was Devastated Galveston, Texas, Texas, in wave, 1901. city by re-established in line with with the the theory theory that that "a municipality is is largely largely in line re-established "a municipality beaa business business corporation." corporation." Designed Designed to break down the the division to break division between legislative and administrative functions, and thereby provide tween and administrative and functions, legislative thereby provide a way way to to plan and co-ordinate co-ordinate urban urban development, development, the the commission commission a pkn and by special interests that wanted government system was opposed that wanted interests opposed by special system government amenable to them rather rather than than responsible responsible for amenable to for a a broader broader conception conception of But mounting mounting debts, debts, inefficiency, graft the community. and graft of the community. But inefficiency, and as corporation leaders to turn to various prompted reformers as well to various reformers as well to turn as leaders prompted corporation of variations on the city-manager form, and by by 1960 half of the city-manager variations almost half form, and 1960 almost America's cities cities were were organized on this plan. on America's this organized plan. In trade associations became more active and and exexa similar similar way, more active In a associations became way, trade tensive in co-ordinating various various branches branches of the system system and in in exertexertof the tensive in co-ordinating ing on the the government government as well as as on the the market. market. And influence on as well ing influence rapidly expanding as a part of the general process of controlling the rapidly expanding as a part of the general process of controlling the their economic market place, advertising firms began to extend their extend economic market place, advertising firms began to like Ivy services the area area of public relations. relations. Men like into the of public services into apIvy Lee apof a favorable proached the ultimate objective by creating favorable image the ultimate image of creating a proached objective by the general public. One the corporation and fixing fixing it of the the mind of in the the it in general public. corporation and a man who as a presented John D. Rockefeller of Rockefeller as of his his early successes presented John D. early successes by handing handing out to children. children. distributed out dimes to distributed corporation corporation profits profits by its By thus manufacturing a certain kind of and organizing its of news a kind certain thus organizing manufacturing By for themfunction for mass distribution, the advertisers created aa special themadvertisers created mass distribution, the special function of dethe same same time began the process of deselves and familiar process the now familiar time began at the selves and at the and the fining the good society in terms of the corporation the terms of in the corporation fining good society corporation in in terms terms of of benevolent benevolent efficiency. efficiency. corporation Accepting the system, Samuel Gompers Gompers assumed leadership leadership the new system, Accepting tide,
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of its In theory, theory, at any rate, rate, Gompers could have have dealt dealt at any of its labor sector. In labor sector. Gompers could ways. He could with the the corporations corporations in could have have ignored of five five ways. one of with in one ignored them (or gone along with the idea of company unions), tried to them (or gone along with the idea of company unions), tried to break them up through through agitation agitation for for strong strong enforcement enforcement of of the the antiantibreak them up trust laws, attempted to regulate them, turned to socialism (or turned socialism to cotrust laws, attempted to regulate them, (or cooperatives) and tried to change the property base of the whole operatives) and tried to change the property base of the whole political economy, on organizing while concentrated on or simply organizing them while simply concentrated economy, or last option. option. not challenging their basic basic predominance. predominance. He chose the last chose the not challenging their Then, in an an act act that that was was even more revealing revealing of his outlook, he of his even more outlook, he Then, in his fellow John Mitchell Mitchell of of the joined and the coal coal miners miners joined and his fellow labor labor leader leader John Pierpont Morgan, Morgan, Easley, August August Belmont, Belmont, J. Mark Hanna, J. Pierpont Hanna, Ralph Ralph Easley, W. Perkins, and other corporation leaders the board of George on the leaders board and other of Perkins, corporation George directors of of the National Civic Civic Federation. Federation. directors the National
political
MARK HANNA AS THE ENTREPRENEUR OF THE CORPORATION SYSTEM Conceived for resolving resolving industrial Conceived as a forum and institution institution for conforum and industrial conas a flict through through the the co-operation of capital and labor, the was the and flict of NCF was labor, co-operation capital by men stressed the necessity of co-ordinating the organized of who stressed the organized by necessity co-ordinating the various syndicalist elements to prevent crises (which would lead to elements to crises lead various would to (which syndicalist prevent socialism) or government intervention (which would lead to tyror lead to intervention socialism) (which government tyranny). his wholehearted that in his wholehearted acceptance of the the axiom axiom that anny) As typified typified in acceptance of "organized be destroyed destroyed without without debasement of the the labor cannot cannot be debasement of "organized labor masses," provided the political economy with a vigorous, Hanna the with new a masses," provided political economy vigorous, talented, and and perceptive perceptive corporation leader. A businessman businessman who took took talented, corporation leader. as his his just just reward reward for engineering the the political victory aa Senate Senate seat seat as for engineering political victory of 1896, understood both both the the nature nature and the power of the of the power of the 1896, Hanna understood new system. took trying to to do do so a way but trying in a so in that took both, but system. Exploiting Exploiting both, way that into account into his awareness awareness of the need an ethic ethic account his of the need for for an attitude and an attitude and an that that would promote promote aa positive positive consensus among its various elements, its various consensus among elements, he he emphasized the need need for for give-and-take, and for the for order, for the order, for emphasized the give-and-take, and of running as precisely precisely that, that, aa system. necessity of running the the system necessity system as system. His superior understanding and prompted many many and sophistication superior understanding sophistication prompted economic giants giants of of his his own time conclude that he was too liberal. liberal. time to to conclude was too that he never bothered could not not follow follow They bothered to to hear hear him out, or simply out, or They never simply could as his his candid evaluation of him, on such issues issues as candid evaluation the Populist of the demand him, Populist for for nationalization nationalization of of the the railroads. Acknowledging its its economic economic railroads. Acknowledging relevance a relevance in in stabilizing a crucial element of the private-property crucial element of the stabilizing private-property market place, place, he merely merely commented that that it it was was perhaps perhaps aa good idea good idea it -provided it was not done until the corporations had extracted the not until the had extracted the provided corporations .
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first-run profits from from building building and establishing them. them. His His calm estifirst-run profits and establishing calm estimate was was based based on economic economic logic and an astute perception of the mate logic and an astute perception of the basic loyalty of the reformers to private property-they were "useful basic of the reformers to private property they were "useful loyalty by half half aa century the reaction reaction citizens." His analysis citizens." also anticipated analysis also anticipated by century the coal mines mines in of nationalization of the coal British conservatives of British conservatives to to the the nationalization of the in after World War II. Hanna understood understood that same England after II. Hanna that the the same England all probability probability people would very very probably probably run railroads, and in all the railroads, run the and in people would hold hold aa large large share share of would of the the government that financed financed securities that government securities them. them. Accepting the the ruthless ruthless and callous individual entrethe demise demise of of the and callous individual entreAccepting to have realized that the "harmony preneur, Hanna seems clearly seems to have realized that the preneur, clearly "harmony execuof interests" which he he sought upon the the corporation of interests" which sought depended depended upon corporation executives, himself himself included, above interest-conscious leadership above to interest-conscious tives, included, rising leadership to rising the c1ass-conscious industrial gentry. For his backthe class-conscious outlook outlook of of an his backan industrial For gentry. ground, time, and and circumstances circumstances (which included opposition from ground, time, opposition from (which included was just just as as that from interest-conscious reformers that that was reformers as bigoted that from interest-conscious as bigoted corporation leaders), he he progressed long way way up difficult a long that difficult corporation leaders), progressed a up that As with mercantilists like Shaftesemotional and intellectual like emotional intellectual slope. Shafteswith mercantilists slope. bury or the Adamses, that aa system based on or the on understood that Adamses, Hanna understood system based bury class-conscious leadership just as as private property needed needed much as as class-conscious leadership just private property does revolutionary movement. movement. And he he realized realized the crucial weakweaka revolutionary the crucial does a ness of with an an interest-conscious outlook. For For ness of corporation leaders with interest-conscious outlook. corporation leaders was aa corporation corporation which even though though the which embraced embraced much even the interest interest was of the political viewed society that from that still viewed such men still of the society from political economy, economy, such interest base-stressing immediate opportunities or problems-rather rather or immediate interest problems opportunities basestressing than from the outside primary emphasis long-run, its long-run, outside and from the and with with primary than emphasis on its inclusive needs and equities. inclusive needs and equities. In moreover, he in class-consciousness in such class-consciousness revealed such he revealed In many cases, moreover, many cases, for shooting his actions. a coal coal operator, operator, he he damned the the militia militia for his actions. As a shooting a strike plant, and was immediately immediately a worker worker involved involved in his plant, in a strike against a against his attracted to William William McKinley, McKinley, the the young young lawyer-politician attracted to lawyer-politician who defended the Later, he played aa major major part in settling the he played the union. union. Later, defended settling the part in Feeling that vigorous rivalry rivalry between between bitter anthracite that vigorous strike of bitter of 1900. anthracite strike 1900. Feeling various elements of the the syndicalist helped balance balance them, he elements of various them, he system helped syndicalist system their for encouraged the farmers to stand up for their rights. "Anybody stand to farmers the "Anybody rights. up encouraged audiences that abusin' you you people people now?" he western audiences that were were ask western he would ask abusin* 'em!" was He prepared to be critical. "All right, combine and smash 'eml" combine "All critical. to be right, prepared call to his at the in turn of fighting with all the great power at his call to all with of in turn capable power great fighting capable untreated were protect corporations he thought they were being treated unhe when being thought they protect corporations
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fairly or limited to an extent that that threatened role their fundamental fundamental role threatened their an extent in the the system. in some cases of that kind, his judgment was was in system- And in some cases of that kind, his judgment narrow and mistaken. Thus he never became fully conscious. class conscious. never became Thus he and mistaken. narrow fully class But he he did did recognize recognize the the basic basic issue a good good many many educate a did educate and did issue and But leaders time, even few of them ever admitted it. His ever admitted it. His of them few his time, even though leaders of of his though as well as Mccourage and wisdom helped Theodore Roosevelt as well as Roosevelt Theodore and wisdom helped courage of them into Kinley, and his astute political sense put both of into the the Kinley, and his astute political sense put both White House. As might be expected, he organized political action White House. As might be expected, he organized political action as though it were were aa corporate from funds from as collecting funds enterprise. From collecting corporate enterprise. though it corporations (and returning any that were given in anticipation of in were of that anticipation given corporations (and returning any special favors or that were not used) to paying individuals to wear individuals to wear to were not or that favors paying used) special McKinley for the the bandwagon bandwagon effect, established the the buttons for effect, Hanna established McKinley buttons He used carloads of Civil veterans modern political operation. of Civil War veterans used carloads modern political operation. instead bevies of titillating females, pails instead instead of dinner pails of of titillating of bevies instead of females, and dinner straw hats, but his latter-day imitators added nothing essentially straw hats, but his latter-day imitators added nothing essentially new. The politician politician as as organizational in with with Hanna. Hanna. new. organizational man came in But McKinley was far from the weak figure some have thought the weak have was far But from figure thought McKinley him. Even Even before before he he met met Hanna, Hanna, for example, he he grasped grasped the the esesfor example, him. sentials of relationship between capital and labor and between and of an an equitable labor and sentials capital equitable relationship sensed idea of the Presidency Presidency as a corporate corporate the directorship of a the idea of the as the sensed the directorship of society. Hanna's tutoring strengthened and extended these insights extended and these society. Hanna's tutoring strengthened insights and provided support and organization, but McKinley's reputation and provided support and organization, but McKinley's reputation played aa crucial role in in winning winning labor labor to the 189os. to Republicanism crucial role in the played Republicanism in 1890$. was President his own right and brought to the White House He was President in in his and to the White House brought right a firm and balanced balanced society based on a firm conception of an an integrated on conception of integrated and society based private property and the large corporation. and the private property large corporation. In the problems problems of of the the new political economy, McMcIn approaching political economy, approaching the Kinley laid great stress on ending social unrest and on the relationlaid stress social unrest on the relationKinley great ending ship between overseas prosperity. overseas economic economic expansion domestic prosperity. ship expansion and domestic it is Hence it is misleading to view pushed view him a weak man who was him as as a was pushed misleading to into into expansion war against his will by popular excitement and his will excitement and expansion and war against by popular special interests. issues were far more complex than that, as interests. The issues far more than that, as special complex the history, was the history, and and revolved revolved around of internal the questions around the of how internal questions could be be restored stability could restored and how the the most most efficient kind of efficient kind of exexstability could initiated be pansion could be initiated and sustained. Those were the basic issues. sustained. Those were the basic issues. pansion order and Spain's to restore restore order and routine routine government in Cuba Cuba Spain's inability inability to government in the catalyst was the in aa dynamic formed of potent of several several potent catalyst in dynamic equation equation formed elements. elements. fairly or limited to
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THE KEASSERTION REASSERTION OF THE EXPANSIONIST THEORY OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND THE WAR WITH SPAIN
Clearly most significant was the the consensus among the most of the the factors consensus among factors was Clearly the significant of business leaders absolute necessity necessity of of overseas Even business leaders on on the the absolute overseas expansion. expansion. Even before he he had had become presidential candidate, candidate, for the before become a a presidential for example, example, the National Association Association of chose McKinley to keynote National of Manufacturers Manufacturers chose to keynote McKinley their organizational meeting in of "the large manufacturers their in r895 organizational meeting 1895 of "the large manufacturers who are in foreign foreign trade." the axiom that such such are engaged trade." Acting on the axiom that engaged in Acting on overseas expansion offered relief" to to overseas economic economic expansion offered the of relief the "only "only promise promise of the now perpetual perpetual existence existence of the N A.M. stressed the of vast stressed vast surpluses, the NA.M. surpluses, the need the usefulness of vigorous the need of of and the usefulness of vigorous government government support support and reciprocity treaties in obtaining cheap raw materials as well as treaties new in as as well materials raw reciprocity obtaining cheap export markets. his support high tariffs tariffs markets. McKinley of high had modified modified his export McKinley had support of in with the views of former Secretary of State line with the more sophisticated in line of State views of former Secretary sophisticated as a way of satisfying Ohio businessmen deJames G. Blaine G. Elaine as a who deof Ohio businessmen James way satisfying overseas markets. "It is a mighty problem to keep manded access access to to overseas markets. "It is a mighty problem to keep the whole in motion," motion," he he explained explained in r895, and and concluded concluded of industry whole of the in 1895, industry in that it be kept kept in motion without without markets." markets." Moving vigorthat it "cannot "cannot be in motion Moving vigorously once it was organized, the established its own wareit once was warethe established its NA.M. ously organized, houses and agents in Asia and Latin America and began an houses in and and America Latin Asia agents began an ultimately successful campaign for government assistance in enterentersuccessful in for assistance ultimately campaign government ing developing such such markets. markets. ing and developing McKinley the featured at the the r897 of the the featured address address at gave the McKinley gave 1897 meeting meeting of Philadelphia Commercial Museum, also organized to push overseas overseas Philadelphia Commercial Museum, also organized to push cause [than] expansion of of economic economic expansion. the expansion worthier cause expansion. "No worthier [than] the trade," he asserted, "".... can engage our our energies energies at at this this hour." hour." he asserted, can engage trade," Flour wool manufacturers, manufacturers, the the National National Live ExStock ExFlour millers, Live Stock millers, wool change, and the Committee on American Interests in China (which the American Interests in Committee (which change, soon became the Asiatic Association) enthusitheir enthusithe American added their soon became American Asiatic Association) added astic agreement-and their vigorous pressure on the government. the and their astic government vigorous pressure agreement Journals American, Engineering Engineering Magazine, Magazine, and and Iron Iron like Scientific Scientific American, Journals like himself Age asked for relief in the same form. But McKinley himself profor the in form. asked relief proMcKinley Age vided the most succinct summary of the whole movement. "We whole movement. vided the most succinct summary of the want our markets for prodmanufactures and agricultural for our our manufactures want our own markets agricultural products"; he he explained explained in a foreign foreign market market for for our in r895, ucts"; 1895, "we want a surplus products. want aa reciprocity reciprocity which which will will give give us us surplus products. . . . We want will turn that in foreign markets for our surplus products, and in tum that will open markets for our open surplus products, foreign .
.
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our markets markets to to foreigners foreigners for for those those products products which which they they produce produce our we do not." and which and which do not." Other politicians politicians and and intellectuals intellectuals extended extended the the expand-or-stagnate expand-or-stagnate Other to include all aspects of of AmeriAmeriapproach to the American economy all include aspects approach to the American economy to
life. Church Church leaders leaders resolved resolved the the conflict conflict between between pseudo-science pseudo-science life. and religion by merging and transforming them in a supercharged in a supercharged and religion by merging and transforming reforming imperialism. imperialism. Congregationalist Congregationalist Josiah Josiah Strong Strong thought thought it it reforming "manifest" that that the the American American branch branch of of the the Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxon family family "manifest" would move move out out into into the the new frontiers frontiers of of the the world world with with righteous righteous would "It would would seem," seem," he he concluded, concluded, "as "as if if these these inferior inferior benevolence. "It benevolence. voices in in the the wilderwildertribes were were only only precursors precursors of of aa superior superior race, race, voices tribes ness crying: crying: Prepare Prepare ye ye the the way way of of the the Lord." Lord." In In his his view view (shared (shared or or ness adapted by others like John Fiske), America the chosen instruwas the chosen instruAmerica others like John Fiske), adapted by ment of of aa white, white, Protestant, Protestant, Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxon Jehovah Jehovah whose whose master master ment was an earlier version of Darwinism. plan of Darwinism. an version was earlier plan Several historians historians presented presented secular secular versions versions of of the the same same basic basic Several officer Alfred argument. Though originally an anti-imperialist, naval naval officer Alfred an anti-imperialist, argument. Though originally by aa combination combination of of the the Thayer Mahan was was converted converted to to empire empire by Thayer Navy's interest and his reading of (and borrowing from) of and his own interest (and borrowing from) Navy's reading English and and French French mercantilists. mercantilists. Though Though his his influence influence has has often often English been exaggerated, exaggerated, Mahan's Mahan's neat neat formula formula for for producing producing domestic domestic been by aa big big wealth, welfare, and morality morality through through exports exports protected wealth, welfare, and protected by navy did enjoy wide popularity and provided a convenient way and a convenient way of of provided navy did enjoy wide popularity talking about empire in terms of ethics and defense. talking about empire in terms of ethics and defense. Though he was was almost to the the general public, Brooks almost unknown to Brooks general public, Though he also exerted considerable Adams was more original than Mahan and and also exerted considerable was original than influence policy leaders like Richard influence on foreign leaders like Richard Olney, Olney, John John Hay, foreign policy Hay, Henry his Cabot Lodge, Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt. Arguing from his Henry Cabot Lodge, and Theodore Arguing from study were created of history that great civilizations were created by study of history that great civilizations by conquering, conquering, organizing, slices of the world's of the world's western western organizing, and integrating integrating huge huge slices frontier, concluded that the center of empire that the center of in the had in the frontier, Adams concluded empire had I890s reached the the United to maintain States. In In order United States. order to that position, maintain that 18905 reached position, the nation the nation had therefore therefore to to abandon abandon laissez faire, accept laissez faire, the corporaaccept the corporation political tion and it rationally and political economy, economy, organize organize it rationally and effectively, effectively, and it it by tightening up control of the Western Hemisphere and expand control of the Western expand by tightening up Hemisphere and winning economic dominance of Asia. Desperately economic of Asia. concerned to to winning Desperately concerned avoid a a revolution revolution that avoid socialism, or perhaps simply that would bring or bring socialism, perhaps simply anarchy, his imperialism. "I take it our take it our anarchy, Adams openly openly avowed his imperialism. "I is to the is to reorganize the Asiatic end of the vast chaotic mass we destiny Asiatic the of vast chaotic mass destiny reorganize can can
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call Russia." He enthused the prospect. prospect. "And, by God, God, II like it." enthused at at the like it/' "And, by Far less imperialist, though by no means opposed to exless openly Far openly imperialist, though by no means opposed to expansion, Frederick Jackson Turner developed a narrower and more Frederick Jackson Turner developed a narrower and more pansion, specifically American version of the frontier thesis. Expansion had specifically American version of the frontier thesis. Expansion had was Americans democratic and prosperous. prosperous. The impliC?tion made Americans democratic and implication was Though clear: no more frontiers, frontiers, no no more more wealth wealth and clear: no and welfare. welfare. Though Turner remained remained primarily primarily aa historian and seldom seldom entered Turner historian and the arena arena entered the of public public debate the dens private influence, influence, many many public public figures of debate or or the dens of of private figures as the the immediately recognized recognized that saying the the same that he he was was saying same thing immediately thing as in the rhetoric corporation leaders, even though he was phrasing it he in the rhetoric was it leaders, even corporation though phrasing as Theodore Theodore Roosevelt, of the the middle class. Men as middle class. as different of different as Roosevelt, who had also written about conquest of of the the West, West, the editors of of the the also written the conquest about the had the editors Atlantic Monthly, Monthly, and and aa young intellectual Woodrow Wilson intellectual named Wilson Atlantic young to political political power meaning and in who aspired and significance this meaning aspired to power saw this significance in as their own. in subTurner's and adopted it and subTurner's interpretation it as their And in own. interpretation adopted sequent the idea and expanding provided idea that that new and frontiers provided decades, the expanding frontiers sequent decades, the solution to America's became one one of the nation's nation's basic basic solution to America's difficulties of the the difficulties became the outlook as difand persuasive assumptions. assumptions. It difIt influenced outlook of of men as influenced the and persuasive Nelson Rockefeller Rockefeller and Henry Wallace Wallace as well as their ferent as as their as Nelson and Henry as well ferent less famous famous but but none the the less less imporrespective peers, peers, together with less imporrespective together with tant policy-makers. tant policy-makers. Each of these major maj or ideas, conception of system the new system of these the conception of the ideas, from the to Turner's frontier as upon an expanding market place to frontier an market Turner's as depending expanding place depending upon extended die the others, others, and and taken they thesis, reinforced reinforced and extended taken together thesis, together they for made sense out of the multiplicity of particularistic demands for of sense out of the multiplicity particularistic Given this expansionist theory of prosperity history, expansion. and history, expansion. Given this expansionist theory of prosperity the activities of foreign foreign nations were interpreted almost wholly as nations were activities of the wholly as interpreted almost its vital events the United States the the opportunity opportunity for for its vital United States which denied denied the events which expansion. different explanation the nation's nation's difficulties difficulties would of the explanation of expansion. A different have produced aa different of foreign foreign actions, for not not one one of estimate of have produced actions, for of different estimate States. the countries threatened the the United United States. countries actually the actually threatened But when European nations like Austria like France, But France, Germany, Germany, and Austria European nations raised tariff barriers against American surpluses, the act act was viewed viewed tariff barriers raised against American surpluses, the even even England as American wealth and welfare. Not welfare. wealth American as threatening England threatening the blame. blame. For though though it it was clearly that escaped of the a share share of deciding that clearly deciding escaped a entente with America, it wise to to work out underlying entente America, out an an underlying be wise it would would be cease to to compete with the the England evidence that it would cease that it no evidence compete with England gave gave no in Asia, Asia, where China United States within that that framework. framework. And in States within United of Amerfrontier of was rapidly rapidly coming coming to to be be defined as the the vital vital new frontier defined as was call Russia."
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ican and democracy, Japan and Russia were seen as joinican prosperity prosperity and democracy, Japan and Russia were seen as joining England and France Italy) in in dividing and Italy) even Germany and France (and Germany and dividing (and even ing England the opportunities among themselves and thereby excluding the and themselves the opportunities among thereby excluding the United States. McKinley agreed with Cleveland's conclusion that the conclusion that the with Cleveland's United States. McKinley agreed Asian crisis "deserves our gravest consideration by reason of its consideration reason of its Asian crisis "deserves our gravest by disturbance of our growing commercial interests." And both were both were disturbance of our growing commercial interests." intimately with the the requests requests from from corporation leaders for for familiar with corporation leaders intimately familiar "energetic" action "for the preservation and protection of [our] "energetic*' action "for the preservation and protection of [our] important commercial interests in that [Chinese] in that commercial interests Empire." [Chinese] Empire." important the spring therefore, American American foreign Up to of IB97, to the and summer summer of foreign 1897, therefore, Up spring and policy was largely taken up with an expansionist drive directed drive an directed with was taken expansionist largely up policy official toward Asia. difficulties in were aa matter matter of of official in Cuba Cuba were toward Asia. Spain's Spain's difficulties concern and popular interest, but not even Joseph Pulitzer not even but Pulitzer and sporadic concern interest, Joseph sporadic popular and Hearst managed managed to to whip sustained William Randolph and William whip up up any any sustained Randolph Hearst excitement or or pressure pressure for for intervention. As they they later admitted, both both later admitted, intervention. As excitement as narrow interest-conscious opernewspaper publishers were acting as narrow were interest-conscious operacting newspaper publishers ators with their their circulation hence advertising concerned with circulation figures ators concerned figures (and (and hence advertising of the the irresponsibility the revenues). They were classic of the classic examples They were examples of irresponsibility of revenues). mass-merchandizing approach to information. While they uninformation. to While unnew mass-merchandizing they approach doubtedly created emotional concern concern in in the the winter winter and and spring created an an emotional of doubtedly spring of 18w-I8g8 to save Cuba, neither they nor their readers made the their to save nor readers neither the Cuba, they 1897-1898 war. decision to go to war. decision to go to That was done done by by McKinley McKinley and and aa few few close on the the That was close advisors advisors on specific and general American interests could not be grounds that that and American interests could not be general grounds specific satisfied any other course. Hence to explain the Spanish-Ameriother the satisfied by to course. by any explain Spanish-Amerias inevitable to engage an intellectual and moral moral can War as is to can inevitable is intellectual and in an engage in evasion of problem. America America was vastly vastly more powerful powerful of the the entire evasion entire problem. than Spain. the definition definition of by its than of America's America's needs needs made by its own Spain. And the that such was leaders produced the war. war. To conclude leaders conclude that such a a definition definition was produced the also inevitable is also inevitable is to to resort resort to nonhistorical reasoning. For being being to nonhistorical reasoning. For able to the minds of American able to explain that outlook outlook arose arose in in the of American explain how that leaders is not at to prove prove that no other view could developed. leaders is not at all all to that no other view could have have developed. the background, Against the background, and in the context, of of the the consensus the context, and in on consensus on Against expansion, several primary attention several factors factors combined to shift combined to shift primary attention from from expansion, China China to to Cuba. American American corporations with direct direct economic intereconomic intercorporations with ests in the the island ests in island launched launched aa vigorous vigorous campaign for intervention. for intervention. campaign At the the same time, many people people who had had favored revolution favored the the revolution time, many to their minds. to change their minds. Becoming skeptical of its nature and began of its and nature began change Becoming skeptical purposes, they preferred intervention to support moderate and conto intervention and moderate conpurposes, they preferred support
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By the the late late fall fall of of 1897, 1~7, moreover, moreover, many many large large By corporation leaders who had opposed war up to that time began to leaders had opposed war up to that time began to corporation feel that the situation had to be stabilized so that domestic recovery the situation had to be stabilized so that domestic recovery feel that and overseas overseas expansion expansion could could proceed proceed without without further further delay delay and and and interruption. interruption. Sharing this this estimate, estimate, the the McKinley McKinley Administration Administration had had already already Sharing advised the the Spanish Spanish as as early early as as November November 20, 20, 1897, 1~7, that that "peace "peace in in advised Cuba is is necessary necessary to to the the welfare welfare of of the the people people of of the the United United States." States." Cuba Having defined defined the the problem problem in in those those terms, terms, McKinley McKinley on on DecemDecemHaving ber 6, 6, 1897, 1897, graciously graciously gave gave Spain Spain "a "a reasonable reasonable chance" chance" to to do do what what ber he told told them. them. But But in in complying complying with with American American pressure pressure to to replace replace he a military military commander commander who was was in in fact fact restoring restoring order, order, Madrid Madrid only only a it impossible impossible for for itself itself to to ~omply with the basic demand. For made it For demand. basic with the comply less determined determined military military operations operations allowed allowed the the rebels rebels to to recoup recoup less some of of their their losses. losses. Stalemate Stalemate was was the the result. result. America America had had thus thus some irresponsibly demanded results while denying Spain the right to demanded the results while denying Spain irresponsibly right to use effective means. Impatient of further delay, and cavalierly dedeeffective means. Impatient of further delay, and cavalierly use preciating Spain's continued efforts efforts to to meet meet his his demands, McKinley demands, McKinley preciating Spain's continued went to war to remove the distraction, establish firm control of the the went to war to remove the distraction, establish firm control of Caribbean, and and proceed proceed with with expansion expansion into into Asia. Asia. Caribbean, Ordering troops into into the the Philippines Philippines on on May May 4, 4 1898, I~, even even before before Ordering troops he had official of Commodore George George Dewey's Dewey's victory victory over over he official word of the Spanish dramatized the the broader broader fleet in the in Manila Manila Bay, Spanish fleet Bay, McKinley McKinley dramatized context of the war and opened vigorous debate debate over over what kind of of what kind of the a vigorous war and context opened a to colonialism empire the United States should establish. Opposed to colonialism United establish. the States should Opposed empire on the the grounds grounds that was unnecessary unnecessary (and (and even to ecoecoeven harmful) that it it was on harmful) to nomic and because it weaken political democracy it would because nomic expansion, and would democracy political expansion, the military and the influence of the influence of and public military public morality strengthening the morality by by strengthening like and taxes, some leading politicians and intellectuals like intellectuals and some and increasing leading politicians increasing taxes, based Carl kind of empire based kind of a more more sophisticated advocated a Carl Schurz Schurz advocated empire sophisticated of his own law of of his on power. Quite in view of economic power. on economic Quite logically, logically, in sussurplus disposal whereby exports could be extended and then susbe extended could surplus disposal whereby exports tained other businessmen, and some other tained by businessmen, supsupCarnegie, and underselling, Carnegie, by underselling, ported this view. Pointing to the Philippine Rebellion against Rebellion the to this view. against Philippine Pointing ported it with crushed it that the the Army American to the the way forces (and American forces Army crushed way that (and to of their aa ruthlessness equal to similar European actions) as proof of their as to similar ruthlessness equal proof European actions) raised argument against colonialism, such anti-imperialists raised a great such great anti-imperialists argument against colonialism, ruckus Administration some political the McKinley caused the and caused ruckus and political McKinley Administration embarrassment. embarrassment. servative elements. elements. servative
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For the the most most part, part, however, however, McKinley McKinley and and his his advisors advisors actually For actually agreed with the anti-imperialists. Bryan, for example, for with the example, opposed opposed anti-imperialists. Bryan, agreed colonialism but but assumed that Ameri~a would crush the Philippine crush the America would colonialism assumed that Philippine revolt, keep an economic and naval base in the islands, on in the base islands, and go revolt, keep an economic and naval go on to economic predominance in Asia. But McKinley advocated that advocated that to economic predominance in Asia. But McKinley very policy. Extremists like Theodore Roosevelt either either missed missed or or very policy. Extremists like Theodore Roosevelt ignored, thereby obscured, this vital vital convergence convergence of of thinking. thinking. and thereby obscured, this ignored, and Even in in the the short run, for that matter, matter, it it would would seem that that the the antiantifor that short run, Even imperialists took the crucial line in the the argument. For while while the the argument. For imperialists took the crucial line in many anti-imperiUnited States annexed Hawaii Hawaii (with the votes votes of of many United States annexed anti-imperi(with the alists, who admitted their concern for the the Asian Asian trade), and took took admitted their concern for alists, who trade), and temporary title to the Philippines, it based its of empire on of based its strategy it on to the tide strategy empire Philippines, temporary view of this, McKinley economic rather than territorial territorial expansion. In view of this, rather than economic expansion. In McKinley roundly trounced trounced Samuel in aa debate debate before before aa labor labor audiaudiSamuel Gompers Gompers in roundly ence by candidly explaining the connection between overseas ecothe between connection overseas ecoence by candidly explaining nomic expansion and a full dinner pail on the job. dinner on the a full nomic and job. pail expansion In therefore, the anti-imperialists kept kept on arguing the anti-imperialists on arguing In a a real real sense, sense, therefore, about had won while the expansionists moved on to the while on to an issue about an issue they expansionists they deal with with the problem. "Whatever may difference of of opinion deal "Whatever difference the next next problem. opinion may exist among respecting the the policy of territorial territorial exist citizens respecting American citizens policy of among American expansion," wrote former Secretary of State John W. Foster in of State former Foster in wrote John Secretary expansion," r9OO, "all seem to be agreed upon the desirability of commercial be the of "all seem to commercial agreed upon desirability 1900, fact it it has has ~ome to be be aa necessity necessity to to find expansion. find new and In fact and .come to expansion. In enlarged markets for our agricultural and manufactured products. markets for our and manufactured agricultural enlarged products. maintain our our present present industrial prosperity without without them." them." We cannot cannot maintain industrial prosperity Corporation leaders and intellectuals like Brooks Adams quite leaders and intellectuals like Brooks Corporation quite agreed that the nation's tremendous economic strength would underthat the nation's tremendous economic strength would underagreed write aa tremendous bluntly about America's EcoEcowrite tremendous empire. about America's empire. Writing Writing bluntly nomic Supremacy in 1899-1900, concluded that that victory in Supremacy in 1899-1900, Adams concluded victory in in the the the Spanish-American a prelude prelude to to triumph the Spanish-American War was merely merely a triumph in for world world predominance. by corporation corporation main contest contest for Influenced by predominance. Influenced by directors politicians who followed the same directors (and followed the same line) and by (and politicians line),, and friends Adams, Secretary Hay friends and advisors advisors like like Adams, State John of State John Hay Secretary of a basic access and and evolved evolved a of expansion. basic strategy strategy of expansion. Demanding Demanding equal equal access fair for American and fair treatment treatment for American economic power in in China China (1899), and economic power (1899), then America's direct maintaining the the territorial then asserting interest in direct interest in maintaining territorial asserting America's administrative integrity (1900), his famous Open and administrative of that nation that of nation his famous integrity (1900), Open Door Notes Notes defined the framework within within which which the the United United States defined the States entered ultimately to entered-ultimately to dominate-the competition for dominate the competition for empire. empire.
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in McKinley's McKinley's use of the the phrase phrase "open door" to to define define revealed in As revealed use of "open door"
1898, was broadly understood was broadly understood It not an English policy. Advisor William Wood· and accepted. It was not an and accepted. English policy. Advisor William Wooddiscus~ ville Rockhill pointed this out very emphatically during his Rockhill ville pointed this out very emphatically during his discussions with with Hay: as that that best to our "the policy sions our suited to best suited Hay: "the policy suggested suggested as interests is not British one." London's version version of the open door not a a British interests is one." London's of the open door policy acknowledged whereas (again of influence, Rockin Rockinfluence, whereas acknowledged spheres spheres of policy (again in hill's language) language) the the United United States equality of of hilPs States insisted insisted on on "absolute "absolute equality treatment." Convinced to expand, and yet wanting Convinced of of the treatment." the necessity to and wanting expand, yet necessity to avoid pitfalls of colonial empire empire and of having to avoid the the pitfalls of a a formal to formal colonial and of having to rivals) American leaders saw in the fight periodic wars with such wars with such American leaders saw in the rivals, fight periodic way to deploy policy and the the strategy door the the perfect of the the open strategy of policy open door perfect way to deploy and exploit America's economic predominance. This outlook guided America's and economic This outlook exploit predominance. guided their actions than half century. actions for for more than their half a a century. Combined with the United with Morgan's Steel of the States Steel United States Morgan's organization organization of in Corporation and the founding of the National Civic Federation the and of Federation in the National Civic Corporation founding 1901, the Open Door Notes capped and symbolized the triumph of the of Notes and the Open 1901, capped symbolized triumph the new order of corporation corporation capitalism. capitalism. The The concurrent publication order of the concurrent publication essays on the nature strategy of using America's America's of Adams's essays on the nature and of using of Adams's and strategy Economic Supremacy to build an empire (1900), and Ghent's perEconomic to an and build Ghent's Supremacy perempire (1900), ceptive analysis of the domestic features of Our Benevolent FeuFeuof die Benevolent domestic features of ceptive analysis dalism (1902) provided appropriate intellectual statements. the dalism statements. And the appropriate intellectual (1902) provided to the Presidency by virtue sudden rise of Theodore Roosevelt of sudden rise of Theodore Roosevelt to the Presidency by virtue of an assassination of of McKinley McKinley added climax. eerie climax. added an an eerie an anarchist's anarchist's assassination class-conscious Given the the nature nature of the new order, Roosevelt as a class-conscious Given of the as a order, Roosevelt descendant the old York feudal provided aa susufeudal aristocracy descendant of old New York of the aristocracy provided premely appropriate as he advice on for advice he asked asked Adams for leader. And as premely appropriate leader. his first message to to Congress, the political political economy economy of the of the first annual his annual message Congress, the that dedelarge confronted many difficulties and problems that difficulties confronted problems large corporation many corporation best it it could could produce. manded the the best produce. Granting Roosevelt most most certainly of the the system, the assumptions certainly system, Roosevelt assumptions of Granting the dealt with those relevant and potentially potentially from the the most difficulties from most relevant dealt with those difficulties derived of leadership most successful point of of view. view. His His conception most successful point leadership derived conception of in from the gentry, a group that had wielded power in an wielded had a that the agrarian from power group agrarian gentry, by consolidated economic power earlier society also characterized consolidated economic also characterized earlier (in power (in by society of network of authority, land), and by a similar vast and interrelated network interrelated and a similar vast authority, land), by influence, responsibility. Hanna understood understood the the modern indusindusand responsibility. influence, and the trial system based on centralized power in the corporation, but in on centralized based trial corporation, but power system lacked the the tradition of class-conscious leadership. His significance class-conscious leadership. lacked tradition of significance as early his approach early as basic idea as 1898, the his the basic idea approach as
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lies recognition of that lack, lack, and and his his effort to overcome overcome it. effort to in his his recognition lies in of that it. has been too little understood and It was was aa great achievement that little understood too that has been and achievement great acknowledged. acknowledged. Roosevelt did did not not fully fully comprehend the industrial but he he industrial system, Roosevelt system, but comprehend the did have have the and ideal of dass-conscious leadership. That was That did class-conscious the image ideal of and was leadership. image crucial. The political political economy not the large of the could not crucial. corporation could economy of large corporation be run either effectively or equitably by decisions men made who be run either effectively or equitably by decisions on the the basis basis of an interest-conscious interest-conscious outlook. Roosevelt did did not not fully fully o an outlook. Roosevelt on effect the transition to the industrial age. Nor did he really master did he really master effect the transition to the industrial age. the working working of system. He also errors of of execution, also made errors the of the the system. some execution, some of which which patently patently stemmed view of of the leader as as aa feudal feudal his view the leader from his stemmed from of knight. The The question question whether whether the personal achievement was the greater achievement was greater personal knight. not made made by by Hanna since more of in fundaa change of a it involved involved more since it not fundachange in for debate debate and each mental point point of of view view is each individual's one for is largely individual's mental largely one resolution. In the broader broader sense, the important that consideration is resolution. is that In the sense, the important consideration that fundaRoosevelt provided aa relevant relevant model model for for later later leaders. leaders. In In that fundaRoosevelt provided mental sense was progressive progressive even even though though the model was was in the the model mental sense he he was in the sense archaic. explicit sense archaic. explicit It
III. I. A ANew Existing Ideas New Reality for Existing Ideas Reality for
The tremendous compler industrial industrial development development which which went went tremendous and highly highly complex on ever-accelerated rapidity during the half of nineteenth on with with ever-accelerated the latter latter half the nineteenth rapidity during of the twentieth, with with century brings face to to face, face, at us face at the the beginning the twentieth brings us of the century beginning of very social problems* problems. The old old laws, laws, and the the old serious social old customs customs • •• very serious are no longer sufficient. Theodore Roosevelt, are Theodore longer sufficient. Roosevelt, 1901 1901 f
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We are facing the of fitting fitting aa new social social organization the necessity are facing to . . to necessity of organization •, •• the happiness happiness and prosperity prosperity of great body body of citizens. .•. But we the great the But . of the of citizens. all in calm and sober sober fashion. fashion. Woodrow Wilson, can it all in calm can do it Wilson, 1912 1912 .
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is our democracy: In this nation II see see tens tens of the challenge to our is the this nation of democracy: In challenge to millions of its citizens-a substantial part of its whole population-who a millions its citizens substantial its whole of population who part of at this denied the greater part part of of what the the lowest at this very the greater are denied lowest very moment are But here here
standards of of today of life. life. standards call the the necessities necessities of today call Franklin Delano Delano Roosevelt, Roosevelt, 1937 1937 The ordeal of the bloodiest, most turbulent era the Twentieth turbulent era ordeal of Twentieth Century-the Century the bloodiest, of the Christian age-is far from over. Adlai E. Stevenson, 1952 the is over. E. Christian Adlai Stevenson, of age far from 1952 for caution dealing with with corporations corporations is to be be is to An additional reason for caution in in dealing additional reason found in commercial in the the international international commercial found concerns which which have the largest means have the concerns largest means ablest men ••• by the lead in the lead in the ablest . . take taJ(c the by acy among the nations of the world. the world. nations the of acy among
conditions of conditions of today today.. at their disposal at their disposal
••. Business . Business .
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are managed and are managed
the strife for for commercial commercial supremsupremthe strife America has has only only just just begun begun to to America assume the commanding position position in international business world business world the international in the assume the commanding which we believe more and more be hers. It It is of the the utmost be hers. is of utmost imwill more which believe will a portance that this position be not jeopardized, especially at time when time be at not that this jeopardized, especially portance position ••• foreign foreign markets [are] essential. Roosevclt, 1901 essential. Theodore Roosevelt, markets [are] 1901 . , .
We cannot go through through another another 10 IO years years lik.e IO years years at the the end of ot cannot go life the 10 . • • without having the the most most far-reaching far-reaching consequences consequences without having 371
the twenties the twenties
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upon economic and social system. system. • • . When we look at that probthat proband social our economic loo\ at upon our lem. we may may say say it it is a problem problem of of markets got to to see see that that have got is a markets.• ••. We have lem, we what country produces produces is and is sold under financial financial arrangea"angeis sold is used used and the country what the possible. ••• You must must look to forforments which which mal(e make its production possible. its production ments loo\ to eign markets. G. Acheson, 1947 Dean Acheson, 1947 eign markets. .
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We delude ourselves if if we do not realize realize that power of that the the main main power the do not delude ourselves of the Communist states lies activity but but in force of in the the force clandestine activity in their not in their clandestine lies not Communist states of their in the the Soviet Soviet Union Union demonstration of visible demonstration the visible their example, of what the example, in has achieved achieved in in forty forty years, years, or Red China has achieved achieved in in about China has about what Red or what has years. Walter Lippmann, 1959 ten years. Walter Lippmann, ten 1959
VARIOUS APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEMS OF THE CORPORATION POLITICAL ECONOMY
As As
the Depression of the the 18905 and the the Spanfrom the THEY EMERGED from 18905 and SpanDepression of
n of peace peace and greater domestic XX ish-American an era of ish-American War into an greater domestic into
era
problems in organizing and prosperity, Americans in organizing several problems and faced several Americans faced prosperity, institutionalizing the political economy of the large corporation. of the new the large corporation. institutionalizing political economy the Some concerned domestic affairs have existed even if if the existed even concerned domestic affairs and and would would have political economy had never been criticized by domestic radibeen domestic had criticized radinew political never by economy cals or related to the cals or foreign rivals. Others Others were were more direcdy to the directly related foreign rivals. difficulties maintaining the the overseas which of maintaining difficulties of overseas economic which economic expansion expansion an important in recovery from began in the late in the late 1890s 18905 (playing began important part recovery from (playing an part in the depression) and considered vital to the system. Part of those the and to was considered vital the of Part those system. depression) foreign policy policy problems problems were endemic to the the expansionist endemic to iteffort itforeign expansionist effort self. The rest rest grew out of the opposition to American expansion self. the to of grew out expansion opposition by conservative well as as radical-leaders manifested by manifested conservative and liberal as well and liberal-as radical leaders aspects of reality continued of countries. Since of foreign Since all all of of those those aspects of reality continued foreign countries. is apparent apparent that disto exist the century, it is to exist past the middle of the middle of that any past the century, it any discussion of of them has cussion has to to be be conceived in terms terms of rather than than conceived in of decades decades rather a few special years (or events). years (or a special events). At home, home, Americans Americans had to to devise devise ways ways of the of maintaining maintaining the sustained functioning sustained of the large corporation; not only was it the of the the it not was large corporation; functioning only unit of economic economic production, unit of production, and and hence hence of welfare, but but because because of of of welfare, its vast its vast interconnections throughout the rest of of the the system its failure interconnections throughout failure the rest its system would mean social social and and political crisis. They They also to dedealso had had either either to political crisis. a velop a pattern of politics that would institute and maintain aa of that would maintain institute velop pattern politics
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democratic process process of among the the various various functional of decision-making democratic functional decision-making among (and within they and syndicalist elements of the system and syndicalist elements of the system (and within them), or they them), or evolve and accept to evolve accept aa sophisticated leadership had to class-conscious leadership sophisticated class-<:onscious that would take command of the system and run it on the principles take that of the system and run it on the principles of long-range objectives. Finally, and regardless of the of equity and regardless of the equity and long-range objectives. Finally,
choice between these alternatives, the faced the necessity of these alternatives, choice between the society society faced the necessity of constructing a philosophy philosophy appropriate to an an interrelated interrelated system in constructing a appropriate to system in which the the individual individual was was clearly not the key figure that he had which not the had he that key figure dearly been during the age age of of laissez been laissez nous nous faire. faire. during the Despite many assertions assertions to the contrary, these features of the the new to the features of Despite many contrary, these reality were not unique to the United States. were American were not to the United States. Nor American were reality unique as different different as as observers claimed. Some Americans Americans reactions as reactions observers have have claimed. as it it had had became reactionaries wanted to restore laissez reactionaries who wanted became to restore laissez faire faire as or 1870s. Radicals of various persuasions proexisted in the 1850S in the or existed of various Radicals 1850$ 1870$. persuasions proposed socialism, labor syndicalism, or anarchism. anarchism. Interest-conscious Interest-conscious socialism, labor syndicalism, or posed corporation leaders, who composed conservative the largest bloc of of conservative corporation leaders, composed the largest bloc spokesmen, accepted the new system and argued, in keeping with the and in system spokesmen, accepted argued, keeping with be althe precedents precedents of of their that the corporation should their outlook, the that the albe should outlook, corporation lowed its world within broad broad limits. to run run its world within as lowed to limits. Liberals Liberals (reformers, (reformers, as basic features they will subsequently be called) likewise accepted the will be the basic features they subsequently called) likewise accepted of the new order order and and sought to balance balance its its various elements and of the various elements sought to moderate its inequities. And a small coalition composed of descenddescendmoderate its inequities. a small coalition composed of ants of the colonial feudal gentry, others who identified with that that identified with ants of the colonial feudal gentry, others tradition and heritage, and aa small group of of corporation corporation leaders leaders who tradition and heritage, small group very slowly the class-<:onscious industrial a new industrial outlook of class-conscious outlook of a developed the very slowly developed of gentry to balance balance and the system through control control of and sustain sustain the system through sought to gentry sought the new corporation economy and the national government. the national the government. corporation economy is anything anything but but Though this political political and philosophical spectrum is Though this philosophical spectrum novel, it be argued American reformers reformers have been almost almost have been that American it might novel, might be argued that unique in intensity of commitment to to private property.· of their their commitment in the the intensity private property.* unique To an the reformers reformers-like the conservatives conservatives and like the an extensive extensive degree, degree, the as creatures creatures reactionaries-have defined Man, Man, and individual men, men, as and individual have defined reactionaries more than of, upon, property. property rather than rather More and dependent of, and property dependent upon, property. their world. in to wealth and welfare in their world. thought has been the key welfare to wealth the has been thought key They have not been been callous, callous, and their their efforts efforts have have improved improved society. have not society. They raises doubts about socialists raises •* The development Western European European socialists about the the of Western development of the moved have uniqueness of even this attitude. They have steadily toward the position of even this attitude. position steadily They uniqueness of the American reformers reformers at at the the turn turn of the century. Britain's taken up up by taken century. Even Britain's by American Labour Party has produced produced little beyond the the American American warfare-welfare warfare-welfare state. state. little beyond Labour Party has
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The nature nature of their position, position, not a judgment judgment of accomplishof their their accomplishnot a of their ments, is issue. And to to borrow borrow the wonderfully perceptive per<:eptive term term the wonderfully is the the issue. ments, of Professor Professor George Masse, American reformers have been socialists have been reformers socialists American of Mosse, George of the the heart. of heart.
They have tried tried to to take take for their own purposes purposes Marxian Marxian for their They have Socialism's magnificent reassertion the ideal ideal of of a a Christian Christian comcomof the reassertion of Socialism's magnificent monwealth, and a few of its practical tools, without taking its comwithout its a of few its and monwealth, taking practical tools, mitment to property. Therein Therein lies the most persistent and most persistent and lies the to social social property. mitment persuasive influence of the frontier experience itself, and of the and of the of frontier the experience itself, persuasive influence frontier thesis of American (and world) history advanced in the advanced in the frontier thesis of American (and world) history I~S. It was fundamentally and extensively anti-intellectual in in its its 18905. It was fundamentally and extensively anti-intellectual direct and long-range results. Having defined everything defined results. and direct impact Having everything long-range impact good property, the the problem problem became became one one of a surplus of in terms of property, of a terms of surplus of good in developing techniques for securing more good things from a succesa for succesgood things developing techniques securing sion that of good of defining the good of new frontiers. sion of frontiers. The alternative, alternative, that defining the was dismissed as leading to the society in nonproperty terms, as dismissed to was the in leading society nonproperty terms, is destroyed because horrors of socialism in which the individual is the individual of in which because horrors socialism destroyed he has has no property. Walter Walter Lippmann Lippmann caught caught the the essence of such such essence of he no property. socialism the heart heart as I914. "There American "There has has been been no American of the as early as 1914. socialism of early as policy on the trust he explained: explained: "there been merely merely "there has has been trust question," on the policy question," he aa widespread widespread resentment." resentment." Despite all about old about all the the assertions assertions about old and new orders, and about orders, and Despite various fundamental changes that that are to have have occurred, oc<:urred, the the various are .claimed claimed to fundamental changes essence American history history throughout throughout the the twentieth twentieth century century has has of American essence of been continuing attempt the dichotomy between aa the continuing to resolve resolve the been the attempt to dichotomy between set of ideas developed in the 18905 and a reality to which have set of ideas developed in the 1890$ and a reality to which they they have proved ill-adapted. ill-adapted. American American leaders have been been grappling grappling with with one one leaders have proved central to transform transform aa political political economy central issue: issue: how to and created and economy created dominated by the large large corporation into aa true true social comdominated social system-a by the corporation into system a comwithout munity-without undercutting private property, without destroying without munity undercutting private property, destroying the large corporation, and while while further further handicapped handicapped by by the the antithe antilarge corporation, intellectual consequences of the frontier experience (and the frontier intellectual of the frontier the frontier consequences experience (and of history) interpretation history) which which offered a surplus of property property as offered a as a a interpretation of surplus of substitute for for thought substitute thought about about society. Having at bottom not much society. Having at bottom not to guide more to guide them than than the the frontier democracy as as frontier conception of democracy conception of a bundle bundle of of rights, and lacking and sophisticated theory rights, and any rigorous rigorous and lacking any sophisticated theory of of mutual mutual and interrelated obligations, and responsibilities interrelated duties, and responsibilities duties, obligations, which combine to to make aa society, Americans have been repeatedly Americans have been society, repeatedly confronted the harsh fact that confronted by by the harsh fact leaders more that the the corporation leaders more know corporation
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about managing the the central central and element of than about managing and dynamic of the the system dynamic element system than
any other group. other group. any By By and large, large,
therefore, leaders leaders of of the the large corporation have therefore, large corporation have exerted aa preponderant preponderant influence nation's basic But exerted influence in in the the nation's basic decisions. decisions. But this group even this has been severely limited in its grasp of the meeven has been limited its in of the megroup severely grasp of the chanics the system the narrowness chanics of narrowness of of its its interest-conscious interest-conscious system and by by the which of private property in its oudook, emphasizes the importance the in its outlook, emphasizes importance of private property The resulting pattern of unstable, lurching, oscilcorporation form. form. corporation resulting pattern of unstable, lurching, oscillating, and inequitable inequitable development was aa poor poor performance judged lating, development was performance judged the assumptions, even by by the assumptions, criteria, and claims to say even claims of the system, of the criteria, and say system, to nothing of the organization and results that would have been possithe of and results that would have been nothing organization possiif the ble if been directed rationally according to ble the effort effort had been directed more more rationally according to scale of values. This inferior record priorities set by a different a set scale different of values. This inferior record by priorities in two prinbenefited the reformers and the reformers benefited and the the class-conscious class-conscious gentry two pringentry in It provided them with after-the-failure chances to modercipal ways. It them with after-the-failure chances to modercipal ways. provided ate of the this caretaker caretaker the more glaring ate some of weaknesses. And this glaring weaknesses. function in aa relatively more favorable light and at the function placed placed them in relatively more favorable light and at the same time time created the impression that they had and created the a dynamic that had a impression they dynamic and in fact they have basically effective philosophy and program. But effective have and fact But in basically program. they philosophy on their more than than restore restore the the system their own never on of never done done more to a a level level of system to performance that existed before the periodic crises. In every instance, that the existed before crises. In every instance, performance periodic further development has been only with with assistance been achieved assistance from from achieved only further development has the interest-conscious corporation community, and through the kind kind the the and interest-conscious corporation community, through war in which of hot-house economic boom that always accompanies a which that always accompanies a in of hot-house economic losses nor direct physical physical aa country neither serious nor direct suffers neither indirect losses serious indirect country suffers damage. damage. difIn the case of of the the reformers, reformers, at any rate, rate, the the extent of their their difextent of the case at any In ferences with with the the conservatives conservatives has has been, been, on the the one hand, aa more one hand, ferences sophisticated version of Bryan's charge that the conservatives that the conservatives made version of sophisticated Bryan's charge the other, the definition businessmen too narrow and, and, on the other, a proprotoo narrow the definition of of businessmen the solve to extend the frontier and solve the gressively more vigorous effort the frontier to extend effort more vigorous gressively in that manner. This approach has unquesproblems of the system has This in that manner. of the unquesapproach system problems of private things on on aa combination private tionably given more people people more things combination of tionably given more evidence that is not but there there is not much evidence that and official and official installment installment plans, jplans, but of human areas in other such property gains have been matched in other areas of been matched have such property gains fires do not fancier fires activity. Faster Faster cars, cars, wider wider roads, roads, and fancier not make activity. hearts. warm do cold wars produce hearts. better picnics. wars cold better Nor produce picnics. weakMore than a few reformers recognized recognized this this fundamental weakfew reformers More than a
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ness in outlook. David David Graham Phillips, prepared in their their own outlook. ness Phillips, who prepared what was unquestionably the single most devastating analysis of the the most the what was unquestionably devastating analysis of single narrow interest-conscious corporation leaders and their political their leaders narrow interest-conscious corporation political of the Senate (1906), so very very agents and allies in The Treason did so the Senate Treason of (1906), did agents and allies in "1 am so sick of fraud and filth and lies, so tired of stern early. so of tired stern so sick of fraud and filth lies, early. "I nature of the realities," he he cried the system of the the nature over the in 1902 out in cried out realities," system and the 1902 over grasp at myths like like aa child." limited horizon of of the the reformers. "I grasp at myths child." reformers. "1 limited horizon Thirty later, after one war and several economic crises culmiThirty years years later, after one war and several economic crises culminating in the Great Depression, Lincoln Steffens more detached Steflfens was more detached in the Great nating Depression, Lincoln of America but his judgment was was no no less ideals of America ... less devastating. his judgment but devastating. "The ideals are dried up, up, contradictory; honesty and wealth, wealth, morality morality are antiquated, contradictory; honesty antiquated, dried individual achievement respectability, privileges privileges and and and achievement and respectability, and success, success, individual democracy-these won't take us very far." take far.'* won't us these very democracy For just such reasons, many many reformers ultimately identified with identified with reformers ultimately For just such reasons, the survivors the old that asked the right questions that asked the of the old feudal feudal gentry the survivors of right questions gentry even though agrarian tradition tradition was not essentially relevant to was not to even its agrarian essentially relevant though its mature or with the sophisticated corporation leaders the or with leaders mature industrialism, industrialism, sophisticated corporation to evolve the policies of an an inthe outlook outlook and the evolve the who were inwere trying policies of trying to As the men in effective possession of giant chunks dustrial gentry. in of effective dustrial the chunks As possession giant gentry. of that dominated the social political economy, social and political of private dominated the economy, private property property that such had either to find find and open up new either to such corporation corporation spokesmen spokesmen had open up frontiers or to transcend their interest viewpoint and transform their interest or to transcend frontiers transform it it viewpoint into a class-conscious outlook if the system were to have any chance chance were into a class-conscious outlook if the system to have any as aa social social system based on private private property. property. And by by of surviving of surviving as system based the end of World War II there was evidence to suggest that a small the end of II there was evidence to suggest that a small group of corporation leaders, a handful of reformers, reformers, had had manmanof corporation handful of and a leaders, and group by their their own philosophic philosophic aged the the difficult of raising difficult task task of themselves by aged raising themselves bootstraps. bootstraps. .
.
THE UNDERLYING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXPANSION AND REFORM
But not not even even these to understand understand the the significance these men seemed fully fully to significance when their frontiers were closed foreign opponents opponents or their frontiers of or closed by of expansion expansion were by foreign severe severe domestic domestic economic periodic shutting down of the economic crisis. crisis. Such Such periodic of the shutting frontier forced them to frontier forced to turn reality, turn in in upon face up to reality, themselves, face up to upon themselves, and and begin begin defining analyzing the central issues in realistic terms the central in realistic terms issues defining analyzing and developing see the connection some tentative answers. Failing to tentative answers. to the see connection developing Failing it and and turning turning away because between the two processes, processes, or between the two or seeing seeing it away because of fear that in the substitution of of the the fear an approach would end that such such an in would end of the substitution approach of the the fact that they had progressed progressed toward toward that that objective fact that of they had objective only only
.
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social property for private property, repeatedly turned turned back back for private social property property, they they repeatedly
toward expansion the frontier. toward of the frontier. expansion of of kind closing of the frontier happened four four times That kind of closing of the frontier happened times the the
after after
wave of of expansion turn of the century. The first, first, defined defined at the the turn of the expansion at century. The
the outbreak serious serious depression in 1913 and the outbreak depression in 1913 and of World War II in of in 1914, with by by organizing to win the was dealt dealt with to win the 1914, was organizing then using using that that power power to to extend extend America's America's overseas ecowar and then overseas economic empire. came the the Great Great Depression. produced nomic That produced empire. Next came Depression. That more extensive internal changes and did much, despite the myth that extensive internal more did much, the changes and despite myth that they had learned learned nothing, nothing, to to generate generate aa broader broader outlook among outlook among they corporation But the the lesson interrupted by by another, even leaders. But lesson was was interrupted another, even corporation leaders. stronger, foreign challenge-World War II. The corporation comWorld II. comstronger, foreign challenge corporation munity slipped back into the old old response, response, not not merely of defending defending into the munity slipped back merely of the society that existed, but of proceeding again to extend the the that but of to the extend existed, society proceeding again frontier. is aa doctrine connected with Unconditional surrender frontier. Unconditional surrender is with doctrine clearly connected clearly and 1956 the the frontier conception of between 1949 frontier conception the of conflict. conflict. But But between 1956 the 1949 and frontier was again again limited, that time by the radical challenge of aa frontier that time radical of the limited, by challenge rigorous anti-imperialism, socialism, and communism armed with with and armed rigorous anti-imperialism, socialism, nuclear weapons. weapons. nuclear Striving more to to open the frontier, frontier, and even less once more and giving less Striving once open the giving even attention than in earlier instances to other possibilities and problems, than in earlier instances to and attention other possibilities problems, discover in late 1950S that American leaders leaders seemed seemed surprised in the the late American to discover surprised to 1950$ that the substance and tone tone of the nation's nation's life life had had suffered from such such the of the suffered from substance and concentration on on externals. then few began to to concentration externals. Yet Yet even even then few Americans Americans began explore the possibility that the frontier took men away the from the that the the possibility frontier took away from explore few began, began, that that is, is, to ask if they had had not been using using essentials. if they not been to ask essentials. Very Very few the frontier as precisely precisely what in aa deeply deeply revealing revealing metaphor metaphor Turner in the what Turner frontier as gate of said it of escape." said it was-"a was "a gate escape.'* with other Americans who had had acted acted upon upon the the principle principle withwithAs with other Americans his out it into a theory, Turner and those who accepted his Turner and those out turning a it into accepted theory, turning as a of analysis of American history welcomed the frontier as a "gate of frontier the welcomed of American "gate history analysis had made That was what had escape from the bondage of the past." the the of from bondage escape past." America democratic keep it way. But But while while that way. it that and what what would keep America democratic and the of it unhappy and and inequitable features, that "bondage of the that it included included unhappy features, Bondage inequitable he that the fact also included man's acceptance of the fact that he was human past" of also man's included acceptance past" with other in society, society, not not when he was only he lived lived with other men in only when he To seek seek an escape that, away from them on the frontier. frontier. the them from escape from that, away to seek to become or the 18505, or the 1950s, was to seek to whether in in the the the the 1750s, whether 1950$, 1850$, 1750$, a world world unto Democracy of really of the frontier variety the frontier oneself. Democracy a unto oneself. variety was really
the beginnings by the of a a beginnings of by
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a minor minor achievement. Even Turner Turner called called achievement. Even a
it "a of primitive primitive kind of it "a kind at mid--century would candidly organization." Whether Americans would at Whether Americans mid-century candidly organization." examine such aspects of the frontier outlook was a nonhistorical was a outlook frontier nonhistorical examine such aspects of the question. History could raise it; but history could not answer it. question. History could raise it; but history could not answer it. THE BEGINNINGS OF AN UPPER-CLASS LEADERSHIP
Even accepted and upon the the frontier thesis, frontier thesis, and acted acted upon Even though they accepted though they however, Americans Americans in in the the years before World War II also also devoted devoted however, years before reformers, their attention energy to affairs per se. The reformers, domestic affairs their and energy to domestic attention and per se. the old gentry, and the old feudal and the feudal gentry, the
more leaders more sophisticated sophisticated corporation corporation leaders
made valiant partially effective efforts to to resolve resolve the the problems problems of and partially effective efforts made valiant and of the system. most obvious difficulties lay the limited limited outoutin the the most obvious difficulties of the the lay in system. One of look of of the interest-conscious corporation their the narrowly leaders and look and their corporation leaders narrowly interest-conscious Coal operator George Baer was one of the political representatives. one Baer of Coal was the George operator political representatives. more arrogant, bigoted, and condescending owners whose philosoowners whose more and arrogant, bigoted, condescending philosophy began began and and remained remained with the rights rights of private property. of private with the phy property. Though Though of personally more O. Havemeyer suave and and less less extremist, more suave extremist, Henry Henry O. personally Havemeyer of was another such giant whose vision was the sugar refining industry another the was vision such was giant sugar refining industry cataracts of of profits. profits. One remark remark by by Representative Representative Joseph Joseph limited by limited by cataracts G. Joe) Cannon, dominated the of Representathe G. (Uncle who dominated House of (Uncle Joe) Cannon, Representathe tives with deeply conservative outlook until until 1910, a deeply tives with a conservative outlook 1910, caught caught the essence and the of their attitude and at the same time proessence the spirit of attitude and their at the same time spirit provided an he was was fond fond an unintentional vided unintentional commentary. "This country," commentary. "This country," he of that it all criticritiof repeating, the conviction in the conviction that it answered answered all repeating, apparently apparently in hell of Even the cism: country is cism: "This a hell is a of a a success." "This country success." Even the more more moderate moderate want members of that group revealed aa negative negative outlook. outlook. "What we want of that members group revealed is avoidance of violent fluctuations!" thundered Elbert is stability-the the avoidance of fluctuations!" violent thundered Elbert stability H. Gary, judge who became of U.S. U.S. Steel. a judge became head head of Steel. Gary, a But these these leaders leaders did critics atBut did not not produce their critics atproduce stability, stability, and their tacked both both the the imbalances of power and its distribution, the tacked imbalances of power and its distribution, and and the that worked great great pain pain and misfortune misfortune on on millions millions periodic crises crises that periodic of of citizens. the reformers reformers were were vigorous vigorous in in pointing pointing out citizens. Although out Although the such such failures, hence created image of themselves maintaining maintaining created an an image of themselves failures, and hence a a lonely vigil at the gates many of more sophistiat the of catastrophe, of the the more lonely vigil gates of catastrophe, many sophisticated corporation such cated leaders also also recognized corporation leaders recognized and acknowledged acknowledged such weaknesses. They They placed placed particular particular stress the imbalance between weaknesses. stress on the imbalance between reindustry agriculture. And, And, until until aa very very late date, even even the the relate date, industry and agriculture. formers formers were reluctant reluctant to to terms with the the fundamentals fundamentals of to come to terms with of the labor question. the labor question. Along Along with and the more perceptive with the the gentry and the more gentry perceptive
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corporation leaders, leaders, as well as the narrow-minded narrow-minded economic giants, as well as the economic giants, corporation the reformers reformers feared that labor threatened private private property property almost almost feared that the labor threatened as much as did the the corporation corporation itself. as did as itself. Most reformers did not, of course, exhibit exhibit so negative did of course, Most reformers so thoroughly not, thoroughly negative as an attitude those conservatives who, between between 1903 and 1905 did those attitude as did an conservatives who, 1903 and 1905 under the national leadership leadership of David M. Pary, Pary, reversed the national of David under reversed the the early early overseas emphasis of National Association Association of of Manufacturers Manufacturers on of the the National on overseas emphasis economic anti-union campaign. campaign. But But in favor economic expansion favor of a militant of a militant anti-union expansion in as legislation legislation though they approved humanitarian reforms such humanitarian reforms such as they approved though limiting of work, work, they they moved very very slowly in strengthening hours of limiting hours slowly in strengthening the political political economy. In keeping keeping the relative relative power power of of labor labor in in the the economy. In with their on private property, and in some cases their their emphasis with on and in their cases some emphasis private property, they were more inclined to help agriculture. were own backgrounds, more inclined to For backgrounds, they help agriculture. For to initiate aa that matter, corporations probably did more that did to initiate more matter, some large large corporations probably was ultimately extended to more equitable approach to labor that to labor that was more extended to equitable approach ultimately the entire entire system. the system. Such firms, beginning with the National National Cash Company with the Cash Register firms, beginning Register Company slowly developed a kind of paternalism designed solve in 1899, a kind of to solve in 1899, slowly developed paternalism designed to what many many leaders leaders felt felt were the crucial problems of strugwere the "the class of "the class strugwhat crucial problems gle and question of of proper proper distribution distribution of wealth." Installing Installing the question and the of wealth." gle civilized rest rooms free lunches, entertainment, and providing and free rooms and civilized rest lunches, entertainment, and providing aa library library supplemented by lectures, that particular company inauguthat supplemented by lectures, particular company inaugurated the program to to encourage the worker worker to to think think of of rated the typical encourage the typical program as a property owner despite his lack of any effective stake himself himself as a property owner despite his lack of any effective stake in the the political political economy. economy. For For what property property he he did other than than did own, in own, other his own muscles and skills, skills, provided no direct, very little little ininhis muscles and direct, and very provided no the productive productive process. process. It It was was composed objects of objects direct, leverage in in the direct, leverage composed of They were were necessary necessary and that he he bought bought and used used as a consumer. that consumer. They as a pleasurable, and no sense to be in aa system be disparaged, sense to and in in no system especially in disparaged, especially pleasurable, characterized by low low efficiency and inequities inequities in but in distribution, characterized by distribution, but efficiency and they were were not not the the kind kind of property that that gave gave men any in fundafundaof property say in any say they obtain such such a worker simply not obtain a parparmental decisions. could not mental decisions. The worker simply could he in basic decisions unless and until he was willing ticipating share until unless in decisions share basic willing ticipating to use use his his labor labor as the means. means. Neither Neither he he nor nor his prihis leaders leaders were prito as the itself was one in marily concerned with such objectives, and that in itself that such with concerned objectives, marily it more more difficult difficult to to balance balance the the of the the new realities which made it of realities which the of system. Indeed, labor's share in the malfunctioning of the system the in share labor's system Indeed, malfunctioning system. of the outlook of was by means inconsiderable. inconsiderable. As with with the the oudook the rerewas no means by no that realize to formers, the point is not to blame labor but only to realize that labor but to blame is not the only formers, point
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the interest-conscious corporation leaders not bear bear all all the redid not the releaders did the interest-conscious corporation sponsibility. Labor was content with middle-class objectives and middle-class and with Labor was content objectives sponsibility. finally achieved them. achieved them. Another troublesome the new reality reality was the struggle was the of the Another troublesome aspect struggle aspect of between industrial and financial corporations for primary influence for between industrial and financial corporations primary influence in the the system. though in no sense they become did they become emotional sense did in no emotional in system. And though reformers, the industrial leaders did manifest a progressively more reformers, the industrial leaders did manifest a progressively more they slowly slowly gained control of the tolerant and intelligent attitude as they of the and intelligent attitude as tolerant gained control between finfinsystem and after after World War I. I. The conffict conflict between system during during and anciers revealed, personified, personified, and and symbolized was revealed, and industrialists industrialists was anciers and symbolized in Ford's suspicions, fears, and hatred of bankers. Though of hatred and bankers. in Henry Ford's fears, suspicions, Though Henry one the most complex and yet imperfectly imperfectly understood understood antagantagand even even yet of the most complex one of It arose out onisms of the the age, age, its main features are clear clear enough. It features are arose its main onisms of out enough. across the of the hiatus between the of the first rush of the first rush hiatus between the completion across the of the completion continent requirements of intensive development of that an intensive the requirements of an of and the continent and that development great basic sense, In the the basic overseas. In wealth and and further further expansion sense, expansion overseas. great wealth therefore, it was a product of the problem of accumulating, of a of the it was therefore, accumulating, organizproduct problem organizing, capital. Only the giant a small small group of the and allocating industrial giant industrial Only a group of ing, and allocating capital. by laissez faire had the capital available in corporations produced had the laissez faire available in capital corporations produced by I~S to to make that that transition. transition. the context of the depression of of the the 18905 the context of the depression Carnegie, Ford typified typified the the reaction reaction of tiny of the the tiny Rockefeller, and Ford Carnegie, Rockefeller, minority that did. In a decision that revealed his understanding a In revealed that did. decision that his of minority understanding of his own place place in the old Carnegie sold out and retired to his in the his old order, out retired sold to his order, Carnegie castles. Rockefeller Rockefeller became became aa financier. Ford remained remained an an indusindusfinancier. Ford castles. great majority majority became temporarily temporarily dependent upon the trialist. The great trialist dependent upon the large investment bankers (or finance capitalists) headed by Morgan, bankers investment large (or finance capitalists) headed by Morgan, but including other firms such other firms as but as Rockefeller; of Rockefeller; Lee, Lee, Higginson including such Higginson of Boston; the Brothers; and and the the Kuhn, Kuhn, Loeb-Harriman Loeb-Harriman the Seligman Boston; Seligman Brothers; alliance. Such providers providers of of capital several important alliance. sources of of capital had several important sources largesse: ((i) I ) their their experience experience and and reputation reputation in the securities in the securities largesse: both at markets, both at home and abroad; (2) their their own and connected connected markets, abroad; (2) banking operations; (3) the premium (and of the the the premium operations; (3) banking (and other) other) receipts receipts of life insurance large insurance companies companies which provided centralized which provided centralized depots of large life depots of accumulation on an ever-increasing capital accumulation scale; and (4) the sethe and sescale; capital ever-increasing (4) curity and profits profits from the the industrial plants (such (such as U.S. Steel industrial plants as U.S. Steel and and curity Standard Oil) which they controlled. They used such capital controlled. used such to Oil) they They capital to continue continue building building and and extending the system and to provide troublethe and to troubleextending system provide services in in times of crises-as crises as in shooting times of unsuccessin 1903, and, unsuccessshooting services 1903, 1907, 1907, and, between and fully, 1929 1932. fully, 1929 1932. finally
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of the the more dramatic One of dramatic aspects of the operations of the bankers aspects of the operations of the bankers focus of deal of public public comment and some some which was the the focus which of a a great comment and great deal of in both its letter action, was the extent to which they violated the law was the extent to which they violated the law in both its letter action, and its context. Their of two two kinds. kinds. its broader broader moral moral context. Their lawbreaking was of lawbreaking was the fact that the the new new system system could could not not operate One stemmed from from the fact that operate according to to the the standards the older older regulations regulations standards of of laissez laissez faire, and the according faire, and codes were by-passed. Personal Personal and collusive and codes were simply or by-passed. evaded or and collusive simply evaded corruption was another conanother type of misbehavior. misbehavior. There There was, and concorruption was was, and type of
a great tinued to to be, tinued deal of of be, a great deal
it, but it is realize that that the the but it is important to important to realize
it,
of firms power of like the the House House of not based based on on that that firms like of Morgan was not power Morgan was
kind of competitors of self-provided kind their competitors subsidies; they self-provided subsidies; overpowered their they overpowered quite impeccably. Other promoters were by no means as honest, yet yet Other were as no means honest, quite impeccably. promoters by was not weakened the financiers. the issue honesty was issue of of honesty the not what what really the financiers. weakened really Ultimately they they simply of supplying Ultimately proved incapable simply proved incapable of enough supplying enough to to maintain the system, to put all of what they into capital maintain the to of all what had into capital system, they had put profitable production, or to retain control of the industrial corporaor to retain control of the industrial profitable production, corporahad done done so to co-ordinate co-ordinate and and consolidate consolidate tions which which they they had tions so much to in the early early years the century. had in the end turn to to the the in the of the to turn in the end to years of century. They They had government to provide, through taxes on non-stockholding and to taxes on provide, through government non-stockholding non-bondholding citizens, citizens, the the resources resources that that were were needed. that needed. While While that non-bondholding it also sharply dedevelopment pushed them into the government, them also the it into development pushed sharply degovernment, limited their power as financial capitalists. Thus it their independent it limited as financial independent power capitalists. lowered them toward a position of parity with top-level national polilowered toward a position of parity with top-level national poliresult was aa ticians and leaders of the the industrial corporations. The result ticians leaders of industrial corporations. merging of financial and industrial leadership similar the kind kind to the merging of financial and industrial leadership similar to of interrelated co-ordinated operation that Rockefeller had Rockefeller had of interrelated and co-ordinated operation that established at the outset. outset. at the established In however, industrial to reassume reassume the meantime, leaders sought In the industrial leaders meantime, however, sought to as tactical, tactical, or control of strategic of their their own firms firms as well well as or managerial, managerial, control strategic as and Ultimately they did. Their Their own operations produced and the the system. operations produced they did. system. Ultimately capital they they needed, needed, and once the government once the the capital much of of the government was brought into the system as a purchaser of goods and services of services as a into the new purchaser goods system brought did deal with on aa large and routine scale, they could and did deal directly with on could routine scale, directly they large this new source of capital. capital. Though it was was certainly certainly aa significant part source of this significant part Though it between in the period between 1918 and 1924of their their victory, especially the in of 1918 1924, period victory, especially themselves of the extent extent to to which the industrial leaders freed freed themselves of the the industrial leaders which the the economic need for bankers and provided provided their their own capital from for bankers economic need capital is not not the the whole explanacurrent operations reserves is current explanalong-term reserves operations and long-term in dedetion of of the the change. change. Routine, Routine, daily demands and experiences demands tion experiences in daily
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cision~making inside the firm were also important. The system was system was cision-making inside the firm were also important. an industrial one, and bankers functioning as industrialists moved as industrialists and bankers moved an industrial one, functioning toward the outlook of industrislowly but but none none the the less less significantly significantly toward the outlook of industrislowly alists per se. & one banker explained personal interview: interview : "Well, in a a personal alists per se. As one banker explained in "Well, run a factory like an investment you simply can't house." But But all all you simply can't run a factory like an investment house."
such within the basic framework of the inability inability of the the basic such factors factors operated operated within of the financiers to accumulate enough capital resulting turn turn the resulting of the financiers to accumulate enough capital and the to the the government (and therefore therefore to the taxpayer) taxpayer) for assistance. for assistance. to the to government (and Financiers also disagreed disagreed over by what what over how, and industrialists industrialists also Financiers and how, and by philosophy, the political economy should be managed. They of should be the of managed. economy They philosophy, political course were in agreement on as in the inin the on many course were in agreement infundamentals; and as many fundamentals; stance where they they ultimately ultimately came together stance of of supplying together capital, where supplying capital, inside government and and worked out aa basic basic (if sometimes strained worked out inside the the government strained (if sometimes and compromise, the final outcome was a confluence the final a and acrimonious) outcome confluence acrimonious) compromise, of thinking. thinking. But But while while the industrialists could could be impervious as of be as as impervious the industrialists as basalt to to the of labor other groups they thought labor or or other when basalt demands of the demands it groups they thought it necessary, the difference in outlook was indicated by the early di~ was indicated the in the difference outlook disby necessary, early agreements within the U.S. u.s. Steel Steel Corporation. within the Corporation. agreements Bankers revealed aa strikingly firm their lawyer Bankers and and their spokesmen revealed lawyer spokesmen strikingly firm conception of a benevolent feudal approach to the firm and its a feudal the benevolent to of firm and its approach conception workers. Both Both were were to to be be dominated and co-ordinated from the the workers. dominated and co-ordinated from central office. office. In In that that vein, vein, they were willing willing to provide to extend-to central extend to provide they were in the manner manner of of traditional traditional beneficence-such things as as new houshous~ in the beneficence such things ing, old age pensions, death payments, wage and job schedules, and death old ing, age pensions, payments, wage job schedules, and bureaus charged with responsibility for welfare, safety, and sanitabureaus with for welfare, safety, and sanitacharged responsibility tion. Though he was not not the the most most sophisticated sophisticated of the industrialists, industrialists, tion. of the Though he Charles M. Schwab of Bethlehem Steel revealed the essentials of aa of Bethlehem Steel revealed the essentials of Charles different outlook at an Concluding from the Homestead an early date. Concluding outlook at different the Homestead early date. Strike labor "had rights, whether to "had some rights, Strike that that labor whether others others were were willing willing to recognize it understood the the necessity making it or or not," also understood of making not," Schwab also recognize necessity of periodic, on~the-spot accommodations with with labor labor in maintain in order order to to maintain on-the-spot accommodations periodic, steady production. production. Financiers, he complained, ready to to Financiers, he steady complained, were "always "always ready treat treat the as individuals individuals and and give give them good liberal wages," wages," the men fairly fairly as good liberal but but they not grasp the value unions either either to to the the laborer laborer or did not value of of unions or they did grasp the to the the corporation itself. to corporation itself. did they role of Neither did they sense sense the the role of unions unions in in managing what the the Neither managing what called "this industrialist James James J. J. Hill Hill called economic corporation industrialist "this great economic great corporation as the the United United States." is not not as as it it might might known as States." Thus it it is as surprising surprising as at first to find at to find Samuel Gompers praising a like George first appear a man like appear Gompers praising George
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Perkins of of International International Harvester for his his "broad human underunder~ W. Perkins Harvester for "broad human of standing of the problems of industrial relations." Later, between the standing problems of industrial relations." Later, between 1918 John P. P. Frey of the the International International Molder's Molder's Union Union 1918 and 1935, 1935, John Frey of of distinction between bankers and industrial~ the same kind of drew the distinction between bankers and industrial* one who worked hard, ists. hard, and with considerable considerable sophistication, ists. As one and with sophistication, to establish an alliance to establish alliance between between labor labor and Frey reluctandy and capital, capital, Frey reluctantly concluded that the government government would have to brought into the that the concluded would have to be be brought into the coalition because because the the financiers to accept the broader view coalition financiers refused refused to view broader the accept of like Gerald General Electric. Electric. mea like of men Gerald P. P. Swope of General Swope of other aspects Still of the the financial-industrial appeared Still other financial-industrial divergence aspects of divergence appeared in with the the generally agreed upon program of overseas in connection connection with overseas of generally agreed upon program economic activity. activity. Since the poor poor countries countries had had to to have have money money to to buy buy economic Since the American exports of goods and services, they had either to accumuof American and accumuhad either to services, exports goods they late it their exports of raw raw materials materials or by borrowing borrowing it by late or by by increasing increasing their exports of the turn turn of the bankers were from abroad. abroad. At the were the century, when of the the bankers century, organizing the industrial complexes, they were fully in accord the new accord industrial in were organizing complexes, they fully with the the basic basic strategy Door Notes, Notes, which which emphasized emphasized with of the the Open strategy of Open Door access for American exports and industrial opera~ the importance of of the access for industrial American importance operaexports tions. While Hay's Hay's dispatches did not specifically ask guarantees for tions. did not ask dispatches specifically guarantees for financial penetration, penetration, the the omission not be be interpreted as indifinancial as indishould not omission should interpreted cating ignorance or or indifference. indifference. The basic, basic, as well as immedias well as the the immedicating ignorance ate, objective was markets. was markets. ate, objective as it was openly openly referred referred to President WilWilDollar Dollar Diplomacy, it was to by Diplomacy, as by President liam Howard Taft and other government officials, developed as a liam Taft other government officials, developed as technique of implementing the Open Door Notes, not as a change Notes, not as a change technique of implementing the Open in interest or definition. Backward countries countries needed yet needed capital, in interest or definition. Backward capital, yet wanted "effective needed help help at home. They "effective American financiers financiers needed at home. They wanted ~peration," as they put it, in corralling what they they called the called the as they in corralling co-operation," put it, "scattered cash reserves" reserves" throughout the country. They also also needed needed "scattered cash country. They throughout the assistance breaking into heretofore dominated by in breaking into the the market heretofore assistance in dominated by European nations. The Panic for example, forced Harriman of lep1> Panic of example, forced European nations. 1907, for to delay project in Northeastern Asia. Asia. Circumstances Circumstances a major to in Northeastern delay a major project changed, and whatever opportunities it were lost. it offered offered lost whatever opportunities changed, significantly, the bankers needed needed open open government the bankers Even more significantly, government support in order to attract capital from the great number of indiindiof the in attract order to great support capital vidual savers were unfamiliar with foreign foreign operations vidual savers who were unfamiliar with operations and hence rather of their economic value and security. value rather skeptical of their economic hence security. That skeptical firm guardesirous of of winning also made the bankers particularly particularly desirous also the bankers guarwinning firm in turn antagantees of repayment from the poor nations. nations. But that that in the poor antees of repayment antag-
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onized the and, as those who took took aa broad view realized, realized, broad view the foreigners onized as those foreigners and, threatened the entire strategy. strategy. Finally, some bankers like the House like the bankers some House the entire threatened Finally, to favor co-operation with of were inclined with England, of Morgan inclined to favor co-operation England, Japan, Japan, Morgan were in those countries, were and even France. They had connections and were in those and even France. They had connections countries, and more concerned with the narrow financial side of overseas expanof side overseas expanmore concerned with the narrow financial sion. Industrialists argued that such approach favored competitive favored competitive an approach such an sion. Industrialists argued that exports and thereby seriously hampered the construction of of an the construction an and thereby seriously hampered exports American system. American system. THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN SYNDICALISM
As such another aspect of the the new As such functional functional differences differences suggest, aspect of suggest, another reality that confronted American leaders, and caused caused them great difficonfronted American leaders, and great difficulties, was the strong strong propensity propensity of of the the system a synto develop in a was the culties, system to develop in synsyndicalism is usually thought thought of connection dicalist pattern. pattern. Now syndicalism of in is usually in connection dicalist be aa violent violent with revolutionary revolutionary labor movements and assumed to be assumed to with labor movements proletarian outlook. This interpretation confuses the group in modern in the confuses modern outlook. This group interpretation proletarian industrial which has has usually, though by means always, always, industrial society usually, though by no means society which or most effectively, embraced and acted upon the idea with the idea acted the with the or even even most embraced and upon effectively, essence a philosophy derived from outlook itself. Syndicalism is in a derived is essence in from outlook itself. Syndicalism philosophy Arguing that that an an industrial two basic and efficiency. industrial basic values: two values: function function and efficiency. Arguing system operates through a division of labor organized by a labor function division of system operates through organized by function and in in groups rather than through individuals who handle many than individuals handle rather and many through groups jobs, syndicalists conclude that such a pattern should be accepted, a should such be that conclude jobs, syndicalists accepted, pattern encouraged, and rationalized. Political Political representation representation should should arise arise and rationalized. encouraged, in the national within each and be co-ordinated at the top in the and be co-ordinated at the national within each segment top segment relevant degovernment. participate in dein the the relevant Individuals would would thus thus participate government. Individuals cisions and at at the the same time purcisions time enjoy a sense sense of of community and purcommunity and enjoy a pose within within their particular group would replace replace the alienation their particular that would the alienation pose group that of an highly organized in a a highly of an individual individual lost lost in organized society. society. Europe, overt overt syndicalism appeared within within the the ranks ranks in Europe, As in first appeared syndicalism .first of under the the leadership DeLeon, of labor. in 1905 of Daniel Daniel DeLeon, labor. Founded in 1905 under leadership of William Haywood, Debs (who resigned two two years years William Haywood, and Eugene Eugene Debs (who resigned later), the the Industrial Workers of presented aa militant militant Industrial Workers of the the World presented later), the corporation challenge to to the the established established leadership of the challenge leadership of corporation system. system. in and Organizing western miners, itinerant workers western itinerant in agriculture workers miners, Organizing agriculture and practiced aa tough, violent construction, laborers, it it practiced eastern textile textile laborers, violent construction, and eastern tough, of unionism kind fear kind of unionism dedicated dedicated to to changing changing the the existing existing order. order. The fear it might penetrate the that to have that it automobile industry seems the automobile to have seems might penetrate industry played a part in Ford's the Five Five Dollar Dollar Day. Day. On aa Ford's introduction introduction of of the played part in reality that
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more general the I. as aa spur spur I. W. W. unquestionably served more level, the general level, unquestionably served as to corporation leaders and business union spokesmen to evolve some leaders and business evolve some union spokesmen to to corporation pattern of accommodation within the established system. pattern of accommodation within the established system. While they antagonistic toward toward the the scared of While of and and antagonistic they were openly openly scared I.W.W.'s kind of labor syndicalism, American leaders nevertheless LW.W.'s kind of labor syndicalism, American leaders nevertheless adapted principles of that philosophy philosophy to to their their own conservative conservative the principles of that adapted the objectives. repeatedly analyzed analyzed society within Roosevelt repeatedly objectives. Theodore Roosevelt society within that framework, did Herbert Herbert Croly and later Progressives whose whose as did that later Progressives framework, as Croly and slogans, Fair Deals, Deals, were were merely merely rather unimaginative the New and Fair rather unimaginative slogans, the variations of Even more more significantly, significantly, the the corporacorpora· the Square of the Deal. Even variations Square Deal. tion leaders to transform transform their their interest-conscious leaders who struggled outtion interest-conscious outstruggled to look into consciousness developed their thought almost wholly a class class consciousness into a look their almost wholly developed thought within the was merely merely one of the the first first the syndicalist within one of syndicalist approach. approach. Hanna was to use the tool, tool, as in his his advice the farmers farmers to trusts as in use the advice to to the trusts to to organize organize of their their own. own. of In like Bernard Bernard Baruch, Young, and later years, In later and D. Young, Baruch, Owen D. years, men like Swope developed and extended the same analysis. But Herbert extended the Herbert same But Swope developed analysis. Hoover was the crucial figure in the the evolution approach. DeDe· the crucial Hoover of the the approach. evolution of figure in scribing society as composed of three major groups-labor, capital, as of three scribing society composed major groups labor, capital, and the government government-he balance and units he struggled to balance and the the units control the and control struggled to so would not drive the system toward fascism (business that they so that not the drive toward fascism they system (business control), socialism (labor dominance), the tyranny bureausocialism (labor of bureauor the control), tyranny of dominance), or cratic government. All such men, from Theodore Roosevelt through cratic All such Theodore Roosevelt men, through government. Hoover and later later theorists, theorists, recognized recognized that that the the central problem was central problem to find ideal that that would generate generate the the self-discipline public find some ideal to self-discipline and public spirit essential to maintaining equity. to spirit essential maintaining equity. extent, the the theologian theologian Reinhold Niebuhr ultimately ultimately propra. To some extent, Reinhold Niebuhr vided aa philosophy philosophy appropriate appropriate to to the the need. need. Combining selected vided Combining selected portions of then adding of Catholicism a generous Catholicism and Calvinism, Calvinism, and then portions generous adding a leaven Freud, pragmatism, pragmatism, and the the frontier interpretation of of Freud, of leaven of frontier interpretation American history, Niebuhr constructed that exex· a Weltanschauung American constructed a history, Niebuhr Weltanschauung that plained and justified justified the the limited achievement of Progressive limited achievement of the the Progressive plained Movement on on the grounds that was impossible, that aa the grounds that utopia impossible, and that Utopia was the of outlook would in any event produce one of the more dynamic outlook in event produce dynamic any dangers outlined by Hoover. But nationalism was the main driving the nationalism outlined Hoover. But dangers driving by force of whatever unity unity and purpose the system system exhibited, it was force of whatever exhibited, and it purpose the largely the negative kind of nationalism directed against other the directed of nationalism kind against other negative largely countries and ideas. ideas. countries One such foreign challenge nature. As a in nature. itself syndicalist such foreign syndicalist in challenge was itself
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basic basic
component of both both the the fascist movement in in Italy Italy and and the the hard hard fascist movement component of Germany, syndicalism provided the Germany, syndicalism provided the leaders of both parties and countries with many of their central of their of with countries central leaders both parties and many and ideas programs. Since resorted to to terror terror in in establishing and programs. Since they ideas and establishing and they resorted essenmaintaining the approach, and distorted it in other ways, the it in other ways, the essenmaintaining the approach, and distorted tial characteristics characteristics common to and European tial to American American and European syndicalism syndicalism are generally Although there was widespread widespread there was are missed or or discounted. discounted. Although generally missed use of intrigue and violence against American labor, the foreign foreign use of intrigue and violence labor, the against American methods created a difference that in the end produced aa in the end produced of degree methods created a difference of degree that in kind. not become become difference did not kind. The Progressive difference in Progressive Movement did favorable response to Mussolini, and fascist or Nazi. The initially fascist or Naziinitially favorable response to Mussolini, and to Hitler, Hitler, manifested manifested by many corporation other even to leaders and and other even corporation leaders by many be interpreted in that light. Americans should not be in that should not Americans light. interpreted What is however, is the extent to which a syndicalist is significant, significant, however, is the extent to which a syndicalist three countries. countries. analysis underlay the the programs programs of of all all three and approach analysis and approach underlay Even American American labor, which vigorously criticized fascism from the criticized which fascism from the Even labor, vigorously so on the ground that it favored business almost excluoutset, did favored business that it almost did so the excluon outset, ground sively, not that the the syndicalist was wrong. wrong. And not not only only not that syndicalist approach sively, approach was Act, which was did it support the National Industrial Recovery the Industrial did it National which was Recovery Act, support ~ompared to Italian fascism by Deal spokesmen, but it openly Deal New to fascism Italian but it spokesmen, by openly compared continued to frame its own programs programs within within the the syndicalist outlook. outlook. continued to frame its syndicalist In the of course, course, the the particular nationalisms which which were were used used the end, In end, of particular nationalisms to co-ordinate and unite each respective system in a corporate whole a in whole and each unite co-ordinate to respective system corporate in W orId came into conflict and produced American involvement involvement in into conflict World came produced American War II. WarH. core of National Socialism in core of National Socialism in
THE CHALLENGE OF DOMESTIC RADICALISM
Though to have have disappeared by the the end of of that that conflict, conflict, it seemed to Though it disappeared by domestic radicalism radicalism had had nevertheless nevertheless posed posed aa significant domestic significant challenge challenge to the the leaders of the War!. to the corporation leaders of L corporation society society down through through World War Radicalism's international manifestations appeared about time Radicalism's international manifestations appeared about that that time in the in Revolution that in I9Io-I9II, were focused focused the Mexican Revolution that began began in 1910-1911, and were and in the (I9IJ-I9I8), and extended extended in the Bolshevik Bolshevik Revolution Revolution in in Russia Russia (1917-1918), and the renewed itself itself in the same years. the Chinese Chinese Revolution that renewed in the Revolution that same years. II and and Radicalism sustained that momentum through through World W orId War II sustained that Radicalism in Asia and the Middle East, in the revolt against white re-emerged in Asia in the Middle the revolt white East, re-emerged against in Africa, in the of I958. rule in Africa, and in the Cuban Revolution Revolution of rule 1958. the Cuban uprising Even before before the of 1895, r895, however, however, Edward BelBeluprising of lamy's vision of a neo-socialist Utopia presented in the novel Lookvision of a neo-socialist the novel in lamy's Utopia presented
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ing Backward Backward (1888) (1888) attracted thousands of attracted thousands of Americans. Americans. Bluntly ing Bluntly assaulting the waste of "mistaken undertakings" the waste o "mistaken undertakings" and and "idle "idle capital assaulting capital and mutual hostility hostility of "the competition and mutual and labor," of those those engaged labor," "the competition and engaged Belin industry," gluts and crises" of "the periodic in and crises" of capitalism, industry," and "the periodic gluts capitalism, Bellamy to the the consolidated offered socialism socialism as as an an alternative alternative to consolidated corporalamy offered corpora-
the successor successor to laissez ffaire. tion order order that he recognized recognized would that he tion would be be the aire, to laissez His novel no doubt doubt helped helped prepare prepare the way for moveHis novel the way for the the socialist socialist moveto appear the turn of the under the the ment that began to that began at the ment the century turn of appear at century under leadership of inspiration and leadership of Debs. Debs. inspiration So, too, did the writings writings of Henry Demarest Demarest Lloyd, newspaper did the of Henry a newspaper So, too, Lloyd, a the Chicago Tribune became aa reform reform writer on the the staff staff of of the writer Tribune who became Chicago publicist and ultimately a socialist. Though he offered no dramatic a socialist. he offered dramatic no ultimately publicist Though Utopia, Lloyd's was perhaps perhaps even even of corporation Lloyd's analysis analysis of Utopia, corporation capitalism capitalism was changing the minds of more influential influential in in changing the minds more in of men and and women who in the beginning beginning took took for for granted their commitment to private proptheir the to commitment granted private property. Attacking the same time commenting on Standard Oil Oil and and at at the same time Attacking Standard erty. commenting on se, Lloyd the general character and consequences of corporations per character and the of general consequences corporations per se, Lloyd was alienating alienating men from their own explained how the the new system from their explained system was labor. labor. by aa man"; man"; he he explained in Wealth "Nothing is any Wealth any longer "Nothing is longer made by explained in "parts of things are by parts Versus Versus Commonwealth (r894), are of made by parts (1894), "parts things by the luck of a good-humor which so of and wholes become so of men, wholes the a of which luck men, by good-humor far keeps men from flying asunder." And he astutely analyzed the the asunder." he far keeps astutely analyzed flying weakness of of trying to build build aa commonwealth commonwealth on on the the foundation weakness foundation of of trying to private property with the corporation as a cornerstone. possi· private property with the corporation as a cornerstone. "The possibility of regulation," he concluded, "is a dream. As long long as this conconas this bility of regulation," he concluded, "is a dream. trol of necessaries of this wealth wealth remain remain private private with with the necessaries of life trol of the life and this is they they who will regulate, not not we." we." individuals, it is will regulate, individuals, it be seen from the writings of of Bellamy Bellamy and Lloyd, the can be As can seen from the writings Lloyd, the was contained two principal principal ideas. ideas. essence of of the radical challenge challenge was in two essence the radical contained in and then then reasserted with tremendous vigor the the First, it it secularized secularized and tremendous vigor reasserted with First, be aa good world man's world positive theme theme of Christianity. To be man's world of early positive good world early Christianity. as aa commonwealth in in which which men were brothers brothers first first had to be built had to be built as second. They gained their individuality from and economic their and economic men second. individuality They gained well as proving their their association with other men as as from proving as equals as well association with other equals as that true radicals differences. simply, the radicals argued that true individuality differences. Very the individuality argued Very simply, derived far the development development of of an personality an integrated far more from from the derived integrated personality or achievements or and its its relationships relationships with with others others than external achievements than from and from external human that superiority. Indeed, they insisted that a overt insisted overt and superficial superficial superiority. Indeed, they
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individual could not develop under circumstances circumstances which which based based the the individual could not develop under competitive success in economic survival of the person upon success in economic survival of the person upon his competitive
his
affairs. affairs. Hence their thesis: private property, since it emphasized second thesis: Hence their second private property, since it emphasized the negative negative aspects acquisition and and competiand encouraged of acquisition and all the aspects of competiencouraged all would tion, could provide the basis for commonwealth. It a commonwealth* It would for such such a the basis could not not provide tion, priori basis basis for for therefore have to give way to property as as an an a priori social property have to to social therefore give way What was often misunderstood about the socialist aa humane about the was misunderstood socialist often humane society. society. that economic meaning very level subsub· position was was that economic welfare, welfare, meaning very high high level position basis for sistence achieved in aa routine routine manner, was considered the basis considered the for sistence achieved in manner, was full definition was the necessary socialism, not the the full the necessary of socialism. socialism. It It was definition of socialism, not foundation for the creation the commonwealth and and for for the the for the of the foundation creation of emergence of a creative individualism which would enable to which enable men a to individualism of creative emergence beings for the first time in their history. history. live as in their for the first time live as human beings No radical radical ever ever understood, understood, let captured in words, that that deep in words, let alone alone captured deep sense better than Eugene Debs. "When the Debs. than radical challenge better the sense of of the the radical Eugene challenge is solved," he explained in 1908, "and all bread and butter problem problem is he in "and all and butter bread solved," 1908, explained men and and children children the world around secure the world around are are rendered rendered secure and women and war and then the the mind and will from of war and fear fear of of want, and soul soul will dread of from dread want, then be free to develop as they never were before. We shall have a litershall have a literbe free to develop as they never were before. as the the troubled heart and and brain of man never never ature an art brain of art such troubled heart ature and and an such as beautiful thoughts thoughts and senti. before conceived have beautiful shall have and senticonceived.•.•• We shall before weighted down by by ments, and aa divinity divinity in as man weighted such as in religion, ments, religion, such the machine could never never have imagined." the have imagined." machine could also stressed necessity of planning and the Radicals also of planning Radicals stressed the and directing the necessity directing the in order to achieve and maintain a high level of material economy in order to maintain achieve and a level of material economy high welfare. Such would remove necessity welfare. Such self-discipline the necessity remove the self-discipline and sharing sharing would of of imperialism and it possible to end and the exploitation make it end war to and the imperialism possible exploitation of weaker weaker societies by the Hence in in of societies by the advanced advanced industrial industrial nations. nations. Hence every vital respect the radicals confronted the advocates of the vital the radicals confronted the of advocates the new every respect corporation order order with with aa fundamental challenge. And despite the fundamental challenge. corporation despite the abuses and violations abuses that were apparent in the violations of of their their own values values that were apparent in the Russian Russian and Chinese Chinese Revolutions, Revolutions, the radicals offered challenge. the radicals the challenge. offered the Their Their weaknesses notwithstanding, they they had had asserted and acted acted upon upon weaknesses notwithstanding, asserted and the ideas ideas and values that the new corporation order, both from the very values that the both from very corporation order, interest and from its interest its own concern for a society, had finally for a human concern society, had finally to assert in its own name. in its name. In end, three three centuries their to assert the end, In the after their centuries after debate great debate within within Cromwell's Cromwell's Revolutionary Revolutionary Army, Army, the liberal the liberal great heretic the radical radical fundamentalist before the the heretic and the fundamentalist stood stood face to face face to face before .
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ancient Christian corporate their a Christian altar of of a commonwealth asserting ancient altar corporate commonwealth asserting their respective rights to the grail. to the grail. respective rights Given array of such o practical an array such an confronted with with such Given such difficulties, confronted practical difficulties, it should be clear that the process of adaptation for the challengers, be clear it should the that for the of challengers, adaptation process as the corporation order was both complicated and prolonged. Just order both the was as and complicated corporation prolonged. Just corporation itself merged and consolidated the political economy, so corporation itself merged and consolidated the political economy, so were the the various phases of the development of its blurred and and of the various phases its society were development of society blurred run together. This only served to dramatize an aspect of life-and run together. This only served to dramatize an aspect of life and hence of history itself-that may have have become itself that hopefully of history become apparent hence hopefully may apparent employ the the very through the the organization organization of of this this essay. very simple simple essay. To employ through analogy of country, history history is in such the country, is made in such time zones zones across of time across the analogy different but but concordant concordant eras. more events which occur at occur at eras. Two or or more events which different easily happen in zones that are precisely the same may are moment zones that the same in may easily happen precisely that is dying, another in the the age different. be in in an an age is dying, another in different. One may age that age may be of the the dominant may be be aa harbinger harbinger of a new a third third may and a of a dominant system, of system, and order. is particularly particularly true 2oth-century American American history, history, true of of 20th-century This is order. This be kept kept constantly constandy in next and the next in mind when considering should be and should considering the two sections of this this essay. sections of two essay.
IIII. I I. The Adaptation Adaptation of of the the Existing Order Order Existing
The all caught great economic economic system system which a great in a are all which is is truth is, The truth is, we are caught in "heartless. Wilson, 1912 Woodrow Wilson, 'heartless. 1912 What everything else else is of laws is a a body laws which above everything which needs above this country What this body of country needs willlool{ after the men who who are the ma\e make rather the men who than the rather than are on on the are made. made. Wilson, 1912 Woodrow Wilson, are 1912 will loo\ after the
We shall our economic system as it is as it is and as as it it may be deal with with our modishall deal economic system may be modified, not as it might be if had a clean sheet ot paper to write upon. to a clean sheet we had as be write not it of if might fied, paper upon. Woodrow Wilson, Wilson, 1913 1913 The antagonism antagonism hetween over. is over. between business business and Government is Wilson, 1914 Woodrow Wilson, 1914
THE KEY ROLE OF THE PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT
AS
n A
THE COMBINATION of of ideas and organizations organizations through which ideas and through which Americans adapted adapted themselves themselves to the political political economy the to the of the economy of
large corporation that system to the the realities realities of the 20th century, of the 20th century, corporation and that large system to the Progressive symbolized many of the essential charthe Movement charessential of the Progressive symbolized many acteristics provided much of the continuity of American history acteristics and provided of the American of continuity history extent, moreover, moreover, its rhetoric, images, after 1900. To some extent, its fund fund of of rhetoric, images, and ideas will play play aa role in the the transition to whatever ideas will transition to role in whatever new society emerges the present present era of flux flux and era of travail While While and travail. society emerges from the periodically overshadowed by more conservative groups, some com~ overshadowed more conservative groups, some comperiodically by after 1900.
heroes, heroes,
~Qn mon
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bination of of Progressives policy during during most most of has guided of American policy bination Progressives has guided American the century irrespective of whether Republicans or Democrats have of whether have the century irrespective Republicans or Democrats been in the national national government. in control control of of the been government. Struggles political power, power, within and between between the parties, have have for political within and the parties, Struggles for of course existed and been important. But several factors suggest of course existed and been important. But several factors suggest that it the politics politics of period, as well is more helpful to it is as well that of the the period, helpful to approach approach the as its traditional way. way. For For one one thing, thing, the the its general history, a less in a less traditional as general history, in functional-syndicalist organization organization of of the the economy led most most political political functional-syndicalist economy led groups to play play both both sides Corporations, for sides of of the the street. street. Corporations, for example, example, groups to both parties; parties; and the contributed and leaders leaders to to both and despite contributed money money and despite the file being exclusively picture of labor union leaders and the rank and of labor union leaders and file the rank and picture being exclusively Democrats, both both elements of the the labor labor movement movement have elements of have supported Democrats, supported Republicans on many occasions. In the same way, both political political on occasions. In the same Republicans many way, both basic assumptions about such parties have shared a broad range of have shared a broad of about basic such range parties assumptions as private private property property and the relationship between fundamental issues as fundamental issues and the between relationship prosperity and overseas overseas economic expansion. Finally, Finally, the the essentially essentially economic expansion. prosperity as symbolized bipartisan nature of the Progressive Movement itself, nature of the as Movement itself, bipartisan Progressive symbolized by the Roosevelts, makes makes it more accurate to view view the the major major it more the two Roosevelts, accurate to by as landmarks of the elements and ideas of that that shifting coalition ideas of the coalition landmarks of elements as shifting entire entire century. century. RISE OF AN INDUSTRIAL GENTRY THEODORE ROOSEVELT AND THE RISE
Although it numerically the the group group of of ProgresProgresit was the smallest, was numerically smallest, the Although sives that came from from the the dwindling descendants of the old feudal and feudal sives that of old descendants the dwindling nea-feudal gentry gentry supplied supplied crucial leadership for the movement. neo-feudal the movement. for crucial leadership Drawn for part from the Hudson River River Valley Valley and the the for the the most most part from the south, that class-conscious gentry also included New Englanders south, that class-conscious gentry also included Englanders less warrant, the heirs heirs with more more or who considered considered themselves, as the or less warrant, as themselves, with of honored the the political political economy economy of the mermerof Calvin of men who honored Calvin and the cantilists. Theodore and Franklin Delano Delano Roosevelt Roosevelt as as and Franklin cantilists. Supplying Supplying Theodore Presidents, Henry L. Brooks Adams L. Stimson Stimson and Brooks such men as as Henry Presidents, and such as official unofficial advisers, performed aa vital vital funcfuncas and unofficial this gentry official and advisers, this gentry performed policies of of an an tion in trying to the ideas to adapt ideas and policies tion in sustaining sustaining and trying adapt the noblesse oblige to the industrial system. agrarian industrial noblesse to the system. oblige agrarian if poor poor Fearing the that might might be be produced" the "terrible convulsion that "terrible convulsion produced" if Fearing leadership ran the country aground on "the rock of class hatred," of rock ran "the class the on hatred," leadership country aground Theodore viewed the the Presidency Presidency "as the steward of the the "as the steward of Roosevelt viewed Theodore Roosevelt of the public welfare"-"of the commonwealth." Candidly aware of the aware welfare" commonwealth.'* "of the Candidly public the "arro"arro"real evils" of the corporation corporation system, system, and of of the "real and grave of the grave evils"
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gant of some of its leaders, he nevertheless shared Stimgant stupidity" stupidity" of some o its leaders, he nevertheless shared Stimbound up up son's view that "the interest of public is son's view that the public is inextricably "the interest of the inextricably bound in welfare of of our business." Labor Labor was was thus thus bound only in the bound "not the welfare "not only our business." by self-interest, but by by every of principle to and duty" consideration of self-interest, but by every consideration principle and duty" to of most moment to the nation." stand with capital on "matters nation." to the stand with capital on "matters of most But corporation needed education constantly inand "a "a constantly education and inBut leaders needed corporation leaders lesson was was the the traditional traditional creasing and controL" control." The lesson supervision ... and creasing supervision sermon from lord of the manor manor to to his his less but less sophisticated sermon the lord from the of the sophisticated but vassals. "The realize," nevertheless powerful powerful vassals. of property must realize," "The friends friends of nevertheless property must repeating, "that the surest provoke an an Roosevelt was to provoke of repeating, surest way "that the Roosevelt was fond fond of way to is to be short-sighted, narrowexplosion of wrong and injustice be is and to narrowof short-sighted, injustice wrong explosion minded, greedy greedy and the idea idea that that private private and arrogant." minded, Fully accepting accepting the arrogant." Fully to society and individual identity, he took aa property was essential he and individual was to took essential identity, property society long-range view of preserving the property by making its human the of its view property by making preserving long-range aspects more equitable and economy more more efficient. its economy efficient. more equitable and its aspects For aa good many years, a large number of reformers and rankrankof a reformers and For large good many years, and-file property owners followed Roosevelt like lieges of the lord like followed Roosevelt the and-file owners of lord lieges property So did a number of who (like Perkins) in the of feudalism. did a of men So the days of feudalism. number in (like Perkins) days were anxious to identify with such upper-class outlook outlook even such an an upper-class anxious to were even identify with though they were not wholly legitimate heirs of the tradition. of heirs the tradition. were not Moved wholly legitimate though they by aa multiplicity of motives, motives, they they became became administrators Gifford administrators (like multiplicity of (like Gifford by B. Cortelyou) and intellectual leaders Pinchot and and George intellectual B. Pinchot leaders who George Cortelyou) labored hours in the vineyard that ultimately produced a small the in that labored long hours a small ultimately produced vineyard long termed AmerAmerbut vintage vintage crop crop of of men who could could legitimately be termed but legitimately be ica's (or modern) modern) gentry. gentry. Probably Probably the the most ica's industrial industrial (or most famous famous of of the intellectuals Herbert Croly. His estimate of The Promise of the His estimate of intellectuals was Herbert Promise of Croly. his journal of analysis and opinion, The New American Life, Life, and American his and journal of analysis opinion, Republic, brought together some of best Progressive Progressive thought. thought. of the the best Republic, brought together is often given Though by no no means means wholly wholly derivative, often given derivative, Croly Though by Croly is credit ideas that were advanced people like credit for for ideas that were advanced much earlier earlier by like by people Brooks Adams and even even Roosevelt Roosevelt himself. provided aa synBrooks himself. Croly Croly provided synthesis that to many many Progressives Progressives because because he organized and that appealed thesis he organized and appealed to stated their stated their explicit ideas with verve and power. power. Calling Calling latent ideas with verve explicit and latent for national democracy" democracy" based based upon upon an the "a new national for "a an acceptance of the acceptance of corporation and and other other "well-organized within aa interests" within corporation "well-organized special special interests" syndicalist feared aa syndicalist revolution framework, he openly syndicalist framework, openly feared syndicalist revolution staged by therefore stressed the importance of moderating labor and therefore stressed the of by labor staged importance moderating of wealth." Roose"existing in the the distribution wealth." But like Roosedistribution of But like inequalities in "existing inequalities velt other Progressives, velt and other Croly had difficulty in developing any had in Progressives, Croly difficulty developing any .
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philosophy to provide the the elan to provide the cement new philosophy and the cement and elan that that Christianity Christianity in earlier centuries. Falling back on the ideas of militant had supplied in earlier had centuries. Falling back on the ideas of militant supplied expansion, he rather lamely asserted a belief that nationalism and nationalism expansion, he rather lamely asserted a belief that "somehow and sometime" the problem would be solved. and sometime" the problem would be solved. "somehow Walter E. Weyl Weyl grappled grappled with Walter Lippmann Walter E, same the same with the Lippmann and Walter p0issues. Nobody Nobody asked asked the the basic the corporation basic questions about the questions about corporation political better than than Lippmann his essay on Drift Drift and and litical economy did in in his economy better Lippmann did essay on but having having abandoned even aa socialism of the the heart, heart, Mastery (1914), abandoned even socialism of Mastery (1914), but he matured as aa keen keen analyst the system and a sophisticated mis~ matured as of the he and a analyst of system sophisticated missionary preaching the the need corporate ethic. ethic. Though Though not not as need of of a a corporate as sionary preaching famous as or Croly, Weyl was in many respects the most as Lippmann famous was the most in Lippmann or Croly, Weyl many respects he obviously learned much rigorous thinker the group. thinker of of the While he group. While rigorous obviously learned Benevolent feudalism, Feudalism, and and from Ghent's outline of Our "Benevolent his friend friend Ghent's from his outline of from with Mitchell Mitchell of of the the miners* miners' union, he went went his association association with from his union, he beyond that the ideas ideas of of the the National National Civic Civic Federation. Federation. that analysis and the analysis and beyond as far as capital and labor were Starting from the assumption that from the labor were as and that far as Starting assumption capital concerned, "the interest of one is the interest of the other," he tried "the tried interest he of is the one interest of the concerned, other," to evolve approach whereby whereby the the syndicalist nature of the system evolve an approach of to nature the system syndicalist co~rdinated in unity that produce aa could be co-ordinated in a a corporate would produce could be that would corporate unity "new individualism." individualism." Accepting Accepting the the importance of overseas economic overseas economic importance of he also realized that the poor countries would have to to expansion, also have realized that would countries the poor expansion, be given an "integrated economic solution" of their problems if the if the be of economic their solution" "integrated problems given either efficient In aa similar way, he he empire were to to be be either or defensible. efficient or defensible. In similar way, empire were an "association of consumers" was needed to bal~ recognized that to balneeded recognized that an "association of consumers" ance units and at cut across them. other syndicalist the other the same time time cut across them. at the ance the syndicalist units He understood, understood, probably probably more clearly clearly than than any other Progressive, any other Progressive, that the the problem problem was was to to provide base for of the the heart heart a base for socialism socialism of that provide a it that it without subverting private property. property. He admitted, without admitted, finally, finally, that subverting private a socialist. could not not be be done and became became a socialist. could Reagan was was a Moving in in just just the the opposite direction, John John H. Reagan Moving opposite direction, a reformer who began began his his career politician and reformer of a as something career as something of politician as aa defender of the the corporacorpora~ socialist of the heart and and concluded it as defender of the heart socialist of concluded it of 1887, tions. As the co~author of the co-author of the the Interstate Interstate Commerce Act of tions. 1887, Reagan's intellectual and philosophical journey symbolized the and intellectual philosophical journey symbolized the Reagan's power of a second major group within the Progressive coalition. the coalition. a within second of Progressive major group power ulti~ Indeed, the role of corporation spokesmen the role of such such sophisticated Indeed, spokesmen ultisophisticated corporation the of mately provoked a good many middle
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support which which Roosevelt would not repudiate. After After discovering not repudiate. Roosevelt would discovering support Wilson's entourage, and being the end end the same kind oof men in the and in the same kind in Wilson's entourage, being in of Wisconsin's unwilling to build a party behind the leadership of the to Wisconsin's a new behind build leadership unwilling party
Follette, they oscillated between the two major parties M. La La Follette, they oscillated between the two major parties as independent vote. might more have been been a so-called as a more aptly so-called independent vote. They They might aptly have called the dependent vote because they evolved no program of their o their called the dependent vote because they evolved no program bipar~ own, and their steadily numbers documented the bipardocumented the and their own, steadily increasing increasing numbers tisan nature nature of of the tisan Movement's leadership. the Progressive leadership. Progressive Movement's was of course the the precursor corporation all sophisticated of all Hanna was of course sophisticated corporation precursor of to and within the the leaders who were to become become ever more important important to and within ever more leaders were to not only lectured Roosevelt Roosevelt on the absurdabsurdProgressive coalition. on the coalition. He not Progressive only lectured ity of thinking that agrarian reformers were wild revolutionaries ity of thinking that agrarian reformers were wild revolutionaries of his his own political political support and scared by the the measure outside scared him by measure of support outside corporation community the business circles; he also the corporation in the business educated the also educated circles; he community in art of between short~run and long-range interests. of discriminating and interests. art short-run between long-range discriminating Perkins of the House Charles Bonaparte of Baltimore, George George W. Perkins of the G. Bonaparte of Baltimore, Charles G. and James Couzens of Detroit of Morgan, and Hazen S. and Couzens of Detroit S. Pingree of Morgan, and Hazen James Pingree were other leaders in in extending the interest
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Others of the the same group, group, like James D. D. Phaland, Phaland, aa wealthy like James Others of San wealthy San Francisco industrialist industrialist and grasped the point of Hanna's and financier, Francisco the of Hanna's financier, grasped point came to to advocate public ownership ownership argument about the railroads railroads and about the and came advocate public argument
M
Samuel Rule) Jones Jones was was aa Samuel M. (Golden (Golden Rule) c1ass-conscious remanufacturer favored, and practiced, such who manufacturer favored, and practiced, such class-conscious reforms as profit-sharing, the eight-hour day, minimum wages, and forms as profit-sharing, the eight-hour day, wages, and an editor of The Street Journal Journal who paid vacations. vacations. And as as an editor of The Wall Wall Street paid was anhelped develop broad-gauged outlook, outlook, Sereno its broad-gauged E. Pratt anSereno E. Pratt was develop its helped other Many reformers have been such figure. reformers would other such would have still would still been (and figure. Many (and would the contents of the the paper. paper. Many be) thunderstruck thunderstruck at at the contents of interest-conbe) Many interest-conscious continue to be) outraged by leaders were were (and scious corporation to continue corporation leaders be) (and outraged by its ideas, as when in I902 it the government full in 1902 its it advocated the full advocated giving ideas, as government giving authority to to set rates for the railroads. railroads. And though it would be set rates for the would be authority though it erroneous so basically conservative a figure a Progressive, to call call him a a erroneous to so conservative Progressive, basically figure as Nelson W. Aldrich Aldrich illustrates illustrates the the main main point. point. For For AidAldSenator Nelson as Senator rich's deep and persistent concern with the problem of accumulating and rich's concern with the of persistent deep accumulating problem and allocating capital for produced aa series for the the system of investigaand series of allocating capital system produced investigations, studies, and preliminary laws that provided of the laws that much of the tions, studies, preliminary provided foundation Federal Reserve Reserve System. for the the Federal foundation for System. of all municipal services. services. all municipal of
THE INTERESTS AND THE IDEAS OF THE REFORMERS
Aldrich was was of not without reason, damned generally generally of course, and not Aldrich without reason, course, and by the conglomeration of middle-class reformers composed the who the of middle-class reformers composed the conglomeration by far largest portion of the Progressive Movement. They third and and by far of the third They by largest portion Progressive were principally principally small businessmen or or farmers farmers who small and middle-sized middle-sized businessmen were as individuals no effective the new corporation order. as individuals had had no effective stake in the stake in corporation order. Taken singly, their property was irrelevant economically and inefinefsingly, their property was irrelevant economically fective politically socially. They were declining prestige and and in prestige fective declining in politically and socially. They were ecostatus, but but these these losses losses were derived from their their ecoand derived were secondary status, secondary and nomic impotence. Yet they they were realistic enough that their their to realize realize that nomic were realistic impotence. Yet enough to to private private property property forced the system. commitment to accept forced them to commitment to system. accept the ecoin ecoby organizing organizing politically (and to extent in They to some extent They sought, politically (and sought, by in nomic co-operatives), to win win some or equity equity in of parity semblance of nomic some semblance parity or co-operatives), to of kind the the system. at any rate, they acted on the same kind of the acted at rate, any system. Implicitly, they Implicitly, increassyndicalist logic that explicitly guided the gentry and increasthe more that gentry syndicalist logic explicitly guided of corporation leaders. ing numbers numbers of corporation and labor labor leaders. ing rechristen them conit may be useful as well as fair to rechristen conHence it as fair to be well Hence as useful may inas some commentators but it it is is grossly grossly inservatives, as have done, commentators have done, but servatives, After reactionaries. them as supercilious) to call reactionaries. After accurate (as well call well to as accurate (as supercilious)
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all, many of these people people turned to Eugene Debs and and sociala good socialof these turned to all, a good many Eugene Debs ism between between 1900 and 19:20 as they came to understand what they ism understand what to as came they 1900 and 1920 they felt were the structural weaknesses and lifeless character of a synof a character felt were the structural weaknesses and lifeless syndicalism dominated dominated by by the the interest-conscious interest-conscious large dicalism Even corporation. Even large corporation. the attitude toward labor of those who remained reformers within within the attitude toward labor of those remained reformers the Progressive Progressive the
Movement revealed a kind kind of perception. of shrewd shrewd perception. revealed a Movement in some ways, ways, They were were sympathetic, willing to to support support labor labor in and willing They sympathetic, and but they they also a very very real that the unions would would reach a basic basic reach a the unions but also had had a real fear fear that In their their view, that would would accommodation with the the corporations. accommodation with view, that corporations. In syntransform the political economy economy into into aa kind kind of mortar-and-pestle synof mortar-and-pestle the political transform dicalism that would would reduce reduce them them to flatly called dicalism that to insignificance. called insignificance. They They flatly oppressive partnership." partnership." But But to blame them them for it "a to blame it "a dangerously for dangerously oppressive is some about the results of labor's business unionism labor's business some skepticism of unionism is the results about skepticism rather to to miss, miss, or or ignore, ignore, one the central central developments developments of of the the era. era. of the one of rather The essence of the the middle-class middle-class reformers' reformers' program, and the the essence of program, and grounds for their on-again, off-again liaison with the gentry and liaison with the and for their on-again, oF-again gentry grounds broad objecthe lay in in two broad the more sophisticated leaders, lay corporation leaders, objecsophisticated corporation tives. They wanted to to hold hold the large corporation at its its existing tives. the large level corporation at existing level They wanted of while raising other groups to positions of relative balance. other to of relative balance. while of power positions raising power groups of equity moral behavior. behavior. They also standards of also sought They equity and moral sought minimum standards & be obvious, obvious, the the reformers were largely largely interest-conscious reformers were interest-conscious As should should be in aa loose, loose, and mutually suspicious, to leaders united in and often alliance to leaders united often mutually suspicious, alliance check the Their greatest weakness was the lack interest* Their weakness was the lack check the dominant dominant interest. greatest dynami~ conception the system was to to be be of any broad and of of how the and dynamic system was conception of any broad co-ordinated and sustained. They did not like the large corporation not the like sustained. did coordinated and They large corporation to put put in in its but they have anything its place. not have did not but anything to place. they did Had the reformers actually actually been been reactionaries, reactionaries, as are periodperiodas they the reformers they are ically labeled (Roosevelt once called them rural Tories), they would ically kbeled (Roosevelt once called them rural Tories), they would use the the anti-trust restore laissez-faire have gone to use have all out out to laws to to restore anti-trust laws laissez-faire gone all that capitalism. But they they were were caught the same of dilemma that in the same kind of caught in capitalism. and radical antislavery during the the Civil had faced the radical Civil War and faced the antislavery men during it came down to they were were unwilling unwilling reconstruction. When it reconstruction. to cases, cases, they to tamper tamper with the anchor interpenetration to with the anchor of of the the system-the system the legal legal interpenetration of of the of private property and the corporation organof the rights of organthe and rights private property corporation form of ization-for the former in weakening the latter. izationfor fear of damaging the in fear of former the latter. weakening damaging to concentrate on political reforms. had little choice but Hence they but little choice to concentrate reforms. political they Yet integrated economy economy as as aa pattern pattern of Yet the the system was as as much an integrated of system was politics, and their efforts never produced the results that they antheir the that never results anefforts politics, produced they ticipated. For For while while their their reforms reforms were were certainly certainly understandable understandable and ticipated.
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defensible, not wholly wholly ineffective, they did did not not cut power cut into into the the power defensible, and not ineffective, they structure of the system. Strong on criticism, and on the corporation structure of corporation system. Strong on criticism, and on proposals to strengthen their particular interests, the reformers were to their strengthen proposals particular interests, the reformers were weak on ideas appropriate to the entire political economy. ideas appropriate weak to the entire political economy. was particularly particularly apparent the This of reform reform thought This aspect in the aspect of thought was apparent in muckraking literature. nature had had literature. Its Its very and outraged muckraking very negative negative and outraged nature with infusing infusing the with enthusiasm and to do do with much to the movement movement with enthusiasm and righteousness. As aa big big business the industry of the the expose business itself, itself, the righteousness. industry of expose typified the extent to to which which information information had had become become aa commodity the extent typified commodity handled much like product. Advertisers Advertisers and publiclike any handled other product. and publicany other kind of operation, and and relations men were engaged engaged in in the relations the same same kind of operation, prepackaged of this this approach approach to to news news as the three three sides when the sides of as prepackaged be used used merchandise converged, tool which which could the system merchandise a tool had a could be converged, the system had as as they to create that distorted reality sustain images to create and sustain that much distorted as as images they reality illuminated it. illuminated it. For that even the the muckrakers one-sidedthat matter, For the one-sidedmuckrakers suffered suffered from from the matter, even ness of of the system. Corruption and centralized power of of their their analysis the ness and centralized analysis system. Corruption power but they were symptoms rather than causes. Being basically did but were did exist, rather than causes. exist, they symptoms Being basically aa movement against against symptoms symptoms rather rather than than for delineated for a a clearly clearly delineated program of action on causes, the crusade ended in indifference or on action of ended in indifference or the crusade causes, program disillusionment the reformers discovered that exthe system exreformers discovered that the disillusionment when the system hibited aa tremendous their changes in adminhibited inertia that admintremendous inertia that resisted resisted their changes in istrative and electoral procedures. procedures. Efforts Efforts to to use instruments istrative and electoral instruments use such such as referendum, and and the recall proved the initiative, the referendum, so expensive as the the recall initiative, the expensive proved so and involved, and so limited in results, that they were soon were abansoon abanand involved, and so limited in results, that they doned. doned. Though not usually usually considered considered among the muckrakers, muckrakers, Thorstein Thorstein among the Though not Veblen was was one one of the few members members of of the the group of the Veblen group who moved beyond the the limits that approach. first and and only read of that His first limits of only generally beyond approach. His generally read of the Leisure Class was the the earliest book, The Theory the Leisure earliest and Class (1899), book, Theory of (1899), was clearly the the most witty and and sophisticated the entire many In many entire genre. most witty of the genre. In sophisticated of clearly ways Veblen was to to the the age of the corporation what John the corporation Veblen was John Taylor Taylor ways age of had been been to to the era of of industrialism Both men criticized criticized new itself. Both had the era industrialism itself. far back of perspective located far back ways and institutions from a point located a of and from institutions point ways perspective a in an Veblen's "instinct of workmanship" an earlier in earlier time time when Veblen's "instinct of workmanship" was a of his each doing all of his particular highly personal affair based on all affair based each man particular doing highly personal job. Yet Yet Veblen Veblen did analysis and thereby thereby helped helped to to estabestabextend his did extend his analysis job. to lish American intellectuals the institutional approach institutional the intellectuals lish among American approach to among of the political economy. He also recognized the great significance of the the also recognized great significance political economy.
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Bolshevik Revolution, Revolution, and that it need it dramatized dramatized the the need and understood understood that Bolshevik for an American program that would transform the corporation into for an American program that would transform the corporation into an for building building aa true true commonwealth. one hand, hand, an instrument commonwealth. On the the one instrument for economics assisted later reformers reformers and other ProProand other economics assisted later gressives who were trying to make such a change. But on the other, a But on the such to make were other, gressives change. trying his emphasis on efficiency efficiency was cut for for intellectual sword that cut an intellectual sword that his was an emphasis on as well as against it. really the the corporation not it. Efficiency was not the the well as as Efficiency really against corporation central issue, hence reformers reformers who criticized criticized the the corporation corporation syssyscentral and hence issue, and tem on basis were were left without much to to say corporathe corporaon that left without tem that basis say when the tion became became more more efficient with great used the the effectiveness used and with tion efficient and great effectiveness in its behalf. argument in its own behalf. argument Another negative negative aspect aspect of Progressive thought thought derived its derived from its of Progressive Another diethnic gentry and the reformers, reformers, corporation corporation diand the ethnic consciousness. consciousness. The gentry rectors and labor leaders, leaders, and businessmen small-town businessmen farmers and and small-town and farmers rectors and labor had a common pride in their Anglo-Saxon heritage. It was an inteinteIt was an had a pride in their Anglo-Saxon heritage. gral part, part, for of the the gentry's class consciousness. consciousness. Such Such cuIculfor example, gentry's class gral example, of tur:¥ self-respect and pride pride of are normal and and healthy, healthy, achievement are of achievement tural self-respect and even creative, but under under the of foreign foreign competition competition and and the stress stress of even forces; but creative, forces; domestic troubles, troubles, the the Progressive Progressive coalition, coalition, along along with with its its conservaconservadomestic tive opposition, pushed it bigotry against and other ethnic into bigotry it into ethnic and tive against other opposition, pushed religious groups. Woodrow Wilson, for example, did not include for did not include Wilson, example, religious groups, his New Freedom Freedom or or in his crusade the world world the Negro in his to make the in his crusade to the Negro in safe for attitude toward toward the the Negro Negro was was charactercharacterfor democracy. This attitude safe democracy. This istic most Progressives Progressives until until after after World War II. Other ethnic ethnic of most IL Other istic of minorities and and Jews Jews suffered Ziondiscrimination (although minorities suffered similar similar discrimination (although Zionthe ists often with equal equal unfairness unfairness interpreted interpreted as ists often and with as anti-Semitism anti-Semitism the on territory opposition to their agitation for a Jewish state created to for a their created state Jewish agitation opposition territory by Arabs). claimed occupied by and occupied claimed and Arabs). Without radicalism played played Without much question, domestic and and foreign question, domestic foreign radicalism the most important part in weakening such discrimination. Negro the most important part in weakening such discrimination. Negro B. Du Bois leaders E. B. leaders William Bois and Paul William E. Paul Robeson Robeson symbolized such symbolized such militant insistence insistence that that every American was was aa citizen until his his conconmilitant citizen until every American duct proved duct proved otherwise. otherwise. Though few of the other leaders, or members, of the other or leaders, members, Though the National National shared the the across-the-board radicalism of of Du Bois, shared across-the-board radicalism Bois, the Association for the Association for Colored People People (founded the Advancement of of Colored in (founded in based its entire 1909) based its entire approach on the simple demand for equal on the for 1909) approach simple equal to rights. But given that opportunity, opportunity, most Negroes Negroes wanted wanted only rights. given that only to become like white become like white Americans. Americans. That ironic tribute to ironic tribute to their overlords their overlords his institutional his institutional
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provided one of of the reasons for the slow slow rate rate at at which which the the the main reasons for the provided for desegregation campaign for desegregation moved moved throughout most of of the era. the era. campaign throughout most the time time of the Bolshevik Bolshevik Revolution, however, foreign From the of the Revolution, however, foreign radicalism exerted exerted an pressure against the an ever-increasing radicalism ever-increasing pressure against the of discrimination. overt kinds kinds of discrimination. Ethnic Ethnic equality, equality, for overt for example, example,
more more was aa was
of the heart that a climax strong theme in in the the socialism socialism of the heart that came came to to a climax strong theme the during the Great Depression. Even so, not many basic gains were Great Even not so, during Depression. many basic gains were the Soviet made until until the Union emerged from World War II Soviet Union II as a as a emerged from World major power and effective competitor for world leadership. And as effective competitor for world leadership. as major power in the crisis in Little Little Rock, Rock, the the response response crisis over over integrating in the the schools schools in integrating the was implicitly negative though explicitly positive: positive: discrimination discrimination was implicitly negative though explicitly was held be bad bad because because it it hurt the United United States the Cold to be held to was hurt the States in Cold in the War. However else had failed, radicalism certainly played else it it had War. radicalism failed, foreign foreign certainly played role in a significant significant role least that that American American tradition. tradition. But But in subverting a at least subverting at since the Progressives had little positive conception of community had since the little of Progressives community positive conception or the result result was was aa crippled, negative kind of toleror commonwealth, commonwealth, the crippled, negative kind of tolerance. ance. At the time, the the achievements Negro and minority the same time, achievements of and other of Negro other minority representatives also helped to improve the the general general standing of their their also helped to improve standing of representatives groups. So, too, did the slowly increasing demand by the corporation did the the demand So, too, slowly corporation by groups. increasing for homogenous supply supply of talent and the same kind of of a homogenous same kind for a of talent and labor, labor, and the market. In In that at any rate, the Progressive emphasis on on that instance, market. at the instance, Progressive emphasis any rate, efficiency had aa positive positive social consequence. But But the basic weakness, weakness, the basic social consequence. efficiency apand of the Progressive attitude toward discrimination of discrimination the toward and paradox, attitude apProgressive paradox, peared even more clearly as part of another general idea that it emidea it that even clearly as part of another general peared braced. Called Darwinism" by by Professor Goldman, Professor Eric Eric Goldman, Called "Reform "Reform Darwinism" braced. this clever intellectual maneuver of emphasizing the enenthis clever intellectual maneuver consisted consisted of emphasizing the vironmental side theory of of evolution as against against the the evolution as side of of Darwin's Darwin's theory vironmental stress on competition competition by by conservatives. conservatives. stress placed placed on By changing the environment, so the argument, could the ran the so ran environment, argument, men could By changing Unforcreate positive changes without tooth-and-fang competition. Unforwithout create tooth-and-fang competition. positive changes tunately its advocates overlooked overlooked or or discounted, discounted, in a most most unsciunsciin a its advocates tunately entific way, two two things. Competition was necessary to change the to was entific way, change the necessary things. Competition what of environment, and competitors needed a clear conception of a clear conception environment, and competitors needed they wanted wanted if the effort effort was to produce produce any changes. if the was to any significant significant changes. they As aa result, Progressives were were perpetually perpetually surprised, and many many such Progressives As result, such surprised, and their own of them them disillusioned, disillusioned, by by the the difficulty difficulty even even of of holding of holding their against to say of effecting fundamental the corporation, effecting fundamental say nothing nothing of against the corporation, to
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modifications in political economy. Yet such Darsuch environmental environmental Darmodifications the political in the economy. Yet winism did suggest that the Negro or the tramp or the prostitute winism did suggest that the Negro or the tramp or the prostitute (or the foreigner) was primarily a creature of circumstance (or the foreigner) was primarily a creature of circumstance who transformed by by changing his habitat. habitat. Then the the paradox paradox could could be be transformed changing his turned in upon itself, for of course the Progressives assumed that assumed that the turned in upon course for of itself, Progressives society was the best best kind kind of For American industrial industrial society of environment. environment. For American was the narrow ethnic prejudice in therefore, the Progressives the narrow ethnic prejudice in America, America, therefore, Progressives to substitute an ideological and nationalistic bias that was in tended to tended substitute an ideological and nationalistic bias that was in some respects even more invidious. People were capable of improvesome respects even more invidious. People were capable of improvebecoming more like like Amerment, but improvement as becoming was defined defined as ment, but improvement was Icans. icans. Because of its its usefulness usefulness in reconciling science science and religion, religion, there there in reconciling Because of was aa good bit of such environmental Darwinism embedded in the in the was Darwinism environmental bit of such good of the Social Gospel movement. But some religiously assumptions Social movement. of the religiously Gospel assumptions also used used it a general within which which oriented reformers also as a it as oriented reformers general framework within cases by the land they developed other ideas. Attracted in many the cases land in ideas. Attracted other many by they developed as well as by intellectual excitement, students of their ethnic origins, intellectual students their as well as of ethnic origins, excitement, by T. Ely had studied Germany during like Richard T. the 18705 in Germany like Richard studied in during the 18705 and Ely had 18805. by Germany's Germany's effort effort to to integrate integrate and and unify unify an an Stimulated by i88os. Stimulated had been been industrial system its victory over France France in in 1870, industrial after its 1870, they system after victory over they had impressed and neo-mercantilism that that Gerof neo-mercantilism Gerthe kind kind of and influenced influenced by by the impressed politicians, and conservative intellectuals develdevelintellectuals conservative and man industrialists, industrialists, politicians, a counter counter to to socialism. socialism. Germans had had been to the the oped as been responsive as a oped responsive to returned ideas of the American American mercantilist mercantilist Francis ideas of the after he had returned Francis List List after to Europe in the the 19th and their their own scholars to scholars like like earlier in Europe earlier, century, and i9th century, Gustav extended that approach into a major analysis and Gustav Schmoller Schmoller extended that approach into a major analysis and interpretation of that earlier epoch history. Concluding that the the in history. that earlier interpretation of epoch in Concluding that was relevant problems, Germercantilist approach mercantilist relevant to to their their own later later problems, Gerapproach was ideas as well as adapting borrowed many many specific mans openly openly borrowed specific ideas as well as adapting much of outlook. the general of the outlook. general Along with Ely, Ely, such as John Bates Clark, A. such men as R. A. Clark, Edwin R. John Bates Along with up such ideas and evolved Seligman, and Washington Gladden took took Gladden such ideas and evolved Seligman, Washington up the the related related concepts a quasi-collective of a Christian ethic ethic and greater concepts of quasi-collective Christian greater government participation in the economy. Such an approach, they in the government participation economy. approach, they war. Thinking Thinking along functional and concluded, would prevent prevent class class war. and concluded, along functional syndicalist lines, they they advocated efforts, each in its its own advocated "unified "unified efforts, each in syndicalist lines, to be provided by by the the religious outlook and sphere," the unification unification to be provided and sphere," the religious outlook the the "positive assistance" of the state. true ideal," explained, of the state. "The true ideal," Ely "positive assistance" Ely explained,
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"lies between anarchy be termed termed and socialism, "lies midway and may midway between socialism, and anarchy and may be the principle of social social solidarity." the principle of solidarity." the American In American Economic Economic Association, Association, but more In founding but even even more founding the in developing their institutional and Christian Capitalism, Clark, their own institutional in and Christian developing Capitalism, Clark, Ely, and the rest started started an movement that that ultimately ultimately the rest an intellectual intellectual movement Ely, with the converged with the growing group of sophisticated corporation of leadconverged growing group sophisticated corporation leadfor our place in the sun," ers. Having begun begun as "rebels ..• fighting as "rebels ers. Having for our fighting place in the sun," as Ely put put it, it, they they gradually gradually became became (and trained other) other) as Ely and trained (and inspired inspired and to the one that Locke had :filled in his his men who played roles similar played roles similar to the one that Locke had filled in an even greater extent than did relationship with with Shaftesbury. even greater did extent than relationship Shaftesbury. To an Mahan, they they reintroduced reintroduced and certain aspects of mercantilist and adapted of mercantilist Mahan, adapted certain aspects thought into into American development. later years, their approach In later thought development. In years, their approach Lord Keynes. But Keynes Keynes merged with that of the British economist with that the of British economist merged Keynes. But so the himself was avowedly influenced by the mercantilists, and influenced himself the and so the mercantilists, avowedly by heritage was reinforced once more, albeit in a more sophisticated was reinforced once albeit a in more more, heritage sophisticated manner. manner. Like the the Christian many other other Progressives were ininLike Christian Capitalists, Capitalists, many Progressives were clined to to break break into into aa rousing rousing chorus chorus of of "Onward Christian Soldiers" Christian Soldiers" clined at of outrage outrage or or elation. tiny group group followed tradition the tradition at moments of elation. A tiny followed the back to its early emphasis on social property; led by Walter RauschRauschto its on led back social Walter early emphasis by property; the Social Order (I912) applied that enbusch, whose the Social whose Christianizing enbusch, (1912) applied that Christianizing at society, they attacked the corporation system doctrine to to industrial industrial society, doctrine attacked the they corporation system at its very roots. trust the the Bible," Rauschenbusch concluded concluded its very roots. "If "If we can Rauschenbusch can trust Bible," as early capitalism, its as 190'], its methods, is against as methods, spirit spirit and 1907, "God is against capitalism, early as results." But though they influenced some individuals, they never results." But though they influenced individuals, they never rethreatened to Gospel. The great to socialize socialize the the Social Social Gospel. threatened majority regreat majority to private private property and accepted features of of mained loyal the basic basic features mained loyal to accepted the property and the corporation order. the corporation order. So, the leaders labor movement like like Gompers did the leaders of of the the labor So, too, too, did Gompers and economists. the John R. school of labor historians and economists. historians R. of labor school the Commons John even While often developed cautiously cautiously and and conservatively even within the the within often developed While conservatively or feeble or as feeble as school's their approach never was never their school's own assumptions, approach assumptions, weakirrelevant its critics critics have have charged. The A.F. of L.'s of L.'s gravest A.R as its irrelevant as gravest charged. ness was was in to apply apply its functional and syndicalist in refusing its own functional ness syndicalist logic logic refusing to in thoroughgoing manner manner and organize organize unskilled unskilled workers. workers. But a thoroughgoing in a offered by given its the competition offered by Debs its organizational difficulties, given organizational difficulties, the competition tie of the the great strength of the corcorand the the socialists (and the the I. I. W. W.), and socialists (and W.), great strength of attitude of many porations, and the skeptical and even antagonistic attitude and even the and many antagonistic porations, skeptical .
.
.
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members of Progressive Movement, and Commons of the the Progressive members Movement, Gompers Gompers and accomplished a great deal. Having accepted the system, labor had had the a deal. system, labor accomplished great Having accepted econlogically to organize its own segment of the syndicalist political the to of econits syndicalist political logically organize segment omy could exert exert much effective pressure to to be be accepted as a before it it could effective pressure a omy before accepted as in good standing. Gompers and Commons were full member and were far far full in good standing. Gompers more astute than the the muckrakers muckrakers and far more realistic realistic than than many many and far astute than more of the reformers embraced environmental Darwinism. Gompers environmental Darwinism. reformers who embraced of the Gompers was hard hard at work changing changing the the environment environment whereas whereas they they tried, tried, at work was it from the outside. rather illogically, to regulate the to from outside. it rather regulate illogically, JOHN DEWEY AND THE ROLE OF PRAGMATISM IN THE JOHN
ADAPTATION TO CORPORATION CAPITALISM
As such review of of their their principal principal ideas ideas may may have have a review such a of some some of As suggested, several factors help to explain the propensity of the rankthe of the rankto several factors explain propensity suggested, help to and-file Progressives to roll roll with with the Their commitment commitment to and-file the system. system. Their Progressives to private property, and the difficulty of organizing and applying presthe and of difficulty organizing private property, applying presthe sure through reinforced the sure the Consumers Consumers League such groups as the League reinforced through such groups as By 1910-1912, however, the limited nature of of most most of of their the limited nature their proposals. proposals. By 1910-1912, however, Progressives were adopting aa philosophy philosophy that that provided provided aa positive positive were adopting Progressives defense their restricted, restricted, ad approach. Probably Probably the the single most defense for hoc approach. for their ad hoc single most 1910 powerful influence on the Progressive between the between Movement and influence Progressive 1910 and powerful 1940, and hence upon American society itself, was the relativistic the hence was relativistic American society itself, 1940, upon pragmatism and and instrumentalism instrumentalism developed developed by by John Dewey. John Dewey. pragmatism Perhaps the most cheerfully eclectic thinker ever to be taken taken the most eclectic ever to be thinker Perhaps cheerfully as a philosopher, Dewey borrowed from Emersonian transseriously a as from borrowed transEmersonian seriously philosopher, Dewey cendentalism, Darwinism, Marxian socialism, funcsocialism, funccendentalism, evolutionary evolutionary Darwinism, tionalism, and Christian Capitalism with a fine and even exciting Christian Capitalism with a fine and even exciting tionalism, disregard of logic logic and consequences. Given such and such an approach consequences. Given disregard of approach and it is hardly surprising that he he has has upon occasion been been technique, it is hardly technique, surprising that upon occasion America praised or that happened happened in or damned for for almost in America almost everything praised everything that after the publication publication of his first pamphlet on education at the the turn turn of after the of his first pamphlet of education at the is some validity in defending on the the the century. there is century. Though Though there defending him on validity in grounds that his his followers followers misunderstood and hence hence distorted distorted his his misunderstood and grounds that their behalf. There is thought, the the followers followers deserve deserve a a word in in their behalf. There is a a thought, truth in the old to write write clearly one must fundamental truth fundamental in the old cliche cliche that that to one must clearly think task in in think clearly, hence they they faced faced an an extremely difficult task clearly, and hence extremely difficult deciphering precisely what Dewey did mean. His writings are filled what did mean. are filled His Dewey deciphering precisely writings with with conflicting judgments and recommendations recommendations conflicting and contradictory contradictory judgments that are nowhere resolved. that are resolved. After one particularly particularly crucial paragraph After one crucial paragraph
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which is none the very, very murky, Dewey Dewey admits less very, the less is none which admits candidly: very murky, candidly: is a vague statement." But he makes no attempt clarify "This a is statement." But he "This makes no attempt to to clarify vague the presentation. the presentation. well as the more philosThis as the as well more fundamental This aspect, of his his philosfundamental nature, nature, of aspect, as was onc;e caught by one of his followers in the revealing reophy ophy was once caught by one of his followers in the revealing remark that that Dewey's pragmatism was was "Calvinism mark "Calvinism on on the the frontier." frontier." Dewey's pragmatism While his his attempt break through through traditional and reconcile to break While traditional forms reconcile forms and attempt to is the measure of Dewey's greatness greatness and those two on life life is two outlooks outlooks on the measure those of Dewey's and influence, the of the the objective. the results fell considerably results fell For in in influence, considerably shy shy of objective. For any his concern attack the of to attack the old concern to old outlooks outlooks he he denied of denied the the validity his any validity formal, rigorous definition definition of order. Asserting Asserting that that «the a desirable of a desirable order. "the formal, rigorous was willing to do what hypothesis that works is true one," he that is the works the true he was to do what one/' hypothesis willing seemed best best at any particular particular time rest to to fate, fate, fortune, at any time and and "trust seemed "trust the the rest fortune, or or providence." providence." Despite all Dewey's concern concern with becoming-with growth, as he all Dewey's with becoming with growth, as he Despite put it time and time again-he was weak on what growth really it time and time he was weak on what put again growth really was demanded. demanded. Perhaps his amounted to when aa rigorous rigorous answer amounted to answer was Perhaps his greatest contributions were in opening out the education of the contributions were in out of the the education greatest opening child, and in stressing the idea that the order was intrinsically and in child, stressing the idea that the new order was intrinsically was a society rather than a conglomeration of individuals. But there was a a rather than of But there individuals. society conglomeration considerably more of the frontier than of Calvinism in his ideas on the of frontier on than of his ideas Calvinism in considerably transferred the romantic view of the adult to both those those issues. issues. He transferred both of the adult to the romantic view the child, for example, and thereby provided an exceedingly unfor and unthe child, example, thereby provided an exceedingly democratic of human relationships. by taking the definition of democratic definition For by relationships. For taking the child very largely at its valuation, Dewey often child very its own valuation, and often largely at Dewey implicitly, implicitly, and explicitly, discounted the adult. explicitly, discounted the adult. Granted that that adult control of the .child ~hild has has aa propensity to become become adult control of the Granted propensity to confinement, and granted Dewey was was everlastingly justified in in that Dewey confinement, everlastingly justified granted that it nevertheless nevertheless is is true that trying to to check that tendency, tendency, it true that limit that check and limit trying is to to make the the child child more more to accept the child's judgment of to of himself himself is child's judgment accept the as as is just as important important than the adult. But the present the adult. But the is just than important as present important the future. At most, the in equity, as important as the the future. At die child child is is as most, and in important as equity, the respects, the the adult imporadult. But no more. more. And in many respects, adult is is more imporadult. But no in many tant for the simple reason that he has responsibility for the present. the for tant he reason that has for the responsibility present. simple ways to to aa Indeed, Dewey's Dewey's emphasis emphasis on amounts in in many on children children amounts Indeed, many ways of the escape the the hard realities the frontier that that enables enables the the adult adult to to escape realities of frontier by living in the child's future. present the child's in future. present by living As for his definition of the the "newer and "newer morale" morale" and definition of As for industrial industrial society, society, his its praise of the "ethics" the corporation. fulsome in in its of "ethics" was was somewhat fulsome corporation. praise
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"Wherever business in the modern modern sense has gone," he judged, judged, "the "the in the sense has Wherever business gone/' he tendency has been to transfer power from land to financial capital. to land financial from transfer has been to capital ... power tendency The change in the political center of gravity has resulted in emanresulted emanof has center in in the gravity change political class and custom and in cipating the individual from bonds of and class and custom in of cipating the individual from bonds producing a political organization which depends less upon superior less which upon superior depends producing a political organization he never never ofauthority and more upon voluntary choice." And since ofsince he authority and more upon voluntary choice." fered a City of Pragmatism, Dewey's future was at best no more at best fered a City of Pragmatism, Dewey's future the present." Beyond than «the of the desirable in the the desirable in of than "the projection Beyond limiting present" limiting projection its advocates the rectification rectification and difficulties, of present and adjustment to the its advocates to present difficulties, adjustment of this would would seem to be be for for aa philosopher philosopher aa significant significant failure failure of of social social this seem to imagination. imagination. bePersistently failing to define any standard for for discriminating Persistently failing to define any standard discriminating between subjective desire and objective desirability, Dewey had no and had no tween desire objective desirability, Dewey subjective alternative undefined concept of growth and what he called he called alternative but but the the undefined concept of growth the open frontier." His rather pathetic efforts to define the the "perpetual "perpetual open frontier/' His rather pathetic efforts to define the rational problem-solving, problem-solving, and thereby escape scientific method as and thereby as rational scientific method escape as the remark that the dilemma, led him into such wild conclusions wild conclusions into such as the remark that the led him dilemma, "science upon opinion." opinion." Dewey Dewey might might far far more fruitfully have have "science rests rests upon fruitfully explored extended his his idea borrowed from Marx) idea (probably and extended from Marx) explored and (probably borrowed that aa mixture intellectual and manual work work produced a whole and manual of intellectual whole a that mixture of produced values was was strong as well as of human and social social values as as man whose whose sense sense of well strong balanced. balanced. to all and without without But his his concept concept of of growth all things But all men, means all men, and things to growth means any more than the accomplishments of the business community than of business or the the any accomplishments community or it, such aa the opportunities opportunities of of aa "perpetual open frontier" to guide the frontier" to such "perpetual open guide it, to meaning that the new order standard down in the end standard comes in the to meaning that the order comes never being being forced confront itcan be can be kept free only forced to itto confront by never only by kept open open and free self directly rigorously. And in that sense, relativist self in that sense, Dewey's directly and rigorously. Dewey's relativist to do with the distortions pragmatism had much to with the distortions of of Sigmund Freud's pragmatism Sigmund Freud's America. For For Freud's objective was was to to know the the irradoctrines doctrines in in America. Freud's objective irrabut Dewey's Dewey's approach approach tional in in order to discipline discipline and and control it, but tional order to control it, led to led to knowing irrational in order to it. in order the irrational to adjust to it. knowing the adjust to A philosophy is like the sky the stars. stars. philosophy without without aa Utopia like the without the Utopia is sky without It is is very inspiring until It dark. Randolph Randolph Bourne, Bourne, aa left-wing left-wing it gets very inspiring until it gets dark. Progressive originally attracted to to Dewey's Dewey's approach, raised that that Progressive originally attracted approach, raised issue a dramatic at the America's entry into World issue in way at in a the time dramatic way time of of America's into entry War I. I. He argued that Dewey, despite his great humanitarianism, if Dewey, argued that if despite his great humanitarianism, could that course could justify justify that course by pragmatism, then then anyone justify could justify by pragmatism, anyone could It offered no benchmarks of judgment. anything by the same logic. the offered no It of benchmarks anything by logic. judgment.
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Hence it was at at best best an an amoral not actually unmoral philosophy, it was amoral if if not actually unmoral philosophy, by the traditional anti-inteland was further and deeply deeply permeated further and permeated by the traditional anti-intellectualism of the frontier. the of frontier. lectualism Despite its positive features, of Dewey's Dewey's philosophy made its positive the critics critics of features, the Despite philosophy made aa fundamental point: whatever Dewey's personal history, his philosfundamental point: whatever Dewey's personal history, his philosophy of pragmatism provided provided in of relativist relativist pragmatism in its its general impact an ophy general impact an encouragement for ameliorative adjustment adjustment to to things-as-they-are. for ameliorative encouragement things-as-they-are. was thus thus strengthened as aa standard judging External success success was External standard for for judging strengthened as intrinsic value. value. And as as Dewey Dewey himself himself implied implied rather rather clearly, clearly, trusttrustintrinsic ing the providence" meant meant under under the the circir"to fate, the rest rest "to or providence" fate, fortune, fortune, or ing cumstances of 20th-century trusting it to the the cumstances of America trusting it largely to 20th-century America largely corporation. corporation. Supreme Wendell Holmes Holmes probably probably did Court Justice did as as Oliver Wendell Justice Oliver Supreme Court with pragmatism pragmatism as is possible possible to to do, but he he very clearly much with it is as it do, but very clearly within the the limits of aa more more basic basic philosophy philosophy of humanemployed it within limits of of humanemployed it istic that also his personal personal preference preference for for istic common law that also controlled controlled his laissez-faire economics. the confidence rather typical economics. Enjoying of laissez-faire confidence rather the typical of Enjoying willing to to relax in his his faith such leaders, Holmes Holmes was faith class-conscious leaders, such class-conscious relax in was willing that, short of aa clear, clear, present, present, and and major major danger, danger, the short of the system that, system would survive reasonable legislation that did not explicitly violate the the survive any reasonable did that not any legislation explicitly violate Constitution. Measuring corporations as well as radicals against that that Constitution. well as as radicals against Measuring corporations yardstick, Holmes left left aa body body of of literate that, and cogent literate and opinions that, cogent opinions yardstick, The Common (1881), offered the together with his study of the Law offered with his of (1881), together study was appropriate basis for American philosopny of the law that an American for an that was basis the law appropriate philosophy of to the the ideal of aa commonwealth. commonwealth. While not aa Progressive in any ideal of to While not any Progressive in formal sense, and most certainly not in many of his personal judghis and of formal sense, most certainly not in many personal judgments on reform reform legislation, legislation, Holmes nevertheless nevertheless provided provided that that ments of a broad-gauged outlook movement with key elements of the kind with key elements of the kind of a broad-gauged outlook it needed. needed. it In aa very very revealing revealing way, way, however, most Progressives Progressives were were more In however, most by the way that lawyer (and (and later later Justice) Justice) Louis Louis D. attracted the way attracted by that lawyer to win Brandeis used used efficiency efficiency as by which which to win approval approval a standard Brandeis as a standard by as for various reforms. reforms. Originating Originating in in the engineering community community as for various the engineering an extension of its nec-scientific and approach, functional approach, an its neo-scientific and inherently extension of inherently functional efficiency was was expanded by men like like Charles Charles R. R. the emphasis the on efficiency emphasis on expanded by Taylor under the general idea of Scientific Management. Taylor himidea of Scientific under the Taylor Management. Taylor general self production as corporation leaders leaders took took his his self worshiped But corporation such. But as such. worshiped production up production ideas (as in rationalizing and speeding ideas and and used used them (as in rationalizing up production speeding and in wages) as maintaining and increasing increasing their their in setting a tool as a tool for for maintaining setting wages)
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profit margins. While While it it opposed the approach in these early forms, opposed the approach in these early forms, to win win. labor adapted the idea and used it as an an argument used it as and the idea labor gradually argument to gradually adapted returns for itself from higher productivity. as early as 1901, as as And returns for itself from higher productivity. early 1901, Theodore Roosevelt's own stress efficiency prompted prompted him to to call call Theodore Roosevelt's stress on on efficiency for handling the tariff problem through "scientific management." "scientific for handling the tariff problem through management." As such examples suggest, efficiency was aa standard that almost standard that As almost such examples suggest, efficiency any group could use. Like the reformers who turned turned Darwinism Darwinism any group could use. Like the reformers around, Brandeis merely merely applied it in in defense defense of of social social legislation. around, Brandeis legislation. applied it respects weaker, in some therefore it some respects and in different and it Women were were different weaker, therefore was inefficient work them them as long or or as as hard hard as as men (Muller as long v. was to work inefficient to (Mutter v. Oregon, the same way, lowering lowering wages wages below a certain certain below a same way, In the Oregon^ 1908). 1908). In was inefficient and harmed the functioning of the systempoint of the and harmed the was inefficient functioning system point hence wage wage legislation was necessary and and legal legal (Stettler v. O'Hara, hence O'Hara, (Stettler v. legislation was necessary 1917). Brandeis had a strong moral sense, and was deeply humana was moral Brandeis had sense, deeply human1917). strong itarian, but he he nevertheless nevertheless relied relied upon upon the the logic logic of to win win of efficiency itarian, but efficiency to his reform battles. He did in dealing dealing with with the the problem problem of did the same in his the same reform battles. of less of a laissez-fake thinker than he regulating corporations. Far laissez-faire less of a thinker he Far than regulating corporations. be, Brandeis Brandeis was primarily concerned to judge judge often appeared was primarily concerned to often to be, appeared to by the benchmark of efficiency. But as he the size of corporations the of size of But as he the benchmark efficiency. corporations by and corporation spokesmen were quite and other other reformers were reformers discovered, discovered, corporation spokesmen quite capable of winning an those terms. terms. of winning an argument on those argument on capable profit margins.
THE PROGRESSIVES TURN BACK TOWARD THE FRONTIER THESIS
Although it of defeat, defeat, or many it suffered suffered that kind of or stalemate, that kind in many stalemate, in Although in the instances, and certainly did not make any dramatic changes not did the dramatic in instances, certainly any changes War I efforts of the Progressive Movement system, the pre-World the I the of efforts system, pre-World Progressive it extended extended did gains. Especially at the did effect effect several several gains. the local local level, level, it Especially at popular government, established some checks on the more blatant checks on the more blatant popular government, established of corruption, kinds of and reinvigorated reinvigorated and and increased various kinds kinds kinds increased various corruption, and also helped helped of individual welfare programs. of individual and social social welfare Its reformers reformers also programs. Its a way way to rationalize rationalize the the political political economy the large large corporation to of the in a economy of corporation in ironic in in view view of their emphasis emphasis on on equity and morality, that was ironic that of their and morality, and equity a way in a that interest-corporation in interest-corporation leaders were very very slow to acknowlacknowlleaders were slow to way that edge. Many leaders opposed opposed the such corporation the reformers reformers despite edge. Many such corporation leaders despite that many the fact that many of of the the reforms, undertaken in of hostility the fact in a spirit of reforms, undertaken spirit hostility and to remove remove inequities, inequities, actually actually had little little effect effect and righteousness righteousness to the moral flaws but but did the functioning of the existing on the moral flaws did improve the of the improve existing functioning system. system. Many reformers reformers approached conservation, for largely for example, Many approached conservation, example, largely
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in terms and moral moral values. values. But But Roosevelt Roosevelt of emotional, terms of in emotional, aesthetic, aesthetic, and and the sophisticated corporation leaders who played a large the more and sophisticated corporation leaders played a large part in initiating the program supported it for rather different reathe in initiating program supported it for rather different reapart sons. Roosevelt remarked, remarked, "conservation means development "conservation means sons. As Roosevelt as development as it does protection." Some agrarian groups much as as it does protection." that supported agrarian groups that supported bitterly as as did did other Progressive Progressive reforms reforms fought conservation just just as other as bitterly fought conservation industry. Both wanted the land and interest-conscious operators in industry. Both wanted interest-conscious and the land operators in The same same kind kind of of paradoxical paradoxical resources for for immediate immediate exploitation. resources exploitation. and to establish Departand complex Roosevelt to establish the the Departalignments helped complex alignments helped Roosevelt ment of Labor with with aa special Bureau of Corporaof Commerce and Labor ment of Corporaspecial Bureau also emerged from tions to to keep keep watch watch on the the giants. giants. Efficiency tions Efficiency also emerged from the morality motivated many of the votes for Act that motivated the votes for the the the Elkins Elkins Act morality that many of (1903), and for the Hepburn Act of 1906, which inagainst rebates rebates for the Act inof which (1903), against Hepburn 1906, creased the power of Commerce Commission and the power of the the Interstate Interstate Commerce Commission and creased extended over pipe other modes of transportransporits authority lines and and other extended its modes of authority over pipe lines tation. tation. The evidence the reformers the existing evidence suggests that the reformers improved suggests that improved the existing system by making it work better than by changing it in in any any more it better than by making by changing it system significant ways. corporation remained dominant, and the The remained and the dominant, corporation significant ways. Progressives did very little to strengthen even the relative position did little to of the relative even very strengthen position of Progressives In an important sense, therefore, the greatest labor or In the or agriculture. an labor agriculture. important sense, therefore, greatest Moveaccomplishment of of the the early of the the Progressive Progressive Movereform drive drive of early reform accomplishment ment was its educational Americans became became more conscious conscious in its educational effect. effect Americans was in ment of learned something about its nature and weaknesses, its nature and weaknesses, of the the system, something about system, learned it could be improved, and began to think more explicitly about it about how could be to think more and began improved, explicitly operated, and controlled. Along with the intellectuals who followed the followed with intellectuals operated, and controlled. Along one or another variant of the Christian Capitalism that evolved out the that Christian Capitalism evolved out one or another variant of of the new economics and the convergence of science and religion the convergence of science economics of the religion in Darwinism, the the group of Progressives Progressives that gained that gained environmental Darwinism, in environmental group of the most the more sophisticated leaders of the was composed the most was corporation leaders sophisticated corporation composed of social dangers dangers began to recognize the the practical practical limitations limitations and social to recognize who began of an interest-conscious interest-conscious approach. of an approach. the ProThis was of crucial importance, without the the gentry Profor without of crucial This was gentry the importance, for such gressive coalition did not prove to be very dynamic until such be until to not did coalition very dynamic prove gressive of leadership. corporation positions of leadership. Theodore gained positions spokesmen gained corporation spokesmen of 1907 and 1910 piece of Roosevelt outlined between outlined not only Roosevelt not every piece 1910 every 1907 only I before World was passed before WorId War I and Progressive legislation that that was passed Progressive legislation federal as federal of his most that that came afterward, but but some of his ideas, most came afterward, ideas, such as control corporation prices prices in peace, have never been been in time time of of peace, of corporation control of
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He also accomplished most most of of his his victories before the the rerevictories before also accomplished formers organized as working first with first with force. By were organized an effective effective force. formers were as an By working the more broad-gauged corporation Morgan, and and like Hanna, the more broad-gauged Hanna, Morgan, corporation men like Perkins, and then with the influence he could win by appeals to the to the could win influence he Perkins, and then with the by appeals public, and through tough, shrewd deals with interest-conscious with interest-conscious deals public, and through tough, shrewd politicians like House Leader Joseph G. Cannon, Roosevelt manpoliticians like House Leader Joseph G. Cannon, Roosevelt managed of the economy during the the stabilizing as the such triumphs stabilizing of the economy during the aged such triumphs as I907 and and the the passage passage of of the Panic of Act. the Hepburn Panic of 1907 Hepburn Act. Granting those achievements, achievements, and and the the relative relative sophistication of sophistication of Granting those his conception of the the political political economy, underlying weakness weakness of of the underlying his economy, the conception of even outlook became became very very apparent apparent by the time time he he left left even Roosevelt's Roosevelt's outlook by the coal strike of 1902, I902, for example, the the the White White House. the famous for example, strike of the famous coal House. In In the lack positive, creative philosophy forced to threaten him to threaten forced creative lack of of any philosophy any positive, nationalization of of the the mines* mines. While no doubt doubt effective as an oceffective as an ocWhile no nationalization casional threat, or or even proposal in declining case of of declining the case in the even as a serious casional threat, as a serious proposal the way way of industries, that that kind kind of offered nothing nothing in in the a of a of approach industries, approach offered was the long-range, routine way of co-ordinating the system. the Nor of was the routine system. co-ordinating way long-range, settlement itself itself anything more than than an an evasion entire issue of the the entire evasion of issue settlement anything more that set precedent for the entire Movement. It was for the entire Progressive Movement. that a precedent It was set a Progressive the kind of syndicalist and inflationary-expansionist solution that the solution that kind of and syndicalist inflationary-expansionist per cent raise in has now become become traditional: traditional: the got aa IO 10 per the miners cent raise has miners got in wages, the operators increased their prices IO per cent, and the con10 the the increased their conwages, prices per cent, operators sumer percent for the privilege privilege of again buying buying coal. of again coal. Two sumer paid for the 10 percent paid IO syndicalist units of the political economy simply divided more on divided of the units more on syndicalist political economy simply the same basis instead of working working out a more more equitable and dynamic the and same basis instead of out a equitable dynamic settlement. settlement. Though of an an interest-conscious interest-conscious outlook, he entertained entertained far far more more of outlook, Though he and was in any event a lazy man not much given to thought, thought, PresiPresiand was in any event a lazy not given to dent dent William nevertheless had had aa rough Taft nevertheless William Howard Taft into rough insight insight into the dangers in the the way way that that Roosevelt's noblesse oblige turned the feudal noblesse Roosevelt's feudal oblige turned dangers in into to an an into aa nationalistic, nationalistic, conservative conservative syndicalism syndicalism when applied applied to industrial society. the imagery the Square Deal suggested, industrial of the it society. As the imagery of suggested, it Square Deal was no no more more than than aa promise promise that each interest get an an honest honest was that each interest would get each time was card time around. part of of the card each around. Not even even that the commitment was that part it was fulfilled, was not not even that the cards would be equal. even implied would be that the cards fulfilled, and it implied equal. Nor could the rules could they they be, be, given rules of of capitalism the nature of the the nature of or the given the capitalism or corporation economy. corporation economy. by the the implications implications of what he he mistakenly mistakenly termed termed RooseWorried by Worried of what Roosevelt's "tendency to socialism"-it was really a rather rudimentary to velt's it was socialism" a rather "tendency rudimentary really
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approach to to state safer with state capitalism-Taft felt safer with a a straightforward capitalism Taft felt approach straightforward interest-conscious strategy. His great enemy was the railroad, railroad, and His interest-conscious strategy. and great enemy was the the Mann-Elkins act of 1910 strengthened the Hepburn Act by by Mann-Elkins act of the 1910 strengthened the Hepburn Act further extending the power of the Interstate Commerce Commisfurther extending the power of the Interstate Commerce Commission. a corporation income tax, enalso favored favored a sion. He also and initially tax, and corporation income initially encouraged the reformers in their attack on Cannon's autocratic control couraged the reformers in their attack on Cannon's autocratic control of the the House House of of Representatives. But his his real real answer the problems problems of answer to to the Representatives. But of the system was overseas overseas economic expansion. He offered the of the economic expansion. offered the system was argument, by then standard, an extension that such such an of the market extension of the market standard, that by then argument, place would provide provide prosperity, prosperity, and added that that it would do do so and added it would so place without Roosevelt's domestic policies. policies. Hence Hence he he vigorvigorRoosevelt's dangerous without dangerous domestic ously pushed pushed aa policy policy of of "active our mermer"active intervention to secure for our intervention to secure for ously chandise our capitalists opportunity for profitable investment." chandise and our for investment." capitalists opportunity profitable In ironi~ way, way, therefore, therefore, both both Taft that ironic In that the conservative and Taft the conservative and Roosevdt the the Progressive fell back on nationalism and overseas fell back and Roosevelt on overseas nationalism Progressive economic expansion as the ideas that that would would unify or sustain sustain the only economic only ideas expansion as unify or the system. So, too, did Wilson, though at the time of did of the Woodrow at time the Wilson, though system. So, too, his rapid rapid rise to the Presidency he he seemed to offer else. rise to the Presidency else. his seemed to offer something something That impression, which has good many many later has influenced a good That later commeninfluenced a commenimpression, which tators just just as it did many Progressives at the time, derived from the as it tators did many the from the at derived time, Progressives fact that that Wilson was the only) representative of the the first first (and of the fact Wilson was (and only) representative intellectual of the Moveand Christian Christian Capitalist the Progressive intellectual and wings of Capitalist wings Progressive Movement to to win win top top political political leadership. As might be expected, one of of be one ment As might leadership. expected, the major dements in that triumph was Wilson's very strong drive in that drive elements the major triumph was Wilson's very strong for personal personal power. power. "1 he wrote in his his early early "I should be complete," wrote in should be for complete," he years, "if I could inspire a great movement of opinion." And in his his I a in could inspire of opinion.'* great years, "if intimate conversations with Frederick Jackson Turner, whose fronintimate conversations with Frederick Jackson Turner, whose frontier thesis of American democracy and prosperity he he accepted accepted wholewholeand prosperity tier American democracy thesis of heartedly, Wilson Wilson talked talked often power of leadership; of of the the of leadership; "of the often "of the power heartedly, untested power the man of literary ability diploof diploof literary in the the field field of of the untested ability in power of macy." As Turner Turner put put it, Wilson "mentioned his ambition to get ambition to "mentioned his it, Wilson get macy." into political life." life." into political perceptive as he was Wilson cultivated three cultivated three was determined, As perceptive as he determined, Wilson sources power that help one any funcfunclacked any one who lacked that would help of such sources of such power of the the traditions with the traditions of the tional base identified with of operations. tional base of operations. He identified and anahe Christian trustee the southern neo-feudal gentry, and he anasouthern neo-feudal trustee and the Christian gentry, lyzed American the conclusion that large business enterenterto the conclusion that American society large business society to lyzed interest. prise was the most powerful interest. Entering politics through a most was the through Entering politics prise powerful forth Wilson very direct alliance with that interest, Wilson then stepped forth that then with alliance direct interest, stepped very
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as the Christian would balance and unify the system as the Christian Capitalist Capitalist who would balance and unify the system according to the true gospel. Wilson was an political leader leader an effective effective political was to the true Wilson according gospel. by virtue of his willingness to strike compromises with the large with the of strike virtue to his large compromises by willingness corporation community and his exceptional ability to dramatize to dramatize his exceptional ability corporation community and highly righteous righteous rhetoric. rhetoric. Yet Yet himself and in highly himself and Christian Christian Capitalism Capitalism in is often forgotten or overlooked that he his first election only it won first election only his it is often forgotten or overlooked that he in the Republican party, and squeaked through in the through aa split split in the Republican party, and squeaked through in the through second by aa very very narrow narrow margin. Actually, Wilson Wilson became became the the second only only by margin. Actually, symbol and after after he he began began to emphasize to emphasize as and of Progressivism only as Progressivism only symbol of foreign policy. foreign policy. Neither Wilson nor nor his offered any his early advisors offered or Neither Wilson ideas or any new ideas early advisors programs. The Federal Trade Commission Act was an old recomAct an old was Commission recomTrade Federal programs. mendation that Wilson got because the had won the reformers for because credit for reformers had mendation that Wilson got credit many states increased their power in Concontrol their increased states and and thereby Concontrol of of many power in thereby gress. Along with Representative Oscar Underwood, the party's Oscar W. the with Underwood, Representative party's gress. Along Wilson and and other cantariff spokesman the 1890s, other Democrats Democrats cantariff since the 18903, Wilson spokesman since didly admitted that their low tariff bill was designed to extend was that low tariff admitted their bill to extend designed didly overseas markets markets more more effectively than the the reciprocity reciprocity approach adoverseas approach adeffectively than Republicans. the conservative, basically interestvocated by the And vocated interestconservative, basically by Republicans. conscious Republican Senator had either himself or or Senator Aldrich Aldrich had either done conscious Republican done himself as the Federal directed the research research that that finally matured of the matured as the directed most most of Federal finally Reserve Act. Reserve Act. Wilson's role role in in securing legislation was was of Wilson's that legislation of course course significant. securing that significant. He checked narrow-minded corporation leaders failed to to the narrow-minded checked the leaders who failed corporation grasp the virtues of such a centralized banking system, and pacified the virtues of a centralized such and grasp pacified banking system, die earlier age, age, the reformers reformers who, like Madison and Calhoun Madison and Calhoun in in an an earlier who, like wanted it it more directly directly controlled by the the government. was in in wanted controlled by It was government. It many respects the single single most piece of of the the most important of legislation many respects the important piece legislation of for it it re-established re-established in in aa more sophisticated effective prewar era, era, for and effective prewar sophisticated and deform the needed institution a national national bank. bank. Wilson form the badly institution of of a Wilson debadly needed serves all credit serves all his part part in the financial basis of the credit for for his in rationalizing financial basis of the rationalizing the political economy. have appointed a But though he could could have of a political economy. But though he appointed men of different background and outlook-a few economists of the Chrisdifferent outlook a few economists of the Chrisbackground tian tian Capitalist the for example-Wilson selected men from from the view, for Capitalist view, example Wilson selected to banking community to direct the powerful central board of the direct the the central board of banking community powerful Federal Reserve Banks. Banks. Federal Reserve As he had spoken in 1912, acted in truth [is] so Wilson acted in 1914: "the truth spoken in 1912, so 1914: "the [is] in the that, in the new order, order, government government and and business business must must be associated." be associated." that, Having successfully the reformers reformers for he to the for election, election, he successfully appealed Having appealed to
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showed little little more sympathy or interest interest in, labor than than he he had had showed for, or in, labor sympathy for, in the the coal strike of Nor was he opposed the the unions unions in he opposed when he coal strike o I902. he Nor was 1902. in favor through government facilities; of assisting favor of farmers through in credit facilities; assisting farmers government credit class legislation. With considerable justification, therethat would be would be class that legislation. With considerable justification, therecounter fore, he even before before the of World World War II to he sought the outbreak outbreak of to counter sought even be particularly particularly the impression he was was against business. "It that he "It would would be the impression that against business. unfair to to the the Democratic Democratic Party Party and he remarked, remarked, and the the Senate Senate itself," unfair itself," he as the big or or little." properly "to it as the enemy "to regard of business, little." Quite business, big Quite properly regard it enemy of I9I4 that anfor Capitalist, Wilson Wilson announced announced in a Christian Christian Capitalist, for a that "the "the anin 1914 tagonism between between business business and and Government is over." over." Government is tagonism Wanting only to improve and the system, and to improve and sustain Wilson and sustain the Wanting only system, Wilson other Progressive leaders that time very seriously upset by other Progressive leaders were were by time that by very seriously upset by that had begun as a financial downturn in I9I3. They the depression in the that had financial as a downturn depression begun 1913. They simply did have any any more about how to to maintain maintain the the did not not have more ideas ideas about simply even successful functioning of the economy. For that even moderately For that successful of the moderately economy. functioning to 1912 I9I2 was was not very exceptional. matter, their up to their record record up Manufacturnot very matter, exceptional. ManufacturlOO in I899 ing production had almost doubled (from to I99 in had 100 in almost doubled 199 in ing production 1899 to (from in I9I3) but real wages had improved over the I890-IB99 average but real the had over wages improved 1890-1899 average in 1913) only three years of that decade. During the winter of I9I4-I9I5, three of winter of that decade. the years only During 1914-1915, I8.3 per per cent of their Massachusetts unions reported reported that their memMassachusetts labor that 18.3 cent of labor unions revealed bers were work; and random check out of of work; bers were out and a a random check in in New York revealed who per cent of II5,960 families had working that 23.7 that members cent of had 237 per 115,960 families working were out work. As for agriculture, commodity prices had been were been out of of work. for agriculture, commodity prices leveling I9I2, and and many depression the depression off since since 1912, farmers feared feared that that the leveling off many farmers would hit hit them next. next. would about the the dedeWilson's was to Wilson's solution maintain official official silence silence about solution was to maintain pression while turning to to aa vigorous program of overseas economic economic of overseas while turning pression vigorous program expansion. Though Though this this is interpreted as as a a drastic often interpreted drastic new aspect is often aspect expansion. of Wilson's leadership, leadership, it was actually the re-emergence of aa of Wilson's it was re-emergence of only the actually only very old, pronounced, and persistent theme in his basic basic outlook. outlook. in his and persistent old, pronounced, very Having accepted thesis about frontier thesis about democracy Turner's frontier democracy and Having accepted Turner's it as Turner Turner was working working it it out, applied it prosperity even even as out, Wilson applied prosperity Atalmost to the problems of the corporation order. Atorder. the new almost literally to the of literally corporation problems to the of the closing closing of tributing the the "tense and difficult" crisis of the I890s of the "tense and difficult" crisis 18905 to tributing he the frontier the ending ending of days of of glad expansion," he the "the days frontier and the of "the glad expansion," defended expansion as impulse" as a a "natural "natural and wholesome impulse" defended further further expansion And he as offering "new frontiers." he and described frontiers." the Philippines described the as offering Philippines but in the same way, but interpreted Washington's Farewell Address in the Farewell Address way, interpreted Washington's less restraint restraint than had men like like John with even even less with than had John Quincy Quincy Adams. fore,
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Washington "would seem to to have meant," Wilson explained in Wilson explained have meant," "would seem in Washington " 1900, " '1 want you to discipline yourselves and . . . be good boys ... be to want 'I good boys 1900, you discipline yourselves until you you ..•. are are big big enough enough ••. abroad in the world.* world.' "" Wilson Wilson in the until to go ... to go abroad clearly thought America was big enough. clearly thought America was big enough. Having warned bankers to prepare for for aa "day of reckoning" to prepare as warned bankers "day of reckoning" as Having early as 1910, and decried "our provincialism" in international fiin international fiearly as 1910, and decried "our provincialism** nance early Wilson then then offered offered aa full-scale to aa nance full-scale analysis in 1912, analysis to 1912, Wilson early in group leaders and presidential the presidential and other other reformers reformers during of labor labor leaders during the group of inevitable consequence," he explained, explained, campaign itself. "Almost "Almost by by inevitable consequence,*' he campaign itself. prosperity "ronsists in the the growth of enterprise enterprise and the growth of the growth of "consists in prosperity growth of is too too small," he continued. continued. commerce." America's America's "domestic "domestic market commerce.'* market is small," he crucial point point in process of "We have a crucial in the the process in shor~ have reached, our of our short, a reached, in It has has become become aa question with us us whether whether it it shall conprosperity. It shall conprosperity. question with .
.
tinue or continue." "If doesn't get bigger foreign tinue "If [America] or shall shall not not continue.' get bigger [America] doesn't foreign will burst burst her her jacket. jacket. There will be this markets, she a congestion she will There will in this be a markets, congestion in 1
country which which will will be more fatal than any fatal economically wider openbe more any wider country economically than openbe." ing of the ports could of be." the could ing ports Wilson's renewed emphasis in in 1914 overseas economic expaneconomic expanWilson's renewed emphasis 1914 on overseas sion policies of and Taft, Taft, as well as as giving sion sustained the policies sustained the of Roosevelt Roosevelt and as well giving to his analyses. That expansion reprepractical meaning earlier analyses. his own earlier practical expansion repremeaning to sented even more obviously obviously the the kind sented even more of consolidation kind of consolidation and co-operaco-operabusiness and the reformers reformers in in tion that that was tion between business and the was developing developing between domestic It also the basic context of America's affairs. It the domestic affairs. also provided basic of context America's provided ultimate involvement I. For For along along with with many many other other in World War I. involvement in ultimate had seen Gerleaders with the problem, Wilson concerned with leaders concerned the problem, in 1912 had Wilson in seen Ger1912 many as the main competitor for economic empire. the for as economic many competitor empire.
IV. Transformation of Reality and of Reality IV. The Transformation and the the Inception of New Ideas Ideas Inception of
is
If the American public public is to educated to to the point of of financing financing the the American to be be educated the point the // of our our materials materials abroad--and foreign trade trade sale of that is is the the question sale abroad and that of foreign question of foreign loans loans-the American Government make some some statestatethe American and foreign must ma\e Government must ment which which will will reassure reassure the public and give give them ment the public the thought the them the thought and the case of of default, default, or or in that the belief in case that in in case case of Govthe Govbelief that of difficulty difficulty •.• that the public and in the international ernment advocate of act as as the ernment will the advocate the will act in the international of public of diplomacy. Willard the House House of (and courts courts of Willard Straight of the of Morgan diplomacy. Morgan (and Straight of formerly of the the Department Department of of State), State), 1914 formerly of 1914 .
.
.
Our prosperity prosperity is is dependent continued. and enlarged foreign on our our continued dependent on enlarged foreign preserve that that we must do do everything everything we can can to custrade. to assist assist our our custrade. To preserve maintain our our prosperity, prosperity, we must finance finance it. tomers to to buy tomers it. OtherOtherbuy... •. To maintain stop and that that would be be disastrous. disastrous. wise it it may wise may stop Secretary of the Treasury William G. G. McAdoo of the Secretary Treasury William to President Wilson, 1915 to President Wilson, 1915 .
. .
We are passing from from aa period period of individualistic action into a are passing action into of extremely extremely individualistic of associational associational activities. Herbert period of activities. Herbert Hoover, Hoover, 1922 period 1922 The participation participation of American corporations development of Latin in the the development of Latin of American corporations in America involves to existing existing trade figures and trade figures America incalculable corrective corrective to involves an incalculable American influence Latin American American implies a distinct distinct and direct direct American in Latin influence in implies a of the the policy policy at personality of of policies. Irrespective Irrespective of at Washington the personality Washington and the policies. statesmen, the operations of such enterprises as the United Fruit Comthe Fruit the operations such as United statesmen, of enterprises several American American oil companies create political pany or or the the several oil companies create independent pany independent political the territories subject to interests in to their their interests in the territories subject
economic operation operation which economic official policy both at Washington both at Washington and in the Latin American American capitals. capitals. The Department Department of of State, in the various various Latin State, 1930 1930 413 413 determine supplement and often often determine supplement
official policy
The American History History The Contours Contours of of American
414 414
Our productitle capacity 25 per per cent cent in in excess of our our ability excess of is 25 to Our productive ability to capacity today today is facts and conditions soon will compel Amerfacts and conditions soon will compel America to that these surpluses arc key economic economic are her her \ey to recognize these ever ever increasing ica recognize that increasing surpluses to develop foreign markets for surpluses problems, and that our neglect and that to our neglect problems, develop foreign markets for surpluses is the cause of unemployment. cause is the one one outstanding of unemployment. outstanding Representative Cordell Hull, January January 3, Cordell Hull, 3, 1929 1929 Representative consume• .•. These glaring . . These glaring consume. .
There things happcnin' this land; in this is mean There is mean things land; happenin' in There things happenin' happcnin' in this land. land. in this is mean mean things There is brags, Oh, rich man boasts boasts and and brags, the rich Oh, the While poor man goes goes in rags, in rags, the poor While the There mean things things happenin' this land. land. . in this is mean There is happenin' in Depression Chant of Negro Chant of Depression Negro Sharecroppers, Sharecroppers, 1934 1934 Boys-this hour. We've got to get everything everything we want--a works to get want a wor\s this is our hour. is our We've got Boys program, social social security, security, wages wages and hours, or never. never. hours, evcrything--now everything now or program, Deal Reformer Harry Harry Hopkins, Hopkins, 1934 New Deal 1934 I see see millions millions of families trying live on on to live 7 of families trying to pall of famt1y disaster day over them day disaster hangs of family hangs over pott a nation nation ill-housed, a ill-housed, With With
incomes so so meager incomes that the the meager that by day • •• • 1/ see sec one-third one-third of of by day. .
.
.
ill-clad, ill-nourished. ill-clad, ill-nourished. President Franklin Franklin Delano Roosevelt, President Roosevelt, 1937 1937
12 millions millions unemployed, unemployed,
unstable. unstable.
we are arc socially socially bankrupt and politically politically bankrupt and Secretary of Commerce Harry Secretary of Harry Hopkins, Hopkins, 1939 1939
We can no longer be sure sure that unemployment is problem apapcan no that unemployment is a a cyclical longer be cyclical problem pearing and disappearing disappearing as as the between depression the economy alternates between pearing economy alternates depression prosperity. Unemployment be an an enduring enduring problem problem arising and prosperity. Unemployment may may be arising of private investment. from a continued diminished volume continued diminished volume investment. from of private
Deal Political Economist New Deal Political Economist John Galbraith, John K. Galbraith,
1940 1940
THE APPLICATION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OPEN DOOR POLICY
THOUGH dramatic ALTHOUGH dramatic and important events that that offer offer obvious obvious landlandimportant events neither the marks, the First First and and Second World Wars nor nor the the marks, neither
A n
Great Depression Depression provide provide wholly wholly satisfactory points of of perspective perspective satisfactory points for understanding understanding and interpreting American history in the 20th the in interpreting history
The Age Age of of Corporation Corporation Capitalism Capitalism
415 415
century. Both Both the the nature nature and direction direction of American thinking of American and century. thinking and development are fully and accurately comprehended within a more are and fully development accurately comprehended within a slightly different framework. Wilson's decisions in domestic erodifferent framework. Wilson's decisions in domestic ecoslightly and the nomic affairs and foreign foreign policy between his affairs and nomic his inauguration policy between inauguration and the represented not only the Progressive Move~ outbreak of the of the war outbreak represented not only the Progressive Movement's adaptation to the the corporation, corporation~ but but also also marked marked the the beginning beginning ment's adaptation to of period of through the of transformation a period transformation that that continued of a continued on on through the Crash Crash of to 1938, the reforming reforming social worker Harry of 1929 social worker 1938, when the 1929 to Harry Hopkins Hopkins was appointed reiterated Wilson's of Commerce and was and reiterated Wilson's argu· Secretary of appointed Secretary argument that would have have to to ~ome future gains that any ment come through overseas any future gains would through overseas econom~c expansion. economic expansion. as domestic are concerned, the era between far as domestic economic As far economic affairs affairs are era between concerned, the of the depression of 1913-1914 and the severe recession of 1937-1938 the the severe of recession 1913-1914 depression 1937-1938 offers revealing unit unit than Depres~ accurate and revealing a far far more accurate than the offers a the Great Great Depression For that that period period was was in reality one coherent cycle itself. For in reality sion itself. one long, coherent cycle long, in which the economy suffered four significant downturns. As with suffered which the in four As with downturns. economy significant the first, so with the last: recovery came only through the boost so with the last: the came the boost first, recovery only through war. During During the the same years, moreover, moreover, provided by by involvement involvement in in war. same years, provided core of leadership the corporation community produced a small a small of the core corporation community produced leadership with extended perceptions that that extended and deepened with economic and and social social perceptions deepened economic as what was in almost every respect a class-con~ ultimately matured as matured what in was a almost class-conultimately every respect scious Herbert Hoover Hoover was key figure of that achieve~ scious gentry. was the the key that achievegentry. Herbert figure of ment, offering economic proposals such as public works as early as economic as ment, offering proposals such as public works as early 1920, and making analyses of the fundamental political and social of the fundamental political and social making analyses 1920, issues that that remain 40 years Working remain illuminating issues later. Working than 40 years later. illuminating more than in their different but converging traditions, other Progressive intel~ in their different but converging traditions, other Progressive intellectuals and philosophic concepts evolved economic lectuals concurrently economic and concurrently evolved philosophic concepts and systems to that leadership, and to the the mature mature that new leadership, and and to appropriate to systems appropriate political economy of the the large large corporation. corporation. economy of political At the the same time, some of elements of of the of the the weaker weaker elements the economy, time, some economy, particularly labor and agriculture, organized effectively and and labor and more agriculture, effectively organized particularly achieved aa rough rough parity parity with corporation that with the the corporation later extended extended that was was later achieved funda~ and consolidated. period, moreover, moreover, the the fundathe same same period, and consolidated. Through Through the mental role role of the government government as of capital capital the accumulator of the as the accumulator of mental institu~ (through taxes) for the corporation economy was gradually the institufor corporation economy gradually (through taxes) to tionalized. And finally, finally, aa firm intellectual and moral firm intellectual moral challenge tionalized. challenge to the frontier and expansionist expansionist ideology of American history, and of frontier and the history, ideology alternate Weltanschauung. as an an alternate policy, was offered as was developed Weltanschauung. developed and offered policy, of the transformation transformation of In sum, into World Wodd War II was part part of of the In sum, entry entry into
416 416
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society that had already begun, whereas involvement in involvement in society that had already begun, whereas
II was was the the first phase oof an an era the World War II for the fulfillment for of fulfillment era of World first phase corporation society. corporation society. In American leaders leaders had had turned turned to to overseas overseas ecoecoIn both both situations, situations, American nomic expansion as the strategy of recovery and future prosperity future and nomic expansion as the strategy of recovery prosperity before the the United involved in as either either the conflicts conflicts as in the States became became involved United States before Neither aa non-fighting non-fighting belligerent belligerent or military protagonist. active military or an an active protagonist. Neither the New Freedom Freedom nor nor the Deal sustained their outbursts outbursts of of sustained their the the New Deal self-contained confidence confidence and maintained the atmosphere the atmosphere elan or or maintained and elan self-contained In of aa commonwealth that characterized them for brief periods. periods. In for brief of characterized them commonwealth that each case, therefore, the system began to to produce produce welfare welfare and aa sense sense each case, therefore, the system began as aa by-product by-product of of warfare. warfare. Neither Neither the of community only as the Progresof Progrescommunity only sives their conservative went to to war war because because they wanted nor their critics went sives nor conservative critics they wanted to. But ideas and and their their interests produced programs and actions actions their ideas interests produced to. But their programs and that led them into into situations in which which war war became became the the only only policy policy that situations in led them that seemed practical-or moral. that or moral. seemed practical This of the practicality of of expansion expansion and practicality the morality This convergence morality and convergence of had, of begun with with the been sustained had the mercantilists, sustained been of course, had, course, begun mercantilists, by Jacksonian Democrats and Lincoln through the 19th century Democrats and Lincoln the through ipth century by Jacksonian Republicans, and had emerged with renewed vigor at the turn of at renewed the of had with turn and vigor emerged Republicans, in keeping with the traditional outlook of the the 20th 20th century. Quite the the in with traditional of the outlook keeping century. Quite diffigentry with his his personal personal estimate of the the opportunities and diffiand with estimate of gentry and opportunities and culties facing the United States, Theodore Roosevelt defined the Theodore defined culties United Roosevelt the the States, facing to establish, maintain, and foreign policy problem in broad terms: in terms: to broad and establish, maintain, foreign policy problem exploit open door door for for the of the the corporation an open the economic economic expansion exploit an expansion of corporation e~onomy. "I regard the Doctrine," he explained in political "I the Monroe in Doctrine," political eponomy. regard explained a classic summary of his policy, "as being equivalent to the open a of his "as the to classic summary policy, being equivalent open door in door in South South America." America." in the the Western Western Hemisphere, Bluntly out the the preserve Bluntly staking preserve in staking out Hemisphere, Latin American nation that count on on Roosevdt told told each Roosevelt each Latin American nation that it it could could count the the "hearty of the United States the United if it it acted States if acted with with "reason"reason"hearty friendship" friendship" of able efficiency and decency and political political matters," and "if able in social social and "if matters," and efficiency and decency in it it keeps keeps order pays its the nations nations behaved, behaved, "prosorder and pays its obligations." If the obligations." If "prosto them." them." If not, then the United would perity is sure to is sure to come to If not, then the United States States would perity intervene: the one to chastise chastise wrongdoing wrongdoing and establish intervene: on the one hand, hand, to and establish minimum conditions for profitable to conditions for profitable enterprise, enterprise, and on the other, to and on the other, other industrial keep other industrial powers powers from weakening weakening America's America's position. position. keep Violating his his own pledge pledge against he took took territorial intervention, Violating intervention, he against territorial the as brazen brazen aa bit bit of of imperial imperial the Panama Canal Zone from Colombia Colombia in in as
The Age Age of of Corporation Corporation Capitalism Capitalism
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land-grabbing as is recorded in modern history. history. Given the strategy of is recorded in modern Given the land-grabbing as strategy of the Open Policy, the act could of course be justified. In view Door the act of could the Open course be justified. In view Policy, of the bitter bitter competition competition for the United United States could wait wait for empire, of the States could empire, the no longer for rapid commercial and military transit to and from for no longer rapid commercial and military transit to and from Asia. Asia. the want want of kept Roosevelt Roosevelt from being But was not not the it was of a a canal canal that But it that kept from being effective in Asia. America lacked the relative relative predominance predominance of of power power in Asia. lacked the effective it the Western Western Hemisphere, Hemisphere, and and was belatedly invading in the was belatedly it enjoyed enjoyed in invading an claimed by by other powers. Thus area already other powers. full commitment an area Thus aa full commitment already claimed for major push push into into China implied war war with with Japan, Japan, and and perhaps perhaps China implied a major for a as a way to to with others. But the the Open Open Door Policy was conceived others. But a with was conceived as way Policy to win the battle without war, and had he he decided economic battle the economic a war, even had without a decided to win and even use force as well well as talk about Roosevelt knew that that it would be be force as about it, as talk use it would it, Roosevelt very difficult, not impossible, to obtain the necessary necessary public pUblic supif not obtain the difficult, if impossible, to very supwas too fresh aa port at that time. For the "splendid little war" time. at that For the was fresh war" little too "splendid port memory, and the public had the victory-without-war victory-without-war logic the public had accepted memory, accepted the logic of Door Policy. the Open of the Open Policy. to work with with the the Russians, Russians, probably probably Another alternative alternative was to Another of Siberia as well as of China. Encoursharing in the development in the of of Siberia well Encouras as China. development sharing as protection against aged by the Russians, saw such an entente the who such an as entente Russians, aged by protection against Japan, a group of railroad leaders and other businessmen headed by a of railroad headed and other businessmen leaders Japan, group by J. had tried to swing McKinley to this plan in the James McCook had tried to in the to this James J. plan swing McKinley 1890s. timet Roosevelt Roosevelt seemed to agree. agree. But Standard Oil that time^ Standard Oil seemed to iSgos. At that opposed the move, and Morgan was very cautious, preferring his opposed the move, Morgan was very cautious, preferring his by 1903 Roosevelt and Hay had traditional ties with England. England. And by ties with traditional Hay had 1903 Roosevelt to supsupthemselves become strongly Their strategy anti-Russian. Their themselves strategy was to strongly anti-Russian. port Japan the weaker power) in the thought thought that that the the weaker power) in the port Japan (ostensibly (ostensibly the a stalemate stalemate between between Tokyo result would would be St. Petersburg. be a result Petersburg. Tokyo and St. They argued this would would enable America to to consolidate enable America consolidate and that this They argued that very strong-if not predominant-position extended extended its its then then (1903) predominant position strong if not (1903) very in and commerce of in the the trade trade and of Manchuria. Manchuria. rosy prospect. prospect. Japan's subsequent victory over Russia Russia ended ended that that rosy over Japan's subsequent victory Tokyo pushed American corporations and traders out of Northeastout of Northeastand traders American Tokyo pushed corporations of firmly closed the open the advice advice of ern Asia Asia and firmly door. Spurning ern closed die Spurning the open door. Rooseofficials recommended a favorable response, Roose. several a favorable several high officials who response, high the took he velt ignored new Russian overtures. Instead, he took the only vclt overtures. Russian Instead, only ignored remaining alternative. alternative. Accepting Accepting Japan's Japan's predominant predominant position position in in remaining Eastern a Far Far Eastern policy Manchuria, he launched the United States on a on he the United States launched Manchuria, policy the Open until Pearl Re-emphasizing the that it Harbor. Re-emphasizing it was to to follow Pearl Harbor. that follow until Open ,
418 418
The oj American American History History Contours of The Contours
Door Policy, Policy, and chose at America chose at in China, commitment in and its its own commitment Door China, America the same time to gain what direct and indirect benefits it could the same time to gain what direct and indirect benefits it could through economic ties with with Japan, Japan, including projects on on economic ties Tokyo's projects including Tokyo's through the mainland. mainland. Coupled Coupled with political and and military pressure, as as in in the with political military pressure, in Roosevelt's dispatch of the Great White Fleet to in 1907, the the to Japan Fleet White Great of the Roosevelt's 1907, Japan dispatch United States that such economic ties would enable it to enable it to United States anticipated anticipated that such economic ties control Japan's penetration of of control Japan's penetration
China proper. proper. China concerned himself with aa certain certain kind of reform reform in Roosevelt kind of in himself with Roosevelt also also concerned the underdeveloped countries into which America's expansion was America's into which was the underdeveloped countries expansion directed. As in his manifestoes manifestoes to to Latin America, this this approach was Latin America, in his directed. As approach was revealed very clearly in in his in the between the scramble scramble between intervention in his intervention revealed very clearly France, England, England, and African colonies spheres colonies and spheres for African and Germany France, Germany for of influence. Determined to obtain "an share in whatever share in "an equal whatever of to obtain influence. Determined equal priveleges of residence, trade, and protection" were given up by by the the given up priveleges of residence, trade, and protection" Moroccan Empire, Roosevelt and Secretary of State Elihu Root also Elihu State of Root also and Moroccan Roosevelt Secretary Empire, exerted strong pressure for changes. They "far~ wanted "farinternal changes. for internal exerted They wanted strong pressure reaching reform" that would guarantee "security of life and prop~ of life and would reform" that propguarantee "security reaching erty; of opportunities with all natives [regardless all natives for trade trade with erty; equality [regardless equality of opportunities for .•. orderly and certain certain administration of imim~ of religion administration of of or class] orderly and religion or class] partial justice; justice; rigorous rigorous punishment of crimes crimes against persons and and against persons partial punishment of property ... and and the the power power to repress subversive subversive disorder and prepre~ disorder and to repress property serve public peace." peace." They demanded, in short, reforms that would in serve the the public that would reforms short, They demanded, to create such the door, door, being being open, lead to create shall lead such conditions conditions "that "that the open, shall something; that the outside world shall benefit by assured oppor~ that the outside world shall benefit assured something; by opportunities, and that that the the Moroccan Moroccan people people shall be made in in aa measure fit shall be measure fit tunities, and able to profit profit by by the the advantages" of the new relationship with and able to advantages" of the relationship with the United United States industrial powers. powers. the States and other other industrial President Taft President Taft sustained that policy, policy, as Latin America, America, and and in in sustained that as in in Latin Ameri~ his personal personal pressure pressure on on the Prince Regent Regent of of China win Amerihis the Prince China to to win can participation in a large multi-nation loan. But Taft encountered can participation in a Taft encountered loan. But large multi-nation aa fundamental (and ironic) difficulty: America needed at least one one America needed at least (and ironic) difficulty: at major reform at before it could exploit the Open Door Policy reform home before could it the major Open Policy exploit that it had embraced. embraced. It that it It was was simply an unhappy unhappy but undeniable fact fact but undeniable simply an that, though overseas investments had jumped from $700 million overseas investments that, though jumped from $700 million in 1897 to S3-5 in 1914, , in billion in the corporation political economy economy 1897 to $3.5 billion 1914, the corporation political the capital needed to to finance the could not not itself itself accumulate accumulate all all the it needed finance the capital it that were considered considered vital exports that peace. vital to to prosperity and social social exports prosperity peace. crises as the Panic Panic of as the Harriman's grandiose grandiose Such crises of 1907, which aborted aborted Harriman's 1907, which .
.
.
.
.
.
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plan to collaborate with the Russians in Asia, effectively dramatized plan to collaborate with the Russians in Asia, effectively dramatized the problem. problem. the So to Harriman Willard Straight, did Willard So did served as an advisor as an advisor to Harriman Straight, who served as the State Department before before shiftshifta similar as filling similar role well as role in in the State Department as well filling a ing over to the House of Morgan after Harriman's death in I909. to the over of after death Harriman's in Morgan ing 1909. As aa close what he he called called former former Secretary of State Sewclose student of what student of As of State SewSecretary ard's words" about understood that that about expansion, ard's "prophetic "prophetic words" expansion, Straight Straight understood the government had to help accumulate the capital as well as protect to had the government help accumulate the capital as well as protect the investment the public public had had to to be be "educated" investment itself. itself. As he he put the "educated" it, the put it, concerning its vital role role in corporation exports. Taft was was in financing its vital concerning financing corporation exports. Taft willing to supply such aid in the form of an official of to such aid in the of form an official endorsement endorsement of willing supply the China loan. But But his his defeat Wilson, followed by the onset of China loan. defeat by the of the followed onset Wilson, by by I9I3, reopened reopened and and intensified problem. the depression in 1913, the intensified the the problem. depression in In that has has often often been misunderstood, Wilson Wilson refused refused the the a move that been misunderstood, In a request of the bankers for a and public display of support. a of bankers for the and new of The request public display support. key to to that that rejection Bryan in two lies in two remarks. remarks. Secretary of State State Bryan rejection lies key Secretary of commented that the administration disliked such multi-nation loans commented that the administration disliked such multi-nation loans because the banking group group "could a controlling controlling the American American banking because "could not have a not have voice" in the operations. operations. For For his his part, part, and and speaking speaking to to aa session in the of session of voice" the National National Foreign Foreign Trade Trade Convention assembled in the East East Room Convention assembled in the the of the White for aa special audience, Wilson his Wilson stressed of the White House for stressed his special audience, concern for the "righteous conquest of foreign markets." "one "one As of for the markets." concern "righteous conquest foreign of the the things hold nearest our heart," heart," he he assured assured the the busibusinearest to to our that we hold of things that nessmen that he and his administration would "co-operate in the the in that he his administration would nessmen "co-operate most intimate our common object." in accomplishing intimate manner in most object" accomplishing our to his his conception conception of Wilson was was simply of Christian Christian true to Wilson simply being being true Capitalism, to his understanding understanding of the frontier frontier thesis of American thesis of American of the to his Capitalism, history, and to his view of as the the agent agent of of world world reform. reform. his view of himself himself as and to history, to the The discrepancy between his public moral lecture to the bankers lecture bankers between moral his public discrepancy and called them "very to them (Straight and his his private reassurances to "very (Straight called private reassurances satisfactory") was neither unique in American politics nor particuparticuneither American was in politics nor unique satisfactory") the election election by larly surprising for aa conservative conservative who had had won the by larly surprising for Wilson appealing to the reform vote. Like Roosevelt and Root, Wilson reform vote. Like Roosevelt Root, appealing to the wanted an the imporAmerican economic economic empire understood the and understood wanted an American imporempire and tance of of aa certain certain kind the open to lead lead to to door was to if the kind if of reforms reforms of tance open door had Wilson prosperity. Bryan explained to the businessmen, Wilson aa to the As businessmen, explained Bryan prosperity. an environvery broad approach: he "contemplates the formation of an environof the he formation broad "contemplates very approach: ment which which will such expansion. will encourage" ment encourage" such expansion.
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The President anticipated anticipated that that an independent moral posture moral posture an independent The President would improve America's standing, and hence America's influence, America's hence and would influence, improve America's standing, Nor is of his sincerity: he was was simply in China. in there any China. Nor is there simply any question question of his sincerity: a Christian Capitalist who took a sophisticated of the relationview o the relationa took a Christian Capitalist sophisticated view ship between reform and profits. As he he made clear, intended he intended and profits. between reform clear, he ship to "participate, and participate very generously, the United States the United States to "participate, and participate very generously, in the Chinese Chinese and to the the use use of almost the almost of the the world world the and to in the the opening to the opening to end untouched and and perhaps perhaps unrivaled unrivaled resources resources of that end China." To that of China." untouched he went to initiate range of of studies, proposals, and and laws laws a broad broad range he went on on to initiate a studies, proposals, designed to extend the Open Door Policy, Policy, to expanding to exempt extend the exempt expanding Open Door designed to corporations from anti-trust prosecutions, and to provide American to anti-trust from provide prosecutions, corporations operators with "the banking and other financial facilities which they facilities which financial other and "the with they banking operators which they are at a serious disadvantage." serious a are at lack and and without now lack without which disadvantage." they THE PROGRESSIVE COALmON COALITION GOES TO WAR
Wilson's vigorous vigorous economic even military military intervention intervention in the in the and even Wilson's economic and domesti.c several Caribbean Mexican the Mexican countries and in in the domestic affairs affairs of of several Caribbean countries by the the same practical practical morality morality Revolution was generated and guided by Revolution and guided was generated That outlook why his of his his Christian Capitalism. That outlook also also explains of Christian Capitalism. explains why his world must be safe for democracy"-acfamous be safe for famous phrase-"The world made "The must democracy" acphrase all the elements bearing on America's entry curately summarized all the elements America's summarized entry curately bearing Underlying that that involvement involvement was was the fundainto into World War I. the fundaI. Underlying and 1914 the United States had demental reality reality that between 1895 mental States had dethat between 1895 and 1914 the veloped a corporation political economy, and defined its a had defined its veloped corporation political economy, terms of of imperial ecoimmediate future wealth wealth and welfare in immediate and future and welfare in terms ecoimperial nomic expansion. Already wobbly internal malfunctioning, malfunctioning, the the nomic from internal expansion. Already wobbly from of the war in Europe which economy was stunned by the outbreak was the stunned outbreak of the war in economy by Europe which it to to major pressures. Hence the desubjected the central central desubjected it deflationary pressures. major deflationary cision cision came very very early early and was very very clearly defined: How would clearly defined: the the country relationship to to the world economy, re-establish its vital relationship its vital the world country re-establish economy, and particularly purthe belligerents belligerents and and their their ~olonies with the colonies who purparticularly with chased of America's per cent cent of America's exports and were were intimately chased 77 involved 77 per exports and intimately involved in in its financial affairs? affairs ? its financial Frank A. National City City Bank and aa key key man in in A. Vanderlip of the the National Vanderlip of the in 1914 formation in the formation Corporation of the the American American International International Corporation 1914 of undertake major designed to to undertake development projects, projects, sumoverseas development sumdesigned major overseas marized the situation situation very marized the very candidly. "You must that at the must remember that at the candidly. time of the war's beginning, in a prosperous time of the war's beginning, the was not the country a was in not country prosperous the idea of keeping keeping up our foreign condition.•.. We had the idea very very much of up our foreign
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trade throughout throughout the the world." world." Morgan Morgan offered offered aa similar analysis. trade similar analysis. "The war opened during a period of hard times that had continued war a of hard times that had continued "The opened during period in America America for for over over aa year. year. Business Business throughout throughout the the country country was was dein depressed, farm prices were deflated, unemployment was serious, the prices were deflated, unemployment was serious, the pressed, heavy industries were working working far below capacity, [and] bank clearindustries were far below heavy capacity, [and] bank clearings were For that that reason, as well well as because nobody wanted off." For as because reason, as ings were off." nobody wanted to go to war, war, the the idea idea of true neutrality response. of true elicited a to a favorable favorable response. go to neutrality elicited But though the words were used, the leaders the words were used, the actions But though of American actions of American leaders did not neutrality for reason that Germany not follow such neutrality follow such for the the simple did that Germany simple reason was from the the beginning beginning considered a dangerous dangerous economic rival and considered a and was economic rival an enemy Progressive values. values. of Progressive an enemy of That ideological ideological orientation of the Progressive Movement, and of That orientation of the Progressive of Movement, and Wilson in in particular, particular, came to to provide provide the basic rhetoric rhetoric of of American American Wilson the basic involvement. It It was was expressed pointedly as involvement. as early the summer as the expressed very very pointedly early as for example, by Robert Lansing, a deeply religious corporaof 19I5, for of Robert a 1915, example, by Lansing, deeply religious corporation lawyer became Secretary of State after Bryan resigned who became of State after in tion lawyer Secretary Bryan resigned in opposition to Wilson's ever firmer stand against Germany. Lansing Wilson's to ever firmer stand opposition against Germany. Lansing thought aa German victory victory would "mean the the overthrow overthrow of of democracy democracy thought in world ... and the the turning turning back back of of the the hands hands of prothe world in the of human proand ideology, that connected the gress two centuries." Ethnic ties, centuries." the two that connected Ethnic ties, gress ideology, great majority of Americans to the Allies extended and intensified of Americans to the and Allies extended intensified great majority such philosophical favoritism. such philosophical favoritism. Those factors, as well as past business business associations, reinforced the the as Those as past well factors, associations, reinforced specific economic connections that such firms as ::Morgan and du specific economic connections that such firms as Morgan Pont quickly developed with the English and French war effort. effort. French quickly developed with the English Far more important important than than those interest bonds, bonds, however, however, was was the the way way Far those interest in which the political economy of the the large its the entire in its entire political in which economy of corporation in large corporation every functional element became intimately involved with the the Allied Allied functional element involved with became intimately every Wilson understood understood the of that that interpenethe implications war economy. interpeneeconomy. Wilson implications of in tration, and it discussed throughout throughout the the government it was discussed tration, government and in general in high high public public forums. In all crucial all probability, the crucial as well well as as in forums. In probability, the general as debate occurred the central the Federal Federal Reserve Reserve of the directors of debate central directors occurred among among the Board. Board. One group, by investment investment banker banker Paul Paul M. Warburg, offered led by Warburg, offered group, led two strong arguments against further commitment of the economy the further of two economy strong arguments against to the programs. It It risked risked serious consequences economic consequences serious economic Allied war programs. the Allied to the efforts efforts it would weaken the because the prosperity was was artificial and it artificial and the prosperity because inof United States to build build its Others, inits own economic economic empire. the United of the States to Others, empire. allfavored cluding Secretary of the Treasury William G. McAdoo, favored allWilliam of the McAdoo, Treasury cluding Secretary .
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.
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The American History History Contours of The Contours of American
out exploitation of the out the opportunities. exploitation of opportunities.
Wilson to Wilson He appealed directly to appealed directly is coming." "To preserve that," on the that "great prosperity is on the grounds coming." preserve that," grounds that "great prosperity can. .••* he bluntly bluntly told the President, "we must do everything we can. must he told the President, everything Otherwise it may stop and that would be disastrous." be disastrous." Otherwise it may stop and that would Wilson made the crucial decision the Late in 1915. to support decision to the crucial Late in support the 1915, Wilson It signified the Progressive Movement's commitMcAdoo group. commitMovement's group. It signified the Progressive ment to to that current economic economic development, ment for sustaining that strategy development, sustaining current strategy for Democratic Party to furfurand tied prosperity, and tied existing and Democratic and fortunes, to Party fortunes, existing prosperity, .
.
It also also signaled signaled the of aa ther involvement with the the onset onset of ther the Allies. Allies. It involvement with the thinking thinking of American leaders on the issue fundamental drift the issue leaders on of American in the drift in fundamental of sustaining the private private property property economy capitalism. of corporation of economy of corporation capitalism. sustaining the 1915, to support and lead the Together with his decision, also in lead the to in also his with decision, support 1915, Together had involved preparedness movement, Wilson and his associates his involved associates and Wilson movement, preparedness the government helping the the corporation corporation economy accumulate the in helping economy accumulate government in and later war loans-under a banner of capital-through war orders a under later war loans banner of orders war and capital through Christian that did not challenge property rights. that not did Christian Capitalism challenge property rights. Capitalism hoped, along along with with most AmeriAmeriEven as as 1916, Wilson still Even as late late as still hoped, 1916, Wilson cans, to accomplish the defeat of Germany and thereby establish to the defeat of and establish cans, Germany thereby accomplish the framework of aa Progressive and Open without rerethe world without framework of Progressive and Open Door world course to war. war. But neither Germany nor Great Britain was willing nor course to Great Britain But neither Germany willing to allow to permit permit America negotiated settlement or to to to dominate a negotiated dominate a America to settlement or allow the other to win win by by default. default. Germany's recourse to all-out submarine other to recourse to the all-out submarine Germany's warfare threatened threatened to to defeat allies and and thereby the allies warfare defeat the end Wilson's Wilson's thereby end pious hope to apply the principles of Progressive Christian Capitalto the of Christian pious hope principles Progressive Capitalapply to the the world. world. Just as English, French, and German leaders, ism as ism to Just leaders, English, French, Wilson chose fight rather rather than or abandon his objectives. Wilson chose to than modify to fight or abandon his modify objectives. wn.sON'S DIFFICULTIES WITH THE RADICAL CHALLENGE WILSON'S TO CORPORATION CAPITALISM
Quite with his career, Wilson's Wilson's program program for in keeping his entire entire career, for Quite in keeping with peace was a potpourri potpourri of of Progressive and policies ideas and transferred peace Progressive ideas policies transferred the international to to the scene and infused infused with with the the emotion rightinternational scene emotion and and rightof Christian he later later exexeousness of Capitalism. Its basic purpose purpose as eousness Christian Capitalism. Its basic as he was to build "The Road Away to survey, survey, grade, grade, and build Away From
plained, plained,
Revolution." It Revolution." involved establishing (such as the It thus thus involved a set of rules set of as the rules (such establishing a the freedom open door. the political of the the seas, freedom of seas, and political open door, boundaries boundaries coinciding coinciding with with ethnic for enethnic distribution; endistribution; providing providing for forcement (as in Articles Articles X and XVI of the League League of of Nations Nations of the (as in Covenant which outlawed outlawed territorial changes and provided for for enterritorial changes and provided enof the principle of the principle
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forcing provision); effecting compromises between advanced that provision); forcing that effecting compromises between advanced powers and the underdeveloped countries that insured continued the insured continued underdeveloped countries that powers by the former (as in the mandate system); economic the economic expansion former (as in the mandate system); expansion by arranging compromises between industrial powers (as between arranging compromises between industrial powers (as between Japan and the United States in Asia); and inaugurating a the United States in Asia) and inaugurating a system Japan system of future control to be be dominated by the the United United States, Western of future control to dominated by States, Western European nations including Germany), Japan. nations (ultimately and Japan. European (ultimately including Germany), and Having vetoed the the bank's bank's consortium proin China, consortium in Wilson proChina, Wilson Having vetoed posed aa consortium of advanced advan~ed industrial industrial nations nations led by the United consortium of led by the United posed the first most powerful reguStates as the first and most States as would reguthat would powerful among equals that among equals all the Chinas of the world. late reform the of and reform the development the He late and of all the of worldChinas development asked no reparations reparations except the acceptance by the rest of the for no the asked for the the rest of except acceptance by world of America's Progressive Progressive Weltanschauung. of America's world Weltanschauung. Wilson's grand grand effort effort was was defeated by aa strange strange coalition coalition of three Wilson's of three defeated by as well as international groups that cut across all political cut all domestic that across as domestic as international well groups political boundaries. Radicals and left-wing reformers abroad offered the the Radicals and boundaries. abroad offered left-wing reformers Bolshemost fundamental through the impact of the fundamental criticism most criticism and, the Bolsheof the and, through impact vik Revolution Revolution in in Russia, Russia, probably the balance against WilWilvik balance against turned the probably turned son. Whether through Marxism, as in Russia and other European son. other in as and Russia European through Marxism, countries, native traditions, in Mexico, Mexico, or or both, both, as as in in as in countries, through traditions, as through native China, such radicals had sustained and reasserted the ideal of aa of such the had ideal reasserted radicals and now sustained China, self-defined and controlled commonwealth based on property self-defined and controlled social property on social commonwealth based that had wing of of Christianity and the English that had characterized one wing characterized one Christianity and the English Revolution. Revolution. Wilson understood the nature nature and the significance significance of that chalof that Wilson chaland the understood the lenge to American expansion and influence, and to his own Christian Christian lenge to American expansion and influence, and to his Capitalist of the the Progressive Progressive Movement. the complaints Movement. Since Since the complaints Capitalist wing wing of against the the power power and in of in the the name of the abuses with the committed with abuses committed against private property were justified, justified, and the Progressive tradition since the and since private property were Progressive tradition was upheld the protest, Wilson that "it the right "it certainly of protest, Wilson admitted admitted that certainly was right of upheld aa cruel process of of reform" and reform" and dilemma." But But he he favored "a slow favored "a slow process cruel dilemma." central hence used used American American power power against radicals in in Russia, the radicals hence Russia, central against the and China, and Mexico. very probably probably decision very and eastern Mexico. That decision eastern Europe, Europe, China, of turned aa crucial crucial handful handful of like Hiram Johnson of like turned of Progressives Johnson Progressives of California, William and Robert Robert M. La Follette Follette of of Idaho, William Borah of Idaho, and California, Wisconsin irrevocably against Wilson's League of Nations Treaty. of Nations Wilson's Wisconsin Treaty. League irrevocably against also dramatized of preventing preventing Wilson's action action also dramatized the the impossibility Wilson's impossibility of became the change without a constant recourse to force, and this became the this and recourse to a constant without force, change L. StimL. Stimbasis of by members of the gentry like Henry like of the basis of opposition members Henry gentry opposition by ;
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The of American American History History Contours of The Contours
son, sophisticated Herbert Hoover Hoover and like Herbert son, corporation spokesmen spokesmen like sophisticated corporation Boyce Elihu and interest-conscious leaders like William like William leaders Elihu Root, interest-conscious and Boyce Root, Thompson of the House of Morgan. Joining with vigorous expanwith of of the House vigorous expanMorgan. Joining Thompson Lodge and leaders sionists and disgusted sionists like like Henry Cabot Lodge corporation leaders disgusted corporation Henry Cabot in getting on with what Vanderwho were were impatient with the delay Vanderwith on in impatient with the delay getting lip called the commercial "war after the war," these these groups mustered groups mustered lip called the commercial "war after the war," 'votes to defeat Wilson and the treaty. enough enough votes to defeat Wilson and the treaty. This was paralleled paralleled by the failure Wilson (or (or the the rereof Wilson failure of This reversal reversal was by the formers) to to offer any concrete proposals to to sustain the economy sustain the concrete proposals offer any economy formers) after boom. Neither Neither did they implement vague idea idea of his vague of after the war boom. did they the war implement his of partnership" partnership" between thereby "some labor and thereby "some sort between capital sort of capital and labor provide some beginnings of within the the functional functional and of community some beginnings community within provide syndicalist system. These moral and practical failures ended the the failures and These moral syndicalist practical system. power, appeal, and direct influence of the Christian Capitalist wing Christian direct influence of tie and wing Capitalist power, appeal, of Movement. The collapse produced aa shock of shock of of the the Progressive collapse produced Progressive Movement. disillusionment that that converted reformers into cynics disguised into reformers disillusionment converted many cynics disguised many as realists, realists, and and turned turned many many Americans against extensive reform. extensive reform. Americans against as In particularly after World War II, many Progressives World later years, after In later II, many Progressives years, particularly used the the rhetoric Christian Capitalism part of their ideological used of their as part rhetoric of of Christian ideological Capitalism as in many rerewarfare against radicalism at and abroad. abroad. And warfare home in many radicalism at against spects, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles was a displaced missionDulles was missionof State Foster John spects. Secretary displaced politically significant to synthesize ary outlook. But But as a politically effort to as a of this this outlook. ary of synthesize significant effort Weltanschauung for the corporation this aa Progressive for the system, this Progressive Weltanschauung corporation system, movement ended ended with with Wilson. Wilson. Its Its last last and appropriately grotesque and appropriately movement grotesque it had had created, this influence resulted that it influence resulted from from atmosphere for this created, for atmosphere that misused by the Christian Temperance was distorted distorted and misused the Christian movement by Temperance which, by by dint dint of of further further to to jam jam through through aa prohibition prohibition law law in in 1919 1919 which, to be sustained until 1933. bigoted crusading, was was to be until sustained bigoted crusading, 1933. Since radicalism had defeated by of Since domestic domestic radicalism been defeated had been a combination combination of by a the Wilson the Wilson Administration's Administration's vigorous vigorous physical physical and political represand political repression, internal divisions meaning and authority authority its own internal divisions over the meaning over the sion, and its of of the the Bolshevik Bolshevik Revolution, Revolution, the had two two sources of the Progressives sources of Progressives had Follette could rally the the leadership. One was the the possibility that La Follette could rally leadership. possibility that run the the reformers, form aa coalition coalition with labor and with labor and agriculture, and run reformers, agriculture, and lines of of prewar country the lines policies and programs. programs. Though country along prewar policies along the Though for effective providing for leadership at at the program effective leadership the state state level, such a a program level, such providing was inappropriate inappropriate and insufficient the national national political political economy. economy. insufficient for for the Either it veered far toward toward socialism to become relevant Either it veered so so far in order socialism in order to become relevant and effective effective that it lost as an attack on private property, or that it lost support as an attack support private property, or
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it any dynamic dynamic appeal because it had been tried and it simply lacked simply lacked any appeal because it had been tried and found wanting. wanting. La Follette Follette tried both approaches defeated found tried both and was was defeated approaches and each time. time. each IN THE MATURATION THE CENTRAL ROLE OF HERBERT HOOVER IN OF AN INDUSTRIAL GENTRY
result, the corporation leaders moved into into auau~ the sophisticated As aa result, leaders moved sophisticated corporation thority within within the the Progressive Movement. They They faced four major major faced four thority Progressive Movement. problems. Most troublesome, troublesome, at least in in the the overt their at least overt sense, was their sense, was problems. running fight narrow interest-conscious interest
Hoover group group struggled to transform their sophistication transform their struggled to sophistication an industrial and to to an industrial gentry gentry and evolve aa program that would sustain and improve the functioning evolve that would sustain and the program functioning improve of the Hoover and his associates needed des~ the system. of system. And finally, finally, Hoover and his associates needed desperately to increase the the numbers numbers of to increase if possible, of their their own group and, if perately group and, possible, efIect with the the remaining remaining members members of agrarian a liaison liaison with effect a earlier agrarian the earlier of the gentry. Without those those gains, gains, they they had no hope hope of leader~ had no of assuming gentry. Without assuming leadership of the Progressive Movement on a routine and bipartisan basis. of the on a Movement routine and ship Progressive bipartisan basis. Along with other such corporation spokesmen, Hoover had moved with Hoover had moved other such corporation spokesmen, Along beyond the interest
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Howard Hudson Motor Co.), Gerald P. Swope (0£ E. Coffin Coffin (of Howard E. (of Hudson Motor Co.), Gerald P. Swope (of General Electric), Theodore Bell Telephone), Vail (of N. Vail General Electric), Theodore N. (of Bell Telephone), and Daniel Willard (of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad) and Daniel Willard (of the Baltimore Railroad) emerged emerged from the war determined to manage the system from the war determined to manage the system more effectively, effectively, efficienciy, and equitably. efficiently, and equitably. Though and Morrow, Rosenwald and Uke Rosenwald Morrow, Swope Swope and Young, Young, Though men like and the key leader Dawes and Willard were and Dawes and Willard were very figures, the key leader important figures, very important among those Progressive and sophisticated corporation executives executives and those corporation sophisticated among Progressive was the was smeared smeared and defamed by Hoover was was Herbert Hoover. But But Hoover Herbert Hoover. by the as the callous, incompetent, and autocratic cause Democrats cause autocratic and in 1932 as the Democrats in callous, incompetent, 1932 of seldom recognized he is is very of the the Great As aa result, Great Depression. result, he recognized very seldom Depression. As and for what he is: the keystone in the arch that the in arch that is: the he and acknowledged for what keystone acknowledged leads to such later figures to such later as and Herbert Herbert Croly leads from from Mark Hanna and figures as Croly Nelson Rockefeller BerIe.* Hoover came very close to close Berle.* to and Adolph Nelson Rockefeller and very Adolph being, perhaps he was, the first truly class-conscious corporation being, perhaps he was, the first truly class-conscious corporation leader the system. two wrongs a not make a While two leader produced wrongs do not by the produced by system. While is a kind of poetic justice in the way that Democrats right, there in the that of Democrats there a kind is way poetic justice right, Hoover were were later injustice with equal later and with to smear smear Hoover who helped equal injustice helped to by Republicans Republicans as the river river to to smeared by sold China down the as men who sold smeared nothing else, the episodes the communists W orId War II. the II. If If nothing the communists after after World else, episodes reveal the bipartisan nature nature of of demagoguery reveal the thoroughly in American American demagoguery in thoroughly bipartisan politics. Hoover no more had had the the depression depression to to give give to to the the American American politics. Hoover no people than Harry Truman or Dean Acheson had China to give give to to or Acheson China to people than Harry Mao Tse-tung. Tse-tung. * • Several Several comments comments
may be be relevant relevant for for the the reader reader in the followfollowin considering may considering the ing analysis analysis and and interpretation interpretation of of Hoover, Hoover, since since it it is is somewhat somewhat different different from from ing classic example example of of the the necessity necessity for for the routine routine estimate. estimate. Hoover Hoover offers offers aa classic the to break break out out of of their their own frame frame of of reference reference if they are are to to underunderhistorians to historians if they stand stand the the past. past. More than than any any other other 20th-century 20th-century American's, American's, Hoover's Hoover's reputareputais is the the product product of of misinformation misinformation and and distortion. distortion. He is is also also aa notable notable
tion tion
of the the man whose whose ideas ideas are are borrowed borrowed by by others others without without acknowledgacknowledgexample of example ment, and of of the the man man whose analyses analyses and and insights insights are are proved proved valid valid after after an an ment, unfavorable has been been established. established. For For that that reason reason it it is is easy easy to to unfavorable stereotype stereotype has overlook that his his failures failures comprise comprise the the whole whole story. story. This This overlook them, them, and to to assume assume that is based based on on extended extended research research in in his his correspondence correspondence that that estimate of of Hoover Hooyer is estimate can can be be found in in the the manuscript manuscript collections collections of of other other people; people; in in his his published published
in the the government government archives archives books, testimony, testimony, and miscellaneous miscellaneous writings; writings; in books, his long long official official service; service; in in the the mass mass of of secondary secondary accounts accounts of of his his during his during activities (which (which include include many many quotations); quotations); and and through through interviews interviews with with 27 27 who either either worked with with him him or or opposed opposed him him vigorously. vigorously. The The writer's writer's as aa consequence consequence of of research research in in these these opinion of of Hoover changed changed considerably considerably as opinion materials. materials. activities
persons persons
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Beyond the fact fact that that he he contributed to the the founding founding fund of CroIy's contributed to fund of Beyond the Croly'tf
Republic in became one one of Wilson's closest closest advisors advisor! in 1914 New Republic and became of Wilson's 1914 and
after perhaps the the most most effective testimony to to Hoover's Hoover's progresprogresafter 1916, effective testimony 1916, perhaps sivism comes from the Democrats. They very seriously approached sivism the Democrats. They very seriously approached to accept their nomination nomination for for the in 1920. him to the Presidency is accept their 1920. "He is Presidency in certainly a wonder," wonder," exclaimed Roosevelt when exclaimed Franklin Franklin Roosevelt Wilson's when Wilson's certainly a Assistant Secretary Navy, "and wish we could him Assistant of the the Navy, "and II wish could make him Secretary of President of of the United States. There could not be better one." one." the United President States. There a better could not be a Though wish was was not not fulfilled until 1928, and then by the that wish fulfilled until Though that 1928, and then by the Republicans, Hoover exercised great power power and and was was aa key figure in exercised great in Republicans, key figure American history during his his service of Commerce American service as of as Secretary history during Secretary under Presidents Coolidge. Presidents Warren G. under G. Harding Calvin Coolidge. and Calvin Harding and Throughout those years, Hoover was quite aware that the American those Hoover the was aware that American Throughout years, quite economic was not not functioning at a time economic system system was functioning satisfactorily satisfactorily at a time when it faced competition from rivals and the stiff competition faced stiff it from capitalist rivals the across-theacross-theand capitalist board radical radical challenge symbolized by the Soviet Union. He also also board the Union. Soviet challenge symbolized by realized that that the the outbreak radicalism stemmed stemmed from realized outbreak of of radicalism "the great from "the great inequalities and injustices injustices of return to to "in"inof centuries." centuries." Hence any inequalities any return dividualism run riot" riot" would would only increase "social ferment and class dividualism run class increase "social ferment and only consciousness" among classes and the consciousness" the lower lower classes and thereby accelerate the among the thereby accelerate "drift "drift toward toward socialism." socialism." Convinced that "the unsolved problems problems of of economic economic Convinced that "the failure failure and and unsolved and social life can be corrected," and that the crucial element of that that and social life can be and element of that the crucial corrected," success be aa high high and standard of living for all the "must be all the success "must and growing for growing standard of living people, not for a single class," Hoover analyzed the corporation for a people, not single class," Hoover analyzed the corporation economy and offered offered an an exceedingly to correct correct economy program to exceedingly thorough thorough program errors and underwrite underwrite future future prosperity. a way way that that was strikingly errors In a strikingly prosperity. In similar to to the prewar efforts intellectual Walter Weyl, the prewar efforts of Walter Weyl, similar of Progressive Progressive intellectual approach that that would preserve preserve private private property property Hoover sought sought an approach large corporation corporation yet time create conditions and the the large the same time at the the conditions create the yet at for the flowering of aa "new individualism." for the individualism." flowering of Studying political economy, economy, Hoover Hoover concluded the corporation concluded Studying the corporation political elethat it of three three basic basic functional it was composed functional and syndicalist that syndicalist elecomposed of as as indusments: capital agricultural operators as well as induswell ments: capital (including (including agricultural operators trialists and financiers), and the public at at large, trialists the public labor, and represented large, represented financiers), labor, a of two member institutionally by the government. Each citizen a of citizen was the institutionally by government. of of those Arguing that "Progress is Cooperation," is born of that of those groups. Cooperation," "Progress groups. Arguing Hoover proposed three fundamental that for achieving fundamental strategies achieving that strategies for proposed three trade goal. Within capital and labor, co-operation in trade associations, in and associations, labor, co-operation capital goal.
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The Contours Contours of of American American History History The
agricultural co-operatives, and and unions unions was was necessary necessary and and legitimate legitimate and should should be be encouraged encouraged by by the the government. government. Between Between capital capital and and and labor, collective bargaining played a similar role. by sophisticated Led role. similar a collective labor, by sophisticated bargaining played is, by by aa class-conscious class-conscious industrial industrial gentry, gentry, and responsible responsible men, men, that that is, and by the citizen through his vote, the naand ultimately controlled nahis the and ultimately controlled by the citizen through vote, tional government assumed the task of co-ordinating and balancing and tional government assumed the task of co-ordinating balancing each of of those those major major elements elements of of the the political political economy economy and of of proproeach to sustain e$Xlnomic development. viding the assistance needed viding the assistance needed to sustain economic development. With great great perception, perception, Hoover Hoover saw saw the the dangers dangers inherent inherent in in such such With also had had the the courage courage to to face face them openly openly and and a political political economy. economy. He also a squarely. There were four of them. "Where dominant private propsquarely. There were four of them. "Where dominant private propagricultural co-operatives,
is assembled assembled in in the the hands hands of of the the groups groups who control control the the state," state," In other other words, words, interest-conscious interest
is
fascism resulted. resulted. fascism
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tracts, or Hoover thought thought that that this this was or other other subsidies. subsidies. Hoover was immoral immoral tracts, as well as toward the living. living. behavior toward future generations toward future behavior as well as toward the generations He also method of sustaining the system also doubted that even doubted that even that that method of sustaining the system would work without without ultimately ultimately involving the nation nation in in wars underwould wars underinvolving the in defense or in extension of such investments. taken either either in defense or in extension of such investments. taken At that that point, point, Hoover came with the the traditional came face face to to face face with traditional capicapitalist emphasis the market market place, place, and the frontier frontier of the talist and the emphasis on expansion expansion of interpretation of of American history which American history which explained and interpretation explained democracy democracy and prosperity as as aa result result of of the kind of of expansion. made aa the same same kind prosperity expansion. He made valiant effort, the most unvaliant most courageous one unand rigorous effort, certainly certainly the courageous and rigorous one dertaken American in power after after John Adams and dertaken by in power and any American John Quincy by any Quincy Henry Clay, a way of having having and and eating the expansionist expansionist to evolve evolve a Clay, to way of Henry eating the wars. Thus he began by dedecake without paying for for it without paying it by imperial wars. cake Thus he by imperial began by fining overseas economic expansion as the sine qua non of American overseas economic as sine the non American of fining expansion qua was "part of our our domestic domestic progress, progress, both both wealth and welfare. It and welfare. It was wealth "part of it was "of peculiar importance socially and economi.cally" because because was it "of socially economically" peculiar importance us in maintaining aa stable stable and operation" of the system, to us in maintaining and even to even operation" and of the system, and brought recovery recovery from more effeceffecbecause it it brought and more from setbacks setbacks "faster "faster and because tively." Nothing Nothing captures captures the of Hoover's die nature and intensity nature and Hoover's emtively." intensity of phasis on such overseas economic activities as succinctly such overseas as as his his economic activities succinctly as phasis remarks about the role role of that expansion in America's developing about the of that in remarks America's developing expansion relations with the Soviet Union. They were written written on with the Soviet Union. on December December 6, relations 6, They were I92I, in to Secretary Evans Hughes's Hughes'S suggesin answer Charles Evans answer to of State State Charles 1921, Secretary of suggestion, in line with proposals of of some fina~ciers, to to allow Germany in line with the the proposals some financiers, allow Germany tion, as middleman in trade with Russia. to serve to serve as in trade with Russia. "The hope commerce," Hoover tersely tersely replied, the "lies in in the of our our commerce," hope of replied, "lies establishment of American American firms American firms abroad, establishment of abroad, distributing distributing American goods American direction; in the the building building of of direct direct American American under American direction; in goods under financing in the American technology technology of American above all, the installation installation of all, in and, above financing and, in Russian industries. We must, must, of of necessity, necessity, in the future future finance in the finance in Russian industries. our raw materials and if goods if our our manufactured manufactured goods our own raw Russia and into Russia materials into are through German hands that when hands it it simply are distributed distributed through simply means that warrant Germany established trade trade of to warrant distribution to of sufficient sufficient distribution has established Germany has lose the the market." market." her own manufacture shall lose her manufacture we shall the same Hoover was was aware aware that that "a part of the of the "a large At the same time, time, Hoover large part the birth believe that that they they were in the the presence presence of of the birth world has were in has come to to believe world the destinies of aa new imperial power intent dominating the destinies and intent upon of upon dominating imperial power war. In In response, could provoke provoke war. response, freedoms of other peoples." peoples." That could of other freedoms should Hoover three rules "We should for America's America's expansion. rules for Hoover formulated formulated three expansion.
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The American History History Contours 0/ The Contours of American
be mainly mainly interested," interested," he he emphasized, abroad "in development be development work abroad emphasized, "in such roads and utilities which increase the standards of living standards of the increase utilities which such as as roads and living of people and thus increase the demand for goods from every nation, for the demand of people and thus increase every nation, goods prosperity by prosperous world world [and] not by by disfor disa prosperous for we gain in prosperity [and] not by a gain in placing others." Such "development of backward or crippled counor counbackward crippled placing others." Such "development of tries" would blunt the the jealousy jealousy and fear of of America's power. A America's power. and fear would blunt tries" second kind of authority that he wanted, but failed to secure because secure to because second kind of authority that he wanted, but failed that it would subvert the rights rights of private property, property, of the fear of private of the subvert the fear that it would was full to prevent loans being for armaments or for armaments made or loans was full power to being prevent power uses. Interest-conscious Interest-conscious financiers blocked other non-developmental uses. financiers blocked other non-developmental that move, Hoover did some control control over operaover their their operawin some did win that move, though though Hoover tions. And finally Hoover asserted, and honored, a strong disinclinaa and disinclinations. Hoover asserted, honored, strong finally to use violence-in or extension tion to defense or in defense extension of of actual violence tion use threats-or threats or actual the American American empire. the empire. In particular, Hoover Hoover won support three in particular, In general and in support from three general and groups: the voting public, many industrial corporation leaders, and industrial and the leaders, corporation groups: voting public, many of the labor movement. Most importantly, the a significant part of labor movement. a the importantly, the significant part general public came to trust and respect his abilities and his integrity. to his abilities his and trust came respect integrity. general public He was popular leader the sense sense that that both a popular leader in in the both Roosevelts Roosevelts was never never a was he he merely accepted. Hoover Hoover was also also backed backed were, but but neither neither was were, merely accepted. by the small but growing community of more perceptive corporation more but of the small by perceptive corporation growing community economy that that by by 1920 had more more leaders. As vital vital figures in a a political leaders. political economy 1920 had figures in in cities than on the land, and more employed in of its of its people in than the and cities more land, people employed in manufacturing than in agriculture, they were of crucial importance. in than were of crucial importance. manufacturing agriculture, they By the the end of war, 3I per cent of all manufacturing concerns concerns the war, of the all manufacturing cent of By 31 per 86 per cent of all were corporations, and that group employed that group employed 86 per cent of all manucorporations, per .cent ~ent of manufactured products. products. facturing labor and produced produced 87 of manufactured 87 per facturing labor Manufacturing gradually reasserted reasserted their their leaders also also gradually corporation leaders Manufacturing corporation control over the took more direct of the the control over the financiers financiers and took direct command of even in the early early part part of of industrial system industrial the I920S. in the system during during the 19205. And even the such men had been the century, been more more inclined inclined to take aa broader broader to take century, such view of labor view of relations and and the political economy labor relations the political in general. economy in general. Owen D. Young of the Young was one of the most sophisticated that group. group. Deeply Deeply of that sophisticated of concerned by termed the by Americans concerned by what he termed the loss loss of of confidence confidence by Americans since the the closing since closing of the continental continental frontier, he fully Hoover's of the shared Hoover's frontier, he fully shared concern He very bluntly (and concern with with overseas overseas economic economic expansion. expansion. very bluntly (and so vital. They were "a authoritatively) explained why exports were were so vital. "a were authoritatively) explained why exports They most material material contribution contribution to to our our prosperity. prosperity. The dividing line line dividing between prosperity the want of is so prosperity and the of it so sensitive all our our it is sensitive that that all
The Age Age of of Corporation Corporation Capitalism Capitalism
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surpluses vitally vitally affect affect surpluses
it." like Hoover, he felt that the it." And like felt that the system Hoover, he system if it could not handle the surplus problem in a creative would fail fail if it could not handle would the surplus problem in a creative starts to to burn burn surplus wheat or cotton, or what manner. "If "If America starts manner. or cotton, or what surplus wheat in the world, that have you please, when people are hungry elsewhere have you please, people are hungry elsewhere in the world, that fire will will start a conflagration conflagration which which we cannot cannot stop." start a fire stop." the increasing alienation of the worker Young also also worried worried about about the of the worker alienation Young increasing of zest," in modern modern industry. industry. He saw the' the "lack "lack of in of the deterioration deterioration of zest,** the to improve management policies accordingly. community, and tried tried to community, improve management accordingly, policies His even pleaded unsuccessfully fellow industrialist, Gerald Swope, His fellow industrialist, Gerald Swope, even pleaded unsuccessfully to organize the unskilled unskilled industrial workers at with the of L. the A.F. A.F. of L. to with at industrial workers organize the General Electric. Such of course thought in terms of unions Such men of General Electric. course thought of unions in terms limits of company structure, were not not operating within within the the limits the company of the and were structure, and operating advocating organizations that challenged management's preroga. that advocating organizations challenged management's prerogadecade tives. But But most union union leaders leaders were were like-minded; tives. the decade indeed, the like-minded; indeed, of the was marked by a distinct lack of militant labor activity. was the 1920S of marked a distinct lack of militant kbor 19208 by activity. is not that the the key key figures of the the A A:F. Hence it it is not surprising J7 of to find find that of Hence figures of surprising to L. shared most of Hoover's views. views. of Hoover's shared most L. Spurred by John Frey of the of the not formally P. Frey on, though led, by John P. Spurred on, though not formally led, International Holders Molders Union, Union, the the AJF. A:F. of of L. L. operated on the as· the asInternational on operated sumptions that productivity was the key to prosperity and that "pro· that and was the that sumptions "proproductivity key to prosperity be enhanced the cooperation ductivity can can be of management enhanced through management ductivity through the cooperation of with trade trade union activities." Wanting Wanting primarily primarily to accepted as a as a union activities." be accepted with to be in the system, labor feared government intervention for "partner" "partner" in the system, labor feared government intervention for the same reasons reasons that that Hoover Thus, while while ambivalent about the ambivalent about Hoover did. did. Thus, it seemed the importance of overseas expansion because the because it overseas economic seemed economic expansion importance of it to benefit benefit the few much more more than than the many, labor opposed it labor opposed to the few the many, vigorously only only when it military intervention. it resulted in military intervention. resulted in vigorously In an even more dramatic railroad unions the even more unions revealed revealed the In the railroad dramatic way, way, the kind of that guided labor's thinking. Their Their kind labor's of conservative conservative syndicalism that thinking. guided syndicalism rehabilitating and and rationalizing rationalizing the the railroads prorailroads proPlumb Plan Plan for for rehabilitating by a board composed to consolidate them in a giant corporation run a comboard to run consolidate them in a by posed giant corporation posed of the of representatives the unions, unions, and the posed representatives from management, management, the a government. Often misunderstood or misconstrued as a socialist as socialist Often or misconstrued misunderstood government. scheme, and very probably probably defeated on those those grounds the and very defeated on scheme, despite the grounds despite it was in to it by many corporation leaders, it was in reality an support given it to leaders, reality an by many corporation support given intelligent and thoroughgoing application of syndicalist principles of and syndicalist principles intelligent thoroughgoing application to one weak sector the economy. the TransportaTransportaof the to one particularly sector of economy. And the particularly weak the Interof Interthe tion Act Act of which further extended the powers of the further extended tion which of 1920, powers 1920, state Commerce Commission, Commission, was based based on on the logic. the same logic. state .
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The of American American History History Contours of The Contours
In area, labor's labor's commitment to co-operation with capital capital another area, commitment to In another co-operation with produced an undramatic result that nevertheless became very imporbecame nevertheless that an result undramatic very imporproduced tant in years. Joining academic and and corporation corporation economists, tant later years. with academic in later economists, Joining with with industrial and with with farm farm industrial and with and financial financial corporation executives, and corporation executives, to organize the National Bureau of Ecospokesmen, Frey helped of Bureau EcoNational spokesmen, Frey helped to organize the nomic Research, becoming its chairman from 1922 to 1928. Along to nomic Research, becoming its chairman from 1922 1928. Along a somewhat narwith the Brookings Institution, which evidenced narevidenced a with the Brookings Institution, which rower and more conservative the N.BJLR. N.B.E.R. provided provided an and more rower conservative outlook, outlook, the of the intellectual forum the various functional elements elements of the econeconfor the intellectual various functional forum for omy. Such groups were in many ways the most intelligent and the and in Such were ways intelligent many omy. groups productive kind of philanthropy ever financed by the corporations. the ever financed kind of by corporations. productive philanthropy For they they not not only provided aa body of information information and analyses from For analyses from body of only provided be developed, developed, but but they they offered offered the the cirwhich effective policy could cirwhich effective policy could be cumstances which the the leaders the political political economy could, and of the in which leaders of cumstances in could, economy did, evolve a basic consensus on to run the the system. did, gradually system. gradually evolve a basic consensus on how to In the meantime, meantime, Hoover Hoover had had to to take take much of that responsibility responsibility of that In the on his his own shoulders, the postwar postwar depression depression that that staggered on shoulders, during during the staggered in 1921-1922. On the basis of an index number of 100 the economy of an index the basis of the in 100 1921-1922. economy 2 to for 1915, wholesale prices fell from 227.9 in 1920 to 150.6 in 1921. m I m I I for wholesale fell from 9 5-^ prices 227.9 1915, 9 21 Agricultural earnings dropped from 100 (based on the 1910-1914 the 100 from Agricultural earnings dropped (based 1910-1914 average) to to 75 75 in in 1921. Real wages, wages, on on the other hand, jumped from from the other hand, jumped average) 1921. Real 100 in in 1914 to in in 100 to IDS in 1919> II3 in 1922, and 132 in 1928. Along with in 132 1928. Along with 1922, 1914 1919, 113 105 and utility industries the tremendous tremendous expansion in the automobile the the automobile in industries expansion utility and in appliances and chemicals, chemicals, these these statistics and in consumer consumer appliances statistics do a do a great deal to explain labor's relative quiescence. But the depression deal to relative labor's the great explain quiescence. depression itself was aa serious blow, and once estimated that Hoover itself was an insider and an serious blow, insider once estimated that Hoover held 900 his held 200 committees conferences and organized committees in in his 900 separate separate conferences organized 200 efforts to check the the fall fall and recovery on effective, effiefforts to check and organize an effective, on an effiorganize recovery cient, basis. In the course of those those efforts, he helped helped sustained basis. In the course of cient, and sustained efforts, he establish the the principle used "as a powerpowerestablish principle that that public should be works should be used "as a public works ful influence" in crises on the grounds that "public ful stabilizing in future future crises on the stabilizing influence" grounds that "public is better better than than relief." backed by Hoover, the the construction is construction relief." Strongly Strongly backed by Hoover, Congress passed passed one one such in 1921. such law law in Congress 1921. Hoover ran ran into into several several kinds kinds of of opposition in his his difficulties in opposition and difficulties efforts to extend extend the efforts to the recovery recovery from the the depression. Hurt far more far more depression. than labor by that that downturn downturn than their seriously by labor (453,000 farmers lost lost their seriously (453,000 farmers stake in in the the system), stake and failing to make a full recovery, agriculture to a full system), failing recovery, agriculture demanded direct direct government before 1925, 36 per per aid. Long government aid. Long before 1925, when 36 cent of of owner-operated cent farms were mortgaged to an average of 42 were farms to an of owner-operated mortgaged average 42 -
The Age Age of of Corporation Corporation Capitalism Capitalism
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per cent their value, began agitating for export sub-of their cent of the farmers farmers began value, the per agitating for export subsidies and government credit facilities. And they were and sidies government credit facilities. they were organized. organized. Through the National Farm Bureau Federation, representing Bureau Federation, largely Through the National largely representing the big, the National National Farm Union, successful operators, the Union, speaking big, successful operators, the speaking for and such more openly associations as smaller farmers, such more for smaller farmers, and openly political political associations as the Non-Partisan Non-Partisan League, League, they tremendous pressure. pressure. exerted tremendous the they exerted thus Striving to maintain prewar position position and maintain their their favorable favorable prewar and thus Striving to remain on aa roughly roughly comparable comparable level with the the industrial industrial corporalevel with remain corporations within within the leaders openly openly dethe syndicalist tions desyndicalist system, system, agricultural agricultural leaders as a way of preventing "state socialism." was a of as was manded "equality" "state socialism." Nor "equality" way preventing their stress foreign markets markets unconnected unconnected with with the program stress on foreign their same program the same by the corporations. One of the farm bloc's key leaders was pushed the the was of farm leaders bloc's corporations. pushed by key Peek, an implement manufacturer had learned the George N. an had the manufacturer who learned Peek, George implement proper co-operation" and the key role of exports while "benefits of proper and the "benefits of role of while co-operation" key exports Board. He argued argued very openly that that serving the War Industries Industries Board. serving on the very openly his implement business depended upon export markets for the business for markets the his implement depended upon export farmer. fanner. is in in aa position position of of inequality inequality in Hoover agreed agreed that that "the in "the farmer Hoover farmer is purchasing power as compared with other industries." And he unhe unas with other industries." purchasing power compared unemployment derstood that the imbalance imbalance was a grave that the of unemployment derstood was "digging grave of "digging a was not willing to put the governfor the But he for the other other industries." industries." But he was not willing to put the governThat would open the way for ment into the export subsidy business. for into the export subsidy business. That open the way And similar demands by the other functional units of the economy. similar by the other functional units of the economy. this in turn would very very quickly establish the the "syndicalist nation on on aa in turn this "syndicalist nation quickly establish that he he feared feared as creating an an oligarchy gigantic scale" as creating scale" that subjecting oligarchy and subjecting gigantic the citizen to double, triple, economic jeopardy. Instead, citizen to the or triple, economic jeopardy. Instead, Hoover double, or persistently encouraged farmers offered two solutions. He persistently smaller farmers two solutions. offered encouraged smaller to organize they could more could thus thus compete that they to compete more co-operatives, arguing organize co-operatives, arguing that efficiently and effectively with the quasi-corporation units in agriefficiently and effectively with the quasi-corporation units in agriculture and at the time control their production production and their their culture and at the same control their same time marketing to coincide with the domestic and international supply. to and international domestic the coincide with supply. marketing did not not respond. respond. Hoover's Hoover's second was to to win second proposal The farmers farmers did proposal was "the of our bankers and our industry" in financing agriin "the co-operation bankers our of our agriindustry" financing co-operation in large measure the Plan for financing cultural exports. Plan for the Dawes measure in cultural And financing large exports. of Europe, the recovery recovery of of Germany, the rest rest of the the thereby the Europe, was the Germany, and thereby product of such co-operation and co-ordination. co-ordination. such of product co-operation Indeed, the was in in reality reality aa combination combination of of an an AmerPlan was the Dawes Plan Indeed, to effort in Europe and the first co-ordinated effort to underunderican treaty co-ordinated the first and ican peace in peace treaty Europe write the welfare of the corporation political economy of the the wealth and welfare write wealth and corporation political economy
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The Contours Contours of of American American History History The
through overseas overseas economic economic expansion. expansion. Secretary Secretary oof State State Hughes, Hughes, through who handled the formal negotiations with the businessmen and finanand businessmen finanthe with handled the formal who negotiations as well as with the foreign countries, shared Hoover's views. ciers Hoover's shared views. ciers as well as with the foreign countries, to Bolshevism," Bolshevism," and and believing believing that that Concerned to to find find "the "the antidote antidote to Concerned in the conduct of the "businessman has the most direct interest in the conduct interest of the "businessman has the most direct foreign relations," Hughes saw the answer in "the enlarging of the "the of the enlarging foreign relations," Hughes saw the answer in exopportunities for industry and commerce by the recognition and exopportunities for industry and commerce by the recognition tension of of the the policy policy of of the the Open Open Door." Door." In In that that vein, vein, the the Dawes Plan Plan tension as aa way way to to finance finance the the recovery recovery of of Germany, Germany, check check the the was viewed viewed as was Franl=e, and and thereby thereby create create markets markets for for more aggressive aggressive policy policy of of France, more America's industrial industrial and and agricultural agricultural surpluses. surpluses. America's Though Hughes Hughes and and Hoover Hoover finally finally won the the co-operation co-operation of of the the Though in connection connection with with the the Dawes Plan, Plan, their their diffidiffiHouse of of Morgan Morgan in House culties in doing doing so so dramatized dramatized the the persistent persistent trouble trouble Hoover Hoover had had Morgan group group was was less less intensely intensely interinterwith some some financiers. financiers. The Morgan with in an an American American empire. empire. Their Their ested in in aa balanced balanced system, system, or or even even in ested was in in maintaining maintaining their their connections connections as middlemen in in the the concern was as middlemen concern British system, system, taking taking advantage advantage of of any any opportunities opportunities elsewhere, and and British elsewhere, culties in
if possible pressuring pressuring the the government into using using the the taxpayer's taxpayer's money money if possible government into to make foreign foreign loans loans which which they they would would handle. handle. Hoover Hoover opposed opposed to those counts counts and and found found it it much easier easier to to work with with them on on all all those them industrial leaders. industrial leaders. In their stress projects and in their willingness willingness to to In their in their stress on development development projects compete vigorously with the British, for example, the National City with the British, for example, the National City compete vigorously Bank, the Rockefeller interests, Vanderlip came much closer the Rockefeller and Vanderlip closer Bank, interests, and to Hoover's outlook. So did the corporations were establishing to Hoover's outlook. did the corporations that that were establishing branch factories in Eastern branch factories in Eastern and Western Western Europe in Latinand in LatinEurope and backed American countries. a similar American countries. In In a similar way, way, Hoover and Hughes Hughes backed Firestone Tire and Rubber Company's Firestone Tire invasion of of Liberia, economic invasion Liberia, Company's economic a move calculated to provide calculated to an American American source source of of rubber. rubber. The provide an same view why they having American view explains favored having American industrial industrial explains why they favored at the corporations the Soviet Soviet e~onomy, even though at the same same corporations penetrate penetrate the economy, even though to recognize time they and persistently refused to the government and they refused recognize the government persistently opopits efforts efforts to to float float bonds posed in the the United bonds in United States. States. Formal Formal political posed its political financial recognition or financial link improvement in Russian Russian condicondirecognition would link improvement in to the tions to the communists, thought, and hoped, tions whereas they and that communists, whereas they thought, hoped, that independent American operations would help prepare the way the for independent operations help prepare way for the Soviets Soviets and the the downfall of the of prithe restoration restoration of of the the rights of rights private vate property. property.
The Age Age of of Corporation Corporation Capitalism Capitalism
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Hoover and Hughes Hughes also had trouble trouble with with financiers financiers like like Morgan's also had Hoover Morgan's connection with Door Policy in Asia. Thomas Lamont Lament in in connection Thomas with the the Open Open Door Policy in Asia.
were willing willing to to go, go, and a conBoth government officials were Both and did did go, government officials go, a considerable distance alng the road of compromise to reach a modus distance siderable alng the road of compromise to reach a modus vivendi with with the the Japanese. deal to block Tokyo's vivendi done a a great to block Japanese. Having great deal Having done Tokyo's to penetrate penetrate China they wanted wanted an an wartime efforts efforts to wartime China and and Siberia, Siberia, they understanding among powers that that would undercut the industrial industrial powers would undercut understanding among the Chinese radical nationalism nationalism and the same and limit limit and at Chinese radical at the same time time control control and Russian influence. influence. That That accommodation, the Wash~ Russian achieved during the Washaccommodation, achieved during ington Conference based on a simple pro Conference of of 1921-I922, was based on a ington 1921-1922, was quid pro simple quid quo: influence in Manchuria in return in return influence Manchuria in recognized Japanese quo: America recognized Japanese for reaffirmation of the Open in China of support for Japan's China for the Door in Japan's reaffirmation support for Open Door half of of Russia. Russia. On that basis, all agreed to and the the Far Far East East half and all powers that basis, powers agreed to hold their balanced level. their naval naval armaments hold armaments at at a a balanced level. float Thus the the Hughes-Hoover Lamont's desire to Lament's resistance to desire to to float Hughes-Hoover resistance Japanese loans was not indicative of a blanket opposition. They loans was not indicative a of blanket Japanese opposition. They wanted the understood that that such would help help the business, wanted and quite such ties ties would business, and quite understood influence Japan's Japan's actions. actions. On the other hand, hand, they they did not want want influence the other did not Americans to to finance Japan's complete domination of of Manchuria. Manchuria. Americans finance Japan's complete domination Though they finally acquiesced in the banking connection, therefore, in the Though they finally acquiesced banking connection, therefore, to strengthen their own position in China. They were they tried tried to China. their in they strengthen They were position moderately successful, if only in sustaining the turn-of-the-century if in the moderately successful, turn-of-the-century only sustaining view that that China was the the American American frontier frontier of the future. view China was of the future. $26.I million in Exports to China increased steadily (from to in 1913 increased steadily (from $26.1 million 1913 Exports to $I9O million in 1930), and some industrial projects were underto in $190 million 1930), and some industrial projects were undertaken. Perhaps of the the American American strategy was taken. even more indicative indicative of Perhaps even strategy was the large industrialists' use Red Cross Relief and philanthe and other other philanuse of of Red Cross Relief large industrialists' to prepare prepare the the way way for gains. As it admitted thropies to it candidly for future future gains. thropies candidly admitted creature of in its the Red Cross a creature the Government in its own reports, of the "is a Cross "is reports, the of United States." on-the-scene report January 18, of the the United an on-the-scene of January States." And an 18, report of 1930, it clear that Red Red Cross funds raised raised abroad and abroad and "relief funds clear that Cross "relief 1930, made it in China utilized for for the sort of revolving fund that fund that a sort of revolving in are utilized the creation of a China are creation of for financing financing irrigation irrigation projects, projects, road road construction, construction, could be be used could used for etc." One such operation involved grading aa highway route the route etc." such operation involved grading highway on the laid projected u.s. laid out out for a projected for a railroad. U.S. railroad. American economic economic expansion was even and even more sophisticated American sophisticated and expansion was extensive in America. "We have have advanced advanced from the the period period of of in Latin extensive Latin America. of Panthe S. Rowe, Director General of the Panadventure," Leo General Director S. Leo adventure," explained Rowe, explained investment." in I928, the period period of permanent investment." American Union Union in of permanent American "to the 1928, "to
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As that that pattern evolved, Hoover and other like-minded American As pattern evolved, Hoover and other like-minded American leaders moved away the traditional traditional kind kind of of vigorous leaders moved away from from the vigorous diplomatic diplomatic or military military intervention. intervention. Seeking to avoid revolutionary avoid revolutionary themselves to or Seeking themselves upheavals, and to help the poorer countries, as well as being being rereas well as and the to countries, upheavals, help poorer to criticism from reformers like Follette, Johnson, and sponsive and La like criticism to from reformers Follette, Johnson, sponsive Borah, aa good corporation leaders leaders and and government officials Borah, government officials good many many corporation tried very hard to rationalize the economic empire south of the Rio south of the Rio economic hard the tried to rationalize empire very Grande. the key key figures in that effort was Dwight Morrow effort that in Grande. One of of the Dwight figures that illustrates the fallacy of lumpof the House of Morgan (a illustrates the of the House of Morgan fact that lumpfallacy of (a fact ing all bankers together). together). His was typified typified in in what what he he all bankers His approach approach was ing called an Eleventh Commandment that he offered to help help all offered to all that he called an Eleventh corporation leaders leaders move move beyond beyond an ouclookan interest-conscious interest-conscious outlook corporation "Take too seriously." not thyself too "Take not thyself seriously." with the the Mexican Revolution Morrow negotiated negotiated aa modus vivendi Revolution vivendi with that eased, though it did not resolve, the tension arising of its the tension its out of it that did not eased, though resolve, arising out effort to to control control its its own land and the counterdeterthe counterdeterand resources, effort land and resources, mination of of American and agricultural agricultural interests to rereinterests to mination American oil, oil, mining, mining., and In that and similar negotiations, Hoover tain their property rights. tain their property rights. In that similar negotiations, and other officials actually both the the spirit spirit initiated much of of both and other American officials actually initiated and the the practice practice of of what what Roosevelt Roosevelt and and Hull Hull later received credit later received credit But in both cases, cases, for of the the Good Neighbor Neighbor Policy. in both for under under the the name of Policy. But American leaders reasserted their view outside to view American leaders reasserted their determination outside determination to economic challenges challenges as to be be opposed ultimately rerea danger economic as a danger to opposed and ultimately sisted with Hemispheric Empire was to be rationalized sisted with force. to be force. The Hemispheric was rationalized Empire and reformed, not abandoned. abandoned. reformed, not Despite such expansion, and with parallel parallel development in many many such expansion, and with Despite development in domestic the corporation political economy did not not gengendomestic industries, industries, the corporation political economy did erate sustained development. as 1926, erate sustained development. As early for example, steel and and early as 1926, for example, steel automobile spokesmen spokesmen were were warning warning of the need need for more and and automobile of the for still still more neither the coal industry nor agriculbigger overseas markets. overseas markets. And the coal neither nor bigger industry agriculwas the the wealth of the the system distributed ture were were prosperous. prosperous. Nor was ture wealth of system distributed equitably. Before the crash per cent of the the nation's nation's Before the crash in in 1929, cent of equitably. 1929, only only 2.3 2.3 per $10,000, while 60 per cent received families enjoyed incomes of over families incomes over of while 60 cent received $10,000, enjoyed per or less only, or less than, than, $2,000, the figure needed "to only basic basic "to supply $2,000, the only, figure needed supply only necessities." necessities." Recognizing Recognizing the agricultural of a a continued the danger continued agricultural danger of took office President depression, Hoover moved quickly after he took office as as President depression, quickly after in 1929. of June, in Agricultural Marketing June, 1929, created a 1929. The Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929, created a Federal to to loan money to co-operatives or Federal Farm Board empowered loan or to empowered money co-operatives
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established agricultural Even had had it come earlier, earlier, it established it it come agricultural corporations. corporations. Even is extremely unlikely that the action action would would have have prevented prevented the the that the is extremely unlikely crash. wave of and speculative speculative enthusiasm, the a wave of expansionist crash. Riding enthusiasm, the Riding a expansionist and political economy of the large corporation simply collapsed. of the It large corporation simply collapsed. It political economy proved incapable either of generating the necessary capital for coneither of the for congenerating proved incapable necessary capital tinued investment, investment, or or of its wealth in a way that of distributing tinued distributing its wealth in a way that maintained sufficient purchasing power. power. sufficient purchasing maintained Hoover's failure to act more decisively and extensively to halt failure to act Hoover's decisively and extensively to halt and reverse the failure was largely the result his own analysis of and reverse the failure was largely the result of of his analysis of the system way this interpretation seemed seemed to be verified by the way this interpretation the to be verified by system and the concurrent developments in in Italy, Italy, Germany, Japan, and Russia. EnEnconcurrent developments and Russia. Germany, Japan, tertaining aa fundamental the system and its capacity fundamental confidence confidence in in the its capacity tertaining system and to recover, did not not want want by government action to drive it toward he did toward to action to drive it recover, he by government fascism, socialism, or oligarchy. did he wish to stop Japan's or to Nor did he wish fascism, socialism, oligarchy. stop Japan's invasion of Manchuria by taking taking aa stand that he he thought thought Manchuria (1931) invasion of stand that (1931) by risked the probability of war; that, too, would push the United the great risked of war; that, too, would push the United great probability States toward oligarchy (or even tyranny), and would also strengthen States toward oligarchy (or even tyranny), and would also strengthen Russia radicalism in in China. Russia and radicalism China. The disagreement that developed between Hoover and Secretary Hoover and disagreement that Secretary developed between of Henry L. that crisis crisis serves to dramatize dramatize aa of State over that State Henry L. Stimson Stimson over serves to crucial For in in aa way way that a broad broad the entire era. For offered a crucial aspect of the entire era. that offered aspect of analogy with James Monroe's selection of John Quincy as his his with Monroe's selection Adams as of John Quincy James analogy Secretary of State, Hoover's choice of Stimson symbolized an imporof of Hoover's choice Stimson State, imporsymbolized Secretary tant convergence rising new industrial industrial gentry gentry with with the remaina rising the remainof a tant convergence of ing heirs of of the within the Progressive the Progressive the colonial feudal gentry colonial feudal gentry within ing heirs Movement. had modeled modeled his his career those of of career and ideas ideas on those Movement. Stimson Stimson had Theodore Roosevelt, and in he advocated an the Manchurian in the Crisis he advocated an Theodore Manchurian Crisis Roosevelt, and appropriately to shock Japanese and the Japanese shock the calculated to stand calculated strong stand appropriately strong put them back on the high road to becoming Western gentlemen. to back the road gentlemen. high becoming put even In fine he discounted or dismissed, or perhaps or he discounted or In fine feudal feudal style, dismissed, perhaps even style, that In an even more striking illustration of that accepted, the risk of war. of of war. In even illustration the risk an more striking accepted, outlook, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, himself a clear and conscious conscious a clear and himself Franklin Delano Roosevelt, outlook, (and more more legitimate) legitimate) descendant gentry, of the the New York agrarian descendant of agrarian gentry, (and Stimson's thought the the only thing to was fear fear itself. shared Stimson's to fear itself. He shared fear was thought only thing views on standing up to to the Japanese and and reasserting reasserting the the Open Open Door views the Japanese standing up in in China. China. stand But while while the the old old feudal feudal gentry took a a much more vigorous But vigorous stand gentry took in affairs, they turned to the more sophisticated corporation to the turned in foreign sophisticated corporation foreign affairs, they
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If
leadership in domestic affairs. there was any development leadership in domestic affairs. If there was any new development it appeared in connected with the events of the Great Depression, in connected with the events of the Great Depression, it appeared Hoover's hesitant, partial retreat retreat from from the the frontier expansionist frontier expansionist Hoover's hesitant, partial policy-not in the domestic policies of the the New approach to foreign of domestic in not the to policies foreign policy approach Deal. Deal.
The policies that that Hoover finally employ his efforts efforts to in his to did finally Hoover did The policies employ in
halt the the depression provided the the rudiments of Roosevelt's program. Roosevelt's program. rudiments of halt depression provided Hoover's analysis propensity of of the the corporation political of the the propensity And Hoover's corporation political analysis of economy to produce "a syndicalist nation a gigantic scale" was scale" on nation was "a gigantic syndicalist economy to produce New Deal. ultimately verified by the results of Roosevelt's Deal. ultimately verified by the results of Roosevelt's criticized upon upon Hoover's handling handling of of the be criticized in truth truth be can in the depression Hoover's depression can only one basis. refused to save the system through means that the to save that refused one He basis. through system only he considered values and potential. potential. The American of its its values American destructive of he considered destructive use, or or to to acquiesce acquiesce in use of, of, those those people proved willing to in the the use to use, proved willing people that rested upon primeans in to preserve preserve aa sense that rested sense of of identity means order to in order upon priidentity to pay a political, social, and vate property. property. They were thus willing to a and were vate thus They willing pay political, social, even price that that Hoover judged at the time be exorbitant. to be at the time to Hoover judged even economic exorbitant. economic price He was was judged judged by by the the voting voting public in the election of 1932. the election of 1932. Having public in Having taken aa stand, he accepted accepted the the consequences. the subsequent of the taken stand, he consequences. Most of subsequent his performance performance has has ignored ignored both both the the issues that commentary on on his issues that commentary he raised the nature nature of American development. development. he of later kter American raised and and the Before that that defeat Hoover had had pulled pulled out out every every defeat in Before in 1932, however, Hoover 1932, however, He first tried, antidepression tool the Progressives ever owned. the ever tool first as owned. tried, as Progressives antidepression had Theodore Roosevelt in Panic of of 1907, to coerce and wheedle in the the Panic to coerce Theodore Roosevelt had wheedle 1907, as Andrew Mellon Mellon and Thomas Lamont into financial leaders such financial leaders such as into underwriting the the stock and thereby thereby stopping stopping the stock market market and the downturn. downturn. underwriting They both the the will the capital. Hoover then then recomrecomlacked both will and the They lacked capital. or approved approved aa wide wide spectrum recovery measures. mended or of recovery measures. The spectrum of Norris-La of 1932 Norris-La Guardia Act Act of the principle principle of established the of collective collective 1932 established as the law of the land. The Reconstruction Finance bargaining as the of the land. Reconstruction Finance bargaining as well as one of the key instruCorporation provided the model the as well as one the of Corporation provided key instruments of most New Deal financing of domestic production and overments of most of domestic overand financing production seas seas economic expansion. asked also for a significant tax cut Hoover asked also for a expansion. significant tax cut to to encourage investment, a $423 million public public works works program, program, more more $423 million encourage investment, credit for for farmers, credit bank deposits, more liberal liberal for bank fanners, new guarantees guarantees for deposits, more bankruptcy laws, whatever the direct-relief appropriations. But whatever the laws, and direct-relief bankruptcy appropriations. But value of Hoover's value of the Democrats Democrats were by that that Hoover's recommendations, were by recommendations, the time to support the White time refusing refusing to Roosevelt entered entered the White support them and Roosevelt to House only to confront a very grave crisis. confront a crisis. only very grave
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THE NEW DEAL AS THE CONVERGENCE AND CONSOLIDATION REFORM, TRADITIONS NOBLESSE OBLIGE AND REFORM, OF OLD TRADITIONS-NOBLESSE SYNDICALISM AND EXPANSION
Though it lasted five years its own leaders leaders admitted admitted that that it lasted barely Though its barely five years (1933-1937), and though it ended with candid admissions of failure and it ended with candid failure of admissions though (1933-1937), from major protagonists, protagonists, the often viewed as aa major major the New Deal its major from its Deal is is often viewed as turning point in American history. A bit more perspective suggests in American bit more perspective suggests turning point history. that it reaction to a severe crisis in the it represented a that to a in which of the severe crisis which most most of represented a reaction elements, policies of Progressive Movement were the Progressive of the Movement were elements, attitudes, attitudes, and policies finally consolidated one short period under under the the leadership leadership of of aa consolidated in in one short period finally particularly dramatic politician. The Deal saved the system. dramatic Deal the New saved politician. system. particularly It did not change change it. it. Later did not Later developments and characteristics It characteristics of of developments and American society which suggest an opposite conclusion are no more which an are no more American conclusion society suggest opposite than the maturation of ideas and and full extension the full extension and and maturation than earlier ideas of much earlier policies that were brought together in what a high New Dealer called were that in what a called Dealer brought together high policies aa shotgun approach to to dealing dealing with the depression. depression. with the shotgun approach For that of the the large large corporathat matter, For such fulfillment the age fulfillment of of the matter, such corporaage of tion did actually begin begin until the New Deal Deal had collapsed in the did not not actually until the tion had collapsed in the New Deal reformer Harry Hopkins Recession of of 1937-1938. Deal Recession reformer made 1937-1938. Harry Hopkins that clear his more-than-a-litde-desperate more-than-a-litcle-desperate remarks remarks of of 1939in his clear in "This that 1939. "This country cannot continue as a democracy with 10,000,000 or 12,000,000 continue as a cannot or with 12,000,000 10,000,000 country democracy people unemployed. unemployed. It It just just can't done. We have got to way to find a way can't be be done. have got find a people of in America in which every person in it shares in the national in in it in the national of living America which in shares living every person income, in a way, way, that that poverty poverty in in America America is is abolished." in such such a abolished." The income, same point point was made by by presidential advisor Adolph a in a A. Berle Berle in presidential advisor Adolph A. warning to Roosevelt on August 16, 1938. "The paramount necessity to Roosevelt on 16, August necessity 1938. paramount warning to do do some thinking thinking at least one lap ahead of the the obvious obvious at least is to one lap ahead of now is financial and industrial crisis which is plainly indicated the financial and industrial is plainly indicated within within the crisis which next few years." next years." Although the the New Deal Deal is Rs often characterized three Rscharacterized by is often Although by three relief, recovery, and reform-and even divided into chronological divided into and reform and even relief, recovery, chronological eras ostensibly coinciding with those different with those such an eras different emphases, emphases, such ostensibly coinciding approach is misleading on least three important counts. the three important counts. First, at least is misleading on at First, the approach economic did not not recover sustain its predepression perperits predepression economic system recover and sustain system did those levels of employment formance, let alone levels of employment and producproducalone surpass formance, let surpass those tion, until until domestic domestic and and foreign war orders (and investment) pulled orders war tion, foreign (and investment) pulled between with it tolerable stagnation-with between it out tolerable of the of barely out of the condition condition of stagnation barely
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99 and million unemployed unemployed in which the Deal had had the New Deal in 1939-to and 10 10 million 1939 to which 1932-1933. After all, temporarily lifted it from the abject depths of of After the all, 1932-1933. abject depths temporarily lifted it from it was Roosevelt himself who remarked even before the Recession of before the even Recession of remarked it was Roosevelt himself 1937 that one-third of the nation was ill-housed, ill-clothed, and illand ill1937 that one-third of the nation was ill-housed, ill-clothed, fed. it was. was. Second, providing recovery, the New of providing instead of fed. And it Second, instead recovery, the Deal promoted the rationalization of the existing syndicalist political Deal promoted the rationalization of the existing syndicalist political economy based based on on the the large large corporation. efforts the main efforts third, the corporation. And third, economy in aa jumble jumble of relief, relief, rationalization, rationalization, and occurred in reform actually of and reform actually occurred rather than than proceeding proceeding in plan of or neat order or of deneat plan derather in any step-by-step order any step-by-step to the core, the Deal was not so velopment. Pragmatic was not so the New much to the core, Pragmatic velopment. it was was undirected. undirected. misdirected as as it misdirected Paradoxically, in view of magic with with the the voters, of that that of his his magic in view voters, much of Paradoxically, was due Roosevelt's approach. approach. Fundamentally Fundamentally of Roosevelt's was to the the character character of due to certainly one of the the most conservative representarepresentahe was most conservative the last one of he was the last and and certainly manitives of the American American feudal to hold the Presidency. hold the to feudal gentry of the tives Presidency. He manigentry fested, among other characteristics of that tradition, its spirit of that of other characteristics its fested, among tradition, spirit of noblesse oblige oblige and and disinterested disinterested humanitarianism to aa high degree. noblesse humanitarianism to high degree. worker recognized recognized this this in of a moving in a remark of A North Carolina worker North Carolina moving remark 1934 which also illustrates why Roosevelt such a broad a Roosevelt commanded which also such broad illustrates why 1934 do think," think," concluded the mill mill and intense personal following. "I do and intense personal concluded the following. "I Deal: "I do think hand, after making some criticisms of the of the Deal: "I after New criticisms do think some hand, making is the the biggest-hearted biggest-hearted man we ever had in White Roosevelt is Roosevelt ever had in the the White House." Roosevelt Roosevelt also the buoyant confidence of such also symbolized the House." confidence of such symbolized buoyant an too, was an important element of his sucan aristocracy, and that, an was element of his sucthat, too, aristocracy, important cess. cess. Yet that was nearing nearing the American that old old gentry Yet the end its tenure tenure in end of of its in American gentry was society, and the signs of enfeeblement in such a declining the tradition society, signs of enfeeblement in such a declining tradition also appeared also in Roosevelt. was very prone to to slip slip Roosevelt. His His confidence confidence was appeared in very prone over into into arrogance result of victory over over as a a result of his over his victory and, perhaps arrogance and, perhaps as into a polio, into a kind of of recklessness recklessness that that came very very close being irreirreto being close to polio, also rather rather liked power for for its Yet the the sponsibility. He also liked power its own sake. sake. Yet sponsibility. gravest the tradition tradition was was revealed revealed in of the in Roosevelt's Roosevelt's gravest weakening weakening of to study, failure to failure know, and master master the the political political economy in which which study, know, economy in he held place. He just just did not know very very held such an initially initially high high place. did not much about the the workings workings of system. Since the ideal ideal of of an industrial system. an industrial of Since the was in essence the crucial definition informed and responsible power in essence was the crucial definition responsible power of the gentry, Roosevelt fell fell short of the the mark on both counts. To short of of the both counts. gentry, Roosevelt make up for the the discrepancy, discrepancy, he substituted and relied upon aa thorthorsubstituted and relied upon up for oughgoing pragmatism and an almost fantastic political skill. almost fantastic The skill. oughgoing pragmatism political
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combination served served to to save save the produce aa kind ad hoc hoc the system and produce of ad kind of combination system and balancing of forces in society, but it neither offered nor institutionin o forces it neither offered nor institutionbalancing society, but alized alized
any and dynamic to the direction to the country. lasting and any lasting dynamic direction country. Roosevelt's greatest contributions in the crisis, to the the New Roosevelt's greatest contributions in the crisis, and and to Deal as sUf;h, were his elan and his determination to relieve Deal as such, were his elan and his determination to relieve suffering suffering at numbed by by events and by by the the disAmericans were cost. Americans were so so numbed at any events and disany cost. a succession crepancy reality and between reality and their their Progressive faith in in a succession Progressive faith crepancy between of that they not rally from the the crash three years. years. did not of frontiers, crash for for three frontiers, that they did rally from That up leaders with new ideas or with vigorous to throw up failure to leaders with That failure ideas or with vigorous adaptations old ones ones is and devastating a comment of old is so so awesome awesome and adaptations of devastating a comment on the anti-intellectual the fronfronand the American education education and on American nature of of the anti-intellectual nature tier-expansionist theory of history that it defies comment. It also inof it inthat defies also comment. It tier-expansionist theory history dicates in in an equally persuasive persuasive manner manner the the fundamental weakness an equally dicates fundamental weakness of John pragmatic relativism. of relativism. John Dewey's Dewey's pragmatic As for relief, it a letter letter of the need need for for relief, for the is poignandy caught in it is of poignantly caught in a 14, 1933, from a railroad worker to a member of Roosevelt's June a from a railroad worker of Roosevelt's to June 14, 1933, are wearing wearing rags rags and and using using flour bags for cabinet. flour and and feed feed bags for cabinet. "We are go to market once a while while to towels and pillow slips slips . • . We go to and pillow to market once in in a towels look nice vegetables vegetables then then go go home and oatat the the nice look at and eat eat macaroni and oatmacaroni and meal." Others were not not that munched along along on on wild wild that fortunate. Others were fortunate. They meal." They munched no one really knows many, berries and roots. roots. And some, died no one how berries knows some, many, died really diseases which feast upon weakened of malnutrition or the host of the of malnutrition or host of diseases which feast upon weakened bodies. Beginning Beginning with with the Conservathe establishment Civilian Conservaof the the Civilian bodies. establishment of tion Corps and the the Federal Federal Emergency Emergency Relief Relief Administration Administration (1933), tion Corps and (1933), and expanded under the the pressure pressure of of need need and Harry and social-worker social-worker Harry and expanded under Hopkins, the the New Deal Deal relief relief measures culminated in in the the Works measures culminated Hopkins, Progress Administration of By that that time, time, the the Public of 1935. Public Works Progress Administration 1935. By had also also begun to employ employ sigsigAdministration, established established in in 1933, Administration, begun to 1933, had connificant numbers of men through its contracts with private private connificant contracts with numbers of through its struction corporations. corporations. On balance, balance, the relief efforts of the the New efforts of struction the relief Deal were were very very probably probably its most notable and nohle contributions Deal noble contributions notable and its most to American life. to American life. Beyond the psychological triumph restoring confidence, and of restoring the confidence, and Beyond triumph of psychological the humanitarianism Deal ultimately ultimately brought the the the New Deal humanitarianism of of relief, relief, the brought the main functional elements of the political economy the of functional and and syndicalist elements main economy political syndicalist of its its first into rough kind kind of of legal balance. Four of first into a a rough and practical practical balance. legal and bankaction save the laws, for example, represented government action to save the bankto for laws, example, represented government ing system to establish and procedures procedures of honesty and of honesty establish rules and to rules and ing system and in safety for the securities market. For leadership in those matters, as those as for the market. For securities matters, leadership safety .
*
.
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well as industrial legislation, legislation, Roosevelt Roosevelt turned turned to to the the well as in in subsequent subsequent industrial corporation community and political allies allies and associates. associates. Such Such its political and its corporation community spokesmen responded with the National Industrial Recovery Act Industrial the National Act with Recovery spokesmen responded (I933) and an expansion of the powers of the Reconstruction of the the of Reconstruction an and powers (1933) expansion Finance Corporation esta.blished by by Hoover. Hoover. Finance Corporation established but had had Hoover had been been offered plans like like the N.R.A., but the N.R.A., several plans offered several Hoover had turned them on the the grounds that they all pointed the country all the that them down on turned they pointed country grounds toward some kind of fascism. And aa good good many many observers and out out in and observers in of fascism. toward some kind of the New Deal called attention at the time to the fact that the time to the fact that the Deal called attention at the of the N.R.A. many parallels with the kind of corporate syndicalhave many did have A. did N.R parallels with the kind of corporate syndicalism in Italy. By-passing the anti-trust it empowered anti-trust laws, the in ism developed laws, it empowered Italy. By-passing developed businessmen (meaning in practice the large corporations) to manage manage in the businessmen practice large corporations) to (meaning the economy on condition (Section 7a) that they recognized that on "the condition the (Section 7a) they recognized "the economy right [of workers] to organize and bargain collectively through to and organize bargain collectively through right [of workers] representatives of of their their own choosing." equitable, that seemed seemed equitable, choosing." While that representatives the law provide any effective way of enforcing labor's rights. effective of not provide labor's the law did did not any way enforcing rights. At the the same time, agriculture was assisted through such measures was assisted such same time, agriculture measures through as the Federal Farm Loan Loan Act Act and the Agricultural Agricultural Adjustment Adjustment Act Act and the as the Federal which initiated the now standard practice of of using using federal funds to standard practice federal funds initiated the which to pay farmers for reducing their production. Beyond relief, the most their for the farmers most relief, Beyond production. pay reducing direct unorganized consumer ~me in the Home Owners Owners in the consumer .came direct aid to the the unorganized aid to Loan Corporation, which used government funds to underwrite, used which funds to Loan underwrite, Corporation, government and thereby thereby save, over aa million million residential residential mortgages mortgages from from foreforesave, over closure. closure. The failure of those those and and associated efforts to to produce produce aa rapid rapid and failure of associated efforts and general recovery of the economy provoked a general restlessness general recovery of the economy provoked a general restlessness throughout the the country country that that opened way for for die the reformers reformers to to rerethe way throughout opened the establish their their influence influence in in the establish the Progressive Movement. "Boys," cried cried Progressive Movement. "Boys," "this is is our Hopkins, our hour. hour. We've got to get get everything wantHopkins, "this got to everything we want a social security, a works works program, program, social wages and hours, everything-now hours, everything now security, wages or never." Hopkins or never." Hopkins was probably probably correct. correct. Had the the N.R.A. N.R.A. succeeded succeeded in in restoring restoring aa significant momentum toward recovery, Roosevelt's toward Roosevelt's significant recovery, conservatism might might very very easily have blocked blocked many many reforms that were were conservatism reforms that easily have written into law. it was, he persistently resisted some finally written into law. As it of was, he persistently resisted some of finally them as a such effective charter them-such as a more effective it became became charter for for labor-until labor until it politically risky balk any to balk politically risky to any longer. longer. Five Five broad broad groups provided the pressure that that the ideas and the ideas and the pressure groups provided forced Roosevelt to forced Roosevelt to veer veer toward the the reform the Progressive reform side side of of the Progressive
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tradition. The reformers reformers themselves themselves provided provided many of the the ideas and ideas and many of the sustained pressure inside government. A small group of inside the the government. sustained pressure the small group of sophisticated corporation leaders, including politicians and business and business leaders, corporation sophisticated including politicians way with with the the reform reform bloc, bloc, but but economists, associated in was associated in a a loose loose way economists, was most reformers reformers were were socialists heart. Without Without them them and their socialists of of the the heart. and their most devotion to conditions for the unorganized unorganized citizen, much to improving devotion for the citizen, much improving conditions less would would have been accomplished by the Deal. They were have been less the New Deal. They were accomplished by rigorous critics of the not revolutionaries, nor even particularly nor even esnot revolutionaries, particularly rigorous critics of the essential political economy of the large corporation, corporation, and and only only aa few few sential political economy of the large attacked the the institution property. A tiny number accepted institution of of private attacked private property. tiny number accepted to offer revolutionary communist But even they failed failed to even they communist leadership. offer any leadership. But any revolutionary For the most part, they contented themselves with trying trying proposals. the most with themselves contented part, they proposals. to fit 20thto adapt Russian ideas and forms to the United States, or Russian ideas to forms to the to or 20thUnited fit States, adapt century facts into 19th-century Marxian analyses. into facts Marxian 19th-century century analyses. In years, after and Japan turned to military later years, after Germany, In later Germany, Italy, Italy, and Japan turned to military expansion in Spain such communists and associated associated communists and China, such Spain and China, expansion in close and active radicals tried to influence the government into a radicals tried to influence the government into a close and active tie with the Soviet Union. So number of with the Soviet Union. So did tie did a a number of non-communist leadnon-communist leadto help help the the ers. But But aa few of the communists tried to of the went further and tried ers. communists went further and Russians by by illegally giving them information which the United Russians them information the United which illegally giving States had gathered gathered about the Axis Axis powers. powers. Since the Soviet Union about the States had Soviet Union Since the and the United States were not not nations that had declared and the United States were declared had openly nations that openly themselves enemies that were war, the the action was not not treason. treason. were at themselves enemies or at war, or that action was For according to the Constitution, at any rate, the United States For to the the United States at Constitution, according any rate, cannot declare war against an idea. Often unfairly deprived of hardcannot declare against an idea. Often unfairly deprived of hardof the earned bring about the reforms the New earned credit credit for for having reforms of about the helped bring having helped Deal, such not, by by an an inverse inverse logic, be blamed blamed for for such radicals radicals should should not, Deal, logic, be all America's later later difficulties. in the the 19305 all America's difficulties. American American communists communists in 1930$ no more imperiled the United than they they saved the Soviet Soviet saved the no United States States than imperiled the Union. Union. was the the proproAnother significant, though more more diffuse, Another influence was diffuse, influence significant, though and retirement benefits developed and agitated for gram for old age and for old retirement benefits agitated for gram age developed by Francis E. Townsend of California. Joined or supported by others others or Francis of California. E. Joined supported by by unemployment compensation relief on similar relief who demanded unemployment compensation and similar aa routine routine basis, basis, Townsend rapidly rapidly became became aa significant significant political political force force difficult that threatened threatened even influence. Still another and difficult that more another even greater Still influence. greater in the the appeal pressure to to estimate Louisiana in estimate came from Louisiana approach appeal and approach pressure but Long; originating in the south, but quickly of its the its Governor of in Governor Huey south, quickly Huey Long; originating tradition.
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winning support the west even the the upper upper Mississippi Mississippi Valley, Valley, and even west and in the winning support in conLong's "Share the Wealth" program cause the same kind of the kind cause same of conthe Wealth" "Share Long's program cern in Washington. cern in Washington. Long was the the shrewd what was in many in many of what leader of and demagogic shrewd and demagogic leader Long was respects a grass-roots revolt throughout the south and west against the south west against respects a grass-roots revolt throughout felt to be be their their colonial colonial position position within within the the dodofelt to mestic empire of the corporation. It had a good many of the mestic the large empire of large corporation. It had a good many of the features, and emotional, emotional, of the kind kind of of activity that same of the same rational and features, rational activity that in and called anti-imperialism, in later to be be called later years anti-colonialism, and anti-imperialism, anti-colonialism, years to colonial moderate wing wing included businessmen included businessmen Its more more moderate colonial nationalism. nationalism. Its well as as poor poor whites whites and and reformers. reformers. And in in Texas Texas and ranchers as as well and ranchers historian Walter of the the corporation economy, Webb's study historian Prescott Webb's Walter Prescott corporation economy, study of Divided We Stand Stand-The of aa Frontier-less Frontier-less Democracy Democracy (1937), Crisis of The Crisis Divided (1937), it trenchant aa criticism of the that one corporation that the system one it offered criticism of offered so so trenchant corporation system withdrawn from public market. market. forced the public from the be withdrawn forced it it to to be The conditions which produced produced Long also provided the raw raw also conditions which provided the Long material for on the South in prose and photography by in on the South for an an essay material prose photography by essay writer James Agee and cameraman Walker Evans that was one of and Evans that was one writer of James Agee the nation's true artistic masterpieces. A corporation corporation also and human masterpieces. the nation's true artistic and also refused to publish the the essay, though having having in in 1936 even though to publish refused commisessay, even 1936 commissioned its its preparation. preparation. Finally appearing during sioned World II War II Finally appearing during under the the ironic ironic title tide of of Let Let Us Now Praise Praise Famous Men, Men, it provided under it provided in the the very very an reminder of the failure the New Deal of the an enduring failure of of the Deal in enduring reminder region in which one of its most favorably famous monuments, the in which of its most one region favorably famous monuments, the Tennessee Valley Authority, was located. Tennessee located. Valley Authority, are neither neither excused nor justified justified by factors. Long's excesses are excused nor such factors. Long's excesses by such many of his promises promises (as in the the inBut But Long also made good of his inLong also good on many (as in stance of university), aa fact overlooked by by the critics stance of a a state state university), fact often often overlooked the critics of his demagoguery. worth pointing pointing out, that most most of his It is is worth out, furthermore, furthermore, that demagoguery. It exaggeraopponents of have proved proved peculiarly blind to of Long to similar similar exaggeraopponents Long have peculiarly blind tions, dishonesty, and pie-in-the-sky promises offered by more more offered by tions, dishonesty, and pie-in-the-sky promises respectable reformers reformers and and their their associates the corporation in the associates in comrespectable corporation community. Whatever the nature nature of one's judgment judgment of Long today, today, Whatever the of one's of Long munity. however, the vigor of of his his leadership the relevance relevance of his criticritithe vigor and the of his however, leadership and worried New Deal at the the time. time. cism worried cism Deal leaders leaders at With aa deeply deeply conservative conservative point point of of view view and even more demademaeven more than gogic characteristics than Long manifested, Father Charles Coughlin characteristics Father Charles manifested, gogic Long Coughlin led a fourth fourth section led His blatant blatant advocacy a crude of opinion. section of of a crude opinion. His advocacy of fascist kind of corporate fascist kind of corporate and syndicalist government for the industhe indusfor syndicalist government what those what those regions regions
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trial system attracted aa sizable following. By and large sizable and and fanatic fanatic following. system attracted By and large it was a following that paid litde heed to his Catholicism, he a that was little it heed to his Catholicism, and and he following paid may have been the first 20th-century politician to break through that the have been first may 20th-century politician to break through that barrier in politics. His almost incoherent program in American politics. His fuzzy, barrier incoherent program fuzzy, almost for a corporate state that would soak the rich and dunk the radicals state that soak the rich and dunk the radicals for a corporate to the everlasting security private property and the the and glory of private to the everlasting security and glory of property and middle class worried all national leaders leaders-radical class worried all national radical and and conservative. conservative. middle But the the most important influential uprising uprising came labor. But and influential came from from labor. important and Leading way was was the the way the Congress of Industrial Industrial Organizations, Leading the Congress of Organizations, initially the A.F. A.F. of L. that that concentrated on assemassema subdivision subdivision of of the of L. concentrated on initially a bly-line and other unskilled workers in large industry. Erupting in other unskilled in workers bly-line large industry. Erupting in 1934 in a series of strikes throughout the industrial sections of the a in series of strikes the the industrial of sections 1934 throughout country, at the the same same time time in in aa fight for control of the A.F. of L., country, and at fight for control of the A.F. of L., the more militant militant unionism unionism of the c.I.a. the of the C.I.O. infused infused the labor entire labor the entire with aa determination win recognition, recognition, higher higher wages, wages, determination to to win movement with better working working conditions, of representation and power better and a a parity conditions, and parity of representation and power within the organization of the system. the functional within functional and and syndicalist syndicalist organization o the system. by many corporations, the bitter organThough violently opposed the bitter Though violently opposed by many corporations, organizational the C.I.a. led by by such John L. L. Lewis drive of of the izational drive as John such men as Lewis C.LO. led (coal), Philip Murray (steel), and Walter Reuther (automobiles) and Walter Reuther (automobiles) (coal), Philip Murray (steel), what was was in reality aa very very short time. succeeded in what in reality succeeded in short time. Joining in an an alliance alliance with reform leaders Senator as Senator with such such key leaders as Joining in key reform Robert F. Wagner of New York, and indicating that their Robert F. Wagner of York, and indicating that their new power would be used in politics, they won aa significant victory in the in the be used in politics, they power significant victory Wagner Labor .Act of 1935. labor's .Act of law defined established labor's That law defined and established Wagner 1935. That position in in the the syndicalist provided, in in the National the National and provided, syndicalist system position system and Labor Relations Board, an for adjudicating adjudicating its its basic basic relarelaan institution Labor Relations Board, institution for tionships with capital. Labor Labor also influenced the Act also influenced the Social with capital. Social Security Security Act tionships of year, and generally injected more more verve and drive into of the verve and drive into the same year, generally injected the New Deal. Deal. Despite Despite that vigor, and influence, the the its gains and influence, and its the that vigor, gains labor into the the syndicalist labor movement rather rather rapidly settled down into syndicalist rapidly settled pattern that that was was by by then then clearly emerging from the the excitement excitement and clearly emerging pattern flux the New Deal. Deal. of the flux of Roosevelt's steamroller victory in the Dramatized by by their their role role in in the in Roosevelt's steamroller victory Dramatized in a vital role had the reformers and labor played a vital role in election of of 1936, labor election the reformers played 1936, of rounding out the essential features of the syndicalist organization the essential out the features syndicalist organization rounding of the the system. Along with with the the great leaders of corporation of corporation leaders majority of system. Along great majority the that the and those groups had also accepted the principle that the also those and farmers, had farmers, accepted principle groups the to sustain government should accumulate allocate capital to sustain the and allocate should accumulate capital government trial
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system. They also proved willing to employ that strategy on aa grander grander system. They also proved willing to employ that strategy scale than been the the case American mercantilists, with early or case with had been scale than had mercantilists, or early American 2oth-century leaders like Hoover. The reformers and a growing a reformers growing 20th-century leaders like Hoover. number of developed aa more more sophisticated also developed leaders also number of corporation sophisticated corporation leaders approach mechanics of investment, as as in in its its timing, the such investment, of such the mechanics to the timing, the approach to be assisted, and the amount needed. sectors of the economy to the needed. sectors of the economy to be assisted, Though the theories of England's John Maynard Keynes Keynes of England's the economic economic theories John Maynard Though influenced they also learned aa great their own deal from their also learned influenced such such men, men, they great deal experiments and and study. latter considerations considerations point point up up an an Those latter study. Those experiments elementary aspect of the whole development: neither the principle neither the the of whole development: principle elementary aspect was new new in America. As Keynes Keynes himself nor the the practice practice was himself acknowlin America. acknowlnor deal from the mercantilists, and their edged, he had learned a great the and deal from a their he learned had mercantilists, great edged, tradition had entered the the Progressive Movement at an early date. at an date. had entered tradition Progressive early issues, the the role role of government as Those two as accumulator of the accumulator of the government of Those two issues, capital and the maturation of a syndicalist pattern of organization of of a and the maturation organization syndicalist pattern capital for the political economy, were the crux of the New Deal's the crux of the Deal's struggle for the political struggle economy, were with the Court. Between Between 1934 and 1937, in aa series series of the Supreme dewith of de1937, in 1934 and Supreme Court. cisions on the rights of private property property and on on the unconstiof private the unconsticisions based the rights based on tutionality of power in in the the and centralizing of consolidating great power consolidating and centralizing great tutionality Executive Department, Department, the early Court invalidated invalidated many the Court Executive New many early reDeal laws. Though aa good many of of them them were modified and and reDeal were modified laws. Though good many enacted, Deal leaders needed final legal sanction for the final leaders needed New Deal sanction for the enacted, legal policies and institutions institutions they they had had established. established. Roosevelt obtained Roosevelt obtained policies his dramatic assault on the structure the that; for though he lost lost his for he dramatic the assault on structure of of the that; though Court itself, he won the war against its reluctance to accept syndicalthe its Court war reluctance to itself, he against accept syndicalism. ism. The Court gave way way in of Roosevelt's triumph, Court gave in the the face face of Roosevelt's election election triumph, in view the apparent to legalize the means that and in and view of of the apparent necessity necessity to legalize the means that to be be saving seemed to the corporation April, 1937, in the the seemed In April, economy. In 1937, in saving the corporation economy. case the National National Labor Labor Relations Relations Board Board v. and case of of the v. The Tones Jones and Court upheld upheld the Wagner Labor Laughlin Steel Steel Corporation, the Court the Wagner Labor Laughlin Corporation, the By explicitly because they they were were "essential Act. By Act. unions because "essential explicitly sanctioning sanctioning unions to laborers opportunity to give to deal deal on an an equality the emwith the emgive laborers opportunity to equality with Chief Justice ployer," Chief Justice Hughes authorized the government authorized the ployer," Hughes implicitly implicitly government to intervene in to intervene political economy to establish, and in the the political establish, maintain, maintain, and economy to a rough institutionalize a institutionalize rough kind parity between between the the various various funcfunckind of of parity tional units. Furthermore, tional units. Furthermore, the the Court the corporation Court held held that that the econcorporation econwas a that a system that could not be broken up and dealt with in omy not could be broken in dealt with and omy system up smaller units. Those two of the decision established the smaller units. two aspects of the decision the established aspects
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central of aa functional functional and of the the and syndicalist central principle principle of syndicalist organization organization of political economy on a national basis. a national basis. political economy The Court's the Social Act and the Court's decisions decisions upholding Social Security upholding the Security Act and the State Unemployment Compensation Act were were perhaps perhaps of Alabama's Alabama's Unemployment State of Compensation Act even more necessary to to the of that that system. Holding that that the functioning more necessary even system. Holding functioning of an excise social were justified justified as deductions were social security excise tax, and further further as an tax, and security deductions in being being used for "the general welfare," the judges judges underwrote underwrote that that "the general used for in welfare," the The Court went even approach to old age and retirement benefits. to old and retirement even benefits. Court went age approach For in that instance plaintiff further in the Alabama case. in the case. For further in that instance the the plaintiff charged that the taxes returned no benefit to those paid them, the that taxes no returned benefit to those who charged paid them, by the role of the government thereby raising the question posed the the the role of in question posed by thereby raising government in accumulating capital from the taxpayer and allocating or investing it the from and or accumulating capital taxpayer investing it allocating without his his direct direct participation participation in the decisions. decisions. To avoid mismiswithout in the avoid any any understanding, it it seems wise to to emphasize very strongly the seems wise that the understanding, emphasize very strongly that questions of social security protection and unemployment compenof social and security protection questions unemployment compennecessation are Both are are not in themselves sation not in themselves the the fundamental are necesfundamental issue. issue. Both sary and desirable. and desirable. sary The crucial point is is quite a syndicalist syndicalist system crucial point comdifferent: In In a quite different: system composed of interest-conscious functional groups which exert extremely of interest-conscious functional which exert posed extremely groups does the the powerful and and effective effective pressure pressure on political leaders, on political leaders, how does powerful to any significant extent in citizen-taxpayer either participate the citizen-taxpayer either participate to any significant extent in the formulation proposals or protect himself himself against taken of proposals or protect decisions taken formulation of against decisions in his name which subject him to double jeopardy in matters of in his which subject to double jeopardy in matters of economics or civil rights? rights? The meaning meaning of the in the or civil of the the decision decision in economics was very very simple very blunt: blunt: he he does not. "The Alabama case does not. Alabama case was and very simple and only to which which the the taxpayer constitutionally entitled," the benefit to is constitutionally entitled," the only benefit taxpayer is in the words of Justice Harlan F. Stone's opinCourt the Harlan F. Stone's in words of Court pronounced Justice opinpronounced in "is that the privilege privilege of ion, "is that derived of the of living derived from his his enjoyment ion, enjoyment of living in a civilized established and devotion of of a the devotion civilized society, and safeguarded by the society, established safeguarded by a that the taxes to public purpose." purpose." That elected a the citizen citizen elected taxes to a a public That meant meant that representative who was his agent, but over whose actions he had no no he had over whose actions was but his agent, representative even modify modify substantial control. control. For different man did not even a different did not substantial For electing electing a the basic basic features the system, let alone change them. them. alone the features of let of the change system, case sanctified a system procedure of definof definthe Alabama case Thus the sanctified a system and procedure ing the "public purpose" which not only left the citizen far removed far removed left citizen which not the the ing "public purpose" only for appeal from final but denied any grounds through from final decisions, denied him any decisions, but appeal through grounds for to the courts. ad hoc hoc syndicalist syndicalist system was thus formally held to thus the courts. An ad was formally held system after be democratic in domestic In later years, during and after be later years, affairs. In democratic in domestic affairs. during vast powers of the the government were further further World War II, such vast II, such powers of government were
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extended. Japanese-American extended. citizens Japanese-American citizens
were abruptly, who were abruptly, arbitrarily, arbitrarily, forcefully uprooted from their homes, and property, and conand confrom their homes, property, and forcefully uprooted fined in concentration camps were told by the Court that the govthe that Court the told fined in concentration camps were govby ernment the right right as the power power to to act in that fashion. act in that fashion. well as as the ernment had had the as well the Court Court had had validated validated acts acts connected connected with policy But since with foreign But since the foreign policy (however questionable or debatable) ever since the era of John (however questionable or debatable) ever since the era of John Marshall, the the Alabama Alabama case It upheld upheld such such more important. case was was more Marshall, important. It affairs. a result, the individual has three power in wholly domestic individual has the a three affairs. As As domestic in result, power wholly go to jail, or he can initiate aa nanachoices: acquiesce, he he can or he can initiate to jail, he can can go can acquiesce, choices: he tional campaign to change the policy. the tional to change policy. campaign It course essential to evaluate evaluate the the combined combined significance of is of essential to It is of course significance of these decisions within the the framework the syndicalist approach of the these framework of decisions within syndicalist approach that had had been present in in the the Progressive the very very from the that been present Progressive Movement from consolibeginning of the 20th century, and which the Deal which the New and Deal consoliof 20th the century, beginning dated. the Court was done was what the Court had had done those assumptions, dated. Granted Granted those assumptions, what to legalize a system created by the large corporation and the and a created the the to large corporation system by legalize In that system, the citizen was almost wholly Progressive Movement. In that the citizen was almost Movement. system, Progressive wholly dependent upon upon the definition of public welfare welfare that inthat emerged the definition of public dependent emerged inside the national national government as a consensus among the leaders of side the as a consensus the leaders of among government the various elements of the political economy. the the elements of various functional-syndicalist functional-syndicalist political economy. possibility that projected in in I92I-I922 emerged The possibility Hoover had had emerged that Hoover had projected 1921-1922 had as reality: reality: the the United United States was "a syndicalist nation on a gigantic as "a a States was syndicalist nation on gigantic scale." scale." Yet the the citizen's political activity activity was a frameYet citizen's political was carried carried on within within a framework that that was basis: i.e., geowork was organized on an an entirely different basis: i.e., geoorganized on entirely different gxaphic boundaries boundaries which which had only most casual and accidental casual and the most accidental only the graphic the syndicalist syndicalist structure of the relationship to to the structure of the political relationship political economy. economy. That discrepancy left the the citizen any effective, institutionalcitizen without without any effective, institutionaldiscrepancy left ized on the the crucial and centralized affecting ized leverage crucial and centralized decisions decisions affecting leverage on every phase phase of of his his life. life. every Hence the the citizen, citizen, and the the public public in in general, general, had two that two options options that were appropriate to the the circumstances and that that did did not not challenge were circumstances and appropriate to challenge private property property in way. The public could demand in any fundamental way. private any fundamental public could a to revise a convention convention to the Constitution, reorganization of narevise the a reorganization of tiie tEe naConstitution, a tion's to fit the to fit the syndicalist political economy. Detion's political political system Desystem syndicalist political economy. extent of of the the democracy pending upon upon the the extent within each each syndicalist pending democracy within syndicalist the some meaningful role in framing unit, that would give the citizen that would citizen role in unit, give meaningful framing alternatives would alternatives and choosing choosing between between them. them. Even so, the result result would so, the far more oligarchic be than be far than democratic, for the final decisions would for the final decisions would democratic, oligarchic and and
The Age Age of of Corporation Corporation Capitalism Capitalism
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still be made through among the the leaders each leaders of of each still be through compromises compromises among element. element. ~ould hope hope that truly classclass~ Or, the other other hand, hand, the public .could the public on the a truly that a Or, on conscious industrial gentry would arise and, by dominating both industrial would arise and, by dominating both conscious gentry parties, provide a basic definition-national and equitabl~f the a basic definition national and equitable o the parties, provide public and the general welfare for which taxes would be spent. That public and the general welfare for which taxes would be spent. That choice, as differ~ would offer the citizen of choice, offer the citizen some some measure measure of as between between differwould ences of and means means to to achieve achieve such such objectives, the of emphasis within the ences emphasis and objectives, within existing political political system. return for for accepting the loss of any In return the of loss system. In existing any accepting significant part in evolving alternatives for the present and future, significant part in evolving alternatives for the present and future, be assured having an interest taken taken in him by by the citizen would be assured of of having in him citizen would an interest the the new gentry. the gentry. Recognizing the the devolution devolution of of the the system toward that that choice as choice as system toward Recognizing early as 1935, Walter Lippmann tried to dramatize the issue within Walter as tried to the within dramatize issue 1935, Lippmann early eltanschauun g of of the the Progressive Progressive Movement. Movement. "We cannot cannot the W the Weltanschauung begin," he explained, "until have said farewell to the assumption "until we he have said farewell to the explained, assumption begin," that Utopia Utopia is in the the old American frontier." brilliant is in old American one brilliant frontier." In In that that one that the failure not only of the sentence, Lippmann cut through to cut to of the not the New failure sentence, Lippmann through only also of the entire Progressive Movement. For despite its Deal, but also of the but entire For Movement. Deal, Progressive despite its consolidation in the New Deal, Deal, it had provided provided neither clas~ in the it had neither a a classconsolidation conscious bold approach approach to to aa fundamental fundamental a bold industrial gentry nor a conscious industrial gentry nor reorganization of the constitutional and political framework. of the constitutional and framework. political reorganization At the the same Lippmann understood understood the of course, the importance At same time, time, of course, Lippmann importance of being so explicit in pointing out that the frontier~xpansionist of being so explicit in pointing out that the frontier-expansionist solution was no relevant. For For he he realized realized that that Americans Americans had had solution was no longer longer relevant. a way way of their aa very tendency to that as to view view that as a of resolving very strong strong tendency resolving their difficulties without having to traditional habits out~ their traditional difficulties to change habits and outwithout having change their look. Further overseas economic expansion, that would to say, look. is to Further overseas economic expansion, that is say, would enlarge the the pie pie and and thereby thereby enable eleenable each each functional-syndicalist enlarge functional-syndicalist dement to to enjoy a larger larger piece piece even though the the relative relative sizes of the the even though sizes of ment enjoy a pieces remained remained the the same. the traditional traditional forms of democratic forms of democratic same. And the pieces to be without upsetting upsetting the politics could could continue the syndibe observed observed without continue to syndipolitics the system. Given the anti~ calist oligarchy that actually controlled the antithe Given calist that controlled system. oligarchy actually intellectualism of the the frontier frontier thesis, in which which property was defined defined intellectualism of thesis, in property exhibas the the source of wealth, wealth, welfare, welfare, and democracy, democracy, the the system as source of system exhibof to follow ited powerful propensity propensity and momentum to that line line of ited a a powerful follow that development. development. the New Deal turned that the turned it was precisely to And it such expansion expansion that precisely to such did not in the It undertake in the crisis the Recession It did not undertake an crisis of Recession of of 1937-1938. of the 1937-1938.
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The American History History The Contours Contours 0/ of American
imaginative program of building more TVAs, thereby laying the imaginative program of building more TVAs, thereby laying the foundation for aa regional regional and reorganization of the politand syndicalist foundation for syndicalist reorganization of the political it been been coupled with aa new Constitutional Constitutional ConConical economy. coupled with economy. Had it vention (instead of an attack on the Court), it conceivable that it is is conceivable on an the that vention attack of Court), (instead such might have transformed Josiah Royce's ideal of ideal such an have transformed an approach of Josiah Royce's approach might regional communities into an exciting and society. If that and humane If communities into an that exciting society. regional alternative was was to be derived axioms outside assumpthe assumpoutside the derived only alternative to be only from axioms the New Deal, then it would of course be unfair criticism. tions of of be unfair course it would criticism. the then tions of Deal, But that that is not the the case. the syndi.calist been an an is not For the But case. For syndicalist approach approach had been inherent part part of the Progressive the days ever since since the inherent of of the Progressive Movement ever days of Mark Hanna, Theodore Roosevelt, and Herbert Herbert Croly. given Roosevelt, and Hanna, Theodore Croly. And given the nature nature of of the the political political economy by I936, would a solution such a solution would the economy by 1936, such of Dewey's pragmatism. For clearly have qualified within the limits of the limits within have clearly Dewey's pragmatism. For qualified that matter, the idea of more TV As was discussed by many TVAs discussed that of was the idea New matter, by many Dealers, including Franklin Franklin Roosevelt Roosevelt himself. himself. But legislative But no legislative Dealers, including program was evolved and introduced. criticism is incidental: The is and criticism introduced. evolved incidental: program the crucial point is is that that the proved to to the frontier-expansionist the crucial point outlook proved frontier-expansionist outlook By be the the strongest be in the the Progressive element in Progressive Weltanschauung. Weltanschauung. By strongest element 1938, was wholly wholly committed committed to to aa further the New Deal was further extension extension 1938, the of the of overseas of the frontier frontier of overseas economic economic expansion. act of of Roosevelt's act expansion. Roosevelt's Harry Hopkins over to the job of Secretary of shifting reformer over reformer to the of of Harry Hopkins job shifting Secretary Commerce symbolized that decision. Hopkins made clear during decision. As Hopkins clear during symbolized that dinner conversations with top top corporation corporation executives White dinner conversations with at the the White executives at House, it that the New Deal was undertaking an even more it meant the Deal that House, undertaking an even more vigorous implementation implementation of that Hoover had had outlined outlined of the the strategy vigorous strategy that been Secretary internationalization when he had been of Commerce-the Commerce the internationalization Secretary of of American business. business. of American
V. The Fulfillment the Passing Fulfillment of of the V. Order Passing Order
National self-containment se1f-containment has place in in the policy of the has no no place the economic National economic policy of the National Foreign Foreign Trade 1935 United States. United States. National Trade Council, Council, 1935 Foreign markets markets must be he regained America's producers producers are are to rebuild to rebuild if America's Foreign regained if for our our people. people. There is no no other a full full and enduring enduring domestic domestic prosperity prosperity -for a There is other would avoid atloid painful painful economic dislocations, social social readjustway economic dislocations, if we would readjustway if ments, and unemployment. ments, unemployment.
President Franklin Delano President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Roosevelt, 1935 1935
We're just going going to to waf^e wake up find inside year that Italy, Gera year We're just inside of that Italy, Gerof a up and find Japan have taken otler Mexico. Secretary of the Treasury many, and have over the Mexico. ta\en many, Japan Secretary of Treasury Henry Morgenthau, Henry Morgenthau, 1937 1937 still has haJ 8 million unemployed. unemployed. Unstill 8 million UndiseaJe gnawing at our vitals. employment is a social a social is disease at our vitals. employment gnawing Paul Hoffman, 1941 Paul Hoffman, 1941
After ten years of of struggle struggle America America ten years After
The greatest greatest danger that our nation faces, faces, not not only the transition our nation in the transition danger that only in future,f is the for people people to period, but the tendency to the long-time but also also in in the tendency for long-time future period, segments, each for the the become broken blocs and segments, each organized into blocs become organized for broken up up into
is
narrow narrow
Bernard Baruch, 1944 I944 Bernard Baruch,
interests of the the moment. moment. interests of
In the profit-sharing scheme scheme we're trying to find aa rational rational means means by hy to find the profit-sharing we're trying In free labor free management, sitting at the bargaining table, which at the which free labor and free management, sitting bargaining table, can attempt attempt to work out out in relationship practical practical means means by by which their relationship which to wor\ in their can can equate the competing equities-in workers, stockholders you in can the workers, stockholders and you equate competing equities consumers. consumers.
Walter Reuther, Reuther, United Auto Workers, Workers, United Auto Walter
C.I.O., 1958 CJ.O, 1958
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452 452
We are beginning to the development development of an American American in the to begin are iust of an just beginning begin in frontier we have only touched upon, relatively speaking, tOn previous in touched we have speaking, previous upon, relatively only frontier Eric A. A. Johnston, Johnston, 1943 years-the limitless frontier of foreign trade. Eric 1943 years the limitless frontier of foreign trade. We cannot possibly maintain maintain full full production production and full full employment uncannot possibly employment unless have aa world world pool pool of free and prosperous consumers. and consumers, less we we have prosperous of free United Auto Auto Workers, United Workers, C.LO., CIXX, 1945 1945 1I have have considerable considerable sympathy sympathy with Herbert Hoovers Hoover's problem problem as Secas Secwith Herbert retary of Commerce. Secretary of Commerce Henry Wallace, 1945 of Commerce. Henry Wallace, 1945 Secretary retary of Dollar diplomacy Dollar diplomacy
is derided, although it is is exactly policy of the Govthe policy Govis derided, of the although it exactly the ernment and our exporters which Mr. Wallace himself advocates to Mr, Wallace advocates which ernment and of our to himself of exporters develop foreign trade, except that it did not mvolve our lending abroad our it did not involve that abroad trade, except develop foreign lending the pay for for all all our Senator Robert A. our exports. Senator Robert to pay the money A. Taft, Taft, I945 exports. money to 1945 We are are on wrong side side of a social social revolution and it's work. revolution . .• and it's uphill on the the wrong of a uphill wor\. The Wall Street Journal, Journal, I958 Wall Street 1958
THE NEW DEAL AND THE EXPANSIONIST PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY
B BETWEEN
ETWEEN 1938 I938 AND 1960, America's political political economy economy of of the the 1960, America's
large fulfilled itself itself in respects. several important in several important respects. corporation fulfilled large corporation Co-ordinating its tremendous productive plant and its trained and its tremendous and trained its productive plant Co-ordinating it joined with England and skilled to a unique extent, to a it skilled manpower with and manpower England joined unique extent, to defeat Axis powers. powers. Impelled by the the traumatic Russia to Russia defeat the the Axis traumatic memImpelled by ories of the depression, of the the war effort, of the ories the demands of their own effort, their depression, the the necessities necessities of meeting the the challenge of radical radical reform urges, urges, and the reform of meeting challenge of alternatives, American leaders further balanced and rationalized the leaders further balanced rationalized the alternatives, also functional and syndicalist of the the economy. They also functional elements of syndicalist elements economy. They extended and institutionalized institutionalized the the income and the the the role role of of the extended income tax and the method and the capital government as the of accumulating the agency government as agency of accumulating capital for its its operation. And as part of of its sustain the the for as a central part a central its efforts efforts to to sustain operation. its domestic tendency toward existing order, both in in overcoming its domestic toward order, both existing tendency overcoming in the stagnation and in the face face of by the the Axis the Soviet of challenges Axis and the Soviet stagnation challenges by In the Union, the its Open empire. the United States States enlarged its Door In the Union, enlarged Open empire. course of of doing the reform spirit of the Progressive course doing so, of the reform spirit of the so, some of Progressive
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Movement and the the New Deal was transferred transferred to to foreign affairs. In Deal was Movement foreign affairs. In conjunction with other influences, that attitude led to policies that in with other that attitude led to influences, conjunction policies that in besome degree mitigated the inequitable nature of the relationship the some degree mitigated inequitable nature of the relationship between the American metropolis and the poorer and less developed the tween metropolis and the poorer and less developed members of of that empire. that empire. members class-conscious But the single most crucial respect of creating aa class-conscious in the crucial respect But in of creating single most industrial powerful enough enough to the system and powerful industrial gentry to lead lead the capable and gentry capable system on aa routine basis, the the American political economy of the the large routine basis, on American political large economy of corporation those years not fulfill fulfill either need or or its did not its either its its need during those years did corporation during as a form of consolidated private property and as logic. Yet both Yet as a both form as of and consolidated logic. private property the dominant element in the political political economy, economy, the dominant element in the the die 2oth-century 20th-century of the the manor manor in corporation did did correspond correspond to the lord lord of to the in feudal feudal society. society* corporation it was was the the institution institution to provide such such aa modern and Hence it Hence to provide modern gentry, gentry, and the system clearly needed the kind of informed and responsible the needed the kind and of informed system clearly responsible leadership that that the tradition was of providing. providing. the tradition was capable leadership capable of True the beginnings beginnings of of such a gentry had existed existed at at the the True enough, such a enough, the gentry had It turn of and had been symbolized by Hanna. the century of the and It had turn Mark Hanna. been century symbolized by had further developed through the efforts of like Young, further developed the had like of efforts men Young> through Swope, Hoover. And by by the of World estabit had the end had estabend of World War II, II, it Swope, and Hoover. lished itself permanent element element in the system. as a small itself as Since small but but permanent lished in the system. Since its power power to weakto some extent extent offset weakits offset its its numerical and organizational numerical and organizational nesses, it it exercised exercised important important and beneficent influence upon some some and beneficent influence upon nesses, important decisions. But that gentry did not control the political the decisions. But that did not control important political gentry had its confronted without without flinching flinching economy. Nor had its members yet economy. yet confronted of private private property, the system, the basic the basic issues issues of of the the equity system, and equity of property, the overseas expansion. overseas expansion. Deal leaders time of Neither had had New Deal of the Recession the time of the Recession of Neither at the leaders at 1937-1938 done so. enough, in in extending extending and establishing so. True enough, establishing on a 1937-1938 done routine basis basis the the practice practice of accumulation by the government, routine of capital by the capital accumulation government, increased the the benefits benefits to labor and other of society. they also other elements also increased elements of to labor society. they That was was of net gain concerned. But But by by no no means means of course for all all concerned. That a net course a gain for all were were concerned. the large corporation continued continued to to all concerned. Furthermore, Furthermore, the large corporation be the powerful element in aa syndicalist and hence hence the most be most powerful element in system, and syndicalist system, in aa quite quite disproportionate disproportionate way. way. As far benefited in as expansion far as benefited expansion was concerned, the Deal never never seriously questioned the either the the New Deal concerned, seriously questioned either the means did briefly briefly debate means axiom or the practice. practice. New Deal debate the axiom or the Deal leaders leaders did domestic most effective also emphasized most effective for for such such expansion. emphasized domestic expansion. They They also office. But year in office. But they did not not affairs most of their first in affairs during their first most of they did year during and reasserted become isolationists, isolationists, and and they very quickly reasserted and invigbecome invigthey very quickly
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orated the traditional emphasis orated the Progressive Movement's traditional emphasis Progressive Movement's
on overseas on overseas economic expansion. economic expansion. Even the validity validity of orientation, hishisthat orientation, of that Even before denied the before Lippmann Lippmann denied torian Charles Beard had had challenged Deal to to break break the New Deal torian Charles Austin Austin Beard challenged the with the tradition. in 1934 that America's that in America's with tradition. Arguing the expansionist 1934 Arguing expansionist causes, and that that they they could could troubles had their origins origins in had their in domestic domestic causes, troubles be solved by continued continued overseas expansion, he for aa Fivenot be he called called for Fiveoverseas expansion, not solved by Year Plan Plan to rethink and reorganize the corporation political political econthe corporation econto rethink Year and reorganize omy. and even even at he implied that the the New that early at that date, he Otherwise, and implied that early date, omy. Otherwise, Deal would become involved in another war for empire. Speaking for Deal would become involved in another empire. Speaking through the National Foreign Foreign Trade Trade Council, Council, the corporation comthe corporation the National comthrough munity opposed Beard unequivocally: "National self-containment "National self-containment Beard munity opposed unequivocally: has no in the the economic economic policy policy of of the the United United States." States." But But as as has no place place in with most of his critics, the the KF.T.C. N.F.T.C. either or evaded evaded the the either missed missed or most of with his critics, was trying make. Graced a powerpowercentral point point that that Beard Beard was with a Graced with to make. central trying to ful mind he had had disciplined disciplined in business and apprenand academic academic apprenin business ful that he mind that ticeships, Beard was asking the crucial question. Could liberal ticeships, Beard was asking the crucial question. Could liberal be sustained sustained without imperialism and internationalism and without without subinternationalism be without imperialism subnation verting private private property? property? His "Yes" if the the nation His answer answer was "Yes"-i£ verting allocated abandoned frontier-expansionist theory theory of abandoned the the frontier-expansionist of history history and allocated its human and material resources resources in in aa more more rational equitable its and material rational and and equitable fashion. nor New Deal faced up up fashion. But neither corporation Deal leaders leaders faced But neither corporation nor to the the issue at that time. Only a generation later, after the Soviets to issue at a that time. after the Soviets Only generation later, developed the the hydrogen hydrogen bomb, bomb, did did they begin that difficult and and dethat difficult dedeveloped they begin manding effort. effort. manding In the formal Beard was was tilting tilting with with New Deal Deal Secretary of formal sense, In the sense, Beard Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace, reasserted the the expansionist Wallace, who reasserted Agriculture Henry A. expansionist in his view view in his own book book announcing that America America Must Must Choose (1934)' Choose (1934). announcing that the Adapting the analysis that Hoover had advanced in the early that in advanced the analysis Adapting early 19205, 19205, Wallace insisted that the the nation nation would would slide slide toward toward fascism Wallace insisted that fascism (or (or less probably, probably, socialism) its overless unless it it maintained maintained and and increased increased its oversocialism) unless seas economic seas activity. While While that reply was was indicative indicative of a£ New Deal economic activity. that reply Deal thinking, and provided an illuminating insight into Wallace's later an into Wallace's later thinking, provided illuminating insight as pedormance as Secretary of Commerce, the expansionist outlook of of Commerce, the expansionist outlook of performance Secretary President needed no or President Roosevelt Roosevelt and Secretary Hull needed no interpretation Secretary Hull interpretation or clarification. clarification. In the the 1920S, for example, example, Roosevelt Roosevelt shared view that that shared the the COmmon common view 19205, for the be overcome exporting farm the weakness of of agriculture should be overcome by farm agriculture should by exporting
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surpluses. the same approach to industrial industrial problems problems and and applied the approach to surpluses. He applied at the decade organized investment firm facilitate the decade end of of the the end an investment at firm to to facilitate organized an though his his broad, broad, confident confident view view of of the gentry such such exports. the gentry exports. And though also the decision, decision, he the importance of exports he stressed influenced the stressed the also influenced of importance exports (as did industrial and cotton recognizing the cotton interests) in recognizing the Soviet Soviet interests) in (as did industrial Shortly after that move, the President made it clear Union in in 1933. that after the Union President made it clear move, 1933. Shortly wanted all all diplomats to have experience as consular, that he he also also wanted to have that as or consular, or diplomats experience commercial, officials "in order to gain administrative experience and "in officials order to commercial, gain administrative experience and had make contacts with the the business business world." contacts with world." Secretary of State make State Hull Hull had Secretary of material been aa vigorous vigorous advocate advocate of expanded exports, exports, and of expanded and raw been raw material imports, ever since he entered politics in a Tennessee area which he ever since entered in a Tennessee area which politics imports, had an important export trade with Latin America. His foreign trade with an important Latin had His America. export foreign policy outlook was a model of directness. American trade should be policy outlook was a model of directness. American trade should be expanded Open Door Door and the tactic under the the strategy of the the Open of and the tactic of strategy of expanded under reciprocal trade treaties whose benefits to the United States would trade treaties to benefits the United States would reciprocal be further through the most-favored-nation provision. provision. If the most-favored-nation extended through further extended If be acted upon with vigor and determination, those policies prer would proacted upon with vigor and determination, those policies would duce peace, prosperity, and democracy. duce democracy. peace, prosperity, At the the very outset of the banker of the New Deal, outset conservative Texas Texas banker Deal, conservative very Jesse Jones took charge of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation took of the Reconstruction Finance Jones Jesse charge Corporation as cotton). cotton). and its role role in in financing and quickly expanded its exports (such quickly expanded financing exports (such as Hull chartered the First Export-Import Bank explicitly the Bank Hull concurrently chartered First concurrently Export-Import explicitly to finance Russia and at the the same prepared his his to Russia and at to sales to same time time prepared finance surplus surplus sales campaign for reciprocal trade treaties. When the Soviets refused to for trade treaties. the Soviets refused to campaign reciprocal pay pre-revolutionary debts, Hull lost interest in the Russian market. pay pre-revolutionary debts, Hull lost interest in the Russian market. He quickly organized another turned to to and turned another Export-Import Export-Import Bank and quickly organized by the the passage passage of the work of of exploiting created by the opportunities of the opportunities created exploiting the the basic basic trade legislation in By that that time, moreover, New in 1934. the trade legislation time, moreover, 1934. By Dealers were emphasizing the the export subsidy provided by stockstockDealers were emphasizing export subsidy provided by in Fort Knox. Such purchases of bullion from overseas piling gold of overseas bullion Such Fort Knox. in purchases piling gold provided foreign nations with with dollar credits. As such, the gold-buying dollar credits. such, the gold-buying provided foreign nations as a continuous, non-repayable loan financed by the the spree operated loan financed a as continuous, non-repayable by spree operated other taxpayer for more than a decade before the Marshall Plan and other the Marshall Plan before a decade for than taxpayer in 1935. mentioned. And in Roosevelt foreign programs were were even mentioned. aid programs 1935, Roosevelt foreign aid made it that he he supported supported the the expansionist expansionist approach. it clear clear that made "Foreign approach. "Foreign is no other way if we no other way if markets must must be be regained," regained," he he asserted. asserted. "There "There is markets would avoid painful economic economic dislocation, readjustments, and social readjustments, avoid painful would dislocation, social unemployment." unemployment."
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With great enthusiasm, Deal leaders and leaders accepted other New Deal With great enthusiasm, other accepted and worked long long hours hours to to implement implement the the traditional traditional strategy of economic of economic worked strategy expansion. As Hull's chief assistant in the campaign, Assistant Secexpansion. As Hull's chief assistant in the campaign. Assistant Secretary of State Francis B. B. Sayre trade called the the reciprocal reciprocal trade candidly called Sayre ~didly retary of State Francis treaties "an instrumentality for throwing the weight of American of the American treaties "an instrumentality for throwing weight power and influence" against against any that were were reluctant reluctant to countries that to and influence" any countries power honor the principles of of the Door Policy. Policy. Sayre accepted the the honor the principles the Open Sayre accepted Open Door expand-or-stagnate thesis thesis that that had been first first stated businessmen stated by had been by businessmen expand-or-stagnate and 1890s. him, as with and Progressives in the 1880s as with i88os and and other in the other Progressives 18905. With him, become an can export others, "Unless we can faith. "Unless and of faith. had become it had an article article of others, it export and sell abroad our surplus surplus production, production, we must must face violent dislocaa violent face a dislocasell abroad our tion of whole domestic tion of our our whole domestic recovery." recovery." key official official who had had labored William S. to expand labored to a key William S. Culbertson, Culbertson, a expand exports under Wilson and Hoover, continued to be influential during to influential continued be and under Wilson Hoover, during exports quoted the New Deal Culbertson occasionally the era. Like Deal era. Like Turner, Turner, Culbertson occasionally quoted as aa footRudyard Kipling, Kipling, England's England's bard benevolent empire, of benevolent footbard of empire, as Rudyard exnote to to the the frontier thesis. According According to economic to Culbertson, economic note frontier thesis. exCulbertson, pansion produced "material progress and a widening culture," a "material widening culture," progress pansion produced whereas those became "unprogressive." Assistthose who did not expand whereas did not expand became "unprogressive." Assistant of State George S. Messersmith flatly declared that ant Secretary of State S. Messersmith declared that Secretary George flatly in the traditional outlook "would call for a complete reany change the a outlook for in traditional call any change complete rearrangement of the entire economic setup of the United States." entire of the of the economic United States." setup arrangement In his his opinion, as with with that the great great majority, majority, that the of the In that of that settled settled the opinion, as all. For that reason, he commented after the question once for once and he for that all. after the reason, question was well well under way, "it require aa conRecession of of 1937 under way, "it would require Recession con1937 was an siderable amount of time, and perhaps aa whole whole book, book, to siderable of time, and perhaps to cover cover in in an adequate the services which the the Department Department of of State fashion the services which State is is adequate fashion rendering to businessmen." A whole whole book book devoted to each to businessmen." devoted to each country rendering country would have Messersmith undoubtundoubtbeen aa more realistic have been realistic estimate, as Messersmith estimate, as edly knew. edly knew. But as Roosevelt Roosevelt explained at the the end of explained at of 1937, not even kind But as even that that kind 1937, not of thing, the Mexiof assistance the need. assistance was sufficient sufficient unto unto the need. For one one thing, the Mexicans were cans were again asserting the the right right to and control their to control their resources resources and again asserting that they adding intended to to set set minimum standards for the standards for the labor labor adding that they intended of foreign addition, American economic policies of corporations. In In addition, American economic foreign corporations. policies interests were so poor interests were finding that Latin-American countries were that Latin-American countries were so poor finding so lacking in the in the essentials of a modern economy that and so a minimum essentials of lacking economy that afforded limited they afforded limited and spotty markets. Corporations therefore and markets. therefore they spotty Corporations asked the the government government for for more aid the same began to to aid and at at the same time time began
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complain about competition. A sizable and growing about competition. sizable and number agreed complain growing number agreed S. Casson, Vice-President of the American and Foreign with James S. with James Casson, Vice-President of the American and Foreign was becoming an Power Co.: Co.: "Japanese Power "Japanese and German competition" competition" was becoming an increasingly serious problem. A National City serious National City Bank Bank spokesman increasingly problem. spokesman verified "our loss" to Germany, and Grosvenor Jones of the Depart"our loss" to Germany, and Grosvenor Jones of verified the Department of gains" made by of Commerce openly decried the ment the "spectacular made by openly decried "spectacular gains" was even even the same rival. Henry Morgenthau rival. Secretary of Treasury the Secretary of Treasury Henry Morgenthau was to wake wake up more frightened. just going going to "We're just more of and find find inside inside of frightened. "We're up and to his "that Italy, aa year," year," he he blurted blurted out out to his diary on December December 16, "that 16, 1937, diary on Italy, 1937, Germany, and Japan have taken taken over over Mexico." Mexico.*' Germany, Japan have less intense, occurred A very very similar though initially similar reaction, reaction, though initially less intense, occurred in China Japan reopened its military military campaign when Japan in China during reopened its campaign 1937. during 1937. For contrary to a rather general impression, and one that remained to a rather For that remained one and contrary general impression, American economic prevalent even even after after World War II, economic expansion II, American prevalent expansion into Asia had steadily increased after the mid-l92os. into Asia increased the after Between 1931 steadily 1931 mid-ipaos. Between and 1937, the following American for example, and Asia took of American took the shares of 1937, for example, Asia following shares cent; copper, 26 per cent; industrial exports: iron and steel, iron and industrial steel, 33 33 per exports: per cent; per cent; copper, 26 IS per cent; and paper products, 40 per cent. As the Demachinery, the Deand cent. machinery, 15 per cent; paper products, 40 per of 1932 and 1938 the partment of pointed out, between Commerce and between partment 1938 the pointed out, 1932 United States held first place in China's foreign trade, States "consistently United held in first China's "consistently foreign trade, place In 1935, for example, example, America's America's share share in both both exports imports." In in exports and imports." 1935, for million whereas Japan's was only $80 million. amounted to to $102 million whereas was million. amounted $102 only $80 Japan's Those underwritten aa revival the old China facts had underwritten of the that China Those facts old idea idea that revival of An economic commission sponsored was the frontier. next American the next was frontier. commission American economic sponsored by the National Foreign Foreign Trade Council the corporation-dominated Trade Council corporation-dominated National by in (with unofficial support from the government) came back back in 1935 unofficial the government) 1935 (with support infused with "a new spirit" for the old Utopia. And near the of near the end end of infused with "a spirit" for the old Utopia. 1937, happily announced that that the the the Department of Commerce happily Department of 1937, the trade figures for the half of year provided provided even even more suptrade the first that year first half of that supfigures for the same in the port for military attack attack in for this this view. But Japan's renewed military view. But port Japan's renewed year clearly bright" prospect. the "especially threatened the year prospect. "especially bright" clearly threatened America's recovery-andrecovery-andRoosevelt explained explained at end of at the the end of 1937, As Roosevelt 1937, America's was imperiled by "important prosperity-through-expansion campaign was "important imperiled by prosperity-through-expansion campaign trading countries not within the orbit of our program." of orbit the countries now within not Despite program." Despite trading all the the efforts that have have been prove that Roosevelt deterdeterthat Roosevelt to prove all efforts that been made to time to to go go to to war, evidence (including the mined at available evidence the available mined at that that time war, the (including the does not of May, $1 expansion program program of May, 1938) does not support naval expansion billion naval $i billion support 1938) that the is clear, It is however, that the such black-and-white interpretation. such a a black-and-white clear, however, interpretation. It leadership of the country began to of the the corporation Deal and the New Deal country began to corporation leadership
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and the likelihood that war war would would be be necessary. likelihood that debate the and debate necessary. One such figure among them, Allen Dulles of the corporation firm of law firm of such figure among them, Allen Dulles of the corporation law in 1937 to "disSullivan corporation leaders leaders in "disand Cromwell, advised corporation Sullivan and 1937 to Cromwell, advised miss the idea" that that any any neutrality neutrality legislation would "have any "have any the idea" miss legislation would decisive influence in in keeping keeping us war." Perhaps a good many a of war." out of us out decisive influence good many Perhaps of the leaders privately privately agreed, agreed, but but they they acted otherwise. acted otherwise. of the nation's nation's leaders Deal clearly followed the line of appeasement Indeed, the New Deal Indeed, the clearly followed the line of appeasement unmisboth in Europe and in Asia until after Germany made it it unmisuntil after Germany both in Europe and in Asia takably clear that it considered the Munich Pact of I938 as aa of Pact 1938 as takably clear that it considered the At the the Brussels Brussds Conference Conference of extemporary expedient. expedient. At of 1937, for ex1937, for temporary ample, the Roosevdt Administration brushed aside Russia's overture aside Russia's overture brushed the Roosevelt Administration ample, the Far East and very hard, hard, as as it for tried very instead tried it and instead for a a strong stand in Far East in the strong stand had at the Washington Washington Conference I921-1922, to to pressure pressure China China in 1921-1922, had at the Conference in into compromising on economic issues in in return return for Japanese a Japanese for a economic issues into compromising on military withdrawal. a year later, Roosevelt went along with the the went Roosevelt a And withdrawal. along with military year later, Munich settlement. Munich settlement. In America, however, however, the Deal was militant. In In the New Deal was more militant. In Latin Latin America, that sense, it is is aa very very significant one, American American entry into World that and it sense, and significant one, entry into I938 to to eliminate Axis economic economic War II began with a decision decision in in 1938 eliminate Axis II began with a penetration of the hemisphere. While referring explicitly to German to of the While penetration hemisphere. referring explicitly in the airline industry, both Dealer and and Italian the both New Italian competition in airline Dealer industry, competition Berle and Pan American president Juan Trippe extended the spirit extended Berle the president Juan Trippe spirit of their remarks remarks to to include affairs. "We initiated all economic economic affairs. a of their include all initiated a campaign," Berle told Congressmen, "to clear those lines out." LookBerle told "to out." those lines clear Lookcampaign," Congressmen, ing that victory, victory, Trippe a majestic majestic vision: our vision: "Perhaps beyond that ing beyond Trippe saw a "Perhaps our be something like that " Secretary of State Hull role can role can be that of of Britain Britain......" State Hull Secretary of something like had already actions could taken in face had such actions could be be taken in the the face explained how such already explained of an has the of with Latin-American nations that "no state an agreement with "no Latin-American that state has the nations agreement to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another." Hull right to intervene the in internal or external affairs of another." Hull right had no more signed that pledge in 1933 I933 than than he remarked remarked that that it it signed that pledge in was "more or or less wild and unreasonable." was less wild unreasonable." During the the same months months in I938 that Berle and others others were were in 1938 that Berle During moving against foreign airlines, leaders were were succeeding airlines, corporation moving against foreign corporation leaders succeeding in in obtaining assistance in Latin America. America. They They in Latin government assistance obtaining more government argued that every phase of their expansion-exports, of their argued very very rationally rationally that every phase expansion exports, branch material resourcesresourcesbranch factories, the exploitation of raw material factories, loans, loans, the exploitation of the depended upon the existence of port facilities, roads, land reclamaexistence of land reclamafacilities, roads, depended upon port tion, a basic basic minimum of of public health services, and similar essentials. health and similar essentials. tion, services, public consider consider
.
.
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In the Export-Import Bank in a loan In response, in 1938 loan for for such such response, the Export-Import Bank 1938 granted granted a projects in Haiti. Shortly thereafter, Brazil Brazil received received similar in Haiti. similar consideraconsideraShortly thereafter, projects tion. Since thought of exclusively as such loans are usually loans are Since such tion. of almost as almost exclusively usually thought part of the Deal's Good Neighbor Policy, it is important to of the New Deal's it to is Neighbor Policy, part important the principle recall that that the principle had been evolved evolved during during the the 18905 r890s and and that that recall had been the problems connected with the approach had been thoroughly connected the the with had been problems approach thoroughly aired inside the Taft Taft Administration. Administration. inside the aired As Willard a spokesman for aa major major Willard Straight done in in 1914, Straight had done 1914, a spokesman for to Brazil in 1938. corporation explained the essentials of the loan corporation explained the essentials of the loan to Brazil in 1938. He was equally blunt. "The people, people, through the Government was Government [would] equally blunt. through the [would] have to to carry bag, such they are case of of many many the bag, have such as as they are doing in the the case carry the doing in other loans and subsidies.*' subsidies." President President Roosevelt other loans Roosevelt unintentionally unintentionally dramatized that central central point 4 of of the the same year. He anon July andramatized that same year. point on July 4 nounced his the South presents right right now the the his "conviction nounced "conviction that that the South presents nation's No. No. Ii economic problem," only he meant meant the nation's economic problem," section the southern southern section only he of the United States. Unfortunately, however, the Export-Import the United States. of Unfortunately, however, the Export-Import Bank was prevented by by its from doing business with with was prevented charter from its charter doing business Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi. Thus, Thus, even even though though one one of its or Mississippi. of its Alabama, Georgia, or members openly compared it it to to the British Colonial Development the British members Colonial Development openly compared Corporation, it could not finance projects in in the could not finance any the south. south. Corporation, it any TVA projects Thinking ever more wholly within the confines of the frontierever more the of the frontierwithin confines Thinking wholly expansionist conception of but ina small inof history and economics, small but economics, a expansionist conception history and fluential number of of sophisticated corporation leaders and Deal and Deal leaders New fluential sophisticated corporation reformers further refined and rapidly extended extended the the program program of the reformers further refined of the and rapidly Export-Import Bank. Though their actions were of course imExport-Import Bank. Though their actions were of course important, it useful to to remember remember that that they they were were doing little more than than it is is useful portant, doing little implementing Hoover's earlier emphasis on helping the the much earlier Hoover's helping emphasis implementing "crippled countries." Laurence Duggan of the State Department State of the countries." Laurence Department Duggan "crippled typified those of the the group group who acted within the tradition of of aa the tradition acted within those of typified socialism of heart. Duggan Duggan cared about the character and about the character the heart. socialism cared deeply of the deeply consequences of America's expansion and wanted particularly to of America's particularly to consequences expansion human resources improve the lives of foreigners who composed the resources the lives of the composed foreigners improve of that that economic His superior in the the Department, Department, Sumner of economic empire. superior in empire. His Welles, was was far far more more conservative. the pressure pressure of failures like like of failures But the conservative. But Welles, Mexico, the penetration, his his fundamental comfundamental comof Axis Axis penetration, the challenge Mexico, challenge of sense of mitment to of life, his sense of upper-class upper-class to human standards standards of mitment life, and his his earlier responsibility combined to modify his earlier approach. never to combined approach. He never modify responsibility ceased to to emphasize the vital importance of American economic of the vital ceased emphasize importance
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expansion, but but he he did modify the kind of militant resistance resistance to to of militant the kind did modify expansion, rechange that he had manifested in preventing radicals, and even reand even in that he manifested had change preventing radicals, formers, to power in Cuba during from coming formers, from 1934. 1933 and 1934. during 1933 power in coming to Nelson Rockefeller and Eric Johnston represented thinking similar thinking Nelson Rockefeller and Eric Johnston represented similar In particular, Rockefeller symwithin the corporation community. Rockefeller within the corporation community. In particular, symbolized those men in a new generation of corporation leaders who leaders bolized those in a generation of corporation were on verge of becoming aa truly truly cIass-conscious industrial class-conscious industrial were on the the verge of becoming gentry. Extremely knowledgeable knowledgeable about about Latin-American Latin-American affairs affairs as as a a gentry. Extremely consequence of of his his own corporation's vast enterprises in the region, the region, enterprises in corporation's vast consequence and the responsibility responsibility of of his power, Rockefeller Rockefeller his power, of the and deeply aware of deeply aware thoroughly understood the crisis. to continued economic to continued economic Committed the understood crisis. Committed thoroughly frontiers-he nevertheless realized expansion-he spoke often of new nevertheless he realized frontiers he often of expansion spoke if it was to function that the had to be more equitable if it was to more function that to be made the empire had equitable empire satisfactorily, and if was in in any to be be justified justified on moral moral it was if it sense to any sense satisfactorily, and in grounds. Rockefeller thoroughly agreed, therefore, with others with others in Rockefeller therefore, thoroughly agreed, grounds. the corporation community who put the issue very boldly during the issue the put very boldly during corporation community of the the National National Foreign Foreign Trade Council. the 1938 Council. "The the 1938 meeting meeting of to obtain a more equitable position necessity of the 'have not' nations more of the 'have to obtain a not' nations equitable position necessity in the markets markets of raw-material-producing areas to realize realize areas and to in the of raw-material-producing to which they have have aa right right to must be standards of of living living to standards which they to aspire be must aspire recognized." recognized." After long period period of pragmatic ambivalence, a long After a of characteristically characteristically pragmatic ambivalence, extent, Roosevelt threw his support to that approach. Roosevelt finally threw his to that finally support approach. To some extent, his decision by Ambassador to Mexico Josephus decision was influenced his to Mexico influenced by Josephus Daniels, an Progressive who had had modified modified his an old-line old-line Progressive his views views about about Daniels, to reform poor countries. still the value the value of of intervening the poor reform the Daniels still countries. Daniels intervening to emphasized economic economic expansion, but he he had had come to to stress the imimstress the emphasized expansion, but portance of of taking taking the the long-range pacific means means of using view, and of portance long-range view, using pacific to to achieve objective. Two other were more important: important: achieve that that objective. other factors factors were noblesse oblige oblige and and the the clear possibility that that Roosevelt's own sense of noblesse Roosevelt's sense of clear possibility Mexico might might shift some of connections to to other other countries. Mexico of its shift some its trading countries. trading connections the one one hand, hand, he he Roosevelt's subsequent were typical. typical. On the Roosevelt's actions were subsequent actions in 1940 began in to talk talk (in was aa revealing revealing commentary on the the began 1940 to (in what was commentary previous nature nature of of his his Good Neighbor Neighbor Policy) Policy) about underdeveloped about underdeveloped previous countries terms of them aa countries in in terms of what he called called aa new approach-"Give approach "Give them share." it a "terribly interesting share." On the the other other hand, hand, he he thought a it idea" thought "terribly interesting idea" that that England probably have to liquidate many of its holdings would have to of its England probably liquidate many holdings in the in the Western Hemisphere Hemisphere in order to finance its effort. He in order to finance its war effort. the United States thought the might finance the transfer. transfer. And within within aa States might finance the thought
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year, Hull and Welles had begun to win win free Welles had their long free begun their year, Hull long campaign campaign to to Britain's in return for Lend-Lease and economic access access to economic Britain's empire in return for Lend-Lease and empire other economic economic assistance. other assistance. By that that time, course, Roosevelt Roosevelt was was engaged engaged in with those those of course, in battle battle with time, of By as leading America into war. at home who opposed his policies at opposed his policies as leading America into war. Various motives motives and reasoning reasoning guided such opponents. Various The great guided such opponents. The great majority shared a very very simple to fight anshared a and human disinclination disinclination to majority simple and fight anthat consensus, were several other war. war. Within that other there were several major consensus, there major groups groups and arguments the President. President. Beard Beard and and others and of others of arguments aligned aligned against against the was over. his outlook insisted that that the of the Door Policy outlook insisted his the age the Open was over. Door age of Open Policy hemispheric system prepared for capable of of dea hemispheric advocated a deHe advocated for and and capable system prepared fending itself the divided divided corporacorporaitself against attack. Some members members of of the fending against attack. tion community shared that general view. view. Others were far far more more tion that general Others were community shared concerned with domestic economic problems. And aa final final with domestic concerned economic and and labor labor problems. group of Roosevelt's opposition among corporation leaders thought of Roosevelt's leaders group opposition among corporation thought that it it would would be be possible possible to to work work out some division of the economic that the economic out some division of that matter, matter, some of world with Germany, Italy, Italy, and and Japan. Japan. For with Germany, world some of For that them were were busily busily engaged engaged in just that. them that. in doing doing just no sympathy sympathy for Although it it had no for fascism or Japanese fascism or militarism, Although Japanese militarism, was and despite its great emotional commitment to Roosevelt, labor was its emotional to Roosevelt, labor despite great also disinclined rush into into war. war. Clearly aware of the heavy emphasis disinclined to to rush aware the also of heavy emphasis Clearly on overseas began in overseas economic steelworkers economic expansion that began in 1937, the steelworkers 1937, the expansion that resolved that that foreign policy should not be "formulated or made resolved or "formulated foreign policy should not be dependent upon the protection of the vested or property interests dependent upon the protection of the vested or property interests in foreign countries of the large corporations in this country." in foreign countries of the large corporations in this country." More that real real income had had not not yet yet concerned at with the the fact: at that fact that concerned that time time with the "still returned to unsolved grave "still unsolved returned to the the 1929 the C.1.0. stressed the C.I.O. stressed level, the grave 1929 level, economic social and industrial maladjustments." maladjustments." economic questions, and industrial questions, social Labor also the consequences a draft other mobilimobililaw and other of a draft law also feared feared the Labor consequences of zation measures, measures, feeling feeling that they would would threaten threaten its newly strengthits newly zation that they strengthin the the political political economy. by 1939-1940, ened position ened John economy. But by 1939-1940, even John position in "the 'Open L. Lewis was was beginning beginning to Arguing that that "the L. Lewis be ambivalent. ambivalent. Arguing to be 'Open Door' more" in in Asia, Asia, he for new efforts to expand expand trade trade efforts to he called called for Door' is no more" is no at But (and the influence of American unions) in Latin America. at Latin America. in the influence of American unions) (and the the same the C.I.O. C.1.0. urged urged government loans "for the purpose "for loans the same time, time, the purpose government of expanding our country's trade," and other action other (unspecified) of (unspecified) action country's trade," expanding our A to retain retain America's share of world commerce." year of world to share America's "rightful later, year later, "rightful choice. a basic in Lewis concluded that the system faced a basic choice. "Unless faced the in 1940, that Lewis concluded system 1940, this nation substantial economic to prevent prevent this nation from offsets are are provided substantial economic offsets provided to
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being wholly upon the the war war expenditures will sooner sooner expenditures we will wholly dependent dependent upon being depresor the dilemma requires either war or or depreseither war or later kter come to the come to dilemma which which requires most American American sion." were not not provided. provided. But But most sion." Such Such economic economic offsets offsets were leaders did not define the issue in Lewis's implacable terms. They terms. leaders did not define the issue in Lewis's implacable They thought more along the lines of Assistant Secretary of State Sayre's State of Sayre's thought more along the lines o Assistant Secretary analysis. "The economic world became a battlefield," he observed in analysis. "The economic world became a battlefield," he observed in 1939, the issues were sometimes well as as well as "in which sometimes political which the issues were political as 1939, "in economic." economic." Sayre's offers an value. Read against of considerable considerable value. an insight remark offers against Sayre's remark insight of the background the Progressive Movement's half-century half-century comcomthe of the Progressive Movement's background of mitment to to the the frontier thesis of prosperity and democracy, in mitment of prosperity frontier thesis democracy, and in Deal's additional economic the context of the the stress on overseas overseas economic context of the New Deal's additional stress expansion after that American of 1937, it suggests after the the Recession Recession of 1937, it suggests that expansion war for for the the Open the leaders viewed World War II as a Door. As the II as a war leaders viewed Open Door. entire of the age of the corporation should have by have should of now entire history the the of by corporation history age the evolution the "give them aa share" apshare'* apof the made apparent, evolution of and the "give them apparent, and proach should have dramatized, the Open Policy had come to had Door come the to should have dramatized, Open Policy proach symbolize the overseas economic expansion that produced a prospera the economic that overseas produced prospersymbolize expansion ous, moral society based on private private property. property. A society, ous, democratic, democratic, moral society based society, as part part furthermore, that automatically carried those benefits abroad carried those benefits abroad as that furthermore, automatically of the of the large corporation. finally, of the economic And of the economic expansion large corporation. finally, expansion therefore, aa society and aa set that were were threatened threatened by by any any of values set of values that therefore, society and assault the essentials of that economic empire. assault upon of the essentials that economic upon empire. On that that basis, basis, Roosevelt Roosevelt and American leaders (including aa other American and other leaders (including strong majority within the corporation community) concluded the within strong majority corporation community) concluded 1940 that Germany presented such aa within their minds by their own minds within by 1940 that Germany presented such challenge. Given the the existing their verdict verdict was was state of of technology, challenge. existing state technology, their For within within their their frameworl^, framework, America America not open to aa reasonable reasonable doubt. not doubt. For open to as aa prosperous prosperous democracy could not not survive could survive as if Germany did even if democracy even Germany did not by the the same not attack the Western Hemisphere. And by attack the Western Hemisphere. same logic, and logic, and for the the same reasons, for to be be forced forced to to withdraw had to withdraw from China. from China. reasons, Japan Japan had war Within aa year, United States Within the United States was was involved involved in in an an undeclared undeclared war year, the sea with Germany. at at sea During the same period, the Roosevelt the the AdRoosevelt Germany. During period, ministration made its its decision retreat by by using ministration to effect decision to effect Japan's the Japan's retreat using the of economic economic power. power. weapon of weapon By shutting off Japan's steel, and other items, of oil, vital items, other vital oil, steel, By Japan's supplies shutting off supplies of so ran the argument, ran the so argument, the the United would win win the bloodUnited States States would the classic classic bloodless the Open less victory of the Open Door Policy. Policy. It plain that It seems seems plain that American American victory of leaders leaders simply misjudged the effect of that economic pressure because the effect of that economic simply misjudged pressure because
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ever since they had been been telling themselves that since 1905 ever 1905 they telling themselves that They by 1940 come to believe that it had to believe that it would. would. They by 1940
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it work. it would would work.
The conscious conscious analysis of the 1890S had become an unconscious article of the had become an unconscious article of of faith. faith. The analysis 1890$ United States Pearl Harbor not the the victim victim of horrible at Pearl States at United Harbor was was not of some some horrible conspiracy among its high leaders, it was only the victim of having its conspiracy among high leaders, it was only the victim of having of the Open Door come to confuse the very materialistic logic to confuse the very materialistic logic of the Open Door Policy with with Eternal Truth. Within the logic the Open Eternal Truth. Within the of the Door Policy, Policy logic of Open Door Policy, should and ought to have retreated. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, American American Japan have retreated. ought to Japan should leaders had had never never considered considered how the Open Door Door Policy looked from leaders the Open Policy looked from the other the empire. empire. It unprepared what other end of of the the It left them quite left them for what quite unprepared for happened. happened. in the process earned the apparently apparently But as Beard pointed pointed out, as Beard But the process earned the out, and in everlasting enmity of the Progressive Movement, that was not quite quite the of that not was Movement, everlasting enmity Progressive the whole whole story. Deal was always defended as the culminaThe the New was defended the culminaas story. always tion of Progressivism, and the finest product tion o Progressivism, and Roosevelt Roosevelt viewed viewed as finest product as the and exponent of the American gentry. Thus, while very simple, of the American while exponent very simple, gentry. Thus, Beard's two basic basic questions questions were were extremely disturbing. What kind of of Beard's kind extremely disturbing. aa gentry is it, he asked, that has so little confidence in its citizens, is he that has so little confidence in its it, citizens, asked, gentry and so respect for for the truth, that it lies the central issue little respect and the truth, so little that it lies about about the central issue peace? And what what happens happens to to democracy, he concluded, of war and peace? of he concluded, democracy, by aa leader leave the the citizenry when decisions decisions made by leader leave effective with no effective citizenry with choice? Beard himself thought the the war necessary necessary as a simple matter himself thought as a choice? simple matter of he was actually raising raising the the very very fundaof national national survival. survival. Hence he was actually fundaas to to whether whether the the frontier-expansionist frontier-expansionist conception mental question mental question as conception of history did in fact produce democracy prosperity. In In the the eyes eyes of history did in fact produce democracy and prosperity. of his critics, that was his great and unforgivable transgression. of his critics, that his great and unforgivable transgression. Beard was unable unable to to force to confront that central central force his his countrymen confront that Beard countrymen to minor part part of the failure was explained by the question. inthe inof the failure was explained by question. A minor tensity of emotional and patriotic patriotic involvement. was so so of his his own emotional involvement. He was tensity upset that that for the first time in in his his career he wrote wrote aa book, book, President President for the first time career he upset the War, Roosevelt and the the Coming of the in which he Roosevelt War, 1941 1941 (1948), Coming of (1948), in tried to two basic basic hypotheses and interpretations. Instead to establish tried establish two interpretations. Instead hypotheses and results of the of concentrating on his primary question about the results of the the of his concentrating primary question frontier-expansionist outlook, he also attempted to discover whether to whether discover he also outlook, attempted frontier-expansionist aa conspiracy go to to war had existed in the the highest of the the existed in circles of to go highest circles conspiracy to Roosevelt Administration. Administration. That was, was, of course, aa dramatic dramatic issue. issue. of course, Roosevelt Pearl eve of the Pearl behavior of leaders on the the eve of the of American leaders And since since the the behavior inline of Harbor was indeed it a defensible line of init was defensible indeed strange, Harbor debacle debacle was strange, the quiry. But it almost completely distracted his audience from the his audience distracted it almost But completely quiry.
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far far
The Contours Contours of of American American History History The
more profound profound inquiry inquiry as as to to the the consequences consequences of of the the frontierfrontiermore expansionist outlook. Even had he proved the conspiracy hypothesis, the he Even had outlook. conspiracy hypothesis, proved expansionist the frontier frontier issue issue would would have have remained remained more more important. important. For For it it the would have been a conspiracy to sustain the frontier by war. war. the frontier would have been a conspiracy to sustain by Even so, so, that that was was not not the the primary primary cause cause of of Beard's Beard's failure. failure. He was was Even unsuccessful because the great majority of Americans were comwere comunsuccessful because the great majority of Americans mitted to to the the frontier frontier Weltanschauung. Weltanschauung. Even Even men such such as as Lippmann, Lippmann, mitted it in in the the mid-Thirties, mid-Thirties, turned turned back back to to its its logic logic who had had questioned questioned it within aa few few years. years. Beard Beard asked asked them them to to change change the the entire entire structure structure within of their their conception conception of of the the world. world. In In that that vital vital sense, sense, Beard Beard was was more more of socialists (to (to say say nothing nothing of of the the rereradical than than most most American American socialists radical formers or or communists) communists) despite despite the the fact fact that that he he was aa thoroughthoroughformers going defender defender of of private private property. property. And in in that that respect, respect, at at any any rate, rate, going was the the first first American American in in the the Age Age Beard, even even more more than than Hoover, Hoover, was Beard, of the the Corporation Corporation to to make make the the crucial crucial intellectual intellectual breakthrough breakthrough of was absolutely absolutely essential essential for for the the full full maturation maturation of of aa classclassthat was that conscious industrial industrial gentry. gentry. conscious long as as the the would-be would-be Founding Founding Fathers Fathers of of such such aa gentry gentry For as as long For defined the the wealth wealth and and welfare welfare of of their their projected projected commonwealth commonwealth as as defined a dependent dependent variable variable of of overseas economic empire, empire, they they would would of of a overseas economic necessity have have to to pay pay more more attention to foreign foreign policy policy than than to to buildbuildattention to necessity was precisely what they did in the ing the commonwealth. that that And was what in the the did commonwealth. precisely they ing 1940. for the bulk of the Progressive Movement's years after for of As the bulk the after Movement's Progressive years 1940. decision on that issue, Roosevelt summed it it up up in his famous remark on that in his decision famous remark issue, Roosevelt case in that Dr. Dr. New Deal Deal would would have to be be taken taken off the case have to that off the in favor favor of For while it was was of of course course vital to win win the the of Dr. Dr. Win The War. For vital to while it war, the admission that the New Deal could not do it provided, albeit the Deal could not do it provided, albeit war, the admission that unconsciously, judgment that hardly have more dea judgment have been that could could hardly been more deunconsciously, a vastating. vastating. America's America's continued continued commitment to to the the frontier-expansionist outfrontier-expansionist outlook, policy of to the the policy of the the Open the central charcentral charlook, and to Door, was the Open Door, of the acteristic of acteristic the war and postwar For within within that that framework, framework, years. For postwar years. there of the there was no way to maintain the balance balance and and equity maintain the of the funcfuncway to equity tional tional and syndicalist sustained overseas overseas economic economic system except syndicalist system by sustained except by the taxpayer. financed by expansion was there, their own there, given expansion financed by the taxpayer. Nor was given their commitment to any effective appeal to that that Weltanschauung, effective or issue issue Weltanschauung, any appeal or the small upon of otherwise class-conscious insmall community of otherwise class-conscious inupon which the community dustrial gentry dustrial could replace the syndicalist oligarchy that dominated the could that dominated gentry syndicalist oligarchy replace the system. each element the element of the oligarchy of the had always offered system. For each oligarchy had always offered
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the frontier as Utopia. Utopia. frontier as the
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a combination combination of their conconAnd through of their through a
solidated political political power power and economic expansion they were were and overseas solidated overseas economic expansion they 1950s, to maintain their position. able, at least until the end of the until at least the end of the able, 1950$, to maintain their position. THE BELATED CONSOLIDATION CONSOLIDAnON OF A SMALL, SMALL, CLASS-CONSCIOUS GENTRY-AND ITS FUNDAMENTAL WEAKNESSES INDUSTRIAL GENTRY AND ITS
Because they shared the view view that overseas expansion expansion was essential, Because they shared the that overseas was essential, the ideas programs of the men who glimpsed glimpsed the the vision of aa ideas and programs the of the vision of of aa capitalist commonwealth were were insufficient to establish that kind insufficient to establish that kind of capitalist society. Instead, their great talents and energy energy served served primarily primarily to to their great talents and society. Instead, improve the functioning of political economy failed the functioning of a a syndicalist that failed improve syndicalist political economy that to measure up to their own ideal, either in spirit or performance. to their measure up to in spirit or in in performance. ideal, either conDespite that that limited limited result result of their efforts, efforts, and they conof their and although Despite although they tinued to the frontier-expansionist thesis, the who began the tinued to accept the men thesis, accept frontier-expansionist began in to organize organize the the Committee Developin 1941 Economic DevelopCommittee for for Economic 1941 and 1942 1942 to ment symbolized highest achievement the age the highest ment of the achievement of of corporation symbolized the age of corporation capitalism. Along with their colleagues on the previously estabwith their the on capitalism. Along colleagues previously established National National Bureau Bureau of Economic Research lished of Economic Research and Rockefeller and The Rockefeller Brothers and with with those later staffed the Fund for for Brothers Foundation, those who later staffed the Foundation, and comthe Republic of the Ford Foundation, the of the C.E.D. of the comthe the of Ford men the C.E.D. Foundation, Republic prised the appallingly small small c1ass-conscious industrial gentry that the the the appallingly class-conscious industrial prised gentry that corporation political economy had managed to create. There were were to There had create. corporation political economy managed belonged in others, like financier financier Eugene of course, also belonged in course, like others, of Black, who also Eugene Black, that community, but even when such additional figures were ininwere but additional that even such community, figures cluded, the gentry's gentry's membership membership was but an an infinitesimal proportion infinitesimal proportion was but cluded, the of the the entire corporation leadership. of entire corporation leadership. Walter Reuther Reuther of the United United Auto Workers Workers and and the the C.I.O. C.I.O. of the Walter represented the even smaller group from within the labor the the within labor movement even smaller from group represented that slowly adopted the the essential features of the gentry's view. Most Most of the essential features that gentry's view. slowly adopted leaders of the labor segment of the political economy remained wholly remained leaders of the labor segment of the political economy wholly within the Very probably probably Reuther's achievement Reuther's achievement the syndicalist outlook. Very within syndicalist outlook. was due to his his early early interest which gave gave him aa more in socialism, interest in was due to socialism, which But whatever his ococinclusive society as whatever his as a a community. of society inclusive sense sense of community. But casional lapses lapses into the rhetoric of that approach, he he had by by I940 that approach, into the rhetoric of casional 1940 of the thoroughly accepted accepted the the private-property political economy the economy of private-property political thoroughly large corporation. large corporation. Some Progressive and New Deal most of of whom had Deal reformers, reformers, most Progressive and with to also began to identify with the the been originally socialists of the heart, also the been socialists of heart, identify began originally of that gentry. Adlai Stevenson was one of the few politicians of that of the Adlai Stevenson politicians gentry.
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tradition to to make the transition. transition. But But as he slowly real did so so (his as he make the tradition (his real slowly did 1956), he lost his power within the syndicalist progress came after the within came after he lost his syndicalist power 1956), progress oligarchy. the reformers were views were their views extended their Most of of the reformers who extended oligarchy. Most economists who derived from the Richard Ely and John Bates Clark and Bates Clark Richard derived from the economists John Ely wing of Progressive Movement that had had developed advocated of the the Progressive Movement that developed and advocated wing I. Christian Capitalism in the years before War I. Others World Others Christian Capitalism in the years before matured within the approach that Hoover had outlined during the outlined during the matured within the approach that Hoover 1920S. Henry Wallace was in many respects a figure who emerged emerged 19208. Henry Wallace was in many respects a figure from both groups, a consideration consideration which helps account many of account for for many of which helps from both groups, a his ambiguities and for for his his later with later difficulties difficulties with his and ambivalences, ambivalences, and ambiguities and the oligarchy that consolidated consolidated its power at at the the end of II. of World War II. its power the oligarchy that by or or into Neither Reuther Reuther nor nor Wallace Wallace were were ever into ever fully Neither fully accepted accepted by the gentry, but they they were were clearly men whose whose ideas converged with with ideas converged the gentry, but clearly composed that those of of the the men who composed that evolving those evolving group. group. In Adolf Berle Gardiner C. C. Means represented a broader and Gardiner In a broader sense, Berle and sense, Adolf represented and symbolized all the elements that had contributed to the rise rise of to the contributed of had that and the all elements symbolized gentry. They were scholars who had produced the class-conscious had scholars a were the class-conscious gentry. produced a They in their monumental analysis of the corporation political economy in the their of monumental analysis corporation political economy book, The Modern Modern Corporation Private Property Property (1932), and book, Corporation and Private (1932), and in later associated studies. studies. They They had had also also served served long long periods periods as later associated as in creative and government officials during the 1930S and officials and the creative and responsible responsible government 19303 during 1940s, was in in addition a key figure in noted a corporation in a and Berle Berle was addition a key figure corporation noted 1940$, and for its management and social responsibility. Others, social its sophisticated and for sophisticated management responsibility. Others, like Paul Hoffman Hoffman of the Studebaker Corporation; Beardsley Beardsley Ruml like Paul of the Studebaker Corporation; R. H. Macy Macy Co.; Ralph Flanders, banker and ininof of R. Vermont banker and Co.; Ralph Flanders, dustrialist; and Donald Nelson of the steel industry were and steel Donald Nelson of the men who were dustrialist; industry shared the same general shared the outlook. general outlook. those men agreed fundamentals. To their All those All on four four fundamentals. their thinking agreed on thinking the the most most crucial crucial was was the the simple fact that the corporation the fact that simple corporation economy economy all its its momentum and stagnate. seemed perpetually perpetually about about to to lose lose all and stagnate. That would of of course the whole constantly course destroy whole system. destroy the system. They They constantly reiterated that that fear. fear. Hoffman spoke for them them all he candidly reiterated all when he spoke for candidly emphasized that danger during meetings of of the C.E.D. that danger the early the C.E.D. emphasized during the early meetings ten years of struggle," "After ten struggle," he in 1941, he flatly announced in "America years of flatly announced 1941, "America has 8 8 million still has million unemployed. still unemployed. Unemployment Unemployment is is aa social disease social disease at our gnawing our vitals." vitals." gnawing at second crucial crucial point The second point in in the analysis was very the gentry's was stated stated very gentry's analysis clearly in in aa report published in in 1944 by a government committee a committee clearly report published by 1944 government headed headed by Baruch. "The greatest nation that our our nation by Bernard Baruch. greatest danger danger that
467 467 faces," it concluded, "not only in the transition period [after the war] it "not in the transition the faces/ concluded, only period [after war] to bebut in the the long-time also in but also is the the tendency for people future, is long-time future, tendency for people to become broken up into blocs blocs and and segments, come broken each organized for the the up into segments, each organized for narrow others, Charles E. Wilson interests of of the the moment." narrow interests moment. Among Among others, Charles E. Wilson saw of the the same same danger. saw and warned of danger. In that fashion, the gentry the In that fashion, that the the wartime wartime spirit gentry acknowledged acknowledged that spirit of community had only camouflaged, not fundamentally of community altered, only camouflaged, not fundamentally altered, the United the that the fact that the fact United States States was was what what Hoover had called Hoover had called "a "a syndicalist nation on a a gigantic scale." In In response, the gentry were gigantic scale." syndicalist nation gentry were response, the deeply and strengthening to find concerned to find some some way of establishing deeply concerned way of establishing and strengthening aa true sense of of community. true sense Put very the realized that that the community. Put very bluntly, bluntly, they they realized advertising the citizen of the citizen as as consumer, and consumer, and advertising industry's industry's conception conception of waster, was both practically the consumer as as waster, the was both and morally indemorally indepractically and fensible. that any other functional element enterto the fensible. And to the degree that other enterfunctional element any degree the tained view, or the same view, tained the or acquiesced in its it shared its application, shared the acquiesced in application, it responsibility for the unhappy consequences. for the responsibility unhappy consequences. The gentry something fundamentally set of wanted something a set of different: a gentry wanted fundamentally different: values and ideas that would would not not only override and thus unite the ideas that values the override and thus unite only as it but various separate the system various it stood stood but elements of of the separate syndicalist syndicalist elements system as as a standard by would generate generate aa broad broad philosophy of equity to serve would standard a of to serve as by philosophy equity which to conflicts of interest between such functional groups. to adjust which functional conflicts of interest such between adjust groups. was Despite aa great great deal deal of of rhetoric rhetoric about the public public welfare welfare that that was about the Despite supplied in equal proportions by corporation leaders and reformers, in leaders reformers, supplied equal proportions by corporation the single most relevant relevant starting starting point point for for such such aa solution solution was was actually actually the single most by Reuther. Appropriately enough, however, its essentials provided essentials its Reuther. provided by Appropriately enough, however, had been been advanced advanced by by corporation corporation leaders leaders at at the the turn turn of of the the century, century, had by syndicalist-minded syndicalist-minded labor labor and and corporation corporation leaders leaders at at the the end end and by and of World War 1. of I, he first first outlined outlined it it in in 1942, Reuther proposed proposed to to combine combine various various As he 1942, Reuther with Gerald of the railroad union's Plumb Plan of 1919-1920 with Gerald features of Plan features of the railroad union's 1919-1920 then to and Swope's program of 1931 for ending the depression then to the depression Swope's program of 1931 for ending that the apply the result to the automobile industry. suggested that the He suggested apply the result to the automobile industry. industry be be converted converted to to war production production and and run run during during the the war industry by a board composed of union and management representatives management representatives by a board composed of union by aa director director appointed appointed by by the the government. government. New Deal chaired by chaired leaders vetoed vetoed the the idea. idea. During During the the following following years, years, Reuther Reuther leaders gradually modified modified the the plan plan into into the the profit-sharing profit-sharing program program that that he he gradually 1950s. His His own description description shows shows how he he was brought forward forward in in the the 19505. brought trying, as a thin~ing within the the framework of of the the gentry, gentry, to to trying, as a man thinking within The Age of Corporation Age of Corporation Capitalism Capitalism
1
9*
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The of American American History History The Contours Contours of
provide aa provide
way of overcoming the syndicalist syndicalist fragmentation the and the fragmentation and way of overcoming the inequities of the existing political economy. "In the profit-sharing "In the of the profit-sharing inequities existing political economy. scheme," he explained, trying to to find find aa rational means by by rational means "we're trying scheme," he explained, "we're which free labor and free management, sitting at the bargaining the at which free labor and free management, sitting bargaining to work work out in their their relationship relationship practical means table, can can attempt out in table, practical means attempt to by which you can can equate equate the equities-in in workers, stockthe competing which you workers, stockby competing equities holders and consumers." holders and consumers." But along with the the more more formal members of gentry, Reuther, the gentry, of the But formal members Reuther, along with and the rest of labor based based his his entire entire approach a continuing exand the rest of labor continuing exapproach on a pansion of America's overseas economic empire financed by the financed the economic of overseas America's empire by pansion by-passed the achieving equity that taxpayer. He by-passed in that of achieving the problem equity in taxpayer. problem of cannot possibly possibly fundamental area of the the political political economy. economy. "We cannot fundamental area of maintain full production and employment," he he concluded, "unfull employment," maintain full production and full concluded, "unless a world pool of and prosperous prosperous consumers." Asconsumers." Asof free less we have world pool free and have a sistant of State Messersmith's estimate of how space of estimate much sistant Secretary of Messersmith's State space Secretary it need to to review review the Department's assistance to corporations assistance to it would would need the Department's corporations problem of reviewing the the thousands thousands applies with equal force of reviewing the problem with equal force to to the applies speeches, and excerpts of testimony before of letters, of and of memorandums, memorandums, letters, speeches, excerpts testimony before Congressional committees in which the gentry, right along with the gentry, right along with Congressional committees in which exthe oligarchic leaders of the syndicalist system, advocated and the oligarchic leaders of the syndicalist system, advocated and explained the the proposition proposition which was basic basic to to their their entire outlook.* entire outlook.* which was plained will indicate the essential essential features features of of their their apA few few examples indicate the examples will approach. "Weare just beginning beginning to to begin," begin," explained Eric Johnston Johnston "We are just explained Eric proach. in of an an American have only in I943, "in the the development frontier we have American frontier development of only 1943, "in years-that limitless touched upon, upon, relatively relatively speaking, in previous in that limitless touched years speaking, previous frontier of trade." "With the closing closing of frontier of foreign "With the of our our own frontier," frontier," foreign trade." explained Nelson Rockefeller, "there is hope that other frontiers still is that "there other frontiers Nelson still Rockefeller, hope explained exist Others like and Berle Berle preferred preferred the the in the the world." exist in world." Others like Hoffman and more traditional economic vernacular of expanding expanding markets markets for for more traditional economic vernacular of American exports. But perhaps the most characteristic and revealing American But the most characteristic and exports. perhaps revealing remark came from Wallace he became became Secretary of Commerce remark as he came from Wallace as Secretary of in I944-I945. in have considerable he told told Congressional "I have considerable sympathy," 1944-1945. "I sympathy," he Congressional as Secretary of Comquestioners, "with Herbert Hoover's problem "with as Herbert Hoover's questioners, problem Secretary of merce." in merce." Having said in 1934 that Americans had to forget about to forget about Having said 1934 that Americans
*'* The reader reader who wishes wishes aa more more detailed detailed review review of the development development of of the of American foreign and 1960 I960 is referred policy during during the period between between 194I is referred the period foreign policy 1941 and to earlier studies by the the author: Foreign Policy and the the to two earlier studies by author: "American "American Foreign Policy and Frontier Frontier Thesis," Thesis," Pact Pacific Historical Review Review (1955), and The Tragedy fie Historical Tragedy of of (1955), and American Diplomacy Diplomacy (1959). (1959).
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frontiers to live live with and learn learn to with themselves, he announced frontiers and announced a a decade decade themselves, he later that economic expansion was essential: "This is the that economic expansion was essential: "This is the new later the 20th century find find frontier, which Americans Americans in in the the middle middle of of the 20th century frontier, was beckoning them on." on." An "aggressive sales campaign abroad was beckoning "aggressive sales campaign abroad therefore essential." essential." therefore THE TRIUMPH OF A SYNDICALIST OLIGARCHY AND THE ONSET OF THE COLD WAR
Given to expansion, minority group group that commitment to Given that and already a minority expansion, and already a of the could have within the political system, system, the the members members of the political within the gentry have could gentry by successfully advocating displaced the syndicalist syndicalist oligarchy displaced the oligarchy only successfully advocating only by one of could have faced the issue of three three alternatives. alternatives. They one with comcomThey could have faced the issue with plete candor and concluded that the time had come to stop blaming and concluded that the time had come to stop blaming plete candor other countries for America's America's troubles. troubles. That had been been countries for other That tradition tradition had reestablished when the the McKinley Administration held held Spain established McKinley Administration Spain responsible for it had had in the course course of the for American in the of the American welfare, and it welfare, and sponsible iUs of of the the century an automatic automatic explanation the ills for all all the century become an explanation for nation. In however, it have demanded an almost all fairness, nation. In all an almost it would would have fairness, however, unique combination combination of rigor and and moral moral nerve nerve for the for the of intellectual intellectual rigor unique to have chosen that alternative-at least before the Russians gentry that at the to have chosen alternative least before Russians gentry produced their bombs (that obvious their bombs a rather it a rather obvious (that development development made it produced approach). approach). even Furthermore, some members members of gentry did the gentry of the consider and and even did consider Furthermore, advocate less rigorous, alternative that nevertheless a second, that nevertheless advocate a less alternative second, rigorous, amounted to policy. Corporaamounted a significant of existing to a modification of Corporasignificant modification existing policy. tion leaders Nelson and Johnston Johnston suggested suggested near end of of the the near the the end like Nelson tion leaders like a preprewar that that the the traditional to private private property property as as a war traditional commitment to requisite for membership in Open Door system might in America's for membership America's Open system might requisite profitably be dropped. Roosevelt himself had in that direction, in moved that himself be had Roosevelt direction, profitably dropped. to have at Latin-American relations, and he he seems have been been seems to at least in Latin-American least in relations, and Union. in their plan to extend the beneficence to the Soviet Union. interested to the Soviet in beneficence their plan to extend the interested was to respond favorably to Russian Russian overtures and underunderTheir idea overtures and Their idea was to respond favorably to take a massive program of economic aid to that devastated country. take a massive program of economic aid to that devastated country. in which By method they they anticipated anticipated creating which an atmosphere that method atmosphere in creating an By that in Eastern settlement in political issues, issues, such as the the postwar postwar settlement Eastern Europe, such as Europe, political could be be resolved, resolved, and and at the same time time underwriting underwriting aa postwar postwar at the could market that that would sustain the and provide provide aa the American American economy market would sustain economy and of stable and tone tone of the substance, stable foundation foundation for for improving texture, and substance, texture, improving the American life. life.
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After long long meditation, Henry L. L. Stimson joined this on this group Stimson joined After meditation, Henry group on II, 1945, and offered the most dramatic proposal ever September dramatic the most offered ever and proposal September n, 1945, by any any member gentry. Stimson boldly suggested that advanced by Stimson boldly advanced of the the gentry. member of suggested that the United States should stop dealing with the Russians "having the Russians with the United States should stop dealing "having this ostentatiously on hip," and should instead should instead our hip," on our this weapon rather ostentatiously weapon rather work out a way of handling the atomic bomb through discussions work out a way of handling the atomic through discussions with the the Russians. Russians. Stimson's only signified that he he had act not not only with Stimson's act signified that of world world wrenched himself himself free Roosevelt's conception of Theodore Theodore Roosevelt's wrenched free of conception of power and Progressive Movement's Movement's urge urge to world to reform reform the the world and of of the the Progressive power but came close to as an in the image of of America, America, but to qualifying in an the image came very qualifying as very close abandonment of of the the frontier-expansionist frontier-expansionist outlook Neither the the outlook itself. itself. Neither abandonment trade plan proposal were were accepted, however. trade nor Stimson's Stimson's bomb proposal accepted, however. plan nor Henry Wallace attempted to sustain those two proposals and caucauthose sustain Wallace to proposals and Henry attempted third-the idea of channeling American economic tiously outlined a American of a the idea outlined economic third channeling tiously expansion through United Nations Nations Organization. Organization. Though the United neither Though neither expansion through the Wallace nor the gentry themselves themselves ever that approach did much with ever did with that Wallace nor the gentry approach years after and the political during the war and the first after the the dominant political first 15 during the 15 years it vigorously, it very probably provides the gentry leadership opposed it it the leadership opposed vigorously, very probably provides gentry to their needs and objectives. It would most with aa strategy suited to with suited needs and their It would most objectives. strategy in the traditional certainly work economically, though not of course in course not of the traditional economically, though certainly pattern of Open Door Door empire. more importantly, it could of an an Open could pattern importantly, it empire. Perhaps Perhaps more if co-ordinated with a serious program of disarmament-especially a if co-ordinated with serious of disarmament especially program readily create popular enthusiasm would enable gentry to to a popular create a enthusiasm that the gentry that would enable the readily political power power and formal leadership of the country. But to win political formal leadership of the country. But to to abandon the traditradiexploit that opportunity, opportunity, the the gentry gentry would would have have to abandon the exploit that tional frontier-expansionist outlook. tional frontier-expansionist outlook. that at at the the end end Neither the the gentry gentry nor nor the the syndicalist Neither did that syndicalist oligarchy oligarchy did was dismissed by President of the the war, war, however, and Wallace of Wallace was dismissed by President Harry however, and Harry S. Truman in S. in 1946. Wallace symbolized final of Wallace the final symbolized the 1946. The firing firing of triumph of of the the bipartisan bipartisan oligarchy that emerged emerged from the Progresthe Progrestriumph oligarchy that sive Deal, and and the the wartime wartime administration sive Movement, the New Deal, administration of of Movement, the the It was composed composed of four major major groups. The first was the country. of four was first country. It groups. of the leaders of the three three major the made up the leaders of each each of of the elements of of the up of major elements corporaeconomy: labor, agriculture, and the industrial and the industrial and financial financial corporalabor, agriculture, economy: tions. their power tions. Although power was more hedged hedged around with legal around with Although their legal the increased checks, by the increased strength of labor and agriculture, the of labor and checks, and by strength agriculture, the large corporation leaders clearly exercised the most power, authority, leaders the exercised most large corporation clearly power, authority, and influence influence in in the the system. system. Though many of those syndicalist of those Though aa good syndicalist good many leaders were conleaders were articulate men, they nevertheless articulate and sophisticated nevertheless consophisticated men, they
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tinued to to think interest-conscious terms. think and act act in in interest-conscious tinued terms. vision, and the breadth of of economic economic and social social vision, breadth and the
They kcked lacked the the They self-discipline, that self-discipline, that
were characteristics class-conscious leadership. leadership. of class-conscious characteristics of were For that very reason, the second broad the oligarchy oligarchy was was the that second broad group For of the very reason, group of of very sophisticated professional politicians. Their role composed of very sophisticated professional politicians. Their role composed in the the syndicalist syndicalist system, and in ways comparable comparable was crucial crucial in was in some some ways system, and to the position held held by by their predecessors during during the the Age Age functional position the functional to their predecessors of Laissez leaders began began to Laissez Nous Faire. Faire. Such of Such leaders to emerge mid-way emerge mid-way subsequent years years became became through the the New Deal's Deal's short short life, and in in subsequent life, and through ever more prominent. prominent. Representative Representative Sam Rayburn Rayburn and ever Senator and Senator Terry Connally classic examples examples of politician as were classic of the the politician as Thomas Terry Connally were co-ordinator. years, Senator in later later years, co-ordinator. And in a Senator Lyndon B. Johnson Johnson ("I'm Lyndon B. ("I'm a a banker") banker") emerged as perhaps an even more rancher and I'm I'm a as an more rancher even emerged perhaps thoroughly syndicalist leader. syndicalist leader. thoroughly In some respects, respects, such such politicians politicians provided provided the with aa subsubIn the system system with But they were aa stitute for a class-conscious industrial gentry. for a class-conscious industrial stitute were But they gentry. they did was to arrange compromises between substitute, for did for what was to between substitute, they arrange compromises the various various syndicalist of the the political political economy. They did the did elements of syndicalist elements economy. They not lead broad, dynamic dynamic outlook. outlook. While While the the harshness of their their lead with a broad, with a harshness of not their leadership, leadership, often often discipline, or or the the occasional arrogance of occasional arrogance of their discipline, warranted criticism, criticism, the the reformers reformers who attacked often were often warranted attacked them were wide of the system, such politicians were esesof the the mark. the such were wide mark. For given given system, politicians sential. were no parties parties other other than than those by such such those created created by sential. There were after the the elections. elections. Nor (again, within the could politicians after the system) system) could (again, within politicians there be and unless unless aa class-conscious industrial gentry gained industrial be until until and there class-conscious gentry gained support to to establish enough power establish a a new common denominator enough power and support over of public public affairs. parties could disagree over for could disagree for the the conduct affairs. Then parties conduct of and policies policies designed designed to to achieve that were generally generally programs and achieve goals goals that programs accepted. In meantime, the of the the syndicalist politicians In the the meantime, the leadership syndicalist politicians accepted. leadership of it had to to be. be. But But it neither bold bold nor imaginative was strong, it was neither for it was imaginative strong, for could not not be. be. because by very position position it it could because their very by their result, not not even and significant significant improvement improvement since since As aa result, even the the vast vast and all was 1940 in the nation's material standard of living shared by all standard of in the material nation's by living 1940 Americans. "In wealthiest nation in the the world," world," Adlai Adlai Stevenson Americans. the wealthiest nation in "In the in squalid 5,000,000 families but remediremedipointed out, still live live in "at least families still least 5,000,000 out, "at squalid but pointed as high the total estimates put put the total as as 50,000,000 able poverty." poverty." Other able Other estimates 50,000,000 high as cent of individuals. In the bottom bottom 20 per of American individuals. In 1958, for example, per cent example, the 1958, for 4.7 per per cent the nation's nation's total total personal personal income, income, families received received 4.7 of the families cent of that a per cent of the families enjoyed a share that while the the highest highest 20 per the families cent of while enjoyed
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came to per cent. cent. As As Harvey Harvey Swados noted, automobile workers automobile workers came to 45.5 Swados noted, 45.5 per 20 years of experience and service still earned less than the with than the with years of experience and service still earned less starting salaries graduates nevertheless had to be of college salaries of starring college graduates who nevertheless had to be educated before they were of any significant value to to the the same educated before same of were any they significant value corporation. One of of those those very very workers workers provided provided an the an insight into the insight into corporation. as profound broader weaknesses weaknesses of of the the system that was every bit as was bit as broader that profound as every system any offered by academics or other public figures. other or offered academics any public figures. by "Ever think," the the worker blurted out a lunch lunch hour hour worker blurted out during "Ever stop to think," during a stop to to in 1956: "Ever stop to think how we crawl here bumper to bumper, here in 1956: "Ever stop to think crawl bumper bumper, and bumper to bumper, and we've got to turn more out more and we've turn out and crawl crawl home bumper to bumper, got to every minute minute to to keep keep our our jobs, jobs, when there there isn't isn't even even any for any room for every as Swados reported from the them on Small wonder, as from them the on the the highways?" Small wonder, reported highways?*' worker's attitude toward his his work is is generally assembly line, attitude toward that "the "the worker's line, that assembly generally compounded of hatred, shame, and resignation." That was the the That was and of hatred, shame, resignation." compounded reality of which James Reston spoke he called America "a he America "a when called of Reston which James spoke reality system debased and out of balance," and which Stevenson had in which and had Stevenson in debased and out of balance," system selfish, indifferent coma "chaotic, indifferent mind when he he described described it it as as a com"chaotic, selfish, mercial society" dominated by purposeless tyranny mercial an "inner, of "inner, purposeless by an society" dominated tyranny of aa confused confused and aimless way way of of life." life." and aimless Not even Reinhold Niebuhr's Niebuhr's grand to revitalize revitalize Not even theologian effort to grand effort theologian Reinhold the doctrine Christian Capitalism offered a meaningful the of Christian a indoctrine of offered or inCapitalism meaningful or spiring guide to improve the situation. Niebuhr failed because he the situation. Niebuhr failed because he to spiring guide improve out of his philosophy. took the the essential took essential element element of of Christianity out of his philosophy. Christianity For by misreading Freud Freud to to the conclusion that could not not be be For the conclusion that men could by misreading moral in and by accepting the limited vision of Dewey's in society, and the moral limited of vision society, by accepting Dewey's pragmatism, Niebuhr Niebuhr denied could achieve great and and denied that that men could achieve great pragmatism, noble goals. the very very Utopia Utopia offered by ChrisChrisnoble therefore denied denied the offered by goals. He therefore her<;tic. Like Like other tianity. Like Like other other reformers, reformers, Niebuhr Niebuhr was was aa heretic. other tianity. Progressives, Niebuhr concluded that could retain their morality that Niebuhr concluded men could retain their Progressives, morality only through an an expanding Christ, and frontier. But Christ, and Marx and and only through expanding frontier. as well, well, had insisted that the the only important frontier was Freud as Freud insisted that frontier was man only important in society-not in them, the the frontier harmful a frontier. frontier was harmful frontier. To them, society not man on a to not merely because it offered an escape from difficulties that needed not because an it offered needed from difficulties that to merely escape faced and resolved; be faced resolved; that that was but but aa minor minor point. To them, the be them, the point. frontier was harmful because it it was was precisely precisely what what Turner Turner called frontier harmful because called it: it: an escape from even the chance to become fully human. Hence Christ even the to chance become human. Christ Hence escape fully and Marx and and Freud quite the vital vital function Utopia. understood the a Utopia. function of of a quite understood Unlike and Unlike Dewey Niebuhr, they put stars in their philosophic stars in their Niebuhr, Dewey they put sky. philosophic sky.
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Such ideal was essential to move move beyond beyond the essential it if men were Such an ideal were to the enervatenervating and ultimately ultimately dehumanizing stalemate of of existence. existence. ing dehumanizing stalemate In way, Niebuhr's Niebuhr's philosophy philosophy reasserted reasserted the the frontier outcurious way, a curious In a frontier outit frontier failed to provide provide it also also admitted admitted that that the the frontier failed to of America's any real real resolution America's problems. problems. It It offered the best best there there resolution of offered the any was even it was by no means all that was imaginable. For it even though was no was means all that was though by imaginable. For of the that reason, Niebuhr's philosophy attracted a good many Niebuhr's that attracted a reason, philosophy good many of the made reformers up the third group of the syndicalist system. who the reformers third group of the syndicalist system. up By the 19505, those men and and women were were ProgresProgresof course, of those course, most of 19505, of By the sives of Deal vintage, vintage, although few from of New Deal a few sives from the the World World War II although a era were active in in public public affairs. Though they usually appeared still active era were still affairs. Though they usually appeared as representatives representatives of of aa given element in the economy, the group also as element in the the given economy, group also included power, and various experts who academicians seeking included academicians and various who seeking power, experts moved on and off off the the official skills and proved official stage as their their skills moved and opinions stage as opinions proved necessary or momentarily popular. Only a few of them could any or a few of them could necessary momentarily popular. Only any longer be termed socialists of the heart. Quite in line with Niebuhr's socialists of be termed the heart. Quite in line with Niebuhr's longer capitalists. In In many many ininphilosophy, they they had become ameliorative ameliorative capitalists. philosophy, stances, for that matter, matter, their their breadth breadth of vision and of thought thought for that of vision and rigor stances, rigor of were considerably less than than manifested manifested by by the the industrial industrial gentrywere considerably less gentry or even by some of the interest-conscious of the even by or interest-conscious leaders. leaders. a in the form permanent Finally, a fourth group had evolved fourth of permanent evolved in the form of Finally, group officials operated at lower levels of policy-making. government officials who at lower levels of operated policy-making. government assumed ever This emerged as as the the state ever larger This group state assumed responsibiligroup had emerged larger responsibilities as of reform measures, as as it to fulfulas a a consequence reform measures, it had expanded ties expanded to consequence of fill the function of accumulating and investing capital for the fill the function of accumulating and investing capital for the as the overseas economic economy, and as to expand. the overseas economic empire continued to expand. economy, and empire continued secThis course strengthened strengthened the the military of course latter development This latter military secdevelopment had of tion of officialdom. But But in in evaluating that phenomenon, many that of the the officialdom. tion phenomenon, many evaluating observers the point point that that it it had had been been the the civilian civilian leaders leaders overlooked the observers overlooked that of had defined the world in terms that gave the in terms the country who had defined world of the the gave the country military its influence. new its influence. military of 20th-century 20th-century American history, history, Like many other other aspects Like a a good aspects of good many of the world was a direct product of the the that military definition a direct was of the world definition that military product of American in It had started in 1~ when frontier-expansionist outlook. 1897 frontier-expansionist outlook. It had started America's welfare. leaders assigned the responsibility for America's welfare. leaders responsibility for Spain the assigned Spain susRoosevelt susFranklin Roosevelt Theodore Roosevelt, Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Wilson, and Franklin Theodore the frontier of the tained and that implicit implicit corollary corollary of frontier thesis. thesis. tained and intensified intensified that of wealth the source source of For the basic basic axiom the frqntier was the wealth that the frontier was axiom that For given given the look even though even though look
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and welfare, welfare, it it was was but but aa step to the conclusion that overseas economic and step to the conclusion that overseas economic expansion provided the frontier to replace replace the the continental west. But But continental west. expansion provided the frontier to the frontier overseas economic involved established established frontier of the of overseas economic expansion expansion involved societies, both directly as areas into which America penetrated, America societies, both directly as areas into which penetrated, and indirectly as competing industrial countries. holding the the Hence holding indirectly as competing industrial countries. meant placing frontier responsible for American development the frontier responsible for American development placing the responsibility on people. on other other people. responsibility Thus in ISW the the United United States that its its action action delayed in 1897 told Spain States told delayed Spain that «the of prosperity prosperity to this country entitled," and is entitled," "the condition condition of to which which this country is that aa settlement on American American terms was "necessary welfare to the the welfare terms was that settlement on "necessary to of the people of the United States." Shortly thereafter, John Hay of the of States." the United thereafter, John Hay Shortly people and the principle principle to at large. to the the world at extended the and Theodore Theodore Roosevelt Roosevelt extended large. message in his his war message the same same idea idea succinctly Wilson applied Woodrow Wilson succinctly in applied the of the United States would use force against Germany to force use of 1917: the United States against Germany to 1917: establish "a we can trust." Having announced in 1933, in announced establish "a government trust." can Having 1933, government in aa classic bit of of frontier only thing thing that the the only classic bit in frontier anti-intellectualism, anti-intellectualism, that had to to fear fear was was fear Roosevelt had had by by Americans had Franklin Roosevelt Americans fear itself, itself, Franklin 1936 decided that the trouble was more down to earth: "The rest of to earth: rest of decided trouble that the 1936 the world-Ah! there is is the rub." the rub/' the world Ah! there By the end leaders were were thinking even end of of World War II, American leaders II, American thinking even By the in within the pattern evolved in the I890s. Fearing the anthe evolved more explicitly within 18905. Fearing anexplicitly pattern of other depression (or a backslide into the of the 19305), they one the a the other into backslide 19305), they depression (or turned once to overseas overseas economic expansion as as the the frontier frontier turned once again economic expansion again to which would make it possible to build what Secretary of State Dean which State it Secretary of possible to build Acheson called called "a successfully functioning political and economic Acheson "a successfully economic functioning political system." In In that connection, Acheson explained the the standard standard for for that connection, Acheson explained system." awarding aid within within that frontier tradition. "We are that same frontier tradition. "Weare awarding American aid willing to to help help people people who believe. the way way we do, continue to to to continue believe; the do, to willing live live the way they to live." the underunderthe way live." President President Truman phrased they want to phrased the lying the world today even more explicitly. situation in in the world today lying axiom even explicitly. "The situation is not primarily is not the result result of the natural of the a natural difficulties difficulties which follow follow a primarily the is chiefly to the the fact that one nation nation great explained. "It "It is fact that war," he explained. great war," chiefly due to has not to co-operate in the just and has not only refused to the establishment of a a just establishment of only refused co-operate in honorable peace, peace, but but-even worse-has actually sought to prevent honorable has actually even worse to sought prevent it." it." As with Spain in 1897, with Russia Russia in each was so with in 1945: therefore, so Spain in 1945: each 1897, therefore, held held responsible responsible for for American American wealth wealth and welfare. welfare. Very clearly, Very clearly, moreover, American leaders that their unilateral possession leaders thought their that unilateral moreover, thought possession of the of the atom bomb would guarantee guarantee the the ultimate ultimate and peaceful peaceful
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triumph of of the Open Door Policy throughout the the world-in the Open world in Russia Russia triumph Policy throughout as well as in areas already considered part of the Ameri~ and China as well as in areas and the Amerialready considered part of can frontier. the whole whole policy of containment no doubt frontier. Indeed, can containment was, doubt Indeed, the was, no policy of the product unconsciously, the product of the Soviet Union from the of analyzing Soviet Union from the unconsciously, analyzing the the assumptions frontier-expansionist theory theory of Denied the of the frontier-expansionist of history. assumptions of history. Denied the chance to ran the the doctrine, would break down. to expand, Soviet society chance doctrine, Soviet expand, ran society would break down.
Having assumed their own society would collapse without an assumed that that their Having society would collapse without an expanding frontier, American leaders made the the same assumptions leaders made same assumptions frontier, American expanding about Russia. about Russia. 'But of American American welfare in terms terms of that frontier-style definition of T3ut that welfare in of frontier-style definition across~the-board acceptance acceptance of con~ Soviet of across-the-board Soviet collapse of American American concollapse (or (or of ditions peace) had had several obviously, for peace) several weaknesses. weaknesses. First, and most ditions for most obviously, First, and by the late 19505 the Soviet was not not Spain. frontier had Soviet Union was The frontier late the the had Spain. by 19505 become aa dynamic dynamic industrial with hydrogen hydrogen bombs. bombs. industrial nation nation armed armed with become Second, the frontier outlook made it American frontier outlook it extremely difficult for American Second, the extremely difficult for leaders to the reality of a nuclear stalemate, let alone to to to accept the a of nuclear let alone leaders stalemate, accept reality negotiate the kind of fundamental compromises that would kind of the fundamental that would make negotiate compromises by calling calling disarmament and realistic. realistic. Instead, reacted by feasible and disarmament feasible Instead, they they reacted for more military power to re-establish American supremacy. But to re-establish American for more supremacy. But military power supremacy in the frontier sense was no longer obtainable. in the frontier sense no was obtainable. longer supremacy Finally, that that conception welfare of of the the United of the States as as the welfare United States Finally, conception of primarily a function of Russian conduct left American leaders withwitha function of conduct left American leaders Russian primarily out any or firm firm or programs for further for the the further clear or or dynamic ideas and and programs out dynamic ideas any clear the society. To a shocking degree, even the development of American even of a society. development shocking degree, had more generous and sophisticated definitions of democracy had dedeand definitions of more generous democracy sophisticated volved very far toward being philosophies cast within the confining the volved very far toward being philosophies cast within confining limits of anti-communism. Senator was neither neither R< McCarthy of anti-communism. Senator Joseph limits Joseph R. McCarthy was for to exploit interpretation for the first the last last public public leader leader to that interpretation first nor nor the the exploit that personal and interest interest group he was merely merely the the most most objectives; he personal group objectives; his career had ended, the strategy brazenly successful. after his career had successful. And long ended, the strategy long after brazenly of not only the same kind kind of of operations operations sustained the anti-communism not of anti-communism only sustained in government by other public figures, had been government institutionalized in been institutionalized other public but had figures, but by and other public affairs. affairs. other public Prosperity, meanwhile, was seen very largely than little more than as little seen very meanwhile, largely as Prosperity, sustained by by overseas overseas aa high high level employment underwritten underwritten and sustained level of of employment cold war, the cold economic expansion, in the war, other government economic expenditures in expansion, other government expenditures of was Full and consumer purchases. Full employment of and time-payment consumer employment purchases. time-payment it was maintained maintained and the way it the course the way a desirable desirable condition. course a condition. But the those were Neither of of those products of labor were were just just as as important. of the the labor important. Neither products
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particularly inspiring or creative. Even the few positive achievements particularly inspiring or creative. Even the few positive achievements of the postwar postwar era, era, such the beginnings beginnings of of desegregation in the the of the such as as the desegregation in south, framework. The were supported the same same negative within the south, were negative framework. supported within was approached and handled as Little Rock crisis, for example, and handled as a a Little Rock crisis, for example, was approached as an approximately skirmish in the cold war far more than 100skirmish in the cold war far more than as an approximately 100years-
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danger Yet that that very very danger was created created by by of a a monstrous monstrous conflict. conflict. Yet danger of danger was aa situation which could shock Americans into a recognition of the which could shock situation Americans into a recognition of the were failure of of the the frontier-expansionist outlook. For failure For in in Cuba Cuba they frontier-expansionist outlook. they were confronted for the first time in the 20th century with some inkling for first the time in the 20th century with some inkling of confronted of the Open Door empire empire-looked the what the frontier or the the frontier-or what looked like like from from the Open Door other side. side. other Not only only had the the expansionist expansionist outlook outlook failed failed to to produce produce wealth wealth and and but it wealth and and welfare for the Cubans, for the it had produced anything but welfare Cubans, but produced anything but wealth to military military welfare for United States. Without any any recourse for the the United States. Without welfare recourse to action, the appeal the reality reality of its example, the and the of its action, relying solely on the relying solely appeal and example, the first-hand illustration illustration of of how how Soviet Americans a a first-hand Soviet Union had given given Americans across their borders and AmeriRussians felt they looked felt when they looked across their borders Russians saw Ameriand saw pads. For that matter, the can bomber bases bases and missile-launching can For that matter, the missile-launching pads. at in I96o, at any rate, was considerably less than fully comsituation, was less than comsituation, in rate, 1960, any fully considerably parable. The Russians Russians had had no no bombers bombers or missiles in in Cuba. or missiles Cuba. Even Even parable. if they had, the United States would confront only the same situation the United States if confront the same situation they had, only as did the Soviets, not aa more difficult difficult one. one. did the as Soviets, not as Utopia by that that ideal ideal for Having defined the the frontier frontier as lived by and lived for Having defined Utopia and most of Americans had finally been faced by the harsh of their their history, Americans the most been faced harsh history, by finally as Utopia produced the the very very stalemate had fact that that the the frontier fact frontier as stalemate it it had Utopia produced to circumvent. The frontier was gone. The past could been designed to circumvent. frontier was been could past designed gone. It was was done and done. done. no longer be lived over again. lived over and done no done and done and again. It longer be as a way of learning Hence the the approach approach to to history which views it of as a views it which way history learning It had had provided provided aa method of of discovering discovering had proved proved its its great great value. value. It had doing that that it it had had provided provided the essential reality; in in doing the features of of existing essential features existing reality; the aa way way of formulating the central question facing Americans in the of formulating the central question facing Americans in second half of the the 20th Americans define their exexdefine their Could Americans half of 20th century. second century. Could istence without recourse recourse to expanding frontier frontier that that had had formerly the expanding to the istence without formerly with the the private property they they used used to to prove prove their their provided them with private property provided conceive their existence existence? Could Could they, they, in existence and conceive in short, define their existence? short, define as grand and great ideals without recourse to to private property as without recourse ideas and private property grand ideas great ideals the sine qua non of democracy, prosperity, prosperity, and and the the general general welfare? welfare? sine qua die of democracy, It can that question. way of of learning History as answer that cannot answer as a a way question. It learning cannot History it is is the the question. will answer only raise it. Americans will it. But it answer it. it. Americans question. And only raise has created created it just just may be that that the the Age Age of it of Corporation Capitalism has Corporation Capitalism may be in the question to answer the question in the conditions that will will enable Americans to the enable Americans conditions that had In any event, American corporations produced the affirmative. the American affirmative. In event, produced corporations any in their the most most radical and subversive subversive product their in the atom in the radical and atom bomb the product in into at the For just as the had fused the sand into glass at entire history. fused the bomb had entire as For glass history. just
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Los Alamos, it transformed transformed the rights of property into into Los o private so had had it the rights Alamos, so private property the responsibilities of social property. The world was no longer the responsibilities of social property. world was no longer a a was aa community which would series of frontiers, would survive series of it was survive or or frontiers, it community which perish by by its hand. If through its its creation the bomb the the Age Age its own hand. of the If through creation of perish of Corporation Capitalism forced Americans to recognize that fact, to of Americans forced that Corporation Capitalism recognize fact, then it would have have fulfilled fulfilled itself-and more. and more. it would itself then
Conclusion: Breaking as a a Way Conclusion: History of Breaking History as Way of the Chains the Past the Chains of of the Past
are not 1I see see what you you are not making, making, oh, oh, what what you you are are so so vividly not . ... vividly not Henry James, James, The American American Scene, Scene, 1907 Henry 1907 .
Imperceptibly, the tke junction function of to function. the ability reduces tke of nostalgia nostalgia reduces Imperceptibly, ability to function. Wright Morris, Morns, The Territory Ahead, 1958 1958 Wright Territory Ahead,
We cannot begin until until we have have said said farewell farewell to to the that cannot begin the assumption assumption that the old Utopia is tke old American frontier. Walter Lippmann, I935 is in in American Walter frontier. Utopia Lippmann, 1935 I'm not not concerned the New Jerusalem. Jerusalem. Tm I'm concerned concerned with with the concerned with I'm with the the New Atlanta, the Birmingham, the Montgomery, tke South. the the New the New South. New Atlanta, Montgomery, Birmingham, Reverend Martin Luther Luther King, Jr., Reverend Martin 1960 King, Jr., 1960
H HISTORY
ISTORY as a as a
way of of learning has one one additional additional value value beyond beyond way learning has establishing the nature of reality and posing the questions that the of and the nature questions that establishing reality posing arise from arise its complexities and contradictions. It can offer examples offer from its It can contradictions. examples complexities of how other faced up up to the difficulties difficulties and of of to the other men faced and opportunities opportunities of is their eras. the circumstances noticeably different, different, it it is if the eras. Even if are noticeably circumstances are their illuminating, and productive of humility as well, to watch other watch other to men of as well, productive humility illuminating, to consider the consequences their of their make their their decisions, consider the decisions, and to consequences of values and methods. methods. If then the experience is the the issues then If the issues are are similar, values similar, experience is valuable. But But in case the the procedure procedure can transtransmore directly in either either case directly valuable. chains of the form history history as as aa way way of of learning into a way of breaking the chains into a breaking way learning
of the past.
of the past.
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For by confront the the disparity disparity between existing For between existing other men confront by watching watching other patterns of thought and a reality to which they are no longer are a to which no of and they patterns thought reality longer relevant, the outsider may be encouraged to muster his moral to muster his own the outsider be moral relevant, encouraged may reand intellectual courage and discipline and undertake a similar a and undertake similar and intellectual courage and discipline reexamination and re-evaluation of his oudook. Whether the Whether own outlook. the examination and re-evaluation of his student history follows of earlier earlier men remains student of of history the responses follows the remains a a responses of he accepts he is matter of his own choice, even if their views if he views he matter of his and even is choice, and accepts their obtaining his his answers answers from History. History History offers offers no no not History. from men, men, not obtaining answers per per se, it only offers aa way to use use their their answers of encouraging se, it encouraging men to only offers way of minds to to make their history. minds their own history. review and interpretation of American history history This and interpretation of American This essay the review in the essay in as the major has suggested that several elements have emerged have has as the elements that several emerged major suggested features American society, society, and that those those have turn defined have in in turn and that features of defined of American issues faced by contemporary Americans. One is is the the the central the central issues faced by contemporary Americans. functional fragmentation of American society (and of functional and and syndicalist society (and syndicalist fragmentation hence its technological and economic its individual economic lines. hence individual citizens) lines. citizens) along along technological The personal and public lives of Americans are defined by, are of defined lives Americans and and personal by, and public to, their specific functional role. To an amazing generally limited an functional role. limited their exto, amazing exgenerally specific tent, they share very litde on a daily basis beyond a common duty a a basis share little on as tent, they daily beyond duty as very consumers and and aa commitment commitment to to anti-communism. anti-communism. The persistent persistent consumers cliche rat-race" dramatizes dramatizes that that alienation, alienation, as of being cliche of in the the rat-race" as being "caught "caught in does the attempt to "play it cool" in order to maintain some sembdoes the to to it in order cool" maintain sembattempt "play lance identity and and integration. lance of of identity integration. is the the persistence of aa frontier-expansionist The second second theme is persistence of frontier-expansionist oudook-aa conception conception of the world world and past past American American history historyoutlook of the which holds expansion (or "growth," as Walter Lippmann put which holds that that expansion (or "growth," as Walter Lippmann put it I960) offers the best way to resolve problems and to create, or it in in 1960) offers the best way to resolve problems and to create, or take take advan.tage of, opportunities. is aa commitment to private third is to private advantage of, opportunities. A third the means of of insuring personal identity, identity, and thereby property as as the and of of thereby property insuring personal guaranteeing democratic politics, and and of creating material material well-being. well-being. of creating democratic politics, guaranteeing And finally, Americans have have displayed loyalty to ideal of a loyalty to an an ideal of finally, Americans displayed a than aa creature of property; property; humanity which which defines defines man as as more than creature of humanity which defines as aa man by by reason his individual to defines him as of his reason of individual fidelity fidelity to one of by his association of several several humane standards of conduct standards of conduct and and by his association with other men in in aa community community honoring those codes. with other codes. honoring those None of of those even of recent origin, in in those themes themes is is unique, or or even of recent origin, unique, American history. One suffice to establish that. Bernard example will to will suffice establish Bernard that. history. example Baruch in I944 the specter of aa dangerous Baruch raised raised in of 1944 the specter of dangerous fragmentation fragmentation of American society into into functional groups bent on pursuing the shortfunctional bent the shortsociety groups pursuing
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run satisfaction their interests the detriment detriment of of the general of their interests to to the satisfaction of run the general by many related or separate welfare, and his report was followed his followed by many related or separate welfare, report comments on the same problem. problem. But Hoover had had discussed the same But Herbert Herbert Hoover comments discussed the same issue at great length in the the founders of the the same issue at great length in the 1920S; 19205; the founders of the National Civic Federation had been been motivated motivated in large part part by by aa Civic Federation National in large similar concern at the the turn Abraham Lincoln Lincoln of the concern at turn of the 20th aoth century; similar century; Abraham to stress the same same issue he became became President in 1861; r86r; had come to issue after stress the after he had President in James Madison and and other Fathers had had grappled grappled with with other Founding James Madison Founding Fathers 19th centuries; and the identical problem in the late in the late 18th identical problem i8th and and early the and centuries; early ipth Shaftesbury had struggled to provide a resolution of the same dito a resolution of the disame struggled Shaftesbury provide lemma during the Restoration Era in England. Hence it was not the Restoration Era in it Hence was not during England. was of different nature, nature, the issues were new in in 1944. issues that that were crisis was of a the a different 1944. The crisis being instead defined by the progressive failure of the approach defined instead the the failure of by progressive being approach that Americans had evolved to solve problems. That approach evolved to Americans had solve the that the problems. That approach no longer provided aa satisfactory satisfactory resolution. no resolution. longer provided From Shaftesbury's time forward, the solution developed by by time solution developed forward, the Shaftesbury's Americans had had been been compounded of two conflicting themes or two or of themes Americans compounded conflicting answers. One was was the the interpretation of Christianity advanced by of advanced answers. by interpretation Christianity the Levellers during the the English Levellers during and later reasserted the later reasserted Revolution, and English Revolution, Karl Marx Marx in in the a secular secular wholly within that tradition tradition by of a within that the form form of wholly by Karl held that the problems raised by faction, interest, socialism. It It held that the raised socialism. fragproblems by faction, interest, fragmentation, and alienation could only be resolved-and restored resolved and man restored and alienation could only be mentation, to aa true true wholeness and identity-by de-emphasizing private private proppropwholeness and to identity by de-emphasizing in favor of social property and through the co-operative builderty erty in favor of social property and through the co-operative building community rather rather than than the the mere mere construction of an an a community construction of of a ing of of the decades of the organized collective collective system. system. Save for the the first two decades first two Save for organized in 20th century, that outlook played aa large direct role role in and direct never played 20th outlook never century, that large and ina sustained American history. history. Indirectly, Indirectly, however, did exert sustained init did exert a American however, it fluence. fluence. as necessary approach accepted private property property as and The other other approach necessary and accepted private ideal of the desirable. For guidance in defining and honoring the ideal of aa and desirable. For in honoring defining guidance secular commonwealth, its its followers followers looked and secular looked to to different different religious commonwealth, religious and a corporate traditions. One of these was conception of corporate of a was Calvin's of these Calvin's conception traditions. Christian commonwealth commonwealth in which the the trustee trustee accepted disin which Christian accepted and distie at charged the responsibility for the general welfare; at the same time, the for the time, welfare; charged responsibility general choice between all to honor the axiom that their their choice between axiom that all men were honor the were charged charged to contributed most that be in favor of the one that contributed most callings should one favor the of made in should be callings the ideal involved to the Another tradition involved the ideal and tradition to the common good. Another good. arisen of course view noblesse oblige. That view had of course arisen practice of feudal That noblesse of feudal oblige. practice
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within the the Christian Christian world, world, but by the the 17th within but by century had developed developed i7th century upon aa a secular of its own. Finally, Finally, such also relied relied upon a such men also secular life life of its own. secular argument which held hdd that the only feasioffered the that expansion secular only feasiargument which expansion offered ble way of underwriting private property while at the same time the time same ble way of underwriting private property while at improving the general or collective welfare. improving the general or collective welfare. Put mercantilists such as Shaftesbury to inteintesuch as Put simply, the mercantilists sought to Shaftesbury sought simply, the grate those those three three themes themes into a coherent coherent and and consistent Weltanconsistent Weltaninto a grate schauung. That That outlook was, and essence the essence and remained, the world world was, on the outlook on remained, the schauung. of groups in England and in England of all all class class consciousness consciousness among among upper-class upper-class groups the United Age of I. Thus Shaftesbury the States from of Elizabeth Elizabeth I. United States from the the Age Shaftesbury accepted the responsibility of those who enjoyed the possession of of the those the of enjoyed possession accepted responsibility consolidated property property for maintaining the the general welfare and and welfare for maintaining consolidated general as the the natural natural and appropriate instrument for imviewed the the state instrument for imviewed and appropriate state as plementing that obligation. At the same time, he tried to organize he tried to the that At same time, organize plementing obligation. basis of parties which which included of all all political affairs the basis included men of of parties affairs on on the political functional interests (or (or factions) accepted a broad conception a broad functional interests who conception factions) accepted coming of the welfare and and the the means to achieve achieve it. it. By thus of the general means to By thus coming general welfare as men shared an ideal of community-a Utopiatogether a shared ideal of who an as community together Utopia they would be able to override the tendency tendency of of functional functional activity override the would be able to activity they to fragment and divide divide them them-both internally (or personally)both internally to fragment and (or personally) from their fellow men. from their fellow men. acShaftesbury extended that outlook into foreign foreign affairs. that extended outlook into affairs. He acShaftesbury cepted the necessity of expansion and acted vigorously to co-ordinate to the of and acted co-ordinate cepted expansion vigorously necessity also sought the various various aspects of commerce commerce and the and colonization. he also But he colonization. But sought aspects of to build an empire empire as mutually beneficial beneficial and responsible such an as a a mutually to build such and responsible had few qualms about waging waging war commonwealth. He had commonwealth. war against outqualms about against outto protect protect or the empire, empire, and intended to to siders to siders extend the or extend and certainly certainly intended its members; but he he did have aa strong strong sense partnership control its control did have sense of of partnership members; but that guided his actions toward the and other that actions toward the colonies. colonies. Shaftesbury other guided his Shaftesbury and they failed to control all mercantilists made many many false mercantilists false starts, and they failed to control all starts, and factions particular interests) all factions (or to subordinate subordinate their their own particular at all (or to interests) at It is is nevertheless neverthdess true that they they did to aa rather times. It times. true that did to rather remarkable remarkable and act class-conscious outlook outlook that that degree act upon such a a class-conscious degree develop develop and upon such combined combined aa defense defense of of private private property with a belief in the necessity with a the belief in property necessity of of expansion, and with with an community and an ideal ideal of of community and commonwealth. commonwealth. expansion, and outlook was carried That outlook to America America by by die the Puritans, Puritans, by by other carried to other the by the empire directives prepared by Shaftesbury emigrants, and directives and emigrants, by empire prepared by Shaftesbury and his successors. It his successors. It was thereby thereby established, in various versions, in in various established, versions, in In every colony. In many respects, moreover, it continued to mature it continued to mature every colony. many respects, moreover,
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and develop Indeed, its English origins and develop beyond beyond its English origins and precedents. precedents. Indeed, Jonathan Edwards integrated its various themes perhaps more its various themes perhaps more sucJonathan sucintegrated infused cessfully and infused them with with aa more more noble noble vision vision of of Christian Christian cessfully community or American American philosopher either before before community than any any English English or philosopher either after or after his time. His corporate Christian commonwealth his time. or one was one corporate Christian commonwealth was the few American visions of of the visions worthy of the the name name Utopia. worthy of Utopia. in any But in of its its versions, that outlook outlook was was aa demanding Weltanversions, that any of demanding Weltanout three centuries schauung. Frederick Jackson Turner pointed out three centuries schauung. As Frederick Jackson Turner pointed the colonies colonies had become firmly after after the established (and in doing so firmly established (and in doing so offered a revealing offered the urge to into his his own generation), the revealing insight insight into generation), urge to the responsibilities escape Christian of that that ideal ideal of of a a corporate Christian escape the responsibilities of corporate commonwealth was powerful, and without without regard for powerful, persistent, persistent, and regard for the direct In England, for example, the direct and indirect indirect costs costs of of such such flight. In for flight. England, example, offered a a progressively expansion more appealing substitute for for the the expansion offered progressively more appealing substitute to ideals that was essential in maintaining self-discipline and fidelity to ideals that was essential in fidelity self-discipline maintaining the the general interest against the factional. factional. And in in America the presAmerica the general interest against the presof a by weaker souls made that soluence a continent continent defended ence of defended only weaker souls that soluonly by tion even in the space even more convenient. tion convenient. Americans Americans proceeded the in of space of proceeded to substitute the Manifest Destiny of empire for two generations to substitute the of for Manifest generations Destiny empire the Christian Jonathan Edwards. Jefthe Christian Commonwealth of of Jonathan Edwards. Thomas Jefferson was the great epic epic poet poet of that urge urge to to escape, to run away the great of that to ferson was run escape, away and spend one's life life doing doing what what one one wanted wanted~r in starting starting over over and or in spend one's time after time. Jackson, Jackson, Benton, Benton, and and Polk Polk were were but but the the type-cast type-cast time after time. early years years even even Lincoln Lincoln protagonists of of that that dream, dream, and and through through his his early protagonists was aa man who charted charted his his career career by by that that same same western western star. star. was in offering offering James Madison Madison was was the the theorist theorist of of the the outlook, outlook, and and in James the as the way of controlling faction, he articulated the guidexpansion he articulated guidexpansion as the way of controlling faction, the i8th century ing line line of of American American history history from from the the end end of of the 18th century ing through the the 19505. 1950s. Yet Yet unlike unlike most most who followed followed his his theory, theory, MadiMadithrough son recognized recognized the the grave grave implications implications of of the the solution; solution; along along with with son as Calhoun, Calhoun, Monroe, Monroe, Clay, Clay, and and especially especially John John Quincy Quincy such men as such Adams, he he sought sought to to prevent prevent the the complete complete devaluation devaluation of of the the selfselfAdams, restraint and and other other ideals ideals that that Shaftesbury Shaftesbury and Edwards had stressed. stressed. restraint continent was was too too much for for them. them. By By making making escape escape so so easy, easy, The continent it produced produced an an unrestrained unrestrained and and anti-intellectual anti-intellectual individualist individualist dedeit and of semblance mocracy that almost destroyed any semblance of community and almost that community destroyed any mocracy commonwealth. Even Even before before the the continent continent was was filled filled up, up, the the frontier frontier commonwealth. had become become aa national national Utopia Utopia and and Madison's Madison's theory theory the the New had reGospel. Men largely largely ceased ceased to to think think about about problems, problems, and merely merely reGospel.
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acted to acted to
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them by reciting reciting the the frontier catechism and pushing pushing the the InInfrontier catechism them by dians the general lines of lines of the the continent. dians off slice of of the continent. Following off another another slice general Following Madison's argument argument to to .fit conditions Seward's fit the the conditions Seward's reformulation reformulation of of Madison's of an Hay's Open Door Notes merely restated the the of an industrial industrial society, society, Hay's Open Door Notes merely restated principle in terms appropriate to the 20th century. 20th century. principle in terms appropriate to the years later, was no no Less of escape door of the open Less than 60 years than 60 however, the later, however, escape was open door Two forces had combined to all but close it: Russian more than ajar. close it: Russian more than ajar. forces had combined to all but and industrial and power and potential; the and nuclear Chinese industrial nuclear power and Chinese potential; and the by societies societies that as the growing the frontier frontier served as had formerly refusal by that had formerly served growing refusal result, the the frontier Utopia to continue the role role any longer. As aa result, frontier Utopia to continue in in the any longer. to offer a practical practical substitute demanding had ceased for the the more demanding substitute for had offer a ceased to Weltanschauung of class-conscious class-conscious leadership leadership and responsibility. responsibility. Weltanschauung of Expansion as escape meant nuclear war. Yet the cold war was esescold the war. Yet war was nuclear meant as Expansion escape sential to those still, consciously or unconsciously, saw expansion or sential to those who still, unconsciously, expansion consciously as the the means of adjusting controlling factions same at the and controlling factions and at the same as means of adjusting and time providing providing some measure of typical frontier In typical of welfare. frontier fashion, welfare. In some measure time fashion, as the the only other solutions. such people people saw war as or war solutions. saw defeat defeat or such only other Expansion of a vastly different character and drastically more more of a character different drastically vastly Expansion limited was still still possible, possible, but but even that could be sustained could be even that limited nature sustained nature was only the self-discipline necessary to honor the the comto honor comby strengthening self-discipline necessary only by strengthening the monwealth ideal ideal that Edwards, and Adams had tried monwealth that Shaftesbury, had tried Shaftesbury, Edwards, was only possible without war, to sustain. Expansion of sort to of any without sustain. Expansion was and sort war, and any only possible to say, only possible if the frontier were abandoned as aa that is that is to if were the frontier abandoned as say, only possible be channeled Utopia. Expansion of that kind would of necessity of that kind would of be channeled Utopia. Expansion necessity through the the United United Nations, Nations, without political or or economic without political economic strings, through strings, in to help help other their own problems problems within within an effort in an effort to other societies societies solve solve their of any full maturation their own traditions. traditions. Hence Hence the possibility of their the possibility full maturation any of the industrial gentry that had had slowly been created created of the class-conscious class-conscious industrial gentry that slowly been the by the corporation between the the 1890s and the the 1950S turned on on one one by corporation between iSpos and 19505 turned that gentry have, or very simple test. Did that or would it it manage to simple test. very gentry have, manage to the nerve nerve to muster, the to abandon abandon the the frontier Utopia, to to turn turn its frontier as as Utopia, its muster, back as the the open of escape? back on expansion door of expansion as open door escape? It is of course fair to is of It course fair to ask any precedents precedents exist exist for for whether any ask whether a display For while while encouraging display of intelligence and of intelligence and courage. encouraging such a courage. For it is is helpful to it find examples examples in past, it it is is too too much to to ask ask that that in the the past, helpful to find contemporary corporation corporation executives political leaders leaders model executives and political model contemporary themselves on Shaftesbury themselves John Quincy Quincy Adams. Adams. Very or John if Shaftesbury or few, if Very few, are men of of sufficient would it it be be wise wise any them, are empathy. Nor would sufficient empathy. any of them, for them to to follow follow such such aa course even if they could. Not only only are for course even if they could. Not are
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the circumstances different, but but it attitude and ideals that that circumstances different, the it is is the the attitude and the the ideals styles or the specific policies. But are not the personal not the are important, But important, personal styles or the specific policies.
is no need to is to return return to to the the past past in in that that sense, for some of the sense, for some of the Americans very Americans who restated restated the in the the expansionist outlook in the 20th 20th very expansionist oudook century that there was another realized that also realized there was another choice. choice. century also Brooks Adams, for example, example, admitted admitted that that America not have have Brooks America did did not Adams, for to embark upon upon aa program program to to control China and It was was to control China and Siberia. Siberia. It easier way merely the way out the dilemma, which in his the easier o the out of and one one which in his dilemma, and merely offered more glory opinion offered glory and riches. And as as 1944 Dean and riches. as late kte as Dean opinion 1944, Acheson acknowledged that he he and and his his colleagues Acheson in government acknowledged that colleagues in government could invest an indefinite indefinite amount of energy invest an could amount of and time in discussing time in energy and discussing alternatives to to expansion as a way of building "a successfully funcas alternatives a of "a expansion way building successfully functioning political and economic system." Acheson dismissed such and economic Acheson such dismissed tioning political system." approaches, however, on the grounds that they would weaken the the that would weaken the however, approaches, grounds they rights of private property, require modifications of the Constitution, of the modifications of Constitution, private property, require rights to which which Americans Americans had had become become and limit frontier-style liberties the frontier-style limit the liberties to and accustomed. accustomed. Herbert Hoover and Charles had more more intellectual Herbert Charles Beard Beard had intellectual courage courage and imagination than either Adams or Acheson. They argued that that than and either or Acheson. imagination They argued it was possible possible to build aa community-a <:ommonwealth-based on to build it on a commonwealth based community private property without relying on imperial expansion. Whatever without on Whatever private property relying imperial expansion. his other Hoover did at least least refuse refuse to to go go to to war the other failings, war for his did at for the failings, Hoover Open Door in Asia, and did try very hard to change the character in did character Asia, and try very hard to change the Open In some ways, ways, at least, of overseas economic economic expansion. expansion. In at least, America's overseas of America's Beard advocated an even more rigorous effort to restore the ideal the ideal even more rigorous effort to restore Beard advocated as the Utopia. But commitof in its its commitBut in a commonwealth as the American American Utopia. of a ment to to the frontier as as aa Utopia Utopia of American public public the American of escape, the frontier ment escape, the trial. a fair refused to to give give that that approach a serious or a fair trial. serious or refused approach a Finally, the gentry might might draw even even more industrial gentry die mid-century Finally, mid-century industrial southern Negro. encouragement from the example provided by by the the southern Negro. from the example provided encouragement the Negro Civil War, During the Civil Negro a century after the War, the century after During approximately approximately a modeled his his aspirations ideals on the the white white society in which modeled society in aspirations and ideals in the the 1890s, the Civil Civil War, War, again he existed. at the the end of of the he existed. Briefly 1890$, again in Briefly at and then with with aa rush Negro adapted the the Negro rush during and then I, the adapted the during World War I, defined He frontier-expansionist oudook to his position. defined his own to outlook position. frontier-expansionist his frontier of escape escape from the the conditions conditions northern urban urban centers centers as as his frontier of northern For aa generation generation or or more, more, Negroes Negroes streamed of the south. south. For of survival survival in in the it was that it discover that to discover into Utopia only the end to in the that supposed into that only in supposed Utopia and of largely a mirage. Then, under the leadership of deeply religious the under a religious deeply Then, leadership mirage. largely
there there
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courageous men like like the the Reverend King, Jr., they Luther King, Martin Luther Reverend Martin Jr., they courageous broke with traditional view view of the frontier frontier as and defined defined and as escape broke with that of the that traditional escape as the the south, the states where they they lived, the only the the cities and the states where cities and lived, as south, the only meaningful frontier that existed. meaningful frontier that existed. Having made that that magnificently magnificently courageous courageous and intelliand deeply deeply intelliHaving made the gent their ground ground and the issue in the issue in faced the and faced stood their decision, they gent decision, they stood present, reasserting as their solution the ideal and the practice of a present, reasserting as their solution the ideal and the practice of a In aa way that dramatized Christian dramatized Christian community or commonwealth. commonwealth. In way that community or their abandonment of the the frontier they organized themtheir frontier outlook, abandonment of outlook, they organized themselves in groups as Improvement AssociaAssociaselves in such such groups "The Montgomery as "The Montgomery Improvement tion," No longer they rally under the old slogan of the frontier, tion." did they rally under the old slogan of the frontier, longer did read New York or or "Kansas Bust," merely merely changing to read "Kansas or Kansas to or Bust," changing Kansas Chicago or Detroit or Cleveland or Pittsburgh. They no no made or or or Detroit Cleveland Pittsburgh. They Chicago mention of of the frontier: they here and and the the the here about the talked about the frontier: mention simply talked they simply to improve it guided by the Utopia of a Christian now, and set about the of a Christian and it set to about now, Utopia improve guided by they chose the appropriate commonwealth. And to to do chose the so they do so commonwealth. appropriate weaponweaponnonviolent resistance. resistance. Within Within one one year year they they had had effected effected more funfunnonviolent damental progress than in a century of following the white man's the man's white of in than a damental progress following century merely did begin to to theory of through the did they of escape the frontier. frontier. Not merely they begin theory escape through in formerly closed cafes: that was really a minor point. obtain food a obtain food in formerly closed cafes: that really point. no they really really won was respect for for themselves themselves as was respect as men who no What they never had had and never never could longer could give a ran away. frontier never give a longer ran away. The frontier that kind of self-respect. kind of man that self-respect. But while while Reverend Reverend King King and the Montgomery Montgomery Improvement But and the Improvement industrial gentry gentry inspiring inspiring Association offered the class-conscious offered the Association class-conscious industrial proof that wealth and welfare were obtainable without running that wealth welfare were obtainable without off and proof running off to some new frontier, they also posed some crucial Even to crucial questions. also posed frontier, they questions. if regenerate such vision of if the the gentry could regenerate such a a Christian Christian vision of a a corporate gentry could corporate be able to function if commonwealth, would corporation capitalism would be able to function if commonwealth, corporation capitalism operated according to its precepts? Perhaps it not. Perhaps to its it would not. operated according precepts? Perhaps Perhaps the the corporation function without without the indirect not function the indirect could not corporation economy economy could but vital vital help of the citizen in the form of taxes paid to the governbut of the in the of taxes to citizen form the help paid governin the form of subsidies. then handed handed on to to the ment and then the corporation in the form of subsidies. corporation If that that were If were the then how and and by by what what secular and the case, secular ideal ideal and case, then of hierarchy of values-by what Utopia-would the class-conscious invalues what would the class-conscious inhierarchy by Utopia dustrial dustrial gentry transform such double jeopardy into a system of such double gentry transform jeopardy into a system of true in which in every citizen, along with the corporations, retrue equity equity every citizen, along with the corporations, received a a fair fair share share of ceived of wealdi wealth and welfare? welfare? It might be be rather rather difficult It might difficult to were worthwhile worthwhile on the to convince the citizen citizen that that his his sacrifices convince the sacrifices were on the
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that the the gentry grounds that would then then take take an an honest honest interest in him. him. interest in gentry would grounds For even under the the best best of is having an interest taken of circumstances, circumstances, is having an interest taken in one a sufficient sufficient substitute in participation in the present present substitute for for active active participation in the and future affairs of one's own society? future affairs of one's and society? are fundamental and very Those are difficult questions. Even to ask very difficult questions. Even to ask is to them is to understand understand why the frontier Utopia of of escape has frontier as as a a Utopia why the escape has so attractive attractive in been so in the the past, past, and why it still exerts been and why it still exerts such such influence influence in middle of of the the 2oth 20th century. But to to ask ask these is also the middle in the these questions century. But questions is also
the issue issue as to raise raise the to whether whether Americans Americans have have any as to to other traditions traditions any other are appropriate Is it really a choice between, that are to the that the present. Is it a choice appropriate to present. between, really on the a syndicalist the one hand, a continuance continuance of of government government by a hand, a by syndicalist
by aa oligarchy relying on expansion expansion or, or, on the other, on the a government oligarchy relying other, a government by class-conscious industrial industrial gentry? To be sure, the choice does offer class-conscious be die offer choice does sure, gentry? of meaningful meaningful difference; some measure of for a a class-conscious inclass-conscious indifference; for dustrial gentry gentry with with the the nerve nerve to abandon the the Utopia Utopia of of frontier dustrial to abandon frontier expansion would clearly provide at least the chance of a more equiat least the chance a of more expansion clearly provide equicreativ:e, and peaceful future. But if that is all Amertable, humane, and if But future. is that all Amertable, humane, creative, peaceful to become become unique unique in icans can they are can offer offer themselves, icans then they are apt in themselves, then apt to the sense of becoming becoming isolated mainstream of of 20th-century sense of the isolated from from the the mainstream 20th-century development. development. it presently presently industrial or merely merely For the of the the world, world, be the rest rest of be it industrial or beginning to industrialize, is very clearly moving toward some verto veris toward some industrialize, very clearly moving beginning sion of a society modeled on the ideal and the Utopia of a true a of of the ideal the a true modeled sion society Utopia social property than upon upon human community community based based far far more on on social property than private property. That is what the editors of The Wall Street Journal is what editors Street the of Journal private property. That meant in they candidly that the in 1958 the United United States States admitted that candidly admitted 1958 when they was on "the wrong side of a social revolution." That socialist reasserwas on "the wrong side of a social revolution." That socialist reassertion of the essence the ancient of aa Christian Christian commonwealth ideal of of the ancient ideal of the essence of tion in the it in is Utopia. It It was so the Levellers Levellers asserted the asserted it a viable viable Utopia. so when the is a of the so in in the the middle of the middle of it remains remains so of the the 17th middle century, and it i7th century, It holds very simply and clearly clearly that that the the only 20th century. holds very 20th meaningonly meaningsimply and century. It ful lies within their relationships in their individual men and in within individual frontier lies ful frontier relationships that the the with each Frederick Jackson with Frederick It agrees other. It each other. with Jackson Turner that agrees with central those central American frontier has been gate of of escape" "a gate been "a frontier has American escape*' from those it that it responsibilities and opportunities. The socialist socialist merely merely says says that responsibilities and opportunities. life. is running away from life. to stop is time time to stop running away in Eugene Debs, America produced aa man who understood understood America produced And in Eugene Debs, that was of kind the escape that was that expansion was a running away, the kind of a was that escape running away, expansion believed also also believed and committed destructive of of the the dignity of men. He men. of destructive dignity
488 488
The of American American History History Contours of The Contours
his life to the proposition that Americans prove one day would one Americans would day prove mature and courageous enough to give it up as a child's game; that mature and courageous enough to give it up as a child's game; that they would one day "put away childish things" and undertake the they would one day "put away childish things" and undertake the creation of a socialist commonwealth. Americans Americans therefore therefore do do have have of a creation socialist commonwealth. aa third third choice to consider consider alongside that of an oligarchy and that of an and of that choice to that of oligarchy alongside class--conscious industrial They have the chance to create a class-conscious have to the chance create a industrial gentry. They gentry. the first democratic socialism in the the world. world. the first truly socialism in truly democratic That opportunity is the only real frontier available to Amerians Amerians available to the real frontier That is opportunity only in the 20th century. century. If they revealed and acted acted in the If they revealed and the second second half of the half of upon the kind of intelligence and morality and courage that it and the kind of that it courage upon morality intelligence would take take to to explore explore and that frontier, then they would then that would and develop would frontier, they develop have finally broken the chains of their past. Otherwise, they have finally broken the chains of their own past. Otherwise, they would ultimately ultimately fall victims of their childhood. a nostalgia for their of a childhood. would fell victims nostalgia for his life to the proposition that
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
but unquestionably for a great deal of T7 F enjoyment on my my own part, this volume is the product of the OR BETTER OR WORSE, WORSE, but unquestionably for a great deal of
JF enjoyment on own part, this volume is the product of the somewhat archaic notion that that aa man writes writes his own books. books. In In somewhat archaic notion his own
wry
Somerset phrase, it it is the seat Somerset Maugham's is done done "by seat Maugham's wry phrase, "by applying applying the to the of the pants to the seat seat of the chair/' chair." It It is true that no of the pants of the is of of course course true that no man gets into that position without assistance, and most assuredly gets into that position without assistance, and most assuredly does without encouragement, other human human there without does not not stay from other stay there encouragement, from beings. beings.
main point point is this was not an an organized The main is merely that was not merely that this organized project involving a vast farming out of various research assignments a vast out research of various project involving farming assignments to students colleagues. to students or or colleagues. For that of all research and composition-money which that root root of all research and composition with which money with to make ends on the of the bankruptcy and income tax to ends meet meet on income tax the edge the and of edge bankruptcy laws-II am grateful to three sources: The for Social Analysis, laws to three for Social Fund sources: Analysis, grateful the Louis Foundation, and World Publishing Louis B. B. Rabinowitz Rabinowitz Foundation, the and The World Publishing Company. II appreciate their consideration respect have infinite infinite respect consideration and and have Company* appreciate their for their routine, routine, unmentioned unmentioned discipline discipline in their nosesnoses their for their in keeping keeping and what II was was doing doing with with their their money. money. of what and ideologies-out ideologies out of lowe both intellectual emotional debts debts to many to a good intellectual and and emotional I owe both good many criticisms colleagues and students. The persistent and perceptive criticisms persistent and perceptive colleagues and students. Com~ and of David Keightley of of The World Publishing David Keightley and suggesions Publishing Comsuggesions of warm have pany were often very helpful. other editors have my editors other Two often were my very helpful. pany to appreciation. Carey McWilliams of the Nation encouraged me to appreciation. Carey McWilliams of the Nation encouraged a in with ideas in his journal; and in publishing a prelimi~ experiment and prelimipublishing experiment with ideas in his journal; of Towner nary statement of the first section of essay, William of of this this essay, section the first of statement nary a propitious at a lift at me a the William Mary Quarterly gave a lift propitious and Mary William and the Quarterly gave moment. moment. I have a very very great from aa personal personal and intellectual intellectual deal from I have benefited benefited a great deal 489
490 490
friendship with friendship with
Acknowledgments Acknowledgments
my colleague George knowledge whose deep Mosse, whose deep knowledge George Mosse, my colleague of Europe has has given him many insights into the United States. United States. In In into the of Europe given him many insights particular, our discussions of the role of Christianity in mercantilist in mercantilist of role Christianity particular, our discussions of the me. II am similarly thought were were of great value value to to Warren indebted to to me. of great similarly indebted thought Susman (Rutgers University) and Lloyd Gardner (Lake Forrest Gardner Susman (Rutgers University) and Lloyd (Lake Forrest College), who exercised their fine minds on a portion of the manuthe exercised their fine minds on a portion of College), script, and on other of the ideas presented. While neither neither of of them script, and on other of the ideas presented. While it helped helped quite that their their probably feel sure that feel that that it enough, II am sure quite enough, probably to offer serious criticism as part of their great capacity willingness their of as criticism to offer serious great capacity part willingness what II wanted to to with with greater greater for for friendship least to to say at least forced me at say what friendship forced clarity and exactness. exactness. and clarity My to Edward Edward Hallett Carr, Harvey Harvey Goldberg, Fred H. Hallett Carr, debts to Goldberg, Fred My debts Harrington, William Best Hesseltine, Merrill Jensen, 'Orde S. 'Orde Merrill S. Best William Jensen, Hesseltine, Harrington, Pinckney, and Charles Vevier are perpetual. offered in Whether offered in Vevier are Charles and perpetual. Pinckney, conversation writings, they they have have given given me their own writings, or through conversation or through their ideas and that no doubt emerge in modified form and in form and modified doubt that no ideas and suggestions emerge suggestions began as their conconwith different emphasis, but none the the less as their less began with but which which none different emphasis, tributions. II am also also deeply deeply obligated to Professor Gerth of Professor Hans Gerth of tributions. obligated to the Department Department of of Sociology at the University of Wisconsin. In this of Wisconsin. In the the this at University Sociology book, in particular, II have have drawn many times on the ideas and and inthe ideas inin particular, book, many times sights gained from his lecture courses and his seminar, and from his courses and and from from his lecture seminar, sights gained his own writings. writings. his view of of all the bigoted bigoted and careercareerIt It also all the in view also seems seems appropriate, appropriate, in building attacks, acts of purification in the form of misrepresentain the of of misrepresentapurification building attacks, acts by supposed aristocrats, to to tion, and and even even smart-alec smart-alec criticism criticism by tion, supposed aristocrats, acknowledge formally my respect for and indebtedness to Charles indebtedness to Charles acknowledge formally my respect for and That the the Pulitzer has yet yet to to find Austin Beard. Pulitzer Prize Austin Beard. That Prize Committee Committee has find either intelligence or courage to to honor honor him even even postposteither the or the the courage the intelligence the most illuminating aspects of our time. He humously is is one of the one of most illuminating our time. humously aspects of was was aa man of rare intellectual intellectual capacity, capacity, courage, courage, and humaneness. of rare humaneness. As should by now be be apparent, apparent, my analyses and interpretations should by my own analyses interpretations differ at many many points, points, both both in in detail general, but but differ from his at from his and in detail and in general, that the central issue. He was was aa great that is is irrelevant irrelevant to to the central issue. historian. great historian. The same kind kind of of point point should be made with with reference to Karl should be reference to Karl offer anyone seriously concerned Marx. Indeed, had even he had even more to to offer concerned Indeed, he anyone seriously with of historical with the the problems problems of historical analysis analysis and interpretation. interpretation. Perhaps Perhaps rea corresponding friendship with would have been the most rewith him would have been the most corresponding friendship for warding relationship, for many of his key insights are contained of his are contained warding relationship, many key insights in letters. in It is is probably probably one of socialletters. It of them, of "feudal the concept "feudal socialthem, the concept of
Acknowledgments Acknowledgments
491 491
ism," the curiosity and prompted prompted the and excited the ism," which excited the questions curiosity and questions and research that that produced produced this of American history. this interpretation research For interpretation of American history. For is no no doubt unto the the judgment. judgment. many people, people, this this is doubt sufficient sufficient evidence evidence unto many But that only makes the central point: most people damn Marx for for that the But central point: most people damn Marx only things he he neither neither said said nor nor did. did. things
be acknowledged without an reference Nor should should Marx be an explicit acknowledged without explicit reference to his friend and and collaborator, collaborator, Friedrich Friedrich Engels. many cases, it In many cases, it Engels. In is almost to separate work of the two men. And And some some almost impossible is the work of the two men. impossible to separate the of Engels' letters studies provide provide suggestions that letters and studies of Engels' and analyses suggestions and analyses that can with the best of Marx. the best stand with can stand of Marx. Since of them were either major major parts or tidbits Since none of were assigned assigned either parts or tidbits of this this project, project, the the naming naming of of them graduof of students students (some of them now (some graduis irrevocably impressionistic and indicative rather than formal ated) is and indicative rather than formal ated) irrevocably impressionistic and meticulous. meticulous. Ilowe collective debt undergraduates owe aa special and and collective debt to to undergraduates special and to work out in for legendary patience with my efforts almost legendary for an almost with efforts work to out in patience my eyes for lectures the ideas ideas in this book, book, and and for of the lectures some of in this for their their sharp for sharp eyes In response response to to their their seminar theses, error oversight. In error and oversight. seminar papers and theses, papers and but more especially especially in in the the course of conversations conversations with them, II have have course of but with them, often been stimulated Walter LeFeber (Cornell University), stimulated by often been Walter LeFeber by (Cornell University), (Ohio University), Parinni (Lake Forrest Thomas McCormick (Ohio Carl Parinni University), Carl (Lake Forrest College), Robert Smith (Texas Lutheran College), James Cooper, Robert Smith Lutheran College), James Cooper, College), (Texas John Rollins, Meissner, Lewis Kreinberg, David Eakins, David Meissner, Lewis Kreinberg, Eakins, Rollins, David John Stephen Scheinberg, Frank Chalk, Chalk, Michael Michael Boylen, and Martin Martin Scheinberg, Frank Boylen, and Stephen Sklar. I have learned from all of them. Sklar. I have learned from all of them. this nature nature Both footnotes and aa full bibliography for a book book of of this for a full bibliography Both footnotes and be poor poor jokes jokes upon upon everyone concerned. Beginning as aa would be would Beginning as everyone concerned. sources the sources student under under Fred Harrington, whose of the whose command of Fred Harrington, student and secondary materials was at once exhilarating exhilarating and infuriating, and infuriating, at once and secondary materials of a a single single II have have been been at at work work on on this source of since 1948. this essay 1948. The source essay since of associcontext entire context associquotation means almost nothing unless the entire of the unless almost means nothing quotation also reproduced. ated documents and the the process of reflection reflection is is also ated documents and reproduced. process of of basis on the author the author the basis of Hence trusts or or accepts the if the the reader reader trusts Hence if accepts for has in reality no grounds for citing the source of a quotation, he in he has a of source the grounds reality quotation, citing is not named. History distrusting him because that one document document is History distrusting him because that one historians of footnotes. is not the arithmetic total footnotes. Perhaps historians total of the arithmetic is simply not Perhaps simply Wolfe's Story should provide provide their versions of of Thomas Wolfe's Story of of a their own versions should the Portrait A of tide Novel, or plagiarize James Joyce under the tide of Portrait of the the under or of Novel, plagiarize James Joyce Historian as Monomaniac. Monomaniac. as a a Young Historian Young interviews and II have information from many many interviews and docudocuhave accumulated accumulated information
to his friend
492 492
Acknowledgments Acknowledgments
ments. ments.
while the the private literary remains remains of of numerous men And while private literary and the archival manuscripts of the government supplied vital the of and the archival manuscripts government supplied much vital data, I concluded my research very greatly impressed by the value the value data, I concluded my research very greatly impressed by of down and and at at least page of of the the proceedings proceedings least scanning of sitting every page scanning every sitting of the national legislature since the First Continental Congress; Continental of the national legislature since the First Congress; and from following a similar procedure with selected colonial and state colonial state from following a similar procedure with selected records and the various hearings of of the the Congress. various hearings records and the Congress. II have have also benefited extensively insights and information information from insights also benefited extensively from first presented presented by by other women. In In addition addition to materials to the the materials and women. other men and first already referred to Age of Inof Mercantilism: Mercantilism: An Into in "The Age in "The or referred cited or already cited terpretation of the American Political Economy, 1763-1828," William William of the Political American 1763-1828," Economy, terpretation (1958), and in The Tragedy American DiDiand Mary Quarterly and in and Mary of American Tragedy of Quarterly (1958), plomacy (1959), the following items deserve particular mention. It mention. It deserve the items particular following plomacy (1959), may be worth noting, before proceeding with such enumeration, with such be before worth enumeration, noting, proceeding may that those care to to see a typical typical part part of essay was was of this this essay see how a those who care that worked out in detail may consult Mer"Samuel Adams: Calvinist, detail may out in consult "Samuel worked Calvinist, Merthe Left Left (1960). cantilist, Revolutionary," in Studies Studies on the cantilist, (1960). Revolutionary," in I. I. GENERAL
comment may may be be helpful connection with with four very four very A special in connection helpful in special fine books. Two of them, H. N. N. Smith, Virgin Land. The American Land. of them, American fine books. Smith, Virgin West as as Symbol Symbol and and Myth Myth (1950), and W. P. P. Webb, Great Webb, The Great (1950), and concern the role of expansion in thought Frontier (1952), in American Frontier concern the role of thought expansion (1952), and action. I did did not not draw upon of them until until my my own action. I either of upon either formulation of that relationship relationship had been developed developed in all its its esesformulation of that had been in all sential aspects. that point, however, I used both studies very sential At that I used both studies aspects. point, however, very happily acknowledge my debt both scholars. extensively, to both debt to scholars. A extensively, and happily acknowledge my R. Williams, third volume, Sodety (1958), is an an exexthird Culture and Society volume, R. Williams, Culture (1958), is ceedingly brilliant brilliant and and perceptive perceptive analysis of the the radical radical review of ceedingly analysis and review and conservative traditions of community in in English English history. history. No and conservative traditions of community such of American American society, this essay not be be exists of such study should not study exists society, and this essay should misunderstood as as an an attempt attempt to to fill gigantic gap; gap; but but the misunderstood the work fill that that gigantic by Williams Williams did provide me with with many many suggestions suggestions and offered offered aa did provide by deal of of encouragement great encouragement for I have have tried tried to to do. F. M. for what I do. F. great deal Bator's Bator's study, of Government (1960), apGovernment Spending study, The Question Question of Spending (1960), aplate for for me to peared too too late to use but my own analysis of 20thuse direcciy, but of 20thpeared directly, my analysis century American history history was based based on aa very very similar approach to to similar approach century that topic. topic. that Other general studies which were particularly helpful include: were particularly general studies helpful include:
Acknowledgments Acknowledgments
493 493
M. Buber, Buber, Paths Paths in in Utopia Utopia (1949); (1949); C. C. M. M. Cochrane, Cochrane, Thucydides Thucydides M. and the of History History (1929); (1929); M. M. Horkheimer, Horkheimer, Eclipse Eclipse of of the Science Science of
Reason Reason (1947) (1947); B. B. F. F. Hoselitz, Hoselitz,
Sociological Aspects Aspects of of Economic Economic Sociological Growth (a (a collection collection of of previously previously published published essays, essays, 1960) 1960); H. H. S. S. Consciousness and Society (1958); E. Kahler, The Tower Hughes, Consciousness and Hughes, Society (1958); E. Kahler, The Tower and the (1957); R. R. Kroner, Kroner, Rants Kants Weltanschauung Weltanschauung (1956); (1956); the Abyss Abyss (1957); M. and S. Lipset R. Bendix, Social Mobility in Industrial Society S. R. Bendix, Social Mobility in Industrial Society Lipset R. (1959); R. K. Merton, Merton, Social Social Theory Theory and and Social Social Structure Structure (revised (revised (1959) 1957); B. B. Moore, Moore, Jr., Jr., Political Political Power Power and and Social Social Theory Theory (1958) (1958); ed., 1957) ed., G. Myrdal, Myrdal, Value Value in in Social Social Theory Theory (1958) (1958); F. F. Neumann, Neumann, The The DemDemG. (1957); J. J. Ortega Ortega yy Gassett, Gasse~ ocratic and the the Authoritarian Authoritarian State State (1957); ocratic Crisis (1958) (1958); F. F. Pappenheim, Pappenheim, The The Alienation Alienation of of Modern Modern Man and Crisis Man (1959); (1959); JJ. A. Schumpeter, Schumpeter, History History of 01 Economic Economic Analysis Analysis (1954); W. Sombart, Sombart, Weltanschauung, Weltanschauung, Science, Science, and and Economy Economy (1954); and F. (1939); F. Tonnies, Community and Society (an English transand Tonnies, (1939); Community Society (an English trans;
;
;
;
;
;
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lation appeared appeared in in 1957). 1957). lation II. THE AGE OF MERCANTILISM
II.
M. Beer, Beer, An Inquiry Inquiry into into Pkysiocracy Physiocracy (1939) (1939) and and Early Early British British Andre Bieler, Bieler, La LA Pensee Pensee &onomique Sociale Economics (1938); Economics et Sociale (1938); Andre Economique et de Calvin L. F. Brown, The First Earl of Shafteshury Calvin (1959); de L. F. First Earl Brown, of Shaftesbury (1959); (1933); L. Cherry, Free-Trade the English of the Development of English Free-Trade Cherry, "The Development (1933) G. L. 1689-1702," Journal of Modern History Movement in in Parliament, Parliament, 1689-1702," Journal of History (1953); W. D. Christie, A Life of Anthony Ashley Cooper, First Christie, Life of Anthony Ashley Cooper, First (1953) Shafteshury (1871); A. W. Coats, "Changing Attitudes to Earl of to Attitudes Earl A. Coats, "Changing of Shaftesbury (1871) in the Mid-Eighteenth Century," The Economic History Labour in the Labour History Mid-Eighteenth Century," R. Davis, Review (1958); Davis, Cranston, John Loc\e (1957); John Locke (1957); R. (1958); M. W. Cranston, "English Trade, 1600-1700," History Review Foreign Trade, 1660-1700," Economic History "English Foreign of the Era of in the (1'55); Manifest Destiny L. Dfon, "Natural Law and Manifest Destiny in Dion, "Natural (1355); L. and Economics the Canadian Journal the American American Revolution," Journal of of Economics Revolution," The Canadian of Political Social Interpretation C. H. George, Science (1957); Political Science Interpretation of George, "A Social (1957) C. W. English J. History (I953); (1953); J. Puritanism," Journal of Modern History Journal of English Puritanism," Gough, John Locke'S Political Philosophy (1950); T. E. Gregory, Political Gregory, (1950); Philosophy John Locke's Gough, "The in England, of Employment "The Economics Economics of 1660-1713," Economica England, 1660-1713," Employment in Colonial Slave Labor, (1921); C. R. Haywood, "Mercantilism and Colonial Labor, (1921) C. R. Haywood, "Mercantilism K. R- W. K. Southern 1700-1763," The Journal of Southern History (1957); R. History (1957); of Journal 1700-1763," the Time of Thomas Mun," Hinton, in the "The Mercantile Mercantile System Hinton, "The System in the English "War and the Economic Review (1955); A. J. John, Review Economic History English John, "War J. (1955) History Economic History Review (1955); W. Kendall, John Economy," Kendall, John Economic (1955); History Economy," ;
;
;
;
;
;
w
-
494 494
Acknowledgments Acknowledgments
Locke (Illinois (Illi~ois Studies Studies in Social Sciences, Sciences, 1941); G. Kurtz, in the the Social S. G. Kurtz, Loc^e 1941); S. The Presidency Presidency of of John John Adams (1957); Leyden (ed.), John Von W. Leyden (ed.), John (1957) Essays on the Law of Nature (1954); J. M. Low, Locke, the Low, "An Locke, Essays on of Nature (1954); J. Eighteenth Century Controversy in the Theory of Economic Progof Economic in the Theory ProgEighteenth Century Controversy The Manchester School of Economic Social Studies ress," Social Studies and Manchester School of Economic ress," (1952);; A. C. McLaughlin, McLaughlin, "The Background of American Federalof American Federal"The Background A. C. (1952) American Political Political Science Science Review Review (1918) (1918); B. B. Manning, Manning, "The ism," American ism," Nobles, the and the Constitution," Past and Present Present (1956); (1956); the People, Nobles, People, and the Constitution," Past ;
;
S. in the the Puritan Puritan Concept Calling or or of Calling S. Michaelsen, Michaelsen, "Changes Concept of "Changes in England Quarterly J. C. Miller, Alexander Alexander C. Miller, New England Quarterly (1953); (1953) J. C. Nettles, Nettles, "The Place Place of Hamilton: Portrait Portrait in in Paradox Paradox (1959); of Hamilton: (1959); C. Markets in the Old England Quarterly New Markets in the Old Colonial Colonial System," England Quarterly System," (1933); E. E. E. Rich, Rich, "The First Policy," of Shaftesbury's Colonial Policy," First Earl Earl of Shaftesbury's Colonial (1933) E. Trans6C'tions the Royal Historical Society (1957); K. Samuelsson, K. the Historical Transactions of Samuelsson, of Society (1957) Royal Ekonomi och oeh religion translation of of excerpts, and translation 1957); Efynomi religion (precis (precis and excerpts, 1957); A. M. Prelude to Independence: The Newspaper to Prelude M. Schlesinger, A. Independence: Newspaper War Schlesinger, R. Sen, Economics of of Sir Sir on Britain: Britain: 1764-1776 S. R. Sen, The Economics 1764-1776 (1958); (1958); S. James Steuart (1957); R. H. Tawney, Business and Politics under Steuart Politics under Business R. H. James Tawney, (1957) Lionel Cranfield as Merchant Merchant and Minister Minister (1958); lames 1. L Lionel E. M. W. James Cranfield as (1958) E. Tillyard, The Elizabethan World Picture (1943); R. S. Westfall, Elizabethan Picture S. R. Westfall, Tillyard, (1943); Science and Religion Religion in in Seventeenth-Century England (1958) H. Science C. H. Seventeenth-Century England (1958) ; C. Wilson, Profit and (1957); I. G. Wyllie, "The Search for an Power L Search for an G. Wilson, Profit Wyllie, (1957); Mississippi Valley Historical Review American Law of of Charity," Review American Historical Charity," Mississippi Valley (1959)· R. R.
Vocation," Vocation,"
;
;
;
;
;
;
m. THE AGE OF LAISSEZ NOUS
HI.
FAI!E FAIRE
R. V. Bruce, Bruce, 1877: (1959);; R. AmeriR. Ifear of Violence (1959) R. Chase, Chase, The Ameriof Violence 7577: Year can can Novel and Its Its Tradition Railroad Tradition (1957); C. Cochran, T. C. Cochran, Railroad (1957); T. Leaders: Great Mr. Locke: Locke: AmerAmerLeaders: 1845-1890 Curti, "The Great 1845-1890 (1953); (1953); M. Curti, ica's Philosopher, ica's Huntington Library Library Bulletin Bulletin Philosopher, 1783-1861," 1783-1861," The Huntington (1937); D. D. Donald, Donald, "The Scalawag in Mississippi Reconstruction," in Reconstruction," (1937) Scalawag Mississippi The Journal Journal of History (1944); J. Dorfman, Dorfman, The Economic Economic of Southern History (1944) J. Mind in in American Civilization. II: 1606-1865 I and II: Civilization. Vols. Vols. I 1606-1865 (1946); (1946); C. C. Goodrich, Promotion of of American American Canals RailCanals and RailGoodrich, Government Promotion B. roads, (1960); B. Hammond, Banks and Politics in Amerin Politics Amerroads, 1800-1890 Hammond, 1800-1890 (1960) Banfc ica. From the the Revolution to the Civil War (1957); ica. Revolution to B. Hesseltine, the Civil Hesseltine, (1957) W. B. "Abraham Lincoln Lincoln and the Politicians," Civil History (1960); (I¢o); the Politicians," Civil War History D. H. Lawrence, Studies in American Literature Literature (1922); (1922); in Classic Classic American Lawrence, Studies L. Marx, Marx, "Two Kingdoms Kingdoms of The Massachusetts Review of Force," Massachusetts Reiricw Force," ;
;
;
;
Acknowledgments Acknowledgments
495 495
F- O. Matthiessen, (1959); Matthiessen, American American Renaissance Renaissance (1941); H. S. (i959)5 F. (1941); H. S. Bourbon Merrill, Democracy of the Middle West, 1865-1896 (1953); the Middle West, 1865-1896 (1953) Merrill, Democracy of North, "A Note on Professor Professor Rostow's into SelfD. C. North, Rostow's 'Take 'Take OfF Off into SelfManchester School School of of Economic Economic Sustained Growth," The Manchester Sustained Economic Growth," and Social (1958); G. Jacksonian Democracy Social Studies Studies (1958); G. G. G. Sellers, Sellers, Jr., Jr., ]ac\sonian Democracy (1958); R. Sharkey, Money, Class, Party (1959); C. S. Sydor, and Party Class, and (1958) R. Sharkey, Money, (1959) C. S. Sydor, The Development Development of of Southern Southern Sectionalism, G. R. Sectionalism, 18[()-184B 1819-1848 (1948); (1948) G. R. Taylor, The Transportation Revolution, 1815-1860 (1957); F. J. Taylor, Transportation Revolution, J. 1815-2860 (1957); F. American Historical Historical Review Review Turner, "The South, Turner, South, 1820-1830," 1820-1830," American (19°7); R. W. Van Alstyne, Alstyne, The American American Empire Empire (I¢<»; C. Vann (1907) (1960) C. of 1877 Woodward, Reunion and Reaction. Reaction. The Compromise and Woodward, of Compromise 7^77 and the End of the Reconstruction (1951), and "The Irony of Southern and "The of Southern of Reconstruction (1951), Irony of Southern Southern History History (1953); W. Ward, Ward, Andrew Andrew History," Journal of History," Journal J. (1953) J. an Age (1955); B. A. Weisberger, "The Dark Jackson: Symbol for B. A. "The Dark for Jackson: Symbol Age (1955); Weisberger, and Bloody Bloody Ground of of Reconstruction Reconstruction Historiography," Journal and of Historiography," Journal of Southern History History (1959); (1959); T. H. Williams, Analysis of of Some Southern T. H. Williams, "An Analysis Southern History History (1946); Reconstruction Attitudes," Joumal of Reconstruction Attitudes," Journal of Southern (1946); "Abraham Lincoln: The Union as Religious Mysticism," E. Wilson, E. Lincoln: The as Union Wilson, Religious Mysticism," in Eight Essays Essays (1954); Regency in Eight R. Woolfolk, G. R. Cotton Regency Woolfolk, The Cotton (1954); G. (1958); and R. H. Zoellner, "Negro Colonization: The Climate of R. of Climate Colonization: Zoellner, "Negro (1958); 1860-1865," Mid-America (1960). Opinion Surrounding Lincoln, Mid-America Opinion Surrounding Lincoln, 1860-1865," (1960). ;
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;
IV. IV. THE AGE OF CORPORATION CAPITALISM
E. D. Baltzell, Baltzell, Philadelphia Philadelphia Gentlemen (1958); (1958); A. A. A. Jr. E. D. A. Bede, Berle, Jr. and E. (eds.), The Corporation in Modern Society and E. S. S. Mason (eds.), Society (1959); (1959) ; Corporation in
J.
Burkhead, "Changes in the Functional Distribution of Income," J. Burkhead, "Changes in the Functional Distribution of Income," American Statistical Association (1953); Journal of the American Statistical Association of the Journal (1953) ; N. ChamberBusiness in in America," Journal of Political lain, of Political America," Journal lain, "The Organized Organized Business A. D. D. Chandler, of Progressive Economy (1944); Chandler, Jr., Progressive Jr., "The Origins Origins of Economy (1944); A. The Letters of Theodore Leadership," Appendix III in Vol. VIII of Letters of VIII in Vol. III of Leadership," Appendix
B. Cochrane (ed.), American American Labor Labor in in MidRoosevelt (1954); Cochrane (ed.), Roosevelt (1954); B. Ltd. E. S. Corwin, Constitutional Revolution, Lttl. passage (1959); Constitutional E. S. Revolution, Corwin, passage (1959); (1941); E. F. Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie (1957); G. C. Fite, George F. E. Fite, George Frazier, Elac\ Bourgeoisie (1957); (1941); Peek and and the the Fight Fight for for Farm Parity Parity (1954); N. Pee\ Gardner, (1954); R. N. Gardner, States J. A. Garraty, "The United States Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy (1956); Garraty, Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy (1956) J. Labor Early Years," History Steel Versus Labor: The Labor: Versus Steel Corporation Years," History Early Corporation of (1g60); A. H. Hansen, "Some Notes Notes on on Terborgh's Bogey of Terborgh's 'The Bogey (1960); A. H. Hansen, " Statistics 6 Economic The Review of Statistics (194 );; Economic Maturity,' " Review Economic (1946) of Maturity,' American in the A. H. "Growth or Stagnation in the Economy," or "Growth H. Hansen, A. Economy," Hansen, Stagnation ;
496 496
Acknowledgments Acknowledgments
Statistics (1954); M. Horkheimer, Horkheimer, Eclipse Eclipse of of Reason (1947); Leadership, U.s.A. Iowa US.A. (1959); Reason F. Hunter, Hunter, Top (1959); Iowa (1947); F. Top Leadership, State Adjustment, Problems and State University for Agricultural Center for University Center Agricultural Adjustment, Problems and American Agriculture Agriculture (1959); Johnson, "The Policies of D. G. G. Johnson, "The Policies of American (1959); D. Functional Distribution Income in the United United States, 1850-1952," Functional of Income Distribution of in the States, 1850-1952," Review of of Economic Economic Statistics Statistics (1954); Edison. A Review Josephson, Edison. (1954); M. Josephson, (1959); J. A. Kahl, The American Class Structure (1957); Biography Structure A. Class American Kahl, (1957) Biography (1959) J. D. L. Kemmerer, "Economic Trends and Elections," Current EcoD. L. Kemmerer, "Economic Trends and Elections," Current Economic (1955); G. Kolko, "The American 'Income Revonomic Comment (1955) "The American Income RevoG. Kolko, " lution,' Dissent (1957); S. Lens, The Crisis of American Labor American Labor Crisis S. lution,' " Dissent Lens, of (1957) (1959); W. A. A. Lewis O'Leary, "Secular Swings in Proand P. P. J. Lewis and J. O'Leary, "Secular Swings in Pro(1959); duction 1870-1913," The Manchester School School of Economic Manchester and Trade, duction and Trade, 1870-1913," of Economic D. Loth, Swope of G. E. (1958); and Social Social Studies Studies (1955); G. E. D. Loth, Swope of (1955); (1958); B. Mandel, "Notes on the Pullman Boycott," Explorations in EnEnthe Pullman Boycott," Explorations in B. Mandel, "Notes trepreneural History History (1954) (1954); H. P. P. Miller, Miller, Income Income of American the American of the trepreneurd Decade B. Mitchell, Depression (1947); Morris, People (1955); B. W. Mitchell, Morris, Depression People (1947); (1955); The Territory (1958); F. Pappenheim, The Alienation of Ahead F. Alienation of (1958); Pappenheim, Territory R. G. Tugwell, The Democratic Roosevelt Modern Man (1959); G. RDemocratic Roosevelt Tugwell, (1959); (1957); J. J. Weinstein, and the Party, Sentiment and the Socialist Socialist Party, Weinstein, "Anti-War Sentiment (1957) Political Science 1917-1918," Political Science Quarterly (1959); and J. Weinstein, J. Weinstein, Quarterly (1959); 1917-1918," Its Roots "The Socialist Studies on on Socialist Party: Roots and Strength, Strength, 1912-1919," Party: Its 1912-1919," Studies the Left Left (lgOO). the (1960)* Review of Economic Review of &onomic
Statistics (1954)
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
INDEX
Abolitionism,> 254-55, 254-55, 278, 278, 299 299 Abolitionism Acheson, Dean, Dean, 426, 426, 485; 485; quoted, quoted, 17-18, 17-18, Acheson, 474 371-72, 474 371-72, Adams, Brooks, Brooks, 364, 364. 368, 368, 369, 369, 391, 391, Adams, 3922, 485 485 39 Adams, Henry, Henry, quoted, quoted, 345 345 Adams, Adams, John, John, 98, 98, 99, 99, 109, 109, 114, II4, 115, II5. 116, IJ6, Adams, 131, 150, ISO, 167, 167, 187; 187; balanced balanced governgovern131, by 156-57; Bank of of the the ment favored favored by ment 156-57; Bank United States opposed by, by, 165; 165; break break United States opposed with Hamilton Hamilton (1798), (1798), 175; on free free with 175; on trade, 122-23; and Jefferson, Jefferson, 174, trade, 174, 175, 122-23; and 175, and Madison, Madison, 174, 176, 177; 174, 175, 177; and 176; 176, 175, 176; as mercantilist, as neutral mercantilist, 132, 132, 139, 163; neutral 139, 163;
policy of, as President, as President, 174, of, as 174, 175; 175; as policy President of of United United States, President States, 174-77; 174-77; navy advocated by, 139. advocated by, 175; quoted, navy quoted, 139, 175; 118, Rebellion, 148; on Shays' 148; 118, 148; 148; on Shays* Rebellion, Taylor's attack on, on West West Taylor's attack on, 151; 151; on
Indies Indies trade, trade, 142 142 Adams, 140, 177, 192, Adams, John 189, 192, John Quincy, 177, 189, Quincy, 140, 198. 220, 229. 231 253, 253, 292; 292; 198, 214, 214, 220, 229, 231 Jackson's over (1828), Jackson's victory 205; victory over (1828), 205; on and proon mercantilist mercantilist philosophy prophilosophy and gram, and Missouri Missouri Crisis, Crisis, 210-11; and gram, 210-II; 207; and Monroe Monroe Doctrine, 216, Doctrine, 215, 215, 216, 207; and 217; President of of United United States, as President States, 217; as 210, 204, 210, 210, 210, 2II, 211, 218; 218; quoted, 197, 204, quoted, 197, 219; and MeasMeasWeights and 219; Report Upon Weights Report Upon ures ures by, by, 214-15 214-15 Adams, 101, Samuel, 77. 98, 99. Adams, Samuel, 78, 98, 99, 101, 77, 78, 102, 107. Continental at Continental 281; at 102, 107, 140, 140, 281; Congress, 4, II5; of, expansionism of, 114, 115; expansionism Congress, II 182; of as leader leader of on free free trade, 122; as 182; on trade, 122; colonial resistance, 107-10, 111-16 colonial 107-10, lII-I6 resistance, past.; on Madison's feudal system, 162; pass.; on Madison's feudal system, 162; and on of the the Cincinnati, and Society Cincinnati, 144; 144; on Society of West West Indies Indies trade. trade, 142 142 Africa, American penetration of, 199, 199, Africa, American penetration of, 339, revolt against against white 339, 418, 418, 434; 434; revolt rule rule in, in, 386 386
Agee, James, James, 444 444 Agec, Agrarianism, of of colonial colonial planters, planters, 82; 82; Agrarianism, in in i88o's, 1880'S, 334-36; 334-36; Taylor's Taylor'S statement statement
of, 151, 154 154
of, 151,
Agricultural Adjustment Adjustment Act, Act, 442 442 Agricultural Agricultural Marketing Marketing Act Act (1929), (1929), 436 436 Agricultural Alabama, 205, 205, 447-48 447-48 Alabama, Alaska, strategic strategic role role of, of, 319 319 Alaska, Albany Regency, Regency, 236, 236, 237, 237, 249 249 Albany Aldrich, Nelson Nelson W., W., 395, 395, 410 410 Aldrich, Alien Act, Act, Hamilton's, Hamilton's, 175 Alien 175 Allgeyer v. v. Louisiana, Louisitma, 329 329 Allgeyer
A/manac, Franklin's, Franklin's, 106 106 Almanac, Amalgamated Copper Co., 354 354 Amalgamated Copper Co., America'! Economic Economic Supremacy, Supremacy, 368, 368, America's 3 69 369 America Must Must Choos!!, America Choose, 454 454 American Agriculturist, Agriculturist, quoted, American 284 quoted, 284 American Asiatic Asiatic Association, American Association, 363 363 American American Bankers Bankers Association, Association, 353 353 American Bar Bar Association, American Association, 304 304 American Board of Commissioners Board for American of Commissioners for Foreign Foreign Missions, Missions, 185 185 Colonization Society, American American Coloniladon Society, 199 199 American American Economic Economic Association, Association, 401 401 of Labor, American Federation Federation of American Labor, 334, 401, 334, 401, 431, 431, 445 445 & Foreign American American &; Co., 457 Foreign Power Co., 457 American Fur Trade Co., Co., 186, 186, 234 234 American American Geography, Geography, 179 179 Canter American Co. v. Canter v. Co. American 1111111'ance Insurance (1828), 214 (1828), 214 American International Corp., American International 420 Corp., 420 American American Magazin~, 103 Magazine, 103 American National Steel Steel Manufacturers, American National Manufacturers) 04 3304
American American Philosophical Society, 91 91 Philosophical Society, Protective Association, American American Protective Association, 323 323 and merBritish merAmerican American Revolution, Revolution, and British cantilism, cantilism, lIS 115 American American Scen~, The, 331 Scene, Tht:, 331
498 498
Index Index
American Slavery Slavery As A$ I1 See See It, It, 254 254 American American System, System, 208-09, 208-09, 211, 2II, 217, 217, 263, 263, American 266, 268 268 266, American Telephone Tdephone & &: Telegraph Tdegraph Co., Co., American 350, 354 354 350, 354 American Tobacco Tobacco Co., Co., 354 American AmericamzatiolJ of of the the World, World, The, The, 348 348 Americanization Ames, Fisher, Fisher, 150, ISO, 170 170 Ames, Anabaptists, 37, 37, 49 49 Anabaptists, Annalr of of Congress, CongrtfSI, 194 194 Annals Annapolis, 81, 81, 83 83 Annapolis, Annapolis Convention Convention (1786), (1786), 146, 146, 147 147 Annapolis
Anti-Catholicism, 253 253 Anti-Catholicism, Anti-communism, 475, 475, 480 480 Anti-communism, Anti-Masons, 253 253 Anti-Masons, Anti-Semitism, 398 398 Anti-Semitism,
Applachian region, region, settlement settlement of, of, 184 184 Applachian Aquinas, St St. Thomas, Thomas, 37, 37, 152, 152, 357 357 Aquinas,
Argentina, 217 217 Argentina,
Aristode, Aristotle,
152 152
Arminian Protestantism, Protestantism, 250, 250, 251, 251, 291 291 Arminian Arthur, Chester Chester A., A., 322, 322, 339 339 Arthur,
II 6, 12 I, 129, 129, Articles of of Confederation, Confederation, 116, Articles 121, 133, J146 6
4 . J33, Asia, American economic expansion expansion into, into, economic American Asia,
457 457
Association Association
of Tradesmen Tradesmen of
and ManuManuand
facturers, Boston, 142 facturers, Boston, 142 Astor, John John Jacob, 200, 234, 234, 186, 195, Astor, 195, 200, Jacob, 186, 272 272
Atlantic Monthly, Monthly, 333, 333, 365 Atlantic 365 Atomic bomb, 477 Atomic bomb, 470, 470* 474, 474, 477 Austin, Benjamin, 196 Austin, Benjamin, 196 Austin, F., 258 Austin, Stephen 258 Stephen F., Austria, American tariffs against Austria, tariffs against American
sursur-
pluses, 365 pluses, 365
Bacon, Francis, 45, Bacon, Francis, 45 45, 50; 5<>; quoted, quoted, 27, 27, 45 Bacon, Nathaniel, 104 104 Bacon, Nathaniel, Bacr, George, 378 Baer, George, 378 Baltimore, comsubverted by Baltimore, 83; 83; Spain Spain subverted by commerce merce of, trade with with Latin Latin Amerof, 57; 57; trade ica ica (1820), 217 (1820), 217 Bank of of North North America, America, 124 124 Bank of United States, of United Hamilton's, 165, States, Hamilton's, 165, 166; 1 66; re-establishment re-establishment of, war 200, 201; of, 200, 201; war on, by Jackson, 241, 248, 250 on, by Jackson, 241, 248, 250 Banking, American American Revolution, after Banking, after Revolution, 124; Biddle's skill skill in, exin ex124; Biddle's 212; in in, 212; pansionist program, 187, 189-90, pansionist program, 187, 189-90, 191; 191; and and panic of 1819, see also also Bank Bank panic of 201; see 1819, 201; of of United United States; financial capitalism States; financial capitalism Baptis~, 185, 278 278 Baptists, 185, Barbary 188 Barbary pirates, pirates, 131, 131, I41, 141, 188 Barbour, James, 216 Barbour, James, quoted, quoted, 216 Barton, Barton, David, David, 53 53 Baruch, Bernard, 385, Baruch, Bernard, 385, 480; 480; quoted, quoted, 425, 425, 451, 466-67 451, 46*6-67 Baxter, Richard, 58 Baxter, Richard, 58
Bayard, James James A., A., 195 195 Bayard, 2I6 Baylies, Francis, Francis, 216 Baylies,
Beadle, Erastus, Erastus, 287 287 Beadle, 463, Beard, Charles Charles Austin, Austin, 454, 454, 461, 461, 463, Beard, 464, 485 485 464, Beckley, John, John, 174, 174, 177 177 Beckley, Beecher, Lyman, Lyman, 253 253 Beecher, Bellamy, Edward, Edward, 386, 386, 387 387 Bellamy, Belmont, August, August, 353, 353, 360 360 Belmont, Benjamin, Asher, Asher, 245 245 Benjamin, Benton, Thomas Hart, Hart, 201, 201, 234-35, 234-35, 241, 241, Benton, 270, 337; 337; quoted, quoted, 282 282 270, Berle, Adolf Adolf A., A., Jr., Jr., 343, 343, 426, 426, 458, 458, 466, 466, Berle, 468; quoted, quoted, 439 439 468; Berlin Conference Conference (1884-1885), (1884-1885), 339 339 Berlin Sted Corp., Corp., 382 382 Bethlehem Steel Bethlehem Beverley, Robert, Robert, 83 83 Beverley, Biddle, Nicholas, Nicholas, 212 212 Biddle, Billy Budd, Budd, 295 295 Billy Bingham, George George Caleb, Caleb, 245 245 Bingham, Birney, James James G., G., 255, 255, 268, 268, 269 269 Birney, Bismarck, 319 319 Bismarck, Blaine, James James G., G., 363 363 Biaine, Blair, John, John, 150 ISO Blair, Bolingbroke, Viscount, Viscount, 73, 73, 156 Bolingbroke, 156 Bolshevik Bolshevik
Revolution, 386, 386, 388, 388, 398, 398, Revolution, 399, 423, 423, 424 424 399, Bonaparte, Charles Charles G., G., 394 394 Bonaparte, Borah, William, 423, Borah, William, 423, 436 436 Boston, 98, 99, 99, 102, colonial, 91, Boston, colonial, 91, 98, 102, 107. 107, in Confederation 109, Confederation era, 112; in era, 142; 109, II2; 142; General Trade Union of, 237; Lee, General of, 237; Lee, Higginson 353, low-tariff of, Higginson of, 380; low-tariff 353, 380; strategy Protective Union of, 306-07; 306-07; Protective strategy of, organized in, 279; organized in, 279; workers employed employed
in in (1793), 1^9 (i793) 169 Boston Boston Manufacturing 186 Co., 186 Manufacturing Co., Boston Boston &: & Sandwich Glass Glass Co., Co., 267 267 Bourne, Bourne, Randolph, Randolph, 404 404 Brackenridge, Hugh Henry, III, 181 Brackenridge, Hugh Henry, in, 181 Bradford, William, 103 Bradford, William, 103 Brandeis, Louis D., Brandeis, Louis D,, 405, 405, 406 406 Brazil, Brazil, 340, 340, 459 459 Breadwinnttrs, Thtf, 317 Breadwinners, The, 317 Brewster, 66 Brewstcr, Francis, Francis, 66 Brinkerhoff, BrinkerhofT, Jacob, Jacob, quoted, quoted, 264, 264, 270-71 270-71 Brisbane, Brisbane, Albert, Albert, 250 250 Brookings Institution, 432 Brookings Institution, 432 Brougham, Brougham, Lord, Lord, 197 197 Brown, Brown, John, John, 294 294 Brownson, Orestes, Brownson, Orestes, quoted, quoted, 264, 264, 274 274 Brussels Conference (1937), Brussels (1937), 458 458 William Bryan, Bryan, William Jennings, Jennings, 337, 337, 338, 339, 338, 339, 349, 349> 368, 368, 375, 375, 419, 421; quoted, 419, 421; 320, quoted, 320, 337 337 William Bryant, William Cullen, 242 Bryant, Cullen, 242 Bryce, Bryce, Lord, Lord, 331 331 Buchanan, James, Buchanan, James, 289; 289; quoted, quoted, 287 287 Buckland, 81 Buckland, William, William, 81
Index Index Bureau of of Corporations, 407 Bureau Corporations, 407 Buder, Benjamin Benjamin F., F., 301 Butler, 301 Byrd. William, William, 81, 82 81, 82 Byrd, Cabot, John, 34 34 Cabot, John, Calhoun, John John C., C., 194, 201, Calhoun, 200, 201, 194, 195, 195, 200, 235, 259, 259, 260, 260, 267, 282; annexannex267, 276, 276, 282; 235, ation of of Texas by, 275; 275; and and Texas advocated advocated by, ation
"feudal of republics," republics," 259; as "feudal system system of 259; as quoted, leader, 197-98; leader, 197-98; quoted, 196, 246, 281, 282; slavery de281, 282; 220, 246, slavery de196, 220, fended 275; on tariff, tariff, 197, fended by, by, 275; 197, 231 231 California, 282, 310, 310, 316 California, 276, 316 276, 282, Callender, Thompson, 151 Callender, J. J. Thompson, 151 Calvin, John, John, 36, 44, 49, 93, Calvin, 36, 37, 37, 44, 49, 58, 58, 93, 1, 391, 94, 481 101, 108, 108, 232, 243, 25 251, 232, 243, 391, 481 94, 101, Calvinism, 30, 30, 94, 242, 250, 100, 108, Calvinism, 108, 242, 94, 100, 250, 385 385 Cambodia Iron Iron Works, Works, 350 350 Cambodia Cambria Works, strike strike at, Iron Works, Cambria Iron at, 315-16 315-16 Canada, 69, 116, 126, Canada, 112, 116, 126, 192, 69, 112, 192, 338, 338, 347 Cane Ridge Meeting (1801), 185 Cane Ridge Meeting (1801), 185 Cannon, Joseph G., G., 378, 378, 408, 408, 409 409 Cannon, Joseph Capitalism, Christian,. 357, 357, 401, 401, 407. 407, Capitalism, Christian. 409, 410, 419, 420, 420, 422, 422, 423, 410, 419, 409, 423, 424, 424, 466, 472; financial, 327, 380, 381 466, 472; financial, 327, 380, 381 Carey, Henry, Henry, 261, 261, 262 262 Carey, Carey, Matthew, 124, 208, 261 261 124, 208, Carey, Matthew, Carlisle, John John C., C., 339 Carlisle, 339 Carnegie, 326-27, 330, 330, Andrew, 324, Carnegie, Andrew, 324, 326-27, 350, 350, 353, 353, 367, 367, 380 380 Carpetbagger, 312 Carpetbagger, 312 Carter, Robert, 83 Carter, Robert, 83 Cary, George, 232 George, 232 Gary, Casson, James S., 457 Casson, James S., 457 Cather, Willa, Willa, 332 Gather, 332 Catholicism, Roman, 385 Catholicism, Roman, 58, 58, 385 Cato, Marcus P., 41, 46 P., 41, 46 Cato, Caton v. ComtnonWt!alth, Caton v. Commonwealth, 158 158 Cavalier, tradition of, of, 81 81 Cavalier, tradition Cecil, William, 45 Cecil, William, 45 Central America, trade with, with, 288 U.S. trade Central America, U.S. Central Committee of Mechanics, New of Mechanics, Central Committee York (1785), 142 (1785), 142 Chancery Courts, British, British, 59 59 Chancery Courts, Channing, William Ellery, William Channing, 267 251, 267 Ellery, 251, Charles I, I, 40, 46 Charles 40, 46 Charles II, 28, 29, 50, 51, 53, Charles II, 28, 29, 50, 51, 53, 57, 57, 79 79 Charles River Bridge Bridge case, case, 248 248 Charles River Charleston, 82, 83, 151; St. Michael's St. Michael's Charleston, 82, 83, 151; subverted by church in, 81 Spain church in, 81; by comSpain subverted merce of, of, 57, 77 57, 77 Checks and balances, within U.S. govU.S. govbalances, within 1 60 ernment, 159, ernment, 159, 160 Che~apeake. U. British attack U. S. attack on, S. S., S. f British on, Chesapeake, 2 19 192 Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, 21 I 211 and Delaware Canal, Chesapeake Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, 211, 240 240 Canal, 2II, Chesapeake and mercantilist mercantilist
;
499 499
Cheves, Langdon, Langdon, 194, 212 Cheves, 194, 201, 201, 212 Chicago, 256; Haymarket Riot in in (1886), Chicago, 256; Haymarket Riot (1886), Illinois Steel Company of, 353: 333; Illinois Steel Company 333; of, 353; Rivers and and Harbors Convention Rivers Harbors Convention in in (1847), 278 278 (1847), Chicago Board of Trade, 309 Board of Chicago Trade, 309 Chicago Manual Training 354 Chicago School, 354 Training School, Chicago Tribune, 387 Chicago Tribune, 387 Child, Josiah, 42, 42, 52, 209 Child, Josiah, 52, 209 Chile, 217 217 Chile, China, 423, 423, 427, 437, 443, 443, 458, 476; China, 427, 437, 458, 476; as as foreign foreign market market (i88o (1880'S), 338, 365, s), 338, 365, 366, 368; foreign trade with with U.S. U.s_ 366, 368; foreign trade (1932-1938), 457; Japanese military (1932-1938), 457; Japanese military campaign in Open in (1937), and Open campaign (1937), 457; 457; and Door Policy, Policy, 417, 418, 435. 437; 417, 418, 435, 437; Tyler's treaty treaty with, with, 272; 272; U.S. U.S. exports Tyler's exports to to (1913-1930), 435; Wilson's policy (1913-1930), 435; Wilson's policy 420 on, 420 on, Chinese Revolution, 386, Chinese Revolution, 388 386, 388 Christian Christian Capitalism, Capitalism, 357, 407, 409, 409, 357, 401, 401, 407, 410, 419, 420, 422, 423, 424, 466, 472 410, 419, 420, 422, 423, 424, 466, 472 Christian Socialism, 357 357 Christian Socialism, ChrUtiani:ing Social Ora«. the Social Order, 401 Christianizing the 401 Cincinnati, 258 Cincinnati, 258 Cincinnati, Society of the, 143, of Cincinnati, Society the, 143, 144 144 Civil Civil War, War, 285, 303, 321, 285, 290, 290, 300, 300, 301, 321, 301, 303, 26, 3326, 396, 396, 476, 476, 485; 485; laissez laissez £aile fairc as as basic cause cause of, 286 basic of, 286 Civilian Conservation Conservation Corps, Corps, 441 441 Civilian Clark, Francis Francis E., 351 Clark, E., 357 Clark, George, 103 Clark, George, 103 Clark, George Rogers, Rogers, no, lIO, II7 Clark, George 117 Clark, John Bates, 400, Clark, John Bates, 401, 466 466 400, 401, Class consciousness, Class 230, 249, consciousness, 230, 249, 482 482 Clay, Henry, Henry, 190, 203, 220, 229, Clay, 220, 229, 190, 200, 200, 203, 240, 275, 282, 429, 483; "American 240, 275, 282, 429, 483; System" by, 208, 266, System" supported 208, 264, supported by, 264, 266, 268; defeated in 268, 270; in 1844, 258; defeated 270; on 1844, 268, expansionist implications 221; expansionist implications (1828), (1828), 221; on free trade, trade, 221; acon free industrialism ac221; industrialism and mercantilism, mercantilism, cepted by, by, 263; cepted 263; and 265-69; quoted, attempt to to revive, revive, 265-69; 194, quoted, 194, attempt 204, 221, with South South trade with 264; on trade 204, 221, 264; 217 America, America, 217 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1854), (1854), 288 288 Clayton-Bui wer Treaty 282 Clemens, Jeremiah, quoted, quoted, 265, 265, ::82 Clemens, Jeremiah, Cleveland, 317, 333, 333, 336, 336, 339* 339, Grover, 317, Cleveland, Grover, 340, 366; 341 320, 341 340, 366; quoted, quoted, 320, Clinton, George, 83, II4, 151, 161, 19I 151, 161, 191 Clinton, George, 83, 114, Coade, George, 42 Coade, George, 42 Coercive Acts, Acts, 112 II2 Coercive Collin, Howard E., 426 E., 426 Coffin, Cold Cold War, War, 399, 484 476, 484 399, 476, Coldein, Cadwallader, Cadwa[[adex, 88 88 Coldcin, Cole, Thomas, 244 Cole, Thomas, 244 Colepeper, John, John, 48 48 Colepeper, Coleridge, 242 Taylor, 242 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, College William and Mary, Mary, founding of William founding College of f
500 500 of, 83 83
of,
Collins, Perry Perry Collins,
Index Index McDonough, 289 289 McDonough,
Colombia, 218, 2r8, 416 416 Colombia,
Colonies, American, American, industry industry of, of, 103; 103; iron iron Colonies, 103; meeting meeting of of (1765), (1765), production of, of, 103; production
107; non-importation non-importation as as 107;
weapon of, of, weapon lIO, in; III; population population of, of, 103; 103; separate separate no, interests of, of, 105 105 interests Columbia River, River, 186 r86 Columbia Committee on on Commerce Commerce and and ManuManuCommittee (1819), 201 201 factures (1819), factures Committee for for Economic Economic Development, Development, Committee
-465,466 466 465,
Commo" Law, Law, The, Th.e, 405 405 Common StmSt!, 116 n6 Common Sense,
Commons, John John R., Ro, 401, 401, 402 40~ Commons, Commonwealth v. Vo Hunt, Hunt, 268 268 Commonwealth Communism, 377 377 Communism,
Communists, American, American, 443 443 Communists,
Compromise of of 1850, 1850, 229, 229, 283, 283, 285, 285, 287 287 Compromise Confederacy, 299, 299, 319 319 Confederacy, Confederation era, era, 121, UI, 125-48 125-48 pass. PIUSo Confederation Congregationalists, 10 101I Congregationalism, Congress, Continental, Continental, 112, II2, 114-15, II4-I5, 116; ub; Congress, of r63, 1r66; of 1803, r803, 183 r83 of 1789, 66; of 1789, 163,
Congress of of Industrial Industrial Organizations, Organi2ations, 445, 445, Congress 46r, 465 465 461, Conkling, Roscoe, Roscoe, 313 313 Conkling, Connally. Thomas Terry, 471 Terry, 471 Connally,
Connecticut, 143, 260 Connecticut, 143, 260 Conservation, Conservation, 406-07 406-07 Conservatives, 379, 395; differences Conservatives, 378, 378, 379, 395; differences with with reformers, reformers, 375 375 Constitution, United States, Constitution, United States, !2r, 121, 151, 151, 158, 158, 190; feudal principles and 160; and 190; feudal of, 160; principles of, laissez 290-95; opponents of, r 6 I, laissez faire, faire, 290-95; opponents of, 161, 162; 161, ratification of, and 162; ratification of, 161, 162; 162; and
syndicalist and economy, 448; syndicalist political political economy, 448; and trans-Mississippi 286 expansion, 286 trans-Mississippi expansion, Constitution Constitution Movement, Movement, 147, 148, ISO 150 147, 148, Constitutional Constitutional Convention, Convention, 135, 150, 135, 139, 139, 150, ISS, 157, 214 155, 157, 214 Consumers 402 Consumers League, League, 402 Continental Continental Congress, 116 112, II4-15, Congress, II2, 114-15, II6 Contract Contract Labor Labor Law (1864), (1864), 314 314 Cook, David Po, Cook, David P., 232 232 Coolidge, Coolidge, Calvin, Calvin, 427 427 Cooper, Anthony Ashley; see Shaftesbury, Shaf tesbury, Cooper, Anthony Ashley; st!t! first first Earl Earl of of Cooper, James Fenimore, 181, 182; 182; Cooper, James Fenimore, I8r, quoted, quoted, 245 245 Co-operatives, farm, 314 Co-operatives, farm, 314 Copley, John Singleton, Singleton, 98 Copley, John 98 Corporation and conconCorporation(s), (s)^ 233, 233, 346-54; 346-54; and .ervation, 407; coordinated into coordinated into system, servation, 407; system, 360-62; as legal defined as 360-62; defined legal person, person, 248, 248, 298; in adaptation role in 298; Dewey's Dewey's role to, adaptation to, 402-05; early growth of, 169, 260-6r; 402-05; early growth of, 169, 260-61; efficiency of, 398, 405-06; financial vSo vs. financial efficiency of, 398, 405-06;
industrial, 380; 380; and and Hanna, Hanna, Mark, Mark, industrial, 360-62; Hoover's Hoover's analysis analysis of of political political 360-62; 427-29, 437> 437, 43 438; ineconomy of, of, 427-29, 8; ineconomy 160; industrial industrial dividual replaced replaced by, by, 160; dividual 380; influence influence in in national national vs. financial, financial, 380; vs. 375; and and Marshall's Marshall's Supreme Supreme decisions, 375; decisions, Court decisions, decisions, 213-14; 213-14; and and New New York York Court law of of 1811, I8n, 1186; organization of, of, law 86; organization 351-52; paternalism paternalism by, by, 379, 379, 394; 394; 351-52; planned economic economic activity activity of, of, 35-5i; 350-5r; planned pragmatism's role role in in adaptation adaptation to, to, pragmatism's 402-05; radicalism's radicalism's challenge challenge to, to, 386386402-05; and railroad railroad system, system, 303; 303; results results of of 89; and 89; production of of atomic atomic bomb by, by, 477-78; 477-78; production and social social system, system, resolving resolving dichotomy dichotomy and 374; Southern Southern view of, of, prior prior between, 374; between, to Civil Civil War, War, 298; 298; and syndicalism, syndicalism, to 358,384, 385; Taney's Taney's confirmation confirmation of, of, 358, 384, 385; as unit unit of of competition, competition, 248; 248; Taylor Taylor as opposed to, to, 154 154 opposed Cortelyou, George George B., Bo, 392 392 Cortelyou, Cotton, John, John, 44, 44, 94 94, 95 95 Cotton, Cotton gin, gin, 185, 186, 256 256 Cotton 185, 186, Coughlin, Charles, Charles, 444-45 444-45 Coughlin, Court of of Equity, Equity, 59 59 Court Couzens, James, James, 394 Couzens, 394 Coxe, Tench, Tench. 124, J46, 164 124, 146, 164 Coxe, Coxey's Army, Army, 355 355 Coxey's
Cramt!l"'s Magazifl~ Almanac, Almanac, 193 Cramer's Magazine 193
Crane, Stephen, Stephen, 303 Crane, 303
Crawford, William H., Ho, 194 Crawford, 194 Crevccover, St. John 181 Crevecover, Hector St. de, 181 John de, Croly, Herbert. 385, 392, 427, -450 Herbert, 426, 427, Croly, 385, 392, 426, 450 Cromwell, Cromwell, Oliver, Oliver, 28, 28, 31, 37, 51, 31, 37, 58, 51, 58, 88 3388 Crossman Wo So, 340 W. Grossman and Brothers, Brothers, S., 340 Cuba, 288, 460; Cuba, 194, 216, 217, 217, 218, 199, 216, 218, 288, 460; 194, 199, difficulties in, Spain's 362, 366, 366, 367 Spain's difficulties in, 362, 367 Cuban Revolution, of 1895, of Revolution, of 1895, 341, 341, 386; 386; of 8, 386, 195 1958, 476 386, 476 Culbertson, Culbertson> William So, S., 456 456 Culpeper, John, 104 Culpeper, John, 104 Dalton, Dalton, Charles, Charles, 338 338 Dana, Dana, Richard Henry, Henry, quoted, quoted, 295 295 Danids, Daniels, Josephus, 460 Josephus, 460 Danish West Indies, I9 Indies, 3 319 Darwinism, Darwinism, environmental, environmental, 399, 400, 402. 402, 399, 400, 407 407 Davie, R., 150 150 Davie, William Ro, Davis, Davis, Jefferson, Jefferson, 298, 300 298, 300 Davyes, Davyes, William, William, 103 103 Charles Go, Dawes, Dawes, Charles 426 G., 425, 425, 426 Dawes Plan, Plan, 433. 433, 434 434 De Lancey, De Lancey, James, 87 James, 87 Deane, 120 Deane, Silas, Silas, II4; 114; quoted, quoted, 120 Debs, Debs, Eugene, Eugene, 384, 384, 387, 387, 396, 4i, 487; 487? 39$, 401, quoted, quoted, 388 388
Index Index Declaration of of Independence, Independence, 64, 64, 79, 79, 85, 85, Declaration Il7, 329 32 9 II2-X3, 117, 112-13, D~tmse of of the the Constitution Constitution of of GovernGOfl~Defense ment of of the the United United States, States, 156 156 ment Deism, 58, 58, 81 81 Deism,
Delano, Columbus, Columbus, quoted, quoted, 264-65 264-65 Delano, Delaware, 350 350 Delaware, DeLeon, Daniel, Daniel, 384 384 DeLeon,
Democratic Party, Party, 272, 272, 281, 281, 313, 313, 316, 316, Democratic 422 422 Democratic-Republican Societies, Societies, 167, 167,168 168 Democratic-Republican Democratic Review, Review, The, The, 239 239 Democratic Department of of Commerce Commerce and and Labor, Labor, 407 407 Department Depression, of of 1819, 1819, 20 201, 205; of of 1837, 1837, 1> 205; Depression, 249, 266; 266; of of 1873-1877, 1873-1877, 3I3-I7; 313-17; of of 249, 1893-1898, 354, 354, 372; 372; of of 1913-1914, 1913-1914, 1893-1898, 377, 411, 4II, 415; 415: of of 1921-1922, 1921-1922, 432; 432; 377, Great, see see Great Great Depression Depression Great,
Desegregation, 476 476 Desegregation,
Detroit, Detroit,
307 307 Dew, Thomas R., R., 270 270 Dew, Dewey, George, George, 367 367 Dewcy, Dewey, John, John, eclecticism eclecticism of, of, 402; 402; influinBuDewey, on Progressive Progressive Movement, Movement, 402, 402, ence on ence 404, 405; 405; pragmatism pragmatism of, of, 402-05, 402-05. 441, 441, 404, 450,472 472 450, Dickinson, John, John, no, lIO, 114 II4 Dickinson, Dismal Swamp, Great, Great, 143. 2Il Dismal Swamp, 143, 211 Divided We Stand Stand-The of aa Crisis of The Crisis Divided Frontier/esl Democracy Democracy (1937), (1937), 444 444 Frontierless Dixon, Thomas, Thomas, 324 Dixon, 324 Dollar Diplomacy, 383 Dollar Diplomacy, 383 Donne, John, 45 Donne, John, 45 Donnelly, Ignatius, 333 Ignatius, 333 Donnelly, Douglas, Stephen 283, 295, A., 282, 282, 283, 295, 296; 296; Douglas, Stephen A., in Lincoln debates, in Lincoln debates, 297; of, policies of, 297; policies 1-92 29 290, 290, 291-92 Douglas, William, quoted, 105 Douglas, William, quoted, 105 Downes, 136 Downes, Randolph, Randolph, 136 Downes, William, 197 Downes, William, 197 Downing, George, 51, Downing, George, 51, 65 65 Drayton, William Henry, 116" Henry, u6 Dray ton, William Dred Scott decision, 294 Scott Dred decision, 294 Drew, Daniel, 325 Drew, Daniel, 325 Drift and MfJftery, Drift and 393 Mastery, 393 Du Bois, William E. E. B., B., 398 398 Bois, William Du Pont Company, Pont Company, 354, 421 354, 421 "Dual Federalism," 160, 199 "Dual Federalism," 160, 199 Duane, Duane, James, James, II4 114 Duggan, Laurence, 459 459 Duggan, Laurence, Dulles, Allen, 458 Dulles, Allen, 458 Dulles, John Foster, Dulles, John Foster, 424 424 Dunmore, 6 116 Dunmore, Lord, Lord, II Dutch 101 Dutch Reformed Reformed Church, Church, 101 Dutch 86 India Co., Dutch West India Co., 86
Earl, Earl, Ralph, 244 Ralph, 244
Easley, Easley, Ralph, Ralph, 360 360 East 112 India Company, East India Company, Xl2
501 501
East East Indian Indian trade, trade, won won by by Jay, Jay, 172 172 Eaton, Peggy, Peggy, 239 239 Eaton, Edmunds, George George R, F .. 333, 333, 336 336 Edmunds,
Edward I,I, 33, 33, 39 39 Edward Edward Edward in, 33 33
m.
Edwards, Jonathan, Jonathan, 99, 99, 100, 100, 101, 101, 108, IDS, Edwards, 250, 251, 251, 483 483 250, Edwards, Ogden, 233, 234 Edwards, Ogden, 233, 234 Efliciency of of corporations, corporations, 398, 398, 405-06 405-06 Efficiency Element* Elements of of Political Political Economy, Economy, 240 2-40 Elizabeth Elizabeth I, I, 31, 31, 32, 32. 40, 40, 41, 41, 48, 48, 166, 166, 482 432 Elkins Elkins Act Act (1903), (1903), 407 407 Ely, Richard Richard T., T., 400, 400, 401, 401, 466; 466; quoted, quoted, Ely,
400-01 400-01 Emerson, Ralph Ralph Waldo, Waldo, 238, 238. 242, 242, 243, 243, Emerson,
quoted. 227, 227, 242-43 242-43 244, 295; 295; quoted, 244, Engineering Magazine, Magazine, 363 363 Engineering England, apology of, for aiding ConfederEngland, apology of, for aiding Confederacy. 319; 319; in in final tinal victory victory over over France France acy, (1763), 69, 69, 1106; and House House of of MorMor06; and (1763), gan. 384, 384, 434; 434: Jefferson's Jefferson·s analysis analysis of of gan, U.S. relations relations with with (1791), (1791), 178; 178; nanaof coal mines in, after tionalization tionalization of coal mines in, after 361; settlement settlement of of west west World War n, 361;
u.s.
n,
by (1761), trade cut cut 106; trade by (1761), 106; by colonial colonial non-importation, non-importation, no; lIO; in in by War of of 1812. 1812, 151, 151, 155, 191, 192-93, 155, 191, 192-93* 195, Washington's neutrality neutrality 195, 196; 196; and Washington's (1793). in World War n, n. 460 460 t67' & (1793), 167; English Revolution, Revolution, 29, 31, 33, 40, -47, 47, English 29, 31, 33, 40, 49, 50, 55. 182, 481 50, 55, 182, 423, 423, 481 49, Episcopalians, 58 Episcopalians, 58 Equal Party, 249 Equal Rights Rights Party, 249 Equity. of, 59 Equity, Court of, 59 Erie Canal. Erie 202. 256 Canal, 202, 256 Evans, H., 279, Evans, George George H., 279, 280 Evans, Lewis, 105 Evans, Lewis, 105 Evans, Walker, 444 Evans, Walker. 444 Everett, 288; quoted, 257 Everett, Edward, Edward, 267, 267, 288; quoted, 257 restricted restricted
in Ezamination Late Procut/ingl the Late Examination of Proceedings in of the Congress, 151 Taylor's, 151 Congress, Taylor's, Expansionism, 187, 270, 272, 275, 181-85, 187,270,272,275, Expansionism, 181-85. 2.76, on, 480; Buchanan's statement on, 276, 480; of (1828). 2.87; Clay on implications (1828), implications of 287; Clay :Z21; Hoover's views on, 429-30; Hoover's on, 429-30; 221; Marshall's Marshall's support of, 214; 214; Monroe's support of, 21 6, of (1822 reassertion and 1823). reassertion of 1823), :n6. (1822 220-21; Deal, 453, 220-21; and New Deal. 453, 454,456. 454, 45* 457; overseas, 409, 416, 429-30. 429-30, 409, 412, 412, 416. 457; overseas, Pierce's statement on, 474, on, .287; 287; 475! Pierce's 474, 475; reasof 409. 412, 4x6; of Progressives, Progressives, 409, 412, 416; realwith sertion and war with Spain, 363..,0; sertion of, 3*>3-7o; Spain, of, during reconstruction period, 317-18; period, 317-18; during reconstruction views on. and 376..,8; Seward's news and reform, on, reform, 376-78; 317, of, as inherent 318-19; statement of, 317, 318-19; Wiland Taft, in in mercantilism, Taft, Wilmercantilism, 215; 215; and and United United Nations, liam liam Howard, Nations, Howard, 109; 409; and of Young 484; weaknesses of, Young of, 476-78; 476-78; of 484; weaknesses thesis also Frontier see also Frontier thetis Americans, 288; lee Americans, 288;
Index Index
502 502 Export-Import Bank, Bank, 455, 455, 459 459 Export-Import
II3. 115 II5 Fairfax County County Resolves, Resolves, 113, Fairfax Farewell Address, Address, Washington's, Washington's, 82, 82, 173173Farewell 74, 218, :zx8, 411 4I I 74, Farmers, and and declining declining rate rate of of economic economic: Farmers, growth (i88o's), (1880'S), 335-36; 335-36; during during dedegrowth pression of of 1921-1922, 1921-1922,432-33 432-33 pression Fascism, 386, 386, 428, 428, 437, 437, 442 442 Fascism, Faulkner, William, William, 244 244 Faulkner, Federal Emergency Emergency Relief Relief Administration, Administration, Federal 441 441 Federal Farm Farm Board, Board, 436 436 Federal Federal Farm Farm Loan Loan Act, Act, 442 442 Federal Federal Reserve Reserve Act, Act, 410 410 Federal Federal Reserve Reserve System, System, 395, 395, 410, 410, 421, 421, Federal
42 5 425
Federal Trade Trade Commission, Commission, 425 425 Federal Federal Trade Trade Commission Commission Act, Act, 410 410 Federal
Federalist, The,
II6, 145, 145, Federalist, The, 116, Federalist Party, Party, 174, 267 Federalist 174, 267
159 159
Fessenden, Wifliam William Pitt, Pitt, 305 305 Fessenden, Feudalism, 56-57, 56-57, 152 Feudalism, 152
Field, Erastus Erastus Salisbury, Salisbury, 228 228 Field, Field, Stephen Stephen J., J., 328-29; 328-29; quoted, quoted,320 Field, 320
Fillmore, Millard, Millard, 288 288 Fillmore, Ymancial capitalism, capitalism, 327, 327, 380, 380, 381 38x Financial Finney, Charles Charles G., G., 252, 252, 253 253 Finney, Firestone Tire TJre and and Rubber Rubber Co., Co.. 434 434 Firestone Yuh, Hamilton Hamilton (Secretary (Secretary of of State), 338 State), 338 Fish, Fisk, James, James, 325 325 Fisk, Fiske, John, John, 364 364 Fiske,
82 Fitzhugh, William, William, 82 Fltzhugh, Fitzsimons, Thomas, Thomas, 150, Fitzsimons, 150, 177 177 Flanders, Ralph, Ralph, 466 466 Flanders, Florida, 126, 171, 173, 194; abandoned Florida, 126, 171, 173, 194; abandoned
by Spain, by Spain, X96 196 Floyd, John, John, quoted, quoted, 217 217 Floyd, Ford, Henry, Ford, Henry, 380, 384 380, 384 Ford Foundation, Ford Foundation, 465 465 Foreign Relations Committee, Committee, Sellate, Senate, 339 Foreign Relations 339 Fort Knox, 455 Fort Knox, 455
Fortrey, Samuel, quoted, Fortrey, Samuel, quoted, 53 53 Foster, Foster, John John W., W., 368 368 as ally of Americans, France, 102; as of Americans, II9, France, 102; ally 119, X20, and American American Revolution, Revolution, 120, 167; 167; and II9; co-operation with, favored by favored 119; co-operation with, by House of of Morgan, final Morgan, 384; 384; England's England's final victory over (1763), 69, 106; favored over favored victory (1763), 69, 106; by and Je1ierson, Madison and Mexico by Madison Jefferson, I74; 174; Mexico abandoned abandoned by, U.S. surpluses 318-19; U.s. by, 318-19; surpluses excluded excluded from (1880'S), (i88o*s), 365, 365, 366 366 Franklin, Franklin, Benjamin, Benjamin, 78, 78, 88, no, 88, 90, 90, 105, 105, IIO, II9, 122, 127; career of, 91-93; career as land land 122, 119, 127; of, 91-93; as speculator, 92 speculator, 92 Free Free Soilers, Soilers, 280-81, 280-81, 282, 282, 285, 285, 287, 287, 291 291 Free Free trade, trade, 54, 66, 122, 54, 66, 122, X23, 128, 144, 123, 128, 144, x68, 169, 22X . 221 168, 169, Freedman's 306 Freedman's Bureau, Bureau, 306
Frelinghuysen, Frederick Frederick T., T., 339 339 Frelinghuysen, French and and Indian Indian War, War, 102 102 French
French Revolution, Revolution, 167, 167, 195, x95, 301 301 French French West West Indies, Indies, 102 102 French Freneau, Philip, Philip, in, II I, 181 I8x Freneau, Freud, Sigmund, Sigmund, 404, 404, 472 472 Freud,
Frey, John John P., P., 383, 383, 431, 431, 432 432 Frey, Frontier, committed committed to to laissez-faire laissez-faire ininFrontier, dividualism, 257; 257; disappearance disappearance of, of, in in dividualism, second half half of of 2Oth 20th century, century, 477; 477; second
periodic shutting shutting down of, of, 376-78 376-78 periodic Frontier thesis, thesis, 181-85, 181-85, 187, 187, 222, 222, 374, 374, Frontier to industrialism, industrialism, 317317378; adaptation adaptation to 378; 19; Beard's Beard's critique critique of, of, 463-64; 463-64; labor's labor's 19; acceptance of, of, 279-83; 279-83; and and laissez laissez faire, faire, acceptance 270-76; Negro's Negro's abandonment abandonment of, of, 485485270-76; to, 406-12; 406-12; 86; Progressives* Progressives' return return to, 86; 4II; Wilson's Wilson's Turner's, 365, 365, 377, 377, 409, 409, 411; Turner's,
see acceptance of, of, 409, 409, 411-12, 4II-12, 419; 419; see acceptance also Expansionism Expansionism
also
Fugitive Slave Slave Act, Act, 282 282 Fugitive 243 Fuller, Margaret, 243
Fuller, Margaret,
for the the Republic, Republic, 465 465 Fund for
Fur Traders Traders Descending Descending the the Fur 245 245
Miuissippi,
Mississippi,
Gabriel Plot Plot (1801), (1801), 186 x86 Gabriel Gadsby's Tavern, Tavern, 239 239 Gadsby's Gadsden, Christopher, Christopher, 82, 85, 114 II4 Gadsden, 82, 85, Galbraith, John John K., K., quoted, quoted, 414 414 Galbraith, Gallatin, Albert, Albert, 174, 180, 192, 200; Gallatin, 174, 179, 179, 180, 192, 200; as expert expert on finance finance and and internal internal imimas provements, 188-90 provements, 188-90 Galloway, Joseph, Joseph, IIO, II4; quoted, quoted, 119Galloway, no, 114; 119-
20 20 Galveston, business government 359 Galveston, business of, 359 government of, Garrison, William Lloyd, 254, 255, 256, Garrison, William Lloyd, 254, 255, 256, 259, 278; quoted, 254 259i 278; quoted, 246, 246, 254 Gary, Elbert H., H., 378 Gary, Elbert 378 General General Electric Electric Co., Co., 383, 383, 431 431 General Act (1824), General Survey Act 211 Survey (1824), 2II General General Trade Union of of Boston, Boston, 237 237 Genet, 168 Genet, Citizen, Citizen, 168 Henry, 324, 333; quoted, George, George, Henry, 324, 333; quoted, 320, 320, 333-34 333-34 George m, 32, 69, 73, 92, 106 George IH, 32, 69, 73, 92, Georgia, Georgia, 83, 83, 84, 84, 220, 220, 261, 261, 283, 283, 310 310 as early Germans, Germans, as early immigrants, immigrants, 89 89 Germany, Germany, 422, 422, 423, 423, 429, 429, 437, 437, 443, 443, 457, 457, 461; to Open in World 461; challenge challenge to Open Door in 462; Dawes Plan for, 433, War II, Plan II, 462; for, 433, Socialism in, 434; neo434; National Socialism in, 386; 386; neomercantilism in mercantilism and 1880'S), in (1870'S and (1870*5 i88o's), 400; Deal's appeasement 400; New Deal's appeasement of, of, 458; 458; U.S. surpluses U.S. excluded from (1890'S), surpluses excluded (1890*5), 365, 366; Wilson's stand against, 412, Wilson's stand 365, 366; against, 412, 421 421 Gerry, Elbridge, 139, X61, 175 Gerry, Elbridge, 139, 161, 175 Gettysburg, Battle of, Gettysburg, Battle of, 300 300
Index Index Ghent, 393; Ghent, William J., J., 358, 358, 359, 359, 369, 369, 393; quoted, 345 345 quoted, Gibbons v. Ogden, 213 Gibbons v. Ogden, 213 Giddings, Joshua, quoted, 277 Giddings, Joshua, quoted, 277 Gilbert, Humphrey, 45 45 Gilbert, Humphrey, Giles, William, 194 Giles, William, 194 Gilpin, William, William, quoted, quoted, 317-18 Gilpin, 317-18 Girard, Stephen. 200 Stephen, 200 Girard, Gladden, Washington, 400 Gladden, Washington, 400 Glass, Carter, 324 Glass, Carter, 324 Glorious Revolution Revolution (1688),29,50, Glorious 60 (1688), 29, 50, 60 Goldman, Eric, 399 Goldman, Eric, 399 Gompers, Samuel, 281, 281, 316, Gompers, Samuel, 316, 334, 334, 359, 359, 360, 401, 402 402 360, 368, 368, 382, 382, 401, Neighbor Policy, 436, 459, 460 Good Neighbor Policy, 436, 459, 460 Gossett, T., quoted, quoted, 343 William T., Gossett, William 343 Gouge. William M .• 44, 44, 233 233 William M., Gouge, Gould, Jay, 325 Gould, Jay, 325 Grange movement* 309. Grange movement, 309, 336 336 319 Grant, Ulysses 5., Grant, Ulysses S., 319 Gray, William L., 177 William L., 177 Gray, Grayson, William, William, 137 Grayson, 137 251 Great Awakening, Awakening, 101, Great 101, 102, 102, 251 Great Depression, Depression, 356, 356, 376, 376, 377, Great 377, 399, 399, 414, 415, 415, 426, 437-3 8 426, 437-38 414, Great Lakes, Lakes, 196 Great 196 Greek 263 Greek Revolution, Revolution, 216, 216, 232, 232, 263 Greeley, Horace, Greeley, Horace, 280 Green, Duff, Duff, 275 Green, 275 Green Ribbon Club, Club, 60 60 Green Ribbon Greenback 315, 316, 316, 336 Greenback campaign, campaign, 315, 336 Greenough, Horatio, 244, 244, 245 245 Greenough, Horatio, Gresham, Walter, 316-17, 333, 340 Gresham, Walter, 316-17, 333, 340 Grew, Nehcmiah, Nehemiah, quoted, quoted, 28, 28, 66 66 Grew, Griswold, Jolm A., 301 A., 301 Griswold, John Mexico, 127 Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of 127 Habeas Corpus Corpus Act, Act, 29, 29, 59 Habeas 59 459 459 Hales, John, 46 Hales, John, 46 Haiti, Haiti,
Hamilton, Alexander, 120, 124, 130, 154, Hamilton, Alexander, 120, 124, 130, 154, break with 157, Adams' break with 168, 177. 157, 168, 178; Adams* 177, 178: at Anof, 155; at (1798), 175; ambition ambition of, 155; (1798), 175; of napolis Convention, Convention, 146; 146; Bank of napolis United States by, 165, established by, States established United 166; 165, 166; Federalist Party Party controlled controlled by, Federalist 174; by, 174; program of, Madison opposed to program Madison 163of, 163opposed to 64, 168, 169; Madison's program opMadison's 1 program op68, 169; 64, posed by, 164-65, 170: pro-English posed by, 164-65, 170; pro-English program of, 171-72, 170, 171-72, 166, 170, of, 163, 163, 166, program 174, Report on ManufacManufac176; Report 175, 176; 174, 175, for Useful by, 166, Society for Useful tures by, 1 66, 170: tures 170; Society Manufactures incorporated by, 167; Manufactures 167; incorporated by, by, strong central government favored by, government favored strong central 155, 155, 156 156 or Hammon-Harwood house, house, 81 Hammond, Bray, Bray, 212 Hammond, II4 Hancock, John, Hancock, John, 114 Hancock, Thomas, 98 Thomas, 98 Hancock,
503 503
Mark, 349, Hanna, Mark, Hanna, 349, 355, 355, 360, 360, 369, 370, 369, 370,
385, 394, 394, 395, 426, 450, 453; 385, 395> 408, 408, 426, 450, 453; as entrepreneur as entrepreneur of s}'&tem, of corporation corporation system, 360-62; quoted, 345 360-62; quoted, 345 Harding, Warren Warren G., G., 427 427 Harding, Harmon" of Nature, Nature, The. 261 Harmony of The, 261 Harper's Ferry, Ferry, Brown's Brown's attack attack on, 294 Harper's on, 294
Harriman, Edward HenrY, 383, 418, 418, 419 419 Harriman, Henry, 383, Harrington, James, 60, Harrington, James, 60, 64, 64, 156 156 Harris, William T., 333 Harris, William T., 333 Harrisburg Tariff (1827), (1827), Convention on on Tariff Harrisburg Convention 231 231 Harrison, William William Henry, 268, 333 Harrison, Henry, 267, 267, 268, 333 Hartford Hartford Convention Convention (1814), (1814), 196 196 Havemeyer, HenrY 0., 378 Havemcyer, Henry O., 378 Hawaii, 271, 271, 272, 272, 288, 288, 319, 319, 340, Hawaii, 340, 368 368 Hawley, Joseph, quoted, quoted,77 Hawley, Joseph, 77 243 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 243 Hay, John, Hay, John, 317. 317, 355. 355, 364. 364, 368, 368, 369. 369, 383. 383, 417, 474, 474, 476, 476, 484; 484: quoted, quoted, 346 417, 346 B., 313; quoted, 338; Hayes, Rutherford Rutherford Hayes, B., 313; quoted, 338; into Pittsburgh Pittsburgh by, by, 316 316 troops ordered into troops ordered Haymarket Riot (1886), 354 Riot Haymarket (1886), 333, 333, 354 Haywood, William, William, 384 384 Haywood, William Randolph, Hearst, William Hearst, Randolph, 366 366 Helper, Hinton Hinton Rowan, 299 Helper, Rowan, 299 no, Henry, Patrick, 79, 101, Henry, Patrick, 79. 101, no, 134, 153, 134, 153, 161 161 HenrY VII, 34 Henry VII, 34 Henry VIE, VIII, 36, Henry 36, 37. 38, 39 39 37, 38, Hepburn Act Act (1906), 407. 408, 408, 409 Hepburn (1906), 407, 409 Hepburn Investigation, 310 Hepburn Investigation, 310 Hewes, Joseph, 82. 117: quoted, 77 Hcwes, Joseph, 82, 117; quoted, 77 Rice, Andrew, quoted, quoted, 284 284 Hice, Andrew, Hill, James J., J.. 350. 382 Hill, James 350, 351, 351, 382 Hill, Walker, Walker, quoted, 3.53 Hill, quoted, 353 Historical Monument of American the American Historical of the Republic, 228 228 Republic, HisJory of of the the Five Firle Nations, Nillions. 88 88 History Hoar, George Geor~ F., 336 Hoar, F., 336 Thomas, 62 62 Hobbes, Hobbcs, Thomas, Hoffman, Paul, Paul, 466, 468; quoted, quoted, 451, 451, Hoffman, 466, 468; 466 466 Holbrook, Josiah, 238 238 Holbrook, Josiah, Holmes, 405 Oliver Wendell, Wendell, 405 Holmes, Oliver Home Owners Loan Corporation, 442 Corporation, 442 Homestead Act (1862), 305 Homestead Act (1862), 305 Hooker, Richard, Richard, 41 Hooker, 41 Hoover, Herbert. 385, 425, Hoover, Herbert, 415, 424, 424, 425, 385, 415. 1• 43 436, 442, 442, 448, 44 8, 433, 434, 435 43$, 434. 435, 43i 433, by, 481; corporation economy analyzed by, economy analyzed 481; corporation of 427-29, 437, 437, 438; depression of 427-29, 438; and depression 1921-1922, 432; on expansionism, 429expansionism, 4291921-1922, 432; 30. 485; 485; and Great Depression, Depression, 437-38; 437-38; 30, of United States. as President of 436-38; as President States, 436-38; as Secretary quoted, 413, 413, 429, Secretary of 467; as 429, 467; quoted, Commerce, 427, 450; 450; smeared by by Commerce, 427, Democrats. by, from 426; support support won by, Democrats, 426;
504 504
Index Index
three groups, groups, 430; 430; as as Wilson's Wilson's advisor, advisor, three
·427 427 Hopkins, Harry, Harry, 415, 415, 441, 441, 450; 450; quoted, quoted, Hopkins, 4 14, 439, 439, 442 442 414, Hopkins, Samuel, Samud, 251 251 Hopkins, Howard University, University, 324 324 Howard
Howdls, William, William, 332 332 Howells, Hllekl~herry Finn, Finn, 332 332 Huckleberry Hughes, Charles Charles Evans, Evans, 429, 429, 434, 434, 435, 435, Hughes,
446 446
Interstate Interstate
Commerce Commission, Commission, 407, 407, Commerce
409, 431 431 409,
Iowa Territory, Territory, 257 257 Iowa Iredel, James, 82 82
Iredel, James,
Ireland, early early immigrants immigrants from, from, 89 89 Ireland, Iron Age, Age, 363 363 Iron Iron Founders Founders Association, Association, 304 304 Iron Italy, 366, 366, 437, 437, 443, 443, 461; 461; fascism fascism in, in, Italy, 386, 442 442 386,
Huhlcnberg, Frederic Frederic A. A. C, C., 174 174 Huhlenberg, Hull, CordeU, Corddl, 436, 436, 454, 454, 455, 455, 456, 456, 458, 458, Hull, 461; quoted, quoted, 414 414 461; Hume, David, David, 70 70 Hume, Hungarian Revolution Revolution (1848-1850), {I848-I850}, 263, .263, Hungarian
Jackson, Andrew, Andrew, 230, 230, 235, 235, 252, 252, 259, 259, Jackson, 260, 267, 267, 317, 317, 337, 337, 338, 338, 349; 349; Adams Adams 260, defeated by by (1828), (1828), 205; 2°5: Bank Bank of of defeated
Hutcheson, Francis, Francis, 156 156 Hutchcson, Hutchinson, Anne, Anne, 95, 95, 96 96 Hutchinson,
240, 241; 241; quoted, quoted, 180, 180, 227, 227, 240, 240, 270; 270; 240, victory at at New Orleans, Orleans, 196 196 victory James, Henry, Henry, 330, 330, 331, 331, 332; 332; quoted, quoted, James,
Idealism, Royce's, Royce's, 342 342 Idealism, Illinois, 290; 290; Protective Protective Illinois,
James, William, William, 341-42 341-42 James,
28.2 282
Union in, in, 279 279 Union Illinois-Michigan Canal, Canal, 256 256 Illinois-Michigan Illinois Steel Steel Co., Co., 353 353 Illinois Immigration, and and market market place, place, 322 322 Immigration, ImPfflaing Crisis Crisis of of the the South: South: How HoUl to to Impending M~et It, It, 299 299 Meet India, as as foreign foreign market market (1880'$), (1880'S), 399 399 India, Indiana, 185, 185, 261 261 Indiana, Indians, Benton's Benton's agitation agitation against, against, 234; 234; Indians, in era, 136-37; and exexin Confederation Confederation era, 136-37; and pansionism, 187; Jackson'S policy on, pansionism, 187; Jackson's policy on, 241, 321; Jefferson's policy on, 171, 241* 321; Jefferson's policy on, 171, policy on, 179; merlaissez faire fairc policy on, 322; 322; mer179; laissez cantilist Sheridan's cantilist policy on, 322; 322; Sheridan's policy on, 321-22; uprooted from views on, views on, 321-22; uprooted from Georgia, as PresPresand Washington 220; and Washington as Georgia, 220; ident, rout of, of, 173 ident, 171, 173 171, 173; Wayne's rout 173; Wayne's Individualism, 223; Adams, Samuel, on Individualism, 223; Adams, Samuel, on dangers of, 108; Hoover's new, 427; dangers of, 108; Hoover's new, 427; of of Locke, 62of James, Locke, 62William, 341; James, William, 341; of 65, see 65, 70, 70, 73, ioo, 152, 202, 251; 251; S~~ 152, 202, 73, 100, 111m also Laissez Laissez faire faire Industrial Workers of of the Industrial Workers the World, World, 384, 384, 385,401 385, 401 IndustIy, of, Industry, American, American, development development of, 185-86, 260-61 185-86, 260-61 Inquiry into the the Prindpl~s and Policy Policy Inquiry into Principles ana of the Governm~t the Unit~a United Government of of the of th~ Statu, 151 States, 151 Inquiry into 1M and T~m Tendenthe Prindpl~s Inquiry into Principles ana d~s cies of Certain Puhlic Public M~fJSUI'es, Measures, 151 of Certain 151 lnqttiry Political the Principl~s into the of Political Inquiry into Principles of O~C'onomy, Oeconomy, 70 70 Instrumentalism, Instrumentalism, Dewey's, Dewey's, 402 402 International International Harvester Harvester Co., Co., 354, 383 354, 383 International I International Molders Molders Union, Union, 383, 383, 43 431 Interstate Interstate Commerce Commerce Act Act (1887), (1887), 336, 336, 393 393
United States States destroyed destroyed by, by, 241, 241, 248, 248, United Indian policy policy of, of, 241, 241, 321; 321; as as 250: Indian 250; President of of United United States, States, 233, 233, 239, 239, President
479 479
James I, I, 40, 40, 43 43 James James H, n, 86 86 James James River, River, 81, 81, 143 143 James Japan, 423, 423, 443, 443, 458, 458, 461; 461; and American Japan, commercial commercial interests, intcrest!, 288, 288, 366; 366; chalchalin World War II, II, lenge to to Open Open Door in lenge 462, 463; 463; co-operation with, favored favored 462, co-operation with, by House of of Morgan, Morgan, 384; 384; Great Great by to (1907), (19°7),418; White Fleet Fleet dispatched 418; dispatched to and Manchuria, Manchuria, 435, military 435, 437; 437; military against China (1937), 457: campaign campaign against (1937), 457; and Open Policy, 417, 417, 435: Open Door Policy, 435; Russia defeated Russia defeated by, at Washingby, 417; 417; at Washington Conference (1921-1922), (1921-1922), 435 435 Jay, John, II4, 127, 134. 139, Jay, John, 114, 127, 134, 139, 141, 141, 142, 142, as 143, ISO, 170, 229; as mercantilist, mercantilist, 143, 1503 170, 229; 132, 136, 137, 140, 141; and Monroe, Monroe, 132, 136, 137, 140, 141; J35-36, I 8, 121, 126; 121, 126; 135-36, 137; 137; quotcq, quote4, I118, to London by sent to Washington, by Washington, 171, 171, in talks in talks with Spain, 126, 129-30, 172; 172; Spain, 126, 129-30, And 131, 135: and Washington, 141 131* 135; Washington, 141 Jefferson, Jefferson, Thomas, Thomas, 80, 80, 81, 81, 98, 98, II2, 112, II3, 113, 115. 115, 117, 117, 123, 123, 133, 154, 167, 133, 154, 167, 174, 174. 483; and Adams, John, 174, 175, 176, Adams, John, 174, 175, 176, 483; Constitution approved 177; 162; 177; Constitution approved by, by, 162; of national national bank, on constitutionality bank, constitutionality of ex189, 190; embargo by, 155, 192; 189, 190; embargo by, 155, 192; exIndian pansionism 182, 183, of, 182. pansionism of, 183, 184; 184; Indian on internal internal policy of, 171, policy of, 171, 179, 187; on 179, 187; improvement!, 189; Jay's improvements, 189: Jay's questions questions evaded by, and Madison, evaded Madison, 154. by, 137; 154, 137; and on mercantilism, 177, mercantilism, 178, 184, 177, 178, 184, 191; 191; on atMonroe's 141, 154, 168, 177-78; Monroe's at141, 154, 168, 177-78; tack on, on physiocracy, tack on, 134; 134; on physiocracy, 129, 129, as President President 148, 168, 181, 148, 154, 181, 207; 154, 168, 207; as of United United States, of States, 177-79, 177-79, 183-84, 183-84, 189189attitude of, 90, pro-French attitude 178; 90, 192; 192; pro-French of, 178; quoted, 118, 148, 180, 182; 182; 148, 149, 149, 178, 178, 180, quoted, u8,
Index Index Report on on Commercial Commercial Privileges Pn'v,7eges and anti Report Restrictions by, 168, 168, 169; 169; second second ininffrictions by, Re augural address address by, by, 184; 184; as as Secretary Secretary augural of State, State, 1166; on Shays' Shays' Rebellion, Rebellion, of 66; on 147-48; on on slavery, slavery, 128, 128, 154, 154, 179; 179; 147-48; Taylor's criticism criticism of, of, 169; 169; United United Taylor's States relations relations with with England England analyzed analyzed States by (1791), (1791), 178; 178; and and War War of of 1812, 1812, 191, 191, by 192; in in war war against against Mediterranean Mediterranean 192; pirates, 188; 188; on on West West Indies Indies trade, trade, 142 142 pirates, Johnson, Andrew, Andrew, 279, 279, 304; 304; quoted, quoted, 318 318 Johnson, Johnson, Hiram, Hiram, 423, 423, 436 436 Johnson, Johnson, Lyndon Lyndon B., B., 471 471 Johnson, Johnson, Thomas, Thomas, 83, 83, 85 85 Johnson, Johnson, William, William, 256 256 Johnson, Johnston, Eric, Eric, 460, 460, 469; 469; quoted, quoted, 452, 452, Johnston, 468 468 Jones, Bill, Bill, 326 326 Jones, Jones, Grosvenor, Grosvenor, 457 457 Jones, Jones, Jesse, Jesse, 455 455 Jones, Jones, Samuel Samuel M., M., 395 395 Jones, Jones, Willie, Willie, 85 8.5 Jones, Joseph, Chief, Chief, of of Nez Perec* Perce tribe, tribe, 322 322 Joseph, Junto (club), (club), 92 92 Junto
Kansas, 336 336 Kansas, Kansas-Nebraska Act Act (1854), (18.54), 292 292 Kansas-Nebraska Kearney, Laurence, Laurence, 272 272 Kearney, Keenan, Henry 317 Kecnan, F., 317 Henry F., Kelley, William William D., D., 301 301 Kelley,
Kendall, Amos, Amos, 229, 229, 239, 239, 241 241 Kendall,
Kennedy, John John P., P., 259 259 Kennedy, Kentucky, 220, 176, 184, 184, 18.5, 133, 171, 171, 176, Kentucky, 133, 185, 220, 24 0 240 Keynes, John Maynard, 401, 446 Keynes, John Maynard, 401, 446 Kilburn, 88 Kilburn, Lawrence, Lawrence, 88 King, Martin Luther, Luther, Jr., Jr., 486; 486; quoted, quoted, King, Martin 479 479 King, Rufus, 120, 130, 131, 1.50, 170, King, Rufus, 120, 130, 131, 150, 170, 171, Missouri 205, 2.57; 171* 191, 257; and Missouri 196, 205, 191* 196, Crisis, 206, 214 Crisis, 206, 214 King's King's College, 87 College, 87 King's 60 Tavern, 60 King's Head Tavern, Kipling, Rudyard, 456 Kipling, Rudyard, 456 Knights of Labor, Labor, 334 Knights of 334 Knox, Knox, Henry, Henry, 143 143 Korea, 319 Korea, 319 Ku Klux Klux Klan, Klan, 3II 311 Kuhn, of New York, Loeb of York, 3.53, 380 Kuhn, Loeb 353, 380 La Follette, Robert M., 4^4> M., 394, Follette, Robert 423* 424, 394, 423, 425,436 425 436 Labor, entry into World War II opposed H into opposed Labor, entry by, thesis accepted frontier thesis by, accepted by, by, 461; 461; frontier de279-83; and laissez faire during faire laissez and during de279-83; pression of 1813-1877,313-17; middlemiddleof 1873-1877, 313-17; pression class shorter class objectives of, 380; 380; and shorter objectives of, work work day, for, 279, 314; 279, 314; campaign for, day, campaign syndicalism ranks of, within ranks of, 384, 384, 385; 385; syndicalism within
50S 505
uprising during during New New Deal, Deal, 445; 445; see see uprising also Unions Unions also Laissez Laissez faire, faire, 65, 65, 69, 6g, 72, 72, 73, 73, 99, 99, 100, 100, 1106, and abolitionism, abolitionism, 254254187, 223; 223; and 06, 187, art works works reflecting, re:Bccting, 244-45; 244-45; bebe255; art 255; ginnings of, of, 200-03; 200-03; Civil Civil War War caused caused ginnings by, 286; 286; and and Constitution, Constitution, 290-95; 290"95; by, criticisms criticisms from from within, within, 330-33; 330-33; DarDarwinian analogy to, to, 329, 329, 330; 330; during during winian analogy 1813-1877, 313-17; 313-17; dididepression of of 1873-1877, depression lemma of, of, 265; 265; in in England, England, rise rise of, of, lemma III; and Field's Field's painting, painting, 228; 228; Free Free in; 28 I; freedom freedom dedeSoilers' statement statement of, of, 281; Soilers' fined fined under, under, 259-63; 259-63; frontier frontier comcommitted mitted to, to, 257; 257; and frontier frontier thesis, thesis, 270 -76; labor's labor's commitment to, to, 250; 250; 270-76; Lincoln's acceptance acceptance of, of, 296; 296; market market Lincoln's in, 308; 308; ministers' ministcxs' place as as key key element element in, place 240; Negro's Negro's response response exposition of, of, 240; exposition to, 323-24; 323-24; Poe's Poe's criticism criticism of, of, 272-74; 272-74; to, politics of, of, understood understood by by Van Buren, Buren, politics 236: private private property property as as cornerstone cornerstone of, of, 236; 302; reformers reformers' attempt attempt to to sustain, sustain, 302; 333-38; regulation regulation as as essential essential feature feature 333-38; of, 308-11; 308-II; and religion, religion, 250-55; 250-55; of, and transcendentalism, transcendentalism, 242-43; 242-43; Van Buren's statement statement of, of, 247-48; 247-48; victory victory Buren's of, 227-35; 227-35: Whitman as as poet poet of, of, 243243of, 244; see st:t: also also Frontier IndiFrontier thesis; thesis; Indi244; vidualism; Physiocracy vidualism; Physiocracy Lamb, John, John, 1I0 no Lamb, Lamont, Thomas, 438 Lament, Thomas, 435, 435, 438 Land policy, policy, in in expansionist expansionist program, program, 1
87 1 187
Lane, Lane, William, William, 46 46 Langdon, John, ISO Langdon, John, 150 Lansing, Robert, Lansing, Robert, quoted, quoted, 421 421 NewLatin America, 434, America, 434, 455, 461; and New 455, 461; Deal, 458, 469; poverty 456; of, Deal, 458, 469; poverty of, 456; Theodore Roosevelt's Roosevelt's policy on, 416; 416; policy on, U. S. in (1928), U. S. 435; S. S. investments investments in (1928), 435; trade 217, 221, 288 trade with, with, 217, 221, Laurens, Laurens, Henry, 82, 84 84 Henry, 82, Lawrence, Lawrence, Abbot, Abbot, 238 238 Lawrence, D. H., 182 D. H., Lawrence, of Nations, League Nations, 422, 422, 423 423 League of Lectures Lectures on Moral Philosophy, 156 Philosophy, 156 Lee, Arthur, 122 122 Lee, Arthur, Lee, Lee, Henry, 137 Henry, 137 of Boston, Lee, Boston, 353, Lee, Higginson 380 353, 380 Higginson of Lee, 359 Lee, Ivy, Ivy, 359 Lee, Richard Henry, no, II4, 114, Lee, Richard 107, IIO, Henry, 85, 85, 107, 161 lIS, Constitution opposed by, 161 opposed by, 115, 137; 137; Constitution Lee, Lee, Robert E., E., 299 299 Leggett, 246, 236, 246, William, 249; 249; quoted, quoted, 236, Leggett, William, 260 260 Leo xm, XHI, Pope, 357 Pope, 357 Famous Mm, Praise FamotlS Let Us NolU Now Praise Let Us Men, 444 444 Letters farmerf 181 Letters from from An American Farmer,
u.
506 506
Index Index
Levellers, 37, 37, 38, 38, 102, 102, 104, 104, in, III, 145* 145, 481, 487 487 481, Lewis, John John L., L., 445, 445, 461; 461; quoted, quoted, 461, 461, Lewis, 462 462 Lewis an3 ana Clark Clark Expedition, Expedition, 184 184 Lewis Liberia, 434 434 Liberia, Liberty Party, Party, 255, 255, 268 268 Liberty Lincoln, Abraham, Abraham, 283, 283, 292, 292, 295-96, 295-96, Lincoln, 300-04 pass., pass., 481; 481; in in Douglas Douglas debates, debates, 300-04 297; election eJection of, of, 297, 297, 298; 298; laissez laissez 297; faire advocated advocated by, by, 296; 296; on on Negro Negro faire slavery, 296-97; 296-97; quoted, quoted, 284, 284, 298, 298, 302 302 slavery, Lippmann, Walter, Walter, 393, 393, 449, 449, 454, 454, 464, 464, Lippmann, 480 ; quoted, quoted, 372, 372, 374, 374, 449, 449, 479 479 480; List, Francis, Francis, 400 400 List, List, Frederick, Frederick, 208-09 208-09 list, Littleton, Mark, Mark, 258 258 Littleton, Liverpool, Lord, Lord, quoted, quoted, 204 204 Liverpool, Livingston, Robert, Robert, no, lIO, 114, II4, 127, 132 127, 132 Livingston, Livingston, William, William, 87 87 Livingston, Lloyd, Henry Demarest, 333, 387; 387; Lloyd, Henry Demarest, 333, quoted, 387 387 quoted, Locke, John, John, 29, 29, 30, 30. 31, 31, 32, 32, 40, 40, 55, 55, 56, 56, Locke, individualism of, of. 61, 71, 71, 231, 231, 233; 233; individualism 61, 62-65, 70, 73, 73. 100, 202, 251; 251; 100, 152, 152, 202, 62-65, 70, labor theory of of value value accepted accepted by by labor theory Lincoln, 296; 296; natural natural man defined by, defined by, Lincoln, 250; and and physiocracy, physiocracy. 152; quoted, 28, 28. 152; quoted, 250; 63; wealth wealth defined defined by, by. 63 63 63; Lodge, Henry Henry Cabot, Cabot, 364, 364. 424; 424; quoted, quoted, Lodge, 345 345 London Daily Daily Mail, Mail, 348 348 London London Times, Tim~s, 319 London 319 Long, Huey, Huey, 443'44 443-44 Long, Looking Backward, 386-87 Looking Backward, 386-87 Louisiana, 31I. Louisiana, 311, 313 313 Louisiana Territory, Territory, 183; pUIchase of. Louisiana of, 183; purchase 184 184 Louisville Canal, 21I Louisville 211 Canal, Lovejoy, Arthur Arthur 0., O., quoted, Lovejoy, quoted, 17 17 Lovejoy, Elijah, murder of, of, 254, Lovejoy, Elijah, murder 254, 255 255 Luther. Martin, 36, 37, 49 Luther, Martin, 36, 37, 49 Levellers,
McAdoo, 421, 422; 422; quoted. William G., McAdoo, William G., 421, quoted, 41 3 4i3 McCarthy, Joseph R., 475 McCarthy, Joseph R., 475 McCook, James McCook, James J., J., 417 417 McCormick, McCormick, Cyrus, Cyrus, 291, 291, 307 307 McCullock v. Maryland, v. McCullock Maryland, 214 214 McDougall, Alexander, 87, no McDougall, Alexander, 87, lIO McGready, James, 185 McGready, James, 185 Mackenzie, Mackenzie, Fred, Fred, quoted, quoted, 348 348 McKim, McKim, Isaac, Isaac, 190 190 McKinley, William, 317, 361, William, McKinley, 317, 361, 362, 362, 363, 363, 66, 3367, 67, 368, 3366, 368, 369, 417, 469; 369, 417, 469; quoted, quoted, 363, 364 363* 364 McVickar, McVickar, John, John, 240 240 Macy R. H., Co., R. H., 354, 354, 466 466 Macy Co., Madison, Madison, James, James, 58, 81, 127, 58, 73, 73, 81, 127, 134, 134,
167, 173, 137, 150, 150, 157, 173, 174, 174, 189, 189, 157, 167, 137, Adams, 190, 200, 200, 229, 229, 481, 481, 483; 483; and Adams, 190, 174, i75 175. 176; 176; at at Annapolis Annapolis John. 174, John, Convention, 146; 146; banking banking policy policy of, of, Convention, 165, 200; 200; on on Constitutional Constitutional ConvenConven165, 214; expansionist expansionist theory theory of, of, 216; 216; tion, 214;
tion,
Federalist essays essays of, of, 159; 159; of of free free trade, trade, Federalist
144; Hamilton Hamilton opposed opposed to to program program 144; of, 164-65, 164-65, 170; 170; Hamilton's Hamilton's program program opposed by, by, 163-64, 163-64, 168, 168, 169; 169; interest interest opposed groups recognized recognized by, by, 159-60; 159-60; on on iningroups irn provements, 199; 199; and and JefJefternal improvements, ternal ferson, 154, 154, 177, 177, 178, 178, 184, 184, 191; 191; justice justice ferson, 159; as as mercantilist, mercantilist, emphasized by, by, 159; emphasized 139, 163, 164; 164; and and Missouri Missouri Crisis, Crisis, J 39 1^3, 207; national national bank bank supported supported by, by, 124; 124; 207; political views views of, of, 159-61; quoted. 18, 18, 159-61; quoted, political 128, 145, 145, 149, 180, 160, 161, 161, 169, 128, 149, 160, 169, 180, strong government government promoted promoted by, by, 203; strong 203; 144-45, I59J 159; tariff tariff supported supported by, by. 197; 197; 144-45, Taylor opposed opposed to, to, 154; 154; and and War of of Taylor 1812, 191-95 191-95 pass. pass. 1812, Mahan, Alfred Alfred Thayer, Thayer, 364, 364, 401 401 Mahan, Manchuria, 435, 435, 437 437 Manchuria, Manifest Destiny, Destiny, doctrine doctrine of, of, 17, 17. 277, 2'77, Manifest of,
4 83 483
Mann, Horace, Horace, 237; 237; quoted, quoted, 238 238 Mann,
Mann-Elkins Act Act (1910), 409 Mann-Elkins (1910), 409 Manorialism, 56, 56, 152 Manorialism, 152 Manufacturing Society of New York, York, 142 142 Society of Manufacturing Marcy, William, William, 237 237 Marcy, Market place, place, dilemmas of of expanding, expanding, Market 338-42; Field's Field's definition definition of, 328-29; of, 328-29; 338-42; and immigration, 322; as key element as key and element immigration, 322;
of laissez laissez faire, of fake, 308-09 308-09 Marshall, John, John, 167, 241, 448; 448; Marshall, 212, 241, 167, 175, 175. 212, Supreme Court decisions by. 213-14 213-14 decisions by, Court Supreme Marshall Field Field and Sons, Marshall Sons, 354 354 Marshall Plan, 455 Marshall Plan, 455
Martin, Alexander, ISO Martin, Alexander, 150 Martin, 161 Martin, Luther, Luther, 151, 151, 161 Marx, Karl, 38, 351, Marx, Karl, 38, 351, 404, 481 404, 472, 472, 481 Maryland, 122, 124, Maryland, 46, 46, 83, 103, 122, 144, 83, 103, 124, 144, 0 35 350 Mason, George, 85, 105, 107, lIO, Il3, Mason, George, 85, 105, 107, no, 113, 151, 154, 161 151, 154, Mason, Mason, Thomas, Thomas, 113 113 Massachusetts, Massachusetts, colonial, colonial, 46, 46, 78, 98, 97, 98, 78, 97, land 99, II5, II7; of, 55; 99> U5> H7; founding founding of, 55; land bank in, 104; Louisburg captured by, in, 104; Louisburg captured by, 102; of colonies colonies organized 102; meeting by meeting of organized by (1765), 107; union by union opposed (1765)* 107; by opposed (1754), 105 (1754), 105 Massachusetts, state of, 123, 187; bankstate bankMassachusetts, of, 123, 187; after Revolution, ing in, after ing in, Revolution, 124; 124; incorpoincorporated businesses in (1870'S), businesses in rated (1870*5), 303; 303; industry encoura~ed with loans, with loans, 143; industry encouraged 143; Protective in, 279; Protective Union organized organized in, 279; Rebellion Shays' Rebellion in, 147, 148; Society in, 147, 148; Society Shays'
Index Index of the Cincinnati Cincinnati denounced of the denounced by, by, 144; 144; Supreme Court of, textile workers workers of, 268: 268; textile Supreme Court in (1874), 315: union unemployment in (1874), 315; union unemployment in of 1914-1915), in (winter (winter of 1914-1915), 4II 411 Mather, Cotton, 94, Mather, Cotton, 94, 95 95 Mather, Increase, 94 Mather, Increase, 94 Matthews, Samuel, 82 Matthews, Samuel, Mayhew, Jonathan, 100 Mayhew, Jonathan, 100 Mayo, Elton, 358 358 Mayo, Elton, Maysville Road project, project, 240 240 Maysville Means, Gardiner C., C., 466 Means, Gardiner 466 Mellon, Andrew, 438 Mellon, Andrew, 438 Melville, Melville, Herman, Herman, 294, 294, 295, 295, 330 330 Mercantilism, American, Mercantilism, American, 78, 80, 83, 78, 80, 85, 83, 85, 86, 102, IU, in, 123, 86, 94, 94, 96, 96, 102, 123, I:Z4, 124, 125, 125,
131-48 achievements and diand dipass.; achievements 131-48 pass.; lemmas of, of, 185-92, 185-92, 205, 205, 207, 207, 219-23; 219-23; and Calhoun, Constitution as as Calhoun, 197-98: 197-98; Constitution instrument instrument of, of, 1580.; expansionism 158^.; expansionism implicit in, 183, 215: Indian policy of, implicit in, 183, 215; Indian policy of, Marshall's decisions, 322; decisions, 213-14; 322; and Marshall's 213-14; merging of interests ideas under under interests and ideas merging of Weltanschauung of, 177 Weltanschauung of, 177 0.; ff.; philosophy philosophy and program of, Adams' statement and program of, statement of of (1825), revival of, atof, Clay's 210-11; revival Clay's at(1825), 2IO-II: tempt triumph of, of, II4-I7, at, 265-69: 265-69; triumph tempt at, 114-17, I:Z9, unresolved dilemma of, of, 219219203; unresolved 129, 203; 223; Washington'S Farewell Address 223; Washington's Farewell Address as manifesto of, as manifesto of, 174 174 Mercantilism, British, British, 32-35 32-35 pass., pass., 38-48 38-48 Mercantilism,
pass.,
56, 58, 66, 71, 71, 73, 55, 56, 125, 54, 55, 73, 125, 58, 66, pass., 54,
American Revolution, Revolution, 202, 482; 482; and American 202, lIS: decline decline of, of, 69, 69, 74 74 115; Mercantilism, Freach, 142; German, 400 Mercantilism, French, 142; German, 400 Mercer, John, John, 151 Mercer, 151 Messersmith, George George S., 456, 468 468 S., 456, Mcsscrsmith, Methodists, 185, 278 Methodists, 185, 278 Mexican Revolution Revolution (1910-1911), (I910-19U), 386, 386, Mexican 6 420,43 436 420, Mexican War, War, 276-79, 276-79, 280, 280, 317 317 Mexico, 272, 272, 275, 275, 289, 289, 319, 319, 4^3. 423, 459459. Mexico, 460 4 60
Michigan, 185, 185, 260, 260, 261, 261, 279 279 Michigan, Mifflin, Thomas, Thomas, 150 ISO MifHin, Mill, John John Stuart, Stuart, 330 330 Mill, Millenarianism,49 Millenarianism, 49 ISS Miller, John John C., C., 155 Miller, Miller, Miller,
John John
F., 339 339 Miller, Perry, Perry, 99 99 Miller, C. Mills, C. Wright, Wright, 19 19 Mills, Mission of of the the North American Amerit:an People, Peop/~, Mission The, 318 3IS The, Mississippi, 220 :2.20 Mississippi, Mississippi basin, basin, 126, 126, 129-30, 129-30, 136, 136, 140, 140, Mississippi F.,
141, 171, 171, 173, 173, 183, 183, 257, 257, 289, 289, 141, Missouri, 205, 205, 234 234 Missouri, Missouri Missouri Crisis, Crisis, 206, 206, 209, 209, 214 214 Mitchell, John, John, 360, 360, 393 393 Mitchell, Moby Dick, Dkk, 294, 294, 295 295 Moby
306 306
507 507
Modern Modern Corporaticn and PritJate Private PropCorporation and Propmy, The, 466 erty, The, 466 Mohawk Mohawk River River route, route, IS4 184 Money Makers, The, Money Makers, The, 317 317 Monopoly, defended by American Bar Bar Monopoly, defended by American Association, decision Association, 304; 304; Taney's Taney's decision against, against, 248 248 Monroe, Monroe, James, James, 129, 129, 132, 132, 133. 133, 135, 135, 137, 137, 235; 2355 expansionism reasserted by expansionism reasserted (1822 by (1822 and and 1823), SurGeneral Sur216, 220-21; 220-21; General 1823), 216, vey Act approved on vey Act 211; on approved by by (1824), (1824), 2U; internal internal improvements, and Jay, improvements, 209; Jay, 209; and 135-36, and Jefferson, on W-S^t 137; Jefferson, 134; 137; and 134; on Madison's Madison's feudal feudal system, as mermersystem, 162; 162; as cantilist, as PresiPresicantilist, 133, 134, 135, 140; as 133, 134, 135, 140; dent of United dent of United States, States, 208, 208, 209, 210, 209, 210, 2II, 2n, :!.l6, 216, 232; 232; quoted, 197, quoted, 133, 133, 134, 134, 197, 204, sent on on LonLon220-21; sent 204, 209, 210, 220-21; 209, 210, 191; tariff supported don mission, don mission, 191; tariff supported by, by, 197, 197, 208
Monroe Monroe Doctrine, Doctrine, 215-1S, 215-18, 230, 275, 272, 275, 230, 272, 341, 341, 416 416
Montesquieu, 122, 179, 179, 198 198 Montesquieu, 122, Montgomery Association, Montgomery Improvement Improvement Association, 486 486
Montgomery and Co., Co., 309 Montgomery Ward and 309 More, More, Thomas, Thomas, 37 37 Morgan, 419, of, 381, Morgan, House of, 381, 384, 384, 394, 394, 419,
424, 425, 425, 434, 434, 436 43 6 424, J. Pierpont, Pierpont, 327, 353, 360, J. 327, 32S, 360, 328, 353, 369, 380, 408, quoted, 253, 421 417; quoted, 369, 380, 408, 417; 253, 421
Morgan, Morgan,
Morgan, John T., 338 T^ 338 Morgan, John Morgenthau, Henry, Henry, quoted, quoted, 451, 451, 457 457 Morgenthau, Moroccan Empire, Empire, 418 418 Moroccan Morris, Gouverneur, Gouverneur, 135 Morris, 135 Morris, Lewis, Lewis, 103, IIO Morris, 103, no Morris, Robert, 90, II4, 124, 131, 131, 132, 132, Morris, Robert, 90, 114, 124, 142, 150, 150, 155, 155, 166, 166, 272 272 142, Morris, Wright, Wright, 331; 331; quoted, quoted, 479 479 Morris, Morrow, Dwight, Dwight, 425, 425, 426, 426, 436 436 Morrow, Morse, Jedidiah, Jedidiah, 179 179 Morse,
Morton, Thomas, Thomas, 103 103 Morton, Mosse, George, George, 374 374 Mosse, Mount, William William Sidney, Sidney, 245 245 Mount, Muckrakers, 397 397 Muckrakers, Muller v. v. Oregon, Oregon, 406 406 Mullet
Mun, Thomas, Thomas, 47 47 Mun, Munich Pact Pact (1938), (1938). 458 45S Munich
v. Illinois, Illinois, 310, 310, 329 329 Munn v. Munsey, Frank, Frank, 394 394 Munsey, Murray, Philip, Philip, 445 445 Murray, Napoleon. 216 216 Napoleon,
Nashville Convention, Convention, 283, 283, 285 285 Nashville National Association Association for for the the AdvanceAdvanceNational ment of of Colored ColOled People, People, 398 398 ment National Association Association of of Manufacturers, Manufacturers, National 3 63, 379 379 3^3, National Banking Banking Act Act (1862), (1862), 306 306 National
508 508
Index Index
National Biscuit Co., 354 354 Biscuit Co., National National Board Board of of Trade, Trade, 304, National 304, 307 307 National Bureau Bureau of of Economic Economic Research, Research, National 432, 4^5 465 432, National Cash Cash Register National Co., 379 Register Co., 379 National City Bank, 420, 420, 434 434 National City Bank, National Civic Civic Federation, Federation, 360, 360, 369, National 369, 393, 393, 4 81 481 National Farm Bureau Federation, 433 433 Bureau Federation, National National Farm Union, Union, 433 433 National National Foreign Foreign Trade Council, 419, 419, Trade Council, National 454, 457, 460 454> 457, 460 National Industrial Industrial Recovery Recovery Act, National Act, 386, 380,
442 442
National Labor Labor Relations Board, 445 445 Relations Board, National NlItional Labor Labor Relations Relations Board Board v. v. Jones Jones National and Laughlin Laughlin Steel Stul Corporation, and Corporation, 446 446 National Labor Labor Union, 314, 315 315 National Union, 314, National Live Live Stock Exchange, 363 Stock Exchange, National 363 National Reform Association, 280 280 National Reform Association, National Road, 189 National Road, 189 National Socialism, National Socialism, 386 386 Native American American Association, Association, 253 Native 253 Naruralization Act, Hamilton's, 175 Naturalization Act, Hamilton's, 175 Naval War College, 339 Naval College, 339 Navigation Act, British (1381), 34, 97 British Navigation Act, (1381), 34, 97
Navigaton Law (1651), (1651), 52 52 Navigaton Nebraska, 336 Nebraska, 336 by, Negro, frontier outlook abandoned by, outlook abandoned frontier Negro, 485-86; Freedom, not not ininand New Freedom, 485-86; and cluded reconstruction, cluded in, in, 398; during reconstruction, 398; during 301, 302, 305, 306, 312-13; segseg301, 306, 307, 302, 305, 307, 312-13; regation of, of, 324; treatment of, within of, within regation 324; treatment Weltanschauung of laissez faire, 323of laissez faire, 323Weltanschauung 324; union union formed by by (1869), (1869), 315 324; 315 Negro slavery, abolitionists, 254-55; 254-55; Negro slavery, and abolitionists, banned in in Northwest Northwest Territory, banned Territory, 135; 135;
Calhoun's defense in colonies, Calhoun's defense of, colonies, of, 275; 275; in 78, 79, 97; 97; compromise compromise on, on, at at Con78, 79, stitutional Convention, 157-58; in Constitutional Convention, 157-58; in federation Constitutional federation era, era, 128, 128, 140; 140; Constitutional 305; Hopkins' Hopkins' Amendments ending, ending, 305; attacks on, on, 251; 251; Jefferson's Jefferson's position position attacks on, 154; attitude toward, toward, Lincoln's attitude on, 154; Lincoln's 296-97; and and Missouri Missouri Crisis, 206; Crisis, 206; 296-97; Northern opposition opposition to, to, 202; Northern 202; and price price decline 255; Taylor's position decline (1828), (1828), 255; Taylor's position on, 154 on, 154 Nelson, Donald, Donald, 466, 469 Nelson, 466, 469 Neo-mercantilism, 259 259 Neo-mercantilism, New Deal, 286, 416, 416, 438-45 438-45 pass., pass., 450, Deal, 286, 450, 453, 462, 463; and expansionism, 453, 462, 463; expansionism, 453, 453* 454, 456, 457; failure failure of, of, 449, 464; 454, 456, 457; 449, 464; Germany appeased by, 458; Good Germany appeased by, 458; Neighbor Policy of, 436, 436, 459, 460; Neighbor Policy of, 459, 460; Latin America, and Latin 458, 469; 469; struggle America, 458, struggle with with Supreme 446-47; lee also see also Court, 446-47; Supreme Court, Roo~evelt, Franklin Franklin D. Roosevelt, New England, colonial, 93-102; 93-102; indusindusEngland, colonial,
coalition with with trial interests interests of, of, in in coalition
trial
Pennsylvania entrepreneurs, 306; trade trade entrepreneurs, 306; Pennsylvania and and
textile industry of, 307 307
textile industry of,
England Workingmen's Workingmen's AssociaAssociaNew England
tion, 269 269 Freedom, 398, Freedom, 416 398, 416 Hampshire, 143 Hampshire, 143 Jersey, 164, 167, 194, 350 Jersey, 164, 167, 194, 350 Orleans, 126, 129, Orleans, 126, 129, 136, 136, 171, 171, 173, 173, 196, 200, 217, 354 200, 217, 354 196, Republic, The, 427 New Republic, The, 392, 392, 427 York, colonial, colonial, 85, 86, 88, 88, 102, New York, 85, 86, 102, 104; non-importation abandoned by, by, 104; non-importation abandoned Iin; II; patroons patroons in, 82, 86; press in, 88 in, 82, 86; press in, 88 anti-Masonic York, state of, U3; state of, New York, 123; anti-Masonic bankagitation in in (1827-1831). (1827-1831), 253; agitation 253; banking in, in, after Central after Revolution, Revolution, 124; ing 124; Central Committee of of Mechanics Mechanics in in (1785), Committee (1785), 142; 268; in (1844), defeated in 142; Clay Clay defeated (1844), 268; Constitutional Convention of (1821), (1821), Convention of Constitutional 202; on wage wage improvecourt decision decision on 202; court improvement (1809), 213; 18II 1811 law law of, ment 1 86; of, 186; (1809), 213; Erie Canal built by, 202; free banking Erie Canal built free by, 202; banking acts in, 260; 260; Liberty Party in, 255; acts in, in, 255; Liberty Party Manufacturing of, 142; Oneida Society of, Manufacturing Society 142; Oneida community 250; riots riots in, in, during during in, 250; community in, depression of unemployof 1837, 249; unemploydepression 1837, 249; ment in in (winter (winter of 4II; of 1914-1915), 1914-1915), 411; Buren's link link with with labor in, 269 269 Van Buren's labor in, York City, draft riots during New York riots in, in, during City, draft Civil War, War, 314; Civil Kuhn, Loeb of, of, 353, 314; Kuhn, 353, 315; trade trade with with 380; riot riot in in (1874), 380; (1874), 315; Latin America America (1820), 217 Latin (1820), 217 Herald, 277 277 New York Yor% Herald, Life Insurance Insurance Co., Co., 394 394 New York Life 319 New York The, 319 Times, The, Yor% Timel, Trihune, 280, 322 New York Yor!^ Tribune, 280, 322 Newton, Thomas, Newton, Thomas, 197 197 Nicaragua, 288 288 Nicaragua, Niebuhr, Reinhold, Reinhold. 385, 473 Niebuhr, 385, 472, 472, 473 Niles, Hezekiah, Hezekiah, 208 208 Niles, Nilel Weekly Regirter, 208 208 Niles Weekly Register, Non-Partisan Non-Partisan League, League, 433 433 Norris-La Guardia Act (1932), (1932), 438 438 Norris-La Guardia Act North, Simeon, Simeon, 186 186 North, North Carolina, 82, 143, 260 Carolina, 82, 143, 169, 169, 260 Northwest Ordinance (1787), (1787). 128, 128, 129, 129, 130, 130, 134 134 Northwest Territory, Territory, 135 Northwest 135 Notes on Notes on Virginia, 182 Virginia, 128, 128, 182 Scotia, 69, lIZ Nova Scotia, 112 69, Novoye Vremya, 348 Novoye Vremya, 348 Noyes, John Humphrey, 250 Noyes, John Humphrey, 250 Nuclear Nuclear war, war, 484 484 Nye, Gideon, 272 Nye, Gideon, 272 tion,
New New New New
of
m
Ode to to the the l?iring Am~rica, III Rising Glory Glory of America, O'Donnell, John, John, 132 O'Donnell, 132 Ohio, 78, Ohio, 78, 184, 184, 185 185
Index Index Ohio Indians, Indians, Wayne's Wayne's rout rout of, of, 173 173 Ohio Ohio River, River, 189, 189, 230 230 Ohio
Oligarchy, 437, 437; syndicalist syndicalist triumph triumph of, of, Oligarchy,
469-78 469-78 Olney, Richard, Richard, 364; 364; quoted, quoted, 341 341 Olney, Oneida communal communal community, community, 250 250 Oneida
Open Door Door Policy, Policy, 349, 349, 368, 368, 369, 369, 383, 383, Open
417, 418, 418, 420, 420, 422, 422, 434, 434, 435, 435, 437, 437, 417, 452, 455, 455, 456, 456, 461, 461, 475, 475, 476, 476, 484; 484; 452, fougHt for, for, 462-63, 462-63, 464 46 4 World War World fought Ordinance, of of 1784, 1784, 128, 128, 134; 134: of of 1787, 178" Ordinance, 128, 129, 129, 130, 130, 134 134 128, Oregon Territory, Territory, 196, 196, 216, :.u6, 257, 257, 270, 270, Oregon 271, 275, 275, 276, 276, 277 277 271, Otis, James, James, 102 102 Otis, OUT Benevolent Bent:1Jolent Feudalism, Feudalism, 358, 358, 369, 369, 393 393 Our Owen, Robert Robert Dale, Dale, 245 245 Owen,
n n
Paine, Paine,
77 Thomas, 116, 116, 124; 124; quoted, quoted, 77 Thomas,
Panama Canal Canal Zone, Zone, 416 416 Panama Panama Conference, Conference, 218 218 Panama
Pan-American Union, Union, 435 435 Pan-American
of 1819, 201, 205, 205, 241; 241; of of 1857, 1857, Panic, of Panic, 1819, 201, 268, 306; 306; of of 1893, 1893, 354; 354; of of 1907, 383, 268, 1907, 383, 408, 418; 418; see see also also Great Great Depression Depression 408, Parker, Lord Lord Chief Chief Justice, Justice, quoted, quoted, 66 66 Parker, Parker, Peter, Peter, 272 272 Parker, Pary, David David M., M., 379 379 Pary, Pastorius, Francis Francis Daniel, Pastorius, Daniel, 89 89 Pate, John, John, 103 Pate, 103 Paternalism, corporate, 379, Paternalism, corporate, 379, 394 394 Pearl Harbor, Harbor, 463 463 Pearl Peasants' 34 Peasants* Rebellion Rebellion (1381), (1381), 34
Peckham, George, Peckham, George, 54 54 Peckham, Rufus Rufus W., Peckham, W., 329 329 Peck, George N., 433 Peek, George N., 433 Penn, William, 46, 88 88 Penn, William, 46,
Pennsylvania, colonial, 85, 88, 89, 91, Pennsylvania, colonial, 85, 88, 89, 91, 93, 102 93, 102 Pennsylvania, state of, 122, 124, 130, state of, 122, 124, 130, Pennsylvania, 164; after after Revolution, Revolution, in, banking in, 164; banking 124; entrepreneurs in coalition coalition of, in 124; entrepreneurs of, with industrial interests, industrial with New England interests, England 306; with loans, loans, encouraged with 306; industry industry encouraged 143, steel industry iron and and steel of, industry of, 143, 187; 187; iron 0 3307 7 Pennsylvania Society for the Encouragefor the EncouragePennsylvania Society ment of and Useful Useful Arts, of Manufactures Manufactures and Arts, 2 14 -43 142-43 Pepys, Samuel, 28 28 Pepys, Samuel, Perkins, Perkins, George W., 360, 394 George W., 382-83, 394 360, 382-83, Perkins, Thomas H., H., 272 Perkins, Thomas 272 Perkins, William, 44 Perkins, William, 44 Perry, 288 Matthew, 288 Perry, Matthew, Peru, Peru, 217 217 Petty, 58, 92, 209 William, 52, 54, 58, 92* 209 Petty, William, 52, 54, Phaland, Phaland, James James D., D., 395 395 Philadelphia, colonial, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91; 91 Philadelphia, colonial, 87, 88, 89, 90, mechanics' in (1820'S), mechanics* organization (1820*5), organization in ;
509 509 249; trade trade with with Latin Latin America America (1820), (1820), 249; 21 7; workers workers employed employed in in (1793), (1793), 217;
169
169
Philadelphia Library, Library, 91 91 Philadelphia Philanthropy, 326 326 Philanthropy, 367,368, 4II Philippines, 367, Philippines, 368, 411 Phillips, David David Graham, Graham, quoted, quoted, 376 376 Phillips, Phillips, Wendell, Wendell, 254, 254, 278, 278, 302 302 Phillips, Physiocracy, American, American, 151-54; 151-54; French, French, Physiocracy, 73, 82, 82, 231; 231; Jefferson's Jefferson's position position on, on, 73 129, 148, 154; Taylor'S statement of, 129, 148, 154; Taylor's statement of, 151, 152, 152, I53> 153, I54 154, 207 207 151, ISO, 180 180 Pickering, Timothy, Timothy, 130, 130, 150, Pickering, Pierce, Franklin, Franklin, 289; 289: quoted, quoted, 287 287 Pierce, Pinchot, Gifford, Gifford, 392 392 Pinchot, Pinckney, Charles, Charles, 134, 134, 175 175 Pinckney, Pinckney, William, William,214 Pinckncy, 214 Pingree, Hazen S., S., 394 394 Pingree, Pittsburgh, 184, 184, 185, 185, 200, 200, 258, 258, 316, 316, 327 327 Pittsburgh, Planters, colonial, colonial, 82, 82, 83 83 Planters, Plumb Plan, Plan, for for railroads, railroads, 431, 431, 467 467 Plumer, William, William, 177 177 Plumer, Poe, Edgar Edgar Allan, Allan, 272-74 272-74 Poe, Poinsette, Joel, 232, 232, 233 233 Poinsette, Polk, James James K., K., 239, 239, 268, 268, 270, 270, 271, 271, 287; 287. Polk,
Joel,
and Mexican War, War, 276-79^ 276-79i Monroe Doctrine Doctrine reasserted reasserted by, by, 275; 275; quoted, quoted,
264 264 Poor Laws, English, 44 Laws, English, 44 60 Populists, Populists, 334, 335, 336, 334, 335, 336, 337, 337, 3 3&> Posdethwayt, Malachy, 42 Postlethwayt, Malachy, 42 Potomac Company, Potomac Company, 143 143 Potomac-Ohio Potomac-Ohio Canal, 211 Canal, 2n Potomac River River Valley, Valley, 140 140 Powderly, V., 334 Powderly, Terence V., 334 Pownall, Thomas, 78, 181 181 Pownall, Thomas, 78, Pragmatism, 441, Pragmatism, 385; 385; Dewey's, Dewey's, 402-05, 402-05, 44I, 450, James's, 34I-42; 450, 472; 472; James's, 341-42; of Roosevelt, F. D., 440 F. velt, D., 440 Pratt, Sereno E., Pratt, Sereno E., 395 395 Presbyterian Board of of Foreign Missions, Foreign Missions, Presbyterian Board 357 Presbyterians, 101, 278 Presbyterians, 101, 278 Preston, Preston, John, John, quoted, quoted, 27 27 radical Private Private property, 485; radical 480, 48I, 481, 485; property, 480, transformed view 388; rights view of, of, transformed of, 388; rights of, into of socia1 social property, into responsibilities property, responsibilities of true social social system, within true 477; 374 system, 374 477; within Procter Procter and Gamble, Gamble, 352 352 Progress Poverty, 333 333 Progress and Povmy,
Progressive 390-95, Movement, 385, 386, 390-95, 385, 386, Progressive Movement, 415, 452-53, 442, 452-53, 439 442, 437, 439, 425. 437, 422, 425, 415, 422, on, 454, Dewey's influence on, 470; Dewey's 462, 470; 454, 462, to Beard, 402, Beard, 463; 463; enmity to 404, 405; 405; enmity 402, 404, in failure failure of, of, 449, 464; involved in 449, 464; tramercantilist traWorld World War I, I, 42I; 421; mercantilist reformers in, dition dition in, in, 395-402; 395-402; in, 446; 446; reformers to frontier frontier thesis, in return to in return thesis, 406-12; 406-12; see syndicalist 450; see in, 448, 448, 450; approach in, syndicalist approach
Index Index
510 510 also also
Reformers Reformers
Republican Party, Party, 267, 267, 280, 280, 301, 301, 305, 305, Republican
Prohibition law, law. 424 424 Prohibition lee Private Private property property Property. private, private, see Property, Protectionist Protectionist
Act (1562), (1562), 43 43 Act
Protective Union, Union, first first (1845), (1845), 279 279 Protective
410 410
of, Republicanism, Montesquieu's Montesquieu's theory theory of, Republicanism, 198; of of 116th and i7th 17th centuries, centuries, 57 57 6th and 198;
Rerum novarum, novarum, 357 357 Rerum
366 366 Pullman Company, Company, 354, 354, 355 355 Pullman
Reston, James, James, quoted, quoted, 472 472 Reston, Restoration, in in England, England, 55, 55, 63, 63, 65, 65, 70, 70, Restoration, 78, 481 481 78, Reuther, Walter, Walter, 445, 445, 465, 465, 466, 466, 467, 467, Reuther,
Quakers, 88, 88, 89, 89, 90 90 Quakers, Quebec Act, Act, 112, lIZ, 115 II5 Quebec
Rhett, Robert Robert Barnwell, Barnwell, 282 282 Rhett, Rhode Island, Island, 98, 98, I II Rhode Richard II, II, 34, 34, 39 39 Richard Rivers and and Harbors Harbors Convention Convention (1847), (1847), Rivers
Public Public
Works Administration, Administration, 441 441 Works
Pulitzer, Joseph, Joseph, Pulitzer,
Puritanism, 33, 33. 94, 94, 95, 95, 99 99 Puritanism, Puritans, 58, 58, 94, 94. 95, 95, 96, 96, 482 482 Puritans,
451 468; quoted, quoted, 451 468;
in
Radicalism, 424; 424; challenge challenge to to corporacorporaRadicalism, tion society, society, 386-89; 386-89; difficulties difficulties tion
due to to due England England freedom freedom
278 278
Roberts, Jonathan, Jonathan, 194 194 Roberts, Robeson, Paul, Paul, 398 398 Robeson, 350, 359, 359, Rockefeller, John John D., D., 326, 326, 327, 327, 350, Rockefeller, 38o, 381; 381; quoted, quoted, 346 346 380, Rockefeller, Nelson, Nelson, 365, 365, 426, 426, 460, 46o, 468 468 Rockefeller, Rockefeller Brothers Brothers Foundation, Foundation, 465 465 Rockefeller
collapse of of Pennsylvania-New Pennsylvania-New collapse 306; individualized individualized coalition, 306; of, 255 255 of, Railroad system, system. development development of, of, 261; 261; Railroad and investment investment firms, firms, 304; 304; Morgan's Morgan's and Rockhill, William William Woodville, Woodville, 369 369 effort to to consolidate consolidate (1888-1889), (1888-1889), Rockhill, effort Catholicism, 58, 58, 385 385 310; rise rise of of Roman Catholicism, 327; regulation regulation of, of, 308, 308, 310; 327; Romantic Movement, Movement, 342 342 corporation symbolized symbolized by, by, 303; 303; strikes strikes Romantic corporation Roosevelt, Franklin Franklin Delano, Delano, 391, 391, 436, 436, on, 314, 314, 316; 316; union union Plumb Plumb Plan Plan for for Roosevelt, on, rehabilitating, 431, 431, 467 467 438, 439. 439, 442, 442, 445, 445, 450. 450, .456, 456, 457> 457, 438, rehabilitating, Randolph, Edmund, Edmund, 151, 473; expansionist expansionist outout459, 460, 46o, 463, 463, 473; 161 459, Randolph, 151, 161 look of, of, 454, 454, 455; 455; foreign foreign policy policy of, of, look :Randolph, John, 83, 83, 151, 151, 152, 152, 153, 214; 153, 214; Randolph, John, quoted, tariff opposed 455, 461, 461, 462, 469; humanitarianism humanitarianism 455, 462, 469; 180, 191-92; by, quoted, 180, opposed by, 191-92; tariff 230-31; War of by, 191, of, 440; 440; Open Open Door reasserted by, 437; 437; reasserted by, of 1812 1812 opposed of, 191, 230-31; opposed by, pragmatism of, quoted, 371, 414, 195 of, 440; 440; quoted, pragmatism 371, 414, 195 Rantoul, Robert, 236 see also also New Deal 427, 474; 474; lee Rantoul, 427, Robert, 236 Rauschenbusch, 401 Roosevelt, Roosevelt, Theodore, Theodore, 362, 362, 364, 364, 365, 365, 368, 368, Rauschenbusch, Walter, Walter, 401 Rayburn, Sam, 369, 385, 391, 370, 385, 369, 370, 391, 392, 392, 393, Sam, 471 393 394, 394* Rayburn, 471 209, 261 Raymond, Daniel, 470, 474; conservation supported by, conservation 470, 474; supported by, Raymond, Daniel, 209, 261 Latin American policy Reagan, 407; of, 416; 407; Latin 416; H., 393 policy of, Reagan, John John H., 393 and Open Recession Recession of of 1937-1938, Open Door Policy, Policy, 416, 416, 417, 417, 418; 418; 4*5 439, 440, 1937-1938, 415, 439* 440, Progressive initiated by, initiated 449, legislation Progressive legislation by, 449, 453, 456 462 453 456, 462 Reconstruction, 312-13, 396; cross-cur407-08; quoted, 371, 391-92 cross-cur407-08; quoted, 371, 391-92 Reconstruction, 312-13, 396; rents 305-08; expansionism during, Root, Elihu, 418, 424 rents of, Root, Elihu, 418, 424 of, 305-08; expansionism during, 317-18; Rosenwald, as national national phenomenon, Rosenwald, Julius, Julius, 425, 425, 426 426 317-18; as phenomenon, 300300Rowe, 305; Rowc, Leo 5., S., 435 435 305; Negro Negro during, during, 301, 302, 30;, 301, 302, 305, Rowse, A. L., 46 A. Rowse, L., 46 306, 3<>6, 307, 3" 307* 312 Royal African Company, Reconstruction Royal African Reconstruction Finance Company, 79 79 Finance Corporation, Corporation, 438, 438, Royal Society, Royal Society, 29, 29, 52, 326 52, 326 442, 442, 455 455 Royce, Josiah, 342, 450 Royce, Josiah, 342, 450 Red Shirts, II Shirts, 3 311 Ruml, Ruml, Beardsley, Beardslcy, 466 466 Reform (environmental) Darwinism, Darwinism, (environmental) Rush, 210 Rush, Richard, Richard, 210 399, 400, 402, 407 399> 400, 402, 407 Russia, 435, 437; Russia, 435, 437; and Black Sea region, region, Reformers, Reformers, 373-74, 373~74> 375, 375* 376, 37^ 378, 378, 406, 406, in (1917319; 319; Bolshevik Revolution in (191710, 436, 4410, 466; on conservation, 406on 436, 466; conservation, 406* 1918), 1918), 386. 386, 388, 423, 424; 424; 388, 398, 398, 423, 407; differences with with conservatives, 407; differences conservatives, Japan's victory over, consequences of, Japan's victory over, consequences of, 375; as followers followers of of Theodore Theodore RooseRoose375; as U.S. excluded from U.S. surpluses excluded from 417; 417; surpluses velt, within velt, 392; 392; middle-class, middle-class, 395 #.; within 395 If.; see also (1880'S), 366; see also Soviet Union Soviet (i88o*s), 366; New Deal, in Progressive Deal, 442-43; 442*43; in Progressive Rudedge, Edward, 137 Rudedge, Edward, 137 Movement, see allO alfo ProgresMovement, 395-402; 395-402; lee ProgresRudedge, Rutledge, John, John, II4, 114, IZ7 127 sive sive Movement Movement Regionalism, Regionalism, Royce's, St. St. Clair, Arthur, 171 Royce's, 342 342 Clair, Arthur, 171 Regulator of Carolinas, Regulator movements, Salem, movements, of Carolinas, 104 104 Salem, 99, 99, 217 217 coalition,
Index Index San riots in, in, 316 3I 6 San Francisco, Francisco, riots 316 Sand Lot Party, Sand Lot Party, 316 Edwin, 48 Sandys, Edwin, 48 Sandys, Say, Jean Jean Baptiste, 201, 231, 231, 330 Baptiste, 201, 330 Say, Sayre, Francis B., 456, 462 Francis B., 456, 462 Sayre, Scalawag, 312 Scalawag, 312 Scarburgh, Colonel, 83 83 Scarburgh, Colonel, Schmoller, Gustav, Gustav, 400 400 Schmoller, Schurz, Carl, 317, 340, Schurz, Carl, 317* 34<>, 367 3^7 Schuyler, Philip, no Philip, IIO Schuyler, Schwab, Charles M., 382 Charles M., 382 Schwab, Scientific Management, 405, 406 Scientific Management, 405, 406 immigrants from, 89 Scotland, early Scotland, early immigrants from, 89 Sears, Isaac, 87, II 0 no Sears, Isaac, 87, Sedition Act, Hamilton's, 175, 176 Sedition Act, Hamilton's, 175, 176 Seligman, Edwin R. A., 400 400 R. A., Seligman, Seligman 380 Brothers, 380 Seligman Brothers, Sergeant, John, 214 John, 214 Sergeant, H., 269, 269, 270, 270, 280, Seward, William H., 280, :z82, 282, Scward, William 283, :z89, 292-93, 484; as as expansionist, expansionist, 283, 289, 292-93, 484; 317, 318-19; quoted, 284, :z86, :Z90, 317, 318-19; quoted, 284, 286, 290, 293, 294, 297 294, 297 293, Earl of, 23, 28-32 28-32 pass., pass., Shaftc:sbury, first Earl of, 23, Shaftcsbury, first 42, 50-58 pass., 62, 63, 70, 481, 62, 63, 310, 481, 70, 310, 42, 50-58 pass., 482, 483; 483; dismissed dismissed by by Charles Charles II, 515; II, 58; 482, flight of, of, 6x; 61; plan plan to to subvert subvert Spain's Spain's flight American empire, 57, 77; reformer, as reformer, American empire, 57, 77; as 59, 61; quoted, 27, 27, 57; 57; toleration toleration 61; quoted, 59, urged by, by, 59; Whig Party Party organized organized urged 59; Whig by, 60 60 by, Shaw, Samuel, 132 Shaw, Samuel, 132 Shays' Rebellion, 147, 147, 148 148 Shays* Rebellion, Shelburne, Lord, Lord, 72 Shelburne, 72 Shenandoah Valley, 185 Shcnandoah Valley, 185 Sheridan, quoted, 321-22 321-22 F., quoted, Sheridan, Philip Philip F., Sherman, Roger, Roger, 114 II4 Sherman, Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890), Anti-Trust Act (1890), 336 335 Short, William, William, 178 Short, 178 Siam, U.S. trade treaty with, 240 trade Siam, U.S. treaty with, 240 Sibbes, Richard, 44 44 Sibbes, Richard, Simms, William Gilmore, 258, 259 259 William Gilmore, 258, Simms, Simpson, Stephen, 238 Stephen, 238 Simpson, Singer Co., 338 Sewing Machine Co., 338 Singer Sewing laX, 324, Single tax, 333 Single 324, 333 Skidmore, Thomas, 238 Skidmore, Thomas, 238 set! Negro NeJlI'O slavery Slavery, Negro, see slavery Slavery, Negro, Slayton, ton, H. K., K., 338 338 Slay Smith, Adam, 30, 41, 65, 73, 100, 123, 123, Smith, Adam, 30, 41, 65, 73, 100, 169, 201, 231, 250, 308; in debate 308; in 231, 250, 169, 201, with Steuart, 70, 71, 72; quoted, 72 with Steuart, 70, 71, 72; quoted, 72 Smith, William, William, 170 Smith, 170 Smyth, 219 Alexander, quoted, quoted, 219 Smyth, Alexander, Social Gospel, Social 356, 400, 401 401 357, 400, Gospel, 356, 357, Social Security Social Act, 445, 447 Security Act, 445, 447 Socialism, 377, 387, 388, 396, 428, 401, 428, Socialism, 377, 387, 388, 396, 401, 437, 481, 481, 487, 487, 488; 488; Christian, Christian, 357 357 437, the Cincinnati, Society of of the 144 Cincinnati, 143. 143, 144 Society Society for Useful Manufactures, Manufactures, 167 for Useful 167 Society Sons Liberty, 109, 112 Sons of of Liberty, 109,
511 511
South America, U.S. u.s. trade with, 217; 217; set! South America, trade with, see also Latin America America also Latin South Carolina, Carolina, colonial, colonial, 57, 77, 104; 57, 77, 104; charter of, of. 56; of, 29; 29; work work charter 56; founding founding of, laws of, 84 laws of, 84 South Carolina, Carolina, state 240, 252; 252; state of, of, 143, 143, 240, supported by, by, Madison's war Madison's war policy policy supported 193; manufactures encouraged encouraged in manufactures in 193; (1808), proclamation nullifying nullifying (1808), 187; 187; proclamation tariff of 1832, 220; 220; reconstruction govtariff of 1832, reconstruction government ernment in, slaves exported to in, 312; 312; slaves exported to southwest, 258; Taylor-Randolph pasouthwest, 258; Taylor-Randolph position accepted by, 231 sition accepted by, 231 South Sea Company, South Sea 102 Company, 102 Southern Farmers Alliance, Alliance, 336 336 Southern Farmers Soviet Union, Soviet Union, 452, 452, 455, 477; 455, 469, 469, 474, 474, 477; achievements 476; as competitor for achievements of, as competitor for of, 476; world leadership, 427; Hoover's Hoover's leadership, 399, 399, 427; views with (1921), views of of trade trade relations relations with (1921), 429; information information obtained from U.S. U.S. obtained from 429; through American communists, 443; 443; American through communists, policy of of, 475; 475; recogrecogcontainment of, of containment policy nized by nized by Roosevelt 455; see lee Roosevelt (1933), (1933), 455; also Russia also Russia
443, 469, Spain, 102, 134. 4t>g, Spain, 102, 134, 136, 136, 137, 137, 138, 138, 443, 473, 474; difficulties in Cuba, 362, difficulties of, of, in 473, 474; Cuba, 362, im366; Florida Florida abandoned by, 196; abandoned by, 366; 196; impact of colonial revolution feared by, by, of colonial revolution feared pact II9; negotiations with, with, after after American American 119; negotiations Revolution, 126, 129-30, Revolution, 126. 129-30, 131, 131, 135, 135, 173; 173; American Shaftesbury's plan to subvert subvert American Shaftesbury's plan to empire of, 57, 77; U.s. message to empire of, 57, 77; US. message to (1897), 345, 474 (1897), 345, 474 Spanish-American 349, 366, 366, 367, War, 349, Spanish-American War, 367, 368, 372 372 3^8, Robert E., 357 Speer, Speer> Robert E., 357 Spencer, Herbert, 329; quoted, 21 21 329; quoted, Spencer, Herbert, Square Deal, 408 408 Square Deal, Stamp Act, 106, III 106, in Stamp Act, Standard Distilling Co., Standard Distilling Co., 354 354 Standard Oil Company, 339, 340, 340, 353, 353, Standard Oil Company, 339, 380, 387, 4:1:7 380, 387, 417 Stanford, Leland, 3:z8 Stanford, Leland, 328 Staple Act, English, English, 54 54 Staple Act, -22 States' rights, after 121-22 after Revolution, States' rights, Revolution, 121 (:1:563), 44 Statute of Artificers Artificers (1563), Statute of 44 Stead, William Thomas, 348 Thomas, 348 Stead, William Steffens. Lincoln, quoted, quoted, 376 Stefiens, Lincoln, 376 Sterns, Isaac, 102 Sterns, Isaac, Stettler v. v. O'Hara, O'Hartl, 406 406 Stettler Steuart, James, 70-74 PtZSs., 145. 202, 209 209 Steuart, James, 70-74 pass., 145, 202, 30S, 308, 308, Stevens, 238, 301, 301, 305, Thaddeus, 238, Stevens, Thaddeus, 337 Stevenson, Adlai E., E.. 465, 465, 476; 476; quoted, quoted, Stevenson, Adlai 371, 471, 472 472 371, 471, Stiles, Ezra, 141 141 Stiles, Ezra, Stimson, Henry L., L., 391, 391, 423-24, 423-24, 437, 437. 470 470 Stimson, Henry Stoics, physiocracy derived from, from, 152 152 Stoics, physiocracy derived Stone, Barton W., W., I8S 185 Stone, Barton
512 512
Index Index
Thoreau, Henry David, David, 278 Stone, Harlan F., F., quoted, quoted, 447 441 278 Thorcau, Henry Stone, Harlan Thornton, William, 188 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 188 Thornton, William, Stowe, Harriet 287 Beecher, 281 Tilden, Samud J., 304, 313, 316 Straight, 459; quoted, quoted,413 J., 304, Tildcn, Samuel 313, 316 Willard, 459; Straight, Willard, 413 Tocquevi1le, Alexis de, 181, Strasser, Adolph, 3316 I 6 Alexis de, 181, 331 Tocqueville, 331 Strasser, Adolph, Tory-Radicals, English, English, 38 38 Strike(s), at Cambria Iron Works, 315315- Tory-Radicals, at Cambria Iron Works, Strikc(s), E., 443 Townsend, Francis Francis 16; against Carnegie's Homestead Homestead E., Townsend, 443 16; against Carnegie's Townshend (1767), 106, III Acts (1767), plant, 354, 382; coal (1902), 408; in Townshend Acts in 106, in plant, 354, 382; coal (1902), 408; Transcendentalism, 242, 242, 243, 243, 250 250 New Orleans, Orleans, general, 354; railroad, railroad, Transcendentalism, general, 354; Transportation Act (1920), (1920), 431 431 314, copper, 354 Transportation Act 316, 354; 354; Utah copper, 354 314, 316, Trippe, Juan, Juan, 458 Strong, Josiah, 364 458 Trippe, Strong, Josiah, 364 Sugar Act Act (1164), Truman, Harry Harry S., 470, 474 414 106 S., 426, Truman, 426, 470, Sugar (1764), 106 Tucker, Josiah, Josiah, 42 42 Sullivan and and Cromwell Cromwdl (law (law firm), 458 Sullivan Tucker, firm), 458 Turner, Frederick Jackson, Jackson, II6, 377, Sully, Turner, Frederick 116, 365, Thomas, 244 365, 377, Sully, Thomas, 244 409, 'III, 412, 483, 481 Sumner, Charles, 472, 483, 487 409, 411, Charles, 305 Sumner, 305 Turner, Nat, 256 256 Sumner, William William Graham, Turner, Nat, Sumner, Graham, 330, 330, 341 341 Tuskegee Institute, 323, 323, 324 Supreme Court, United States, States, 158, Tuskcgee Institute, Court, United 286, 324 158, 286, Supreme Mark, 244, quoted, 320 320 298, 310; Unemployment Twain, Alabama Unemployment Twain, Mark, 244, 330, 330, 332; 332; quoted, 298, 310; Alabama Tyler, John, 268, 271, 272 Compensation Act uphdd by, 447-48; Act Tyler, John, 268, 271, 272 Compensation upheld by, 447-48; F"teld as of, 328, and as Justice Field Justice of, 328, 329; 329; and Underwood, Oscar Oscar W., 410 Marshall decisions, 213-14; 213-14; New Deal's Deal's Underwood, Marshall decisions, W., 410 Unions, 382; 382; conservatism conservatism of, struggle Taney's Unions, in 1920'S, of, in with, 446-47; struggle with, 1920% 446-47; and Taney's 431; see also Dred Scott Scott decision, also Labor Labor Dred decision, 294 431; see 294 465 United Auto Workers, Swados, Harvey, 412 Auto United Workers, 465 Swados, Harvey, 472 Nations, 470, 484 Swope. .. 383, 383, 385, 426, 431, 431, United United Nations, Gerald p 470, 484 P^ Swopc, Gerald 385, 426, United States Steel Steel Corp., United States 453,467 353, 369, Corp., 353, 453, 467 369, 380, 380, Syndicalism, American, 384-86, 382, 394 394 American, 356-60, 382, Syndicalism, 356-60, 384-86, Uruguay, 217 408, 431, 433, 440, 446, 447, 448, 408, 431, 433, 440, 446, 447, 448, Uruguay, 217 Utah copper copper strike, 354 467, 469-78, 480 480 strike, 354 467, 468, 4^8, 469-78, Taft, Robert A., A., quoted, 452 Taft, Robert quoted, 452 William Howard, Taft, Howard, 383, 4°8-09, 418, 418, Taft, William 383, 408-09, 419, 459 459 4i9> Tallmadge, James, 205 205 Tallmadge> James, Tammany 203 Hall, 203 Tammany Hall, Taney, Roger 246, 248, 248, 294; 294; quoted, Taney, Roger B., B., 246, quoted, 260 260 Tappan, Arthur and Lewis, 251, 253 Arthur and Tappan, Lewis, 251, 253 TarUf, Tariff, protective, protective, 124, 124, 197,208,230,231, 197, 208, 230, 231, 0 33<>55 Tariff U. TarUf Commission, S., 425 425 Commission, S., Taylor, Charles Charles R., R., 405 405 Taylor, Taylor, Frederick W., W., 358 Taylor, Frederick 358 Taylor, John, 83, Taylor, John, 100, 166, 83, 100, 166, 170, 170, 176, 176, 182, 190, 201, 397; Jefferson criticized 182, 190, 201, 397; Jefferson criticized by, 169; laissez faire expounded faire laissez by, 169; by, expounded by, 233; on physiocracy, physioc:racy, 151, 233; 151, 152, 152, 153, 153, 154; quoted, 227, 233; on slavery, 154; 154; quoted, 227, 233; slavery, 154; Tyler's loyalty to, of 1812 1812 Tyler's loyalty to, 268; 268; War of opposed by, 191 opposed by, 191 Tea Act (1773), II2 (1773), "* Tennessee, Tennessee, 184 184 Tennessee Coal, Coal, Iron Iron and and Railroad Railroad Co., Co., Tennessee 32 3 323 Tennessee Valley Valley Authority, 444 Tennessee Authority, 444 Texas, 216, 216, 258, 259, 269, 270, 271, 271, 212, Texas, 258, 259, 269, 270, 272, 271,336 275,216, 276, 277, 275, 336 the Leisure Theory of the Leisure Class, The, 397 Theory of Class, The, 397 Thompson, Charles, no, IIO, 115 II5 Thompson, Charles, Thompson, William Boyce, 424 William Thompson, Boyce, 424
Vail, Theodore N., 426 426 Theodore N., Vail, Vale, Gilbert, 240 Gilbert, 240 Vale, Van Buren, Buren, Martin, Martin, 229, 230, 233, 233, 235235229, 230, 37, 239, 239, 241, 241, 248, 272; and and Free Free 248, 249, 37 249, 272; Soilers, 280; 280; laissez laissez fairc faire restated restated by, by, Soilers, 247-48; New York labor's labor's tie tie with, with, 247-48; 269; President of of United United States, States, 266; 266; as President 269; as quoted, 246, 248 248 quoted, 246,
Van Dyke, Henry, 357 357 Dyke, Henry, Vanderlip, Frank, Frank, A., A., 420-21, 420-21, 424, 424, 434 434 Vanderlip, VassaIage, Vassalage, 56 56 Veblen, Thorstein, 397 Veblen, Thorstein, 397 Venezuda, 340, 341 Venezuela, 340, 341 Vergennes, Charles II9 Charles G. G. de, Vergenncs, de, 119 Very, Jones, 243 Very, Jones, 243 Virginia, colonial, colonial, 46, 98, 102, Virginia, 102, 104, 46, 83, 83, 98, 104, 105, and linen linen bounties bounties cotton and 105, 117; 117; cotton offered by, by, offered
83; iron industry 83; iron industry in, in, 83; 83;
Negro slavery slavery in, 78, 79; Negro in, 78, 79; non-impornon-importation movement headed headed by, by, lIO; work tation no; work laws 84; laws of, of, 84; Virginia, state state of, Virginia, of,
124, 124, 144, 144, 153, 153, 154, 154, 116; 255-56; 176; antislavery antislavery move in, in, 255-56; Caton v. Commonwealth case case in, in, 158; Caton v. 158; cession of of claims cession claims by 128; 127, 128; by (1783), (1783), 121, Constitutional in (1830), (1830), Constitutional Convention Convention in (I80x), 186; rail256; Gabriel in (1801), Plot in Gabriel Plot 186; rail256; road system system in, 261; slaves slaves exported to road in, 261; exported to southwest, University of, 207 southwest, 258; of, 183, 183, 207 258; University
Index Index Wade, Benjamin F., 301 Benjamin F,, 301 Wade, Wagner, Robert F., 445 Robert F., 445 Wagner, Wagner Labor Act (1935), 445, 446 446 (i935)> 445, Wagner Labor 310, 311, 311, 329 Waite, Morrison Morrison R., R., 310, Waite, 329 Walker, Robert Robert J., J., 271 211 Walker, W all Stre~t 452, 487 487 Street TourtUll, Watt Journal, 395, 395, 452, Wallace, Henry Henry A., A., 365, 365, 454, 454, 466, Wallace, 466, 410; 470; quoted, 452, 468 468 quoted, 452, Walsh, Mike, 250 Mike, 250 Walsh, Wanamaker, John, 354 Wanamaker, John, 354 War, nuclear, nuclear, 484 484 War, Hawks, 192 War Hawks, 192 Board, 433 433 War Industries Industries Board, War of of 1812, 1812, 151, 151, 155. 155, 191, 191, 192-95; 192-95; results I 6 216 results of, of, 196-99, 196-99, 2 Warburg, Paul M., 421 Paul M., 421 Warburg, Warren, James, Warren, James, 109 109 T., 320, 320,3:14 Washington, Booker Booker T., Washington, 324 Washington, George, 85, 93, 93, 107, lIO, Washington, George, 85, 107, no, J 38, 169; II3, as commander of of 11 3 131, 169; as *37> 138, Fairfax Volunteers, 112; Fairfax County at 112; at County Volunteers, Continental Congress. Il2, IJ4, 115; n5; Continental Congress, 112, 114, critique 79, 140; of slavery, .Farewell critique of slavery, 79, 140; .Farewell Address 2IS, 4IIj na^ 4 Address of, 11 naof, 82, 82, 173-14, 173-74, 2I tional bank supported supported by, by, 124; tional neutral 124; neutral policy and Potomac as President, Potomac President, 16,; 167; and policy as River project, 140-41, River Valley as 140-41, 143; 143; as Valley project, president of Constitutional Convention, of Constitutional Convention, president ISO; as President of United United States, President of 162, 150; as States, 162, 164, program for 1 68, 171-74; for 164, 167, 167, 168, 171-74; program colonial agriculture and industry, colonial agriculture 80, industry, 80, 83; 118, 149, 105, 118, 173; 83; quoted, quoted, 17, 77, 105, 149, 113; strategy empire during during Presidency, of empire Presidency, strategy of 171-74 171-74 Washington Conference Conference (1921-1 (1921-1922), Washington 922), 435, 458 435, 458 Wayland, Francis, Francis, 240 Wayland, 240 Wayne, Anthony, Anthony, 173 Wayne, 173 W~alth of of Nations, Nations, The, Th~, 65, 65, 70, Wealth 72, 169, 70, 72, 169, 23 2 232 Weaver, James B., 337 Weaver, James B., 337 Webb, Walter Walter Prescott, 444 Webb, Prescott, 444 Webster, Daniel, 232, 262, 262, 263, 267, Webster, Daniel, 232, 263, 267, 282; quoted, 282; quoted, 225 225 Webster, Noah, Noah, 143 Webster, 143 Weed, Thurlow, Thurlow, 229, 269, 280 280 Weed, 229, 269, 25:1, :153, 254 Weld, Theodore Theodore Dwight, Dwight, 252, 253, 254 Weld, Welles, Sumner. 461 Welles, Sumner, 459, 459, 461 West Indies, 106, 142, 169, 199, Indies, 102, 102, 106, 142, 169, 199, 33 1i66 Western Union Co., Western Co., :189 289 Weyl, Walter Walter E., E., 393, 427 Weyl, 393, 4^7 Wharton, Edith, 331 Wharton, Edith, 331 Wharton, Thomas, Thomas, 92 92 Wharton, Whig Party, 269, American, :166, 266, :167, 267, 269, Party, American, Whig 281; British, 281; British, :19, 29, 60 Whiskey tax, armed protests protests against armed against tax, Whiskey ?
513 513
(1794), 172 (1794), 172 Whitby, Daniel, 100 100 Whitby, Daniel, Whitefield, George, 251 Whitefield, George, 101, 101, 185, 185, 251 Whitman, Walt, 243-44, 243-44, 250, 270; Whitman, Walt, 250, 270; quoted, 294, :194, 317 quoted, 317 Whitney, Asa, 272, 272, 289 Whitney, Asa, 289 Whitney, Eli, 186 186 Whitney, Eli, Wilderness Wilderness Road, Road, 185 185 W'llkes, Charles, Charles, 272 272 Wilkes, Wilkes, John, 92, 92, no Wilkes, John, Willamettc Valley, 257 Willamette Valley, Oregon, Oregon, 257 Willard, Daniel, Daniel, 426 Willard, 426 Williams, Roger, 95, Williams, Roger, 95, 96 96 Williamson, Hugh, ISO Williamson, Hugh, 141, 141, 150 Wilmot, James, :180 Wilmot, James, 280 Proviso, 277, 277, 279, 279, 281 Wilmot Proviso, 281 Wilson, Charles Charles E., 467 Wilson, E., 467 Wilson, Woodrow, 365, 394, 398, 415, Wilson, Woodrow, 365, 394, 398, 415, 419, 42:1, 425, 425, 473; 473; as Christian Capas Christian 419, 422, Capitalist, 409-11, 409-u, 419-20, 419-:10, 423; 423; frontier frontier italist, 409, 4II-X2, 419; thesis accepted thesis by, 409, 411-12, 419; accepted by, Hoover as as advisor of, 427; peace proproHoover advisor of, 427; peace gram of, after 422-23; after World World War I, I, 422-23; gram of, program defeated by coalition, coalition, 423-24; 4:13-24; defeated by program quoted, 371, 390, 409; stand stand against against 390, 409; quoted, 371, Germany, message of of Germany, 412, 421; war message 412, 421; 474 (1917), 474 (1917), Winthrop, John, 94, 95, 95, 96, 96, 97 Winthrop, John, 94, 97 Wisconsin, Wisconsin, 219 279 Wise, 101 Wise, John, John, 101 Witchcraft trials, colonial, colonial, 96 96 Witchcraft trials, Witberspoon, John, John, 156 156 Witherspoon, Wolcott, Oliver, Oliver, 113 Il3 Wolcott, Wollaston, John, 88 88 Wollaston, John, Woodbury, Levi, quoted, quoted, 219 219 Woodbury, Levi, F. W., W., 354 Woolworth Co., Woolworth Co., F. 354 Workingman's 237 Workingman's Party, Party, 237 44 1 Works Progress Progress Administration, Administration, 441 Works 377, 378, World War I, 380, 35, 356, 356, 377, 37$, 380, I, 352, 412, 415, 415, 420, 4:1 0 , 473 473 386, 394, 394, 404, 4>4, 4, 386, 377, 399, World War II, 399, 376, 377, E, 356, 356, 361, 361, 376, 458, 416, 424, 426, 426, 447, 457, 45$, 447, 453, 453, 457, 416, 424, 466, 474; 474; as for Open 462as war for Door, 462Open Door, 466, 63,464 63, 464 Worsley, Benjamin, Benjamin, 52, 54, 55 55 Worsley, 52, 54, Worthington, Thomas, Thomas, 188 188 Worthington, Wright, Francis, Francis, 249 249 Wright, Wright, Frank. lloyd, 244 Lloyd, 244 Wright, Frank Wright, Robert, Robert, 216 216 Wright, York, of, 86 York, Duke of, 2 5, 426, 385, 4425, 42 6, 43, 43 0 , Young, D., 385, Young, Owen D., 431, 453,* 453; quoted, 430-3 1 quoted, 430-31 43i, Young Americans, Americans, 288 288 Young Zionism, 398 398 Zionism,
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