Psychological Atlas

$5.00

l

as DAVID KATZ

FOR MANY YEARS

it

been the good fortune of Professor David has

Katz, of the University of Stockholm, to be invited

to speak to diverse groups of people about the meth-

ods and the subject matter of the science of psy-

chology. Thus he discovered that, no matter how the members of his audience differed in comprehension of his language, the use of graphic mate-

aroused their

rials

est

inter-

and served to

illus-

trate his points. Over a period of many years he

has

collected

many

graphic materials whereby to illuminate these popular lectures as well as to stimulate his universtudents to acquire a

sity

deep

store of knowledge

about principles and methods

in

the study of

behavior.

A

number of the

tures are the of

pic-

common

all

psychologproperty ists, but most of them are rarely found in American books. Students of psy-

chology are certain to cover that this atlas

dis-

fur-

nishes material for many a pleasant and stimulating hour.

From

the

collection

of the

X

JJibrary b

t

Francisco, California

2007

PSYCHOLOGICAL ATLAS

PSYCHOLOGICAL ATLAS BY

DAVID KATZ UNIVERSITY OF STOCKHOLM

WITH

400

ILLUSTRATIONS

PHILOSOPHICAL LIBRARY NEW YORK

COPYRIGHT 1948, BY THE PHILOSOPHICAL LIBRARY, INC. EAST 4OTH STREET, NEW YORK 1 6, N. 15

Y.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD

vii

INTRODUCTION

PART

PART

I:

ix

TEXT

3

CHAPTER

1.

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

CHAPTER

2.

CHARACTEROLOGY AND TYPOLOGY

16

CHAPTER

3.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

20

CHAPTER

4.

PHYSICAL HANDICAPS

26

CHAPTER

5.

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHIATRY

CHAPTER

6.

OCCULT PHENOMENA

32

CHAPTER

7.

APPLIED

PSYCHOLOGY

34

CHAPTER

8.

ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY

II:

DIAGRAMS

3

36 43

EMINENT PSYCHOLOGISTS

129

APPENDIX

138

FOREWORD and diagrams reach across the barriers of language and differing modes of thought, and thereby people are brought into a community of understandfortune of Professor David KaU, of the ing. For many years it has been the good Pictures

University of Stockholm, to be invited to speak to diverse groups of people about the methods and the subject matter of the science of psychology. Thus he discov ered that, no matter

how

the

members of

his

audience differed in comprehension of

his language, the use of graphic materials aroused their interest and served to illustrate his points. Over a period of many years he has collected many graphic ma-

these popular lectures as well as to stimulate his uni' versity students to acquire a deep store of knowledge about principles and methods terials

in

whereby

to illuminate

the study of behavior.

The

translator has wisely kept

concise explanatory notes. pictures

what ists.

and diagrams

will

To

some of the "Old World flavor" in many of the American psychologist many of the

the professional

He

appear quaintly amusing.

will be interested to learn

foreign students of psychology learn about the work of number of the pictures are the common property of

A

most of them are rarely found

in

American books.

certain to discover that this atlas furnishes material

for

American psycholog' all

Students

many

psychologists, but of psychology are

a pleasant

and stim-

ulating hour.

Philip

Lawrence Harriman,

Bucknell University

INTRODUCTION In the

many

fields of science

student.

the atlas has proved to be a useful device for interesting

Courses

geography, zoology, botany, anatomy, and history of art necessitate the use of graphic materials. No one has hitherto brought together

young

like

within the covers of a single volume the interesting and useful pictures which relate to various phases of psychology. Consequently, this atlas, which represents the first

attempt to organize a collection of graphic material, should meet a genuine need.

The book

is

intended to stimulate an interest in

the primary intent of the author

is

psychology. In other words, not that of making a contribution to science, but

that of arousing a zeal for the study of psychology. For many years he has taken advantage of every opportunity to illustrate, by demonstrations and pictures, his

and discussions

lectures

in

the classroom.

As

a result, he has accumulated a large

number

of pictures. Even when lecturing before gatherings not well'versed in the author's language, he has found that the intelligibility of pictures and diagrams

transcended linguistic barriers.

Now

these materials are presented to

general reader

may

American students of psychology.

find this atlas as interesting as the classroom student.

tures certainly demonstrate

how

broad

is

The

the scope of psychology; hence they

The pic'

may

serve to counteract the influence of evanescent interests in such fields as abnormal

psychology or child development. Here, the breadth of the field of psychology.

Not

all

in short,

is

an eloquent demonstration of

branches of psychology can be adequately illustrated by pictures and dia-

To

represent in graphic form some of the more abstruse topics would rethe use of cumbersome diagrams and pedantic explanations. If that were quire done, the atlas would defeat its purpose and become a sterile textbook. Likewise,

grams.

has been necessary to disregard the matter of coherence. Groupings of pictures are, necessarily, arbitrary procedures; and the user of this atlas may wish to re-or' it

ganize the arrangements. ix

The

pictures are

sarily brief

made

brief.

numbered

and inadequate

They

and the explanatory comments -- neces' Part I. By intent, these notes have been

sequentially,

- - are given in

are intended merely to stimulate the

young student

to relate this

These pictures have been chosen from property of all psychologists; hence no credit

textbook knowledge to a concrete situation.

many

sources.

Some

are the

common

of the pictures have been drawn from rare books. author has been unable to trace. the unfortunately, is

given.

Many

Some

pictures,

David Katz University of Stockholm

PART ONE

I.

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

Physiological Foundations

1*. Lateral

view of the

are indicated:

left

Broca's

The following motor centers movement of head (Kop/dre-

hemisphere of the brain.

eye movement (Augendrehung) area

,

(Schreiben), facial muscles (MtmdfaziaZis), tongue (Zunge), larynx (KehZ^opf), mastication (Kauen), es-

hung),

speech

(Sprache),

writing

leg (Bern), and arm (Arm). The following centers for senfunctions are area for general sensation indicated: sory (Korperfuhlsphare), visuo'sensory areas (optisches Sprachzentrurn; opti'sche Erinnerungsbilder) and audio'sensory area (a\ustisches Sprac/izentrum)

ophagus (SchZimd),

,

.

2.

The medial ed:

tion

3.

surface of the right hemisphere. The following centers are indicatarea for general sensation (Korper/uhZsphare), olf action (Riechen), gusta-

(Schmec^en),

and

vision

(Sehen).

The autonomic nervous system and

its

relation

to the central

nervous system,

the duct and the ductless glands, and the visceral organs. 4.

5.

A

section of the spinal chord; cp, afferent (sensory) nerve; g, ganglion; efferent cell. apse; cf, (motor)

Schematic

representation

of

the

electroencephalogram,

5,

syn-

which records brain

waves.

'

The numbering

of the descriptions in Part

the diagrams in Part

Two.

One

corresponds to the numbers of the pictures and

6.

Two

different types of brain waves;

A, the Alpha rhythm; Z, the time

line;

and B, the Beta wave.

and Hunger

Olfaction, Gustation,

7.

Schematic representation of the olfactory

8.

Henning's olfactory sensation prism, the

cells

and the supporting

six basic

tissues.

odors being as follows: resin'

ous, burnt, putrid, spicy, flowery, fruity.

9. Papilla

10.

and

taste

bud

human

Diagram of the upper surface papillae;

....

sensitive to sour.

ter,

-

-

-

-

showing the regions not yielding

the area insensitive to salty; and ooooo the area

The zone

taste tetrahedron.

and

of the tongue,

dots in circles at the top represent the circumvallate - encloses the area encloses the area insensitive to bitter; -

insensitive to sweet;

The

tongue.

The

the four basic tastes.

11.

of the

filled

with dots

There are four

is

in'

totally insensitive to taste.

basic taste sensations:

sweet, sour,

bit'

salty.

an American physiologist, devised a method for studying the contractions of the stomach in hunger. He had a subject swallow a rubber

12.-13. Cannon,

connected to a drum

(M). Thus, the rhythmic contractions were re' corded on a kymograph (K). The inhalation-expiration ratio was measured by a pneumograph (P). The subject indicated his awareness of hunger pangs by pressing a telegraph key. A section of the kymographic record is shown ball

in

diagram 13.

14.-15. Succi, an Italian professional faster, before and after twenty-nine days of abstinence from food.

16.

hunger, a hen will eat more from a large heap of food than from a small one. These tests were performed daily; small and large piles of food being used alternately, the hunger intensity of the hen

Even

at the

same

intensities of

being kept constant.

Cutaneous sensations

17.

The

spots indicate minute areas on the backs of the fourth and fifth fingers which are sensitive to cold. Not all points on the surface of the skin are

equally sensitive to stimuli of heat, cold, pressure, or pain. 18. Sensitivity of

body surface to

The

heat.

darker the area, the greater the sens'

itivity.

19.

Areas of the body at which vibrations are sensed while singing. The drawing shows the degrees of the damping of the vibrations (expressed in nepers) in various bodily regions.

These devices relay

20. Vibrators are used in a study of the vibratory sensations.

graded vibrations to the body. he can recognize the difference

When if

the subject holds a vibrator in each hand,

one hand receives the vibrations I/ 10,000th

of a second before the other.

21.

The

bar-triangle experiment.

Three wooden bars are

arranged

to

form

an

open at the vertex. The subject places his hands on the base and the experimenter gently taps one of the bars near the triangle, open vertex. The subject can recognize, by vibration sense, whether the shak' ing reaches him from the right or the left. This apparatus has been used in

isosceles triangle

of the

studies of the "vibration sense."

Audition and the sense of equilibrium

22.

A

cross'section of the

3, utricle; 4,

human

ear.

1,

auditory nerve;

one of the semicircular canals;

5,

2,

saccule;

inner auditory canal; 6,

cochlea;

7,

ductus

saccus endolymphaticus; 9, perilymph space; 10, osseous labyrinth; 11, petrous bone; 12, oval window; 13, round window; 14, auricle; 15 and 16, cartilaginous and osseous parts of the external auditory canal; 17,

endolymphaticus;

8,

tympanic membrane; 18, malleus; 19, incus; 20, stirrup; 21, 22, and 23, middle ear.

23.

Diagrammatic representation of tones. Musical tones differ in intensities, timbre, and pitches. O represents the upper limit of hearing - - about 40,000 vibra-

tions a second;

limit - -

U, the lower

about 20 vibrations a second. High tones

(H) are light in volume; low tones (T) are heavy and massive. The approximate position of the tonal qualities of certain vowels and consonants is indi' cated.

24. Analysis of a musical sound, consisting- of tone

25.

The

and overtone.

inner ear includes the sense organs for balance: the vestibular apparatus canals. These receptors may be stimulated by rotating

and the semicircular

the subject in a revolving chair.

Vision and optical illusions

26. Cross section of the line lens;

muscle; 27.

28.

b,

}{,

human

nodal points;

iris;

i,

retina; p,

eye: c,

s,

sclera; b,

cornea;

posterior chamber;

g,

/, conjunctiva; choroid tunic;

yellow spot (macula lutea); and,

d,

a,

h,

crystalciliary

optic nerve.

Examples of stages in the evolution of the human eye. A, nautilus; B, phyllodoce; C, nauphanta; and, D, cuttlefish.

To

locate the blind-spot, close the right eye, hold the

book about a foot away,

on the upper cross. Observe that the large circle disappears, the smaller circles remain in the field of vision. shift the fixation though point to the lower cross and observe that the large circle reappears. This phenomenon is caused by the blind-spot (Mariotte's circle), which is the point fixate the left eye

Now

at which the optic nerve emerges into the eyeball. of an inch in diameter.

The

spot

is

about 1/1 7th

29.

The

perimeter, an instrument used in determining the color zones of the retina.

30.

The

results of

an eye-test by the perimeter are recorded on a chart: F, fixation point; B, location of blind-spot; the line, the boundaries of the field of vision.

31.

The

color pyramid, a tridimensional, schematic representation of basic colors:

V, white;

S, black; ro, red;

H, blue;

gr, green;

and gu, yellow.

32.

A

simple device for illustrating positive afterimages. On one side of a card letters are printed right-side-up, and on the other upside down; the card is

word

rotated by strings, and an image of the

persists.

This

phenomenon

is

also called the terminal lag of a visual sensation.

33.

The

G2

histology of the retina: St (Stdbchen), neurons.

34. Simultaneous brightness-contrast.

The

rods;

Z

G

1,

make them appear un-

in brightness.

equal

Each ring

of the same degree of brightness throughout, but the contrasts the inner half of each ring look brighter and the outer half darker. This

make is

cones;

small circles are of equal brightness, and

so are the angles (d); but the contrasting backgrounds

35.

(Zap/en),

is

called marginal contrast.

36. If the eyes are fixated at the center, bisect.

This

gray areas appear where the white lines

illusion is attributable to

the contrast effect,

which

is

especially

strong in the lateral plane of the retina. 37.

HelmholtVs chessboard design. In order to make the lines of a chessboard appear straight, they must be curved like those in the figure. If this design were enlarged sevenfold, the lines would appear straight when viewed with one eye from a distance of eight inches.

3S.-39. Astigmatism literally means that a point (stigma) is not correctly perceived. Defective curvature in one or more of the refractory portions of the has been suggested that certain irregularities in the figures painted by El Greco are due to the artist's astigmatism, but the hypothesis has not been proved.

eye

40.

-is

The

the cause.

It

Miiller-Lyer illusion.

41. Zollner illusion.

The

make them appear 42. Hering illusion.

Actually, the horizontal lines are of equal length.

vertical lines are

parallel,

but the short

bisecting

lines

to slant.

This, also, indicates that acute angles are over-estimated, and The lines in the upper and the lower repre-

obtuse angles are underestimated. sentations are parallel.

43.

The

horizontal line running through the middle of the drawing appears to rise towards the left. The explanation is that each pair of contiguous squares is perceived as a unit; and, as a result of the emphasis thus placed upon their diagonal, they appear to be twisted clockwise. The illusion is caused by the cumulative effect of this torsion motive.

The central The illusion is

44. Lipps illusion. to

45.

diverge.

The

You

which compose the letters is transferred viewed from a distance, the illusion vanishes.

slant of the individual strokes

the letters.

46.

oblique lines are parallel, though they do appear attributable to the repetition of contrast effects.

If the figure is

believe that

to

you are looking at spirals, but actually they are circles. The make them appear to bend outwards, and the

brighter outlines of the circles

darker outlines, inwards.

The cumulative

effect of these alternate lines

makes

the illusion so obvious.

The

47. Curvature contrast. 48.

The

distance from

1

inner lines are identical.

to 2,

from

3

to 4, and from 4 to 5

is

the same; but that

and 2 appears to be the shortest. The explanation lies in the fact that we do not attend to the diameters of the lower circles in estimating the between

1

distance.

The diagonals of the two joined parallelograms on the right are of identical length, but the diagonal of the larger parallelogram seems to

49. Sander's illusion.

be longer. The judgment depends upon the relative size of the figure. Compare the length of the lines in the parallograms with those in the triangle at the left. 50.

The man

in the distance appears to be larger than the boy,

of the same height.

The

illusion is

due

though both are

to the perspective effect.

you rotate this picture rapidly, the striped disks will appear to move in the same direction and the cogwheel in the opposite direction. When it is stopped,

51. If

This illusion get the impression that it is revolving in the opposite direction. mainly the result of contrast effects.

we is

52.

Apparatus tator

8

is

for the demonstration of apparent

slowly revolved for about a minute.

movement.

When

it

is

The

disk

stopped,

on the

we

ro-

get the

impression that it is revolving in the opposite direction. When the spiral is rotated slowly, it appears to come out from the center. When the rotator is stop' ped, the spiral gradually shrinks. This apparent movement is due to the termi' nal lag of the sensation.

Perception

53.

Diagram

of the optic apparatus.

G

(Gesichtsfdd)

represents the field of vis' (Sehrmde), visual cortex.

R, retina; P, primary centers for vision; and S Objects on the left side of the visual field stimulate the right side of the retina; ion;

those on the right, the left side of the retina. Note the manner in which the optic nerves cross, and the way in which they extend toward the cerebrum. 54. If

we

fixate

upon

c,

were each doubled.

it is

The

seen as a single point; but a and b are seen as if they diagram illustrates the manner in which we exper-

ience double images. 55.

A

typical chart for

measurement of

visual acuity.

Cohn's chart

is

used to de-

termine the visual acuity of small children who cannot read. The disk shows a design, resembling a letter, which is looked at from various distances. All the designs except one are covered by a second, superimposed disk. The child is given a rod with the design fastened to its tip, and is asked to duplicate the of the design. position 56. Hering's

apparatus

for

decide whether the marble

Depth perception 57.

Apparatus

is

visual

testing is

dropped

much more

are

The

subject has to

in front of, or behind, a fixed marble.

accurate in binocular than in monocular vision.

for demonstrating the

of

depth perception.

law of

identical lines of vision.

Two

sheets

a

distance of about twenty inches apart, and plate glass placed the subject is asked to stand about twenty inches from the first fixaglass. at

A

indicated on the rear glass; then a small piece of red paper affixed at Si and a green paper at S.. a gray hue is seen at F a In the

tion point (F]) is

is

Now

.

second

test, the fixation point is indicated on the nearer glass, and the red and the green papers are located on the second glass. The fixation point (F2 ) now

appears gray. 58.

A

prism stereoscope, which

is

a device for production of tridimensional im-

The photographs are taken with two cameras human eyes, and they are inserted at m - o. The

ages.

mensional picture at

set as close together as the

now

observer

sees a tridi'

c.

points on a moving wheel were going at the same rate: but, in actuality, the individual points on the rim describe cycloids.

59. It appears as

though

all

60. Anschiitz, stroboscope, which

is

a

primitive

forerunner

of

modern cinemato-

graphy. The apparatus consists of a drum with slits at equal intervals. The inner wall of the drum is lined with pictures showing different phases of a

continuous movement.

When

seen through the slits of the revolving drum, the pictures seem to be in motion. This device requires the subject to use but

one eye in order to secure the 61.

The

effect.

auditory localisation of stimuli. simultaneously, the source is located

waves reach the

When as

the sound waves reach the ears

"straight

ahead."

When

the

sound

Ohren] before the other, the source is shifted to that side; likewise with sounds from the right side. Effective time differences for left or right localization can go as low as l/30,000th of a second. left

ear (O,,

the sound waves are reversed by this apparatus, the individual will be confused for a while, but he will eventually become habitu-

62. Young's pseudophone.

If

ated to acoustic orientation. 63. Aristotle's anomaly.

If

the fingers are crossed, and a pencil

is

moved back and

forth at the crossing point a sense of being touched by two pencils will be were in normal experienced. The stimulus is perceived as though the fingers position.

64.

The

asked to fold his hands in the manner shown in the picture, to look at his fingers, and to move quickly the one which is pointed out by the subject

is

experimenter. Nearly always the subject will move the corresponding finger on the other hand. The illusion is attributable to the influence of habit. If the experimenter touches the subject finger, the error does not occur.

Ccstalt qualities

65.

w

One

of the earliest problems investigated by Gestaltists is the analysis of factors producing and influencing visual space perception. Six laws are illustrated:

a,

Proximity (Components of a configuration are integrated according to the

principle of the shortest distance);

ments, there

"Good"

is

b,

Similarity

(When

there are several ele-

a tendency to integrate similar elements into patterns)

Gestalt Factor (Elements

which form

a

;

smooth curve tend to

c, fit

the to-

Closure (Lines forming unbroken boundaries of a plane surface are gether); more readily perceived as a unit than are lines which do not touch); e, Exped,

rience (Habit influences the

manner

which

brought into a configuration. Here a capital E is perceived.); and f, Significant Resemblance [Pragnanz] (Elements which do not deviate too greatly from the pattern are seen as part of the pattern. Thus the dots at the bottom are identified with the circle.) 66.

Although the Gestalt

67.

Can you

see

is

in

difficult to get,

the square in

this

b

is

lines are

contained in

a.

design?

68. Design and background. The white may be perceived as either the design or the background. However, symmetry favors the perception of the illustration as a design.

69.

The

small

triangles

are

actually

seems to be brighter than

of the

same degree of brightness, though a

b.

The explanation

Is

it

is

that a impedes the closure of

the Gestalt of a cross.

70. Design

and background.

a

white vase or two faces juxtaposed? The

Gestalts alter quickly.

ornamentation?

71. Is

it

a flight of stairs or a ceiling

72. Is

it

a six-pointed star or a group of cubes?

73.

You

74. Is

75.

At

it

see either four capital T's or

a

white design against a black ground.

merely a jumble of black spots or the

first,

Notice

you

how

see

mounds; but look

letters I

steadily at the picture.

the lighting-effect alters. I

76. Is

77.

it

a rabbit or a duck?

Do you

see an old

woman

or a

T A?

young

girl?

Do

you

see holes?

78.

Can you

him

perceive

as looking

upwards? downwards?

79.-80. Double heads. Rotate the book slowly by one hundred and eighty degrees. Notice how the first head vanishes and another takes its place. This effect is

known

as

transposability.

in perceiving

Mentally defective children seem to have trouble

any change.

"Psychology" of the hand

81.

82.

The human and the human being is able "Hands"

gorilla

for specialized purposes:

climbing (sloth); specialized;

it

is

d,

One

important difference

thumb a,

running (horse);

digging (mole); e,

flying (bat).

84.

The

the fact that the

swimming (otter); c, The human hand is not

b,

a secretion of perspiration on the hands. This be observed by smearing the hands with a small amount of iodine in cas' is

and then rubbing potato flour over them. makes the flour turn brown. tor

is

into opposition to the fingers.

a universal tool.

83. In emotional states, there

may

hand.

to bring the

oil,

fact that

demonstrates 85. Expressive

many its

tools are, in a sense,

Secretion

of

perspiration

models of the functions of the hand

versatility.

hand gestures of a Hindu

priest in Bali.

Memory 86.

The Ranschburg memory drum. By means

of this apparatus, the subject may be presented with various types of material to be memorized, the exposures being set at various time intervals.

87. Apparatus for measuring the reaction times for reproducing memorized lists, such as nonsense syllables. The subject speaks into the microphone on the left

12

the

word which he

tion time

is

with the one on the memory drum. The reac' recorded by the Hipp chronoscope, which measures time in one' associates

thousandths of a second. 88.

Mnemonics

consist

These pictures serve 89.

of

systematic aids in acquiring and recalling knowledge. mnemonic device for learning the Morse code.

as a

A

program of a demonstration in lightning calculation by G. Ruckle, one of the most famous experts in mental arithmetic.

fatigue

90.

The Mosso

ergograph.

The

inserted into a ring from number and the strength of

finger

runs to the weight (Vi^t). The corded on a kymograph (Trumma)

is

.

By determining

which a cord pulls

are

re-

the total weight lifted

the weight times the number of lifts) and the total height of all the (that liftings, the experimenter can express the results in foot-pounds or -meter kilois,

grams. 91.

Two

ergographs by the same subject. after he had taken a long hike.

A

was made when he was well

rested,

and B, 92.

The hand dynamometer, an instrument The maximum score is dependent upon tors.

93.

An

for

measuring the strength of grip.

psychological as well as physical facCompetition, for instance, raises the score.

esthesiometer, an instrument used to measure the two-point threshold.

The

points are applied singly and doubly, in random order and at various distances between the two points. Ability to judge "twoness" varies widely in differ-

ent parts of the body. At one time it was thought that fatigue might be measured in terms of a dulling of this discriminative ability.

Emotions 94. Apparatus for recording the pulse rate. In "general, pleasant experiences tend to quicken the rate; unpleasant experiences, to retard it.

13

apparatus for measuring changes in blood volume of a limb. blood volume shifts to the skeletal muscles during strong emotion. This

95. Plethysmograph,

The

change is measured by having the subject insert his arm into a vessel of water, a rubber cuff keeping the water from running out. As the volume alters, a record is made by means of a stylus attached to a drum. 96.

A

and a pulse rhythm (p),

respiration curve (a)

t

indicating the time line.

Symbolism 97. Each of these feathers had a different meaning for a tribe of North American Indians: a, the killing of an enemy; b, a scalping; c, beheading; d, the wound' ing of an enemy. 98. Indian symbols:

A, war;

99. Chinese ideograms:

(hands joined),

acceptance, friendship;

removal, distance.

B, morning; C, nothing;

G

and D,

complete;

full,

eating.

F (hands

(hands aloft), subordination, master;

These show

how

symbols

from

pass

outstretched),

H(hands

concrete

to

apart), abstract

meanings. 100. Egyptian

C F

(also

hieroglyphics

stract symbolism):

A

illustrating

the

from concrete to

transition

(sun), division of time;

ab-

B

(writing utensils), writing; (front of a lion), previous; (wasp), royal dignity; E (tadpole), multitude; (moon and stars), (ostrich feather or any feather), fairness, impartiality;

D

G

month;

H

(oral gesture), eating, drinking, speaking, thinking,

L

ing), sky, superiority;

O

(chieftain), dignity;

(water), cleansing; (child), education;

M

knowing;

I (ceil-

(height), enthusiasm, joy;

P (mummy),

embalming,

7s^

rite?, pic-

tures, forms.

A

is a lute, but also 101. Transition from ideograms to phonetic symbols. goodlikeness between the sound of the words. B is a scarab, but ness, owing to the it

means

to

become.

C, a swallow, means great.

represent the sound of the

word

In D, the

bread; next to them

is

first

the ideogram for bread.

102. These drawings were produced by children between eight and of age light,

14

when

they were asked to symbolize words

dar\, and the

like.

two symbols

like time,

thirteen years

soul.,

J^ew Tear,

103.

A

pictorial record

by North American Indians. Here is the message: Ten memwent in a canoe toward the mouth of a river. The lake

bers of the Fish Tribe is

identified

by the

outline.

by Alaskan Indians. The account is as follows: Fishermen left their boat (a) and sought refuge in a hut (d), where they have nothing (b) to eat (c). The message, on a piece of wood, was left in the hope that assis'

104. Picture writing

tance would be given. 105.

The Chinese ideograms for Psychology, composed of three mean heart, ways, study (Read from top to bottom).

parts

which

literally

15

II.

CHARACTEROLOGY AND TYPOLOGY Facial

expressions

106.-107. Facial muscles (after Hans Virchow). These are pictures of the muscles which are innervated in facial expressions.

108 .-111. Piderit's analysis of

facial expressions in feelings

and emotions. According

When

to him, expressions arose in the following manner:

tasting sweet, a per-

son brings his jaws tightly together to get the maximum stimulation; when tast' ing bitter, he opens the jaws as widely as possible. Thus, the "sweet" and the "bitter" faces had their origin. Muscles about the eyes support the function of vision.

Thereby, according to Piderit,

pressions were

associated.

At

sensory

impressions

and

facial

ex-

length, the facial expressions occur alone, without

the sensory stimuli originally attached to them.

In 108 there are the following

expressions: (a) the sweet expression; (b) scrutiny; (c) sullenness; and (d) anger. In 109 these expressions are depicted: (a) contempt; (b) laughter; (c) boisterous mirth; (d) weeping. In 110 there are (a) the furtive look; (b)

the charmed look; (c) concentration. In 111, prise; (c) bitterness; and (d) stark horror.

row.

row

are

These were cut It is

reveals sleepiness;

(b) sur-

two photographs

of a person expressing different emoand pasted together in the pictures in the lower evident that the mouth is more expressive than the eyes.

112. In the upper tions.

(a)

in half

Physiognomy 113.-116.

At

one time the students of physiognomy, influenced by a writing

uted to Aristotle, held the theory that they had the character

16

when human

traits of those animals.

attrib'

beings resembled animals

have satirized human types

117.-118. Humorists Poet;" 118,

in pictures like these:

117,

"The

"The Introduction."

Phrenology

119.-120. Bissky's dectrodiagnoscopy phrenology. The certain abilities

skull surface

and

talents.

,

is

The

which was a curious attempt to revive Gall's divided into zones, each being identified with subject and the examiner both hold electrodes,

and then the examiner touches the regions with

his fingertips.

The type and

the intensity of the shocks are supposed to indicate the abilities and the talents of the subject.

Composite photography

121. -124. Francis Galton

was the

first

to

make composite photographs. These

are

produced by superimposing the photographs of members of the same trade or profession upon one another. Thus, the individual features become obliterated,

and the features common to

all

members of the group

are accentuated.

121,

The

ten most intelligent boys in a class of ten-year-olds. 122, The ten least intelligent. 123. Composite photograph of the most intelligent boys. 124. Com' posite photograph of the least intelligent boys.

Diet and facial expressions

125. Ten-year-old boys

who

126.

Twelve boys who

127.

Twelve

128. Girls 129.

girls

who

who

lived

on a vegetarian

diet.

ate meat.

lived

on a vegetarian

diet.

ate meat.

Composite photograph of the boys

who

lived

on a vegetarian

diet.

17

130. Composite photograph of the boys

who

who had

131. Composite photograph of the girls 132. Composite photograph of the girls

and

ate meat.

who

a vegetarian diet.

ate meat.

who

133.

135. Thirteetvyear-old boys

134.

136.

137.

139. Composite photograph of the vegetarians.

138.

140. Composite photograph of those

Those who

girls

At

who

This has been

Symmetrical

faces

are

ate meat.

is

a photograph of the subject. half the face with its

made by combining

done rare.

for

the

left

and the right

nature.

Kretschmer's types

145.

The

asthenic bodily type associated with schizophrenia.

146.

The

face of a schizophrenic, revealing the asthenic type.

147.

The pyknic

148.

The broad type

149.

The

n

face.

the opinion

reveals the inner character (of a right'handed

left half, the social

build of the manic depressive.

of face associated with the pyknic build.

athletic build.

Below mirror

sides of each

Some French people have developed

that the right side of the face

person), and the

diet.

asymmetries

the top of each set of pictures

are synthetic photographs

image.

on a vegetarian

ate meat.

Facial

141. -144.

lived

Gauss' types

150.

The achievement type (Nordic).

151.

The performer type (Mediterranean).

152.

The

destiny type (desert people).

153.

The

destiny type.

154.

The

salvation type

155.

The

deliverance type

156.

The

deliverance type.

(Near East). (Turanian).

Rorschach and Szondi

15 7. -160. These are the symmetrical

tests of personality

inkblots included in the Rorschach test. Since

they are chance forms, the subject's interpretations reveal his manner of approaching situations, his mental sets and attitudes, and his range of interests. 161.

The Szondi he

dislikes.

test.

The

subject

The photographs

manic-depressive psychosis, like.

is

asked to decide which faces he

likes

and which

are of persons with such well'defined disorders as paranoia, schizophrenia, hysteria, sadism, and the

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

III.

Psychophysica.1 development

162.

Changes

in the relative proportions

of

the

human body from

birth

to

age

twenty-five.

163. Proportional changes in various parts of the 164.

On

165.

The grasping

body during maturation.

the skull of an infant one year of age; in the middle, of a tenyear-old child; and on the right, of an adult. the

left,

reflex,

which

166. Graphic representations of nify,

respectively,

is

strong immediately after birth.

how

the infant spends

the following:

its

The segments

day.

(a) sleep; (b) sleepiness;

sig-

(c) negative reac-

(d) feeding; (e) movement; (f) quiet wakefulness; (g) impulsive movements; (h) random play. Graph I shows the day of a newborn infant; II, of tion;

a three-months-old infant; III, of an infant five is

167.

months

old;

and IV, of one

The old.

respiratory and the brain-pulse (fontanelle) curves of an infant seven days The respiration curve is labeled A; brain pulse, B; time line, C; the moth-

er's voice,

D.

168. Effects of restraint of movement.

The

infant's

head

is

held gently but firmly

between the experimenter's hands; the infant responds with loud gling movements.

20

who

twelve months old.

cries

and strug-

169. Stages in the development of posture, from the 170. Typical postures of a year'old infant.

first

to the tenth

month

of

life.

Responsiveness to various situations

is

depicted.

171. Fraternal

(dizygotic)

twins.

172. Identical (monozygotic) 173.

The

"oral stage."

jects into its

twins.

The young

infant explores the environment by putting ob-

mouth.

174. Defiance.

175. Christian Heinrich Heineken, a child prodigy.

High and Low German and Latin an extensive

command

of

many

According to the

at the age of

fields of

two; he

knowledge.

He

is

story, he spoke

said to

have had

died at four years of

age.

176.

The manner

which children used to be dressed. At one time, children were considered to be miniature adults, and they wore adult clothing and wigs. Only the children of lower-class parents could enjoy the freedom of simpler in

dress.

Drawings by children

177.

Drawings by very young

children.

It

is

interesting

note

to

that

the

first

drawings deal with human beings. 178.

Development of observation and a child four years of age;

self-criticism as revealed

(b) by a six-year-old;

(c)

by drawings; (a) by and

at the age of eight;

(d) at ten years of age. 179.

A

house.

180. Animals: (a) dog; (b) hen; (c) and

(d)

horse;

(e)

pig;

(f)

dog;

(g)

pig.

These drawings by young children are of interest because they indicate the fact that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the stimulus and the 21

The

response. terns

181.

A

child's

182.

A

tree.

drawings of a flower.

183. Sketches of

184.

185.

A

stimulus ('"Draw a dog.") merely touches off the response patchild is capable of making.

which the

human

beings in various situations.

"social situation" as depicted

young

boy aged nine, IQ 67; (c) by a

five,

IQ

girl

aged eight,

IQ

64; (d) by a girl aged

77.

boy with pathological

186. Sketch by an eight-year-old 187.

Drawing by

a

188.

Drawing by

a

characteristics.

normal boy of eleven. normal

girl

of eight: "Picnic."

189 .-190. Drawings by the same

girl:

(189) "Newly-wed;" (190) "The Circus."

Drawings by a talented child at three years and five months of age. The grandfather and a great-uncle were artists. At a very early age, this child displayed enthusiasm for drawing, and attempted to draw profiles when he was three years and seven months of age. The sketch of a man (on the left) would rate at about the

192.

The drawings

193.

Drawings

normal five-year

of a talented

level.

boy eight years of

boy nine years of

of a talented

194. Sketches of a talented

boy ten years of

195.

A

table, as

196.

A

pyramid, as drawn by three children.

197.

A

six-sided

22

child.

Drawings by children of different mental-age levels: (a) by a boy whose chronological age was fourteen and whose intelligence quotient was 46; (b) by a

191.

a

by

drawn by

age.

age.

age.

three children.

pyramid on

a cylinder, as

drawn by an

eight-year-old.

These draw-

illustrate'

ings (195-197)

the fact that children have no compulsion to produce

a photographic likeness of the model.

198. Diverse reproductions of a model. the top, with these results. 199.

Children were asked to draw the model at

Drawings of a cone. Observe the diversity of representations, from the same model.

200. Drawings from the model of a cylinder. Each drawing child, although all the children used the same model. 201.

Drawings by Eskimo

them made

was done by

a different

children.

202. Sketches by university students,

203.

Rock drawings by American

204.

Cave drawings by

205.

A

who worked without

a model.

Indians.

Paleolithic

man.

reindeer engraved by a Paleolithic man.

206. Celtic alterations in designs of

207

of

all

Greek

coins.

through 209. Simple expressionistic drawings: (207) "Dream on a Boat," by Paul Klee; (208) "Animals in Captivity;" and (209) a sketch by Gabriele Miinster. ing of

Note

young

210. Statuettes by

211. Statuette by a

that non-representational or expressive art resembles the drawchildren and primitive people.

young

young

children.

child.

Five teeth are indicated in the mouth.

Montessori's methods

212. Material used by

Madam

Montessori for training the child to lace and button.

213. Material used for training muscular inserted into the proper holes.

co-ordination.

The

cylinders

are

to

be

23

214.

A

formboard for training

in

perception of spatial relationships.

215. Sandpaper letters used to give training preliminary to teaching the child to write.

Measurement

216.

Which

is

the prettiest?

of intelligence

(From the Binet'Simon

217. Finding omissions in pictures.

how

Scale, age five).

(Binet'Simon Scale, age seven).

218. Picture comprehension; the child being asked to tell what is going on in the picture. Very young children merely enumerate two or three details; later on

they give a simple description; finally they interpret the scene. 219.

The Gaussian

curve.

Intelligence, as well as

according to chance, with most scores piling tively

220.

A

few scores

other

many up

traits,

at the center

is

distributed

and with

rela'

at the extremes.

device for demonstrations of chance

dropped into the funnel at the top, are distributed according to the Gaussian curve. The ob' server has to infer the shape of the curve from the heights of the columns of distribution.

Peas,

peas.

221.

An to

inference

tell

what

test. is

These pictures are shown one

represented.

The sooner

drawing represents, the higher 222.

A

test for eidetic

is

able

to

infer

what the

score.

R. Jaensch tested children by having them look and then describe it. He found that many young chil'

imagery.

at a picture like this,

his

at a time, the child being asked

the child

E.

dren have vivid images. 223. Materials for the mosaic

test.

Here

the mosaics

were simply thrown together

by a mentally defective child of eight. 224. Mosaics arranged by a mental defective of nine years of age.

225. Mosaics by a normal child of eleven.

24

226.

A

ship

227.

A

mosaic by an intelligent

228.

The work

of an artistic

woman.

The work

of a normal

woman. Note

229.

made by

a normal boy twelve years of age.

girl

of twelve.

that

not chaotic, like the mosaics it is not so good as some of the mosaics of nor' Adults are sometimes inhibited by fear of criticism or by awareit

is

of mental defectives, but that

mal children.

ness of a lack of talent.

Personality appraisers

230.

231.

The

well-organized "world" of a normal boy eight years of age.

are from the Build-a- World

Game.

The "world"

boy ten years of

of a retarded

The

materials

age.

232 through 234. Pictograms by young children. The children were told to communicate with a foreigner, who did not know their language, inviting him for a visit, giving

news about the

by a seven-year-old boy; teen-year-old

family,

boy.

235. Examples of associations of young children:

which

and expressing good wishes: (232) girl; and (234) by a fif-

(233) by an eight-year-old

a child

(a), (b), (c),

(d), the

manner

in

imagined spatial relations among numbers; (e), (/) associations

of spatial relationships the days of the week.

among

the

months of the

year;

(g)

the seasons;

(h),

25

IV.

PHYSICAL HANDICAPS

Deafness

236. Teaching deaf-mutes to recognise rhythms. The children place their fingertips on the piano while the teacher plays rhythms.

237. Speech instruction for the deaf. The instructor's voice is amplified, and the pupils sense the vibrations while they try to imitate the sound. 238.

239. Examples of gesture language. Note the general similarity among gestures of the Australian aborigine, the American Indian, and the deaf -mute.

Blindness

240. Learning to count. 241. Learning about animals.

Note

242. Part of the Braille system.

the happy expressions on

When

letters

and

the

children's

faces.

figures are raised, the blind read

by the touch method. 243. Miss Helen Keller, an American

who became

deaf and blind at eighteen months

of age.

244. Teaching a child who is deaf, mute, and blind. The teacher helps the child to place the lips and the tongue into position for speech.

26

245.

The manual

246.

A

figure

247.

A

bust by Schmidt,

alphabet, used by the deaf and by the deaf 'blind.

by Kleinhaus, the blind Tyrolean sculptor.

who

is

a blind

German

sculptor.

248. Bust by the blind Italian sculptor, Gonnelli. 249.

A

lion

made by Vidal,

a French artist, after he

Art by the

250

had

lost his sight.

blind

Statuettes made by blind persons without talent. These are in' because teresting .they reveal the type of concepts which the blind have. Note the huge hand of "The Beggar" (250). In 251, the blind person reveals his

through 253.

conception of terror. 252

Jacob"

- the ridges

is

entitled "Deserted."

In 253

-

-

"The Dream

on the chest are intended to be expressive of Jacob's

of

heart-

beat.

Substitutions of feet for hands

254

through 256. Photographs of Unthan, an

257.

A

258.

The boy

painter

who had

lost

It

is

differences in writing

who was born

handless.

both arms holds the brush in his mouth.

lost the use of his

259. "Footwriting."

artist

arms, and then learned to eat with his feet.

interesting to observe

done by the foot as

that there are as

many

individual

in handwriting.

27

V.

MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Percussion

260. Apparatus for teaching percussion to medical students. Lead forms have been placed under the sheet of cardboard. Specimens of these forms are shown above. 261. Cardiac and pulmonary areas for percussion. First in the usual way, by auscultation and palpation; then only by the aid of the vibration sense.

Amputations

262.

The stump

an arm or

the patient feels as if the limb were still intact. Gradually the "ghost limb" retracts into the stump. patient who has lost an arm may eventually sense a "dwarf hand" in the illusion.

After the

loss of

leg,

A

stump. 263. Sauerbruch's operation. of the arm, so that the

This consists of making a tunnel through the muscles artificial limb may be manipulated by the biceps (some-

times by the triceps as well). 264.

A

is

gained by exercises.

Sauerbruch's operation. He is being tested for the degree of control over the remaining musculature of the upper arm. patient

who had undergone

265. Positions of an

28

Facility in control

artificial

hand.

Hallucinations

266

through 269. Representations of visions induced by mezcaline, a drug used by South American Indians during religious celebrations. Note the rhythmical characteristics of the visions.

270

through 273. Pictures drawn by a schizophrenic patient to illustrate his hallu' cinations. In 270, he depicts the frightful nature of some of his delusional-hallucinated states. In 271, he represents the hallucination of being in a mine,

Note the angle at which a In he has the hallucination of being wheel272, descending the ladder. ed past the scene of a mass execution, while he hears the groans and cries of people who are being beheaded. In 273, the devil appears before him. The where a man's miner

legs

have been

sliced into thin disks.

is

brass ball (center)

is

"the globe of the cosmos."

Hysteria

274. Characteristic

posture

(arc-de-cercle) of the hysteric.

275. Sketch by an hysteric to illustrate the two-fold nature of his personality: (a) his basic drives; and (b) the vigilant side of his personality, which watches lest these drives have a chance to express themselves.

276.

An

hysteric

drew

this picture

while in the state of hypnosis. The heads are is a goat or satyr; and the

representations of childhood sweethearts; the animal

snake

is

an erotic symbol.

<

Drawings by

277.

An lar,

278.

the psychotic

example of psychotic condensation. The sketch is supposed to depict a a tavern, a parlor, and a stable all united into one.

cel-

An

ink sketch by a paranoid schizophrenic. Note the repetition of designs, the absence of a general theme, and the careful attention to minute details.

29

279. Sketch by an art student with a manic'depressive psychosis, depressive type. His explanation of the picture: "A rolled-up salamander staring at a star,

which

represented by the tear'shaped, sacciform organ (center) and the halo (upper left)." He adds, "I should like to turn my back to the world and to seek the Divine in my own Self."

280.

A

is

pictorial representation of a

dream by

picture as follows: "I dreamed that

whether the roots had died. I

to me,

of

it.

As

before

Innumerable earthworms crawled out of the

shrank back in horror. it

it.

to sleep.'

grew larger and soon as

my mind

saw

I

The snake ...

dream, and

I

I

In the bottom of the pot

in the flowerpot.

which

female patient. She explains the examined a neglected plant to find out a

it

The

wore

said to me, in

a

larger

crown on

grew, its head

a feminine voice,

by surveying

the finished

to the symbolism of the snake.

281. Another drawing by this female patient. itual, of masculinity, and of the divine.

It

The The

eagle

this

work,

really the

is

is

prostrated myself

'Now

have found that by the act of painting

in particular,

I

came nearer was I afraid

it

the less

it

soil

snake, from

small yellow

a

climbed out of the pot; and, as

It

larger.

that

was

I

I

must put you of

picture

my

have awakened

symbol of healing."

the symbol of the spir-

symbol (lower center) Both 280 and 281 are good

phallic

invested with the sublimity of lofty symbols. examples of Freudian symbolisms. is

Hypnotic phenomena,

282.

A

hen

in a cataleptic state.

position,

283.

where

it

lay for

The hen was

some

quickly grabbed and placed in this

time.

A

bear placed in a position of catalepsy, where fixed by the gaze of the trainer.

284. Hypnotic analgesia.

A

tooth

is

285. Hypnotic analgesia during a major operation.

30

lay for a while as

being extracted while the patient

hypnosis.

286. Autohypnotic postures of a Yogi.

it

if

is

trans-

under

Art and phantasy

287-288. "War" and "Famine" 289.

A

as depicted

by Kubin.

drawing on an Attic vase (circa 500 B. C.)

soul from the

body

It

depicts the departure of the

of a person just deceased.

Superstition, delusion, and schizophrenic symbolism

290. Natives of

New

Pomerania wearing cross'pieces

in

their

noses to

keep out

disease.

291. Nose-stoppers fashioned by a psychotic to exclude hostile odors. It is of inte' rest to observe that some psychiatrists have developed the theory of "archaic mentality" to account for resemblances such as those depicted in 292. 292.

(a) Pipe tamper made by a psychotic; (b) figurine Guinea. Note the similarity.

293. Figurines

made by

by a native 294. Figurines 295.

(a)

in

Figurines

primitive people: (a) by natives of

West

made by

made by

New

a native of

New

Mecklenburg; (b)

Africa.

a schizophrenic.

made by

Compare

natives of the French

these with the figurines in 293.

Congo; (b)

figurines

made by

a

schizophrenic patient.

31

VI.

OCCULT PHENOMENA

Dowsing

296.

The

divining rod.

The dowser

around to locate the site,

site

holds the rod lightly

(top)

for digging a well (center).

the rod turns downwards.

Dowsing

is

and walks slowly

When

he discovers the

a very old custom which

still

flow

ishes in rural areas.

Chiromancy

297.

The "meaning"

of the hand:

(1) will;

(2)

reason;

(3)

material

Ego;

(4)

social

Ego; (5) spiritual Ego; (6) objectivity; (7) art; (8) sensuality; (9) imagination and subconscious mentality; (10) social sense; (11) family obligation or responsibility; (12) consciousness and the Ego. Although systems of palmistry vary, they are alike in assuming

that

the

hand

reveals

personality

traits.

298. Hand'lines of George Bernard Shaw.

Mediums and

seances

299. Willy Schneider, a well-known medium. He is wearing tights with phosphorescent stripes, so that his movements may be watched in the dark. It is curi'

ous that mediums cannot perform in bright daylight.

32

300.-301. Heads "produced" by the medium Eva C. It was later found that these heads were identical with pictures which had appeared in Le Miroir, a French magazine. 302. Margery, a well'known medium, "producing" fingerprints during a seance. 303.

One

304.

A

of the fingerprints "produced" by Margery.

writing'board used in seances. on this board.

The

"spirits" spell out the answers to ques'

tions

305. Chevreurs pendulum. The holder thinks hard of a straight line or a circle, and the pendulum swings in that direction. Occultists attribute the motions to spirit

306.

A

influences.

diagram representing an occult philosophy of the significance of bodily pro-

portions.

33

VII.

APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

Advertising

307

through 313. Examples of attempts to control behavior through advertisements.

Vocational 314.

315.

The

sorting box.

slots

in

A

formboard.

right.

316.

A

The

The

The

pieces are to

Performance

the box'lid.

pieces

on the

is

tests

be sorted out and dropped through the

graded for speed and accuracy.

left are to

dotted lines do not appear in the

be arranged in the space at the test.

test of visualization:

(a) the designs are to be continued; (b) the other sides of each figure are to be adorned with the design now on one side (without

turning the paper); (c) the cubes are to be counted. 317.

A

complex motion. The direction of the lower and the to be described when the upper gear-rack is are gear-rack cog-wheel stationary, and the movements are to be described when the cog-wheel turns test of ability to visualize a

either to right or left.

318.

Movements in

of the cog-wheels are to

either direction.

319. Rossolimo's test of concrete

34

be described

intelligence.

when

the motor

is

rotated

320.

A

The

test.

cube-assembly

parts are to be fitted together to

make

a cube.

The

subject is required to shunt trains from one station to the other, according to the examiner's instructions.

321. Giese's shunting

322.

A

test.

test of practical

The

judgment.

is

subject

asked to

tell

what

is

wrong

in

this picture.

323.

A

happen when water enters 324.

A

wire'bending

test

turn the table and

A A

test for

is

would

the model, and 1-5 are the results

for two-handed coordination.

table.

The

demerit

is

subject

given

is

given a stylus with which to trace various either side of the slit is touched.

The

He

Crank handles, one held in 90 angle to the move-

a marker at a

asked to trace a series of curves.

when

automobile drivers.

a motion picture of traffic.

move

is

subject

The

steadiness tester.

A

required to describe what

bottom.

(bottom center)

either hand,

paths.

327.

A

Blumenfeld's

ment of the 326.

test.

at the

is

subject

on the part of various persons to duplicate the design.

of attempts

325.

The

test of scientific aptitude.

subject

must

sits

before the wheel and looks at

steer the "car"

through various situations,

and "collisions" are registered on the apparatus.

35

VIII.

ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY

Brains of animals

328. Phylogenetic development of the cerebrum. The cerebrum is represented by the black areas. is the brain of a shark; B, an amphibian; C, a reptile; and

A

mammal.

Maintenance functions are controlled by the midbrain of these animals; in a general way, their capacity to profit from experience is indi' cated by the relative amount of cerebral development.

D, a

Animal

329.

Maze and

for the study of learning

it

makes

(B); but trial

330.

by the earthworm. The

either a right or left turn. If

if it

goes to the

error,

it

left,

it

it

turns right,

gets a shock

it

placed at A, reaches the dark area

(OD). By

is

a long process of

learns to turn right.

study of fish learning. The food is placed in a container of a given color and not in any of the other containers. Eventually, no matter what the order of the containers, the fish goes directly to the one which contains the food. It

A

believed that the fish discriminates

among

colors

problem box for the study of animal learning.

frequently reported by American psychologists as ity among animals. The hungry animal is placed outside.

By

trial

After repeated

36

worm

A is

331.

and

learning

and error the animal

trials,

releases

by

their brightness.

This type of experiment

is

a measure of learning capacin the

the

box and food

catch

holding the animal opens the door right away.

the

is

put

door.

332.

A

hen maze. The food is placed in one compartment and the hungry hen in another, with a glass plate blocking the direct route to the food. After repeated trials, the hen learns the maze. Then, even after the glass plate has been re' moved, the hen always goes to the food by the indirect route.

333. Diagram of a maze used in studies of animal learning by ogists. The animal learns the maze by trial and error.

American psychol-

334. Apparatus for studying the "homing instinct" of bees. The hive is mounted on wheels, so that it may be moved to various distances from its accustomed position.

When

the hive

merly stood, and 335.

it

is

moved, the bees fly directly to the spot where them some time to discover its new location.

plan for studying the auditory sensitivity of a dog. The animal is able to identify the source of sounds with amazing accuracy. Under favorable circumstances, the time difference between stimulation of both ears, followed by cor-

down

to l/30,000th of a second.

336. Clever Hans, a famous animal that could perform

.

338.

for-

A

rect response, goes

337.

it

takes

One

of the famous horses of Eberfeld.

to read

and to work problems

ponded

to slight cues given

A

blind horse that, allegedly,

The

tricks.

These horses were supposed to be able

in arithmetic.

by

many amazing

As

a

matter of

fact,

they

res-

their trainer.

was

able to

answer questions traced on

its skin.

horse answered by nods and pa wings.

Expressive behavior

339. Expressions of a chimpanzee: (a) contentment; (b) grief; (c) laughter; (d) worry; (e) anger; and (f) excitement. Of course, there is a strong likelihood that the observer reads into these expressions his

own

interpretations.

young and an adult chimpanzee. The young animal looks more human than the older one.

340. Contrast between a

37

'

341.

The

342.

An

use of a tool by a chimpanzee.

example of

the fruit.

knock the

Not

insight.

The animal this

To

get the bananas, the animal uses a twig.

has piled

up two boxes

in

an

effort to reach

means, he has taken a stick with which to

succeeding by down. Kohler's famous

fruit

experiments

with

chimpanzees

are

illustrated by 341 and 342.

Conditioned reflexes

343. Pavlov's technique for establishing a conditioned reflex. The hungry dog sees a red light flash behind the screen just before food is presented. The sight of food is the adequate stimulus to activate the salivary glands of the dog, and the red light

is

merely an attendant condition in the situation.

flashing of the light will elicit a salivary response.

The amount

Eventually, the of salivary sec-

measured by means of a tube connecting a portion of the parotid gland to a recording device. Distractions interfere with the establishment of conditioned reflexes; hence the dog is fastened gently but firmly into position retion

is

before the screen.

344. Sham'feeding.

Pavlov's studies of the

digestive functions

were rewarded with

the Nobel prize in medicine. Here is a picture of a hungry dog feeding. Al' though the food drops through a fistula in the dog's neck, the gastric secretions flow.

345. Yerkes, an American psychologist, utilized the conditioning technique in an experiment on the auditory sensations of the frog. As a rule, this animal does

not respond to loud noises; hence some students had conjectured that the frog indifferent to all sounds other than croakings. The pressure stimulus caused

is

the frog's leg to twitch; but at the same time a bell was sounded. After repeated pressure-bell sequences, the experimenter was able to elicit a leg'twitch

when 38

the bell alone

was the stimulus.

Drives

346.

An

ephialtes

347.

An

ant "milking" an aphid.

wasp plunges

the aphid, just as

human

its

stinger into the larva of a

According

woodwasp.

to older naturalists, ants "domesticate"

beings keep cows, for their milk.

348. Nest-building behavior by an ant.

Naturalists are not certain about the nature

on the part of lower animals, but they no longer feel certain that the instinct-hypothesis is the answer to questions about this sort of activity.

of such activities

showing the migratory behavior of the polar sea-swallow. Its breeding place (A) is about twenty thousand miles from its winter habitat (B).

349.

Map

350.

The

351.

A

charadrius dominicus migrates regularly from the Sandwich Alaska, passing over about two thousand miles of ocean.

Islands

to

which trapped birds flew to get back home. After being trapped and marked, they were released in Berlin. The expert menter wished to learn how quickly they would fly back to their accustomed

map showing

the distances to

habitat.

352.

showing the distance traversed by a dog to get back to its home. Twice the dog was transported about four hours flying-time from its home in Punch-

Map

heim to the place marked A. Each time the dog found the routes indicated on the map. 353.

A

its

way home,

using

the pathways traveled by a dog in Munich to return home. that the second time it was taken to the area indicated in the upper right'

map showing

Note hand corner sumption

is

of the that in

came home by a more direct route. The assome unexplained manner the dog benefited by experience.

map

the dog

39

PART TWO

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128

EMINENT PSYCHOLOGISTS

IX.

A. Adler (18701937). Austria and the United States. Founder of Individual Psy-

ny.

chology.

permenlal and

(1886

).

social

England.

Ex-

370. E.

psychology.

M. Bechterew (18571925).

A. Binct

Russia.

371. G.

psychology.

Heymans (18571930). Netherlands.

Philosophical and experimental psychology.

France.

(18571911).

Intelli-

W.

S. Hunter (1889 ). United States. Experimental and animal psychology.

gence measurement. E.

Hering (1834-1918). Germany. Phy-

siological

Refiexology. 357.

psychology, and

physiological

Physics,

psychophysics.

355. F. C. Bartlett

\V.

(18211894). Germa-

369. H. von Helmholtz

G. Boring (1886

United

).

States.

Denmark.

H. Hoffding (1843^1931).

Experimental psychology.

Philosophical psychology.

Bourdon (1860 mental psychology.

359. B.

France.

).

Experi374. P. Janet

(18581947).

France. Psychiatry

and psychology. C. Burt (1883 al

England. Education-

).

G. Jung (18751947). Switzerland. Founder of Analytic Psychology.

375. C.

and experimental psychology.

361. E.

Claparedc (18731940). Switzerland. Child and educational psychology.

Koffka

376. K.

United Drever (1873 mental psychology.

).

J.

363. G.

T.

Fcchner

Scotland.

J.

C.

Flugel

377.

(1801

1887).

(1884

).

England.

Ex-

England.

Ex-

psychology and individual

dif-

(1882

1911).

A.

L. Gesell (1880 Child psychology.

A.

E. Gemelli (187S mental psychology.

Germany in

and

Gestaltpsycho-

378. L. Lcvy-Bruhl

379.

psychology.

W.

McDougall

and United

France. So-

(18601940).

cial

1938). England Experimental and social

(1871

States.

psychology. 380.

A. Michotte (1881

).

Belgan. Experi-

mental Psychology.

ferences.

367.

Kohler (1887-). States. Leader

logie.

Freud (18561939). Austria and England. Founder of Psychoanalysis.

perimenlal

W.

Germany.

S.

Gallon

Germany and

in Gestaltpsychologie.

United

perimental psychology and psychoanalysis.

F.

Leader

Experi-

Founder of psychophysics. 364.

(18861940).

States.

United

).

States.

381. G.

E.

Mulk-r

(18501934).

Germany.

Pioneer in experimental psychology. )

Italy.

Experi-

I.

P.

Pavlov

(18491939).

Russia.

Con-

ditioned reflex.

129

383. T. H. Pear

(1884-

).

England. Experi-

390. L.

mental psychology. 384.

J.

Piaget

(1896

Pieron

).

Switzerland.

Child

391. E. L. Thorndike

(1881-

Rubin (1886 mental psychology.

387. E.

).

France.

Experi-

392.

).

Denmark. Experi-

the United

(1874

).

United

States.

Watson (1878

).

United

States.

Woodworth (1869

).

United

Experimental psychology.

W. Wundt (18321920). Germany. Founder of experimental psychology.

(18711938). Germany and States.

ogy and leader

130

B.

States.

Spearman (18631945). England. Ex-

Stern

J.

393. R. S.

394.

W.

States.

Founder of Behaviorism.

perimental psychology. 389.

United

Animal and educational psychology.

mental psychology.

388. C.

).

Intelligence tests.

Psychology. 385. H.

M. Terman (1887

Experimental psychol-

in personalistic psychology.

395. R.

M. Yerkes (1876

Animal psychology.

).

United

States.

354

\V.

358

A.

M.

E.

ADI.KU

BECHTEREW

C,.

355

F.

357

C.

BARTLETT

A.

HI

NET

BORING

131

K.

3(>_>

364

132

.1.

IWKYKK

J. C.

FLUGEL

363

C.

365

CLAl'AKtmC

Til.

S.

I'KC'II

Nl.K

KKKl'M

367

A.

K.

CK.MKU.I

369

H.

A.

L.

<;I-:SKI,L

VOX I1E1.MIIOLTZ

V

370

K.

IIKRIXG

371

C.

II

KVM \\>

133

37 2

xv

374

376

134

-

s

I'.

K.

-

HUNTER

373

IIOFFDIXC;

JANET

375

c. j.

KOFFKA

377

\V.

JUNG

KOBLER

378

L.

380

A.

382

I.

LEVY BRUHL

MICHOTTE

P.

PAVLOV

379

381

383

MC DOUGALI

W.

G.

T.

E.

MULI.EK

H.

PEAK

135

136

384

J.

387

K.

3X1)

\V.

1'IACK

iU'HIX

STKKN

11.

C.

]..

IMK.KOX

Sl'KAKMAN

'M. TI-'.KM

AN

39

1

E.

L.

THORNDIKE

)2

K.

\V.

\Vr.\DT

S.

\V(JOI>\\<)KT

1

J.

]',.

XVATSON

K.

M.

^|:kKKs

1

APPENDIX The author acknowledges

who have

his indebtedness

to

many

publishers "and psychologists permission to include rare photographs and dia-

generously accorded him of the material in this volume

grams. Some

is

the

common

property of

all

psycholconsequently, acknowledgements are not in order. Unfortunately, the sources of certain of the graphic materials could not be located.

ogists;

Acknowledgements 1.

and las

2.

:

Rauber-Kopsch, Lehrbuch und At-

der Anatomic des Menschen, Vol.

3,

18.

See No.

19.

G. von Bekesy,

15th Edition. Leipzig, 1939. 3.

7.

R. Brun, Allgemeine J^eurosenlehre. Basle,

20.

Ober

die

Vibratiomemp-

A\ustische Zeitschrift,

findung.

To appear

in

D.

Katz,

4,

1939.

Psychologische

1942.

Vbungen. 4.

Lehrbuch der Physiologic des

R. Hober,

Menschen, 5th Edition. 5.

and

H.

6.

Rohracher,

Berlin,

Die

7.

W.

1937.

Pontifica

Nagel,

Menschen.

academia scientiarum

Handbuch der

Physiologic des 1905. Braunschweig,

8.

H. Henning, Der Geruch.

9.

W.

10.

See No. See No.

12.

and

13.

Thirst"

1916.

7.

22. See

No.

7.

23.

24. See 25.

in

Cannon,

B.

No.

A

Handboo\

of

Zimmermann' s Equipment

26. See 27.

No.

H. Kafka,

vergleichenderi

Munich, 1922.

W. Wundt,

Grundzuge der physiologischen

General Ex-

31. See

No.

20.

32. See

No.

20.

33. See

No.

7.

34. E.

Hering,

2, Leipzig,

1912.

Hamburg

D. Katz, Animals and Men. London, 1937.

17.

H. Strughold and R. Porz, Die Dichte der des menschlichen

Zeitschrift fur Biologic, Vol. 91,

Grundzuge

der

Lehre

vom

Lichtsinn. Leipzig, 1905. 35. See

Hand

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The New Dictionary of

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