Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture

Academic Press Rapid Manuscript Reproduction

Proceedings of the Conference on Paleopathology and Socioeconomic Change at the Origins of Agriculture Sponsored by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research and the Hudson Symposium Fund of the State University of New York College at Plattsburgh Held April 2 5-May 1, 1982, at the State University of New York College at Plattsburgh, New York

thology

Edited

by

Mark Nathan Cohen Depafiment of Anthropology State Ufi~versityof New Y o r ~ College a t Plattsburgb Plattsburgb, New York

George J. Armelagos Departwe~tof A~thropology University of Massachusetts

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (Hnrcourt Brace Jovnnov~ch,Publrshers)

Orlando San Diego New York London Toronto Montreal Sydney Tokyo

COPYRIGHT @ 1984, BY ACADEMIC PRESS,INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE REPRODUCED OR TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR MECHANICAL, INCLUDING PHOTOCOPY RECORDING, OR ANY INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM, WITHOUT PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHER.

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.

Orlando, Florida 32887

United Kingdom Edition published by

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (LONDON) LTD.

24/28 Oval Road, London NWl

7DX

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main e n t r y under t i t l e : Paleopathology a t t h e o r i g i n s o f a g r i c u l t u r e . I n c l u d e s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s and index. 1. Paleopathology--Congresses. 2. Agriculture-I. Cohen, Mark Nathan. Origin--Congresses. 11. Armelagos, George J. R134e8eP34 1984 616.07'0901 83-17235 ISBN 0-12-179080-0 ( a l k . paper)

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

84858687

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

at the Origins of Agriculture

1~ mewtory of ' I A. cock bur^ and A. T Sandiso~, who were pioneers i~ paleopathology, and Marty Baumhoff, an archaeologist who first proposed the use of skeletal patkologies (Harris lines) as a direct test of the relative wterit of various prehistoric eco~omicstrategies.

Contents

Contributors xv Preface xix

^1

An Introduction to the Symposium

Mark Nathan Cohen Text 1 References

8

^2 Indications of Stress from Bone and Teeth

Alan

".

h-1 -

H

Goodman, Debra L. Martin, GeorgeJ. Armelagos, and George Clark

Introduction 13 16 General and Cumulative Stress Indicators 22 Indicators of General and Episodic Stress Indicators of Specific Disease Stress 29 Conclusion: Pattern, Process, and Multiple Indicators of Stress ' References 39 1^

3

-4

Health as a Crucial Factor in the Changes from Hunting to Developed Farming i n the Eastern Mediterranean

J. Lawrence Angel

16,., .

Introduction 51 Indicators of Health 52 The Region 52 58 Sequences of Culture and Health Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic Times Neolithic Times 61 Bronze Age 63

vii

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58

...

CONTENTS

Vlll

Early Iron Age 64 Health and Culture: Early Bronze Age to Classical Times 65 Summary of Hunting to Farming Shifts References 69 Â

67

4 Socioeconomic Change and Patterns of Pathology and Variation in the Mesolithic and Neolithic of Western Europe: Some Suggestions

Christopher Meiklejohn, Catherine Schentag, Alexandra Venema, and Patrick Key Introduction 75 Cultural Units and Economic Trends Data Base and Analysis 79 91 Conclusion Appendix. Neolithic Materials in the Study References 97 /'

93

5 Archaeological and Skeletal Evidence for Dietary Change during the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene i n the Levant

Patricia Smith, Ofer Bar-Yosef, and Andrew Sillen Introduction 101 104 Archaeological Evidence for Dietary Change Skeletal Evidence for Change in Diet and Health Status Discussion 127 References 130

'

6 Skeletal Pathology from the Paleolithic through the Metal Ages in Iran and Iraq

-

Ted A. Rathbun Introduction 137 Mortuary Practices 138 Demography 139 Growth and Development 143 Nutritional Deficiencies 149 Dental Pathology 149 Chemical Analysis 153 Infection 155 Trauma 155 Osteoarthritis 156 Nonpatterned Pathology 157 Temporal Trends 157 Conclusions and Research Recommendations References 161

110

CONTENTS

^ 7 Growth, Nutrition, and Pathology in Changing Pale~demo~raphic Settings in South Asia Kenneth A. R. Kennedy 169

The Archaeological and Skeletal Record Paleodemography 173 Growth and Development 173 Nutrition 181 Conclusions 183 References 185

8 The Effects of Socioeconomic Change in Prehistoric Africa: Sudanese Nubia as a Case Study Debra L Martin, GeorgeJ Armehgos, Alan H. Goodman, and Dennis P Van Gerven Introduction 193 Culture History 194 Population Growth 20 1 Morphological Changes Related to the Development and Intensification of Agriculture 202 Intensification of Agriculture and Changes in the Pattern of Disease Mortality 209 Summary 210 References 212

v 9

The Lower Illinois River Region. A Prehistoric Context for the Study of Ancient Diet and Health Jane E. Buikstra Climatic and Environmental Reconstruction 217 Regional Prehistory and the Archaeological Record Subsistence 224 Genetic and Demographic Factors 227 References 230

219

10 \>

Subsistence and Health in the Lower Illinois Valley- Osteological Evidence Delia Collins Cook Skeletal Growth and Development Pathology 256 Paleodemography 260 Discussion 26 1 References 262

237

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CONTENTS

11 Health Changes at Dickson Mounds, Illinois (A. D. 950-1300

Alan H. Goodman, John Lallo, George J. Armelagos, and Jerome C. Rose Introduction and Background Indicators of Stress 277 Discussion and Conclusions References 30 1

27 1 297

12 Skeletal Evidence for Prehistoric Subsistence Adaptation in the Central Ohio River Valley

Claire Mowd Cassidy Overview of Archaeological Cultures, Food, and Diet Skeletal Pathology 324 Discussion and Speculation: Diet and Adaptation in 334 the Central Ohio River Valley References 338

13 Prehistoric Health in the Ohio River Valley

Anthony J. Perzigian, Patricia A. Tench, and Donna J. Braun Introduction: The Archaeological Background Growth and Development 349 Paleopathology and Paleodemography 355 36 1 Conclusions References 362

14 Health and Disease in Prehistoric Georgia: T h e Transition to Agriculture

d a r k Spencer Larsen Introduction 367 Materials 368 Georgia Coastal Paleopathology Discussion 379 Comparisons with Other Studies Conclusions 387 References 388

368 385

347

307

CONTENTS

15 Paleopathology and the Origins of Maize Agriculture i n the Lower Mississippi Valley and Caddoan Culture Areas

Jerome C. Rose, Barbara A. Burnett, Michael S. Nassaney, and Mark W Blaeuer Introduction 393 Archaeology 395 Paleopathology and Agriculture Conclusions 415 References 419

406

16 Agriculture, Marginal Environments, and Nutritional Stress in the Prehistoric Southwest

Ann M. Palkovich Background: The American Southwest Conclusion 436 References 437

425

17 Central California: Prehistoric Subsistence Changes and Health

David N . Dickel, Peter D. Schuk, and Henry M . McHenry Introduction 439 Paleopathology 443 Paleodemography 450 References 456

18 Prehistoric Subsistence and Health Status of Coastal Peoples from the Panamanian Isthmus of Lower Central America

Lynette Norr Introduction 463 464 Geographic Setting and Subsistence Resources Broad Cultural Units 466 467 Prehistoric Subsistence, Settlement, and Population Growth 472 Chemical Analyses of Bone for Dietary Reconstruction 474 Skeletal Remains, Pathologies, and Stress Indicators Discussion 480 ¥^Summarand Conclusions 484 References 485

CONTENTS

xii

19 Prehistoric Human Biology of EcuadorPossible Temporal Trends and Cultural Correlations

D. H. Ubelaker Introduction 49 1 Cultural History 492 Relevant Data from Human Skeletal Biology Discussion 509 References 511

495

20 P a l e ~ p a t h o l o ~iny Peruvian and Chilean Populations

Marvin J,. Allison 515 The Evidence of Bones and Teeth 520 The Evidence of Soft Tissue Social Stratification and Health 525 References 527

21 The Challenges and Rewards of Sedentism. The Preceramic Village of Paloma, Peru

Robert A. Benfer Introduction 531 Ecological Background 53 1 Excavations 532 Population Continuity 533 Subsistence 533 534 Paleodemography at Paloma Dental Wear-Results 538 Dental Asymmetry 539 Sexual Dimorphism 539 Stature 54 1 Harris Lines 542 Osteitis and Periostitis 543 Histomorphometrics 543 544 Trace Element Analysis of Bone 546 Trace Element Analysis of Hair Summary 547 Conclusions: Demography, Diet, and Paleopathology Appendix 55 1 References 554

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CONTENTS

22 Population, Health, and t h e Evolution of Subsistence: Conclusions from t h e Conference

Anna Curtenius Roosevelt Introduction 559 Boserup's Population Pressure Theory 559 Population Pressure and the Rise of Agriculture 560 Alternative Theories 56 1 Population Growth and Sedentism 563 Archaeological Economy 564 Subsistence Change 566 Paleopathology and Population Pressure 569 Methodology 570 History of Mortality and Physiological Stress 572 Changes in Activity and Labor Productivity 574 Summary 575 Paleopathology and Anthropology for the Future 578 References 58 1 4 23 Paleopathology at t h e Origins of Agriculture: Editors' Summation

Mark Nathan Cohen and Georgel. Armelagos Introduction 585 Major Trends in Data on Health 586 The Relative Health of Hunter-Gatherers and Fanners The Population Pressure Model 594 Approaches to Other Problems of Anthropological Interest References 599

593 597

Contributors

Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors' contributions begin.

Marvin J Allison (515) Institute de Antropologia, Universidad de Tarapacd, Arica, Chile J Lawrence Angel (5 1) Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D C 20560 George J Armelagos (13 193, 271 585) Department of Anthropology University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts 01003 Ofer Bar-Yosef 101 Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University, Mt. Scopus Campus Jerusalem, Israel Robert A. Benfer (531 , Department of Anthropology, University of MissouriColumbia, Columbia, Missouri 65211 Mark W Blaeuer (393), Department of Anthropology, University of Arkansas Fayetteville Arkansas 72701 Donna J ~ r a u n ' (347), Department of Anthropology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221 Jane E. Buikstra (215) Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60201 Barbara A. Burnett (393) Department of Anthropology, University of Arkansas Fayetteville Arkansas 72701 Claire Monod Cassidy (307), Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences Department of Anthropology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742 George Clark 13), Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts 01003 Mark Nathan Cohen (1, 585), Department of Anthropology, State University of New York College at Plaftsburgh, Plattsburgh, New York 12901 Della Collins Cook (235), Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405 Present address: Department of Anthropology University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsyl-

xvi

CONTRIBUTORS

David N Dickel 439), Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis Davis California 95616 Alan H. Goodman2 (13 193, 271) Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts 01003 Kenneth A. R. Kennedy 169), Ecology and Systematics Division of Biological Sciences Department of Anthropology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 Patrick Key (75) The KEY Company, Inc Williston, North Dakota 58802-2690 John Lallo (27 1 , Department of Anthropology, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio 44115 Clark Spencer Larsen (367) Department of Anthropology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois 60115 Debra L. Martin 13, 193) School of Natural Science Hampshire College Amherst Massachusetts 01002 Henry M. McHenry 439) Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis Davis California 95616 Christopher Meiklejohn (75) Department of Anthropology, University of Winnipeg Winnipeg Manitoba R3B 2E9 Canada Michael S Nassaney (393) Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts 01003 Lynette Norr 463) Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801 Ann M. Palkovich 425) Anthropology Program, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia 22030 Anthony J Perzigian (347) Departments of Anthroplogy and Anatomy, University of Cincinnati Cincinnati Ohio 45221 Ted A. Rathbun 137) Department of Anthropology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208 Anna Curtenius Roosevelt (559) Museum of the American Indian, New York, New York 10032 Jerome C. Rose (27 1 393), Department of Anthropology, University of Arkansas Fayetteville Arkansas 72701 Catherine Schentag (75) Department of Anthropology, University of Winnipeg Winnipeg Manitoba R3B 2E9 Canada Peter D. Schulz3 (439) Department of Anthropology University of California, Davis Davis California 95616 Andrew Sillen 101), National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D C 20560 'Present address: Department of Orthodontics, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmngton, Connecticut 06032. 'Present address: Resource Protection Division, California Department of Parks and Recreation, Sacramento, California 95811

CONTRIBUTORS

xvii

Patricia Smith (101 Department of Anatomy, Hebrew University-Hadassah School of Dental Medicine Jerusalem, Israel Patricia A. ~ e n c h(347) ~ Department of Anthropology University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221 D H. Ubelaker 491 Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D C 20560 Dennis P Van Gerven 193) Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado, Boulder Colorado 80309 Alexandra Venema (75) Department of Anthropology, University of Winnipeg Winnipeg Manitoba R3B 2E9 Canada

Present address: Department of Anthropology Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana 47405

Preface

This volume contains revised papers from a 1982 Wenner-Gren-sponsored symposium utilizing data from human skeletal analysis and paleopathology to measure the impact on human health of the Neolithic Revolution and antecedent changes in prehistoric hunter-gatherer food economies. The symposium developed out of our perception that many widely debated theories about the origins of agriculture had testable but untested implications concerning human health and nutrition and our belief that recent advances in techniques of skeletal analysis, and the recent explosive increase in data available in this field, permitted valid tests of many of these propositions. We asked specialists to prepare syntheses of archaeological and skeletal data comparing the health of prehistoric human populations before, during, and after the Neolithic Revolution in different parts of the world. Because we were interested in generalizations about processes of cultural evolution and their impact on human life, rather than merely in local archaeological sequences per se, the conference and this volume were arranged in a format of 'controlled comparison in which regional sequences are prepared and presented in a manner parallel to one another as much as posible to facilitate comparative analysis. This format was designed to facilitate identification of health trends common to the various world regions or to recognizable subsets of these regions. This volume is the first such synthesis of paleopathological data from around the world focusing on changing patterns of health among human populations rather than the diagnosis of particular pathologies or the interpretation of the history of specific diseases. It also represents the first attempt to apply these data to the testing of theories of culture change other than at the local level In the studies presented, a number of common patterns emerge with sufficient clarity to provide striking answers to severa1210ng-debatedquestions concerning the impact of this one major technological revolution on human health. The conclusions that we have drawn are discussed in our own final chapter while an independent analysis is offered by Anna Roosevelt. The individual regional chapters that make up the bulk of the volume, and which cover essentially all regions of the world for which reasonably good data could be obtained, provide an up-to-date synthesis of existing data on changes in human health associated with the transition. They also xix C

q

PREFACE

provide a data set from which other investigators can test their own theories or evaluate our conclusions independently and state-of-the-art examples of the application of recently developed techniques in skeletal analysis and paleopathology The language of these applications has been standardized insofar as possible to facilitate easy comprehension and comparison. An introductory chapter by Goodman et al. provides a nontechnical summation of the techniques utilized and the pathologies commonly discussed. Chapter bibliographies direct the reader to more technical descriptions of research techniques as well as more complete presentations of regional data. The book is designed primarily as a reference and sourcebook for scholars and students in the fields of economic and ecological prehistory skeletal analysis, and paleopathology However, the book addresses issues concerning the impact of progress and civilization that have been of broad scholarly and popular interest at least since the writings of Hobbes Rousseau, and Francis Bacon. Moreover, because it is necessary that the data from skeletal analysis be comprehensible to nonspecialists if those data are to be used to test theories of culture change, and because it is necessary for individual archaeological sequences to be comprehended easily by prehistorians working in different regions we have put a great deal of editorial effort into making each contribution readily comprehensible by a reader with only a modest background and with a general interest in the issues discussed. As such, the book should be of value and interest not only to professionals and students in immediately related fields but also to a range of laymen, students and professionals interested in a host of related fields. history and medical history subsistence economics, culture change, nutrition, epidemiology the philosophy of science, and the history of technology The conference on which the book is based was held at the Valcour Conference Center of the State University of New York College at Plattsburgh and was sponsored jointly by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research and the Hudson Symposium Fund of SUNY College at Plattsburgh. We wish to thank Dean Charles Warren and Acting Dean Houng Liu, Mr Robert Moll, Ms Bette Brohel, Mrs. Katie Covey and Mrs. Jamesena Moore as well as the faculty and students of the Department of Anthropology SUNY College at Plattsburgh, for their assistance in running the conference.

New Haven.

CHAPTER 2 INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH 1

Alan H . Goodman

Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts-Amherst

Debra L. Martin School o f N a t u r a l S c i e n c e Hampshire C o l l e g e

George J . Armelagos George Clark Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts-Amherst

INTRODUCTION:

MODELING DISEASE I N PREHISTORIC POPULATION

The p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o review c u r r e n t u s e s of s k e l e t a l and d e n t a l evidence2 i n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g p a t t e r n s of h e a l t h i n p r e h i s t o r i c human p o p u l a t i o n s . T h i s b r i e f overview may be s u p p l e mented by r e f e r e n c e t o a v a r i e t y of r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s . For more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e d i a g n o s i s o f d i s e a s e i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d c o n s u l t volumes by O r t n e r and P u t s c h a r (1981) and Steinbock (1976). I n f o r m a t i o n on n u t r i t i o n a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s can b e o b t a i n e d from B u i k s t r a and Cook (1980) , Huss-Ashmore e t a l . (1982) , Wing and Brown (1980) , and Mielke and G i l b e r t (1984)

.

1

Present address: Department o f Orthodontics, Un-iversitg of Connecticut HeaZth Center, Farminqton, Connecticut 06032. "See A l l i s o n e t a t . (Chapter 20 t h i s volume) for s o f t t i s s u e analysis. PXLEOPITHOLOGI Vr THE ORIGINS HF AHQll"1 1 T I Rt-

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2 INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH

15

This overview i s organized around a model of t h e causes and r e s u l t s o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n o r s t r e s s ( s e e Figure 2 - 1 ) . This p e r s p e c t i v e has emerged o u t of a d e s i r e to answer p r o c e s s u a l questions. The s e v e r i t y , d u r a t i o n , and p e r i o d i c i t y o f a d i s e a s e may be a s important t o understanding b i o c u l t u r a l process a s t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e p a r t i c u l a r pathogenic a g e n t . I n theory, i f two d i f f e r e n t d i s e a s e s a r e equal i n t h e s e v e r i t y and d u r a t i o n o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n t h a t they cause, t h e impact on t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e population should be equal. S t r e s s i s a product of t h r e e s e t s of f a c t o r s which a r e represented schematically i n F i g u r e 2 -1: environmental cons t r a i n t s , c u l t u r a l systems, and h o s t r e s i s t a n c e . Environmental c o n s t r a i n t s include both l i m i t i n g r e s o u r c e s and s t r e s s o r s . These may vary over time and space. I f uncorrected, t h e s e cons t r a i n t s w i l l r e s u l t in increased physiological disruption. C u l t u r a l systems may a c t t o b u f f e r t h e impact of environmental constraints. For example, our t e c h n o l o g i c a l s o c i e t y has e f f e c t i v e l y buffered cold s t r e s s by t h e i n v e n t i o n and u s e of cent r a l h e a t i n g systems. However, c u l t u r a l systems may a l s o magnify e x i s t i n g s t r e s s e s o r produce novel ones. For example, while i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of s u b s i s t e n c e systems may allow f o r g r e a t e r populat i o n d e n s i t y , s u b s i s t e n c e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n may r e s u l t i n a lower q u a l i t y o f d i e t f o r each person and amplify i n t e r p e r s o n a l s t r i f e a s access t o q u a l i t y n u t r i e n t s i s l i m i t e d . I f s t r e s s i s n o t adequately b u f f e r e d by e x t r a i n d i v i d u a l means, i t s e f f e c t s may be b u f f e r e d only by i n d i v i d u a l h o s t r e s i s t a n c e . Host r e s i s t a n c e v a r i e s by age and sex. Genetic f a c t o r s a l s o p l a y an important r o l e i n r e s i s t a n c e t o c e r t a i n d i s e a s e s ; however, t h e s e a r e d i f f i c u l t t o t r a c e i n t h e archaeol o g i c a l record. When h o s t r e s i s t a n c e and environmental c o n s t r a i n t s a r e h e l d c o n s t a n t , v a r i a t i o n i n s t r e s s l e v e l s may be r e l a t e d t o c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s . The primary purpose of t h i s volume i s t o determine changes i n h e a l t h a s s o c i a t e d with c u l t u r e change where environmental and h o s t r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r s a r e presumed c o n s t a n t . Physiological d i s r u p t i o n cannot be d i r e c t l y measured i n s k e l e t a l remains. However, s t r e s s does l e a v e a s e r i e s of i n d i c a t o r s i n bone and t e e t h . A primary g o a l of paleopathology i s t o 'read' these indicators of stress. I n t h i s chapter i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s a r e organized under t h r e e (1) i n d i c a t o r s of g e n e r a l , cumulative s t r e s s ; major headings: ( 2 ) i n d i c a t o r s of g e n e r a l , e p i s o d i c s t r e s s ; and ( 3 ) i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s a s s o c i a t e d with s p e c i f i c d i s e a s e s . These groupings a r e somewhat a r b i t r a r y ; it could be argued t h a t t h e r e i s a continuum o f i n d i c a t o r s from most t o l e a s t g e n e r a l and most t o l e a s t e p i s o d i c . Other grouping schemes a r e a l s o p o s s i b l e b u t may not be a s u s e f u l i n understanding underlying s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e causes of s t r e s s . General i n d i c a t o r s a r e based on t h e organism's nons p e c i f i c response t o noxious s t i m u l i (Selye 1950, 1 9 7 1 ) . Cumulat i v e i n d i c a t o r s provide a summation of t h e amount of s t r e s s over long p e r i o d s o f time while e p i s o d i c i n d i c a t o r s a r e more p r e c i s e and confined i n t h e time a t which s t r e s s occurred.

16

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

General, cumulative i n d i c a t o r s include m o r t a l i t y measures and growth assessments. Under s t r e s s f u l c o n d i t i o n s t h e growing organism w i l l e i t h e r slow qrowth o r cease t o grow s i n c e i t s a v a i l a b l e n u t r i e n t s a r e b e t t e r p u t t o combating t h e s t r e s s (Acheson 1960). Since s t r e s s g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t s i n t h e r e l e a s e of c a t a b o l i c hormones ( t h o s e which r e l e a s e energy) t h e anabolic process of growth i s i n h i b i t e d (Cannon 1932; Tanner 1978). Theref o r e , i n d i c a t o r s of growth may be i n d i c a t i v e of s t r e s s of a qeneral nature. P e r i o d i c i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s provide information on t h e age a t which s t r e s s episodes occurred. Two common examples of general, periodic indicators are Harris l i n e s (disruptions i n l i n e a r bone growth) and enamel hypoplasias ( d i s r u p t i o n i n t o o t h enamel matrix f o r m a t i o n ) . F i n a l l y , some d i s e a s e s o r d i s e a s e c l a s s e s may l e a v e more s p e c i f i c i n d i c a t i o n s of s t r e s s on bone and t e e t h . This i s t r u e f o r trauma and degenerative p a t h o l o g i e s , and f o r some i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s and n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s . To summarize t h e model, s t r e s s i s a r e s u l t o f environmental c o n s t r a i n t s , c u l t u r a l f i l t e r s , and h o s t r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r s . While s t r e s s i s n o t d i r e c t l y measurable i n s k e l e t a l remains, it may be i n f e r r e d from a s e r i e s of i n d i c a t o r s . When h o s t r e s i s t a n c e and environmental c o n s t r a i n t s a r e h e l d r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t , v a r i a t i o n i n s t r e s s may be a t t r i b u t e d t o c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s . Increasi n g l e v e l s of s t r e s s may a l s o a c t a s a cause of changes i n c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s . An u l t i m a t e g o a l of paleopathology is t o understand t h e process by which c u l t u r e s may both cause and respond t o s t r e s s .

GENERAL AND CUMULATIVE STRESS INDICATORS

Mortality M o r t a l i t y d a t a f o r s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n s d e r i v e from a s s e s s ment of i n d i v i d u a l ages a t d e a t h ( s e e Ubelaker 1978 f o r an overview of methods of s k e l e t a l age d e t e r m i n a t i o n ) . T r a d i t i o n a l p r e s e n t a t i o n s of m o r t a l i t y d a t a i n v o l v e e i t h e r t h e d i r e c t e s t i m a t i o n of l i f e expectancy a t b i r t h (based on t h e mean age a t death) o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of l i f e t a b l e s . In a d d i t i o n t o e s t i m a t i n g l i f e expectancy a t b i r t h , l i f e t a b l e s provide estimat i o n s o f l i f e expectancy, p r o b a b i l i t y o f dying, and s u r v i v o r s h i p f o r a l l age c l a s s e s ( s e e Swedlund and Armelaqos 1976: Appendix A f o r method o f computation) . Two t y p e s of c r i t i c i s m s have been voiced a g a i n s t measurements of m o r t a l i t y and s p e c i f i c a l l y a g a i n s t t h e use of l i f e t a b l e s i n paleodemoqraphy. The f i r s t concerns t h e a p p r o p r i a t e method of p r e s e n t a t i o n and u s e of m o r t a l i t y d a t a from a r c h a e o l o g i c a l popul a t i o n s . Angel (1969) argues t h a t l i f e t a b l e s a r e t o o s o p h i s t i -

2 INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH

17

cated a t o o l f o r l i m i t e d a v a i l a b l e paleodemographic d a t a . However, where population s i z e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e and appear t o be well r e p r e s e n t e d , l i f e t a b l e s may provide a s e r i e s of meaningful and v a l i d s t a t i s t i c s (Acsadi and Nerneskgri 1970; Moore e t a l . 1975; Swedlund and Armelagos 1 9 6 9 ) . More fundamental c r i t i c i s m s of l i f e t a b l e s concern t h e v a r i o u s assumptions which a r e i n h e r e n t i n t h e method. The c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e s e t a b l e s assumes t h a t a s k e l e t a l sample i s t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a r e a l population; t h a t no p o p u l a t i o n growth i s o c c u r r i n g ; t h a t there i s l i t t l e stochastic fluctuation i n t h e population's size; and t h a t i n d i v i d u a l ages-at-death a r e a c c u r a t e l y determined. Moore e t a l . (1975) have determined t h a t undernumeration of i n f a n t s , t h e p r i n c i p a l source of skewing i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l samples, h a s l i t t l e e f f e c t on m o r t a l i t y e s t i m a t e s except i n t h e youngest a g e c l a s s e s . S t o c h a s t i c f l u c t u a t i o n may i n t r o d u c e e r r o r s in very small populations. However, t h i s e r r o r may be e s t i m a t e d . S i m i l a r l y , growth o r d e c l i n e i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e i n t r o d u c e s e r r o r . However, t h e e r r o r i s small under c o n d i t i o n s c l o s e t o e q u i l i b r i u m . These same a u t h o r s provide a reminder t h a t m o r t a l i t y s t a t i s t i c s a r e p r o b a b i l i t y s t a t e ments and should be regarded a s having ranges of r e l i a b i l i t y (Moore e t a l . 1 9 7 5 ) . Under normal c o n d i t i o n s t h e estimated e r r o r s i n paleodemographic d a t a a r e small. F i n a l l y , i t has r e c e n t l y been proposed t h a t paleodemographic a n a l y s e s a r e s e r i o u s l y flawed due t o inaccuracy i n age d e t e r m i n a t i o n (Bocquet-Appel and Masset 1982). However, Van Gerven and Armelagos (1983) have argued t h a t s e r i a l l y aging t h e s k e l e t a l s e r i e s reduces t h i s e r r o r . P a r t of Van Gerven and Armelagos's argument i n f a v o r of t h e u s e of l i f e t a b l e s i n c l u d e s an assessment of t h e v a l i d i t y of l i f e t a b l e data i n s p e c i f i c contexts. L i f e t a b l e a n a l y s i s has f r e q u e n t l y l e d t o i n t e r p r e t a b l e and meaningful conclusions i n paleodemographic analyses. For example, Green e t a l . (1974) show a decrease i n l i f e expectancy i n Sudanese Nubians who a r e b u r i e d without s u p e r s t r u c t u r e s and i n t h o s e who d i e d while t h e i r v i l l a g e was i n d e c l i n e . We b e l i e v e t h a t t h e major l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e paleodemographic method a r e p r a c t i c a l ones. These i n c l u d e t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s and s i z e of t h e sample and t h e a b i l i t y to provide a c c u r a t e a s s e s s ment of developmental age (Lovejoy e t a l . 1977). Age a t d e a t h s t a n d s a s perhaps t h e most important s i n g l e i n d i c a t o r of s t r e s s . Age a t d e a t h is of a d d i t i o n a l importance a s o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a tors a r e related t o it. I f other s t r e s s indicators a r e associated with decreased ages a t d e a t h , t h e n t h i s s u p p o r t s t h e i r v a l i d i t y a s i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s .

Growth Assessment Growth assessment i s a common t o o l f o r a n a l y s i s of t h e degree of environmental s t r e s s i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s . Assessments may i n c l u d e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of growth curves based on measured

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l e n g t h and width of long bones f o r each age c a t e g o r y o f subadults; t h e measure o f a t t a i n e d l e n g t h and width from a d u l t long bones; t h e e s t i m a t i o n of s t a t u r e derived from a d u l t long bone l e n g t h s ; and t h e determination of sexual dimorphism derived from malefemale d i f f e r e n c e s i n s e l e c t e d anthropometric measures. These i n d i c a t o r s a r e based on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e slowing o r c e s s a t i o n of growth i s a l o g i c a l response by an However, a l l growth organism t o increased s t r e s s (Cannon 1932) comparisons must c o n s i d e r t h e importance of g e n e t i c f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g s i z e and shape. When g e n e t i c v a r i a b l e s a r e c o n t r o l l e d , t h e experimental and c l i n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e s t r o n g l y suggests t h a t delayed o r decreased growth may be r e f l e c t i v e of p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n (Acheson and Fowler 1964; Dickerson and McCance 1961; Engfeldt and H j e r t q u i s t 1961; Himes 1978; Johnston 1976; McCance and Widdowson 1962; P l a t t and McCance 1964; Stewart 1975; Tanner 1977, 1 9 7 8 ) .

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Subadult Long Bone Length and Width Curves The a n a l y s i s o f growth i n s u b a d u l t long bones i s based on t h e f a c t t h a t d e n t a l development i s l e s s a f f e c t e d by s t r e s s f u l condit i o n s than s k e l e t a l growth (Garn e t a l . 1959, 1965; Lewis and Garn 1960). Provided t h a t a l a r g e population of subadults i s a v a i l a b l e f o r study with i n t a c t long bones and d e n t a l a g e s , long bone growth may be p l o t t e d a g a i n s t d e n t a l age. Such growth curves have been c o n s t r u c t e d by Sundick (1978) and Ubelaker (1978), among o t h e r s , f o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l populations. The growth curves of p r e h i s t o r i c populations g e n e r a l l y d i f f e r from modern s t a n d a r d s i n two p r i n c i p a l ways. The f i r s t i s a reduced r a t e o f growth between t h e ages o f approximately 2 and 5 y e a r s and t h e second i s a d e l a y i n t h e timing o f t h e adolescent growth s p u r t . The decrease i n r a t e of growth a t ages 2-5 r e l a t i v e t o modem s t a n d a r d s (Maresh 1955) may be i n d i c a t i v e of u n d e r n u t r i t i o n o r o t h e r s t r e s s a c t i n g on t h a t segment of t h e p o p u l a t i o n . For example, Cook (1976) i n t e r p r e t s such a d i s e a s e i n growth r a t e i n a p r e h i s t o r i c population from I l l i n o i s t o be due t o a poor weanling d i e t . The d e l a y i n t h e a d o l e s c e n t growth s p u r t may be t h e r e s u l t of chronic u n d e r n u t r i t i o n o r o t h e r chronic s t r e s s e s . Frisancho and Gam (1970) a t t r i b u t e such a growth d e l a y i n Quechua I n d i a n s l i v i n g on t h e Peruvian a l t i p l a n o t o c h r o n i c a l l y low n u t r i e n t a v a i l a b i l i t y . The view t h a t t h i s d e l a y i s adaptive i n t h e f a c e of l i m i t e d c a l o r i e s i s supported by Thomas (1973), who demonstrates t h a t t h e d e l a y i n growth s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduces t h e energy needs of t h e population. While comparison o f p r e h i s t o r i c growth curves with modern standards may be i l l u s t r a t i v e , Buikstra and Cook (1980) warn a g a i n s t o v e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . P r e h i s t o r i c d a t a a r e not s t r i c t l y comparable t o modern d a t a ; age e s t i m a t e s f o r p r e h i s t o r i c i n d i v i d u a l s a r e based on developmental c r i t e r i a ( t o o t h e r u p t i o n ) whereas modern i n d i v i d u a l s a r e u s u a l l y aged by t h e calendar.

2 INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH Moreover, p r e h i s t o r i c d a t a a r e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l ( d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s dead i n d i f f e r e n t age c l a s s e s ) r a t h e r than l o n g i t u d i n a l ( t h e same i n d i v i d u a l s p r o g r e s s i n g from age c l a s s t o age c l a s s ) . I n l i g h t o f t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s , perhaps t h e most v a l i d use of p r e h i s t o r i c growth curves involves comparisons o f c u r v e s from g e n e t i c a l l y s i m i l a r p o p u l a t i o n s . An example of t h i s approach i s L a l l o ' s (1973) study o f long bone growth curves from Dickson Mounds p o p u l a t i o n s ( a l s o s e e Goodman e t a l . , Chapter 11 t h i s volume) L a l l o i s a b l e t o demonstrate a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t s e c u l a r decrease i n mean t i b i a l l e n g t h f o r i n d i v i d u a l s of ages 5-10 when comparing t h e Dickson Middle Mississippian t o e a r l i e r Dickson populations. S i m i l a r l y t o t h e above, long bone width, circumference, and c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s may be p l o t t e d a g a i n s t d e n t a l age. L a l l o (1973) has a l s o demonstrated a s e c u l a r decrease i n t i b i a l circumf e r e n c e r e l a t i v e t o age which p a r a l l e l s t h e l e n g t h decrease mentioned above ( a l s o s e e Goodman e t a l . , Chapter 11 t h i s volume). Huss-Ashore (1981) i n an a n a l y s i s o f j u v e n i l e s from p r e h i s t o r i c Sudanese Nubia has shown t h a t long bone growth i n l e n g t h may be maintained a t t h e expense of c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s ( a l s o s e e Garn e t a l . 1964). Thin c o r t i c e s in growing c h i l d r e n a r e a c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n of s t r e s s , b u t i n a sense may a l s o r e p r e s e n t an adaptive response. Decreased bone mass i n growing c h i l d r e n perm i t s continued growth o f bones i n l e n g t h a s w e l l a s t h e l i b e r a t i o n of minerals and n u t r i e n t s t o a i d i n t h e maintenance of s o f t t i s s u e systems i n which n u t r i e n t s a r e most r e q u i r e d . Comparison of long bone widths and l e n g t h curves may provide a h i e r a r c h y of growth responses t o s t r e s s (Huss-Ashore e t a l . 1 9 8 2 ) . Width i s f i r s t a f f e c t e d . ~ u i tf s t r e s s i s s e v e r e and long l a s t i n g , then l e n g t h i n c r e a s e may a l s o slow o r s t o p .

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A d u l t Long Bone Length and Width The measurement o f s i z e and shape of a d u l t long bones is among t h e most standard o f procedures i n anthropometric and s k e l e t a l a n a l y s i s . Many r e s e a r c h e r s have provided d a t a on a d u l t long bone width and l e n g t h i n p r e h i s t o r i c samples and have derived s t a t u r e e s t i m a t e s from t h e s e d a t a . (See Ubelaker 1978, f o r s t a t u r e formulas. ) Comparison a c r o s s p o p u l a t i o n s again i n t r o d u c e s problems i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a s it i s d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e t h e deg r e e of g e n e t i c involvement i n s i z e and shape d i f f e r e n c e s . Size and shape d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d u l t s k e l e t o n s may be more e a s i l y r e l a t e d t o environmental c o n d i t i o n s and p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n i f t h e r e i s r e l a t i v e g e n e t i c homogeneity i n samples. The r e l a t i v e g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y o f s u c c e s s i v e samples p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of r e c e n t s e c u l a r i n c r e a s e s i n h e i g h t w i t h i n a country o r d e f i n e d geographic a r e a (Acheson and Fowler 1964; Craig 1 9 6 3 ) . These s e c u l a r i n c r e a s e s have m o s t f r e q u e n t l y been i n t e r p r e t e d a s being due t o a d e c r e a s e i n infant-childhood d i s e a s e and e l i m i n a t i o n of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s e s (Dobos 1965:77-79; Huber 1967). S i m i l a r

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i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s may b e a p p l i e d t o s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s i n p r e h i s t o r y i f g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y can b e p o s t u l a t e d o r proved. See, f o r example, Larsen (1982 and Chapter 1 4 t h i s volume) , who d e m o n s t r a t e s a d e c r e a s e i n a d u l t long-bone l e n g t h i n s u c c e s s i v e p o p u l a t i o n s on t h e Georgia c o a s t . While l o n g bone l e n g t h y i e l d s i n f o r m a t i o n on group a d a p t a t i o n , a n a l y s i s of l o n g bone t h i c k n e s s , w i d t h , and h i s t o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e can r e v e a l p a t t e r n s of m e t a b o l i c a c t i v i t y and p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s ruption i n adults. Because c o r t i c a l bone i s i n a c o n s t a n t s t a t e o f remodeling by r e s o r p t i o n and d e p o s i t i o n , i n t r o d u c t i o n of any s t r e s s which s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t s metabolism may a l t e r t h e r a t e of remodeling ( S t o u t and Simmons 1 9 7 9 ) . When r a t e s o f bone remodeling a r e i n d i s e q u i l i b r i u m , bone c a n b e l o s t i n s t e a d of m a i n t a i n e d . C o n d i t i o n s r e s u l t i n g i n o s t e o p o r o s i s (bone l o s s ) i n c l u d e m e t a b o l i c d i s t u r b a n c e s , s y s t e m i c d i s e a s e , and n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s (Garn 1970; Huss-Ashore e t a l . 1982; M a r t i n and Armelagos 1979; O r t n e r 1 9 7 6 ) . C r o s s s e c t i o n s o f bone s h a f t s c a n be a n a l y z e d by c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e c o r t i c a l a r e a (bone t h i c k n e s s v e r s u s bone marrow c a v i t y ) and p l o t t i n g t h i s by a g e and sex (Garn 1 9 7 0 ) . Thin s e c t i o n s c a n a l s o b e made and viewed under a b r i g h t f i e l d microsThese cope t o r e v e a l i t s m i c r o s t r u c t u r e (Martin e t a l . 1984) measures a s s e s s t h e amount and q u a l i t y of t h e c o r t i c a l bone p r e s e n t and r e f l e c t t h e n u t r i t i o n a l and h e a l t h s t a t u s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . Huss-Ashmore and co-workers (1982) have demonstrated t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f c o r t i c a l bone a n a l y s i s i n t h e assessment of t h e q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y o f d i e t . Age-controlled samples from t e m p o r a l l y sequent i a l p o p u l a t i o n s have been used t o e q u a t e bone l o s s and i n c r e a s e remodeling a c t i v i t y w i t h n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s (Martin 1983; R i c h a n e t a l . , 1979; S t o u t 1979)

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Sexual Dimorphism Though common, a n a l y s e s of t h e d e g r e e of s e x u a l dimorphism a r e d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t f o r archaeological populations. In theory, a d e c r e a s e i n s e x u a l dimorphism s h o u l d b e i n d i c a t i v e o f i n c r e a s e d s t r e s s s i n c e t h e growing male i s more s u s c e p t i b l e t o s t r e s s t h a n t h e growing female ( s e e S t i n i 1969, 1972, 1 9 7 5 ) . However, a n a l y s i s of s e x u a l dimorphism i s confounded by p o t e n t i a l g e n e t i c v a r i a t i o n i n t h e d e g r e e of dimorphism among p o p u l a t i o n s and t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t males a r e more p r o t e c t e d from s t r e s s i n many s o c i e t i e s . Furthermore, i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s t h e same t r a i t s which a r e used t o d e t e r m i n e sex a r e o f t e n used t o a c c e s s t h e d e g r e e of d i morphism, t h u s engendering c i r c u l a r i t y . The s t a n d a r d method f o r assessment of s e x u a l dimorphism i n v o l v e s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of male t o female r a t i o s f o r s t a t u r e o r f o r v a r i o u s measures o f s k e l e t a l w i d t h and r o b u s t i c i t y . More det a i l e d m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s e s o f s e x u a l dimorphism have been performed by Van Gerven (1972) based on femoral measures and by Gustav (1972) b a s e d on p e l v i c measures.

2 INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH While comparison of t h e degree of sexual dimorphism b o t h among and w i t h i n p o p u l a t i o n s may prove t o be u s e f u l , a t p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t . For example, Larson (1982, Chapter 14 t h i s volume) a r g u e s t h a t an ¥increas i n sexual dimorphism i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n c r e a s e d s t r e s s . This r e s u l t s from t h e increased p h y s i c a l work load p l a c e d on females, which d e c r e a s e s t h e i r growth.

Other Cumulative I n d i c a t o r s of S t r e s s Other s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s may prove t o be u s e f u l i n providing data on cumulative l e v e l s of s t r e s s in a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s . Angel (1978, 1982, and Chapter 3 t h i s volume) argues t h a t s k u l l base h e i g h t and p e l v i c i n l e t form a r e i n d i c a t i v e o f growth e f f i ciency and n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . Angel may b e c o r r e c t i n t h i s assessment. However, h i s arguments should be supported by e x p e r i mental d a t a which a t p r e s e n t a r e s p a r s e . And, a s w i t h o t h e r growth assessment, t h e degree of g e n e t i c c o n t r o l must be considered. Dental crowding should be i n d i c a t i v e of n u t r i t i o n a l o r o t h e r chronic, s e v e r e s t r e s s s i n c e t e e t h w i l l be l e s s a f f e c t e d by chronic s t r e s s than a l v e o l a r bone s i z e . Widdowson and McCance (1964) have demonstrated t h i s e f f e c t i n undernourished p i g l e t s and Trowel1 and co-workers (1954) have noted i n c r e a s i n g crowding and impacted molars i n s e v e r e l y malnourished c h i l d r e n . I n c r e a s e d d e n t a l crowding may b e i n d i c a t i v e of s e v e r e and chronic s t r e s s i n archaeoloqic a l populations. However, we a r e unaware o f t h e use of t h i s p o t e n t i a l i n d i c a t o r i n any e v a l u a t i o n of h e a l t h i n p r e h i s t o r y . Guargliardo (1982) has r e c e n t l y p r e s e n t e d an argument t h a t t o o t h s i z e v a r i a t i o n w i t h i n a s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n may be i n d i c a t i v e of environmental s t r e s s . This p r o p o s i t i o n i s based on h i s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t decreased t o o t h s i z e i s o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d with a mean e a r l i e r age a t d e a t h . I n d i v i d u a l s who a r e most s t r e s s e d d i e e a r l i e r and t h e i r t e e t h f a i l t o grow t o t h e i r g e n e t i c a l l y determined potential size. F l u c t u a t i n g o r random asymmetry r e f e r s t o s i z e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a b i l a t e r a l organism i n which one s i d e i s l a r g e r than t h e o t h e r , b u t i n which no c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n o c c u r s (where, f o r example, some t e e t h on t h e r i g h t a r e l a r g e r and some s m a l l e r than t h e i r counterp a r t s on t h e l e f t ; s e e B u i k s t r a and Cook 1980, and Huss-Ashore e t a l . 1982 f o r more d e t a i l e d reviews of asymmetry). Asymmetries i n long bone l e n g t h s and e s p e c i a l l y i n d e n t a l crown measures have been used by a v a r i e t y of a u t h o r s a s an index of s t r e s s i n both l i v i n g and p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s ( c f . B a i l i t e t a l . 1970; DiBennardo and B a i l i t 1978; Niswander and Chung 1965; P e r z i g i a n 1977; and ~ e r z i g i a n Dental asymmetry i s g e n e r a l l y e t a l . , Chapter 1 3 t h i s volume) g r e a t e r i n p o p u l a t i o n s which a r e under t h e g r e a t e s t s t r e s s ( B a i l i t e t a l . 1 9 7 0 ) . However, p o p u l a t i o n s may a l s o vary i n t h e degree t o which they a r e g e n e t i c a l l y predisposed t o i n c r e a s e d asymmetries (Niswander and Chung 1 9 6 5 ) . I f asymmetries a r e due t o s t r e s s , then

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t h e c r i t i c a l p e r i o d i s l i k e l y t o be i n u t e r o during t h e development o f t o o t h buds ( B a i l i t 1975). The p o s t n a t a l environment may a f f e c t t o o t h s i z e , causing asymmetries, b u t how t h i s e f f e c t i s produced i s u n c l e a r . A s noted, t h i s c o n d i t i o n f r e q u e n t l y has been used a s a measure of s t r e s s on a p o p u l a t i o n a l l e v e l . I t s use l i k e l y w i l l i n c r e a s e a s t h e mechanisms by which asymmetries develop a r e b e t t e r understood.

INDICATORS OF GENERAL AND EPISODIC STRESS

H a r r i s Lines H a r r i s (1926, 1933) was one o f t h e f i r s t r e s e a r c h e r s t o s t u d y t h e mechanisms and causes o f H a r r i s l i n e s . H a r r i s l i n e s , which c o n s i s t o f dense t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s v i s i b l e i n l o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n s o r radiographs o f longbones, a r e a l s o r e f e r r e d to a s " t r a n s v e r s e t r a b e c u l a e " ( P l a t t and Stewart 19621, " t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s " (Park and R i c h t e r 1 9 5 3 ) , "radiographic t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s " ( H a r r i s 1933) , and " l i n e s and bands of i n c r e a s e d r a d i o p a c i t y " (Gam e t a l . 1968). While t h e l a t t e r l a b e l i s t h e most a c c u r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e phenomena, we w i l l r e f e r t o them a s H a r r i s l i n e s o r t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s f o r b r e v i t y and i n agreement with t h e p r e v a i l i n g convention (Figure 2.2) The mechanism by which H a r r i s l i n e s a r e formed involve a r e duction i n t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e epiphyseal c a r t i l a g e p l a t e w i t h i n c r e a s e d r e s i s t a n c e of t h e immature c a r t i l a g e c e l l s t o c a p i l l a r y and o s t e o b l a s t i c p e n e t r a t i o n . Subsequently, a t h i n o s t e o b l a s t i c l a y e r (primary stratum) i s formed and r e p l a c e s t h e more mature c a r t i l a g e c e l l s below t h e p l a t e . F i n a l l y , h o r i z o n t a l l y o r i e n t e d t r a b e c u l a e a r e formed by t h e o s t e o b l a s t s o f t h e primary stratum (Garn e t dl.-1968; Park 1964; Park and R i c h t e r 1953; Steinbock 1976). Once formed, H a r r i s l i n e s may r e s o r b and disappear. There is l i t t l e agreement on how, when, and where r e s o r p t i o n o c c u r s . Hence, r e s o r p t i o n i n t r o d u c e s a p o t e n t i a l source of e r r o r i n t o a n a l y s e s o f H a r r i s l i n e s a s i n d i c a t o r s of p a s t s t r e s s f u l e x p e r i ences ( c f . Garn e t a l . 1968; Park 1964). There i s l i t t l e consensus about t h e cause o f H a r r i s l i n e s ( s e e Buikstra and Cook 1980; Huss-Ashore e t a l . 1982, and Martin e t a l . i n p r e s s f o r d i s c u s s i o n s on t h e meaning and u s e of H a r r i s l i n e s i n paleoanthropology) The mechanisms o f l i n e formation r e q u i r e a p e r i o d i n which growth i s a r r e s t e d , followed by a p e r i o d of growth recovery (Acheson 1959; Steinbock 1 9 7 6 ) . This p r o c e s s may t a k e p l a c e w i t h i n approximately one week (Steinbock 1976) . Thus H a r r i s l i n e s should be i n d i c a t i v e of s t r e s s e s o f approximatel y t h i s d u r a t i o n . However, t h e c l i n i c a l and experimental l i t e r a t u r e show o n l y a weak a s s o c i a t i o n between known s t r e s s o r s and H a r r i s l i n e formation ( s e e Marshall 1 9 6 7 ) . Published c o r r e l a t i o n

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c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s between H a r r i s l i n e s and d i s e a s e s range from - 0 3 t o - 3 0 (Mensforth 1981) Despite t h e s e low c o r r e l a t i o n s , H a r r i s l i n e analyses have been common i n paleopathology s i n c e Wells (1967) h a i l e d t h e method a s an e x c i t i n g "new approach t o paleopathology." The enthusiasm of Wells and o t h e r s ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1974; Clarke 1978; Cook 1979; Goodman and Clark 1981; Gray 1967; McHenry 1968; and Woodall 1968) i s l i k e l y t o be a f u n c t i o n of t h e e a s e of t h e method and t h e pot e n t i a l f o r g a i n i n g c h r o n o l o g i c a l information about e p i s o d i c stresses. H a r r i s l i n e f r e q u e n c i e s have been used t o measure gender d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t r e s s (Wells 19671, i n t e r p o p u l a t i o n d i f f e r ences i n s t r e s s (Goodman and Clark l 9 8 l ) , p e r i o d i c i t y of s t r e s s (Cook 1979) , and t h e chronology of s t r e s s during development (Clarke 1 9 7 8 ) . I f H a r r i s l i n e s a r e a v a l i d i n d i c a t o r of s t r e s s , then t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o i n d i c a t e a c u t e and e p i s o d i c s t r e s s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e p r e v i o u s l y noted i n d i c a t o r s o f cumulative s t r e s s . The s t a n d a r d method f o r a n a l y s i s o f H a r r i s l i n e s i n v o l v e s t h e production o f radiographs of long bones i n a n t e r i o r - p o s t e r i o r position. Lines may b e r a t e d f o r t h i c k n e s s , degree of o p a c i t y , and amount t h a t they t r a v e r s e t h e d i a p h y s i s . However, we a r e unaware o f a highly r e p l i c a b l e method f o r s c o r i n g e i t h e r t h e presence o r absence o r t h e q u a l i t y of a l i n e . Chronologies of t h e time of development of l i n e s have been developed based on t h e p o s i t i o n o f l i n e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e mid-shaft using e s t a b l i s h e d c h r o n o l o g i e s f o r t h e growth i n l e n g t h of long bones ( s e e Goodman e t a l . , Chapter 11 t h i s volume). These chronologies can be a d j u s t e d f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n growth a s a f u n c t i o n of age, s e x , and body p a r t b u t can n o t account f o r i n d i v i d u a l and p o p u l a t i o n l e v e l v a r i a t i o n s i n growth. H a r r i s l i n e a n a l y s i s f o r a d u l t long bones may provide a chronology o f s t r e s s d u r i n g t h e complete p e r i o d of long bone growth. Analysis o f s u b a d u l t long bones may y i e l d a chronology up t o t h e age a t death. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of H a r r i s l i n e d a t a must be undertaken w i t h c a u t i o n . D i f f e r e n c e s in frequency may be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a f u n c t i o n of v a r i a t i o n i n degree o f e p i s o d i c s t r e s s . However, one must be aware of t h e low c o r r e l a t i o n s between H a r r i s l i n e s and known s t r e s s o r s i n t h e c l i n i c a l and experimental l i t e r a t u r e a s w e l l a s a s e r i e s of i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between H a r r i s l i n e s and o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s i n p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s (Goodman and Clark 1981; McHenry and Schulz 1 9 7 6 ) . S i m i l a r l y , H a r r i s l i n e chronolog i e s may be u s e f u l i n p o i n t i n g t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s over t h e growing y e a r s . However, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of chronologies i s a l s o dependent on o n e ' s f a i t h i n t h e meaning o f l i n e s a s w e l l a s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a g e - r e l a t e d h o s t r e s i s t a n c e and growth phenomena. F i n a l l y , e v a l u a t i o n of t h e frequency of H a r r i s l i n e s a c r o s s s t u d i e s i s c a u t i o n e d a g a i n s t because d a t a concerning H a r r i s l i n e s a r e known t o vary by o b s e r v e r , r a d i o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l and method employed, long bone observed, and age of sample ( M a r t i n e t a l . 1984). H a r r i s l i n e s a r e p o t e n t i a l l y an e x c e l l e n t source o f d a t a o b t a i n a b l e i n no o t h e r way, but t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n should be supported by p a r a l l e l a n a l y s e s of o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s .

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FIGURE 2 . 3 Enamel hypoplasia of t h e rnaxiZZavy c e n t r a l and l a t e r a l i n c i s o r s i n an a d u l t from the- Pueblo period a t Black Mesa, Arizona.

Enamel Hypoplasias Enamel hypoplasia (chronologic o r l i n e a r hypoplasia o r a p l a s i a ) i s a d e f i c i e n c y i n enamel t h i c k n e s s r e s u l t i n g from a c e s s a t i o n i n amelogenesis ( S a r n a t and Schour 1941). Enamel h y p p l a s i a s a r e v i s i b l e on t o o t h crown s u r f a c e s a s l i n e s , bands, o r p i t s o f decreased enamel t h i c k n e s s (Goodman e t a l . 1980; s e e Figure 2 . 3 ) The mechanisms by which enamel h y p o p l a s i a s develop i s without controversy (Kreshover 1960; Osborn 1973; Rose e t a l . i n p r e s s ) . Enamel m a t r i x i s formed by s e c r e t o r y a m e l o b l a s t s . I f t h e s e amelob l a s t s a r e d i s r u p t e d t o a degree t h a t they l o s e t h e i r f u n c t i o n a l a b i l i t y , then l e s s m a t r i x w i l l be formed and t h e r e s u l t i n g enamel w i l l be reduced. Since amelogenesis, t h e p r o c e s s of m a t r i x format i o n , occurs along a coordinated f r o n t whose shape and timing have been determined, t h e age of development of hypoplasia may b e deduced ( S a r n a t and Schour 1 9 4 1 ) . F i n a l l y , s i n c e enamel, once formed, i s n o t resorbed o r remodeled during l i f e , i t provides a permanent and u n a l t e r e d chronologic memory of s t r e s s during i t s development. The experimental b a s i s f o r r e l a t i n g hypoplasias t o p e r i o d s o f s t r e s s i s a s t r o n g one. Hypoplasias have been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a wide v a r i e t y o f d i s e a s e s and n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s ( s e e Kreshover 1960; Pinborg 1982; Rose 1973; Rose e t a l . 1984).

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With l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n , t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h known s t r e s s e s a r e high, w i t h r2 v a l u e s around -5. Unexplained v a r i a t i o n may be r e l a t e d t o h o s t r e s i s t a n c e and methodological d i f f i c u l t i e s (Rose e t a l . 1984) Hypoplasias have been examined f o r both deciduous and perman e n t d e n t i t i o n i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s . The frequency o f hyp o p l a s i a s i n t h e deciduous d e n t i t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y low, perhaps r e f l e c t i n g i n t r a u t e r i n e p r o t e c t i o n (Blakey 1981; S c i u l l i 1977). The advantage of studying deciduous t e e t h is t h a t they provide a record o f s t r e s s e s during t h e i r unique time of d e v e l o p m e n t ~ t h e f i r s t year of l i f e and t h e l a s t 5 months o f p r e n a t a l development. Enamel hypoplasias o f t h e permanent d e n t i t i o n i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s have been s t u d i e d by a v a r i e t y of a u t h o r s i n r e c e n t years ( s e e B u i k s t r a and Cook 1980; Huss-Ashmore e t a l . 1982; Rose e t a l . 1984) The usual method of a n a l y s i s involves t h e recording o f d e f e c t s on a s i n g l e t o o t h , u s u a l l y t h e canine. Goodman and co-workers (1980) have shown t h a t t h e canine may be a p a r t i c u l a r l y good choice a s it i s highly s u s c e p t i b l e t o s t r e s s and has a long developmental p e r i o d (Condon 1981; Rose e t a l . 1984). Hypoplasia a n a l y s i s i n c l u d e s a recording of t h e a v a i l a b l e enamel s u r f a c e f o r o b s e r v a t i o n and t h e p o s i t i o n o f hypoplasias on t h e enamel crown. Observation of hypoplasias may be aided by use of a binocular microscope. While hypoplasias d i f f e r i n width, depth, and c o n t i n u i t y ( p i t s v e r s u s l i n e s o r bands), such charact e r i s t i c s a r e i n f r e q u e n t l y recorded. There is no standard d e f i n i t i o n of t h e minimum requirement f o r s c o r i n g a h y p p l a s i a . The p o s i t i o n of hypoplasias on t h e enamel crown may be recorded a s d i s t a n c e from t h e cemento-enamel junction ( i n mm) and/or by e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n of t h e d e f e c t on t h e crown. An a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e s i n g l e t o o t h a n a l y s i s has been provided by Swsrdstedt (1966), who s t u d i e d a l l a v a i l a b l e permanent t e e t h except f o r t h e highly v a r i a b l e t h i r d molar. The two main advantages of t h i s method a r e (1) an a b i l i t y t o check t h a t t h e underlying s t r e s s i s systemic r a t h e r than l o c a l i n o r i g i n by showing t h a t t h e same episode i s recorded on d i f f e r e n t t e e t h , and ( 2 ) an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e chronology by use of t e e t h developing a t The main disadvantage of t h i s method i s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t times. t h a t it r e q u i r e s more time than t h e s i n g l e t o o t h a n a l y s i s . Goodman and co-workers (1980) proposed a compromise t o t h e above with a " b e s t t e e t h " a n a l y s i s which i n c l u d e s t h e use of t h e rnaxill a r y c e n t r a l i n c i s o r and mandibular canine. I n t h e Dickson Mounds s t u d y , 95% of systemic s t r e s s e s were recorded on one o r both of these teeth. Hypoplasia f r e q u e n c i e s have been used i n archaeology t o compare t h e frequency of s t r e s s by gender (Swzrdstedt 1 9 6 6 ) , by s t a t u s group (Cook 1981; Goodman e t a l . 1983), and by age c l a s s (Cook 1981; Goodman and Armelagos 1980; SwSrdstedt 1 9 6 6 ) , a s w e l l a s t o The comparicompare p o p u l a t i o n s (Cook 1976; Goodman e t a l . 1980) son o f age groups i s of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t a s a u t h o r s have found t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h mare hypoplasias d i e a t an e a r l i e r age.

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27

These d a t a a r e evidence t h a t hypoplasias r e c o r d childhood e v e n t s which a r e Important t o t h e s u r v i v a l of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s . Hypoplasias have been used t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e chronological d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s . SwSrdstedt (1966) n o t e s a peak p e r i o d of s t r e s s around age two t o f o u r i n a Swedish medieval p o p u l a t i o n while Schulz and McHenry (1975) n o t e a peak a t age f o u r t o f i v e i n t h e i r C a l i f o r n i a Amerindian sample. Goodman and co-workers (1980) noted t h a t hypoplasias a r e more o f t e n s e p a r a t e d by a y e a r than by a h a l f y e a r . T h i s i s given a s evidence of an annual c y c l e of s t r e s s . I n summary, enamel hypoplasias a r e a r e l a t i v e l y v a l i d and r e p l i c a b l e i n d i c a t o r s of infant-childhood s t r e s s . Further experimental work and more agreement on t h e minimum requirement f o r s c o r i n g d e f e c t s would b e n e f i t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A t p r e s e n t hypop l a s i a s a r e a v a l u a b l e method f o r e v a l u a t i o n of g e n e r a l s t r e s s occurring a t e a r l y ages.

Enamel Microdefects Enamel microdef e c t s ( p a t h o l o g i c a l s t r i a e of R e t z i u s , Wilson bands) a r e observable i n l o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n s o f t e e t h a s a l i n e o r band running r e l a t i v e l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o enamel prisms which e x h i b i t s abnormal shape and prism bending (Rose e t a l . , 1984) (Figure 2 - 4 ) A microdefect i s t h e r e s u l t of a temporary d i s r u p t i o n i n ameloqenesis. Matrix formation has a n a t u r a l p e r i o d i c i t y and under normal c o n d i t i o n s w i l l r e s u l t i n a s e r i e s of incremental l i n e s i n enamel (Yaeger 1980) However, i f t h e metabolism of t h e a c t i v e , s e c r e t o r y ameloblasts i s d i s r u p t e d , then t h e matrix formed may be a l t e r e d i n t h i c k n e s s , prism d i r e c t i o n , and p r o t e i n c o n t e n t . The observable r e s u l t o f t h i s d i s r u p t i o n i s a microdefect. Microdef e c t s have been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a wide v a r i e t y of d i s e a s e and n u t r i t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e s i n c l i n i c a l (Massler e t a l . 1941; Watson e t a l . 1964) and experimental s t u d i e s (Rose and P a s l e y 1980). Though l e s s r e s e a r c h has been done on microdefects a s compared t o hypoplasias, t h e r e s u l t s a r e s i m i l a r . I t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e s e two d e f e c t s a r e d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of a n a l y s i s of t h e same d i s r u p t i o n (Condon 1981). Hypoplasias may be a s s o c i a t e d with t h e s e v e r e s t grade o f m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l d i s r u p t i o n . Methods f o r a n a l y s i s o f m i c r o d e f e c t s include t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of u n d e c a l c i f i e d l o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n s through t o o t h crowns. Recorded information i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o r hypoplasias ( a v a i l a b l e enamel and l o c a t i o n o f d e f e c t s r e l a t i v e t o t h e cemento-enamel j u n c t i o n ) . A v a r i e t y of o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s of microdefects have been employed (Rose e t a l . 1984) which v a r y mainly i n t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n of t h e p o i n t a t which a band i s no longer considered t o be due t o normal p r o c e s s e s . Rose's (1977) advocation of t h e term Wilson bands provides t h e most r e s t r i c t i n g d e f i n i t i o n of a microd e f e c t . Wilson bands include a r a d i c a l change i n prism d i r e c t i o n

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FIGURE 2.4 Witson band from a permanent canine ( 1 6 0 ~ ) . Note the trough-like appearance of t h e band (Condon, 1 9 8 1 ) . and abnormal p r i s m s t r u c t u r e . Condon (1981) and Rudney ( 1 9 8 1 ) , however, b e l i e v e t h a t a change i n p r i s m d i r e c t i o n i s s u f f i c i e n t t o i n d i c a t e systemic d i s r u p t i o n . I n r e c e n t y e a r s a v a r i e t y of s t u d i e s have emerged on t h e app e a r a n c e of m i c r o d e f e c t s i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s ( C l a r k e 1978; Condon 1981; Cook 1981; J a b l o n s k i 1981; Rose 1973, 1977, 1979; Rose e t a l . 1978; Rudney 1 9 8 1 ) . An exemplary s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s of m i c r o d e f e c t s h a s been p r o v i d e d by Rose (1977) and co-workers (Rose e t a l . 1 9 7 8 ) . They d e m o n s t r a t e a n i n c r e a s e d frequency o f Wilson bands i n Dickson Mounds v e r s u s Gibson Mounds p o p u l a t i o n s , a peak f r e q u e n c y of d e f e c t s around 2 y e a r s o f a g e , and an i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Wilson bands and age a t d e a t h . Microdefect a n a l y s i s i s l i k e l y t o i n c r e a s e i n popularity i n paleopathology. With a b i o l o g i c a l l y meaningful and a g r e e d upon minimum c r i t e r i a f o r s c o r i n g a d e f e c t , m i c r o d e f e c t s p r o v i d e a p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r of s t r e s s . I n comparison t o hypop l a s i a s , m i c r o d e f e c t s may r e c o r d more d i s r u p t i o n , i n c l u d i n g l e s s s e v e r e and l o n g - l a s t i n g o n e s . The major drawbacks of t h i s method i n c l u d e t h e need t o s a c r i f i c e t e e t h and t h e t i m e and c o s t s i n volved i n t h e s t u d y .

2 INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH Other E p i s o d i c S t r e s s I n d i c a t o r s Teeth p r o v i d e a s e r i e s o f o t h e r e p i s o d i c s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s which a r e l e s s f r e q u e n t l y used b u t may p r o v i d e i m p o r t a n t informat i o n on s t r e s s . While enamel h y p o p l a s i a s and m i c r o d e f e c t s a r e due t o d i s r u p t i o n i n enamel m a t r i x f o r m a t i o n , enamel h y p c a l c i f i c a t i o n s a r e d e f e c t s which r e s u l t from a d i s r u p t i o n i n m a t u r a t i o n o f enamel (Yaeger 1 9 8 0 ) . These a r e v i s i b l e a s i n c r e a s e d o p a c i t i e s i n enamel and a r e o f t e n found i n c o n s o r t w i t h h y p o p l a s t i c d e f e c t s (Blakey 1 9 8 1 ) . The common o c c u r r e n c e of h y p o p l a s i a s and hypocalc i f i c a t i o n s i s i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e i r b e i n g t h e r e s u l t o f t h e same metabolic d i s r u p t i o n . Dental Dentin development i s s i m i l a r t o enamel development. m a t r i x ( p r e d e n t i n e ) i s f i r s t formed and i s q u i c k l y c a l c i f i e d (Avery 1 9 8 0 ) . I n c r e m e n t a l l i n e s ( l i n e s o f von Ebner) a r e o b s e r v a b l e i n d e n t i n . Contour l i n e s o f Owen a r e a c c e n t u a t i o n s o f t h e normal i n c r e m e n t a l p a t t e r n and may b e used t o i n d i c a t e m e t a b o l i c Molnar and Ward (1975) have p r o v i d e d an o v e r s t r e s s (Avery 1980) view o f t h e p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n of d e n t i n m i c r o d e f e c t s i n anthropology. I n theory, d e n t i n should y i e l d a s e t of i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s which a r e a s v a l i d a s enamel d e f e c t s . However, d e n t i n d e f e c t s have been s t u d i e d f a r l e s s f r e q u e n t l y , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e t h e r e i s no means o f s t u d y i n g them w i t h o u t making h i s t o l o g i c a l t h i n sections.

.

INDICATORS OF SPECIFIC DISEASE STRESS

Porotic Hyperostosis P o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s ( l e s i o n s o f t h e f r o n t a l , p a r i e t a l , and o c c i p i t a l bones o f t h e cranium) and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a ( l e s i o n s o n t h e s u p e r i o r b o r d e r of t h e o r b i t s ) a r e m a n i f e s t a s a widening of t h e spongy d i p l o e w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g t h i n n i n g of t h e o u t e r dense c o r t i c a l bone r e s u l t i n g i n t h e appearance of s u r f a c e p o r o s i t y ( s e e Figure 2.5). I n s e v e r e c a s e s , t h e r e i s t o t a l o b l i t e r a t i o n of t h e bone s u r f a c e w i t h a l a t t i c e of t r a b e c u l a r overgrowth ( s e e F i g u r e Mensforth and co-workers (1978) have p r e s e n t e d t h e most 2.5) thorough d i s c u s s i o n o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n a r c h e o l o g i c a l popul a t i o n s . S t e i n b o c k (1976) p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i s u s e f u l i n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s which c a u s e t h e l e s i o n t o be p r e s e n t i n humans. F i r s t d e s c r i b e d by Welcher i n 1885, t h e c o n d i t i o n h a s been a t t r i b u t e d t o a number o f f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g t h a l a s s e m i a , h e r e d i t a r y anemias, s i c k l e - c e l l anemia, and i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia (Moseley 1 9 6 3 ) . The a l t e r a t i o n i n s k e l e t a l t i s s u e from t h e s e anemias i s caused by t h e i n c r e a s e i n r e d blood c e l l p r o d u c t i o n which t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e marrow c a v i t i e s o f l o n g bones and t h e d i p l o e o f f l a t

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ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

cin

FIGURE 2.5

Porotio h p e r o s t o s i s (cribra orb-ital'La) of t h e

orbital surface. bones. Because t h e c r a n i a l bones a r e so t h i n , they a r e o f t e n a f f e c t e d . A s t h e d i p l o e expands, t h e o u t e r l a y e r of bone becomes very t h i n and t h e inner t r a b e c u l a r bone i s exposed. The thickened and porous bone has a s i e v e - l i k e appearance. In a landmark study, Henqen (1971) analyzed 459 human c r a n i a from various time periods and geographic a r e a s and discussed t h e various p o s s i b l e explanations f o r t h e occurrence of p o r o t i c l e sions. After c a s t i n g o u t those explanations which d i d n o t f i t most c a s e s , he suggested t h a t i r o n deficiency anemias f i t most examples and t h a t t h e l e s i o n could be t r a c e d t o t h e d i e t a r y h a b i t s . H e f u r t h e r proposed t h a t iron d e f i c i e n c y a c t e d s y n e r g e t i c a l l y with i n f e c t i o u s and p a r a s i t i c d i s e a s e s . D i f f e r e n t i a l diagnosis could be made b y examining t h e l o c a t i o n of the l e s i o n , i t s s e v e r i t y , and t h e age d i s t r i b u t i o n of a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s . Numerous r e s e a r c h e r s have argued t h a t p o r o t i c h y p e m s t o s i s i s due t o n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s in most c a s e s i n t h e New World s i n c e o t h e r explanations (malaria,

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hemoglobin derived anemias) can n o t b e a p p l i e d t o New World popul a t i o n s (El-Najjar e t a l . 1976; L a l l o e t d l . 1977; Mensforth e t a l . 1978). Carlson and co-workers (1974) f u r t h e r e d Hengen's hypothesis by suggesting t h a t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f c u l t u r a l , environmental, and b i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s could account f o r t h e i n c i d e n c e of t h e pathology i n p r e h i s t o r i c Sudanese Nubian p o p u l a t i o n s . T h i s study emphasized a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e l e s i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o age and found a higher incidence of l e s i o n s among i n f a n t s and females of child-bearing ages. A t about t h e same time El-Naj j a r and coworkers (1976) reached s i m i l a r conclusions f o r two p r e h i s t o r i c Southwestern Amerindian p o p u l a t i o n s . Both t h e s e s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i s a n o n s p e c i f i c pathology t h a t r e f l e c t s an anemic c o n d i t i o n . High f r e q u e n c i e s of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e , a d i e t low i n i r o n o r one t h a t i n h i b i t s i r o n a b s o r p t i o n , and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s such a s weanling d i a r r h e a , a l l i n c r e a s e t h e p o t e n t i a l for porotic hyperostosis. S t u d i e s conducted by L a l l o and co-workers (1977) and Mensforth and co-workers (1978) expanded t h e previous r e s e a r c h by examining t h e frequency and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e l e s i o n s w i t h i n s p e c i f i c age categories. Through t h e use of r e f i n e d age c a t e g o r i e s , t h e c l u s t e r i n g o f l e s i o n s i n younger c h i l d r e n was shown t o r e f l e c t t h e i n creased need f o r i r o n metabolism d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f r a p i d growth and development. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e evidence of h e a l i n g of t h e l e s i o n can provide important information on its impact on m o r t a l i t y . The evidence from remodeling ( h e a l i n g ) suggests t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a s survived t h e i n i t i a l episode. Mensforth and coworkers (1978) were a b l e t o demonstrate t h a t a l a r g e percentage of i n d i v i d u a l s did s u r v i v e e a r l y s t r e s s e s , while Huss-Ashmore and co-workers (1982) demonstrated t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a c t i v e p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s show a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n m o r t a l i t y during e a r l y childhood. The a s s o c i a t i o n of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s should a l s o be considered. When both p a t h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s occ u r t o g e t h e r i n an i n d i v i d u a l , t h e i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s a r e u s u a l l y more severe ( L a l l o e t a l . 1 9 7 7 ) . Through t h e use o f r e f i n e d age c a t e g o r i e s and d i a g n o s t i c d i s t i n c t i o n s o f healed and unhealed l e s i o n s of both p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and i n f e c t i o u s r e a c t i o n s , Mensforth and co-workers (1978) were a b l e t o demonstrate t h a t f o r t h e Libben p o p u l a t i o n , i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s were t h e i n i t i a l pathol o g i c a l response which made i n d i v i d u a l s more s u s c e p t i b l e t o p0rot.i.c hyperostosis Analyses of p o r o f i c h y p e r o s t o s i s have o f t e n been hindered by f a i l u r e t o consider t h e p h y s i c a l q u a l i t y of t h e l e s i o n (healed v e r s u s unhealed) , f a i l u r e t o d e f i n e p r e c i s e and narrow categor i e s , and f a i l u r e t o consider t h e s y n e r g i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between h o s t r e s i s t a n c e , d i e t , and o t h e r v a r i a b l e s such a s i n f e c t i o u s disease. However, when a l l f a c t o r s a r e considered, and when t h e narrowest b i o l o g i c a l l y meaningful age c a t e g o r i e s a r e used, p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i s a v a l u a b l e marker o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s i n s k e l e t a l populations.

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ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

FIGURE 2.6

shafts.

Periosteal reactions involving the long bone

I n f e c t i o u s Disease Most examples o f i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i n p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l remains a r e n o n s p e c i f i c ; t h a t i s t o s a y t h e l e s i o n s a r e caused by v a r i o u s k i n d s o f microorganisms, b u t t h e i r e x a c t e t i o l o g y i s unknown. S p e c i f i c i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s such a s treponema (yaws/syphi l i s ) , t u b e r c u l o s i s , and l e p r o s y , which can b e d i f f e r e n t i a l l y diagnosed, a r e much r a r e r ( r e f e r t o B u i k s t r a 1981; O r t n e r and P u t s c h a r 1981; S t e i n b o c k 1 9 7 6 ) . N o n s p e c i f i c i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s on bone a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s periosteal reactions (when t h e l e s i o n is c o n f i n e d t o t h e o u t e r p e r i o s t e a l s u r f a c e o f bone, F i g u r e 2.6) and o s t e a i s (when t h e r e a c t i o n c o u r s e s throughand o s t e o @ i t i s o u t t h e bone t i s s u e i n v o l v i n g b o t h t h e marrow and c o r t e x ) . The l a t t e r r e a c t i o n can be diagnosed o n l y v i a r a d i o g r a p h s ; b u t t h e l o c a l i z a t i o n of t h e inflammatory p r o c e s s r a r e l y o c c u r s and t h e r e i s u s u a l l y some d e g r e e o f involvement of a l l t h e a n a t o m i c a l components (Steinbock 1976). Severe o s t e o m y e l i t i s and o s t e i t i s a r e caused by t h e s p r e a d o f t h e microorganisms o f Staphyloeocous and Streptococcus. P e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s may a l s o b e caused by t h e organisms b u t o t h e r f a c t o r s can r e s u l t i n a p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n ( G r e e n f i e l d 1975; Kunitz 1 9 7 0 ) . Depending on t h e v i r u l e n c e of t h e microorganism a n d t h e r e s i s t a n c e

2 INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH

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of t h e h o s t , t h e i n f e c t i o u s r e a c t i o n may be a n a c u t e and l o c a l i z e d one, o r c h r o n i c and s y s t e m i c ( a p p e a r i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y on many bones). P e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s r e s u l t from an e l e v a t i o n of t h e f i b r o u s o u t e r l a y e r of t h e p e r i o s t e u m due t o t h e compressing and s t r e t c h i n g o f blood v e s s e l s ( J a f f e e 1 9 7 2 ) . S u b p e r i o s t e a l hemorrage o c c u r s which i n t u r n reduces t h e blood supply t o t h e bone. If the p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n i s s e v e r e and l o n g t e r m , t h e p e r i o s t e a l bone t i s s u e w i l l d i e ( n e c r o s i s ) ; o t h e r w i s e , t h e p e r i o s t e u m w i l l r e sume normal growth when t h e d i s r u p t i o n i s stopped. P e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s account f o r a g r e a t majority o f patholoqic a l a l t e r a t i o n s found i n e a r l y human and animal bones ( S t e i n b o c k 1976). I n t h e New and Old World, i n f e c t i o n s may b e found i n e v e r y a r c h a e o l o g i c a l h o r i z o n and g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n ( r e f e r t o J a r c h o 1966; O r t n e r and P u t s c h a r 1981; S t e i n b o c k 1 9 7 6 ) . Recent r e s e a r c h h a s emphasized t h e s y n e r g i s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n which i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e h a s w i t h n u t r i t i o n a l and d e g e n e r a t i v e d i s e a s e . O f t e n one p a t h o p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t a t e w i l l p r e d i s p o s e an i n d i v i d u a l t o one o r several other diseases. Because i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i s s o common i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l specimens, t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of i t s meaning w i l l be c l e a r o n l y when i t i s viewed w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t and w i t h r e s p e c t t o a n a l y s i s of s e v e r a l i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s . Thus, an e f f e c t i v e a n a l y s i s of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s of n o n s p e c i f i c o r i g i n requires several important considerations.

1. The n a r r o w e s t b i o l o g i c a l l y meaningful a g e c a t e g o r i e s should be used because broad age c a t e g o r i e s w i l l o b s c u r e t h e r a n g e of s u s c e p t i b i l i t y . 2. The a n a l y s i s of t h e s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s s h o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h d e g r e e s of s e v e r i t y ( l i g h t , moderate, and s e v e r e r e a c t i o n s ) , d e s c r i b e t h e i r l o c a t i o n ( s i n g l e bone v e r s u s many bones, d i a p h y s i s v e r s u s e p i p h y s i s , l o n g bones v e r s u s f l a t b o n e s ) , and n o t e any e v i d e n c e of h e a l i n g . 3 . C o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n t o t h e s y n e r g i s t i c r e a c t i o n between i n f e c t i o n s , poor n u t r i t i o n , and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s . 4. The d i s t r i b u t i o n of l e s i o n s a c r o s s s e x and age c a t e g o r i e s should b e n o t e d , a s s h o u l d d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e age o f o n s e t , p a t t e r n i n g , and frequency among c u l t u r a l subgroups. 5. The d i s t i n c t i o n s h o u l d be made between n o n s p e c i f i c p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s o r o s t e o m y e l i t i s and s p e c i f i c d i s e a s e e n t i t i e s such a s t u b e r c u l o s i s and s y p h i l i s . 6 . The l e s i o n s o f i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s h o u l d be a n a l y z e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s r a t h e r t h a n being i n t e r preted i n i s o l a t i o n . L a l l o and co-workers (1978) examined t h e frequency o f i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e f o r 595 b u r i a l s from Dickson Mounds. They demonstrated t h a t t h e i n c i d e n c e of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y a s t h e group changed from a h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g economy t o one based more f u l l y on a g r i c u l t u r e . The e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s i n c r e a s e r e s t e d on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e was a n i n c r e a s e i n

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p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y which i n c r e a s e d t h e number of p o t e n t i a l h o s t s and f a c i l i t a t e d t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f d i s e a s e w i t h i n a p o p u l a t i o n . F u r t h e r , r e l i a n c e on a maize d i e t reduced n u t r i t i o n a l adequacy. A s y n e r g i s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n between m a l n u t r i t i o n and i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s r e s u l t e d i n a h i g h e r r a t e of m o r b i d i t y and m o r t a l i t y . I n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e can b e a powerful i n d i c a t o r o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s i n a p o p u l a t i o n , b u t i t s meaning i n a b r o a d e r s e n s e can o n l y come from a n a n a l y s i s c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c u l t u r a l and e c o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t and employing s e v e r a l i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s .

Trauma Traumatic l e s i o n s have been c l a s s i f i e d by O r t n e r and P u t s c h a r (1981) a s belonging t o f o u r major t y p e s : (1) f r a c t u r e s , ( 2 ) d i s l o c a t i o n s and d i s p l a c e m e n t s , ( 3 ) d e f o r m i t y induced a r t i f i c i a l l y , and ( 4 ) d i s r u p t i o n i n n e r v e o r blood s u p p l y . These t y p e s of i n j u r y a r e p r i m a r i l y caused by p h y s i c a l f o r c e o r by c o n t a c t w i t h b l u n t o r s h a r p o b j e c t s . The c a u s e of trauma can o f t e n be determined by a n a l y z i n g t h e i n t e n s i t y and d i r e c t i o n of t h e f o r c e . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s concerning trauma a r e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d i f t h e a g e , sex, and h e a l t h s t a t u s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l a r e known. I f t h e t r a u m a t i c l e s i o n o c c u r s w i t h p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n and i n f e c t i o u s inflammation, a s e v e r e c o n d i t i o n which i n v o l v e s t h e s o f t t i s s u e a s w e l l a s t h e bone i s i m p l i e d . S t e i n b o c k (1976) h a s s t a t e d t h a t s i m p l e f r a c t u r e s which do n o t b r e a k t h r o u g h t h e s o f t t i s s u e and s k i n r a r e l y become i n f e c t e d . The d e g r e e t o which a trauma has h e a l e d p r o v i d e s a c l u e t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e t r a u m a t i c e v e n t and t h e d e a t h of t h e i n d i v i d u a l . S p e c i f i c t y p e s o f trauma o f t e n p r o v i d e a d i r e c t i n f e r e n c e about s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s . Certain a c t i v i t i e s predispose i n d i v i d u a l s t o c e r t a i n t y p e s of a c c i d e n t a l trauma. Moreover, v a r i o u s forms of i n t e r p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e ( w a r f a r e , s c a l p i n g , mutil a t i o n , l a c e r a t i o n s ) and o f s u r g i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n ( t r e p h i n a t i o n , amputation) may be s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d ( O r t n e r and P u t s c h a r 1981). F r a c t u r e s a r e t h e most common t r a u m a t i c i n j u r i e s encountered i n archaeological populations. The r e s p o n s e of bone t o a f r a c t u r e i s immediate; v a s c u l a r i z a t i o n and new bone f o r m a t i o n begin w i t h i n a few days a f t e r a break i s made. Calcium s a l t s a r e r e l e a s e d from dead bone fragments and a l s o from t h e l i v i n g bone and a r e used i n c a l c i f y i n g t h e c a l l o u s m a t r i x which forms a b i n d i n g and c o n n e c t i n g s h e a t h around t h e two bone e n d s . Within two weeks, c a l c i f i c a t i o n i s underway, and t h e i n t e r n a l remodeling and r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e bone c a l l u s b e g i n s . The p r o c e s s can l a s t f o r months o r y e a r s , depending on t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e b r e a k (Steinbock 1976) . Even a p o o r l y a l i g n e d bone w i l l e v e n t u a l l y mend i t s e l f i f i n f e c t i o n does not s e t i n . The r a t e of t h i s r e p a i r is m o d i f i e d by a g e , t y p e of f r a c t u r e , d e g r e e of v a s c u l a r i z a t i o n , amount of motion between t h e broken e n d s , and p r e s e n c e o f i n f e c t i o n (Steinbock 1 9 7 6 ) . I n f e c t i o n

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a t t h e s i t e o f t h e bone c a n s e r i o u s l y hamper r e p a i r , and t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e t i m i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e on a r c h a e o l o g i c a l specimens i s r a r e l y p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t d e t e r m i n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f the healing process. One o f t h e most thorough a n a l y s e s o f f r a c t u r e s a t t h e populat i o n l e v e l i s p r e s e n t e d by Lovejoy and H e i p l e (1981) f o r t h e Libben s k e l e t a l c o l l e c t i o n . A q u a n t i t a t i v e approach t o t h e a n a l y s i s of l o n g bone f r a c t u r e s was shown t o b e v a l u a b l e i n i n t e r p r e t i n g various behavioral aspects of t h e population. These a u t h o r s found t h a t most f r a c t u r e s o c c u r r e d a s a consequence o f a c c i d e n t ; t h e f r a c t u r e r a t e was h i g h e s t i n t h e 10-25 and 45+ a g e grou; t h a t c a r e of p a t i e n t s was s k i l l f u l ; and t h a t t h e chance of f r a c t u r e was l a r g e l y determined by accumulated y e a r s o f r i s k i n the population.

Degenerative Conditions O s t e o a r t h r i t i s i s among t h e o l d e s t and most commonly known d i s e a s e s a f f l i c t i n g humans. However, t h e p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l d i a g n o s i s i s sometimes c o m p l i c a t e d . Measuring t h e amount o f a r t h r i t i c involvement w i t h s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s i s p r o b l e m a t i c , b u t numerous r e s e a r c h e r s have a t t e m p t e d t o a s s e s s i t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y ( r e f e r t o Jurmain 1977; O r t n e r and P u t s c h a r 1981) . While many f a c t o r s may c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e breakdown o f s k e l e t a l t i s s u e , such a s n u t r i t i o n , g e n e t i c s , and even v i r a l i n f e c t i o n s , t h e primary c a u s e o f o s t e o a r t h r i t i s i s r e l a t e d t o biomechanical wear and t e a r and f u n c t i o n a l s t r e s s . Biomechanical s t r e s s i s most a p p a r e n t a t t h e a r t i c u l a r s u r f a c e s o f l o n g bone j o i n t s and i s r e f e r r e d t o a s degenerative joint disease. The p a t t e r n i n g of d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e h a s been l i n k e d t o b e h a v i o r a l f a c t o r s . I n d i v i d u a l s who h a b i t u a l l y engage i n a c t i v i t i e s which p u t s t r a i n on t h e j o i n t systems a r e more l i k e l y e v e n t u a l l y t o show d e g e n e r a t i o n ( r e f e r t o A e g e r t e r and K i r k p a t r i c k 1 9 6 8 ) . D e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e i s d e f i n e d by changes i n t h e a r t i c u l a r s u r f a c e a r e a s o f j o i n t systems. Following t h e exposure of subchondral bone, t h e a r t i c u l a r s u r f a c e r e g i o n s become p i t t e d , w i t h m a r g i n a l l i p p i n g and e r o s i o n ; e v e n t u a l l y e b u r n a t i o n t a k e s place. E b u r n a t i o n i s t h e formation of a v e r y h a r d c a l l u s on bone s u r f a c e s which a r e r u b b i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h o u t b e i n g cushioned by l u b r i c a t i n g f l u i d s . Degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e i s not an inflammatory d i s e a s e , b u t d e v e l o p s on t h e b a s i s of a g i n g changes and breakdown of t h e c a r t i l a g e and l u b r i c a t i n g f l u i d . The c o n d i t i o n i s s l o w l y p r o g r e s s i v e , b u t i s n o t found t o o c c u r i n a l l o l d e r a d u l t s i n t h e same form. Thus, t h e c o n d i t i o n p r o b a b l y i s t h e accumulation of y e a r s of a l t e r a t i o n s of t h e a r t i c u l a r c a r t i l a g e and breakdown o f t h e j o i n t system. L i f e s t y l e and a c t i v i t y r e p e r t o i r e p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n e i t h e r b u f f e r i n g a n i n d i v i d u a l from a r t h r i t i s o r enhancing t h e chance t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n w i l l appear

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ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

The a n a l y s i s of d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e s should c o n s i d e r t h e s e v e r i t y of t h e c o n d i t i o n , d i s t i n g u i s h i n g s l i g h t involvement from severe. There a r e numerous s e t s of c r i t e r i a published t o a s s i s t t h e r e s e a r c h e r i n d e v i s i n g a graded s c a l e o f s e v e r i t y of involvement (Aegerter and K i r k p a t r i c k 1968; Jurmain 1977; Martin e t a l . 1979; Steinbock 1 9 7 6 ) . In a d d i t i o n , d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e s a r e r a r e l y confined t o a s i n g l e j o i n t complex. The weight-bearing j o i n t s such a s t h e h i p s and knees and t h o s e j o i n t s exposed t o c h r o n i c trauma such a s t h e shoulder and elbow a r e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y a f f e c t e d (Jurmain 1978; Martin e t a l . 1979) The p a t t e r n , d i s t r i b u t i o n , s e v e r i t y , and o n s e t by age c l a s s and sex i n a d u l t s can be used t o i n t e r p r e t t h e r o l e of c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y i n t h e e t i o l o g y of d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e V e r t e b r a l o s t e o p h y t o s i s i s another form of degeneration which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by marginal l i p p i n g on t h e v e r t e b r a l b o d i e s , and has been a s s o c i a t e d with changes i n t h e i n t e r v e r t e b r a l d i s c (Chapman 1973). Commonly found i n p r e h i s t o r i c and modern popul a t i o n s , t h i s d e g e n e r a t i o n t y p i c a l l y begins a t 30 y e a r s of age and a f f e c t s almost a l l i n d i v i d u a l s by 60 y e a r s of age (Steinbock The marginal l i p p i n g may range from a s l i g h t sharpness t o 1976) complete f u s i o n of t h e v e r t e b r a l b o d i e s . When t h e degree of o s t e o p h y t o s i s i s a s s e s s e d , each v e r t e b r a should be divided i n t o f o u r quadrants and each quadrant a s s e s s e d on b o t h t h e s u p e r i o r and i n f e r i o r margins using a s c a l e which ranges from no l i p p i n g t o extreme bony r i d g e s and e v e r s i o n a t t h e margins (Chapman 1973) The bony r i d g e s , o r o s t e o p h y t e s , can grow t o a g r e a t s i z e . A s w i t h o t h e r p a t h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n bone, maximum i n f o r mation can be o b t a i n e d regarding t h e c u l t u r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a d i s e a s e i f it i s combined w i t h a n a l y s e s of o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s . A p r e l i m i n a r y study c o r r e l a t i n g t h e i n c i d e n c e of degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e , o s t e o p h y t o s i s , and p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s was undertaken f o r t h e Dickson Mound population (Martin e t a l . 1 9 7 9 ) . I n d i v i d u a l s w i t h m u l t i p l e j o i n t involvement showed a s t a t i s t i c a l l y higher percentage of p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s . Both i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s and d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e appeared t o be a f u n c t i o n of age, and t h e more s e v e r e a r t h r i t i c involvements c o n s i s t e n t l y showed more severe infectious reactions.

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Dental P a t h o l o g i e s Dental p a t h o l o g i e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y found i n p r e h i s t o r i c populations. Among t h o s e which a r e most common a r e c a r i e s , p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e , excess o r abnormal a t t r i t i o n , a b s c e s s i n g , e x c e s s i v e c a l c u l u s , and premortem l o s s ( s e e Brothwell 1972 f o r s t a n d a r d s c o r i n g techniques and Ortner and Putchar 1981 f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n s ) . For example, Dental p a t h o l o g i e s a r e o f t e n i n t e r r e l a t e d . p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e (measured by degree of a l v e o l a r r e s o r p t i o n ) , c a r i e s , a t t r i t i o n , and a b s c e s s i n g a l l may cause premature l o s s of t e e t h . A t t r i t i o n and c a r i e s p a t t e r n s a r e o f t e n i n t e r r e l a t e d

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(Turner and Machado 1 9 8 3 ) . Both may be a r e s u l t of d i e t and e a t i n g habits. However, t h e r a t e of a t t r i t i o n may a f f e c t t h e r a t e of c a r i e s formation (Armelagos 1 9 6 9 ) . An i n c r e a s e i n r a t e of c a r i e s through time h a s been c i t e d a s i n v a r i a b l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s h i f t t o h i g h carbohydrate and then t o r e f i n e d carbohydrate d i e t s . Based on t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , some a r c h a e o l o g i s t s and p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have begun t o u s e c a r i e s r a t e s a s an i n d i c a t o r of carbohydrate consumption where a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence f o r d i e t i s i n s u f f i c i e n t ( s e e Rose e t a l . , Chapter 1 5 t h i s volume). Turner and Machado (1983) have p r e s e n t e d a s i m i l a r argument f o r a t t r i t i o n p a t t e r n s . These i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , however, may i n t r o d u c e c i r c u l a r i t y t o t h e a n a l y s i s . I f c a r i e s o r a t t r i t i o n a r e used t o h e l p determine d i e t a r y changes, then t h e y c e r t a i n l y can n o t be used t o a s s e s s t h e impact of t h e change. F i n a l l y , while d e n t a l p a t h o l o g i e s may be common, it i s uncert a i n a s t o how much t h e y add t o t h e d i s e a s e l o a d of p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s . While some c o n d i t i o n s may cause temporary p a i n and o t h e r s may d e c r e a s e chewing e f f i c i e n c y , it i s l i k e l y t h a t they a r e g e n e r a l l y of l e s s consequence t o population l e v e l a d a p t a t i o n than most of t h e p r e v i o u s l y mentioned c o n d i t i o n s .

I s o t o p i c and Trace Element S t u d i e s New chemical methods have r e c e n t l y been developed and t e s t e d which o f f e r hope f o r more p r e c i s e i n d i c a t i o n of d i e t a r y c o n t e n t s than has h i t h e r t o been p o s s i b l e . Trace element a n a l y s i s may provide t h e most d i r e c t information concerning d i e t of i n d i v i d u a l s p r i o r t o d e a t h (Schoeninger 1979; Zurer 1983). From o b s e r v a t i o n s of d i f f e r i n g amounts of t r a c e elements such a s i r o n , calcium, magnesium, l e a d , z i n c , copper, and s t r o n t i u m , it may be p o s s i b l e t o deduce t h e presence of d i e t a r y i n s u f f i c i e n c i e s ( G i l b e r t 1 9 7 7 ) . S t a b l e carbon i s o t o p i c a n a l y s i s can provide a n assessment of t h e p r i n c i p a l d i e t a r y components (Schoeninger e t a l . 1983; S i l l e n and Kavanaugh 1 9 8 2 ) . These s t u d i e s w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o c u r r e n t a n a l y s e s of d i e t a r y change by e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e presence of c e r t a i n c u l t i g e n s such a s maize i n t h e d i e t , s e g r e g a t i n g groups o f i n d i v i d u a l s with d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o t h e s e c u l t i g e n s , and determining t h e ~ r o ~ o r t i oofn s p e c i f i c c u l t i g e n s , animal p r o t e i n , and o t h e r f o o d s t u f f s i n t h e d i e t (Bumsted 1981; Smith e t a l . , Chapter 5 t h i s volume; Norr, Chapter 18 t h i s volume). Such a n a l y s e s , however, a r e j u s t beginning t o make a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o paleonutrition research.

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL. CONCLUSIONS :

PATTERN, PROCESS,

AND MULTIPLE INDICATORS OF STRESS

The purpose of t h i s c h a p t e r has been t o p r e s e n t a model f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s and t o provide an overview of t h e u s e and meaning of a s e r i e s o f commonly used i n d i c a t o r s . The v a r i o u s i n d i c a t o r s may have p a r t i a l l y overlapping e t i o l o g i e s ; but t h e y a r e n o t i d e n t i c a l o r e q u a l l y u s e f u l . For t h e s e reasons, coupled w i t h t h e i n h e r e n t u n c e r t a i n t y o f archaeolog i c a l r e s e a r c h and p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l d i a g n o s i s , we advocate t h e use o f s e v e r a l i n d i c a t o r s (and thereby m u l t i p l e confirmations) of stress. Multiple s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s may be used t o determine t h e degree and p a t t e r n of s t r e s s i n p o p u l a t i o n s . Is s t r e s s p r i m a r i l y chronic o r a c u t e , a f f e c t i n g c h i l d r e n o r a d u l t s , r e l a t e d t o i n c r e a s e d mort a l i t y o r u n r e l a t e d t o m o r t a l i t y ? By e v a l u a t i n g t h e p a t t e r n of s t r e s s w i t h i n p o p u l a t i o n s we may be a b l e t o b e t t e r understand t h e c o n d i t i o n s which a r e c a u s a t i v e of t h e s t r e s s and e v a l u a t e l i k e l y responses t o t h e s t r e s s . The p a t t e r n and s e v e r i t y o f s t r e s s can a l s o l e a d t o i n f e r e n c e s about t h e c a u s a l c o n d i t i o n s . A s an example, t h e accumulation of i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s o c c u r r i n g around t h e ages of two t o f o u r has l e a d Cook (Chapter 10 t h i s volume) t o a n e v a l u a t i o n of weanling d i e t . Her conclusion i s t h a t t h e weanling d i e t i n h e r maize a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s was inadequate and l e d t o t h e o n s e t of a v a r i e t y of stresses. From an examination of a p o p u l a t i o n ' s t o t a l s t r e s s load one may begin t o make i n f e r e n c e s about long-term consequences f o r cult u r e and behavior. For example, m o r t a l i t y i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y high i n t h e younger and o l d e r age segments of p r e i n d u s t r i a l p o p u l a t i o n s . However, t h i s m o r t a l i t y has l i t t l e impact on a p o p u l a t i o n ' s a b i l i t y t o maintain i t s e l f . I f t h e middle age segment o f a population shows s i g n s o f i n c r e a s e d morbidity and m o r t a l i t y , however, then r e p r o d u c t i o n and production may be s e v e r e l y a f f e c t e d . The s k e l e t o n i s an important a r t i f a c t o r s o u r c e of information. We have t r i e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e f a c t t h a t bone and t e e t h may prov i d e an important and i n t e r p r e t a b l e r e c o r d of e v e n t s i n i n d i v i d u a l s ' l i v e s and t h e i r responses t o t h e s e e v e n t s .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish t o acknowledge t h e following sources of f i n a n c i a l supp o r t : N I D R Grant No. T-32-DE07047 (A.H.G.), N I H Biomedical Support Grant No. RR07048-17 (D.L.M. and G . J . A . ) , and N I H Biomedical Support Grant No. 632-509 ( G . J . A . and G .C.)

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2 INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH

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ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AT.. example from t h e Libben S i t e , Ottowa County, Ohio.

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P l a t t , B. S., and R. J. C. Stewart 1962 Transverse t r a b e c u l a e and o s t e o p o r o s i s in bones i n experimental p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e d e f i c i e n c y . B r i t i s h Journal of Nutrition 16:483-495. Richman, G. A., D. J. O r t n e r , and F. P. S c h u l t e r - E l l i s 1979 D i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t r a c o r t i c a l bone remodeling i n t h r e e a b o r i g i n a l American populations: Possible dietary factors. Calcified Tissue Research 2 8 : 209-214. Rose, J. C. 1973 Analysis of d e n t a l micro-defects o f p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s from I l l i n o i s . Unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts, Amherst. 1977 Defective enamel h i s t o l o g y o f p r e h i s t o r i c t e e t h from I l l i n o i s . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 46:439446. 1979 Morphological v a r i a t i o n s of enamel prisms within abnormal Human Biology 51 : l 3 9 - l 5 l . s t r i a o f Retzius. Rose, J. C . , G. J. Armelaqos, and J. L a l l o 1978 H i s t o l o g i c a l enamel i n d i c a t o r s o f childhood s t r e s s i n p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l samples. American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 49: 511-516. Rose, J. C . , K. W. Condon, and A. H. Goodman 1984 D i e t and d e n t i t i o n : developmental d i s t u r b a n c e s . In The analysis of prehistoric d i e t s , e d i t e d by J. Mielke and R. G i l b e r t , i n p r e s s . Academic P r e s s , New York. Rose, J. C.', and J. N. Pasley 1980 S t r e s s and d e n t a l development: An experimental paleop a t h o l o g i c a l model. American J o m l o f Physical Anthropology 52:272 ( a b s t r a c t ) Rudney, J. 1981 The paleoepidemiology o f e a r l y childhood s t r e s s i n two a n c i e n t Nubian populations. Unpublished Ph. D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department o f Anthropology University o f Colorado. S a r n a t , B. G., and I . Schour 1941 Enamel hypoplasia (chronological enamel a p l a s i a ) i n r e l a t i o n t o systemic d i s e a s e : A chronologic, morphological and e t i o l o g i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Journal of the American Dental Association 28: 1989-2000. Schoeninger, M. J. 1979 Diet and d i s e a s e s t a t e s i n Calcatzingo: Some e m p i r i c a l and t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s of strontium a n a l y s i s . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51 :295-310. Schoeninger, M. J . , M. J. DiNiro, and H . Tauber 1983 S t a b l e n i t r o g e n i s o t o p e r a t i o s of bone collagen r e f l e c t s marine and t e r r e s t r i a l components of p r e h i s t o r i c d i e t . Science 220:1381-1383. Schulz, P. D., and H. McHenry 1975 The d i s t r i b u t i o n of enamel hypoplasia i n p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i f o r n i a Indians. Journal of Dental Research 5 4 ( 4 ) : 9 1 3 .

.

2 INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH S e l y e , H. 1950 S t r e s s :

The physioloqy and pathology o f exposure t o systemic s t r e s s . A c t a , I n c . , Montreal.

1971 Hormones and r e s i s t a n c e , p a r t 1. S p r i n g e r , New York. Shore, L. R. 1935 p o l y s p o n d y l i t i s m a r g i n a l i s o s t e o p h y t i c a . B r i t i s h Jouvna.2 of Surgery 22:850-863. S c i u l l i , P. W. 1977 A d e s c r i p t i v e and c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f t h e d e c i d u o u s dent i t i o n o f p r e h i s t o r i c Ohio V a l l e y Amerindians. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 47:71-80. S i l l e n , A . , and S. Kavanagh A review. Yearbook 1982 S t r o n t i u m a n d p a l e o d i e t e r y r e s e a r c h : of Physical Anthropology 25 :69-90. S t e i n b o c k , R. T. 1976 Pa leopat'ho logical diagnosis and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . C. C . Thomas, S p r i n g f i e l d , I l l i n o i s . S t e w a r t , R. J. C. 1975 Bone p a t h o l o g y i n e x p e r i m e n t a l m a l n u t r i t i o n . World Review of Nutrition and D i e t e t i c s 21 :1-74 S t i n i , W. 1969 ~ u t r i t i o n a ls t r e s s and growth: Sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n adapt i v e r e s p o n s e . American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 31 :417-426. 1972 Reduced s e x u a l dimorphism i n upper arm muscle circumferences associated with protein-calories d e f i c i e n t d i e t i n South American p o p u l a t i o n s . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 36: 341-352. 1975 Adaptive s t r a t e g i e s o f p o p u l a t i o n s under n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . I n Biosocial i n t e r a c t i o n s i n population adaptation, e d i t e d by E . S. Watt, F. E. J o h n s t o n , and G. W. L a s k e r , pp. 19-39. Mouton, The Hague. S t o u t , S. D. 1979 Histomorphometric a n a l y s i s o f a r c h e o l o g i c a l bone. Unpubl i s h e d Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Washington. S t o u t , S., and D. J. Simmons 1979 Use o f h i s t o l o g y i n a n c i e n t bone r e s e a r c h . Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 22 :228-249. Sundick, R. I. 1978 Human s k e l e t a l growth and a g e d e t e r m i n a t i o n . Homo 29: 228-249. Swardstedt , T. 1966 Odontological aspects of a Medieval population i n t h e province of Jamtland/Mid-Sweden. Tiden-Barnangen T r y c k e r i e n , Stockholm. Swedlund, A, C . , and G . J. Armelagos 1969 Une r e c h e r c h e e n ~ a l e o d e m o g r a p h i e : La Nubie Soudanaise. Annales Economies S o c i e t i e s C i v i l i s a t i o n s S e r . 4 24:12811298.

.

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL. 1976 Demographic anthropology. W. C. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa. Tanner, J . M. 1977 Human growth and c o n s t i t u t i o n . I n Human 'biology, (second e d . ) , e d i t e d by G. H. H a r r i s o n , J. S. Weiner, J. M. T a n n e r , and N. A. B a n n i c o t , p p . 301-385. Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New York. 1978 F e t u s i n t o man. Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Cambridge, Massachusetts. Thomas, R . B1973 Human a d a p t a t i o n t o a h i g h Andean energy flow system. Pennsylvania S t a t e University Occasional Papers i n Anthropology No. 6. T r o w e l l , H. C., J. N . Davies, and R. F. Dean Arnold, London. 1954 Kwashiorkor T u r n e r , C. , and L. M. Machado 1983 A new d e n t a l wear p a t t e r n and e v i d e n c e f o r h i g h carbohyd r a t e consumption i n a B r a z i l i a n A r c h a i c s k e l e t a l populat i o n . American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 61 (1): 12 5-1 30. Ubelaker, D. H. 1978 Human s k e l e t a l remains: Excavation, analysis and i n t e r pretation. A l d i n e , Chicago. Van Gerven, D. 1972 Sexual dimorphism i n t h e a d u l t human femur. Unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s , Amherst. Van Gerven, D. P., and G . J. Armelagos 1983 " F a r e w e l l t o p a l e o d e m g r a p h y ? " Rumors o f i t s d e a t h have been g r e a t l y e x a g g e r a t e d . Journal o f Human Evolution 1 2 : 353-360. Watson, A . , M - M a s s l e r , and M. P e r l s t e i n American Journal, 1964 ~ 0 0 t hr i n g a n a l y s i s i n c e r e b r a l p a l s y . of Dentistrg 107:370-384. w e l c h e r , H. 1885 C r i b r a o r b i t a l i a . Archive Anthropologie 17: 1-18. W e l l s , C. 1964 Bones, bodies and disease. P r a e g e r , New York. 1967 A new a p p r o a c h t o p a l e o p a t h o l o q y : Harris l i n e s . In Disease i n a n t i q u i t y , e d i t e d b y D. R. Brothwell and S. T. Sandison, pp. 390-404. Thomas, S p r i n g f i e l d , ~llinois. widdowson, E. M . , and R . A. McCance 1964 E f f e c t s o f n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e on growth. British ~ e n t a lJonrnaZ 117:326-330. Wing, E . S . , and A. B. Brown 1980 P a l e o n u t r i t k : Method and theory i n preh-istoric foodways. ~ c a d e m i cP r e s s , New York.

.

fVo?

woodall, J 1968 Growth a r r e s t l i n e s i n l o n g bones o f t h e Cases Grandes population. Plains Anthropologist 1 3 :152-16 0.

2 INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH

49

Yaeqer, J - A . 1980 Enamel. I n Orban 's oral histology and embryology ( n i n t h e d . ) , e d i t e d by S. N . B h a s k a r , pp. 46-106. Mosby, S t . Louis. Zurer, P. S . 1983 Archeological c h e m i s t r y . Chemieal Engineering News 61: 26-44.

CHAPTER 3

HEALTH A S A CRUCIAL FACTOR I N THE CHANGES FROM HUNTING TO DEVELOPED FARMING I N THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN

J . Lauvence Ange 2 Department o f A n t h r o p o l o g y N a t i o n a l Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n

INTRODUCTION

To be h e a l t h y is t o r a c e d e a t h s u c c e s s f u l l y . I n terms of e n e r g y f o r i n d i v i d u a l s and p o p u l a t i o n s t o s u r v i v e

and m u l t i p l y , h e a l t h h a s two a s p e c t s : p h y s i c a l g r o w t h , and s u f f i c i e n t l o n g e v i t y f o r b i r t h of c h i l d r e n and f o r s u r v i v a l o f p a r e n t s t o t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e y , i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h o t h e r s , can b r i n g up t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o be v i t a l p e o p l e . The e x p a n s i o n o f t h e human p o p u l a t i o n r e f l e c t s our s u c c e s s i n t h i s r a c e . he p r e h i s t o r i c p a t t e r n o f human d e a t h s shows o n l y a 20-30% l o s s a t and r i g h t a f t e r birth, compared t o t h e 60-80% l o s s among t h e o f f s p r i n g of w i l d c r e a t u r e s (Angel 1971; c f . Lack 1 9 6 7 ) . The human p a t t e r n a l s o shows a few i n d i v i d u a l s l i v i n g past t h e end of r e p r o d u c t i v e l i f e . The l e n g t h e n i n g o f l i f e was a m a j o r human e v o l u t i o n a r y a d a p t i v e change ( s e e Angel 1975; Mann 1975) promoting f e r t i l i t y and p o p u l a t i o n growth. Y e t t h e c a u s a l n e t w o r k s between e n v i r o n m e n t and c u l t u r e o n t h e one h a n d , a n d h e a l t h , g r o w t h , r e p r o d u c t i o n , and l o n g e v i t y on t h e o t h e r a r e n o t s i m p l e ones. There i s e x p e c t a b l e feedback between g r o w t h in p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y a n d b o t h c u l t u r a l a n d b i o l o g i c a l s u c c e s s . Moreover, e v e n b i o l o g i . c a l s u c c e s s i n v o l v e ~ some C o s t s . A h e a l t h y p o p u l a t i o n c a n a n d d o e s c a r r y a l a r g e load of d i s e a s e . I t is i m p o r t a n t t o e s t a b l i s h how much p o o r h e a l t h a s o c i e t y c a n e n d u r e w i t h o u t c o l l a p s e , and i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o i d e n tify t h o s e a s p e c t s of poor h e a l t h t h a t a c t u a l l y impede s u c c e s s f u l by the p o p u l a t i o n . For e x a m p l e , ~ u c h m a n (1978) shows t h a t in f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Europe, t h e complex p a t t e r n of w a r s ,

J . LAWRENCE ANGEL

32

f m i n e s , and disease e x e r t e d ~ a l t h u s i a nc o n t r o l s on p o p u l a t i o n . Did t h e s e f a c t o r s p l a y a s i m i l a r role d u r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n from hunting t o farming?

INDICATORS OF HEALTH For o v e r a l l h e a l t h , t h e s i m p l e s t i n d i c a t o r i s a d u l t longevity. I n a d d i t i o n , g r o w t h a n d n u t r i t i o n c a n be measured by (1) t h e d e gree o f a r c h i n g o r vertical growth ( s u p p o r t i n g w e i g h t a g a i n s t g r a v i t y ) o f t h e p e l v i c i n l e t (Angel 1 9 7 8 a ) and t h e b a s e o f t h e s k u l l (Angel 1 9 8 2 ; Anqel and Oiney 1 9 8 1 ) ; ( 2 ) s t a t u r e as e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e l e n g t h s o f l o n g b o n e s ; ( 3 ) t h e r o u n d n e s s of s h a f t s o f l o n q bones as a r e f l e c t i o n o f bone m i n e r a l a v a i l a b l e (Adams 1969; Angel 1 9 7 1 ; Buxton 1 9 3 8 ) ; and ( 4 ) t r a c e e l e m e n t s i n bone d e r i v e d from minerals i n food ( c f . d i s c u s s i o n by Goodman e t al., C h a p t e r 2 , t h i s v o l u m e ) . Moreover, a d e q u a t e p r o t e i n i n c h i l d h o o d , p l u s adcquate i n t a k e o f v i t a m i n s ( v i t a m i n D a n d A p r e c u r s o r s (DeLuca 1 9 8 0 ) , and v i t a m i n C ) w i l l e n s u r e p r o p e r f o r m a t i o n o f t o o t h enamel a s w e l l as b o n e . A d u l t d e n t a l l e s i o n s i n p a r t r e f l e c t i n a d e q u a t e p r o t e i n a n d v i t a m i n i n t a k e i n c h i l d h o o d (Sognnaes 1 9 5 6 ) . Growth a r r e s t l i n e s on b o o t h enamel ( l i n e a r enamel h y p o p l a s i a s ) a n d i n l o n q bones r e f l e c t g r o w t h s t r e s s from m a l n u t r i t i o n o r from d i s e a s e ( c f . d i s c u s s i o n by Goodman e t a l . , C h a p t e r 2 , t h i s v o l u m e ) . I n a d d i t i o n , p a t t e r n s of occurrence uf s p e c i f i c s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s s u c h a s p o r o t i c hyperostosis o r t h e l e s i o n s of bony t u b e r c u l o s i s c a n p r o v i d e a n i n d i c a t i o n of t h e o v e r a l l h e a l t h a n d s u c c e s s o f t h e g r o u p . P r o d u c t i o n o f c h i l d r e n c a n be e s t i m a t e d by compari n g t h e number of b i r t h s , d e r i v e d from f e m a l e p e l v i c birth s c a r s (Angel l972), w i t h t h e number o f j u v e n i l e d e a t h s (Angel l 9 7 5 ) , a l l o w i n g e s t i m a t e s of p o p u l a t i o n c h a n g e (Angel 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 2 ) . he s u c c e s s f u l a d m i x t u r e of p o p u l a t i o n s t h r o u g h m i g r a t i o n and i n t e r b r e e d i n g c a n b e measured t h r o u g h c h a n g e s i n H o w e l l s ' s i g m a r a t i o (Angel 1 9 7 5 ) . This c h a p t e r w i l l p r o v i d e a c o m p a r a t i v e a s s e s s m e n t o f .such i n d i c a t o r s f o r p o p u l a t i o n s f r o m t h e ~ a l e o l i t h i ct h r o u g h t h e e a r l y I r o n Age i n the r e q i o n of t h e E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n .

THE REGION The Eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n i s d e f i n e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e s of t h i s c h a p t e r a s i n c l u d i n g G r e e c e and w e s t e r n T u r k e y . P r o b l e m s o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s a m p l i n g , however, p r e v e n t t h e making of m e a n i n g f u l c o m p a r i s o n s e n t i r e l y from w i t h i n t h i s r e g i o n . T h e r e f o r e , f o r Upper P a l e o l i t h i c a n d M e s o l i t h i c h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s ( c a . 1 5 , 0 0 0 - 7 0 0 0 B.C.) t h e f o c u s i s b r o a d e n e d t o i n c l u d e t h e B a l k a n s ( V l a s a c a n d L e p e n s k i V i r a t I r o n G a t e o n t h e ~ a n u b e ) ,t h e U k r a i n e ( K o s t e n k i

Â¥ FROM HUNTING TO FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN and D n i e p e r bend sites V a s i l i e v k a and V o ~ ~ s c h k o y ,o )and N o r t h I s r a e l ( T a f o r a l t , A f a l o u , t h e N i l e s i t e s of J e b e l Wadi H a l f a i n N u b i a , and t h e N a t u f i a n s ) . These s i t e s d a t a a v a i l a b l e from s a m p l e s i n t h e main s t u d y a r e a h e C a s p i a n , Kara ' I n i n T u r k e y , and F r a n c h t h i i n The r e g i o n h a s n o t always e x p e r i e n c e d g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y bei o d s . The e a r l y f a r m i n g p o p u l a t i o n s of t h e S e v e n t h and l e n n i a B . C . a t q a t a l HuyUk, Nea Nikomedeia, F r a n c h t h i Lerna , f o r example, i n c l u d e m i g r a n t d e s c e n d a n t s of c a k i n g Africans and o f Balkan r i v e r i n e p o p u l a t i o n s 3b) . But t h e r e g i o n a l f o c u s mi-nimizes t h e e f f e c t s of n q e i n "Later p e r i o d s .

Ecology The E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n r a i n l e s s summer is l o n g a n d hot, above 2 6 C. Hence v e g e t a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f d r o u q h t - r e s i s t a n t maritime p i n e s , j u n i p e r and e v e r g r e e n o a k s , o l i v e s , p i s t a c h i o , and maquis (Angel 1 9 7 1 ; Shay a n d Shay 1 9 7 8 ) . C o n i f e r o u s f o r e s t s and meadows w i t h w i l d c e r e a l s o c c u r i n t h e m o u n t a i n s . S o i l s vary from p o d z o l s a n d t h e a c i d r e d e a r t h s of t h e k a r s t b a s i n s t o a r i d s t e p p e , f l y s c h , marls, and e s p e c i a l l y v o l c a n i c s o i l s r i c h i n t r a c e e l e m e n t s a n d e x c e l l e n t for c u l t i v a t e d o l i v e s a n d g r a p e vines. I n a d d i t i o n , c a l c a r e o u s and s t o n y s i l t s p r o v i d e good s o i l s f o r c a t t l e - and horse-meadows and f o r wheat and b a r l e y (Maul1 1 9 2 2 ) . These s i l t s w e r e c r i t i c a l f o r n u t r i t i o n b e c a u s e , for g e o l o g i c a l r e a s o n s (Angel 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 5 ) , mountains a n d s e a d i m i n i s h t h e c u l t i v a b l e a r e a (even w i t h t e r r a c i n g ) t o o n l y 20-25% of t h e l a n d s , and lack o f c l i m a t i c c o n t r a s t s l i m i t s c h e m i c a l r e n e w a l . T h e s t o n y , l i m e - r i c h s o i l t h e r e f o r e demanded (1) shallow c u l t i v a t i o n w i t h t h e s c r a t c h plow o r a r d and ( 2 ) f r e q u e n t manuring, I t cannot plowing i n of legumes, f a l l o w i n g , a n d b u r n i n g - o v e r . s t a n d o v e r u s e ( s e e Angel 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 5 ; B u t z e r 1 9 7 0 , 1971 . Changes i n s e a l e v e l , which h e l p e d t o d e p o s i t t h e s e s i l t s by a f f e c t i n g r i v e r f l o w , a l s o were c r i t i c a l i n a f f e c t i n g t h e d i s e a s e environment of early p o p u l a t i o n s . C o a s t a l and r i v e r i n e ( a s w e l l a s i n l a n d b a s i n ) m a r s h e s a l l o w e d a n o p h e l i n e mosquitos (/I. sachUrovi and A . superpietue) t o move i n a t t h e end o f t h e Pleistocene and spread malarias, i n c l u d i n g t h e new ( a n d r e l a t i v e l y l e t h a l ) m u t a n t Pzas~diLili?f ~ i k i p ~(Angel ~ ? ~ 1 9 6 6 , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 8 b ) . But t h e l a t t e r a l s o were d e p e n d e n t o n t e m p e r a t u r e and o n t h e d e n s i t y of human Populations f o r t h e i r success.

TABLE 3 . la Chrowlogical Change i n Health Indicators (Growth, Bone Minerals, Variability, l^engt% of Life, F e r t i l i t y , Population Density! Related t o Ecology, Culture, and Diet, Upper Paleolithic t o Bronze W s Perioda

30,000

Skull base height four.-bos.)

9000

1V

II'

Stature (Trotter-Gleser f m .

v

),

male

Teeth lesions oer mouth,

curies,

155.5 31

72.9 70

abscess, loss

3.5

!'/

lo5

Enamel g m u t h a r r e s t s , continuous scale

1.2 90

A'

Stro~~tiim/caZ
(high?)"

Porntic hyper03 tos-ie, continuous scale

1.5 165

N

VariabiZftg, sigma r a t i o ( % I K Adult length o f l i f e , vole, (years)

321 33.6

V

106 :?9.8

Ad211- length of l i f e , female, (years) N Births ( p e l v i c scam)/adult female

157 4.5

25

lll

Survivors t o age IK/adi
Se a l e v e l

relative to today

Bronze People Kings

M,ddZe 2000

169.6 39

(cm}

Femur plu t i i m s r i o shaft ~oundnessindex

,

3000

76.6 10

(Wi)

female,

5 000

7000

18.7 IS

fim)

\

Pelvic i n l e t depth index ( a p / t r ) d ) Stature (Trotter-CZeser- fm.

Ear% Bronze

Early Late iVeso l i t h i o n e o l i t h i c f l e o l i t h i c

Paleolithic

P e r i o d

2.2

1.5

Rivers cutting -So C colder than today FZnctuat i n g

-100 m

M a r s h y Less m a r s h y Warmer Warming Warmer Warmest Cooler Dry than t o d m +2.5 'C S drier Pre-Boreal drier Wetter S u b - b o r e a l to Boreal Aitlantic Rise Average Reversal laser again -60t0-10t0+2

+ 2 t 0 0 0 t 0 + 2

+ 1 m

14.50

TABLE 3 . Jb CTWK>nobgica 2 Change i n Health Indicators (Growth, Bone Minerals, Variability, L e q t h o f Life, F e r t i l i t y , Population Density) Related t o Emlog, Culture, and Diet, Late Bronze Age t o Imperial Roman Periods -

Late Bronze

P e r i o d S k u l l base height four. -bas.

1450 (rrsn)

N

fm.)

female,

650

32 80.6 18 166.7 42

(an)

Femur platymeric shaft roundness index A'

Teeth lesions per mouth, caries, abscess, l o s s N

Enamel growth arrests, continuous s c d e N Strontium/calcium site-corrected r a t i o N Zinc i n bone fug/g N P o m t i c hyperostosis, continuous scale

600

83.5 23

156.1 53 77.1 98 6.8 106

ti

-

19.3 98

is.&

A'

--.. - -

Imperial ReZlenist-ic Reman 300 B.C. 120 A.D.

Classic

1150

Pelvic i n l e t depth index f a p / t r ) N Stature (Trotter-Gleser fm. ), male fan) ^tuture (Trotter-Gleser

Early Iron

i 70.5 52 356.2 30

77.5 33 4.1 i3 7

1.4 83

.801 31 143.5 31 1.1114 Ill

,v

Variabzlity, s i p r a t i o f % ) 4V

Adult length of l i f e , vale, (years) N Adult length of l i f e , female, (years)

II Births ( p e l v i c scars)/adult f e d e ti

Survivor8 t o age IS/adult female Population d e w i t y estimate (persons/km2) M a r s h y C l i m a t e

Warn

and

Se a r e l a t i v e to l e v e l t o d a y

Fa 2l ire 0 t o -2m

Coo ling Droughts vs . Rainy

Average .V a r i

'c

i.m e

52423

+I

-2m

-lm

Uetter f/ctyfifWQ - A t l a n t i c +I

TABU' 3 . 1 ~ Chronological Cname it Health M i c a t o r s (Growth, Bow Minerals, Variability, Length o f L i f e , Pertilitu, Population Density) Related t o &oloau. Culture, and D i e t , Medieval Greece 1,o Modem (U.S . White) period;

Skull

base height fair.-bas.

!m)

N

19.0

20.4

20.9 175

Pelvic i n l e t depth index ( a p / t r ) f % )

92.1

/,'

1 1 3 174.2 92 163.4 68 87.6 169 15.7 170

Stature (Trotter-Cleser fm. ), male (an) N Stature (Trotter-Gleser fin. ) female, (can) N Femur p k t y m e r i c shaft soundness index N

Teeth lesions per mouth, caries, abscess, loss A'

E n d grouth arrests, c o n t i ~ u o u sscale

1.6-

iv

11 1

Strontim/culczim site-corrected r a t i o

s

P o w t i c kyperostosis, continwue scale

147.I 40 I.$+

Variability, signs r a t i o

136

Zinc i n bone (pg/g) //

n

lan

(%)

A'

Adult length of l i f e , male, (years)

37.7

Adult length of l i f e , female,

65 31.1

ti N

(years)

B i r t h (pelvic scars)/adult female N

to

Supvivors age ?S/adult f e m U Population density estimate 1~erso~is/km2) C l i m a t e

and S e a relative to l e v e l t c d q

28

f4.a

est.

census

37.3

78.6

2.8

2.4

32

1.4:

20

71.0

46.2

100

.& ?

2.2 20-60

ca. 200

Flaczwting then cooling

silt: s o i l reaoue9 Coot then ucming

Drier L i t t I e Ice Age Fa2 ling 0 to -1

Modern 0

Level 0

3 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN

~ o o t n o t e sto Table 3 . 1

I use standard United S t a t e s methods of determining age a t death fop a11 skeletons t h a t I study--exmination of the pubic h y s i s odd, also Steuart and MeKevn, G i l b e r t ) , scapula (Graves) vertebra 2 column, and other joint exostoses (Steuart); more c a & i ~ endocvaniai ~ ~ % J sku22 sutures (Todd and L p n ) , tooth evuption, and r e l a t i v e wearJ. I use and publish the centers of my yanciOs--i.e., 22-36 = 29. In t h e skeleton we see physiological a p , uhi.le o w aim i s t o determine chvonologieaZ sge. See Angel1971 and Steuart 1979 for references on aging and sex differences. For data on bone chemistry see S m e n (1981) and Bise2 (1980). For data on U p p e r (Late) PaleoZithic d i e s o f Kostenki (Ukraine), A ~ ~ Z O U ,T a f d t (North A f r i c a ) , J e b d Sakaba (Nubia), Hotu (Iran),, and Kara ' I n (Turkey) see Debets (1955~1,Fevembaoh fl962), Anderson (1968), Angel (1952) and unpublished. For data on MesoZi,thze ( ~ p i p a Z e o l i t h i c ' )s i t e s o f Vlasac and Lepenski Vir (Iron Gates),, Vasitievka and Voloschkyo (Ukraine), Frmehthi Cave (Greece), ~hukbah, NahaZ Oven, Maltaha, Erg-e 2-Ahmar, and other Natuf i a n s i t e s ( I s r a e l ) , Zmi Chemi Shanidar ( I r a q ) , and Wadi HaZfa (Nubia) see Nemeskeri and Szatmary (1978) ( i n Garasinin), Nemeskeri i n S r ~ ~ o v i .(7 6 9721, Kondukturuva ( 1 9 5 7), and Debets ( 19 5 5 b ) , Angel (1969}, Keith (19^1), and Feysmbafih (1961, 19771, ~erembach(1970). and Greene and AmeZagos (1972). ^ ~ a t ao f Bisel 11980). ¡Dat of SitZen (1981).

J. LAWRENCE ANGEL SEQUENCES OF CULTURE AND HEALTH

T a b l e 3 . 1 shows two d i f f e r i n g breakdowns o f h e a l t h w i t h subs e q u e n t a d v a n c e s . F i r s t , t h e r e was a f a i r l y s h a r p d e c l i n e i n growth and n u t r i t i o n during t h e confusions and experiments of t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n from h u n t i n g t o f a r m i n g (Cohen 19771, w i t h i t s many i n v e n t i o n s and i n c r e a s i n g t r a d e ( J a c o b s 1969) and d i s e a s e Partial (Cockburn 1967) between a b o u t 1 0 , 0 0 0 and 5000 B.C. r e c o v e r i e s and a d v a n c e s i n h e a l t h o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e Bronze Age r i s e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n ; t h e n r e a l advance ( e .g . , a 7-11-year i n c r e a s e i n l o n g e v i t y ) o c c u r r e d w i t h t h e r i s e o f Hellenic-Roman c u l t u r e . Second, t h e r e was an i n c r e a s e i n d i s e a s e and c r o w d i n g d u r i n g t h e d e c l i n e a n d r e l i g i o u s metamorphosis of t h e Roman Empire, e v e n t u a l l y l e a d i n g t o an i r r e g u l a r breakdown o f g e n e r a l , b u t n o t n u t r i t i o n a l , h e a l t h u n d e r a complex d i s e a s e l o a d , from a b o u t A . D . 1300 t o 1700 ( A c k e r k n e c h t 1 9 6 5 ) . The n e a r d o u b l i n g of l i f e e x p e c t a n c y and improved n u t r i t i o n a l h e a l t h ( e x c e p t d e n t a l ) o f t h e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Western w o r l d d o e s r e f l e c t b o t h s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n p u t . But o t h e r w i s e , t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e d o e s n o t n e a t l y c o r r e l a t e w i t h good h e a l t h , a s Cohen (1977) h a s p o i n t e d o u t . The e x t e n t t o which t e c h n o l o g i c a l a n d e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s m o d i f y e a c h o t h e r ' s e f f e c t s on demographic ( i . e . , h e a l t h ) c h a n g e s remains t o be worked o u t .

UPPER PALEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC TIMES

Upper P a l e o l i t h i c h u n t e r s i n t h e E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n w e r e a s p a r s e p o p u l a t i o n . They a v o i d e d t h e c o l d and p a r t l y g l a c i a t e d m o u n t a i n s , 3-5' C below t o d a y 's t e m p e r a t u r e s , a n d p r o b a b l y had c o a s t a l camps t h a t a r e now m o s t l y u n d e r w a t e r . More s h e l t e r e d p l a c e s l i k e F r a n c h t h i Cave ( J a c o b s e n 1969) were also f o r t e m p o r a r y o c c u p a t i o n . T h e h u n t e r s l i v e d i n c o l d , t e m p e r a t e open woodland and c o u l d g a t h e r many r o o t p l a n t s , n u t s ( p i s t a c h i o , almond, h a z e l ) , f r u i t s ( a p p l e ) , h e r b s , a n d m o l l u s k s . They h u n t e d and a t e a v a r i e t y o f medium t o l a r g e game ( B u t z e r 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 7 1 ; J a c o b s e n 1 9 6 9 ; S t e p h a n o s 1 8 8 4 ) . I n E g y p t , and possibly e l s e w h e r e , t h e y were u s i n g w i l d g r a i n (Reed 1977a,b) and p e r h a p s were s t a r t i n g t o d o m e s t i c a t e b a r l e y (Wendorf et al. 1 9 7 9 ) . They had n e i t h e r t h e g r e a t h e r d s o f w i l d u n g u l a t e s nor t h e i n t e n s e w i n t e r c o l d o f t h e North African o r E u r a s i a n s t e p p e s o r t u n d r a . P o p u l a t i o n was d e n s e r i n t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t h a n i n M o u s t e r i a n times (Cohen 1 9 7 7 ) . H u n t i n g w a s e q u a l l y s k i l l e d , w i t h a l o n g t o o l l i s t based o n t h e l o n g f l i n t b l a d e (rarely t h e s h a r p e r o b s i d i a n ) a n d i n c l u d i n g m o r t a r s a n d p e s t l e s (Reed 1 9 7 7 ~,1b ) . T h e r e i s e v i d e n c e o f l e i s u r e f o r a r t a n d religion. F o u r i n n o v a t i o n s mark t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o M e s o l i t h i c h u n t i n g c u l t u r e : development of composite t o o l s f o r h a r p o o n s a n d a r r o w s

3 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN

59

and s i c k l e s ; t h e bow t o propel arrows ( p a r t l y replacing a t l a t l and s p e a r o r harpoon) ; t h e domesticated dog a s p e t and/or hunting ass i s t a n t ; and harvesting of s t a n d s o f wild g r a i n s f o r food. With f i r s t t h e Allerod and t h e n t h e pre-Boreal c l i m a t i c warmi n g ~i n t h e n i n t h t o e i g h t h m i l l e n n i a B . C . , a t t h e s t a r t of postg l a c i a l times, t h e r e was a g r e a t spread of woodland, a 100 m r i s e i n s e a l e v e l e v e n t u a l l y above t h e p r e s e n t norm, a change i n fauna (more d e e r and p i g ) , and a change i n d i s e a s e . T h i s involved esp e c i a l l y a northward spread o f m a l a r i a s i n t o unadapted populations. These f o r c e s tended t o r e s t r i c t migration and t o promote l o c a l s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e edge of sandy h e a t h s , l a k e s , r i v e r s , marshes, and t h e s e a . Obsidian demonstrates d i s t a n t t r a d e . Mesolithic m i c r o l i t h s f o r new composite t o o l s ( i n c l u d i n g s i c k l e blades with s i l i c a p o l i s h ) a r e o f t e n of o b s i d i a n derived from t h e Aegean i s l a n d of Melos, t h e Hasan Mountains e a s t o f T a t a l HUyUk on t h e Konya p l a i n , and Armenia. Use of o b s i d i a n helped t o maintain t h e t r a d e , which l a t e r on spread t h e i d e a s and techniques of farming from t h e i r v a r i o u s c e n t e r s of invention (Jacobs 1969). Trade with Melos encouraged development of s a i l b o a t s i n the Aegean, which i n t u r n f a c i l i t a t e d t h e catching of b i g s e a f i s h a s a t ~ r a n c h t h iCave bef o r e t h e end of t h e e i g h t h millennium B . C . (Jacobsen 1969). Health and Culture

I n Upper P a l e o l i t h i c times n u t r i t i o n a l h e a l t h was e x c e l l e n t . The evidence c o n s i s t s of extremely t a l l s t a t u r e from p l e n t i f u l

c a l o r i e s and p r o t e i n (and some microevolutionary s e l e c t i o n ? ) ; maximum s k u l l base h e i g h t from p l e n t i f u l p r o t e i n , vitamin Dl and s u n l i g h t i n e a r l y childhood; and very good t e e t h and l a r g e p e l v i c depth from adequate p r o t e i n and vitamins i n l a t e r childhood and adolescence. With upper femur s h a f t index (A-P/transverse t h i c k n e s s ) a t 78, t h e long bone s h a f t s were well rounded, c o n s i d e r i n g t h e e x t r a l a t e r a l s t r e s s e s on t h e h i p area caused by hunting and moving from summer t o winter camp o v e r rough t r a i l s . Adult l o n g e v i t y , a t 35 y e a r s f o r males and 30 years for f e males, i m p l i e s f a i r t o good g e n e r a l h e a l t h . Because of t h e extra s t r e s s e s of pregnancy and dangers of c h i l d b i r t h (combined w i t h s h i f t i n g camp, c a r r y i n g burdens, and presumably doing much of t h e food c o l l e c t i n g and cooking) , females died younger. There i s no c l e a r evidence f o r any endemic d i s e a s e . Modern hunting populations a t a comparable l e v e l have no r e a l l y s e r i o u s endemic o r epidemic d i s e a s e s a ad in 1938; Yesner 1980) , t h e l a t t e r because populations a r e t o o small and s c a t t e r e d . The best explanat i o n f o r r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t l i f e span is t h e combination of S t r e s s e s of nomadism, c l i m a t e , and w a r f a r e . The l a t t e r is especially c l e a r i n t h e J e b e l Sahaba population, where p r o j e c t i l e wounds a f f e c t i n g

J . LAWRENCE ANGEL

60

bone are v e r y common (Wendorf 1968) and " a l m o s t h a l f t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r o b a b l y d i e d v i o l e n t l y [p. 9931 . 'I

S i m i l a r v i o l e n c e and f i g h t i n g o c c u r r e d i n M e s o l i t h i c t i m e s . For evidence, t h e r e a r e t h e archery b a t t l e scenes i n Spanish c a v e s ( M a r i n g e r and Bandi 1953; 133) a n d t h e two a l m o s t c i r c u l a r d e p r e s s e d s k u l l f r a c t u r e s made a t o r a r o u n d t h e moment o f d e a t h o n t h e l e f t f r o n t a l of 1 Fr from F r a n c h t h i Cave (Angel 1 9 6 9 ) , a man a p p a r e n t l y k i l l e d i n h i s m i d d l e t w e n t i e s . V i o l e n c e i s a social disease. S i n c e h u n t i n g on a r e a s o n a b l e s c a l e c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h t h e M e s o l i t h i c (and i n t o t h e Farming T r a n s f o r m a t i o n ) , i t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t m e a t a n d f i s h p r o t e i n and v i t a m i n D p r e c u r s o r s were enough t o keep g r o w t h e f f i c i e n t i n e a r l y c h i l d h o o d ( e v i d e n t i n good s k u l l b a s e h e i g h t and d e n t a l h e a l t h ) and good i n l a t e c h i l d hood ( e v i d e n t i n deep p e l v i s and i n t e r m e d i a t e l o n g bone roundn e s s ) . A t V l a s a c and o t h e r I r o n G a t e s i t e s o n t h e Danube (Nemeskeri and S z a t m a r y 1 9 7 8 ; S r e j o v i 6 1 9 7 2 ; Z i v a n o v i e 1975) a n d D n i e p e r r i v e r s i t e s ( D e b e t s 1955b; Konduktorova 1957) d e e r a n d r i v e r f i s h m a i n t a i n e d this Upper P a l e o l i t h i c g r o w t h l e v e l . S i l l e n ' s (1981) s i t e - c o r r e c t e d s t r o n t i u m / c a l c i u m ( S r / C a ) r a t i o o f . 7 4 a t Hayonim Cdve i s i n t e r m e d i a t e ; N a t u f i a n s a t e a b a l a n c e o f p l a n t s and meat. N e v e r t h e l e s s , a s u d d e n d r o p i n s t a t u r e o c c u r s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c a t some s i t e s : F r a n c h t h i , 1 5 7 cm (2 m a l e s ) and 1 3 8 cm ( 2 f e m a l e s ) ; N a t u f i a n s , 164 cm ( 1 0 ) and 155 cm ( 6 ) (Ferembach 1 9 7 7 ; K e i t h 1 9 3 1 ) ; Zawi Chemi S h a n i d a r , 1964 cm ( 5 ) and 1 5 4 cm (1) (Ferembach 1 9 7 7 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , s i g n s o f s e a s o n a l g r o w t h a r r e s t s o c c u r a t F r a n c h t h i Cave, s p e c i f i c a l l y . L i k e l y c a u s e s o f d e c r e a s e d s t a t u r e a r e new endemic d i s e a s e s c a u s i n g a n e m i a s ( m a l a r i a , hookworm) o r l o c a l d e c l i n e i n c a l o r i e s . Some s u b s t i t u t i o n of f i s h a n d s e a f o o d f o r meat ( c f . Cohen 1 9 7 7 ) t e n d e d t o lower c a l o r i e s . I n a d d i t i o n , three o f s i x s k e l e t o n s from F r a n c h t h i c a v e h a v e p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s (marrow-space t h i c k e n i n g a n d p o r o s i t y ) i n d i c a t i n g anemia (Angel 1969) . P r o b a b l y t h i s is h e t e r o z y q o u s t h a l a s s e m i a s e l e c t e d b y endemic f a l c i p a r u m m a l a r i a a f t e r t h a t p l a s m o d i u m ' s o r i g i n by m u t a t i o n a t l e a s t three o r f o u r m i l l e n n i a e a r l i e r . T h e o c c u r r e n c e of i n f a n t s w i t h e x t r e m e anemia (i .e . , homozygotes k i l l e d by t h a l a s s e m i a ) i s c r i t i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h i s d i a g n o s i s , o f c o u r s e . T h e r e i s some p o r o s i t y a t V l a s a c on t h e Danube. Greone a n d Armelaqos (1972) n o t e no s e v e r e a n e m i a a t Wadi Walfa i n N u b i a . F a r t h e r n o r t h , a t I r o n G a t e and D n i e p e r r i v e r s i t e s , endemic m a l a r i a s a r e u n l i k e l y even a t t h e thermal maximum. I t i s s t r i k i n g t h a t t h e Western ~ e s o l i t h i cr e d u c t i o n i n g e n e r a l h e a l t h , s e e n zn s h o r t e n i n g of a d u l t l o n g e v i t y , d i d n o t o c c u r i n our a r e a . p o p u l a t i o n a p p a r e n t l y d i d not i n c r e a s e i n d e n s i t y s t r i k i n g l y ( c f . Cohen 1 9 7 7 ) . The i n c r e a s e d s e t t l i n g down of M e s o l i t h i c bands promoted h e d l t h a n d l o n q e v i t y , e s p e c i a l l y of females, by reducing m i g r a t i o n stress. But settling c l o s e to w a t e r o r marsh facilitated t h e malarias a n d o t h e r d i s e a s e s .

I

I

, t

,

I

{ I

1 p

!

%

t

3 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN NEOLITHIC TIMES Many d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n t h e a c t u a l s t a r t of a g r i c u l t u r e (Cohen 1 9 7 7 ; F l a n n e r y 1 9 6 5 ; Reed 1 9 7 7 a , b ) i n w e s t e r n A s i a and o t h e r c e n t e r s a f t e r t h e end o f t h e most r e c e n t g l a c i a l r e t r e a t . I t is a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f a r too i r r e g u l a r , d e e p l y r o o t e d , and g r a d u a l t o be c a l l e d a r e v o l u t i o n . T h e r e i s n o s i g n of a u n i f i e d c e n t e r f o r t h e s t a r t o f e a r l y f a r m i n g . I n t h e h i g h l a n d s of w e s t e r n A s i a , a n c e s t r a l wheat (Tritzem aegitopoides) and two-row b a r l e y s p r e a d a s f a r e a s t a s T u r k e s t a n and w e s t t o I s r a e l a n d T h r a c e (Helbaek 1 9 6 0 ) ; p e o p l e began t o p l a n t a s w e l l a s t o g a t h e r t h e s e b e f o r e 7000 B . C . BY 9000 B.C. w i l d sheep of s e v e r a l v a r i e t i e s a n d w i l d g o a t s were b e i n g d o m e s t i c a t e d ( B u t z e r 1971; Reed 1 9 7 7 a , b ) . C a t t l e a n d p i g s came soon a f t e r , e a c h a t d i f f e r e n t s i t e s from K h u z i s t a n t o Turkey t o G r e e c e . The p l a n t a n d a n i m a l d o m e s t i c a t i o n a n d a l l t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n v e n t i o n s of s i c k l e , h o e , t h r e s h i n g equipment ( h o t s t o n e s f o r p a r c h i n g , f l a i l , l a t e r t h e doqen) , g r i n d s t o n e s , effective w a t e r p r o o f h o u s e s and p i t g r a n a r i e s , s t o r a g e c o n t a i n e r s ( s k i n , b a s k e t r y , s t o n e , and l a t e r p o t t e r y ) , a n d p r o d u c t i o n of c o p p e r t o o l s o c c u r r e d a t v e r y different places and times w i t h i n the matrix of e a r l y farming a n d s e t t l e m e n t . The t r a d i n g a n d the r a p i d s p r e a d of i d e a s and o f p r o d u c t s (obs i d i a n a n d o t h e r worked s t o n e , o r n a m e n t s , p o t t e r y , b i turnen, f o o d s , l a t e r wool) was f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e r i s e i n s e a l e v e l above t o d a y ' s and t h e 7O C ( B o r e a l and A t l a n t i c ) c l i m a t i c warming d u r i n g t h e ent i r e M e s o l i t h i c t o Late N e o l i t h i c s e q u e n c e . S i t e s d i s p l a y i n c r e a s i n g permanence r e l a t e d t o improved food s t o r a g e . I n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n s t r a i n e d t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f any o n e s i t e (Reed 1 9 7 7 a , b ) , r e s u l t i n g i n f u r t h e r c o l o n i z a t i o n . The r i s e i n s e a l e v e l (Rapp e t a l . 1978) and t h e spread o f f o r e s t s enhanced crowding i n e x i s t i n g s e t t l e m e n t s . But t h e a c t u a l f o r c e f o r change t o f a r m i n g had t o be p s y c h o l o g i c a 1 : o v e r - r e s p o n s e to t h e c h a l l e n g e of r a i s i n g families at a time when l i v i n g i n s e t t l e m e n t s r e s t r i c t e d h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g b u t a l s o a l l o w e d women enough s e c u r i t y i n p r e g n a n c y to b e a r and r a i s e more c h i l d r e n (see T a b l e 3 . 1 ) . By t h e s i x t h m i l l e n n i u m B.C., E a r l y N e o l i t h i c c u l t u r e was r i c h e r than anything e a r l i e r (Mellaart 1967), e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e s i t e s t h a t g i v e u s s k e l e t o n s . F r e s c o e s and s c u l p t u r e d i s p l a y e d b o t h n a t u r a l i s t i c a n d s y m b o l i c c e r e m o n i a l a r t . ~ e c h n o l o g ya l s o went w e l l beyong t h e Upper ~ a l e o l i t h i ci n s h a p i n g s t o n e and bone t o o l s , i n p o l - i s h i n g o b s i d i a n m i r r o r s , and i n t h e s t a r t o f m e t a l lurgy. Wood - f r a m e d h o u s e s were d e v e l o p e d , o f t e n adobe wal l e d , and towns w e r e w a l l e d f o r d e f e n s e . P o p u l a t i o n s w e r e 1.0 t o 50 times a s d e n s e a s i n t h e ~ a l e o l i t h i c A t F a t a l Hliyiik, odd (1976) e s t i m a t e s a d e n s i t y of a b o u t 75 Persons/krn2 f o r t h e town and i t s s u p p o r t i n g area. A f a i r o v e r a l l e s t i e f o r t h e E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n i s , t h e r e f o r e , 2-5 persons/km2 taking i n t o a c c o u n t t h e density o f sites (Angel 1 9 7 2 ) - N e w cereal crops s u p p o r t e d t h i s expansion. Todd (1976) f u r t h e r estimates that

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i f half t h e surrounding a r e a (78.5 tan2 ) a t Catal Htiyiik were i n g r a i n and h a l f fallow o r i n legumes f o r support of h e r d s , t h e r e would be food enough f o r 5000-75000 people, a t 300 kg of grain/person annually. Grain could be s t o r e d . For meat, such a population would consume 3 head of c a t t l e d a i l y o r almost 1100 annually (Angel 1971). This would b e d i f f i c u l t t o a t t a i n even with Todd's optimum e s t i m a t e of herds of 3750 plus hunting. I b e l i e v e (Angel 1971) t h a t t h e meat eaten would have been only 10-20% of t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c optimum. We do n o t know when properly baked bread f i r s t appeared. If c e r e a l s were consumed i n t h e f o r m of improperly baked, unleavened bread, mam , bulgur, o r p o r r i d g e , t h e y would c o n t a i n p h y t a t e ; t h i s can bind i r o n and z i n c and i n t e r f e r e with g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l absorption of p r o t e i n and calcium ( B i s e l 1980; Reinhold 1972). C r u c i f e r s , n u t s , and f r u i t s should have provided enough f a t s and vitamins B and C . I n l a t e winter t h e r e may have been minimal s h o r t a g e s o f vitamins A and D. The main d i s e a s e s t r e s s e s were t h o s e of crowded s e t t l e m e n t : hookworm, d y s e n t e r i e s i n c l u d i n g amebiasis, t h e m a l a r i a s caused by t h e f r e q u e n t l o c a t i o n of s i t e s n e a r marshes o r streams c l e a r of woodland (Angel 1978b) , and perhaps o c c a s i o n a l p e r s o n a l i t y c l a s h o r depression.

Health and Culture:

Early Farming I

With t h e beginning o f fanning, some s t a b i l i z i n g of g e n e r a l h e a l t h occurred, with a t l e a s t maintenance o f female l o n g e v i t y near t h e hunting period norm. This promoted a s l i g h t e x c e s s of s u r v i v a l s o v e r deaths i n j u v e n i l e s and a consequent f a i r l y r a p i d population increase (Table 3 . 1 ) . There are two obvious r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e a b s o l u t e end of nomadism meant l e s s s t r e s s d u r i n g pregnancy and a l s o , f o r t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n , a more c e r t a i n food supply (from s t o r e d g r a i n ) during w i n t e r and e a r l y s p r i n g . Second, p o s t n a t a l adjustment and g e n e t i c a d a p t a t i o n of each population t o endemic i n f e c t i o n s occurred, e s p e c i a l l y t o t h e m a l a r i a s , through t h e balanced polymorphic i n c r e a s e of g e n e t i c a l l y determined abnormal hemoglobins, allowing antibody formation with j u s t enough i r o n and z i n c i n t h e d i e t . The l a r g e l y c e r e a l d i e t supplied enough c a l o r i e s f o r maintenance of s t a t u r e a t a subadequate level--none of t h e s l i g h t Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o Mesolithic s t a t u r e l o s s was r e g a i n e d . (only i n o u r upper c l a s s e s have we y e t returned t o t h e Upper ~ a l e o l i t h i cl e v e l . ) Owing t o poor d i e t throughout childhod, t h e dimensions o f t h e s k u l l b a s e , p e l v i c i n l e t , and long bone s h a f t s , a s well a s g e n e r a l d e n t a l h e a l t h , were depressed below any reasonable h e a l t h norm. This growth depression came (1) from insufficient p r o t e i n ( e s p e c i a l l y e s s e n t i a l amino acids from red meat) and ( 2 ) from r e s t r i c t i o n of blood calcium o r of vitamin D p r e c u r s o r s . Schoeninqer (1981) f i n d s s i t e - c o r r e c t e d strontium l e v e l s a b o u t the s a m e a t rani an p r e p o t t e r y ~ e o l i t h i csites a s a t ~ a t u f i a nsites (except where

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!

I

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s e a f o o d c o m p l i c a t e s t h e p i c t u r e ) . We have no d a t a on i n d i c a t o r s i n bone o f p r o t e i n and z i n c a b s o r b t i o n i n o u r a r e a u n t i l t h e e a r l y f o u r t h millennium B.C. C h a l c o l i t h i c a t Kalinkaya ( B i s e l 1980) i n A n a t o l i a n e a r BoghazkGy, where a very high s i t e - c o r r e c t e d s t r o n t i u m l e v e l i n d i c a t e s a d i e t poor i n animal p r o t e i n . The N e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n a s a whole 1s low i n g e n e r a l h e a l t h and a t t h e low p o i n t o f n u t r i t i o n a l h e a l t h , with s i g n s of t h e musc u l a r e f f o r t and f a t i g u e n e c e s s a r y i n fanning. Yet energy r e mained f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e c u l t u r a 1 achievement, p a r t l y d e r i v e d f ram t h e f a i r l y h i g h l e v e l of v a r i a b i l i t y ( a preamble t o g e n e t i c mixt u r e ) seen i n Table 3 . 1 . The b a l a n c e w i t h s o c i e t y was a wavering p o s i t i v e feedback.

BRONZE AGE

From e a r l i e s t N e o l i t h i c t o C l a s s i c a l t i m e s , p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y i n c r e a s e d s t e a d i l y from a b o u t 2 t o j u s t under 40 persons/km^. Hence s o i l s , f o r e s t s , and m i n e r a l s were under i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e of use. Technological advance s e n n a t i m e s slowed and sometimes acc e l e r a t e d t h i s e c o l o g i c a l s t r e s s . By t h e E a r l y Bronze Age i n t h e t h i r d millennium B.C., s a i l i n g and oared s h i p s f o r t r a d e , e x p l o r a t i o n , a n d w a r f a r e were made p o s s i b l e i n p a r t by b e t t e r axes and a d z e s . I n c r e a s i n g l y t h e s e t o o l s and weapons were made of t h e new bronze. Over t h e two m i l l e n n i a from 3500 t o 1500 B.C. bronze was developed through a l l o y i n g copper w i t h a r s e n i c and l a t e r w i t h t i n . E x t e n s i v e e x p l o r a t i o n f o r t i n (Wertime 1 9 7 8 ) , i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r i t s hardening e f f e c t o n copper, l e d i n time t o v a s t l y expanded zones and l i n e s of t r a d e , by s e a and by l a n d , and brought s i l v e r and g o l d into t h e h e a r t o f c i v i l i z a t i o n . Bronze c u t t i n g weapons, and l a t e r armor, made w a r f a r e an i n s t r u m e n t o f t h e emerging c i t y states . The new food base c o n s i s t e d o f improved g r a i n s , i n c l u d i n g emmer and e a r l y bread-wheat, f a v a beans, f i g and o t h e r f r u i t t r e e s , domesticated g r a p e s , and t h e o l i v e (Chadwick 1976; Hopf 1962; mPP e t a l . 1 9 7 8 ) . These were c u l t i v a t e d with i r r i g a t i o n , f e r t i l i z i n g , and u s e o f t h e new E a r l y Bronze Age a r d drawn by oxen. The now d i m i n i s h i n g meat supply was much more domestic than w i l d and was a minor p a r t o f d i e t ( G e j v a l l 1969; Shay and Shay 1 9 7 8 ) . Bees were d o m e s t i c a t e d t o produce honey. I n t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f t h e t h i r d millennium B.C., v a r i o u s groups o f Indo-European s p e a k e r s ( w i t h ox-drawn wheeled wagons) i n t r u d e d i n t o t h e Near E a s t and South Europe, ~ r o d u c i n gs t i m u l a t i n g m i x t u r e s of p e o p l e s and of g e n e s . There was a n accompanying g r a d u a l s h i f t t o p a t r i a r c h a l systems. By L a t e Bronze t i m e s , o v e r a h a l f millennium l a t e r , " c i t i e s " i n H i t t i t e , Minoan, and Mycenean zones expanded i n t o almost f e u d a l c i t y - s t a t e s (cf. chadwick 1 9 7 6 ) Horse-and-chariot warfare demanded huge s t o n e defense w a l l s . Elaborate m e t a l l u r g y and t e x t i l e p r o d u c t i o n , once centered in

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Mesopotamia and Egypt, expanded and flourished . A t Kultepe i n Anatolia, Assyrian merchants had e s t a b l i s h e d systems of t r a d e i n t i n , c l o t h , e t c . , with c r e d i t and w r i t t e n t a b l e t s (cuneiform). Record-tablets i n Linear B s c r i p t show t h e self-consciousness of a t r u e developing c i v i l i z a t i o n and t h e need t o record resources a s population pressures, d i s p u t e s , and wars developed a l l over t h e Mycenean -dominated Aegean world. Improvement again i n mixed farming i s implied i n d e t a i l i n t h e t a b l e t s (Chadwick 1976; Ventris and Chadwick 1956) and i s f a i r l y c l e a r l y r e c a l l e d i n Homer ( s e e Seymour 1908) . A s sea l e v e l lowered, t h e Mycencans undertook some massive marsh- and lakedrainage p r o j e c t s ; f o r example, of t h e Copaic basin. These and the d r i e r climate kept malaria down. But t h e population was dense enough f o r childhood epidemics t o begin. According t o arrest l i n e s on t e e t h (Table 3 . I ) , epidemics probably s t a r t e d a f t e r 2000 B . C . , i n the Middle Bronze Age. Diet grew more varied a s more sea f i s h and probably ducks were added, but i n t h e Late Bronze Age it s t i l l included unleavened cakes o r pita (Seymour 1908) r a t h e r than leavened bread. Some "slaves, " s p e c i f i c a l l y weavers, got a d a i l y r a t i o n of wheat and f i g s . They had t o coll e c t t h e i r own greens, but t h e t a b l e t s do not mention t h e i r having meat. Diet f o r the r u l e r s i s not s p e c i f i e d on t h e t a b l e t s (Chadwick 1976) . ~ i v i n gconditions did not r e a l l y improve much f o r t h e farmers.

EARLY IRON AGE

The Homeric e p i c s belong t o t h e succeeding, r a t h e r brief "Dark Age" epitomized i n migrations from overpopulation, l o c a l depopulat i o n s , droughts, p i r a c y , and l o c a l autonomy i n t h e i n t e r v a l o f o r a l h i s t o r y between t h e s y l l a b i c w r i t i n g of t h e Linear B t a b l e t s and the invention of t h e Greek alphabet from West Semitic (Gelb 1963) . As usual i n a time of quick change, there were several i n ventions. The chief of these was t h e smelting and forging of i r o n , and t h e carburization of iron t o give s t e e l . Iron brought about t h e e f f i c i e n t m e t a l l i z i n g of t h e t o o l s of a q r i c u l t u r e , once stone o r bronze, such a s t h e t i p of t h e wood plow, and the sickle-though f l i n t o r obsidian backed blades continue down t o t h e Iron freed the more expresent i n t h e doGen o r threshing-sled. pensive bronze f o r more s p e c i a l uses than t o o l s o r weapons and spread widely a m e t a l l i c economy. B u t u s e of iron also brought a c r i s i s i n wood-based energy throughout t h e Mediterranean.

3

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN HEALTH AND CULTURE:

EARLY BRONZE AGE TO CLASSICAL TIMES From the b a s i c low p o i n t i n t h e N e o l i t h i c , n u t r i t i o n a l h e a l t h ( T a b l e 3 . 1 ) c o n t i n u e d i n a s t r a i g h t and o n l y s l i g h t l y f l u c t u a t i n g e q u i l i b r i u m f o r a l m o s t f i v e m i l l e n n i a u n t i l the immense t o t a l S k u l l b a s e h e i g h t was a b o u t h e a l t h advance o f C l a s s i c a l t i m e s . 15% a n d p e l v i c d e p t h and s t a t u r e a b o u t 7% below t h e U p p e r P a l e o l i t h i c norm, a n d d e n t a l d i s e a s e t h r e e o r f o u r t i m e s more s e v e r e . We have s i t e - c o r r e c t e d s t r o n t i u m v a l u e s a t medium t o h i g h l e v e l s i n d i c a t i n g l e s s t h a n a d e q u a t e r e d m e a t , b u t z i n c v a l u e s a b o u t the same a s modern, s u g q e s t i n q some z i n c s o u r c e s o t h e r t h a n meat. In t h e L a t e Bronze Age p a r t i c u l a r l y , a human t o sheep-goat Sr/Ca r a t i o of a b o u t 1 . 0 0 shows t h a t p e o p l e were g e t t i n g more s t r o n t i u m t h a n was p o s s i b l e o n l y from p l a n t s . The o b v i o u s s o u r c e i s s e a f i s h , since a f i s h d i e t t e n d s t o r a i s e b o t h zinc and s t r o n t i u m . B o t h l e v e l s go down i n t h e E a r l y I r o n Age, s u g g e s t i n g d i s t u r b a n c e o f f i s h i n q by p i r a c y , r n i q r a t i o n s , o r custom c h a n g e - I t i s p u z z l i n g t h a t s k u l l base h e i g h t , p e l v i c i n l e t d e p t h , a n d s t a t u r e a l l remain below normal, e s p e c i a l l y since stress from m a l a r i a had vanished (Table 3.1) . P a r t o f t h e e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h e continued a b s o r p t i o n o f p h y t a t e from u n l e a v e n e d a n d c o a r s e b r e a d (maza) s t i l l i n use t h r o u g h t h e E a r l y I r o n Age (Seymour 1 9 0 8 ; T a n n a h i l l 1 9 7 3 ) ~ a s w e l l a s somewhat l o w c a l o r i c l e v e l s , p a r t l y from p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e (McDonald a n d Simpson 1 9 6 1 ) .

Regional Variation:

Lycia Versus Greece

The p e o p l e a t E a r l y Bronze Age K a r a t a s , i n a n c i e n t L y c i a i n s o u t h w e s t Ana t o l i a , show b e t t e r n u t r i t i o n a l h e a l t h t h a n t h e i r cont e m p o r a r i e s i n G r e e c e ( m a i n l y from Hagios Kosmas i n A t t i c a , C o r i n t h , a n d H a g i o s S t e p h a n o s i n s o u t h e a s t P e l o p o n n e s u s ) . The K a r a t a s s a m p l e h a s a h i g h e r s k u l l base ( 2 1 nun [N = 1 7 2 1 versus 1 9 mm [N = 1 2 1 1 , a p p a r e n t l y a d e e p e r p e l v i s ( i n l e t i n d e x o f 85% [N = 271 ) , a n d g r e a t e r s t a t u r e ( 1 5 3 . 1 versus 1 4 8 . 8 cm [N = 51 f o r f e m a l e s , 1 6 6 . 5 v e r s u s 1 6 2 . 2 cm [ N = 51 f o r m a l e s ) . I n d e n t a l h e a l t h ( 5 l e s i o n s / m o u t h [N = 1751 ) and i n l o n g e v i t y (29.5 y e a r s [N = 1911 f o r f e m a l e s a n d 33.7 [ N = 1591 f o r m a l e s ) t h e K a r a t a 3 p e o p l e fit t h e g e n e r a l Bronze Age norm. T h e i r a d u l t p l u s c h i l d i n c i d e n c e o f t i c h y p c r o s t o s i s i s a l i t t l e l o w e r t h a n t h e 20% a t Middle Bronze Age L e r n a (Angel 1971), a n d t h e o c c u r r e n c e a t K a r a t a p of e x t r e m e l y anemic c h i l d r e n i m p l i e s t h a t . t h e r e were t h a l a s s e m i a homozygotesF a l c i p a r u m m a l a r i a m u s t have had some s e l e c t i v e m i c r o e v o l u t i o n a r Y e f f e c t a s i t h a d a t Lerna l a t e r . T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s s u g g e s t good n u t r i t i o n a t K a r a t a s , e s p e c i a l l y i n c h i l d h o o d . T h e s i t e - c o r r e c t e d Sr/Ca r a t i o a t . 6 0 ( N = 3 2 2 ) i s l o w enough t o i n d i c a t e p l e n t i f u l meat p r o t e i n . The K a r a t a s b o n e z i n c l e v e l of 1 4 8 pq/g m a t c h e s t h e modern U n i t e d States l e v e l o f 1 4 7 (Bisel 1980, p e r s o n a l communication, 1982). ~ a r a t as ~o i l z i n c is l o w . There i s a p u z z l i n g d i f f e r e n c e between the sexes i n Z i n c

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l e v e l ; it i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r i n females b y o v e r 2 0 ug/g ( f e m a l e 1 3 7 . 0 [fl = 1731, male 1 6 1 . 0 [N = 1491 ) . I n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e very h i g h . The p r e s e n c e of i m m i g r a n t s may e x p l a i n i n p a r t some h i q h v a l u e s i n m a l e s . F e m a l e s d y i n g young, in c h i l d b i r t h on t h e e v i d e n c e of 0-2 b i r t h s / p e l v i s (N = 1 2 ) , h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w z i n c v a l u e s a t 122 pg/g compared w i t h 1 9 1 . 4 i n f e m a l e s h a v i n g 6-10 b i r t h s ( N = 1 2 ) . S t a t u r e does n o t c o r r e l a t e w i t h Sr/Ca o r z i n c . Only in s k u l l b a s e h e i g h t is an e f f e c t s e e n . T w e n t y - t h r e e p e o p l e w i t h low s k u l l b a s e s h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r Sr/Ca r a t i o s than 60 p e o p l e w i t h a v e r a g e a n d hiqh bases (-71versus -60). T h e i r zinc l e v e l s a r e l o w e r , t o o , but n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y .

Class Variation :

Mycenean R o y a l t y

D u r i n g t h e l a t t e r part of t h e M i d d l e Bronze Age i n G r e e c e , t h e " r o y a l t y " a t Mycenae (Table 3.1) differ so g r e a t l y from t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n t h a t we e x c l u d e them f r o m t h e o v e r a l l s t a t i s t i c s . I n l o n g e v i t y t h e y f i t t h e Bronze Age norm. They show the same s t r i k i n g diversity o f morphology (and i m p l i e d o r i g i n s ) as the g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n , t h e n i n t h e p r o c e s s o f absorbing Indo-European and o t h e r new s e t t l e ' r s , including s o m e from ~ f r i c a . However, the 4 % increase i n s t a t a r e and i n p e l v i c d e p t h and the 30% i n c r e a s e i n s k u l l base h e i g h t i n the r o y a l t y , t h e i r t h i c k e r and more rounded l o n g bones, and the f i v e - f o l d improvement i n t h e i r d e n t a l h e a l t h all show n u t r i t i o n a l improvement t h a t must i n v o l v e more meat protein t h a n t h e a v e r a g e citizen got. The o n l y non-bone i n d i c a t o r of this h i g h p r o t e i n d i e t is t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f g a l l s t o n e s i n o n e man ( A n g e l 1973a: p l a t e 249) From Homer comes t h e h i s t o r i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t rulers w e r e b e t t e r f e d and a t e more meat.

.

Regional Variation:

Athenians v e r s u s N i c h o r i a n s

I n t h e L a t e Bronze A g e there i s a p u z z l i n g r e g i o n a l c o n t r a s t i n h e a l t h between A t h e n i a n s and southwest P c l o p o n n e s e N i c h o r i a n s (Angel e t a l . 1980a; B i s e l 1981.). A t A t h e n s the s i t e - c o r r e c t e d Sr/Ca r a t i o is 1 . 2 1 (N = 59) a s compared t o - 5 5 (N = 2 6 ) a t Nichoria; B i s e i infers from this t h a t much more m e a t , arid no sea

fish, w e r e e a t e n i n t h e s o u t h w e s t Pel.oponnese. Sloan and Duncan ( 1 9 7 8 ) find a l m o s t no f i s h bones a t N i c h o r i a . I t i s e c o l o g i c a l l y l o g i c a l t o assume t h a t l e s s meat was e a t e n a t A t h e n s , and t h e S r / C a r a t i o h i g h e r t h a n 1 . 0 0 t h e r e p r o v e s c o n s u m p t i o n o f s e a fish. Mycenaean Greeks were s t i l l e a t i n g u n l e a v e n e d bread w i t h some phytate. The ~ t h e n i a nbone z i n c a t 157 - 2 vq/q (N = 59) , t h e r e f o r e , is below t h e v a l u e e x p e c t e d i n a p o p u l a t i o n w i t h high f i s h diet. N i c h o r i a n s , whose diet was v i r t u a l l y f i s h l e s s , h a v e a l o w z i n c v a l u e at 120 vg/g. I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e p h y t a t e and fiber of coarsely ground f l o u r and o a t m e a l o r porridge bound and prevented absorption of zinc, as well as i r o n (not d i r e c t l y measured).

3 FROM HUNTING 1 0 FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN Overall Health With a d e c r e a s e i n m a l a r i a s p r e c e d i n g t h e l a t e Bronze Age dec l i n e i n p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , g e n e r a l h e a l t h improved enough f o r a 2-year i n c r e a s e i n a d u l t l o n g e v i t y (more f o r m a l e s ) , and consequent i n c r e a s e i n b i r t h s and p o p u l a t i o n . T h i s l a s t e d u n t i l t h e s l i g h t h e a l t h d e c l i n e of t h e Early I r o n Age. Important i s t h e s u c c e s s f u l a b s o r p t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s groups of Indo-Europeanspeaking i n t r u d e r s whose p r e s e n c e and beginning m i x t u r e r a i s e d i n c r e d i b l y t h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f t h e Middle Bronze Age p o p u l a t i o n . The approximately 500-year time o f m i x t u r e , with consequent reduct i o n o f v a r i a b i l i t y by 20% o r more by t h e Late Bronze Age, was a most c r e a t i v e t i m e c u l t u r a l l y . The E a r l y I r o n Age r e p r e s e n t e d a b r i e f i n t e r r u p t i o n and t h e n s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h i s c r e a t i v i t y .

SUMMARY OF HUNTING TO FARMING SHIFTS I n ecology t h e r e was a marked sequence of changes, f i r s t c l i m a t i c and t h e n man made. P l e i s t o c e n e c o l d mountain f o r e s t , s t e p p e p l a t e a u , o r l o n g f o r e s h o r e w i t h maquis v e g e t a t i o n and few marshes gave way t o more deciduous f o r e s t and crowded s h o r e s , dev e l o p i n g w i t h a p o s t g l a c i a l temperature r j s e of 4 o r 5 C and a r i s e i n s e a l e v e l t o a point h i g h e r than t o d a y ' s . Then, a f t e r n e c e s s a r y u s e o f marshy r i v e r bank a r e a s f o r e a r l y farming, a g r a d u a l expansion o f farmland o c c u r r e d t o 20% of t o t a l land a r e a , a s f o r e s t s were g r a d u a l l y used i n houses, for boats, and f o r m e t a l l u r g y . Because o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e from about 1500 B . C . onward, t h e r e developed t h e s t r o n g c h a l l e n g e of o v e r u s e of soils. I n h e a l t h and d i s e a s e t h e changes were p a r a d o x i c a l , with general h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n a l h e a l t h moving i n g e n e r a l l y o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s . The a p p a r e n t s t a b i l i t y i n female l o n g e v i t y during f i r s t M e s o l i t h i c and t h e n e a r l y farming f i x e d s e t t l e m e n t s allowed populat i o n i n c r e a s e , probably s t a r t i n g b e f o r e farming began and h e l p i n g t o c r e a t e a need f o r i t . Because of t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , nomadism became impossible e x c e p t f o r s p e c i f i c groups of t r a d e r s , t i n k e r s , mountain h u n t e r s , s h e p h e r d s , e t c . Nutrition became p r o g r e s s i v e l y , n o t suddenly, p o o r e r w i t h e a r l y farming. T h i s a p p l i e d e s p e c i a l l y t o p r o t e i n f r o m r e d meat needed f o r a d e q u a t e childhood growth a g a i n s t g r a v i t y i n s k u l l , p e l v i s , and l o n g bones ( s t a t u r e ) . An i n c r e a s e i n d i s e a s e was also i n v o l v e d Although i n t e r g r o u p f i g h t i n g c o n t i n u e d from t h e Upper p a l m e increased a s c i v i l i z a t i o n "adl i t h i c through t h e Bronze ~ g and vanced," t h e r e was a l s o a g r e a t d e a l of s u c c e s s f u l and c r e a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n m i x t u r e . The p o s i t i o n of women a p p a r e n t l y d e c l i n e d b u t s o c i a l h e a l t h was adequate u n t i l s l a v e r y developed. D i s e a s e e f f e c t s were minor in t h e Upper ~ a l e o l i t h i ce x c e p t f o r trauma. I n p o s t g l a c i a l l y h o t a r e a s , p o r o t i c h y p c r o s t o s i s (anemia) i n c r e a s e d i n M e s o l i t h i c and reached high f r e 9 e n c i . e ~i n ~ e o l i t h i c t o Middle Bronze t i m e s - Apparently t h i s r e s u l t e d mainly from t h a l a s s e m i a s , s i n c e c h i l d r e n show it i n long bones as w e l l a5 t h e i r

s k u l l s . But p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i.n a d u l t s had o t h e r c a u s e s t o o , p r o b a b l y from i r o n d e f i c i e n c y from l~ookwonn amebirasis o r p h y t a t e e f f e c t o f a n y o f t h e m a l a r i a s . The t h a l a s s e m i a s n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y f a l c i p a r u m m a l a r i a . T h i s d i s e a s e may be o n e d i r e c t c a u s e o f s h o r t stature. The o t h e r p r e s s u r e l i m i t i n g s t a t u r e and p r o b a b l y a l s o f e r t i l i t y i n e a r l y and d e v e l o p i n g farmi11q t i m e s was d e f i c i e n c y of p r o t e i n a n d of i r o n a n d z i n c from i n g e s t i o n of t o o much p h y t i c a c i d i n t h e d i e t . I n a d d i t i o n new d i s e a s e s i n c l u d i n q e p i d e m i c s emerged a s p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e d r i n d i c a t e d b y a n i n c r e a s e o f enamel a r r e s t l i n e s i n Middle Bronze Age s a m p l e s . The e a r l i e s t v e r t e b r a l t u b e r c u l o s i s r i r i a 1 5 - y e a r - o l d g i r l a t A r g o s f d a t e s a t a b o u t 900 B - C . i n t h e E a r l y I r o n Age. Cancer m e t a s t a s e s o c c u r i n o n e L a t e Bronze Age example. The most s t r i k i n g f i n d i n g i s l o c a l s i t e v a r i a b i l i t y a t a l l p e r i o d s . The s i t e v a r i a b i l i t y means (1) t h a t we h a v e t o p o o l popul a t i o n s t o g e t a broad p i c t u r e a n d l a r g e enough s a m p l e s r a n d ( 2 1 t h a t t h e c a u s a l network o f disease-health-culture-environmen t must b e u n t a n g l e d a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l . Broad c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e s u s pect without references t o s i n g l e sites We c a n c o n c l u d e t h a t f a n n e r s were less h e a l t h y t h a n h u n t e r s r a t l e a s t u n t i l C l a s s i c a l t o Roman times. We c a n n o t s t a t e e x a c t l y how much less h e a 1 t . h ~t h e y w e r e r howeverI o r exactly how o r why.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

S u p p o r t o f f i e l d work came from f e l l o w s h i p s o r g r a n t s from 1-Iarvard U n i v e r s i t y , t h e U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a f t h e S r n i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n , Bryn Mawr C o l l e g e e x p e d i t i o n , the American S c h o o l o f C l a s s i c a l S t u d i e s a t A t h e n s , J e f f e r s o n Xeciical C o l l e g e t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t . u t e s o f H e a l t h ( A - 2 2 4 ) I t h e American P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y r a n d t h e Guggeriheim and Wenner-Gren f o u n d a t i o n s . I am most g r a t e f u l t o t h e a b o v e i n s t i t u t i o n s r t o t h e many i n d i v i d u a l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h themI t o Greek and T u r k i s h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s e r v i c e s , and t o many a r c l ~ a e o l o g i s t sf o r p r o v i d i n g d a t e d s k e l e t o n s ; a l s o t o S a r a B i s e l r G l o r i a Yedynsk1 and A . S i l l e n f o r unpub1.ished d a t a u s e d ; S a r a B i s e l r J e n n i f e r 0 . K c l l e y r Alan Mann, Theodore A . Wertimer a n d Andrew S i l l e n f o r c r i t i c a l r e a d i n g o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t ; Peggy Angel f o r i n v a l u a b l e f i e l d a s s i s t a n c e ; and K a t h a r i n e H o l l a n d f o r p a i n s t a k i n g t y p i n g and r e t y p i n g o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t .

3

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDlTERRANEAN REFERENCES

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Jacobs, J. 1969 The economy o f & t i e s . mndom Housel New York. J a c o b s e n ! T. W . 1 9 6 9 E x c a v a t i o n s a t P o r t o C h e l i and v i c i n i t y I p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t I1 : T h e Franchthi Cave, 1967-1968- flesperia 38 (3) 34 3-381. J a d i n , J. 1 9 3 8 Apergu sur 116tat s a n i t a i r e d e s pygmies de l 1 I t u r i . Anth~opologze (Prague) 16 :6 9 - 8 3 . Keith, Arthur

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1931 New discoveries relating t o the antiquit3 o f man. Wi11ia111s& N o r g a t e , mndon. K o n d ~ k t o r o v aT. ~ C. 1957 P a l e o a n t h r o p o l o g y m a t e r i a l s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c Cemetery V a s i l i e v k a I . Sovetskaja Ant~opologzk 2 : 189-210. Lack, D. L. 1967 The natural reguZation of animal numbers. Oxford University P r e s s l London a n d New York. Mann, A . E. 1 9 7 5 Paleodemographic aspects o f t h e South A f r i c a n ~ u s t r a l o p i t h e c i n e s . University of Penns~ZvmiaPublicatims i n

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M a r i n g e r r J . / a n d H.-G. Bandi 1 9 5 3 A r t i n the Ice Age. P r a e g e r , New YorkM a u l l , 0. 1922 Griechisches ~ i t t e h e e r g e b i e t H i r t , ~ r e s l a -u McDonaldI W. A . , and R . H. Simpson 1961 P r e h i s t o r i c h a b i t a t i o n i n Southwestern PeloponneseAmerican Journal of ArchaeoZogy 65 :22l-26O. M e l l a a r t , LJ. 1967 Fatal Htiyflk. A hleolithic tam in ~rn-bolza. M C G ~ ~ W - H ~ N e w York. Nemeskeri, J . , and L. Szatmary 1 9 7 8 A n t h r o p o l o c ~ ys e c t i o n . I n V l a s a c : A ~ e s o l i t h i cs e t t l e m e n t i n t h e I r o n G a t e s (Vol. 11) edited by M i l u t i n ~ a r a s a n i n -

.

~ ~

Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts ~ono~raph<es VolDXIIl Dept. o f H i s t o r i c a l S c i e n c e s 5:67-284. Rapp, G . , S . E . Aschenbrenner! and S - C. K r a f t 1978 The Holocene e n v i r o n m e n t a l h i s t o r y o f t h e ~ i c h o r i ar e g i o n

I n Excavations a t f l i e b r i a i n SW Greece 1, S i t e ,

-

~ ~ V ~ P O X S

.I.LAWRENCE A W E L

md t e ~ h i p e ~ e d,i t e d pp. 13-25.

b y G . Rapp and S . E , Aschenbz-enner, U n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota P r e s s , M i n n e a p o l i s .

Reedl C - A . 1 9 7 7 a A model for t h e o r i g i n o f a q r i c u l t u r e i n t h e Near E a s t . Origins of a g ~ i c u z t u r e ,e d i t e d by C- A . Reed, p p . 543-567. Mouton, The Haque. Reed, C . A . ( e d i t o r ) 1977b h z g i n s of u ~ P ~ ; c u ~ ~Muu tPo n~ . The Hague. Reinhold, J . G. 1972 P h y t a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f l e a v e n e d and u n l e a v e n e d I r a n i a n b r e a d s . Ecology of Food and Nutrition 1 : 187-192 S c h o e n i n g c r l M. J. 1 9 8 1 T h e a g r i c u l t u r a l ' r e v o l u t i o ~I :~ Its effect o n human d i e t i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t . American JoumaZ of PhysieaZ Anthropozogy *54:2 75 (Abstr. ) . Seymour, T . D. 1 9 0 8 Life? i n t h e Homepie Age- Macmillanl New York. S h a y l J. a n d C. T. Shay 1 9 7 8 Modern v e g e t a t i o n and f o s s i l p l a ~ tr e r n a i ~ ~ s .I n Excuvations a t Nichoria i n Si4 Greece I,,e d i t e d b y G - Rapp m d S . E. A s ~ h e n b r e n n e rpp. ~ 41-59. U n i v e r s i t y o f Minnesota P r e s s , M i n r ~ e a p o l i sS i l l e n l A . B. 1981 S t r o n t i u m a n d d i e t a t Hayonim Cave. Ameriem Journal of Physical Anth~op02ogt.j S 6 : 131-137. S l o a n l R . E . ; and M. A. Duncan 1 9 7 8 Z o o a r c h a e o l o g y o f N i c h o r i a . In Exemations a t Nichoria i n SW Gr~eeeeI , e d i t e d by G - Rapp and S . E . A s c h e n b r e n n e r , pp. 60-77. U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a P r e s s M i n n e a p l i s . Sognrlaes, R . F . 1956 H i s t o l o g i c evidence o f developmental l e s i o n s i n t e e t h o r i g i n a t i n g from p a l e 0 1 i t h i c , p r e h i s t o r i c , and a n c i e n t m a n . Amez~ieanJoumaZ of Pathology 32 :547-577. srejoviE1 D. 1972 Neu d i s e o v e ~ i e sa t Lepenski V i r . ( T r a n s l . L - F. ~ d w a r d s ) S t e i n and Dayl New York. Stephanos, C. 1884 Gr6ce. Geographic ~ k d i c a l e . I n L?ietionnuire Eneyelopgdique des Sciences Id&dieaZes ( V o l . X) , e d i t e d by A. Dechambre, S e c t . I V . P . Assel.in, P a r i s S t e w a r t l T . D. 1979 K'ssentia 2s of forensic anthropoZogy - c . C Thomas Springfield I l l i n o i s . T a r l r ~ a h i l l R~. 1 9 7 3 Food i n historg. E y r e Methuen, London. Toddl 1. A . 1976 Guta2 fI~gl2kin ,uerspeefive. Cununingsl Men10 P a r k l c a l i fornia. T ~ l c h m t ~ nB. , W. 1978 A distant rni~ror: Knopf, New Y o r k .

The caZamities of the 14th centurg.

3

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN

ven t r i s , M . , and J . Chadwick 1956 Documents in Mycenaean Greek. Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y , Press, Cambridge Wendorf, F . 1968 S i t e 1 1 7 : A Nubian f i n a l P a l e o l i t h i c g r a v e y a r d n e a r J e b e l Sahaba, Sudan. The Prehistory of Nubia (Vol. 11) , e d i t e d by J?. Wendorf. Southern Methodist University Contributions h.A n t h ~ o p u z u g y No. 2 , pp. 954-985. Wendorf, F r e d , R . S c h i l d , N. E l H a d i d i , A . E . Close, M. K o b i e s i e w i c z , H . Wicckowska, B . I s s a w i , and H. Haas 1 9 7 9 The use of b a r l e y i n t h e Egyptian Late P a l e o l i t h i c . S c i e n c e 205:1341-1347. Wertime, T. A . 1 9 7 8 The search f o r ancient t i n : The geographic and historic b o u n d a r i e s . I n The search for ancient f i n , e d i t e d by A. D . F r a n k l i n , J . S . O l i n , and J. A . Wertime, pp. 1-6. S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n , Washington, D . C . Y e s n e r , D . R. 1980 N u t r i t i o n a n d cultural e v o l u t i o n , patterns i n p r e s h i t o r y . I n N u t r i t i o n a l anthropology, pp. 85-115. Redgrave, PI e a s a n t v i l l e , Now York. ZivanoviC , S . 1.975 A note o n the a n t h r o p l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the MorphoZwi~und Padina population. Zeitschrift A n t h ~ o p l o g i e66 : 161-175.

.

fVir

CHAPTER 4 SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE AND PATTERNS OF PATHOWGY AND VARIATION I N TIiE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE: S W SUGGESTIONS

Department o f Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f Winnipeg

The K E Y Company, I n c . W i l l i s t o n , N o r t h Dakota

INTRODUCTION A t o t a l s y n t h e s i s o f p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l t r e n d s i n Europe from t h e end of t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t h r o u g h t h e d e v e l o p e d N e o l i t h i c i s beyond t h e s c o p e o f a s i n g l e p a p e r . I n d e e d , t h e p u b l i s h e d d a t a d o n o t p e r m i t t h e comprehensive c o l l e c t i o n o f such m a t e r i a l . As s e e n below, it i s c l e a r t h a t t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f a v a i l a b l e d a t a y i e l d s a s many q u e s t i o n s a s a n s w e r s . T h i s s y n t h e s i s s t a r t e d w i t h m a t e r i a l from t h e b l e s o l i t h i c period i n western Eumpc, defined here a s Scandinavia (except F i n l a n d ) , t h e Benelux n a t i o n s , t h e U n i t e d Kingciom, I r e l a n d , F r a n c e , S w i t z e r l a n d , I t a l y , S p a i n , and P o r t u g a l . C o n s t r a i n t s o f t i m e p r e v e n t e d s y n t h e s i s o f t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c m a t e r i a l s . The c o n s t r a i n t s o n t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e b l e s o l i t h i c d a t a b a s e a l s o m u l d h a v e been more p r o b l e m a t i c f o r t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i ~ , w h e r e t o t a l sample s i z e i s s m a l l e r by a n o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e . A s u r v e y was a l s o made o f p u b l i s h e d a n a l y s e s o f N e o l i t h i c r e m a i n s w i t h c m p l ~ a s i s011 r e c e n t w r k w i t h l a r g e r s a m p l e s i n a n a t t e m p t t o o b t a i n r c l i a b l c f r e q u e n c y d a t a . Time c o n s t r a i n t s l i m i t e d r e g i o n a l c o v e r a g e p r i m a r i l y t o t h e Benelux and F r a n c e . The M e s o l i t h i c data b a s e used h e r e h a s b e e n s u b j e c t t o r i g 0 r 0 ~e v~ a l u a t i o n o f p r o v c n i e n c c by Newel1 e t a l . (1979; s e e a l s o B o u v i l l c e t a l . 1 9 8 4 ; Constandse-Westermann and Newel1 1 9 8 4 ; Constandse-Westermann e t a l . 1 9 8 4 ; L a r s s o n e t a l . 1 9 8 1 ) . One hundred and e i g h t y - s i x s i t e s w i t h s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l r e f e r r e d t o

Ci4RISTOPHER MEIKLEJOtIN fl AL.

76

a s M e s o l i t h i c were e v a l u a t e d by t h e s e a u t h o r s f o r s t r a t i g r a p h i c and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p r o v e n i e n c e and a b s o l u t e d a t i n g . From t h i s b a s e , 76 s i t e s had s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l o f a s s u r e d I+.?solithic a g e . One new s i t e h a s n o w been added t o t h e s a m p l e , Skateholm i n s o u t h e r n Sweden (Larsson 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 8 1 , 1982) . T h r e e s i t e s p r e v i o u s l y r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g o f i n d e t e r m i n a t e s t a t u s h a v e been d e m o n s t r a t e d t o c o n t a i n F l e s o l i t h i c m a t e r i a l : V i s t e (Norway), f i o h l e s t e i n (West Germany) , and Uzzo ( I t a l y ) . T h u s , t h e s a m p l e f o r t h i s r e p o r t is based on 8 0 s i t e s . Flowever, t h e m a j o r i t y o f s i t e s consist of materials t h a t e i t h e r a r e single b u r i a l s o r a r e h i g h l y f r a g m e n t a r y ( s e e L a r s s o n e t a l . 1 9 8 1 ) . Only 7 s i t e s have sample s i z e s g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 (Moita do S e b a s t i t i o , C&eyo d a Arruda, and C a b e ~ oda A m r e i r a i n P o r t u g a l , l i 6 e d i c and T e v i c c i n F r a n c e , Vedbaek-Bj6gebakken i n Denmark, and Skateholm i n swedenl) S i m i l a r c o n t r o l o f t h e N e o l i t h i c sample i s n o t y e t p o s s i b l e . No r i g o r o u s s t u d y of p r o v e n i e n c e f o r t h i s p e r i o d h a s been a t tempted. F o r t h i s s t u d y , m a t e r i a l from 51 sites h a s been s y n t h e s i z e d ( s e e Appendix l ) , o f which 2 3 have sample s i z e s of o v e r 1 0 and 6 h a v e sample s i z e s o f o v e r SO.

CULTURAL UNITS AND ECONOMIC TREKDS

The c u l t u r a l b a s e f o r t h i s d i s c u s s i o n must b e g i n w i t h t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c . T h i s p e r i o d i n w e s t e r n Europe i s among t h e b e s t known i n t h e Old World ( s e e r e c e n t s y n t h e s e s by Campbell 1977; de Lumley 1976; L a v i l l e e t a l . 1 9 8 0 ) . I n b r i e f , t h e Upper P a l e o l i t l ~ i co f w e s t e r n Europe i s u s u a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o e a r l i e r and l a t e r c u l t u r a l g r o u p s , s u c c e e d i n g t h e Middle P a l e o l i t h i c Moustcrian complex. The e a r l y Upper P a l e o l i t h i c b e g i n s w i t h d a t e s o f c i r c a 3 3 , 0 0 0 B.C. ( t h i s and a l l o t h e r 1 4 ~ - b a s e d d a t e s i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e u n c a l i b r a t e d ) . The most p a r s i m o n i o u s model h a s s e q u e n t i a l l y r e p l a c i v e C h a t e l p e r r o n i a n , Aurignacian, and Perigordian i n d u s t r i a l complexes, w i t h boundaries a t c i r c a 32,000 and 26,000 B.C., e n d i n g & o u t 1 8 , 0 0 0 B . C . Evidence s b w s a broad-based h u n t i n g omnomy a s s c e n by t h e p r e s e n c e o f a number o f l a r g e h e r d mammals i n t h e f a u n a l r e c o r d ( S p i e s s 1 9 7 9 ) . E n v i r o n m c f ~ t a lr e c o n s t r u c t i o n s s u g g e s t t h a t , t h o u g h t u n d r a and s c r u b t u n d r a dominated r e g i o n s n e a r t h e g l a c i a l i c e f r o n t , s h e l t e r e d l o c a l i t i e s a s Ear n o r t h a s t h e P e r i g o r d r e g i o n h a r b r e d temperate t r e e s p e c i e s . Between 1 9 , 0 0 0 and 1 7 , 0 0 0 B.C. t h e t e r m i n a l P e r i y o r d i a n was was i n t u r n r e p l a c e d by , r e p l a c e d by t11e S o l u t r e a n i ~ ~ d u s t r ywhich t h e Magdalenian, spanning t h e p e r i c d from t h e l a t e g l a c i a l maximum

' o f n e t (RRD), Sun Teodoro ( I t a Z y ) , and &em Candide (IeaZy)

are conszdered t o be Upper PaZeoZzthzc z n age, as are a22 AzzZiun

muter-iaZs.

4 THE MESOLlTtliC AND NEOLITIHIC OF WESTERN EUROI'E

to t h e end o f t h e t e r m i n a l Younger Dryas o s c i l l a t i o n , c i r c a 8300 B . C . The Magdalenian p r o v i d e s t h e p o p u l a t i o n b a s e f o r t h e s u c c e e d i n g M e s o l i t h i c p e r i o d . C u l t u r a l and f a u n a l e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s a s p e c i a l i z e d h u n t i n g economy, w i t h heavy e x p l o i t a t i o n o f key game r e s o u r c e s . Although l o c a l v a r i a t i o n o c c u r s , r e l a t e d t o l o c a l e c o l o g y , most f a u n a l a s s e m b l a g e s a r e dominated by r e i n d e e r ( S p i e s s 1 9 7 9 ) . Evidence f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n of secondary r e s o u r c e s is l i m i t e d (Meiklejohn 1 9 7 8 ) , a p p a r e n t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t i n p e r i g l a c i a l environments, low s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y is a c o r r e l a t e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n s t a b i l i t y ( S l o b o d k i n and S a n d e r s 1968). C u r r e n t e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t s n e i t h e r models o f l ~ i g l ?p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and d e n s i t y n o r l o n g - t e r m s e d e n t a r y a g g r e g a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c (Burch 1972; M e i k l e j o h n 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 ; S p i e s s 1979) . The e v i d e n c e f i t s w i t h Wobst ' s (1976) e s t i m a t e o f 0 . 0 5 persons/km2 a s a n u p p e r l i m i t . Higher f i q u r e s r e q u i r e evidence f o r semipermanent s e t t l e m e n t , t h a t , w h i l e s u g g e s t e d o n t h e b a s i s o f d a t a from r e i n d e e r , c a n be shown t o be b a s e d on i m p r e c i s e methodology ( B i n f o r d 1973; S p i e s s 1 9 7 9 ) . E v i d e n c e s u p p o r t s a model a n a l o g o u s t o t h e p a t t e r n o f m d e r n a r c t i c and s u b a r c t i c hunters, with seasonal s i t e occupation, considerable mobility, and l o w p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y ( b l e i k l e j o h n 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 ; S p i e s s 1 9 7 9 ) . A c o ~ ~ s e q u e nq tu e s t i o n c o n c e r n s t h e s h a p e o f t h e Upper Paleolithic growth c u r v e . A c a l c u l a t e d s t e a d y - s t a t e growth r a t e f o r t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c would be i n t h e o r d e r o f O.Ol%/annum (compare w i t h a modern r a t e o f 2 .O%/annum) (Meikle john 1978) . Within t h e l i f e span of a n i n d i v i d u a l , t h i s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from a z e r o g r o w t h r a t e . D o u b l i n g t i m e a p p r o a c h e s 2 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s . A s a w t o o t h model may, however, b e t t e r f i t t h e f a c t s . I f t h i s i s c o r r e c t , t h e n e ~ ~ v i r o n m e n t ai ln s t a b i l i t y , channeled through r e s o u r c e a v a i l a b i l i t y , i s h e a v i l y implicated (Burch 1 9 7 2 ) . Mechanisms f o r a s t e a d y - s t a t e mechanism a r e f a r harder t o p i n p i n t . I t d o e s seem c l e a r , however, t h a t o v e r a l l Upper P a l e o l i t h i c g r o w t h r a t e s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y below t h o s e o f t h e Mesolithic (see below). The M e s o l i t h i c , a s d c f i n e d h e r e , b e g i n s a t t h e Younyer DryasP r e b o r e a l b o u n d a r y , c i r c a 8300 B.C., a l s o t h e n o r m a l l y d e f i n e d Pleistocene-tfolocene boundary. North o f t h e Mediterranean, t h i s marks t h e d e b u t o f c l i m a L i c c o n d i t i o n s w i t h a1111ual t e m p e r a t u r e s n e a r t h e modern mean, a c c o m p a t ~ i e dby a f o r e s t s u c c e s s i o n b e g i n n i n g w i t h p i n e - b i r c h dominance and l e a d i n g t o w a r d s a c l i m a x oak f o r e s t . Even i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n b a s i n t h e r e a r e major- e c o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s , though n o t so d r a s t i c ( ~ e w e l le t a l . 1 9 7 9 ) . M e s o l i t h i c i n d u s t r i e s a r e dominated b y m i c r o l i t h i c a s s e m b l a g e s ( f o r r e c e n t s y n t h e s e s s e e d e Lumley 1976; Gramsch 1 9 8 1 ; Kozlowski 1973; b l e l l a r s 1978; Rozoy 1 9 7 8 ) . T y p o l o g i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a r e a s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d , though t h e s e d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mark m a j o r p o p u l a t i o n b o u n d a r i e s (Newel1 and Anderson 1 9 8 2 ; Newel1 e t a l . 1 9 8 2 ) . The M e s o l i t h i c l a s t s from t h e P r e b o r e a l u n t i l t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f f a r m i n g and h e r d i n g c o m m u n i t i e s .

78

CliKIS~Ol'HEK MElKLEJOt~NETAL.

Whereas l a t e P a l e o l i t h i c economies a r e b a s e d o n low s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y w i t h marginal d i e t a r y a l t e r n a t i v e s , c l e a r evidence e x i s t s f o r g r e a t e r Mesolithic resource breadth & dependability. Though l a r g e u n g u l a t e s a r e s t i l l a major r e s o u r c e , t h e r e i s a s h i f t t o m r e s o l i t a r y forms and u s e o f a b r o a d e r r a n g e p e r s i t e (rimer o f m a m a 1 s p e c i e s p e r s i t e : = 7 . 0 , SD = 3 . 9 2 , N = 1 3 9 ; d a t a from R. R. Newell, p e r s o n a l c o m u n i c a t i o n , 1 9 8 1 ) . IIeavy u s e of f i s h and s h e l l f i s h i s a p p a r e n t (Newell a n d Anderson 1 9 8 2 1 , and t h e r e is e v i d e n c e f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e u s e o f p l a n t f o o d r e s o u r c e s . Food r e s o u r c e s were a l s o more e v e n l y s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e a n n u a l c y c l e . The r e s u l t is a p o p u l a t i o n l e s s s u b j e c t t o e t w m m i c b a s e d i s r u p t i o n . The e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s a b r o a d l y a d a p t e d p p u l a t i o n , showing dynamic r e s p n s e s t o t h e b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f t h e Holocene e n v i r o n m e n t . The M e s o l i t h i c economy s e e s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f semipermanent s e t t l e m e n t s , i n c r e a s e d d e n s i t y o f more e v e n l y s p a c e d s i t e s , s t a b i l i t y o f r e g i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n ( s e e a l s o M e i k l e j o h n 19781, and evidence f o r increased r e g i o n a l c u l t u r a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o v e r time (Newel1 e t a l . 1 9 8 2 ) . N e t g r o w t h i s a p p a r e n t i n a number o f r e g i o n s . C l o s e s t c o n t r o l h a s been a c h i e v e d f o r s i t e s i n t h e N o r t h German P l a i n (Newell 1 9 7 3 ) . B e f o r e c i r c a 5700 B.C. t h e r e i s a n i n c r e a s e i n s i t e number, d i f f e r e n t s i t e s i z e s r e f l e c t i n g d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r a l p o s e s , b u t a l l r e m a i n i n g below a n a r e a o f c i r c a Between 5700 and 3500 B.C., s i t e s i z e s i n c r e a s e by up 1000 m 2 . t o f o u r f o l d and t l ~ e r oi s evidence Fnr 1.onger p e r i o d s o f s i t e occ u p a t i o n . . The t o t a l d a t a set s u q q e s t s a s t e a d y - s t a t e growth r a t e o f c i r c a O.l%/annum, a n o r d e r o f magnitude g r e a t e r t h a n s u g g e s t e d f o r t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c and c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e r a t e s u g g e s t e d f o r Middle Easter11 N e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s ( C a r n e i r o and I l i l s e 1 9 6 6 ) . Applying t h e d e r i v e d r a t e s y i e l d s a d e n s i t y f o r t h e t e r m i n a l M e s o l i t h i c o f t h e o r d e r o f 1 person/km2, a f i g u r e c l o s e t o t h a t o f p r i m i t i v e fanning p o p u l a t i o n s (Carneiro and IIilse 1 9 6 6 ) . C a l c u l a t e d 9rowth r a t e s a r e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h modern h u n t e r g a t h e r e r s o c i e t i e s w i t h e x t e n d e d b i r t h - s p a c i n g mechanisms. E a r l y N e o l i t h i c f a r m i n g communities a r e t h u s f o u n d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f s o c i e t i e s a l r e a d y e x h i b i t i n g comparable growth r a t e s and d e n s i t i e s . Fanning communities a p p e a r f i r s t i n t h e s o u t h e r n and s o u t h e a s t e r n p o r t i o n s o f t h e r e g i o n under d i s c u s s i o n , i n t h e M e d i t e r ranean and Danube-Rhine b a s i n s b e g i n n i n g a b o u t 6200 B.C. ( G u i l a n e 1 9 7 9 ) . From h e r e t h e y s p r e a d n o r t h and w e s t , a p p e a r i n g a t d a t e s r a n g i n g from 5700 B.C. i n t h e s o u t h e a s t to 4400 B.C. i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , 3500 B.C. i n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e N e t h e r l a n d s and England, 3700 B.C. i n I r e l a n d , 4000 B.C. i n B r i t t a n y , and 3500 B.C. i n c e n t r a l P o r t u g a l ( s e e Amnerman a n d C a v a l l i - S f o r z a 1973; G u i l a n e 1979; M i l i s a u s k a s 1 9 7 8 ) . The dynamics o f t h e s p r e a d o f farming a r e complex a n d c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t always c l e a r l y s e p a r a t e modcls o f i n t r u s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s from d i f f u s i o n and/or t h e r e g i o n a l a d a p t a t i o n o f l o c a l i n d i g e n e s ( ~ e w t h w a i t e1 9 8 1 ) .

4 T H E hfESOLITl3IC AND NEOLITIIIC 01: WLSTERN EUROPE

DATA BASE AND ANALYSIS

Introduction Data h a v e been r e c o r d e d f o r p a t h o l o g y and t r a u m a i n b o t h d e n t a l and s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l s , a s h a s m a t e r i a l r e l e v a n t t o t r e n d s i n s k e l e t a l dimorphism and s t a t u r e . A m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e M e s o l i t h i c s e r i e s h a s h e n examined by t h e s e n i o r a u t h o r . F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d , e x c e p t f o r m a t e r i a l fZmI t h e e a r l y N e o l i t h i c S w i f t e r b a n t s i t e s (Constandse-Westemann and M e i k l e j o h n 1 9 7 9 ; M e i k l e j o h n and Constandse-Westermann 19781, a l l d a t a a r e from t h e a v a i l a b l e l i t e r a t u r e . Tile d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s i t e s by country i s given i n Table 4.1.

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e N a t u r e o f t h e Data Base I n c o l l e c t i n g d a t a f o r t h i s r e p o r t i t became c l e a r t h a t t h e r e were g a p s i n t h e r e p o r t i n g o f i n f o r m a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f many of t h e s e r i e s r a i s e d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n a t u r e . T h e s e p o i n t s must b e examined i f t h e c o l l e c t e d d a t a a r e t o b e p l a c e d i n c o n t e x t . I n many c a s e s i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e from t h e l i t e r a t u r e w h e t h e r p a t h o l o g y h a s been s o u g h t i n a given sample. 111 l>repari.ng k h e b l e s r ~ l i t h i cp r o v e n i e n c e c a t a l o g (Newell e t a l . 1 9 7 9 ) , we were f o r c e d t o c o n c l u d e t h a t n o s t u d y Of p a t l ~ o l o g yhad o c c u r r e d when n o s p e c i f i c s t a t e m e n t was made. A t t h i s s t a g e , t h e n , it i s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r t h i s i s a b i a s i n g f a c t o r . I t i s e q u a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c o v e r whether f u r t h e r p a t h o l o g y e x i s t s on some s a m p l e s f o r which p a t b l o g y i s r e p r t e d . F o r example, we s u s p e c t some u n d e r r e p o r t i n g o r n o n r e p r t i n g o f whole c l a s s e s o f p a t b l o g y a n d / o r trauma. Thus we do n o t c l a i m u n i v e r s a l c o v e r a g e of p a t h o l o g y f o r t h e s e r i e s u n d e r m n s i d e r a tion. The a p p r o a c h t a k e n t o t h e r e p r t h g o f p a t h o l o g y a d t r a u m a must a l s o be broaclled. The f o c u s o f this s t u d y i s on denwgraphy and a n t h r o p o l o g y , w i t h p o p u l a t i o n a s t h e e s s e n t i a l u n i t o f s t u d y . T h i s is a c e n t r a l d i f f e r e n c e between a n t h r o p l o g i c d and c l i n i c a l medical approaches t o d i s e a s e process. iiowever, much o f t h e d a t a r e p r t e d here a r e c l e a r l y presented w i t h i n t h e c l h i c a l paradigm. Pathology is well described but i s n o t placed i n t o t h e context of t h e s a m p l e . I t i s sometimes d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c o v e r w h e t h e r c a s e s o f p a t h o l o g y i n a p a r t i c u l a r s e r i e s a r e o r a r e n o t from a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l , and i t may n o t be p s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e f r e q u e n c y of a pathology. F i n a l l y , i t must b e a s k e d w h e t h e r t h e sample i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h c p o p u l a t i o n from which i t i s drawn. We d o n o t have s u f f i c i e n t c o n t r o l o f tb.e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e t o test t h e problem a d e q u a t e l y . However, o n e o f u s e h a s t e s t e d t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r b i a s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c s ~ m p l e( S c h e n t a g 1 9 8 2 ) . M u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s was p e r f o r m e d on t h e sample u s i n g s e v e r a l i n d e p e n d e n t

CHRISTOPHER MEIKLUOHN ET AL.

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TABLE 4 . 1 .

Dzstributzon of S i t e s by Country Countqj

Sites MesoUthio Neolithic

Nomy Sweden Denmark Federal Republ zc of Germany German Democmtzc Republzc Great Brztazn The Netherlands Luxembourg Be lgiwn Switzerland France Italy Spain Portugal

variables. Primary r e s u l t s a r e a s follows. The more complete a specimen, t h e g r e a t e r i t s chance of being reported as p a t h o l o g i c a l . S t a t e of preservation was found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t when polynomial regression was performed. Thus completeness of t h e skeleton has a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o reporting of pathology, whereas t h e e f f e c t of preservation is c u r v i l i n e a r . The l a t t e r finding suggests t h a t while reporting of pathology i s g r e a t e r f o r a r e l a t i v e l y complete specimen, there appear t o be systematic occurrences of reported pathology i n r e l a t i v e l y fragmentary m a t e r i a l s . Results r e l a t e d t o age of t h e specimen, l o c a t i o n , context, and d a t e of publication were l e s s c l e a r . It can be concluded, however, t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t biasing e f f e c t s a r e involved i n the reporting of both frequency and d i s t r i b u t i o n of pathology i n t h e Mesolithic sample. W e would a l s o point out t h a t c e r t a i n c l a s s e s of data considered elsewhere in t h i s volume have not been reported f o r European s e r i e s of the time frame under consideration, including Harris l i n e s and t r a c e element a n a l y s i s f o r such bone c o n s t i t u e n t s a s strontium. In Mesolithic samples, measurement of t h e l a t t e r i s complicated by the ubiquitous presence of marine resources (T. D . P r i c e , personal communication, 1982) .

4

THE MESOL1THIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE C r a n i a l Pathology

T h e r e a r c o n l y t h r e e c l a s s e s o f c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y from t h e M e s o l i t h i c sample. None a p p e a r t o b e o f major i m p o r t a n c e , a n d n o m e a n i n g f u l f r e q u e n c y d a t a can be g e n e r a t e d . Only o n e c a s e o f a r t h r i t i s is r e p o r t e d ; s l i g h t a r t h r i t i s o f t h e mandibular condyles (Melby, Denmark). The i n d i v i d u a l a l s o h a s p o s t c r a n i a l a r t h r i t i s . C r a n i a l i n f e c t i o n i s a l s o r e p o r t e d i n a s i n g l e c a s e (Mannlefelsen, France), an o c c i p i t a l depression apparently not t h e r e s u l t o f a fracture . F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c , c r a n i a l a r t h r i t i s a p p e a r s t o b e o f t h e same o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e a s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c . However, t h e f r e q u e n c y o f c r a n i a l i n f e c t i o n s a p p e a r s t o be h i g h e r , though a p p a r e n t l y o f a b r o a d r a n g e o f e t i o l o g i e s , making q u a n t i f i c a t i o n d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t . Four F r e n c h s i t e s (Fontenay-le-Marmion, L ' Homme-Mort, L a r i s Goguet, and Vigneau) r e p o r t a r t h r i t i s . T h e s e a r e p a r t i t i o n e d i n t o temperomandibular a r t h r i t i s ( f i v e c a s e s i n two s i t e s [if = c a . 1 2 6 1 , g l e n o i d c a v i t y a r t h r i t i s ( o n e c a s e ) , and o c c i p i t a l c o n d y l e a r t h r i t i s ( t h r e e c a s e s i n o n e s i t e [A' = 1 7 1 ) . No s i t e r e p o r t s more t h a n o n e t y p e o f a r t h r i t i s . S i n c e N r e p r e s e n t s t h e number o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e s a m p l e s , n o t t h e number o f c a s e s w i t h t h e a r e a i n t a c t f o r i n s p e c t i o n , frequency d a t a cannot be c a l c u l a t e d . We c a n n o t comment a t t h i s t i m e o n w h e t h e r a r t h r i t i s is c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e age o f a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e samples. Evidence f o r g c n e r a l i z c d c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y , i n c l u d i n g i n f e c t i o n , suggests considerably higher l e v e l s i n the Neolithic than i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c . However, t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e p o r t i n g hampers g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . Data i n t h i s c a t e g o r y were r e c o r d e d from 1 7 s i t e s l i s t e d w i t h i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s : tumef a c t i o n ( o n e c a s e ) , o s t e o p h y t o s e s ( o n e ) , b e n i g n osteoma ( o n e ) , o s t e o m y e l i t i s ( o n e ) , bony e x o s t o s e s ( t h r e e ) , e r o d e d bone s u r f a c e s a n d / o r t h i n n i n g r a r e f a c t i o n ( s i x ) , c i r c u l a r l e s i o n s ( t w o ) , hematoma ( t w o ) , m a n d i b u l a r c y s t ( o n e ) , and g e n e r a l bony d e p r e s s i o n s ( t h r e e ) . These c a t e g o r i e s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . M a t e r i a l s o f v e r y d i f f e r e n t e t i o l o g y a p p e a r t o be p r e s e n t . T h i s i s , however, a c a t e g o r y t h a t a p p e a r s t o b e more f r e q u e n t i n l a t e r s a m p l e s . I t can b e t e n t a t i v e l y h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t i n c r e a s e d l e v e l s o f g e n e r a l i z e d i n f e c t i o n can be e x p e c t e d i n more s e d e n t a r y p o p u l a t i o n s o f g r e a t e r d e n s i t y , which have g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l f o r a c t i n g a s r e s e r v o i r s o f infection. The f i n a l c a t e g o r y o f c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y n o t e d i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c , o s t e o p o r o s i s , i s r e p o r t e d i n o n l y 2 c a s e s o f 46 s i t e s with c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y s t u d i e d (Cuzoul d e Gramat, F r a n c e , a n d F a l k e n s t e i n h o h l e , BRD). Such a l o w f r e q u e n c y s u g g e s t s t h a t d i e t a r y i n s u f f i c i e n c y i s r a r e . The same c o n c l u s i o n a l s o e x t e n d s to t h e ~ e o l i t h i c ,w i t h o n l y one r e p o r t e d c a s e ( H a s t i & r c s , N = c a . S O ) . T h i s t r a i t shows no clear trend. Similarl.y, c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a i s n o t a major f a c t o r i n e i t h e r p e r i o d . T h e r e a r e n o r e p o r t e d c a s e s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c , and o n l y f o u r c a s e s from o n e s i t e i n t h e N e o l i t h i c ( L a r i s Goguet, N = 6 0 ) . Hengen (1971) a l s o makes n o m e n t i o n o f e a r l y c a s e s . C r i b r a

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o r b i t a l i a , l i k e osteoporosis, provides no evidence f o r a s h i f t i n g e n e r a l h e a l t h s t a t u s between t h e M e s o l i t h i c and t h e N e o l i t h i c . Major d i e t a r y s t r a i n , t h e s u g g e s t e d e t i o l o g y f o r t h o s e t r a i t s i n o t h e r g e o g r a p h i c a r e a s , c a n n o t be s u p p o r t e d f o r e i t h e r p e r i o d . PostcraniaJ. P a t h o l o g y P o s t c r a n i a l pathology i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c p e r i o d s u g g e s t s t h e primacy o f bony changes r e s u l t i n g from heavy u s e and c o n c o m i t a n t d e g e n e r a t i o n , p r i m a r i l y n o t e d a s o s t e o c h o n d r o s i s and a r t h r i t i s . Possibly r e l a t e d a r e cases o f scoliosis-kyphosis. T h e r e a r e o n l y two o t h e r r e p o r t e d p a t h o l o g i e s , o n e o n l y r e p o r t e d from a s i n g l e s i t e . P e r i o s t o t i c h y p e r t r o p h y i s r e p o r t e d from T e v i e c 5 and w i t h a n u t r i t i o n a l e t i o l o g y . T h e r e i s no e q u i v a l e n t from t h e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e . More g e n e r a l l y r e p o r t e d i s t h e c a t e g o r y o f i n f e c t i o n . These i n c l u d e r e p o r t s o f u l n a r o s t e i t i s (Trou V i o l e t A ) , i n f l a m m a t o r y r e a c t i o n s o f t h e l o w e r l i m b s (Cuzoul d e Gramat a n d B o n i f a c i o ) , and a bone a b s c e s s o f t h e r i g h t u l n a (HBedic S ) , a l l from F r a n c e , p l u s a d r a i n i n g s o r e i n t h e humerus (AgerBd I , Sweden). P o s t c r a n i a l i n f e c t i o n is a l s o p r e s e n t i n t h e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e , b u t i n low amounts. T h e r e i s a p o s s i b l e i n f e c t i o n i n a d e l t o i d t u b e r o s i t y ( S w i f t e r b a n t S2), g e n e r a l i z e d s w e l l i n g and p e r i o s t o t i c r e a c t i o n o n a t i b i a (Foiitenay-lo-Mannion) , and bone r a r e f a c t i o n o f a s c a p u l a ( A b r i Pendimoun). Bony e x o s t o s e s a r e r e p o r t e d from Barnes-Chaudes, G r o t t e d e Route and L a r i s Goguet. A t G r o t t e de Route t h i s may b e secondary t o trauma. T h e r e a r e a l s o g e n e r a l i z e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f "pronounced e x c a v a t i o n " o f a f i b u l a ( G r o t t e d e R o u t e ) , and o f bony d e p r e s s i o n s and e x p o s u r e o f spongy t i s s u e ( L a r i s Goguet) t h a t may f i t h e r e . I t can b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t p o s t c r a n i a l i n f e c t i o n was a problem i n both t i m e p e r i o d s . No c l e a r t r e n d s a r e v i s i b l e in t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a . A r t h r i t i s and r e l a t e d f e a t u r e s are r e p o r t e d from 1 3 o f 4 6 M e s o l i t h i c sites w i t h r e p o r t e d p a t h o l o g y s t u d i e s ( 2 8 . 3 0 ) . I n 3 s i t e s w i t h m u l t i p l e i n d i v i d u a l s , f r e q u e n c i e s w e r e 13% i n 2 c a s e s (Bjrfqebakken, Denmark--3 o f 23, Teviec--3 o f 23) and 21% i n t h e t h i r d (Hoedic--3 o f 1 4 ) . The s p i n a l column a n d p e l v i c r e g i o n show h i g h e s t f r e q u e n c i e s (11 o f 2 1 i n d i v i d u a l s = 5 2 % ) , b r o k e n down i n t o : c e r v i c a l v e r t e b r a e ( 4 ) , t h o r a c i c v e r t e b r a e ( 2 1 , lumbar v e r t e b r a e ( 3 1 , sacrum a n d p e l v i s ( 3 ) , n o n s p e c i f i c ( 4 ) . To t h e s e f i g u r e s c a n b e added o s t e o c h o n d r o s i s o f t h e t h o r a c i c and lumbar v e r t e b r a e from B o n i f a c i o , t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h o r a c i c v e r t e b r a l d i s p l a c e m e n t i n T e v i e c 3 and 6, and lumbar d e v i a t i o n i n Loschbour, Luxembourg. I n t h e l i m b s , 9 of 21 i n d i v i d u a l s ( 4 3 % ) showed a r t h r i t i s o f t h e s h o u l d e r g i r d l e and/or u p p e r l i m b and 6 o f 2 1 ( 2 9 % ) showed a r t h r i t i s o f t h e lower l i m b , p r i m a r i l y t h e f o o t . T h e s e f i g u r e s s u g g e s t t h a t s t r e s s i s g r e a t e r i n t h e v e r t e b r a l column and u p p e r l i m b t h a n i n t h e lower l i m b d u r i n g t h e M e s o l i t h i c . When t h e N e o l i t h i c s e r i e s i s examined, t h e r e i s a n immediate i m p r e s s i o n t h a t v e r t e b r a l a r t h r i t i s i s l e s s f r e q u e n t t h a n in t h e

4 THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE

83

M e s o l i t h i c . Only t h r e e sites r e p o r t d e g e n e r a t i v e c h a n g e s . Hyperos t o s i s i s r e p o r t e d from 1 ' A b r i pendimoun ( N = 1) ( a t l a s and lumbar r e g i o n ) . Fontenay-le-Marmion (N = 6 6 ) h a s r e p o r t e d o s t e o p h y t e s , enlargement o f a r t i c u l a r f a c e t s , c a r t i l a g e d e s t r u c t i o n , p a t t e r n s o f f u s i o n , and g e n e r a l a l t e r a t i o n . L a r i s Goguet (/I = c a . 6 0 ) h a s r e p o r t e d a r t h r o s e s and g e n e r a l d e f o r m a t i o n , and t h e o n l y r e p o r t i n g Of f r e q u c n c i e s w i t h 36-40% o f t h o r a c i c v e r t e b r a e a f f e c t e d (N = 73-81), 31% o f l u m b a r v e r t e b r a e I - I V (N = 70) and 711 o f lumbar v e r t e b r a V ( N = 3 4 ) . However, though f e w e r N e o l i t h i c s i t e s have r e p o r t e d e v i d e n c e o f v e r t e b r a l a r t h r i t i s , s i t e s s u c h a s L a r i s Goguet have h i g h e r w i t h i n - s e r i e s f r e q u e n c i e s t h a n t h o s e s e e n i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c . Whether t h i s r e p r e s e n t s i n c o n s i s t e n t r e p o r t i n g f o r t h e N e o l i t h i c , m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t r e s s p a t t e r n s between s i t e s , o r b o t h , i s u n c l e a r . The d a t a from Fontenay-le-Mannion d o , however, p o i n t t o i n t e r s i t e d i f f e r e n c e s . E i g h t s i t e s h a v e r e p o r t e d a r t h r i t i s o f t h e l i m b s or g i r d l e s . A t S w i f t e r b a n t S2, a r t h r i t i s was q u i t e l i m i t e d , r e s t r i c t e d t o two c a s e s o f a r t h r i t i s i n t h e f o o t and one c a s e i n t h e s a c r o i l i a c joint. T h i s sample c l e a r l y was n o t p r o n e to a r t h r i t i c c h a n g e s . The 7 o t h e r s i t e s ( a l l F r e n c h ) have 21 c a s e s o f a r t h r i t i s o f t h e u p p e r l i m b and g i r d l e ( 3 6 t o t a l c a s e s o f a r t h r i t i s ) , 1 5 c a s e s o f a r t h r i t i s of t h e l o w e r l i m b and g i r d l e , and 2 c a s e s of a r t h r i t i s of t h e r i b s . Within-site frequencies cannot be calculated. Of t h e 36 i n d i v i d u a l s r e p o r t e d w i t h a r t h r i t i s , 58% showed a r t h r i t i s o f t h e u p p e r limbs, 4 2 0 showed a r t h r i t i s oE t h e lower limbs. These f i g u r e s a r e n o t e q u i v a l e n t t o t h o s e noted f o r t h e M e s o l i t h i c . F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c it i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o l i n k p o s t c r a n i a l and vertebral cases of a r t h r i t i s . The a b o v e f i g u r e s p r o v i d e a p r i m f a c i e c a s e f o r s l i g h t l y h i g h e r o v e r a l l i n c i d e n c e s o f a r t h r i t i s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c a s comp a r e d t o t h e N e o l i t h i c . T h i s c a n be d e r i v e d b o t h from s l i g h t l y h i g h e r involvement r a t e s w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h r e p o r t e d a r t h r i t i s , and ( s i n c e t h e t o t a l number o f c a s e s f o r t h e ~ e o l i t h i c i s l o w e r t h a n would be e x p e c t e d ) from e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s a m p l e s i z e s o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e p o p u l a t i o n s . We s u g g e s t t h a t t h e a r t h r i t i s d a t a s u p p o r t a model o f h e a v i e r b i o m e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s i n the Mesolithic than i n t h e Neolithic. F i n a l l y , two s u g g e s t e d c a s e s from t h e N e o l i t h i c a r e o f t y p e s n o t recorded i n t h e Mesolithic. A possible case o f P a g e t ' s d i s e a s e i s n o t e d a t Fontenay-le-Marmion, a n d a c a s e o f advanced o s t e o m y e l i t i s a t L a r i s G o g u e t . The l a t t e r may r e f l e c t p o p u l a t i o n s i z e i n r e l a t i o n t o d i s e a s e r e s e r v o i r s , a s noted i n t h e section on c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y . S i x c a s e s o f h i p s u b l u x a t i o n and o n e c a s e o f k n e e s u b l u x a t i o n a t F o n t e n a y - l e - ~ a n n i o n may be f u r t h e r m a r k e r s f o r d i f f e r e n t b i o m e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s p a t t e r n s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c and t h e Neolithic.

CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN ET AL.

84

TABLE 4.2.

Reporting of Caries - i n MesoZithzc Samples -

Site

-

-

--

- - -

Number Number o f t e e t h of c a r i e s

-

Number o f individuals

Number o f individuals w i t h caries

Bac kas kog Stora Bjers Stora Mosse Berpnsdal N g e bakken Brovst KorsfSr Nor Me Zby Mullerup Nivaagaard Sfiager Svaerdborg 1921 Swaerdborg 1943 Tybri.nd v i g Vedbaek ViZZingbaek @st Durrenbeq FalkensteinhDhle Cnoc Coig Cough's Cave Loschbour Birsmat t e n Bonifacio Cutoz Cuzoul de Gramat HQedic Mannlefelsen Ras t e 2 Teviec Trou V i o l e t Vatte d i Zambana Co l m b r e s t4o'Lta do Sebastiiio

Dental Pathology D e n t a l p a t h o l o g y h a s been a p p r o a c h e d more s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t h a n any o t h e r p a t h o l o g y u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . However, even h e r e t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t i a l l e v e l s of r e p o r t i n g .

TABLE 4 . 3 .

Reporting o f Caries i n Neolithic Smples

Site

,

h b e r of teeth

Number o f caries (%)

Number of individua 2s

Number with caries (%)

Be lgzum Hastiares strspy France Bves-Chaudes Bec des Deux Eaux Dolmen de l a Roche Do h e n de l a Roche Dolmen des Bretons Eteauvil l e Wand. ) Eteauvilie (Max. ~ o n t e n al~e - ~ a m i o r f t L ' H m e Mort Laris Cog e t Mate Z h s g Rouffignac Terrevazne 11 Vigneau Portugal Bugelheira en Ahoncia CarvaM ca. 198' '^Â¥Totat e e t h are reported as are numbers of individuals with caries. Numbers of -individuals with t e e t h are not reported. b ~ c t u a lcounts are not presented, although percentages are. CTotaZ where mmbers are reported. d ~ i g u r ei n cases where r m data are presented. When percentage figures only are averaged, the figure i s 6 . 3 % .

4 THE MESOLITHIC A N D NEOLITHIC OK WESTERN EUROPE

:

1 \(Â¥,

P.

85

The b e s t r e p o r t e d d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y i s c a r i e s . M e s o l i t h i c d a t a a r e r e p o r t e d f o r 33 sites ( T a b l e 4 . 2 ) , 7 ( 2 1 . 2 % ) w i t h r e p o r t e d c a r i e s . I n t e r m s o f numbers o f i n d i v i d u a l s , 11 o f 74 i n d i v i d u a l s ( 1 4 . 9 % ) have c a r i e s ( n o t i n c l u d i n g Moita do S e b a s t i S o , f o r which n o f i g u r e s by i n d i v i d u a l a r e a v a i l a b l e ) . When i n d i v i d u a l t e e t h a r e c o n s i d e r e d , 33 o f 1780 permanent t e e t h a r e c a r i o u s ( 1 . 9 % ) . NO c a r i e s were r e p o r t e d i n M e s o l i t h i c d e c i d u o u s t e e t h . Of 3 3 r e p o r t e d c a r i o u s t e e t h , 22 c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d by p o s i t i o n . No c a r i o u s i n v o l v e m e n t is s e e n i n e i t h e r t h e i n c i s o r s o r t h e c a n i n e s , a n d t h e r e i s o n l y o n e c a s e o f p r e m o l a r c a r i e s . The f r e q u e n c i e s o f c a r i e s o f t h e m o l a r s i n c r e a s e a s o n e p r o c e e d s from M l t o M 3 . W e do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e i s any s i g n i f i c a n c e t o f r e q u e n c y d i f f e r e n c e s between u p p e r and l o w e r d e n t i t i o n s . An o p e n a r e a f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n l i e s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e r c e n t a g e o f t e e t h c a r i o u s and p e r c e n t a g e o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h c a r i o u s t e e t h . Some i n d i v i d u a l s have more c a r i e s t h a n e x p e c t e d from f r e q u e n c y d a t a a l o n e . Of 11 i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h c a r i e s , 1 h a s 5 c a r i e s ( B i r s m a t t e n ) , 2 h a v e 3 c a r i e s e a c h (Hocdic 1 , T e v i e c 11, and 4 h a v e 2 c a r i e s e a c h (HSedic 7 , 9; T e v i e c 4 , 1 3 ) . I t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t c a r i e s i s e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h t h e s a m p l e . S i m i l a r l y , Befgebakken shows c l e a r u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . Using t h e i n d i v i d u a l f i g u r e s from T a b l e 4 . 2 (removing Wgebakken from c o n s i d e r a t i o n ) , we would e x p e c t 1 8 . 3 1 o f any sample t o show c a r i o u s t e e t h . F o r Wgebakken t h i s would b e 2 . 5 (N = 1 4 ) . I n s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , we would e x p e c t 2 . 3 % of teeth to be carious. F o r Bfigebakken this would be 8.2 t e e t h (N = 357) . From the N e o l i t h i c s e r i e s some c o m p a r i s o n s c a n be made ( T a b l e 4 . 3 ) . S i x t e e n s i t e s h a v e r e p o r t c d c a r i e s . No s i t e s a r e r e p o r t e d a s showing no c a r i e s , a c o n d i t i o n n o t e d i n 2 6 o f 3 3 ( 7 8 . 8 % ) Mesol i t h i c s i t e s . While t h e l a t t e r f i g u r e s i n p a r t r e f l e c t s m a l l i n d i v i d u a l s a m p l e s , t h i s c l e a r l y i s n o t t h e o n l y f a c t o r . T h e r e is n o s y s t e m a t i c r e p o r t i n g o f f i g u r e s f o r numbers o f N e o l i t h i c i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h c a r i e s . S i x t y - n i n e o f 1654 i n d i v i d u a l t e e t h a r e c a r i o u s ( 4 . 2 % ) , o v e r t w i c e t h e M e s o l i t h i c number. The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two s a m p l e s i s h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t (x2 = 1 5 . 9 8 w i t h 1 df, p < . 0 0 5 ) . C a r i e s o f d e c i d u o u s t e e t h i s a l s o r e p o r t e d i n o n e sample (Rouf f i g n a c ) . C a r i e s l o c a t i o n is n o t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e p o r t e d . I t d o e s a p p e a r , however, t h a t p r e m o l a r and m o l a r c a r i e s p r e d o m i n a t e , r e p r e s e n t i n g a l l c a s e s a t S t r e p y , Baumes-Chaudes, Dolmen d e s B r e t o n s , a n d 1 ' H o m e - M o r t . A t ~ontenay-le-Marmion involvement o f M l i s r e p o r t e d a s m o s t f r e q u e n t , w h i l e a t ~ a t ~ l l e s premolars and molars a r e primarily a f f e c t e d . D e n t a l wear may b e a major f a c t o r i n c a r i e s d e v e l o p m e n t . Heavy wear impedes c a r i e s development by s c o u r i n g t h e s u r f a c e o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , t h e r e b y impeding t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s o f t h e AS a c l e a r example, s a m p l e s from W g e b a k k e n , pathologic process. w i t h no r e p o r t c d c a r i e s , show c o n s i d e r a b l e d e n t a l wear. Similarly, wear i s r e p o r t e d a s heavy i n s e v e r a l N e o l i t h i c s e r i e s . F u l l a n o f f f r e n c e s i n c a r i e s f r e q u e n c y must a w a i t a s t u d y o f t h e c o v a r i a t i o n o f t h e s e two v a r i a b l e s . D e s p i t e t h i s , d e n t a l

4

THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WLS 1bRN EUROPE

i c a r i e s r a t e s s u g g e s t marked d i e t a r y d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e M e s o l i t h i c and N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d s . O t h e r M e s o l i t h i c d e n t a l v a r i a b l e s a r e s u g g e s t i v e o f heavy s t r e s s . There is c o n s i d e r a b l e a l v e o l a r degeneration, r e p o r t e d a s a l v e o l a r a b s c e s s i n g , p e r i a p i c a l i n f e c t i o n , g e n e r a l a l v e o l a r bone l o s s , and anternortern l o s s o f t e e t h . Though t h e s e a r e n o t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e p o r t e d , t h e y a r e p r e s e n t i n h i g h amounts where s t u d i e d . A l v e o l a r b o n e l o s s , bone i n f e c t i o n , and p e r i a p i c a l abscessing a r e noted i n various combinations i n e i g h t i n d i v i d u a l s e a c h from Hoedic and T e v i e c i n t h e b e s t i n d i v i d u a l s t u d y o f t h i s r e g i o n . A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s i s the l o s s o f 1 4 e l e m e n t s i n 4 i n d i v i d u a l s from T e v i e c . I n t h e N e o l i t h i c sample antemortem t o o t h l o s s i s n o t e d in n i n e c a s e s , a l t h o u g h w i t h o u t f r e q u e n c y d a t a . Dental abscesses a r e noted i n four s i t e s , p e r i a p i c a l i n f e c t i o n s i n f o u r c a s e s . R e l a t e d a r e r e p o r t s from s e v e r a l s i t e s o f a l v e o l a r r e s o r p t i o n o r a t r o p h y , and r e f e r e n c e t o " p y o r r h e a , " " p e r i o d o n t i t i s , " and " g i n g i v i t i s . " One b a s i c anomaly o f t e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s a s t r e s s m a r k e r , enamel h y p o p l a s i a , i s e s s e n t i a l l y u n r e p o r t e d . It i s n o t e d o n l y a t t h e M e s o l i t h i c s i t e o f Melby and i n i n d i v i d u a l I o f t h e N e o l i t h i c s i t e S22 a t S w i f t e r b a n t . I t i s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r t h i s r e p r e s e n t s e f f e c t i v e absence o f t h i s marker i n e a r l i e r European s a m p l e s o r s y s t e m a t i c n o n r e p o r t i n g .

, !.

'f,

8,'

I

Trauma may r e f l e c t b o t h s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f a p o p u l a t i o n a n d demographic s t r e s s . For t h e M e s o l i t h i c t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a are p r e s e n t e d by Constandse-Westennann and Newell ( 1 9 8 4 ) . Of i n t e r e s t was t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w h e t h e r c l e a r c a s e s o f t r a u m a r e f l e c t i n g c o n f l i c t a s opposed t o a c c i d e n t would i n c r e a s e i n f r e q u e n c y d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e M e s o l i t h i c . The l o g i c b e h i n d t h i s s u g g e s t i o n l i e s i n t h e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t l a t e r M e s o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s showed i n c r e a s i n g d e n s i t y and c o m p l e x i t y . I t h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t w i t h i n s u c h a continuum, a g g r e s s i o n i s p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h d e n s i t y . F o r t h e M e s o l i t h i c , trauma was a p p o r t i o n e d d i f f e r e n t l y between male and f e m a l e s a m p l e s , s u g g e s t i v e o f d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s o f l a b o r . Trauma a l s o i n c r e a s e d i n o l d e r i n d i v i d u a l s , w i t h n o r e p o r t e d t r a u m a i n i n d i v i d u a l s l e s s t h a n 1 5 y e a r s o f a g e (N = 9) and w i t h a l l i n d i v i d u a l s o v e r 5 5 y e a r s o f a g e showing trauma (N = 3 ) . F i n a l l y , i n c i d e n c e o f t r a u m a was t e s t e d a g a i n s t c h r o n o l o g i c a l age o f t h e s p e c i m e n s . The r e s u l t s w e r e n o n s i g n i f i c a n t . A p a r t from f i v e c l e a r c a s e s o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e i n v o l v i n g embedded p r o j e c t i l e s ( a l l m a l e ) , Constandse-Westemann and Newel1

"wel hypoplasia i s reported by B r o t h 2 2 (1963) i n a cornbined European and North African MesoZzthic series ( t o t a l N = 4 2 ) . However, without further partitioning o f the series i n t o i t s cmponent parts, the European frequencies cannot be computed.

CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN ET AL.

88

c o n c l u d e t h a t r e p o r t e d trauma i n M e s o l i t h i c s a m p l e s p r i m a r i l y r e p r e s e n t s a c c i d e n t a l i n j u r y r a t h e r t h a n group c o n f l i c t . Trauma a p p e a r s t o b e l e s s f r e q u e n t in t h e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e . Cases a r e r e l a t i v e l y r a r e (seven s i t e s , t h r e e w i t h i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s ) . Only two i n v o l v e embedded p r o j e c t i l e s (Cai'res, T e r r e v a i n e 11). I t may t e n t a t i v e l y b e a r g u e d t h a t a r e d u c t i o n i n o v e r a l l a c c i d e n t a l trauma r e f l e c t s a more s e d e n t a r y e x i s t e n c e . T h e r e i s a l s o no evidence f o r i n c r e a s e i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t . Dimorphism Dimorphism from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o t h e N e o l i t h i c h a s been d i s c u s s e d most s p e c i f i c a l l y by F r a y e r (1978, 1980, 1 9 8 1 ) . Using d e n t a l , c r a n i a l , and body s i z e d a t a h e a r g u e s f o r a d e c r e a s e i n dimorphism f o r t h i s p e r i o d . He s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e d e c r e a s e r e l a t e s t o progressive q r a c i l i z a t i o n in t h e male sample, r e l a t e d to a d e c r e a s e i n r o b u s t i c i t y r e q u i r e d f o r M e s o l i t h i c a s o p p o s e d t o Upper P a l e o l i t h i c h u n t i n g a c t i v i t y , and t o i n c r e a s e d s h a r i n g o f economic c h o r e s a s one p r o c e e d s t o w a r d s t h e N e o l i t h i c ( F r a y e r 1 9 8 0 ) . He f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s a s e l e c t i o n f o r r e d u c e d m e t a b o l i c demands ( F r a y e r 1 9 8 1 ) . Though F r a y e r (1981) r e j e c t s a n u t r i t i o n a l model f o r t h e change, i t m u s t remain a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e model. D e n t a l d i m e n s i o n s from o u r M e s o l i t h i c s a m p l e , which d i f f e r s from F r a y e r ' s sample, show t h e same d e c r e a s e i n dimorphism sugg e s t e d by P r a y e r (1978) ( B l a c h f o r d 1 9 8 2 ) . R e s u l t s f o r i n d i v i d u a l t e e t h d o , however, d i f f e r s l i g h t l y . F u l l r e s u l t s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d e l s e w h e r e . We have n o t y e t a n a l y z e d o u r c r a n i o m e t r i c sample f o r c o n g r u i t y w i t h P r a y e r ' s r e s u l t s . When we compare o u r s t a t u r e d a t a w i t h t h o s e o f F r a y e r ( 1 9 8 1 ) , we f i n d t h e same o v e r a l l t r e n d s b u t t h e s c a l e i s r e d u c e d . When dimorphism i s c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y from s t a t u r e , t h e t r e n d is l e s s c l e a r t h a n i n d i c a t e d by F r a y e r . He i n d i c a t e s a change from 1 1 . 3 % i n t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o 7 .l% in t h e M e s o l i t h i c ( T a b l e 4 . 4 ) , a d e c r e a s e o f 37.2%. Our d a t a i n d i c a t e a change from o n l y 8 . 7 t o 7 . 8 % , a d e c r e a s e o f o n l y 1 0 . 3 % . F u r t h e r more, i n o u r r e s u l t s t h e r e i s a s u c c e e d i n g i n c r e a s e t o a dimorphism o f 8 . 6 1 i n t h e N e o l i t h i c , back t o t h e l a t e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c figures . Stature Analysis o f s t a t u r e r e s t s on a s t r o n g e r base than does a n a l y s i s o f dimorphism. A c o n s i d e r a b l e d a t a b a s e on s t a t u r e , however, i s d e r i v e d from s e v e r a l m e t h o d o l o g i e s o f v a r y i n g a c c u r a c y and comparability. Ail i n i t i a l a n a l y s i s o f s t a t u r a l t r e n d s (Key 1980) s u g g e s t e d a model o f s t a t u r e d e c l i n e from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t h r o u g h t h e M e s o l i t h i c , followed by s t a t u r e i n c r e a s e from t h e N e o l i t h i c onward. Somewhat s i m i l a r r e s u l t s a r e s u g g e s t e d by F r a y e r (1980) i n t a b u l a r f o r m a t w i t h s m a l l sample s i z e s .

4

THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE

TABLE 4 . 4 .

Stature Estimations Prayer

-

Early Upper Paleolithic Male Female Late Upper Pateolz thi-c Male Fema l e Mesolithic Male Female Neoli-thzc Male Female Resulting DVnorp71zsm Early Upper Paleolithic Late Upper Pa'ieolithic Meso Zithic Neo Zithic

Current authors

-X

X

N

174.2 161.3

10

174.4 156.7

10 4

170.419 156.7 10

164.8 153.9

26

167.7 155.6

46 36

167.3 154.1

102 88

8.0% 11.3% 7.1%

N

ii

IS

8.7% 7.8% 8.6%

We h a v e expanded t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by Key i n o r d e r t o h a v e f i r m e r f i g u r e s . Whereas Key used raw l i m b l e n g t h s i n h i s a n a l y s i s , we have u s e d s t a t u r e e s t i m a t i o n s b a s e d o n t h e method o f T r o t t e r and G l e s e r ( 1 9 5 2 ) . T h i s p e r m i t s u s t o compare a l l i n d i v i d u a l s f o r whom a n y l o n g bone l e n g t h s a r e r e p o r t e d a n d t o compare i n d i v i d u a l s with r e p o r t e d l o n g bone l e n g t h s t o i n d i v i d u a l s f o r whom o n l y Trotter-Gleser s t a t u r e s a r e reported in t h e l i t e r a t u r e . (We r e s t r i c t o u r s e l v e s t o s a m p l e s f o r which e i t h e r raw l i m b l e n g t h s o r Trotter-Gleser estimates a r e reported. ) I n o r d e r t o a c c o u n t f o r v a r i a b i l i t y i n r e l a t i v e l o n g bone l e n g t h s w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s , we a v e r a g e d t h e v a r i o u s s t a t u r e e s t i m a t i o n s i n t h o s e c a s e s where we had s e v e r a l b o n e s or bone combinat i o n s . We t h e n used r e g r e s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s t a t u r e s a g a i n s t e s t i m a t e d a b s o l u t e a g e s f o r e a c h s i t e , u s i n g l i n e a r and q u a d r a t i c a p p r o a c h e s . F o r 1i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n o u r i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was s t a t u r e ; o u r d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was a g e . F o r q u a d r a t i c r e g r e s s i o n o u r i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was s t a t u r e ; o u r d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , d a t e and d a t e 2 ( T a b l e 4 . 5 ) . The r e s u l t s a t t h i s s t a g e a r e c l e a r e r f o r t h e l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n than f o r t h e quadratic r e g r e s s i o n : t h e r e l a t i o n appears t o be l i n e a r . The o v e r a l l l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e p = .05 l e v e l f o r combined male-female, m a l e , and f e m a l e s a m p l e s , i n d i c a t i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e i n a v e r a g e s t a t u r e from t h e

CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN ET AL.

90

TABLE 4 . 5 .

S t a t u r a I Changea

\ Stature

Linear regression

Quadratic regression

C u l t u r a l period

Sex

ti

Upper P a l e o l i t h i c MesolithicNeolithic

M-F M F

301 167 134

161.93 167.76 154.69

p > .0012~ p > .0049~ p > .0471b p > . I 3 5 2 p > . 0 0 9 6 ~ p > .0347Â

UpperPaleoZithicMesolithic

M F

65 46

168.49 155.80

p > .I331 p>.1131

M-F M F

272 148 124

161.54 167.41 154.42

p > .0500b p > .I296 p > .9629 p > .9271 p > . 0 3 7 7 ~ p > .I136

Upper PaleoZzthzc

M F

19 10

170.43 156.73

p > .9l45 p > .018@

p > .8148 p > .0058~

Meso lit h i c

M 4 6 F 56

167.68 165.55

p > .8263 p>.2102

p > .a736 p>.3897

102 88

167.29 154.11

p>.6391 p > .3167

p>.0636~ p > .5701

MesoZÂ¥i,tkic Neolithic!

Neolithic

M

F

p > .3190 p>.2591

" ~ u et o space l i m i t a t i o n s we have p r e s e n t e d o n l y tests of s z g n i f i c a n c e . Full r e g r e s s i o n t a b l e s uill b e p u b l i s h e d w i t h our expanded a n a l y s i s . bsignifzcant. ¡Th q u a d r a t i c r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t b u t the q u a d r a t i c term f i . e . , [date] ) i s n o t . d ~ h equadratic: t e r n i s s i g n i f i c a n t ( i . e . , [ d a t e ] , p > . 0 2 1 8 ) .

Upper P a l e o l i t h i c through t h e Neolithic. The trend appears t o be more strongly manifest i n the female sample than in t h e male sample. However, none of t h e subsarnples show a s i g n i f i c a n t decrease from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o t h e Mesolithic. There is a s i g n i f i c a n t decrease from the Mesolithic t o t h e Neolithic i n t h e o v e r a l l and female samples. The female subsample i s defining the trend. Within individual time periods t h e only s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t i s t h e decrease i n female s t a t u r e during t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c . For t h e Neolithic we suspect a manifest c u r v i l i n e a r p a t t e r n , a trend toward decreasing s t a t u r e from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o the Neolithic b e i n g replaced by increasing s t a t u r e within t h e Neolithic. This can be t e s t e d only by adding t o our sample f o r Neolithic and post-Neolithic time periods. A t t h i s point we conclude t h a t there i s s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t u r e d e c l i n e from the Upper P a l e o l i t h i c through t h e Neolithic, with p o s s i b l e reversal from t h a t point onwards, i n agreement with ~ r a ~ (1980) e r and Key (1980).

4 THE MESOLITHIC

A N D NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE

TABLE 4.6. Analysts o f Variance for the Region E f f e c t - Inland-Coastal Dichotomy

AN OVA^ f o r regzon e f f e c t

Sex

Reg ion

N

Male-Female

Coastal-inland Coastal Inland

11 1 81 27

p > .I167

163.23 162.55 165.36

Ma le

Coastal-inland Coastal I?$and

65 48 17

p > .3549

168.48 168.11 169.55

Female

Coastal-inland Coastal

46 36 10

p

155.81 155.13 158.24

In land

> .0603

Mean

aAIVOVA, anaZysis of variance.

A t t h i s t i m e , we c a n n o t i d e n t i f y t h e p o i n t a t which t h e change i n

d i r e c t i o n of t h e trend occurs. We a l s o examined o u r M e s o l i t h i c sample KUL a c o a s t a l - i n l a n d dichotomy, b a s e d o n s u g g e s t i o n s made t h a t t h e r e m i g h t b e s t a t u r a l s t u n t i n g i n s a m p l e s w i t h h i g h u s a g e o f m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s due t o t r a c e e l e m e n t i m b a l a n c e ( T a b l e 4 . 6 ) . Though t h e r e s u l t s were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , a l l i n l a n d s a m p l e s were t a l l e r f o r a g e t h a n c o a s t a l s a m p l e s i n a l l g r o u p s . F u r t h e r a n a l y s i s i s r e q u i r e d i n which percentage of marine r e s o u r c e s i s included a s a v a r i a b l e .

CONCLUSION

. .

-

T h i s survey attempts t o provide a base f o r f u r t h e r examination o f t r e n d s i n p a l e o p a t h o l o g y i n w e s t e r n and w e s t - c e n t r a l Europe d u r i n g t h e M e s o l i t h i c and t h e N e o l i t h i c . The d a t a b a s e f o r t h e M e s o l i t h i c i s f u l l y i n c l u s i v e , t h e problem o f sample p r o v e n i e n c e being t h e s u b j e c t of i n t e n s i v e study. For t h e N e o l i t h i c t h e sample b a s e i s , a t b e s t , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , d e r i v e d from a p u b l i s h e d sample e m p h a s i z i n g r e c e n t work and l a r g e r sample s i z e s . I n g e n e r a l t e r m s , t h e number o f o b v i o u s t r e n d s from t h e Mesol i t h i c t o t h e N e o l i t h i c i s low. F o r most c h a r a c t e r s t h e r e a r e no c l e a r d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two b r o a d g r o u p s . I n a d d i t i o n , where t h e r e a r e p o t e n t i a l t r e n d s , t h e r e may be s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e interpretations.

CHRISTOPHER MEIKLUOHN £ AL. F o r c r a n i a l and p o s t c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y much t h a t is r e p o r t e d is i d i o s y n c r a t i c , o f low f r e q u e n c y , and w i t h o u t c l e a r i n t e r p r e t i v e mode f o r t h e s i t e and/or p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n . I n most c a s e s the n a t u r e of t h e d a t a does n o t permit r e c o g n i t i o n o f t r e n d s over time. With r e f e r e n c e t o p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e and c o n c o m i t a n t e v i d e n c e o f s t r e s s , t h e i n c i d e n c e o f b o t h c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s is v e r y low i n b o t h a g r i c u l t u r a l and p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l samples. Differences i n a r t h r i t i s p a t t e r n s probably r e f l e c t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e economic b a s e r a t h e r t h a n i n d i c a t e s t r e s s o r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e change. S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i s n o t e d i n c a r i e s f r e q u e n c y between t h e M e s o l i t h i c and t h e N e o l i t h i c , n o t a new f i n d i n g i n i t s e l f . T h i s i s , i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , c o r r e l a t e d w i t h b o t h d e n t a l wear and c o n d i t i o n of t h e a l v e o l a r p r o c e s s e s . However, o u r d a t a b a s e o n t h e l a t t e r two a r e a s is i n s u f f i c i e n t t o d e f i n e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n . I n a l l t h r e e c a s e s we may b e l o o k i n g a t e i t h e r i t e m s r e s u l t i n g from economic change o r i t e m s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e c a u s e o f t h e change. Tauber (1981) i n d i c a t e s a m a j o r d i e t a r y s h i f t a t t h e M e s o l i t h i c - N e o l i t h i c boundary u s i n g 13c c o n t e n t . I n s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , t h e d a t a on g r o u p trauma a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t t o d i s t i n g u i s h d i r e c t l y between trauma r e l a t e d t o economic a c t i v i t y and trauma r e s u l t i n g from v i o l e n c e i n a p o p u l a t i o n s u b j e c t t o dens i t y s t r e s s . Though w e m i g h t p r e d i c t i n c r e a s e d v i o l e n c e from dens i t y d a t a , we a r e u n a b l e t o c o n f i r m i t . Our most s u q g e s t i v e e v i d e n c e r e l a t e s t o s t a t u r a l c h a n q e . S t a t u r e d e c r e a s e s from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t h r o u g h t h e Mesol i t h i c . I n c r e a s e i s s u g g e s t e d o n c e t h e N e o l i t h i c i s underway. One mode o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would v i e w t h e d e c l i n e a s r e l a t e d t o i n c r e a s i n g s t r e s s , a l l e v i a t e d by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f f o o d p r o d u c i n g . However, t h i s view i s c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e e v i d e n c e of d i f f e r e n t t r e n d s i n m a l e s and f e m a l e s . Thus we h a v e models b a s e d e i t h e r o n dietary s t r e s s o r , per Prayer, on a l t e r a t i o n s i n a c t i v i t y pattern. The l i m i t s o f o u r d a t a sample n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e r e s u l t s reported h e r e do appear t o confirm p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d p a t t e r n s o f s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g y f o r t h e r e g i o n (Dastugue 1979; Dastugue and d e Lumley 1 9 7 6 a , b ) and t o c o n f i r m t h e r e s u l t s of more s p e c i a l i z e d s t u d i e s such a s t h o s e o f t e e t h by B r a b a n t (1965, 1 9 6 8 , 1969) . Thus we f e e l t h a t t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e r e f l e c t i v e o f t h e c u r r e n t work i n Europe displayed i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . We c a u t i o n a g a i n s t t h e u s e o f t h e s e d a t a e i t h e r t o s u p p o r t o r t o deny p a r t i c u l a r models o f c a u s e and e f f e c t o f t h e socioeconomic c h a n g e s from t h e l a t e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o t h e N e o l i t h i c . Though we a r e c o n f i d e n t o f o u r c o v e r a g e o f t h e Mesol i t h i c , sample s i z e i s a l i m i t a t i o n a t p r e s e n t . F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c it i s c l e a r t h a t s a m p l e s e x i s t t h a t c a n p r o v i d e c r i t i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e q u e s t i o n s a s k e d in t h i s volume. However, few a r e p u b l i s h e d i n a manner p e r m i t t i n g a n s w e r s t o demographic, a s opposed t o c l i n i c a l , questions.

-

4 THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE

APPENDIX

.

93

Neolzthzc Materials i n t h e Study

Country/Site Netherlands Mo Lenaarsgraa f Swif terbant ,521

Swifterbant 522

Bezgznm Avennes HastzSre Obourg e t Str6py Porte-A't-ve Sp-iennes France Abri Pendimoun ArgenieuzZ Barbonne-Fayo l Baumes-Cfiaudeo Bea-des-Dew-Eaw Caxires Conf tans-Sawte-Honorine Dolmen de l a Roche Dolmen des Bretons Dolmen de V i l l a i n e Z 'E l a n g - l a - V a e Eteauvz l l e Feignem

Number o f zndivzduals

References Knzp (1974) Meikle john and Cons tandse Westermann (1978); Constandse-Uestermann and Meiklejohn (1979) Meiklejohn and Cons tandseWeetemann (1978); Constandse- Westermartn and Meiklejohn (1979) Meiklejohn and ConstandseWestermann (1978); Coiwtandse- Westermann and Meiklejohn (1979) Meiklejohn and ConstandseW e e t e m n n (1978); Constandse-Westemam and MezkZejdIin (1979) Meiklejohn and Constandse Westennann ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; Constandse- Westermann and Me-iklejohn (1979) Janssens (1960); Verdin ( 1959) Rzquet ( 1963a) Riquet (1963b) Rzquet (1963b) Riquet (1963b) de Lumley (1962) k r r o q u e and R-iquet (1966) h r r o q u e and Rzquet (1966) T o u r e r n e (1062) Rzquet and Cordier (1957) Charles (1959) Larroque and Riquet (1966) Rzquet and Coradier (1958) Fust6 (1952) Rzquet ( 1 9 7 2 ~ ) h r r c q u e and Riquet (1966) N o d e t a l . (1965) Larroque and Riquet (1966); Patte (1976)

CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN ETAL.

94

Appendix (continued) Country/Site France continued Fontenay- le-Mamzon

Grotte de l a Route L ' H o r n-Mort Lapis Coguet Harly- le-Roz Mateltea Meudm Nogent-les -Vierges Pas-Estret Rouf f ignac Rouvignoux Tanco'LgnS Terrevaine ( 2 s i t e s ) VaurSal Vernou VicheZ-ManZeuzZ Vigneau Portugal Buga lhezra en Almonda Carvalhal de Aljubarrota Casa de Mourn Casal Pardo Cascazs (Pogo Velho) Fontainhas Logares Monte Pedrogo Vwioso Zarnbujal

Number of individua 2s

References Dastugue e t a l . (1973); Tome and Dastugue (1976); Brabant and Lecacheux (1973) A d and Rzquet (1956) Toureitte (1962) Patte (1971) Larroque and Riquet (1966) Brabant e t a t . (1961) Larroque and Riquet (1966) Larroque and Riquet (1966) Ampouknge (19531 Sahly e t a l . (1962) Charles (1970) Patte (1953) Charles (1952) L m o q u e and Rzquet (1966) Riquet and Cordier (1953) Larroque and Rzquat (1966) Riquet and Cordier (1958) Riquet Riquet Riquet Riquet Riquet Rzquet Rzquet Riquet RLquet

(1972b) (1972b) (1972b) (1972b) (1972b) (1972b) (1972b) (1972b) (1972b)

BIBLIOGRAPHY Ampoulanqe, A . 1953 S6pulture n 6 o l i t h i q u e dans un gisement du p a l 6 o l i t h i q u e s u p 6 r i e u r . Bulletin de l a Socri6t6 PrShistori-que Franoaise SO: 613-624. Arnal, J . , and R . Riquet 1956 La Grotte de l a Route, Saint-Martin-de-Londres ( 1 'Herault) . Bulletin de l a Soci6t6 PrShistorique Frangaise 53:64-79. Brabant, H . , and B . Lecacheux 1973 Etude de l a denture d e s r e s t e s hmnaines d'Sqe N e o l i t h i q u e trouv6s dans l e tumulus de l a Hoquette & Fontenay-leMannion (Normandie) . Bulletin du Groupement Internationaz pour la Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e en S t m a t o l o g i e 1 6 ~ 1 3 1 - 1 6 2 .

4 THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC Of-' WESTERN EUROPE

Appendix (Continued) B r a b a n t , H . , A. S a h l y , a n d M. Bouyssou 1 9 6 1 Etude d e s d e n t s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e s d e l a s t a t i o n a r c h 6 o l o g i q u e d e s M a t e l l e s ( d 6 p a r t e m e n t d e 1' t l e r a u l t , F r a n c e ) .

Bulletin du Groupement International pour l a Recherche Scientifzque en Stmatologze 4:382-448.

Charles, R. P. 1952 Les S 6 p u l t u r e s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e s d e T e r r e v a i n e p r & s d e l a C i o t a t (B. du Rh. ) . Cahzers Ligures 1 :29-61. 1959 O b s e r v a t i o n s s u r l e s r e s t e s humaines du Dclmen d e s C a d r e s , commune de L a i s s a c (Aveyron) . Bulletin de la S o d t 6 Pr6historzque Fran~azse56:118-120. 1970 Les S u j e t s n e o l i t h i q u e s d e l a g r o t t e I du Ravin d e Rouvignoux. Cahzere Ligures 19:119-148. Constandse-Westennann, T. S . , and C . M e i k l e j o h n 1979 The human r e m a i n s from S w i f t e r b a n t . Hezininm 19:237-266. Dastuque, J . , S. T o r r e , and L. Buchet 1 9 7 3 N e o l i t h i q u e s d e Basse-Normandie. Le deuxifeme tumulus d e Fontenay-le-Karrnion (etude anthropologique) . LrAnthropologze 77:579-619. d e Lumley, M. A . 1962 ~ g s i o n so s s e u s e s d e l'honunc d e C a s t e l l a r ( A . M . ) .

Bulletin du Musde drAnthmpologie PpShzstorique de Monaco 9 : 191-205. F u s t 6 , M. 1952 Les o s s e m e n t s humaines du dolmen d e s B r e t o n s , Marne.

Bulletins e t Mmoires de l a Socz6t6 d 'Anthropologze de Paris Ser. 1 0 3:118-155.

J a n s s e n s , P. 1 9 6 0 Le s q u e l e t t e N 6 o l i t h i q u e d l A v e n n e s : S a p e r f o r a t i o n s t e r n a l e . Bulletin de la SoCl6t6 Royale Beige d1Anthfop020ffi.e e t de Prbhistoire 71 :43-46. Knip, A . S. 1974 L a t e N e o l i t h i c s k e l e t o n f i n d s from M o l e n a a r s q r a a f (Z. H . ) . A d e c t a Praehistor'iaa Leidensia 7 : 379-396. L a r r o q u e , J . M. , and R . R i q u e t 1966 Documents a n t h r o p o l o q i q u e s i n S d i t s s u r l a c i v i l i z a t i o n d e l a S e i n e - O i s e - ~ a r n e . Bulletins e t MSmotves de la Soci6t6 d 'Anthropologie de Paris Ser 11 9 : 29-43. M e i k l c j o h n , C . , and T. S . Constandse-Wcstcnnann 1978 The human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from S w i f t e r b a n t , E a r l i e r N e o l i t h i c o f t h e N o r t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s . I . Palaeohzstoria 20:39-89. Nouel, A., M . Dauvois, G . B a i l l o u d , R . R i q u e t , T. P o u l a i n - J o s i e n , N . P l a n c h a i s , and P . lioremans 1 9 6 5 L ' o s s u a i r e n e o l i t h i q u c d l E t e a u v i l l e , Commune d e Lutz-enDunois ( E u r e - e t - ~ o i r ). Bulletin de l a Soci6t6 Prehzstorique Fraryaise 62: 576-648.

CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN ET ML.

Appendix (Continued) P a t t e , E. 1953 S e p u l t u r e n 6 o l i t h i q u e d e Tancoign6 ( M a i n e - e t - L o i r e ) . M i a 11:273-282. 1 9 7 1 L e s r e s t e s humaines d e l a g r o t t e S 6 p u l c r a l e du L a r i s Goquet 3 Feigneux ( O i s e ) . Bulletins e t M6moires de 'la Societe d 'Anthropologie de Paris Ser 12 7: 381-452. 1976 0s p a t h o l o g i q u e o u anormaux d e l a g r o t t e d e F e i g n e u x ( O i s e ) . L'Ant'hropoZogie 80: 655-668. Riquet, R. 1963a L e s N 6 o l i t h i q u e s d l H a s t i & r e . m e t i n de l a SoczetS Royale Beige dlAnthropoZogie e t de Prehistoire 73: 57-116. 1963b Q u e l q u e s c r S n e s N b l i t h i q u e s B e l g e s . m e t i n de 'La

SociSte Royale Beige dlAnthropologie e t de Prehistoire 73 : 117-137. Le s i t e a r c h 6 o l o g i q u e d u Dolmen d e V i l l a i n e 3 S u b l a i n e s ( I n d r e - e t - L a i r e ) . Gallia Prehistoire 1 5 :93-110. 1972b A n t h r o p o l o g i e d e q u e l q u e s N e o l i t h i q u e s P o r t u g a i s . Homo 23:154-187. R i q u e t , R. , a n d G . C o r d i e r 1 9 5 3 Une S e p u l t u r e N 6 o l i t h i q u e & Vernou ( I n d r e - e t - L o i r e ) . Bulletin de la Soci6t6 PrShistorique Franpise 50:518-527. 1957 L ' o s s u a i r e N 6 o l i t h i q u e d u Bec-des-Deux-Eaux, Commune d e Ports ( I n d r c - e t - L o i r c ) . L'AnthropoZogie 61:2B-44. 1 9 5 8 L ' o s s u a i r e d u Vigneau e t l e Dolmen d e l a Roche, commune d e Manthelan ( I n d r e - e t - L o i r e ) . L 'Anthropologze 6 2 :1-29. S a h l y , A . , H . B r a b a n t , a n d M. Bouyssou 1962 O b s e r v a t i o n s s u r l e s d e n t s e t les m a x i l l a i r e s d u M s o l i t h i q u e e t d e 1'Age du f e r , trouv6s dans l a g r o t t e d e R o u f f i q n a c , d 6 p a r t e m e n t d e l a Dordogne, F r a n c e . Bulletin du Groupement International pour l a Recherche Sczentzfique en Stomatologie 5:252-285. T o r r e , S . , and J . Dastuque 1976 N b l i t h i q u e s d e Basse-Normandie. Le deuxifeme t u m u l u s d e Fontenay-le-Mannion ( P a t h o l o q i e ) . L rAnthcopologze 8 0 : 625-653. T o u r e i l l e , M. 1962 L e s s q u e l e t t e s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e . s d e s Baumes-Chaudes e t d e 1 ' Homrne-Mort . L 'Anthropologie 66: 44-68. V e r d i n , G. 1959 Le n 6 o l i t h i q u e d e l a V a l l 6 e d e l a M6haigne (Hesbaye E t u d e Morphologique e t a n t h r o p o l o g i q u e d e s Li&goise). m e t i n de 'id o s s e m e n t s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e s d'Avennes. 1972a

SociSte Royale Beige dlAnthropologie e t de Prehistoire 70: 46-54.

4

THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The a u t h o r s acknowledge t h e numerous c o l l e a g u e s who h a v e graciously permitted collection of Mesolithic data within t h e i r c o n t r o l . Funds f o r v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f d a t a c o l l e c t i o n a n d p r e p a r a t i o n have been r e c e i v e d by t h e s e n i o r a u t h o r from t h e Canada C o u n c i l , S o c i a l S c i e n c e and H u m a n i t i e s R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l o f Canada, and t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Winnipeg. The s e n i o r a u t h o r t h a n k s D r . T. S . Constandse-Westermann, U n i v e r s i t y o f U t r e c h t , and D r . Raymond R . N e w e l l , U n i v e r s i t y o f Groningcn, f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e o r i g i n a l c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e M e s o l i t h i c d a t a b a s e and i n a n a l y s i s o f i t s p r o v e n i e n c e . The M e s o l i t h i c d a t a b a s e used i s t h e r e s u l t o f c o o p e r a t i v e work between 1976 and 1981.

REFERENCES

. 8

I

J

Anunennan, A . L . , and L. L. C a v a l l i - S f o r z a 1 9 7 3 A p o p u l a t i o n model f o r t h e d i f f u s i o n o f e a r l y f a r m i n g i n Europe. I n The explanation o f culture change: Models i n prehistory, e d i t e d b y C . Renfrew, p p . 343-357. Duckworth, London. B i n f o r d , L. R . 1973 Interassemblage v a r i a b i l i t y - - t h e Nousterian and t h e " f u n c t i o n a l " a r g u m e n t . I n The explanation of c u b e change: ttodels in prehi-etory, e d i t e d b y C . Renfrew, p p . 227-254. Duckworth, London. Blachford , L. 1982 D e n t a l t r e n d s i n P a l a e o l i t h i c and M e s o l i t h i c E u r o p e . U n p u b l i s h e d ins. o n f i l e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Winnipeg. B o u v i l l e , C . , T. S . Constandse-Westennann, a n d R. R . Newell 1 9 8 3 L ~ sr e s t e s humains M i s s o l i t h i q u e s d e 1 ' A b r i C o r n i l l e , I s t r e s (B. d e R.). Bulletzns e t MSrnoires de l a SoczSt6 d'Anthropologze de Paris S e r . 1 3 , v o l . 1 0 , p p . 89-110. B r a b a n t , ti.

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!'

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Observations s u r l ' e v o l u t i o n d e l a denture temporaire huniaine e n ~ u r o p eo c c i d c n t a l e . Bulletin du Groupement 8:235-302. La d e n t u r e humaine 5 1 ' 6 p o q u e N e o l i t h i q u e .

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98

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Brothwell, D . R. 1963 The macroscopic d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y o f some e a r l i e r human p o p u l a t i o n s . I n Dental anthropology, e d i t e d by D . R . B r o t h w e l l , p p . 271-288. Macrnillan, New York. Burch, E . S . , J r . 1972 The c a r i b o u / w i l d r e i n d e e r a s a human r e s o u r c e . American Antiquity 37:339-368. Campbell, J . B . , J r . 1977 The Upper Palaeozzthic o f Britain: A 6 b d y o f man and nature zn the l a t e zce age. Oxford U n i v e r s i t y p r e s s ( C l a r e n d o n ) , London and New York . C a r n e i r o , R . L . , and D . F. H i l s e 1966 On d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r o b a b l e r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h d u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c . American Anthropologist 68:177-181. Constandse-Westennann, T . S . , a n d C. M e i k l e j o h n 1979 The human r e m a i n s from S w i f t e r b a n t . Helinium 19:237-266. Constandse-Westermann, T . S . , a n d R. R . Newell 1984 M e s o l i t h i c trauma: Demographical and c h r o n o l o g i c a l t r e n d s i n Western E u r o p e . Proceedings of the 4th European PaZaeopathoZogy Conference, Middelburg/Antwerpen , 1 9 8 2 , i n press. Constandse-Westermann, T . S . , C . M e i k l e j o h n , a n d R . R. Newel1 1984 A r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e M e s o l i t h i c s k e l e t o n from R a s l - e l , Commune d e P e i l l o n , Alpes - M a r i t i m e s , F r a n c e . BuZletin du Musee dlAnthropoZogie PrShistopique du Monaco 26: 75-89. Dastugue, J . 1979 P a t h o l o q i e d e s M 6 s o l i t h i q u e s d e F r a n c e . LIAnthropologze 83:602-625. Dastugue, J . , and M . A . d e Lumley 19766 Les m a l a d i e s d e s h o m e s p r 6 1 1 i s t o r i q u e s du P a l 6 o l i t h i q u e e t du M 6 s o l i t h i q u e . I n La prShistoire f r a n e s e (Vol. I ) , e d i t e d by 13. d e Lumley, p p . 612-622. Centre Nationale Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e , P a r i s . 1976b Les m a l a d i e s d e s h o m e s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e s . I n La pr6histoire franyaise (Vol. 11) , e d i t e d by J . G u i l a n e , p p . 153-164. C e n t r e N a t i o n a l e Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e , P a r i s . d e Lumley, H . ( e d i t o r ) 1976 La prbhi-stoire franfazae (Vol. I ) . C e n t r e N a t i o n a l s Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e , P a r i s . F r a y e r , D. W. 1978 The e v o l u t i o n o f t h e d e n t i t i o n i n Upper P a l e o l i t h i c and M e s o l i t h i c Europe. University of Kansas P u b Z i c a t h i n Anthropology No. 1 0 . 1960 S e x u a l dimorphism and c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n i n t h e Late P l e i s t o c e n e and Holocene o f Europe. ~ o u r n a lof Human Evolution 9:399-415. 1 9 8 1 Body s i z e , weapon u s e a n d n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n i n t h e European Upper P a l e o l i t h i c and M e s o l i t h i c . ~ m e r i c a n Anthropologist 83:57-73.

4

THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE

Gramsch , B. ( e d i t o r ) 1981 Mesolithikum i n Europa .

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Guilane, J . 1979 The e a r l i e s t N e o l i t h i c in t h e West M e d i t e r r a n e a n : A new a p p r a i s a l . Antiquity 53 : 22-30. Henqen, 0. P . 1 9 7 1 C r i b r a o r b i t a l i a : P a t h o g e n e s i s and p r o b a b l e e t i o l o g y . Homo 2 2 ~ 5 7 - 7 6 . Key, P . 1980 E v o l u t i o n a r y t r e n d s i n f e m o r a l s e x u a l dimorphism from t h e M e s o l i t h i c t o t h e l a t e Middle Ages i n E u r o p e . American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 52:244. Kozlowski, S . K . ( e d i t o r ) 1973 The Mesolithic i n Europe. Warsaw U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Warsaw. L a r s s o n , L. 1980 S t e n a l d e r s j a g a r n a s b o p l a t s o c h g r a v a r v i d Skateholm. Limhamniana 1980:13-39. ~ r 8 n 1981 En 7 , 0 0 0 - Â ¤ r i S y d k u s t b o p l a t s . N y t t om 9-lt Skateholm. L~hcOTff~iana 1981 :17-46. 1982 S k a t e h o l m s p r o j e k t e t . Nys g r a v a r och e t t n y t t q r a v f a l t ~ r s n~ ~ q a r s t e n 8 l d e r n Limhamnima . 1962 :11-41. L a r s s o n , L . , C. M e i k l e j o h n , and R. R . Newel1 1 9 8 1 Human s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l from t h e M e s o l i t h i c s i t e o f AgerBd I : 1IC , S c a n i a , S o u t h e r n Sweden. t'ornvtinnen 76 : 161-168. L a v i l l e , H . , J . P . Rigaud, a n d J . S a c k e t t 1 9 8 0 Rock shelters of t h e Perigord. Academic P r e s s , New York. Lewthwaite, J. 1 9 8 1 Ambiguous f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n s : A s u r v e y o f r e c e n t work on t h e e a r l y N e o l i t h i c o f t h e West M e d i t e r r a n e a n . Journal of t-lediterranean Archaeology and Anthropology 1:292-307. Meiklejohn, C. 1977 G e n e t i c d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d demo s t r u c t u r e : C o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e Athapaskan/Algonkian continuum. i n Problems i n t h e prehistory of the North American Suba r c t i c : The Athapaskan question, e d i t e d b y J. H e h e r , F. J . Kense, and J . Van Dyke, p p . 106-110. U n i v e r s i t y of Calgary, Calgary. 1 9 7 8 E c o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and g r o w t h i n L a t e G l a c i a l a n d E a r l y P o s t g l a c i a l N o r t h w e s t e r n Europe. I n

The Early PostgZacial settlement of Northern Europe, e d i t e d by P. M e l l a r s , p p . 6 5 - 7 9 . Duckworth, London. M e i k l e j o h n , C . , a n d T . S. Constandse-Westennann 1 9 7 8 The human s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l from S w i f t o r b a n t , E a r l i e r N e o l i t h i c o f t h e N o r t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s . I . I n v e n t o r y and demography. Pa h e o h i s t o r i a 20 : 39-89. M e l l a r s , P. ( e d i t o r ) 1978 The Early Postglaazal settlement of Northern Europe. Duckworth, London.

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Milisauskas , S . 1978 European prehistory. Academic P r e s s , New York. Newell, R . R. 1973 The p o s t g l a c i a l a d a p t a t i o n s o f t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e Northwest European p l a i n . I n The Mesolithic i n Europe, e d i t e d by S . K. Kozlowski, p p . 399-440. Warsaw U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Warsaw. Newell, R. R. , and S H . Anderson 1982 The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f M e s o l i t h i c bone t o o l s . Unpublished M.S. o n f i l e , S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f Groningen, Groningen, t h e Netherlands. Newell, R . R . , T. S. Constandse-Westemann, a n d C. M e i k l c j o h n 1979 The s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s o f M e s o l i t h i c man i n Western Europe: An e v a l u a t i v e c a t a l o g u e . Journal of Human EvoZution 8 : 1-228. Newell, R. R . , A . L . van G i j n , D. Kielman, a n d W. van d e r Sanden 1982 An e n q u i r y i n t o t h e e t h n i c r e s o l u t i o n o f M e s o l i t h i c r e g i o n a l groups: A s t u d y o f t h e i r d e c o r a t i v e ornaments i n s p a c e and t i m e . Unpublished M.S. on f i l e , S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f Groningcn, Groningen, t h e N e t h e r l a n d s . Rozoy, 3. G . 1978 Les derniera chaeseure: L'EpipaZkolzthiq~een France e t en Belgique. S o c i 6 t 6 Arch6ologique Chanipenolse, Charleville-Mezisrcs. S c h e n t a g , C. 1982 The b i a s i n h e r e n t i n t h e r e p o r t i n g o f p a t h o l o g y o n s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s : A s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . Unpublished M.S. o n f i l e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Winnipeg. S l o b o d k i n , L. B . , and H . L. S a n d e r s 1968 On t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r e d i c t a b i l i t y t o s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y . Brookhaven Symposia i n Biology 2 2 : 62-95. S p i e s s , A. 1979 Reindeer and caribou hunters: A n archaeological study. Academic P r e s s , New York. Tauber, H. 1981 1 3 e~v i d e n c e f o r d i e t a r y h a b i t s o f p r e h i s t o r i c man i n Denmark. Nature (Landon) 292: 332-333. T r o t t e r , M . , and G . C . G l e s e r 1952 E s t i m a t i o n o f s t a t u r e from l o n g b o n e s o f American w h i t e s and Negroes. American J o u d of Physical Anthropology 1 0 : 463-514. Wobst, H. M. 1976 L o c a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n P a l e o l i t h i c s o c i e t y . Journal of Human Evolution 5:49-58.

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CHAPTER 5 ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND SKELETAL EVIDENCE FOR DIETARY CHANGE DURING THE LATE PLEISTOCENE/EARLY HOLOCENE I N THE LEVANT

P a t r i c i a 3mith Department o f Anatomy Hebrew University-Hadassah School o f D e n t a l Medicine

Ofer Bar-Yosef I n s t i t u t e of Archaeology Hebrew U n i v e r s i t y , M t . Scopus Canpus

N a t i o n a l Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y Srnithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n

INTRODUCTION

I n t h e Levant t h e p e r i o d between t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c and N e o l i t h i c , d a t i n g from a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 7 , 0 0 0 B.C., i s g e n e r a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e " ~ p i p a l e o l i t h i c . " ~s e v e r a l overviews of t h e E p i p a l e o l i t h i c and N e o l i t h i c sequence i n t h e Levant h a v e been p u b l i s h e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s (Bar-Yosef 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 S l a , b , 1978; Cauvin 1978; Redman 1 9 7 8 ) . These r e v i e w s n e c e s s a r i l y have emphasized a q e o q r a p h i c a l approach t o a r c h a e o l o g i c a l ~ u e s t i o n s , s i n c e t h e r e g i o n encompassed by t h e term "Levant" i s s o e c o l o g i c a l l y d i v e r s e ( F i g . 5 . 1 ) . F o r example, i n t h i s s m a l l a r e a of t h e E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , one can d e f i n e a t l e a s t t h r e e t o p o g r a p h i c b e l t s ( t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n , t h e e a s t e r n mountains and c e n t r a l h i g h l a n d s , a n d t h e r i f t v a l l e y ) as w e l l a s three major v e g e t a -

he term "Mesolithic" -uas abandoned .?or t k e Near East 1 5 years ago; most archaeologists p r e f e r t o Zir-it i t s use t o northwestern Europe during t h e e a r l y HoZocene (Koslouski 1 9 7 3 ) .

PATRICIA SMITH ET AL.

FIGURE 5 . 1 . Map of Southern Levant indicating rnay'or geographic subdiuisioiis.

5

THE LATE PLElSTOCENE/EARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT

ALILEE C A R M E L

BASED

HIGHLANDS

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IE COASTAL P L A I N

THE B E Q A A 3""

JORDAN VALLEY

GEOMETRIC K E B A R A N

LATE L E V A N T I N E AURIGNACIAN and LATE BLADElBLADELET INDUSTRlE'i

FIGURE 5.2. ArchaeoZogicaZ sequence ir. rridor geoyaphioal regions o f t h e southern Levant ( t a k e n fro- Bar-Ycsef 2 9 8 0 ) . t i o n a l r e g i o n s (the M e d i t e r r a n e a n F o r e s t b e l t , Irano-Turanian s t e p p e , and Saharo-Sindian d e s e r t ) . R e g i o n a l s t u d i e s of s m a l l a r e a s w i t h i n the Levant nevertheless have been s u c c e s s f u l , and a s 14c dates have become available, t h e

Ill4

PATRICIA SMITH ET AL.

s e q u e n c e f o r each subzone h a s been compared t o t h a t o f i t s n e i g h b o r s ( s e e Bar-Yosef 1 9 8 1 a , b f o r a p p e n d i c e s o f 1 4 d~a t e s ) . T h i s regional approach has enabled u s t o b u i l d archaeological sequences ( F i g u r e 5 . 2 ) and t o f o r m u l a t e h y p o t h e s e s c o n c e r n i n g s e a s o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s , long-range d i f f u s i o n s , p a t t e r n s o f exchange, e t c . I n t h i s c h a p t e r , we w i l l summarize t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and s k e l e t a l e v i d e n c e f o r d i e t and d i e t a r y change o v e r t h e c o u r s e of t h e E p i p a l e o l i t h i c arid N e o l i t h i c i n t h e r e g i o n . I t s h o u l d be r e c o g n i z e d a t t h e o u t s e t t h a t t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a are of u n e q u a l q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y . F o r example, t h e p a l e o b o t a n i c a l f i n d s a r e s c a r c e and sometimes o f d o u b t f u l n a t u r e , w h i l e t h e f a u n a l c o l l e c t i o n s a r e r e l a t i v e l y abundant b u t i n many c a s e s have been s t u d i e d o n l y p a r t i a l l y ( i . e . , mammals a l o n e ) . Even t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l remains p e r s e ( s t r u c t u r a l r e l i c t s , s t o n e t o o l s , e t c . ) have n o t a l w a y s been a d e q u a t e l y p u b l i s h e d . F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e l a s t decade h a s s e e n a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n . F o r o n e t h i n g , t h e number o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s a v a i l a b l e f o r s t u d y i s on t h e i n c r e a s e . Also, t h e d a t a a r e complementary i n n a t u r e , b e i n g d e r i v e d from d i s p a r a t e s o u r c e s . F o r example, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p r o p o r t i o n a t e amount o f meat v e r s u s v e g e t a b l e f o o d s by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e a r c h a e o l o q i c a l s e q u e n c e a l o n e . However, t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d does p r o v i d e a good i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e s p e c i f i c f o o d s l i k e l y t o have been u t i l i z e d . The s k e l e t a l e v i dence complements t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n by p r o v i d i n g q u a n t i t a t i v e evidence f o r c l a s s e s of foods e x p l o i t e d (e.q., strontium a n a l y s e s ) and n u t r i t i o n ( e . g . , d e n t a l , p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l d a t a ) . An i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p r o a c h s h o u l d t h e n p r o v i d e a r e a s o n a b l y complete p i c t u r e of s o c i a l , t e c h n o l o g i c a l , and d i e t a r y change. We o f f e r t h i s c h a p t e r a s an i n t e r i m r e p o r t i n t h i s ongoing c o o p e r a t i v e e f fort.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR DIETARY CHANGE

D i r e c t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r d i e t a r y change can b e der i v e d from t h r e e s o u r c e s : (1) s h i f t s i n t h e v e g e t a l d i e t a s exh i b i t e d i n t h e p l a n t and s e e d remains: ( 2 ) s h i f t s i n t h e f a u n a l s p e c t r a a s compiled from bone c o l l e c t i o n s of h u n t e d and/or d o m e s t i c a t e d a n i m a l s ; and ( 3 ) changes i n t o o l s u s e d f o r f o o d c o l l e c t i o n , s t o r a g e , p r e p a r a t i o n , e t c . P o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y can a l s o be a d d r e s s e d by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e number and s i z e of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l sites. The a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on each o f t h e s e p o i n t s f o r t h e Levant i s o u t l i n e d below.

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S i t e S i z e a s an E x p r e s s i o n f o r P o p u l a t i o n I n c r e a s e / D e c r e a s e S i t e s i z e d u r i n g t h e Kebaran a n d Geometric Kebaran ( c i r c a 17.000-10.500 B.C. ranged from 2 5 t o 400 m 2 (and i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e p r e c e d i n g Upper P a l e o l i t h i c p e r i o d ) . I t s h i f t e d i n t o l a r g e r u n i t s (up t o 3000 m2 a s a c a u t i o u s e s t i m a t e ) i n t h e N a t u f i a n (10,500-8500 B.C.) w i t h e v i d e n c e f o r a r c h i t e c t u r a l r e A considerable mains (rounded s t r u c t u r e s , t e r r a c e w a l l s , e t c . ) i n c r e a s e t o o k p l a c e i n t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A p e r i o d , when t h e l a r q e s t s i t e s were 2-4 h a . i n a r e a ( N e t i v Hagdud, G i l g a l I , J e r i c h o ) . The maximal s i z e m a i n t a i n e d i t s e l f d u r i n g t h e "PreP o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B" p e r i o d ( u n t i l 6000 B . C . ) b u t dropped l a t e r i n t h e southern Levant. I n t h e n o r t h e r n Levant ( n o r t h e r n S y r i a and s o u t h e r n A n a t o l i a ) , t h e s i z e i n c r e a s e t h a t t o o k p l a c e i n t h e s e v e n t h millennium B.C. (up t o 12 h a . ) m a i n t a i n e d i t s s t e a d y growth. P o p u l a t i o n e s t i m a t e s d e r i v e d from s i t e s i z e were r e c e n t l y g i v e n d e t a i l e d a t t e n t i o n (Hassan 1 9 8 1 ) . However, i n view of t h e They f r a g m e n t a r y d a t a , we p r e f e r even more c a u t i o u s e s t i m a t e s . a r e a s follows: ( 1 ) Kebaran a n d Geometric Kebaran: 5-15 p e r i o n s / s i t e l o r p e r h a p s one t o t h r e e n u c l e a r f a m i l i e s ) ; ( 2 ) an i n c r e a s e t o 30-50 p e r s o n s / s i t e d u r i n g t h e N a t u f i a n ; and ( 3 ) ano t h e r i n c r e a s e ( c a . 8500-8000 B . C . ) t o 300-2000 p e r s o n s / s i t e (Bar-Yosef 1981a; Hassan 1 9 8 1 ) .

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Functional Aspects of t h e L i t h i c I n d u s t r i e s The main t e c h n o l o g i c a l chanqes o v e r t h e c o u r s e of t i m e were i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n of b l a n k s . While t h e e a r l i e r complexes were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by b l a d e l e t m a n u f a c t u r e ( f o r s h a p i n g m i c r o l i t h s ) , a small i n c r e a s e i n blades i s noted i n t h e Natufian and a higher one i n t h e Khiamian (when m i c r o l i t h i c t o o l s d e c r e a s e d t o a b o u t 25% o f t h e t o t a l a s s e m b l a g e ) . Around 8000 B . C . b l a d e p r o d u c t i o n i s dominant ( a l o n q w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f numerous a x e s - a d z e s , flake tools, etc.). B l a d e s were shaped i n t o arrowheads, s i c k l e b l a d e s , saw b l a d e s , e t c . S i c k l e b l a d e s a r e d e s i g n a t e d by t h e c l e a r l u s t e r on one o r two edges and t h e y became a c o n s t a n t component of e a c h assemblage (up t o 7% of t h e t o t a l " t o o l s " ) from Ext h e N a t u f i a n onwards ( u n t i l t h e I r o n Age, i . e , 600 B . C . ) p e r i m e n t a l work a s w e l l as microwear a n a l y s i s h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t the c o n t e n t i o n of Garrod and N e u v i l l e was p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t and t h e s p e c i f i c sheen r e s u l t e d from c u t t i n g c e r e a l s (Anderson 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e r e f o r e , o n e may s t i l l i n f e r from t h e s e d a t a t h a t t h e i n t e n s i v e u s e o f c e r e a l s a s a s t a p l e food was commenced by t h e N a t u f i a n s even though t h e r e a r e c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h i s r e s o u r c e was utilized earlier. Grinding s t o n e s occur archacoloqically a t l e a s t since t h e e a r l y m i l l e n n i a of t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c i n t h e L e v a n t . Pounding s t o n e s a r e known a l r e a d y from Kebaran a n d Geometric Kebaran s i t e s (Figure 5.2). T h e i r p u r p o s e i s u n c l e a r ; t h e y c o u l d have been u s e d

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f o r p r o c e s s i n g a c o r n s and w i l d c e r e a l g r a i n s ( p r o b a b l y a f t e r r o a s t i n g ) , a s w e l l a s f o r pounding o c h r e . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f pounding c e r e a l s seems t o f i t t h e model t h a t i n t e r p r e t s t h e s e c a r e m o r t a r s and p e s t l e s a s p r e a d a p t a t i o n p r e c e d i n g t h e N a t u f i a n . I n d e e d , t h e N a t u f i a n b a s e camps p r o v i d e l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n s o f pounding t o o l s and s i c k l e b l a d e s a s mentioned e a r l i e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n ( s e e Bar-Yosef i 9 8 1 a ) . A d i s c e r n i b l e s h i f t occurred with t h e Pre-Pottery Neolithic A when t h e number of cup h o l e s a n d g r i n d i n g t o o l s ( q u e r n s and handstones) increased considerably. T h i s phenomenon c o r r e l a t e s w e l l w i t h t h e c l e a r e v i d e n c e f o r d o m e s t i c a t e d wheat and b a r l e y (Cauvin 1978; Hopf 1 9 6 9 ) . From c i r c a 7500 B.C. t h e g r i n d i n g s t o n e s became a l m o s t t h e s o l e t y p e o f p r o c e s s i n g d e v i c e and t h i s was maint a i n e d through t h e following millennia i n t h e Levant. The d i f f u s i o n of g r i n d i n g s t o n e s i n t o t h e d e s e r t i c r e g i o n t o o k p l a c e d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t h millennium o r s l i g h t l y e a r l i e r (by a few c e n t u r i e s ) . I f t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i s c o r r e c t , t h e r e i s a s h o r t l a p s e of t i m e (sever?.." hundred y e a r s ) b e f o r e t h e g r o u p s who e x p l o i t e d t h e s e m i a r i d z o n e s a d o p t t h e new t o o l s . I t i s n o t y e t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e whether t h e y grew t h e c e r e a l s o r o b t a i n e d them from t h e f a r m e r s o f t h e The p a l e o c l i m a t i c e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o a w e t t e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n zone. p e r i o d ( t h e s e v e n t h millennium B . C . ) , and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of c u l t i v a t i n g b a r l e y during a seasonal migratory p a t t e r n ( l i k e t h a t of Bedouin g r o u p s ) s h o u l d n o t be r u l e d o u t .

The B o t a n i c a l Remains The s c a r c i t y o f p a l e o b o t a n i c a l remains i s p a r t l y , b u t n o t s o l e l y , due t o t h e u s e o f i n a p p r o p r i a t e r e c o v e r y t e c h n i q u e s i n t h e past. The main r e a s o n s f o r t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f p l a n t remains a r e t h e p h y s i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e d e p o s i t s and t h e s e a s o n a l c l i m a t i c v a r i a t i o n s t y p i c a l o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n zone. The a n n u a l w e t t i n g and d r y i n g o f t h e c l a y e y terra rossa s o i l s and o f t h e loamy c l a y harnra s o i l s ( i n t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n ) d e s t r o y e d most o f t h e o r g a n i c s u b s t a n c e s i n t h e s i t e s under d i s c u s s i o n . Moreover, t h e summer c r a c k i n g of t h e s e s o i l s e n a b l e d minute specimens t o p e n e t r a t e e a r l i e r l a y e r s . A s a r e s u l t , even t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c h a r c o a l samples f o r d a t i n g i s l i m i t e d . F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e f a i r l y good The s i t u a t i o n i n t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of bones compensates f o r t h i s . s e m i a r i d r e g i o n s is t h e r e v e - t s e ; char-coal i s w e l l p r e s e r v e d but The b e t t e r p r e s e r v a t i o n of p l a n t t h e bones have m o s t l y decayed. remains o c c u r r e d i n s i l t i c d e p o s i t s on t h e margin of t h e d e s e r t s a s i n J e r i c h o and S a l i b i y a I X ( i n t h e Lower J o r d a n V a l l e y ) . The s c a n t a v a i l a b l e g r a i n s from t h e s o u t h e r n Levant ( i n c l u d i n g t h o s e a n a l y z e d i n u n p u b l i s h e d d a t a ) i n d i c a t e t h a t Emmer wheat, and p o s s i b l y a form o f d o m e s t i c a t e d b a r l e y c a n be found from t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A (8300-7500 B .C . ) onwards (Hopf 1969) Except f o r a r a r e o c c u r r e n c e of Tr'Lt'Leton d'Le0ccm i n Kebaran l a y e r s a t Nahal Oren (Noy e t a l . 1 9 7 3 ) , i s o l a t e d g r a i n s i n d i c a t e

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t h e u s e o f w i l d c e r e a l s u n t i l t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A and even l a t e r . C u l t i v a t i o n o f wheat a n d w i l d b a r l e y was r e c e n t l y confirmed f o r e a r l y e i g h t millennium s i t e s i n t h e Damascus Basin (Van Z e i s t and Bakker-Heeres 1 9 7 9 ) . S i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s a r e known a l r e a d y from J e r i c h c , T e l l Mureybit, and Abu H u r e i r a i n t h e E u p h r a t e s v a l l e y and t h e l a t e r s i t e o f Beidha (Helbaek 1966; Hopf 1969; Moore 1978; Van Z e i s t 1 9 7 0 ) . C o l l e c t i o n o f w i l d f r u i t s and n u t s (almonds, p i s t a c h i o ) continued i n the following millennia. The g a t h e r i n g of w i l d p u l s e s s l o w l y gave way d u r i n g t h e e i g h t h millennium t o t h e i r s y s t e m a t i c c u l t i v a t i o n (Van Z e i s t and Bakker-Heeres 1979; Zohary and Hopf 1 9 7 3 ) . One may t h e r e f o r e c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f w i l d c e r e a l s , p u l s e s , f r u i t s , and n u t s s h i f t e d in t h e same o r d e r i n t o s y s t e m a t i c c u l t i v a t i o n , which l e d t h r o u g h i t s ongoing a n n u a l p r o c e d u r e s t o t h e d o m e s t i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s s p e c i e s . Farming o f g r a i n s and s e e d s p r e c e d e d t h e g a r d e n i n g o f f r u i t t r e e s by a b o u t three millennia. T h i s f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e i s n o t r e a l l y amenable t o t h e t e s t i n g of any h y p o t h e s e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s o f v e g e t a b l e and meat f o o d s t u f f s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d s under d i s c u s s i o n within each of t h e various archaeological e n t i t i e s . For t h i s r e a s o n we have u n d e r t a k e n a comprehensive program of s t r o n t i u m a n a l y s e s o f f a u n a l a n d human b o n e s , d i s c u s s e d below.

S h i f t s i n t h e Faunal Spectra Keeping i n mind t h e p r e l i m i n a r y n a t u r e of some o f t h e r e p o r t s , we h a v e summarized t h e f a u n a l d a t a p u b l i s h e d by v a r i o u s i n v e s t i The h i s t o g r a m s r e p r e s e n t t h e f r e q u e n c i e s g a t o r s i n F i g u r e 5.3. of bone c o u n t s (and n o t t h e minimum number o f i n d i v i d u a l s ) . The o v e r a l l p a t t e r n e x h i b i t s a c l e a r s h i f t from a v a i l a b l e game t o dominance o f c a p r o v i n e s d u r i n q t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B ( c a . (The p r e s e n c e of i b e x i n s i t e s s u c h a s Rosh 7500-6000 B . C . ) . Horesha and Abu Salem i n t h e Neqev H i g h l a n d s i l l u s t r a t e s t h e l o c a l environment and n o t an e a r l y d o m e s t i c a t i o n . The s c a r c i t y o f Capra i n t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d s h o u l d b e n o t e d . ) From comparison o f t h e changes i n t h e f a u n a l s p e c t r a w i t h t h e s h i f t s i n v e g e t a l r e s o u r c e s , one may c o n c l u d e t h a t animal domest i c a t i o n f o l l o w e d c e r e a l c u l t i v a t i o n by s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s .

S i t e L o c a t i o n s , S i t e C o n t e n t s , and P a t t e r n s o f E x p l o i t a t i o n F i g u r e 5 . 4 i s a t e n t a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e major economic a c t i v i t i e s a n d i n t e r r e g i o n a l p a t t e r n of a n n u a l movement o r mere e x p e d i t i o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n , supplemented w i t h rough e s t i m a t e s o f s i t e s i z e (Bar-Yosef, i n p r e p a r a t i o n ) . T h e prime a r e a i n which t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o c u l t i v a t i o n and herding domesticated animals o r i g i n a l l y t o o k p l a c e i s t h e "Pistachio-Quercetum zone"

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(de Contenson and Van Liere 1 9 6 4 ) . I n t e r m s of. v e g e t a t i o n a l zones a t t h e end of t h e P l e i s t o c e n e and e a r l y Holocene, i t i n c l u d e s t h e Mediterranean and I r a n o - T u r a n i a n r e g i o n s on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e J o r d a n V a l l e y , s t r e t c h i n g i n t o i n l a n d S y r i a t o t h e E u p h r a t e s Valley. I n t h e m a r g i n a l , s e m i a r i d , and a r i d a r e a s ( w e t t e r d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t h millennium B.C.), l o c a l a d a p t a t i o n s e n a b l e d t h e emergence o f p a s t o r a l s o c i e t i e s .

FIGURE 5 . 3 . Summary o f unguzate fauna; s ; z s t v a fwr, rna.j.0~ s i t e s i n t h e m c h a e d o q i c a 2 sequence o f tkc sa^'^herr. Levant ( t a k e n from Bar-Yosef 1980).

110

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Specimens A v a i l a b l e f o r Study The p e r i o d p r e c e d i n g t h e N a t u f i a n i s p o o r l y r e p r e s e n t e d , w i t h o n l y two f a i r l y complete s k e l e t o n s , b o t h f e m a l e , from Ein Gev. One, from Ein Gev I , i s d a t e d t o c i r c a 1 3 , 7 5 0 B.P.; t h e o t h e r from Nahal Ein Gev, i s d a t e d t o c i r c a 1700 B.P. (Arensburg 1977; Arensburg and Bar-Yosef 1 9 7 3 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e f r a g m e n t a r y r e m a i n s , m a i n l y t e e t h a n d j a w s , from t h e A u r i g n a c i a n d e p o s i t s a t E l Wad and Kebara, a s w e l l a s one i n t a c t humerus from Kebara (McCown and K e i t h 19391. T h e r e a r e no p r e c i s e d a t e s f o r t h e s e specimens, which McCown and K e i t h c o n s i d e r e d i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from t h e N a t u f i a n r e m a i n s a t t h e s i t e , a l t h o u g h Henry and S e r v e l l o (1974) have proposed an approximate d a t e o f 1 3 , 0 0 0 B.C.E. The N a t u f i a n i s much b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t e d , w i t h o v e r 200 s k e l e t a l remains from d i f f e r e n t s i t e s . Most o f t h e s e a r e i n t h e n o r t h e r n and c e n t r a l r e g i o n s o f I s r a e l : Shukbah (Garrod 1 9 4 2 b ) , E l Wad (Garrod a n d Bate 1 9 3 7 ) , Kebara ( T u r v i l l e - P e t r i e 1 9 3 2 ) , Nahal Oren (Nay e t a l . 1973; S t e k e l i s a n d Y i z r a e l i 19631, Eynan ( P e r r o t 1966; V a l l a 1 9 8 1 ) , Hayonim (Bar-Yosef and Goren 19731, and R a k e f e t . I n most c a s e s t h e N a t u f i a n b u r i a l s were dug i n t o t h e l i v i n g f l o o r s o f e a r l i e r l e v e l s o f o c c u p a t i o n . A t E l Wad, specimens have been r e s o r t e d and r e l a b e l e d s e v e r a l t i m e s , a n d it i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o r i g i n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s o f most of t h e specimens d e s c r i b e d i n Garrod and B a t e (19371. A t Eynan, t h e b e s t - p r e s e r v e d s k e l e t o n s a r e those? from t h e e a r l i e s t p h a s e , a l t h o u g h t e e t h and jaws from a l l p h a s e s a r e w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d ( V a l l a 1 9 8 1 ) . A t Hayonim, most of t h e b u r i a l s d a t e t o t h e E a r l y N a t u f i a n p h a s e Bar-Yosef and Gore" 1 9 7 3 ) . A t Nahal Oren, most o f t h e b u r i a l s d a t e t o the Late Natufian. A t Erq e l Ahmar a n d Kebara, most b u r i a l s d a t e t o t h e E a r l y N a t u f i a n ( N e u v i l l e 1951; T u r v i l l e - P e t r i e 1932). F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c , t h e s k e l e t a l r e c o r d i s less c o m p l e t e . At J e r i c h o , the l a r g e s t s i t e excavated, with both Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B r e m a i n s , t h e r e is a s y e t no f i n a l rep o r t a v a i l a b l e . Most of t h e p u b l i s h e d d a t a a r e drawn from f i e l d n o t e s (Kurth and R 6 h r e r - E r t l 1 9 8 1 ) . Most of t h e o t h e r s i t e s have y i e l d e d much smaller s a m p l e s , m a i n l y from t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B levels. These i n c l u d e Beisamoun and Abu Ghosh ( L e c h e v a l l i e r 1 9 7 8 ) , Sheikh A l i (Ferembach 19741, Abu Madi, Wadi T b e i k , and Ugrat e l Mahed from s o u t h e r n S i n a i [Bar-Yosef 1980; Herschkowitz, 1 9 8 2 ) .

P h y s i c a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d M i c r o e v o l u t i o n a r y Trends E a r l y R m sapier.s ir, t h e L e v a n t , r e p r e s e n t e d by s k e l e t a l remains from Skhul and Q a f z e h , were t a l l and qracile i n comparison w i t h N e a n d e r t a l s from Europe. The specimens a v a i l a b l e , e x c e p t f o r Skhul 5 , a r e d o l i c o c e p h a l i c , w i t h l a r g e and prominent f a c e s a n d

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5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT

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t e e t h (McCown and K e i t h 1939; Smith, i n p r e p a r a t i o n ) ; Vandermeersch 1 9 8 1 ) . The b e s t - p r e s e r v e d of t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c remains, which a r e from E i n Gev, a r e s e p a r a t e d from t h e s e e a r l y specimens by more t h a n 2 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s . They d i f f e r from them i n s t a t u r e , c r a n i o f a c i a l morphology, and t o o t h s i z e , a n d b e a r a c l o s e resemblance t o t h e l a t e r N a t u f i a n s i n t h e s e f e a t u r e s (Arensburq a n d Bar-Yosef 1973; Arensburq 1977; Smith 1 9 7 7 ) . The more f r a g m e n t a r y r e m a i n s from E l Wad and Kebara d e s c r i b e d by McCown and K e i t h (1939) a l s o r e s e m b l e t h e N a t u f i a n s . Although t h e r e a r e few specimens from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c , i t seems t h a t by t h e l a t t e r h a l f of t h i s p e r i o d , t h o s e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t y p i c a l o f t h e N a t u f i a n s were a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e r e g i o n . The p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e N a t u f i a n s have been d e s c r i b e d i n some d e t a i l (Arensburg 1973; Ear-Yosef e t a l . 1971-1972; C r o g n i e r and Dupouy-Madre 1974; Ferembach 1959, 1961, 1977; K e i t h 1931, 1934; McCown 1939; Smith 1970, 1979; S o l i v e r e s 1976; V a l l o i s 1 9 3 6 ) . The N a t u f i a n s were o f s h o r t t o medium s t a t u r e , w i t h m a l e s a v e r a g i n g 1 6 5 cm a n d f e m a l e s 152 cm i n h e i g h t ( T a b l e 5.1). T h e i r s k u l l s were a l s o d o l i c o c e p h a l i c , w i t h l a r g e c r a n i a l c a p a c i t y ; b r o a d , s h o r t f a c e s ; prominent zygoma; a n d a tendency t o a l v e o l a r prognathism (Table 5 . 2 ) . The m a n d i b l e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by low, b r o a d rami w i t h s h o r t body l e n g t h and d e e p symphyses (Table 5 . 3 ) . The t e e t h a r e narrow m e s i o d i s t a l l y b u t broad buccol i n g u a l l y , w i t h l a r g e l i n q u a l t u b e r c l e s on t h e m e x i l l a r y i n c i s o r s and c a n i n e s a n d l a r g e C a r a b e l l i c u s p s on t h e m a x i l l a r y f i r s t molars. The p r e m o l a r s a n d t h i r d m o l a r s i n b o t h jaws a r e e s p e c i a l l y s m a l l and a g e n e s i s o f t h i r d m o l a r s i s f r e q u e n t (Smith 1970, 1973). While a l l t h o s e who have s t u d i e d t h e N a t u f i a n s a g r e e t h e i r e s s e n t i a l homogeneity, Ferembach (1961, 19771, S o l i v e r e s ( 1 9 7 6 ) , and C r o g n i e r and Dupouy-Madre (1974) found some s t a t i s t i c a l l y si9n i f i c ~ l n td i f f e r e n c e s between samples from Eynan and Nahal Oren i n head form, f a c i a l b r e a d t h , and m a n d i b u l a r and p o s t c r a n i a l r o b u s t icity. The Nahal Oren specimens t e n d t o have s h o r t e r , r o u n d e r c r a n i a , w i t h reduced b i a y q o m a t i c and ramal w i d t h . Samples from t h e o t h e r N a t u f i a n s i t e s f a l l between t h e s e e x t r e m e s , w i t h Eynan among t h e most r o b u s t and Nahal Oren t h e most g r a c i l e . 'When t h e s e two samples a r e compared w i t h t h o s e found a t o t h e r N a t u f i a n s i t e s , Nahal o r e n a p p e a r s t o be t h e most d i v e r g e n t ( t a b l e s 5 . 2 and 5.3), and r e s e m b l e s t h e l a t e r N e o l i t h i c samples. For example, ramus width i n males a t Nahal o r e n i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a l l e r t h a n a t any Eynan, a s Ferembach (1977) p o i n t e d o u t , other s i t e ( p < .05). d i v e r g e s i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n toward extreme r o b u s t i c i t y , and i n t h i s f e a t u r e i s matched o n l y by a f e w specimens from o t h e r Natufian s i t e s . I t h a s been p o s t u l a t e d t h a t d i e t a r y d i f f e r e n c e s may a c c o u n t f o r t h e o b s e r v e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n r o b u s t i c i t y between specimens from Nahal Oren and Eynan (Ferembach 1 9 7 7 ) . However, t h e s p e c i mens from Eynan d e s c r i b e d by Ferembach (1961) a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e e a r l i e s t p h a s e o f t h e N a t u f i a n ( V a l l a 19811, whereas t h o s e from N a h a l Oren b e l o n g t o t h e t e r m i n a l N a t u f l c m . The i r o r p h o i o c i c a i

PATRICIA SMITH E T A L

112

TABLE 5 . 1

S t a t u r e and Dimorphism i n D i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s a Male

Period

So.

X

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X

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b

Mausterian Skhul, Qafzeh Natufian ( t o t a l , El bad Skukbah (43Je Eunan Nahal Oren Hayonim Neolithic Jerioho p ~ n . 4 ~ Jer-ichc P P N B ~ Abu ~ o s h f Beisamwvf South ~ i n a i f Chalcolithic Jericho Bybtos Bronze Age JebeZ Q a n q i i r Sasa Jen'e'hn Hellenistie Jericho Arab DOP

A Z Z d a t a based on f e w l e n g t h , e x c e p t u h e r e s t a t e d o t h e r w i s e .

maze ^ p e r c e n t a g e dimorphism c a l c u l a t e d a s -,ÑÑ

x 100.

'Based o n e s t i m a t e s from K e i t h (19341. d P r e - ~ o t t e ' n ^ Pdeolithic A. ePre-Potteq, N e o l i t h i c B. f ~ a l c u l a t e d frcm Long b o n e s o t h e r t h a n femur. d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s e two s i t e s , t h e n , may a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d t o r e f l e c t a c h r o n o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e r a t h e r t h a n a r e g i o n a l one. The i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a t u s o f t h e o t h e r N a t u f i a n s i t e s i s a l s o conp a t i b l e w i t h t h e i r c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y mixed composition of samples

5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT

113

from b o t h e a r l y and l a t e p h a s e s o f t h e N a t u f i a n . Unfortunately, t h e sample s i z e i s t o o s m a l l t o p e r m i t p r o p e r t e s t i n g f o r morp h o l o g i c a l change o v e r t i m e a t Eynan. However, a s t r o n t i u m calcium s t u d y ( s e e below) a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s i s f e a s i b l e , and may be used t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e x t e n t of d i e - t a w change o v e r t h i s period. I n t h e N e o l i t h i c , t h e few P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A specimens t h a t have been d e s c r i b e d from J e r i c h n r e s e m b l e t h e Naha1 Oren Natufians. The P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B samples show t h a t a c l e a r d i v i s i o n e x i s t s between n o r t h e r n andcen.t-r.al groups,_.w-hJ-ch_,wexe o u-. p , which continued a d o p t i n g a g r i c u l t u r e , and t h e ' s o u t h e r n S i n a i g r~~-t o depend on h u n t i n g a n d g ~ t h e ' r t n ~ - T hs o e u t h e r n S i n a i spe&iehs show a c l o s e resemblance- t o t h i ~ a t u f i a n si n s t a t u r e , ' c f a n i S l l e n g t h , b i z y g o m a t i c w i d t h , and m a n w u l a r s i z e . The main d i f f e r ence between'qhem i s found i n c r a n i a l b r e a d t h , which i s excepS i na i sample. t i o n a l l y narrow i n t h e .--fcl-ier~ .~ I n t h e more n o r t h e r l y s i t e s , a marked i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e i s found i n a l l P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B s a m p l e s . A t Jericho, the i n c r e a s e i n male s t a t u r e between P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A and" P r e P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h a mean i n c r e a s e i n h e i g h t o f 4 cm. Female s t a t u r e showed no s i q n i f ' i c a n t i n c r e a s e o v e r tfie same p e r i o d o f t i m e , w i t h mean s t a t u r e o f 157 cm f o r P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A and 158 cm f o r P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B . . As T a b l e 5 . 1 shows, t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e between N a t u f i a n a.~ n d P r e - P o t...t e r.y -. N..e o l i. ~t h. i c A p o p u l a t i o n s ; moreover, t h e i n c r e a s e G a J l e - . . s t a t u r e found i n t h e P r e - P o t t e r y -~ -.. . N e o l i t h i c B was n o t k i n t a i n e d i n l a t e r periodC r a n i a l m o g ' h ~ l o g y , b u t n o t fc5'Eth a l s o shows s i g n i f i c a n t chanqes from t h e---N a t u f i a n t o .l-bsÑNee.Lijih.ip I n t h e n o r t h e r n and c e n t r a l N a l i t h l c g r o u p s , t h e c r a n i a a r e s b r t e r and t h e b y I keeping with t h e longer f a c e s , t h e -these-&--the N ~ t u f 1 a n - s . w ~ -i t h i n c ~ ~ s e d maximum l e n g t h and' c o r p u s 1e n g t h a s as. ramus re.~~height-.but duced r a m u s w i d t h . T h e s e ~ e o l i t h i cp o p u l a t i o n s , t h e n , resemble t h e Nahal Oren ~ a t u f i a n s . I n t h e s o u t h e r n S i n a i N e o l i t h i c sample, n e i t h e r s t a t u r e n o r c r a n i o f a c i a l morpholoqy d e p a r t s from t h e N a t u f i a n norm t o t h e e x t e n t found i n t h e n o r t h e r n s i t e s . T h i s may be r e l a t e d t o t h e dichotomy i n l i f e - s t y l e s s u g g e s t e d by t h e archaeological findings. The complex of changes found i n t h e c r a n i o f a c i a l complex o f p o p u l a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e , i n c l u d i n g more- - g l o b u T a r - ~ - s k u i 'Iw i i t h longer,' nirro-wec:face's and m a n d i b l e s , i s m a i n t a i n e d "by l a t e r p o p u l a ' t i 6 h s i n t h i s r e g i o n . The o n l y s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t change i s a u n i d i r e c t i o n a l r e d u c t i o n i n t o o t h s i z e between P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B and Bronze Age populations. S i m i l a r changes have been d e s c r i b e d e l s e w h e r e i n p o p u l a t i o n s a d o p t i n g a g r i c u l t u r e ( C a r l s o n a n d Van Gerven 1 9 7 3 ) . They have been i n t e r p r e t e d a s b e i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e s e l e c t i v e p r e s s u r e s m a i n t a i n i n g l a r g e t e e t h and powerful m a s t i c a A s T a b l e s 5 . 3 and t o r y a c t i v i t y i n t a l l , large-muscled h u n t e r s . 5 . 4 (A a n d B ) i n d i c a t e , t h e sequence o f changes i n I s r a e l and ~

-

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w w m to

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NATUFIAN

-BRONZE Jehel Qa'akiir

-

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N E O L I T H I C PPNB

BYZANTINE

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J

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1

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N E O L I T H I C PPNA Jericho

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FIGURE 5 . 5 .

e

HELLENISTIC Jer,cho

100

0

Frequency distribution of different age groups based o n skeletal remains.

100

PATRICIA SMITH E T A L .

118

TABLE 5.4A

Mesiodistat Measurements o f T e e t h i n D i f f e r e n t

Periods Epipateotithic Tooth

No.

X

SD

Neolithic X

No.

Bronze

SD

No.

X

SD

Maxi Via 7 12 10

8 8 10 9 6

8.7 6.6 7.8 7.3 7.3 10.6 10.0 9.1

Mandible 3 11 10

7 9 16 13 9

5.3 6.0 7.0 7.1 7.1 11.2 10.9 10.7

Jordan a p p e a r s t o c o n s i s t o f r e d u c e d r o b u s t i c i t y f o l l o w e d by dental reduction. These f i n d i n g s a r e n o t i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f C a r l s o n a n d Van Gerven.!

Paleodemography The Upper P a l e o l i t h i c E i n Gev f e m a l e s were found a s p r i m a r y b u r i a l s b e n e a t h l i v i n g f l o o r s . A t E l Wad and Kebara, t h e Aurignacian remains were f r a g m e n t a r y and p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t d i s t u r b e d s e c o n d a r y b u r i a l s . Taken t o g e t h e r , t h e y p r o v i d e l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n o n paleodemography b u t do i n d i c a t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s t h a t are repeated i n t h e Natufian. A t t h e N a t u f i a n and N e o l i t h i c s i t e s , b o t h p r i m a r y and secondary s i n g l e and m u l t i p l e b u r i a l s were found. This p a t t e r n i s r e p e a t e d i n l a t e r p e r i o d s . The d i s s o c i a t i o n o f b o n e s i n s e c o n d a r y b u r i a l s compounds t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and a g e d e t e r m i n a t i o n and i s a l s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p o o r r e c o v e r y o f i n f a n t s and c h i l d r e n b e c a u s e of e i t h e r poor p r e s e r v a t i o n o r t h e i r d i s p o s a l elsewhere.

5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT

TABLE 5.4B

119

Buecotingual Measurements o f T e e t h i n Different

Periods Natufian Tooth

No.

X

NeoZitkic SD

X

No.

Bronze SD

Ho.

X

SD

Mandible 5 12 13 10 14 16 12 9

6.2 6.4 8.2

8.2 8.3 10.8

10.6 10.3

0.2 0.2 0.9 0.4 1.3 0.3 0.3 0.1

T h i s l a s t p o i n t can b e d e i n o n s t r a t e d by examining t h e d e v i a t i o n s from m o r t a l i t y p r o f i l e s o f p o p u l a t i o n s f o r which r e l i a b l e d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e ( G r i n b l a t 1982). M o r t a l i t y i s normally h i g h e s t i n t h e f i r s t y e a r of l i f e , f a l l s s l i g h t l y i n e a r l y c h i l d h o o d , and is l o w e s t i n l a t e c h i l d h o o d and a d o l e s c e n c e . I n p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h low l i f e e x p e c t a n c y , t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f i n f a n t d e a t h s may e x c e e d 4 0 % . T h i s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f young a d u l t d e a t h s w i t h o n l y a few i n d i v i d u a l s s u r v i v i n g t o middle o r o l d a g e . I n c r e a s e d l o n g e v i t y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h a lower f r e q u e n c y o f i n f a n t d e a t h s and a h i g h e r r a t i o o f o l d e r t o younger i n d i v i d uals. F i g u r e 5.5 g i v e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of age a t d e a t h f o r N a t u f i a n and l a t e r groups. I n c l u d e d a r e t h r e e s a m p l e s from s i t e s where p r i m a r y b u r i a l was p r a c t i c e d a n d r e c o v e r y was qood. Hell e n i s t i c J e r i c h o r e p r e s e n t s a p o p u l a t i o n i n r e l a t i v e l y good h e a l t h w i t h qood l i f e e x p e c t a n c y ( H a c h l i l i e t a l . 1 9 8 1 ) . B y z a n t i n e Meiron i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a p o p u l a t i o n w i t h p o o r e r l i f e expect a n c y (Smith e t a l . 1981) a n d t h e e a r l y Arab p o p u l a t i o n from Dor r e p r e s e n t s a g r o u p i n p o o r h e a l t h w i t h low l i f e e x p e c t a n c y (Smith and Berkowitz, i n p r e p a r a t i o n ) . I n e a c h group t h e r e i s an i n v e r s e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e p e r c e n t a g e of i n f a n t d e a t h s a n d t h a t of older adults.

PATRICIA SMITH ET AL.

120

However, t h e N a t u f i a n s i t e s show no such p a t t e r n i n g . A t Shukbah and a t E l Wad, K e i t h r e p o r t e d 38 and 26% s u b a d u l t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . A t Nahal Oren 1 4 % , a t Eynan 27%, and a t Hayonim 59% of t h o s e found were i d e n t i f i e d a s s u b a d u l t s . However, v e r y few of t h e N a t u f i a n a d u l t s were found i n t h e o l d e r a d u l t c a t e g o r y . S i m i l a r d i s t o r t i o n s o f t h e e x p e c t e d p a t t e r n a r e found i n t h e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e s and in s e c o n d a r y b u r i a l s i t e s from l a t e r periods. The i n f e r e n c e i s t h a t some o t h e r means must b e a d o p t e d t o estimate longevity i n these populations. A n a l y s i s o f t h e r a t i o o f young t o o l d a d u l t s can p r o v i d e t h i s information. Using t h i s a p p r o a c h , it seems t h a t l o n g e v i t y i n c r e a s e d i n t h e N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d and showed a second b u t temporary i n c r e a s e in t h e l a t e H e l l e n i s t i c and Roman p e r i o d . Arensburg (1973) e s t i m a t e d an a v e r a g e l i f e s p a n of 30 y e a r s f o r t h e Epip a l e o l i t h i c , i n c r e a s i n g t o 34 i n t h e N e o l i t h i c , 39 i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c and Roman p e r i o d s , and d r o p p i n g s l i g h t l y t h e r e a f t e r t o 32 y e a r s i n e a r l y Arabs. Female l i f e e x p e c t a n c y o v e r t h e same p e r i o d s a v e r a g e d some 4 y e a r s l e s s i n each g r o u p .

S k e l e t a l Pathology S k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g y h a s n o t y e t been a n a l y z e d i n d e t a i l f o r e i t h e r the Epipaleolithic o r the Neolithic. At l e a s t f o u r a d u l t s from Nahal Oren and t h r e e from Eynan have m i l d c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and p a r i e t a l p i t t i n g . Cranial thickness i n a l l Natufian s k u l l s is g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f l a t e r g r o u p s ( A n i 1 9 8 3 ) , b u t t h i s may represent genetic r a t h e r than pathological v a r i a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s of t h e i r l o n g bones i s a l s o g r e a t e r than t h a t of l a t e r populations. T h e r e i s no mention o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a i n a n a l y s e s of N e o l i t h i c specimens, b u t t h i c k e n i n g o f t h e d i p l o e i n two c r a n i a from J e r i c h o was r e p o r t e d by Kurth a n d R6brer-Ertl (1981). I n a l l subsequent p e r i o d s t h e incidence of c r i b r a and p a r i e t a l p i t t i n g i s h i g h , w i t h some 40% o f a d u l t s and 60% o f c h i l d r e n a f f e c t e d ( T a b l e 5 . 5 ) . S i n c e t h e c o n d i t i o n seems t o have a f f e c t e d males and f e m a l e s s i m i l a r l y (Nathan a n d Haas 1966; Smith a n d Berkowitz, i n p r e p a r a t i o n ) , t h e c o n d i t i o n h e r e may b e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e r a t h e r t h a n t o d i e t . The t h i c k n e s s of c o r t i c a l bone i n t h e humerus o f Middle P a l e o l i t h i c N a t u f i a n and more r e c e n t g r o u p s h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n According t o Bloom and Laws measured by Smith e t a l . ( 1 9 8 4 a , b ) ( l 9 7 O ) , a v a l u e of 7.0 o r l e s s f o r combined c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s (CCT) o f humerus i s d i a g n o s t i c of o s t e o p o r o s i s . T h i s c o n d i t i o n was d i a g n o s e d i n o n e f e m a l e from ~l Wad, i n 20-30% of Bronze Age and Roman samples, and i n 53% of f e m a l e s from t h e e a r l y Arab s i t e o f Dor. With CCT v a l u e s c o r r e c t e d f o r a g e and s i z e , CCT i n t h e N a t u f i a n s a n d Middle P a l e o l i t h i c specimens i s s i m i l a r a n d s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r than i n l a t e r populations (Table 5 . 6 ) . This may r e f l e c t f u n c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n u s e o f t h e arms a s w e l l a s b e t t e r n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s i n t h e e a r l i e r populations.

.

5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT

TABLE 5.5

C r i b m Orbitaliaa Children

Group Natufian Chalao l i t h-ia M. Bronze Roman-Byzantine Early Arab

121

Number examined

Adults

Frequency (%)

2 4 5

50 100 100

21

62

33

84

1mber examined

Frequenq (%)

~Cm2.ymiZd categoq--porosities--present i n Natufians. I n a t i o t h e r groups t h e c o n d i t i o n v a r i e s from mild t o very severe, a f t e ~t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n employed i n Nat'hm and Baas (1966).

While no N e o l i t h i c b o n e s were i n c l u d e d i n t h i s s t u d y , some d e s c r i p t i o n s o f bone p a t h o l o g y have been p r o v i d e d by Kurth and R 6 h r e r - E r t l ( 1 9 8 1 ) . They found t h a t l o n g bones of 2 8 i n d i v i d u a l s showed s i g n s o f c o r t i c a l h y p e r t r o p h y , which was t e n t a t i v e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o calcium deficiency. They a l s o d e s c r i b e d one twoy e a r - o l d i n f a n t w i t h bony d e f o r m i t i e s p o s s i b l y due t o h e r e d i t a r y v i t a m i n D - r e s i s t a n t r i c k e t s . The C h a l c o l i t h i c r e m a i n s a r e t o o s c a n t t o p r o v i d e much i n f o r m a t i o n . However, j u v e n i l e s k e l e t o n s from Ghassul show e x c e p t i o n a l l y t h i n c o r t i c a l bone f o r s i z e i n r e l a t i o n t o l e n g t h and a n a v e r a g e of s i x growth a r r e s t l i n e s i n the t i b i a . A l l have enamel h y p o p l a s i a and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a . Few s i g n s of trauma o r f r a c t u r e have been r e p o r t e d , w i t h o n l y t h r e e c a s e s d e s c r i b e d f o r N e o l i t h i c J e r i c h o i n t h e abovementioned report. However, few c a s e s o f trauma o r d e f o r m i t i e s have been r e p o r t e d from any s i t e i n t h i s r e g i o n r e g a r d l e s s o f p e r i o d . There i s , t h e r e f o r e , l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t i n j u r y d u r i n g hunting o r a s a r e s u l t of i n t e r - o r intragroup aggression.

Dental Pathology I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y , a d i s t i n c t i o n must b e made between enamel h y p o p l a s i a and o t h e r p a t h o l o g i c a l l e s i o n s . Enamel h y p o p l a s i a r e f l e c t s d e v e l o p m e n t a l d i s t u r b a n c e s d u r i n g tooth formation, and so r e l a t e s t o s p e c i f i c e v e n t s i n p r e n a t a l l i f e and e a r l y i n f a n c y , when t o o t h crown development t a k e s p l a c e . A t t r i t i o n , c a r i e s , and p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e a r e , i n c o n t r a s t , c u m u l a t i v e d i s e a s e s t h a t r e f l e c t in. a d u l t s t h e s u m of past dietary habits.

TABLE 5 . 6

Measurements i n t k Humerus of Females ( L e f t Side OnZy)

so. Pa%eo%itkie Natufian M . Bronze Roman Arab

1 IS 10 19 14

CCP -

x

10.0 10.0 8.810.5-6.0 7.7 10.1-4.1 8.0 9.7-5.7 7.3 10.1-4.3

'^'Combined e m t i c a t t h i c k n e s s .

CCT/Lenqtk

No. 1 4 8 11 11

Maximum L e q t k

-

x

3.4 3.2 2.4 2.7 2.4

So.

3.4 3.4-2.8 3.2-1.4 3.3-2.0 3.2-1.6

1 6 8 11 11

-

x

330 282 306 287 301

--

288-277 321-293 302-265 332-281

5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT TABLE 5 . 7

GroupU

123

Disti
Total number examined

Aged > 6

years

Frequenc3 (%) Aged >20 HypoTooth G a r s p l a s i a Caries loss

Natufian E l Wad Kebara Shukbah Eynan Nahal Grfin. Hay onim Neolithic Jericho PPNB Abu Ghosh Chalcolithic Azor Arad Beersheba Bronze Age Jebel Qa ' a k i i r Sasa Jer-icho Roman Jerusalem and. Ein Gedi a ~ l y p o p l a s i ac a l c u l a t e d a s percentage o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h permanent t e e t h w i t h hypoptasia ( i . e . , aged s i x o r more). Caries and t o o t h l o s s c a l c u l a t e d a s percentage o f a d u l t s ( i . e . , aged 20 or more) u i t h e i t h e r c o n d i t i o n . Nmbers i n parentheses r e f l e c t frequencies derived from small samples.

Enamel Hypoplasia I n t h e N a t u f i a n s , enamel h y p o p l a s i a was found i n l e s s t h a n 1% o f p r i m a r y t e e t h , b u t i n 20-30% o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h permanent t e e t h from a l l s i t e s e x c e p t Nahal Oxen. A t Nahal Oren, t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a was h i g h e r , w i t h 5 4 % a f f e c t e d (Table 5 . 7 ) . Hypoplasia was most commonly found on t h e c e r v i c a l t h i r d t o h a l f o f c a n i n e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e t o o t h

I24

PATRICIA SMITH ET AL.

formed between t h e a g e s o f t h r e e and f o u r y e a r s ( S c o t t and Symons 1 9 8 0 ) . A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a was found a t t h e North A f r i c a n E p i p a l e o l i t h i c s i t e of T a f o r a l t , b u t i n h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s ( P o i t r a t - T a r g o l a 1 9 6 2 ) . I t presumably r e p r e s e n t s d i e t a r y d i s t u r b a n c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h weaning. I t h a s r e c e n t l y been suyq e s t e d t h a t it i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e p i s o d e s o f lowered l e v e l s o f serum c a l c i u m v a l u e s o f t h e o r d e r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t e t a n y ; t h a t i s , 8.0 my ( N i k i f o r u k and P r a s e r 1 9 8 1 ) . A s T a b l e 5 . 7 shows, t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f h y p o p l a s i a a t t h e N a t u f i a n s i t e s i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t found i n Middle P a l e o l i t h i c huminids. Enamel h y p o p l a s i a i s s l i g h t l y m u r e p r e v a l e n t i n t h e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e s , and i n c r e a s e s a g a i n i n l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s . At t h e s e l a t e r s i t e s , h y p o p l a s i a i s found w i t h some r e g u l a r i t y i n I t i s a l s o found on t h e f i r s t permanent m o l a r s and primary t e e t h . i n c i s o r s , which d e v e l o p a t an e a r l i e r a g e t h a n t h e c a n i n e s . This s u g g e s t s t h a t c h i l d r e n were weaned a t an e a r l i e r age i n l a t e r p e r i o d s , a f i n d i n g c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e presumably d e c r e a s e d i n t e r v a l between c h i l d b i r t h s . A method f o r examining t h e p a t t e r n of d i e t a r y s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n and weaning on t h e b a s i s o f s t r o n t i u m - c a l c i u m r a t i o s i n j u v e n i l e b o n e s h a s r e c e n t l y been d e m o n s t r a t e d f o r t h e Arab p o p u l a t i o n a t Dor. I n t h i s p o p u l a t i o n a mean a g e of 2 . 5 y e a r s f o r weaning was e s t i m a t e d ( S i l l e n and Smith 1 9 8 4 ) . We hope t o a p p l y t h i s method t o t h e N a t u f i a n and P r e - P o t t e q N e o l i t h i c sample t o examine f u r t h e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between weaning a g e and economic change i n t h e Levantine archaeological sequence. The h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y o f h y p o p l a s i a i n t h e l a t e r p e r i o d s p r e sumably r e f l e c t s a h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e o f c h i l d h o o d d i s t u r b a n c e s i n I t may a l s o mean t h a t a s i m i l a r p e r c e n t a g e was t h e l a t e r groups. a f f e c t e d i n t h e e a r l i e r p o p u l a t i o n s b u t t h a t fewer s u r v i v e d s u c h episodes. However, t h e c o n d i t i o n h a s been found i n e x t r e m e l y h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s i n A u s t r a l i a n p r e - c o n t a c t h u n t e r s and g a t h e r e r s . I n d i f f e r e n t samples r a n q i n q from 6000 B.P. t o 1800 A.D., t h e i n c i d e n c e o f h y p o p l a s i a v a r i e d between 70 and 8 0 % . I t a f f e c t e d mainly canines, as i n t h e Natufians. T h e r e was no e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h reduced l i f e e x p e c t a n c y .

I

k

'

Other Dental Evidence I n t e r - s i t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n age of i n d i v i d u a l s a r e t o some ext e n t r e f l e c t e d i n f r e q u e n c y o f antemortem t o o t h l o s s . T h i s i s most pronounced a t E l Wad (where two c o m p l e t e l y d e n t u r e l e s s i n d i v i d u a l s were f o - ~ n d ) f, o l l o w e d by Eynan, Nahal Oren, Hayonim, and Kebara i n d e c r e a s i n g o r d e r o f f r e q u e n c y (Table 5 . 8 ) . Mean A t t r i t i o n was most s e v e r e a t E l Wad values f o r a t t r i t i o n vary. and Eynan, and l e a s t s e v e r e a t Kebara and Hayonim. These d i f f e r e n c e s were m a i n t a i n e d u s i n g a g e - c o r r e c t e d s c o r e s (Smith 1 9 7 0 ) . Given t h e homogeneity o f t o o t h s i z e , t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s can b e c o n s i d e r e d e v i d e n c e of d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a b r a s i v e q u a l i t y o f t h e foods i n g e s t e d .

I

1,

I

5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT

125

TABLE 5.8 Frequency Distribution of Dental Disease i n Natufian Adultsa

Site

Number of teeth

Percentage caries

E l Wad Kfkra Hayonim Eynan Nahd Oren

601 306 70 327 264

2.8

0.3 (0.51 3.7 7.6

Percentage mztemortm loss 15.0 0.9 2.8 2.7 2.6

"Â¥!Takefrom Smith ( 1 9 7 0 ) .

F u r t h e r grounds f o r assuming d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r a t e o f a t t r i t i o n a r e p r o v i d e d by t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between l e v e l s o f a t t r i t i o n i n f i r s t a n d s e c o n d permanent m l a r s . Since eruption times of t h e s e two t e e t h d i f f e r by 6 y e a r s , d i f f e r e n c e s i n a t t r i t i o n v a l u e s between t h e s e two t e e t h r e f l e c t t h i s 6 y e a r p e r i o d . When pronounced, t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n d i c a t e s e v e r e a t t r i t i o n r a t e s . I n a comparison o f a t t r i t i o n s c o r e s i n f i r s t and s e c o n d m o l a r s , s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r r a t e s o f a t t r i t i o n were d e m o n s t r a t e d f o r Kebara a s compared t o E l Wad, Eynan, and Nahal Oren (Smith 1970, 1 9 7 2 ) . C a r i o u s l e s i o n s were found i n l e s s t h a n 1 . 5 % of t e e t h from Hayonim and Kebara and i n 2 - 3 % o f t e e t h from E l Wad and Eynan, b u t i n 6.8% of t e e t h from Nahal Oren. Periodontal d i s e a s e , measured by t h e e x t e n t o f a l v e o l a r r e c e s s i o n , was a l s o more pronounced a t Nahal Oren ( T a b l e 5 . 3 ) . Nahal Oren, t h e n , shows e v i d e n c e o f d e n t a l d i s e a s e p a t t e r n s u s u a l l y found i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h a s t i c k y c a r b o h y d r a t e d i e t ( p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e and c a r i e s ) a s well a s a higher incidence of hypoplasia than t h a t found a t o t h e r N a t u f i a n s i t e s . T h i s e v i d e n c e f o r d i e t a r y change a g r e e s w i t h t h e o b s e r v e d changes i n c r a n i o f a c i a l morphology d i s c u s s e d i n t h e s e c t i o n on s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g y . D e n t a l d i s e a s e p a t t e r n s a t t h e N e o l i t h i c s i t e s resemble t h o s e found a t Nahal Oren, w i t h s l i g h t l y more c a r i e s , p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e , antemortem t o o t h l o s s , and h y p o p l a s i a t h a n t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e Natufians i n general. Dental h e a l t h s t a t u s a t t h i s t i m e , however, i s s t i l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r i o r t o t h a t of Here p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n food p r e p a later agriculturalists. r a t i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e - h - t - r o d u c t i o n o f p o t t e r y , a s w e l l as d i f f e r e n c e s i n food s e l e c t i o n , may b e r e s p o n s i b l e . The main d i f f e r e n c e s found a r e i n t h e i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f h y p o p l a s i a , p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e , a n d antemortem t o o t h loss i n t h e l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s .

I26

PATRICIA SMITH ET AL Strontium-Calcium

Ratios

Research i n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h e m i s t r y o f s t r o n t i u m a n d calcium h a s d e l i v e r e d an u n a n t i c i p a t e d b e n e f i t : a method f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r o p o r t i o n a t e amounts o f meat and v e g e t a b l e foods i n p r e h i s t o r i c d i e t s by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e r e l a t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s in s k e l e t o n s . S i n c e v e g e t a b l e f o o d s cont a i n h i g h e r .strontium-calcium (Sr/Ca) r a t i o s t h a n do meat f o o d s , d i e t s h e a v i l y depend--table foods r e s u l t i n r e l a t i v e l y h i g h Sr/Ca r a t i o s i n bone. I n c o n t r a s t , d i e t s h e a v i l y dependent Deon meat f o o d s result i n r e l a t i v e l y low Sr/Ca r a t i o s i n bone. t a i l e d background i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t e c h n i q u e h a s been p r e s e n t e d e l s e w h e r e ( S i l l e n and Kavanaqh 1 9 8 2 ) . A t l e a s t two Sr/Ca s t u d i e s h a v e been d i r e c t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y a t t h e Levantine sequence. Schoeninger (1981, 1982) e x p l i c i t l y s e t o u t t o d e t e r m i n e whether t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e Near E a s t was p r i m a r i l y an economic o r a s u b s i s t e n c e change. She examined t h e L e v a n t i n e sequence r e p r e s e n t e d by specimens from l e v e l s G-B ( M o u s t e r i a n - N a t u f i a n ) a t E l Wad, and a s i m i l a r sequence a t Kebara. On t h e b a s i s of comparisons o f human specimens t o h e r b i v o r e specimens, s h e concluded t h a t " w i t h i n t h e Levant t h e n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s a t Kebara B and ~l.'w&&~.--(~-etufien~s) were i n c l u d i n g l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of . p l a n t m a t e r i a l i n t h e i r " d i e t s " . , (_Schoeninger 1981, p . 8 7 ) . T h i s co"c1usion' w a ' s - i n d e p a d e n t l y ' e s t a b l i s h e d by d a t a w e h a v e g a t h e r e d f o r t h e N a t u f i a n a t Hayonim Cave ( S i l l e n 1 9 8 1 a , b ) . I n o u r s t u d y , it was found t h a t N a t u f i a n human Sr/Ca l e v e l s f e l l midway between t h e Sr/Ca l e v e l s . of N a t u f i a n c a r n i v o r e s and t h o s e ~. o .f h e r b i v o r e s , "I'efle'cTi"'" nq a c l e a r l y omniva;?us dietary pattern. .A more c o n t r 6 M s i a l concl-us-ir e a c h e d by S c h o e n i n g e r d e r i v e s from h e r comparison o f t h e N a t u f i a n r e s u l t s t o t h o s e from Kebara C ( K e b a r a n ) . Based on a comparison of human t o h e r b i v o r e bone, s h e c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e Natuf i a n " r e p r e s e n t s ( a n ) i n c r e a s e d u s e i n p l a n t m a t e r i a l when compared w i t h t h e e a r l i e r human p o p u l a t i o n of Kebara C ( S c h o e n i n g e r 1981, p . 8 7 ) . I n t u r n , t h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s used t o s u p p o r t t h e "broad-spectrum" h y p o t h e s i s o f F l a n n e r y t h a t t h e major s u b s i s t e n c e change i n t h e r e g i o n o c c u r r e d w e l l b e f o r e t h e development o f c u l t i v a t i o n , a n d t h a t c u l t i v a t i o n developed as a means t r - ~ e r p e t u a t e.?a*.. s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n . However, i n v e s t i g a t i o n of p r e - ~ a t u f i a nE p i p a l e o l i t h i c d i e t s w i t h Sr/Ca a n a l y s e s i s c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e p a u c i t y o f s k e l e t a l s a m p l e s from t h i s p e r i o d , and t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f c h e m i c a l change d u r i n g i n t e r m e n t . F o r example, no d i f f e r e n c e i n Sr/Ca r a t i o s hetween h e r b i v o r e and c a r n i v o r e f a u n a is d e t e c t a b l e f o r t h e Kebaran a t E i n Gev ( A . S i l l e n , u n p u b l i s h e d ) . Also, t h e c h a r r e d nSTture of t h e human sample from Kebara C (Kebaran) r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether i t i s comparable t o u n c h a r r e d bone from l a t e r p e r i o d s . Strontium-calcium a n a l y s e s can n e v e r t h e l e s s p r o v i d e u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g d i e t a r y change b e f o r e a n d / o r c o n c o m i t a n t w i t h t h e b e q i n n i n g of food p r o d u c t i o n i f r e a s o n a b l e sample s i z e s , approp r i a t e s i t e s , a n d f a u n a l and o t h e r c o n t r o l s ' a r e employed. To t h i s ~

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the

~.

~

.

-

5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT

127

end, i n 1980, we d e s i g n e d a n i n - d e p t h s t u d y o f t h e r e l e v a n t f a u n a l and human m a t e r i a l from some 1 0 s i t e s , i n c l u d i n g Nahal Oren, Hayonim Cave and T e r r a c e , Eynan, Kebara, E l Wad and Mureybet, J e r i c h o , Abu Gosh, and Beisamoun. The s t u d y , which i s s t i l l underway, i n c o r p o r a t e s w e l l o v e r 500 s p e c i m e n s , i n c l u d i n g c a r n i v o r e s , h e r b i v o r e s , a n d humans of known a g e and sex:F o r t h e p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r , we have conducted a p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d from t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B of J e r i c h o , a n d h a v e compared t h e s e d a t a t o d a t a a l r e a d y pub-l i s h e d f o r t h e N a t u f i a n a t Hayonim Cave. I t s h o u l d b e emphasized t h a t t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 5.9 r e p r e s e n t a n i n t e r i m f i n d i n g and s h o u l d n o t b e t a k e n a s a c o n c l u s i v e r e s u l t o f t h e s t u d y . I n t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B it i s c l e a r t h a t human d i e t s have s h i f t e d t o a g r e a t e r dependence o n meat p r o d u c t s a s compared t o t h e Natufian. T h i s phenomenon i s e a s i l y s e e n when t h e d a t a f o r humans" a r e compared t o t h e m i d p o i n t between t h e a v e r a g e Sr/Ca A t Hayonim, t h e a v e r a g e values of h e r b i v o r e s and c a r n i v o r e s . Sr/Ca v a l u e f o r t h e humans i s i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from t h e m i d p o i n t f o r f a u n a a t t h a t s i t e . However, a t J e r i c h o ( P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B), t h e mean human v a l u e i s c o n s i d e r a b l y lower t h a n t h e corresponding f a u n a l midpoint. I t is o f i n t e r e s t t h a t t h i s f i n d i n g c o i n c i d e s w i t h b o t h t h e f a u n a l e v i d e n c e f o r dependence o n a n i m a l husbandry i n t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B and t h e s k e l e t a l e v i d e n c e f o r i n c r e a s e d s t a t u r e d u r i n g t h e same p e r i o d .

DISCUSSION

From t h e p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e d a t a , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e s e v e r i t y o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s o p e r a t i n g o n Upper P a l e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e L e v a n t . The d i f f e r e n c e s found i n s t a t u r e and g e n e r a l s k e l e t a l morphology between p i d d l e P a l e o l i t h i c and Upper P a l e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s a r e , however, sm-ff-i-ciently'TZFge t o i n d i c a t e a s i g n i f i c a n t change i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f humans w i t h t h e i r environment. Synchronous changes o c c u r i n Europe a t t h i s t i m e ( P r a y e r l98O), b u t n o t i n N o r t h ' A f r i c a IFerembach 19621 o r t h e N i l e V a l l e y ( - m d e r s o n 1968; Greene and Annelagos 1972; Smith 1979). I n these instances, E p i p a l e o l i t h i c populations maintained l a r g e s t a t u r e , r o b u s t i c i t y , and l a r g e t - t h , s i z e . S i n c e t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t l a r g e - s c a l e p o p u l a t i o n r e p l a c e m e n t i n any r e g i o n a t t h i s t i m e , t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l changes o b s e r v e d may b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s long-term m i c r o e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e n d s . An a s s o c i a t i o n between s t a t u r e r e d u c t i o n and c h a n g e s ' i n h u n t i n g s t r a t e g i e s h a s been proposed f o r E u r o p e..a n - U p p e r - P a l e o l i t h i c popul a t i o n s (Brace 1973; P r a y e r 1 9 8 0 ) . These i n v e s t i g a t o r s have suggested" t h a t improved t e c h n o l o g y ( s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e u s e o f m i s s i l e p o i n t s ) , a s w e l l a s i n c r e a s e d emphasis on h u n t i n g s m a l l e r , ' l e s s dangerous mammals, r e m v e d e a r l i e r s e l e c t i v e p r e s s u r e s t h a t had

~.

--

~

~

~

PATRICIA SMITH ET AL.

128

TABLE 5 . 9 Sv/Ca Values fran t h e Haijonim Natuf-ian and t i e r i c h ? r e - P o t t e q Neotithic E0

SmpZe

N

Sr/Ca

SO

Hayonim Natufian B Carnivores ( F e l t s sp. o n l y ) Herbiuores (GaseZla sp. only) Midpoint between herbivores and carnivores Humans A l l adult humans Mates Females Jer'icho ?re-Pottery NeoZith'ic B C&vores ( F e l t s sp. only) Herbivores (Gazel Ia sp. o n l y ) Midpoint between herbivores and-carnivores Humans Ati adult humans Males Females aHayon'im Natufian h a n s are i n d i s t k j u i s - h a b l e from t h e m i d point between herbivore and carnivore fauna. On t}ie other hand, Jer'icho ?re-Pottery fleolithic B humans are s h i f t e d considerably i n the direction of carnivores.

m a i n t a i n e d t h e l a r g e s i z e and marked dimorphism o f e a r l i e r human populations. I n t h e Levant t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t t h i s view. Few changes in p a t t e r n s o f a n i m a l e x p l o i t a t i o n a r e e v i d e n t b e f o r e t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B; moreover, dimorphism i n s t a t u r e shows no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e from t h e Middle P a l e o l i t h i c u n t i l r e c e n t t i m e s . Many mammalian s p e c i e s a s w e l l a s human p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e .Levant a n d Northern Europe d o , however, show a r e d u c t i o n i n s i z e towards t h e end o f t h e P l e i s t o c e n e , w i t h p r e d a t o r s e s p e c i a l l y ' a f f e c t e d (Davis 1977, 1 9 8 1 ) . There a r e , however, few p r e c e d e n t s f o r r e l a t i n g t h e o b s e r v e d chances i n human s t a t u r e t o s i z e change i n carnivores. E t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s have d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t a common r e s p o n s e t o s t r e s s i n hunter-gatherer s o c i e t i e s i s population r e s t r i c t i o n . The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s f o r t h e Levant i n d i c a t e t h a t by t h e end o f t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c , t h e p o p u l a t i o n of t h i s r e g i o n had, i n f a c t , c o n s i d e r a b l y increased i n s i z e as shown by t h e i n c r e a s e i n number, s i z e , and d e n s i t y o f s e t t l e m e n t s ~ . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t , i f anyFhing, a more p o s i t i v e b a l a n c e h a d been a c h i e v e d , p r e . sumably due t o a l t e r e d modes o f p r o d u c t i o n .

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The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s d i s c u s s e d , i n t h i s c h a p t e r , a s w e l l as s t u d i e s o f d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y and s k e l e t a l s t r o n t i u m , d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t by t h e N a t u f i a n t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r s i t e d i v e r s i t y i n resource u t i l i z a t i o n , - w i t h intensive c e r e a l consumption a t some- .s. i~.,.. t. e s ( S i l l e p l 9 8 4 ) . T h e e a r l y claii^fcii. d o m e s t i c a t e d d o g s i n t h e N a t u f i a n (Garrod and B a t e 1937) h a s now been v i n d i c a t e d ( D a v i s and V a l l a 1 9 7 8 ) , a l t h o u g h no o t h e r domest i c a t e d p l a n t s o r a n i m a l s h a v e been d e f i n i t e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the Natufian. E t h n o g r a p h i c r e p o r t s have d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t many h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s o c i e t i e s have d o m e s t i c a t e d d o g s w i t h o u t o t h e r domesticates. T h e r e f o r e , t h e N a t u f i a n d o g s c a n n o t be t a k e n ' a s e v i d e n c e "Fr t h e d o m e s t i c a t i o n o f h e r d a n i m a l s . The w e l l - b u i l t s t r u c t u r e s from t h e N a t u f i a n , t o g e t h e r w i t h s t o r a g e p i t s , i n d i c a t e a t l e a s t some d e g r e e o f p e r m a n e n t s e t t l e ment a s w e l l a s t h e u s e ' o f s t o r e d f o o d s . A t Hayonim, t h e c o n t i n u e d u s e of t h e same s i t e by members of t h e s a m e l i n e a g e i s f u r t h e r s u g g e s t e d by t h e p r e s e n c e i n s u c c e s s i v e l a y e r s of b u r i a l s of i n d i v i d u a l s with congenital absence o f t h i r d molars i n f a r h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s t h a n a L oLher N d t u f i a n s i t e s (Smith 1 9 7 3 ) . The g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d s i z e of s e t t l e m e n t s i n t h e N e o l i t h i c i s i n d i c a t i v e of improved r e l i a b i l i t y o f r e s o u r c e s . The a s s o c i a t i o n of P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B c u l t u r e w i t h i n c r e a s e d s t a t u r e may r e f l e c t s e c u l a r t r e n d s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h improved food s u p p l i e s : t h e Sr/Ca d a t a c o l l e c t e d from J e r i c h o s o f a r i n d i c a t e a proport i o n a l i n c r e a s e o f meat: a n d / o r d a i r y p r o t e i n i n d i e t s . The sudden abandonment of P r e - P o t t e r y ' ~ & l i t h i b B s i t e s s u g g e s t s , howe v e r , t h a t t h i s p e r i o d o f p l e n t y was s h o r t l i v e d . T h i s h a s been a t t r i b u t e d t o various f a c t o r s including increasing"competition f o r d e c l i n i n g r e s o u r c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a r i d i f i c a t i o n , and mounting population pressure. ~ i v e nt h e p r e s e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s o f t h e s k e l e t a l r e c o r d , we cann o t s t a t e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e changes f o r l o n g e v i t y , b u t t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e do d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e h e a l t h s t a t u s o f t h e N a t u f i a n and pre-pottei'y N e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s was s u p e r i o r t o t h a t of l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s i n t h i s r e g i o n . we may t h u s c o n c l u d e t h a t , a t l e a s t i n t h i s r e g i o n , t h e i n i t i a l s t e p s i n p l a n t and a n i m a l d o m e s t i c a t i o n were n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l stress o r d e t e r i o r a t i n g h e a l t h s t a t u s . R a t h e r , h e a l t h s t a t u s ' i n t h e E p i p a l e o l i t h i c N a t u f i a n s was comparable t o t h a t of Middle P a l e o l i t h i c h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s and p r o b a b l y was superior t o t h a t of ~ o i t h American h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s of t h e same period. G o o d ' h e a l t h s t a t u s was m a i n t a i n e d i n p r e - p o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s , a n d it i s o n l y i n t h e l a t e r p e r i o d s , when i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e and husbandry w e r e f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d , t h a t h e a l t h s t a n d a r d s d e c l i n e d markedly. T h i s d e t e r i o r a t i o n and s y s t e m i c h e a l t h seems t o b e r e l a t e d t o c K r o n i c d i s e a s e r a t h e r t h a n t o p e r i o d i c b o u t s _ ? f f o o d s h o r t a g e s , a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of developmental l e s i o n s i n t h e t e e ' t h ' m d b o n e s and t h e p o o r - c o n d i t i o n o f a l l i n d i v i d u a l s examined. I f , t h e n , we s h o u l d c o n s i d e r ~

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t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and permanent s e t t l e m e n t s f o r t h e p r e s e n c e of endemic d i s e a s e , it i s o n l y i n these l a t e r periods t h a t t h e i r presence is manifest i n s k e l e t a l pathology.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

D i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f this r e s e a r c h were s u p p o r t e d by a number o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e I s r a e l Academy o f S c i e n c e s , t h e Wenner-Gren Foundation f o r A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l R e s e a r c h , t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , and t h e Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n . Human s k e l e t o n s from J e r i c h o were sampled from t h e K u r t h c o l l e c t i o n a t t h e Z o o l o y i s c h e S t a a t s s a m l u n q (Munich). We t h a n k Denise Ferembach ( M a i t r e d e Recherche, CNRS), Monique L e c h e v a l l i e r ( U n i v e r s i t e de P a r i s VI) , Olav R s h r e r - E r t l ( Z m l o y i s c h e S t a a t s s m l u n q , Munich), G o t t f r i e d K u r t h ( C a r o l i n a Wi 1heImina T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y ) , J u l i e t Clutton-Erock ( B r i t i s h Museum [ ~ a t u r a l~ i s t o r y )] , Baruch Arensburq ( U n i v e r s i t y o f T e l A v i v ) , and Aviv Eytan ( I s r a e l Department of A n t i q u i t i e s ) f o r p r o v i d i n g access t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n s i n t h e i r c a r e . We would f u r t h e r l i k e t o e x p r e s s o u r a p p r e c i a t i o n t o t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s f o r the v a l u a b l e d i s c u s s i o n s t h a t took p l a c e during t h e course; o f t h i s r e s e a r c h .

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Anderson, J. E. 1968 L a t e P a l e o l i t h i c s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from Nubia. In Prehistory in N-ubia (Vol 11), e d i t e d b y F . Wendorf, S.K.U. P r e s s , D a l l a s . -CD. 996-1017. Anderson, P. C. 1980 A t e s t i m o n y o f p r e h i s t o r i c t a s k s : D i a g n o s t i c r e s i d u e s and World Archaeology 12:181-194. s t o n e t o o l working e d q e s . Ani, S. 1983 The r e l a t i o n o f cranial thickness t o s i z e and shape o f the skuIZ: A radiographic study. DMD t h e s i s , Hebrew University, Jerusalem. Arensburq, H. 1973 The people in the land o f I s r a e l from the pi-~aleolithic t o present t h s s . P ~ . D . t h e s i s , T e l Aviv U n i v e r s i t y , Israel.

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i n g s of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conferexse of Pyehi-story Protohistory Sciences l s t , pp. 4 6 - 4 7 .

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Kozlowski, S . K . 1973 The Meso'lithic i n Ewape. Warsaw u n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Warsaw. Kurth, G . , and 0. R o h r e r - E r t l 1981 On the a n t h r o p o l o g y o f t h e M e s o l i t h i c t o C h a l c o l i t h i c human remains from t h e T e l l e s - S u l t a n i n J e r i c h o , J o r d a n . I n Excauations a t Jericho (Vol. I l l ) , e d i t e d by K . M. Kenyon, pp. 407-499. B r i t i s h School of Archaeology, J e r u s a l e m . L e c h e v a l l i e r , M. ( e d i t o r ) 1978 Abou Gosh e t Beisamoun. Deux g i s e m e n t s d u V I I e m i l l e n a i r e a v a n t 1 ' S r e c h r e t i e n n e en I s r a e l . Memoires e t t r a v a u x du c e n t r e d e r e c h e r c h e s p r e h i s t o r i q u e s de J e r u s a l e m , No. 2 . Mastin, B. A. 1964 The e x t e n d e d b u r i a l s a t Magharet e l Wad. Journal o f t h e Royal Anthropologica'l I n s t i t u t e 94 :44-50. MCCOwn, T . D. 1939 The Natilfian crania from Mount C a m e l . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y . McCown, T . D . , and A. K e i t h 1939 The S t o n e Age of Mount C a m e l (Vol. 11). Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Oxford. Moore, A . M. T. Ph.D. t h e s i s , Oxford Univer1978 The Neo'lit?r:c o f t h e Levant. sity. Nathan, H . , and N . Haas 1966 C r i b r a o r b i t a l i a . A bone c o n d i t i o n of t h e o r b i t of unknown I s r a e l Journal o f MedicaZ Sciences 2:171-191. nature. Neuville, R. 1951 Le P a l e o l i t h i q u e e t l e M e s o l i t h i q u e du D e s e r t de J u d e e .

Archives de 1 ' I n s t i t u t e de Paleontologic hma'ine Memoire No. 2 4 . N i k i f o r u k , G . , and D . F r a s e r 1 9 8 1 E t i o l o g y o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a : A unifying concept. Journal of P e d i a t r i c s 38:888-893. Noy, T . , A . J . Legqe, a n d E . S. Higgs 1973 Recent e x c a v a t i o n s a t Nahal Oren, I s r a e l . Proceedings the P r e h i s t o r i c S o c i e t y 39:75-'39.

of

Ozbek, M. Etude dip. l a defamation r-r-anie11-s a r t i f i r i e l l e chez l e s B u l l e t i n s e t Memoires de Za C h a l c o l i t h i q x e s de Byblos. ScciStS dfAnthrovoZoaie de Paris 13:155-481. . ., . 1975 IIommes de Bzc'.-o,s. Etiide comparative des s q u d e t t e s des P ~ . D . dissertation, Q.Qes de meza-^r au Proche-Orient. University of P a r i s , France. Peretz, B. 1980 D e n t a l iror2ho:oqy and p a t h o l o g y o f Middle Bronze Age p o p u l a t i o n s i n I s r a e l . DMD t h e s i s , H e b r e w U n i v e r s i t y , Jerusalem. p e r r o t , J. 1966 L e oj.se3cr.t N a t o u f i e n de Mallaha (Eynan) I s r a e l . L'Ant'hvo1974

-

5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT

135

P o i t r a t - T a r g o l a , M. 1962 P a t h o l o g i e d e n t a i r e e t m a x i l l a i r e . I n La Necropole epipaZeoZithique de T a f o r a l t , e d i t e d by D . Ferembach, p p . 161-171. C e n t r e N a t i o n a l e Recherches S c i e n t i f i q u e , Paris. Redman, C . L . 1978 The r i s e o f CtV-ilisation. Freeman, San F r a n c i s c o . S c h o e n i n g e r , M. 1981 The a g r i c u l t u r a l " r e v o l u t i o n : " I t s e f f e c t on human d i e t i n p r e h i s t o r i c I r a n a n d I s r a e l . Pateorient 7 : 73-92. S c o t t , J. H . , and N. B. Symons L i v i n g s t o n e , London. 1980 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o d e n t a l anatomy. 1982 D i e t and t h e e v o l u t i o n of modem human form i n t h e Middle E a s t . American Journal o f Physical AnthropZogy 58: 3 7 52. S i l l e n , A. 1981a S t r o n t i u m and d i e t a t Havonim Cave. American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 56:131-137. 1981b P o s t d e p o s i t i o n a l changes i n N a t u f i a n and A u r i g n a c i a n bones from Hayonim Cave. Pateorient 7:81-85. S i l l e n , A. 1984 D i e t a r y v a r i a b i l i t y i n t h e E p i p a l e o l i t h i c o f t h e Levant. Paleorient, i n p r e s s . S i l l e n , A , , and M. Kavanagh A review. Yearbook 1982 S t r o n t i u m a n d p a l e o d i e t a r y r e s e a r c h : o f Phyeioal Anthropology 25:67-90. S i l l e n , A . , and P. Smith 1984 S t r o n t i u m / c a l c i u m r a t i o s r e v e a l weaning-age i n a s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n . J o u r m l o f Archaeological Science, i n p r e s s . Smith, P . 1970 Dental morphoZoqij and pathotogy i n t h e f l a t k f i a n s : The

t

Z evidence for d i e t a r y s p e c i a ^ i z a t i o n .

P~.D.

t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago, Chicago. 1972 D i e t and a t t r i t i o n i n t h e N c t u f i a n s . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 37:233-238. 1973 Family b u r i a l s a t Hayonim. i'ateov-imt 1:69-71. 1977 Regional v a r i a t i o n i n t o o t h s i z e and p a t h o l o g y i n f o s s i l hominids. American Journal of PhfsicaZ A n f h w p d o g y 47:459-466. 1979 Regional d i v e r s i t y i n E p i p a l e o l i t h i c ; ? o g u l a t i o n s . International J o m a Z of S k e f e t a l Research 6:243-250. C r a n i o f a c i a l v a r i a t i o n i n t h e Upper P l e i s t o c e n e . I" P r e p a r a t i o n . In preparation. An a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l s m i t h , P . , and J. Berkowitz. approach t o t h e p a s t : Dor, a case s t u d y . Smith, P . , R . A. Bloom, and J. Berkowitz 1983 Bone morphology and biomechanical e ? f i c i e n c y i n f o s s i l Current Anthropology 5<:662-663. hominids. s m i t h , P . , R. A. Bloom, and J. Berkowitz 1984 D i a c h r o n i c t r e n d s i n humeral c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s o f Near JournaZ of *,-or ? ~ 5 l u t i o n , i n Eastern Populations. press.

136

PATRICIA SMITH ET AL

Smith, P . , E . Bournemann, and J. Z i a s 1981 The s k e l e t a l remains i n t h e Meiron e x c a v a t i o n s .

I n Excavat i o n s a t Ancient Meiron, Meiron Excavation Project, Vol. I l l . pp. 100-118. American School o f O r i e n t a l Research,

Chapel H i l l , North C a r o l i n a . Smith, P . , and S. Tau A 1978 D e n t a l p a t h o l o g y in t h e p e r i o d of t h e Roman Empire: comparison of two p o p u l a t i o n s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Journal o f S k e l e t a l Research 5: 35-41. S o l i v e r e s , 0. 1976 Les Natoufiens de Mallaha ( I s r a e l ) . Ph.D. t h e s i s , Univers i t y of P a r i s , F r a n c e . 1978 Les r e s t e s p o s t - c e p h a l i q u e s . I n Abou Gosh e t Eeisamoun, e d i t e d by M. L e c h a v a l l i e r . Memo-ires e t T r a v a i l t e s de Cams, pp. 181-194. S t e k e l i s , M. and T . Y i z r a e l i 1963 E x c a v a t i o n s a t Nahal Oren. I s r a e l Exploration Journal 1 3 : 1-12. T u r v i l l e - P e t r i e , F. 1932 E x c a v a t i o n s i n t h e Mugharet el-Kebarah. Journal o f t h e Royal AnthropologiaaZ I n s t i t u t e 62:271-276. V a l l a , P. 1981 Les e t a b l i s s e m e n t s n a t o u f i e n s d a n s I e n o r d d 8 1 s r a e l . C o l l o q u e s I n t e r n a t i o n a u x du CNRS No. 598, pp. 409-419. V a l l o i s , H . V. 1936 L e s o s s e m e n t s N a t o u f i e n s d 7 E r q el-Ahmar ( P a l e s t i n e ) . L 'Anthrupologie 46: 529-539. Vandermeersch, B . 1981 ~ e hso m e s f o s s i l e s de ~ a f z e h ( I s r a e l ) . Cahiers de PaZeon-

t o l o g i e fPu2emntkropologie) du CNRS. Van Z e i s t , W. 1970 The O r i e n t a l I n s t i t u t e e x c a v a t i o n s a t Mureybet, S y r i a : P r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t on t h e 1965 campaign. 111. The Journal of Near Eastern S t u d i e s 29:167-176. paleobotany. Van Z e i s t , W . , and J. A . H . Bakker-Heeres 1979 Some economic and e c o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e p l a n t husbandry o f T e l l Aswad. Paleorient 5:161-169. Zohary, D . , and M. Hopf 1973 D o m e s t i c a t i o n of p u l s e s i n t h e Old World. Science 1 8 2 : (4115) : 887-894.

CHAPTER 6 SKELETAL PATHOLOGY FROM THE PALEOLITHIC THROUGH THE METAL AGES I N I R A N AND I R A Q

Ted A. Rathbun Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f South Carolina

INTRODUCTION

It i s somewhat i r o n i c t h a t i n t h i s a r e a t h a t has received ext e n s i v e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e domestication and u r b a n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , so l i t t l e i s known about t h e p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s of t h e groups i n g e n e r a l and t h e i r pathology i n p a r t i c u l a r . When viewed i n h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e e a r l y excavation Process with minimal a t t e n t i o n given t o human remains can, perhaps, be Understood; however, t h e v a g a r i e s of excavation, p r e s e r v a t i o n , ^d l e s s t h a n p r o p e r a n a l y s i s and r e p o r t a g e of o s t e o l o g i c a l d a t a Preclude s y s t e m a t i c comparisons r e q u i r e d t o understand temporal change. The n e g l e c t of t h e s e ~ o t e n t i a l l ys i g n i f i c a n t d a t a i n r e p o r t s and r e s e a r c h d e s i g n s is i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e summary comments i n an a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s y n t h e s i s of t h e Middle E a s t ~ e o l i t h i c (Mellaart 1974): " ~ist o n l y in t h e l a s t few decades t h a t s c h o l a r s have l e a r n e d t o pay p r o p e r a t t e n t i o n t o p l a n t and animal remains, but how many have r e a l i z e d t h e ~ o t e n t i a lof a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l o f t h e human s k e l e t a l r e s t u d i e s , demography, and t h e mains? 2741" The a r e a s of Southwest Asia considered i n t h i s chapter have The been c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s an e c o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l mosaic. range of environmental zones i n c l o s e proximity i n c l u d e p l a t e a u s , intermontane v a l l e y s , piedmont s t e p p e , a l l u v i a l d e s e r t , and r i v e r '^alleys. The l o c a l e c o l o g i c a l mosaic has a l s o produced chronolog i e s in c u l t u r a l development t h a t a r e r e g i o n a l l y s p e c i f i c w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a l o l d World c a t e g o r i e s of c u l t u r a l s t a g e s . Few human remains have been r e p o r t e d o r analyzed from t h e PreSome b u r i a l s have been noted, a q r i c ~ l t u r a lperiods before 900 B.C. but t o o f r e q u e n t l y t h e poor p r e s e r v a t i o n prompted excavators t o

rp.

6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ

139

e a r l i e r p e r i o d s i n c l u d e more f r e q u e n t secondary b u r i a l s a s i n d i c a t e d by b i n o s s u a r i e s with m u l t i p l e s k e l e t o n s a s s o c i a t e d with houses and s e r e n d i p i t o u s recovery of body p a r t s . S i n g l e inhumat i o n s beneath house f l o o r s and occasional cremations have been found. S e p a r a t e cemetery a r e a s with primary b u r i a l s a r e r e p o r t e d with some o f t h e N e o l i t h i c s i t e s . The metal ages a l s o r e f l e c t v a r i e t y i n d i s p o s a l of t h e dead. These p e r i o d s appear t o i n c l u d e many more s e p a r a t e burying grounds and d i f f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t of t h e dead by s o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s . This range of b u r i a l p r a c t i c e h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o o u r l e s s than complete and systematic coverage of t h e human p o p u l a t i o n s .

DEMOGRAPHY

The s u b s i d i a r y recovery of human remains during t r a d i t i o n a l excavation i n t h i s a r e a provides l i t t l e assurance t h a t t h e mater i a l s recovered a r e adequate samples o f t h e populations. The r e g i o n a l i n c r e a s e o f population s i z e and d e n s i t y appears g e n e r a l , b u t s p e c i f i c developments have been only estimated by s i t e s i z e and d i s t r i b u t i o n , number of houses, and ethnographic analogy. S e t t l e d v i l l a g e s r a t h e r than i n d i v i d u a l homesteads mark t h e N e o l i t h i c , and t h e metal ages i n c l u d e urban c e n t e r s with s a t e l l i t e Peasant v i l l a g e s . This p a t t e r n of land use s t i l l i s observable with contemporary groups. T o t a l population e s t i m a t e s and growth r a t e s i n t h e a r e a have been suggested by ~ a r n e i r oand H i l s e (1966) and Hassan (1973, 1979) Although c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t e x i s t s i n anthropology f o r demographic a n a l y s i s of p a s t p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e data b a s e i n Southwest Asia i s i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r a v i a b l e temporal comparison o f Survivorship and lifeexpectancy. Empirical and model l i f e t a b l e s have been generated from s k e l e t a l c o l l e c t i o n s ( s e e Table 6.2 f o r a problems of sampling, u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of metal age example) P r e a d u l t s , unsystematic excavation, and sporadic o s t e o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s make demographic s p e c i f i c s tenuous. The l a c k o f p r e a d u l t s k e l e t o n s i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n samples app e a r s t o be due t~ t h e f r i a b i l i t y of t h e younger bone and t h e f r e q u e n t discarding of t h e m a t e r i a l i n t h e f i e l d than t o r a r i t y o f i n t e r m e n t . ~ r c h ~ ~ ~ l o gr ei pcoar tl s commonly s t a t e t h i s u n f o r t u n a t e course of e v e n t s . childhood m o r t a l i t y , however, i s u s u a l l y sUgg e s t e d t o be h i g h i n r e p o r t s f o r t h e ~ e o l i t h i c ,t h e l a t e r m e t a l Unfortunately, ages, and e x t a n t groups (Rathbun and Bass 1977) t h e l a c k of p r e c i s i o n in aging and i n s u f f i c i e n t data f o r s p e c i f i c age c a t e g o r i e s preclude systematic comparisons o f t h e demographic f e a t u r e s of s u r v i v o and rs~ m o~ r tp a l i t y . The r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s of c o l l e c t i o n s o f a d u l t s k e l e t o n s has a l s o been s e r i o u s l y q u e s t i o n e d (Novel1 1980) problems of i n t e r o b s e r v e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n c r i t e r i a of aging on f r e q u e n t l y fragmentary s k e l e t o n s must a l s o be cons i d e r ed.

.

.

.

.

TED A. RATHBUN

140

TABLE 6. I

Human Remains i n Iran and Iraq Dmogmphj

Pathology r e ported

cranial metries

Preaqricultural Shanidar Neanderthals Hot u

Yes Yes

Yes Yes

Yes Yes

B e l t Cave P e r i o d totals

NO 12

NO 12

1 13

Yes Yes

Yes Yes

Yes Yes

Jarmo

NO

No

NO

Deh L u r a n Choqa S e f i d Tepe Guran B e l t Cave Hassuna

NO NO NO NO Yes

NO NO NO No Yes

NO NO NO NO Yes

Yes No Yes 146

Yes NO NO 1 30

NO NO Yes 116

1 Yesa Yes Yes 9

NO NO Yes Yes 35

1 Yes NO Yes 9

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes Yes Yes Yes NO

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes Yes

Yes Yes 297

Yes Yes

h t t u r a t Stage

Neolithic Zawi Chemi Ganj Dareh

H a j ii Firuz T e l l as-Sawwan Sialk 1 , 2 , 3

Period t o t a l s Chalcolithic T e p e Gawra Sialk 4 Seh Gabi Hissar I Period t o t a l s Bronze H a s a n l u VII-IX H i s s a r I1 H i s s a r 111 Geoy

Sharh-i-Sokhta

Kish 1-5 Di-nkha I V Period totals

Dates B. C.

Individuats r e ported

355

355

6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL. AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ

Infracrania

Z

metrics

Stature D e n t i t i o n

Yes Yes

Yes Yes

Yes Yes

No 12

No 12

1 13

Yes Yes

Yes Yes

Yes Yes

No

No

Yes

No No No No No

No No No No No

NO

No No No 95

Yes No 1 126

No No No 1 1

No NO

Yes Yes Yes NO

Yes 156

NO

Yes Yes

No 1 1

Yes 32

No

NO

Yes No Yes No Yes

Yes

Yes Yes No Yes No

Yes Yes 332

Yes Yes 348

Yes Yes 159

Yes Yes Yes NO

141

Source

T r i n k a u s (1978, 1980) ; S t e w a r t (1977) Angel (1952) ; Angel and Coon (1952) ; Coon and Angel (1953) Coon (1951) ; Angel (1952)

Ferembach (1970) Lambert (1979, 1 9 8 0 ) ; Melkeljohn e t a l . (1980) Braidwood and Braidwood (1950) ; Dahlberg (1960) Hole e t a l . (1969, 1967) Hole (1977) Mortensen (1964) Coon (1951) Coon (1950) ; Abdul Aziz and S l i p k a (1966) Voight (1983) ; T u r n q u i s t (1976) El-Wailly (1964) V a l l o i s (1938)

Krogman Vallois Skinner Krogman

(1950) (1938) (1980) ; Hamlin (1973) (194Oa, 1940b, 1 9 4 0 ~ )

Rathbun (1972) Krogman (1940a, 1940b, 1 9 4 0 ~ ) Krogman (1940a, 1940b) Cave and Centeno (1951) P a r d i n i (1977) P a r d i n i and S a r v a r i - N e q a h b a (1977) Rathbun (1975) Rathbun (1983)

(Continued)

TED A. RATHBUN

(Table 6.1 eant-inued)

CuZtural StageIron Shah Tepe Giyan Dinkha 11-111 Hasanlu 111-V Sialk 5,6 Dailaman Nippur Kish, 6, 7 , U Takht-iSuleiman Yorqan Period t o t a l s

Dates B.C. 2000 2000 1350-800 1350-800 1200-1000 1000 900-500 530

450 300 A.D.

IndividuaZs P ~ ÃDemogported raphy 32 5 34 141 20 78 73

No

Pathology repop-bed

C d a l metries

Yes

No Yes Yes Yes NO No

Yes

Yes

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

429

Yes

Yes

Yes

29 27 868

Yes Yes 836

Yes Yes 7 38

Yes Yes 868

Yes Yes Yes Yes

aInfants only.

crania.

"Pasterania.

Table 6.3 p r e s e n t s m o r t a l i t y i n f o r m a t i o n on i n d i v i d u a l s by s i t e s and periods a s reported i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . lncornparable sample s i z e s between t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l and l a t e r groups do allow v a l i d s t a t i s t i c a l treatment. Analysis f o r s i g n i f i c a n t differences between l a t e r periods f o r b o t h s e x e s pooled, a s w e l l as i n d i v i d u a l comparisons, r e v e a l e d no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ferences between a d j a c e n t p e r i o d s . ~ l t h o u g ht h e r e i s a consistent sexually dimorphic t r e n d i n m o r t a l i t y , w i t h males dying a t a greater none of t h e major c u l t u r a l p e r i o d s r e v e a l e d a s i g n i f i c a n t difference a t t h e p = .05 l e v e l . w i t h i n t h e ~ e o l i t h i c ,chalc0l i t h i c r and Iron ages, however, d i f f e r e n t i a l by sex i n age at This differdeath approaches s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , l e v e l s . ential i n t h e metal ages has been suggested as a c o n t r i b u t i n g to population V a r i a t i o n by gender and d i f f e r e n t i a l migration i n t h e a r e a ( R a t h b u 3-982).

6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ

m a erania2 metries S t a t u r e

Dentition

Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes

Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

No No Yes Yes Yes No Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes No 816

Yes No 836

No Yes 724

Source F u r s t (1939) V a l l o i s (1935) Rathbun (1983) Rathbun (1972) V a l l o i s (1938) Ikeda (1968) Swindler (1956) ; Rathbun and r all in (1978) mthbun (1975); Carbonell (1958, 1966) Stonn (1976) S t a r r (1939)

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth c u r v e s of l o n g bone development have been used a s good i n d i c a t o r s of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s r e l a t e d t o s u b s i s t e n c e . TO d a t e , s e r i e s from Southwest Asia has s u f f i c i e n t subadult d a t a f o r this t y p e o f a n a l y s i s . Table 6.4 p r e s e n t s a d u l t s t a t u r e and t h e male-female r a t i o s of ~ d ~ s tla ttu r e is considered a f a i r l y p o o r i n sexual dimorphism. d i c a t o r o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s s i n c e growth i s c o n t r o l l e d and i n The s l i g h t changes o v e r time fluenced by a m u l t i t u d e of f a c t o r s . should n o t be d e f i n i t i v e s i n c e t h e Sample s i z e s i n some p e r i o d s a r e t i n y and t h e range of environmental c o n t e x t s durThe s l i g h t decrease i n t h e l n 9 each p e r i o d v a r i e s considerably. N e o l i t h i c from t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a g e may be s u g g e s t i v e and would be consistent w i t h adjustments t o a d i f f e r e n t economic base. i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e a s well t h a t t h e female mean h e i g h t very s t e a d y from t h e N e o l i t h i c through t h e I r o n Age while ^ e male means a r e more i r r e g u l a r . ~ n d i v i d u a lcomparisons of mean h e i g h t f r o m contiguous p e r i o d s f o r each s e x d i d n o t r e a c h The s e x u a l d i m r p h i s m Index s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l s f o r e i t h e r gender. a l s o v a r i e s i r r e g u l a r l y w i t h time and again no s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l s within-period comparisons by a r e seen across c u l t u r a l periods.

TED A. RATHBUN

144

TABLE 6 . 2 Age ( X I

dx

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

2 1 2 4 8 9 9 7 4

TABLE 6 . 3

Life Table, Pooled Populations, Dinkha Tepe, Iran

4.35 2.17 4.35 8.70 17.39 19.57 19.56 15.22 8.70

lx

qx

Lx

Tz

100 95.65 93.48 89.13 80.43 63.04 43.47 23.91 8.70

.0435 ,0230 .0465 .0976 .2162 .3104 .4500 .6366 1

489.12 472.82 456.52 448.90 358.68 341.28 168.45 81.52 21.75

2839.04 2349.92 1877.10 1420.58 971.68 631.00 271.72 103.27 21.75

ex 28.39 24.57 20.08 15.94 12.08 9.72 6.25 4.32 2.50

Mean Age a t Death After Age 1 5 Years -

Site Preagricultural Shanidar Neandertal Hotu

-

Males Age N 40 40

Females Age N 5 1

28 32

Poo led. Age 717 1 2

38 35

6 3

Neolithic Zawi-Chemi Ganj Dareh All levels Level 4 Level 6 Ha s s u n a Hajii Firuz Sialk I,II,In All levels Period I P e r i o d 11 P e r i o d I11 Period t o t a l s Chalcolithic Gawra S i a l k Iv Hissar I Period t o t a l s Bronze Age Hasanlu VII-IX H i s s a r 11 H i s s a r 111

33 30 31

1 9 105

25 26

28

7 33

2 27 8 29

5 16

6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ

(Table 6 . 3 continued)

Site Geoy Shahr-i Sokhta A l l levels Period I Period I1 Period I11 Kish I-v A l l levels Period I1 Period I11 Dinkha Iv Period t o t a l s Iron Age Giyan Dinkha 11, I11 All l e v e l s Period I1 Period 111 Hasanlu 111-V All l e v e l s Period 111 Period I V Period V S i a l k V,VI A l l levels Period VI Dail aman 1000 B.C. 300-500 B.C. Nippur Kish VI,VII, unknown A l l levels Period V I Unknown Takht-i Suleiman Yorgan Period t o t a l s

Males Age ff

females Poo led A g e N A g e S

145

TED A. RATHBUN

146

Table 6 . 4

Stature Males Stature

Site

(ern)

Females Stature N

(em)

~ d e - m a l e

N

ratio

Preaqricultural Shanidar Neandertals Hotu Neolithic Zawi Chemi Ganj Dareh Tepe S i a l k I-IV

Period t o t a l s Bronze Age Hasanlu V I I - I X Hissar I1 Hissar 111 Shahr-i Sokhta Kish E.D. I11 Dinkha Iv Period t o t a l s Iron Age Shah Tepe Dinkha 11,111 Hasanlu 1 1 1 - V S i a l k v, VI Dailaman I Dailaman II Nippur Kish VI ,VII,U Period t o t a l s

gender indicated s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n a 11 c a s e s except the Neolithic. Even w i t h t h e decrease i n s i z e of t h e males i n the Iron ages, sexual dimorphism d i d n o t e x h i b i t a s i g n i f i c a n t decline. I t is not known i f t h e convergence i n mean male and mean female height is due t o d i e t a r y differences o r changes i n childhood Influences such a s a c t i v i t y l e v e l s o r economic r o l e s . It has been (Gray and Wolfe 1980) t h a t g r e a t e r male h e i g h t i s assod a t e d with polygynous marriage but n o t w i t h t h e degree of sexual dimorphism, which is influenced by dietary f a c t o r s and genetics: The of t h e female s t a t u r e means over t i m e and t h e varia*

6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ

147

b i l i t y o f t h e male means may suggest q r e a t e r a c t i v i t y change f o r t h e males. I n t r a r e g i o n a l migration during t h e metal ages must a l s o be recognized a s a p o s s i b l e f e a t u r e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a s well a s temporal t r e n d s . Sexual dimorphic c r a n i a l dimensions of metal age samples have shown no c l e a r tendency t o vary by e i t h e r geographical subregion o r time ( F i n k e l 1982). S i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e percentages of sexual dimorphism o f t h e s k u l l f o r N e o l i t h i c and Bronze age samples were a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of e a r l i e r commonality of a c t i v i t y . I n c r e a s e s i n t h e percentaqe of sexual dimorphism were noted with Proto-urban and urban p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t presumably have developed marked d i f f e r e n c e s i n economic a c t i v i t y by gender. Sexual d i morphism i n urban c e n t e r s was a l s o found t o be g r e a t e r i n samples of upper-class i n d i v i d u a l s with good n u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h . The e l i t e and n o n - e l i t e groups were markedly d i f f e r e n t i n percentage of s e x u a l dimorphism. These f i n d i n g s support t h e contention t h a t h e a l t h , n u t r i t i o n , s e t t l e m e n t type, and form of economic subsistence a r e associated. Growth d i s t u r b a n c e and recovery during development i s sugr e s t e d by t h e occurrence of H a r r i s l i n e s among some of t h e populat i o n s . The t h r e e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l i n d i v i d u a l s from Hotu appear t o l a c k t h e l i n e s . They occur i n t h e s k e l e t o n s from a few s i t e s i n t h e N e o l i t h i c and succeeding p e r i o d s . Not a l l samples have been examined r a d i o g r a p h i c a l l y , but t h e trend appears t o b e one of i n c r e a s e o v e r time. The N e o l i t h i c population from G a n j Dareh had a 10% frequency (Meiklejohn e t a l . 1980) ; 69% of t h e i n f a n t s from t h e C h a l c o l i t h i c s i t e Seh Gabi (Skinner 1980) and 92% of t h e Bronze and I r o n age a d u l t s a t Dinkha Tepe (Rathbun 1981) e x h i b i t e d l i n e s . A t t h e l a t t e r site, t h e f r e q u e n c i e s of l i n e s decreased s l i g h t l y through time. ~ l t h o ~ gt hhe sample s i z e s a r e small, t h e Bronze Age group had s i g n i f i c a n t l y more l i n e s than t h e I r o n Age ones, esThe age of formation was a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t l y p e c i a l l y f o r males. d i f f e r e n t , with Bronze Age c h i l d r e n experiencing growth d i s t u r b a n c e more i n t h e l a t e r childhood y e a r s and t h e l a t e I r o n Age Sample showing d i s t u r b a n c e more i n e a r l i e r childhood. A combined study of H a r r i s l i n e s and l i n e a r enamel h ~ ~ o ~ l a s i a s a t t h i s metal a g e s i t e i n d i c a t e d g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n s . Table 6.5 P r e s e n t s t h e composite p i c t u r e of age of developmental d i s t u r b a n c e with r e g u l a r p e r i o d i c s t r e s s b e t w e n a g e s 2 and 11. The frequency of H a r r i s l i n e formation peaked between 7 and 11 y e a r s , but P e r i o d i c stresses a r e i n d i c a t e d throughout t h e developmental y e a r s . Seasonal food inadequacies, r a t h e r than chronic m a l n u t r i t i o n , a r e Suggested by t h e e t i o l o g y of t h e l i n e formation, which r e w i r e s a recovery phase. The r e l a t i v e l y low l e v e l of ~ a r r i sl i n e s i n e a r l i e r N e o l i t h i c groups m y be due t o t h e death of s t r e s s e d i n d i v i d u a l s a t a younger age and hence t h e i r exclusion from t h e a d u l t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note, however, t h a t 71% Of t h e postsample, at t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l s i t e , Seh Gabi, evidenced n a t a l i n f a n t sample NO d e f i n i t i v e comparative s t a t e (skinner 1980) s k e l e t a l stunt,-ng ments a r e p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t s u f f i c i e n t subadult samples and compara b l e c o l l e c t i o n s w i t h s i m i l a r age s t r u c t u r e , completeness I and Preservation.

.

T A W 6 -6 Age Oi,&fali-but'wn. of Stress O a ~ e w S e . aat Ifink'ha Tepe, Ivan

B 1 8 Z 4 5 6 ? 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 2 7 1 8 I S H a r r i s Lines Period 11 Males' ( 2 ) Females (4) period I11 Males ( 8 ) Females (6)

Period I V Males (2) Females (3) Total (%) Hypoplasias P e r i o d I1 Males ( 8 ) Females (4) Subadults ( 31 p e r i o d 111 Males ( 8 ) Females (5) S u b a d u l t s ( 3) Period IV Males ( 5 ) Females (.a)

T o t a l adults

(%)

1

1

3 I 3

4 l 2

2 l 2

4 2

1 1

6 THE PALEOLlTHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES

P o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n Sou'thwest Asian p o p u l a t i o n s i s r e p o r t e d from t h e N e o l i t h i c onward. Some d e s c r i p t i o n s , however, do n o t make c l e a r whether o n l y o r b i t a l l e s i o n s a r e p r e s e n t o r o t h e r c r a n i a l changes were o b s e r v e d . No mention i s made o f d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n o r r a d i o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s o f an expanded d i p l o e . No f i r m s u g g e s t i o n o f a g e n e t i c anemia is i n d i c a t e d ; r a t h e r , t h e l e s i o n s a r e presumed t o i n d i c a t e n u t r i t i o n a l l y d e r i v e d i r o n - d e f i c i e n c y anemia. No c a s e s o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a were n o t e d a t Ganj ~ a r e hb u t 42% of t h e Zawi Chemi sample showed s t r o n g i n d i c a t i o n s o f anemia. The average o f t h e s e two s i t e s , t h e n , g i v e s a N e o l i t h i c a v e r a g e of 21%. The somewhat l a t e r ~ e Gabi h i n f a n t s e x p r e s s e d a 28% r a t e of o r b i t a l l e s i o n s , b u t t h e r e i s some q u e s t i o n concerning t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e l e s i o n s . I n t h e m e t a l a g e groups of t h e I r a n i a n p l a t e a u and t h e ~ e s o p o t a m i a nv a l l e y an a v e r a g e o f 2 3 % of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s had o r b i t a l l e s i o n s (Rathbun 1980). No r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s were d e t e c t a b l e i n t h e pooled d a t a f o r t h e s e urban g r o u p s even though t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f m a l a r i a w i t h i r r i g a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e i n Mesopotamia would s u g g e s t a probable h i g h e r r a t e . S u b a d u l t s t h e r e e x h i b i t e d a h i g h e r r a t e o f o c c u r r e n c e of t h e cond i t i o n t h a n d i d s u b a d u l t s i n I r a n , b u t i n b o t h a r e a s males were l e a s t a f f e c t e d . The h i g h e r r a t e f o r females and c h i l d r e n may su99 e s t t h e e f f e c t s of d i f f e r e n t i a l food a c c e s s , pregnancy, l a c t a t i o n , and p a r a s i t i s m . NO c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n i s made i n many o f t h e r e p o r t s among c r a n i a l o s t e o p o r o s i s , ~ i t t i n gi n g e n e r a l , and p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s with expanded diploe. I f the cranial pitting reflects nutritional f a c t o r s , t h e n a temporal t r e n d emerges. One of t h r e e p r e N e o l i t h i c i n d i v i d u a l s a t ~ o t ue x h i b i t e d s l i g h t o c c i p i t a l p i t t i n g and 33% o f t h e N e o l i t h i c H a j j i F i r u z and Ganj ~ a r e h ,I r a n , samples had s u c h l e s i o n s , b u t o n l y 1 of 1 8 ( 6 % ) of t h e p o s t n a t a l i n f a n t s a t Seh Gabi and 3% of t h e m e t a l age samples e x h i b i t e d c r a n i a l l e s i o n s . Age d i f f e r e n c e s were not noted among t h e m e t a l age I r a n i a n g r o u p s , b u t ~ ~ ~ o ~ o t a r snuibaa dn u l t s had a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r frequency t h a n a d u l t s . The lower r a t e of o c c u r r e n c e d u r i n g may r e f l e c t a decreased s e v e r i t y o f anemic conthe l a t e r i s hard t o j u s t i f y w i t h t h e r e l a t i v e ditions, but t h i s s t a b i l i t y o f t h e o r b i t a l l e s i o n s through t i m e -

DENTAL PATHOLOGY

The e x p r e s s i o n of d e n t a l pathology i s c o n d i t i o n e d by t h e g e n e t i c component of t h e d e n t i t i o n , m e t a b o l i c e v e n t s , t h e c o n s i s t e n c y and n u t r i t i v e n a t u r e of t h e d i e t i t s e l f , food p r o c e s s i n g techniques, and oral hygiene. D e n t a l a t t r i t i o n p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t s t h e Combination of f a c t o r s i n t h e most s t r i k i n g way. The d e g r e e

150

TED A. RATHBUN

and r a t e of a t t r i t i o n i s u s u a l l y given i n t h e 1iteratnre of Southwest Asia i n r e l a t i v e terms. R e p r t S from the Neo1ifchic & ? s c r i b e t h e degree as marked and strong. A t H a j j i l?iru!d the r a t e of att r i t i o n was slow enough f o r secondary d e n t h i e t o formi.and a " s i l t y " d i e t i s suggested a t Jarmo. NO man1-10n is made O f t r i t i o n f o r t h e pre-Neolithic Hotu group* but t h e ~ h a i ~ i d a~r~ a n d e r t a t s exhibited marked a t t r i t i o n . The &egraa of attrition a ~ n ~ r a l l ~ i s associated with age i n all t h e groups. The metal ago p ~ p u l a t i o n s a l s o e x h i b i t a t t r i t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y a t h e molars, and it described a s medium t o marked, i n s e v e r i t y . Food p r o p a r a t i o n techniques with i n c l u s i o n of g r i t are usually suggested as the major c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r t o the condition. It3 those reCarious l e s i o n s a r e common i n Southwest Asia. p o r t s s u f f i c i e n t l y complete t o enable one t o derive a f233WeRW r a t e , 33% of t h e Neolithic i n d i v i d u a l s exhibited c a r i o u s lesions, A t Hajji but t h e frequencies range from 3 t o 43% (Table 6.6) Firuz t h e condition i s described as common. The Bronze and. I r o n age samples from I r a n and Mesopotamia expressed a 36% rate. general impression is t h a t interproximal l e s i o n s a t the Crownroot juncture a r e more common t h a n l e s i o n s on the crown. It i s l i k e l y t h a t i n both t h e e a r l i e r and l a t e r groups a t t r i t i o n has obscured t h e crown c a r i e s . The c a r i e s r a t e varies c o n s i d e r a b l y by individual s i t e during t h e metal ages w i t h a range of 8-54%. The Mesopotamian v a l l e y s i t e s of Kish and Nippur had s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower r a t e s than t h e contemporary groups on -the I r a n i a n Plateau., Males had t h e highest r a t e s f o r both c a r i e s and alveolar abscesssing i n both regions. Alveolar abscesses a r e f r e q u e n t l y found i n conj u n c t i o n w i t h attrition. A l l 'three of Ihe carious l e s i o n s , p e r i o d o n t o ~ l a s i ~and , pre-Neolithic individuals e x h i b i t e d p e r i a p i e a l abscesses; 20% of t h e Neolithic samples and 37% of t h e metal age gronj-is exhibited abscesses- This e r r a t i c temporal t r e n d , and the regional and sex d i s t r i b u t i o n with male I r a n i a n s hav&q the hiqhost rate, remains unexplained. The frequency of p e r i o d o n t o c l a s i a appears to have remained f a i r l y s t a b l e . Half of t h e Shanidar Heandertfcii.~,601, of the Neolithic individuals, and 52% of the metal age sample at Kish, exhibited r e s o r p t i o n . altmgh w precise figures are given, o t h e r r e p o r t s f r e q u e n t l y n o t e lieriodontoclasia and calculus around t h e p o s t e r i o r teeth. This pattern would suggest Oral hygiene a s well a s d i e t a s c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s i n r e s o r ~ t J - o ~ * The frequency and timing of Linear eaaatel h y p o p l a s i a formation have been i n v e s t i g a t e d in these skeletal samplesreading of e a r l i e r r e p o r t s suggests t h a t interobserver differences i n scoring t h e presence and severity of the hyyopldaias is a s e r i o u s problem in developing comparisons. ~ ~ d i v i d u a sitti l is a l s o notable. The general temt,oral change is w increase in frequency and s e v e r i t y of t h e s e defects. It is the whether any of t h e pre-Heolithig ~ a p l e s condition* Only Ganj Daroh is th apoljthit; hts &en 2~ailiii~53 ipec'ficall~ f o r t h e trait, with ($% of tilF i n d i m a l s p~i15'1*ill*3

.

152

TED A. RATHBUN

lines. ~ o ~ t ~ - f pi av cee n t of t h e p o s t n a t a l i n f a n t s a t Seh Gabi of the l a t e N e o l i t h i c - ~ h a l c o l i t h i ~ r e f l e c t e d t h i s t y p e o f s t r e s s indicator. The average r a t e of occurrence f o r t h e metal a g e groups was 14%. Regional comparisons i n d i c a t e a S i g n i f i c a n t l y higher frequency i n t h e I r a n i a n samples. Males and s u b a d u l t s i n I r a n had a s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher r a t e than t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n ~ e s o p o t a m i a t b u t t h e r a t e s i n females were s i m i l a r . A more d e t a i l e d study of s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s t h a t i n c l u d e d both Harris l i n e s and l i n e a r enamel hypoplasias of t h e Bronze and I r o n age samples from Dinkha Tepe, I r a n (Rathbun 1981) r e v e a l e d a Very high r a t e of hypoplasias (77%) with both temporal and sexual d i f ferences. When only hypoplasias of moderate t o s e v e r e expression were examined, s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s appeared. The e a r l i e r I r o n Age group had a higher r a t e than t h e l a t e r I r o n Age sample. Within-period v a r i a t i o n was a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t i n a few instances: Bronze Age males had a higher r a t e than females and l a t e I r o n Age subadults expressed a higher r a t e t h a n a d u l t s . The g r e a t e r frequency and g e n e r a l l y more s e v e r e e x p r e s s i o n of t h e hyp o p l a s i a s i n subadults suggest t h a t t h e i r e a r l i e r d e a t h was l i n k e d t o t h e amount and frequency of s t r e s s . The g e n e r a l l y higher r a t e f o r a d u l t males, although n o t a t t h e p = .05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e ! supports t h e contention t h a t growing males a r e more v u l n e r a b l e to stress. Although t h e frequencies of s t r e s s e p i s o d e s a s i n d i c a t e d by Harris l i n e s and l i n e a r enamel hypoplasias i n d i c a t e g e n e r a l t i o n s , t h e composite age p a t t e r n s of formation r e v e a l e d p e r i o d i c s t r e s s between t h e ages of 2 and 11. The o n s e t of t h e m a j o r i t y of hypoplasias occurs i n t h e age range i n which weaning and s t r e s s from d i a r r h e a s and f e v e r s w i t h g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l i n f e c t i o n s a r e highly probable. Although contemporary p o p u l a t i o n s r e f l e c t hypo~ l a s i aformation most f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e f i r s t 2 y e a r s of l i f e , t h e Dinkha Tepe sample appears t o have been more prone t o stress somewhat l a t e r , which suggests a delayed weaning p e r i o d ( s e e Tabie 6.5). Although Buikstra and Cook (1980) c a u t i o n a g a i n s t combining t h e s e s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s a s evidence f o r single d i s r u p t i o n s due to t h e i r d i f f e r e n t e t i o l o g i e s , t h e composite p i c t u r e o f t i m i n g of t h e i n d i c a t o r s extends t h e range of i n f o r m a t i o n . The continued periodic s t r e s s i n t o l a t e r childhood, a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e H a r r i s lines, t h e contention of a p e r i o d i c n u t r i t i o n a l deprivationI n f a c t , t h e process of H a r r i s l i n e formation w i t h t h e neces s a r ~recovery phase would support; t h e h y p o t h e s i s of seasona1 inadequacies r a t h e r t h a n c h r o n i c m a l n u t r i t i o n . The relative of Harris l i n e s during e a r l y childhood may b e due t o the nature of t h e s t r e s s , t h e e t i o l o g y o f t h e i n d i c a t o r s , o r quite probably t h e remodeling o f t h e e a r l i e r lines. The temporal reduction of H a r r i s line frequency among fromt h e Bronze through t h e I r o n ages may i n d i c a t e a Slight Improvement in t h e s u b s i s t e n c e base, b u t t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t difference in o r frequency f o r t h e females. The I r o n Age S U f~e r e d growth d i s r u p t i o n s earlier than

6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ

t h e Bronze Age ones, b u t t h e sample s i z e s a r e too small f o r a definitive statement. P e r i o d i c n u t r i t i o n a l inadequacy cannot be considered t h e o n l y s t r e s s o r , however, s i n c e o t h e r p a t h o l o g i e s and d i s e a s e s have been documented t h a t could, i n s e r i a l combination, produce r e c u r r e n t developmental d i s r u p t i o n s . ~ l t h o u g hit i s dangerous t o e x t r a p o l a t e Present c o n d i t i o n s t o t h e p a s t s i n c e pathogens a s well a s populat i o n s and c u l t u r a l systems change, West Azerbaijan has been h o s t t o a number o f endemic d i s e a s e s : v i s c e r a l leishrnaniasis, m a l a r i a , Ornithodom s t h o l o z a n i , endemic r e l a p s i n g f e v e r , a n t h r a x , l e p r o s y , b r u c e l l o s i s , s h i g e l l o s i s , typhoid f e v e r , and s c h i s t o s o m i a s i s (Hekrnat 1970) I n t e s t i n a l ~ a r a s i t ei n f e s t a t i o n and t h e organisms' y e a r l y c y c l e s may be c r i t i c a l because u t i l i z a t i o n of n u t r i e n t s depends n o t o n l y on what goes i n , b u t on what s t a y s i n .

.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

TABLE 6.7 Common Pathologies i n Iran and Iraq PuZeoZith-io Harris l i n e s

Percentage

Percentage

N

Neo Zithie

ChaZcoZithic

Percent-

Percentage

N

30

Bronze and Iron Aqe Percentage N

?

Cribra orbitalia

0

Cranial osteoporisis

0

Infection

S

Pre-NeoIithic

17

6

0

50

6

100

30

56

26

63

8

--

3

54 0

35

333

Trauma Arthritis

3

6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ INFECTION

Even though i t i s conmonly argued t h a t i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e usually i n c r e a s e s w i t h population density and s e t t l e m e n t aggregat i o n , evidence o f chronic i n f e c t i o n i n t h e skeleton i s r e l a t i v e l y r a r e i n Southwest Asian samples. The s y n e r g i s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n of i n f e c t i v e p r o c e s s e s and d i e t have been well documented. A s can be seen i n Table 6 . 7 , t h e documented r a t e of i n f e c t i o n d e c l i n e s through t i m e i n t h e a r e a . A number of t h e i n f e c t i o n s a r e l o c a l i z e d and may be t h e r e s u l t of trauma. The d e c l i n e from approximately 30% of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e Neandertal and Neolithic samples through 26% of t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l Seh Gabi i n f a n t s t o a general r a t e of 3% among metal age populations, however, may be due t o i n c r e a s e s i n a c u t e and epidemic i n f e c t i o n s t h a t caused death before s k e l e t a l r e a c t i o n could occur. Very few s p e c i f i c i n f e c t i o n p a t t e r n s have been diagnosed. Radiographic examination of 15 metal age s k u l l s from ink ha T e ~ edocumented osseous change i n t h e middle e a r from a c u t e and chronic inflammation o r i g i n a t i n g from t h e nasophaqnx (Rathbun and Mallin 1977). Three of seven i n d i v i d u a l s from t h e I r o n Age and t h r e e of f o u r Bronze Age i n d i v i d u a l s exhibited t h e s e changes. ~ i v e of s i x males, one of s i x females, and none of t h e t h r e e subadults were a f f e c t e d . Age a t d e a t h f o r t h e a f f l i c t e d a d u l t s was under Since 40% of this small sample were a f f e c t e d with 3 5 Years. o t i t i s media, it c a n be suggested t h a t cold-related i n f e c t i o n s o r Possibly measles and t h e p o s s i b l e r e s u l t a n t hearing impairment would lower t h e productivity of t h e a f f l i c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s . The s u g g e s t s t h a t middle e a r d i s e a s e was an important i l l n e s s in t h i s s o c i e t y .

Analysis of t r a m as a pathology i s complicated by t h e d i f f i c u l tof~ discerning whether t h e trauma is t h e r e s u l t o f a c c i d e n t Or h o s t i l i t y and whether it is r e l a t e d t o h a b i t a t and t e r r a i n O r t o of p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y . The temporal t r e n d appears t o be one ~ w ~ - t h io f~ tdh ~ e shanidar Neandertals (four of s i x ) Of decline. The e x h i b i t e d evidence of trauma (Trinkaus and Zimrnennan 1982) r e p o r t s of t h e n e o l i t h i c samples range from nonreport-uig of trauma 57% of t h e adult- aff l i c k e d a t ~ ajij F i r u z . ~ w e n t y - s i xp e r c e n t Of t h e tran~it-~~~l seh ~ ~ i nbf a ni t s (5 of 19) r e f l e c t e d l o c a l i z e d and trauma. The metal a g e survey (Rathbun 1980) i n d i c a t e d a trauma r a t e of approximately 15%. I n t h i s study some of t h e traumas were obviously t h e r e s u l t of h o s t i l i t y , from sword and mace f r a c t u r e s were equally dramatic. l o w s . Some of t h e postcranial i s d i f f i c u l t to determine whether t h e s e traumas were from f a l l s The a r e a l a n a l y s i s revealed a

-

perhaps, from kicks by

TED A. RATHBUN

156

much higher r a t e of head wounds f o r I r a n i a n males than females, but no such sex difference was s i g n i f i c a n t i n Mesopotamia. The Iranians, however, had a higher r a t e than t h a t found i n t h e Mesopotamian samples. No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e by e i t h e r a r e a o r sex was noted i n the postcranial material. Age, however, was important since children exhibited fewer p o s t c r a n i a l traumas i n both a r e a s . Although a r t i f i c i a l breaching of t h e s k u l l cannot be associated d i r e c t l y with trauma, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o p o s t u l a t e t h a t t h e instances of trephination noted a t Zawi Chemi (Ferembach 1970) and a t Dinkha Tepe (Mallin and Rathbun 1976) may have been attempts t o relieve depressed f r a c t u r e s and other trauma (Rathbun and all in 1979).

OSTEOARTHRITIs Even though degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e and s p e c i f i c n u t r i t i o n a l f a c t o r s of past populations have not been l i n k e d d i r e c t l y , t h e pattern and frequency of such changes with types of p h y s i c a l activity may Suggest a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s . Edynak (1976) attempted t o e s t a b l i s h l i f e - s t y l e s from s k e l e t a l material using t h i s approachy Similar types of analysis have not been attempted i n Soutwest Asia with any precision. The reported frequency of o s t e o a r t h r i t i c changes v a r i e s considerably by time period and by a r e a . Half of t h e Shanidar Neandertals exhibited a r t h r i t i c changes and a l l of t h e preNeolithic individuals a t Hotu r e f l e c t e d s t r e s s , e s p e c i a l l y of the lower back and hands (Angel 1952). ~t t h e N e o l i t h i c s i t e of H a j j i Firuz, o s t e o a r t h r i t i s was t h e most common pathology present and def l i c t e d 63%of the a d u l t s . ~t other s i t e s during t h i s time, generative j o i n t disease was present a t Ganj Dareh and none was mentioned f o r the Zawi Chemi sample. I n t h e l a t t e r case, howeverf it i s not c l e a r whether t h e condition was not p r e s e n t o r simply reported. I n the metal age samples a r t h r i t i c changes were common. The frequency ranges from 6 t o 35% with t h e most common locations i n descending frequency a s follows: vertebrae--35%, k n e e - 2 , e1hw--21%, shoulder--13%, hip--11%, mandibleÑ6 (mthbun 1980) It should be remembered t h a t t h e average age a t death f o r these samples was low. The r e l a t i v e l y high frequency and of degenerative change can be a t t r i b u t e d t o physical stress and not t o age alone. The trend f o r decreasing frequency time Probably can be r e l a t e d t o changes i n economic activities associated with urban l i f e . Type of t e r r a i n appears t o play a in t h e expression of t h e pathology s i n c e t h e ~ r a n i a ns a revealed a higher frequency +-han t h e ~ ~ s o ~ o t a m i a n

-

1

6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ NONPATTERNED PATHOLOGY

The f i n a l n o t a t i o n of i d i o s y n c r a t i c and nonpatterned d i s e a s e s t a t e s and p a t h o l o g i e s i s included t o complement t h e preceding surveys of p o s s i b l e i n d i c a t o r s of changing economic conditions. During t h e N e o l i t h i c one case of c r a n i a l hypervascularis t h a t was a t t r i b u t e d t o t u b e r c u l o s i s , s y p h i l i s , o r m e t a s t a t i c cancer was reported by Ferembach (1970) f o r t h e Zawi Chemi sample. She a l s o i n d i c a t e d a p o s s i b l e c a s e of Hand-SchEller-Christian d i s e a s e , one i n s t a n c e of o s t e o l y s i s o f t h e a t l a s l e f t p o s t e r i o r a r c , one case of s p i n a b i f i d a o c c u l t a ( a l s o observed i n t h e metal age g r o u p s ) , One c a s e of and a l l o b s e r v a b l e temporal bones with a u d i t o r y t o r i . o s t e o l y t i c s k u l l l e s i o n s , one i n s t a n c e of a c h i l d w i t h g e n e r a l i z e d metabolic d i s e a s e , perhaps from m u l t i p l e vitamin d e f i c i e n c y , and h ~ p e r c e m e n t o s i si n 37% of t h e d e n t a l elements were r e p o r t e d from Ganj Dareh ( M e i k l e j o h e t a l . 1980). p o s s i b l e s t i l l b o r n and coz Slipka joined t w i n s were r e p o r t e d a t Hassuna (Abdul ~ z i and 1966). The H a j j i F i r u z N e o l i t h i c sample a l s o included a c o n g e n i t a l h i p deformity o r a s e p t i c n e c r o s i s , a p o s s i b l e m e t a s t a t i c tumor t h a t occurred along t h e s u p e r i o r s a g i t t a l venous s i n u s , and t h i c k v a u l t s i n a l l a d u l t c r a n i a (Turnquist 1976). The c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e s s i n g before and a f t e r b i r t h o f t h e Seh Gabi C h a l c o l i t h i c i n f a n t sample was supported by t h e frequency of 14 of 1 6 o r 88% of t h e p o s t n a t a l specimens. The bone r a r e f a c t i o n : mean age a t d e a t h f o r t h e 30 recovered i n f a n t s Was approximately 6 months, w i t h 1 0 of t h e 3 0 d e a t h s occurring around p a r t u r i t i o n (Skinner 1 9 8 0 ) . The l a t e r m e t a l a g e samples include a v a r i e t y of i n d i v i d u a l Pathologies . Krogman (1940a ,b) reported a v a r i e t y of p a t h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a t Tepe H i s s a r , and Rathbun (1972, 1975) reviews i n iff e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s d i v i d u a l skeletons for p a t h o l o g i c a l s t a t e s . a number of abnormal bones i s n o t d e f i n i t i v e .

TEMPORAL TRENDS

The p i c t u r e of t h e health and d i s e a s e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e s e p a s t Populations in Southwest Asia i s indeed hazy. NO s i n g l e period has been analyzed a d e q u a t e l y from t h i s ~ e r s ~ e c t i vand e when a time i s added, t h e e f f e c t i s much l i k e t h a t of l o o k i n g through an extremely shadowy kaleidoscope. I n a t t e m p t i n g t o summarize t h e d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s under cona few tenuous g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s about s i d e r a t i o n , one can make only The p a l e o l i t h i c samples appear t o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d each Period. high r a t e s of trauma, degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e , d e n t i t i o n w i t h b u t few c a r i e s , frequent t o o t h l o s s , and p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e . Sexual dimorphism appears t o be s i m i l a r t o t h a t of r e c e n t humans

.

I;

i

The preagricultural sample a l s o had frequent degenerative j o i n t disease (especially of t h e v e r t e b r a e ) , p e r i a p i c a l abscesses, and traces of osteoporosis but no Harris l i n e s t h a t would i n d i c a t e r e covery from metabolic i n s u l t . The composite from t h e Neolithic samples a l s o includes high rates of degenerative j o i n t disease, frequent trauma, marked a t t r i t i o n , and frequent carious l e s i o n s . I n f e c t i o n was r e l a t i v e l y common. The metal age groups were s u b j e c t t o a range of pathologyproducing conditions. Age a t death i s not markedly d i f f e r e n t from e a r l i e r samples. ~ l t h o u g ht h e r e i s a decrease i n male s t a t u r e , t h e reasons f o r t h i s a r e not a t a l l c l e a r . The detection and firm a r t i c u l a t i o n of temporal t r e n d s i n t h e q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e expression of pathology i n t h e skeleton and t h e i r association with socioeconomic change i n southwest Asia a r e currently next t o impossible. The s k e l e t a l sample s i z e s a r e extremely e r r a t i c and small i n c r i t i c a l p e r i o d s , t h e published l i t e r a t u r e i s inadequate i n both e x t e n t and comparability, and reported methods of diagnosis and c r i t e r i a t r a d i t i o n a l l y have been vague. Many of t h e inadequacies of t h e d a t a base stem from t h e h i s t o r i c a l lack of concern f o r t h e skeleton a s an archaeologic a l resource. In t h i s review of t h e published l i t e r a t u r e , and with t h e Previously s t a t e d caveats, it appears t h a t demographic s t a b i l i t y t rather than a marked improvement i n longevity, i s i n d i c a t e d with the major changes from p r e a g r i c u l t u r e t o v i l l a g e fanning t o t h e urban s t a t e . Males c o n s i s t e n t l y l i v e d longer than females, but the data are inadequate f o r l i f e t a b l e c o n s t r u c t i o n with subadult segments of t h e populations. Population aggregation i n t h e l a t e r periods appears more important than a proposed demographic transit i o n linked t o food a v a i l a b i l i t y . Evaluations of estimates of s t a t u r e of t h e populations and temporal trends a r e complicated by t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d a p t a t i o n to d i f f e r e n t ecological niches and by migration. NO s i n g l e environmental zone has s u f f i c i e n t s k e l e t a l samples t o document t h e changes over time. Migrations within t h e a r e a a r e archaeolo9ical1y and h i s t o r i c a l l y documented. Sexual dimorphism i n a d u l t s t a t u r e does n o t change temporally a t a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l Within each period except t h e Neolithic, males were s i g n i f i c a n t l y than females. The only temporal t r e n d appears t o be i n female s t a t u r e and a reduction i n average male Stature during t h e urban metal ages. A number of explanations are possible, but t h e existence of fewer differences i n t h e genderr e l a t e d socioeconomic r o l e s appears t o be t h e most l i k e l y explanat ion.

-

I

I

1 2 1

\

I I

1

6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ

159

higher r a t e of recovery from i n s u l t o r a higher pathogen exposure from t h e combination of urban l i v i n g , hygiene, p a r a s i t e l o a d s , and p e r i o d s of r e l a t i v e d i e t a r y inadequacy. I t a l s o should be noted t h a t t h e r e appears t o be a reduction i n t h e evidence of i n f e c t i o n from t h e N e o l i t h i c t o t h e l a t e r metal ages. Expression of trauma i n t h e s k e l e t o n appears t o decrease through time. However, I h a s t e n t o mention t h a t much of t h e trauma seen i n t h e l a t e r c u l t u r a l phases appears t o be from human v i o l e n c e . I t i s impossible t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e a t o t h e r times among human v i o l e n c e , trauma through a c c i d e n t i n rugged t e r r a i n s , and p o s s i b l e i n j u r y from work with animals. No g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n d i e t a r y i r o n q u a l i t y between p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l and i n t e n s i f i e d a g r i c u l t u r a l samples a r e noted by t h e frequency of c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a . The lower incidence among males may be due to d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o i r o n resources o r t o t h e metabolic demands of pregnancy and l a c t a t i o n i n females and of development i n children. The a n a l y s i s of t h e r e l a t i v e amounts of calcium and strontium Preserved i n t h e bone a t N e o l i t h i c s i t e s d i d n o t i n d i c a t e a Sign i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e from hunter-gatherers i n t h e g e n e r a l a r e a . Marked i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n w i t h i n samples was noted. The r o l e of animal husbandry i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l groups i s a s i g n i f i c a n t e l e ment of Southwest Asian c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y . comparison with urban Populations p o s s i b l y would be enlightening. Dental c o n d i t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c u l t u r a l ~ r a c t i c e sof food here i s P r e p a r a t i o n and hygiene a l s o appear r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e . a very s l i g h t reduction i n t h e degree and o n s e t of a t t r i t i o n of t h e t o o t h crowns, b u t c a r i o u s l e s i o n s , abscesses, and p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e were common f e a t u r e s throughout time. P h y s i c a l s t r e s s , a s i n d i c a t e d by degenerative changes i n various j o i n t s , d e c r e a s e s with urban l i f e . NO Simple pattern o r exp l a n a t i o n should be invoked s i n c e o s t e o a r t h r i t i c changes occur early i n l i f e t o modern standards. The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s t r e s s a t p a r t i c u l a r j o i n t s v a r i e s g r e a t l y by s i t e and w i t h i n each p e r i o d .

CONCLUSIONS

AND RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS

The s a d p i c t u r e of t h e p a u c i t y of s p e c i f i c information on h e a l t h , disease, and socioeconomic change i n Southwest ~ s i a at ~ l t h o u g ht h e r e a r e s i g n i f i c a n t gaps i n P r e s e n t can be improved. ^e temporal sequence of a v a i l a b l e s k e l e t a l s e r i e s , systematic r e study of t h e a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l s i n museums and o t h e r c o l l e c t i o n s w i t h a focus o n pathology would provide a p r i o r i t y b a s i s f o r The r e s t u d y p r o j e c t n o t only Should i n c l u d e further research. through g r o s s observation, b u t should employ radiographic, chemical, and methods. Since a m u l t i d i s c i p l i nary approach appears most prof i t a b l e , some c o n s i d e r a t i o n must be

TED A. RATHBUN

given t o t h e use o f comparable c r i t e r i a and methods of d a t a collection. Problems of archaeological information and representativeness of t h e samples w i l l remain f o r t h i s m a t e r i a l excavated i n the past. Restudy with new techniques of e x t a n t c o l l e c t i o n s , no matter how limited, could provide s i g n i f i c a n t new information The mo st serious (Buikstra and Gordon 1981; Peebles e t a1 1981) limitations of t h e present c o l l e c t i o n s a r e small sample s i z e f o r some periods, fragmentation of individual s k e l e t o n s , l a c k of subadult s e r i e s , and lack of proper curation. Research s t r a t e g i e s involving new m a t e r i a l s probably w i l l require a regional approach. Although multicomponent sites a r e present i n the area, individual s i t e a n a l y s i s , although extremely important, should be approached with t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e area is characterized by ecological d i v e r s i t y . Resources a s well a s reciprocity among t h e a r t i c u l a t e d populations i n t h e i r d i v e r s e ecozones must be considered. The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and excavation of human remains from s i t e s i n the Upper P a l e o l i t h i c with a huntergatherer resource base, t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l Mesolithic samples, and a range of Neolithic adaptations i n t h e mountain v a l l e y s and t h e adjacent p l a i n s would be t h e i d e a l s i t u a t i o n . Some s t r i d e s have been made in the analysis of f l o r a l remains and t h e f a u n a l m a t e r i a l s have received intensive a t t e n t i o n a t s p e c i f i c s i t e s and i n some regions with sophisticated methodolcqies (Meadow and Zeder 1978) Considerations of t h e domestication process and t h e c u l t u r a l dyIl8miee Snv~lveda r e important, but somewhat l e s s a t t e n t i o n has been given to t h e d i e t a r y u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e s e resources. ~ s ~ e c i a l l ~ lacking is t h e consideration of t h e s y n e r g i s t i c e f f e c t s of t h e presence of pathogens i n animals and human s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o disd ease. Mixed farming and p a s t o r a l adaptations have been characSince t ~ r i ~oft tih ~ i s a r e a f o r s i g n i f i c a n t periods of time. pathgens and human populations have adapted t o each o t h e r throuqh th& e ~ i d e m ~ ~ ~ operspective gi~al should be productive i n this

.

.

-

regard.

~thno-osteologyand comparative a n a l y s i s of e x t a n t g r a i n

fanners, mixed farmers, p a s t o r a l i s t s , and urban groups generate airectiong for model extensions i n t o t h e p a s t . Although such models a r e important h e u r i s t i c devices, empirical d a t a from Skeles e r i e s a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r a f u l l understanding of p a s t c u l t u r a l dynamics and the e f f e c t s of socioeconomic change on t h e h e a l t h the populations. Specific a t t e n t i o n must be given to t h e c o l l e c t i o n of s u f f i c i e n t s k e l e t a l material t o allow v a l i d s t a t i s t i c a l manipulation f o r demographic and comparative s t u d i e s . Especially c r i t i c a l i s a representative sample of subadult m a t e r i a l s , which t r a d i t i o n a l l y have not collect@d. Local and regional i n resources, affec t i n 9 health, population d i s t r i b u t i o n , environmental factors nutritional adequacy of food resources, and t h e n a t u r e of t h e pathogens still must be considered i n d e t a i l . The importance genfier age and sex s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , class distinctions in c u l t u r a l Systems a r e other s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s be

6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ

161

considered i n a comprehensive a n a l y s i s of t h e e f f e c t s of socioeconomic change on h e a l t h . This review of s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s of h e a l t h s t a t u s of groups from t h e Middle P a l e o l i t h i c through t h e metal ages i n I r a n and I r a q h i g h l i g h t e d how l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has been given t o t h i s important d a t a r e s o u r c e . Even though many important d a t a have been l o s t due t o i n a t t e n t i o n t o s k e l e t a l remains i n t h e a r e a , e x t a n t Collections may y e t y i e l d i n s i g h t s i n t o b i o l o g i c a l a d a p t a t i o n associated with changes i n c u l t u r a l systems. Previous archaeologiCal r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a h a s n o t provided t h e information needed t o attempt t o a d d r e s s t h e many i n t e r r e l a t e d q u e s t i o n s of h e a l t h and socioeconomic change. F u t u r e cooperation among a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , physical a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , and o t h e r s p e c i a l i s t s w i l l be necessary t o document t h e h e a l t h - r e l a t e d f a c t o r s o f p a r t i c u l a r groups and I n our a t t e m p t s t o address t h e problems of h e a l t h t a p o r a l trends. change over time, we must a l s o come t o terms with t h e meaning of these p o s s i b l e t r e n d s : a r e they causes o r consequences of socioeconomic change?

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

-Qyelr

1952

L., and C. S . Coon Axial Skeleton of an Upper p a l a e o l i t h i c -woman from H O ~ U . American hUmazo f physical ~nt'hpopoZogy1 0 ( 3 ) : 2 5 2 -

J-

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Aufderheide, A. C . , G. Rapp, and W. m r e n t z M s . on ~ i l e , 1982 S k e l e t a l l e a d a n a l y s i s , Dinkha Tepe, I r a n . Archaeometry Laboratory and Department of ~ a t h o l o g y , u n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota, Duluth. Braidwood, R. J., and L. b raid wood 1950 J-o: A v i l l a g e of e a r l y farmers i n I r a q . ~ n t G u i t y24: 189-195. ~ u i k s t r a ,J. E., and D. C. Cook 1980 Palaeopathology: An American account. ~ n n u a l~ e v i e wo f Anthropology 3 :433-470. Buikstra, J . E . , and C. C. Gordon The im1981 The study and restudy of human s k e l e t a l s e r i e s : portance of long term c u r a t i o n . Annals of t h e New ~ o r k Academy o f Sciences 376: 449-465. Cappieri, M. 1969 The Mediterranean r a c e i n Asia b e f o r e t h e I r o n Age. O C C U S Paper ~ ~ No. 8. F i e l d Research P r o j e c t s , M i a m i 1970 The Mesopotamians of t h e C h a l c o l i t h i c and Bronze Ages. F i e l d Research p r o j e c t s , ~ i a m i OCCUS'LOZU'~Paper No. 1 2 . Carbonell, V. M. aster' 1958 The dentition of the Kish population, 3,000 B. C. t h e s i s , University of Chicago. 1966 The p a l e o d e n t a l pathology o f a n c i e n t ~ e s o p o t a m i a n s . Journal of Dental Research 45: 413. Carneiro, R. L., and D. F. H i l s e 1966 On determining t h e probable r a t e of p o p u l a t i o n growth during t h e N e o l i t h i c . American Anthropologist 68:177-180. cave, A. E., and E. H. A. Centeno 1951 The human c r a n i a . In Excavations i n ~ z e r b a i g a ni n 19481 e d i t e d by Burton Brown, pp. 206-225. Murray, londonCoon, C. S. 1950 Three s k u l l s from T e l l Hassuna. Sumer 6: 93-96. -in Iran. U n i v e r s i t y Museum, university 1951 0e Q x p l ~ r a t i o n s of Pennsylvania, P h i l a d e l p h i a . Coon, C. S., and J. L. Angel 1953 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e Hotu S k e l e t o n s . American ~ o of P'hvsha.1- ~nt'hrapology11:256. Dahlberg, A. A. 1960 The d e n t i t i o n of t h e f i r s t (Jam0 lraq) American Jam-a2 of Physical Anthropology 28:243-2s6EdYnak, G . J. 1976 L i f e - s t y l e s from s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l : A medieval yugoslav example. I n The measures o f man, e d i t e d by E. G i l e s and S - F r i e d l a e n d e r , pp. 408-432. peabody Museum Press! Cambridge. El-Wailly, F. 1964 Foreword. Smep 20~1-3. E1-Waill~, F - , and B. A. es-soof ~irst re1965 The excavations a t T e l l Es-Sawwan: p o r t . Smer 21-17-32.

J.

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6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ Ferembach, D. 1970 Etude a n t h r o p o l o g i q u e d e s ossements humains p r o t o N e o l i t h i q u e d e Z a w i - C h d Shanidar ( I r a q ) . S m r 26:2164. Finkel, D. J. 1974 The dynamics o f Middle Eastern s k e l e t a l populations. P~.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of Oregon. 1982 Sexual dimorphism and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n i n Middle E a s t e r n I n Sexual dimorphism i n Homo s k e l e t a l populations. S a p h s ; A question o f s i z e , e d i t e d by R . L. H a l l , p p . 165185. P r a e g e r , New York. F u r s t , c. M. 1939 The s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g the excavations of D r . 1. J. Arne in Shah Tepe a t ~ s t r a b a d - G o r g a n i n I r a n . R e p o r t s from t h e s c i e n t i f i c e x p e d i t i o n t o the Northw e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s o f China under t h e l e a d e r s h i p of ~ x p e d i t i o np u b l i c a t i o n D r . Svan Hedin. The 5'&-S&sh Bokforlogs A k t i e b o l a g e t Thule, No. 9 (Archaeology 4) Stockholm. G r a ~ t J - P., and L. D. Wolfe 1980 Height and s e x u a l dimorphism o f s t a t u r e among human soc i e t i e s . Americm Jowm.al of physical Anthropology 53 ( 3 ) : 441-456. Hamlin, c.

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The 1971 e x c a v a t i o n s o f Seh Gabi, I r a n . Archaeology 26: 224-247. Sassan, F A. l g 7 3 On mechanisms of p o p u l a t i o n growth d u r i n g t h e n e o l i t h i c . Clovent Anthropology 14:535-543. l g 7 9 Demography and archaeology. Annual ~ e v okf ~ n t h r o p o l o a 8:137-160. Hek-at, M. l g 7 0 Geographical d i s t r i b u t i o n g u i d e t o endemic d i s e a s e s of Iran. Study NO. 40. F i e l d ~ e s e a r c hp r o j e c t s , coconut Grove, Miami Hole, F. 19^ S t u d i e s i n t h e a r c h e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y of t h e D* P l a i n . Memoirs o f t h e Museum o f ~ n t h r o p o l o g yUnzversztY o f Michigan A m Arbor No. 9. 1 F . , and K. V. F l a n n e r y 9 The Pre-history of south-Western Iran: A preliminary r e p o r t . promedings o f f i e prehistoric Society 33:147206. F - , K. V. F l a n n e r y , and J. A. N e e l Y 1969 P r e h i s t o r y and human ecology o f t h e Deb Luran 'lain. lg73

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Anthropological s t u d i e s o f West ~ s i a II. Human remains o t o a n Norfchyn I r a n - Tokyo univepsit~ Iraq-1ran h & e o l o g i e a l ~ a p e d z t w nNo. 9 -

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Krogman, W. M. 1940s Racial t y p e s from Tepe Hissar, I r a n , from t h e l a t e f i f t h t o t h e e a r l y second millenium B.C. A c h a p t e r i n t h e proVerhmdet o h i s t o r y of Asia Minor and t h e Middle E a s t .

lingen der Koninkli.J'ke Nederladsche Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Natuwkunde rYeede S e c t i e Dee1 39, No. L.

1940b The s k e l e t a l and d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y o f an e a r l y I r a n i a n s i t e . B u l l e t i n o f t h e History of Medicine 8:28-48. 1940c The p e o p l e s o f e a r l y I r a n and t h e i r e t h n i c a f f i l i a t i o n s . American Journal of Physical ~ n t h o p o l o g y26:269-308. I n Excavations 1950 Report on a s k u l l from t h e Well i n Area A. a t Tepe Gawra (Vol. 11) e d i t e d by A . T o b l e r , pp. 216-220University of Pennsylvania Museum Monographs No. 2. Lambert, P . J. 1979 Early N e o l i t h i c c r a n i a l d e f o r m a t i o n a t Ganj Dareh Tepe, I r a n . Canadian Review of ~ h ~ s i c Anthropology al 1 ( 2 ) :5154. 1980 An osteologioal analysis o f t h e ~ e o l i t h i cs k e l e t a l populaD& Dareh Tepe, Iran. M a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , univers i t y o f Manitoba. M a l l i n , R., and T. A. Rathbun. 1976 A t r e p h i n e d s k u l l from I r a n . B u l l e t i n o f t h e S e w York Academy o f Medicine 52(7):782-787. McNeill, W. H. 1976 Plagues and peoples. Doubleday, New York. 1979 H i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n s of m i g r a t i o n . Current ~ n t h r o p o l o g y 20 (1) :95-102. Meadow, R. W., and M. A. Zeder 1978 Approaches t o f a u n a l a n a l y s i s i n t h e Middle E a s t . Peabody Museum o f Araheology and Ethnology ~ u l l e t i nNoMeiklejohn, C . r P. Lambert, and C. Byrne 1g80 Demography and p a t h o l o g y o f t h e Ganj Dareh p o p u l a t i o n : E a r l y N e o l i t h i c I r a n . American Journal of ~ h y s z c a l Anthropology 52 (2) :2 55. M e l l a a r t , J. 1974 The f l e o l i t h i c o f t h e Nem East. s c r i b n e r t s , New York. Mortensen, P 1964 11. E a r l y v i l l a g e farming o c c u p a t i o n . Acta APchi&ogica 34:110-121. Howell, G. w. 1980 M i l e s method o f a g i n g d e n t i t i o n s o f Teps H i s s a r : A good method, a bad sample, b u t y i e l d i n g t o o l s o f p o s s i b l e use f o r o t h e r samples. American J o m a Z o f f h y s i e a z Anthropology 52 (2 :263. Gates, J.

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6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ P a r d i n i , E. 1977 G l i i n u m a t i d i Shahr-i-Sokhta (Sistan, I r a n ) . Studio O s t e o l o g i c o Preliminare--11 P a r t e . Archivio per 2-Anthrcrpologia e l a Ehologia C V I I : 159-235. P a r d i n i , E., a n d A. A. Sarvari-Negahban 1977 C r a n i o l o g i a d e g l i i n u m a t i d i Shahr-i-Sokhta (Sistan, Iran) Studio preliminare. Arch-wio per 2-Antropologia e l a Etndoq-ia CVI:1-49. Peebles, C. S., M. J. Schoeninger, V. P. S t e p o n a t i s , and C. M. Scarry Contemporary r e s e a r c h w i t h t h e WPA1981 A p r e c i o u s bequest: CCC c o l l e c t i o n s from Moundville Alabama. Annals o f the New Jork Academy of Sciences 376:433-447. Rathbun, T. A.

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A study of the physical c b a c t e r i s t i c s of the ancient infw.-bitants of Hasanlu, Iran. Study No. 68. F i e l d Research P r o j e c t s , Coconut Grove, M i a m i .

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s t u d y NO. 87. F i e l d Research P r o j e c t s , Coconut Grove, Miami. M e t r i c and d i s c r e t e t r a i t v a r i a t i o n among Metal Age I r a n i a n and Mesopotamian p o p u l a t i o n s . American Journal o f Physical Anthopology 5 0 ( 3 ) ~ 4 7 3 . P a t t e r n s of p a t h o l o g y among Metal Age I r a n i a n and Mesopotamian populations American Journal of ~ h y s i c a Anthrol pology 52:269. H a r r i s l i n e s and d e n t i t i o n a s i n d i r e c t evidence of n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t e s i n e a r l y I r o n Age I r a n . American Journal of Physical ~ n t h o p o l o g y54 ( 3 ) :266. Morphological a f f i n i t i e s and demography o f ~ e t a Age l ~merican~ o u m a lo f ~ h y s i c a l Southwest Asian p o p u l a t i o n s . Anthropology 59:47-60. S k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l from Dinkha Tepe, I r a n . MS. on F i l e , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y of South Carolina.

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A probable tr&phination:

B~2Zeti.nof 6% 723.

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Schoeninger, M. J. 1981 The a g r i c u l t u r a l " r e v o l u t i o n " ; Its e f f e c t on human d i e t i n p r e h i s t o r i c I r a n and I s r a e l . ~ a l e o x i e n t7:73-92. t t h e e v o l u t i o n o f modern human form i n t h e ~ i d d l e 1982 ~ i e and East. Amerban Journal of Physical ~nthxopology5 8 (1):3752. Singh, P. 1974 Neolithic c u l t w e s of Western Asia. seminar P r e s s , New York. Skinner, M. F. 1980 P a t h o l o g i e s among i n f a n t s from Seh Gabi, I r a n . ~me'r'Lean Journal of Physical Anthropology 52 ( 2 ) :280. S t a r r , R. F. S. 1939 Nuai, report on the excavations of Yorgan Tepa near Grkuk, Iraq, 1927-1931 (Vol. I ) Harvard u n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Cambridge. Stewart, T. D. 1977 The Neanderthal s k e l e t a l remains from S h a n i d a r Cave, I r a q : A summary o f f i n d i n g s t o d a t e . Proceedings of the Am&can Philosophical Society 121 ( 2 ) :121-165. Storm, S. 1976 Vie S k d e t e vom Takht-i-SuZe¥una (Word-West I r a n ) . Ph. D. thesis, Freie UniversitXt, Berlin. Swindler, D R. 1956 A study o f t h s cranial and skeletal material excavated a t flippur. U n i v e r s i t y Museum Monograph, U n i v e r s i t y of Pennsylvania, P h i l a d e l p h i a . Trinkaus, E. 1978 Dental remains from t h e Shanidar a d u l t ~ e a n d e r t h a l s h m a l of Human Evolution 7:369-382. 1980 Sexual d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e N e a n d e r t h a l limb b o n e s . ~ o of Human Evolution 9:377-397. Trinkaus, E., and M. R. Z h e r m a n 1982 Trauma among t h e Shanidar N e a n d e r t h a l s . A ~ & Q X ~ 0 o f Physbal Anthropology 5 7 ( 1 ) : a - 7 6 . T u r n q u i s t , J. 1976 The N e o l i t h i c s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n from H a j j i F i r u z TePe~n ~ c o n o m i cReAppendix I n Voight , M., H a j j i F i r u z Tepe: c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a S i x t h M i l l e n i m Community i n Western u n i v e r s i t y o f PennI r a n . Ph. D. T h e s i s . P h i l a d e l p h i a : s y l v a n i a . Appendix C: pp. 823-846. V a l l o i s , H. v.

.

.

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6 THE PALEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES IN IRAN AND IRAQ Voigt, M. M. 1977 The s u b s i s t e n c e economy o f a s i x t h millenium v i l l a g e i n t h e Ushnu Solduz V a l l e y . B-L'bliotheeaMesapotamiea, Undena, Malidu, pp. 307-346. 1983 H a j j i F i r u z Tepe: The N e o l i t h i c s e t t l e m e n t . I n Hasanlu excavation reports (Vol I ) m. 70-94. U n i v e r s i t y Museum Monographs, No. 50, Univers i t y of P e n n s y l v a n i a , P h i l a d e l p h i a . Wright, G . A. 1971 O r i g i n s o f f o o d p r o d u c t i o n i n Southwestern Asia: A survey o f i d e a s . Current Anthropology 12:447-475.

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CHAPTER 7 GROWTH, NUTRITION, AND PATHOLOGY I N CHANGING PALEODEMOGRAPHIC SETTINGS I N SOUTH ASIA

Kenneth A. R. Kennedy ~ c o l o g yand systematics Division of Biological Sciences Department of Anthropology Cornell University

This chapter summarizes recent i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the s k e l e t a l biology of human populations marking t h e socioeconomic t r a n s i t i o n from hunting and gathering t o i n t e n s i v e food production s t r a t e g i e s i n South Asia. This region i s defined a s including I n d i a , Burma, Pakistan, Bangladesh, ~ f g h a n i s t a n ,and t h e Himalayan c o u n t r i e s of Nepal, Sikhim, and Buthan, a s well a s S r i Lanka and o t h e r i s l a n d s o f t h e Indian Ocean and Bay o f Bengal. Both f i e l d and l a b o r a t o r y research i n t o t h e s k e l e t a l biology of ancient mortuary samples and the published a r c h i v a l record a r e discussed a g a i n s t t h e background of the archaeological record. P a r t i c u l a r reference i s made t o changing p a t t e r n s of i n d i v i d u a l growth and development, paleode-. mography, s k e l e t a l and d e n t a l pathology, and n u t r i t i o n . I t i s concluded t h a t t h e adoption of i n t e n s i f i e d u t i l i z a t i o n and processing of vegetable food sources by Neolithic and l a t e r populat i o n s permitted increasing population d e n s i t y b u t l e d t o lower q u a l i t y n u t r i t i o n and an i n c r e a s e i n c e r t a i n pathologies. There are i n d i c a t i o n s of a highly successful economic homeostasis f o r many p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l Mesolithic populations, but it i s suggested t h a t population growth may have placed s t r e s s on t h e s e groups and encouraged t h e i r g r e a t e r e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e food resource base through i n c i p i e n t pastoralism and p l a n t c u l t i v a t i o n .

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ISBN 0 12 179080 0

KENNETH A. R. KENNEDY THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND SKELETAL RECORD

Recent summaries of t h e archaeology of South Asia (Agrawal 1982; Allchin and Allchin 1982; Deraniyagala 1981; F a i r s e r v i s 1975; Jacobson 1979; Khan 1968; Sankalia 1974, 1977), although employing varying terminologies and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , recognize a sequence of technological s t a g e s roughly analogous t o t h e Paleolithic-1ron Age sequence of Europe. However, t h e r e continues t o be u n c e r t a i n t y over t h e c o r r e c t usage of terms such a s " N e o l i t h i c , " " C h a l c o l i t h i c ," and "Megalithic" when they a r e applied t o s p e c i f i c s i t e s i n t h e region. And, although t h e r e i s a general succession of c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s from Paleolithic-Mesolithic hunting and gathering groups t o N e o l i t h i c , C h a l c o l i t h i c , and I r o n Age lifeways, t h e times of t h e emergence of new economies vary considerably in d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e subcontinent and not a l l of t h e c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s a r e represented i n every region. Local " s u r v i v a l s " of more ancient lifeways may form symbiotic r e l a t i o n s h i p s with "more advanced" c u l t u r e s i n a given a r e a such t h a t a chronology of uniform c u l t u r e periods does n o t r e a d i l y apply. A somewhat broader s e t of economic c a t e g o r i e s w i l l t h e r e f o r e be employed h e r e (Table 7 . 1 ) . There e x i s t s today a human s k e l e t a l record of over 1700 i n d i v i d u a l specimens from 63 b u r i a l s i t e s covering a temporal span of 30,000 years f o r which some descript i o n of s k e l e t a l biology and archaeological context a r e published. This chapter, building on a r e c e n t catalogue of t h e 63 s i t e s (Kennedy and Caldwell 19841, organizes t h e s e d a t a i n t o c a t e g o r i e s of specimens of P l e i s t o c e n e o r u n c e r t a i n a n t i q u i t y , e a r l y Holocene and recent hunting and gathering communities, e a r l y farming-herding communities, mature farming communities, e a r l y (Harappan, Bronze Age) c i v i l i z a t i o n s , and I r o n Age populations. The l a r g e r s k e l e t a l s e r i e s a r e derived from e a r l y and mature farming s i t e s of c e n t r a l and south I n d i a and from s i t e s of t h e Harappan c i v i l i z a t i o n of t h e northwestern s e c t o r (Table 7 . 2 ) . Not included i n this c a t a l o g a r e r e c e n t l y described s k e l e t o n s from t h r e e s i t e s f o r which published d a t a were n o t y e t a v a i l a b l e a t t h e time t h e catalog was prepared: t h e e a r l y "Neolithic" s i t e s of Burzahom and Kashmir (Basu and P a l 1980) and Mehrgarh i n Baluchistan and t h e l a t e r farming s i t e of Inamqaon i n Maharashtra I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e above(J. R. Lukacs, personal communication) mentioned s i t e s , t h e r e a r e more than 108 s i t e s r e p o r t e d , y i e l d i n g more than 1000 s k e l e t a l specimens t h a t a r e a s y e t undescribed b u t of which many a r e known t o be both complete and r e l a t i v e l y w e l l preserved. Summary sources of South Asian s k e l e t a l d a t a a r e authored by Biichi (19681, P. Gupta (1975, 1976), S . P. Gupta (1972), J a i n (1979), Kennedy (1975b), Murty (1974), Sahni (1956) , and Sarkar (1964, 1972). Problem-oriented s t u d i e s a r e fewer (Kennedy 1973a,b1 1975a,c, 1980s; Lukacs 1983a, 1984; Lukacs e t a l . 1984; Sen 1964). S t u d i e s of South Asian b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s i n which some a t t e n t i o n i s given t o s k e l e t a l anatomy o r mortuary d i s p o s i t i o n have focused on

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nqe i s from 168 t o 190 cm. Female s t a t u r e e r l a p t h i s range cm Accompanying d f o r Mahadahans t h e range i s from 162 t o s s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e i s another indicator o velopment--degree o f s k e l e t a l - m u s c u l a r r o b u s t i n g e t i c hominids a r e e x c e p t i o n a l l y r o b u s t i n c r a n i a l anatomy, t h e i r l a r g e heads s u p p o r t i n g we p r a o r b i t a l t o r i , s h a r p nuchal l i n e s , l a r g e mas t h prominent supramastoid c r e s t s , and well-marked temporal n e s . Mandibles a r e massive and have well-formed mental emic e s and e v e r t e d gonia. These f e a t u r e s o f t a l l s t a t u r e and k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y l e a d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e s e people of erminal P l e i s t o c e n e t i m e s r e a l i z e d t h e f u l l p o t e n t i a l of t h e i r

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176

KENNETH A . R . KENNEDY

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t r e n d s d e s c r i b e d f o r E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n and s o u t h e a s t A s i a n p o p u l a t i o n s , t h o u g h t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y mechanisms

KENNETH A . R. KENNEDY

176

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t r e n d s d e s c r i b e d f o r E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n and s o u t h e a s t A s i a n p o p u l a t i o n s , t h o u g h t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y mechanisms

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R e c o r d i n q of H a r r i s l i n e s drid r e l a t e d m a r k e r s of i n t e r r u p t e d g r o w t h p c ~ t t c r n si s a r e c e n t p r a c t i c e i n S o u t h A s i a n p d l e o d e m o q -

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CHAPTER 8

THE EFFECTS OF SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA : SUDANESE NUBIA A S A CASE STUDY

Debra L. M a r t i n School of N a t u r a l S c i e n c e Hampshire C o l l e g e

George J . ArrneZagos A Zan 3. ~00~-3ma.n1 Department o f A n t h r o p o l o g y U n i v e r s i t y of M a s s a c h u s e t t s - A m h e r s t

Dennis P. Van Geyven Department of A n t h r o p o l o g y U n i v e r s i t y o f Colorado, B o u l d e r

INTRODUCTION

This c h a p t e r examines t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o aqricul t u r e and x-he s u b s e q u e n t i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l production on t h e b i o l o g y o f a n c i e n t p o p u l a t i o n s from Lower Nubia. The a n a l y s i s was d e r i v e d from t h e human r e m a i n s , and from an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l s e t t i n g a n d t h e c u l tural a d a p t a t i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n s l i v i n g i n t h e a r e a d u r i n g t h e l a s t 12,000 y e a r s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , w e h a v e examined t h e p a t t e r n of p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h , c h a n g e s i n morphology, a l t e r a t i o n s i.n growth and d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e i m p a c t of m o r t a l i t y a n d m o r b i d i t y ; on life e x p e c t a n c y , and t h e i m p a c t of d i s e a s e stress. The s e l e c t i o n of Lower Nubian remains i s b a s e d on t h e e x c e l lent a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s r e c o v e r e d from t h e a r e a . The Nubian material r e p r e s e n t s o n e o f t h e most i n t e n s i v e l y studied a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e world w i t h 36 m a j o r

.

,

Present address : Depaptmenz of orthodontic.^, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farminqton, Connecticut 06032. PALEOPA'I'IIOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS 0FAGIUCUl.TURE

DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL.

1 94

e x c a v a t i o n s c o m p l e t e d i-n t h e l a s t 7 5 y e a r s a n d more t h a n 1000 s i t e s e x c a v a t e d (Adams 1 9 7 7 ) . T h e s e s i t e s s p a n a p e r i o d from the hunting-gathering s t a g e t o a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i n t h e area. Although Nubia p r o v i d e s a n e x c e l l e n t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r examining t h e i m p a c t of a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t o n t h e b i o l o g y o f e a r l i e r p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e r e a r e a number o f p r o b l e m s t h a t c o m p l i c a t e a t t e m p t s t o m e a s u r e t h e magnitude o f t h a t i m p a c t . The most i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m is t h a t w e do n o t h a v e l a r g e s a m p l e s o f m.iteria1 from t h e c r i t i c 2 a l p e r i o d s d u r i n g which t.he t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o a g r i c u l t u r e occurred. The b e s t e v i d e n c e comes from t h e p h a s e s in Nubian p r e h i s t o r y d u r i n g which t h e r e i s an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of aqricult u r a l production. Lower Nubia i s t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e N i l e R i v e r V a l l e y extending from t h e F i r s t C a t a r a c t a t Aswan t o t h e Second C a t a r a c t a t Wadi H d f a ( F i g u r e 8 . 1 ) . The r e g i o n r e p r e s e n t e d a main l i n e of communication c o n n e c t i n g s u b S a h a r a n A f r i c a a n d t h e Meditteranean ( T r i g g e r 1 9 6 5 ) . The s t u d y w i l l f o c u s on t h e s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l s e x c a v a t e d n e a r Wadi H a l f a , a n d a l s o on materials (from the K u l u b n a r t i s i t e ) i n an a d j a c e n t port i o n o f Upper Nubia known as t h e Batn e l H a j a r .

CULTURE HISTORY

P o p u l a t i o n s u s e d in t h i s s t u d y i n c l u d e m a t e r i a l s from t h e i 1~1esoli:hic ( c a . 1 2 , 0 0 0 B.C. ) , N e o l i t h i c (5000-3600 B.C. ) , A-Group (2400-2400 B.C. ) , C-Group (2400-100 B.C. ) , M e r o i t i c (350 B.C. A . D . 3501, X-Group o r B a l l a n a ( A . D . 350-550) , and C h r i s t i a n (A.D. 550-1350) p e r i - o d s ( T a b l e 8 . 1 ) . The s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l i n this s t u d y was e x c a v a t e d d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e f i r s t U n i v e r s i t y of C o l o r a d o Nubian E x p e d i - t i o n , 1963-1964 s e a s o n (of which Armelagos was a member), and t h e Colorado-Kentucky E x p e d i t i o n ( i n which Van Gerven was P r i n c i p a l I n v e s t i g a t o r ) . The s e v e n p e r i o d s o f Nubian p r e h i s t o r y c a n b e p l a c e d i n t o t h r e e b r o a d e r p h a s e s o f c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t a r e r e l e v a n t to t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f a g r i c u l t u r e o n b i o l o g y . The f i r s t p h a s e r e p r e s e n t s a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n from g a t h e r i n g and h u n t i n c t o a g r i c u l t u r e and i n c l u d e s t h e m e s o l i t h i c a n d N e o l i t h i c I n Lower Nubia, t h e N e o l i t h i c development never results periods. i n t h e i n t e n s i v e e x p l . o i t a t i o n o f p l a n t s and a n i m a l s t h a t occurred in other areas. The n e x t p h a s e r e p r e s e n t s a n o n i n t e n s i v e agricult u r a l p e r i o d i n which t h e A-Group and C-Group u t i l i z e d a n annual cycle o f p r o d u c e . During t h e t h i r d p h a s e , i n t e n s i v e u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e N i l e V a l l e y became p o s s i b i e b e c a u s e o f t h e u s e o f t h e w a t e r w h e e l . The M e r o i t i c , X-Group, a n d C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d s display v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e . Summarized b r i e f l y i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n a r e t h e c u l t u r a l c h a n g e s t h a t have o c c u r r e d durir t h e major time p e r i o d s .

8 SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA

I

FIGURE 8 . 1 . M a p of A'friea u i t k snZarqea sectio'n showing location of Wadi Haifa (reproduced from Martin 1 9 8 3 ) .

196

DEBRA L. MARTIN LT AJ!..

TABLE 8 . 1

Chronology and Sample S i z e o f Remains Used i n This

Studfl

,.I

1

%me

Kentucky-

Scanda-m~ian Co lorado Colorado

M e s o l i t h i c 1 1 , 9 5 0 - 6 4 0 0 3. C. A-Group 3400-2400 B.C. C-Group 2400-1200 B. 17. Meroi t i c 350 B.C.-A.D. 350 X-Group A . D . 350-550

Christian --

A.D.

39

105 65-7 135

166 57

5h0-13

- -

21

129 2.18 403

188

- -

'^The Sc-andanavicm sample is used by V a p Psielson (1970), t'ke from the Wadi- Haifa area, and t h e Kentuekyfrom tne Batn el war vegiun of KuZubnartz.

Zor~adosample is lorado s,ampte i s

T r a n s i t i o n a l Phase

Mesotifhie (ll,9LO-6400 B.C. ) The a r c h a e o l o g i ca 1 evidence i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e M e s o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s i n Lower Nubia r e l i e d on t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of l a r g e game, f i s h , and seed collecting (Greene and Annelagos 1 9 7 2 ) . Saxe (1966) c i t e s e v i d e n c e of l a r g e game h u n t i n g ; t h e occurrence o f bones of l a r g e b o v i n e s p e c i e s i n s i t e s s u g g e s t semisedentary o c c u p a t i o n s . Fishing and s h e l l f i s h g a t h e r i n g were s u b s t a n t i a t e d by numerous f i s h v e r t e b r a e and s h e l l f i s h remains found w i t h the b u r i a l s and throughout t h e s i t e s . Many small and l a r g e grinding s t o n e s s u g g e s t e d t h e importance of g a t h e r i n g and u t i l i z a t i o n of wild g r a s s seeds.

The development of a g r i c u l t u r e a p p e a r s l a t e i n Lower Nubia an i s n o t pronounced i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . The l a t e occur-

r e n c e of d o m e s t i c a t e d p l a n t s and animals may r e f l e c t geographic f a c t o r s t h a t impeded t h e s p r e a d from n o r t h e r n A f r i c a i n t o t h e s o u t h e r n p o r t i o n , o r may i n d i c a t e t h a t s e e d - c o l l e c t i n g and fishin were extremely s u c c e s s f u l . I n t h e Wadi Halfa N e o l i t h i c s i t e s t h e r e i s an i n d i c a t i o n of heavy r e l i a n c e on f i s h i n g and hunting; some c u l t i q e n s a r e found, however, implying a t l e a s t i n c i p i e n t agriculture.

8 SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA

Nonintens i v e A g r i c u l t u r a l Phase

A-Group r e p r e s e n t s a t r a n s i t i o n from t h e N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d i n terms of b o t h t e c h n o l o g y a n d s u b s i s t e n c e . Economic b e h a v i o r was specialized f o r N i l e e c o l o g y and i n v o l v e d a mixed s t r a t e g y . The archaeological r e c o r d shows t h a t d o m e s t i c a t e d g r a i n s , h ~ n t e d animals, f i s h , and g a t h e r e d s e e d c o n s t i t u t e d t h e d i e t a r y base. The farming s t r a t e g y w a s n o t a n i n t e n s i v e o n e ; s i n g l e a n n u a l c r o p s were h a r v e s t e d and t l i e s u c c e s s was d e p e n d e n t on t h e a n n u a l o v e r flow of t h e N i l e d u r i n g t h e f l o o d s e a s o n (August-November) (Trigger 1965). The m a j o r c r o p , which was u s e d a s b o t h a f o o d source and f o d d e r , was m i l l e t . M i l l e t was less e f f i c i e n t i n t e r m s of p r o d u c t i v i t y and n u t r i t i o n a l c o n t e n t t h a n o t h e r p o t e n t i a l crops (such a s b a r l e y a n d w h e a t ) , b u t c o u l d more p r e d i c t a b l y be harvested p r i o r t o t h e f l o o d s e a s o n . The c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e A-Group p o p u l a t i o n from N e o l i t h i c popul a t i o n s is s u b s t a n t i a t e d i n c o n s i s t e n t s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n ! n q , pottery s t y l e s , and b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s (Adams 1 9 7 7 ) . T h e r e f o r e , a n indigenous development o f t r a n s i t i o n a l economy g r e w from e x i s t i n g conditions and l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n s .

S i m i l a r t o t h e A-Group i n a d a p t i v e s t r a t e g i e s , C-Group p o p u l a -

tions e x h i b i t e d a mixed economy with r e l i a n c e on d o m e s t i c a t e d g r a i n s ( p r i m a r y m i l l e t ) , f i s h , a n d h u n t e d a n i m a l s . T h e r e was an increase i n t r a d e i t e m s f r o m t h e N o r t h (Egypt). The r e l a t i v e prosperity o f t h e r e g i o n was h i g h . The C-Group p o p u l a t i o n s a r e d i r e c t l y d e s c e n d e d from the A-Grou?, a l t h o u g h t h e y occur f o l l o w i n g a brief abandonment o f Lower Nubia b r o u g h t o n by p o l i t i c a l a n d economic f a c t o r s ( T r i g g e r 1965). P o l i t i c a l pressure from t h e Old Kingdom had p u s h e d i n digenous Nubians from Lower t o Upper Nubia d u r i n g t h e A-Group t o C-Group t r a n s i t i o n . T h e b i o l o g i c a l homogeneity o f t h e two groups emphasizes the r o l e of exogenous p o l i t i c a l a n d economic f a c t o r s i n the b r i e f abandonment a f t e r t h e A-Group t i m e p e r i o d (ca. 2400 B . C . ) (Adams 1977) . Following t h e C-Group period t h e r e was a n o t h e r e x o d u s o f Nubians southward. A s l o w b u t c o n t i n u a l d e c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n size r e s u l t e d from c o n t i n u e d p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e from Egypt ( T r i g g e r 1965). F o r 1000 y e a r s f o l l o w i n q t h e C-Group p e r i o d , t h e r e g i o n o f Lower Nubia remained u n o c c u p i e d b e c a u s e a d e c r e a s e i n t h e N i l e water l e v e l c r e a t e d an e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r t 3 e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e area.

DEBRA L. MARTIN ET

AL.

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TABL,E 8.2 Estimates o f Population Growth Based on Settlement^ Patterns o f Excavated ArehueoZogieal S i t e s i n Louer Nubiaa --

----

--

Phase

--

Intensive Meroi-tic X-Group

Christian

-----

Popu Zution Estimate

60,000 44,000 60,000 - --

--.

u ~ r z G Q a 1965 r :1 6 0 .

I n t e n s i v e A g r i c u l t u r a l Phase

Meroitic (350 B.C. -A. D. 3.50)

The r e o c c u p a t i o n o f Lower r.?ubia o c c u r r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y with t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e w a t e r w h e e l (saqia) in Upper Nubia (Adams a 1970). T h e w a t e r w h e e l i n c r e a s e d t h e p r o d u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l of t h e * r e g i o n , p e r m i t t i n g s u p p o r t of a l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n t h a n b e f o r e F a r m e r s could now grow s e v e r a l c r o p s a y e a r , and (Table 8 . 2 ) . t h e l e v e l a r e a s f a r t h e r back from t h e N ~ l e ( a s we11 a s t h e high ,' b a n k s ) c o u l d b e w a t e r e d and used ( T r i a q e r 1 9 6 5 ) . However, crops ;. grown on t h e s e lands r e q u i r e d a much g r e a t e r i n v e s t m e n t acre-by- : a c r e t h a n did s i n g l e a n n u a l c r o p s grown o n t h e a l l u v i a l f l o o d ' p l a i n s . The new s y s t e m t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e d i n c r e a s e d i n p u t s of ' b o t h t i m e and e n e r g y . The M e r o i t i c c u l t u r e f l o u r i s h e d a t this t i m e and Lower Nubia * was i m p o r t a n t f o r t r a d e and communication between t h e Mediterr a n e a n and s u b S a h a r a n A f r i c a . However, most o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t s w e r e s m a l l and r e l a t i v e l y poor. The i n h a b i t a n t s o f Lower Nubia w e r e b e i n g r u l e d from Upper Nubia and may have been s u p p o r t i n g t h e a r e a w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s (Adams 1 9 7 7 ) . Even w i t h the w a t e r w h e e l , a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l w a s r e l a t i v e l y l o w , and trade ~ 1 c c o m t e df o r much of t h e g r o w t h ( T r l q g e r 1 9 6 5 ) . T h e archaeo1ogic:al record shows a f a r m i n g s t r a t e g y t h a t now * i n v o l v e d t h r e e g r o w l ng s e a s o n s . Crops h a r v e s t e d i n c l u d e d m i l l e t , w h e a t , b a r l e y , bearm, tobacco, l e n t i l s , p e a s ,
a

--

.+ - 8 SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRIC.4 --. -

*-3,.

^ c?

The M e r o i t i c p e o p l e had a s t r o n g i n c e n t i v e f o r development o f the f u l l a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l o f t h e i r r e q i o n . I m m e d i a t e l y t o the north l a y t h e w e a l t h y Roman p r o v i n c e o f Dodekashoenos , a terninus t o r t h e c a r a v a n t r a d e w i t h sub S a h a i a n A f r i c a . The Lower 6 Nubians, s u b j e c t s o f t h e Upper Nubian Kingdom o f Meroe, t r a d e d f - their s u r p l u s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e t o t h i s " i n d u s t r i a l i z e d " Roman province (Adams 1970) I n r e t u r n they r e c e i v e d a b o u n t i f u l range ?- of the t r a d e goods o f M e d i t e r r a n e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n . Toward t h e l a t e r s t a q e o f t h e M e r o i t i c period, t h e Lower Nubi a n s h a d a c h i e v e d a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d l e v e l o f c u l t - u r a l development t h a n t h e a r e a had ever s e e n b e f o r e . S e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s i n d i c a t e that t h e population s i z e i n c r e a s e d a n d c l u s t e r e d i n t o d e n s e p o c k e t s a r o u n d t h e irrigated f i e l d s ( T r i g g e r 1965) . By A.D. 350, t h e d e c l i n e of t h e Kingdom of Kush a n d t h e Kingdom o f Meroe b r o u g h t a n end t o p r o s p e r i t y i n Lower Nubia. The Rozan Empire was b e s e t w i t h g o v e r n m e n t a l i n s t a b i l i t y , f a m i n e , p l a p e s , and w a r s (Adams 1 9 7 7 ) . '

'

.

.

X-Group (BulZana Culture) (A.D. 350-550) During t h e X-Group p e r i o d , t h e l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n c e n t e r s f i s sioned i n t o s m a l l e r v i l l a g e s c o n c o m i t a n t w i t h a d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of power and an i n c r e a s e i n l o c a l v i l l a g e autonomy ( T r i g g e r 1 9 6 5 ) . Several r e s e a r c h e r s have e m p h a s i z e d u u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a r t i f a c t s between M e r o i t i c a n d X-Group p o p u l a t i o n s and have suqgested a c u l t u r a l d e c l i n e due t o an i n v a s i o n o f new p o p u l a t i o n into Lower Nubia (e. g . , B a t r a w i 1 9 4 6 ; .%rant 1 9 2 5 ) . However, an analysis o f a r t i f a c t s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e a r e no s t r i k i n g differences (Adams 1977) . B u r i a l p a t t e r n s , p o t t e r y t y p e s , i r o n spears, a r r o w h e a d s , a n d Lools w e r e common t o both p e r i o d s (Trigger 1 9 6 5 ) . While t h e q u a l i t y o f X-Group p o t t e r y may n o t h a v e been e q u a l i n f a b r i c o r d e c o r a t i o n t o t h a t p r e v i o u s l y p r o d u c e d i n Meroitic t i m e s , i t was v e r y s i m i l a r a n d a1 l d i f f e r e n c e s c o u l d be traced t o a M e d i t e r r a n e a n o r i g i n (Adams 1 9 7 0 ) . I t would a p p e a r , t h e r e f o r e , that i n d i g e n o u s Nubian i n f 1u e n c e s remained s t r o n g i n t o the X-Group p e r i o d . S i m i l a r i t i e s i n t e c h n o l o g i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l realms s u g g e s t c o n t i n u i t y ( T r i g g e r 1 9 6 5 ; Vaqn N i e l s o n 1 9 7 0 ) . Gene t i c and b i o l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y h a s a l s o been documented u s i n g d i s c r e t e d e n t a l t r a i t s ( G r e e n e 1 9 6 6 ) and c r a n i a l t r a i t s (Berry and Berry 1973; B e r r y e t a l . 1967) . X-Group s u b s i s t e n c e a c t i v i t i e s were s i m i l a r t o the M e r o i t i c s t r a t e g y o f i n t e n s i v e a q r i c u l Lure w-i t h m o d e r a t e a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y (Vagn N i e l s o n 1 9 7 0 ) . Due t o l o c a l autonomy o f Nubian v i l l a g e s , trade n e t w o r k s and t r a d e items w e r e n o t v e r y p r o n o u n c e d . T h i s lack of l u x u r y and e x o t i c a r t i f a c L s i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d has been i n t e r p r e t e d a s a " d e c l i n e " i n t h e c : u l t u r a l a c h i e v e m e n t s p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d f o r t h e Meroitic ( A d a m s 1 9 7 7 ) . Whether t h e s h i f t i n p e r c e n t a g e of t r a d e i t e m s i s due t o <-I d e c l i n e i n a r t i s t i c ambitions o r t o a d e c l i n e i n n e c e s s i t y o f r e c i p r o c a l t r a d i n g o f a g r i c u l t u r a l goods f o r " h a r d " g o o d s i s d e b a t a b l e . While t h e r e is no e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t i n g a change i n t h e u n d e r i y i n g s u b s i s t e n c e

9

DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL. .

p a t t e r n , X-Group p e o p l e were more i n d e p e n d e n t , a n d w e r e n o t obliged. It i s n o t c l e a r from t h e archaeot o trade a g r i c u l t u r a l products. l o g i c a l r e c o r d t o w h a t d e g r e e t h e X-Group may have been p r a c t i c i n g i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e , b u t t h e r e a p p e a r s to have been a reduced : demand f o r f o o d from n e i g h b o r i n g C J t i e s .

Christian (A.D.

550-1300)

The C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d shows much c u l t u r a l g r o w t h and r e l i g i o u s ., reunification. I n i t i a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by E g y p t , t h e c h u r c h r o s e t o become t h e f o c u s o f Nubi an i n d e p e n d e n c e . U r b a n i z a t i o n and s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a r e e v i d e n t i n t h e h o u s i n g s t y l e s , a r c h i t e c t u r e , and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s (Adams 1 9 7 7 ) . P o p u l a t i o n s began t o c l u s t e r , i n l a r g e c e n t e r s and m o n a s t i c c o m m u n i t i e s t o w a r d t h e end of t h e t i m e p e r i o d , b u t t h e r e was n o t a n i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e on : a l a r g e s c a l e (Table 8- 2 ) . S u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s were a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e p r e v i o u s two time periods. A g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s d i d seem t o i n t e n s i f y , how- ; e v e r . I n e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y p o o r r e g i o n s , a r t i f i c i a l t e r r a c e s were . b u i l t a s h i g h as the w a t e r w h e e l c o u l d r e a c h ( T r i g g e r 1 9 6 5 ) . Trade n e t w o r k s w e r e o n c e a g a i n very s t r o n g . T r i g g e r (1965: 1 4 5 ) s t a t e s t h a t Nubians were t r a d i n g s e v e r a l h u n d r e d s l a v e s t o E g y p t each : y e a r i n r e t u r n f o r wheat, b a r l e y , l e n t i l s , c l o t h , and h o r s e s . In a d d i t i o n , d a t e s , f i g s , g r a p e s , a n d o t h e r f r u i t s were imported from Egypt. I n t e n s i fi . c a t i o n o f a g r i . c u 1t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s , w i t h no e v i dence f o r l a r g e i n c r e a s e s i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n s i z e , s u g g e s t s a g r e a t e r demand f o r g o o d s i n t h e c i t i e s .

The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l . r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r e h i s t o r y shows t h e i m p a c t o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l v a r i a b l e s and p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s change. There a r e p e r i o d s of environmental i n s t a b i l i t y (decline i n t h e l e v e l of t h e Ni-1.e) i n which Nubia was not. h a b i t a b l e , such a s t h e 1000-year hi-atus; f o l l o w i n g t h e C-Group o c c u p a t i o n . I n other, p e r i o d s d u r i n g which e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s were c o n s t a n t , p o l i t i c a l : and r e l i g i o u s f a c t o r s w e r e p r i m a r y f e a t u r e s o f c u l t u r a l change. The t r a n s i t i o n s from M c r o i t i c t o X-Group t o C h r i s t i a n p h a s e s were due t o such s o c i o p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s . The m a j o r s h i f t i n t h e food b a s e i n Nubia o c c u r r e d d u r i n g the M e s o l i t h i c - N e o l i t h i c t r a n s i t i o n (3600 B.C .) . D u r i n g t h i s t i m e , t h e s u b s i s t e n c e a c t i v i t i e s changed from a r e l i a n c e on h u n t e d and g a t h e r e d food t o a food base t h a t i n c l u d e d a s i n q l e a n n u a l c r o p of . m i l l e t d u r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g n o n i n t e n s i v e p h a s e (A- a n d C-Group : p h a s e , 3400-100 B . C . ) . While c u l t i g e n s a p p e a r t o b e p a r t of t h e ' d i e t , t h e e c o l o g i c a l u n c e r t a i n t y o f t h e N i l e p r e c l u d e d t o t a l rel i a n c e o n them. With t h e a d o p t i o n o f t h e w a t e r w h e e l , a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l i n c r e a s e d a n d t h e c u J . t i g e n s became v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e d i e t a s w e l l r i a i-n t r a d e . The M e r o i t i c (350 B.C. -A.D. 350) shows 1 an i n t e n s i v e u s e o f t h e l a n d t o p r o d u c e three a n n u a l c y c l e s o f

'

8 SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN I'REHISTORIC AFRICA harvesting, which p r o m o t e d a dependence o n a b r o a d v a r i e t y o f c u l t i g e n s . The C h r i s t i a n g r o u p (A.D. 550-1350) shows a s i m i l a r The t i m e p e r i o d between t h e pattern of i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e Meroitic and t h e C h r i s t i a n p h a s e , t h e X-Group (A.D. 350-550) , does show a d e c r e a s e i n i n t e n s i v e f a r m i n g , r e f l e c t i n g s o c i o p o l itical changes. During t h e M e r o i t i c a n d C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d s , l a r g e power c e n t e r s outside t h e l o c a l v i l l a g e s l i n k e d t h e a r e a i n t o pronounced t r a d e networks. T h i s i n f l u e n c e d the f l o w of g o o d s a n d a c c e s s to goods. Because of r e c i p r o c a l t r a d e t i e s , t h e M e r o i t i c a n d C h r i s t i a n groups showed a n i n t e n s i f i e d p a t t e r n of p r o d u c t i o n t h a t was n o t related t o an i n t e r n a l i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e ( r e f e r t o T h i s p a t t e r n s u g g e s t s a flow o f t h e c u l t i g e n s t o t h e Table 8 . 2 ) . neighboring c i t i e s . The X-Group r e s e m b l e s t h e e a r l i e r A- and C-Groups, w i t h l i t t l e p o l i t i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n , l o o s e l y s t r u c t u r e d autonomous v i l l . a g e s , a n d l i t t l e o r no trade w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g c i t i e s . The X-Group v i l l a g e s were more e v e n l y s p a c e d a l o n g t h e

.

Nile. E c o l o g i c a l l y , t h e cirea was m a r g i n a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o a g r i - c u l t u r e . T h e amount: o f a r a b l e l a n d was l i m i t e d and e v e n s l i g h t declines i n a v a i l a b l e l a n d c o u l d h a v e had s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o n the a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l . While t h e w a t e r w h e e l a l l o w e d some independence from random f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e w a t e r t a b l e and allowed f o r i r r i g a t i o n when n e c e s s a r y , a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l r e mained l i m i t e d . The e x p l o i t a t i o n o f f a r m i n g v i l l a g e s d u r i n g periods of o u t s i d e p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l , t h e r e f o r e , c o u l d h a v e a dramatic impact o n t h e f o o d a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e l o c a l p e a s a n t r y .

POPULATION GROWTH

There a r e a t p r e s e n t n o p u b l i s h e d reports e s t i m a t i n q t h e p p u lations s i z e during t h e Mesolithic-Neolithic t r a n s i t i o n a l phase. Trigger (1965:160) e s t i m a t e s t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n size f o r t h e A-Group was 33,000 and t h a t it r o s e t o 1 7 , 5 0 0 in t h e C-Group p e r i o d i n Lower Nubia. D u r i n g t h e M e r o i t i c , t h e p o p u l a t i o n r o s e t o 60,000, b u t t h e r e was a 26% d e c r e a s e i n the X-Group p e r i o d ( t o 44,000). There was a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e d u r i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n p h a s e t o 50,000 ( T a b l e 8 . 2 ) . T h e s e e s t i m a t e s a r e b a s e d o n t-he s i z e and r e l a t i v e numbers of s e t t l e m e n t components i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g ica 1 samples, and n o t on a b s o l u t e numbers. During t h e p e r i o d o f n o n i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e (A- and C-Group) , population s i z e averaged 1 5 , 0 0 0 . R e l i a n c e o n a n n u a l f l o o d i n g f o r produce s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d p o p u l a t i o n growth. Moreover, t h e d e c l i n e i n t h e N i l e w a t e r l e v e l made t h e a r e a i n h o s p i t a b l e f o r 1000 y e a r s . Then, w i t h t h e r i s e i n t h e N i l e a n d t h e use of t h e w a t e r w h e e l , t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e became a m a j o r f a c t o r i n p o p u l a t i o n growth. I n a d d i t i o n , the u n i f i c a t i o n o f Nubia u n d e r M e r o i t i c p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e a l s o s t i m u l a t e d i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l

DEBRA 1,. MARTIN ET AL..

FIGURE 8 . 2 . Changes i n cranial morphology from i k e MesoLItkzC t o the MXCH (Meroitie, X-Group, and Christian, combined) (---- ) . These c ? - q e s involved a reduction i n t h e s i z e of the

f---)

rriasticatory muscles, a reduction in the s i z e of the loiter face, a reduction "in crania1 length, and an 'increase -in c r a n i a l height.

p r o d u c t i o n and p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h . F o l l o w i n g t h e b r e a k u p o f t h e M e r o d t i c e m p i r e , t h e r e was a l o s s o f o n e - q u a r t e r o f t h e population. This d e c l i n e d u r i n g t h e X-Group p e r i o d l i k e l y r e p r e s e n t s a l a c k of demand f o r i n t e n s i f i e d a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y , a n d a d e c r e a s e in t h e amount o f o v e r a l l a c t i v i t y i n Lower Nubia r e l a t e d t o t r a d e and comrnunication between t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n and s u b S a h a r a n A f r i c a . The s l i g h t growth d u r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n q p e r i o d r e f l e c t s the impact of religious re-unification.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES RELATED TO THE DEVELOPMENT AND INTENSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE

C r a n i a l - F a c i a l Chanqes Nubian M e s o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r o b u s t c r a n i a , t y p i c a l l y with l a r g e b r o w r i d g e s , l a r g e f l a t t e n e d faces, an? bun-shaped o c c i p u t s (Greene and Armelayos 1 9 7 2 ) . Chanqes i n l? ter N u b i a n p o p u l a t i o n s i n v o l v e a progressive d e c r e a s e i n t h e r o b u s t i c i t y o f t h e e n t i r e c r a n i o f a c i a l complex, '3 r o t a t i o n of the m i d - f a c e a n d l o w e r f a c e t o a p o s i t i o n more i n f e r i o r t o the c r a n i a l v a u l t , and a r e l a t i v e i n c r e a s e i n c r a n i a l h e i g h t w i t h a decrease i n l e n g t h ( C a r l s o n and Van Gerven 1.977; Van Gerven et a l . 1979) (Figure 8 . 2 ) .

8 SOCIOECONOMIC: CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA

203

E a r l i e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e change i n c r a n i o f a c i a l morphology r e l i e d on r a c i a l a d m i x t u r e h y p o t h e s e s which e x p l a i n s a l l changes i n c r a n i a l morphology i n terms o f r e p l a c e m e n t o f o n e p o p u l a t i o n b y another ( B a t r a w i 1 9 4 6 ) . More r e c e n t b i o c u l t u r a l models have p r o posed t h a t a d i e t a r y chanqc i n v o l v i n g a r e d u c t i o n i n a t t r i t i o n r a t e and an i n c r e a s e i n c a r i o g e n i c f o o d s c o u l d have p r e c i p i t a t e d s e l e c tion f o r s m a l l e r and m o r p h o l o q i c a l l y less complex t e e t h . This then could have led t o a r e d u c t i o n i n f a c i a l a r c h i t e c t u r e w i t h a compensatory change i n t h e c r a n i a l v a u l t and b a s e t o meet t h e s t r e s s e s acting on them ( C a r l s o n a n d Van Gerven 1 9 7 7 ; G r e e n e and Armelagos 1972 1 . The most. d r a m a t i c change i n f a c i a l morphology o c c u r s from t h e Mesolithic p h a s e t o t h e n o n i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l p h a s e o f A- and C-Group . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , N e o l i t h i c m a t e r i a l i s n o t a v a i l a b l e t o document t h e p e r i o d o f m o s t r a p i d c h a n g e . The m o r p h o l o q i c a l changes d e s c r i b e d c o n t i n u e f r o m t h e n o n i n t e n s i v e p h a s e t o t h e intensive phase. Given t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of d i e t a r y c h a n g e s , t h e i m p a c t o f a s h i f t - f r o m f-oods o b t a i n e d by gathering and h u n t i n g t o a s t a p l e c o n s i s t i n g of m i l l e t may have provided t h e i m p e t u s f o r n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n and t h e c h a n g e s i n c r a n i o f a c i a l morphol.ogy . Stature S t a t u r e has b e e n a s s e s s e d f o r a l l t h e m a j o r g r o u p s e x c e p t f o r t h e N e o l i t h i c . Based on t h e maximum Length o f t h e f e m u r , t h e g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e between mean v a l u e s ( f o r b o t h m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s ) i s found between t h e A-Group and t h e X-Group . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 5% l e v e l (Vagn N i e l s o n 1 9 7 0 ) . Although t h e r e d u c t i o n i n stature i s s i m i l a r f o r b o t h m a l e s and f m a l e s , o n l y t h e males shaw a s t a t i s t - i c a l l y si g n i f -i c a n t dec1.i ne . For m a l e s , t h e g r e a t e s t a v e r a g e l e n g t h o f femur o c c u r s For t h e A-Group, w i t h 47.6 cm, and i t d e c r e a s e s t o 4 5 . 5 a n d 4 5 . 0 c m i n t h e C-Group and M e r o i t i c , r e s p e c t i v e l y . However, t h e X-Group m a l e s show a s i q n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e t o 4 4 . 5 cm, a n d f e m o r a l l e n g t h i n c r e a s e s t o 4 5 . 0 c m i n t h e C h r i s t i a n s . F e m a l e s show less v a r i a t i o n i n fem-iir l e n q t h , with t h e A-Group h a v i n g a mean o f 4 2 - 5 and t h e C-Group 3. mean o f 42.1 c m . The M e r o i t i c , X-Group, and C h r i s t i a n f e m a l e s a l l show femur l e n g t h s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 1 c m ( T a b l e 8 . 3 ) .

I N T E N S I F I C A T I O N O F AGRICULTURE AND CHANGES I N THE P A T T E R N O F DISEASE

The l a c k o f e x t e n s i v e s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l from t h e M e s o l i t h i c N e o l i t h i c p h a s e makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o d i r e c t l y a s s e s s t h e i m p a c t of t h e t r a n s i t i o n from g a t h e r i n q a n d h u n t i n g t o a g r i c u l t u r e . I n our sample, t h e r e i s e v e n d i f f i c u l t y i n a n a l y z i n g m a t e r i a l from

DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL4 TABLE 8 . 3 Maximum Femoral L m g ths for the Combined Excavated S i t e s from Louer ~ u b - ~ a ~ --

Ma le s ^ax7;m7vim

-- ----Fma l c ,q Maximum

--

femoral zqt'h

Dimorphism

(am)

- ---

46.05 47.6 4A .,!I

45.0 44.5 45.0

a ~ u t uas surnrnari-zed b g Vaqn Nielson ( 1 9 ? 0 : 8 6 ) .

t h e rionintensive agriculture; 1 p e r i o d . What we have been able t o demonstrate i s t h a t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e ( M r o i t i c , X-Group, and C h r i s t i a n ) , t h e r e i s a p a t t e r n of n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c y that i s r e l a t e d t o t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e . W e do not know whether t h i s p a t t e r n e x i s t e d in p e r i o d s o f l e s s i n t e n s e a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y , but the few indic a t i o n s t h a t we do have suggest t h a t t h e e a r l i e r d i e t a r y base was sufficient

.

Long Bone Growth and Development

+

;

-

'I

;

7

The p a t t e r n of long bone growth and development i n t h e juvenile : p o r t i o n o f t h e p r e h i s t o r i c Nubian remains ( r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e > Meroitic , X-Group, and C h r i s t i a n phases) was st.udied i n order t o j d e n t i f y p e r i o d s of probable s t r e s s (Annelagos e t a l . 1 9 7 1 ) . Unf o r t u n a t e l y , no such d a t a from t h e e a r l i e r Nubian qroups a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r comparison. ) This a n a l y s i s provides a measure of t h e amount of developmental s t r e s s experienced by the subadult ; p o r t i o n s of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l phase. While no i n t e r g r o u p compari- ; sons a r e a v a i l a b l e , t h e data f o r t h e combined i n t e n s i v e aqricultur a l phases suggest t h a t t h e s u b a d u l t s were experiencing developmental s t r e s s . A comparison of t h e Nubian d a t a w i t h t h e d a t a f o r a sample of * present-day American boys h i g h l i g h t s t h e e f f e c t s of t h i s stress. , Among Americans, growth i s a c c e l e r a t e d f o r t h e f i r s t s e v e r a l years of l i f e , and d e c e l e r a t e s r a p i d l y t h e r e a f t e r . T h e second period of -. a c c e l e r a t i o n begins i n mid-childhood and reaches a peak during the ' ado1 e s c e n t growth s p u r t . By c o n t r a s t , Nubian growth apparently -ieclined s t e a d i l y from the f i r s t through the seventh years of l i f e r u -a

^

.%

zq SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA ^-

fr.

& - reaching a p o i n t o f l i t t l e o r n o i n c r e a s e between t h e a g e s o f f i v e

and seven. The two p e r i o d s o f catch-^^^^ g r o w t h a r e v i s i b l e a s episodes o f s h a r p l y a c c e l e r a t e d i n c r e a s e i n bone l e n g t h . Although t h e p a t t e r n s o f Nubian l o n g bone l e n g t h s d o n o t ap-.s "pear g r o s s l y a b n o r m a l , b o t h t h e r a p i d d e c e l e r a t i o n o f g r o w t h i n k.. early childhood and t h e c e s s a t i o n o f growth a r o u n d a g e s i x sugp- gest t h e p r e s e n c e o f s t r e s s a t t h e s e p e r i o d s . Since t h e process i? of growth r e q u i r e s h i g h i n p u t s o f e n e r g y and p r o t e i n , dny f a c t o r - that i n t e r f e r e s w i t h t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n a f f e c t g r o w t h . Growth . retardation c o u l d b e a r e s u l t o f e i t h e r d e c r e a s e d n u t r i e n t i n t a k e . or increased n u t r i e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s , a s i n t h e c a s e o f trauma o r infection.

=

v<--

P o r o t i c Hyperostosis Vagn N i e l s o n (1970) has a n a l y z e d al.1 a d u l t s k e l e t o n s w i t h - crania p r e s e n t f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and p o r o t i c hyperostosis U n f ~ r t u n ~ a t e l yt,h e r e a r e no p u b l i s h e d a c c o u n t s f o r the M e s o l i t h i c - N e o l i t h i c r a t e s o f p o r o L i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , b u t t h e r e . are r e p o r t s f o r t h e A-Group t h r o u g h t h e C h r i s t i a n p h a s e s . Cribra o r b i t a l i a s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e s i n a d u l t m a l e s i n t h e C-Group Frequencies o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a r e l a t i v e t o t h o s e i n t h e A-group. then i n c r e a s e s l i g h t l y i n t h e M e r o i t i c , X-Group, and C h r i s t i a n groups. The f e m a l e s show a v e r y d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n o f i n v o l v e m e n t . The h i g h e s t f r e q u e n c y o f c r l b r a o r b i t a l i a f o r f e m a l e s i s i n t h e X-group and t h e l o w e s t f r e q u e n c y is i n t h e C h r i s t i a n g r o u p . The A-Group, C-Group, and M e r o i t i c show r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s for females t h a n f o r m a l e s ( T a b l e 8 . 4 ) . The C h r i s t i a n s i t e o f K u l u b n a r t i h a s even h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s . T h e two C h r i s t i a n c e m e t e r i e s h a v e f r e q ~ e n c i e so f 9 4 . 4 and 8 2 . 0 , w i t h most c a s e s showing s l i g h t o r moderate p i t t i n g . P l o t t i n g t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s d y i n g with and w i t h o u t p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s shows t h a t t h o s e w i t h t h e a f f l i c t i o n had a much h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y o f d y i n g in a l l a g e groups (Van Gerven e t a l . 1981 ) .

.

D e n t a l Caries and Enamel M i c r o d e f e c t s Annelagos (1969) a n a l y z e d t h e f r e q u e n c y o f c a r i o u s l e s - i o n s f o r the Nubian s e r i e s from Wadi Halfa . The p e r c e n t a g e o f c a r i o u s lesions on t h e d e n t i t i o n was r e c o r d e d by t o t a l number o f t e e t h observed. The f r e q u e n c y was v e r y low ( 1 . 0 % ) in t h e M e s o l i L h i c sample and i n c r e a s e d t o 1 8 . 0 % i.n t h e Christian p h a s e . Rudney (1981) a n a l y z e d e n a m e l m i c r o d e f e c t s f o r t h e Meroi t i c and X-Group p o p u l a t i o n s from Wadi H a l f a . P a t h o 1 o g i c ; a l band s c o r e s were d e r i v e d from t h e f r e q u e n c y o f b a n d s p e r t o o t h and eqame.1 nypoplasias w e r e added t o t h e s c o r e when t h e y a o p e a r i n d e p e n d e n t of a m i c r o d e f e c t . F o r b o t h t h e m e s i o b u c c a l and a i s t o l i n q u d l cusps, t h e p a t h o l o g i c a l b a n d s c o r e s a r e g r e a t e r f o r suback-ilts 222

DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL.

;

TABLE 8 . 4 Frequency of Cribr-a Orbitazia in Males and FemaLes during t h e A-Group fhr'ouq'h. the Christian Phases i n fubia0' ---

- ------

P

Kales

- --

Frequency P'ha se < -

-

0

A?

(%)

a;

21 140

18.2 il.2 14.6 26.6 2.8

22 18 89 79 36

--

-

A-Group C-i'ko~~p Mero it ic

14.3 2.9 ,i2

77

'/.-Group C n r ititid'n

9.8 11.1

92

.

FmLes Fr equenc,q

---

27

^at~ revolted i n V a p Nielson ( 1 9 7 0 ) .

a d u l t s i n the M e r o i t i c , a n d l e s s Jn t h e X-Group s u b a d u l t s and a d u l t s . Two-way a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e showed t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e mean s c o r e s was s i g n ~ f i c a n t ( p - 0 0 1 ) . T h e r e are . no o t h e r d a t a t o make even gross c o m p a r i s o n s t o o t h e r p h a s e s . This two-phase s t u d y i s i m p o r t a n t , however, b e c a u s e i t p o i n t s t o d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s o f stress between t-wo q r o u p s t h a t a r e a g r i : c u l t u r a l i s t s . Because t h e X-Group shows less d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t r e s s , : i t s u g q e s t s t h a t t h i s p e r ~ o dc h a r a c t e r i z e d by l o c a l autonomy a n d 1 d i s p e r s e d s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s may have been less s t r e s s f u l .

<

Premature 0s t e o p r o s i s

Huss-Ashmore (1978) a n a l y z e d m i c r o r a d ~ o g r a p n s o f f e m o r a l cross ; s e c t i o n s o f 75 Wadi H a l f a Nubian j u v e n i l e s a g e d from b i r t h t o 1 4 y e a r s . C o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s was measured arid compared w i t h t h e t o t a l midshaf t diameter ( F i g u r e 8 . 3 ) . C o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s n o t o n l y f a i l s t o i n c r e a s e w j t h a g e , b u t shows e v i d e n c e o f a n a c t u a l decrease ai'ter the a g e of 10. T h e mean percentage o f c o r t i c a l area : was a l s o p l o t t e d f o r t h e combined s a m p l e ; i t i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g the . f i r s t t w o y e a r s a n d t h e n d e c l i n e d s h a r p l y (Armelagos e t a l . 1982). . A comparison with a modern w e l l - n o u r i s h e d p o p u l a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e d i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . Whereas t h e modern p o p u l a t i o n (Garn 1970) showed a steady i n c r e a s e i n p e r c e n t a g e o f c o r t i c a l a r e a from birth, t h e Nubian s a m p l e showed a d e c r e a s e after t h e age o f two. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n s u a q e s t - s t h a t l o n g bone g r o w t h was m a i n t a i n e d a t : t h e e x p e n s e o f tori-ical bone q r o w t h . S i n c e t h i s s t u d y incl-uded 1 o n l y t h e s u b a d u l ts from t h e i n t e n s i f i ed a g r i c u l t u r a l p e r i o d s ( M e r o i t i c , X-Croup, and C h r i . s t i a n ) , n o c o m p a r i s o n c a n be made with t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l o r non-intensive phases. E v i d e n c e a l s o e x i s t s that young a d u l t females in t h e intensive a g r i c u l t u r a L p h a s e s were e x p e r i e n c i n g n u t r i t i o n a l problems. There . was a d e f i n i t e and c o n t i n u a l l o s s o f c o r t i c a l bone ( a s measured by

;

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SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA

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FIGURE 8 - 3 . Femoral cowieaZ. thickness and midshaft w i d t j , ; (means and standard d e v i a t i o n s ) pZot-ced for' subadutt age. Wii ie th with age, t h e a c t u a l thickness of ; total midshafi: ~ ~ i d inar'eas~s the cortex does not, i n d i c a t i n g the rnaintena¥ya of grouth a t tlwexpense of t h i c k n e s s . This is in response t o p ~ o t e i n - c a l o r i e dnutritwn.

,

-

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-

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the p e r c e n t a g e o f c o r t i c a l b o n e ) i n f e m a l e s f o l l o w i n g t h e t w e n t i e t h year and c o n t i n u i n g t h r o u g h o u t l i f e (Mart-in a n d A m e l a g o s 1 9 7 9 ) . The e a r l y a g e of o n s e t a n d t h e d i s t i n c t i v e p a t t e r n o f bone l o s s suggest t h a t t h e f e m a l e s e g m e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n was a p p a r e n t l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p r e m a t u r e b o n e l o s s n o t n o r m a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e aginq p r o c e s s . A microscopic study w a s undertaken t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e underlving p r o c e s s e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e d t h e o c c u r r e n c e of p r e m a t u r e o s t e o p o r o s i s ( M a r t i n 1 9 8 3 ) . Two s e p a r a t e p r o c e s s e s a t t h e h i s t o logical l e v e l a p p e a r t o be t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s o f t h e t o t a l amount of bone p r e s e n t . F i r s t , young f e m a l e s e x h i b i t b o n e s t h a t a r e extremely p o r o u s due t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n r e s o r o t i o n activity, and second, t h e b o n e t h a t i s p r e s e n t i s n o t well m i n e r a l i z e d , suggesting a s l o w e r r a t e o f f o r m a t i o n t h a n n o r m a l . Taken t o g e t h e r , t h e t r e n d s i n p r e m a t u r e o s t e o p o r o s i s f o r subadults a n d young a d u l t f e m a l e s s u g g e s t that t h e intensive a g r i c u l t u r a l p h a s e proc'.-icea n u t r i t i o n a l i n a d e q u a c i e s . W h i l e t h e r e i s n o comparison wit: :he n o n i n t e n s i v e a n d t r a n s i t i o n a l p h a s e s , t h e

DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL.

p r e s e n c e o f p o o r l y m i n e r a l i z e d b o n e a n d a c t i v e r e s o r p t i o n suggests t h a t i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r a t e g i e s may p r o d u c e s u b g r o u p s a t r i s k . T h e s e s u b g r o u p s , b e c a u s e o f i n c r e a s e d n u t r i e n t demands, do n o t have a c c e s s t o n e c e s s a r y resources. I n terms o f skeletal g r o w t h , d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d m i n e r a l i z a t i o n , t h e n u t r i t i o n a 1 problems could be g e n e r a l p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e m a l n u t r i t i o n , imbalances i n the c a l c i u m / p h o s p h o r u s r a t i o , o r m a l a b s o r p t i o n o f n u t r i e n t s because of i n f e c t i o n s o r t r a u m a . These r e s u l t s a r e i m p o r t a n t , e v e n without d i r e c t c o m p a r i s o n t o e a r l i e r g r o u p s , b e c a u s e t h e problems i n m i n e r a l i z a t i o n and t h e r e s u l t a n t premature o s t e o p o r o s i s provide i n d i s p u t a b l e e v i d e n c e o f n u t r i t i o n a l p r o b l e m s t h a t c a n r e s u l t from r e l i a n c e on a s i n g l e s t a p l e c r o p ( i n t h i s c a s e , m i l l e t ) . Infectious D i sease The f r e q u e n c y of i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s i s e x t r e m e l y low i n t h e Nubi an Wadi Ha i f a p o p u l a t i o n s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e are no a v a i l able d a t a o n t h e f r e q u e n c y o f i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l o r n o n i n t e n s i v e a a r i c u l t u r a l p h a s e s . Among t h e M e r o i t i c s a m p l e s , o n l y 6 . 6 % o f the i n d i v i d u a l s show e v i d e n c e o f i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s . I n t h e X-Group, 12 - 0 % show e v i d e n c e o f i n f e c t i o n s , and t h e combined C h r i s t i a n sample shows 1 5 . 0 % (Armelagos 1 9 6 8 ) These c o m p a r a t i v e l y l o w r a t e s may b e e x p l a i n e d b y e v i d e n c e t h a t p r e h i s t o r i c Nubians were i n g e s t i n g t e t r a c y c l i n e , a broad-spectrum a n t i b i o t i c ( B a s s e t e t a]. 1 9 8 1 ) . S t o r a g e o f g r a i n i n mud b i n s may have p r o v i d e d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e g r o w t h o f Streptomyces, a m o l d - l i k e b a c t e r i u m t h a t p r o d u c e s t e t r a c y c l i n e s . The amount o f t e t r a c y c l i n e r-ngested h a s n o t been d e t e r m i n e d , but a p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s o f femoral c o r t i c a l bone suggests a t l e a s t "therapeutic" levels. F l u o r e s c e n t m i c r o s c o p y on t h e s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from Kulubnarti a l s o show e v i d e n c e o f t e t r a c y c l i n e i n g e s t i o n , b u t a t a lower r a t e ( 3 - 6 % ) (Hummert a n d Van Gerven 1 9 8 2 ) . The d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e Wadi H a l f a g r o u p (which shows e x t r e m e amounts o f f l u o r e s c e n c e ) and t h e K u l u b n a r t i s a m p l e may be t h e r e s u l t o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l and economic d i f f e r e n c e s . K u l u b n a r t i was a n e x t r e m e l y i s o l a t e d region, w i t h s m a l l - s c a l e f l o o d p l a i n a g r i c u l t u r e on f amily-owned p l o t s . These p l o t s p r o b a b l y p r o v i d e d d i r e c t f a m i l i a l u s e a n d 1 - i t t l e in t h e way o f l o n g - t e r m s t o r a g e , which would m i n i m i z e g r a i n spoilage. Because e v e n l o w - l e v e l i n g e s t i o n o f n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g a n t i b i o t i c s c a n have a n i m p a c t on i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e r a t e s , i t should b e i n v e s t i g a t e d v i a f l u o r e s c e n t microscopy o n a l l p r e h i s t o r i c skel e t a 1 s a m p l e s t h a t come from c u l t u r e s t h a t may have s t o r e d grain.

.

.,-

ft SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA

AGE grn1

,.J.<J~RZ8 . 4 . Life expectancy for each age group based on fkc mean age at death f o r t h e Meroitie (-1, K-Group (----), and

Christian (--I

phai~~~.

MORTALITY

The a n a l y s i s of" m o r t a l i t y p r o f i l e s of t h e samples from t h e Heroit-ic, X-Group, and C h r i s t i a n c e m e t e r i e s s b w t h a t age-specif i c l i f e expectancies o f t h e M e r o i t i c and X-Group p o p u l a t i o n s were very s i m i l a r , whereas life expectancy i n t h e C h r i s t i a n sample w a s greater (Figure 8 . 4 ) T h e X-Group p o p u l a t i o n experienced some improvements i n l i f e expectancy i n e a r l y childhood, b u t t h e Christians show a g r e a t e r l i f e expectancy a t every age. Tn qeneral, m o r t a l i t y i s high among i n f a n t s , l e v e l s o f f s l i g h t l y among young a d u l t s , and i n c r e a s e s s h a r p l y among o l d e r a d u l t s (Amel-agos Figure 8 . 4 p r e s e n t s t h e l i f e expectancy a t v a r i o u s ages 1969) for t h e t h r e e i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e phases. While mean a g e s a t death f o r t h e M e r o i t i c and X-Group are s i m i l a r ( 2 4 . 4 8 and 2 5 . 1 7 years, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , a f t e r t h e age of 20 t h e X-Group show a d i s tinct trend toward g r e a t e r 1 i f e expectancy. Mortality d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t i n t h e Wadi Halfa a r e a , t h e breakup of the Kingdom of Meroe d i d not r e s u l t i n a d e c l i n e i n l i f e expectancy. The r e - u n i f i c a t i o n o f Nubia under C h r i s t i a n i t y , however, did r e s u l t i n c o n s i d e r a b l e improvement i n l i f e expectancy.

.

.

DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL.

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SUMMARY

The s h i f t from g a t h e r i n g a n d h u n t i n g i n Nubia i s d i f f i c u l t to i d e n t i f y i n t h e archaeological record. While w e c a n d i s t i n g u i s h t h e t r a n s i t i o n from M e s o l i t h i c t o N e o l i t h i c , t h e c h a n g e s i n adapt a t i o n a r e n o t a s marked a s o n e would e x p e c t . The N e o l . i t n i c p o p u l . a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d to s u p p l e m e n t t h e i r d i e t w i t h g a t h e r e d seeds and h u n t e d game. Even d u r i n g t h e n o n i n t e n s i v e p h a s e ( A - and C - ~ r o u p ), ' y a k h e r i n g rind h u n t i n g c o n t i n u e d t o s u p p l nment a g r i c u l t u r a l product:^. T h e in t e n s i f i c a Lion o n l y o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e M e r o i t i c , X-Group and C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d s when t h e waterwheel. was used f o r i r r i g a t i o n . The f o l l . o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s have b e e n made :

.

1. S i q n i f i c a n t p o p u l a t i o n growth o c c u r r e d w i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o agriculture. The i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e led t o f u r t h e r increases. The i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n c a n be a t t r i b u t e d t o c h a n c e s i n t h e environment ( t h e l e v e l o f t h e N i l e ) , t e c h n o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s ( u s e o f t h e w a t e r w h o e l . ) , and p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e s u c h a s t h e u n i f i c a L i o n o f t h e area i n t o c. w i d e r p o l i t i c a l s p h e r e . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e r e was a f o u r f o l d p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e d u r i n g t h e e a r l i e r phase o f i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n ( M e r o i t i c p h a s e ) . The d e c l i n e o f M e r o i t i c c o n t r o l of t h e a r e a is r e f l e c t e d i n a 21% d e c l i n e i n population With t h e r e - u n i f i c a t i o n s i z e a n d i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e X-Group. under C h r i s t i a n i t y t h e r e was a 1.2% i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e . 2. T h e shift t o a q r i c u l t u r e a n d s u b s e q u e n t i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n had a s i g n i f i - c a n t i m p a c t on c r a n i o f a c i a l morphology. T h e r e was a r e d u c t i o n i n r o b u s t i c i t y of t h e f a c e , a n i n c r e a s e i n c r a n i a l The t r e n d i n f a c i a l re- h e i g h t , and a d e c r e a s e i n c r a n i a l l e n g t h . d u c t i o n c o n t i n u e d from t h e M e s o l i t h i c Lo t h e C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d with t h e e x c e p t i o n of a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n p r o g n a t h i m d u r i n g t h e X-Group p e r i o d . 3 . T h e r e i s a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e s i z e a n d c o m p l e x i t y of t h e t e e t h from t h e t r a n s it i o n a l p h a s e ( M e s o l i t h i c ) t o t h e i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l p h a s e ( M e r o i t i c ) . I n f o r m a t i o n i s n o t a v a i l a b l e from t h e n o n i n t e n s i v e p h a s e (A- a n d C-Group) . 4 . The f r e q u e n c y o f d e n t a l c a r i e s i n c r e a s e s from 1%i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l Mesol i t h i c p h a s e t o 18Oe i n t h e i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l . t u r e p h a s e . T h e a t t r i t i o n of d e n t a l . enamel may h a v e b e e n a f a c t o r i n t h e low f r e q u e n c y o f c:ari e s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n . Lower i n t a k e o f c a r b o h y d r a t e s and s u g a r i s obv ious1.y a n o t h e r f a c t o r . During t h e i n t e n s i v e a g r i c ' d t . u r e p h a s e , t h e t r e n d was t o increased p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e , w i t h a peak i n t h e C h r i s t i a n o e r i o d . 5 . T h e r e i s e v i d e n c e o f i r o n d e f i c i.ency a n e m i a i n populations : from b o t h n o n i n t e n s i v e and i n t - e n s i v e p h a s e s o f Nubi.an a g r i c u l t u r a l development. 6 . D u r i n g t h e i n t e n s i v e p h a s e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l development, t h e r e a r e a number of i n d i c a t o r s t h a t s u g g e s t s e r i o u s n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e s u b a d u l t s . Combined w i t h i n c i d e n c e s o f porotLh v p e r o s t o s i s , t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e a l s o o f p r e m a t u r e o s t e o p o r o s i s and

t- =+

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3 3 j^

SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA

21 1

!-retardation. These f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t l o n g bone g r o w t h i s j? being maintained a t t h e e x p e n s e o f c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s . 7 . During t h e i n t e n s i v e p h a s e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t $=-therea r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e r e w e r e n u t r i t i o n a l p r o b l e m s i n t h e ^.'-adultp o r t i o n s o f t h e p o p u l a t - i o n s . Although b o t h m a l e s and f e 4 ;$males show e v i d e n c e o f i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia a n d p r e m a t u r e ~ + o s t e o p r o s i s t, h e r e i s a h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y o f t h e s e patho1.ogie.s among young f e m a l e s . I n t h e 20-29-year a a e r a n g e t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e ; that bone i s b e i n g r e s o r b e d a n d f o r m a t i o n of new bone i s b e i n g :curbed. The l o s s o f n u t r i e n t s and m i n e r a l s d u r i n g r e p e a t e d p r e g n a n c i e s and l o n g l a c t a t i o n p e r i o d s may b e t h e c a u s e o f t h e problem. 5 Problems with m i n e r a l i z a t i o n may a l s o b e due t o p r o t e i n d e f i c i e n c y . 8. The low f r e q u e n c y o f i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e d u r i n g t h e i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e p h a s e was p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d t o t h e i n g e s t i o n o f - tetracyclines t h a t contaminated the g r a i n . = 9. V a r i a t i o n s in m o r t a l i t y d u r i n g t h e i n t e n s i v e p h a s e o f agr i c u l t u r e may b e r e l a t e d t o c h a n g e s i n p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e . The ; lower l i f e e x p e c t a n c y i n t h e M e r o i t i c p o p u l a t i o n may r e f l e c t - t h e i r marginal l o c a t i o n t o t h e c e n t e r o f t h e Kingdom o f Meroe. The ' improvement d u r i n g t h e X-Group p e r i o d i n d i c a t e s t h a t l o c a l i z e d control may have some a d v a n t a g e s , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o a c c e s s t o r e s o u r c e s . F u r t h e r improvement o c c u r s d u r i n g t-he Chri s t i a n period (under r e u n i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e Wadi Malta area a s t h e pol it-i- cal power c e n t e r ) . I n sum, t h e b u l k o f t h e s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from Lower Nubia have b e e n used t o show a d i f f e r e n t i a l p a t t e r n o f b i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e related t o a g r i c u l t u r a l &ztens'if'ieat'ion, and n o t t o a g r i c u l t u r a 1. origins. While t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l f o o d b a s e c h a n g e s l i t t l e d u r i n g the l a t t e r p h a s e s , t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d economic a c t i v i t i e s t h a t de- fined t h e l e v e l of i n t e n s i t y of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r a t e g y do change. H e a l t h i n d i c a t o r s r e f l e c t t h e d e g r e e t o which human groups have a c c e s s t o t h e a c t u a l c u l t i g e n s t h a t t h e y grow. I f . cultigens a r e used a s t r a d e i t e m s t o support t h e c i t i e s , t h e health of t h e g r o u p w i l l d e c l i n e a s c u l . t i g e n s a r e t r a d e d f o r " h a r d goods." T h i s i s p r e c i s e l y what i s s e e n i n t h e M e r o i t i c and

-

Christian phases. The d a t a from Lower Nubia s u g g e s t t h a t t h e l a r g e r c o r e a r e a s such a s t h e Kingdom o f Meroe and Egypt w e r e s u p p o r t e d in p a r t by imported goods and s l a v e s f r o m t h e o u t e r l o c a l p e a s a n t r i e s . Lower Nubia n e a r Wadi H a l f a p r o v i d e d a c o r r i d o r c o n n e c t i n g Egypt w i t h sub Saharan A f r i c a . Lower N u b i a , a s a c a s e s t u d y o f t h e i m p a c t of socioeconomic change, shows t h a t w h i l e dependence on a s i n g l e staple c r o p may be d e l e t e r i o u s t o h e a l t h , t h e l e v e l of p o l i t i c a l and economic i n t e r a c t i o n s i s j u s t a s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r h e a l t h . The health d a t a o n t h e X-Group a n d t h e d a t a from K u l u b n a r t i s u g g e s t t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s f a r e b e t t e r i n t e r m s o f h e a l t h when l e f t to t h e i r own d e v i c e s . L o c a l autonomy a n d l e s s e n e d t r a d e i n t e r a c t i o n s a s s u r e that t h e c u l t i q e n s b e i n g grown w i l l c i r c u l a t e throughout t h e v i l l a g e s , a n d t h a t h e a l t h and l o n g e v i t y w i l l improve.

DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T h i s r e s e a r c h h a s been s u p p o r t e d i n p a r t by a U n i v e r s i t y of M a s s a c h u s e t t s B i o m e d i c a l R e s e a r c h S u p p o r t G r a n t NIH-RR07048. W e would l i k e t o t h a n k Mark Cohen a n d Lynn Miller f o r t h e i r h e l p f u l comments o n e a r l i e r d r a f t s o f t h i s p a p e r .

REFERENCES

Adams, W. Y. 1970 A r e - a p p r a i s a l o f Nubian c u l t u r e h i s t o r y . &entai-ia. 3;?: 269-279. 1977 Nwia: CoTT'ido'c t o Africa. P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, Princeton. Armelagos , George J 1968 m e o p a t h o l o g y o f three ca2chaeological populat7;on.s from Sudanese m a . Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of An t h r o p o l o q y , U n i v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o , B o u l d e r . 1 9 6 9 D i s e a s e i n a n c i e n t Nubia. Scieme 263:255-259. Armelagos , George J . , James IL M i e l k e , K i p l i n g H . Owen, Dennis P . Van Gerven , J . R. Dewey, a n d P a u l E. Mahler 1972 Bone g r o w t h a n d development in p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s dourna'i. of limm Evolution 1:89-119. from Sudanese N u b i a . Armelagos , George J. , Rebecca Huss-Ashmore, and Debra L. M a r t i n 1982 Morphometrics a s i n d i c a t o r s o f d i e t a r y s t r e s s in prehist o r i c Nubia. Muaeum Applied Science Center for Archaeolog-i/ J O U Z:22-26. ~ 'i B a s s e t t , E . , M a r g a r e t K i e t h , George J. Armelagos, Debra L. Martin, a n d A. V i l l a n u e v a 3 1981 T e t r a c y c l i n e - l a b e l e d human b o n e from p r e h i s t o r i c Sudanese N u b i a ( A . D . 350) . Science ?,09: 1532-1534. l B a t r a w i , A. M. 1 9 4 6 The r a c i a l h i s t o r y o f E g y p t a n d N u b i a , P a r t 11. Journal 1d of che Royal AnthropoZo~icaZ institute 76:132-156. ,? B e r r y , A. C . , a n d R . J . Berry ! 1973 O r i g i n s a n d r e l a t i o n s of t h e a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n s . I n ?opu;ation Biology of Ancient Egyptzans, e d i t e d b y D . R . B r o t h w e l l a n d B. A . C h i a r e l l i , p p . 200-208. Academic p r e s s , New York. B e r r y , A. C . , R. J . B e r r y , and P . J . Ucko 1967 G e n e t i c a l chanqe i n a n c i e n t E q v p t . Nan 2:551-506. C a r l s o n , Davi d S . , and Denni s P Van Gerven 1977 M a s t i c a t o r y f u n c t i o n a n d p o s ' c - P l e i s t o c e n e e v o l u t i o n i n N u b i a . American Journal of P h y s ~ c aAnthropozogg ~ 46-5, 506.

.

:i

,I

I

!

.

8 SOCIOECONOMIC CHANGE IN PREHISTORIC AFRICA

Garn, S t a n l e y M . 1970

The e a r l i e r gain and l a t e r l o s s of c o r t i c a l bone i n n u t r i t i a n a l perspective. Thomas, S p r i n g f i e l d .

Greene, D. L. 1966 D e n t i t i o n a n d t h e b i o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i - p o f some M e r o i t i c , X-Group a n d C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n s from Wadi H a l f a , Sudan. Kush 14:285-288. Greene , D. L. , a n d George J. Armelaqos 1972 The Wadi Half a M e s o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n . Depaptment of An-

th~opoZogy, University of Massacku:;ett.s, AmhRvst Research Report N O . 11. Hummert, J . R . , a n d Dennis P . Van Gerven T e t r a c y c l i n e - l a b e l e d human bone from a Medieval p o p u l a t i o n in N u b i a ' s B a t n e l H a j a r (550-1400 A . D . ) H m a n Biology 54:355-364. Huss-Ashrnore , Rebecca 1978 N u t r i t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n in a Nubian s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n . American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 4 8 : 407 ( A b s t r . ) . Martin, Debra L. 1983 Paleophyswlogicat aspects o f s'hs'Letal remodeling i n the 1982

.

. Mepoitic, X-Group and Christian populations from Sudanese ~Vubia. Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department o f A n t h r o p o l o g y ,

U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s , Amherst. Martin, Debra L. , a n d George J. Annelagos 1979 Morphometrics o f compact bone: An example from Sudanese Nubia. American J o u d of Physicaz Anthropology 5 3 :571578. Morant, G . M . 1925 A s t u d y o f E g y p t i a n c r a n i o l o g y from p r e h i s t o r i c t o Roman t i m e s . BiometrzkG 17:l-52. Rudney, J. D. 1981 The paleoep-idemiology o f early chi Zdhood s t r e s s in tb)o ancient populations f r o m Nubia. P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department o f A n t h r o p o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o , Boulder. Saxe, A. A. 1966 Social dimensions o f movtuary practices i n a Mesolithie population from Wadi Halfa, Sudan. Paper p r e s e n t e d a t Lhe American A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n m e e t i n g s , P i t t s b u r g . T r i g g e r , Bruce G . 1965 History and settZe,ment "in Lc1u)er JV'ubia. ~ a U~n i vee r s i t y P r e s s , Cambridge. Vagn N i e l s o n , 0. 1970 The Nubian skeleton through 4000 Years. Andelsbogt-rykk e r i e t i Odense , Copenhaq en. Van Gerven, D e n n i s P . , David S. C a r l s o n , and George J . Annelagos 1979 R a c i a l h i s t o r y and b i o c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n o f Nubian Journal o f African History archaeological populations. 14:555-564.

DEBRA L. MARTIN ET AL.

2 14

Van Gerven, D e n n i s P . , M. K. Sanford, and J. R. H m e r t 1981 Mortality a n d culture change i n Nubia's Batn e l Hajar.

Journal of ,u"tffnav E v o h t i o n

10:395-408.

have become inc

v e r , many mortuary s i t e s l a c k charcoal, and we have been l e s s t i i f i e d w i t h collagen d a t e s thus f a ocation cemeteries--spatiall y removed from -is

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i s r a p i d l y expanding p o p u l a t i o n .

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JANE K. BL'IKSTRi

Orleans:. er, J. Craniometry and b i o l o q i c a l d i s t a n c e :

paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 47th annual me

B i o c u l t u r a l con-

he Society

v i l l c , Kentucky. R.

T a t c Woodland rnor~tuory s i t e s i n u e s t - c e n t r a l I Z l i w i s : ciologioal ~ & r ~ r e t a t i o n Department of Anthropoid s i t y , Evanston, t l l i n o i s .

-

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CHAPTER 10 SUBSISTENCE AND HEALTH I N THE LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

Delta Colt-ins Cook Department o f Anthropology Indiana University

t

In w e s t c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s t h e archaeological record presents a P i c t u r e of g r a d u a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of food production. The dominant element i n t h i s p i c t u r e i s a mixed hunting and g a t h e r i n g t h a t s t r e s s e s d e e r and o t h e r t e r r e s t r i a l game, n u t h a r v e s t i n g , and r i v e r i n e r e s o u r c e s . Evidence of c o l l e c t i o n and o f o i l y and s t a r c h y s e e d s , squash, and gourds appears in t h e r e c o r d a s e a r l y a s we have human s k e l e t a l remains w i t h which t o t e s t i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s of Subsistence b a s e change. From Middle Archaic through Woodland times these P l a n t s p l a y a n i n c r e a s i n g l y important r o l e i n s u b s i s t e n c e . . After D . A foodla land t i m e s , maize appears i n t h e r e c o r d , -and 3 r l n q t h e &fississippian it f i s e s PernaPs-st i m ~ r t a n t ' e T e m e n t iniood econAi^lT'e^-aTny/2; A S C-1977) ~ These changes a r e accompanied by changes i n community s i z e , s o c i a l Cornp l e x i t y , r e g i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n , and e x t r a r e g i o n a l t r a d e , reaching their z e n i t h i n two p e r i o d s of what c a l d w e l l has c a l l e d c u l t u r a l f l o r e s c e n c e o r climax: Middle woodland and M i s s i s s i p p i a n C a l d w e l i 1 9 6 2 ) . The i n t e r v e n i n g Late woodland p e r i o d i s one of change in subsistence accompanied by i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of exp l o i t a t i o n of localr e s o u r c e s and by r e l a t i v e s o c i a l i n s u l a r i t y ~ i e 1 9s 8 1 ) . Jane B u i k s t r a S s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h i s (Chapter 9 ) p r o v i d e s a d e t a i l e d review o f t h e r i c h and v a r i e d i n formation t h a t is a v a i l a b l e on t h e s e a s p e c t s of t h e prehistory the r e g i on. T h i s p a p e r presentsevidence f o r t h e e f f e c t s of intensificai o n of food p r o d u c t i o n on h e a l t h i n west c e n t r a l ~ l l i n o i s - ~ n

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reviewing these d a t a I would l i k e t o f o c u s on t h r e e i s s u e s . The f i r s t i s t h e comparative c o s t s and b e n e f i t s of i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a s r e f l e c t e d i n s k e l e t a l biology. The second concerns t h e comparab i l i t y of t h e v a r i o u s kinds of d a t a t h a t can be m a r s h a l l e d i n assessing health. The t h i r d r e g a r d s t h e c o n t r a r y e f f e c t s of v a r i a b l e s linked t o subsistence--for example, p o p u l a t i o n s i z e , settlement p a t t e r n , s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and t h e epidemiology of i n f e c t i o u s diseases--on t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of d a t a from skelet a l remains. However s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h e models we wish t o t e s t i n p r e h i s t o r y , we i n e v i t a b l y confront l i m i t a t i o n s imposed by t h e v a g a r i e s of preservation and recovery. West c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s h a s produced l a r g e and well-preserved s e r i e s of s k e l e t a l remains. However, these s e r i e s a r e not equally r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e p e r i o d s of time t h a t a r e of i n t e r e s t i n studying s u b s i s t e n c e change.^ The ~ i d d l e Archaic period is represented by 2 5 i n d i v i d u a l s from t h e Koster s i t e (6000-3000 B.C.) and by 36 i n d i v i d u a l s from t h e Gibson Mound group. The Late Archaic component from t h e P e t e Klunk Mound group i s t h e only analyzed s e r i e s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h i s p e r i o d (Buikstra 1981; Charles and Buikstra 1 9 8 3 ) . E a r l y woodland mater i a l s a r e fragmentary and of q u e s t i o n a b l e provenience (Charles et a l . , n.d.). I n c o n t r a s t , t h e Middle Woodland, e a r l y L a t e woodland$ l a t e Late Woodland, and e a r l y M i s s i s s i p p i a n p e r i o d s a r e r e p r e sented by s e v e r a l s e r i e s each, and s e r i e s of 200 o r more a r e t h e r u l e . After A.D. 1200 t h e r e i s l i t t l e evidence f o r s u b s t a n t i a l population i n t h e region, and t h e r e a r e no s k e l e t a l remains s u i t able f o r a n a l y s i s . For a p i c t u r e of h e a l t h i n l a t e r ~ i s s i s s i ~ ~ times we must t u r n t o t h e c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s Valley t o t h e n o r t h (Goodman e t a l . , Chapter 11, t h i s volume), o r t o t h e cahokia region t o t h e south (Milner 1982).

1

Assignment o f a l l individuals -in a given s k e l e t a l s e r i e s to a time period may be problematic, e s p e c i a l l y uhere Late woodland materials are concerned. Most researchers i n t h e region meassigned specimens t h a t cannot be associated u i t h minor components on s t r a t i g r w c or a r t i f a c t u a l grounds t o t h e d o m i m t component a t a given mortuary s i t e , and there i s l i k e l y t o be some c k o n o logical, heterogeneity i n most o f t h e s e r i e s discussed bekxd. For a discussion of dating of Middle Woodland mortuary components, see Buikstra (2976). Conner his r e c e n t l y undertaken a r e v i s i o n o f the d a t i w of Late Woodland mortuary components t h a t incorporates lagen dates and many dates from larger s e r i e s . B e conner (19B3, n*d.); Tainter (1975) fop f u l l e r discussions.

10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE SKELETAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Bone growth and development i s m i r r o r e d i n j u v e n i l e h e i g h t f o r age, s t a t u r e , bone p r o p o r t i o n s , and s e x u a l dimorphism i n a d u l t s , c o r t i c a l bone maintenance, and growth a r r e s t i n d i c a t o r s . ~ l ofl t h e s e s o w c e s o f d a t a may be used t o s t u d y n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s i n t h e l i v i n g , and t h e y p r o v i d e t h e f i r s t l i n e of evidence i n p a s t populations. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s e s o u r c e s of information i s a complicated i s s u e , however, f o r a l l r e f l e c t i n f l u e n c e s a p a r t from n u t r i t i o n . For example, p o p u l a t i o n - s p e c i f i c g e n e t i c f a c t o r s , h e t e r o s i s , and d i s e a s e l o a d a f f e c t both s k e l e t a l growth and f i n a l a d u l t s t a t u r e , even though n u t r i t i o n p l a y s an important r o l e i n both. S i m i l a r l y , d i s e a s e l o a d and m o r t a l i t y l e v e l s a r e r e f l e c t e d i n s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r f r e q u e n c i e s and bone maintenance. These i n t e r a c t i o n s c o m p l i c a t e t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of d a t a on growth and development d e r i v e d from p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t o n s , b u t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s p r o v i d e a u s e f u l p e r s p e c t i v e on h e a l t h and adaptation.

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DELLA COLLINS COOK

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10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

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T t e s t s f o r difference i n slope give a l i n e a r f i t t o t h e data. show t h a t t h e l a t e L a t e Woodland s e r i e s d i f f e r from b o t h e a r l i e r and l a t e r groups i n having s h o r t e r femurs f o r a g e , o r a p p a r e n t I n d i v i d u a l s i n a l l samples who a r e s h o r t f o r growth r e t a r d a t i o n . age have h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and c i r c u l a r c a r i e s than do t h o s e w i t h l o n g femurs f o r d e n t a l age, a r e s u l t t h a t supports t h e inference t h a t n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s a r e res p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a p p a r e n t growth r e t a r d a t i o n . However, Middle Woodland c h i l d r e n who were a f f o r d e d e l a b o r a t e b u r i a l t r e a t m e n t do n o t d i f f e r i n femur l e n g t h f o r age from c h i l d r e n o f a p p a r e n t l y lower s t a t u s , d e s p i t e o t h e r evidence f o r t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s i g n i f i cance of Middle Woodland s t a t u s d i s t i n c t i o n s (Cook 1981, 19831, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e e x p e r i e n c e d by l a t e L a t e woodland c h i l d r e n under 6 y e a r s o f a g e may have been r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t when compared w i t h d i s t i n c t i o n s due t o s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . Archaic samples a r e t o o small t o be e v a l u a t e d . Stature Body s i z e i n a d u l t s i s a n o b v i o u s s o u r c e of i n f o r m a t i o n On change i n n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s i n a r e g i o n i n which t h e r e i s l i t t l e evidence f o r g e o g r a p h i c a l o r c h r o n o l o g i c a l g e n e t i c d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n ( B u i k s t r a 1976, 1977; Conner 1983; D r o e s s l e r 1981) However, e q u a l l y obvious a r e t h e many i n f l u e n c e s a p a r t from n u t r i t i o n t h a t may c o n t r i b u t e t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d u l t s t a t u r e i n c l o s e l y r e l a t e d p o p u l a t i o n s . H e t e r o s i s , work l o a d i n c h i l d h o o d , and d i s e a s e l o a d a r e perhaps t h e most important s u c h f a c t o r s t h a t emerge from s t u d i e s o f l i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n s , and t h e y a r e l a r g e l y i n a c c e s s i b l e t o U S i n s t u d i e s o f t h e dead. S t a t u r e d a t a f o r a d u l t s i n 1 0 s k e l e t a l series a r e shown i n ~ i g u r e10.2. There a r e no Samples a r e grouped by t i m e p e r i o d . obvious t i m e t r e n d s i n t h e d a t a f o r m a l e s , a l t h o u g h o u r L a t e Archaic males and most o f t h e l a t e r s e r i e s are t a l l e r t h a n e a r l i e r Archaic s e r i e s from t h e Midwest whose s u b s i s t e n c e was f o c u s e d more f u l l y on h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g (Newman 1962; Neumann 1952; stewart 1973:174) The two s h o r t e s t male series--from t h e L a t e woodland

.

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?here are r i s k s i n comparing s t a t m e e s t i m a t e s from s t u d i ~ s t h a t d i f f e r i n technique or t h a t do n o t s t a t e t h e methods used. fimman (1962) reports Indian Knoll s t a t u r e a s 165.2 an i n males, and Stewart (1973) considers t h i s , r a t h e r than e a r l i e r , smaller estimates, e s s e n t i a l l y correct for t h i s wide-ranging ~ i d d l eArchaic series. Neman, l i k e Neumann i n h i s typological s t u d i e s 1952, 1960) r e p o r t s a trend toward increasing s t a t u r e when Indcan Knoll and other Middle Archaic s e r i e s ape compared w i t h l a t e r ma" t e r i a l s . Our Late Archaic males and a l l l a t e r s e r i e s except ths problematic Ledders and Joe Gay s e r i e s are a t l e a s t 2 cm t a u e r average than are any o f t h e e a s t e r n North American Middle .4rc¥haZ s e r i e s t h a t oppear in the literature.

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t h a t a d u l t s t a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s do n o t e x p l a i n t h e s u b s i s t e n c e r e l a t e d t r e n d s i n j u v e n i l e h e i g h t f o r age s e e n i n t h e p r e v i o u s section.3 A p e r s p e c t i v e on t h e meaning o f a d u l t s t a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s i s provided by t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o g r a v e goods and e l a b o r a t e mortuary t r e a t m e n t t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e Middle Woodland p e r i o d i n o u r r e g i o n . Males who were a f f o r d e d a c c e s s t o l i m i t e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e mortuary program were t a l l e r t h a n t h o s e o f a p p a r e n t l y lower s t a t u s , b o t h in t h e Gibson s e r i e s ( B u i k s t r a 1976) a n d i n t h e Klunk s e r i e s ; h i g h - s t a t u s and l o w - s t a t u s f e m a l e s , on t h e o t h e r hand, d i d n o t d i f f e r i n s t a t u r e (Young 1 9 8 3 ) . F a c i l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h i s r e s u l t - - f o r example, p a t r i l i n e a l r u l i n g groups--are n o t warranted, because s t u d i e s o f o t h e r s o r t s o f b i o l o g i c a l i n d i c a t o r s Both male and f e f a i l t o confirm t h i s a p p a r e n t s e x d i f f e r e n c e . male s t a t u s groups d i f f e r i n t r a c e element c o n t e n t (Szpunar 1977) and i n t h e frequency of s t r e s s - r e l a t e d d e n t a l d e f e c t s (Cook 1 9 8 1 ) Low-status females a r e more p l a t y p e l l i c t h a n h i g h - s t a t u s females, whereas male p e l v i c form d o e s n o t d i f f e r w i t h s t a t u s ( B r i n k e r , n.d.). Angel (1975, 1978, 1982) h a s shown t h a t i n c r e a s e d f l a t t e n i n g of t h e p e l v i c i n l e t i s consonant w i t h o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . These f i n d i n g s , t a k e n t o g e t h e r , s u g g e s t t h a t s t a t u s groups i n Middle Woodland s o c i e t y d i f f e r e d i n h e a l t h , b o t h among males and among females. The 3.3-cm d i f f e r e n c e i n s t a t u r e i n h i g h - s t a t u s and l o w - s t a t u s males in t h e c o l l e c t i o n s s t u d i e d by Young and B u i k s t r a r e f l e c t s o n l y a p o r t i o n of t h i s d i f f e r e n c e (Young 1 9 8 3 ) . The absence o f s t a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n females who d i f f e r i n o t h e r b i o l o g i c a l a t t r i b u t e s may r e f l e c t s e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e t h i n g of growth e v e n t s , i n s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o stress, o r i n underlying environmental f a c t o r s n o t r e c o v e r a b l e from t h e a r chaeological record. That s t a t u s d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t a t u r e within a sample a r e of t h e same o r d e r a s t h e between-sample d i f f e r e n c e s i n Figure 10.2 s u g g e s t s t h a t a d u l t s t a t u r e may p r o v i d e an ambiguous p i c t u r e o f changing b i o l o g i c a l s u c c e s s o v e r time.

~ m = ? s s l e r(1981) has presented an i n t e r e s t i n g perspective on t h i s issue. She suggests t h a t smaller crania i n l a t e Late wood* samples as compared u i t h both e a r l y Late Woodland and ~ i s s i s s i p ~ ~ materials r e f l e c t n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . Since t h e ages o f a*tairanent of adult stature and adult cranial dimensions are s i m i l a r , t h i s seems u n l i k e l y i n t h e face of t h e lack o f p a t t e d s t a t u r e d f f ferences. However, t h e i s s u e she r a i s e s suggests t h a t f u r t h e r att e n t i o n t o environmental e f f e c t s on t o t a l morphologica~pattern may be rewarding. Since adult b r a i n s i z e i s a t t a i n e d by 10 years of age= cranial dimensions may be p a r t i c u l a r l y responsive t o nut¥m,ti~a d e f i c i t s i n childhood (Baer and Harris 1969).

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10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

Sexual Dimorphism While s e x u a l dimorphism has been proposed i n some modern cont e x t s a s a r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e index o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s , it would appear t o p r e s e n t e q u a l l y complicated problems i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . There i s c l e a r l y a g e n e t i c component t o population d i f f e r e n c e s i n sexual dimorphism ( E v e l e t h 1975) , and age, a c t i v i t y , and s u r v i v o r s h i p d i f f e r e n c e s can b e demonstrated a s w e l l (Hamilton 1982). Hamilton h a s p r e s e n t e d a v e r y c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s o f dimorphism i n most o f t h e s e r i e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e study o f s t a t u r e j u s t p r e s e n t e d here. These a r e t h e Middle Woodland Gibson-Klunk s e r i e s , considered a s i n g l e p o p u l a t i o n i n h e r a n a l y s i s ; t h e Koster e a r l y L a t e Woodland s e r i e s ; t h e S c h i l d l a t e Late Woodland s e r i e s ; and t h e combined S c h i l d M i s s i s s i p p i a n s e r i e s . Her m a t e r i a l s a r e s e l e c t e d f o r completeness o f size-independent p e l v i c sex i n d i c a t o r s and f o r sample s i z e . She f i n d s t h a t h e r e a r l y L a t e Woodland sample shows d e c r e a s e d dimorphism a s a r e s u l t of i n c r e a s e d female s i z e w i t h r e s p e c t t o s t a b l e male s i z e when compared with Middle Woodland materials. Females a l s o become more r o b u s t , t h e most s a l i e n t d i f ference b e i n g i n t h e development of t h e d e l t o i d t u b e r o s i t y . I n l a t e Late Woodland times dimorphism i n c r e a s e s because r e l a t i v e I n ~ i s s i s s i p p i a ntimes dimorphi=-n female s i z e d e c r e a s e s . -ause female s i z e i n c r e a s & S w i t h respect t o the woodland p o p u l a t i o n and w i t r e s p e c t 1 antec-te tQÂ¥-thereInainin=earlie s e r i e s i n h e r study. ~ i m o r p h i s mi n d e l i s a l s o r e d u c e d , a g a i n because females t o i d t u b e r o s i t y development are more r o b u s t , b o t h when compared w i t h l a t e L a t e Woodland and with Middle Woodland, and female d e l t o i d development i n c r e a s e s throughout. Hamilton f i n d s t h e s e r e s u l t s somewhat p a r a d o x i c a l i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s model, because under t h i s one would e x p e c t reduced dimorphism i n conjunction w i t h i n b o t h male and female s i z e and r o b u s t i c i t y . -.gests a more intricate s c e n a r i o , in which e a r l y L a t e Wogdland and b a r e zecd by-m~favorable resource>G l t i n g ~ b l dei s t r i b u t i o n d - O larger-stature. This argument 1s tressed i n h e r view by s i g n i f i c a n t dimorphism i n t r a c e element com~siti~ i nn t h e Ladders s e r i e s , where males appear t o enjoy a Howhigher meat i n t a k e t h a n females (Lambert e t a l . 1979, 1982) ever, Ledders is n o t o n e of t h e s i t e s i n c l u d e d i n Hamilton's s t u d y , and the less c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d d a t a resented i n F i g u r e 1 0 - 2 Suggest t h a t Ledders may b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by reduced s e x u a l dimorphism- Heterogeneity w i t h i n time and between geographical areas may a g a i n be a problem, and s i n c e o n l y ~ a m i l t o n ' sfour s e r i e s have been subj ected to r i g o r o u s a n a l y s i s of dimorphism I and Only two s e r i e s have produced t r a c e element d a t a , r e s o l u t i o n this Problem must a w a i t f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . f i n d i n g of p r o g r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e i n development of Hamilton

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in females from Middle woodland through

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Mississippian times is i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h e l i g h t of t h e concurrent i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f food p r o d u c t i o n t h a t t h e b o t a n i c a l r e c o r d documents. Bridges (1982, 1983) h a s r e p o r t e d s i-m i l a r i n c r e a s e s i n udy comparing Alabama A r c h a i c and -ity in a m a l e s i n a M i s s i s s i p p i a n m a t e r i a l s . She s u g g e s t s t h a t a c t i v i t i e s r e l a w t o c u l t i v a t i o n may a c c o u n t o r t h i s i n c r e a s e b e c a u s e f e m a l e s had "primary ' r e s p S n i T i b i l i t y t u r a 1 t a s k s -i o c i e t z A simiiaL1 6 1may a c c o u n t f o r2 t h a t Hamilton documents? 1

C o r t i c a l Bone Maintenance Bone maintenance can be r e l a t e d more d i r e c t l y t o a s p e c t s of n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s t h a n can t h e g r o s s morphological f e a t u r e s r e viewed above. P e r z i g i a n (1971) e v a l u a t e d c o r t i c a l a n d t r a b e c u l a r d e n s i t y i n t h e d i s t a l r a d i u s u s i n g photon a b s o r p t i o m e t r y , comp a r i n g t h e Middle Archaic I n d i a n Knoll s e r i e s w i t h t h e Klunk Middle Woodland s e r i e s . He demonstrated g r e a t e r ~ ~ t e o p o r o t bone ic loss in t h e I l l i n o i s Middle Woodland s e r i e s t h a n i n t h e Kentucky hunter-gatherer m a t e r i a l w i t h more pronounced s e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n I n d i a n Knoll than i n t h e Klunk s e r i e s . OIConnor (1977) h a s ree v a l u a t e d P e r z i g i a n ' s d a t a , showing t h a t h i s s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e e v a l u a t e s t h e r a t e o f l o s s r a t h e r t h a n t h e a b s o l u t e amount of l o s s Klunk Middle Woodland males and females l o s e bone a t a f a s t e r r a t e with i n c r e a s i n g a g e t h a n do t h e i r Kentucky Archaic c o u n t e r p a r t s , b u t t h e y do n o t become a s o s t e o p o r o t i c because t h e i r i n i t i a l bone d e n s i t y a t age 1 5 is h i g h e r . s t o u t (1978) h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t d i a g e n e s i s may b e a f a c t o r i n producing t h e r e l a t i v e l y f l a t bone d e n s i t y d a t a P e r z i g i a n o b t a i n e d from I n d i a n K n o l l , s u g g e s t i n g h i s t o l o g i c a l s t u d y a s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r d i r e c t bone d e n s i t y measurement. NO comprehensive s t u d y o f bone d e n s i t y f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n s discussed i n t h i s paper is a s y e t a v a i l a b l e , b u t t h e increased r a t e of bone l o s s t h a t P e r z i g i a n o b s e r v e s when comparing h i s Middle Woodland d a t a w i t h modern c l i n i c a l s t a n d a r d s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s may b e a f r u i t f u l avenue of r e s e a r c h . H i s t o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f bone maintenance i s s i m i l a r l y promisi n g , b u t incomplete. S t o u t (1978) compared r i b c o r t e x remodeling r a t e s i n t h e Gibson Middle Woodland and Ladders t e r m i n a l L a t e Woodland s e r i e s . He a t t r i b u t e s the h i q h e r r e m o d e l i n g . r a t e s i n r e s ~ l t i n v t$e 1a t t e r s e r i e s -hypaparathyroidism d i e t . Howeve+$ow trvp^ophan l e v e l s p r o v i d e d by a h i g h &ze o t h e r p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t o r y models might i n c l u d e r e l a t i v e proteinc a l o r i e "malnutrition, low d i e t a r y talc ( P - ~ a )r$tiQ_i_high >on i n t a k e , and h i , o t h e r s ( B e r n s t e i n e t a l . 1966; Garn e t 1967; Mazess and J o n e s 1974; Mazess and Mather 1975; p f e i f f e r and King 1983). S t u d i e s t h a t may r e s o l v e some o f t h e s e i s s u e s i n west c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s m a t e r i a l s a r e underway. ~ r a d t m i l l e r (n - . ) h a s demonstrated t h a t sample s i t e s w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l show

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important d i f f e r e n c e s i n remodeling r a t e s , drawing h i s sample from a s i n g l e t e r m i n a l Late Woodland and Mississippian s i t e . Hansen has begun a s t u d y o f femur midshaft h i s t o l o g y t h a t w i l l compare samples from t h e v a r i o u s ' Woodland and Mississippian components discussed h e r e . The o n l y comprehensive d a t a on bone maintenance a v a i l a b l e f o r In west c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s i s t h e l e a s t t e c h n i c a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d . the study of j u v e n i l e h e i g h t f o r age presented e a r l i e r I evaluated femoral Nordin's index4 i n t h e Gibson Middle Woodland and Ledders terminal L a t e Woodland samples. Children 2-3 vea.l.5 of aqe--yi.

Late Woodland sample. However, t h e same c r i t i c i s m s apply t o t h i s e x t r a p o l a t i o n from t w o samples a s t o s t o u t ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of h i s r i b remodeling d a t a above. More r e c e n t 1 cor iameter i n M i s s i s s ~ o f-r age (Cook n.d.a,d) =-related hyperp~hyroidism,calci more parsimonious e x p l a n a t i o n s . Radiographic d a t a on cor&cal bone diameters a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r a d u l t S e r i e s represents t i v e of t h e f u l l range of time ~0mpOnentS in west c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s (Figure 10.3). Again Nordin's index f o r the femur i s p r e s e n t e d . This choice of technique has an advantage in of t h i s s o r t i n t h a t measurements of c o r t i c a l taken on a n t e r ~ - ~ o ~ t e r radiographs ior of the femur a r e r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e t o age-related involution i n t h e femoral which i s f i r s t seen i n t h e a n t e r i o r c o r t e x and t h e Pilaster. N e v e r t h e l e s s , I l l i n o i s Valley samples from a l l time periods I have examined show e a r l y and profound bone l o s s a s e v i denced by emphasis on v e r t i c a l t r a b e c u l a t i o n and a so-called ground-glass appearance i n l o n g bone a r e a s t h a t normally show trabeculation. Some i n d i v i d u a l s in a l l age groups show t h e s e and a t t h e i r most extreme they a r e a s s o c i a t e d with very Because t h e s e markers of c o r t i c a l lowvalues o f Nordin I s index. bone l o s s appear a s e a r l y a s t h e t h i r d decade of l i f e i n west c e n t r a l Illinois samples, I have chosen t o l i m i t comparisons t o samples 20-34 years of age in an e f f o r t t o minimize the e f f e c t s I n Figure 10.3 t h e observed ranges Of age-~rOgressive bone l o s s . O f Nordinns index are very wide, and d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e skewed ~ ~means a~r e e s s e ~ ntially ~ similar ~ from toward higher values. t e Archaic through Mississippian times, and no d i f f e r e n c e s are we can s e e no chronological t r e n d i n significant. associated with e i t h e r t h e gradual adult c o r t i c a l bone maintenance

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KMW KLW

KOS

SLW

Temporal component

FIGURE 10.3. Means and ranges of Nordin's i n d e x f o r t h e mids h a f t of femur i n s i x temporally sequential components. Note t h a t means are highly skewed i n t h e Mississippian sample (SMISS). Male ( ) and female ( 0 ) values are v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l i n t h e s e 20t o 34-year-old samples. Sample s i z e s are a s follows: flunk Archaic (KAR 4M, 6F), Klunk Middle Woodland (KMW 22M, 3 5 F ) , ~ h n k e a r l y Late Woodland (KLW 3M, 7F), Koster e a r l y Late Woodland (KOS 2IM, 17F), SchiZd l a t e Late ~ o o d l a n d (SL?? 13M, 14F), and Schild Mississippian (SMISS 24M, 24F). i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f food p r o d u c t i o n t h a t o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h i s s e quence o r t h e emphasis on maize i n l a t e L a t e Woodland t i m e s . I t i s tempting t o s p e c u l a t e t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y o n s e t of c o r t i c a l i n v o l u t i o n and t h e l a c k of change t h r o u g h t i m e r e f l e c t t h e s t a b l e d i e t a r y f e a t u r e s of C a l d w e l l ' s "primary f o r e s t e f f i ciency" i n t h e Midwest. For example, Mazess h a s a s s o c i a t e d h i g h P-Ca r a t i o s i n l i v i n g Eskimos. A s i m i l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e may have a p p l i e d i n o u r p o p u l a t i o n s , who made heavy u s e o f b o t h n u t s and f i s h so s m a l l t h a t s u b s t a n t i a l q u a n t i t i e s of bone must have been i n g e s t e d . P-Ca r a t i o s provided by t h e v a r i o u s s t a r c h y and o i l y seed p l a n t s used throughout o u r sequence d e s e r v e a t t e n t i o n a s w e l l , and it i s i n t e r e s t i n q t h a t s u c h modern a n a l o g u e s a s Sunflower seed and buckwheat, a s w e l l a s maize, have h i g h P-Ca r a t i o s (Ensminger 1970). E r i c k s e n (1982) h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t most p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s f o r which t h e r e a r e d a t a a p p e a r She show a c c e l e r a t e d bone l o s s w i t h r e s p e c t t o c l i n i c a l norms. s u g g e s t s t h a t i n a d e q u a c i e s i n t h e a g i n g of s k e l e t a l samples a r e responsible f o r t h i s consistent d i f f e r e n c e , b u t d i e t a r y factors d e s e r v e a t t e n t i o n a s w e l l , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o n t e x t s where bone l o s s i s prominent i n -younq- a d u l t s . extremely low ranqe f o r N o r d i n ' s index i n o u w The lowest v a l u e s a r e found i n p i a n sample i s n o t

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i n d i v i d u a l s who show evidence f o r s k e l e t a l t u b e r c u l o s i s o r some v y simangeidfiqent ( B u l k s t r a and Cook 1981). of bone d e n s i i o u n g a d u l u ~ p o r t st h e m s i s of -t c u l o s i s , b u t i t c o m p l i c a t e s infere-bout n u t r i t i o n a l change, u i g e angen g e n e r a l h e a l t h t h a t employ t h i s indicatS?. ex " a i r t e r e n c e s i n c o r t i c a l G n e maintenance a r e a b s e n t i n these young a d u l t s ( F i g u r e 1 0 . 3 ) . This i s s u r p r i s i n g , given t h a t one would e x p e c t g r e a t e r demand o n calcium r e s e r v e s i n pregnant and l a c t a t i n g women i n t h i s age range. It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l demands imposed by r e p r o d u c t i o n may have been l e s s heavy i n lower I l l i n o i s River v a l l e y p o p u l a t i o n s t h a n i n o t h e r p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s in which e a r l y and pronounced sex d i f f e r ences i n bone maintenance have been found (Carlson e t a l . 1976; Dewey e t a l . 1 9 6 9 ) . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e l a t i v e i n s e n s i t i v i t y o f r a d i o g r a p h i c measures of c o r t i c a l i n v o l u t i o n may be a We look forward t o t h e complef a c t o r (van Gerven e t a l . 1969) t i o n of more t e c h n i c a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d work on t h i s t o p i c .

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Growth A r r e s t :

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H a r r i s l i n e s i n t h e l o n g bones and t h e p a r t i a l l y analogous microscopic and macroscopic d i s t u r b a n c e s o f enamel development Provide a r e c o r d o f s t r e s s experienced d u r i n g childhood t h a t i s u s e f u l i n r e l a t i n g s u b s i s t e n c e and h e a l t h . Most r e c e n t work on the biology of t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s emphasizes t h a t t h e y ref1e.S developmentals£ate±lj. r a t h e r than t h e it V nf 43-e.b-an^ h e a l t h p e r s e . I n them we s e e ti& e f f e c t s of a c u t e episodes_J^f, b e t h e y n u t r i t i o n a l , d i s e a s e r e l a t e d , o r from some o t h e r source- T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e f o r H a r r i s l i n e s , which resumed growth and may be a b s e n t i n poorly nourished PoPulatiom because qr0-h i s Lot s u f f i c i e n t t o allow l i n e s t o r o r s (Dreizen e t a l . 1964; Garn 1 9 6 6 ; M u r c h i s b n z a l . ,n . d . ) . Temporal comparisons of H a r r i s l i n e f r e q u e n c i e s a r e a v a i l a b l e c h i l d r e n u n d e r s i x and f o r young a d u l t s . Figure 10.4 shows

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f&ess,-

means and r a n g e s f o r Harris l i n e counts i n c h i l d r e n from t h r e e Gibson ~ i d d Woodland, l ~ Ledders t e r m i n a l L a t e woodland, These l a s t two samples allow U s t o ^d S c h i l d M i s s i s s i p p i a n . e a r l y and l a t e maize-using p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h the a n t e c e dent i n t e n s i v e h a r v e s t c o l l e c t o r s o f Middle woodland t i m e s - In 10.4, t h e maximum H a r r i s l i n e count i s p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e distalr a d i u s , p r o x i m a l and d i s t a l t i b i a , and d i s t a l femur^''an i n d i v i d u a l may be represented by between one and sites- While a g g r e g a t i o n procedures such a s t h i s O n e can be (see Buikstra and Cook 1980 f o r r e v i e w ) , v a g a r i e s o f make s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t i n g d i f f i c u l t P r e s e r v a t i o n in these samples if a r e a n a l y z e d s e p a r a t e l y because many of t h e sizes of frequency d i f f e r e n c e s o b t a i n e d are q u i t e s m a l l . ~h~ picture "th maximum linec o u n t d a t a is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h p a t t e r n s present that ln the f o u r sites analyzed s e p a r a t e l y ; hence I do not the Procedure m i s r e p r e s e n t s t h e u n d e r l y i n g biology.

DELLA COLLINS COOK

B-5

6-11

12-23

24-35

Age range (months)

36-72

FIGURE 1 0 . 4 . Means and ranges of Harris l i n e counts for children under 6 years of age. Samples are as follows: Gibson Middle Woodland ( 1, Ledders terminal Late Woodland ( * ), and Schild Mississippian ( x ). Sample s i z e s given i n parent'heses. For a l l t h r e e samples, H a r r i s l i n e count r i s e s w i t h age i n c h i l d r e n under s i x , l i n e s being v i r t u a l l y a b s e n t i n c h i l d r e n aged 5 months o r l e s s . A f t e r 6 m n t h s , l i n e counts become q u i t e v a r i a b l e ; ranges a r e l a r g e , and d i s t r i b u t i o n of s c o r e s i s i r r e g u l a r . Average l i n e counts remain low i n t h e ~ i s s i s s i p p i a nsample a t a l l a g e s h e ttw e a r l i e r groups, t h e being s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n c h i l d r e n 2 y e a r s of age and above when S c h i l d i s compared w i t h Gibson. The Ledders terminal Late Woodland sample resembles t h e Middle Woodland one through t h e second year of l i f e . A f t e r 2 y e a r s of age H a r r i s l i n e counts approximate t h o s e i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n sample. Again, i n t h i s age group, d i f f e r e n c e s between Ledders and t h e Middle woodland Gibson sample a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l -y s i q- n i f i c a n t . The i n t r o d u c t i o n of maize t h u s would seem t o be r e f l e c t e e ?ewer H a r r i s l i n e = ~ s I n c h i l d ~ n~b f ~ l e d t o s u ~ i v ec h l l a hs^od; In Ledders, t h e e a r l i e r and l e s s maize dependent of the two, evidence f o r lower l e v e l s of a c u t e s t r e s s b e g i n s a t 2 years of a g e - I have argued t h a t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n Middle woodland and terminal Late Woodland c h i l d r e n r e f l e c t s weaning t o a high-

10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

249

carbohydrate maize d i e t and r e s u l t i n g growth f a i l u r e , u s i n g t h e evidence f o r l e s s e r h e i g h t f o r age i n t h e Ledders c h i l d r e n t o b u t t r e s s t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (Cook 1979). The same i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a n n o t a p p l y t o t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n sample, because t h e r e i s no evidence f o r growth f a i l u r e . E i t h e r M i s s i s s i p p i a n c h i l d r e n experienced less a c u t e stress t h a n d i d Middle Woodland c h i l d r e n , o r other f a c t o r s a r e responsible f o r t h i s difference. Some a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e magnitude of t h e p o s s i b l e complicati n g f a c t o r s can b e g a i n e d from a l o o k a t p o s s i b l e c a u s e s of endos t e a l r e s o r p t i o n which might r e s u l t i n l o s s o f H a r r i s l i n e s through remodeling. Gam h a s r e p o r t e d t h a t c h i l d r e n with p r o t e i n c a l o r i e m a l n u t r i t i o n l o s e e n d o s t e a l bone (Garn e t a l . 1 9 6 9 ) , an e x p l a n a t i o n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of low H a r r i s l i n e f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e Ledders c h i l d r e n p r e s e n t e d h e r e . T h i s f a c t o r can be p r e s e n t a t b i r t h i f m a t e r n a l p r o t e i n i n t a k e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y Poor (Krishnamachari and I y e n g a r 1975). Conversely, obese s u b j e c t s have i n c r e a s e d c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s (Garn and Solomon 1981) and might be expected t o r e t a i n H a r r i s l i n e s l o n g e r t h a n l i g h t e r s u b j e c t s might. S i n c e body composition i s n o t p r e s e n t l y r e c o n s t r u c t i b l e from s k e l e t a l remains, t h e e f f e c t s o f t h i s source o f v a r i a t i o n a r e unknown, a l t h o u g h d a t a on l i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n s l e a d one t o expect higher o b e s i t y r a t e s i n s e d e n t a r y p o p u l a t i o n s dependent on c a r b o h y d r a t e - r i c h food s o u r c e s . Bone remodeling d i f f e r e n c e s due t o such f a c t o r s a s p/Ca r a t i o , secondary hypoparathyroidism, a c t i v i t y l e v e l s , and t h e l i k e may a l s o be i m p l i c a t e d . These cons i d e r a t i o n s l e a d u s t o a c c e p t o u r evidence f o r l e s s e r l e v e l s of a c u t e s t r e s s i n c h i l d h o o d -ng maize u s e r s with c o n s i d e r a b l e Caution. H a r r i s l i n e f r e q u e n c i e s i n a d u l t s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r a wider range of samples. F i g u r e 10.5 p r e s e n t s ~ a r r i sl i n e counts f o r t h e d i s t a l femur i n a d u l t s 20-34 y e a r s of age i n s i x samples ranging from L a t e A r c h a i c t h r o u g h Mississippian times. This t r u n c a t e d age range i s chosen because p r e v i o u s study has shown decreased l i n e frequencies in a d u l t s o v e r age 35 i n samples from t h e r e g i o n (Cook 1 9 7 6 ) , and t h e s t a b i l i t y of N o r d i n ' s index in t h e s e samples (Figure 1 0 . 3 ) s u p p o r t s t h e choice. ~ i s t r i b u t i o n sof l i n e a r e h i g h l y skewed and bimodal, t h e r e being many i n d i v i d u a l s with no l i n e s p r e s e n t . F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e d a t a a r e presented in three o m s : p e r c e n t a g e of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h o u t l i n e s , average line count i n c l u d i n g these zero v a l u e s , and average l i n e count i n ind i v i d u a l s w i t h Harris linesp r e s e n t . percentage without l i n e s w i d e l y , and all samples b u t one show Substantial sex diff e r e n c e s . w h i l e data on modem p o p u l a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t more r e a d i l y t h a n males (Marshall 1968)f as is the form lines these case i n four of t h e five dimorphic samples h e r e , t h e size differences is unexpected, and it i s d i f f i c u l t t o suggest a One might scenario t h a t would account f o r t h e observed patternargue t h a t a c u t e stressexperience i n c r e a s e d f o r time, ameliorating in t h e Mississippian p e r i o d , whereas acute decreased for females from Archaic through

DELLA COLLINS COOK

lJ______________ KAR KMW KLW KOS

SLW SMISS

Temporal component

FIGURE 10.5. Harris l i n e counts i n young a d u l t males ( * ) and females f 0 ). Values presented are frequency o f i n d i v i d u a l s A t h no l i n e s v i s i b l e a t t h e d t s b l femur ( A ) , mean line count including these zero values f B ) , and mean l i n e count i n those w i t h Hawis l i n e s present (C). Sample data correspond t o those f o r Figure 10.3. only t o worsen i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n p e r i o d . However, t h e o t h e r a v a i l a b l e evidence f a i l s t o s u p p o r t t h i s improbable s c e n a r i o . Average l i n e counts including z e r o v a l u e s a r e more o r l e s s s i m i l a r through time, and it i s d i f f i c u l t t o j u s t i f y t h e use means i n t h e s e d a t a on s t a t i s t i c a l grounds. When o n l y those ind i v i d u a l s with l i n e s a r e considered, temporally d i s t i n c t p a t t e r n s emerge. Line counts a r e high i n t h e few Late Archaic specimens included i n t h i s study; t h e r e a f t e r , f r e q u e n c i e s a r e markedly lower- E i t h i n t h e Woodland s e q u e n F $ v toward i n c r e a s i n g l i n e c o u n t s through t i m e , t h e l a t e L a t e woodland a n d , '--~ i s s i s s i p p i a nmaize-using samples showing h i g h e s t v a l u e s .

-

-

4

10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

KAR

KMW KLW

KOS

SLW

SMISS

Temporal component

FIGURE 10.6. Age o f formation of ~ a r r i sl i n e s a t t h e d i s t a l femur i n young a d u l t s , sexes combined. Number of l i n e s observed fop each annual growth inurement i s plotted from b i r t h through age 17. Sample data are given i n legend t o Figure 1 0 . 3 . o n l y t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e Koster female mean and the S c h i l d female mean i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . We may a r g u e t h a t food-on brings an i n i t i a l decrease in acutir's'tr'ess e x p e r i e n c e followed by a modest i n c r e a s e i n s t r e s s =oc%ted w i t h maize-centered i n t e n ~ i d ; i o p ^ . Some a d d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e on t h i s i n d i c a t o r can be gained f o r t h e A r c h a i c p e r i o d from a s t u d y of H a r r i s l i n e s comparing t h e Klunk L a t e Archaic sample used h e r e w i t h two small Middle Archaic ( B u i k s t r a 1 9 8 1 ) . NO s i g n i f i c a n t temporal t r e n d s were s u p p o r t i n g t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l ~ i c t u r eof r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y Of Archaic a d a p t a t i o n s . H a r r i s l i n e s a l s o provide u s e f u l information on t h e timing of e p i s o d e s d u r i n g development. F i g u r e 10.6 shows,the d i s t r i bution of a g e of formation determined u s i n g t h e method of Hunt and ( 1 9 8 1 ) . The Klunk Archaic and ~ l u n kMiddle Woodland samples are a l i k e i n showing a trend toward i n c r e a s e d r a t e s of l i n e formation--or l e s s e r opportunity f o r resorption--in l a t e r adolescenceThe l a t e r samples show a more even d i s t r i b u t i o n of age of formation. NO sample shows many l i n e s assignable t~ t h e f i r s t 6 Years Of l i f e . The h i g h frequency of H a r r i s l i n e s i n c h i l d r e n 2-6 Years Of age s u g g e s t s t h a t r e s o r p t i o n o f e a r l y l i n e s may be a substantia1 Problem i n t h e s e d a t a , as does t h e frequency w i t h which evidence t r a b e c u l a r i n v o l u t i o n can be seen. anAge of f o r m a t i o n d a t a can a l s o be analyzed f o r evidence ~ 1 of 1 t h e Archaic i n d i v i d u a l s who had nual o r s e a s o n a l stress. Buikstra H a r r i s l i n e s showed evidence for annual 'lg81)i n a s t u d y of a w i d e r age sample from t h i s c o l l e c t i o n t o b e high, b u t s i 9 n i f i P e r i o d i c i t y in t h e Klunk t y l e s s t h a n in twos m a l l Middle ~ r c h a i csamples^is Comparison does nota d j u s t f o r z e r o l i n e c o u n t s - In

DELLA COLLINS COOK

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o n l y 1 of t h e 180 Woodland and M i s s i s s i p p i a n femora i n c l u d e d i n t h i s study sh-dicity i n H a r r i s 1i n e s t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e =seasonal s t r e s s i n t h e juvenile H a r r i s l i n e d a t a (Cook 1 9 7 6 ) . We i n f e r t h a t o n e b e n e f i t o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o food p r o d u c t i o n i n &f f e r i n g a g a i n s t s e a s o n a l p e r i o d s o f s c a r c i t y .

.-e ,

-

Growth A r r e s t :

vp Dental Markers

Dental i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s e x p e r i e n c e o f f e r a d v a n t a g e s i n t h a t t h e y a r e n o t s u b j e c t t o remodeling and t h e y a r e l e s s depend e n t on r a t e of growth. A s w i t h t h e H a r r i s l i n e s t u d i e s , d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r b o t h j u v e n i l e and a d u l t samples f o r v a r i o u s developmental ranges. C i r c u l a r c a r i e s i s a developmental l e s i o n o f t h e d e c i d u o u s t e e t h i n which enamel formed i n t h e a n t e n a t a l o r p e r i n a t a l p e r i o d shows chronologic h y p o p l a s i a . The r e s u l t a n t t r a n s v e r s e bands a r e I n modem d i s a d prone t o c a r i e s a t t a c k a f t e r t h e t e e t h e r u p t . vantaged p o p u l a t i o n s , c h i l d r e n w i t h t h i s marker of e a r l y stress a r e more l i k e l y t o develop p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e m a l n u t r i t i o n d u r i n g t h e weaning p e r i o d than a r e t h e i r p e e r s w i t h o u t t h i s h i s t o r y o f S t r e s s I n a comparison o f Middle and L a t e Woodland m a t e r i a l s , B u i k s t r a and I have argued t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a g e a t d e a t h i n c h i l d r e n w i t h and w i t h o u t t h e s e h y p o p l a s t i c l e s i o n s p r o v i d e e v i dence f o r n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s d u r i n g t h e weaning p e r i o d (Cook and B u i k s t r a 1 9 7 9 ) . I n F i g u r e 10.7 o u r 1979 d a t a a r e a n a l y z e d s e p a r a t i n g t h e two L a t e Woodland components it i n c l u d e d a n d a d d i n g a Miss i s s i p p i a n sample. The p e r c e n t a g e of c h i l d r e n w i t h a n t e n a t a l o r p e r i n a t a l h y p o p l a s i a i s s i m i l a r i n a l l f o u r samples. A p a r a l l e l study of widely s e p a r a t e d s k e l e t a l c o l l e c t i o n s from o t h e r p a r t s North America shows t h a t t h e f r e q u e n c y of t h i s c l a s s o f h y p o p l a s i a v a r i e s g e o g r a p h i c a l l y r a t h e r t h a n w i t h s u b s i s t e n c e (Cook n . d - c ) '%he f r w u e x y o f c a r i e s i s , n o t s u r m l - a - l $ i n c r e a s e s a s a f u n c t i o n of maize u s e , a s measured i n ^C c o n t e n t c o l l a g e n (van d e r Merwe and Vogel 1978) .itD i s t r i b u t i o n s o f age a t

-

-

'Some caution i s needed i n interpreting 13c studies. A ¥parti food cular level of l3C i n bone indicates the amount of 13c i n chiin, or the percentage of dietary carbon, n o t the proportion o f the diet contributed by maize o r other tropical cultigens. SeC0ndory and much higher quality 1 3 consumption ~ could r e s u l t i f deer, raccoon, and turkeys were taken when they were attracted corn f i e l d s . Meat from such animals would contribute t o hman l C constangtion. Meat from domestic dogs fed on maize or wastes would also make a contribution, as 1 3 l~e v e l s in. Amerindian dogs s h m (BurLeigh and Brothwell 1978). Thus it i s not l i k e l y t o be the case that maize constituted 24% of t h e d i e t in l a t e Late woodland tunes or 52% of the d i e t for Mississippians inour region (van der Meme and Vogel 1 9 7 8 ) .

10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

25 3

Circular Caries Frequency

A.

Sites

.

N

Percentage Hypoplastic

Percentage Carious

Percentage C4 PZants0-

MW

98

60

16

0

L I ~ LL W

32

50 53 59

22 24 42

24 52

Component

~i'bson~ Klunk Joe fkYb tedders Sc h a

MISS

38 56

0

'van d e r Meme and Vogel, 1978 ^cook and Buikstra, 1979 ¡Thi sample d a t e s t o approximately t h e point o f t r a n s i t i o n t o maize use ( T a i n t e r 1975). The C4 value for LLW may be appropriate.

(b) E N A M E L NORMAL

-

CARIES OR DEFECT

LLW

B. ~ i ~ t ~ i b uotfi nm o d deciduous emmel and FIGURE 10.7. d e f e c t i v e deciduous enamelby age a t death. ~ e f e c t i v eefimel t-hat  ¥ x i f i t circular caries is indicated by shadedbars. Age a t death ln years i s indicated between t h e two s e t s o f hcstogrms-

DELLA COLLINS COOK

-1

:9a\:i,(c'

0 ASS

MILD

MOD

SEV

FIGURE 10.8. Linear enamel hypoplasia i n t h e permanent canine o f young adults from t h e Slunk Middle Woodland ( 0 ) and Sohild Miss~ss@p& ( ) samples ( C l i f t o n 1 9 8 2 ) . Maximum s e v e r i t y s c o w for the oee2usal ( a ) , middle f b ) , and cervical ( a ) t h i r d s o f the crown are analyzed separately. Scores are absent, mild, moderate, and severe. death a r e u n l i k e i n a l l f o u r samples, but t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e more marked in our two Late Woodland samples, i n which no hypoplasia c a s e s appear t o s u r v i v e t o 3 y e a r s o f age. Again we have evidence f o r g r e a t e r childhood s t r e s s d u r i n g t h e Late Woodland p e r i o d when it i s compared with e a r l i e r and l a t e r groups. The a v a i l a b l e samples do n o t permit a n e x t e n s i o n of t h i s s t u d y t o t h e ~ r c h a i c . S t u d i e s of l i n e a r enamel hypoplasia (mH) i n t h e permanent d e n t i t i o n a r e s t i l l p r e l i m i n a r y . C l i f t o n has compared LEH frn t h e c a n i n e s of a d u l t s 2 0 - 3 y e a r s o f age froni_the Klunk 5% Middle Woo nd S c h i l d =sippian samples (1983) Finds a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n "T^sion f r e =r sample^FigureTo.~] Knick (1981) has shown t p o r t i o n of t h i s i n c r e a s e can b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e presence of t u b e r c u l o s i s o r a s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n i n t h e S c h i l d p o p u l a t i o n . Ind i v i d u a l s with s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s account f o r the m a j o r i t y of t h e

modest

-

.

10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

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Age (years)

FIGURE 10.9. Frequency o f pronounced s t r i a e of Retzius. Vertical a x i s i s striae/T. mm band defined on th d e n t i n o e m e l Junction. Horizontal a x i s is 2 mm bands arranged from cusp ( b i r t h ) t o cementoenamet junction ( 3 years of age a t formation). Data are f o r the f i r s t permanent molar. From t h e l e f t , graphs compare high and l o u s t a t u s categories i n t h e Klunk ~ i d d l e flunk Middle woodland sample Woodland sample ( a ) , sexes in (b), and sexes i n th Sch-bid Mississippian sample f a ) .

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l a r g e proportion of a d u l t males being a b s e n t from t h e recovered c o l l e c t i o n . The unusual dimorphism i n s t a t u r e and i n s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s we have seen i n t h i s sample may r e f l e c t a s y s t e m a t i c b i a s a g a i n s t t h e i n c l u s i o n of l a r g e , favored males (Cook n.d .b) The u l t i m a t e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s problem remains t o be a s s e s s e d . I f t h e S c h i l d sample i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f M i s s i s s i p p i a n population biology, it provides us w i t h l i t t l e evidence f o r s t r e s s a s s o c i a t e d with maize use i n t h e lower I l l i n o i s Valley. The r e l a t i v e l y high l e v e l s of enamel d e f e c t s t h a t Rose n o t e s i n h i s c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s Valley samples may r e f l e c t environmental, temporal, o r c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s o u t s i d e t h e scope o f a r e g i o n a l study. A f i n a l source of information on s t r e s s t h a t can be a s s e s s e d from s t u d i e s of t e e t h i s f l u c t u a t i n g asymmetry. O'Connell has produced an exhaustive study of asymmetry i n both c r a n i a l d i s c r e t e t r a i t s and odontometrics f o r 16 temporally d i s t i n c t samples from lower I l l i n o i s Valley s i t e s (1983). She views asymmetry a s an i n d i c a t o r o f developmental s t a b i l i t y r a t h e r t h a n o f environmental q u a l i t y . She f i n d s g r e a t e s t asymmetry i n l a t e Middle Woodland and l a t e Late Woodland samples. Her e a r l y Middle Woodland, e a r l y Late Woodland, and e s p e c i a l l y M i s s i s s i p p i a n samples a r e developmentally s t a b l e i n comparison. Her i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s e r e s u l t s focuses on change p e r s e a s t h e s t r e s s o r t o which f l u c t u a t i n g asymmetry corresponds.

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PATHOLOGY Several a s p e c t s o f p a t h o l o g i c a l change i n t h e s k e l e t o n o f f e r u s e f u l information about t h e h e a l t h consequences of s u b s i s t e n c e change. Sampling b i a s i s a p r e l i m i n a r y i s s u e t h a t can be shown t o be important in o u r region i n a t l e a s t two p e r i o d s . Buikstra has shown t h a t t h e high f r e q u e n c i e s o f s e v e r e p a t h o l o g i c a l condit i o n s observed i n remains from Middle Archaic h a b i t a t i o n s i t e s i s t h e r e s u l t o f b i a s introduced by a b o r i g i n a l mortuary p r a c t i c e s . Middle Archaic peoples i n t h e r e g i o n produced two complementary types of mortuary s i t e : mounded cemeteries c o n t a i n i n g a d u l t s i n t h e prime of l i f e and h a b i t a t i o n s i t e i n t e r m e n t s f o r t h e young, t h e o l d , and t h e d i s a b l e d . N e i t h e r component i s demographically complete, and i n f e r e n c e s about t h e extreme r i g o r s of ~ r c h a i clife based on d i s e a s e f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e l a t t e r t y p e (Neumann 1967) a r e f a l l a c i o u s ( B u i k s t r a 1981). Access to p o r t i o n s o f t h e Middle Woodland mortuary system a r e b i a s e d by age and s e x ( B u i k s t r a 1976) a s well a s by p r i o r h i s t o r y of s t r e s s e p i s o d e s (Cook l g a l ) . But t h e r e is no evidence f o r b i a s e s r e l a t e d t o o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s (Cook 1976), and we have no reason t o b e l i e v e t h a t the l a r g e r Woodland cemeteries of t h e r e g i o n m i s r e p r e s e n t d i s e a s e frequencies. The l a r g e s t M i s s i s s i p p i a n sample we have' a v a i l a b l e shows s i g n i f i c a n t demographic b i a s , and s e v e r a l anomalies i n the age and s e x d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s t h a t s u g g e s t that it

10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

Age (months)

FIGURE 10.10. Frequencies o f cribra o r b i t a l i a i n children wider 6 years o f age i n aggregate samples from the Middle Woodland ( 8 1, early Late Woodland ( m ) , l a t e Late ~oodland( o ) , and Mississippian (x ). Samples and sample s i z e s correspond t o those i n Figure 10.1. m i s r e p r e s e n t t h e frequency o f p a t h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a s w e l l However, a n a l y s i s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f d i s a b l i n g and s e v e r e c h r o n i c c o n d i t i o n s a c r o s s b u r i a l t y p e s w i t h i n the s i t e f a i l s t o produce any evidence of c u l t u r a l d i s t i n c t i o n s based on p a t h o l o g y ( G o l d s t e i n 1980).

(Cook n.d.b)

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i n t h i s age group. Anemia i n t h i s a g e group may b e r e l a t e d t o t h e presence o f a t u b e r c u l o s i s - l i k e p a t h o l o g y i n t h i s sample ( B u i k s t r a and Cook 1 9 8 1 ) , o r such o t h e r w i s e i n a c c e s s i b l e f e a t u r e s o f p r e h i s t o r i c c u l t u r e a s s t r i p p i n g o f cord blood may p r o v i d e a p l a u s i b l e s c e n a r i o (Anonymous 1 9 7 6 ) . I n c h i l d r e n o l d e r t h a n 6 months i n other m

Dental P a t h o l o g y I t i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f maize i s a c companied by changes i n o r a l h e a l t h . Not o n l y is maize h i g h e r i n carbohydrate c o n t e n t t h a n most o t h e r f o o d s used i n t h e p r e h i s t o r i c Midwest; b o t h a r c h e o l o g i c a l and e t h n o g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t t h a t i t s u s e was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s h i f t toward p o r r i d g e s and o t h e r b o i l e d foods t h a t o n e would e x p e c t t o be more s t i c k y and hence more c a r i o g e n i c t h a n t h o s e e a t e n by e a r l i e r p e o p l e s (Braun 1984; Rusch-Behrend n.d. ) I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e d a t a o n c a r i e s formation i n h y p o p l a s t i c l e s i o n s of t h e d e c i d u o u s t e e t h p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 10.7, two temp o r a l comparisons of o r a l h e a l t h a r e a v a i l a b l e . Modest d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e age d i s t r i b u t i o n of c a r i e s and t o o t h l o s s a r e n o t e d i n a comparison of t h e Gibson Middle Woodland and Ledders l a t e L a t e Woodland s e r i e s (Cook 1 9 7 9 ) . Mean number o f decayed o r l o s t t e e t h i s h i g h e r f o r t h e t e r m i n a l L a t e Woodland j u v e n i l e s and m i d d l e a d u l t s , r e f l e c t i n g p i t - a n d - f i s s u r e c a r i e s . k m n g a d u l t s 50 y e a r s of age and above, t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s r e v e r s e d , r e f l e c t i n g s e v e r e a t t r i t i o n and r e s u l t i n g t o o t h l o s s i n t h e Middle Woodland s e r i e s . Rusch-Behrend h a s compared t h e Klunk Middle Woodland s e r i e s with the Schild Mississip - -p i a n s e r i e s , t h e l a t t e r t h e most e x t e n s i v e u s e r s o f maize a v a i l a b l e f o r o u r r e q i o n . Permanent d e n t i t i o n -c a r e s i m i l a r i n s u b a d u l t s , b u t a f t e r age 2 0 a 9 frequencies of c a r i e s i n t h e M ~ roughly-6 Z t h e Middle Woodland s e r i e s , , p a r t i c u l a r l y for=e mandibul a r t e e t h . ANOVA r e s u i show s i t e and a q e a s s i g n i f i c a n t , and sex a s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . Antemortem l o s s i s more c o m n i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n sample. P e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e is r e l a t e d t o a t t r i t i o n and hence i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a g e i n b o t h , b u t t h i s e f f e c t i s more pronounced i n t h e Woodland sample, which s t o w s g r e a t e r a t t r i t i o n a t a l l a g e s (Rusch-~ehrend n.d.)

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10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICALEVIDENCE Chronic Inflammations o f Bone P e r i o s t i t i s and o s t e i t i s a r e v e r y common i n s k e l e t a l c o l l e c t i o n s from t h e Midwest, and o u r lower I l l i n o i s V a l l e y m a t e r i a l s a r e no e x c e p t i o n . Age d i s t r i b u t i o n of l e s i o n s , d i s t r i b u t i o n s by body p a r t , and l e s i o n t y p e s i n Middle Woodland and Late Woodland s e r i e s p o i n t t o endemic treponematosis a s t h e modern c l i n i c a l e n t i t y t h a t most c l o s e l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e observed epidemiolo9ic p a t t e r n . O v e r a l l p r e v a l e n c e i s s l i g h t l y more than 50%, w i t h c l o s e r resemblances t o endemic s y p h i l i s i n t h e Middle Woodland sample and t o yaws i n t h e L a t e Woodland one (Cook 1976). A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n o f l e s i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n and frequency i s P r e s e n t i n t h e Klunk L a t e Archaic s e r i e s , b u t t h e o v e r a l l Prevalence i s 31 c a s e s i n 1 2 3 s c o r a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s , o r 25%. This s u g g e s t s t h a t a t r e p o n e m a t o s i s was p r e s e n t , b u t a t substant i a l l y l o w e r l e v e l s t h a n i n Woodland times. I n t h e S c h i l d M i s s i s s i p p i a n s e r i e s both t h e prevalence and t h e e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l p a t t e r n of p e r i o s t e a l l e s i o n s a r e s i m i l a r t o f o r Middle and L a t e Woodland s e r i e s . Extensive p r o l i f e r a t i v e l e s i o n s i n a d u l t s a r e somewhat more common than i n t h e two e a r l i e r series. The resemblance t o yaws t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s o u r l a t e L a t e Woodland samples i s t h u s somewhat more pronounced, and as with t h e Woodland g r o u p s , d i s a b i l i t y due t o t h i s d i s e a s e must have been a s i g n i f i c a n t burden f o r t h e child population (cook n.d.b). A second s i g n i f i c a n t d i s e a s e times i n t h e lower I l l i n o i s V a l l e l e s i o n s , a p p e a r i n g most commonly ^h'-fflo'sfae-fcSlTs" t o bone -appropriate d i a g n o s i s a s w e l l . If t h e disease a s we s u s p e c t , t u b e r c u l o s i s , uency of -sions is prese% r y disease m -omust have pula
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6

1

1 I

I

1 ^

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M i Z m p has s h o w t h a t much o f the difference i n bone l e s i o n frequency, -ignoring diagnosis, t h a t i s reported f o r ~ i s s i s s i ~ ~ i ~ s^es t h e American Bottoms, toiler I l l i n o i s Valley, and central Illinois Valley be by s i t e wregation and s k e ( 8 2 ; 1-983). The relative contr
DELLA COLLINS COOK Arthritis Temporal change i n a r t h r i t i s p a t t e r n i n g has been e v a l u a t e d i n a recent study by Pickering (1984)- For Woodland and M i s s i s s i p pian samples s e v e r a l f e a t u r e s of a r t h r i t i s p a t t e r n i n g a r e constant. Relative j o i n t s i z e i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h body s i z e b u t u n c o r r e l a t e d with j o i n t d i s e a s e . Age a t o n s e t i s e a r l i e r i n females than i n males, b u t females a t a given a g e do n o t s h o w more s e v e r e a r t h r i t i s than do males. There a r e no symmetry d i f f e r e n c e s i n males and females. T s p r a l cJanqe i n a r t h r i t i s p a t t e r n i n g o c c u r s i n a s s o c i a t i o n . . ~ i t thh e > e g i n n i y s of maize c u l t x v a t ~ m .e -a l~ ~ h Late Late Woodland and M u s s i p p i a n females p r e s e n t z r e x t h r l t i s of t h e 1 e f T a m and s p i n e o f i d m o o d l a n e ecome s Late Woodland temales. In m a l s l n -t more symmetrical i n l a t e Late Woodland and M i s s i s s i p p i a n samples, a ehange Pickering a s s o c i a t e s w i t h t h e change from use of t h e a t l a t l t o use of t h e k o w . Males s h o w no s e v e r i t y changes, while females show no p a t t e r n changes.

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Warfare Perino has suggested t h a t t h e incidence of p r o j e c t i l e p o i n t s and p o i n t fragments imbedded i n bone o r w i t h i n body c a v i t i e s i n Late Woodland m r t u a r y s i t e s i s evidence f o r w a r f a r e ( P e r i n 0 1973a,b,c). A survey of such i n j u r i e s i n t h e J o e Gay and Homer Adams mound groups, b t h multicomponent s i t e s , found evidence f o r W W ~ Si n 2% of t h e combined Middle Woodland components and 4% t h e combined Late Woodland c o m p n e n t s (cook 1976) , s u g g e s t i n g that warfare may have been a f e a t u r e o f h t h s o c i e t i e s . s t y l e s p r e s e n t s evidence f o r l i m i t a t i o n of v i l l a g e c a t c h e n t s i n Late Woodland times (1981) t h a t may r e f l e c t c o n f l i c t a s w e l l . Both Late Woodland and Mississippian c o l l e c t i o n s c o n t a i n some i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h s k u l l f r a c t u r e s compatible w i t h c e l t wounds ( p e r i n 0 1971). Thus we have evidence f o r c o n f l i c t throughout t h e sequencer with perhaps some i n c r e a s e i n frequency i n m t e woodland times-

10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

dence f o r changes i n p o p u l a t i o n s t r u c t u r e d u r i n g t h e Archaic period, d e s p i t e h y p t h e s e s o t h e r s have derived from m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e f o r i n c r e a s i n g a d a p t i v e e f f i c i a c y from Middle t o Late Archaic t i m e s . Comparisons o f L a t e Archaic m a t e r i a l s w i t h Middle Woodland remains s u g g e s t t h a t l i f e span i n c r e a s e d somewhat i n Middle Woodland t i m e s (Blakely 1971; Masset 1 9 7 6 ) . S e v e r a l anal y t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s s u g g e s t t h a t l a t e Late Woodland samples show an i n c r e a s e i n a g e - s p e c i f i c m o r t a l i t y compared with both e a r l i e r and l a t e r m a t e r i a l s (Cook 1976; Cottom n . d . ) .

DISCUSSION

What a r e t h e e f f e c t s of t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f food production on h e a l t h ? The p i c t u r e i s a c o m p l i c a t d one, and t h e m r e k i n d s of d a t a we m a r s h a l l t h e rmre complicated t h e p i c t u r e becomes. woodland food p r o d u c t i o n seems t o have allowed an i n c r e a s e i n longevity a n d some b u f f e r i n g a g a i n s t s e a s o n a l S t r e s s . . T u n = a duction o f maize i n l a t e - w o o d l a n d times is attended -. ~ a r S f o r ~w o ~r s &e n ~i W ~y m d t h i s bansiti-ulation a p p e a x be a t a r e l a t i v e disadvantage when c o r n p a r d - w i t h b o t h e & l i e r and l a t e r p p u l a t i o n s . I have t h a t t h e s e f i n d i n g s s u p p o r t a Boserupim model o f p o p ~ l a t i ~ n pressure o n s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s a s t h e f o r c e behind t h e t r a n s i t i o n r ~ mS e e d - h o r t i c u l t u r e and c o l l e c t i n g economies t o s y s t m s i n d u d 1t i s conceivable t h a t in9 maize c u l t i v a t i o n ( m o k 1979; n .d. a ) Other Causes, f o r example d e c r e a s e d b i r t h spacing, might produce the a p p a r e n t c h i l d h o o d h e a l t h problems, b u t d a t a on s e t t l e m e n t ' y S t a s and f a u n a l r e s o u r c e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f f e r independent S U P P ~ ~ t h e B0serupian model. L a t e L a t e woodland people made i n c r e a s ing use of m a i z e a f t e r A.D. 800 i n t h e lower 1 l l i n o i s v a l l e y , and Of t h e i n d i c a t o r s d i s c u s s e d above li* Our maize-using p P u latiOns. i a n made m r e e x t e n s i v e u s e of Because ~ s s i s s i p ppeoples mize t h a n d i d t h e i r a n t e c e d e n t s , and because we have Very little f o r n u t r i t i o n a l d i s e a s e o r s t r e s s among M ~ S S ~ S S ~ P P ~ ~ ~ peoples, t h i s low-protein staple food does n o t i n i t s e l f account the a p p a r e n t ill h e a l t h of l a t e Late woodland p e o p l e s - The l n c o ~ o r a t i oo f~ maize intot h e continuing c o l l e c t i n g a d seeddt*ately t o have been of b i o l o g i c a l economy be a benefit The o n l y n e g a t i v e a s p e c t o f this change appears secondaq consequence of t h e i n c r e a s e s i n p p u l a t i o n s i z e and ag: wsims suf gregation t h a t food production 3 m density-dependent i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e t h a t Was previ0-BritNO s i n g l e source of i n f o m a t i o n examined h e r e i s d e f i n i t i v e in what it t e l l s us aout t h i s temporal sequence, and t h e various k h d ~Of d a t a give d i f f e r e n t , complanentary i n f 0 I m a t i o n about the N S t . I n s e v e r a l instances a given s o u r c e of d a t a i s m i s l e a d i n g if analyzed without regard to o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . A u n i l i n a r model

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?r

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o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s u b s i s t e n c e and h e a l t h i s c l e a r l y The complicated a r r a y o f v a r i a b l e s - - b o t h c u l t u r a l inappropriate. and e c o l o g i c a l - - t h a t a r e l i n k e d t o s u b s i s t e n c e must b e u n d e r s t o o d b e f o r e we have an a d e q u a t e c o n t e x t i n which t o e v a l u a t e h e a l t h chanqes.

C o l l e c t i o n o f new d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s p a p e r was s u p p o r t e d I w i s h t o thank by t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e Foundation, BNS 77-25310. t h e many c o l l e a g u e s who s h a r e d m a n u s c r i p t m a t e r i a l s w i t h me.

Angel, J. L . 1975 Paleoecology, p a l e o d e m q r a p h y I and h e a l t h . In ~0p~Zation ecozogy and sociaz e v o ~ u t i o n ,e d i t e d by S . P o l g a r , PP167-190. The Hague. 1978 P e l v i c i n l e t form: A n e g l e c t e d index o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s . American J o u m Z of PhysicaZ Anthropozogy 48 :378. 1982 A new measure of growth e f f i c i e n c y : Skull base height. American J o u m Z of Physical AnthropoZogy 58: 297-305. Anonymous 1976 C u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s and anemia i n ~ i g e r i a . Nutrition Review 34' ( 9 ) :269-270. Asch, D. L., and N. B. Asch 1977 Chenopod a s c u l t i g e n : A r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f some c o l l e c t i o n s from E a s t e r n North America. ~ i d c o n t i n e n t a z Journal o f ArchaeoZogy 2: 3-45. Asch, D. L. I K. B. F a r n s m r t h , and N. B. Asch 1979 Woodland s u b s i s t e n c e and s e t t l e m e n t i n w e s t c e n t r a l 11l i n o i s . I n Hopewe22 archaeology: The ChiZZicothe Conference, e d i t e d by D. s. Brose and N. Greber, p p . 80-85Kent S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Kent, Ohio. Asch, N . B., R. I. Ford, and D. L. Asch 1972 P a l e o e t h n o b t a n y of t h e K o s t e r s i t e : The A r c h a i c h o r i z o n Izzinois Skzte h s a . m Report of Investigations No. 2.4Baer, M., and J. E. H a r r i s 1969 A commentary o n t h e growth o f t h e h m n b r a i n and s k u l l h e r k a n JourmZ of PhysicaZ Anthropozogy 30: 39-44 B e r n s t e i n , D. S., N. Sadowski, D. M. HegstedI c. D. G u r i , and F. J. S t a r f 1966 p r e v a l e n c e o f o s t e o p o r o s i s i n high- and l o w - f l u o r i d e a r t a s i n North Dakota. JoumaZ of the America Medical .4ssOczat i o n 198:4gg-504.

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10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

Blakely, R. L. 1971 ~ o r t a l i t yc u r v e s of p r e h i s t o r i c I n d i a n s . America J m m a z o f PhysfeaZ AnthropoZogy 34 :43-54 Bocquet-Appel, J. -P., and C. Masset Journaz o f Human Evolution 1982 F a r e w e l l t o paleodemography 11:321-333. Bradtmiller , B. n.d. I n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b i l i t y i n human bone remodelling. Ph. D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, Northw e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y , Evanston, I l l i n o i s , i n p r e p a r a t i o n . Braun, D. P . 1984 Absolute s e r i a t i o n : A time s e r i e s approach. I n The A ~ ~ Y osf ~arehaeozogicaz s data structures, e d i t e d by C. C a r r , i n p r e s s . Academic P r e s s , Orlando. Bridges, P. s. 1982 P o s t c r a n i a l dimensions i n t h e Archaic and M i s s i s s i p p i a n c u l t u r e s o f Northern Alabama: I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r p r e h i s t o r i c n u t r i t i o n and behavior. American JouTWZ~of PhysicaZ AnthropoZogy 57: 172-173. 1983 S u b s i s t e n c e a c t i v i t i e s and biomechanical p r o p e r t i e s of l o n g bones i n two m e r i c a n populations. American Journal o f Physical AnthropoZogy 6 0 ~ 1 7 7 . Brinker, R. A. - d - P e l v i c i n d e x i n I l l i n o i s Hopewell. unpublished m n u script. Buikstra, J. E. l g 7 6 Hopewell i n t h e b w 111inois Valley: A r e g i o n a l app r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y of human b i o l o q i c a l v a r i a b i l i t y and p r e h i s t o r i c b e h a v i o r . Northwestern u n i v e r s i t y ~ r c h e o l o g i c a l Program S c i e n t i f i c Papers NO. 2 l g 7 7 B i o c u l t u r a l dimensions o f a r c h e o l o g i c a l study: A r e g i o n a l s a t h e m ~ n t h o p o Z o g i c a 2S O C ~&0eeedings ~ ~ Y perspective. 11:67-84. l g 8 l Mortuary p r a c t i c e s , paleodemograph~and ~ a l e ~ A~ 1n T h c a s e s t u d y from t h e Koster s i t e (111inois) archaeozogy o f death, e d i t e d by R - chapman* I Kinnesp and K. Randsborg, pp. 123-132. cambridge university pressl b n d o n and New York. Buikstra, J. E., and D. C. cook ~ n f l u ~ ~ of lg8o ~ a l e o p a ~ ~ o ~ o~nq y m ~e r i c a n account A n t ~ ~ ~ o ~ 433-470. o ~ ~ - i ? : '81 p r e - c o l m i a n t u b e r c u ~ o s i s i n west-centr:l I l l i n o i s : preh i s t o r i c disease i n b i o c u l t u r a l perspective- In ppehfsamericas, e d i t e d by J - Et o p i e t u b e r c u ~ o s i si n Northwestern u n i v e r s i t y U C ~ W ~ O B u i k s t r a , pp. 115-139. g i c a l Program S c i e n t i f i c Papers, No. 5 Burleigh, R . , and D. Brothwell lg78 S t u d i e s on m e r i n d i a n dogs, 1: carbon i s o t o p e s in r e l a t i o n and t o maize i n t h e d i e t of domestic dogs from Journal o f ~ ~ ~ ~ science ~ ~5:355-362~ q < Ecuador.

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DELLA COLLINS COOK Caldwell, J. R. 1962 Eastern North America. I n Courses toWard urban l i f e , e d i t e d by R. J . Braidwood and G. R. Willey, pp. 288-308. Aldine, Chicago. Carlson, D. S., G. J. Armelaqos, and D. P. van Gerven 1976 P a t t e r n s of a g e - r e l a t e d c o r t i c a l bone l o s s ( o s t e o p o r o s i s ) within t h e f e n o r a l d i a p h y s i s . Hmm Biology 48:295-314. Charlesl D. R., and J . E. Buikstra 1983 Archaic mortuary s i t e s i n t h e C e n t r a l M i s s i s s i p p i drainage: D i s t r i b u t i o n , s t r u c t u r e , and b e h a v i o r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s In Archaic hunters and gatherers i n $& American M i h e s t , e d i t e d by J . L. P h i l l i p s and J . A. Brom, pp. 117-145. Academic P r e s s , New York. Charles, D. R., J. E. Buikstra, and L. Koniqsberq Terminal Archaic and E a r l y Woodland mortuary p r a c t i c e s i n n.d. t h e lower I l l i n o i s River Valley: The b e h a v i o r a l implicat i o n s . Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y Archeoloqical Proqram, S c i e n t i f i c Papers, i n p r e s s . C l i f t o n , K. M. 1983 A review o f enamel hypoplasia and i t s p r e s e n c e i n a preh i s t o r i c I l l i n o i s p p u l a t i o n . M s . on f i l e , Department of Anthropoloqy, Indiana U n i v e r s i t y . Conner , M. D 1983 Late Woodland b i o l o g i c a l v a r i a t i o n and p r e h i s t o r i c p p ~ l a t i o n s t r u c t u r e . Ame&zan Journal of Physical ~ n t h r o p o z o g ~ 60: 184. n.d. Doctoral d i s s e r t a t i o n Department of A n t h r o p o l o w , Univers i t y of Chicago. Manuscript i n p r e p a r a t i o n . Cookf D. C. 1976 Pathologic s t a t e s and d i s e a s e p r o c e s s i n I l l i n o i s woodland p ~ p u l a t i o n s : An epidemioloqic approach. Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropologyl U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicaqo1979 s u b s i s t e n c e base and h e a l t h i n p r e h i s t o r i c ~ l l i n o i sValley: evidence from t h e human s k e l e t o n . Medical ~ n t h r o p o l o g3: ~ 109-124. 1981 m r t a l i t y , age s t r u c t u r e , and s t a t u s i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s i n p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t o n s : A d e n t a l example from t h e mwer I l l i n o i s v a l l e y . I n The U P C ~ ~ O ~ O gy o f death, e d i t e d by R. chapman, I . Kinnesf and K - Randsb r g - Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , London and New York1983 s o c i a l s t a t u s and h e a l t h : A comparison of ~ i d d l ewoodland and Mississippian p o p u l a t i o n s from w e s t c e n t r a l 1 l l i n o i S American Journal of Physical Anthropology 60 :184. n - d - a timan growth: a p e r s p e c t i v e on s u b s i s t e n c e base changeNorthwestern U n i v e r s i t y Archeological program s c i e n t i f i c Papersl i n p r e s s . n - d - b Paleoepidemiology of t h e S c h i l d cemetery: H e a l t h Consew e n c e s o f r e g i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n . I n c a h k i a and th

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HfnterZands: Miss<ssippZan cuZtural v a f i a t i o n fn th fhercean Midwestf e d i t e d by T . E. Emerson and R B. Lewis* Unpublished manuscript

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10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE n.d.c

~ p i d e m i o l o g yo f c i r c u l a r c a r i e s : A p e r s p e c t i v e from p r e h i s t o r i c skeletons. Unpublished manuscript n.d.d M a n u s c r i p t i n p r e p a r a t i o n . Cook, D. C., and J. E. B u i k s t r a 1979 H e a l t h and d i f f e r e n t i a l s u r v i v a l i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s : P r e n a t a l d e n t a l d e f e c t s . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51 :649-664. Cottom, C. n.d. Paleodemographic a n a l y s i s o f I l l i n o i s River Valley populat i o n s . Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y Archeological Program S c i e n t i f i c Papers, i n press. Dewey, J. R., G. J . Armelagos, and M. H. B a r t l e y 1969 Femoral c o r t i c a l i n v o l u t i o n i n t h r e e Nubian a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s . Human Biology 41 :13-28. Dreizen, S., C. N. S p i r a k i s , and R. E. Stone 1964 The i n f l u e n c e of age and n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s on "bone s c a r " f o r m a t i o n i n t h e d i s t a l end o f t h e growing r a d i u s . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 22:295-306. Droessler, J 1981 C r a n i o m e t r y and b i o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e : B i o c u l t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y a n d change a t t h e ate-woodland-Mississippian i n t e r f a c e . C e n t e r f o r American Archeology a t Northwestern u n i v e r s i t y , Evanston Enminger, M. E . 1970 Swine s c i e n c e . I n t e r s t a t e p r i n t e r s and P u b l i s h e r s , Danville. Ericksen, M. F. 1982 Aging c h a n g e s i n t h i c k n e s s o f t h e proximal femoral c o r t e x American Journal o f physical Anthropology 59:121-130E v e l e a , P. B. 1975 D i f f e r e n c e s between e t h n i c groups i n s e x dimorphism a d u l t h e i g h t . Annals of Human Biology 2:35-39. ^rd, R. I. 1977 E v o l u t i o n a r y e c o l o g y and t h e e v o l u t i o n of human ecosystems: I n ~xplanationof A c a s e s t u d y from t h e midwestern USA. prehistoric change, e d i t e d by J . H i l l , pp. 153-184U n i v e r s i t y of New Mexico p r e s s , Albuquerque. Garnr S. M. lg6M ~ a l n u t r i t i o n a n d s k e l e t a l development i n t h e pre-school child. i n ppe-school c K malnutrition. ~ a t i o n a lAcademy O f S c i e n c e - ~ a t i o n a l Research Council, WashingtonS. M . , M. A. Gum&, and B. Wagner lg69 S u b p e r i o s t e a l gain and e n d o s t e a l l o s s i n p r o t e i n American ~ ~ m T l of a l physical AnthropoZog~ malnutrition. 30:153-156. S - M . , a n d M. A. Solomon lg81 DO t h e o b e s e have b e t t e r bones? Ecology o f Food and

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Goldstein, L. G. 1980 M i s s i s s i p p i a n mortuary p r a c t i c e s : A c a s e s t u d y of two c e m e t e r i e s i n t h e Lower I l l i n o i s V a l l e y . Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y A r c h e o l o g i c a l Program S c i e n t i f i c P a p e r s , No. 4. Gregg, M. L. 1975 A p o p u l a t i o n e s t i m a t e f o r Cahokia. I l l i n o i s Archa.eological Survey Bulletin 10:126-136. Hamilton, M. E. 1982 Sexual dimorphism i n s k e l e t a l samples. In S e d dimorphism i n Homo sapiens, e d i t e d by R. L. H a l l , pp. 107-163. P r a e g e r , New York. Howell, N . 1982 V i l l a g e composition i m p l i e d by paleodemographic l i f e t a b l e : The Libben s i t e . American Journal of ~ h y s i c a lAnthropozog~ 59:263-269. Hunt, E. E . , and J. W. Hatch 1981 The e s t i m a t i o n o f age a t d e a t h and a g e s o f f o r m a t i o n of t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s from measurements o f human l o n g bonesAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology 54 :461-4 7 0 . Knick, S. G. 1981 L i n e a r enamel h y p p l a s i a and t u b e r c u l o s i s i n p r e - ~ o l u m b i a n North America. Ossa 8:131-138. Krishnamachari, K. A. V. R., and L. I y e n g a r 1975 E f f e c t o f m a t e r n a l m a l n u t r i t i o n on t h e bone d e n s i t y o f the neonates. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 28:482486. Lambert, J. B., C. B. Szpunar, and J. E. ~ u i k s t r a 1979 Chemical a n a l y s i s o f e x c a v a t e d human bone from Middle and Late Woodland s i t e s . Arehaeometry 21:115-129. Lambert, J. B., S. M. Vlasak, A. C. Thometz, and J. E. B u i k s t r a 1982 A comparative s t u d y o f t h e chemical a n a l y s i s o f r i b s and American Journal o f femurs i n Woodland p o p u l a t i o n s . Physical Anthropology 5 9 : 289-294. Lynch, S. R., I. Berelowitz, H. C. S e f t e l , G . B. M i l l e r , P. Kraw i t z , R. W, C h a r l t o n , and T. H. Bothwell 1967 Osteoporosis i n t h e Johannesburg Bantu. South African Journal o f Medical Science 32:59. Marshall, W. A. 1968 Problems i n r e l a t i n g t h e frequency o f t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s in t h e r a d i u s t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e of d i s e a s e . I n Tht? skeUto.' biology o f earlier human populations, e d i t e d by D. R Brothwell, pp. 245-262. Pergamon, New York. Masset, C. 1976 Sur l a m o r t a l i t 6 chez les a n c i e n s ~ n d i e n sd e 1 1 l i n o i s Current Anthropology 17: 128-132. Mazess, R. B., and R. Jones 1974 Weight and d e n s i t y of S a d l e r m i u t Eskimo l o n g b o n e s Human Biology 4 4 : 537-548.

10 LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Mazess', R. B. , and W. B. Mather 1975 Bone m i n e r a l c o n t e n t i n Canadian Eskimos. Human Biology 47:45-63. Milner, G. R. Measuring p r e h i s t o r i c l e v e l s o f h e a l t h : A s t u d y o f Miss i s s i p p i a n p e r i o d s k e l e t a l remains from t h e American Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department o f Bottom, I l l i n o i s . Anthropology, Northwestern University. The c u l t u r a l d e t e r m i n a n t s o f M i s s i s s i p p i a n community An examination o f p o p u l a t i o n s from two a r e a s health: of w e s t e r n I l l i n o i s . Ammican ~ o u r n a lof Physical An~ ~ P o ~ o Z 60:227-228. O ~ Y Murchison, M. A . , D. W. m s l e y , and A. J. R i o p e l l e n.d. T r a n s v e r s e l i n e f o r m a t i o n i n p r o t e i n deprived r h e s u s monkeys. Unpublished manuscript. Neumann, G. K. 1952 Archeology and r a c e i n t h e American Indian. I n Archeology o f t h e Eastern United S t a t e s , e d i t e d by J. B. G r i f f i n , pp. 13-34. U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , Chicago. 1960 O r i g i n s o f t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e f i d d l e f i s s i s s i p p i area. Proceedings o f t h e Indiana Academy of sciences 60: 66-68. Neumann, H. W. l967 The p a l e o p a t h o l o g y o f t h e Archaic ~ o d o cROC^ S h e l t e r i n h a b i t a n t s . I l l i n o i s s t a t e Museum Reports of ~ n v e s t i gat-ions 11. Newman, M. T. 1962 E v o l u t i o n a r y change i n body s i z e and head form i n American I n d i a n s . American Anthropologist 64:237-257O'connell, B. L. H. l983 F l u c t u a t i n g asymmetry a s a measure o f developmental Ph-D- dissers t a b i l i t y i n I l l i n o i s Woodland t a t i o n , Department o f Anthropology, Northwestern University. O'connor, N. J -

1-1.

The M i s s i s s i p p i a n component a t t h e S c h i l d site (No- 4) 1 Greene County, l l l i n o i s . I l l i n o i s ~rchaeologzcalSurvey B u l l e t i n 8:1-148. ^he L a t e Woodland component a t t h e S c h i l d sites, Greene ~ l l i Archaeological ~ ~ i ~ Survey County, I l l i n o i s . 9 :90-i&. a t t h e P e t e Klunk The L a t e Woodland I l l i n o i s ~ c h e o l o g i c a z Survey C a l h c~o u ~n t y , I l l i n o i s . m e t i n 9 :58-89.

metin

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268 1973c

The Koster Mounds, Greene County, I l l i n o i s .

Archaeo'Logieal Survey Bulletin 9:141-210.

1lliZ0'is

Perzigian, A. 1971 G e r o n t a l o s t e o p o r o t i c bone l o s s i n two p r e h i s t o r i c Indian p o p u l a t i o n s . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y . P e t e r s e n , W. 1975 A demographer's view o f p r e h i s t o r i c demography. Current Anthropology 16:227-245. P f e i f f e r , S., and P. King 1983 C o r t i c a l bone formation and d i e t among p r o t o h i s t o r i c I r o q u o i a n s . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 60:23-28. P i c k e r i n g , R. B. 1984 An examination o f p a t t e r n s o f a r t h r i t i s i n Middle woodland, L a t e Woodland, and M i s s i s s i p p i a n s k e l e t a l series from t h e Lower I l l i n o i s Valley. Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , ~ e p a r t m e n tof Anthropology, Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y . P r o t o s , M. 1982 A b i o l o g i c a l t e s t o f G o l d s t e i n ' s h y p o t h e s i s t h a t o u t l y i n g mortuary s i t e s w i l l b e e g a l i t a r i a n i n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e a n n u a l m e e t i n g o f t h e I n d i a n a Academy o f S c i e n c e s , N o t r e Dame, I n d i a n a . Rose, J. C. 1977 Defective enamel h i s t o l o g y o f p r e h i s t o r i c t e e t h from I l l i n o i s . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 46: 439-446. Rusch-Behrend, G. D. n.d. C u l t u r e change and d e n t a l h e a l t h i n p r e h i s t o r i c 1 l l i n o i s . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, I n d i a n a University. Stewart, T. D. 1973 The people of America. S c r i b n e r ' s , N e w York. S t o u t , S. D. 1978 H i s t o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e and i t s p r e s e r v a t i o n i n a n c i e n t bone. Current Anthropology 19:600-604. S t y l e s , B. W. 1981 Faunal e x p l o i t a t i o n and r e s o u r c e s e l e c t i o n : E a r l y Late Woodland s u b s i s t e n c e in t h e Lower I l l i n o i s V a l l e y Northwestern. U n i v e r s i t y A r c h e o l o g i c a l program s c i e n t i f i c Papers, No. 3 . Szpunar, C. B. 1977 Atomic a b s o r p t i o n a n a l y s i s of a r c h e o l o g i c a l remains: Hmm r i b s from Woodland mortuary sites. ph .D. d i s s e r t a t i o n # Department of Chemistry, Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y . T a i n t e r , J. A. 1975 The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f s o c i a l change: woodland Wsterns i n w e s t - c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s . p h . ~ . d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y . van d e r Meme, N. J., and J C. Vogel 1978 13c c o n t e n t of human c o l l a a e n a s a measure o f p r e h i s t o r i c

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in LOWER ILLINOIS VALLEY: OSTEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

d i e t i n Woodland North America. Nature 276:815-816. van Gerven, D. P . , G. J. Armelagos, and M. H. B a r t l e y 1969 Roentgenographic and d i r e c t measurement o f femoral c o r t i cal i n v o l u t i o n in a p r e h i s t o r i c M i s s i s s i p p i a n p o p u l a t i o n . American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 31 :23-38. young, S. G. 1983 S e x u a l dimorphism and s t r e s s a t Klunk mounds. Bachelor's Honors P a p e r on f i l e , Department of Anthropology, Indiana University.

CHAPTER 11 HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS, ILLINOIS (A.D.

950-1300)

Alan H . ~oodman' Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y of Massachusetts-Amherst

John Lallo Department of Anthropology Cleveland S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

George J. Amelagos Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y of Massachusetts-Amherst

Jerome C . Rose Department o f Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y of A r k a n s a s - F a y e t t e v i l l e

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Purpose and Overview Economic and c u l t u r a l changes a r e powerful d e t e r m i n a n t s of t h e p a t t e r n s of m o r b i d i t y , m o r t a l i t y , and s t r e s s ( s e e C a s s e l , 1976; Dubos 1965; Hinkle 1 9 7 4 ) . T h i s c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s a c a s e s t u d y of t h e h e a l t h e f f e c t s of economic and c u l t u r a l change f o r p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s from Dickson Mounds, I l l i n o i s ( c a . A.D. 950-1300) The p u r p o s e s o f t h i s c h a p t e r a r e twofold. The f i r s t i s t o document changing p a t t e r n s of s t r e s s . S t r e s s , o r p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n , i s used a s a g e n e r a l t e r m f o r any i n d i c a t i o n of d e c r e a s e d

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p r e s e n t address: Department of Orthodontics, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032. PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS OF AGRlCULTURE

27 1

Copyright 0 1984 by Academic Press, Inc All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISBN 0-12-179080-0

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a b i l i t y t o adapt biologically. Changing p a t t e r n s f o r t e n i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s a r e presented. I n d i c a t o r s i n c l u d e measures o f g r o w t h d i s r u p t i o n , g r o w t h r e t a r d a t i o n , d i s e a s e , and m o r t a l i t y . P a t t e r n s i n c l u d e mean f r e q u e n c y , s e v e r i t y , and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r e s s by age and s e x . The s e c o n d p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o make i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t t h e r o l e o f p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r a l and economic c h a n g e s a s c a u s e s o f t h e o b s e r v e d p a t t e r n s o f stress. E i g h t of t e n i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s i n c r e a s e i n s e v e r i t y a n d / o r f r e q u e n c y t h r o u g h t i m e a t Dickson. The t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s i n c r e a s e i s t h a t it i s d u e t o l o c a l , e c o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s s u c h a s i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e ( s e e Goodman e t a l . 1980; L a l l o 1973; L a l l o e t a l . 1977, 1978, 1 9 8 0 ) . W e a r g u e t h a t t h e b r o a d p a t t e r n o f i n c r e a s i n g s t r e s s e v i d e n c e d a t Dickson may b e e q u a l l y due t o D i c k s o n ' s i n c r e a s i n g i n v o l v e m e n t i n M i s s i s s i p p i a n - b a s e d exchange s y s t e m s (Harn 1978, 1980). The Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n r e p r e s e n t s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h r e e (1) i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and s e d e n t i s m , t r e n d s a t Dickson: ( 2 ) i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f m a i z e a g r i c u l t u r e , and ( 3 ) e x t e n s i o n and intensification of trade. Increased population d e n s i t y and s e d e n t i s m and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f maize a g r i c u l t u r e a r e e s s e n t i a l l y l o c a l e c o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s , w h i l e t h e e x t e n s i o n and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t r a d e r e p r e s e n t s an e x t e n s i o n o f l o c a l p r o c e s s e s i n t o r e g i o n a l s y s t e m s . I n t h i s s y s t e m , Dickson p o p u l a t i o n s may have become i n c r e a s i n g l y i n v o l v e d w i t h more p o w e r f u l M i s s i s s i p p i a n s o c i o p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s t o t h e s o u t h . A s Dickson was b r o u g h t i n t o s o c i a l and economic s p h e r e s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s e more p o w e r f u l M i s s i s s i p p i a n c e n t e r s ( s u c h a s C a h o k i a ) , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t Dickson p o p u l a t i o n s would have l o s t c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r means o f p r o d u c t i o n . A s Cahokia and o t h e r c o r e M i s s i s s i p p i a n a r e a s expanded t h e i r i n f l u e n c e , Dickson and o t h e r p e r i p h e r a l s i t e s a r e l i k e l y t o have become more i n v o l v e d w i t h and d e p e n d e n t on p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a r e g i o n a l t r a d e exchange s y s t e m . The i n t e r a c t i o n o f i n t e r n a l , l o c a l p r o c e s s e s ( i . e . , i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and d e n s i t y ) and r e g i o n a l p r o c e s ses seems t o h a v e had a p r o f o u n d l y n e g a t i v e e f f e c t on h e a l t h .

Archaeological Reconstruction Dickson Mounds i s a multicomponent h a b i t a t i o n - b u r i a l

complex.

I t i s l o c a t e d n e a r Lewistown, I l l i n o i s , a t t h e c o n f l u e n c e o f t h e

I l l i n o i s a n d Spoon r i v e r s i n t h e C e n t r a l I l l i n o i s V a l l e y ( F i g u r e 11.1). T h r e e c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s have been d e l i m i t e d a t t h e s i t e . These a r e d e f i n e d a s L a t e Woodland, M i s s i s s i p p i a n A c c u l t u r a t e d L a t e Woodland, and Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n . The L a t e Woodland (LW) o c c u p a t i o n ( c i r c a A . D . 950-1100) i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a g e n e r a l i z e d h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g economy w i t h s e a s o n a l camp s i t e s u t i l i z e d by a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l (75-125) group A t t h i s t i m e M i s s i s s i p p i a n c u l t u r e was d e v e l o p i n g of people. 180 km t o t h e s o u t h a t Cahokia i n t h e American Bottoms ( s e e Fowler 1 9 7 8 ) . A t t h e e n d of t h i s h o r i z o n t h e LW had come u n d e r t h e

FULTON COUNTY ILLINOIS

d

Weir

Orendorf

Keeler. Morton.

L

Fiedler EmmonsJ Crable* Rose*

0

u Miles

FIGURE 11.1. Area map of Diekson and selected Spoon River Tradition s i t e s ( a f t e r Ham 1 9 8 0 : ~ ) . i n Âl u e n c e o f t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n (MM) c u l t u r e s u f f i c i e n t l y t o be r e d e f i n e d a s M i s s i s s i p p i a n A c c u l t u r a t e d L a t e Woodland (MALW) (approximately A.D. 1100-1200). The MALW p r e s e n t s a mixed h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g and a g r i c u l t u r a l economy. The Eveland s i t e , 230 m t o t h e southwest o f t h e b u r i a l complex, covered l e s s t h a n 1 . 5 ha and i s e s t i m a t e d t o have been permanently occupied by a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50-75 i n d i v i d u a l s (Harn ,

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

p e r s o n a l communication). By t h e end of t h i s p e r i o d e v i d e n c e f o r l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e i s s e e n i n t h e form o f v i l l a g e r e f u s e and g r a v e o f f e r i n g s (Conrad and Harn 1 9 7 2 ) . The MM a t Dickson ( c a . A.D. 1200-1300) r e p r e s e n t s t h e culminat i o n o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n i n f l u e n c e begun a t t h e e n d of t h e LW. The s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s o n e o f h a m l e t s w i t h s u r r o u n d i n g s u p p o r t camps, e x t r a c t i v e s i t e s , and work s t a t i o n s t i e d t o a l o c a l c e r e m o n i a l c e n t e r (Harn 1 9 7 8 ) . The Myer-Dickson s i t e i s such a hamlet. I t s h o u s e s a r e a r r a n g e d i n rows w i t h a n I t i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 ha i n a r e a and was o c c u p i e d by open p l a z a . a s many a s 440 i n d i v i d u a l s (Harn n . d . , T a b l e 1 ) . Myer-Dickson i s o n e o f 7 h a m l e t s and 31 camps assumed t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Larson c e r e m o n i a l c e n t e r 11 krn t o t h e s o u t h w e s t . Larson i s f u l l y Mississippian. The s i t e i n c l u d e s 32 ha o f d i s p e r s e d o c c u p a t i o n d e b r i s and 8 ha o f c o n c e n t r a t e d o c c u p a t i o n . A p a l i s a d e e n c l o s e d t h e mound, p l a z a , and a t l e a s t 6 ha o f s e t t l e m e n t . Large quantit i e s o f foreign-made i t e m s a r e f o u n d i n d e b r i s and c e m e t e r i e s . Harn (1978:251) s u g g e s t s a p o p u l a t i o n o f between 600 and 1170 i n d i v i d u a l s b a s e d on a n e s t i m a t e d maximum o f 234 h a b i t a t i o n s t r u c tures.

Skeletal Materials The s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l s u t i l i z e d i n t h e s t u d i e s c i t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r were l o a n e d f o r s t u d y by t h e s t a f f of t h e Dickson Mounds Museum, a b r a n c h of t h e I l l i n o i s S t a t e Museum. These m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d e t h e r e m a i n s from a l l 595 b u r i a l s t h a t w e r e e x c a v a t e d d u r i n g t h e 1966 and 1967 f i e l d s e a s o n s a t Dickson. C u l t u r a l a f f i l i a t i o n s were made b a s e d o n b u r i a l c l u s t e r s and g r a v e f u r n i t u r e by a r c h a e o l o g i s t s a t Dickson (Alan H a m , p e r s o n a l communication w i t h John L a l l o ; L a l l o 1973 : 2 7 ) . Age a n d s e x d e t e r m i n a t i o n s were b a s e d on t h e agreement o f m u l t i p l e methods. Methods u t i l i z e d i n a g i n g s u b a d u l t s (0-15 y e a r s ) included t h e following: (1) t h e p a t t e r n o f d e n t a l e r u p t i o n ( a f t e r Schour and M a s s l e r 1 9 4 4 ) , ( 2 ) e p i p h y s e a l c l o s u r e ( a f t e r Krogman 19621, ( 3 ) f u s i o n o f t h e v e r t e b r a e ( a f t e r Anderson 1 9 6 2 ) , and ( 4 ) t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f c e n t e r s o f o s s i f i c a t i o n ( a f t e r Krogman 1 9 6 2 ) . Methods u t i l i z e d t o a g e a d u l t s (15-65 y e a r s ) i n c l u d e d t h e f o l l o w ing: (1) t h e p a t t e r n of d e n t a l e r u p t i o n ( a f t e r Schour and M a s s l e r 1944) , ( 2 ) e p i p h y s e a l c l o s u r e ( a f t e r Krogman 1962 ) , ( 3 ) c h a n g e s i n t h e p u b l i c symphysis (Todd-Lyon [ a f t e r Todd 19371 a n d McKernS t e w a r t [ 1 9 5 7 ] ) , and ( 4 ) t h e d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n p a t t e r n f o r Dickson Mounds ( s e e Harn 1971 and 1 9 8 0 ) . Based on t h e s e methods, a g e was d e t e r m i n e d t o y e a r l y i n t e r v a l s f o r s u b a d u l t s ( e - g . , 0-1, 1-2, 3-4, , 14-15) and t o 5-year i n t e r v a l s f o r a d u l t s ( e - g . , 15-20, 20-25, 25-30, ., 6 0 - 6 5 ) . F o r p u r p o s e s o f a n a l y s i s t h e s e a g e c l a s s e s have been c o l l a p s e d , a s i s e v i d e n c e d i n t h e l i f e t a b l e s ( s e e T a b l e s 11.1 and 1 1 . 2 ) ( L a l l o e t a l . , 1978).

...

..

I

11 HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS

275

TABLE 11.1 L i f e Table for the Late Woodland and the Mississippian Acculturated Late Woodland for the Ages 0-60 Years x

dx

qx

lx

=x

Ex

TABLE 11.2 L i f e Table for t h e Middle Mississippian for the Ages 0-60 Years

x 0 1 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 50

dx

lx

Ix

LX

Ex

-

'21 7 86 72 77 45 104 109 122 114 54

-

1000 783 697 625 548 503 399 290 168 54

217 110 103 123 82 207 273 421 678 1000

891.5 740 1983 2932.5 2627.5 2255 3445 2290 1110 270

19 23 24 24 22 18 18 13 8 5

221

1000

0

48 19 16 17 10 23 24 27 25 12

-

276

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

Sex d e t e r m i n a t i o n f o r a d u l t s commenced a f t e r completion of age d e t e r m i n a t i o n s . The following methods were u t i l i z e d i n det e r m i n a t i o n of sex ( a f t e r L a l l o 1973: 36) : (1) d e n t a l m e t r i c s f o r Dickson Mounds ( s e e Ditch and Rose 1972); ( 2 ) d i s c r i m i n a n t funct i o n a n a l y s i s based on Dickson Mounds p e l v i c measures ( s e e Gustav 1 9 7 2 ) , complemented by o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s c i a t i c notch and p r e a u r i c u l a r s u l c u s ; ( 3 ) d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n a n a l y s i s based on Dickson Mounds femoral measures (Van Gerven 1972), and ( 4 ) c r a n i a l morphology ( a f t e r Ascadi and Nemeskeri 1971): s u p r a - o r b i t a l r i d g e , nuchal c r e s t , mastoid p r o c e s s , eye o r b i t s , and g e n e r a l r o b u s t i c i t y . S t a t e of p r e s e r v a t i o n was g e n e r a l l y good t o e x c e l l e n t . Perios t e a l bone g e n e r a l l y s u f f e r e d l i t t l e from interment. Most i n d i v i d u a l s were r e p r e s e n t e d by near-complete o r complete s k e l e t o n s . T h e r e f o r e , a l l b u t a handful of i n d i v i d u a l s (N = 38) could be aged, sexed, and a s s i g n e d t o a c u l t u r a l horizon. The following s t u d i e s a r e based on t h e sample t h a t could be given an a g e , s e x , and c u l t u r a l assignment ( N = 5 5 7 ) . While a n a l y s i s of m o r t a l i t y i n c l u d e s t h i s e n t i r e sample, o t h e r a n a l y s e s , dependent on t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s p e c i f i c bone o r t e e t h , a r e based on sub-samples o f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s . Although r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s cannot be measured f o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s , i t i s reasonable t o a s sume t h a t t h e sample i s a f a i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e base p o p u l a t i o n s based on a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence f o r e x c l u s i v e u s e of t h e b u r i a l mounds ( s e e Harn 1980). An a d d i t i o n a l s t r e n g t h of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s f o r an a n a l y s i s of h e a l t h changes through time i s a high degree of g e n e t i c homog e n e i t y through time. Cohen (1974) a s s e s s e d t h e r e l a t i v e degree of g e n e t i c d i s t a n c e between t h e t h r e e Dickson p o p u l a t i o n s and Mound 72 from Cahokia, a M i s s i s s i p p i a n group (Fowler 1969). I n h e r a n a l y s i s , Cohen compares d i s t a n c e s based on d e n t a l t r a i t s considered t o be of e i t h e r h i g h o r low h e r i t a b i l i t y . A s w e l l , r e l a t i v e d i s t a n c e measures such a s Mahalanobis 0-square were computed based on a v a r i e t y of measures. Analysis of t h e Dickson s e r i e s revealed no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between c u l t u r a l phases i n t r a i t s of high h e r i t a b i l i t y . However, comparison of Dickson with t h e Cahokia s e r i e s y i e l d e d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n c i s o r and c a n i n e s h o v e l i n g , median r i d g e s , g i n g i v a l borders, C a r a b e l l i ' s cusp, and molar groove p a t t e r n s . A l l of t h e s e t r a i t s a r e considered t o b e under s t r o n g g e n e t i c c o n t r o l . Mahalanobis The 0-square f o r 0-square v a l u e s c o r r o b o r a t e t h e s e f i n d i n g s comparison o f Dickson with Cahokia i s n e a r l y t e n times g r e a t e r

.

11 HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS

277

than t h e 0-square f o r i n t e r n a l comparison (4.01 v e r s u s 0 . 4 1 ) . These r e s u l t s s t r o n g l y suggest t h a t t h e Dickson s e r i e s i s g e n e t i c a l l y continuous and they s t r o n g l y suggest a g a i n s t r a p i d ¥i situ e v o l u t i o n o r migration-population replacement s e n a r i o s . In summary, Dickson a f f o r d s an e x c e l l e n t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r studying t h e h e a l t h e f f e c t s of c u l t u r a l change. The s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e s an e x c e l l e n t d a t a base f o r a paleoepidemioloq i c a l a n a l y s i s . Extensive a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s pointed toward t h e wholesale n a t u r e of c u l t u r a l and e c o l o g i c a l change. I n o t h e r words, Dickson r e p r e s e n t s a well-preserved s k e l e t a l sample of a p o p u l a t i o n t h a t underwent r a p i d c u l t u r a l and economic change.

INDICATORS OF STRESS

Model f o r Studying S t r e s s i n S k e l e t a l P o p u l a t i o n s

I

I

1

Our paleoepidemiological study i s organized w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o a model o f t h e causes o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n s and i n d i c a t o r s of d i s r u p t i o n a v a i l a b l e f o r s t u d y i n s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n s (Figure 11.2) (Armelagos e t a l . 1980; Huss-Ashore e t a l . 1982). The b i o p h y s i c a l environment imposes c o n s t r a i n t s ( r e s o u r c e l i m i t a t i o n s and s t r e s s o r s ) on human p o p u l a t i o n s (box 1 i n F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 ) . Although c u l t u r a l systems may f u n c t i o n t o b u f f e r o r modify t h e e f f e c t s of b i o p h y s i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s , o f t e n c u l t u r a l f e a t u r e s may a c t t o impose new s t r e s s o r s o r t o l i m i t a c c e s s t o c r i t i c a l r e s o u r c e s (box 2 ) . For example, while a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n may l e a d t o a g r e a t e r n e t e x t r a c t i o n o f energy, it may come a t a c o s t of decreased a v a i l a b i l i t y and use of o t h e r e s s e n t i a l r e sources and i n c r e a s e d exposure t o c r i t i c a l s t r e s s o r s such a s novel pathogens. The impact of c o n s t r a i n t s on an i n d i v i d u a l i s a l s o mediated by h o s t r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r s (box 3 ) . The g e n e r a l h e a l t h o f an i n d i v i d u a l , age, s e x , g e n e t i c makeup, and many o t h e r f a c t o r s may i n f l u e n c e t h e magnitude o f physiologic a 1 d i s r u p t i o n ( s t r e s s ) caused by a given c o n s t r a i n t (box 4 ) . While p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n i s n o t d i r e c t l y measurable i n t h e dead, it may be i n f e r r e d from a v a r i e t y of i t s e f f e c t s (box 5 ) . I f s t r e s s i s severe and long l a s t i n g , then it w i l l be evidenced i n growth d i s r u p t i o n , i n mrt a l i t y , and u l t i m a t e l y i n d e a t h (Selye 1976). Death may b e t h e u l t i m a t e measure of t h e b i o l o g i c a l organism's i n a b i l i t y t o s u f f e r t h e consequences o f p o o r l y b u f f e r e d s t r e s s o r s and r e s o u r c e l i m i t a t i o n s (Huss-Ashmore e t a l . 1982) The model i s o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d a s follows. Impacts of s t r e s s a r e measurable in a s k e l e t a l s e r i e s . V a r i a t i o n s i n t h e r e s u l t i n g i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s a r e assumed t o be due t o v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e experience of p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n s . These, i n t u r n , a r e assumed t o be a f u n c t i o n of t h e amount of c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g and

.

1

3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS A. Stressors B. Limiting

CULTURAL FILTER (MODIFY EXISTING AND PRODUCES NEW CONSTRAINTS) A. Agricultural intensification B. Increased population density and sedentansm C. Extended and intensified trade including increased involvement with Mississippian centers

HOST RESISTANCE A. Age B. Sex C. Genetic susceptibility

DISRUPTION

INDICATORS OF STRESS A. Growth disruption and alteratioi 1. Altered growth curves

2 Decreased sexual dimorphism 3. Harris lines 4 Linear enamel hypoplasias 5 Wilson bands

0. Disease 1. Porotic hyperostosis

2 Infectious lesions 3. Traumatic lesions 4. Degenerative lesions

- - - - - - --- - - -------------- ---------.

FIGURE 11.2

Death

Model o f t h e causes o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n s and i n d i c a t o r s o f d i s r u p t i o n .

11 HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS

279

h o s t r e s i s t a n c e s u b t r a c t e d from t h e s e v e r i t y o f c u l t u r a l l y and e c o l o g i c a l l y produced c o n s t r a i n t s . F o r t h e Dickson c a s e s t u d y , o n e can assume t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s t r a i n t s have remained r o u g h l y c o n s t a n t t h r o u g h t i m e (Harn 1 9 8 0 ) . A s w e l l , s i n c e t h e p o p u l a t i o n shows a h i g h d e g r e e o f g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y t h r o u g h t i m e (Cohen 19741, it i s l i k e l y t h a t g e n e t i c a l l y b a s e d h o s t r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r s h a v e remained c o n s t a n t (save f o r changes t h a t a r e a f u n c t i o n o f c u l t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s ) . Thus, we a r e l e f t t o assume t h a t c h a n g e s i n s t r e s s l e v e l s may b e due t o changes i n c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s . These c h a n g e s a r e e v a l u a t e d with reference t o multiple i n d i c a t o r s of disruption.

Long Bone Grouth Attained Length and Circumference.

L a l l o (1973) h a s p r e s e n t e d an a n a l y s i s o f l e n g t h and c i r c u m f e r e n c e d a t a f o r t i b i a e , h u m e r i , and femora. D a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d a s i n c r e m e n t a l i n c r e a s e , r e l a t i v e p e r c e n t a g e i n c r e a s e , and a t t a i n e d d i s t a n c e . Below we p r e s e n t d a t a from L a l l o (1973) i n t h e form o f d i s t a n c e c u r v e s . F i v e hundred fifty-seven b u r i a l s a r e included i n t h e following analysis. This r e p r e s e n t s t h e e n t i r e sample t h a t c o u l d b e a g e d , s e x e d , and assigned t o a c u l t u r a l horizon. F i g u r e s 1 1 . 3 and 1 1 . 4 a r e d i s t a n c e c u r v e s f o r t o t a l l e n g t h and c i r c u m f e r e n c e of t h e t i b i a . On a v e r a g e , t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n t i b i a a r e l o n g e r a t b i r t h ( F i g u r e 1 1 . 3 ) . However, t h e r e i s a s l o w i n g o f growth i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n r e l a t i v e t o t h e L a t e Woodland and M i s s i s s i p p i a n A c c u l t u r a t e d L a t e Woodland s a m p l e s . T h i s r e l a t i v e s l o w h g i s most e v i d e n t from 2 t o 5 y e a r s o f a g e . I t i s a t t h i s t i m e t h a t t h e a t t a i n e d l e n g t h f o r t h e MM f a l l s below t h a t f o r t h e MALW and t h e LW. Once t h e g r e a t e r a t t a i n e d growth of t h e L W and MALW s a m p l e s a r e a c h i e v e d , t h e y remain r e l a t i v e l y constant u n t i l maturity. F i g u r e 11.4 demonstrates t h a t t h e p a t t e r n observed f o r a t t a i n e d circumference is s i m i l a r t o t h e p a t t e r n presented f o r a t t a i n e d l e n g t h . The main s i m i l a r i t i e s a r e t h e g r e a t e r s i z e a t b i r t h o f t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n s and t h e s l o w i n g o f growth o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n r e l a t i v e t o t h e o t h e r populations, resulting i n a l e s s e r attained g r o w t h by t h e a g e o f f i v e . The c i r c u m f e r e n c e c u r v e s d i f f e r from t h e l e n g t h c u r v e s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g ways: (1) t h e a g e a t which t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between g r o w t h c u r v e s i s g r e a t e s t , ( 2 ) t h e amount o f " c a t c h - u p " growth e v i d e n c e d from a g e s 1 5 t o 25, and ( 3 ) t h e r e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a c t u a l a t t a i n e d growth a t d i f f e r e n t ages between c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s . The g r e a t e s t d i s t a n c e between growth c u r v e s i s found between a g e s 1 0 and 1 5 w i t h s u b s e q u e n t l y t h e g r e a t e s t c a t c h - u p by a g e 25. A s e r i e s o f a n a l y s e s o f v a r i a n c e (ANOVAS) were performed i n o r d e r t o a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r o r n o t d i f f e r e n c e s i n a t t a i n e d growth were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r any o f t h e a g e g r o u p s ( T a b l e Significant results ( p . 0 5 ) were o b t a i n e d f o r b o t h t i b i a 1 11.4) l e n g t h a n d c i r c u m f e r e n c e f o r t h e 5- 1 0 - y e a r age g r o u p . However, no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s a r e found f o r e i t h e r measure i n a n y o f

.

<

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

2

5

10

25

15

35

Age in Years

FIGURE 11.3. Distance curves of t i b i a l length for the Late Mississippian ~ e e u l t u r a t e dLate Woodland (----), Woodland f-), and Mississippian f - - - - - ) c u l t u r a l horizons (ages 0-35 y e a r s ) . Values for ages 15, 25, and 35 years include the epiphysis (from Lallo 1 9 7 3 : 8 4 ) . t h e o t h e r age c l a s s e s . While most r e s u l t s a r e n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , a l l measures from t h e 2-5-year c l a s s t o o l d e r age c l a s s e s a r e i n t h e expected d i r e c t i o n . Evidence f o r an unusual d e c r e a s e i n growth v e l o c i t y around t h e age o f two a l s o comes from a n a t t e m p t t o f i t t i b i a l l e n g t h a g a i n s t d e n t a l l y aged i n d i v i d u a l s ( b i r t h t o 7 y e a r s , d a t a from Bickerton 1 9 7 9 ) . A t h i r d - d e g r e e polynomial gave a s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r f i t t o t h e d a t a t h a n t h e s t a n d a r d second-degree f u n c t i o n (Goodman 1 9 8 0 ) . The a d d i t i o n a l d e g r e e u t i l i z e d f o r c u r v e f i t t i n g seems t o be a r e s u l t of t h e d e c r e a s e i n observed l e n g t h o v e r t h a t " p r e d i c t e d " by t h e second-degree f i t f o r i n d i v i d u a l s between t h e ages o f 1 . 5 and 3 y e a r s . I n summary, t i b i a l growth d a t a s u g g e s t i n c r e a s e d s t r e s s i n t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n . Furthermore, t h e s e d a t a h i g h l i g h t t h e 2-5 y e a r p e r i o d a s o n e i n which s t r e s s may be most s e v e r e .

S e d Dimorphism While L a l l o (1973) was a b l e t o a s c e r t a i n t h a t l o n g bone l e n g t h and circumference growth v e l o c i t i e s and achieved growth a r e g e n e r a l l y dampened i n t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n r e l a t i v e t o t h e p r i o r c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s , i t remained t o b e s e e n whether t h i s slow-

11

HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS

Age in Years

Distance curves for t i b i a 2 e i r c m f e r e n c e for Mississippian Acculturated Late the Late Woodland ,)-f ) c u l t u r a l horizons Woodland (-----), and Mississippian ( (ages 0-35 years), (Lallo 1 9 7 3 : 8 7 ) . FIGURE 1 1 . 4 .

-

i n g o f growth d i f f e r e n t i a l l y a f f e c t e d males, thus d e c r e a s i n g t h e amount of sexual dimorphism. L a l l o u t i l i z e d an e x t e n s i v e s e t of o s t e o m e t r i c measures of t h e p e l v i s and femur i n h i s a n a l y s i s of sexual dimorphism. These measures and d a t a were obtained from Gustav (1972) f o r t h e p e l v i s and Van Gerven (1972) f o r t h e femur. Both of t h e s e s t u d i e s i n c l u d e stepwise d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s e s of s e x based on t h e r e s p e c t i v e femoral o r p e l v i c measures. L a l l o , t h e r e f o r e , had t h e advantage of u t i l i z i n g t w o s e t s of measures t h a t had p r e v i o u s l y been i s o l a t e d a s d i s c r i m i n a t o r s o f s e x i n t h e Dickson c o l l e c t i o n . A s e r i e s of two-way ANOVAs (sex and c u l t u r e a s main e f f e c t s ) were run w i t h d a t a from 14 femoral and 21 p e l v i c measures ( L a l l o , 1973:112-113). I f sexual dimorphism d e c r e a s e s through time, then we would expect a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n between sex and c u l t u r e ( t h e two main e f f e c t s ) . However, s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s were n o t found While t h e sexual dimorphism r e s u l t s a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , they r e q u i r e d i s c u s s i o n . The h y p o t h e s i s t h a t s t r e s s would d i f f e r e n t i a l l y a f f e c t males d e r i v e s from S t i n i ( 1 9 6 9 ) , who t h e o r i z e s t h a t t h e female endocrinological system i s b e t t e r a b l e t o b u f f e r nut r i t i o n a l i n s u l t s . However, he i s r e f e r r i n g t o a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

.

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

TABLE 11.3 Summary S t a t i s t i c s o f Long Bone Measurements for Late Woodland, Mississippian ~ e e u Z t u r a t e dLate Woodland, and Mississippian Individuals Ages 5-10 Years (Sexes Combined)

Measurement

N

Mean

SD

16 31 20

228.6 229.2 209.0

6.3 10.6 8.4

16 31 20

33.3 32.8 25.2

2.6 2.4 1.9

Tibia b n g t h LW MALW M

Tibia eiremjference LW MALW M

f-valuea

df

3.56

2/23

3.96

a Denotes s i y n i f i e a n t f -value a t .O5. t h a t o c c u r s beginning w i t h s e x u a l m a t u r a t i o n . This h y p o t h e s i s may n o t be r e l e v a n t t o t h e Dickson s i t u a t i o n , a s it a p p e a r s t h a t maximum s t r e s s i s evidenced much before s e x u a l m a t u r a t i o n . F i n a l l y , t h e S t i n i h y p o t h e s i s d o e s n o t account f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t males were a b l e t o "keep up" r e l a t i v e t o females because t h e y were g i v e n g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o r e s o u r c e s and were more b u f f e r e d from stress. There a r e a l s o a s e r i e s of methodological r e a s o n s why t h e S t i n i h y p o t h e s i s may n o t b e e v i d e n c e d i n t h e Dickson d a t a . F i r s t and foremost i s t h e confounding problem o f b o t h s e x i n g and a n a l y z i n g f o r s t r e s s u s i n g t h e same s e t o f measures. Second, t h e sample s i z e s u t i l i z e d i n t h i s s t u d y a r e s m a l l (84 i n t h e p e l v i c measures and 97 f o r t h e femoral measures) f o r a two-way ANOVA w i t h s i x c e l l s . And t h i r d , t h e s t u d y o f Gustav (1972) and Van Gerven (1972) purp o s e l y excluded p a t h o l o g i c a l specimens. While this i s s e n s i b l e i n an a n a l y s i s o f measures t h a t d i s c r i m i n a t e f o r s e x , it may g r e a t l y reduce t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r d i s c o v e r i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e d e g r e e o f s e x u a l dimorphism based on t h e amount of s t r e s s . We conclude t h a t t h e amount of s e x u a l dimorphism i s r e l a t i v e l y i n v a r i a b l e among t h e t h r e e Dickson c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s . While t h e s e d a t a may be evidence t h a t s t r e s s d i d n o t i n c r e a s e t h r o u q h t i m e a t Dickson, t h e y may a l s o b e i n s i g n i f i c a n t t o t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .

Harris Lines Frequencies.

Goodman and C l a r k (1981) have p r e s e n t e d an a n a l y s i s of changing s t r e s s through t i m e a t Dickson a s evidenced i n t h e f r e quency and t i m e o f o c c u r r e n c e o f H a r r i s l i n e s on d i s t a l and p r o x i mal t i b i a . Means and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e frequency o f H a r r i s l i n e s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n Table 11.5. Results are given per i n d i v i d u a l and a r e g i v e n f o r t h e e n t i r e sample ( N = 130) , and a r e broken down by age c l a s s (younger and o l d e r a d u l t s ) , s e x , and c u l t u r a l horizon.

11

HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS

283

TABLE 11.4 Harris Lines in t h e Diekson Mounds Populations: Means and Standard Deviations for the Number o f Lines on Distal and Proximal Tibias -

-

Distal t i b i a Standard Mean deviation

Proximal t i b i a Standard Mean deviation

1.30 1 .19 1.06

1.49 1.33 1.22

0.70 0.49 0.57

1.88 1.00 1.03

1.38 1 .23

1.30 1.19

0.75 0.57

1.43 0.73

By Sex: Females ( 4 3 ) Males ( 6 5 )

1.21 1.46

1.23 1.30

0.53 0.74

0.98 1.33

Total Sample ( 1 3 0 )

1.13

1.27

0.55

1.12

Sample ( N ) By Culture: L W ( 10 ) MALW ( 4 7 ) MM ( 5 1 )

By Age: 15-39 years ( 4 0 ) 40-60 years ( 3 0 )

The mean number o f l i n e s / t i b i a i s 1 . 6 8 (1.13 d i s t a l l y and 0.55 p r o x i m a l l y ) . T h i s frequency i s w i t h i n t h e range g i v e n by Wells (1967) f o r h i s Anglo-Saxon p o p u l a t i o n s (0.8-5.1 l i n e s / t i b i a ) . The f i g u r e i s l e s s t h a n t h a t found by Nichens (1975) f o r a Mesa Verde sample and by ~ o o d a l l (1968) f o r a sample from Casas Grandes. On t h e o t h e r hand, McHenry (1968) r e p o r t s a mean o f 8.01 lines/femur f o r a p r e h i s t o r i c s e r i e s from t h e San Joaquin V a l l e y , C a l i f o r n i a . There a r e more H a r r i s l i n e s found o n t h e d i s t a l than on t h e proximal end (mean of 1.13 v e r s u s 0 . 5 5 ) . T h i s conf irms t h e f i n d i n g of o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s (Garn e t d l . 1968; Park 1 9 6 4 ) . C u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h and w i t h o u t one o r more H a r r i s l i n e s on t h e proximal o r d i s t a l t i b i a were t e s t e d f o r s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . No c u l t u r a l comparison y i e l d e d a s i g n i f i c a n t c h i - s q u a r e v a l u e ( b a s e d on S i e g e 1 1 9 5 6 ) . Furthermore, t h e s l i g h t t r e n d of d e c r e a s e d frequency o f H a r r i s l i n e s through time r u n s c o u n t e r t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s . Although t h e d i f f e r e n c e s were n o t found t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , males have a h i g h e r frequency o f l i n e s t h a n do females. T h i s t r e n d may s u p p o r t t h e view t h a t t h e growing male i s more s u s c e p t i b l e t o s t r e s s than t h e growing f e m a l e . However, somewhat c o n t r a r y t o t h e S t i n i h y p o t h e s i s , females have a g r e a t e r frequency of H a r r i s l i n e s d u r i n g t h e a d o l e s c e n t growth s p u r t w h i l e males have a h i g h e r frequency d u r i n g t h e f i r s t 7 y e a r s o f l i f e .

Distribution by Age a t Occurrence.

The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f H a r r i s l i n e s by t h e time of t h e i r development f o r t h e d i s t a l t i b i a i s C h r o n o l o g i e s a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e MALW p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 11.5.

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

Developmental Age (Years)

FIGURE 11.5.

Percentage of grauth a r r e s t l i n e s i n combined male and female d i s t a l t i b i a s for Mississippian Aceulturated Late woodland (-) f N = 47) and ~ i d d l eMississippian f - - - - - ) (N = 51) populations (Goodman and Clark 1981:45). and MM samples. Both c h r o n o l o g i e s show two peaks. A major peak i s found between t h e a g e s o f b i r t h and 3 y e a r s , and a minor peak around t h e a g e s o f 12-14 y e a r s . The c h r o n o l o g i e s do n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from each o t h e r (Kolmogorov-Smimov t e s t ) a n d , indeed, a r e remarkably s i m i l a r i n shape. The H a r r i s l i n e f r e q u e n c y d a t a do n o t s u p p o r t t h e view t h a t h e a l t h d e c r e a s e d t h r o u g h time a t Dickson. Indeed, t h e r e i s a t r e n d o f i n c r e a s e d frequency o f l i n e s i n t h e e a r l i e r groups. These d a t a a r e e q u i v o c a l . Recent reviews ( B u i k s t r a and Cook 1980; Huss-Ashmore e t a l . 1982) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e frequency o f H a r r i s l i n e s may n o t be a v a l i d i n d i c a t o r o f t h e d e g r e e of p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n ( s t r e s s ) . T h i s r e a s o n i n g l i e s mainly w i t h t h e poor a s s o c i a t i o n o f H a r r i s l i n e f r e q u e n c i e s w i t h o t h e r measures o f s t r e s s i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s and t h e poor a s s o c i a t i o n s o f H a r r i s l i n e s w i t h known s t r e s s o r s i n b o t h animal and human c l i n i cal studies. I f one q u e s t i o n s whether o r n o t H a r r i s l i n e s themselves a r e v a l i d s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s , then chronologies of Harris l i n e s a s r e f l e c t i o n s o f t h e d e g r e e of p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s through p e r i o d s o f s k e l e t a l m a t u r a t i o n a l s o must b e q u e s t i o n e d . Our d a t a show a peak frequency of H a r r i s l i n e s p r e c i s e l y when growth v e l o c i t y i s g r e a t e s t and when t h e growing i n d i v i d u a l s might be e x p e c t e d t o be more s u s c e p t i b l e t o growth d i s r u p t i o n . Thus, t h e H a r r i s l i n e c h r o n o l o g i e s may r e f l e c t h o s t s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o s t r e s s more t h a n exposure t o and s t r e n g t h of s t r e s s o r s .

11 HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS

285

TABLE 11.5 Mean Number o f Growth Disruptions (Hupoplasias) per Individual i n tk Dickson Populations

Population

LW UALV MM

-

Grouth disruptions/individuuZ Individuals with A l l individuals complete measurementsa' M F A Total M F A Total .17 1.26 1.43

1.42 .OO .90 .82 2.00 1.18 1.47 3.25 1.61

1.24

----

.OO 1.29 1.25 1.29 1.43 1.64

.OO .90 2.00 1.45 3.25 1.86

----

1.20

1.25

2.09

2.09

1.31

1.44

1.52

^Â¥M males; F , females; A, adolescents.

b ~ i r t ht o 7 years. Linear E r n e l Hypoflasia Frequencies.

Enamel h y p o p l a s i a s a r e d e f i c i e n c i e s i n enamel t h i c k n e s s r e s u l t i n g from s y s t e m i c p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n s (Goodman e t a l . 1 9 8 0 ) . The p a t t e r n of h y p o p l a s i a s on d e n t a l enamel can be read a s a kymographic r e c o r d of p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n ( s t r e s s ) d u r i n g t h e time of t h e e n a m e l ' s development (Kreshover 1960; S a r n a t and Schour 1 9 4 1 ) . And, because mature enamel i s u n a l t e r a b l e by i n t e r n a l b i o l o g i c a l e v e n t s , h y p o p l a s i a s may p r o v i d e a permanent "memory" of p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n s d u r i n g t h e time of t h e enam e l ' s development (Goodman e t a l . 1980) Goodman and co-workers (1980) have p r e s e n t e d an a n a l y s i s o f t h e frequency of enamel h y p o p l a s i a s f o r t h e Dickson Mound i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h permanent d e n t i t i o n s . The sample c o n s i s t e d o f a l l a d o l e s c e n t s and a d u l t s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y complete d e n t i t i o n (N = 111). Ages of i n d i v i d u a l s and a v a i l a b l e enamel ( a p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e of e r r o r due t o t o o t h l o s s and a t t r i t i o n ) d i d n o t v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y by s e x o r c u l t u r a l horizon. The mean number of h y p o p l a s i a s p e r i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e Dickson The means a r e p r e s e n t e d p o p u l a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 11.6. b o t h f o r a l l i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e sample and f o r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h complete enamel a l l o w i n g measurements from b i r t h t o 7 y e a r s of a g e . T h i s second s e t of means h e l p s t o c o n t r o l f o r d i f f e r e n t i a l a v a i l a b i l i t y of enamel f o r s t u d y caused mainly by d e n t a l attrition. A c l e a r t r e n d of i n c r e a s e d growth d i s r u p t i o n i s e v i d e n t through time a t Dickson. Mean f r e q u e n c i e s by c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n i n c r e a s e This from 0.90 i n t h e LW t o 1.18 i n t h e MALW t o 1 . 6 1 i n t h e MM. t r e n d i s a l s o e v i d e n t i n i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h complete measurements from b i r t h t o 7 y e a r s (Table 1 1 . 6 ) and i s evidenced t h a t t h e t r e n d i s n o t due t o a d i f f e r e n t i a l a v a i l a b i l i t y of enamel f o r study. I n f a c t , when c o n t r o l l i n g f o r enamel a v a i l a b i l i t y , t h e

.

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

286

TABLE 11.6 Number of Individuals w~t'houtGrowth Disruptions (Hypoplasias) and the Number of Individuals w , f h One. or More Growth Disruptions by Cultural Horizon Hgpop l a s i a s No. %

One o r more hypoplasias No. %

Total No. % ~-

Late Woodland (LW) Mississ@phzn Aecult~~ated Late Woodland (MALW) Middle Mississippian (MM)

11

55

9

45

20

100

18

40

27

60

45

100

9

20

37

80

46

100

38

34

73

66

Ill

100

Summary of Chi-square T e s t s Where t h e Frequency of Individuals with One or More Growth Arrest piso odes Were Compared t o Those without a Growth Arrest Episode (see Table 3 ) . dates ' Correction I s Used When df Equals 1 Chi-square value f d f ) L W versus MALW L W versus MM MALW versus MM LU versus MALW versus MM

-7

6.8 ( 1 ) 3.8 ( z ) ~

11.0 ( 2 j a

t r e n d toward i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c i e s o f h y p o p l a s i a s becomes more pronounced. C h i - s q u a r e a n a l y s e s a r e p e r f o r m e d i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e whether t h e s e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e o f s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . The sample was d i c h o t o m i z e d i n t o t h o s e w i t h o n e o r more growth d i s r u p t i o n s and t h o s e w i t h o u t growth d i s r u p t i o n s ( s e e T a b l e 1 1 . 7 ) . The LW and M A L W d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from e a c h o t h e r . However, .01 t h e MM d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from b o t h t h e LW and t h e MALW (p and p < .O5, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . I n sum, t h e h y p o p l a s i a d a t a s u p p o r t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s r u p t i o n was more f r e q u e n t and s e v e r e i n t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n .

<

Annual C y d e s of S t r e s s ( S e a s o n a l i t y ) . F r e q u e n c i e s o f o c c u r r e n c e o f two growth d i s r u p t i o n s s e p a r a t e d by 1 2 and 6 months a r e p r e s e n t e d i n Table 11.8. The number of growth d i s r u p t i o n s s e p a r a t e d by a y e a r i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e number o f d i s r u p t i o n s s e p a r a t e d by 6 months i n a l l h o r i z o n s . R e s u l t s f o r t h e MALW a p p r o a c h s i g n i f i c a n c e , and o v e r a l l r e s u l t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t ( p = -0336).

11 HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS

287

TABLE 11.7 Number o f Cases i n Which Two Growth D h p t i o n s (Hypoplasias) Are Separated by a Half Year and Number o f Cases i n Which Two Growth Disruptions Are Separated by a Year

Late Woodland Mississippian Accu Zturated Late Woodland Middle Mississippian

.5 Years

1 . 0 Years

Binomia 2 one -tai Zeda probability

1

3

--

5

12

,072

-

10

-

14

.271

16

29

.0336

2 195 6. "Â¥Sieg The o c c u r r e n c e o f g r o w t h d i s r u p t i o n s o v e r t i m e w i t h i n a n i n d i v i d u a l i s n o t random. The o c c u r r e n c e o f g r o w t h d i s r u p t i o n s e p a r a t e d by y e a r l y i n t e r v a l s i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t p r e d i c t e d by c h a n c e . T h i s phenomena i s l i k e l y t o b e due t o an a n n u a l c y c l e o f s t r e s s (Goodman e t a l . 1980) s u c h a s m i g h t o c c u r i f a g i v e n s e a s o n were r e g u l a r l y more s t r e s s f u l t h a n t h e o t h e r s . Since a g r i c u l t u r e may p r o v i d e a r e s o u r c e b a s e t o b u f f e r t h e s e s e a s o n a l d e p r i v a t i o n s , t h e s e d a t a may h e l p
Wilson Bands 'Frequencies.

Rose e t a l . (1978) h a v e p r e s e n t e d a t h o r o u g h a n a l y s i s of Wilson bands i n a Middle Woodland sample from Gibson Mound and t h e MALW and Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n from Dickson. Data a r e p r e s e n t e d on t h e f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f Wilson bands ( s e e T a b l e 1 1 . 9 ) , t h e c h r o n o l o g y and p e a k p e r i o d o f t h e i r development, and t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h age a t d e a t h ( s e e T a b l e 1 1 . 1 0 ) . The sample was randomly s e l e c t e d from i n d i v i d u a l s 15 y e a r s o l d o r o l d e r and i n c l u d e s 87 m a n d i b u l a r c a n i n e s . A n e a r l y f o u r f o l d i n c r e a s e i n percentage of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h Wilson b a n d s i s s e e n i f one compares t h e MW a t Gibson ( 1 0 . 3 % ) t o t h e MALW a t Dickson ( 2 1 . 4 % ) and t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n a t Dickson ( 4 0 . 0 % ) . These r e s e a r c h e r s a l s o c a l c u l a t e d t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f h a l f y e a r enamel u n i t s w i t h Wilson bands ( a method u s e d t o c o n t r o l f o r d i f f e r e n t i a l a v a i l a b i l i t y o f e n a m e l ) . T h i s method o f c a l c u l a t i o n r e d u c e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two Dickson samples. The p e r c e n t a g e o f enamel u n i t s w i t h Wilson bands i s 4 . 4 i n t h e MALW and Only t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e MW and MM was found 7 . 7 i n t h e MM. t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t (chi-square t e s t corrected f o r continuity; Siege1 1956).

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

288

TABLE 11.8 Prevalence and Percentages per Individual and One-half Year Enamel Unit of Wilson Bands Witson Indibands victuals Middle Woodland (Gibson) MALW (Dickson) Mississwan (Dickson)

E n d units

Percentage 'indi viduaI

Percentage ename l unit

3

29

157

10.3

1.9

6

28

136

21.4

4.4

-

12

-

30

-

163

-

40.0

-

7.4

21

87

456

24.1

4.6

A Comparison of the Mean Ages a t Death ( i n years) TABLE 11.9 of Individuals w-ifh A t Least One Wilson Band and Those wifhout W-Llson Bands

Wifh bands

With no W i lson bands

Difference

20.0

45.0

25.0

28.4

40.2

11.8

27.6

40.4

12. 8

W i lson

Middle Woodland (Gibson) MALW (Dickson) Mi.ssissippian (Dickson)

Distribution by Age a t Occurrence.

The mean a g e o f o c c u r r e n c e and t h e c h r o n o l o g y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f Wilson b a n d s were a l s o c a l c u l a t e d . The mean a g e o f o c c u r r e n c e i s 2.25 y e a r s f o r t h e MW, 2.92 y e a r s f o r t h e MALW, a n d 2.40 y e a r s f o r t h e MM. The c h r o n o l o g i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s of bands a r e a l s o s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t . The MW c u r v e h a s a broad and f l a t p e a k from 0 . 5 t o 4 . 0 y e a r s . The MALW h a s a broad The MW h a s peak from 2.0 t o 4 . 5 w i t h a h i g h p o i n t a t 2.25 y e a r s . a p l a t e a u from 1 . 0 t o 3 . 5 w i t h h i g h p e a k s a t 1 . 7 5 and 3 . 2 5 y e a r s .

Association w i t h Age a t Death.

Rose e t a l . (1978) examined t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Wilson b a n d s and a g e a t d e a t h i n a d u l t h o o d T h i s a n a l y s i s y i e l d e d two n o t e w o r t h y r e s u l t s . ( s e e Table 11.7) F i r s t , t h e mean a g e a t d e a t h f o r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h Wilson bands i s lower t h a n t h a t f o r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h o u t Wilson b a n d s i n a l l c u l tures--from 11.8 t o 25.0 y e a r s e a r l i e r . Furthermore, t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s g r e a t e r i n t h e Dickson s e r i e s t h a n i n t h e l e s s s t r e s s e d

.

11 HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS

289

Gibson Mound s e r i e s . S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between age a t d e a t h and childhood s t r e s s (Wilson band frequencies) i s not p r e s e n t e d . The a n a l y s i s of Wilson bands h e l p s t o r e f i n e t h e p i c t u r e of increased s t r e s s a t Dickson. F i r s t , Wilson band frequency d a t a a r e s t r o n g evidence f o r i n c r e a s e d s t r e s s through time. Second, t h e chronologies, with peak p e r i o d s of s t r e s s around t h e ages of 2-3 y e a r s , corroborate t h e timing of maximum s t r e s s evidenced i n the H a r r i s l i n e and long bone growth d a t a . F i n a l l y , t h e Wilson band d a t a demonstrate t h a t childhood s t r e s s , a s measured by Wilson band f r e q u e n c i e s , i s " p r e d i c t i v e " of age a t death. Therefore, childhood s t r e s s ( o r a c o v a r i a t e o f it) i s highly s i g n i f i c a n t t o s u r v i v a l . Furthermore, t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i n c r e a s e s i n importance through time. P o r o t i c Hyperostosis P o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i s a g e n e r a l term used t o idenFrequencies. t i f y bony l e s i o n s t h a t a r e l o c a l i z e d on t h e s u p e r i o r border of t h e o r b i t s and t h e e x t e r n a l s u r f a c e of t h e c r a n i a and a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a t h i n n i n g of t h e s u b p e r i o s t e a l c o r t i c a l bone and corresponding expansion of t h e d i p o l e (Armelagos 1967; Carlson e t a l . 1974; Lallo e t a l . 1977). L a l l o and co-workers (1977) provide a d e t a i l e d study of t h e presence o f p o r o t i c l e s i o n s i n subadult c r a n i a from Dickson. This sample c o n s i s t s of 238 i n d i v i d u a l s , of which 87 The (36.5%) show evidence f o r p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s (Table 11.11) frequency of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n c r e a s e s from 13.6% i n t h e LW t o 32.2% i n t h e MAL% and 51.5% i n t h e MM. D i f f e r e n c e s between c u l t u r a l horizons i n t h e frequency of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s a r e s t a t i s -05; Lallo e t a l . t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t by chi-square a n a l y s i s (p 1977).

.

<

Degree of Involvement (Severity) of P o r o t i c ~ y ~ e r o s t o s i s .The f r e quency of occurrence of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s by s i t e and t y p e of The o r b i t s a r e t h e primary involvement i s presented i n Table 11.8. s i t e of occurrence of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s . I n the LW, p o r o t i c Howhyperostosis i s limited t o the orbitas (cribra o r b i t a l i a ) e v e r , i n t h e MALW and MM, i n d i v i d u a l s with c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a tend i n c r e a s i n g l y t o have p o r o t i c involvement a t o t h e r s i t e s i n t h e form of spongy h y p e r o s t o s i s and/or o s t e o p o r o t i c p i t t i n g . The involvement of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s a t s i t e s o t h e r t h a n t h e o r b i t s s u g g e s t s a more i n c l u s i v e and a more severe m a n i f e s t a t i o n . Not only does p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s show a f o u r - f o l d i n c r e a s e i n frequency, but it a l s o i n c r e a s e s i n percentage of "severe" c a s e s from 0.0% i n t h e LW t o 6.5% i n t h e MALW t o 17.8% i n t h e MM. As t h e s e a u t h o r s hypothesized, the frequency and degree of involvement of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s e d u t i l i z a t i o n of maize a g r i culture.

.

-----

-.

4g 3

-.

....

Q

IN'S

[N.

M

LTSWtoM C\]WNc^

-.

<XI IN. N

L

-.1 .+ --.-.-.--. ..... 0

0 Q

Q

Ã

3

3 Tj 0

Q Q Q Q Q

----Q Q Q Q Q

Q Q Q Q Q N r - N N W

IN'SWCs-Mto

r-

LTS

--,--.-.-. Q Q Q Q Q

11 HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS

I n f e c t i o u s Lesions Frequencies.

L a l l o and co-workers (1978) have summarized t h e e v i dence f o r changing f r e q u e n c i e s o f i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s t h r o u g h t i m e a t Dickson. The a n a l y s i s i s b a s e d on b o t h a d u l t s and s u b a d u l t s . The L W a n d t h e MALW a r e combined i n t o a l o w - i n t e n s i t y a g r i c u l t u r e p o p u l a t i o n and t h i s combined sample i s compared t o a MM sample. AlI n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s i n c l u d e p e r i o s t i t i s and o s t e o m y e l i t i s . though t h e s e two t y p e s o f i n f e c t i o n w e r e r e c o r d e d s e p a r a t e l y , t h i s a n a l y s i s c o n s i d e r s them t o g e t h e r . F r e q u e n c i e s a r e f o r t h e combin a t i o n of e i t h e r o r both t y p e s o f i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s . The p e r c e n t a g e o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s d o u b l e s from t h e l o w - i n t e n s i t y a g r i c u l t u r e LW-MALW h o r i z o n s t o t h e more i n t e n s i f i e d MM p e r i o d ( 3 1 t o 6 7 % ) ( T a b l e 1 1 . 1 2 ) . T h i s o v e r a l l p a t t e r n i s e v i d e n c e d i n b o t h t h e a d u l t and s u b a d u l t segments o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n and i n f e m a l e s a n d m a l e s . I n summary, t h e i n c r e a s e d r a t e o f i n f e c t i o n t h r o u g h t i m e i s a g e n e r a l phenomenon, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a l l a g e and s e x c l a s s e s .

Severity and Association u i t h Age a t Death S e v e r i t y o f i n f e c t i o n was d e t e r m i n e d by a n a l y s i s o f t h e d e g r e e of i n f e c t i o u s i n v o l v e m e n t f o r t h e t i b i a . The s e l e c t i o n o f t h e (1) i t s h i g h r a t e o f p r e s e r v a t i b i a was b a s e d on t h e f o l l o w i n g : t i o n among l o n g b o n e s , ( 2 ) i t s b r o a d p e r i o s t e a l s u r f a c e , which f a c i l i t a t e s o b s e r v a t i o n , and ( 3 ) t h e f a c t t h a t it i s t h e bone w i t h t h e h i g h e s t r a t e o f i n f e c t i o n i n t h i s sample ( L a l l o e t a l . 1978) S e v e r i t y was d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a : (1) e x t e n t o f i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e p e r i o s t e a l s u r f a c e , ( 2 ) c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e t i s s u e destruction ( p i t t e d , ridged, scarred, o r s i n u s t r a c k e d ) , and ( 3 ) t h e amount o f bone t i s s u e d e s t r u c t i o n s . Nine s t a g e s o f s e v e r i t y (from L a l l o 1973) were combined i n t o t h r e e severity l e v e l s (Lallo e t a l . 1978). The p e r c e n t a g e o f t i b i a e w i t h e v i d e n c e f o r i n f e c t i o n i n c r e a s e s from 26% i n LW-MALW s a m p l e t o 84% i n t h e MM sample ( T a b l e 1 1 . 1 3 ) Thus, t h e p a t t e r n o f i n f e c t i o n t h r o u g h t i m e f o r t h e t i b i a i s s i m i l a r t o t h e p a t t e r n of i n f e c t i o n through time f o r a l l s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s , s a v e f o r a n even more pronounced r a t e o f i n c r e a s e i n t h e MM sample. F o r i n d i v i d u a l s a g e d 15-25 y e a r s , t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t i b i a l i n f e c t i o n s i n c r e a s e s from 25% i n t h e low a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i t y sample t o 77% i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l l y more i n t e n s i f i e d MM (Table 11.14) F u r t h e r m o r e , of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n f e c t i o n s i n t h i s a g e c l a s s , t h o s e i n t h e MM a r e much more l i k e l y t o have e i t h e r moderate o r s e v e r e involvement (Table 1 1 . 4 ) . F i n a l l y , t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s have a l s o n o t e d t h a t t h e mean a g e a t d e a t h f o r a d u l t s w i t h t i b i a l i n f e c t i o n s i s l e s s t h a n t h e mean a g e a t d e a t h f o r a d u l t s w i t h o u t t i b i a l i n f e c t i o n s and t h a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p h o l d s f o r b o t h s a m p l e s i n t h i s s t u d y . A s an example, t h e mean a g e a t d e a t h f o r a d u l t s ( o v e r 20 y e a r s ) i n t h e MALW i s 39.5 y e a r s . However, t h e mean a g e a t d e a t h f o r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h s l i g h t t i b i a l i n f e c t i o n s i s 37 y e a r s and 35.1 y e a r s f o r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h s e v e r e i n f e c t i o n s .

.

.

.

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

292

TABLE 11.11 Summary F i g u r e s f o r t h e Frequency o f O c c u r r e n c e o f ~ n f e c t i o u sD i s e a s e Number w i t h i n f e c t i o n

%a

351 221

108 149

31 67

+

125 110

34 74

27 67

+

226 Ill

74 75

33 68

110 61

35 43

32 71

116 50

39 32

34 64

N

Age

-

--

-

-

yearsb

0-59.9 LW + MALW MM 0-14.9 y e a r s b MALW LW MM b 15-59.9 y e a r s LW MALW MM 15-15.9 y e a r s Females LW + MALW M.4

Males LW MM

+ MALW

a A l l p e r c e n t a g e s 'have b e e n r o u n d e d o f f t o t h e n e a r e s t w h o l e number. b ~ h e s ef r e q u e n c i e s i n c l u d e t h e combined m a l e and female t o t a l s .

TABLE 11 - 1 2 Frequency o f I n f e c t i o u s L e s i o n s o f the T i b i a

LW MM

+ MALW

N

Number infected

%a

353 194

90 163

26 84

S e v e r i t y o f T i b i a2 Involvement LW MM

+ MALW

N

Slight

Moderate

Severe

90 163

56 ( 6 2 % ) 45 ( 2 8 % )

27 ( 3 0 % ) 80 ( 4 9 % )

7 f 8%) 38 ( 2 3 % )

~ l p e lr c e n t a g e s h a v e b e e n rounded o f f t o t h e n e a r e s t w h d e number.

These d a t a a r e evidence t h a t i n f e c t i o n and i t s v a r i a t e s a r e s i q n i f i c a n t h e a l t h events f o r a l l p o p u l a t i o n s .

11 HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS

293

TABLE 11.13 Frequency of I n f e c t i o u s Lesions of th Tibia, Young ~ d u l t s(15-25 Years) Number infected

N

L W MM

za

+ MALW Severity of ~ i b i a Involvement l N

LW MM

+ MALW

28 33

Slight 21 (75%) 10 (30%)

Moderate

Severe

5 (18%) 16 (49%)

2 ( 7%) 7 (21%)

A X percentages 'have been rounded o f f t o the nearest whole number.

Traumatic Lesions L a l l o (1973) has p r e s e n t e d an a n a l y s i s o f both c r a n i a l and p o s t c r a n i a l t r a u m a t i c p a t h o l o g i e s . Data p r e s e n t e d below a r e f o r p o s t c r a n i a l f r a c t u r e s (Table 1 1 . 1 5 ) . The most common s i t e s o f f r a c t u r e s a r e t h e humerus, c l a v i c l e , u l n a , and r a d i u s . Since t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of p a t h o l o g i e s w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s k e l e t o n s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t among c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s , a l l p o s t c r a n i a l f r e a c t u r e s a r e combined. For t h e e n t i r e sample (ages 0-65 y e a r s ) , t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n has a s l i g h t l y higher frequency o f f r a c t u r e s W (19.5, 16.4, and 13.4%, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . than t h e MALW and t h e L However, t h i s p a t t e r n i s n o t c o n s i s t e n t among age and s e x c l a s s e s . For s u b a d u l t s t h e o v e r a l l t r e n d i s r e v e r s e d . LW suba d u l t s have a h i g h e r frequency of f r a c t u r e s t h a n t h o s e i n t h e MALW and t h e MM (10.2, 9.8, and 6 . 4 % , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . Adults (males and females combined) i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n have n e a r l y twice t h e frequency of t r a u m a t i c p a t h o l o g i e s a s a d u l t s i n t h e MALW and LW groups (32.4 t o 16.4 and 20.5%). F i n a l l y , when d a t a f o r t h e sexes a r e analyzed s e p a r a t e l y , i t becomes c l e a r t h a t a d u l t males, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n , a r e most f r e q u e n t l y a f f e c t e d by t r a u m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . The frequency of t r a u m a t i c l e s i o n s i n c r e a s e s from 23.5% i n LW females and 16.4% i n MALW females t o 31.1% i n MM females. The frequency of t r a u m a t i c l e s i o n s i n c r e a s e s from 17.9% In sumin L W males and 16.4% i n MALW males t o 38 .O% i n MM males. mary, p o s t c r a n i a l t r a u m a t i c p a t h o l o g i e s f o l l o w t h e t r e n d of inc r e a s e d i n c i d e n c e through time. Furthermore, t h i s t r e n d i s most pronounced f o r males.

294

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

TABLE 11.14 Summary o f t h e A n a l g s i s o f V a r i a n c e and Duncan Is New M u l t i p Z e Range T e s t f o r Trauma f o r t h e L a t e Woodland, Mississ i p p i a n A c c u l t u r a t e d L a t e Woodland, and t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n (Ages 0-65)

Dunoan's New M u l t i p Z e Age ( y e a r s )

Mean f r e q u e n c y o f trauma

Range T e s t

0-65 LW MALW M 0-1 5 LW MALW M 15-65 LW MALW M

20.5 16.4 32.4

15-65 ( F e m a l e s ) LW MLW M

23.5 16.4 31.1

MALW 16.4

LW 17.9

M

38.0

15-65 ( M a l e s ) LW MAL W M ~ e n o t e s i g n i f i c a n t f-value

at p

< .0 5 .

L a l l o (1973) h a s p r e s e n t e d an a n a l y s i s o f o s t e o a r t h r i t i s , o s t e o p h y t o s i s , a n d d e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e v e r t e b r a l centrum i n t h e Dickson p o p u l a t i o n s ( T a b l e 1 1 . 1 6 ) . F o r a l l a d u l t s t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e frequency of degenerative p a t h o l o g i e s ( o f a l l s i t e s combined) from 39.7% i n t h e L W t o 41.8% i n t h e MALW A l l c u l t u r a l frequencies a r e significantly and 65.8% i n t h e MW. d i f f e r e n t from e a c h o t h e r (Duncan's m u l t i p l e r a n g e s t e s t ; s e e L a l l o 1 9 7 3 : 2 2 2 ) . T h i s t r e n d i s s i m i l a r and is e v i d e n c e d i n b o t h m a l e s and f e m a l e s . Data a r e a l s o p r e s e n t e d f o r s t a g e s o f s e v e r i t y o f d e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e centrum and o s t e o p h y t o s i s ( s e e L a l l o 1973 :223-248) Data a r e f o r i n d i v i d u a l v e r t e b r a e and n o t f o r i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n s . For b o t h centrum d e g e n e r a t i o n and o s t e o p h y t o s i s t h e r e i s a c l e a r t r e n d of i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f a f f e c t e d v e r t e b r a e by c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s ,

.

11 HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS

295

TABLE 11.15 Summary o f the Analysis of Variance and Duncan's New Multiple Range T e s t f o r Degenerative Pathology Frequencies among Cultural Horizons Mean frequency o f deqenerative pa&oZogy

Duncan's multiple range t e s t results LW

MALW

M

Females aged 15-65 L W MALW M

Males aged 15-65 LW MALW M

~ e n o t e s i g n i f i c a n t f-value a t p

< .05.

i n c r e a s e d frequency o f s e v e r e c a s e s by c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s , and more s e r i o u s a f f l i c t i o n of males t h a n f e m a l e s . I n sum, t h e p a t t e r n of d e g e n e r a t i v e p a t h o l o g i e s i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t of traumatic pathologies. Degenerative p a t h o l o g i e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e through time and a f f e c t males more f r e q u e n t l y than females

.

Mortality M o r t a l i t y o r age-at-death i n f o r m a t i o n h a s been p r e s e n t e d u s i n g a wide v a r i e t y o f methods f o r p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s . These methods i n c l u d e composite l i f e t a b l e s , p r o b a b i l i t y - o f -dying c u r v e s , a g e - s p e c i f i c m o r t a l i t y c u r v e s , and mean age a t d e a t h - l i f e expect a n c y f i g u r e s . L a l l o and c o l l e a g u e s ( L a l l o e t a l . 1978; 1980) have p r e s e n t e d an a n a l y s i s of m o r t a l i t y changes a t Dickson. While t h e y u t i l i z e a v a r i e t y o f methods i n t h e i r a n a l y s i s , t h e y s t a r t e d by c o n s t r u c t i n g l i f e t a b l e s . They argue t h a t l i f e t a b l e s , once c o n s t r u c t e d , p r o v i d e t h e maximum amount o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m o r t a l i t y of a p o p u l a t i o n . Life t a b l e s f o r t h e t h r e e c u l t u r a l horizons a r e presented i n T a b l e s 11.1-11.2. The dy v a l u e s ( a g e - s p e c i f i c m o r t a l i t y ) and qn, v a l u e s (age-specif i c p r o b a b i l i t y o f dying) c o n s i s t e n t l y i n c r e a s e 0 through t h e h o r i z o n s a t Dickson w h i l e t h e l x ( s u r v i v o r s h i p ) a n d e x ( a g e - s p e c i f i c l i f e expectancy) c o n s i s t e n t l y d e c r e a s e through t h e c u l t u r a l horizons. I n a l l a g e c l a s s e s t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e a gener a l t r e n d toward i n c r e a s e d chance of d y i n g i n t h e MM r e l a t i v e t o t h e LW. The s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s t r e n d was determined u s i n g t h e Kolmogorov-Smimov t w o - t a i l e d t e s t ( s e e S i e g e 1 1956:1171 3 8 ) . Kolmogorov-Smirnov i s a t e s t of d i f f e r e n c e s i n d i s t r i b u t i o n

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

Years

FIGURE 1 1 . 6 . Cumulative percentages o f mortality by age for the Late Woodland Mississipphxn Acculturated Late Woodpopulations (ages land (-----), and Middle Mississippian (-) 0-65) (from L a u o e t a t . 1$80:220). (-a-),

and i s u t i l i z e d t o t e s t w h e t h e r o r n o t two d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y s i m i l a r t o h a v e been drawn from t h e same p o p u l a t i o n . Kolmoqorov-Smirnov was a p p l i e d t o t h e c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f mortality (Figure 11.6). The maximum d i f f e r e n c e between t h e L W and t h e MALW was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . However, t h e maximum d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e LW and t h e MM, a n d between t h e MALW and t h e MM, were s i g n i f i c a n t ( p . 0 5 ) ( L a l l o e t a l . 1980:219-220). I n summary, t h e L W and MALW d e m o n s t r a t e s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m o r t a l i t y , w h i l e t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h o s e p a t The maximum d i f f e r e n c e s t e r n s a n d t h a t o f t h e MM i s s i g n i f i c a n t . o c c u r d u r i n g c h i l d h o o d . I n comparison o f t h e L W and t h e MM, t h e maximum d i f f e r e n c e i s 1 6 . 1 % a n d o c c u r s i n t h e 2-5-year a g e c l a s s (21.8-37.9% d e a d ) . I n comparison o f t h e MALW and MM, t h e maximum d i f f e r e n c e i s 1 4 . 5 % a n d o c c u r s i n t h e 10-15-year a g e c l a s s ( 3 8 . 8 5 0 . 3 % ) . S i n c e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n by a g e c l a s s o f m o r t a l i t y i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous ( s e e Weiss 1 9 7 3 ) , e v i d e n c e f o r s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i q n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t e m p o r a l l y d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s from t h e same site is notable.

<

11 HEALTH CHANGES AT DICKSON MOUNDS

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Changing P a t t e r n s o f S t r e s s We have p r e s e n t e d e v i d e n c e f o r an i n c r e a s e d l e v e l o f g e n e r a l s t r e s s t h r o u g h t i m e a t Dickson. This p a t t e r n i s evidenced i n 8 o f 10 i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s ( T a b l e 1 1 . 1 7 ) . I n c r e a s e s i n s t r e s s a r e i n d i c a t e d by (1) d e c r e a s e d a g e - s p e c i f i c a t t a i n e d l o n g bone l e n g t h a n d c i r c u m f e r e n c e , ( 2 ) i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a s , ( 3 ) i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f Wilson b a n d s , ( 4 ) i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , ( 5 ) i n c r e a s e d frequency of i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s , (6) increased frequency of degenerative l e s i o n s , (7) inc r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f t r a u m a t i c l e s i o n s , and ( 8 ) i n c r e a s e d cumul a t i v e m o r t a l i t y . No d i f f e r e n c e s a r e found f o r t h e f r e q u e n c y o f H a r r i s l i n e s and t h e d e g r e e o f s e x u a l dimorphism. Independent o b s e r v a t i o n s c o n s i d e r H a r r i s l i n e s a n d s e x u a l dimorphism t o b e weak a n d / o r l o w - v a l i d i t y i n d i c a t o r s o f stress ( B u i k s t r a and Cook, 1980; Huss-Ashmore e t a l . 1 9 8 2 ) . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s e r e s u l t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e m u l t i p l e conÂi r m a t i o n s o f t h e g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t s t r e s s i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h t i m e a t Dickson. T h e r e seems t o b e more t h a n o n e c r i t i c a l s t r e s s o r o r c u l t u r a l dimension l e a d i n g t o i n c r e a s e d stress. Growth i n d i c a t o r s ( l o n g bone l e n g t h and c i r c u m f e r e n c e , enamel h y p o p l a s i a s , and Wilson b a n d s ) a r e c o n s i s t e n t i n d e m o n s t r a t i n g a d e c r e a s e i n growth v e l o c i t y and a n i n c r e a s e i n g r o w t h d i s r u p t i o n a r o u n d t h e a g e s o f 2-4 y e a r s . Based on e t h n o g r a p h i c o b s e r v a t i o n s on w e a n l i n g t i m e and p r a c t i c e among g e r i n d i a n s (Cook 1 9 7 1 ) , t h e s e d a t a may i m p l i c a t e t h e d i e t o f t h e w e a n l i n g and, s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e i n c r e a s e d u s e o f maize i n t h i s d i e t . These d a t a , i n c o n s o r t with an i n c r e a s e i n t h e f r e q u e n c y and s e v e r i t y o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , p o i n t t o t h e i n c r e a s e d a d o p t i o n o f a maize d i e t , e s p e c i a l l y among w e a n l i n g s , a s a c a u s e o f p o o r n u t r i t i o n and an i n c r e a s e i n n u t r i t i o n - r e l a t e d s t r e s s indicators. O t h e r stress i n d i c a t o r s may i m p l i c a t e o t h e r c u l t u r a l c h a n g e s . The i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f i n f e c t i o n may b e bound s y n e r g i c a l l y t o n u t r i t i o n a l problems r e s u l t i n g from u b i q u i t o u s p a t h o g e n s t h a t were becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y v i r u l e n t u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f d e c r e a s e d h o s t r e s i s t a n c e due t o u n d e r - n u t r i t i o n (Dubos 1965 ; Scrimshaw 1 9 6 4 ) . D e c r e a s e d h o s t r e s i s t a n c e i s t h e r e f o r e l i k e l y t o have b e e n one c a u s e of t h e i n c r e a s e i n i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s , a s t h e r e i s evidence f o r a s s o c i a t i o n of i n f e c t i o u s and n u t r i t i o n a l ( p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s ) l e s i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s ( s e e Mensforth e t a l . 1978) However, it i s u n l i k e l y t h a t d e c r e a s e d q u a l i t y o f d i e t i s t h e o n l y c a u s e o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y and s e v e r i t y of i n fection. Changing s e t t l e m e n t p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and s e d e n t i s m , combined w i t h t h e u s e o f v i r g i n a g r i c u l t u r a l s o i l s , a l e s s complex e c o s y s t e m , and i n c r e a s e d t r a d e , a f f o r d s ample c h a n c e f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f n o v e l p a t h o g e n s and t h e i r m a i n t e n a n c e w i t h i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n . I n sum, i n c r e a s e s i n i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e may b e due t o a v a r i e t y o f c a u s e s t h a t p e r h a p s worked t o gether i n synergetic fashion.

.

TABLE 11 .17

Indicator hJ 00 w

Summary o f S t r e s s Indicators Patterns of s t r e s s a

Long bone growth

+

Sexual d'imorphism

Subgroup affected (age i n years) 1-7

Differences observed

Genera l comment

Attained growth i s l e s s for t i b i a and femur i n the 5-20-yr group^

Decreased growth v e l o c i t y a t 2-5 y r . : chronic (nutrition-related) stress i n infancy and childhood. Some catch-up occurs.

0

None ( p e l v i c and femoral measures)

Weak i n d i c a t o r - t e s t of s t r e s s -for methodological and theoretical reasons.

Harris l i n e s

0

None ( d i s t a l and proximal tibia)

Weak ¥indicato based on experimental evidence

Enamel hypop lasia

-t

2-4

Frequency and l i n e s i n MM i s twice t h a t o LW. MALW i s intermediate

Good seasonal ( n u t r i t i o n r e latedl s t r e s s indicator.

Wilson bands

+

2-4

Approximately 70%increase from MALW t o MM.

Nutritionrelated. Strong predictor of age a t death.

.

c

Porotic hyperostosis

++

0-1 5

Fourfold increase from LW t o MM with increase i n severit y and involvement^

Nutrition s t r e s s ( i r o n ) . Modeled and wiremodeled not distinguished.

Infectious lesions

++

A l l ages

Threefold increase from LWMALW t o MM. Also, increase i n severity-

Chronic i n f e c t i o n . Endemic i n MM. Synergistic with porotic hyperostosis. Good predictor of age a t death.

Trauma

+

15-65

Twofold increase from LWMALW t o MM for appendicular fractures

Degenerative lesions

+

15-65

65% increase from L W t o MM. Increase i n s e v e r i t y (centrum and o s t e o p h y t o s i s ) ^

Strongest difference noted i n males. Suggests i n t e r personal s t r i f e . Chronic wear and t e a r (physical s t r e s s ) i s greatest i n males.

Mortality

++

0-10

dy; + gx increase while and eo decrease. Curnul a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s are significant. b

w ^0

a-, decrease through time; 0, no change through time; through time. bobserved d i f f e r e n c e s were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .

+,

Best indicator of s t r e s s and i n a b i t i t y t o adapt. Most severe i n subadults.

increase through time;

++,

strong increase

ALAN H. GOODMAN ET AL.

I

I The frequency of d e g e n e r a t i v e and t r a u m a t i c p a t h o l o g i e s i n c r e a s e d over time i n a d u l t s and e s p e c i a l l y a d u l t males. Degenera t i v e patholoqy i s i n f e r r e d t o be due t o i n c r e a s e d physical-work s t r e s s . Traumatic patholoqy may b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e r e s u l t of physical-work s t r e s s o r i n t e r p e r s o n a l s t r i f e . The l a t t e r explanat i o n i s n o t u n l i k e l y given t h e evidence f o r f o r t i f i c a t i o n a t t h e Larson s i t e . These d a t a p o i n t t o an i n c r e a s e d degree o f competition.

Toward a Regional Model of p r e h i s t o r i c Health The Dickson Mounds c a s e i s one i n which i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and sedentism occur roughly contemporaneously w i t h i n t e n s i f i e d a g r i c u l t u r e and i n c r e a s e d evidence f o r p h y s i o l o g i c a l disruption. However, it i s d i f f i c u l t t o e x p l a i n t h e extreme degree t o which s t r e s s i n c r e a s e s based o n l y on t h e s e o r o t h e r l o c a l ecological factors. Harn (l98O:l, 7-81 documents t h e unusually w e l l balanced n a t u r a l environment o f t h e Dickson a r e a (Fulton County) and b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e n a t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e a r e a i s g r e a t enough throughout Dickson's p r e h i s t o r y t o s u s t a i n even t h e l a r g e r MM population ( a l s o s e e Caldwell 1 9 5 8 ) . Furthermore, t h e r e i s abundant evidence from a r t i f a c t a n a l y s e s t h a t hunting and g a t h e r i n g Local a r e major a c t i v i t i e s throughout t h e MM (Harn 1980:81-82). a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and e c o l o g i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n l e a d s one t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s i s an e x c e l l e n t environment f o r a p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n and t h a t abundant use was made of t h e l o c a l r e s o u r c e s throughout t h e p e r i o d of occupation. One would p r e d i c t t h a t n u t r i t i o n would be adequate. L e f t t o i t s own, a s a c l o s e d c u l t u r a l - e c o l o g i c a l system, Dickson would seem t o be a b l e t o do w e l l . However, it i s n o t a c l o s e d system and t h e evidence i s t h a t it does n o t do w e l l . The model we propose f o r Dickson i s one of i n c r e a s e d s t r e s s through time r e s u l t i n g p r i m a r i l y from i t s occupying e x p l o i t a b l e p o s i t i o n i n a r e g i o n a l system o f i d e o l o g i c a l and economic exchange. I n c r e a s e s i n p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and sedentism and i n c r e a s e d use of a g r i c u l t u r e may be o f secondary importance to t h e p o s s e s s i o n of an e x p l o i t a b l e p o s i t i o n w i t h i n a l a r g e r system. I n c r e a s e d population d e n s i t y and sedentism and i n c r e a s e d use of a g r i c u l t u r e may become important only when l o c a l e c o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e poor and/or a r e r e l a t e d t o a r e g i o n a l system of e x p l o i t a t i o n . A t Dickson i t appears t h a t t h e s t r e s s e s of a g r i c u l t u r e a r e absorbed l o c a l l y b u t t h e b e n e f i t s a r e enjoyed a t a p l a c e o u t s i d e of t h e l o c a l ecosystem. The b i o c u l t u r a l systems o f t h e Dickson p o p u l a t i o n s may have been a b l e t o a d j u s t t o t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of l o c a l changes such a s an i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n s and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of maize a g r i c u l t u r e . However, p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n r e g i o n a l M i s s i s s i p p i a n systems i n t h e I l l i n o i s Valley placed a d d i t i o n a l c o n s t r a i n t s on t h e l o c a l populat i o n s . The i n t e r a c t i o n of l o c a l and r e g i o n a l changes, e s p e c i a l l y those revolving around a p o s s i b l y unbalanced flow of economic r e s o u r c e s , may have imposed a s t r e s s load t h a t could no longer be buffered by t h e s u b o r d i n a t e p o p u l a t i o n s such a s Dickson.

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In conclusion, we have p r e s e n t e d Dickson a s a case study of h e a l t h change a t a s i n g l e s i t e . Our d a t a have provided m u l t i p l e confirmations t h a t s t r e s s i n c r e a s e d through time. This i s e v i denced i n measures of growth d i s r u p t i o n and r e t a r d a t i o n , d i s e a s e , and m o r t a l i t y . Our conclusions about t h e causes of increased s t r e s s a r e based on an examination of both l o c a l and l a r g e r r e g i o n a l processes. J u s t a s i t would be ill advised t o explain p a t t e r n s o f d i s e a s e i n contemporary s o c i e t i e s without r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r involvement i n t h e modern world system, s o a l s o would i t be ill advised t o explain h e a l t h a t t h i s p r e h i s t o r i c s i t e without r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p r e c a p i t a l i s t systems of which t h e Mississippian c u l t u r e i s an example. The bones and t e e t h from Dickson t e l l a t a l e of i n c r e a s e d s t r e s s which may be due t o t h e e x p l o i t a b l e pos i t i o n o f t h e Dickson population w i t h i n a r e g i o n a l system. T e s t i n g t h i s model i s p o s s i b l e by comparison of t h e h e a l t h e f f e c t s of agr i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , and increased sedentism on populations t h a t vary i n t h e i r involvement i n l a r g e r systems and i n t h e i r p o s i t i o n within t h e s e systems. Information f o r a p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t i n g of t h i s model may be provided w i t h i n t h i s volume.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish t o acknowledge t h e work o f Mark Cohen, S t a t e University of New York C o l l e g ~a t P l a t t s b u r g h , i n providing t h e opportunity f o r summarizing t h e paleoepidemiological d a t a . G r e a t e s t appreciat i o n i s accorded t o Alan Ham, Dickson Mound Museum, Lewistown, I l l i n o i s , f o r h i s p a t i e n c e and kind s p i r i t i n c l a r i f y i n g archaeolog i c a l d a t a and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . The f i n a l w r i t i n g o f t h i s chapter was supported i n p a r t by N I D R Grant No. DE07047-07.

REFERENCES

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University of Massachusetts Amherst Research Reports No. 20. Gustav, B. 1972 Sexual dimorphism i n the adult bony p e l i v i s of a prehist o r i c human p o w a t i o n from I l l i n o i s . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s , Amherst. Harn, A. 1971 The prehistory o f Diokson Mounds: A preliminary report. I l l i n o i s S t a t e Museum, S p r i n g f i e l d . 1978 M i s s i s s i p p i a n s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s i n t h e c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s River Valley. I n Mississippian settlement patterns, e d i t e d by B. Smith, pp. 233-268. Academic P r e s s , New York. 1980 The p r e h i s t o r y o f Dickson Mounds: The Dickson e x c a v a t i o n . I l l i n o i s S t a t e Museum Report No. 36. n.d. The a r c h e o l o g y o f Dickson Mounds. M s . on f i l e , Dickson Mounds Museum, Lewistown, I l l i n o i s . H i n k l e , L. E . 1974 The e f f e c t o f e x p o s u r e t o c u l t u r a l change, s o c i a l change and c h a n g e s i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s on h e a l t h . In S t r e s s f u l l i f e events: Their nature and e f f e c t s , e d i t e d Wiley, by B. S. Dohrenwend and B. P . Dohrenwend, p p . 9-44. New York. Huss-Ashmore, R . , A. H. Goodman, and G . J. Armelagos 1982 N u t r i t i o n a l i n f e r e n c e from p a l e o p a t h o l o g y . I n Advances i n archeological method and theory, ~ o l .5 , e d i t e d by M. S c h i f f e r , p p . 395-474. Academic P r e s s , New York. K r e s h o v e r , S. 1960 M e t a b o l i c d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t o o t h f o r m a t i o n . Annals of the New York Academy of Science 85:161-167. Krogman, W. 1962 The human skeleton i n forensic medicine. Thomas, Springfield. L a l l o , J. 1973 The s k e l e t a l biology o f three prehistoric American Indian s o c i e t i e s from Dickson Mounds. P ~ . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s , Amherst. L a l l o , J . , G. J. Armelagos, and R . P. M e n s f o r t h 1977 The r o l e o f d i e t , d i s e a s e and p h y s i o l o g y i n t h e o r i g i n of Human biology 4 9 ( 3 ) :471-483. p o r o t i c hyperostosis. L a l l o , J . , G . J. Armelagos, and J . C. Rose 1978 P a l e o e p i d e m i o l o g y o f i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i n t h e Dickson Mounds p o p u l a t i o n . Medical College of Virginia Quarterly 1 4 ( 1 ) :17-23. L a l l o , J . , J . C . Rose, a n d G . J . Armelagos 1980 An e c o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of v a r i a t i o n i n m o r t a l i t y w i t h i n t h r e e p r e h i s t o r i c American I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n s from

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Van Gerven, D. 1972 Skeletal dimorphism i n t h e adult femur. ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s , Amherst. Weiss, K. 1973 Demographic models f o r anthropology. Soczkty for American Archeology Memoirs NO. 2 7. Wells, C . 1967 A new approach t o p a l e o p a t h o l o g y : Harris lines. In Disease i n a n t i q u i t y , e d i t e d by D . R . Brothwell and A . T. Sandison, pp. 390-404. Thomas, S p r i n g f i e l d . woodall, J. 1968 Growth a r r e s t l i n e s i n long bones o f t h e Cases Grandes Plains Anthropology 13 :152-160. population.

I

CHAPTER 1;

[

I

SKELETAL EVIDENCE FOR PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE ADAPTATION I N THE CENTRAL O H I O RIVER#zVALLEY

Claire Monod Cassidy

I

D i v i s i o n o f Behavioral and S o c i a l S c i e n c e s Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f Maryland

, I

The c e n t r a l Ohio River Valley i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e and h e a l t h because t h e a r e a i s e c o l o g i c a l l y r i c h and was s t e a d i l y u t i l i z e d i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s , because it seems t o have been t h e p o i n t of

o r i g i n f o r t h e e a r l i e s t p r a c t i c e of a g r i c u l t u r e i n e a s t e r n North America, and because a l a r g e number o f s i t e s have been dug and a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y analyzed I n t h i s c h a p t e r I c o n s i d e r s k e l e t a l and d i e t a r y evidence from three archaeological c u l t u r e periods: t h e Arehxie (about 75002250 B P ) ; Adena ( e a r l y t o middle Woodland, a b o u t 3800-1750 B P ) ; and Fort Ancient ( M i s s i s s i p p i a n , about 1250-275 B P 1 Geographi c a l l y t h e a n a l y s i s i s l i m i t e d t o s e l e c t e d sites in Kentucky and contiguous o r c u l t u r a l l y r e l a t e d a r e a s o f w e s t e r n Tennessee and southeastern Ohio ( F i g u r e 12 1) Because t h e developmental q u e s t i o n s w e p o s e cannot be a n a l y z e d , i n s i t u a t any one s i t e i n t h e r e g i o n , c o n c l u s i o n s a r e drawn from This procedure is r e l i a b l e because cross-comparisons among s i t e s ; the r e g i o n i s environmentally homogeneous and because p o p u l a t i o n s Thus observed h e a l t h a r e g e n e t i c a l l y a l s o q u i t e homogeneous changes can a p p r o p r i a t e l y be e x p l a i n e d p r i m a r i l y in terms o f I changing c u l t u r a l - s u b s i s t e n c e v a r i a b l e s . Existing d a t a permit t h i s a n a l y s i s t o cover n e a r l y 6000 y e a r s

s

Kentucky s - ~ t e swere excavated before 1950; the s i t e reports o f t e n lack quantitative and population perspectives or analytic i n t e r e s t i n skeletal pathology or subsistence mode, Brose (2973) limiting t h e i r u t i l i t y for the present analysis and S c h a r t z (1967 discuss the historical development of archaeological method relevant t o the central Ohio River Valley PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS BE AGRICULTURE

307

Copyright 0 1984 by Academic Press, Inc All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISBN 0-12-179080-0

CLAIRE MONOD CASSiu I'

e a l sites by county

OVERVIEW OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL CULTURES, FOOD

The p h y s i c a l environment o f t h e Kentucky r e g s l i g h t l y warmer and d r i e r c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t e d d u r i n g t h e A l t i t h e r ma1 (5000-2500 B C ; Rolinqson 1964) Now-extinct l a r g e food mammals ("megafauna") d i s a p p e a r e d between a b o u t 7500 and 4000 B C (Rolinqson 1964) Afterward, food animals i n c l u d e d d e e r , e l k , and black b e a r , many s m a l l e r mammals, b i r d s , t u r t l e s , f i s h , i n s e c t s , s n a i l s , and mussels Common w i l d p l a n t foods i n c l u d e d l a r g e v a r i e t y of f r u i t s , b e r r i e s , n u t s , and s e e d s Mesoameric domesticates appeared i n d i v i d u a l l y o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d , w i t h gourd and pumpkin-squash being e a r l i e s t , followed by corn and, o n l y l a t e , by beans Indigenous d o m e s t i c a t e s such a s sunflower and marsh e l d e r appeared a s e a r l y a s 2000 B.C , b u t may have had a limited distribution The Pazeoindian p e r i o d (about 13,000-76000 B P ; Rolinqson 1964) i s p r i m a r i l y known through s u r f a c e c o l l e c t i o n s o f p r o j e c t i l l points P a l e o i n d i a n s i n h a b i t e d t h e n o r t h e r n and western a r t h e s t a t e , near t h e major r' They hunted and g a t h e r e d , . . pending on t h e megafauna &

.

12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY The Archaic p e r i o d (ca. 8000-2500 B P , o v e r l a p p i n g t h e E a r l y Woodland, b u t c e a s i n g by 4000-3000 B P i n some a r e a s ) b e g i n s with t h e e x t i n c t i o n of t h e megafauna and e n d s , by d e f i n i t i o n , w i t h t h e advent of p o t t e r y Archaic p e o p l e were e f f i c i e n t q a t h e r e r h u n t e r s , and by t h e l a t e Archaic t h e y had a food base s u f f i c i e n t t o s u p p o r t c o n s i d e r a b l e l e i s u r e and sedentism, i n c r e a s i n g populat i o n s , and i n c r e a s i n g ceremonialism (Brown 1977; Caldwell 1958, 1962; Jennings 1974; Winters 1968) They s t o r e d l a r g e amounts of food, and t h e y may have begun t h e p r o c e s s o f d o m e s t i c a t i o n by g a t h e r i n g and s t o r i n g w i l d g r a i n s f o r w i n t e r u s e , o r by p r o t e c t i n g t h e r e p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t i e s of w i l d f o o d s The best-known e x p r e s s i o n of t h e Archaic i n Kentucky i s t h e mid- t o l a t e d a t e Green River complex, t y p i f i e d by deep s h e l l f i l l e d mounds a l o n g r i v e r banks i n t h e western p a r t of Kentucky Winters (1969) argued c o n v i n c i n g l y f o r a s e t t l e m e n t (Table 12 1) p a t t e r n c o n s i s t i n g of r e p e a t e d l y used l a r g e w i n t e r " s e t t l e m e n t s " and summer "basecamps" and b r i e f l y used s p e c i a l purpose camps I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s f o r Archaic groups e i t h e r r e g i o n a l l y o r w i t h i n s i t e s , a l t h o u g h s i t e frequenc i e s i n c r e a s e over time and t h e r e a r e l a r g e numbers of f l e x e d p i t b u r i a l s i n middens Winters ' (1969) s e t t l e m e n t a n a l y s i s y i e l d s an e s t i m a t e o f 100 p e r s o n s i n w i n t e r s e t t l e m e n t s Based on exhaustive a n a l y s i s of t r a d e and l o c a l a r t i f a c t s i n b u r i a l s , Winters (1968) a r g u e s f o r an e g a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y The q u a n t i t i e s o f mussel s h e l l a t l a r g e r s i t e s i n d i c a t e t h a t b i v a l v e s were an i m p o r t a n t food S p e c i a l i s t s a r e divided a s t o whether mussels were a valued and h i g h - q u a l i t y food p i v o t a l f o r s u p p o r t i n g sedentism (Webb 1946; Webb and Haag 1940; Winters 1 9 6 9 ) , o r a food used mainly i n times o f hunger (Lewis and Kneberg-Lewis 1961; P e r z i g i a n 1977) Another p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h a t mussels were used when a v a i l a b l e b u t t h a t changes i n r i v e r l e v e l s p e r i o d i c a l l y drowned t h e beds, f o r c i n g r e l i a n c e on o t h e r r e s o u r c e s (Lewis and Kneberq-Lewis 1961) S h e l l Mound p e o p l e a l s o u t i l i z e d d e e r and wild p l a n t foods; cup m o r t a r s and p e s t l e s f o r g r i n d i n g n u t s and perhaps wild g r a i n s a r e abundant a t t h e s i t e s A t t h e r e l a t e d Eva s i t e i n western Tennessee, s u b s i s t e n c e emphases appear t o have s h i f t e d from d e e r in t h e e a r l y phase t o mussels i n t h e second phase, and t o n u t s and o t h e r v e g e t a b l e foods i n t h e t h i r d phase Lewis and Kneberg-Lewis view t h e l a t e s h i f t a s a response t o t h e l o s s o f mussels due t o bed f l o o d i n g , and of d e e r due t o over-hunting However, t h i s phase v e r g e s on o r o v e r l a p s t h e e a r l y Woodland p e r i o d , which seems everywhere c h a r a c t e r ~t o t h e r Archaic s i t e s such a s i z e d by r e l i a n c e on p l a n t foods t h o s e a t F i s h t r a p R e s e r v o i r , d e e r were p r e f e r r e d and mussels were unimportant (Dunnell 1966) The Woodland p e r i o d followed d ' i r e c t l y o u t o f t h e Archaic (Brown 1977; Dragoo 1976; Jennings 1974; Morgan 1 9 5 2 ) , w i t h e a r l y s i t e s c l o s e l y resembling Archaic s i t e s b u t f o r t h e p r e s e n c e of pottery Archaic t e n d e n c i e s towards s e d e n t i s m , p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e , and s p e c i a l i z e d b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s c o n t i n u e d i n t h i s p e r i o d S u b s i s t e n c e p r a c t i c e s appear t o become i n c r e a s i n g l y f o c a l

TABLE 12 1

Archaeological culture period

LtJ

0

Archaic Green River C o y lex

Central Ohio River Valley Archaic S i t e s Discussed i n This Chapter S i t e name

Location

Chiggervi l l ed Ohio County, (Newton Brow) KY Cypress Creek8 McLean County, KY 'Indian Knoll f Ohio County, KY

~ a r r e t and t~ McLean County, Butterfield KY Carlson ~ n n i s " - Butler County, KY

Butler County KY

Hopkins County, KY

Radiocarbon Food datesa B P remains^ + f -4

5302 Â 300" 4112 5 3 0 ( f 4250 2 80" 4040 2 180n 5149 Â 3 0 p 2336 Â 25lf" 7374 k 5 0 p 4900 Â 250"' 4311 Â 3 0 f l

+ + f +)

Human remainsc skeletons; npa Ward. 433 skeletons; npa Kirkland 73 skeletons, npa 1234 skeletons, pa (Table 12 5 )

(+

Barrett: 412 skeletons; npa Butterfield: 153 skeletons, npa 390 skeletons, not preserved, ?pa

f+

247 skeletons, npa

(+

133 skeletons, npa

TABLE 12 2 J

Archaeo logical culture period Adem f E d y Woodland)

Roekshe l t e r sites, attributed t o Adena

Central Ohio River Valley Woodland S i t e s Discussed i n This Chapter S i t e name

Location

Radiocarbon datesa B P

+

Pooled data many sites"

Ohio, Kentucky, some W Va and Pa. Caldwells ' s Ross County, L i t t l e ~ h f f Ohio Daine s Athens County, Ohio ~ o u n dfs Rock R i f f l e Athens County, Ohio Run ~ o u n d g Red Eye Lee County, Hollou, e t e h KY Mult-ipte sitesz Neut Kash ~ o t t o u ,e t c Mammoth Cave, S a l t s Cave, etc k Darneron 2

f+ 2230 Â 140'

+ + (+)

Wol f e and Powe 11 counties, Ky Menif ee 2600 2 300p County, Ky Ednonson 2250 2 65k County, Ky Johnson County, Ky

Food remains^

2070 Â 80' 1070 Â 2355 k

90' 65l

Human remainsc several hundred skeletons and cremations; p l 2 skeletons; p i 7 skeletons; npa

8 skeletons, 2 cremations; p 2

16 skeletons, not preserved; npa

+

'same I ; npa

+ +

'some1; npa 2 mummies, 41 fragmentary

+

1 skeleton, p i

skeletons, feces, pa

Powell County,

Woodland

Late Woodland

w

F

w

@4

Chess er caven

Athens County, Ohio

1470 Â 65'" 1415 t 6 ( f 1485 2 55"" 1345 2 6p 1245 2 6 ( f 88Ot14on

+

None

a ~ o o t n o t e st o s i t e dates r e f e r t o publication source for date, wherein find discussions of v a l i d i t y interpretation "Key: +: Quantified food data for e i t e (+) Descriptive l i s t i n g ) food data for s i t e . ¡Ke pa. pathological analysis (population perspective of skeletons; pi: pathology l i s t i n g for skeletons npa. no pathological analysis (metric analyses e x i s t for some s i t e s ^Webb and Snow 1945, Webb and Baby 1957; Dragoo 1963; Mwphg 1975 FOP s p e c i f i c Kentucb s i t e s see Funkhouser and Webb 1935; Webb and Funkhouser 1940, Webb 1940, 1941a,b, 1942, 1943a,b; Webb and E l l i o t t 1942, Webb & Haag 1947b ePrufer and McKensie 1975 fMurphY 1975 SMUrphy 1975 hFunkhouser and Webb 1929 '^.~unkhouserand Webb 1930 Jwebb and. Fgnkhouser 1936, Jones 1936 For plant remains also see Goslin 1957; Y a m e l l 1964, 1965, Streuver and Viekery 1973; Asch and Asch 1977 k ~ e l s o n1917, Watson 1974 (physical anthropology by Bobbins, Molnur and Ward; parasites by Dusseau and Porter, Fry, food remains by Stewart, Y a m e l l ) For plant remains also see Yarnell 1964, 1965, Streuver and Vickery 1973; Aseh and Asch 1977 ^Vent0 e t a2 1980 (physical anthropology by D Dirhnaat) mCowan 1979 nPrufer and MoKenzie 1975 OStreuver and Vickery 1973; Murphy 1975 W e b b .and Baby 1957

314

( S t r e u v e r and Vickery 1973) I n t h e c e n t r a l Ohio R i v e r Valley t h i s p e r i o d demonstrates two r e g i o n a l c u l t u r a l climaxes, t h e Adena, focused w i t h i n a 150-mile r a d i u s o f C h i l l e c o t h e , Ohio, and t h e ' H O ~ ~ U J ~( sZeZe P e r z i g i a n e t a l . , Chapter 13 t h i s volume) These e x i s t e d from perhaps 1000 B C. t o A.D 600, w i t h Adena s l i g h t l y p r e d a t i n g and p r e d e c e a s i n g Hopewell Alongside t h e s e climaxes a s i m p l e r , much l e s s known, Woodland c u l t u r e -p e r s i s t e d (Cowan 1979; Jennings 1974; P r u f e r and McKenzie 1975) The Adena c u l t u r e (Dragoo 1963; Webb and Baby 1957; Webb and Snow 1945) i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by t h e production- o f l a r g e earthworks, and c o n i c a l b u r i a l mounds c o n t a i n i n g b o t h cremations, and extended b u r i a l s i n l o g , b a r k , o r c l a y tombs No complete Adena v i l l a g e has been excavated R o c k s h e l t e r s and cave s i t e s i n Kentucky, considered Adenan by Webb and Snow (1945) and Webb and Baby (19571, provide t h e b e s t evidence on Adena d i e t a r y p a t t e r n s . The f r e quency of Adena s i t e s , both mounds and r o c k s h e l t e r s ( T a b l e 12.21, a t t e s t s t o p o p u l a t i o n growth i n t h i s p e r i o d , b u t p o p u l a t i o n e s t i mates must a w a i t t h e e x c a v a t i o n o f undoubted Adena v i l l a g e s i t e s Adena b u r i a l mounds y i e l d few o r no food remains Burial a r t i f a c t s s u g g e s t v a r i o u s animals, m u s s e l s , and n u t s were consumed The o c c a s i o n a l p r e s e n c e of hoes and spades e a r l y l e d Webb and Funkhouser t o argue t h a t Adenans p r a c t i c e d a s i m p l e a g r i culture Subsequently gourd, pumpkin-squash, chenopodium, and a s i n g l e corncob have been found a t Adena s i t e s i n Ohio (Murphy 1975; S t r e u v e r and Vickery 1973; Y a r n e l l 1964) The r o c k s h e l t e r and cave s i t e s i n Kentucky c o n t a i n w e l l p r e s e r v e d v e g e t a b l e f w d remains t h a t p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e f o r an independent e a s t e r n North American development o f a g r i c u l t u r e based on indigenous c u l t i g e n s (Asch and Asch 1977; G o s l i n 1957; Jones 1936; S t r e u v e r and Vickery 1973; Y a r n e l l 1964, 1965, 1974) Sometimes c a l l e d t h e " E a s t e r n A g r i c u l t u r a l Complex," t h i s i n d e pendent development d a t e s t o a s e a r l y a s 700 B C and i n c l u d e s a s d e f i n i t e c u l t i g e n s two Mesoamerican p l a n t s , gourd and squashpumpkin, and two "weedy" North American p l a n t s , sunflower and Less c e r t a i n l y c u l t i v a t e d b u t p a r t o f t h e complex marsh e l d e r a r e chenopodium , amaranth, canary g r a s s , smartweed, and g i a n t ragweed The use of t h e s e p l a n t s f o r food i s confirmed by t h e f i n d i n g o f t h e i r s e e d s i n f e c e s , a s a t Mammoth and S a l t s c a v e s Many A t S a l t s Cave wild p l a n t s were a l s o i n u s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y n u t s 65-80% of f e c a l bulk was p l a n t food remains, e s p e c i a l l y marsh e l d e r , sunflower, and h i c k o r y n u t ( S t e w a r t 1974) Approximately 77% o f t h e t o t a l was c u l t i v a t e d . Animals made o n l y a s m a l l cont r i b u t i o n t o d i e t . Watson (1974) concludes t h a t t h e S a l t s Cave people were p r i m a r i l y v e g e t a r i a n s , and t h a t c u l t i v a t e d s e e d s of t h e E a s t e r n A g r i c u l t u r a l Complex, w i t h h i c k o r y n u t s , made up most of t h e i r d i e t The seeds were e v i d e n t l y g a t h e r e d i n f a l l and s t o r e d over t h e w i n t e r , f o r f e c e s c o n t a i n i n g both f a l l s e e d s and remains of p e r i s h a b l e s p r i n g f r u i t s were found a t S a l t s Cave -

-

I

1

~

I 1

CLAIRE MONOD CASSIDY

- 12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY

315

Not a l l Adena s i t e s c o n t a i n c u l t i g e n s , n o r a r e a l l s i t e s cont a i n i n g indigenous d o m e s t i c a t e s c u l t u r a l l y Adena For example, Adena components a t t h e Dameron and Sparks r o c k s h e l t e r s (Vento e t However, the Middle Woodland a1 1 9 8 0 ) c o n t a i n no c u l t i g e n s (non-Adena) Haystack r o c k s h e l t e r s (Cowan 1979) c o n t a i n b o t h wild p l a n t s and indigenous c u l t i g e n s , showing t h a t t h e l a t t e r c o n t i n u e d t o be used a f t e r t h e Adena p e r i o d Corn was n o t an important c u l l t i g e n i n Adena and Middle Woodland t i m e s d e s p i t e i t s o c c a s i o n a l appearance i n s i t e s ( S t r e u v e r and Vickery 1973) However, by t h e Late Woodland t h e b e t t e r adapted n o r t h e r n f l i n t v a r i e t y o f corn ( G a l i n a t 1965) was becoming widespread The n e x t c u l t u r a l climax i n t h e c e n t r a l Ohio River V a l l e y r e gion i s t h e Mississippian, r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e r e g i o n a l v a r i a n t F Fort Ancient ( a b o u t A D 950-1675) , ( G r i f f i n 1943, 1967; P r u f e r and Shane 1 9 7 0 ) . F o r t Ancient people l i v e d i n permanent v i l l a g e s , o f t e n f o r t i f i e d , w i t h c e n t r a l p l a z a s and p l a t f o r m mounds Burial was i n mounds and b e s i d e houses F o r t Ancient d i s a p p e a r s a s a d i s t i n c t c u l t u r e a t t h e beginning o f t h e h i s t o r i c p e r i o d , a p p a r e n t ; l y without t h e people having experienced d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h Europeans (Hanson 1968; P r u f e r and Shane 1970) Growing p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e F o r t Ancient period B l a i n V i l l a g e , a small e a r l y s i t e , may have c o n t a i n e d 100-400 people ( P r u f e r and Shane 1970) ; Cassidy (1980a) e s t i m a t e s t h a t Hardin V i l l a g e , a l a t e s i t e , i n i t i a l l y c o n t a i n e d j u s t o v e r 100 people and by abandonment 150 y e a r s l a t e r c o n t a i n e d o v e r 350 S i t e s a r e numerous along t h e r i v e r s , s o p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e range of t e n s of thousands may have e x i s t e d S c h o l a r s q u e s t i o n whether F o r t Ancient r e p r e s e n t s an i n f l u x o f people c a r r y i n g Mesoamerican i d e a s , o r is a l o c a l development i n fluenced by t h e d i f f u s i o n of i d e a s , n o t p e o p l e , from o u t s i d e (Murphy 1975; P r u f e r and Shane 1970; Robbins and Neumann 1972) The weight of evidence2 seems t o f a v o r g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y and an indigenous development f o r F o r t Ancient There i s no s t r i c t d i v i d i n g l i n e between F o r t Ancient and e a r l i e r p e r i o d s i n terms of f o o d s , because dependence o n corn aqr i c u l t u r e a p p a r e n t l y o c c u r s i n t h e l a t e Woodland. However, F o r t Ancient people ( T a b l e 12 3 ) seem t o have i n t e n s i f i e d a bottomland - a g r i c u l t u r e (Dunnell 1966) f o c u s i n g h e a v i l y on c o r n , beans, and

~ r u f e rand Shane (1970) argue on archaeolog^oal grounds t h a t some human i n f l u x may have occurred early i n Fort Ancient times i n t h e Seioto Valley. Bobbins and Neumann (1972) measured skeletons and found, i n contrast, thut indigenes of the W i n i d " type were i n Ohio andmost of Kentucky during most of th Fort Ancient period, and only l a t e did scutnem rfbfuskogid" peoples enter northem Kentucky and nearby Ohio Murphy (1975), also favoring indigenous development, noted t h a t corn arrived well before the Mississippian period and t h a t Late Woodland v i l l a g e s shew many typical 'Fort Ancient characteristies

TABLE 12

a

Arehaeo logical culture period w O\

Central Ohio River Valley Fort Ancient S i t e s Discussed i n Th.is Chapter S i t e name

Location

Fort Ancient Pooled data Ohio, Ky (Mississippian) many s i t e s s Ross County, v i l lagee ) Ohio Hoe king Graham County, Ohio V i l lagef Athens Gabriel County, Ohio Athens MeCune County, Ohio Pike Cou Fis htrap Reservoir, KY Woodside Phas q Campbe 11 ~intz1' County, Ky Bourbon ~uekner^ County, KY

^

Radiocarbon datesa B P

Food b Remains

Human remains

0

nany skeletons, npa or pi (AD 970-1225

770 Â 145f (AD 1180) 550 Â 155 g AD 1450) 630 10og (AD 1320) 479 125 f A D 1471)

+ + + +

8 skeletons, p i

1 skeleton; npa none 2 skeletons, p i

(+)

none

(+)

none

+#&fc&'-&A

8 skeletons, pi

-

-+A; TOW ^CO

0^

(0-

CLAIRE MONOD CASSI

318

Deer

Heavy

Medium

Medium Present

Mussels

Light

Heavy

Nuts and Other Wild Plant Foods

Medium

Medium

Sunflower, Marshelder and Other Indigenous Cu ltigens

Absent

Absent

Gourd and Squash

Absent

Absent

Years BP

squash A seasonal hunting p a t t e r n continued but was a p p a r e n t l y i n e f f i c i e n t and was based q u i t e narrowly on deer and perhaps e l k Wild p l a n t foods and mussels continued t o be used Much of t h e evidence f o r i n t e n s i v e corn a g r i c u l t u r e i s i n d i r e a r e united i n t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t F o r t Ancient people depended on corn, excavations have n o t a c t u a l l y demonstrated t h e p r o p o r t i o n s which F o r t Ancient people used t h e i r various foods

Diet Although t h e record i s clouded by problems o f p r e s e r v a t i o n , recovery, and q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of food remains, s e v e r a l t r e n d s can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d (Table 14 4 ) :

12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY

319

1 Although w i l d foods were used throughout t h e p r e h i s t o r i c period, a s t i m e passed t h e r e was conversion from a broad t o n a r row s u b s i s t e n c e focus This s h i f t c o r r e l a t e d with increasing population d e n s i t i e s , sedentism, and c u l t u r a l e l a b o r a t i o n , b u t 1 the c a u s a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e obscure. 2 The I n d i a n s seem t o have a l t e r e d econiches t o i n c r e a s e t h e e x t e n t o r frequency o f d e s i r e d ones, as t o f a v o r weedy p l a n t s (Brown 1977; Dunnell 1966; S t r e u v e r and Vickery 1973) o r d e e r ("semidomestication, " Hudson 1976) 3 Hunting was p r a c t i c e d throughout t h e pe2iod; d e e r was t h e p r e f e r r e d animal The d i e t a r y importance of a n i m a l s a p p a r e n t l y declined a s e a r l i e r e f f i c i e n t broad-spectrum s e a s o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n slowly transformed t o a narrow ecozone f o c u s u s i n g i n e f f i c i e n t hunting t e c h n i q u e s By l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s , d e e r (and o t h e r animals) were merely supplementary t o a c u l t i v a t e d grain-legume diet 4 A wide v a r i e t y o f wild p l a n t foods was u t i l i z e d throughout the p e r i o d ; t h e y made an important c o n t r i b u t i o n t o d i e t a t l e a s t u n t i l F o r t Ancient t i m e s I 5 Two climaxes o c c u r r e d w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e u s e o f c u l t i v a t e d foods, w i t h an e a r l y , l a r g e l y indigenous s e t of c u l t i g e n s appearing i n L a t e Archaic-Early Woodland times and b e i n g h e a v i l y 1 u t i l i z e d i n t o t h e Middle Woodland; and w i t h a well-adapted n o r t h I ern f l i n t corn a r r i v i n g i n Middle Woodland t i m e s , followed by , beans, s o t h a t from t h e L a t e Woodland and c l e a r l y d u r i n g F o r t Ancient times, s u b s i s t e n c e depended on Mesoamerican c u l t i g e n s The l a c k o f p l a n t food e v i d e n c e from t h e Archaic may r e s u l t a s much from t h e f a c t t h a t s i t e s were excavated b e f o r e f l o t a t i o n technique was known a s t o a c t u a l low use of p l a n t foods by t h e s e people Whatever t h e c a s e , t h e i r d i e t s t r a d i t i o n a l l y have been v i s u a l i z e d a s high i n animal p r o t e i n A f t e r t h e Archaic, d i e t s were i n c r e a s i n g l y v e g e t a r i a n , f i r s t based i n wild foods and i n digenous c u l t i g e n s , and l a t e r i n Mesoamerican c u l t i g e n s

6

,

The dietary and subsistence trends, including t h e use of cuttigens, seem t o have been ut-ilised by ati of the people i n t h e region, and n o t just by those who participated in cl;max c u l t u r e s Although archaeological materials are. adequate t o analyze t h e relationship of subsistence and health diachron'ical'Ly (as herein), a "best t e s t " of the problem would inelude a synchron'ia analysis^ that i s , comparison of health parameters between climax and nonSuch an analysis climax s i t e s (= peoples) of t h e same date would help c l a x i f y th speei f i e r e lationship of c u l t u r a l complexity t o health. More non-climax regional s i t e s must be excavated before such an analysis can be performed.

aCO=?OOwOOuCO

wTOosw

m w

'in

INV-l

vl

L

%

00 Q Q TO QQQCO COIN-MM

00wTOQ M CO O m MC\3TOt-1

S E E S

Q k-i 00 to QTOTO QC^

C"^

S E E S E E

ad 3 74, mid 5 6, e a r l y 2 34 0 0 ad 0 0; mid 5 6, early 0 0 ad 4 3, mid 0 0; early 5 1 B'&e 'test

Table 15 5 (Continued)

Health Indicators --

Percentage with severe LEH only

M

Hardin Village N = 296

Statistics 2 Signi ficance of S i t e Differences

-

Other Health Indicators Mean number growth arrest l i n e s / t i b i u Percentage w/lineal enme 2 hypoptasia, adult C, a i l ages and degrees

L*J

Indian Knoll N = 295

Percentage w/LEH, M3, a l l degrees Percentage LEE deciduous incisors Percentage LEH deciduous canines and molars Mean value cortical index, 17-29 Mean value c o r t i c a l index, 30-49

11 3 ( R = 2 - 2 5 ) m 86 5; ns, ad m 2.1; ns, ad m 11 5; 0 0

4 1 (R= 0

-

18

f 86 0; m 91 9, f 73 0, 93.8 ns; ad 91 3 f 2 3; m 13 5, f 8 1, 18 8 ns, ad 4 3 f 7 0, n s m 13 5; f 16.2; ns 9 1

0 0 m 51; f 51

12.1 m 37, f 37

m 47: f 36

m 37; f 33

ns

P<

os

ns

*

*

m p < 01, f : p < 01 m: p < 01, f

ns

asource: Cassidy 1972; random sample of University of Kentucky Indian Knoll collections, e n t i r e Hardin Village sample Key: m = male, f = female; ad = adolescent 12-16 years; mid = mid-childhood 6-11 years; early = early childhood 0-5 years, S* = S t a t i s t i c a l l y significant, see indicated footnote; ns = not s t a t i s t i c a l l y significant; not calc = not calculated, * = indicator value zero a t one s i t e so s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s cannot be performed. ^Snow 1948) i n the t o t a l sample of 1234 skeletons found 27 1% died i n the f i r s t 48 months ¡Sno 1948) divided the skeletons i n t o 'newborn and a few months ' = 6 2% and ' i n f a n t s t o 3 ' = 21.0% Johnston and S n w (1961 found 19 5% died i n the f i r s t 12 months d~ohnstonand Snow (1961 found 9 6% of deaths i n months 12-60, Cassidy (1972 found 10 9% i n the same i n t e r v a l

w

Â¥^~ohnsto and Snow (1961) found 3.3% died over age 40; Snow (1948) found 4 9% died over age 36 Differences among authors are due mainly t o differences i n aging techniques used gin addition t o diseases l i s t e d i n table, Snow (1948) found r i c k e t s i n one 8 months i n f a n t , 3 cases of kidney/bladder stones and many external auditory exostoses Cassidy found 6 7 % of adult males had exostoses so large as t o nea* occlude t h e meatus "'Â¥HardiVillage females had s i g n i f i c a n t l y more caries than Indian Knoll females for upper M3, a l l other upper t e e t h and lower molars; remaining lower t e e t h had no caries a t Indian Knoll. Hardin V i l lage males had s i g n i f i c a n t l y more caries than Indian Knoll males for a l l molars, C and P2, remaining teeth had no caries a t Indian Knoll ^Indian Knoll males and females had s i g n i f i c a n t l y more molar abscesses than Hardin Village males and females A t other tooth positions s i t e differences are not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t SIndian Knoll males had s i g n i f i c a n t l y more pulp exposures than Hardin Village males i n upper M l , P12; Hardin Village males had no pulp exposures o f upper M2, C, I1 and lower P I , 112; there were no s i g n i f i c a n t differences i n remainder Hardin Village f ernales had s i g n i f i c a n t l y more pulp exposures than Indian Knoll females a t upper M3, lower P12, C, and no pulp exposures a t upper and lower 11, and Indian Knoll females none a t lower 112, remaining t e e t h were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i n frequency Antemortem tooth loss i s not age related a t Hardin Village, but occurs mainly i n of pulp exposures Indian Knoll males l o s t s i g n i f i c a n t l y more t e e t h antemortern than Indian the elderly a t Indian Knoll Males a t Indian Knoll and Hardin Village l o s t similar numbers of t e e t h antemortern; Knoll, females Hartin Village females l o s t s i g n i f i c a n t l y more t e e t h antemortem than Indian Knoll females Relative tooth wear a t Indian K n o l l i s "heavy", a t Hardin Village "moderate Ir k r r ~ o s s i b l e "cases accounted for an additional 3 1% a t Indian Knoll and 6 1% a t Hardin Village

CLAIRE MONOD CASSIDY SKELETAL PATHOLOGY

Only f o u r s i t e s i n t h e Kentucky r e g i o n have been w e l l analyzed f o r pathology Our knowledge o f t h e Archaic i s t o o dependent on Indian Knoll, whereas numerous s k e l e t o n s from o t h e r s i t e s , i n c l u d i n g Eva, have n o t been a d e q u a t e l y analyzed Hundreds o f F o r t Ancient s k e l e t o n s e x i s t , and though measured (Robbins and Neumann 1972) a r e n o t y e t analyzed. The e x c e p t i o n i s Hardin V i l l a g e A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n e x i s t s f o r Adena, which i s ( c a s s i d y 1972) a d d i t i o n a l l y handicapped by t h e complexity o f b u r i a l modes and their interpretation

Archaic:

I n d i a n Knoll S i t e

Because l i t t l e i s known o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y , a l l I n d i a n Knoll s k e l e t o n s must be t r e a t e d a s o n e Archaic p o p u l a t i o n d e s p i t e a r t i f a c t u a l evidence of b r i e f E a r l y Woodland s i t e use. Social s t r a t i f i c a t i o n does n o t seem t o have a f f e c t e d b u r i a l p a t t e r n s , s o subsamples can r e f l e c t t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n

Demogvaph
Dental Health Leigh (1925), Rabkin (19431, Snow (19481, Sarnas 1964) and Cassidy (1972) , although working w i t h d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s o f p r e c i s i o n , found s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o f d e n t a l h e a l t h . Briefly, caries were r a r e t o a b s e n t i n c h i l d r e n and a d o l e s c e n t s , and a l t h o u g h t h e were widespread i n t h e a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n , t h e y were i n f r e q u e n t on per-mouth b a s i s (Table 12 5 ) Tooth wear o c c u r r e d r a p i d l y and wa t h e main cause o f p u l p exposures, a p i c a l a b s c e s s i n g , and antemort t o o t h l o s s , a l l o f which p r i m a r i l y a f f e c t e d t h e o l d e r a d u l t s Males and females demonstrated s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o f change, although males showed s l i g h t l y h i g h e r r a t e s o f w e a r - r e l a t e d s t r e s s Calcu l u s was l a r g e l y l a c k i n g ; p e r i o d o n t i t i s i n f r e q u e n t Sarnas a t t r i b u t e d t h e h i g h wear r a t e s , coupled w i t h l a c k o f t o o t h c r a c k s o enamel c h i p s , t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f finely ground a b r a s i v e s i n t h e

12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY

325

diet This s u g g e s t s much food was ground (in t h e nut-grain mortars? ) r a t h e r than consumed unprocessed.

Bone Patho Zogies Snow (1948) i d e n t i f i e d lumbar a r t h r i t i s i n 60% o f a d u l t s and "collapsed" c e n t r a (Ll-2) i n 4 5% Cassidy (1972) found i n c r e a s e d frequency and s e v e r i t y of a r t h r i t i s w i t h a g e , t h r e e c a s e s o f healed compression f r a c t u r e s , and no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n a r t h r i t i s r a t e s between t h e s e x e s Snow b e l i e v e d b o t h d e n t a l abs c e s s i n g and a r t h r i t i s t o be i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s , c a u s a t i v e l y linked Inglemark e t a 1 (1959) found an e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n between v e r t e b r a l a r t h r i t i s and d e n t a l a b s c e s s e s , b u t d e c l i n e d t o make a c a u s a l l i n k Cassidy (1972) concluded t h a t t h e main cause of a r t h r i t i s a t I n d i a n Knoll was d e g e n e r a t i o n , n o t i n f e c t i o n Osteoporosis symmetrica and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a , expressed r e s p e c t i v e l y a s r a r e f a c t i o n and o t h e r changes of t h e s k u l l v a u l t and a s porous plaque formation i n t h e o r b i t s , a r e now c o n s i d e r e d express i o n s o f long-standing i r o n d e f i c i e n c y ( o r o t h e r ) anemia In 1948 Snow i d e n t i f i e d p i t t i n g o f v a u l t s a s "probably o s t e o p o r o s i s symmetrical1' (p 498) and s a i d i t was f r e q u e n t and "evidence o f some kind o f d i e t a r y d e f i c i e n c y " ( p 498) Cassidy (1972) found mild p i t t i n g of t h e v a u l t o r ( l e s s o f t e n ) p o r o t i c changes i n t h e o r b i t s i n 31 7% o f h e r sample She concluded t h e s e changes were not c l a s s i c a l o s t e o p o r o s i s symmetrica, and n o t p a t h o l o g i c a l , and t h a t anemia was n o t p r e v a l e n t a t I n d i a n Knoll Significantly, c h i l d r e n under f i v e , t h e group most l i k e l y t o s u f f e r i r o n d e f i c i e n cy anemia, had t h e l o w e s t f r e q u e n c i e s of change Cassidy c l a s s i f i e d l o c a l i z e d inflammatory changes of bones which were n o t t h e r e s u l t o f trauma, c o n g e n i t a l malformation o r d e g e n e r a t i v e d i s e a s e a s " i n f e c t i o n s " One-fourth of I n d i a n Knoll e r s showed evidence o f such i n f e c t i o n s ; o n l y c h i l d r e n under age s i x had none A syndrome o f d i s s e m i n a t e d p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s , f a m i l i a r t o a l l s t u d e n t s o f Amerindian bones, a f f e c t e d 2 4 % o f s k e l e t o n s , most a g e s , and b o t h s e x e s (Cassidy 1972) T h i s syndrome i s probably a treponemal i n f e c t i o n , p o s s i b l y p o t e n t i a t e d by m a l n u t r i t i o n , b u t almost c e r t a i n l y is n o t v e n e r e a l s y p h i l i s ( a l t h o u g h f r e q u e n t l y and t o o c a s u a l l y given t h i s d e s i g n a t i o n Snow, f o r "example, ident i f i e d f o u r c a s e s o f "probably s y p h i l i s " a t I n d i a n K n o l l ) A comp a r i s o n of t h e I n d i a n Knoll r a t e t o t h a t a t Hardin v i l l a g e shows t h e former r a t e was q u i t e low

Other Evidence o f Health Status The mean number o f growth a r r e s t l i n e s / t i b i a was 11 3 , s u g g e s t i n g growth a r r e s t i n childhood was somewhat f r e q u e n t (Cassidy 1972). Lines were d i s t r i b u t e d p e r i o d i c a l l y , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e i r cause was a r e g u l a r l y r e c u r r i n g s t r e s s such a s an annual hunger p e r i o d .

Enamel h y p o p l a s i a of t h e a d u l t c a n i n e ( i n d i c a t i n g growth a r r e s t from about 4-5 months t o 6-7 y e a r s ) was f r e q u e n t b u t u s u a l l y mild Third molars (growth a r r e s t i n mid-childhood) were less often affected NO deciduous t e e t h showed h y p o p l a s i a . These d a t a suggest t h a t growth a r r e s t e p i s o d e s -in u t e r o o r i n t h e f i r s t few months o f l i f e were unusual, growth a r r e s t i n t h e l a t e r months and e a r l y childhood was f r e q u e n t b u t s h o r t - l i v e d , and growth a r r e s t in mid-childhood was i n f r e q u e n t and m i l d C o r t i c a l index v a l u e s were s i m i l a r Lo t h o s e found i n modem urban p o p u l a t i o n s f o r both younger and o l d e r $ n d i v i d u a l s ; females l o s t s i g n i f i c a n t l y more c o r t i c a l bone w i t h age than d i d males (Cassidy 1972) P e r z i g i a n (1973) found t h a t bone d e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n r a t e s were h i g h e r i n Hopewell p o p u l a t i o n s t h a n a t I n d i a n Knoll He b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e Hopewell d i e t was s u p e r i o r t o t h e Archaic d i e t , and concluded t h a t bone d e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n r a t e s a r e g e n e t i c a l In this l y c o n t r o l l e d r a t h e r than environmentally r e s p o n s i v e opinion he d i f f e r s from most s t u d e n t s o f t h e s u b j e c t , P e r z i g i a n (1977) found t h a t I n d i a n Knoll had more f l u c t u a t i n g Arasymmetry t h a n s e v e r a l u n r e l a t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s guing t h a t I n d i a n Knoll a l s o demonstrated o t h e r s i g n s of poor n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s (quoting d a t a from Cassidy 1972; Cook 1971) , P e r z i g i a n concluded t h a t I n d i a n K n o l l e r s were less h e a l t h y because t h e i r d i e t s were i n f e r i o r t o t h o s e o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y more advanced people Snow, c i t i n g h i g h r a t e s o f i n f e c t i o n ( a r t h r i t i s and d e n t a l a b s c e s s e s ) and n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c y ( o s t e o p o r o s i s symmetrica), a l s o concluded t h a t I n d i a n K n o l l e r s were n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y healthy I n c o n t r a s t , o t h e r workers ( c i t e d above) h a v e tended to f i n d I n d i a n Knollers q u i t e h e a l t h y , b o t h by w i t h i n - s i t e assessment and by between-site assessment Their higher r a t e s o f wear-related s t r e s s beginning a t e a r l i e r a g e s , s u g g e s t t h a t males may have been S i m i l a r i t i e s o f d i s e a s e exmore p h y s i c a l l y a c t i v e than females p e r i e n c e f o r males and females p r o v i d e s u p p o r t i n g evidence f o r t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p r o p o s a l of an e g a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y .

Other Arehafa Sites The p a r t i a l l y analyzed t e e t h and s k e l e t o n s from o t h e r Green River complex s i t e s (Table 12.1) show many s i m i l a r i t i e s t o I n d i a n Knoll Among t h e s e s i t e s , Eva perhaps most o f a l l d e s e r v e s r e a n a l y s i s , f o r although 180 s k e l e t o n s a r e r e p o r t e d , no f u l l a n a l y s i s was performed (Lewis a n d Kneberg-Lewis 1961) However, t h e a u t h o r s d i d argue t h a t t h e frequency of i n f a n t - t o d d l e r d e a t h s i n s t r a t u m I1 was s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d o v e r f r e q u e n c i e s i n s t r a t a I and I11 They s p e c u l a t e d t h a t i n c r e a s e d dependence on mussels i n s t r a t u m 11 may have caused l a c t a t i o n f a i l u r e , lowered t h e age of weaning, and i n c r e a s e d t h e " i n f a n t " ( a c t u a l l y weanling) mortality r a t e

i

I

i

12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY E a r l y Woodland:

327

Adena

The p a t h o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l from Adena s i t e s i s complicated because (1) mound and r o c k s h e l t e r s i t e s a r e only assumed t o c o n t a i n t h e same p h y s i c a l group, ( 2 ) Adenans used a wide range of b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s and t h e s o c i a l and h e a l t h implications of these a r e uncertain, (3) m o s t e a r l y s k e l e t a l a n a l y s i s used t e c h n i q u e s t h a t probably y i e l d e d i n a c c u r a t e s e x and age d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n s , and ( 4 ) fragmentary s k e l e t o n s were d i s carded ( t h i s i n c l u d e s most cave m a t e r i a l ) , making r e a n a l y s i s i m possible Snow (Webb and Snow 1945) found t h a t Adena mounds c o n t a i n e d more males t h a n females and more a d u l t s t h a n c h i l d r e n , w h i l e cave s i t e s y i e l d e d o n l y women and c h i l d r e n ( ~ u n k h o u s e rand Webb 1929, 1930; Webb and Funkhouser 1936) Webb and h i s c o l l e a g u e s proposed t h a t t h e r o c k s h e l t e r s were t h e domain o f women, w h i l e mound tombs housed t h e remains of upper c l a s s p e o p l e , n o t a b l y males They proposed t h a t Adenans had developed a s t r a t i f i e d s o c i e t y ; cremations w i t h i n t h e mounds were t h o s e of commoners, and o n l y t h e upper c l a s s p r a c t i c e d head deformation They argued t h a t s i n c e knowledge o f pathology was l i m i t e d t o t h e upper c l a s s e s , whatever was observed n e c e s s a r i l y e r r e d toward t h e h e a l t h y Some have tended t o u t i l i z e t h e s e a r c ~ u m e n t s ,b~u t I am i n c l i n e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t Adenan b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s d e s e r v e thorough reexamination It should be noted t h a t , although t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a l o g tomb i s expensive, t h e c o s t of cremation i s even g r e a t e r , f o r t h e number of dried l o g s n e c e s s a r y t o reduce a f r e s h body t o a l e n s e o f ashes ( d e s c r i b e d i n t h e v a r i o u s Adena s o u r c e s ) i s much g r e a t e r t h a n t h e number of green ( c h e a p e r ) l o g s needed t o b u i l d a l o g tomb I n much of modern Asia o n l y t h e most wealthy can a f f o r d t h e honor of cremation A d d i t i o n a l l y , upper c l a s s e s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h e a l t h i e r t h a n lower c l a s s e s For t h e s e s e v e r a l reasons, I h e r e i n t r e a t t h e Adena mound "upper c l a s s " a s repres e n t a t i v e o f a l l Adenan people To summarize p a t h o l o g i c a l d a t a on mound m a t e r i a l s (pooled d a t a from H T E Hertzberq o r C S Snow r e p o r t e d i n Webb and Snow 1945; a l s o Funkhouser and Webb 1935; Webb 1940, 1 9 4 1 a , b , 1942, 1943a,b; Webb and E l l i o t t 1942; Funkhouser 1940) : Mild a r t h r i t i s was r e p o r t e d a t some but n o t a l l s i t e s and was r e f e r r e d t o a s "common" (my c a l c u l a t i o n s y i e l d h i g h v a l u e s of 19 and 2 0 % )

ale skeletons have been found a t reeentZy excavated rocks h e l t e r s i t e s ineluding Dmeron (Vento e t a l 1980) and S a l t s Cave (Watson 1974) example, Lovejoy (1975) argues t h a t two p i t b u r i a l s a t Caldwell ' s L i t t l e B l u f f , w i t h undeformed heads, were t h e r e f o r e commoners S e i u l l i (1978) worries t h a t h i s finding o f eomparat i v e l y lowr r a t e s of l i n e a r enamel hypoplasia mong Adenans may be an a r t i f a c t of a population sample skewed toward t h e wealthy

or

I

a."

CLAIRE MONOD CASSIDY

Osteoporosis symmetrica was i d e n t i f i e d a t most s i t e s ; it o c c u r r e d The desa t a l l ages b u t was m o s t common i n young a d u l t males c r i p t i o n and unusual age d i s t r i b u t i o n could mean t h a t t h e s e " P e r i o s t i t i s - o s t e i t i s " was a b s e n t changes were n o t p a t h o l o g i c a l a t s e v e r a l s i t e s and d i s p l a y e d f r e q u e n c i e s o f 2 , 12 5, and 20% (my c a l c u l a t i o n s ) on s m a l l samples a t o t h e r s i t e s Frequency on-"" t h e pooled d a t a was 3 % ; t h a t i s , t h e inflammatory changes were uncommon, although some s i t e s showed e l e v a t e d f r e q u e n c i e s (These& changes, h e s i t a n t l y a s c r i b e d t o " s y p h i l i s " i n t h e 1940s a r e pre-j^ir sumably t h e same syndrome o f d i s s e m i n a t e d p e r - i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s %!= d i s c u s s e d above ) A p o s s i b l e c a s e of t u b e r c u l o s i s was recorded a t R i c k e t t s Mound. D e n t a l c a r i e s were a b s e n t o r uncommon a t most s i t e s ; Snow's pooled d a t a r e c o r d c a r i e s a s o c c u r r i n g only i n young a d u l t s ( 5 3%) D e n t a l a b s c e s s e s were uncommon i n y o u t h b u t t h e ':; pooled d a t a show 18 8% of a d u l t s up t o age 35, and 11 1%of oldeA a d u l t s , were a f f e c t e d . viin Ç No p a t h o l o g i c a l d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e from r o c k s h e l t e r s excavated p r i o r t o 1950 S k e l e t o n s from C a l d w e l l ' s L i t t l e Bluff (El = 2 "commoners," Lovejoy 1975) and Dameron Rockshelter (El = 1 , Ventos: e t a 1 1980) have no s i g n i f i c a n t p a t h o l o g i e s T h i r t e e n non- dena an Woodland s k e l e t o n s i n t r u s i v e i n t o t h e Hartman Mound (Webb 1943a) a r e p a t h o l o g i c a l l y i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from Adenans, p o s s i b l y imp l y i n g a l a c k of h e a l t h d i f f e r e n t i a l s between Adenans and nonclimax Woodland p e o p l e s S c i u l l i compared l i n e a r enamel h y p o p l a s i a i n I n d i a n K n o l l , bL. Adena, and l a t e r samples, i n deciduous (1977) and a d u l t (1978) i s found teeth He found t h a t " s e v e r e l i n e a r enamel h y p o p l a s i a i n every Amerindian group and i s p r e s e n t a t a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r frequency i n f o c a l [ = l a t e ] a g r i c u l t u r a l groups" (1978:193) A p o s s i b l e s l i g h t d e c l i n e i n frequency o c c u r r e d i n t h e Adena corn- 1,- 1 pared t o both t h e p r e c e d i n g and succeeding p e r i o d s Adena males'' may have been more s e v e r e l y a f f e c t e d than f e m a l e s .

&

^

^ I

4

The M m o t h Cave Area

I

S a l t s Cave y i e l d e d 2 mummies and remnants o f 41 s k e l e t o n s (Robbins 1974) One male mummy, about 4 5 , was unanalyzed The o t h e r , a boy aged n i n e , may have d i e d o f an a o r t i c r u p t u r e ; he

ç! eJ.

f Â

1, '

d i e t a r y and subsistence trends, including t h e use of c u l t i g e n s , seem t o have been u t i l i z e d by a l l o f t h e people i n t h e region, and n o t gust by those who participated i n climax c u l t u r e s Although archaeological materials are adequate t o analyze t h e r e lationship of subsistence and h e a l t h diachronically ( a s h e r e i n ) , va "best t e s t " of th problem would include a synchronic a n a l y s i s ~ ' t h a t i s , comparison of h e a l t h parameters between climax and nan-5 Such an a n a l y s i s climax s i t e s (= peoples) of t h e same date would help c l a r i f y t h e s p e c i f i c r e l a t i o n s h i p of c u l t u r a l complex^ t o health. More non-climax regional s i t e s must 'be excavated 'before such an a n a l y s i s can be performed

12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE, CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY

I

had no growth a r r e s t l i n e s and no s i g n s o f bone pathology The 4 1 s k e l e t o n s , r e p r e s e n t e d by s p l i n t e r e d and crushed bones, were too fragmentary f o r p a t h o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s Robbins suggested t h a t t h e S a l t s p e o p l e may have p r a c t i c e d c u l i n a r y cannibalism Molnar and Ward (1974) s t u d i e d d e n t a l remains from 14 c h i l d r e n and a d o l e s c e n t s and concluded t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n was " r a t h e r h e a l t h y Teeth d i s p l a y e d few enamel o r d e n t i n e i m-p e r f e c t i o n s and none had caries Dusseau and P o r t e r (1974) found no p a r a s i t e s except one uncertain nonpathogenic nematode i n 1 3 f e c e s , w h i l e F r y (1974) found p o s s i b l e evidence of A s e a r i s i n f e c t i o n i n one c a s e I n summary, a v a i l a b l e d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t Adenans were r e l a t i v e ly h e a l t h y , w i t h low c a r i e s r a t e s , low i n f e c t i o n and a r t h r i t i s r a t e s , and moderate r e p o r t e d l e v e l s of p o s s i b l e o s t e o p o r o s i s symmetrica There was some tendency f o r males t o e x p e r i e n c e more p a t h o l o g i e s than females, which may b e an a r t i f a c t o f sample s i z e or which may deserve a second l o o k s i n c e t h e same p a t t e r n seems to c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e l a t e r Hardin V i l l a g e p o p u l a t i o n

Mississippian:

1

329

F o r t Ancient--Hardin

Village S i t e

The l a t e F o r t Ancient s i t e o f Hardin V i l l a g e e x i s t e d f o r about 150 y e a r s and was abandoned about A D 1675 w i t h o u t c o n t a c t with Europeans (Hanson 1966)

Demograph'i-es o f Health Among i n f a n t s , 8 4% d i e d a s newborns and a n o t h e r 4 7% i n t h e next 11+ months (Cassidy 1972; Table 12 5) From ages 2-4 y e a r s (12-48 months) almost o n e - f i f t h o f t h e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n d i e d Thus more c h i l d r e n d i e d i n t h e weaning y e a r s than i n i n f a n c y , a p a t t e r n resembling t h a t o f some modern p e a s a n t p o p u l a t i o n s and arguing f o r n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c y ( p o s s i b l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n f e c t i o n s ) d u r i n g t h e weaning p e r i o d Only 1%o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ( 3 females) s u r v i v e d more than 50 y e a r s L i f e e x p e c t a n c i e s were higher f o r females than males a t a l l a g e s , a r e v e r s a l o f t h e usual p r e i n d u s t r i a l p a t t e r n

C a r i e s were common t o rampant a t a l l a g e s a f t e r i n f a n c y viable 12 5; f o r t o o t h by t o o t h a n a l y s i s s e e Cassidy 1972) Caries were t h e main cause of p u l p exposures and a b s c e s s i n g , which occurred even i n c h i l d r e n , and of antemortem t o o t h l o s s , which began in adolescence P e r i o d o n t i t i s was common i n a d u l t s Tooth wear was moderate; c a l c u l u s d e p o s i t i o n was o f t e n heavy The p a t t e r n of wear and d i s e a s e i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h a t seen today i n p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t consume h i g h l y processed c a r b o h y d r a t e d i e t s and do n o t p r a c i c e e f f e c t i v e o r a l hygiene

CLAIRE MONOD CASSIDY

Bone Pathology V e r t e b r a l a r t h r i t i s , a l t h o u g h i n c r e a s i n g i n frequency w i t h age, a l s o a f f e c t e d youth i n c l u d i n g a d o l e s c e n t s aged 12-16 y e a r s ( 3 cases) These a d o l e s c e n t s showed s e v e r e a r t h r i t i c changes, a l s o p r e s e n t i n young a d u l t s aged 17-29 y e a r s The d i s t r i b u t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t i n f e c t i o n was a f r e q u e n t cause of a r t h r i t i c change i n youth, and d e g e n e r a t i o n was an added cause with a g e Osteoporosis symmetrica and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a of c l a s s i c a l c h a r a c t e r a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s o f a l l a g e s b u t was commonest i n c h i l d r e n under s i x and women aged 30-39 y e a r s , age groups commonl y a f f e c t e d by i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia, which was judged p r e s e n t a t Hardin V i l l a g e Bone i n f e c t i o n s a f f e c t e d o n e - f o u r t h o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , w i t h males having i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y more; j u s t over 10% of c h i l d r e n were affected Disseminated p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s a f f e c t e d 31 4% of a l l s k e l e t o n s . Eight p e r s o n s had s e v e r e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s w i t h l a r g e s w e l l i n g s , s i n u s e s , and massive long-bone malformations; two were A l l p o s t n a t a l ages were a f f e c t e d , and one p o s s i b l e under age s i x case occurred among 1 3 f e t u s e s There were no sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n occurrence This syndrome was s o common a t Hardin V i l l a g e a s t o i n d i c a t e t h e presence of a s e r i o u s h e a l t h s t r e s s o r , most l i k e l y a treponemal i n f e c t i o n , not i d e n t i c a l w i t h v e n e r e a l s y p h i l i s , and probably p o t e n t i a t e d by m a l n u t r i t i o n ( f o r m e t a b o l i c c a u s e argument s e e Robbins 1971)

Other Evidence o f Health Status The mean number of growth a r r e s t l i n e s was 4 1, and t h e l i n e s were d e p o s i t e d a t unequal i n t e r v a l s , s u g g e s t i n g t h e i r s o u r c e i n an u n p r e d i c t a b l e h e a l t h s t r e s s o r , such a s i n f e c t i o n . Linear enamel h y p o p l a s i a o c c u r r e d in b o t h t h e permanent and It was common i n t h e a d u l t d e n t i t i o n s and deciduous d e n t i t i o n s . severe i n 9 3% of a d u l t c a n i n e s S i x c h i l d r e n had h y p o p l a s i a o f t h e milk i n c i s o r s , i n d i c a t i n g growth a r r e s t 'in utero o r p o s s i b l y premature b i r t h E i g h t c h i l d r e n had h y p o p l a s i a of t h e milk canine and molars, i n d i c a t i n g growth a r r e s t w i t h i n 6 months o f A conservative i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s e data suggest t h a t birth. mothers were s e r i o u s l y undernourished d u r i n g and soon a f t e r b i r t h , due t o d i e t a r y m a l n u t r i t i o n , i n f e c t i o n s , o r b o t h , and were u n a b l e t o s u s t a i n s t e a d y growth i n t h e i r i n f a n t s C o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s a t Hardin V i l l a g e was r e l a t i v e l y low i n young a d u l t s f o r both s e x e s ; bone l o s s w i t h age was slow f o r f e males and n o t apparent f o r males I n summary, Hardin V i l l a g e r s s u f f e r e d from h i g h r a t e s of d e n t a l d i s e a s e and numerous i n f e c t i o n s , and showed s i g n s of malnut r i t i o n i n t h e e l e v a t e d t o d d l e r d e a t h r a t e s , t h e p r e s e n c e of enamel hypoplasia i n deciduous t e e t h , t h e low v a l u e s o f t h e c o r t i c a l index, t h e presence o f anemia, and t h e low l i f e e x p e c t a n c i e s

12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY

33 1

The o v e r a l l p i c t u r e a t Hardin V i l l a g e c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l s t h a t common i n modem p e a s a n t v i l l a g e s i n developing c o u n t r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e dependent on a corn-beans d i e t (Cassidy 1972, 1980a) S c i u l l i (1977, 1978) made a s i m i l a r argument f o r post-Hopewell groups i n Ohio Limited p a t h o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on o t h e r F o r t Ancient s i t e s (Beckner 1926; Hooton and Willoughby 1920; M i l l s 1906; P r u f e r and Shane 1970; Bobbins 1971; Smith 1910; Webb and Funkhouser 1928) c l o s e l y matches t h e d a t a on Hardin V i l l a g e : high f r e q u e n c i e s o f c a r i e s i n f e c t i o n , trauma, d i s s e m i n a t e d p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s , and other d i s e a s e

Comparison of Hardin Village and Indian 'Knoll That Hardin V i l l a g e r s were n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y h e a l t h y is even more s t r o n g l y demonstrated by t h e i r comparison t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y h e a l t h i e r I n d i a n Knoll p o p u l a t i o n (Table 12 5 ) Dental c a r i e s , i n f e c t i o u s a r t h r i t i s , s e v e r e enamel h y p o p l a s i a , and t h e syndrome o f disseminated p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s o c c u r r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more o f t e n a t Hardin V i l l a g e Anemia was p o s i t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d only a t Hardin V i l l a g e Hypoplasia of t h e deciduous d e n t i t i o n was seen o n l y a t Hardin V i l l a g e Hypoplasia o f t h e p e r manent d e n t i t i o n was more o f t e n s e v e r e a t Hardin V i l l a g e More children experienced bone i n f e c t i o n s a t Hardin V i l l a g e . Cortical bone t h i c k n e s s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower i n young a d u l t s o f both sexes a t Hardin V i l l a g e L i f e expectancy was lower a t a l l ages for both s e x e s , and m o r t a l i t y i n t h e t o d d l e r y e a r s was s i g n i f i cantly h i g h e r a t Hardin V i l l a g e , s u g g e s t i n g weaning stress Only one h e a l t h i n d i c a t o r , t h e frequency o f growth a r r e s t Growth l i n e s , was h i g h e r a t I n d i a n Knoll t h a n a t Hardin V i l l a g e

'

^pour non-Fort Ancient Mississippian s i t e s i n Western Kentucky resembles Fort Ancient i n apparently displaying high frequencies of patholo~y, although skeletons from these s i t e s have been incompletely analyzed (Page-Glover s i t e , Webb and Funkhouser 1930, Vietzen 2956, Tolu s i t e , Webb and ~unkhouser1931: Duncan s i t e , Funkhouser and Webb 1931, Chilton s i t e , Funkhouser and Webb 1937) 7 ~ it f proves common for growth arrest l i n e s t o occur more frequentty i n hunter -gatherer populations than i n agricultural popu lations (also see MeHenry 1968), and it i s also found common for cortical thickness t o be reduced i n agricultural populations compared to hunter-gatherer populations, then it w i l l 'be well t o reconsider the meaning of high frequencies of growth a r r e s t l i n e s . As higher rates of bone remodelinq m a y destroy growth a r r e s t lines, the lower rates i n agricultural populations may be a r t i f a a tual, and not indicative of a e t u a w lower r a t e s of growth arrest in the populations. A l t b u g h Cassidy (1972) attempted t o control for t h i s problem i n her analysis, enamel hypoplasia nevertheless i s probably the b e t t e r measure of t h e actual incidence of growth arrest

TABLE 12 6 Changes i n Some Important Health Indicators from Late Archaic t o Fort Ancient Times i n the Central Ohio River Valley

Indicator L i f e expectancy

Pattern of Change

Infant death r a t e

Falls, both sexes, 'but possibly more for males Falls somewhat

Toddler death,r a t e

Rises sharp ~y

Vertebra l a r t h r i t i s

Overall rate steady, 'but disease occurs a t younger ages i n l a t e group

Bone i n f e c t i o n s

Overall r a t e steady, but more childhood i n f e c t i o n s i n l a t e group

Syndrome of disseminated periosteal reactions

Rises sharply

Significance Overall health d i s t r e s s rose over time Since other indicators indicate an increase i n causes of i l l n e s s , t h i s decrease suggests that the social practice of i n f a n t i c i d e decreased. Increased weaning s t r e s s , probably o f complex etiology, occurred. Suggests a change i n primary etiology from degeneration concomitant viith aging t o i n f e c t i o n (possibly related t o high bone i ~ f e c t i o nand dental decay r a t e s Greater exposwe t o i n f e c t i o n s and/or l e s s resistance t o i n f e c t i o n s i n l a t e r group Causative factor ( s more prevalent, probably an i n f e c t i o u s organism aeting synmgistieaZly with malnut r i t i o n i n persons in-th low r e s i s t once

w

%

Osteopovosis symmetr-iea and cribra orbitazia

Character chunges toward czassio picture, and frequency r i s e s ; hzghest -inc-idence i n toddlers and young women i n late group

Anemia (iron d e f ' i c i e n e y ? ) becomes more common, and i s concentrated i n the two most stressed age groups

Cortical t h-iakness

Decreases, both sexes

Growth a r r e s t l i n e s Ename l hypop lasia, adult d e n t i t i o n

Frequency f a l l s , periodicity disappears Total rate steady, b~.t frequency of severe cases v i s e s i n l a t e group

Enamel hypoplasia, deciduous d e n t i t i o n

Absent t o rare early, moderate r a t e i n l a t e group

Caries rate

Rises sharply

Abscess r a t e

Falls s l i g h t l y , o c m s a t younger ages i n l a t e group

Nutritional defici_encies, especially for calcium and phosphorus r i s e over time Growth arrests which are mild and short-term, possibly due t o recurrent brief periods of hunger, are replaaed by more severe, longer-term episodes of growth arrest associated with i n f e c t i o n s or possibly crop failure and starvation. Indicates severe reproductiue s t r e s s i n mothers, and possibly lactation insufficiency, probably associated with poor d i e t and high r a t e s of i n fections. Shows change t o s o f t , s t i c k y , hig'hly processed d i e t from a coarse more abrasive d i e t In e a r l i e r populations abscesses are a r e s u l t of extreme tooth wear; i n l a t e r group of extensive dental decay.

334

CLAIRE MONOD CASSIDY

a r r e s t l i n e s a t I n d i a n Knoll o c c u r r e d p e r i o d i c a l l y , s u g g e s t i n g r e c u r r e n t u n d e r n u t r i t i o n e p i s o d e s such a s an annual hunger p e r i o d , while t h o s e a t Hardin V i l l a g e were i r r e g u l a r i n o c c u r r e n c e , suggesting i n f e c t i o u s episodes a s t h e source Combining t h e s e d a t a with t h o s e on, enamel hypoplasia, we s e e t h a t w h i l e t h e t o t a l numbers of e p i s o d e s o f growth a r r e s t a t t h e two s i t e s w e r v n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t , e p i s o d e s o f m i l d ( s h o r t - t e r m ) growth a r r e s t were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more f r e q u e n t a t I n d i a n Knoll Episodes of s e v e r e growth a r r e s t were more f r e q u e n t a t Hardin V i l l a g e Thus growth a r r e s t , w h i l e f r e q u e n t a t I n d i a n K n o l l , probably p e r m i t t e d complete recovery A t Hardin Village', however, growth a r r e s t r e f l e c t e d s t r e s s o r s t h a t may have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e low l i f e expectancies The age p a t t e r n s of s t r e s s a t t h e two s i t e s a r e a l s o d i f f e r e n t A t I n d i a n Knoll, h e a l t h is reasonably good i n t o "old age" (over age 30) , when degeneration of t e e t h and bones becomes f r e q u e n t A t Hardin V i l l a g e s t r e s s was l i f e l o n g , and a f f e c t e d everyone from t h e f e t a l p e r i o d onwards, w i t h t h e r e p r o d u c t i v e y e a r s f o r females and t h e weaning y e a r s f o r a l l being p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r e s s f u l

DISCUSSION AND SPECULATION: DIET AND ADAPTATION I N THE CENTRAL O H I O RIVER VALLEY

The d i a c h r o n i c h e a l t h t r e n d s d e t a i l e d above and summarized i n Table 12 6 i n d i c a t e t h a t l a t e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s were l e s s h e a l t h y than e a r l i e r groups, whether h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r or a g r i c u l t u ral Archaic and Adena p o p u l a t i o n s a r e n o t (on c u r r e n t evidence) r e a d i l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from one a n o t h e r w i t h r e g a r d t o h e a l t h even though t h e i r s u b s i s t e n c e p r a c t i c e s and d i e t s were d i f f e r e n t I n c o n t r a s t , Adena and F o r t Ancient p o p u l a t i o n s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e by h e a l t h i n d i c a t o r s , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t b o t h groups ' d i e t s were l a r g e l y v e g e t a r i a n and c u l t i v a t e d . E a r l y and l a t e a g r i c u l t u r a l d i e t s d i f f e r e d i n q u a l i t y ; t h e l a t e d i e t based on Mesoamerican cu t i q e n s was i n f e r i o r , and o n l y i n l a t e p o p u l a t i o n s a r e t h e r e s i g n s of d i e t a r y m a l n u t r i t i o n 8 Thus, i n the central Ohio River Valley

there i s an apparent lack of change i n health d w i n g a t r a n s i t i o n from a w'holly wild t o a largely cultivated d i e t , follcmed by a striking drop i n health during or a f t e r the adoption of a d i f f e r e kind of cultivated d i e t . 8 ~ a l n u t r i t i o ni s f o m a l l y an. encompassinq t e r n for ati. situations i n which nutrient and energy intake are imbalanced. I n common usage, and i n t h i s paper, hunger (absolute lack of food, o r e l a t i v e excess of nutrients t o energy) i s distinguished from (protein-energy ) malnutrition ( r el a t i v e excess of energy t o nutrient i n t a k e ) Malnutrition r e s u l t s from a n u t r i t i o n a l l y hbalanced d i e t , while hunger i s caused 'by food i n s u f f i c i e n c y

PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY

I

335

The occurrence of two succeeding a g r i c u l t u r a l "revolutions" the c e n t r a l Ohio River Valley makes t h i s region somewhat unusual a good location t o examine whether subsistence system p e r s e ivotal in explaining change i n d i e t a r y q u a l i t y and physical A l t e r n a t i v e l y , one can th. M y data suggest t h a t it i s n o t us on population growth a s an explanatory f a c t o r , as Cohen s Cohen has elsewhere (1977, 1980, Chapter 1 t h i s volume) arized worldwide evidence t h a t shows t h a t p r i m i t i v e a g r i c u l t u diets a r e t y p i c a l l y of lower q u a l i t y than hunter-gatherer d i e t s they a r e often composed of foods of low d e s i r a b i l i t y (such a s 1 seeds) requiring considerable labor i n p u t , and t h a t even when I e know of a g r i c u l t u r e they a r e o f t e n r e l u c t a n t t o p r a c t i c e it do they? Cohen argues t h a t population pressure (i e , t h e solute need f o r more food) was t h e main f o r c e t h a t drove people become c u l t i v a t o r s , f o r a g r i c u l t u r e "had no economic advantage unting and gathering except t h a t it provided a g r e a t e r t o t a l of c a l o r i e s f o r each u n i t of space" (1977:279) increase'of food energy p e r u n i t of space i s not necessarily anied by an equivalent i n c r e a s e i n n u t r i e n t value Addia g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s tend t o s p e c i a l i z e i n a few p l a n t s , deIn sing d i e t a r y v a r i e t y and t h e buffering e f f e c t i t provides of health, t h e v i r t u e of producing "more food" may be r y i f t h e q u a l i t y of t h a t food i s reduced. dern n o n s c i e n t i f i c peoples recognize population increase as a t t o t h e i r precarious subsistence s t a b i l i t y , and most a t to control population growth, even while strongly d e s i r i n g &en Cassidy 1980b) Common o v e r t ways include i n f a n t i c i d e Other s o c i a l r e s t r i c t i v e marriage o r i n t e r c o u r s e r u l e s ctices have t h e Z n d i ~ e o te f f e c t of decreasing population b u t it i s not known whether p r a c t i t i o n e r s a r e aware of t h e s e efSuch s o c i a l p r a c t i c e s include those t h a t decrease t h e i t y or q u a l i t y of foods a v a i l a b l e ("appropriate") t o reproducwomen and weanlings, t h e two most n u t r i t i o n a l l y s e n s i t i v e s These r u l e s e f f e c t i v e l y , i f n o t consciously, p o t e n t i a t e in-energy malnutrition in weanlings and r e l a t i v e l y i n e f f i c i e n t uction i n women Such p r a c t i c e s a r e commonplace and have able e f f e c t s today among many peasant a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s short of s t a r v a t i o n i s r e v e r s i b l e and has few sequelae bes decreased s t a t u r e , b u t protein-energy malnutrition ( r e l a t i v e ss of energy over n u t r i e n t i n t a k e ) i s more s e r i o u s , o f t e n &1,and has sequelae including poor growth, small s t a t u r e , and red resistance With these data it is p o s s i b l e t o propose a simple feedback 1 t o illuminate t h e prehistc?ric r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d i e t health i n the c e n t r a l Ohio River Valley

1

CLAIRE MONOD CASSIDY

i

The General Model Because humans a r e i n e f f i c i e n t a t p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l , a p o s i t i v e feedback l o o p e x i s t s between p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e ( i n c r e a s i n g food needs) and i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s e environmental e x p l o i t a t i o n Population, d i e t a r y q u a l i t y , and d i e t a r y q u a n t i t y a l l can i n c r e a s e up t o some p i v o t a l p o i n t a t which needed energy y i e l d p e r u n i t of space o u t s t r i p s t h e n u t r i e n t y i e l d n e c e s s a r y t o m a i n t a i n good health. A t t h i s point malnutrition appears It i s n o t necessary t h a t t h i s p i v o t point be associated with a n y . p a r t i c u l a r subsistence system, b u t i t i s more l i k e l y t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h farming because farming i s a d e s t a b i l i z e d system t h a t p e r m i t s p e o p l e t o r a i s e t h e i r production above t h e n a t u r a l c a p a c i t y of t h e l a n d , and t h e most d s i r a b l e c u l t i g e n s (i e , h i g h energy y i e l d e r s ) t y p i c a l l y have r e l a t i v e l y low n u t r i e n t d e n s i t i e s High-carbohydrate d i e t s a r e c o r r e l a t e d with d e c r e a s e d b i r t h i n t e r v a l s , which c a u s e s an i n c r e a i n t h e p o t e n t i a l r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n growth ( i e , an a c c e l e r a t i o n of r a t e of flow through t h e feedback l o o p ) , and may r e s u l t i n a , population surge With t h e i n c r e a s i n g need f o r c u l t i v a t e d food comes an i n c r e a s e d 7 need f o r c u l t i v a t o r s , f o r farming is more l a b o r i n t e n s i v e than hunting-gathering A c o n f l i c t i s e x a c e r b a t e d between t h e p a r t l y recognized need f o r p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l and t h e f u l l y r e c o g n i z e d s i d e s i r e f o r people ( f i e l d h a n d s ) , and I s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s exacerba-, t i o n r e s u l t s i n a s h i f t i n t h e t i m i n g o f p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l from b i r t h ( c o n t r o l by i n f a n t i c i d e , a f r a n k l y numerical p r a c t i c e ) t o p r e - b i r t h (reproducing women) and weaning, which p e r m i t s some "choice" t o be e x p r e s s e d a s t o which i n d i v i d u a l s t h r i v e ( c o n t r o l by proscriptive feeding r u l e s ) Reproduction f a i l u r e s and weaning d e a t h s r e p r e s e n t l o s s e s both of t h o s e p h y s i c a l l y l e s s r e s i s t a n t t o d i e t and i n f e c t i o n s t r e s s e s and of t h o s e l e s s s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e Children who s u r v i v e weanling m a l n u t r i t i o n a r e s m a l l e r i n s i z e , grow more slowly, and r e q u i r e l e s s food f o r maintenance They may even be hunger r e s i s t a n t (Cassidy 1980b, 1983; S t i n i l 9 7 5 ) , and a l l of t h e s e a r e advantages i n an u n s t a b l e economy such a s one based on few c u l t i q e n s of low n u t r i t i o n a l v a l u e Such a c u l t u r a l mechanism i n e f f e c t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d e c r e a s e s t h e r a t e o f p o p u l a t i growth and t h e food needs o f t h e remaining p o p u l a t i o n ( i e. , d e c e l e r a t e s t h e r a t e o f flow through t h e p o s i t i v e feedback l o o p ) . I n t h e eyes of Western i n d u s t r i a l i z e d p e o p l e s this mechanism may appear c o s t l y ; i t s commonness and p e r s i s t e n c e among p e a s a n t a g r i That i s , t h e c u l t u r a l i s t s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y f i n d it a d a p t i v e d e a t h s o f some t o d d l e r s and d e c r e a s e s i n h e a l t h appear t o b e acc e p t a b l e t r a d e o f f s f o r t h e achievement o f d e s i r e d c u l t u r a l g o a l s

1 -

-

The Model Applied t o t h e C e n t r a l Ohio R i v e r V a l l e y (1) populaI n t h i s r e g i o n we know from evidence given t h a t : t i o n i n c r e a s e was continuous o v e r t h e p r e h i s t o r i c p e r i o d and by l a t e t i m e s h i g h d e n s i t i e s p r e v a i l e d , ( 2 ) a s time p a s s e d e x p l o i t i v e

I

REHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY

337

t e r n s focused more narrowly and i n t e n s e l y on l i m i t e d ecozones food r e s o u r c e s , and (3) h e a l t h and d i e t a r y q u a l i t y f e l l by 6 l a t e period. There were t h r e e t r a n s i t i o n s i n t h e r e g i o n ; , from hunter t o broad-spectrum f o r e s t - e f f i c i e n t g a t h e r e r - h u n t e r q i ( l a t e A r c h a i c ) , from t h e l a t t e r t o t h e f a r m e r - g a t h e r e r s o f t h e Adena, and f i n a l l y t o t h e farmers of t h e L a t e Woodland-Fort Ancient J,

&"?-Adem

Transition

-

,r

- ,

awn (1977) has s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e u s e o f small s e e d s i n t h e r e p r e s e n t e d an e f f o r t t o i n c r e a s e t h e food (energy) base by using foods of low d e s i r a b i l i t y , and t h a t t h e i n n o v a t i o n of c u l t i vating indigenous p l a n t s was d r i v e n by hunger need However, since t h e s k e l e t a l evidence shows t h a t t h e Adena p e o p l e were q u i t e healthy, we must propose e i t h e r t h a t Adenans used "new" f o o d s t u f f s and became farmers f o r r e a s o n s o t h e r than need ( e g , c u r i o s i t y , accident; s e e Smith 19751, or t h a t t h e i r n u t r i t i o n a l needs were e t by t h e u s e of t h e new foods I f t h e l a t t e r , we may s a y t h a t hey s u c c e s s f u l l y n e g o t i a t e d a new r e l a t i v e e q u i l i b r i u m o f food ncome w i t h p o p u l a t i o n , and i n t h e Archaic Adena t r a n s i t i o n s e r i us h e a l t h s t r e s s e s d i d n o t develop. A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e Adenan u l t i v a t o r - g a t h e r e r a d a p t a t i o n seems t o have supported, f o r some e n t u r i e s , much c u l t u r a l e l a b o r a t i o n ; t h u s it was both b i o l o g i c a l l y nd c u l t u r a l l y s u c c e s s f u l F i n a l l y , however, Adenans d i s a p p e a r a s c u l t u r a l e n t i t y , and t h e i r disappearance may ( a l t h o u g h t h e a r a e o l o g i c a l evidence i s l a c k i n g ) r e p r e s e n t t h e p i v o t p o i n t a t i c h t h e advantage s u p p l i e d by t h e i r new s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n was anceled by t h e p r e s s u r e of c o n t i n u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n

nuciia

o r t Ancient Transit'ion A f t e r Adena comes a gap i n t h e r e g i o n a l a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d , nd then F o r t Ancient, where s t r e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n o Mesoamerican c u l t i q e n s a p p a r e n t l y was n o t w e l l c o n t r o l l e d , and 11 h e a l t h was common P o p u l a t i o n probably surged when Mesoamerian c u l t i g e n s became d i e t a r y s t a p l e s , presumably i n L a t e Woodland imes; p o s s i b l y such a p o p u l a t i o n s u r g e supported t h e c u l t u r a l , l a b o r a t i o n we recognize a s F o r t Ancient A t t h e same t i m e , i t erhaps a l s o promoted t h e development of c u l t u r a l mechanisms t o ocus m a l n u t r i t i o n s t r e s s among t h e most v u l n e r a b l e groups Thus see t h e demographic p a t t e r n of d e a t h s s h i f t e d such t h a t h i g h e s t r t a l i t y was among weanlings, and women seem t o have been unusualIt w i l l be u n h e a l t h y / i l l - f e d d u r i n g pregnancy and a f t e r c a l l e d t h a t t h i s p a t t e r n has t h e e f f e c t o f s i m u l t a n e o u s l y funconing a s a mechanism t o c o n t r o l p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and t o c o n t r o l p u l a t i o n food needs Thus, t h e F o r t Ancient a d a p t a t i o n , w h i l e o l o g i c a l l y comparatively l e s s s u c c e s s f u l t h a n i t s r e g i o n a l r e d e c e s s o r s , was c u l t u r a l l y s u c c e s s f u l because it r e p r e s e n t s a eans t o modify s t r e s s from p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e w h i l e achieving

338

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CLAIRE MONOD CASSIDY

other cultural goals I n t h i s p a t t e r n o f compromised h e a l t h , t o d d l e r m a l n u t r i t i o n , low-quality d i e t , and high p o p u l a t i o n dens i t y (= high r e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s ) F o r t Ancient c l o s e l y resembles modern peasant p o p u l a t i o n s I n summary, t h e d a t a d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e congruent w i t h a model t h a t a c c e p t s s u b s i s t e n c e change a s m o t i v a t e d by p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e , b u t r e l a t e s h e a l t h t o t h e balance- s t r u c k between d i e t a r y q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y , and p o p u l a t i o n s i z e The mere p r a c t i c e o f farming does n o t "cause" poor h e a l t h , and c u l t i vated d i e t s a r e not necessarily i n f e r i o r d i e t s I n the region, because p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n u o u s l y i n c r e a s e d , a l l p e o p l e s c o n s t a n t l y were l i v i n g i n an u n s t a b l e ( p o s i t i v e feedback loop) s i t u a t i o n w i t regard t o food adequacy Subsistence-cultural t r a n s i t i o n s repres e n t p o i n t s a t which t h e u n s t a b l e b a l a n c e s h i f t e d r a p i d l y from r e l a t i v e l y e x c e s s p o p u l a t i o n toward r e l a t i v e e x c e s s of a new d i e t a r e s u l t o f i n n o v a t i o n s t h a t p e r m i t t e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of more food The b i o l o g i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l t r a n s i t i o n was t h a t i n which t h e d i e t a r y s h i f t s t i l l y i e l d e d an adequate amount o f energy and n u t r i e n t s (Archaic t o Adena), w h i l e t h e b i o l o g i c a l l y l e s s s u c c e s s f u l t r a n s i t i o n was t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e u s e o f a h i g h energy-low n u t r i e n t d i e t ( F o r t Ancient) Simultaneous c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n s presumably served t o b u f f e r t h e s u b s i s t e n c e t r a n s i t i o t h e F o r t Ancient demographic s h i f t i s a r e c o n s t r u c t a b l e example *-/

REFERENCES ~ s c h ,D L , and N B. Asch 1977 Chenopod a s C u l t i g e n : A r e - e v a l u a t i o n of some p r e h i s t o r i c c o l l e c t i o n s from E a s t e r n North America Midoontinental Journal of Archaeology 2:3-45 Beckner L. 1926 I n d i a n b u r i a l ground, F u l l e r t o n , Kentucky Kentucky Geological Survey (6th s e r i e s ) 2 6 : 263-2 72 Brose, D 1973 The n o r t h e a s t e r n United S t a t e s I n The development of

North American archaeology, essays i n t h e history of regi-onal tradition, e d i t e d by J E F i t t i n g , p p 84-115

Pennsylvania S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , U n i v e r s i t y Park Brown, J A. 1977 Current d i r e c t i o n s i n Midwestern archaeology Annual Reviews i n Anthvopology @ :161-179. Caldwell, J 1958 Trend and t r a d i t i o n i n t h e p r e h i s t o r y of t h e e a s t e r n American AnthropoZogiet Memoirs No 88 United S t a t e s 1962 (Reprinted 1971) E a s t e r n North America I n ,?rehistoric a g r i e u b e , e d i t e d by S S t r e u v e r , p p 361-382 N a t u r a l H i s t o r y P r e s s , Garden C i t y , New York

JBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY Cassidy C M 1972 A comparison

o f n u t r i t i o n and health i n pre-agricultural and agricultural Amerindian s k e l e t a l populations ~h D

d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Wisconsin U n i v e r s i t y Microfilms, Ann Arbor (1973) 1980a N u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h i n a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s and h u n t e r gatherers: A c a s e s t u d y o f two p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s i n Nutritional anthropology., contemporary approaches t o d i e t and c u l t u r e , e d i t e d by N W Jerome, R F Kandel, Redqrave, P l e a s a n t v i l l e , and G H P e l t o , pp 117-145 New York 1980b Benign n e g l e c t and t o d d l e r m a l n u t r i t i o n I n Social and

biological predictors of nutritional status, physical growth, and neurological development, e d i t e d by L s Greene and F Johnston, pp 109-139 Academic P r e s s , New York 1983 Commentary on 'Food: P a s t p r e s e n t and f u t u r e , ' by N S gcrimshaw I n HOW humans adapt: A b i o m l t w a l Smithsonian odyssey, e d i t e d by D J O r t n e r , p p 253-257 P r e s s , Washington, D C Cohen, M. 1977 The food e r i s i ~i n prehistory, overpopulation and the Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven origins of agriculture 1980 Population growth and parallel trends i n soda-cultural Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 79th annual meeting of evolution t h e American Anthropological A s s o c i a t i o n , Washington, D

Cook, D 1971

c

S

Patterns of nutritional s t r e s s i n some I l l i n o i s Woodland Masters T h e s i s , Department of Anthropology, populations

U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago Cowan, C W 1979 Excavations a t t h e Haystack R o c k s h e l t e r s , Powell County, Kentucky Midcontinental J o u d of Archaeo h g y 4 :3-33 Dragoo, D W 1963 Mounds f o r t h e dead; An a n a l y s i s o f t h e Adena c u l t u r e Annals of the Carnegie Museum No 37 A 1976 Some a s p e c t s o f e a s t e r n North American p r e h i s t o r y : review American Antiquity 41 :3-27 Dunnell, R. C 1966 Archaeological r e c o n n a i s s a n c e s i n F i s h t r a p R e s e r v o i r , Kentucky Mimeo on f i l e , Department of Anthropology, Yale University Dusseau, E M., and R. J P o r t e r 1974 The s e a r c h f o r animal p a r a s i t e s i n p a l e o f e c e s from Upper i n Aroheology of t h e Mammoth Cave area, S a l t s Cave e d i t e d by P J Watson, p 59 Academic P r e s s , New York Fry, G. F 1974 Ovum and p a r a s i t e examination of S a l t s Cave human p a l e o I n Archeology of the Mammoth Cave area, e d i t e d by feces Academic P r e s s , New York P J Watson, p 61 +

340 Funkhouser, W D , and W S Webb The s o - c a l l e d 'Ash Caves i n Lee County, Kentucky

Uni-

v e r s i t y of Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology 1( 2 ) Rock s h e l t e r s o f Wolfe and Powell Counties, Kentucky

University of Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology 1 ( 4 ) UniversiThe Duncan s i t e on t h e Kentucky-Tennessee L i n e t y o f Kentucky Publications - i n ~ n t h r o p o l oand ~~ Archaeology 1 (6 ) The R i c k e t t s s i t e , i n Montgomery County, Kentucky Univers i t y of Kentucky Pubtieations i n Anthropology and Are'haeology 3 ( 3 ) The C h i l t o n s i t e , i n Henry County, Kentucky University of Kentucky Reports i n Archaeology and Anthropology 3 ( 5 ) Galinat, W C 1965 The e v o l u t i o n of corn and c u l t u r e i n North America Economic Botany 19: 350-357 Goslin, R M. 1957 Food of t h e Adena people I n The Adena people ( P a r t I I ) , e d i t e d by W S Webb and R S Baby, p p 41-46 Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Columbus Griffin, J B 1943 The Fort Ancient aspect U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan P r e s s I L Ann Arbor ( r e i s s u e d 1966) Seienee 1967 E a s t e r n North American archaeology: A summary 156:175-191 Hanson, L. H , Jr 1968 The Hardin V i l l a g e s i t e University of Kentucky Studies i n Anthropology NO. 4 Hooton, E A , and C C Willouqhby 1920 I n d i a n V i l l a g e s i t e and cemetery n e a r M a d i s o n v i l l e , Ohio

Papers of t h e Peabody Museum of A m d e a n Archaeology and Ethnology 8 (1) Hudson, C M. 1976 The Southeastern Indians U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee P r e s s , Knoxville Inglemark, B. E , V M o l l e r - C h r i s t i a n s e n , and 0. Brinch 1959 S p i n a l j o i n t change and d e n t a l i n f e c t i o n Acta Anatmica Suppl 36 Jennings, J D 1974 Prehistory of North America (second ed. ) McGraw-Hill, New York Johnston, F , and C E Snow 1961 The reassessment o f t h e age and s e x of t h e I n d i a n Knoll s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n : Demography and methodological American ~ o u r n a lof Physical Anthropology 19: aspects 237-244 Jones, V 1936 The v e g e t a l remains o f Newt Kash Hollow S h e l t e r In

12 PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY

.

341

R o c k s h e l t e r s i n Menifee County, Kentucky, e d i t e d by S Webb and W. D Funkhouser University o f Kentucky Reports i n Anthropology and Archaeology 3 ( 4 ) :147-165

-5ftfi W

Lewis, 1959 Lewis, 1961

p a t h o l o g i e s o f I n d i a n t r i b e s of v a r i e d environmental d conditions American Journal of Physieal Anthropology 8:179-199 T M N , and M Kneberg The Archaic c u l t u r e i n t h e Middle South American Antiquity 25:161-183 T M. N , and M Kneberg-Lewis Eva, an archuic s i t e U n i v e r s i t y of Tennessee P r e s s , Knoxville

1975

C a l d w e l l ' s L i t t l e B l u f f , an unusual Adena b u r i a l s i t e . In s i n Ohio archaeology, r e v i s e d e d i t i o n , e d i t e d by Kent S t a t e 0. H P r u f e r and D H McKenzie, pp 252-266 U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Kent, Ohio MacCord, H A 1953 The Bintz s i t e American Antiquity 18 ( 3 ) :239-244 Marquardt, W H , and P J Watson 1974 The Gveen R i v e r , Kentucky, Shellmound archaeologioal Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 73rd annual meeting o f project t h e American Anthropological A s s o c i a t i o n , Mexico C i t y 1968

T r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n longbones o f p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i f o r n i a n s American JoumaZ o f Physical Anthropology 29:

1906

Baum p r e h i s t o r i c v i l l a g e Ohio ArehaeoZogieal and Histor i c a l Quarterly 1 5 ( I ):44-136

Molnar, S , and S Ward 1974 Dental remains from S a l t s Cave v e s t i b u l e I n Archeology of t h e Mammoth Cave area, e d i t e d by P. J Watson, pp 163-166 Academic P r e s s , New York Moore, C B 1961 Some a b o r i g i n a l s i t e s on Green R i v e r , Kentucky Jou~naZ of the Academy of Natural Sciences (2nd s e r i e s ) 16 ( 3 ) Morgan, R. G 1952 O u t l i n e o f c u l t u r e s i n t h e Ohio r e g i o n I n Archaeology of the Eastern United S t a t e s , e d i t e d by J B G r i f f i n , pp 83-98 U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago P r e s s , Chicago Murphy, J L. 1975 An archaeo20gica.l history of the Hock% Valley Ohio U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Columbus Nelson, N C 1917 C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e a r c h a e o l o m o f Mammoth Cave and American Museum o f flatwaz History v i c i n i t y , Kentucky Anthpopological Papers Vol 2 2 ( 1 ) : 1 - 7 3

342

CLAIRE MONOD CASSIDY

Perzigian, A J 1973 0s t e o p o r o t i c bone l o s s i n two p r e h i s t o r i c I n d i a n populaAmerican Journal o f Physical Anthropology 39:81tions 83 1977 F l u c t u a t i n g d e n t a l asymmetry: V a r i a t i o n among s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n s . American J o u r d o f Physical Anthropology 47: 81-83 P r u f e r , 0 H , and D H. McKenzie ( e d i t o r s ) 1975 S t u d i e s i n Ohio archaeology ( r e v i s e d ed ) Kent S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Kent, Ohio and 0. C Shane I11 P r u f e r , 0. H " 1970 B l a i n V i l l a g e and t h e Fort Ancient t r a d i t i o n i n Ohio Kent S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Kent, Ohi Rabkin , s 1943 Dental c o n d i t i o n s among p r e h i s t o r i c I n d i a n s o f Kentucky J o w n a l o f Dental Research 2 2 : 355-366 Robbins, L. M. 1971 !?he high inoidence o f bone pathologies i n Fort Ancient Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 4 0 t h a n n u a l peoples o f Kentucky meeting of t h e American A s s o c i a t i o n of P h y s i c a l Anthrop o l o g i s t s , Boston 1974 P r e h i s t o r i c people of t h e Mammoth Cave a r e a In Archeology o f t h e Mamnoth Cave a r e a , e d i t e d by P J Watson, pp 137-162 Academic P r e s s , New York Robbins , L M., and G K Neumann 1972 The p r e h i s t o r i c p e o p l e o f t h e F o r t Ancient c u l t u r e o f t h e c e n t r a l Ohio Valley Univers-ity o f Michigan Museum o f Anthropology Anthropo l o g i c a l Papers NO 4 7 Rolingson, M. S 1964 Paleo-Indian c u l t u r e i n Kentucky, a s t u d y based on projectile points U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky S t u d i e s i n

Anthropology

NO

2

Sarnas, K V 1964 The d e n t i t i o n of I n d i a n Knoll man. Dental decay O d o n t o ~ i s kRevy 15:424-444 Scharnbach, F F 1971 Blain V i l l a g e and t h e F o r t Ancient t r a d i t i o n i n Ohio American Anthropologist 73: 1402-1404 (review) Schwartz, D W 1967 Conceptions o f Kentucky p r e h i s t o r y : A c a s e study i n t h e h i s t o r y of archaeology U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky S t u d i e s i n Anthropology NO. 6 Sciulli, P W 1977 A d e s c r i p t i v e and comparative s t u d y o f t h e deciduous d e n t i t i o n of p r e h i s t o r i c Ohio V a l l e y Amerindians Ameriean Journal o f Physical Anthropology 48:193-198 1978 Developmental a b n o r m a l i t i e s o f t h e permanent d e n t i t i o n i n

! PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY

p r e h i s t o r i c Ohio V a l l e y Amerindians

Physical Anthropology 48:193-198

343

American J o w d of

New York Aesthetic c u r i o s i t y , t h e r o o t of invention Times, August 24:Section 11, page 1, column 1 mith, H I 1910 The p r e h i s t o r i c e t h n o l o g y o f a Kentucky s i t e Anthropo1975

log'iaa't Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 6 ( 2 ) :173-241 now, C E 1948 I n d i a n K n o l l , S i t e Oh 2, 0 h i o County, Kentucky, P a r t I1

University of Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and ~rehaeology4 ( 3 ) tewart, R B 1974 I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f components i n S a l t s Cave p a l e o f e c e s , 1970-1972 I n Archeology of t h e Mamnoth Academic Cave area, e d i t e d by P J Watson, pp 41-48 P r e s s , New York. tini, W 1975 Adaptive s t r a t e g i e s o f human p o p u l a t i o n s under n u t r i t i o n a l stress i n Biosocial -interrelations i n population adaptat i o n , e d i t e d by E S Watts, p p 19-41 Mouton, The Hague t r e u v e r , S , and K. D. Vickery 1973 The b e g i n n i n g s of c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e Midwest R i v e r i n e a r e a Amer-Loan Anthropologist 75:1197o f t h e United S t a t e s 1220 'ento, F , J M Adovasio, and J Donahue 1980 E x c a v a t i o n s a t Darneron R o c k s h e l t e r (15J023A), Johnson Department of Anthropology University County, Kentucky o f Pittsburgh Ethnology Monographs NO 4 r i e t z e n , R. C 1956 The saga of Glover's Cave L e i d i , Wahoo Nebraska (editor) latson, P J 1974 Areheology of t h e Marmoth Cave area Academic P r e s s New York. ;ebb, W S 1940 The Wright Mounds, s i t e s 6 & 7 , Montgomery County, Kentucky

University o f Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology 5 ( 1 ) Mount Horeb Earthworks s i t e 7 and t h e Drake Mound s i t e 11, University of Kentucky PublicaF a y e t t e County, Kentucky t i o n s i n Anthropology and Archaeology 5 ( 2 ) 1941b The Morgan Stone Mound, s i t e 1 5 , Bath County, Kentucky

1941a

University of Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology 5 ( 3 ) 1942

The C&O Mounds a t P a i n t s v i l l e , s i t e s Jo2 and Jog Johnson Univers-ity o f Kentucky Publieatione q'w County, Kentucky Anthr'opoZogy and Archaeology 5 (4

CLAIRE MONOD CASSIDY

344 1943a

The C r i g l e r Mounds, s i t e s Be20 and Be27, and t h e Hartman University of Mound s i t e Be32, Boone County, Kentucky Kentucky Pu.blications i n Anthropolocry and Archaeology 5 ( 6 ) 1943b The R i l e y Mound, s i t e Be15 and t h e Landing Mound, s i t e Bel7, Boone County, Kentucky University of Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology 5 ( 7 ) University 1946 I n d i a n Knoll, s i t e Oh2, Ohio County, Kentucky

o f Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology 1950a

4(3), Part I C a r l s o n Annis Mound, s i t e 5 , B u t l e r County, Kentucky

University of Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology 7 (4) 1950b

The Read S h e l l Midden, s i t e 1 0 , B u t l e r County, Kentucky

University of Kentucky Publieations i n Anthropology and Archaeology 7 ( 5 ) The P a r r i s h V i l l a g e s i t e , s i t e 45, Hopkins County, Kentucky Universitg o f Kentucky Pub lications i n Anthropology and Avohaeology 7 ( 6 ) Webb, W S , and R. S Baby Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1957 The Adena people ( P a r t 11 Columbus Webb, W. S , and J B E l l i o t t 1942 The Robbins Mound, s i t e s Be3 and B e l 4 , Boone County, Kentucky University of Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology 5 5 ) Webb, W S , and W D Funkhouser The Kentucky Geological Survey 1928 Ancient l i f e i n Kentucky Series 6 ~ n i v e r s i t yof 1930 The Page s i t e , i n Logan County, Kentucky Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Arc'haeology 1 ( 3 ) 1931 The Tolu s i t e i n C r i t t e n d e n County, Kentucky University 1951

of Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology 1 5)

1936

Un
l(5) R i c k e t t s s i t e r e v i s i t e d , s i t e 3, Montgomery County, University of Kentucky Publications i n AnthroKentucky po logy and Archaeo logy 3 ( 6 Webb, W S , and W G Haag University of Kentucky Publica1939 The C h i g g e r v i l l e s i t e tions i n An-bhropo logy and Archaeology 4 (1) 1940 Cypress Creek v i l l a g e s , s i t e s 11 & 12, McLean County, University of Kentucky Pu'blications i n AnthroKentucky pology and Archaeology 4 (2) 1947a Archaic s i t e s i n McLean County, Kentucky U n i V e ~ s i t yof 1940

Kentucky &'ublications i n Anthropology and Archaeology 1947b

7(1). The F i s h e r s i t e , F a y e t t e County

U n i V e P ~ wo f Kentucky Kentucky Publications i n Anthropology and Archaeology

2

PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE IN THE CENTRAL OHIO RIVER VALLEY

345

Webb, W S , and C E Snow University 1945 The Adena p e o p l e

of Kentucky Publications i n Anfhropology and Archaeology No 6

Winters, H D 1968 Value systems and t r a d e c y c l e s o f t h e L a t e Archaic i n t h e

..

-

Midwest I n New Perspectives i n archaeology, e d i t e d by S R Binford and L. R. B i n f o r d , pp 175-221 Aldine, Chicago 1969 The R i v e r t o n c u l t u r e , a second Millenium o c c u p a t i o n i n t h e I l l f n p i - s State Museum Reports o f c e n t r a l Wabash Valley Investigations No 1 3 Yarnell, R A 1964 A b o r i g i n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between c u l t u r e and p l a n t l i f e i n

-

3.., - == -^ '?

' t h e Upper Great Lakes Region University of Michigan Department of Anthropology Anthropo logical Papers No 2 3 1965 E a r l y Woodland p l a n t remains and t h e q u e s t i o n of c u l t i v a a27 f tion Flon-da AnthrapoZogist 18 :78-81 ' 1 9 7 4 a I n t e s t i n a l c o n t e n t s o f t h e S a l t s Cave mummy and a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n i t i a l S a t l s Cave f l o t a t i o n s e r i e s In !f~_ Archeology of the Mammoth Cave area, e d i t e d by P J. Watson, pp 109-112 Academic P r e s s , New York 1974b P l a n t food and c u l t i v a t i o n o f t h e S a l t s Caves In Archeology of the Mammoth Cave area, e d i t e d by P J Watson, pp 113-122 Academic P r e s s , New York

CHAPTER 13 PREHISTORIC HEALTH I N THE O H I O R I V E R VALLEY

Anthony J., Perzigian ~ a % r - I d Aa yenchi Donna J Braunz Departments of Anthropology and Anatomy University of C i n c i n n a t i

INTRODUCTIOM:

TI& ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

The p r e h i s t o r y o f e a s t e r n North America i s becoming increasinefl y b e t t e r understood Papers by G r i f f i n (1967), Brown (19771, Ford (1974, 1977) , Stoltman (1978), Cleland (1976) , and E s s q r e i s (1978) review t h e p r o g r e s s , i s s u e s , and c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n s surrounding t h e study o f t h i s a r e a The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e d e t a i l s t h e successive Paleoindian, Archaic, woodland, and Mississippian c u l t u r a l systems t h a t range from t h e e a r l i e s t huH'te'r-ga-thersr This archaeologgroups t o t h e much l a t e r maize h o r t i c u l t u x a l i s t s i c a l continuum p o r t r a y s t h e experiences of a s p e c i e s t h a t was n o t e c o l o g i c a l l y dominant u n t i l r e l a t i v e l y late, when h o r t i c u l t u r a l i ~ t s became dependent on Mesoamericm c u l t i g e n s Populations w i l l be described t h a t r e p r e s e n t t h e major c u l t u r a l evolutionary changes in Ohio River Valley p r e h i s t o r y t h a t culminated In labor-intensive maize h o r t i c u l t u r e This s t u d y w i l l focus, f o r t h e most p a r t , an t h e d e n t a l and s k e l e t a l biology of Other groups w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a l f o u r groups from southwest Ohio Ohio region w i l l be u t i l i z e d whenever a v a i l a b l e t o provide a more comprehensive p i c t u r e The guiding concern throughout w i l l b e an

@ @ s e n t &ass: Department of Anthropology, Tndiana Uni-vevs a y , Bloamington, Indiana 47405 g ~ r e s e n taddpess: Department of Ant'hvopo'toqv, University o f PALPQPATHOLOGY AT THE OKIGMS ABIUCKETLJRJ5

347

Copyright @ 1984 by Academic MsS, hie

All nghb of reproduction in any form reserved ISBN 0-12-179080-0

ANTHONY J PERZIGIAN ET AL. a p p r a i s a l of t h e h e a l t h and w e l l b e i n g o f t h o s e a b o r i g i n a l groups a s they underwent socioeconomic changes o v e r t h e m i l l e n n i a The e a r l i e s t s k e l e t a l sample comes from t h e DuPont s i t e (33Hall1, which i s l o c a t e d between t h e confluence of t h e G r e a t Miami and Ohio r i v e r s i n southwestern Hamilton County Excavated by t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C i n c i n n a t i , t h e DuPont s i t e y i e l d e d r a d i o carbon d a t e s ranging from 2535 ? 75 t o 2150 Â 65 y e a r s B C (Dalbey 1977) Hence, occupation o f t h e s i t e was i n t h e Late Archaic, a preceramic, p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l p e r i o d According t o Caldwell (1958), a b o r i g i n a l s become i n c r e a s i n g l y more e f f i c i e n t i n t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n o f deciduous f o r e s t environments o v e r t h e span of t h e Archaic p e r i o d (8000-1000 B C ) . Deer was t h e primary resource throughout t h e Archaic a l t h o u g h t h e food b a s e g r a d u a l l y expanded t o i n c l u d e n u t s , a q u a t i c r e s o u r c e s , and, by L a t e Archaic times, small seeds Cleland (1976) c h a r a c t e r i z e s Late Archaic economies a s d i f f u s e a d a p t a t i o n s wherein t h e s e a s o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n of a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t r e s o u r c e s p e r m i t t e d t h e maintenance of many s u b s i s t e n c e a l t e r n a t i v e s Archaic campsites were t y p i c a l l y occupied s e a s o n a l l y i n phase w i t h r i p e n i n g n u t s , b e r r i e s , and o t h e r wild p l a n t foods The DuPont s i t e may b e regarded a s a b a s e camp with a c t i v i t i e s c o n c e n t r a t e d from l a t e summer t o l a t e f a l l Analyses o f carbon i s o t o p e r a t i o s i n bone samples s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e b a s i c a l l y h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g d i e t of t h e DuPont people (van d e r Merwe and Vogel 1978) The i n t r o d u c t i o n of p o t t e r y s e r v e s a s a convenient demarcation between t h e Late Archaic and E a r l y Woodland (1000-100 B.C ) periods The subsequent Middle Woodland p e r i o d (100 B.C t o A D. 400) i s t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Hopewellian f l o r e s c e n c e As i n t h e p r e c e d i n g Late Archaic, h u n t i n g , g a t h e r i n g , and f i s h i n g remained economically i m p o r t a n t f o r both E a r l y and Middle Woodland populations Moreover, evidence f o r u t i l i z a t i o n of small s e e d s does i n c r e a s e through time and s i g n a l s a g r a d u a l s h i f t i n economic a c t i v i t y T h i s e x p l o i t a t i o n of s e e d s c o n t r i b u t e d t o an already complex food web e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e L a t e Archaic Of note, carbon i s o t o p e s t u d i e s (Bender e t a 1 1981) s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t t h a t Hopewellian people i n isc cons in, I l l i n o i s , and Ohio d i d n o t make use of corn a s an important i t e m i n t h e d i e t A Middle Woodland s k e l e t a l sample from t h e Todd's Mound s i t e (33Bu205) was a v a i l a b l e f o r study Excavated i n 1977 by t h e memb e r s o f t h e C e n t r a l Ohio V a l l e y A r c h a e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , t h e s i t e i s l o c a t e d i n s o u t h e a s t e r n B u t l e r County on a small t r i b u t a r y of t h e Great Miami River No h a b i t a t i o n d e b r i s was p r e s e n t ; r a t h e r , ~rtifacts t h e s i t e i s e s s e n t i a l l y a mortuary-ceremonial complex 40 t o 215 2 60 c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e a and radiocarbon d a t s s of A.D Hopewell mound Although o n l y 1 5 i n d i v i d u a l s were recovered from t h e mound, t h e i r p r e s e r v a t i o n was e x c e l l e n t ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e y a r e included, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e i n f o r m a t i o n on Ohio Middle Woodland s k e l e t a l samples i s extremely l i m i t e d By M i s s i s s i p p i a n - F t Ancient t i m e s (A.D 700-1600) many a b o r i g i n a l groups became committed i n C l e l a n d ' s terms (1976) t o f o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l economies o r i e n t e d around Mesoamerican

13 PREHISTORIC HEALTH IN THE OHIO RIVER VALLEY

349

cultigens Year-round, s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t s e d e n t a r y v i l l a g e s developed by t h e F t Ancient p e r i o d a s p o p u l a t i o n s became concent r a t e d f o r labor-intensive a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y ; f o r t i f i e d v i l l a g e s approaching 1000 i n d i v i d u a l s a r o s e . F t Ancient p o p u l a t i o n s d e l i b e r a t e l y promoted s i m p l i f i e d ecosystems a s c u l t i v a t e d c r o p s , e.q , maize and b e a n s , became t h e predominant sources of food, w i t h maize c o n s t i t u t i n g up t o 70% o f t h e d i e t (van d e r Merwe and Vogel 1978); i n d e e d , t h e food base i t s e l f became more s i m p l i f i e d compared t o t h a t o f e a r l i e r groups (Ford 1974) Moreover, a high degree o f " s e l e c t i v i t y a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d F t Ancient h u n t i n g , a s animal e x p l o i t a t i o n focused on a few major s p e c i e s ( E s s e n p r e i s 1982) Two F t Ancient samples were a v a i l a b l e f o r s t u d y The Turpin s i t e (33HA19), excavated by t h e C i n c i n n a t i Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y (Oehler 1 9 7 3 ) , i s l o c a t e d on t h e e a s t bank o f t h e L i t t l e Miami River about 3 m i l e s n o r t h o f i t s confluence w i t h t h e Ohio A radiocarbon d a t e o f A D 1175 k 150 p l a c e s t h e Turpin River occupation i n a p e r i o d o f i n c r e a s e d h o r t i c u l t u r a l dependence and sedentism Carbon i s o t o p e s t u d i e s on samples f rom Turpin conf i n n the i n g e s t i o n o f t r o p i c a l (C4) c u l t i g e n s , e.g , maize (van d e r Merwe and Vogel 1 9 7 8 ) . The o t h e r F t . Ancient group i s from t h e S t a t e Line s i t e (33Ha58) Excavated i n 1979 i n a s a l v a g e p r o j e c t , the s i t e i s l o c a t e d on t h e Ohio-Indiana b o r d e r approximately m i l e s n o r t h o f t h e Ohio River Large q u a n t i t i e s o f c h a r r e d a i z e along w i t h dense h a b i t a t i o n d e b r i s c o v e r i n g approximately Radiocar3 4 ha i n d i c a t e a s e d e n t a r y , a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n 1175 5 60. on d a t e s p u t t h e o c c u p a t i o n a t A.D With t h e f o u r aforementioned groups we have, w i t h i n a t i g h t l y ircumscribed a r e a i n southwest Ohio, t h e s k e l e t a l remains o f o p u l a t i o n s t h a t r e p r e s e n t t h e major s t a g e s o f c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n he model used h e r e a c c o u n t s f o r o b s e r v a b l e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l changes s a r i s i n g from l o c a l , in s i t u c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n w i t h l i t t l e o r o m i g r a t i o n from o r g e n e t i c i n t e r c h a n g e w i t h o t h e r r e g i o n s Essenpreis 1982; Reichs 1974) Thus, a v a l u a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y t o n i t o r t h e b i o l o g i c a l impact of c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n i s r e a d i l y a f orded. The d i s c u s s i o n proceeds f i r s t w i t h a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a r i o u s b i o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s t h a t r e f l e c t c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g growth nd development and second w i t h a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of paleopathology nd p a l eodemography

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Osteometry u s - ~ e o m e t r i cd a t a were c o l l e c t e d from t h e f o u r southwest Ohio populations I n a d d i t i o n , l i m i t e d comparisons t o o t h e r g r o u p s A b a t t e r y o f 12 measurements was within t h e r e g i o n were made used in o r d e r t o e x p r e s s f u l l y t h e magnitude o f a d u l t v a r i a t i o n s

ANTHONY J PERZIGIAN ET AL. both w i t h i n and between samples The measurements can b e sub(1) measurements o f l e n g t h , i e , d i v i d e d i n t o two groups: maximum humerus l e n g t h , r a d i u s l e n g t h , b i c o n d y l a r femur l e n g t h , and maximum t i b i a l e n g t h , and ( 2 ) measurements o f r o b u s t i c i t y , i e , c l a v i c l e l e n g t h , d i a m e t e r s o f t h e humeral and femoral heads, d i s t a l a r t i c u l a r width o f t h e humerus, a n t e r o p o s t e r i o r and mediol a t e r a l d i a m e t e r s of t h e m i d s h a f t o f t h e femur, b i c o n d y l a r width of t h e femur, and t a l u s l e n g t h . The f o l l o w i n g sample s i z e s repr e s e n t t h e number o f i n d i v i d u a l s on whom a t l e a s t one measurement was taken: DuPont, 8 = 21; Todd, fl = 8 ; S t a t e Line, fl = 26; Turpin, N = 114 The l a t t e r two, approximately contemporaneous F t Ancient groups were compared f o r t h e 12 measurements No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were observed between f e males; o n l y two s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e males Thus, w i t h only two measurements y i e l d i n g s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e F t Ancient groups were e s s e n t i a l l y p h e n o t y p i c a l l y i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e and t h e r e f o r e were combined i n t o one sample A simple ranking procedure was f i r s t used t o compare t h e groups f o r t h e t o t a l b a t t e r y o f 12 measurements For t h e males t h e summed rank f o r t h e Middle Wodland sample was t h e h i g h e s t , while t h a t o f t h e L a t e Archaic DuPont sample was t h e lowest; t h u s , g e n e r a l body s i z e o f t h e former exceeds t h a t of t h e l a t t e r Diff e r e n c e s i n summed ranks were, o v e r a l l , l e s s among females t h a n males a c r o s s samples The p e r c e n t a g e of s e x u a l dimorphism f o r each measurement was n e x t ranked by group The Late Archaic sample a g a i n had t h e lowest summed r a n k , and t h e Middle Woodland, t h e h i g h e s t The same p o p u l a t i o n d i f f e r e n c e s can be observed i n Table 13 1, where t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f s e x u a l dimorphism i s e s t i m a t e d by a v e r a g i n g t h e dimorphism f o r t h e 12 measurements Of i n t e r e s t , t h e Middle Woodland v a l u e i s n o t e a s i l y equated w i t h e i t h e r t h a t o f t h e "Late Archaic o r t h a t of t h e F t Ancient p e r i o d s ; i n t h e same v e i n , Middle Woodland s u b s i s t e n c e i s a l s o d i f f e r e n t from t h a t of t h e o t h e r two p e r i o d s The d a t a do i n d i c a t e t h a t F t Ancient p e o p l e were more s e x u a l l y dimorphic t h a n Late Archaic p e o p l e T h i s obs e r v a t i o n appears c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h a t o f Wolfe and Gray (1982) They r e p o r t t h a t e x t a n t groups w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e t e n d t o e x h i b i t g r e a t e r s e x u a l dimorphism in s t a t u r e t h a n h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r qroups An a n a l y s i s of s t a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n was a l s o performed Mean s t a t u r e o f t h e groups was e s t i m a t e d from measurements o f t h e femur f o l l o w i n g Genoves's (1967) formulas and i s provided i n T a b l e 1 3 2 The Madisonville sample, a n o t h e r F t Ancient s i t e from Hamilton County (Hooton 1 9 2 0 ) , and an a d d i t i o n a l Ohio Hopewell sample (Webb and Snow 1974) a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d A similar pattern of s t a t u r a l change through t i m e emerges f o r b o t h males and females: an a p p a r e n t i n c r e a s e from L a t e Archaic t o Middle Woodland followed by an a p p a r e n t d e c r e a s e t o L a t e Archaic Levels o r lower by F t Ancient t i m e s For males, t h e c h r o n o l o g i c sequence i s 169 5 t o 171 3 t o 168 7 cm; f o r females, 159 9 t o 1 6 1 4 t o 157 6 cm. Thus, r e l a t i v e l y s i m i l a r d i f f e r e n c e s among qroups a r e suggested by t h e s e d a t a and t h e abovementioned summed r a n k s

13 PREHISTORIC HEALTH IN THE OHIO RIVER VALLEY

351

TABLE 1 3 1 Mean Sexual Dimorphism i n Postcranial Ske letona Dimorphism Total 1 2 )

Length ( 4 )

%

F t . Ancient Middle Woodland Late Archaic

Robusticity ( 8 ) %

%

1 0 47 1 2 16 8 33

8 44 9 15 7 74

1 1 49 1 3 66 8 63

Q-Numberof measurements i s given -in parentheses dimorphism equals 1 - (x? + xo+) x 100

Sexual

TABLE 1 3 2 Mean Stature (CM) and Percentage of Sexual Dimorphism Estimated from tb Femur

Period Late Archah Middle woodland

Group DuPont Ohio Hope-well TodfsMound Woodland mean Mad-isonv-iIle Tuwn-State Line F t . Ancient Mean

Males Females Stature Stature (em) N (em) El 1695 168 1 1745 171 3 167 6 169 8 168 7

5 20 3 29

1599 160 2 162 7 161 4 155 9

44

159 2 157 6

Sexual Dimorphism f%)

18

5 4 6 5 7

9 7 8 8 0

30

6

u

5 13 4

6 7

One should n o t o v e r i n t e r p r e t t h e s e o s t e o m e t r i c d a t a , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h l i m i t e d sample s i z e s f o r t h e Archaic and Woodland groups Moreover, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between and among a d u l t body s i z e , n u t r i t i o n , and g e n e t i c s a r e n e i t h e r p e r f e c t l y c l e a r nor w e l l understood. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i f we can t a k e t h e d a t a prima f a c i e , a modest improvement i n n u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h a p p e a r s on t h e o n e hand concomitant w i t h t h e Late Archaic t o Woodland continuum On t h e o t h e r hand, no enhancements o f growth a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e with t h e growing commitment t o sedentism and maize a g r i c u l t u r e along w i t h t h e correspondingly l e s s d i v e r s i f i e d d i e t o f F t Ancient people Any a c t u a l o s t e o m e t r i c changes o b s e r v a b l e a c r o s s time i n t h i s r e g i o n can be viewed most parsimoniously a s (1) b a s i c a l l y s e c u l a r i n n a t u r e , ( 2 ) o c c u r r i n g i n s i t u , and ( 3 ) w e l l within a range o f v a r i a t i o n a t t r i b u t a b l e t o d i f f e r e n t i a l growth, n u t r i t i o n , and a c t i v i t y l e v e l s That economic and n u t r i t i o n a l

352

ANTHONY J. PERZIGIAN ET AL.

changes took p l a c e can be s a f e l y assumed. That changes i n a c t i v i t y l e v e l took p l a c e can be i l l u s t r a t e d by comparisons o f t h e femoral Assuming t h a t g r e a t e r d e g r e e s o f midshaft index (ML/AP x 100) m e d i o l a t e r a l f l a t t e n i n g o f t h e femur, l i k e t h a t of t h e t i b i a (Lovejoy and Trinkhaus 1980) , r e f l e c t g r e a t e r p h y s i c a l demands, then lower i n d i c e s should r e f l e c t a more biomechanically s t r e s s f u l existence For males t h e mean index i s 89 8% f o r t h e two F t f o r combined L a t e Archaic-Woodland samples; Ancient and 83 1% s i m i l a r l y , f o r females t h e F t Ancient mean of 92 6%exceeds t h e e a r l i e r group mean o f 90 1% I n s h o r t , a sopewhat l e s s p h y s i c a l l y demanding way o f l i f e seems t o c h a r a c t e r i z e F t . Ancient p e o p l e v i s - a - v i s e a r l i e r Archaic and Woodland groups

H a r r i s Lines o f Growth A r r e s t Data on H a r r i s l i n e s o f growth a r r e s t i n t h e r a d i u s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e southwest Ohio groups When o b s e r v a t i o n s from an e a r l i e r s t u d y by Pape (1977) a r e combined w i t h t h o s e o f t h e a u t h o r s , t h e f o l l o w i n g samples r e s u l t : L a t e Archaic (N = 1 5 ) , Middle Woodland ( N = 6 ) , F t Ancient ( N = 44) Although t h e femur and t i b i a a r e more commonly s t u d i e d , t h e r a d i u s was s e l e c t e d f o r reasons of b e t t e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p r e s e r v a t i o n O f n o t e , when well-defined s c a r s do form i n t h e femur and t i b i a , t h e y a r e u s u a l l y a l s o p r e s e n t i n t h e d i s t a l end o f t h e r a d i a l s h a f t Dreizen e t a 1 (1964) r e p o r t e d from a l o n g i t u d i n a l d a t a s e t t h a t t h e frequency of bone s c a r s i n t h e r a d i u s is g r e a t e s t i n i n f a n c y and e a r l y c h i l d hood T h i s heightened p e r i o d o f s e n s i t i v i t y , i . e , t h e f i r s t 4-5 y e a r s of l i f e i s coterminous w i t h t h e p e r i o d s of g r e a t e s t r a t e of i n c r e a s e i n t h e l e n g t h o f t h e r a d i u s and g r e a t e s t s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o exanthematous d i s e a s e s . Unfortunately, a d e a r t h of subadults i whom l i n e s a r e most l i k e l y t o b e p r e s e n t was a v a i l a b l e f o r s t u d y . Though 1i n e s can p e r s i s t i n t o adulthood, t h e frequency o f s c a r r i n g i s expected t o v a r y i n v e r s e l y w i t h c h r o n o l o g i c age due t o r e s o r p t i o n and remodeling Nine i n d i v i d u a l s o r 69% o f t h e Late Archaic sample e x h i b i t e d H a r r i s l i n e s w i t h a r a n g e from 0 t o 12 and mean of 3 l e s i o n s I n c o n t r a s t , c o n s p i c u o u s l y lower p r o p o r t i o n s o f d i v i d u a l s w i t h l i n e s were observed i n t h e l a t e r groups: 33% o f Lower means and mo Todd, 29% of Turpin, and 2 2 % o f S t a t e Line r e s t r i c t e d ranges a l s o n o t a b l y c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e l a t e r groups: Todd (X = 1 3 , 0-7) ; Turpin (X = 1, 0-5) ; S t a t e Line (X = 0 5, 0-3) Of n o t e , t h e g r e a t e r p r e d e l i c t i o n f o r H a r r i s l i n e s i n t h e L a t e Archaic sample cannot b e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n of s u b a d u l t s when compared t o t h e - s a m p l e s from t h e l a t e r populations Indeed, j u s t under one-sixth o f t h e L a t e Archaic sample and j u s t over one-f i f t h o f t h e F t Ancient samples were comprised of s u b a d u l t s Hence, t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f o b s e r v i n g l i n e s might be considered, i f anything, g r e a t e r in t h e l a t e r groups when compared t o t h e e a r l i e r L a t e Archaic sample These r e s u l t s a r e q u i t e reminiscent o f Cassidy ' s (1980) ; s h e compared s i m i l a r groups f r o

13 PREHISTORIC HEALTH IN THE OHIO RIVER VALLEY

353

I,

Kentucky and n o t e d t h e r e l a t i v e i n f r e q u e n c y o f l i n e s i n a l a t e farming group when compared t o an e a r l i e r h u n t i n g group. Although d i f f e r e n c e s between groups a r e q u i t e s t r i k i n g , no simple e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e The p r e v a l e n c e and frequency of l i n e s i n t h e Late Archaic sample could s u g g e s t e p i s o d i c b o u t s of food s h o r t a g e e x a c e r b a t e d by o r s y n e r g i s t i c w i t h i n f e c t i o u s diseases Anmerman (1975) h a s shown t h a t extreme s t o c h a s t i c f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e s i z e of h u n t i n g p o p u l a t i o n s a r e n o t u n l i k e l y ; thereby, groups might o c c a s i o n a l l y exceed t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t i e s of t h e i r environments Regular o r s e a s o n a l s h o r t a g e s i n food supply may c o n t r i b u t e a s w e l l t o t h e e t i o l o g y o f H a r r i s l i n e s A l l of t h i s c o n j e c t u r e , however, i s markedly tempered by observat i o n s such a s t h o s e of Mensforth (1981) who, i n a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of growth a r r e s t l i n e s i n t h e Libben s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n , demonstrated t h e i r v e r y l i m i t e d r e l i a b i l i t y a s demographically sensitive indicators Nevertheless, t h e conspicuously lower mean and range i n t h e F t Ancient groups could s u g g e s t a more c o n s i s t e n t supply o f food O r , one could j u s t a s vis-a-vis t h a t of t h e L a t e Archaic p e o p l e reasonably argue t h a t t h e lower frequency of t h e F t Ancient samples r e f l e c t s more c h r o n i c , l e s s a c u t e e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h n u t r i t i o n a l i n s u f f i c i e n c i e s when compared t o t h e L a t e Archaic Thus, a c h r o n i c a l l y deprived p o p u l a t i o n would produce fewer l i n e s than one with s e a s o n a l p e r i o d s o f want I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, one views t h e l i n e s a s r e f l e c t i n g a r e s t o r a t i o n of normal growth, then t h e F t Ancient p e o p l e d i s p l a y f a r fewer l i n e s o f recovery following bouts o f u n d e r n u t r i t i o n and i l l n e s s Indeed, t h e s e v e r i t y and d u r a t i o n of growth d i s r u p t i o n s may a c t u a l l y have been g r e a t e r f o r F t Ancient people a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r o v e r a l l T h i s view must b e q u a l i f i e d because of lower frequency o f l i n e s (1) an u n f o r t u n a t e l y low p r o p o r t i o n o f s u b a d u l t s i n t h e two samples, ( 2 ) t h e l a c k of c o n t r o l o f age i n t h e samples and (3) t h e seeming demographic i n s e n s i t i v i t y o f H a r r i s l i n e s a s ill u s t r a t e d by Mensforth (1981)

L i n e a r Enamel Hypoplasia

1

Data on l i n e a r enamel h y p o p l a s i a (LEH) a r e r e p o r t e d i n Table 13 3 f o r t h e -permanent d e n t i t i o n o f t h e southwest Ohio Only c a s e s judged a s moderate t o s e v e r e a r e t a b u l a t e d . groups The moderate t o s e v e r e c a t e g o r y was r e s e r v e d f o r prominent r e l a t i v e l y deep h o r i z o n t a l grooves, d e p r e s s e d l i n e s , o r s e r i e s of LEH was 'recorded f o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p i t s on t h e buccal s u r f a c e tooth c l a s s e s : i n c i s o r s , c a n i n e s and molars Thus, a r e c o r d of development from b i r t h t o about 5 y e a r s of age i s a v a i l a b l e . Extreme d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n compromised s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n s of the Late Archaic and Middle Woodland samples; consequently, o n l y 57 and 40 t e e t h , r e s p e c t i v e l y , were s c o r a b l e From Table 1 3 3 , it would appear t h a t r i s k o f exposure t o p a t h o g e n i c f a c t o r s assoc i a t e d w i t h LEH was t h r e e times g r e a t e r f o r F t Ancient c h i l d r e n

354

ANTHONY J PERZIGIAN ET AL.

TABLE 13 3 Percentage of Teeth with Moderate/Severe Linear Ename l Hypop Zas-La

Late Arehuia

^ Maxilla RI1 LI1

%

Middle Woodland N

Ft

b

-.Ancient El %

%

.-

6 7 7 6 6 6

33 3

2

28 6 28 6 16 6 16 6 16 6

3 5

0 0 20 0

5

20 0

$5

4 5

25 0 20 0

49 46

RC

5

20 0

5

LC RM1 LM1

5 4 5

20 0 25 0 0

4 4

20 0 25 0

- -

-

33.3 -

-

-

57

210

40

20 0

494

60 3

RC LC

RM1 LM1

50 37-

57

54 0

51 57 62 57 63

4 9 2 1 0

M a d b Ze

3

25 0

5 8 7 9 3

49 48 49

571 54 2 46 6

aN = Number of t e e t h examined b~epresentsTurpin s i t e

when compared t o e i t h e r t h e Middle Woodland o r t h e L a t e Archaic Heterogeneity among t h e samples was h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( X = 71 8 , p < 005) About 60% o f t h e F o r t Ancient t e e t h d i s p l a y e d a-b l e a s t one lesion A r a t e of o n l y o n e - t h i r d o f t h a t seems t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e two e a r l i e r groups The group comparisons a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e r e p o r t e d by H e reports a 52% S c i u l l i (1978) f o r o t h e r Ohio V a l l e y groups i n c i d e n c e o f s e v e r e , g e n e r a l h y p o p l a s i a o f t h e permanent t e e t h f o r l a t e f o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l groups, whereas t h a t o f e a r l i e r groups I n an e a r l i e r s t u d y (1977) w i t h d i f f u s e economies was o n l y 30% S c i u l l i r e p o r t e d on t h e deciduous d e n t i t i o n of t h e same groups When c o n s i d e r i n g t h e developmental t i m i n g o f t h e l e s i o n s h e concluded t h a t t h e post-Middle Woodland f o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l groups were a f f e c t e d p r e n a t a l l y a t a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r frequency than t h e e a r l i e r groups R e s u l t s , t h e n , of t h e s e s e p a r a t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s prompt one t o conclude . t h a t environmental p e r t u r b a t i o n s ( e g , n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s e s , i r o n d e f i c i e n c i e s , and i n f e c t i o n s ) spanning t h e p r e n a t a l and p o s t n a t a l p e r i o d s were f a r more common t o l a t e r p r e h i s t o r i c farming groups t h a n t o e i t h e r huntingg a t h e r i n g o r e a r l i e r Woodland g r o u p s F i n a l l y , t h e frequency along w i t h t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e l e s i o n s among t h e l a t e r groups such a s F t Ancient s u g g e s t s a n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s comparable t o t h a t of u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d and undernourished modern a g r i c u l t u r a l

13 PREHISTORIC HEALTH IN THE OHIO RIVER VALLEY p o p u l a t i o n s (Nikiforuk and F r a s e r 1981) A t l e a s t a modest d e c l i n e i n g e n e r a l h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n a p p e a r s t o a t t e n d t h e i n c r e a s i n g commitment t o a g r i c u l t u r e among Ohio groups T h i s view, however must be q u a l i f i e d by t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h o s e samples d e r i v e d from E a r l y and Middle Woodland b u r i a l c u l t groups ( e g , Adena and Hopewell) r e p r e s e n t o n l y t h e h i g h e s t s t a t u s groups and t h e r e b y t h e l e a s t d e p r i v e d segments of t h o s e s o c i e t i e s

PALEOPATHOLOGY AND PALEODEMOGRAPHY

Caries The f o c u s o f t h i s c h a p t e r s o f a r h a s been on g e n e r a l i z e d i n d i c a t o r s of d i s t u r b a n c e d u r i n g growth and development Concern now s h i f t s t o d e n t a l and s k e l e t a l f e a t u r e s o f a more p a t h o l o g i c a l nature T h i s s e c t i o n commences w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f d e n t a l c a r i e s Indeed, a r e l a t i v e l y e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e now e x i s t s and s u p p o r t s t h e g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n of i n c r e a s e d c a r i o g e n i c i t y a s a consequence of t h e t r a n s i t i o n and i n c r e a s i n g commitment t o a g r i c u l t u r e The g r e a t e r frequency o f c a r i e s among f a n n i n g p o p u l a t i o n s when compared t o h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r groups i s t y p i c a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e g r e a t e r l e v e l s o f d i e t a r y c a r b o h y d r a t e o f t h e former Table 13 4 c l e a r l y r e v e a l s t h e dichotomy between s u b s i s t e n c e groups Of 159 unworn permanent t e e t h from t h e L a t e Archaic samples, o n l y 4 t e e t h For t h e Middle o r 2 5% of t h e t o t a l e x h i b i t e d one o r more c a r i e s Woodland, when consumption o f s t a r c h y seed r e s o u r c e s i n c r e a s e d , t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f c a r i o u s t e e t h i s more t h a n f i v e t i m e s t h a t o f t h e L a t e Archaic F i n a l l y , f o r F t Ancient 24 8% o f t h e t e e t h , o r almost t w i c e t h a t of t h e Middle Woodland, were c a r i o u s Heterog e n e i t y a c r o s s samples i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t (x2 = 49 47, p < 005) With t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h e l a r g e F o r t Ancient sample, a more thorough a n a l y s i s was p e r m i t t e d Though t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , females had a g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f than d i d males (22 9 % ) Based on observac a r i o u s t e e t h (27 1%) t i o n s of one-half of t h e d e n t i t i o n , t h e average i n d i v i d u a l had four c a v i t i e s The mean number o f c a v i t i e s p e r t o o t h f o r t h e e n t i r e sample was 0 33 The molars i n a l l samples were t h e most commonly i m p l i c a t e d t o o t h group Of n o t e , t h e r e l a t i v e l y poor enamel formation suggested by t h e LEH d a t a (Table 1 3 3 ) may have predisposed F t Ancient t e e t h t o c a r i e s The r e s u l t s g i v e n i n T a b l e 1 3 4 f u l l y c o r r o b o r a t e t h e observ a t i o n s o f Addington (1973) on o t h e r Ohio V a l l e y groups He r e ports t h e following percentages of i n d i v i d u a l s with c a r i e s : Late Archaic ( 0 % ) ,E a r l y Woodland (33 3 % ) , Middle Woodland (13 3 % ) , F t Ancient (100%) These d a t a l i k e w i s e document a t r e n d o f i n c r e a s i n g c a r i o u s involvement Correspondingly, S c i u l l i e t a 1 f o r t h e Late Archaic (1982) r e p o r t a c a r i e s frequency o f 3 1%

- .

ANTHONY J PERZIGIAN ET AL.

TABLE 13 4

Percentage o f Carious T e e t h by Grow Late Archaic N~

Maxi Z l a I1 I2

c

PI P2 Ml M2 M3

Mandib Ze I1 12 C PI P2 Ml M2 M3

%

Middle Woodland N

%

Ft. ~ncient~

N

%

9 8 9 6 7 8 11 8

9 11 13 I3 13 11 12 11

159

= Number of t e e t h examined ^Represents Turpin s i t e .

Williams s i t e sample; t h e y observed 1597 t e e t h . Finally, S c i u l l i and C a r l i s l e (1977) r e p o r t e d a frequency o f 27 7% f o r t h r e e L a t e Woodland samples from western Pennsylvania, a v a l u e s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r than t h a t o f t y p i c a l p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l groups I n sum, t h e c u l t u r a l and economic changes t h a t r e s u l t e d in t h e s h i f t away from a primary dependence on h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g i n f a v o r o f a r e l i a n c e on a g r i c u l t u r e had an unmistakably pathol o g i c i n f l u e n c e on d e n t a l h e a l t h and o r a l b i o l o g y The evidence i s unequivocal t h a t c a r i e s became a prominent f e a t u r e and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c burden o f t h e l a t e groups who r e l i e d more h e a v i l y on maize a g r i c u l t u r e .

Nonspecific S k e l e t a l Lesions ¥

Paleopathological s t u d i e s t y p i c a l l y consider nonspecific inflammatory l e s i o n s o f t h e l o n g bones, e g . , o s t e o m y e l i t i s and periostitis References t o s u c h l e s i o n s appear i n t h e e a r l i e s t ,

13

PREHISTORIC HEALTH IN THE OHIO RIVER VALLEY

TABLE 1 3 5 Percentage of Long Bones w i t h Periosteat Inftamnatory Reactions

La be Archails Na

Humerus Radius Ulna Femur Tibia Fibula

%

Middle

Ft.

Woodland

Ancient

217

{;+

br--,

%

--a7

17 19 20 20 16 19

17 7 10.5 0 " 5 0 18 8 15 8

7

9 9 7 8 8 8

-

-

-

Ill

10 8

49

11 1 11 1 28.6 37 5 50.0 37 5

8 6

-

- -

aN = Number of bones examined

J

7 6 + , 7 5 Lt;,: 6.1 r , 1 0 - 6 <,2 4 3 > . 28 2 13.0

--

.-=--

l i t e r a t u r e (Hooton 1920; Langdon 1881 on Ohio Valley groups Table 13 5 p r o v i d e s a p r e l i m i n a r y assessment o f a d u l t l e s i o n s f o r t h e southwest Ohio groups No e f f o r t was made e i t h e r t o d i s t i n g u i s h among t h e p o s s i b l e p a t h o l o g i e s o r t o r e c o r d t h e d e g r e e of s e v e r i t y ; r a t h e r , p a t h o l o g i c a l involvement was recorded i f any inflammatory response was e x p r e s s e d on t h e p e r i o s t e a l s u r f a c e The frequency o f l e s i o n s p e r sample may b e i n f l u e n c e d h e r e by demographic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s Indeed, more f r e q u e n t l e s i o n s may be a n t i c i p a t e d i n a sample o f o l d e r i n d i v i d u a l s than i n a sample o f younger i n d i v i d u a l s I n a d d i t i o n , an i n d i v i d u a l w i t h m u l t i p l e The l e s i o n s may i n f l a t e t h e t o t a l frequency i n a small sample Middle Woodland sample i s q u i t e s m a l l ; o n l y 49 bones were examined. More than twice t h a t was a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e L a t e Archaic, and j u s t under 800 bones were e v a l u a t e d from t h e two F t Ancient samples. V a r i a t i o n i n t h e frequency o f l e s i o n s was s i g n i f i c a n t (X2 = 1 0 35, p < -01) Whatever t h e e t i o l o g i c f a c t o r s were t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o l o n g bone l e s i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e lower e x t r e m i t y , t h e y app e a r t o b e more i n f l u e n t i a l i n t h e Middle Woodland and F t Ancient Tibia1 l e s i o n s , especially, p e r i o d s than i n t h e Late Archaic seem t o c h a r a c t e r i z e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o l l e c t i o n s of b o t h a d u l t s and s u b a d u l t s (Mensforth e t a 1 1978) The d a t a given in Table 1 3 5 can p r e l i m i n a r i l y s u g g e s t t h a t a t l e a s t a modest d e c l i n e In s k e l e t a l h e a l t h followed t h e abandonment of h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g and consequent adoption o f l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l economies These r e s u l t s and c o n c l u s i o n s a r e i n accord w i t h t h o s e p u b l i s h e d by L a l l o (1979) on a neighboring F t Working w i t h a Ancient group from t h e Anderson V i l l a g e s i t e sample of 44 i n d i v i d u a l s r a n g i n g i n a g e from b i r t h t o 60 y e a r s , ' h e observed osseous i n f e c t i o n s i n 36, o r 81.8%, o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s He argued t h a t i n f e c t i o n s c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o b o t h s u b a d u l t

ANTHONY J PERZIGIAN ET AL. and a d u l t m o r t a l i t y To him, t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between d i s e a s e , m a l n u t r i t i o n , and m o r t a l i t y was e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l l y and demographically significant A l a t e r group, t h e Eiden p o p u l a t i o n (A D 1490 5 55 y e a r s ) from n o r t h e r n Ohio, h a s a l s o been d e s c r i b e d L a l l o and Blank (1977) recorded t h e frequency of b o t h p e r i o s t i t i s and o s t e o m y e l i t i s i n t h i s maize a g r i c u l t u r e group; of 122 i n d i v i d u a l s from a g e s 0 t o 59 9 y e a r s , 84, o r 70% e x h i b i t e d some form o f infectious manifestation I n sum, t h e d a t a a v a i l a b l e s o f a r sugg e s t t h e p r e s e n c e of endemic i n f e c t i o n s ( e g S a w e u s ) t h a t a r e more than c o i n c i d e n t a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i n c r e a s i n g commitment t o maize a g r i c u l t u r e Whatever t h e i n t e r p l a y was among n u t r i t i o n , p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , o c c u p a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y , and m i c r o b i a l a g e n t s , it r e s u l t e d i n 1) c h r o n i c i n f e c t i o n s o f t h e lower e x t r e m i t y w i t h d e b i l i t a t i n g consequences f o r many a d u l t s , and 2 ) p o s s i b l e d e a t h i n t h e f i r s t y e a r s of l i f e a s suggested by d a t a from t h e Libben c o l l e c t i o n (Mensforth e t a 1 1978)

Skeletal ~ u b e r c u i o s i s The s e n i o r a u t h o r and o t h e r s (Hooton 1920; Katzenberg 1976; Means 1925; P e r z i g i a n and Widmer 1979; Widmer and P e r z i g i a n 1981) have suggested t h e p r e s e n c e o f a crowd i n f e c t i o n , i e t u b e r c u l o s i s , i n t h e F o r t Ancient p e o p l e from Hamilton County In a roentgenologic s t u d y o f f i v e i n d i v i d u a l s from t h e Turpin s i t e , v e r t e b r a l f u s i o n s , kyphoses, and d e s t r u c t i o n a r e w e l l d e p i c t e d ( P e r z i g i a n and Widmer 1979) The l o c a t i o n , e x p r e s s i o n , and p a t t e r n of t h e s p i n a l l e s i o n s a r e s t r o n g l y p e r s u a s i v e o f t h e p r e s e n c e of tuberculosis Klepinger (1982) h a s r e c e n t l y supported t h i s hyp o t h e s i s and c o n s i d e r e d t h e p o s s i b l e o r i g i n s o f a New World mycobacterial i n f e c t i o n i n humans B u i k s t r a (1976) has n o t e d t h a t p u r p o r t e d c a s e s o f p r e h i s t o r i c t u b e r c u l o s i s a r e r e p o r t e d more f r e q u e n t l y f o r l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l l y based groups t h a n f o r e a r l i e r h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g groups By i m p l i c a t i o n , t h e n , i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s can become endemic a t c e r t a i n l e v e l s of p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and s i z e such a s t h o s e reached by F t Ancient p e o p l e The p r o b a b i l i t y o f endemicity o f t u b e r c u l o s i s i s , t h u s , c o n v e n t i o n a l l y viewed a s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the opportunity f o r transmission P r e v i o u s p a p e r s by t h e s e n i o r a u t h o r adopt such a view concerning t h e primacy o f d e n s i t y i n und e r s t a n d i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and maintenance o f crowd i n f e c t i o n s The t h r u s t of t h i s c h a p t e r , however, may s u g g e s t y e t o t h e r important f a c t o r s i n a d d i t i o n t o d e n s i t y and t r a n s m i s s i o n i n t h e maintenance of crowd i n f e c t i o n s The d a t a s o f a r m a r s h a l l e d s u g g e s t (1) some r e d u c t i o n i n g e n e r a l n u t r i t i o n and d i e t a r y d i v e r s i t y , and ( 2 ) some o v e r a l l i n c r e a s e i n s t r e s s among t h e l a t e r I t i s w e l l known t h a t m a l n u t r i t i o n due t o d e f i farming groups c i e n c i e s o f p r o t e i n , c a l o r i e s , v i t a m i n s , o r t r a c e elements can f o r e s t a l l immunological d e f e n s e mechanisms; moreover, i n t r a u t e r i n e growth r e t a r d a t i o n due t o maternal m a l n u t r i t i o n produces ~ r o f o u n d For example, adverse e f f e c t s on p o s t n a t a l immunocompetence

13 PREHISTORIC HEALTH IN TA-IE OHIO RIVER VALLEY

1

'

!

f-

impaired antibody response was s e e n i n t h e Fl and F2 o f f s p r i n g o f s t a r v e d female r a t s even though t h e l i t t e r s i n b o t h g e n e r a t i o n s had f r e e a c c e s s t o food (Chandra 1 9 7 5 ) ; in a d d i t i o n , reduced immunocompetence p e r s i s t e d f o r t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r p r e g n a n t mice were f e d a z i n c - d e f i c i e n t d i e t (Beach e t a 1 1 9 8 2 ) . Perhaps t h e n , depressed l e v e l s of irmnunocompetence a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p o o r n u t r i t i o n can account f o r epidemiologic p a t t e r n s Youmans (1979) and Huels (1981) a d d r e s s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of r e s i s t a n c e i n e x p l a i n i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f t u b e r c u l o s i s i n human groups R e s i s t a n c e t o t u b e r c u l ~ s i s (Youmans 1979) s p e c i f i c a l l y r e s u l t s from an a c q u i r e d c e l l u l a r immunity; T lymphocytes and macrophages a r e t h e primary a g e n t s o f d e f e n s e A s long a s acquired c e l l u l a r immunity i s maint.ained, t h e i n f e c t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l d e s p i t e f r e q u e n t exposure With a breakdown i n i m munity, t h e d i s e a s e p r o g r e s s e s t o a t i s s u e - d e s t r u c t i v e phase a s It i s o n l y a t s e e n , f o r example, i n t h e F t Ancient v e r t e b r a e t h i s phase t h a t persons with a d e q u a t e immunity w i l l n o t p a r t i c i p a t e a s a g e n t s o f t r a n s m i s s i o n . A s n o t e d above, d e f e n s e s can b e d i s turbed o r suppressed by n u t r i t i o n a l imbalances Hence, r e s i s t a n c e t o t u b e r c u l o s i s might be reduced v i a t h e d i e t a r y and consequent immunological changes t h a t accompanied t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i culture Concerning t h e paleoepidemiology o f t u b e r c u l o s i s , f a c t o r s o f t r a n s m i s s i o n may be viewed a s secondary t o f a c t o r s o f r e s i s t a n c e A p i c t u r e emerges o f Ohio V a l l e y a b o r i g i n a l s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h m i c r o p a r a s i t i c i n f e c t i o n s , t h e i r d e f e n s e s to which were i n c r e a s i n g l y eroded a s t h e commitment to s e d e n t a r y maize a g r i c u l t u r e i n t e n s i f i e d .

Although no good comparative d a t a a r e c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e t h a t span Ohio Valley p r e h i s t o r y , some d a t a on p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and cribra o r b i t a l i a a r e available These l e s i o n s o f t h e v a u l t and o r b i t a r e b e l i e v e d t o r e s u l t from d i e t a r y i r o n d e f i c i e n c i e s (Von Endt and O r t n e r 1982) and v a r i o u s d i s e a s e s t a t e s . Mensforth e t a 1 (1978) r e p o r t a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a s s o c i a t i o n between p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and p e r i o s t e a l l e s i o n s i n t h e 6-24-month a g e range f o r t h e L a t e Woodland Libben p o p u l a t i o n from n o r t h e r n Ohio L a l l o (1979) r e p o r t s on t h e F t Ancient p e o p l e r e c o v e r e d from t h e Anderson V i l l a g e s i t e Twenty-nine of 4 4 i n d i v i d u a l s (65 9 % ) exHe concluded t h a t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n hibited porotic hyperostosis between m a l n u t r i t i o n and i n Âe c t i o n c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e m o r t a l i t y of t h i s group L a l l o e t a 1 (1977) r e p o r t v e r y s i m i l a r d a t a f o r t h e Eiden p o p u l a t i o n ; c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s appeared t o g e t h e r i n 51 7% o f a s u b a d u l t sample o f 3 1 i n d i v i d u a l s Seventy-five p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b a d u l t s d i s p l a y e d some p o s t o r b i t a l involvement, e g , o s t e o p o r o t i c p i t t i n g , p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s These r e s u l t s a r e (1) q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e r e p o r t e d f o r t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n p o p u l a t i o n from Dickson Mound i n I l l i n o i s ( L a l l o e t a 1 1977), and ( 2 ) c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e n o t i o n t h a t l a t e r farming groups were exposed t o more m a l n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e t h a n

ANTHONY J PERZIGIAN ET AL. t h e i r forebearers Indeed, t h e L a t e Woodland Libben p e o p l e who l i v e d 500 y e a r s b e f o r e t h e Eiden people have been p o r t r a y e d i n a thorough paleodemographic a n a l y s i s by Lovejoy e t a 1 (1977) a s a b a s i c a l l y healthy population. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , Mensforth e t a 1 (1978) c l a i m t h a t c h r o n i c m a l n u t r i t i o n t h a t might b e due t o poor d i e t , weaning p r a c t i c e s , o r p a r a s i t i c i n f e s t a t i o n s was " b a s i c a l l y absent a t Libben " Thus, d a t a p u b l i s h e d on p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a r e i n f o r c e t h e c l a i m t h a t d i e t a r y i n s u f f i c i e n c i e s and m i c r o p a r a s i t i c i n f e c t i o n s combined t o complicate and compromise t h e l i v e s of l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c farming p e o p l e from Ohio t o degrees n o t r e a d i l y n o t i c e a b l e among t h e i r "p r e d e c e s s o r s i n Archaic and Woodland t i m e s F i n a l l y , t h i s view i s n o t c o n t r a d i c t e d by a p r e l i m i n a r y survey o f t h e F t Ancient m a t e r i a l from t h e S t a t e Line s i t e , where b o t h c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s were observed (Schmidt 1981)

Paleodemography Paleodemoqraphic a n a l y s e s have been performed o n Ohio groups, t h e most thorough o f which was conducted by Lovejoy et a 1 (1977) A sample o f 1327 Late Woodland i n d i v i d u a l s was s t u d i e d They r e p o r t a c l a s s 2 s u r v i v o r s h i p p a t t e r n t h a t i s t y p i c a l of p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l populations I n f a n t m o r t a l i t y was c o n s i d e r e d low, which s u g g e s t s a h e a l t h y , s u c c e s s f u l p o p u l a t i o n ; l i f e expectancy a t b i r t h was 20 y e a r s Demographic d a t a on t h e F t Ancient group from t h e Anderson V i l l a g e s i t e have a l s o been p u b l i s h e d by L a l l o (1979) He c a u t i o u s l y n o t e s t h a t h i s sample of 4 4 i n d i v i d u a l s i s q u i t e small and t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l y b i a s e d ; u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of both i n f a n t s and g e n e r a l s u b a d u l t m o r t a l i t y i s exceedingly likely. For example, o n l y 1 8 18% of t h e F t . Ancient sample d i e d by 15 y e a r s of age, a s compared t o 61 36% a t Libben Correspondi n g l y , l i f e e x p e c t a n c i e s a t b i r t h c o n t r a s t e d markedly between Anderson V i l l a g e and Libben, i . e , 33 v e r s u s 20 y e a r s r e s p e c t i v e ly Thus demographic comparisons of t h e two groups a r e s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d . Nonetheless, both s t u d i e s r e p o r t s u r v i v o r s h i p w e l l i n t o t h e f i f t h and s i x t h decades I n d i v i d u a l s were c e r t a i n l y l i v i n g long enough a t Libben t o e x p e r i e n c e a g e - p r o g r e s s i v e c o r t i c a l invol u t i o n o f t h e femur (Mensforth 1978) i n amounts q u i t e s i m i l a r t o what P e r z i g i a n (1973) observed i n a n e a r l i e r s t u d y o f o s t e o p o r o s i s i n a Late Archaic p o p u l a t i o n . Archaeologists a g r e e t h a t profound demographic changes o c c u r r e d with t h e growing commitment t o maize a g r i c u l t u r e ; indeed, v i l l a g e s a r o s e and i n c r e a s e d i n s i z e and number; p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s reached unprecedented l e v e l s . I n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e s e demogr a p h i c changes, t h e a u t h o r s o b s e r v e a seeming i n c r e a s e i n h o s t i l i t y While Lovejoy and and v i o l e n t d e a t h by post-Woodland t i m e s . Heiple (1981 contend t h a t t h e r e i s no s t r o n g evidence f o r L a t e Woodland w a r f a r e i n t h e Libben sample, a p p r e c i a b l e evidence of arrow wounds is r e p o r t e d f o r F t Ancient groups. Hooton (1920') claimed t h a t 22% of t h e a d u l t males a t M a d i s o n v i l l e s u f f e r e d

13 PREHISTORIC HEALTH IN THE OHIO RIVER VALLEY c r a n i a l and p o s t c r a n i a l wounds Violent encounters a r e a l s o re-p o r t e d f o r Blain V i l l a g e (Lovejoy and Heiple 19701, S t a t e Line , (Schmidt 19811, and Anderson V i l l a g e (Morgan 1946) YL I *--." - 3

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Some t e n t a t i v e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e now i n o r d e r f o r southwest Ohio p r e h i s t o r y Evidence reviewed and compiled i n t h i s c h a p t e r does n o t s u p p o r t a view t h a t e v e n t u a l improvements i n h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n r e s u l t e d from (1) t h e abandonment o f h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g a s e x c l u s i v e economic p u r s u i t s , and ( 2 ) t h e subsequent development o f f o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l economies by F t Ancient t i m e s The l i m i t e d o s t e o m e t r i c d a t a may be i n t e r p r e t e d t o show some g a i n s i n n u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h f o r t h e Middle Woodland p e o p l e o v e r t h a t of t h e Late Archaic; n e v e r t h e l e s s , f u r t h e r advances cannot bepL-,*?~ demonstrated f o r t h e F t Ancient groups D e n t a l and s k e l e t a l " [ ' h e a l t h appear t o d e c l i n e n o t i c e a b l y a s evidenced by t r e n d s i n c a r i e s , enamel h y p o p l a s i a , and s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s A l l such t r e n d s mutually r e i n f o r c e each o t h e r and probably r e f l e c t a growing synergism among d i e t , p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , and d i s e a s e With a d r a m a t i c a l l y i n c r e a s e d commitment t o maize a g r i c u l t u r e and a commensurately d e c r e a s e d dependence on hunting and g a t h e r i n g a s observed by F t Ancient t i m e s , f e r t i l i t y probably approached t h a t of contemporary n o n c o n t r a c e p t i v e , p r e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d s o c i e t i e s and A r e s u l t e d i n population d e n s i t i e s higher than ever before growing p o p u l a t i o n , c o n c e n t r a t e d f o r l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e f o c a l a g r i c u l t u r e , may have n o t uncommonly t a x e d i t s e c o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l s u p p o r t systems o r s u f f e r e d an o c c a s i o n a l l y d i s a s t r o u s c r o p failure The maize, i t s e l f , may have d e p l e t e d t h e s o i l I n such a general context, lessened d i e t a r y v a r i a t i o n , n u t r i t i o n a l imbalances, and d e f i c i e n c i e s were l i k e l y and would have l e d t o reduced l e v e l s , o f immunocompetence and a l t e r e d s t a t e s of pathogenicity For now, t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t s o c i o c u l t u r a l change i s *. pre-eminent i n e x p l a i n i n g e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l changes i n p r e h i s t o r i c Ohio i s warranted .

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The C i n c i n n a t i Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y k i n d l y provided t h e The a u t h o r s w i t h a c c e s s t o t h e Turpin s i t e s k e l e t a l c o l l e c t i o n a u t h o r s wish t o e x p r e s s t h e i r s i n c e r e s t a p p r e c i a t i o n t o t h e Museum Members of t h e C e n t r a l Ohio V a l l e y Archaeof o r its cooperation l o g i c a l S o c i e t y worked i n d e f a t i g a b l y and c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y d u r i n g t h e e x c a v a t i o n , p r o c e s s i n g , and a n a l y s i s o f much of t h e s k e l e t a l material S p e c i a l and warm thanks go t o Arlene Basham, J e r r y

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ANTHONY J PERZIGIAN ET AL. Alford, and Donna Neu f o r t h e i r unswerving d e d i c a t i o n and s p i r i t F a c i l i t i e s f o r radiography were g r a c i o u s l y provided by D r P a u l J o l l y o f t h e Hamilton County C o r o n e r ' s O f f i c e Procedures f o r c o l l e c t i n g d e n t a l h y p o p l a s i a d a t a were recommended by D r D e l l a Cook Completion o f t h i s s t u d y would have been i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t generous s u p p o r t from t h e Department of Orthopaedic Surgery o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C i n c i n n a t i and i t s former chairman, D r Edward H Miller M r s Kay Klein provided e x p e r t a s s i s t a n c e i n p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e manuscript D r Joseph F F o s t e r , chairman of t h e Department of Anthropology, provided e x c e l l e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e assistance

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7

ANTHONY J PERZIGIAN ET AL. Lallo, J W 1979 Disease and m o r t a l i t y a t t h e Anderson V i l l a g e s i t e Ohio Journal of Science 79: 256-261 L a l l o , J W , and J E Blank 1977 Ancient d i s e a s e i n Ohio: The Eiden p o p u l a t i o n Ohio Journal of Science 77:55-62 L a l l o , J W , G . J Armelagos, and R P Mensforth 1977 The r o l e of d i e t , d i s e a s e , and physiology i n t h e o r i g i n o f p o r o t i c hyperostosis. Hman Biology 49:471-483 Langdon, F W 1881 The Madisonville p r e h i s t o r i c cemetery: A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l notes J o u d of the Cincinnati Society o f Natural History 4:237-257 Lovejoy , C 0 , and K G . Heiple 1970 The B l a i n Mound I n Blain Village and the Fort Ancient t r a d i t i o n i n Ohio, e d i t e d by 0 H P r u f e r and 0 C Shane 111, pp 151-184 Kent S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Kent, Ohio 1981 The a n a l y s i s o f f r a c t u r e s i n s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h an example from t h e Libben S i t e , Ottawa County, Ohio American Journal of Physical Anthropology 55 :529-541 Lovejoy, C 0 , and E Trinkhaus 1980 S t r e n g t h and r o b u s t i c i t y o f Neanderthal t i b i a American Journal of Physical Anthropology 53: 465-470 Lovejoy, C O . , R S. Meindl, T R. Pryzbeck, T S Barton, K G H e i p l e , and D K o t t i n g 1977 Paleodemography of t h e Libben s i t e , Ottawa County, Ohio Science 198:291-293. Means, H J 1925 A r o e n t g e n o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f t h e s k e l e t a l remains of t h e American p r e h i s t o r i c Mound B u i l d e r I n d i a n s o f Ohio J o u d of Roentgenology 13:359-367. Mensforth, R P 1978 Femoral c o r t i c a l i n v o l u t i o n i n a L a t e Woodland s k e l e t a l p o p u l a t i o n : Epidemiologic and biomechanical o b s e r v a t i o n s American Journal of Physical Anthroploqy 48: 419 (Abst r 1981 Growth v e l o c i t y and chondroblastic s t a b i l i t y a s major

factors influencing t h e pathogenesis and epidemiological distribution of growth arrest l i n e s Paper p r e s e n t e d t o t h e 50th annual meeting o f t h e ~ m e r i c a n~ s s o c i a t i o nof Physical Anthropologists, D e t r o i t Mensforth, R P , C 0 Lovejoy, J. W L a l l o , and G J Armelagos 1978 The r o l e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f a c t o r s , d i e t , and i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i n t h e e t i o l o g y o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c i n f a n t s and c h i l d r e n Medical Anthropology 2 :1-59 Morgan, R G 1946 Fort Ancient The Ohio S t a t e Archaeological and ~ i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , Columbus Nikiforuk, G , and D F r a s e r 1981 The e t i o l o g y o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a : A u n i f y i n g concept Journal of Pediatrics 98: 888-893

13 PREHISTORIC HEALTH IN THE OHIO RIVER VALLEY Oehler, C 1973 Turpin I n d i a n s

J o u d o f the Cincinnati Museum of Natural History 2 3 ( 2 ) :1-65

Pape, W K 1977 A comparison o f Harris l i n e s i n two p r e h i s t o r i c Ohio Paper p r e s e n t e d t o t h e annual meeting Valley p o p d a t i o n s o f t h e C e n t r a l S t a t e s Anthropological S o c i e t y , C i n c i n n a t i Perzigian, A J 1973 O s t e o p o r o t i c bone l o s s i n two p r e h i s t o r i c I n d i a n populations American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 39 :8796 P e r z i g i a n , A. J , and L Widrner 1979 Evidence f o r t u b e r c u l o s i s i n a p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n Journal o f t h e American Medical Association 242 :2643-2646 Reichs, K J 1974 Biological v a r i a b i l i t y and t h e Hopewell phenomenon: An i n t e r r e g i o n a l approach. Unpublished ~ h D d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y Schmidt, M A 1981 Descriptive a n a l y s i s o f t h e s k e l e t a l remains from t h e S t a t e l i w s i t e (33Ha58) Unpublished Master ' s t h e s i s , Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f C i n c i n n a t i , Ohio Sciulli, P W 1977 A d e s c r i p t i v e and comparative s t u d y o f t h e deciduous denAmerican t i t i o n o f p r e h i s t o r i c Ohio Valley Amerindians Journal o f Physieal Anthropology 47 :71-80 1978 Developmental a b n o r m a l i t i e s o f t h e permanent d e n t i t i o n of p r e h i s t o r i c Ohio Valley Amerindians. A m h a n Journal o f Physical Anthropology 48 :193-198 S c i u l l i , P W , and R C a r l i s l e 1977 Analysis o f t h e d e n t i t i o n from t h r e e western Pennsylvania Late Woodland S i t e s I1 Wear and pathology Pennsylvania Archaeologist 47:53-59. S c i u l l i , P W , B W Aument, and L R P i o t r o w s k i 1982 The Williams (33W07a) Red Ocher cemetery: preliminary d e s c r i p t i v e and comparative a n a l y s i s o f a c q u i r e d d e n t a l Pennsy Zvania ~ r c h a e o l o g i s t53 (2) :17-24 pathologies Stoltman, J B 1978 Temporal models i n p r e h i s t o r y : An e x p l a n a t i o n from Current Anthropology 29 :703-746 e a s t e r n North America van d e r Merwe, N J , and J C Voqel 1978 1 3 c~o n t e n t o f human c o l l a g e n a s a measure o f p r e h i s t o r i c d i e t i n Woodland North America Nature ondo don) 276:815816 Von Endt, D W , and D J O r t n e r 1982 Amino a c i d a n a l y s i s o f bone from a p o s s i b l e c a s e of p r e h i s t o r i c i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia from t h e ~ m e r i c a nSouthAmerican Journal o f Physical Anthropology 59 :377west 385

ANTHONY J PERZIGIAN ET AL. Webb, W S , and C E Snow The U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee P r e s s , 1974 The Adena people Knoxville. Widmer , L , and A J P e r z i g i a n 1981 The ecology and e t i o l o g y o f s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s i n L a t e Preh i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s from e a s t e r n North America In P r e h i s t o r i c t u b e r c u l o s i s i n t h e Americas, e d i t e d by J E Northwestern Universitg Arehaeo 'Log<eal Program Buiks t r a . S e i e n t i f i e Papers NO 5, pp 99-113 Wolfe, L D , and J P Gray 1982 S u b s i s t e n c e p r a c t i c e s and human s e x u a l dimorphism of Journal o f Human Evolution 1 2 :575-580 stature Youmans, G P 1979 TubereuZos<s Saunders, P h i l a d e l p h i a

CHAPTER 1 4 HEALTH AND DISEASE I N P R E H I S T O R I C GEORGIA : THE T R A N S I T I O N T O A G R I C U L T U R E

Clark Spencer Laysen Department of An thropol ogy Northern I l l i n o i s University

INTRODUCTION

P r e h i s t o r i c mortuary a c t i v i t y in Georgia has been well docu; ;'merited through an extensive s e r i e s of archaeological i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n both inland and c o a s t a l regions. With r e s p e c t t o t h e former, ,Â¥humas k e l e t a l remains r e p r e s e n t i n g hundreds o f i n d i v i d u a l s have :; been recovered, p r i m a r i l y from l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c contexts. Unfor?:,tunately, with t h e exception of preliminary discussion of pathology ' o f human remains from t h e Etowah site (Blakely 1977, 1980) , t h e r e $,are no reported d e s c r i p t i o n s o r analyses of s k e l e t a l pathology from this rather large s e r i e s . The Georgia c o a s t has a l s o produced an abundance of human , : Unlike t h e i n t e r i o r region of Georgia, a s i g n i f ^% . s k e l e t a l remains. 1;;lcant portion of t h e s e remains h a s been described in publication !.and i n manuscript (see Larsen 1982; Larsen and Thomas 1979). ' Because t h e r e i s such a paucity of d a t a based on p r e h i s t o r i c " ~ o ~ u l a t i o nfrom s t h e Georgia i n t e r i o r , t h i s chapter will focus O n 4 gthe Georgia c o a s t f o r a n examination of human s k e l e t a l and pathol o g i c a l changes ( s e e a l s o Larsen 1980a,b, 1981a, 1982, 1983a,b,c) . qThe following w i l l summarize a v a i l a b l e d a t a with regard t o two of s t r e s s as they a r e e x h i b i t e d i n t h e skeleton and d e n t i &:;tion: d i s e a s e - n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s and mechanical s t r e s s . The patha" +ological c o n d i t i o n s t o be con sidered include p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s &:and d e n t a l c a r i e s (disease-nutr i t i o n a l stress) and degenerative ^;joint d i s e a s e (mechanical s t r e s s ) . Moreover, the impact of these on human skeletal size and morphology will be discussed. d e t a i l e d information i s a v a i l a b l e f o r e i t h e r Harris lines or '

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most o f t h e d e n t a l p a t h o l o g i e s c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h i s volume ( i. e . , enamel h y p o p l a s i a , m i c r o d e f e c t s , a t t r i t i o n , p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e , and a b s c e s s i n q ) A n a l y s i s o f economic i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e G e o r g i a c o a s t i n d i c a t e s t h a t b e f o r e c i r c a A.D. 1 1 5 0 , t h e G e o r g i a c o a s t a l subs i s t e n c e economy was b a s e d p r i m a r i l y on h u n t i n g , g a t h e r i n g , and f i s h i n g ; a f t e r t h a t d a t e , a g r i c u l t u r a l f o o d p r o d u c t i o n ( m a i z e , in p a r t i c u l a r ) became a n i m p o r t a n t component o f t h e d i e t a r y regime. T h i s l i f e w a y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n seems m o s t p l a u s i b l e b e c a u s e (1) maize h a s b e e n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y r e c o v e r e d i n post-A.D . 1150 con t e x t s o n l y , ( 2 ) t h e r e i s a marked i n c r e a s e i n h a b i t a t i o n s i t e d e n s i t y and d i s t r i b u t i o n a f t e r A . D . 1 1 5 0 , a n d ( 3 ) t h e e t h n o h i s t o r i c r e c o r d i n d i c a t e s t h a t m a i z e was a major c o n s t i t u e n t o f d i e t , p r o v i d i n g s u p p o r t f o r l a r g e , c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d , permanent v i l l a g e s ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n i n J o n e s 1978; L a r s e n 1 9 8 2 ) .

.

MATERIALS S i n c e t h i s s t u d y r e p r e s e n t s a n a n a l y s i s o f human s k e l e t a l remains from p o p u l a t i o n s d i f f e r i n g o n l y i n mode o f subsistence, t h e cultural p e r i o d s have been d i v i d e d i n t o two g r o u p s . The e a r l i e r pre-A. D. 1150 p e r i o d s c o n s t i t u t e a preagriouzturaz group t h a t c o n s i s t s o f human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from f o u r p r e h i s t o r i c p e r i o d s ; two l a t e r p r e h i s t o r i c p e r i o d s (A.D. 1150-1550) c o n s t i t u t e an agricultural group ( T a b l e 1 4 . 1 ) The human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s f r o m 1 9 p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d 1 4 agr i c u l t u r a l p e r i o d m o r t u a r y sites from t h e G e o r g i a c o a s t w e r e u t i l i z e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p i n c l u d e 272 i n d i v i d u a l s and t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p i n c l u d e s 344 i n d i v i d u a l s . A d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s e s i t e s a n d their a s s o c i a t e d s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l s h a s been p r e s e n t e d elsewhere ( s e e Larsen 1982).

.

GEORGIA COASTAL PALEOPATHOLOGY

Because p e r i o s t e a l reactions, d e n t a l c a r i e s , and d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e a r e age p r o g r e s s i v e , any d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r f r e e quency i n t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p a s compared t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a group may, i n fact, s i m p l y r e f l e c t age s t r u c t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two g r o u p s . T h e r e f o r e , l e t u s examine and compare the p o p u l a t i o n sample p r o f i l e s of t h e p r e a q r i c u l t u r a l a n d a q r i c u l t u r a l groups. T a b l e 1 4 . 2 shows t h e age d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r the p r e a g r i c u l t u r ^ l and a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s . S t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s e profiles , r e v e a l s t h a t t h e two g r o u p s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u c t u $ a t t h e p = .01 l e v e 1 ( ~ o l r n o g o r o v - ~ m i r n o v. ) Careful e x a m i n a t i o n of

vi

14 HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GEORGIA

TABLE 1 4 . 1

369

Subsistence Modes and Associated Periods from the

Subsistence modes

Periods

Terminal dates A.D. 1550 A.D.

S t . Cathevines

Wilmington Dept ford Refuge

:

1300

A.D.

1150 A.D. 1 0 0 0 A. D. 500 400 B. C .

ssooiated: North End Mound, Shell B l u f f , Deptford Mound, Norman Mound, Kent B, E l , Red Knoll, Seven Mile Bend Mound 11 (Burial 81, Irene Mound. d a t e d : South New Gomd Mound, Cunningham Hounds (C, D, E l , MoLeod Hound, Seaside Hounds tl, I D , Evelyn Plantation, Airport, Deptford, Ualthour, Cannons Point, Cedar Grove Mounds (A, B, C ) , Sea Island Mound, Johns Mound,

TABLE 1 4 . 2

Age Distributions of t h Georgia Coastal ~ r e a g r i -

Ppeapidturaz

0.0- 2 . 0 2.1-12.0 12.1-16.0 16.1-20.0 20.1-25.0 25.1-30.0 30.1-35.0 35.1-40.0 40.1-45.0

7 19 13 22 27 14

6 14 11

4.6 12.5 8.6 14.5 17.8 9.2 3.9 9.2 7.2

Agriculth N % 12 30 25 33 38

11 8 9 6 5

6.8 16.9 14.1 18.6 21.5 6.2 4.5 5.1 2.4 2. 8

ups shows, of course, realistic population nor agricultural groups far the p r e a d u l t s i*

-

CLARK SPENCER LARSEN

3 70

TABLE 1 4 . 3 Frequency 0)o f Periostea 2 Reactions i n Preagricu l t u r a l and Agricuztwa l Groups : Adu l t (Femal e s , Males, Indeterminute Sex Combined) Comparisons Preagrieu- Ztuva Z S k e l e t a l element Clavicle Humerus Ulna Radius Femur Tibia Fibula

%

#

1.9

107 190

0.5 0.7 0.7

147

2.1

136 193

4.5

156

1.7

116

Agricu l t u r a l % Na 4.7

3.2 3.7 4.5 6.8

15.0 8.3

%

change b 2.8 2.7

274 273 327 335

3.0 3.8

410

4. 7

10.5 6.6

374

289 -

-

l u m b e r of bones observed for presence-absence o f p e r i o s t e a l reactions. ^computed by t h e fotlouing formula: % Agriou1tuval-% Preagr"io Zturu l .

b o t h g r o u p s i s u n d o u b t e d l y a product o f gross u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n More o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h an a g e - a t - d e a t h o f 1 5 years o r y o u n g e r . i m p o r t a n t l y , however, t h e m a t e r i a l s a t hand i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e prea g r i c u l t u r a l s k e l e t a l s a m p l e i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a d e c i d e d l y o l d e r a g e - a t - d e a t h sample of human s k e l e t a l remains t h a n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l sample.

P e r i o s t e a l Reactions

The f r e q u e n c y of p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s i n s k e l e t a l e l e m e n t s of adul.t s ( f e m a l e s , m a l e s , a n d i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e x combined) i n t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s arid t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f c h a n g e i n o c c u r r e n c e of t h e s e l e s i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 4 . 3 I n g e n e r a l , t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l a d u l t s have h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s o f b o n e s a f f e c t e d by p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s t h a n t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l a d u l t s . A l l o f t h e s e v e n s k e l e t a l e l e m e n t s examined show i n )' c r e a s e s r a n g i n g from 2 . 7 (humerus) t o 1 0 . 5 % ( t i b i a ) . A n a l y s i s o f t h e s e d a t a by sex shows t h a t f e m a l e s h a v e i n c r e a s e s 9, f o r a l l s k e l e t a l e l e m e n t s ( T a b l e 1 4 . 4 ) . These p e r c e n t a g e d i f f e r * ,$; e n c e s between t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l group a n d t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p 18 :, a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y pronounced for t h e lower l i m b . T h e m a l e s able 1 4 . 5 ) show i n c r e a s e s f o r a l l s k e l e t a l . e l e m e n t s e x c e p t t h e c l a v i c l e . t'i :i A s i n t h e females, t h e i n c r e a s e s i n percentage of bones a f f e c t e d ,i+, by t h e p a t h o l o g y are most a p p a r e n t f o r the s k e l e t a l e l e m e n t s o f the l o w e r l i m b . Moreover, c o m p a r i s o n s o f t h e s e x e s w i t h i n t h e preagri-' c u l t u r a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s (cf . T a b l e 1 4 . 4 with T a b l e 1 4 . 5 ) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e s i n p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s were somewhat ?:

'; 4

5 ';l

y!

14 HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GEORGIA

37 1

TABLE 1 4 . 4 Frequency (Percentage) of Periosteal Reactions -in ppeagricu ltural and Agricultural Groups. Fema k Comparisons

m e t a l element Clavicle Humerus Utna Radius Femur Tibia Fibula

~eagricuZtura2 % N~ 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.0

Agricu Ztural %

61

1.8

106 82 77 110

2.4 1.4

84 74

2.9 3.7

3.6 4.0 7.2

16.0 9.9

i P

%

140 190 167 173 207 187 152

change^ 2.9 3.7 2.4

4. 0 5.4 13.6 8.5 --

a~Â¥urnbe o f bones observed for presence-absence of periosteal reactions. ^computed by the follouZng formula: % Agricultural-% PreagricuZtura 2 .

TABLE 1 4 . 5 Frequency (Percentage) o f Periosteaz R e a c t - w m -in Preagricultural and A g r i c u l k r a 2 Groups : Male Comparisons

Ske Zeta2 element .-

PreagrkuZtmaZ % Na

Agricultural

b

% change

%

-

Clavicle Humerus Uka JRadius Femur Tibia Fibula

5. 6 2.0 0.0 0.0 8.0 4.0 0.0

36 51

5.3 3.6

42 43 49 50 .3 7

2.3

114 140 130

2 . 9 1 4 0 6.4 156 15.8 146 5.3 114

-0.3 1.6 2. 3 2.9

4.4 11.8

5.3

^umber of bones observer) fop npesfmce-absenee o f pehosteal ~eactions. ^computed by the foZlouing formula: % Agricultural-% Ppeag~ieuZtura2, greater for t h e females. T h a t is, the percentage increases are larger in the femal-es than in the males. D e n t a l Caries

The frequencies of n o n c a r i o u s and c a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s ( d e n t i t i o n s with a t l e a s t o n e c a r i o u s tooth) i n the p r e a g r i c u l t ~ r a land a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s are provided i n Table 14.6. The c o m p a r i s o n s

\:

&

CL.ARK SPENCER LARSEN

.$

Frequency (Percentage ) of Dentd Caries i n Preag. r i c u l t u r a l and AgriculturaZ Individuals TABLE 14.6

Preapicu I tura2 (%)

Total sample Noncarious Carious Female Noncarious Carious Ma le Noncarious Cari ou s

Beaddt

Nonoari ou s

Carious

(N

=

2O1la

-!d i $,-.

Agridtural f %)

'Â

*

<

4. ?Ç,

&

(N = ~ 7 5 ) ~

"Ã

(N

=

75)

89.3 (N

10.7 = 49) 93.9 6.1

(N = 3 6 ) 100.0 0.0

fN

=

56)

51.8 48.2

'^'Number o f individuaZs observed w i t h a t least one t o o t h present i n the maxillary and mandibular d e n t i t i o n s combined. o f t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e two g r o u p s c l e a r l y show a marked i n c r e a s e i n number o f i n d i v i d u a l s a f f e c t e d by d e n t a l c a r i e s i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p . To summarize, f o r a l l t o o t h c a t e g o r i e s comb i n e d (I1 + 1 2 + C + . . . + M3), o n l y 1 . 3 % o f t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p show c a r i o u s t e e t h (36/2429) . O f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p , however, 11.6% show c a r i o u s t e e t h (486/4189) . T h i s r e p r e s e n t s a 10.3% frequency i n c r e a s e i n c a r i o u s t e e t h i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group r e l a t i v e t o t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l group. Comparisons of t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l a d u l t fem a l e s and m a l e s show s i m i l a r p a t t e r n i n g i n f r e q u e n c y i n c r e a s e of t e e t h a f f e c t e d by c a r i o g e n e s i s . The f e m a l e s show for a l l t e e t h , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e m a n d i b u l a r f i r s t i n c i s o r (no c h a n g e ) , an i n c r e a s e i n f r e q u e n c y o f d e n t a l c a r i e s ( T a b l e 1 4 . 7 ) . T a b l e 1 4 . 8 p r e s e n t s t h e f r e q u e n c i e s of d e n t a l c a r i e s i n m a l e s for t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e i n c r e a s e s i n f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e of c a r i o u s l e s i o n s f o r a l l t e e t h excepting t h e maxillary c e n t r a l i n c i s o r (2.1% decrease) t h e i n c r e a s e s a r e n o t a s g r e a t as t h o s e e x h i b i t e d i n e i t h e r t h e combined sample o r t h e f e m a l e s . I n sum, d e n t a l c a r i e s h a d a minimal i m p a c t o n t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g p e o p l e s on t h e p r e h i s t o r i c ~ e o r g i a c o a s t . T h e r e a p p e a r s t o be l i t t l e o r n o d i f f e r e n c e i n f r e q u e n c y w i t h r e g a r d t o a g e o r s e x . The a g r i c u l t u r a l l i f e w a y , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c l e a r l y r e p r e s e n t s an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n ; f r e q u e n cy of d e n t a l c a r i e s i n c r e a s e s , b u t i n a v e r y p a t t e r n e d f a s h i o n : c a r i o g e n e s i s affects a d u l t females more t h a n m a l e s .

1

^<,- ^

1,.

I

9

^",;

i$ w, &.& # **A, ^a

$q,

TABLE 14. 7 Frequency (Percentage) of Dental Caries i n Preagppiff&tural and Agvicultural Females

Too t h

Preagriculturaz % Na

Agricultural f. changeb

%

11

73

14.4 16.7 18.3 17.4

Ill 138 126 109

14.4 16.7 18.3 17.4

1016

15.6

1688

14.4

#

*,<*. ..,. r; 7

: . . ?

,

Â¥

P4

0.0

Ml

0.0 0.0 0.0

M2 M3

54:

, p :*

Mandible

Tota 2s

'

{:. f 12..

^ ^ &<:

1.2

a!fLanbey>of t e e t h observed

. . caries. =:

61 73 77

for presence-absence

^computed b y the f o l l m i n g fornula: ri(~~.zt~~~z.

;-

of dentaZ

% Agricultural-%

V-reag-

D e a e n e r a t i v e Joint Disease

Comparisons o f e a c h a r t i c u l a r j o i n t f o r adults ( f e m a l e s , maxes , and i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e x combined) i n t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l and a g r i These comparisons , ' c u l t u r a l groups a r e presented i n Table 14.9. a marked r e d u c t i o n i n f r e q u e n c y o f a l t e r a t i o n s o f a r t i c u l a r '; i'^. . j o i n t s i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group r e h t i v e t o t h e n r e a g r i c u l t u r a l group. The r e d u c t i o n s i n f r e q u e n c y o f t h e p a t h o l o g y are p 2 - ^ l a r l y marked f o r the c e r v i c a l a n d lumbar i n t e r v e r t e b r a l l o l n t k b ' With r e g a r d t o t h e s e c o m p a r i s o n s for females o n l y , s i g n i f i c a n 'Y f e w e r a r t i c u l a r j o i n t s i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group a r e a f f e c t e d ' 4: this c o n d i t i o n ( T a b l e 1 4 . 1 0 ) . A r e d u c t i o n i n f r e q u e n c y of the d i s e a s e is shown f o r m o d a r t i c u l a r ~ o i n t s ,e s p e c i a l l y t h e ~ e r v i ^ ' a l p l u m b a r , elbow, and k n e e j o i n t s . S i m i l a r l y , males show a r e d u c t i o n in f r e q u e n c y of d e g e n e r a t i v- ce ;& , j o i n t d i s e a s e ( T a b l e 1 4 . 1 1 ) . The g r e a t e s t d e c l i n e i n frequent '

'

I,

6.8

I;",

374

CLARK SPENCER LARSEN

TABLE 14.8 Frequency (Percentage) of Dental Caries i n Preagricultural and A g r i c d t u r a 2 Males --

Preagricultural ~00th

%

fl

AgricuZtura 2 2

N0-

%

changeb

Maxi 1la II I2

c

P3 P4 Ml M2 M3

Mandible I1

I2

c

P3

P4

Ml M2 Me3

Totals l u m b e r of t e e t h observed f o r presence-absence of dental caries.

^~ornputedb y the fottowi-ng formula: agricultural.

% Agricultural-% Pre-

j o i n t s a f f e c t e d by d e g e n e r a t i v e c h a n g e s a r e t h e cervical and 1 ~ bar intervertebral joints. I n summary, a n a l y s i s and comparison o f a r t i c u l a r j o i n t s a f f e c t e d by d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e show a t r e n d toward r e d u c t i o n i n frequency of t h e c o n d i t i o n i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group. While b o t h f e m a l e s a n d m a l e s a p p e a r t o show r e d u c t i o n i n t h e d i s e a s e , f r e q u e n c y c h a n g e s a r e more pronounced i n t h e males.

Skeletal Size A s h a s been shown i n o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s , all Georgia c o a s t a l s k e l e t a l e l e m e n t s e x a m i n e d - - c l a v i c l e , humerus, r a d i u s , u l n a , f e m u r , t i b i a , a n d f i b u l a - - s h o w t h e same t r e n d i n s i z e change i n comparison of t h e p r e a q r i c u l t u r a l a n d a q r i c u l t u r a l p e r i o d s k e l e t a l series ( s e e L a r s e n 1981b, 1 9 8 2 ) . T h e r e f o r e , for t h e

-

14 HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GEORGIA

375

TABLE 1 4 . 9 Frequency (Percentage) of Degenerative joint Disease i n Articular Joints o f PreagricuZturuZ and A g f i e u z t u p d ~ d u l t s(females, males, indeterminate sex combined)

PreaqricuZturalAgricultural

~ r t i c u l a rjoint

%

26.4

4.0 9.1 4.9 0.0 4.1 13.7 4.4 0.0

Na 53 50 45 40 149 176 142 82 169 183 158 81

%

N~

5.3 5.3 17.8 3.4 1.0 2.3 0.4 1.2 0.3 6.5 0.4 0.4

132 131 118 87 289 307 266 245 290 291 285 232

%

changeb -21.1 -2.7 -26.6 0.7 -3.0 -6.8 -4.5 1.2 -3.8 -7.2 -4.0 0.4

ints observed for presence-absence, of ing fovm7-iZa: % A g v z d t u r a l - % Preag-

(Percentage) of Degenerative Joint of ~rea~r-ieuZtupaZ and ~ g r i c d t u r a l ~rea~rieulturalAgrieultura~

r^ 17.2 32.1

2.6 0.0 4.3 15.0 4.5 0.0

29 30 28 23 83 94 77 50 93 94 88 48

b

%

lva

% c'hange

1.4 1.4 12.5 6.4 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 3.4 0.0 0.0

73 72 64 47 144 167 140 123 148 147 139 120

-15.8 -5.3 -19.6 2.1 -1.7 -9.6 -2.6 0.8 -4.3 -11.6 -4.5 0.0

ints observed for presence -czbsence of

km

CLARK SPENCER LARSEN

376

TABLE 1 4 . 1 1 Frequency (Percentage) o f Degenerative J o i n t Disease i n Articular Joints of P r e a g r z c u l t u ~and. Agricultural Males

~ r e ~ r i c u . Z t u r , a l Agri-ouZtural A r t icu lar joint

Cervical Thoracic Lumbar Sacra 2 - Zwnbor Shoulder EZ ~ O U WVLQt

Hand

Hip Knee Ankle Foot

%

40.0 12.5 69.2 0.0 10.5 13.7 2.6 0.0 0.0 18.6 4.1 0.0

i P 20 16 13 10 38 51

39 28 51

59 49 26

%

N~

% changeb

11.3 11.8 27.7 0.0 1.7 6.1 0.9 2.0 9.1 12.6 9.2

53 61 47 33 120 114 106 100 110

-28.7 -0.7 -41.5 0.0 -8.8 -7.6 -1.7 2. 0 9.1 -6.0 5.1 1.1

111 109 93

1.1

o f articular joints observed for ~ r e s e n c e - a b s e n cof ~ degenerative joint disease. b~omputedby the following formula: % Agricultural-% Preagr icu l turu 2 .

p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n , t h e s k e l e t a l s i z e c h a n g e s w i l l b e summarized t h r o u g h p r e s e n t a t i o n o f o n l y t h e r e s u l t s f o r t h e f e m u r . A cons i d e r a t i o n o f c r a n i a l and d e n t a l changes i s p r e s e n t e d elsewhere (see R e f e r e n c e s ) . The summary o f t h e measurements a n d t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m p a r i s o n s f o r t h e femur i s p r o v i d e d i n T a b l e 1 4 . 1 In a comparison o f t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p w i t h t h e a g r i c u l t u r F o r t h e feg r o u p , t h e s i z e c h a n g e s show a t r e n d o f r e d u c t i o n . m a l e s , t h e s i z e r e d u c t i o n r a n g e s from 3 . 0 (neck h o r i z o n t a l d i m e t e r ) t o 8.3% (subtrochanteric anterior-posterior diameter) F o r t h e m a l e s , t h e s i z e r e d u c t i o n s r a n g e from 0 . 2 (maximum l e n g t h to 5.6% ( s u b t r o c h a n t e r i c t r a n s v e r s e d i a m e t e r ) I n summary, t h e a v e r a g e r e d u c t i o n s o f t h e f e m o r a l d i m e n s i o n s a r e 5 . 9 a n d 3 . 4 % £ t h e females and males, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Comparisons o f f e m o r a l i n d e x e s i m p l y some d e g r e e o f r e d u c t i o r l i n s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group r e l a t i v e t o the p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p ( T a b l e 1 4 . 1 3 ) . I n the f e m a l e s , t h e r e is a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n t h e m i d s h a f t i n d e x (0.9%) , a s l i g h t d e c r e a s e t h e p l a t y m e r i c i n d e x ( 0 . 7 % ) , a n d a more s u b s t a n t i a l d e c r e a s e i n t h e r o b u s t i c i t y i n d e x ( 3 - 2 % ). I n t h e males, t h e r e a r c i n c r e a s e s in b o t h t h e m i d s h a f t a n d p l a t y m e r i c i n d e x e s ( 2 . 3 and 4.8%, r e s p e c l i v e l y ) and a marked d e c r e a s e i n t h e r o b u s t i c i t y i n d e x ( 3 -0%)Similar c o m p a r i s o n s o f p r e a g n c u l t u r a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t u r e show s i z e r e d u c t i o n i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p ( T a b l e 14-

ci

.

.

&:;

,

TABLE 14.12

Comparison of Femoral Dimensions o f P r e a g r i c u Z t u ~ a Zand A g r i c u Z t v ~ " a 2Females and Males Female

Male

P r e a g ~ z c Ztura u 1 Agricdtura2 Dimension

Head d i a m e t e r fleck v e r t i c a l d i a m e t e r Neck horizontal d i a m e t e r Maximum l e n g t h Midshaft a-p d i a m e t e r MidshaftIvans.dzmeter Midstzaft c i r c u m f e r e n c e S u b t r o e h a n t e r i c a-p

Subtrochanteric trans.

Mean (mm)

S

39.0 61 29 25.8 64 31 22.0 64 1 9 4 1 6 54 44 25.2 86 44 2 3 . 1 8 6 76 86 44 47 21.9 91 7 4 5 29.3 92

4 1 . 1 S l

27.2 22.7 434

26.7 24.3

80 23.9

3 1 .

Mean (mm) N

P y e a g r i c u Zt-orat % changea

Mean ( m )

N

Aqrieu Ztur~Z

Mean

(rim)

N

% changea

TABLE 14.12

Index

Comparison of Femoraz Indexes i n PreagricuZtupal and Agricultural Females and Males

Preaqridtd Mean N

Idids haft

92.1 75.1 18.2

44

91.3 75.6 18.8

PZatymeptQ Robus tic*

Fede Aqricu Ztura'i MeanN

45 18

%

86

changeu 0.9 -0.9 -3.2

91

51

~ e g a t i v evalues computed by the fopowing-formula: puted b$ the following formula: +(1 - Xprew/XAg) 100.

TABLE 14.14

Preagricultural Mean N 85.7 73.6 20.0

- (1

-

Mate AgrIeuZtwuZ MeanN

SO

87.7 77.3 19.4

19 9

%

68 69 46

changea 2.3

4. 8 -3.0

? ~ ~ / 00;y positive ~ ~ values ~ ~ comp

Comparison o f Stature of Preagricuztural and Agricultural Females and Males a .

.

-

...

Preaaridturaz Mean (am) N

Fema l e

Male

Aqriculturaz Mean (cm) N

%

chunge

Preaqricu~tura'l Aqricultupal Mean (am) iV Mean (cm) N% changeb

Left femur

162.2

19

157.5

54

-2.9

167.3

9

Rightfemur

160.7

21

156.452

-2. 7

168.9

12

167.547

-0.2

167.1

-1.1

acomputed from formulas provided by G e n o v d s ( 1 9 ~ ) ;measurements are i n ern. b ~ o m ~ u t eby d the fo7Zo~ing formula: - (1 - x g A B e a g )IOU.

48

14 HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GEORGIA

379

Estimation of s t a t u r e , a s based on t h e l e f t and r i g h t femora, shows r e s p e c t i v e reduction of 2 . 9 and 2 . 7 % f o r t h e females and 0 2 and 1.1% f o r t h e males.

DISCUSS ION

% &. *

*,'

-.

"*

VJ-

-

A number of t r e n d s can be shown i n the comparisons of p r e h i t o r i c Georgia c o a s t a l hunter-gatherers (pre-A. D. 1150) with the successive a q r i c u l t u r a l i s t s (A. D. 1150-1550) :

".. 'Z

1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

Let us

I n c r e a s e in frequency o f p e r i o s t c a l r e a c t i o n s I n c r e a s e i n frequency of d e n t a l c a r i e s Decrease i n frequency o f degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e Decrease i n bone s i z e Decrease i n s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y Decrease i n s t a t u r e examine t h e s e t r e n d s i n some d e t a i l .

i,', d e n t i t i o n . '

I ;

;

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e i s a reduction i n f u n c t i o n a l demand placed o n t h e p o s t c r a n i a l skeleton a s i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e decreased frequency of degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e . Both t r e n d s a r e a r e s u l t of t h e s h i f t i n economy and a s s o c i a t e d lifeway from

,

Perhaps the i n c r e a s e i n p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s was a r e s u l t of

pathology. However, a s shown above, i t is t h e group t h a t i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of an o l d e r s k e l e t a l

o p u l a t i o n s occupying t h e Georgia c o a s t , the evidence of n f e c t i o n s would follow a more systematic p a t t e r n i n t h e ample of post-A.D. 1150 a d u l t s . I n f a c t , p e r i o s t e a l occur f o r t h e most p a r t on s i n g l e bones of i n d i v i d u a l s

s t l i k e l y explanation f o r t h e increase i n frequency of g i c a l condition i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l ~ e r i o di s probably t h t h e change i n s e t t l e m e n t o f human populations 1150. Before t h e s h i f t i n subsistence economy, t h e

380

CLARK SPENCER L-ARSEN

occupations. Concomitant with t h e change i n subsistence, there is an a l t e r a t i o n i n settlement p a t t e r n i n g : v i l l a g e s become l a r g e and, in a number of i n s t a n c e s , permanently occupied. I t appears t h a t t h i s change i n settlement and t h e r e s u l t a n t increase in popul a t i o n s i z e and density was conducive t o the increase i n infectious disease i n general. Thus, the increase in p e r i o s t e a l reactions, a. nonspecific i n f e c t i o u s pathology, is r e f l e c t i v e o f a v a r i e t y of diseases that are associated with dense, immobile populations.

qestion of sucrose w i l l produce cariogenic-related c a v i t a t i o n of t e e t h (Rowe 1975; Leverett 1982). Unlike p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s and d e n t a l c a r i e s , the t h i r d pathology observed--degenerative j o i n t disease--markedly decreased =*i n frequency i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group. As with t h e above patholo9Y changes, age f a c t o r s should be considered i n attempting t o explain t h e marked a l t e r a t i o n of t h e samples t h a t are representat i v e of the t w o groups. The p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l group i s i n f a c t comprised of an o l d e r s k e l e t a l sample than the a g r i c u l t u r a l group and, as would be expected, has a higher incidence of degenerativ j o i n t disease. I t i s p o s s i b l e , then, t h a t t h e d i s p a r i t y i n f r e .: quency of degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e between t h e two groups could "'4 account f o r these d i f f e r e n c e s i n pathology a f f e c t i n g a r t i c u l a r j o i n t s u r f a c e s and margins. However, s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s

groups a t t h e p = - 0 5 l e v e l .

Therefore, t h e f a c t o r of age compo-

coast . While degenerative j o i n t disease can r e s u l t from a v a r i e t y of f a c t o r s (see e s p e c i a l l y discussion by Jurmain 1977) , t h e s k e l e t a l changes t h a t a r e associated with the condition a r e r e l a t e d i n l a r p a r t t o t h e degree t o which t h e body i s subjected t o mechanically r e l a t e d functional s t r e s s . A number of researchers, f o r examplet have shown t h a t s p e c i f i c behavioral r e p e r t o i r e s and t h e c~eneral demand of lifeway i n human groups, p r e h i s t o r i c and contemporary' '* a r e r e f l e c t e d in t h e degree and p a t t e r n i n g of degenerative joint d i s e a s e (e. g . , Miller 1982; Ortner 1968; Ortner and putschar 1981;2yb Angel 1966; Haney 1974). I suggest, assuming t h a t t h e l e v e l of .-f mechanical s t r e s s i s associated with the l e v e l of d i f f i c u l t y of lifeway ( t h a t i s , r e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e i n degree of work l o a d ) ,

,&

i

f

'

14 HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GhORGIA

38 1

f

t o r i c Georgia c o a s t a l a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s y t h a n their p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l hunter;

if'

had

The r e d u c t i o n i n p o s t c r a n i a l s i z e and s t a t u r e a s documented t h e a n a l y s i s of femoral .size o f p r e - and post-A.D. 1150 Georgia c o a s t a l Amerindians must be examined i n l i g h t of t h e t r a n s i t i o n to an a g r i c u l t u r a l - b a s e d s u b s i s t e n c e economy. Two v a r i a b l e s , i n p a r c l o s e consideration: l e v e l of f u n c t i o n a l e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s ) and u n d e r n u t r i t i o n ( d i s e a s e - n u t r i t i o n a l

I' in .

'

!'I

s t c r a n i a l r e d u c t i o n i n mechanically r e l a t e d s t r e s s i s i m by t h e changes t h a t a r e p r e s e n t f o r t h e femoral i n d i c e s : nd r o b u s t i c i t y . Both females and males i d s h a f t index, and t h e males show an i n c index. The females show v i r t u a l l y no change ( s l i g h t r e d u c t i o n ) i n t h e platyrneric index. Moreover, roof both s e x e s a r c lower i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l Although low p l a t y m e r i c indexes have been i n t e r p r e t e d a s rep-

femoral s h a f t d i s t a l -1-0 t h e lesser t r o c h a n t e r l

-$platyrneric indexes appear t o be a s s o c i a t e d with a g r i c u l t u r a l and ."urban economies i n which t h e l i f e w a y s a r e presumably l e s s func$ , t i o n a l l y demanding (Buxton 1938 ; Pearson and B e l l 1917-1919 ;

o bone development.

I n i n s t a n c e s of c o n s t a n t

n o r d e r t o r e s i s t e f f i c i e n t l y e x t e r n a l f u n c t i o n a l demands. Therei t is p o s i t e d h e r e t h a t i n keeping with t h e g e n e r a l phenomeI rnon t h a t bone is d e p o s i t e d i n t h e presence of f u n c t i o n a l demand M n d is resorbed i n i t s absence ( W o l f f s l a w ) , t h e s i z e r e d u c t i o n s i a l s k e l e t a l elelnents re-

l l y l i k e l y c a u s e o f t h e s k e l e t a l s i z e changes on That is t o s a y , w i t h t h e p r o g r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e d r a t e s and a d e c r e a s e i n consumption of animal

382

CLARK SPENCER LARSEN

p r o t e i n , a decrease i n s k e l e t a l s i z e and s t a t u r e r e s u l t e d . Indeed , a d e c r e a s e i n p r o t e i n consumption i s suggested by t h e d a t a add r e s s e d i n t h e foregoing d i s c u s s i o n of change i n c a r i o g e n e s i s on t h e Georgia c o a s t . Rowe (1975) and o t h e r s have shown t h a t t h e o r a l environment most s u i t a b l e f o r t h e support of o d o n t o l y t i c organisms i n d e n t a l plaque i s c r e a t e d by a d i e t a r y regime low i n p r o t e i n and high i n c a r b o h y d r a t e s . The marked i n c r e a s e i n d e n t a l c a r i e s on t h e p r e h i s t o r i c Georgia c o a s t r e f l e c t s such a d i e t a r y reconstruction. Garn and Frisancho (1971) , Garn and Clark (1975) , S t i n i (1969, 1 9 7 1 ) , Newman (1975), and o t h e r s have demonstrated t h a t human p o p u l a t i o n s undergoing p r o t e i n m a l n u t r i t i o n have r e l a t i v e l y smaller body s i z e and s t a t u r e than p o p u l a t i o n s with adequate n u t r i t i o n . The reduced p o s t c r a n i a l s i z e and s t a t u r e i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group on t h e Georgia c o a s t would seem t o s u g g e s t t h e l i k e l i h o o d of some form of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s such a s p r o t e i n m a l n u t r i t i o n . Compoundi n g t h e presumed r e d u c t i o n in animal p r o t e i n consumption i s t h e inadequacy of maize a s a p r o t e i n s o u r c e . Moreover, i f an individual i s experiencing an i n f e c t i o n , t h e body's response i s t o a c t i v a t e t h e immune system, t h e r e b y i n h i b i t i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a n t i b o d i e s . T h i s s i t u a t i o n r e s u l t s i n a r e d u c t i o n of t h e amount of l a b i l e prot e i n t h a t i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e growth o f t h e s k e l e t o n and o t h e r t i s s u e s ( S t i n i 1969). N u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c y i n t h e l a t e r Georgia c o a s t a l a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s might be examined i n l i g h t of p o s s i b l e i n c r e a s e s i n frequency o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s . For t h i s r e g i o n , however, o n l y a few p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l c r a n i a e x h i b i t t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e pathology ( s e e Zahler 1976; Larscn and Thomas 198 C - S. Larsen, unpublished) . Thus, t h e r e is no i n c r e a s e i n f r e q u It i s s u g g e s t e d , t h e n , t h a t w h i l e p o r o t i c cy o f t h e c o n d i t i o n . h y p e r o s t o s i s h a s been shown t o be an important i n d i c a t o r o f s t r e s s i n p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h ( s e e B u i k s t r a and Cook 1980; HussAsh-more e t a l . 1982; Goodman e t a l . , Chapter 11 t h i s volume), i t s p r e s e n c e o r absence w i t h i n a p o p u l a t i o n c e r t a i n l y should n o t be considered i n i s o l a t i o n from o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s . I n o r d e r t o d i s t i n g u i s h mechanical from n u t r i t i o n a l f a c t o r s , Ruff and co-workers (Ruff e t a l . 1983) have analyzed c r o s s s e c t i o n a l geometric p r o p e r t i e s (bone a r e a s , a r e a moments o f i n e r t i a ) o f Georgia c o a s t a l femora and have found s i g n i f i c a n t remodeling o f t h i s s k e l e t a l element t h a t appears t o b e r e l a t e d t o a d e c r e a s e i n mechanical s t r e s s i n g o f t h e lower limb i n t h e agricul t u r a l group. The a n a l y s i s a l s o r e v e a l e d t h a t parameters t h a t i n d i c a t e s t r e n g t h ( a r e a moments o f i n e r t i a ) d e c r e a s e r e l a t i v e l y more than bone a r e a . These d a t a s u g g e s t , t h e n , t h a t although c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s of s k e l e t a l change may be r e l a t e d t o d i e t - r e d u c t i o n i n o v e r a l l s i z e - - o t h e r f e a t u r e s can be b e s t i n t e r p r e t s i n l i g h t , of r e l a t i v e r e d u c t i o n i n mechanical s t r e s s a s was i m p l i c a t e d by t h e aforementioned r e d u c t i o n i n frequency of o s t e o a r t h r i t i s and a l t e r a t i o n s i n bone s i z e and s h a p e In summary, although t h e mechanisms by which the t r e n d s i n skeletal s i z e and form came about remain i m p r e c i s e , it i s pOssib

^

#' te

14 HEALTH AND DISEASE I N PREHISTORIC GEORGIA

CHANGE IN SUBSISTENCE MODE.

CHANGE I N PATTERN

INCREASED INFECTIOUS DISEASE

-

MUSCLE GROWTH

POOR

Y

QUALITY

PROTEIN

BONE GROWTH

I

à ‘ I

I

CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL CHANGES : REDUCTION IN SIZE. CHANGEIN FORM

L

FIGURE 14.1. Proeessual model of bzocultural adaptation on he prehistoric Georgia coast. t t h i s j u n c t u r e t o provide a preliminary model o u t l i n i n g t h e recesses behind t h e changes documented i n t h i s chapter. In r t i c u l a r , i t seems most l i k e l y t h a t a combination of changes h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n and musculoskeletal s t r e s s l e d to proe s s i v e a l t e r a t i o n i n p a t t e r n of s k e l e t a l growth (see Figure .I).

Sexual Dimorphism One i n t r i g u i n g change with regard t o t h e t r a n s i t i o n from n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g t o a g r i c u l t u r e t h a t w i l l be addressed i n e following d i s c u s s i o n i s t h a t having t o do with t h e d i f f e r c e s seen between t h e female s k e l e t a l samples and t h e i r male unterparts. Three d i f f e r e n c e s a r e p r e s e n t and can be summared a s follows: 1. 2.

3.

Females show a g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e in p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s than males. Females show a g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e i n d e n t a l c a r i e s than males. Females show a qreatmr- decrease i n s k e l e t a l s i z e and r o b u s t i c i t y and s t a t u r e than males, t h u s i n d i c a t i n g an i n c r e a s e i n t h e percentage of sexual dimorphism i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l group (Table 14.15) .

hese sex d i f f e r e n c e s r e p r e s e n t a p a t t e r n and p o i n t t o an impornt dichotomy i n d i e t and a s s o c i a t e d behavior.

TABLE 1 4 . 1 5

Percentage of Sexual Dimorphism i n Stczture i n P r e ~ r z e u Z t u r a land Ag-Yzcu Ztural

Groups -

-

-

P r e a g h ZturaZ

--

Agrzeu Ztural Female meww Male mean statwe* staturea

Skeletal e foment

Female mean staturea

Left femur

162.2

167.9

+3.4

157.5

167.5

+6.0

Right femur

163.7

171.4

+4. 5

168.1

167.5

+5.6

Male mean staturea -

% Smal

dimorphism

.--

-

--

-

Computed from formulas provided by Genovgs ( 1 9 6 7 ) ; -in em. ^Computed by the following formula: +11 - -t- ^i/11'0.

/

% Sexual dimorphism

HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GEORGIA

385

~ t h n o g r a p h i caccounts have demonstrated t h a t there are S t r i c t divisions of 1abor among non-Western populations f o r the procurement of food, and, although the data are scarce, the impression one g e t s from a reading of the l i t e r a t u r e i s t h a t these divisions r e s u l t i n inequitable d i s t r i b u t i o n s of recovered d i e t a r y items. m n g hunter-gatherer groups, women perform most of the a c t i v i t i e s t h a t a r e associated with p l a n t foods while men do most of the hunting; it i s the l a t t e r sex, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t has g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n t i a l access t o p r o t e i n (see Bowdler 1976; Hayden 1981; Lee 1968; Meehan l977a, b) . With regard t o the Georgia c o a s t , t h e r e a r e , of course, no data on food sharing and d i v i s i o n of labor among t h e pre-A.D. 1150 hunter-gatherer populations, but t h e r e i s p e r t i n e n t information in the e t h n o h i s t o r i c record f o r the southeastern United S t a t e s in general. Swanton (1942, 1946) and Hudson (1976) have pointed out t h a t marked sexual d i v i s i o n occurred f o r most a c t i v i t i e s : males were responsible f o r hunting; females were responsible f o r most a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y those r e l a t e d t o care of crops and food preparation. I t i s suggested here t h a t the sexdifference trends t h a t have been documented in t h e foregoing can be explained i n a l a r g e p a r t by r o l e differences i n subsistencer e l a t e d behavior. On t h e one hand, females may have been exposed . o r e t o i n f e c t i o u s conditions because they were spending more time the v i l l a g e environment while males, because they were involvedmore a c t i v i t i e s away from t h e v i l l a g e , were not exposed as much o pathogens responsible f o r the onset and maintenance of infecion. Moreover, i f there had been d i f f e r e n t i a l access t o animal rotein during c r i t i c a l periods of growth and development and dulthood, then t h e sex receiving r e l a t i v e l y l e s s protein--the emales--would show a r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r reduction i n s k e l e t a l i z e . F i n a l l y , it i s important to keep in mind t h a t female physi1 a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s may be more a l t e r e d with t h e s h i f t to s e d e n t m than those of males; t h a t i s , i n reference t o t h e scenario resented above, women may have had a l e s s mechanically demanding havioral r e p e r t o i r e than males a f t e r A . D . 1150 and, hencel a l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r reduction i n bone area and s k e l e t a l s i z e -

COMPARISONS WITH OTHER STUDIES

The f i r s t description of pattology i n ~ e o r g i ap r e h i s t o r i c huan s k e l e t a l remains i s i n t h e work of Clarence loomf field Moore 1897) . In h i s s k e l e t a l d e s c r i p t i o n s , he noted instances of nkylosis , healed f r a c t u r e , "inflammations" of long bones seudarthrosis , "diseased" long bones, a l v e o l a r abscessing and @Sorption, and d e n t a l c a r i e s . Additional human remains recovered from the ~ e o r g i acoast ere-studied by Wallace (1975) and Zahler (1976). These

386

CLARK SPENCER L A R S m

composed o f r e m a i n s from t h e n o r t h e r n end o f S t . Simons I s l a n d , a r e from l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c and p r o t o h i s t o r l c v i l l a g e a n d mound c o n t e x t s . Employing a h e r b i v o r e c o n t r o l (.Odoe~iZeus vir$nianus), chemical a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e r e m a i n s r e v e a l e d t h a t b u r i a l s from a l a t e r component ( T a y l o r Mound) h a d a lower mean s t r o n t i u m c o n t e n t than b u r i a l s from a n e a r l i e r component (Couper F i e l d ) , which was a t t r i b u t e d t o s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t "from a m a r i n e - o r i e n t e d , f i s h i n g and-s h e l l f i s h i n q economy ( w i t h c o n s e q u e n t l y h i g h s t r o n t i u m r e a d i n g s ) t o o n e t h a t i s p r o n o u n c e d l y h o r t i c u l t u r a l " ( W a l l a c e 1975: 2 3 3 ) . ~ h e s ef i n d i n g s s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d p r e l i m i n a r y s i n c e n e i t h e r c o n t r o l w i t h t h e u s e of another element (calcium, i n part i c u l a r ) n o r i n c l u s i o n of c a r n i v o r e s i n t h e c o n t r o l sample were u s e d ( s e e S i l l e n 1981; S m i t h e t a l . , C h a p t e r 5 , t h i s volume) i n the analysis. I n s u p p o r t o f t h e f i n d i n g s p r e s e n t e d b y L a r s e n (1982, s e e a b o v e ) , Z a h l e r (1976) r e p o r t e d a h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f d e n t a l c a r i e s , s u g g e s t i n g a h i g h c a r b o h y d r a t e i n t a k e . The i n v e s t i g a t o r a l s o r e p o r t e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s ; t h i s was a t t r i b u t e d t o i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g dependence on m a i z e a g r i c u l t u r e . I n s t a n c e s o f v e r t e b r a l d e g e n e r a t i v e ~ooijnt ' d i s e a s e and p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s were a l s o n o t e d . While none o f , these findings a r e contradictory t o other studies u t i l i z i n g . G e o r g i a c o a s t a l s k e l e t a l remains, t h e a u t h o r d i d n o t p r e s e n t a c l e a r d i s c u s s i o n of f r e q u e n c y (percenLdqe) o f i n d i v i d u a l s a f f e c t e d by t h e p a t h o l o g i e s . Consequently, comparisons w i t h o t h e r l o c a l i t i e s a r e l i m i t e d and s h o u l d b e made i n o n l y a g e n e r a l s e n s e . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e f i n d i n g s o f Z a h l e r (1976) a n d L a r s e n ( s e e above) , H u l s e (1941) r e p o r t e d a r a r i t y o f d e n t a l c a r i e s i n d e n t i - ; t i o n s from t h e I r e n e Mound s i t e , a l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c h a b i t a t i o n c e r e m o n i a l complex o n t h e n o r t h G e o r g i a c o a s t . H u l s e (1941:60) ;: s u g g e s t e d t h a t I r e n e p e o p l e s h a d s u b s i s t e d more on a d i e t c o n s i s t i n q l a r g e l y of f o o d s " o b t a i n e d from h u n t i n g , f i s h i n g , and j g a t h e r i n g , t h a n upon a n a g r i c u l t u r a l d i e t . " T h i s s u b s i s t e n c e mode1 i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a b r a s i v e f o o d s t u f f s , was t h o u g h t t o h a v e pre- *? v e n t e d d e n t a l d e c a y . My r e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e d e n t a l r e m a i n s 5; ( L a r s e n 1 9 8 2 ) , however, i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e I r e n e Mound m a t e r i a l s a c t u a l l y e x h i b i t a r a t h e r h i g h frequency o f d e n t a l c a r i e s , andl !; most c e r t a i n l y , a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and e t h n o h i s t o r i c r e s e a r c h h a s show?. *. t h a t t h e I r e n e Mound p e o p l e s were f u l l - f l e d g e d a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s H u l s e (1941) a l s o n o t e d t n e p r e s e n c e of e x t r e m e t o o t h w e a r , a $+ h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f a l v e o l a r a b s c e s s e s , t h i r d m o l a r i m p a c t i o n infec' i t i o n ( o s t e o m y e l i t i s , p e r i o s t i ti s) , a n d s e v e r a l c a s e s o f v i o l e n c e - ,^i r e l a t e d c r a n i a l t r a u m a . T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s were c o n f i r m e d by my '' review o f these m a t e r i a l s . a? Only a s m a l l f r a c t i o n of human r e m a i n s from t h e i n t e r i o r of G e o r g i a h a s been d e s c r i b e d ( s e e ~ n t r o d u c t i o n .) Of t h e d e s c r i p t i o G o f m a t e r i a l s , most n o t a b l e i s t h e work o f R . L. ~ l a k e l y (19771 ',.'; 1 9 8 0 ) on t h e r e m a i n s from t h e Etowah s i t e , a m a l o r ~ i s s i s s i p p i5'' ~ h a b i t a t ion-ceremonia I c e n t e r i n n o r t h w e s t G e o r g i a . T h i s i n v e s t i d ,s g a t o r r e p o r t e d o n f r e q u e n c x e s i n a d u l t s of i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s ( p e r i o s t i t i s , osteomyelitis) , g e r o n t a l osteoporosis, v e r t e b r a l -; #:

':

:$*

2

2

I

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.1 ? ,.

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s

14 HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GEORGIA

387

degenerative j o i n t d i s e a s e , p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e , f r a c t u r e s , and tumors (Blakely 1980) . For t h e roost p a r t , these c o n d i t i o n s were low i n frequency ( r e p o r t e d i n percentage of ' i n d i v i d u a l s a f f e c t e d ) , e x c e p t t h a t o v e r 50% o f a d u l t s were by v e r t e b r a l d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e . I t is i n t e r e s t ing t h a t a s i n t h e Georgia c o a s t p o p u l a t i o n s a v e r y low occurrence of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s was found a t Etowah ( f o u r cases) . ~ l a k e l y (1980) a l s o found t h a t lower s t a t u s individual. s ( v i l l a g e area) had a g r e a t e r frequency of p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e than higher s t a t u s i n d i v i d u a l s (Mound C) Although n o d i f f e r e n c e s i n t r a c e elements were found between t h e s e subpopulations ( s e e Blakely and Beck 1 9 8 1 ) , Blakely (1980) a t t r i b u t e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n frequency f p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e t o a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n of maize i n t h e e t of lower c l a s s i n d i v i d u a l s . T h i s , then, p r o v i d e s p r e l i m i n a r y i d e n c e t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o a g r i c u l t u r e had n o t o n l y a d i f f e r t i a l impact by sex ( s e e Sexual Dimorphism), but a l s o by c l a s s o r

.

a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Etowah demod i s e a s e i n f l u e n c e s , Blakely (1977) n o t e d a s l i t t l e evidence o f t r a u m a t i c i n j u r y i n young s no evidence that t h e r e were any s e s t h a t could have a f f e c t e d m o r t a l i t y ; r e n t evidence of p r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n

CONCLUS IONS

T h i s chapter has summarized a s e r i e s o f s k e l e t a l and d e n t a l

eloped in p o p u l a t i o n s o n t h e p r e h i s t o r i c Georgia nse t o d i e t a r y and r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r a l a 1t e r a t i o n s the s h i f t from a d i e t based o n h u n t i n g , g a t h e r i n g , a d i e t based, a t l e a s t i n p a r t , on maize a g r i c u l a t a p r o v i d e good e v i d e n c e f o r a d e c l i n e i n h e a l t h In addition, reduction t e d change i n s k e l e t a l s i z e . i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e a n d s h a f t shape modiand s u b t r o c h a n t e r i c r e g i o n of t h e femur e l of m u s c u l o s k e l e t a l s t r e s s w i t h t h e c h a n g e i n l i f e w a y . The impact of t h e s h i f t to a g r i c u l t u r e and sedentism was probably g r e a t e r f o r the females t h a n f o r Most of the information from the work of Moore (1897) I ' the males. d Bl-akely (1977, 1980) i s p r e l i m i n a r y and d o e s *.anot p r o v i d e t o t a l c o r r o b o r a t i v e e v i d e n c e for my s t u d i e s a s suma t i o n i s needed f o r a b e t t e r understanding o f hui n p r e h i s t o r i c Georgia. P a t h o l o g i c t r e n d s w i t h i n u r a l h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g s k e l e t a l sample are not a r e a v a i l a b l e for a n a l y s i s of t h e changes i n a s e t h a t p r e c e d e t h e transition t o a n a g r i c u l t u r a l

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s u b s i s t e n c e mode. More i m p o r t a n t , t h e g r e a t e r body o f e x t a n t c o l l e c t i o n s o f human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from t h e i n t e r i o r o f G e o r g i a need t o be s t u d i e d i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a broader b i o c u l t u r a l p i c t u r e of t h i s region o f t h e p r e h i s t o r i c southeastern United S t a t e s

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F i e l d s u p p o r t f o r t h e r e s e a r c h from t h e G e o r g i a c o a s t 8 ( S t . C a t h e r i n e s I s l a n d ) was p r o v i d e d by t h e Edward J o h n Noble $? :<4 ' FoundationandTheAmericanMuseumof NaturalHistory. I thank J. D r s . Douglas H. U b e l a k e r , N a t i o n a l Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , ,$ Washington, D.C. ; David H u r s t Thomas, The American Museum o f .I$1 ;, N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , New York; and David J . H a l l y a n d M a r s h a l l G . :*& H u r l i c h , U n i v e r s i t y o f Georgia, Athens, f o r a c c e s s t o t h e Georgia 4 , c o a s t a l human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s i n c l u d e d i n t h e r e s e a r c h summarized ', : h e r e . D r . Ted A . Rathbun, U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h C a r o l i n a , Columbia, k i n d l y g a v e m e u n p u b l i s h e d s k e l e t a l d a t a c o l l e c t e d from t h e Lewis :, ,i Creek mounds. A number o f i n d i v i d u a l s p r o v i d e d i m p o r t a n t a i d ,$ d u r i n g t h e r e s e a r c h , writing, and p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s : 3. 4 D r s . David H u r s t Thomas, M i l f o r d H. Wolpoff, D a v i d S . C a r l s o n , ,'A , ' C h r i s t o p h e r b. P e e b l e s , N a t h a n i e l H. Rowe, Douglas H . U b e l a k e r , C . L o r i n g B r a c e , David J . H a l l y , B r u c e D . S m i t h , T. D a l e S t e w a r t , , -1 J. Lawrence Angel, Donald J . O r t n e r , L u c i l e S t . Hoyme , C h r i s t o p h e r '' B . R u f f , C h e s t e r B. D e P r a t t e r , Ms. Becky C a r n e s , a n d M r . F r e d C!. Cook. M s . Margot D e m b o p r o v i d e d e d i t o r i a l a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e 5 p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e f i n a l m a n u s c r i p t . David S. C a r l s o n (1976) h a s d e v e l o p e d a c r a n i o f a c i a l - s p e c i f i c f l o w model s i m i l a r , i n p a r t , to -/$ :'.; t h e g e n e r a l model f i g u r e d i n t h i s chapter ( r i g u i e 1 4 . 1 ) ; I have 3 p r o f i t e d enormously from d j . s c u s s i o n s w i t h him. M r . A l f r e d J. -4 F e e l e y , G r a p h i c s S e r v i c e s , S o u t h e a s t e r n M a s s a c h u s e t t s u n i v e r s i t y , .& i) ,:: prepared t h e a r t w o r k f o r F i g u r e 1 4 . 1 . * The b u l k o f t h e r e s e a r c h b a s e d o n human r e m a i n s from t h e 1 ,. f G e o r g i a c o a s t was i n i t i a t e d a n d c o m p l e t e d i n 1978-1979 d u r i n g t e n u r e a s a F e l l o w i n R e s i d e n c e i n t h e Department o f A..thropo10gy^ ' , "3. : N a t i o n a l Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , ~ m i t h s o n i a n~ n s t i t u t i o n ; ., ,?2 , ; f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t was p r o v i d e d by a S m i t h s o n i a n ~ n s t i t u t i o n , , Predoctoral Fellowship. . :s

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REFERENCES

A n g e l , J. Lawrence 1966 E a r l y s k e l e t o n s from t r a n q u i l l i t y , C a l i f o r n i a . Smithsonzan Contributions to Anthropology 2 (I):1-19.

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Haney, P a t r i c i a 1974 A t l a t l elbow i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a p r e h i s t o r i c c u l t u r e s .

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Hayden, B r i a n $ 1 ' .y 1 9 8 1 S u b s i s t e n c e a n d e c o l o g i c a l a d a p t a t i o n s o f modem hunter/ gatherers. In Omnivorous primates: Gathering and hunti i n human evolution, e d i t e d by R. S. 0. Hardinq a n d Geza T e l e k i , pp. 344-421. Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , N e w York. Hudson, C h a r l e s 1976 The southeastern Indians. U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee P r e s s , Knoxville . Hul s e , F r e d e r i c k S . 1941 The p e o p l e who l i v e d a t I r e n e : p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y . I n Irene mound s i t e , J . R . C a l d w e l l and C. McCann, pp. 5768. U n i v e r s i t y o f G e o r g i a P r e s s , A t h e n s . Huss-Ashmorc, Rebecca, Alan H. Goodman, a n d George J. Annelagos Advances i n 1982 N u t r i t i o n a l i n f e r e n c e from p a l e o p a t h o l o g y Arehaeologicul Metbd and T h e o q 5:395-474. J o n e s , G r a n t D. 1978 The e t h n o h i s t o r y o f t h e G u a l e c o a s t t h r o u g h 1684. I n The a n t h r o p o l o g y o f S t . C a t h e r i n e s I s l a n d . 1. N a t u r a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y , David Hurs t Thomas, G r a n t D . J o n e s , Roger S. Durham, a n d C l a r k S p e n c e r L a r s e n . ~nthropolog'ica~ Papers of t h e American Museum of Natural History 55:178210. J u r m a i n , R o b e r t D. 1977 S t r e s s a n d t h e e t i o l o g y o f o s t e o a r t h r i t i s . American JoumaZ of Physical Anthropology 4 6 : 3 5 3 - 3 6 5 . Larsen, Clark Spencer 1980a D e n t a l c a r i e s : E x p e r i m e n t a l and b i o c u l t u r a l e v i d e n c e . I n The s k e l e t a l b i o l o g y o f a b o r i g i n a l p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s , e d i t e d by P. W i l l e y and F r e H . S m i t h , p p . 75-00. Tennessee AnthropoloqicaZ A S S O ~ ~ U ~

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1980b Human s k e l e t a l a n d d e n t a l h e a l t h c h a n g e s i n t h e p r e h i s t Georgia c o a s t . i n Excursions i n southeastern geology: archaeology -geology of the Georgia coast, e d i t e d by Jame D. Howard, C h e s t e r B. D e P r a t t e r , a n d R o b e r t W. F r e y , PP192-201. G e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y o f America, A t l a n t a . 1981a S k e l e t a l a n d d e n t a l a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e s h i f t t o a g r i c u l t on t h e G e o r g i a c o a s t . Current Anthropology 22 :422-423. 1981b F u n c t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f p o s t c r a n i a l s i z e r e d u c t i o n 0 t h e p r e h i s t o r i c G e o r g i a c o a s t . Journal of Hmm E V O ~ ^ IO:489-502. 1982 The a n t h r o p o l o g y of S t . C a t h e r i n e s I s l a n d . 3 . p r e h i s t o r i human b i o l o g i c a l a d a p t a t i o n . Anthropological Papers o f t h e American Museum of Natural History 5 7 ~ 1 5 5 - 2 7 0 .

14 HEALTH AND DISEASE IN PREHISTORIC GEORGIA

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'

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19 83a Behavioral i m p l i c a t i o n s o f temporal change i n cariogenesi s. Journa 2 of Arehaeo l o g i c a 2 Science 10 f 1 ) :1- 8. 1983b S u b s i s t e n c e r o l e behavior and t h e infectious disease exp e r i e n c e on t h e p r e h i s t o r i c Georgia c o a s t . American

Journal of P h y s i c a l Anthropology 60 (2) :216. 1983c Deciduous t o o t h s i z e and s u b s i s t e n c e change i n p r e h i s t o r i c Georgia c o a s t p o p u l a t i o n s . Current Anthropology 22:422-

Lee, Richard Borshay 1968

What hunters do f o r a l i v i n g ; o r , how t o make o u t on s c a r c e resources. I n Man t h e Hunter, e d i t e d by R. B. Lee and I . DeVore, pp. 30-48. Aldine, Chicago. anging prevalence of d e n t a l c a r i e s . Science 2 1 7 : 2 6 - 3 0 . c a l o r i e s alone:

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fish i n a c o a s t a l c u i s i n e . I n Sun& and S a m , p r s h z ~ t u r i ~ s t u d i e s i n S. E. A s i a , Melanesia and ~ u s t r a l i a ,e d i t e d by J . Allen, J. Golson, and R . J o n e s , p p . 493-531. Acadf3mlc P r e s s , New York and London. 1977b Hunters by t h e s e a s h o r e . J o u r n a l of Timan ~ v o l u t i o n6: 363-370.

Certain a b o r i g i n a l mounds of t h e Georgia c o a s t . J ~ U V ~ t h e Academy of Natural S c i e n c e s of P h i l a d e l p h i a 11 :4138. Marshall T . N u t r i t i o n a l a d a p t a t i o n i n man. I n ~ h y s i o l o g aAnthrooxford p ~ l o g i j ,e d i t e d by A l b e r t Damon, pp. 210-259. U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New York Donald J. D e s c r i p t i o n and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of degenerative bone changes i n t h e d i s t a l j o i n t s u r f a c e s of t h e humerus. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 28 :139-156. Donald J . , and Walter G. J. P u t s c h a r I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of pathological conditions in human s k e l e t a l remains. Srm,ths&n Contributions to ~ n t h r ~ p o l o mNO. . 28 -

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Pearson, K . , a n d J . A. B e l l 1917-1919 A stud9 o f the long-bones o f the English skeleton. D r a p e r ' s Co. , London. Rowe, N a t h a n i e l H. 1 9 7 5 D e n t a l c a r i e s . I n Dimensions of Dental Hygiene ( s e c o n d Lea & e d . ) , e d i t e d b y P a u l i n e F. S t e e l e , p p . 198-222. Febiger, P h i l a d e l p h i a . R u f f , C h r i s t o p h e r B . , a n d W i l s o n C. Hayes 1 9 8 3 a C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l g e o m e t r y of P e c o s P u e b l o f e m o r a a n d T i b i a e - - A b i o m c c h a n i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A. Method a n d g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s o f v a r i a t i o n . American J o u d of Physical Anthropology 60 : 359-381. 1983b C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l geometry o f Pecos Pueblo femora and t i b i a e - - A b i o m e c h a n i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . B. Sex, a g e , a n d s i d e d i f f e r e n c e s . American Jouma 1 of Physical Anthro~ O Z O ~ 6Y 0 : 383-400. R u f f , C. B . , W. C. H a y e s , a n d C. S . L a r s e n 1983 Changes i n f e m o r a l s t r u c t u r e w i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o a g r i c u l t u r e o n t h e G e o r g i a c o a s t . American J o m a l of Physical Anthropology 6 0 ( 2 ) : 2 4 7 - 2 4 8 . S i l l e n , Andrew 1 9 8 1 S t r o n t i u m and d i e t a t Hayonim Cave. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 56:131-138. Stini, William A. 1 9 6 9 N u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s a n d g r o w t h : Sex d i f f e r e n c e i n a d a p t i v e response. American Journal o f Phy s w hth~omocjtj 32 :417-426. 1971 Evolutionary i m p l i c a t i o n s o f changing n u t r i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s i n human p o p u l a t i o n s . American Anthropologist 73 :10191030. Swanton, John R. 1942 S o u r c e m a t e r i a l o n t h e h i s t o r y a n d e t h n o l o g y of the Caddo I n d i a n s . Bureau of American Ethology Bulletin 1 3 2 . 1 9 4 6 I n d i a n s o f the s o u t h e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s . Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 1 3 7 . Townsley, W . 1 9 4 6 P l d t y m e r i a . Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology 5 8 : 85-

t

a

88.

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W a l l a c e , R o n a l d Lynn

,

;:

1975 An archaeo Zoqicul, ethnohisto'ri.~,and bioohemieat i n v e s t i -

gat-ion of the GuaZe Aborigines of the Georgia coastal strand. P h . D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t h r o p o l o g y

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U n i v e r s ~ . t yof F l o r i d a , G a i n e s v i l l e ~y Z a h l e r , J a m e s W. , Jr. :! 1 9 7 6 A morphological amZysis of a protohzstoric-hiRtoria ske Zetu I population from S t . Simans I s land, ~ e o r g i a . - ;+ M . A . t h e s i s , D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t ~ h r o p o l o g y , ~ n i v e r s i t y ~ f i' Florida, Gainesville. L., a

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west. An e x t e n s i v e , b u t by no means e x h a u s t i v e , s e a r c h of t h e a r c h d e o l c ~ q i c a land o s t e o l o q i c a l l i t e r a t u r e was conduct.ed for t h c purpose o f l o c a t i n g o s t e o l o q i c a l a n a l y s e s from t h e t h r e e archacoloqical areas. The b i o a r c h a e o l o y i c a l d a t a used i n this

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JEROME C . ROSE E T A / . .

JEROME C. ROSE E T V .

A p a r t i a l a n s w e r can be f o u n d i n t h e C e n t r a l M i s s i s s i p p i V a l l e y d a t a , however. The s l i c i h t d e c l i n e i n a d u l t i n f e c t i o n

t h e Oklahoma. AnthpopoZo~eal S B u i k s t r a , J . E., and D. Fowler 1975 An o s t e o l o q i c a l s t u d y o f t h e human s k e l e t a l m a t - e r i a l f r o n

. 25-65. No. 1. and R. E . Larson Archaeoloyi c a l r e s e a r c h a t t h e proposed Cooper L a k e , K.,

CHAPTER 16 AGRICULTURE, MARGINAL ENVIRONMENTS, AND NUTRITIONAL STRESS I N THE PREHISTORIC SOUTHWEST

-

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Ann M. Palkovieh

I .1

Anthropology Program George Mason U n i v e r s i t y

The impact o f t h e adoption of a g r i c u l t u r e on human h e a l t h presumably d i f f e r e d from r e g i o n t o r e g i o n The n a t u r e o f human n u t r i t i o n a l and d i s e a s e response t o a g r i c u l t u r e must be d e s c r i b e d i n terms of e a c h l o c a l e c o l o g i c a l b a s e i f t h e dynamics of this t r a n s i t i o n a r e t o be f u l l y understood I t h a s been suggested (Euler e t a 1 1979; J o r d e 1977; Wetterstrom 1976) t h a t t h e adequacy and r e l i a b i l i t y o f s u b s i s t e n c e regimes a r e i n t i m a t e l y Marginal, i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h t h e s t a b i l i t y o f l o c a l environments u n s t a b l e ecosystems t h r e a t e n t h e v i a b i l i t y of a g r i c u l t u r e a s a subsistence strategy The advent o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e p r e h i s t o r i c American Southwest is an example of t h i s economic t r a n s i t i o n & such a marginal environment

BACKGROUND:

THE AMERICAN SOUTHWEST

The e a r l i e s t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e American Southwest was t h e Paleoindian-Clovis h o r i z o n , which d a t e s t o roughly 9500 B C (Lipe 1978:332) The term "Paleoind i a n " u s u a l l y r e f e r s t o e a r l y P l a i n s - o r i e n t e d , big-game h u n t e r s e v i d e n t i n major p o r t i o n s o f Colorado and New Mexico d u r i n g t h i s period However, throughout t h e e a r l y Paleoindian-Archaic p e r i o d s o f o c c u p a t i o n i n t h e Southwest, h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s exh i b i t e d diverse subsistence s t r a t e g i e s t i e d t o regional variations i n r e s o u r c e s (Lipe 1978) U n f o r t u n a t e l y , l a c k o f human s k e l e t a l remains from t h e s e e a r l y p e r i o d s p r e c l u d e s s k e l e t a l assessment of t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s of t h e s e groups

PALEOPATHOLOBY AT THE OMGINS OF AGRICULTUte

425

Copyright 0 1984 by Academic Press, Inc All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISBN 0-12-179080-0

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.

e

ANN M. PALKOVICH By approximately 2000 B. C , p o p u l a t i o n growth and t h e development of r e g i o n a l l y d i s t i n c t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s were accompanied by i n c i p i e n t c u l t i v a t i o n (Lipe 1978:341) Of t h e f i v e major r e g i o n a l t r a d i t i o n s t h a t developed ( h a s a z i , Fremont, Hayataya, Hohokam, and Mogollon) , t h e Anasazi o f n o r t h e r n Arizona, n o r t h e r n New Mexico, and southwestern Colorado i s t h e b e s t known w i t h r e s p e c t t o human b i o l o g i c a l dynamics The s h i f t t o a g r i c u l t u r a l economies among t h e Anasazi encomThe p a s s e s two broad c u l t u r a l phases--Basketmaker and Pueblo Basketmaker p e r i o d (beginning i n t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y A D ) i s g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by semipermanent v i l l a g e s and a mixed subs i s t e n c e economy s t i l l dependent l a r g e l y on h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g with some i n c i p i e n t food production A slow s h i f t o c c u r r e d -toward g r e a t e r dependence on a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and t h e con-. s t r u c t i o n of more permanent s e t t l e m e n t s n e a r t h e end o f t h e p e r i o d There i s widespread homogeneity i n t h e (roughly A D 700-750) m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e throughout t h e Anasazi r e g i o n d u r i n g Basketmaker - times, b u t c u l t u r a l experimentation and l o c a l environmental d i f 5 ferences a r e manifest i n a g r e a t d i v e r s i t y of a r c h i t e c t u r a l s t y l e s , .- ceramic t y p e s , b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s , and t h e l i k e d u r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g Pueblo phase f .Pueblo o c c u p a t i o n s r e f l e c t l a r g e r v i l l a g e s e t t l e m e n t s ( t h u s a l s o a n o t a b l e i n c r e a s e in p o p u l a t i o n ) , r e g i o n a l c u l t u r a l d i v e r fi-f'.-; .s' ?,- $ s i t y , and f u l l - f l e d g e d dependence on a g r i c u l t u r e (Lipe 1978; at1

^-.^. ,

-

<

Martin and Plog 1973)

r r-

Environmental S t a b i l i t y and C u l t u r e Change

,

-

C y c l i c a l environmental c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e d e s e r t Southwest have been considered a primary cause of s h i f t i n g p r e h i s t o r i c s e t t l e m e n t - p a t t e r n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g t h e Basketmaker and Pueblo p e r i o d s (Euler e t a 1 , 1979) The h i s t o r y o f occupation i n t h e r e g i o n can be read a s a s e r i e s o f s t r a t e g i e s designed t o a d a p t t o such cond i t i o n s , each s t r a t e g y p r o v i d i n g , however, o n l y a t e m p o r a r i l y s u c c e s s f u l , and u s u a l l y s t i l l m a r g i n a l , e x i s t e n c e f o r human groups Throughout t h e sequence, f l u c t u a t i o n s i n d i e t a r y adequacy app e a r t o have been i n t i m a t e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c y c l i c a l s h o r t - t e r m and long-term drought c o n d i t i o n s (Wetterstrom 1976) The product i v i t y of both n a t u r a l and c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t s p e c i e s was dependent on, and h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e t o , r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n s Short-term drought c o n d i t i o n s reduced t h e p r o d u c t i y i t y of s p e c i e s a l r e a d y e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e l i m i t s o f marginal growing c o n d i t i o n s , and long-term d r o u g h t s could s i g n i f i c a n t l y damage s o i l s and s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l t e r t h e comp o s i t i o n of p l a n t communities (Rose e t a 1 1981; Wet-berstrom 1976) Small h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r groups t h a t were p r i m a r i l y dependent on w i l d food r e s o u r c e s c o u l d b u f f e r t h e e f f e c t s o f u n p r e d i c t a b l e r e s o u r c e s by remaining h i g h l y mobile, although even t h e d i v e r s i f i e d d i e t s of t h e s e groups may have been n u t r i t i o n a l l y marginal i n t h i s region The s h i f t t o a g r i c u l t u r e seems t o have involved t h e growth and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of p o p u l a t i o n s accompanied by d e c r e a s i n g

16 THE PREHISTORIC SOUTHWEST m o b i l i t y and t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y c a r e f u l l y scheduled use, manipulat i o n , and p r o t e c t i o n of s e l e c t e d s p e c i e s (Glassow 1972; I r w i n Williams and Haynes 1970; Lipe 1978; Plog 1974) But even a l t e r e d s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s such a s t h e u s e o f l e s s d e s i r a b l e foods and t h e adoption o f i r r i g a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e t o b u f f e r t h e Larged i e t met w i t h o n l y l i m i t e d s u c c e s s (Wetterstrom 1976) s c a l e p o p u l a t i o n movements throughout t h e Basketmaker and Pueblo p e r i o d s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e environment f r e q u e n t l y upset e s t a b l i s h e d s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s Apparently, continued p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e and a s h i f t t o a primary dependence on produced food s e r v e d o n l y t o h e i g h t e n t h e e f f e c t s o f environmental i n s t a b i l i t y and t o reduce r e s o u r c e p r e d i c t a b i l i t y

The P a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l Evidence The impact o f t h i s environmental i n s t a b i l i t y on human b i o l o g y i s complex. Not o n l y should n u t r i t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d d i s e a s e p a t t e r n s b e a f f e c t e d , b u t f e r t i l i t y r a t e s , m o r b i d i t y r a t e s , and p o p u l a t i o n s t r u c t u r e a l l should show t h e e f f e c t s o f s e v e r e d i e t a r y inadequacies on s u c c e s s i v e c o h o r t s of s u b a d u l t s Thus, t h e b i o l o g i c a l impact on human groups should, i d e a l l y , b e a s s e s s e d w i t h adequate, temporally c o n t r o l l e d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s e v a l u a t e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f r e l e v a n t l o c a l environmental c i r cumstances However, a number of c o n s t r a i n t s l i m i t o u r a b i l i t y t o i n t e r p r e t the existing skeletal data F i r s t , e x i s t i n g s t u d i e s have g e n e r a l l y emphasized d i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s of p a t h o l o g i c a l manif e s t a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e impact of d i s e a s e on t h e morbidity and m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n s o f a p o p l u l a t i o n Second d e s p i t e c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n p a i d t o p r e h i s t o r i c Anasazi mortuary p r a c t i c e s , t h e human s k e l e t a l remains themselves o f t e n have n o t been systema t i c a l l y c o l l e c t e d o r c a r e f u l l y analyzed Thus, an o v e r r i d i n g problem w i t h s k e l e t a l s t u d i e s o f Anasazi p o p u l a t i o n s i s t h e p a u c i t y o f l a r g e , well-documented s e r i e s W e l l - c o n t r o l l e d and well-documented c o l l e c t i o n s o f t e n r e p r e s e n t o n l y a h a n d f u l of i n d i v i d u a l s ; c o n v e r s e l y , haphazard recovery of i n t e r m e n t s ( a s w e l l a s b i a s e s i n t h e o r i g i n a l mortuary p r a c t i c e s ) d i m i n i s h t h e v a l u e of some l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n s such a s t h e Pecos s e r i e s (Hooten 1930; Kidder 1958) A s a r e s u l t , b i o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of Anasazi groups f o r most p e r i o d s i s based l a r g e l y on a handful o f a v a i l a b l e s k e l e t a l remains s c a t t e r e d throughout l a r g e r e g i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g broad temporal p e r i o d s A n a l y s i s o f such m a t e r i a l t e n d s t o f o c u s on t h e frequency o f i n d i v i d u a l s k e l e t a l f e a t u r e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of p a t h o l o g i e s r a t h e r t h a n on t h e b i o l o g i c a l dynamics of archaeol o g i c a l l y well-defined groups The evidence t h a t does e x i s t shows t h e p r e s e n c e o f s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s i n b o t h Basketmaker and Pueblo p e r i o d s El N a j j a r and h i s a s s o c i a t e s ( E l N a j j a r 1974, 1977; E l N a j j a r e t a 1 1975, 1976) have documented t h e i n c i d e n c e o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s f o r s e v e r a l Anazasi groups (In t h i s region, t h e condition i s

TABLE 16 1 Location, Chronology and Environment of S i t e s ~ t u d i e d ~ ---

Site

Location

Cultural period

Canyon de Chelly

Northeastern Arizona

Chaco Canyon Inscription House Navajo Reservoir Gran Quivira

Northestern New Mexico Northeastern Arizona Northern New Mexico Central New Mexico

Date ( A D

Basketmaker 11-III Pueblo I, 11 and III Pueblo 11-111 Pueblo 111 Pueblo 1-11 Pueblo IV-V

400- 700 700-1300 900-1156 1250-1300 700-1100 1315-1673

)

Environment Canyon s i t e Canyon s i t e Canyon s i t e Canyon s i t e Sage plain Sage plain

aReproduced w i t h permission from El-Nag'jar e t a t . 1976:480-481 TABLE 16 2 Age and Sex Distribution of Porotio Hyperostosis (pH) i n the S i x Skeletal seriesa --

Total Series

N

Canyon de Chally a. Basketmakers b Pueblos Chaeo Canyon Inscription House Navajo Reservoir Gran Quivira

136 78 32 24 92 177

Children

% with PH

49 55 71 54 13 15

3 1 8 2 0 3

N 50 17 12 11 44 66

% with

Total adults % with pH

pH

N

72 0 880 83.3 63 6 15 9 18 2

86 61 20 13 48 111

'^Reproduced with permission from El-Najjar e t a2

36 45 65 46 10 13

0 9 0 2 4 5

1976 480-481

Adult males N

34 39 7 4 28 47

Adult females

% with

PH

26 41 57 50 10 15

5 0 1 0 7 0

N

-.

52 22 13 9 20 64

% with

pH

42 54 69 44 10 12

3 5 2 4 0 5

TABLE 16 3 Geographic, Age, and Sex Distribution of t h e Prevalence of Porotic Hypepostosis i n the Tvio Ecologieaz zonesa %

1

Number with PH/ t o t a l number

%

N u m b e r with PH/ t o t a l number

X

P

Geographic d i s t r i b u t i o n

Tota l Chi Zdren

Canyon s i t e s 54 1 146/2 70 76 5 68/ 90

Sage Plains s i t e s 14 5 39/269 17 3 19/110

Chi ldren 75 6 17 3

',86 90 19/110

Adults 43 3 12 6

78,480 20/159

Males 36 9 13 3

31/ 84 10/ 75

Fema Zes 49 0 11 9

47/ 96 10/ 84

93 5b < 0 0001 68 4Â< 0 0001

2 Age d i s t r i b u t i o n Canyon s i t e s Sage plains 3 Sex d i s t r i b u t i o n Canyon s i t e s Sage plains

aReprodueed with permission from El-Nazar e t a2 b ~ t a t i s t i c a l lsignificant ~ findings

1976:480-481

:*

25 ob < 0 0001 1.19 > 0 20

265 > 0 1 0 0 08 > 0 90

ANN M.PALKOVICH considered i n d i c a t i v e o f i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia See d i s c u s s i o n by Goodman e t a 1 , Chapter 11 t h i s volume; Von Endt and O r t n e r A high i n c i d e n c e o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s was n o t e d f o r 1982) both Basketmaker and Pueblo (Tables 16 1 and 16 2 ) b u t temporal d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n c i d e n c e between t h e two p e r i o d s were n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( E l N a j j a r e t a 1 1976:482) In s i x s k e l e t a l s e r i e s , s u b a d u l t s (0-10 y e a r s of age a t d e a t h ) c o n s i s t e n t l y showed a h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s than a d u l t s (Table 16 2 ) A s t r i k i n g environmental e f f e c t was n o t e d i n t h e c o n t r a s t between ArCanyon Bottom groups and Sage P l a i n s groups- ( T a b l e 16 3 ) c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence shows t h a t Canyon Bottom groups were h e a v i l y maize dependent w h i l e Sage P l a i n s groups had a v a r i e d d i e t t h a t El included beans and squash a s w e l l a s w i l d food r e s o u r c e s N a j j a r and h i s a s s o c i a t e s a t t r i b u t e d t h e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e r a t e s o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n t h e two groups t o t h e i r o n - d e f i c i e n t d i e t s o f maize-dependent Canyon Bottom p o p u l a t i o n s Other s k e l e t a l measures o f d i e t a r y problems ( s t a t u r e and d e n t a l d i s e a s e ) d i d n o t evidence s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between Basketmaker and Pueblo groups ( E l N a j j a r 1974) Brief a n a l y s e s o f t h e s k e l e t a l remains from Pueblo Bonito and Aroyo Hondo a r e o f f e r e d below t o p r o v i d e a f u r t h e r assessment o f t h e n a t u r e and success o f t h e l a t e r a g r a r i a n phase o f t h e Anasazi economy

J

Pueblo Bonito

The development of c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g systems a s a d a p t i v e r e sponses t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n c y c l e s and environmental s h i f t s i s a common theme i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n of Pueblo groups J o r d e (1977) s u g g e s t s , f o r example, t h a t food s t o r a g e , i r r i g a t i o n , and s e t t l e ment aggregation a l o n g permanent d r a i n a g e s were c u l t u r a l means o f b u f f e r i n g f l u c t u a t i o n s i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n t h e Chaco Canyon re'gion of New Mexico He n o t e s t h a t such mechanisms, w h i l e a p p a r e n t l y e f f e c t i v e i n damping t h e e f f e c t s o f short-term ( y e a r - t o - y e a r ) d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n , y i e l d e d o n l y a stopgap a d a p t i v e Expenditures of t i m e and energy i n t o such measures apresponse p a r e n t l y rendered t h e system even more s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h e e f f e c t s Dependence on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y o f long-term f l u c t u a t i o n s achieved through i r r i g a t i o n and s i m i l a r s t r a t e g i e s d u r i n g good y e a r s e v e n t u a l l y l e d t o a c o l l a p s e of t h e system and d i s a g g r e g a t i c o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n once r a i n f a l l diminished Thus, l a r g e s e t t l e m e n t s , food s t o r a g e , and i r r i g a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s worked i n Chaco Canyon on a year-to-year b a s i s a s l o n g a s major changes i n r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n s However, w i t h t h e o n s e t o f t h e G r e a t Drought d a t i n g d i d n o t occur 1276 t o 1299, v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e major Pueblo s i t e s i n t h e from A.D Long-term below average p r e c i p i t a t i o n canyon were abandoned ' proved t o be ari unmanageable s t r e s s t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r a t e g i e s t h a t had been adopted I The success o f s o c i a l s t a t u s a s a c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g mechanism Four " b u r i a l among t h e Chacoan Pueblo can b e examined s k e l e t a l l y rooms" i n Pueblo Bonito have y i e l d e d t h e l a r g e s t known s i n g l e

I

16 THE PREHISTORIC SOUTHWEST

TABLE 1 6 4

Pueblo Bonito Composite L i f e Table, Smoothed a

Age

Smoothed class (yeam) ' x 'x

dx

lx

^x

Lx

Tx

0 ex

cemetery s e r i e s of interments from t h e canyon Architectural, s t r a t i g r a p h i c , and ceramic analyses by N Aikens (personal com- &;munication) suggest t h e s e rooms were purposefully converted i n t o mortuary f a c i l i t i e s , bodies being l a i d on t h e hardpacked f l o o r and d i r t being brought i n t o cover t h e corpses Some i n t r u s i o n on e a r l i e r interments by l a t e r ones i s suggested by t h e numerous disturbed s k e l e t o n s noted a t t h e time of excavation I t i s bel i e v e d t h a t t h e majority o f s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l was r e t a i n e d from these excavations by Judd (1964), b u t some q u e s t i o n s remain about the completeness of t h e c o l l e c t i o n . Ninety-five i n d i v i d u a l s a r e represented i n t h e f o u r Pueblo Bonito b u r i a l rooms This s k e l e t a l s e r i e s does n o t r e f l e c t a t y p i c a l age d i s t r i b u t i o n (Table 1 6 4) There i s a c l e a r p a u c i t y of i n f a n t s ; only 20% of the i n d i v i d u a l s recovered were 10 y e a r s of age o r younger a t death Despite t h e g e n e r a l l y good t o e x c e l l e n t preservation of t h e observed s k e l e t a l remains, i n f a n t s and c h i l d r e n a r e underrepresented from a demographic standpoint (whether a s a There r e s u l t of excavation and recovery b i a s o r mortuary b i a s ) i s a l s o a notable d i s p a r i t y i n t h e sex distribution--females a r e twice a s f r e q u e n t i n t h e sample a s males (42 t o 22, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) Based on t h e i r assessment cf both b i o l o g i c a l and mortuary e v i dence, Aikens and Schelberg (1984) suggested t h a t t h e s k e l e t a l r e mains represented i n t h e s e f o u r rooms r e p r e s e n t one of two s e p a r a t e ( s o c i a l ) "lineages" noted among t h e Pueblo Bonito remains Another c l u s t e r of b u r i a l rooms was excavated by Pepper (1909) Detailed d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e s k e l e t a l remains a r e lacking, but i t i s c l e a r from Pepper's d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h i s b u r i a l c l u s t e r and from t h e a n a l y s i s by Aikens and Schelberg t h a t both Pepper's and Judd's "cemeteries" probably represented high-ranking l i n e a g e s i n

A

I

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-!

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ANN M. PALKOVICH a s t r a t i f i e d Chacoan s o c i e t y P e p p e r ' s c l u s t e r evidences a w e a l t h of grave goods b e f i t t i n g a high-ranking l i n e a g e ; J u d d ' s c l u s t e r , though a f f o r d e d a complex o f rooms a s a b u r i a l f a c i l i t y (and t h e r e f o r e having r e c e i v e d a s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t n o t found in o t h e r i n s t a n c e s ) , has fewer grave goods and t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l y r e p r e s e n t s a lower r a n k i n g l i n e a g e D i f f e r e n t i a l treatment within t h e l i n e a g e s i s a l s o e v i d e n t by t h e unequal d i s t r i b u t i o n of goods among i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n each room c l u s t e r The s p e c i a l s t a t u s accorded t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s a t d e a t h may have been a f a c t o r producing t h e skewed observed age p r o f i l e n o t e d e a r l i e r I f t h e s e were indeed ranking l i n e a g e s , and t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s t h e r e f o r e had favored o r s p e c i a l s t a t u s , it seems l i k e l y t h a t they would have enjoyed p r i v i l e g e d a c c e s s t o food r e s o u r c e s We would t h e r e f o r e expect fewer c a s e s of d i e t a r y s t r e s s o r l e s s s e v e r e s k e l e t a l involvement f o r t h e s e r i e s from t h e s e c l u s t e r s t h a n i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of o t h e r p r e h i s t o r i c Pueblo groups From a p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s (Palkovich 19841, it i s immediatel y apparent t h a t a t l e a s t t h e g e n e r a l age p r o f i l e comparisons argue t o t h e c o n t r a r y The Pueblo Bonito s e r i e s i s demographically s i m i l a r t o t h o s e p o p u l a t i o n s l i v i n g nearby in s m a l l e r pueblos Even more p e r s u a s i v e evidence t o t h e c o n t r a r y i s n o t e d among t h e observed p a t t e r n o f g r o s s s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s Among t h e 20 j u v e n i l e s 0-10 y e a r s o f a g e a t d e a t h i n J u d d ' s c l u s t e r , 5 c a s e s o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , 4 c a s e s o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and 4 c a s e s of endocranial l e s i o n s a r e evident I n a l l , 1 0 i n d i v i d u a l s (50%-)> a r e a f f e c t e d , a high i n c i d e n c e r a t e of t h e s e p a t h o l o g i e s Several s t u d i e s s u g g e s t i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g e n e r a l d i e t a r y inadequacies, n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , and s y n e r g i s t i c i n f e c t i o u s i n s u l t s a s t h e u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e s o f t h e pathology p a t t e r n e x h i b i t e d i n t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s ( E l - N a j j a r 1977; E l - N a j j a r e t a 1 1975 1976) T h i s study s u g g e s t s t h a t high s t a t u s may n o t have been enough t o b u f f e r t h e marked b i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s o f d i e t a r y i n a d e q u a c i e s t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e p r e h i s t o r i c group i n t e r r e d i n t h e Pueblo Bonito room c l u s t e r Apparently n e i t h e r s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s n o r t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f s o c i a l s t a t u s were s u f f i c i e n t b u f f e r a g a i n s t d i e t a r y inadequacies i n Chaco Canyon

Arroyo Hondo I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e Great Drought d i d n o t uniformly a f f e c t a l l a r e a s of t h e American Southwest Several dendroclimatic a n a l y s e s ( E u l e r e t a 1 1979; Rose e t a 1 1981) show t h a t s e v e r a l r e g i o n s , t h e Northern Rio Grande among them, d i d n o t e x p e r i e n c e s e v e r e s h o r t a g e s of r a i n f a l l c o i n c i d e n t w i t h t h o s e evidenced a t Chaco Canyon A long h i s t o r y o f p o p u l a t i o n s h i f t s i n r e s p o n s e t o changes i n local precipitation patterns i s reflected i n the regional s e t t l e ment -p a t t e r n f o r t h e Northern Rio Grande r e q i o n Dickson (1975, 1979) noted t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o s e t t l e d a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e v\ Northern Rio Grande began around (A D 600) During t h e p e r i o d

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16 THE PREHISTORIC SOUTHWEST

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from A.D 600-900, s e t t l e m e n t s a r e l o c a t e d i n primary zones of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n where year-round w a t e r s u p p l i e s a r e a v a i l able Indigenous p o p u l a t i o n growth r e f l e c t e d i n t h e number and s i z e of s i t e s a l s o occurred during t h i s p e r i o d By A D 900-1100 ( t h e Developmental p e r i o d ) , a g r i c u l t u r a l s i t e s had s p r e a d i n t o secondary and t e r t i a r y zones o f p r o d u c t i o n dependent on d r y farming techniques; t h e p o p u l a t i o n doubled approximately every 50 y e a r s a t t h i s time The C o a l i t i o n p e r i o d of o c c u p a t i o n i n t h e Northern Rio Grande, which began around A D 1200, i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by drought condit i o n s and a g g r e g a t i o n of t h e i n t o large s i t e s located i n primary and some secondary zones of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h t e r t i a r y zones being abandoned a l t o g e t h e r There was a l s o an accompanying s h i f t t o i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s A s in the case o f t h e Chaco r e g i o n , t h i s s h i f t in s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n and s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g y l e d t o o n l y short-term s t a b i l i t y The downt u r n i n t h e long-term p r e c i p i t a t i o n c y c l e i n t h e 1420s l e d t o t h e u l t i m a t e abandonment of l a r g e a g r i c u l t u r a l communities i n t h e Northern Rio Grande a r e a . A s a major f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Pueblo o c c u p a t i o n i n t h e Northern Rio Grande, Arroyo Hondo p r o v i d e s a second c a s e s t u d y i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among marginal environmental c o n d i t i o n s , subs i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s , and n u t r i t i o n a l adequacy Arroyo Hondo, a C o a l i t i o n p e r i o d Pueblo oc?.upation, i s l o c a t e d on t h e s l o p i n g piedmont immediately west o f t h e f o o t h i l l s o f t h e EnvironSanqre d e C r i s t o Mountains i n n o r t h c e n t r a l New Mexico mental d i v e r s i t y e x h i b i t e d a t t h e 2150-m e l e v a t i o n o f t h i s a r e a and t h e s i t e ' s p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n gave i t s i n h a b i t a n t s ready a c c e s s t o t h e p l a n t and animal r e s o u r c e s o f s e v e r a l major ecozones w i t h i n t h e immediate a r e a The s i t e c o v e r s approximately 3 2 ha and i s composed of o v e r 1000 rooms arranged i n 24 roomblocks around One hundred twenty b u r i a l s recovered i n 5 s e a s o n s 9 plaza acres (if e x c a v a t i o n s , span t h e e n t i r e 125-year o c c u p a t i o n of t h e s i t e A d e t a i l e d d e n d r o c l i m a t i c a n a l y s i s (Rose e t a 1 1981) r e v e a l s an i n t e r e s t i n g c o r r e l a t i o n between major b u i l d i n g phases a t t h e The Pueblo was e s t a b l i s h e d i n Pueblo and ( r a i n f a l l c o n d i t i o n s A.D 1300, a t t h e o n s e t of a p e r i o d of i n c r e a s i n g p r e c i p i a t i o n For t h e f i r s t 35 y e a r s of o c c u p a t i o n , l o c a l r a i n f a l l remained above average The a g r i c u l t u r a l base of corn, beans, and squash was l i k e l y h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e , and e t h n o b o t a n i c a l s t u d i e s show t h a t l o c a l wild f l o r a such a s l e a f y p l a n t s , s e e d s , and n u t s s e a s o n a l l y supplemented t h e d i e t (Wetterstrom 1976) Animal p r o t e i n was d e r i v e d from domesticated t u r k e y and over 50 s p e c i e s of l o c a l l y A r c h i t e c t u r a l a n a l y s i s s u g g e s t s t h a t maximum a v a i l a b l e w i l d game s e t t l e m e n t s i z e was reached about A D 1300 A s h i f t i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a t t e r n about A D 1335 r e s u l t e d i n a highly variable r a i n f a l l Severe d r o u g h t s , followed by b r i e f p e r i o d s o f i n c r e a s e d r a i n f a l l , o c c u r r e d e v e r y few y e a r s Under c o n d i t i o n s o f such environmental i n s t a b i l i t y , a g r i c u l t u r a l product i o n was u n p r e d i c t a b l e During t h e same p e r i o d , a p r e c i p i t o u s

ANN M. PALKOVICH d e c l i n e in t h e r e s i d e n t p o p u l a t i o n a t Arroyo Hondo began, and by 1345 t h e Pueblo was v i r t u a l l y abandoned A s m a l l e r r e s e t t l e m e n t of t h e s i t e began i n t h e e a r l y 1370s, which c o i n c i d e s with a temporary r e t u r n t o high l o c a l p r e c i p i t a tion Maximum r e s e t t l e m e n t s i z e was reached i n t h e e a r l y 1400s during a 10-year p e r i o d of c o n t i n u e d above-average p r e c i p i t a t i o n A f t e r 1410, a second r a p i d d e c l i n e i n t h e s i t e ' s p o p u l a t i o n began A t t h i s same t i m e , a drop in r a i n f a l l o c c u r r e d By t h e time t h e s i t e was f i n a l l y abandoned i n 1425, t h e Santa Fe a r e a e n t e r e d t h e ' most s e v e r e l o c a l drought c o n d i t i o n s documented i n t h e t r e e - r i n g record An e t h n o b o t a n i c a l e v a l u a t i o n of t h e Arroyo Hondo s u b s i s t e n c e using s t a n d a r d WHO p r o t e i n and c a l o r i e requirements of c h i l d r e n s u g g e s t s t h a t a young c h i l d ' s d i e t was l i k e l y b a r e l y adequate duri n g y e a r s of average p r e c i p i t a t i o n (Wetterstrom 1976) Unstable c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s r e s u l t i n g i n f l u c t u a t i n g annual a g r i c u l t u r a l production s u g g e s t an u n c e r t a i n d i e t and, t h u s , c h r o n i c n u t r i t i o n a l inadequacy throughout t h e o c c u p a t i o n of Arroyo Hondo C l i n i c a l and s u b c l i n i c a l c a s e s o f p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e m a l n u t r i t i o n , s y n e r g i s t i c i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s , reduced growth r a t e s , g e n e r a l d i s r u p t i o n of growth p a t t e r n s , and d e a t h s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o n u t r i t i o n a l inadequacy a r e suggested by Wetterstrom a s c o n d i t i o n s l i k e l y t o be e x h i b i t e d by t h e Arroyo Hondo c h i l d r e n , w i t h a heightened morbidity and m o r t a l i t y r e s p o n s e d u r i n g dry y e a r s Analysis o f t h e 108 i n d i v i d u a l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e major phase of occupation a t Arroyo Hondo s u p p o r t s t h e s u g g e s t i o n of c h r o n i c A group of b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s r e s u l t i n g from an i n a d e q u a t e d i e t four s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s , c l a s s i f i e d a s o s t e o l y t i c bone r e s p o n s e s , s t a n d s o u t i n i t s high i n c i d e n c e w i t h i n t h e 0-1 and 1-4 9-year age classes Forty-nine of t h e 108 i n d i v i d u a l s (45%) f a l l w i t h i n t h e s e t w o age c l a s s e s i n t h e Arroyo Hondo s k e l e t a l s e r i e s Observed i n c i dence of t h e s e p a t h o l o g i e s i s c o n s e r v a t i v e s i n c e n o t a l l s k e l e t a l p a r t s were recovered f o r each i n d i v i d u a l , t h u s r e n d e r i n g a n incqmp l e t e assessment of p a t h o l o g i c a l i n v o l ement f o r t h e s e r i e s The p a t h o l o g i e s i n c l u d e 10 c a s e s o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and e i g h t cases of endocranial l e s i o n s Both p a t h o l o g i e s o c c u r r e d exc l u s i v e l y i n c h i l d r e n under t h e age of f i v e F i v e c a s e s of c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a appear i n t h i s age c l a s s The f o u r t h pathology i n t h i s group, g e n e r a l i z e d p o r o s i t y , c o n s i s t e d of s m a l l , c l u s t e r e d p o i n t s of c o r t i c a l bone d e s t r u c t i o n ( u s u a l l y noted a t t h e ends of Ten c a s e s o f p o r o s i t y diaphyses) i n t h e p o s t c r a n i a l s k e l e t o n were noted i n t h e 0-1-year age c l a s s and two c a s e s i n t h e 1-4 9year age c l a s s Twenty-three o f t h e 49 i n d i v i d u a l s ( 4 7 % )under t h e age of f i v e e x h i b i t e d one o r more o f t h e s e p a t h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s (Palkovich 1980:166-167) Other Pueblo o c c u p a t i o n s i n t h e Northern Rio Grande contemporaneous w i t h Arroyo Hondo a l s o evidence t h e s e Hooten noted 2 8 c a s e s of p o r o t i c hyperoskeletal pathologies s t o s i s i n s u b a d u l t s and young a d u l t s a t Pecos, f o r example (Hooten 1930 A composite l i f e t a b l e (Table 16 5 ) c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e major phase o f o c c u p a t i o n a t Arroyo

7

TABLE 16 5 Arroyo Hondo Composite Life Table, Smootheda

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ANN M.PALKOVICH

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Hondo e x h i b i t e d a m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n w i t h a high i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y r a t e , which i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important given t h e number o f c a s e s of o s t e o l y t i c s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s i n t h e youngest age c l a s s e s I t can be suggested t h a t m a l n u t r i t i o n , a c t i n g s y n e r g i s t i c a l l y with i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s , was a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e high l e v e l o f m o r t a l i t y among i n f a n t s and young c h i l d r e n a t Arroyo Hondo Apparently, a s h i f t t o i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s and p o p u l a t i o n a g g r e g a t i o n i n l a r g e v i l l a g e s l o c a t e d i n primary zones o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n were i n s u f f i c i e n t ' b u f f e r s a g a i n s t t h e v a g a r i e s of r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n s a s e x h i b i t e d a t Arroyo Hondo What were marginal p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e d i e t s i n average y e a r s were v i r t u a l l y s t a r v a t i o n d i e t s i n drought y e a r s , which h e i g h t e n e d t h e morbiditym o r t a l i t y s t r e s s i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n and l e d t o t h e u l t i m a t e abandonment of t h e v i l l a g e Thus, b u f f e r i n g mechanisms o f s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s and a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r a t e g i e s could n o t s o f t e n t h e b i o l o g i c a l impact o f poor d i e t s on t h e Arroyo Hondo p o p u l a t i o n

CONCLUSION

The a s s o c i a t i o n of d i e t a r y s h i f t s w i t h t h e o r i g i n s of a g r i c u l t u r e should n o t l e a d u s simply t o assume t h a t n u t r i t i o n a l inadequacy was experienced f o r t h e f i r s t time a s a s e r i o u s b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s f o r human groups d u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c For t h e American Southwest, subsistence--whether based on food c o l l e c t i o n o r food production--was s u b j e c t t o c o i n c i d e n t short-term and long-term environmental i n s t a b i l i t i e s , t h e p r a c t i c a l e f f e c t s o f which were u n p r e d i c t a b l e r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n s and u n r e l i a b l e r e s o u r c e productivity The' N e o l i t h i c Revolution, i n t h i s c a s e , i s n o t a m a t t e r of a change from a h e a l t h y d i e t t o an unhealthy o n e , o r a change from a d i v e r s i f i e d , c o l l e c t e d f e a s t t o a l i m i t e d , produced famine Paleoenviromnental and e t h n o b o t a n i c a l s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e d i e t s of p r e h i s t o r i c Anasazi p o p u l a t i o n s were always marginal--and w i t h t h e advent of a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e b i o l o g i c a l impact went from $9. bad t o worse Basketmaker communities were s u b j e c t t o t h e same ?' - --v a g a r i e s i n c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s a s were Pueblo groups; t h u s , Once Y s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o f b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s a r e to be expected m o b i l i t y t o e x p l o i t new a r e a s f o r food r e s o u r c e s a s a b u f f e r i n g mechanism was no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e , heightened s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o food s h o r t a g e over t h e l o n g run r e s u l t e d However, w i t h d i e t s i n h e r e n t l y n u t r i t i o n a l l y marginci.1, s k e l e t a l p a t t e r n s of endemic r a t h e r t h a n e p i s o d i c s t r e s s were more l i k e l y t o be e x h i b i t e d While l e s s e f f e c t i v e c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g mechanisms may have heightened t h e b i o l o g i c a l response t o marginal d i e t s i n t h e l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l groups, o v e r a l l c o n d i t i o n s o f endemic n u t r i t i o n a l inadequacy f o r b o t h Basketmaker and Pueblo p o p u l a t i o n s may have r e s u l t e d i n g r e a t e r l e v e l s o f b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s than a r e found i n many o t h e r human groups


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16 THE PREHISTORIC SOUTHWEST

REFERENCES

Aikens, Nancy, and John Schelberg The Kiva, i n 1984 Human b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n Chaco Canyon press Dickson, Bruce 1975 S e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s t a b i l i t y and change i n t h e middle n o r t h e r n Rio Grande Region, New Mexico: A t e s t o f some hypotheses American A n t i q u i t y 40: 159-171 1979 P r e h i s t o r i c pueblo s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s : The Arroyo Hondo , New Mexico s u r v e y Arroyo Hondo Archaeolog&al S e r i e s Vol 2 School o f American Research P r e s s , Santa Fe E l - N a j j a r , Mahmoud 1974 People o f Canyon de CheZly: A s t u d y o f t h e i r biology ana Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, culture Arizona S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y 1977 Maize, m a l a r i a and t h e anemias i n t h e pre-Columbian New Yearbook o f Physical. Anthropology, 1976 20: 329World 337 JEl-Najjar, Mahmoud, B L o z o f f , and D Ryan 1975 The paleo-epidemiology o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n t h e American Southwest: R a d i o l o g i c a l and e c o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r American Journal o f Roentgen0 20% , Radium Therapy ations and N u e l e m Medicine 25 :918-924 E l - N a j j a r , Mahmoud, D. Ryan, C T u r n e r , and B. Lozoff 1976 The e t i o l o g y o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s among t h e p r e h i s t o r i c and h i s t o r i c Anasazi I n d i a n s o f t h e southwestern United States American Journal o f Physical Antlvopology 44:477\ 488 E u l e r , Robert, George Gumerman, Thor Karlstrom, J e f f r e y Dean, and Richard Hevly 1979 The Colorado p l a t e a u s : C u l t u r a l dynamics and p a l e o e n v i r o n ment. Science 205:1089-1101 Glassow, Michael 1972 Changes i n t h e a d a p t a t i o n s o f Southwestern Basketmakers: I n C o n t e m p o r q archaeology, A systems p e r s p e c t i v e e d i t e d by Mark Leone, pp 289-302 Southern I l l i n o i s Univ e r s i t y P r e s s , Carbondale Hooton, E a r n e s t 1930 The Indians o f Peeos Pueblo Yale U n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , New Haven Irwin-Williams , Cynthia, and Vance Haynes 1970 C l i m a t i c change and e a r l y p o p u l a t i o n dynamics i n t h e Quaternary Research 1 :59-71 southwestern United S t a t e s J o r d e , L. B 1977 P r e c i p i t a t i o n c y c l e s and c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g i n t h e p r e I n 'For theory b u i l d i n g i n m e h u e o l o g y , h i s t o r i c Southwest e d i t e d by Lewis Bin f o r d , pp 385-396 Academic P r e s s , New York

.

ANN M. PALKOVICH Judd , N e i l 1964 The a r c h i t e c t u r e of Pueblo Bonito h i t h s o n i a n Miscellaneous Collections Vol 147, No. 1 Kidder, Alfred 1958 Pecos, New Mexico: A r c h a e o l o g i c a l n o t e s Robert S Peabody Foundatwn for Archaeology Paper NO 5 Lipe, William 1978 The Southwest. I n Ancient native Americans, e d i t e d by J e s s e J e n n i n g s , pp 327-401 Freeman, San F r a n c i s c o Martin, Paul S , and Fred Plog Doubl eday/Natural H i s t o r y 1973 The Archaeology o f Arizona P r e s s , Garden C i t y , New York. Palkovich, Ann M.

:I

I

.=

1980

Pueblo p o p u l a t i o n and s o c i e t y : The Arroyo Hondo s k e l e t a l and mortuary remains Arroyo 'Hondo Archaeolog'ioal, Series - -S Vol 3 School o f American Research P r e s s , S a n t e Fe 1984 Disease and m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n s i n t h e b u r i a l s rooms o f 7 ' m e Kiva, i n Pueblo Bonito : P r e l i m i n a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s - press Pepper, George 5' z , - -. 1909 The e x p l o r a t i o n of a b u r i a l room i n Pueblo B o n i t o , New %i-r':--^ Mexico i n Putnam Anniversary Volume: Anthropological .4lEssays, pp 196-252 S t e c h e r t , New York È -.,'T¥.,(' - JL-+..- Plog, Fred % '1.a 5,. . T-:-,# 1974 The study of prehistoric change Academic P r e s s , New IYork. = =Rose, Martin, J e f f r e y Dean, and William Robinson 1981 The p a s t c l i m a t e o f Arroyo Hondo, New Mexico r e c o n s t r u c t e d Arroyo 'Hondo Archaeo'logical, Series Vol from t r e e r i n g s * , t-% 4 School o f American Research P r e s s , Santa Fe , , Von Endt, David, and Donald O r t n e r T'" 7' , -: 1982 Amino a c i d a n a l y s i s o f bone from a p o s s i b l e c a s e o f p r e h i s t o r i c i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia from t h e American SouthAmerican ~ o u r n a lof Physical Anthropology 5 9 : 377west 385 Wetterstrom, Wilma 1976 The e f f e c t s of n u t r i t i o n on population s i z e a t Pueblo Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department Arroyo Hondo, New Mexico o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan -1:.

, - :8

8

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CHAPTER 17 CENTRAL CALIFORNIA: PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE CHANGES AND HEALTH

David N . D i a k e l Peter D. Schulz H e w M . MeHenry Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Davis

INTRODUCTION

Although l i v i n g h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s have i n common an e x i s t e n c e i n s p a r s e and s c a t t e r e d environments p o o r l y s u i t e d f o r f a r m i n g , i n some a r e a s of t h e world d e n s e h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r p o p u l a t i o n s o n c e e x i s t e d i n h a b i t a t s where farming c o u l d have been i n t r o d u c e d , and w i t h i n r a n g e of p o t e n t i a l d i f f u s i o n of d o m e s t i c p l a n t s p e c i e s . C e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a i s one such r e g i o n . The major d i f f e r e n c e between t h e p r e h i s t o r y o f C a l i f o r n i a and t h a t o f many a r e a s o f North America i s t h a t most o f C a l i f o r n i a r e t a i n e d an A r c h a i c subsistence pattern. Nevertheless, c e n t r a l California populations were a t l e a s t s e m i s e d e n t a r y and d e n s e , and showed c u l t u r a l e l a b o r a t i o n , s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and o t h e r developments on i l e v e l o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t i e s (Meighan 1 9 5 9 ) . C e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a p r e h i s t o r y shows a t r e n d toward s p e c i a l i z e d a d a p t a t i o n s t o l o c a l environments, and l a t e r c u l t u r e s may demons t r a t e increased efficiency of resource exploitation, especially if e f f i c i e n c y i s measured i n p r o d u c t i o n p e r u n i t s p a c e and p e r u n i t t i m e a s w e l l a s i n s e a s o n a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n of food i n t a k e . I t h a s been a r g u e d t h a t l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c economies were v i r t u a l l y p r o t o a g r i c u l t u r a l i n many i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n what h a s been termed natural resource management (Bean and Blackburn 1976; Bean and Lawton 1973; H e i z e r and E l s a s s e r 1980; Z i e g l e r 1 9 6 8 ) . I n p a r t i c u l a r , f i r e may have been u s e d t o m a i n t a i n s u b c l i m a t i c v e g a t a t i o n communities, t o c o n t r o l i n s e c t i n f e s t a t i o n of a c o r n s , and t o m a n i p u l a t e o t h e r e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s of

p r e s e n t address: Resource P r o t e c t i o n Di'vision. Departnient o f Parks and' Recreation, Sacramento. C a l i f o r n i a 95811. PALEOFATHOLOGY AT TXE OECGlNS

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t h e environment; and it i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e r e was i n a d v e r t e n t o r p u r p o s e f u l hnma-i a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f l o c a l abundance o f f a v o r e d m e d i c i n a l , r e c r e a t i o n a l , and condiment p l a n t s . The s u b s i s t e n c e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e and u t i l i z e d by c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n s c o v e r e d a v e r y broad spectrum i n a manner t y p i c a l o f Archaic c u l t u r e s , and a l l major e c o l o q i c a l communities were p r o d u c t i v e s o u r c e s o f h a r v e s t e d food. Throughout most of t h e a r e a t h e s i n g l e most p r o d u c t i v e food s o u r c e was t h e a c o r n c r o p , followed by f i s h , e s p e c i a l l y salmon (Baumhoff 1 9 6 3 ) . While s u b s i s t e n c e economies i n t h i s r e g i o n u t i l i z e d a broad spectrum o f r e s o u r c e s , t h e y i n c r e a s i n g l y emphas i z e d a few major s t a p l e s t h a t s h a r e d t h e a t t r i b u t e s of abundance, s e a s o n a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a s p e c i f i c t e r r i t o r y , a n d c a p a b i l i t y o f s t o r a g e . During t h e w i n t e r months, when h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g were d i f f i c u l t a n d f r e s h v e g e t a l f o o d s u n a v a i l a b l e , consumption o f s t o r e d a c o r n p r o d u c t s may have exceeded t h a t o f a l l o t h e r f o o d s . Thus it i s h a r d l y an e x a g g e r a t i o n t o c a t e g o r i z e n a t i v e economies o f t h i s a r e a a s balanophagous ( a c o r n e a t i n g ) , o r , i n view of t h e d e n s e p o p u l a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them, t o c o n s i d e r t h i s a d a p t a t i o n a s p a r a l l e l i n g i n i m p o r t a n c e t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e i n o t h e r a r e a s . Mast o f t h e s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r d e a l w i t h popul a t i o n s l o c a t e d i n t h e C e n t r a l V a l l e y of C a l i f o r n i a , e s p e c i a l l y t h e lower Sacramento a n d n o r t h e r n m o s t San J o a q u i n v a l l e y s . Our c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h i s a r e a was l a r g e l y due t o t h e e x i s t e n c e of a d e q u a t e samples s p a n n i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e temporal r a n g e . R e p o r t s o f p a t h o l o g i e s r e l a t e d t o h e a l t h from o u t s i d e this r e g i o n a r e r a r e , o f t e n p o o r l y q u a n t i f i e d , and b a s e d on f r a q m e n t a r y r e m a i n s , a n d t h e y c o n c e n t r a t e on i n d i v i d u a l examples r a t h e r t h a n on meaningful p o p u l a t i o n comparisons ( s e e Hoffman a n d Brunker 1 9 7 6 ) . Furthermore, g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t a l l C a l i f o r n i a p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e economies and c u l t u r a l s e q u e n c e s a r e d i f f i c u l t . T h e r e i s a g r e a t d e a l of microenvironmental d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d s u h s e q u e n t c u l t u r a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , and t h e p r e h i s t o r y of p o p u l a t i o n r e p l a c e m e n t and movement i s complex and u n c l e a r . I f f o r no o t h e r reason than t h e h i s t o r i c accident of t h e C e n t r a l Valley being t h e f o c u s of most s y s t e m a t i c s t u d i e s of p r e h i s t o r i c h e a l t h , w e h a v e c o n f i n e d o u r main d i s c u s s i o n t o t h i s r e g i o n . The p r e h i s t o r i c c u l t u r a l sequence f o r much of c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a was worked o u t i n t h e 1930s ( B e a r d s l e y 1 9 4 8 , 1954; H e i z e r and Fenenqa 1939; L i l l a r d e t a l . 1 9 3 9 ) . Three s e q u e n t i a l complexes ( o r h o r i z o n s , o r p e r i o d s ) were r e c o g n i z e d , g e n e r a l l y d e s i g n a t e d E a r l y , Middle, and L a t e , w i t h t h e L a t e complex s u b d i v i d e d i n t o p r e h i s t o r i c Phase 1 and p r o t o h i s t o r i c Phase 2 . The term ^i.nhiZZer pattern i s used t o r e c o g n i z e and d i s t i n g u i s h a l o c a l E a r l y complex s i t u a t e d w i t h i n t h e l o w e r C e n t r a l V a l l e y . F i g u r e 1 7 . 1 summarizes r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e E a r l y , Middle, and L a t e complexes ( s e e Schulz l 9 8 1 : 5 8 ) . D e t a i l s o f t h e C e n t r a l V a l l e y c u l t u r a l s e q u e n c e a r e a v a i l a b l e from numerous s o u r c e s . For t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s c h a p t e r it i s n o t e d t h a t t h e r e i s an a p p a r e n t t r e n d toward i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and d e n s i t y ,

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441

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Early

^ 1 100 years 6.P

FIGURE 1 7 . 1 . Temporal distr-ibution o f c e n t r a l CaZ'i.fomi.a cultural complexes ( d a t a from SchuZs 1 9 8 1 ) . s e d e n t i s m , i n c r e a s e d s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and some changes i n t e c h n o l o g y ( i . e . , changes i n r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y of s t o n e s t o o l s , i n t r o d u c t i o n of s m a l l p r o j e c t i l e p o i n t s ) . Only i n Phase 2 of t h e L a t e complex do European manufactured goods a p p e a r . S p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d w i t h c u l t u r a l change i n i n t e r i o r C a l i f o r n i a have c e n t e r e d on two ma-jor a n d n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e themes. One theme s u g g e s t s p a r t i a l p o p u l a t i o n r e p l a c e ment, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n from E a r l y t o Middle complexes. The g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of l a n g u a g e f a m i l i e s i n n a t i v e C a l i f o r n i a h a s l o n g been i n t e r p r e t e d t o i n d i c a t e p a s t p o p u l a t i o n replacement i n t h e Central Valley. The t i m i n g i s u n c l e a r , b u t i t i s s u g g e s t i v e t h a t t h e r e is a seemingly d r a m a t i c c u l t u r a l s h i f t between t h e E a r l y and Middle complexes, a s w e l l a s i n c r e a s e d e v i dence o f w a r f a r e i n t h e Middle complex ( s e e H e i z e r and E l s a s s e r 19801. S k e l e t a l e v i d e n c e f o r a n d a g a i n s t p a r t i a l p o p u l a t i o n r e placement a t t h e Early/Middle t r a n s i t i o n h a s a p p e a r e d (McHenry 1969; Newman 1957; Suchey 1 9 7 5 ) , b u t t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r d o e s n o t p u r s u e t h i s p o i n t beyond n o t i n g t h a t f u r t h e r work would b e u s e f u l , a s no c l e a r c o n s e n s u s h a s emerged. The second theme i s t h a t t h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s ( e s p e c i a l l y E a r l y Versus Middle) r e f l e c t s h i f t s i n s u b s i s t e n c e economies. A s i n i t i a l l y f o r m u l a t e d ( H e i z e r 1 9 4 9 ) , t h e theme p o s t u l a t e d a n E a r l y emphasis on h u n t i n g r e l a t i v e t o f i s h and v e g e t a l f o o d s , w h i l e Middle p e o p l e adopted ( o r b r o u g h t w i t h them) a c o r n p r o c e s s i n g , l e a d i n g t o a L a t e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n a c o r n and a s e c o n d a r y r e l i a n c e on f i s h ( e s p e c i a l l y s a l m o n ) , w i t h L a t e h u n t i n g b e i n g l e a s t import a n t t o c a l o r i c i n t a k e (Figure 17.2). Lack o f a c o r n u t i l i z a t i o n i n t h e E a r l y complex h a s been a major p a r t of t h e s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t theme, and was s u p p o r t e d b o t h by a l o g i c t h a t e x p e c t e d t h e L a t e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n t o have a r i s e n from a more g e n e r a l i z e d s u b s i s t e n c e b a s e , and by a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence. M o r t a r s and p e s t l e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y f o r a c o r n p r o c e s s i n g , and t h e i r a p p a r e n t r a r i t y i n E a r l y components seems r e a l . Although E a r l y complex m o r t a r s a n d p e s t l e s a r e known, t h e

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Windmiller t r a d i t i o n is d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a low r a t i o of m i l l i n g t o o l s of any s o r t t o f l a k e d s t o n e b i f a c e s . Furthermore, f i v e of t h e seven Windmiller components s t u d i e d have y i e l d e d no m o r t a r s o r p e s t l e s (Schulz 1 9 8 1 ) . The e a r l i e s t d i r e c t e v i d e n c e of a c o r n u s e i n t h e l o w e r C e n t r a l V a l l e y d a t e s t o t h e Early-Middle t r a n s i t i o n (Schulz a n d Johnson 1 9 8 0 ) . S e v e r a l r e f i n e m e n t s o f t h e g e n e r a l s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t theme have o c c u r r e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s . When t h e Early-Middle-Late sequence was i n i t i a l l y p r o p o s e d , E a r l y s i t e s o t h e r t h a n lower C e n t r a l V a l l e y Windmiller components were e i t h e r unknown o r o n l y t e n t a t i v e l y recognized. S i n c e t h e n , a n a l y s i s of components contemporary w i t h t h e Windmiller t r a d i t i o n h a s y i e l d e d e v i d e n c e o f E a r l y acorn p r o c e s s i n g i n the San F r a n c i s c o Bay r e g i o n (Gerow and F o r c e 1 9 6 8 ) , and i n t h e North C o a s t Range n o r t h and west o f t h e i n t e r i o r v a l l e y (Baumhoff and O r l i n s 1979; F r e d r i c k s o n 1 9 7 4 ) . Thus t h e s c e n a r i o i s b e s t r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e i n t e r i o r v a l l e y , a s it depends on a c e n t r a l assumption t h a t E a r l y complex was p r e acorn. Reasons f o r t h e Windmiller t r a d i t i o n ' s weak o r none x i s t e n t u t i l i z a t i o n o f a c o r n have remained p r o b l e m a t i c . Lack of a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o q y d o e s n o t seem v a l i d i n l i g h t of t h e p r e s e n c e of a p p r o p r i a t e t o o l s and a c t i v e t r a d e w i t h p o s s i b l e C u l t u r a l c o n s e r v a t i s m may have been acorn processing regions, a f a c t o r i n t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f a p r e - a c o r n economy, b u t i s d i f f i c u l t to a s s e s s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y . S c h u l z (1981) h a s s u g g e s t e d an e c o l o g i c a l c a u s e f o r t h e l a c k o f a c o r n u t i l i z a t i o n i n t h e Windmiller t r a d i t i o n . On t h e b a s i s o f p a l e o e c o l o g i c a l d a t a , he concluded t h a t t h e i n t e r i o r v a l l e y was e x p e r i e n c i n g a s e r i e s of d r y e p i s o d e s t h a t extended in t i m e

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t h r o u g h t h e E a r l y complex t o j u s t b e f o r e t h e Middle complex t r a n s i t i o n . Schulz f e l t t h a t e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e d e c o l o g i c a l r e s t r a i n t s on t h e r a n g e and p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e oak woodland i n t h e i n t e r i o r This, i n t u r n , v a l l e y (and w e s t e r n S i e r r a Nevada f o o t h i l l s 1 i n h i b i t e d a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o r p o s s i b l y even u t i l i z a t i o n . While t h e v a l i d i t y and c a u s e o f a n a c o r n l e s s Windmiller econoiny h a s been a r g u e d f r e q u e n t l y , few s t u d i e s h a v e a d d r e s s e d t h e o t h e r s i d e of t h e c o i n , which i s why t h e a c o r n was l a t e r a d o p t e d . The work o f Baumhoff (1963) and o t h e r s s u g g e s t e d t h a t a c o r n and salmon emphasis d e v e l o p e d a s a means of d e c r e a s i n g s e a s o n a l s h o r t a g e s of f o o d , e s p e c i a l l y i n l a t e w i n t e r b e f o r e s p r i n g salmon r u n s and p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f p l a n t f o o d s . T h e E a r l y s u b s i s t e n c e economy was viewed a s m a i n t a i n i n g o n l y a m a r g i n a l Sedentism, p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , and c u l t u r a l e l a b o food s u r p l u s . r a t i o n f o l l o w e d an i n i t i a l s h i f t toward s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s by e x p l o i t a t i o n of e a s i l y s t o r e d and p r o d u c t i v e f o o d s . While t h i s d o e s n o t e x p l a i n why t h e E a r l y complex would e n d u r e a pre-acorn regime f o r s o l o n g , i t does p r o v i d e a m o t i v a t i o n f o r t h e change and s p e c i a l i z a t i o n t h a t e v e n t u a l l y o c c u r r e d . A t l e a s t t w o t e s t a b l e h y p o t h e s e s a r o s e from t h e f o r e g o i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . One i s termed h e r e t h e h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s , a l t h o u g h i t i s a c t u a l l y t h e i d e a t h a t E a r l y complex s u h s u s t e n c e emphasized meat r e s o u r c e s o v e r v e g e t a l f o o d . The o t h e r i s termed a s e a s o w i l s t r e s s h y p a t h e s i s , which s u g g e s t s t h a t E a r l y complex p e o p l e were more s u b j e c t t o s e a s o n a l m o r b i d i t y a n d m o r t a l i t y t h a n l a t e r p e o p l e s , presumably due t o p e r i o d s o f w i n t e r h a r d s h i p i n food procurement. The two h y p o t h e s e s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d e p e n d e n t , a s i n i t i a l f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e s u b s i s t e n c e theme invoked a h u n t i n g economy a s a cause of s e a s o n a l s t r e s s . The t r a d i t i o n a l view o f C a l i f o r n i a p r e h i s t o r y emphasizing E a r l y complex h u n t i n g a d a p t a t i o n s was f o r m u l a t e d i n an e r a when h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s ' l i f e - s t y l e s were s e e n a s p r e c a r i o u s and s u b j e c t t o s e a s o n a l h a r d s h i p . The t r e n d toward a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n was viewed a s a p r o g r e s s i v e move s i m i l a r t o a d o p t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e e l s e w h e r e , and d i r e c t e d toward s t a b i l i z a t i o n of food a v a i l a b i l i t y . ~ l t h o u g ht h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t and b i o l o g i c a l h e a l t h was l o n g p o s t u l a t e d , p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a were not e x t e n s i v e l y p u r s u e d , and were i n i t i a l l y t r e a t e d a s secondary d a t a r a t h e r t h a n d i r e c t l y --ised f o r hypothesis t e s t i n g .

.

One r e a s o n may b e t h a t , w h i l e s p e c t a c u l a r and i n t e r e s t i n g p a t h o l o g i e s h a v e been n o t e d (Bennet 1972; Brooks and Hohenthal 1963; Hoffman 1 9 7 6 a , h , c ) g e n e r a l h e a l t h may have been good (Cook 1955; H e i z e r and E l s a s s e r 19801. The a u t h o r s of t h i s c h a p t e r have i n d e p e n d e n t l y n o t e d a g e n e r a l p a u c i t y o f g r o s s l e s i o n s , and

444

DAVID N DICKEL ET /u.,

D i c k e l and P. Schulz ( u n p u b l i s h e d ) have i n d e p e n d e n t l y found t h a t c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and c r a n i a l p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s a r e s o r a r e t h a t meaningful comparisons a c r o s s a g e , s e x , and t e m p o r a l s a m p l e s were n o t p o s s i b l e . Brues ( l 9 6 6 : 1 0 8 ) , i n a s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e t o p a t h o l o g i e s i n two s e r i e s o f C a l i f o r n i a s k e l e t o n s (Roney 1 9 6 6 ) , s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e y were " s o h e a l t h y it i s somewhat d i s c o u r a g i n g t o work w i t h them." Gerow (Gerow and F o r c e 1968) a l s o n o t e s a l a c k of p a t h o l o g y i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a s k e l e t a l samples. However, some l i n e s of p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h h a v e proved i n f o r m a t i v e . D.

Harris Lines McHenry p u b l i s h e d t h e r e s u l t s of an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of p e r i o d i c s t r e s s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a b a s e d on t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a f a i r l y c o m n s k e l e t a l marker o f s t r e s s , H a r r i s l i n e s (McHenry 1 9 6 8 ) . The t y p e s o f s t r e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h H a r r i s l i n e f o r m a t i o n a r e e c l e c t i c , b u t g e n e r a l l y t h e major a s s o c i a t i o n h a s been w i t h H a r r i s l i n e s and i l l n e s s o r m a l n u t r i t i o n ( f o r r e v i e w s s e e McHenry a n d Schulz 1978; Schulz 1 9 8 1 ) . A b a s i c assumption, b a s e d i n p a r t on t h e combined s t u d i e s o f D r e i z e n e t a l . (1956, 1 9 6 4 ) and G r e u l i c h and P y l e ( 1 9 5 9 ) , i s t h a t H a r r i s l i n e s a r e p o o r i n d i c a t o r s o f c h r o n i c s t r e s s b u t good i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s f o l l o w e d by r e c o v e r y . I n McHenry ' s (1968) s t u d y H a r r i s l i n e s d a t a i n d i c a t e d t h a t more r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s e x p e r i e n c e d l e s s p e r i o d i c s t r e s s t h a n t h e o l d e r p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e s t r o n g e s t r e d u c t i o n b e i n g from E a r l y t o Middle complexes ( F i g u r e 1 7 . 3 ) . These r e s u l t s were c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a h y p o t h e s i s o f g r e a t e r E a r l y complex s e a s o n a l f o o d s h o r t a g e s , t h e l a t e r d e c r e a s e b e i n g a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e u s e of s t o r e d a c o r n and salmon. Schulz (1970, 1981) broadened t h e e v i d e n c e of h i g h e r s e a s o n a l m o r b i d i t y i n t h e E a r l y complex by l o o k i n g a t t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of Windmiller ( E a r l y complex) e x t e n d e d b u r i a l s f o r e v i d e n c e of s e a s o n a l e l e v a t i o n of m o r t a l i t y . Windmiller b u r i a l s have l o n g been n o t e d t o b e c o n s i s t e n t l y o r i e n t e d westward, and S c h u l z ' s s t u d y found t h a t 80% o f t h e b u r i a l s f o r which d a t a were a v a i l a b l e occurred i n t h e winter half of t h e year (Figure 1 7 . 4 ) . This supp o r t s a h y p o t h e s i s o f Windmiller l a t e w i n t e r - e a r l y s p r i n g s e a s o n a l h a r d s h i p ; presumably, i n c r e a s e d m o r t a l i t y was due e i t h e r t o d i r e c t s t a r v a t i o n o r , more l i k e l y , t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f poor n u t r i t i o n and poor h e a l t h . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , comparisons w i t h Middle and L a t e complexes a r e u n a v a i l a b l e w i t h t h i s method a s t h e i r b u r i a l s a r e commonly f l e x e d ( i f n o t c r e m a t e d ) , and randomly oriented.

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u LATE ?=5.03

I

EARLY

K=11.32

Average number o f H a w i s t i n e s per femur i n FIGURE 1 7 . 3 . Early, Middle, and Late populations -in c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a ( d a t a from MeHenry 1 9 6 8 1 .

1 50

m

- 40

.-0 L

-1

m +

0

30

L

a m

g

z

20

10

0

Zoo 220'

Winter

Solstice (223O-Oec 2 2 )

240-

260'

t Equjnox

(252.5"-March 21 and Sept 23)

280'

300-

320"

340'

Lsurnrner Solstice (282"-June 2 2 )

O r i e n t a t i o n i n Magnetic Degrees

FIGURE 1 7 . 4 . O r i e n t a t i o n of b u r i a l s from E a r l y Compzex (Windm-iller) i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a ( d a t a from Schitlz 1 9 7 0 ) . L i n e a r Enamel H y p o p l a s i a McHenry and Schulz ( 1 9 7 6 ) ' i n i t i a t e d an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f l i n e a r enamel h y p o p l a s i a (LEH) b e c a u s e it was e x p e c t e d t o provide s u p p o r t of t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s from a s o u r c e of p a l e o -

DAVID N. DICKEL ET AL.

FIGURE 1 7 . 5 . The frequency of h y p o p t a s i u in t h e Early ( E l , Middle (M), and Late {Phase 1 [L:] and P h a s e 2 [ L ~J ] p o p u l a t i o n s ( r e d r a w from ScfwT.2 1 $ 8 1 : 1 2 2 , F i g u r e I S ) . p a t h o l o g i c a l information b i o l o g i c a l l y independent of Harris l i n e s . As with Harris l i n e s , both i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s and m a l n u t r i t i o n have been i m p l i c a t e d i n t h e development of LEH ( f o r r e v i e w s s e e McHenry and S c h u l z 1976, 1978; S c h u l z 19811, and LEH s h o u l d r e c o r d periodic stress. The p o p u l a t i o n s samples f o r LEH were t h e same a s i n McHenry's (1968) s t u d y o f H a r r i s l i n e s , b u t t h e s u b j e c t s were d i f f e r e n t and t h e t o t a l sample s i z e l a r g e r . The f r e q u e n c y of h y p o p l a s t i c l i n e s d i f f e r s among E a r l y , Middle, and L a t e p o p u l a t i o n s ( F i g u r e 1 7 . 5 ) . I t is a p p a r e n t t h a t w h i l e t h e d e c l i n e in f r e q u e n c y o f LEH from E a r l y t o Middle i s i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s , t h e L a t e i n c r e a s e i s n o t . The L a t e complex s p a n s t h e t r a n s i t i o n i n t o h i s t o r i c t i m e s , and i n t r o d u c e d d i s e a s e s c o u l d b e a f f e c t i n g t h e o b s e r v e d r i s e i n L a t e LEH i n c i d e n c e . When t h e L a t e sample was d i v i d e d i n t o p r e h i s t o r i c P h a s e 1 and p r o t o h i s t o r i c Phase 2 , t h e former group d i d show a l o w e r i n c i d e n c e . However, t h e P h a s e 1 f r e q u e n c y i s h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e Middle complex, and LEH d a t a f a i l e d t o support t h e seasonal s t r e s s hypothesis.

A s s o c i a t i o n of H a r r i s L i n e s and L i n e a r Enamel Hypoplasia Of c o n c e r n was t h e a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n of H a r r i s l i n e e v i dence by what was e x p e c t e d t o be c o r r o b o r a t i n g e v i d e n c e , a n d a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of LEH and H a r r i s l i n e s was i n i t i a t e d . Femora a v a i l a b l e f o r 156 s u b j e c t s u s e d i n t h e LEH s t u d y were s c o r e d f o r H a r r i s l i n e s . The new H a r r i s l i n e d a t a i n d i c a t e d two t h i n g s v e r y c l e a r l y . The t r e n d s e e n by McHenry f o r

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a c o n s i s t e n t decrease i n H a r r i s l i n e frequency through archaeolog i c a l t i m e was s u b s t a n t i a t e d by s a m p l e s n o t u s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s t u d y . Second, t e s t s o f c o - o c c u r r e n c e o f LEH and H a r r i s l i n e s i n s p e c i f i c a g e c a t e g o r i e s w e r e t o t a l l y n o n s i g n i f i c a n t (McHenry and Schulz, 1976). S e v e r a l r e c e n t s t u d i e s have i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e c o - o c c u r r e n c e of t h e s e t r a i t s w i t h mixed r e s u l t s ( s e e Hunt and Hatch 1 9 8 1 ) , a n d t h e y may c a r r y s u b s t a n t i a l l y nonredundant i n f o r m a t i o n . C e r t a i n l y t h e recovery phase necessary f o r H a r r i s l i n e formation (but n o t f o r LEH) emphasizes t h a t t h e e t i o l o g i e s of t h e s e p a t h o l o g i e s a r e only p a r t i a l l y overlapping. I t is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s i s i n v a l i d a t e d by t h e r e s u l t s of t h e LEH s t u d y , t h e c r u x o f t h e m a t t e r b e i n g whether it i s p o s s i b l e t o d e c i d e i f H a r r i s l i n e s o r LEH make a b e t t e r i n d i c a t o r o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s : the interaction of d i s e a s e and n u t r i t i o n may make i m p o s s i b l e a g e n e r a l " r u l e of thumb" a b o u t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s e f a c t o r s i n t h e development of e i t h e r . The d i s t i n c t i o n may l i e i n t h a t H a r r i s l i n e s r e c o r d a c u t e s t r e s s f o l l o w e d by r e c o v e r y , and LEH r e c o r d s c h r o n i c s t r e s s , a s s u g g e s t e d by Hluinberg and K e r l e y ( 1 9 6 6 ) . However, it i s t e m p t i n g t o s p e c u l a t e a b o u t l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s , even i f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e r i s k y . Chronic o r s h o r t - t e r m famine and n u t r i t i o n a l imbalance seem v i r t u a l l y n o n e x i s t e n t in c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a a t t i m e of c o n t a c t ( s e e H e i z e r and E l s a s s e r 1 9 8 0 ) , a l t h o u g h t h e L a t e p h a s e s show t h e h i g h e s t i n c i d e n c e s of LEH. This suq q e s t s t h a t a t l e a s t i n t h i s s t u d y a r e a LEH is n o t e s .. p e c i a l l y due t o n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , b u t p r o b a b l y r e c o r d s i n c r e a s i n q-e p. i s o d e s of d i s e a s e and p a r a s i t e i n f e s t a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e , p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , and s e d e n t i s m . Disease and p a r a s i t i s m would have become i n c r e a s i n g l y endemic r i s k s a s p o p u l a t i o n s grew, and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and d i s e a s e b a s been n o t e d e l s e w h e r e ( B r o t h w e l l 1969; Cohen 1980; L a l l o e t a l . 1978; Larson 1981; Scrimshaw e t a l . 1 9 6 8 ) . H a r r i s l i n e s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a p o p u l a t i o n s may be good markers of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . Ruff (1975) found t h a t an E a r l y San F r a n c i s c o Hay sample showed a b o u t t h e same r a t e of H a r r i s l i n e i n c i d e n c e a s a L a t e sample. Presumably, E a r l y bay p o p u l a t i o n s were u t i l i z i n g a c o r n c r o p s (Gerow 1 9 7 4 a , b ; Gerow and Force 1 9 6 8 ) , a n d t h u s were s u b j e c t t o l e s s s e a s o n a l n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s I f Harris t h a n contemporary i n t e r i o r v a l l e y Windmiller p e o p l e . l i n e s c a r r y n u t r i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i v e l y u n b l u r r e d by d i s e a s e s t r e s s , and i f LEH r e c o r d s an i n c r e a s e i n c h r o n i c d i s e a s e , t h e n t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s is s t i l l v i a b l e , b u t w i t h t h e r e f i n e m e n t t h a t it seems p r o b a b l e t h a t s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t toward r e l i a b l e food s o u r c e s was accompanied by a change i n t h e n a t u r e and s o u r c e o f b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s r a t h e r t h a n a g e n e r a l abatement of a l l s t r e s s .

448

DAVID N.DICKEL ET AL. Stature

Adult s t a t u r e i s p o s s i b l y an i n d i c a t o r o f t o t a l h e a l t h , a l though g e n e t i c and o t h e r f a c t o r s a r e i n v o l v e d ( B u i k s t r a and Cook 1 9 8 0 : 4 4 9 ) . Average a d u l t f e m o r a l l e n g t h d i d d e c r e a s e s l i g h t l y from E a r l y t o Middle t i m e s , b u t t h e r e was no a p p r e c i a b l e change from Middle t o L a t e . A l l comparisons a c r o s s complexes ( w i t h o r w i t h o u t c o n t r o l f o r g e n d e r ) r e v e a l e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n mean femoral l e n g t h s . (Sexual dimorphism o f f e m o r a l l e n g t h s a l s o showed no s i g n i f i c a n t changes t h r o u g h t i m e . ) Thus t h e r e i s some i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t o t a l b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s may h a v e remained a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t h r o u g h t i m e d e s p i t e changes i n t h e t y p e of s t r e s s experienced.

Caries By t h e e a r l y 1970s t h e r e seemed t o b e t a c i t agreement t h a t B e a r d s l e y ' s (1948) and H e i z e r ' s (1949) model o f s u b s i s t e n c e i n t h e E a r l y complex was o v e r s t a t e d . N o n e t h e l e s s , summaries of C a l i f o r n i a a r c h a e o l o g y emphasized t h e r e l a t i v e importance o f E a r l y h u n t i n g , and W i l l e y (1966: 369) p r o v i d e s a n example o f a common "bottom l i n e " : S l a b m e t a t e s and bowl m o r t a r s have been found i n t h e [ ~ a r l y complex w i n d m i l l e r ] s i t e s , b u t t h e p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f l a r g e , stemmed, c h i p p e d p r o j e c t i l e p o i n t s ; bone f i s h hooks and g o r g e s : and bone t r i d e n t f i s h s p e a r s imply t h a t game and f i s h from t h e r i v e r were more i m p o r t a n t i n t h e d i e t t h a n s e e d s and n u t s . Schulz (1981) d i r e c t l y i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e q u e s t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a l v e g e t a l c o n t e n t of t h e d i e t of E a r l y p e o p l e r e l a t i v e t o Middle and L a t e by examining t h e i n c i d e n c e o f c a r i e s i n each complex. Because of t h e importance of c a r b o h y d r a t e s a s a c a r i o g e n i c a g e n t , he assuiried t h a t t h e c a r i e s e x p e r i e n c e o f p o p u l a t i o n s s h o u l d be an e x c e l l e n t i n d i c a t o r o f t h e r e l a t i v e c a r b o h y d r a t e c o n t e n t of t h e i r d i e t s . Schulz was n o t t h e f i r s t t o s t u d y c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a d e n t a l pathologies. Leigh (1928) r e c o r d e d c a r i e s f r e q u e n c y , b u t k e p t no t e m p o r a l c o n t r o l of h i s s a m p l e s . On t h e b a s i s o f l i m i t e d sampling, o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s n o t i c e d a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a t e o f c a r i e s i n t h e L a t e complex, b u t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e v i s - a - v i s t h e h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s was n o t r e c o g n i z e d (Kennedy 1960; Mewman 1 9 5 7 ) . A l l t h e s e s t u d i e s s u f f e r e d from s h o r t c o m i n g s i n c l u d i n q s m a l l sample s i z e s , p o o r l y d e f i n e d age of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s , and n o cont r o l f o r t h e e f f e c t s of postmortem t o o t h l o s s . Schulz (1981) t h e r e f o r e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s by s t u d y i n g d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y i n t h e lower C e n t r a l V a l l e y , u s i n g a v e r y l a r g e sample (904 i n d i v i d u a l s ) d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r r e l a t i v e age c l a s s e s , s t r a t i f i e d by s e x and by c u l t u r a l complex. The most important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Schulz's r e s u l t s f o r t e s t i n g t h e

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II

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FIGURE 1 7 . 6 . Mean carious t e e t h (CTI scores by age group f o r males and females of Early, Middle, and Late c u l t u r a l complexes. 0 , E a d y males; 0 , E a e females; 0 , Middle mates; , Middle females; A , Late males; A , Late females. Scored f i e l d excludes M3 (redrawn f r m Schulz 1 9 8 1 : 1 4 1 , Figure 1 7 ) . h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s i s t h a t t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f c a r i o u s t e e t h show l i t t l e tendency t o i n c r e a s e t h r o u g h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l t i m e ( F i g u r e 17.6). I n s e r i e s o f t e s t s of d i f f e r e n c e s between v a l u e s f o r mean c a r i o u s t e e t h i n each complex ( w i t h i n r e l a t i v e a g e and sex c l a s s e s ) , o n l y o n e comparison approached a r a t h e r r e l a x e d 90% c o n f i d e n c e level. These comparisons f a i l e d t o show t h e i n c r e a s e s t h a t would be e x p e c t e d t o r e s u l t from a d i e t a r y s h i f t from p r i mary r e l i a n c e on meat t o a p r i m a r y r e l i a n c e on p l a n t f o o d s h i g h i n c a r b o h y d r a t e s . I n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of e x p l o i t a t i o n o f and

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s p e c i a l i z a t i o n w i t h a few s t a p l e c a r b o h y d r a t e s i s more l i k e l y t o mark t h e Early-Middle-Late t r a n s i t i o n s t h a n is a s h i f t t o c a r h o h y d r a t e s p e r s e . While t h e E a r l y complex Windmiller t r a d i t i o n w a s p r o b a b l y p r e - a c o r n , o t h e r c a r b o h y d r a t e s may have been u t i l i z e d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same e x t e n t , i n d i c a t i n g t h e c l a s s i c h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s may b e i n v a l i d .

PALEODEMOGRAPHY

The s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s w a s i n i t i a l l y developed around an assumption o f E a r l y r e l i a n c e on h u n t i n g , b u t i t d o e s n o t depend on t h i s assumption t o remain v i a b l e . The h y p o t h e s i s i s t e n t a t i v e l y s u p p o r t e d on t h e b a s i s of (1) a p o s s i b l y h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f d e a t h s i n w i n t e r i n t h e E a r l y complex, and ( 2 ) H a r r i s l i n e data, especially i f Harris l i n e s record periodic n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . However, t h e LEH d a t a may i n d i c a t e t h a t a s n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s went i n t o a long-term d e c l i n e , t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n s t o r a b l e food r e s o u r c e s w a s n o t accompanied by a uniform i n c r e a s e in good h e a l t h b u t p o s s i b l y r e p r e s e n t e d a t r a d e - o f f of p e r i o d i c a c u t e s t r e s s f o r c h r o n i c s t r e s s . The premise t h a t s u b s i s t e n c e chancre was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a move toward t o t a l i m provement in h e a l t h i s u n d e r s c o r e d b y p a l e o d e n o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s . ProDonents of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t theme s u g- g - ested a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n t h r o u g h t i m e . T h i s was c o n s i d e r e d a l o g i c a l development, a s t h e dense p o p u l a t i o n s known to have e x i s t e d i n p r o t o h i s t o r i c t i m e s must have i n c r e a s e d from s m a l l e r , e a r l i e r populations. I d e a s about causes of t h e population i n c r e a s e were t i e d i n t o t h e h u n t i n g a s w e l l a s t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s it w a s assumed t h a t s m a l l e r p o p u l a t i o n s were mainhypothesis: t a i n e d due t o p o p u l a t i o n m o b i l i t y a n d l i m i t e d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f a subsistence s t r a t e g y d i r e c t e d a t k-selected species; eventually, a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n s t a b i l i z e d s e a s o n a l f l u c t u a t i o n of food and allowed populations t o i n c r e a s e . P o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e lower C e n t r a l V a l l e y were q u i t e d e n s e a t contact. E s t i m a t e s v a r y from 2 . 0 8 ( H e i z e r a n d E l s a s s e r 1 9 8 0 1 , t o 3.36 (Cook 1976) 4 . 4 p e r s o n s / h 2 (Baumhoff 1 9 6 3 ) . Slaymaker (1982) has i n d i c a t e d t h a t e v e n Baumhoff's f i g u r e may b e a low e s timate. The e x a c t t i m i n g and s c a l e of p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e s remain an i s s u e , a l t h o u g h t h e g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s i s t h a t i t was most marked i n E a r l y t o Middle t i m e s . Most o f t h e e v i d e n c e o f t h i s p o s t u l a t e d i n c r e a s e c o n s i s t s of t h e number o f s i t e components known from e a c h complex, a n d t h e t r e n d from a r e s t r i c t e d number of E a r l y s i t e components to a l a r g e number l a t e r a p p e a r s t o have demog r a p h i c a s w e l l a s taphonomic i m p l i c a t i o n s . S c h u l z (1981) summarized t h e e v i d e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t i a l r e covery o f remains ( F i g u r e 1 7 . 7 ) . When t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f s i t e components r e c o v e r e d a r e weighed a g a i n s t t h e t e m p r a l d u r a t i o n

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FIGURE 17.7. Chronological d i s t r i b u t i o n o f h e r Central Valley s i t e s f o r Early ( E l , Middle Mi, and Late (Phase 1 [ L ? ] and Phase 2 [ L Z ] ) c u l t u r a l complexes. Number o f k n o m components from each complex i s p l o t t e d against i t s duration (redpawn from Sohulz 1981: 182, Figure 2 4 ) . o f complexes, a c o n t i n u a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f s i t e s i s app a r e n t and may r e p r e s p n t a long-term i n c r e a s e i n t h e ni-onber of s e t t l e m e n t s as w e l l a s d i f f e r e n t i a l d e s t r u c t i o n of o l d e r s i t e s . I n o r d e r t o a c c o u n t i n p a r t f o r s e t t l e m e n t s i z e , Schulz p l o t t e d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b u r i a l s a g a i n s t the d u r a t i o n o f comp l e x e s . ~ ~ a he i nfound an i n c r e a s e w i t h t i m e , a l t h o u g h in cont r a s t t o t h e t r e n d i n s i t e d i s t r i b u t i o n t h e r e is a v i s i b l e slowing down of t h e r a t e of i n c r e a s e i n t h e Middle to L a t e p e r i o d s ( F i g u r e 1 7 . 8 ) . Schulz a l s o found a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e nunb e r o f r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s from younger v e r s u s o l d e r s i t e s d e s p i t e a p r o b a b l e b i a s toward d a t i n g m a t e r i a l t h o u g h t t o b e E a r l y .

DAVID N.DICKEL E T A L

FIGURE 17.8. Chronological d i s t r i b u t i o n of Z m e ~Central from Early (El, Middle (Ml, and Late (Phase 1 [ L ~ and ] Phase 2 [ L Z ] cuZturaZ compZaes. l^ianber o f indi-v'iduazs i n each complex i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t i t s d u r a t i o n (redraw, from SchuZs 1981:183, Figure 25). Although t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between c a u s e and e f f e c t i s u n c l e a r , a c o r n a d a p t a t i o n presumably p l a y e d a prominent r o l e i n the i n c r e a s e of p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s . I n t h e North C o a s t Range, balanophagous p o p u l a t i o n s contemporary w i t h the Windmiller t r a d i t i o n seem r e l a t i v e l y d e n s e (Baumhoff and O r l i n s 19791, a l t h o u g h e v i d e n c e from t h e balanophagous E a r l y San F r a n c i s c o Bay a r e a i s more ambiguous (Ruff 1 9 7 5 ) . I n t h e w e s t e r n S i e r r a Nevada f o o t h i l l s f e w s i t e s o c c u r b e f o r e Middle t i m e s , a l t h o u g h balanophagous L a t e p o p u l a t i o n s were q u i t e l a r g e (Johnson 1967; M o r a t t o 1972; Moratto e t a l . 1978). D e s p i t e u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t L a t e r e l a t i v e t o Middle p o p u l a t i o n growth ( E l s a s s e r 1978; Gould 1964) t h e e v i d e n c e b a s e d on r e c o v e r y i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e major jump i s a t t h e Early-Middle t r a n s i t i o n , with slower i n c r e a s e s t h e r e a f t e r . I n the s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t theme i t i s assumed t h a t d e c r e a s e d m o r b i d i t y , i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n s i z e , and i n c r e a s e d l o n g e v i t y were a s i n g l e package r e l a t e d t o s e a s o n a l r e s o u r c e s t a b i l i z a t i o n .

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However, a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a s u g g e s t s t h a t l o n g e v i t y may have d e c r e a s e d a s a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n c r e a s e d . Brahender (1965) compared s k e l e t a l samples from t h e t h r e e complexes f o r r e l a t i v e a g e b a s e d on d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n . She found t h a t t h e Early populations c l e a r l y exhibited g r e a t e r longevity. T h i s was s u r p r i s i n g , a s i n c r e a s e d s u b s i s t e n c e r e l i a b i l i t y i s o f t e n assumed t o b e r e f l e c t e d i n g r e a t e r l o n g e v i t y ( s e e Hassan 1973; Nemeskeri 1 9 7 0 ) . Problems w i t h B r a b e n d e r ' s s t u d y i n c l u d e s m a l l sample s i z e . Most i m p o r t a n t l y , however, t h e E a r l y sample i s from t h e i n t e r i o r v a l l e y (Windmiller) s i t e s , while t h e undifferent i a t e d Middle a n d L a t e sample i s from t h e San F r a n c i s c o Bay a r e a . Thus t h e l a t t e r sample d o e s n o t r e f l e c t t h e C e n t r a l V a l l e y a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ; it i s drawn from p o p u l a t i o n w i t h a heavy r e l i a n c e on m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a comparison r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e lower Sacramento V a l l e y was u n d e r t a k e n by Schulz i n a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t s t u d i e d o v e r 900 i n d i v i d u a l s ( f o r e x a c t methodology s e e Schulz 1981:981 0 0 ) . The h i g h e s t mean d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n r a t e s (and presumably g r e a t e r a g e ) a r e found among b o t h s e x e s i n t h e E a r l y sample a n d among f e m a l e s i n t h e Middle sample. The l o w e s t r a t e o f a t t r i t i o n i s found 'among m a l e s i n t h e L a t e sample, and c o n t r a s t s between t h i s and a l l o t h e r g r o u p s were h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t . The p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y g r e a t e r wear (and g r e a t e r a g e ) o f t h e E a r l y complex s a m p l e s supp o r t s B r a b e n d e r ' s (1965) f i n d i n g s , and l o n g e v i t y may have d e c r e a s e d through archaeological time d e s p i t e increasing resource s t a b i l i t y . Schulz s u g g e s t e d t h a t c r e m a t i o n p r a c t i c e s may b i a s t h e s e r e s u l t s . The o b s e r v e d number o f L a t e males shows a s i g n i f i c a n t d r o p from t h e e x p e c t e d number, whereas t h e ma1e:female r a t i o s f o r t h e E a r l y and Middle p e r i o d s a r e n e a r l y e q u a l . The p r a c t i c e of cremat i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l t i m e , a n d t h e e f f o r t of c r a t i o n may have been s p e n t mainly on h i g h - s t a t u s i n d i v i d u a l s , e s p e c i a l l y o l d e r males. Thus t h e a p p e a r a n c e of g r e a t e r l o n g e v i t y o f E a r l y samples may he p a r t l y a n a r t i f a c t o f an i n c r e a s i n g d i v e r s i o n o f o l d e r m a l e s from t h e L a t e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . O t h e r demographic work i n t h e l o w e r Sacramento V a l l e y , however, i n d i c a t e s t h a t l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s t r u l y were p r o g r e s s i v e l y younger at death. Doran (1980) s t u d i e d s u b a d u l t and a d u l t l i f e t a b l e s drawm from a sample o f 1254 i n d i v i d u a l s from a l l t h r e e c u l t u r a l complexes. d or an's l i f e t a b l e s were b a s e d o n d a t a f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s combined, which p r o v i d e d a l a r g e r sample s i z e b u t l i m i t s t e s t i n g o f some o f h i s c o n c l u d i n g h y p o t h e s e s . I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h what m i g h t h e e x p e c t e d w i t h a l a t e r s h i f t toward a c o r n s u b s i s t e n c e , Doran found o v e r a l l s u b a d u l t m o r t a l i t y was g e n e r a l l y l e s s f o r Middle and L a t e samples t h a n f o r E a r l y , a l t h o u g h m o r t a l i t y f o r a g e s 0-2 y e a r s a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h t i m e (Dorar. 1 9 8 0 : 9 4 ) . A marked t u r n a r o u n d a t a g e f o u r toward l e s s e r m o r t a l i t y i n t h e l a t e r complexes was s e e n and was a t t r i b u t e d t o g r e a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y of f o o d procurement and d e c r e a s i n g weaning ( I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n c t e t h a t McHenry and Schulz (1978) stress. found p e a k s a t age f o u r f o r i n c i d e n c e of h y p o p l a s t i c d e f e c t s and

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N.DICKEL ETAL.

H a r r i s l i n e s i n a l l t h r e e complexes.) Doran r e l a t e d t h e g r e a t e r Middle and L a t e m o r t a l i t y a t a g e s 0-2 y e a r s t o t r e n d s s e e n i n the adult mortality p r o f i l e . A s i n p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s , Doran found t h a t a d u l t s u r v i v o r s h i p a t n e a r l y a l l a d u l t a g e s was h i g h e s t f o r t h e E a r l y sample. s u r v i v o r s h i p p r o g r e s s i v e l y worsened w i t h t i m e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e 20-45-year a g e b r a c k e t , which i n c l u d e s t h e p r i m e r e p r o d u c t i v e years. Doran u t i l i z e d a s t a t i o n a r y p o p u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n t o incorp r a t e s u b a d u l t and a d u l t l i f e t a b l e d a t a i n t o a s i n g l e s o u r c e of information. He s t a t e d t h a t "growing p o p u l a t i o n s a r e younger p o p u l a t i o n s , " and t h a t t h r o u g h t i m e p o p u l a t i o n "growth was o c c u r r i n g , and t h e r a t e o f growth was l o w e s t i n t h e E a r l y Horizon, i n t e r m e d i a t e i n t h e Middle Horizon, a n d h i g h e s t i n t h e L a t e If t h i s interpretation i s correct, Horizon" (Doran 198O:IO9-llO). t h e n t h e r e is no c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n the e v i d e n c e o f d e c r e a s e d l o n g e v i t y c o i n c i d e n t w i t h i n c r e a s e d r a t e of p o p u l a t i o n growth. Doran h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h r o u g h t i m e (and presumably r e l a t e d t o i n c r e a s i n g l y balanophagous e c o n o m i e s ) , b i r t h s p a c i n g d e c r e a s e d a s p o p u l a t i o n s grew, and t h e r e was i n c r e a s e d m o r t a l i t y o f young a d u l t females r e l a t e d t o increased exposure t o t h e r i s k s o f c h i l d birth. Unfortunately, t h e pooling o f sexes in h i s published l i f e t a b l e s p r e c l u d e s a d i r e c t examination o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s . Since Schulz (1981) d o e s n o t r e p o r t u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of younger a d u l t f e m a l e s , t h e m a t e r n a l d e a t h h y p o t h e s i s r e m a i n s an open q u e s t i o n . Doran a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t -the h e a v i e r m o r t a l i t y i n l a t e r complexes f o r unwearied c h i l d r e n a g e d 0-2 y e a r s i s r e l a t e d t o m a t e r n a l d e a t h , a s t h i s age group would b e t h e most a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d . The paleodemographic i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e C e n t r a l V a l l e y i n d i c a t e s t h a t o v e r a l l subadult s u r v i v o r s h i p increased through time w h i l e a d u l t s u r v i v o r s h i p d e c r e a s e d , a l t h o u g h c r e m a t i o n may o v e r emphasize t h e l a t t e r t r e n d . A l l t h r e e complexes had a p o s i t i v e and a c c e l e r a t i n g p o p u l a t i o n growth r a t e . These p a l e o d e m g r a p h i c changes co-occurred w i t h (1) a major s h i f t from more g e n e r a l i z e d c a r b o h y d r a t e d i e t s o u r c e s to emphasis o n a few p r o d u c t i v e s t a p l e f o o d s t h a t c o u l d b e s t o r e d f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e , and ( 2 ) major It changes i n t h e t y p e of m o r b i d i t y e x p e r i e n c e d by p o p u l a t i o n s . i s t e m p t i n g t o s p e c u l a t e on t h e n a t u r e of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e s e trends. Both a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and e v i d e n c e o f d e n t a l p a t h o l o g i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t r e n d i n t h e Early-Middle-Late comp l e x sequence i n t h e p r e h i s t o r i c i n t e r i o r v a l l e y was toward a r e f i n e m e n t o f an e x i s t i n g p a t t e r n o f e x p l o i t a t i o n of p l a n t and a n i m a l s p e c i e s , r a t h e r t h a n a s h i f t from meat toward v e g e t a l foods By t h e t i m e of Western c o n t a c t and c u l t u r a l d i s r u p t i o n , t h i s t r e n d had c u l m i n a t e d i n an i n c r e a s e d r e l i a n c e and s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o n a r e s t r i c t e d number of s t a p l e f o o d s ( e s p e c i a l l y a c o r n and s a l m o n ) , and i n s e d e n t i s m , i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , and c u l t u r a l e l a b o r a t i o n comparable t o t h a t o f e a r l y food-producing c u l t u r e s u t i l i z i n g domesticated s t a p l e s .

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The i m p e t u s f o r t h i s s h i f t i s n o t c l e a r , b u t s e v e r a l f a c t o r s may have been i n v o l v e d . One i s c l i m a t i c s h i f t from a r e l a t i v e l y p r o l o n g e d s e r i e s of d r y p e r i o d s t h a t seems more t h a n c o i n c i d e n t a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e E a r l y Windmiller t r a d i t i o n . A g e n e r a l s c e n a r i o can be v i s u a l i z e d : a c o r n became more p r o d u c t i v e and r e l i a b l e enough t o w a r r a n t i n c r e a s e d e x p l o i t a t i o n , and i n c r e a s e d s e d e n t i s m , p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e , and a c o r n harvesti-ng became l o c k e d i n t o a p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k system. The i n i t i a l s t e p i n t o t h e feedback system may have been i n c r e a s e d s e d e n t i s m r e l a t e d t o h a r v e s t i n g , p r o c e s s i n g , and e s p e c i a l l y s t o r a g e of a c o r n s . Sedent a r y l i f e may b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e by l e a d i n g t o a d e c r e a s e i n b i r t h s p a c i n g (Bray 1976; C a v a l l i S f o r z a 1973; Fowler 1971; Lee 1 9 7 2 ) . Another model e x p l a i n i n g s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t i n v o l v e s p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e s ( s e e Cohen 1 9 7 7 ) . Doran (1980) s u g g e s t e d t h a t a l l t h r e e complexes had a p o s i t i v e growth r a t e a n d t h a t p o p u l a t i o n s may have i n c r e a s e d " j u s t b e c a u s e " t h a t i s what p o p u l a t i o n s t e n d t o d o (Cohen 1977, 1 9 8 1 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , i t h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t the t e r m i n a l E a r l y p e r i o d was marked by m i g r a t i o n s i n t o c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . Thus, a s c e n a r i o a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f a p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e o r " b o t t l e t h e o r y " (Hayden 1981:521! is p o s s i b l e ; e x t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a l p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e d a s r e g i o n a l expans i o n became p r o g r e s s i v e l y c o m p e t i t i v e , and l e d t o e x p l o i t a t i o n o f p o s s i b l y l e s s d e s i r a b l e and l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e r e s o u r c e s t h a t were h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e and d e n s e l y l o c a t e d w i t h i n a r e s t r i c t e d a r e a . The r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n growth i n c r e a s e d , a g a i n p e r h a p s due t o t h e " l o c k i n g i n " t o a feedback system i n v o l v i n g s e d e n t i s m . A t h i r d s c e n a r i o t h a t can b e c o n s i d e r e d f o l l o w s Hayden's (1981) r e s o u r c e s t r e s s model. The s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a can b e viewed a s a s p e c i a l c a s e of Hayden's more g e n e r a l i z e d model. The r e s o u r c e s t r e s s model s u g g e s t s t h a t p o p u l a t i o n s a t t e m p t t o m a i n t a i n an e q u i l i b r i u m i n t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h which t h e y e x p e r i e n c e r e s o u r c e s t r e s s . D e v i a t i o n s from t h i s equilibrium r e s u l t i n refinement o f e x i s t i n g s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s w i t h i n l i m i t s o f t e c h n o l o g y , and e v e n t u a l l y i n s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t s d i r e c t e d toward i n c r e a s i n g r e s o u r c e r e l i a b i l i t y (Hayden 1981:520!. p o p u l a t i o n s a r e s e e n a s t r y i n g to m a i n t a i n a b a l a n c e between t h e c o s t s of morbidity-mortality r e l a t e d t o p e r i o d i c resource s t r e s s , and t h e c o s t of m a i n t a i n i n g p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l s . The b e n e f i t s o f r e t a i n i n g t h i s balance include s u s t a i n i n g b i o l o g i c a l f i t n e s s with minimum r e p r o d u c t i v e waste (Hayden 1 9 8 1 : 5 2 2 ) . A s r e s o u r c e s t r e s s decreases, population control relaxes; as population increases, r e s o u r c e s t r e s s i n c r e a s e s , and c u l t u r e s a g a i n s t r i v e e i t h e r t o s t a b i l i z e resource r e l i a b i l i t y o r t o i n c r e a s e population c o n t r o l u n t i l a c u l t u r a l l y a c c e p t a b l e b a l a n c e of c o s t s i s a c h i e v e d . T h i s b a l a n c e i s more o r l e s s p r e c a r i o u s a s p o p u l a t i o n s s t r i v e t o r e d u c e one o r t h e o t h e r c o s t . What t h e s k e l e t a l d a t a s u g g e s t may be somewhat d i f f e r e n t from a p r e d i c t i o n o f r o u g h l y e q u a l amounts o f r e s o u r c e s t r e s s w i t h i n populations u t i l i z i n g d i f f e r e n t subsistence s t r a t e g i e s . Harris lines indicate t h a t periodic nutritional s t r e s s related t o

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r e s o u r c e r e l i a b i l i t y d e c r e a s e d through t i m e d e s p i t e p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e . LEH shows a long-term i n c r e a s e from t h e E a r l y t o t h e L a t e complex, and t o t a l s t r e s s ( n u t r i t i o n , d i s e a s e , e t c . ) , n o t j u s t r e s o u r c e s t r e s s , may be i n v o l v e d i-n t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m . H a r r i s l i n e s and LEH may p r o v i d e complementary i n d i c a t i o n s of approximately equal t o t a l b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s through t i m e . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e n a t u r e of t h e t y p e s of s t r e s s changed t h r o u g h t i m e , and a b a l a n c e o f t h e c o s t s o f m o r b i d i t y m o r t a l i t y and p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l may n o t b e r e l a t e d t o n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s a l o n e . The d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t a c u t e s t r e s s d e c r e a s e d w h i l e c h r o n i c s t r e s s i n c r e a s e d , and analogous s h i f t s t o h o r t i c u l t u r e may have had much t h e same e f f e c t (Cohen 1981; Lewin 1981) The t y p e s o f m o r b i d i t y and m o r t a l i t y c u l t u r a l l y p e r c e i v e d a s m a n i p u l a b l e by changing s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s may b e a f a c t o r i n subsistence s h i f t s . While p e r i o d i c s u r g e s i n a d u l t m o r t a l i t y may b e p e r c e i v e d a s b e i n g l e s s e n e d by improved r e s o u r c e s t a b i l i z a t i o n , o t h e r forms o f m o r t a l i t y may h e c o n s i d e r e d beyond t h e c o n t r o l of s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s . An i n c r e a s e i n m a t e r n a l o r g e n e r a l mort a l i t y r e l a t e d t o t h e complex i n t e r a c t i o n o f d e c r e a s e d b i r t h s p a c i n g , p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and d e n s i t y , d i s e a s e , and s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g y may n o t be " r e c o g n i z e d " a s a c o s t o f r e s o u r c e s t a b i l i z a tion. I n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a it c a n b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t f a c t o r s of p o p u l a t i o n growth, s e a s o n a l r e s o u r c e s t r e s s , and c l i m a t i c change a l l c o n t r i b u t e d t o a s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t l e a d i n g t o acorn u t i l i z a t i o n and s u b s e q u e n t s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . P o p u l a t i o n growth and r e s o u r c e s t r e s s may have produced a p r e s s u r e f o r change i n a manner s i m i l a r t o Hayden's proposed " c o s t o f s t r e s s - c o s t of p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l " e q u i l i b r i u m , and c l i m a t i c change may h a v e p r o v i d e d an o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e d u c e r e s o u r c e s t r e s s t h r o u g h e l a b o r a t i o n of an e x i s t i n g h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g s t r a t e g y w i t h o u t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of h o r t i c u l t u r e .

.

REFERENCES

Baumhoff, M. 1963 E c o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t s of a b o r i g i n a l C a l i f o r n i a p o p u l a t i o n s . U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a Publications i n American Archaeology and Ethnography 49:155-236. Baurnhoff, M. A , , and R . O r l i n s 1979 An a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a s s a y on Dry C r e e k , Sonoma County, California. U n i v e r s i t y o f California Archaeological Research F a c a t y Contributions 4 0 : l - 2 4 4 . Bean, L . , and T . Blackburn Ballena 1976 Native Cal'i.fornians, a t h e o r e t i c a l r e t r o s p e c t i v e . P r e s s , S o c o r r o , N e w Mexico. Bean, L . , a n d H. Lawton 1973 Some e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e r i s e o f c u l t u r a l complexity i n

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n a t i v e C a l i f o r n i a w i t h comments on p r o t o - a g r i c u l t u r e and a g r i c u l t u r e . Battens Press Anthropological, Papers 1:V-XLVII. B e a r d s l e y , R. 1948 C u l t u r a l s e q u e n c e s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a a r c h a e o l o g y . Amer-icon A n t i q u i t y 1 4 : l - 2 8 . 1954 Temporal and a r e a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s in c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a a r c h a e o l o g y , p a r t s I and 11. Reports o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a Archaeoz0gica.Z Survey, Berkeley, Nos. 24-25. Bennet, K . A . 1972 Lumbo-sacral m a l f o r m a t i o n s and s p i n a b i f i d a o c c u l a t a i n a group o f p r o t o - h i s t o r i c Modoc I n d i a n s . American Journal o f Physical AnthropoZog~ 36:435-439. Blumberg, J . , and E. K e r l e y A c r i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f roentgenology 1966 D i s c u s s i o n : and microscopy i n p a l e o p a t h o l o g y . I n Human PaZeapathoZogy, e d i t e d by S. J a r c h o , ~ p 150-170. . Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven and London. Brabender, I . 1965 B e i t r a s z u r p a l a o b i o l o g i s c h e n R e k o n s t r u k t i o n p r a h i s t o r i s c h e r k a l i f o r n i s c h e r P o p u l a t i o n e n . HOMO 16 :200-230. Bray, W. 1976 From p r e d a t i o n t o p r o d u c t i o n : The n a t u r e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n i n Mexico a n d P e r u . I n Problems i n Economic and Soc'LaZ Apchaeology, e d i t e d by Gale d e G . S i e v e k i n g , I . H. Longworth, and K. E. Wilson, p p . 73-95. Ducksworth, London. Brcoks, S., a n d W. Hohenthal 1963 A r c h a e o l o g i c a l d e f e c t i v e p a l a t e c r a n i a from C a l i f o r n i a . American Journal of Physical, Anthropology 21: 25-32. Brothwell, D . 1969 D i e t a r y v a r i a t i o n and t h e b i o l o g y of e a r l i e r human p o p u l a 1n The Domestication and E x p l o i t a t i o n o f Plants tions. and Animals, e d i t e d by P. Ucko and C. nimbleby, p p . 53-545. A l d i n e - A t h e r t o n , Chicago. Brues, A . 1966 D i s c u s s i o n . I n Ewnan PaZeopathoZogy, e d i t e d b y S . J a r c h o . p p . 107-112. Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , N e w Haven and London. B u i k s t r a , J. E . , and D. C. Cook 1980 ~ a l e o p a t h o l o g y : An American a c c o u n t . AnnmZ Review o f Anthropology 9:433-470. C a v a l l i - S f o r z a , L. 1.973 o r i g i n and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of human r a c e s . Proceedings Royal A n t h ~ o p o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e 1972:15-25. Cohen, M. 1977 The Food C r i s i s i n P r e h i s t o r y . Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven and London. 1980 S p e c u l a t i o n s on t h e e v o l u t i o n of d e n s i t y measurement and In Bio~oci~Z p o p u l a t i o n r e g u l a t i o n i n Homo s a p i e n s . Mechanisms o f Population Regulation, e d i t e d by M. Cohen, R . Malpass, and H . K l e i n , pp. 275-304. Yale U n i v e r s i t y

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P r e s s , New Haven and London. 1981 Comments. C u r r e n t A n t h r o v o t o a"v 22: 532 Cook, S. F. 1955 The Epidemic o f 1830-1833 i n C a l i f o r n i a and Oregon.

U n i u e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b t i c a t i o n i n American Archaeology and Ethnotogy 4 3 ( 3 ) : 303-326. 1976

The c o n f l i c t between t h e C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n and White c i v i l i z a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , B e r k e l e y . Doran, G . 1980 Paleodemography o f t h e P l a i n s Miwok e t h n o Z i n g u i s t i c a r e a , C e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Davis. D r e i z e n , S . , C. C u r r i e , E. G i l l e y , and T. S p i e s 1956 O b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e a s s o c i a t i o n between n u t r i t i v e f a i l u r e , s k e l e t a l m a t u r a t i o n r a t e , and r a d i o p a q u e t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n t h e d i s t a l end o f t h e r a d i u s i n c h i l d r e n . American

J o u r n a l o f Roentgenotoig'y, R a d i o t o g i e a t Therapy, and Nualeor Medicine 7 6 :482-487. D r e i z e n , S., C. S p i r a k i s , a n d R. S t o n e 1964 The i n f l u e n c e o f age and n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s on bone s c a r f o r m a t i o n i n t h e d i s t a l end o f t h e growing r a d i u s . American, J o m n a l o f Physical- A n t h r o p o l o g y 22:295-306. E l s a s s e r , A. 1978 Development o f r e g i o n a l p r e h i s t o r i c c u l t u r e s . In Handbook o f N o r t h American I n d i a n s (Vol. 81, e d i t e d by Robert H e i z e r , pp. 37-57. Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n , Washington, D.C. Fowler, M. 1971 The o r i g i n of p l a n t c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e c e n t r a l M i s s i s s i p p i Valley: A hypothesis. I n Prehisto'rie A g r i c u l t u r e s , e d i t e d by S. S t r u e v e r , p p . 122-128. Nature H i s t o r y P r e s s , Garden C i t y , N e w York. Fredrickson, D. 1974 C u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y i n e a r l y c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a : A view from t h e North C o a s t Ranges. Journo.2 o f CaZif0'mz.a Anthropo'logy 1:41-53. Gerow, E. 1974a Comments on F r e d r i c k s o n ' s c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y . J o u r n a l o f C a l i f o r n i a Archaeology 1 :239-246. 1974b C o n t r a d i c t i o n s and c o n v e r g e n t t r e n d s i n p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i f o r n i a . S a n L u i s Obispo C o u n Q Archaeoloq'ical S o c i e t y O c c a s i o n a l Paper 8 : 1-57. Gerow, B . , and R . Force 1968 An A n a l y s i s o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y V i l l a g e Complex.. S t a n f o r d University Press, Palo Alto. Gould, R. 1964 E x p l o i t a t i v e economies and c u l t u r a l change i n c e n t r a l University o f California Arehaeologica~ California. S u r v e y R e p o r t 62:123-163. G r e u l i c h , W., a n d S. P y l e 1959 R a d i o g r a p h i c A t l a s o f S k e l e t a l Development o f t h e Hand end

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CENTRAL CALIFORNIA: PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE AND HEALTH

459

W r i s t . S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Pa10 A l t o . n a s s a n , F. A. 1973 On mechanisms o f p p u l a t i o n growth d u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c . Current AnthropoZogy 1 4 ~ 5 3 5 - 5 4 2 . Hayden, B. 1381 Research and development i n t h e S t o n e Age: T e c h n o l o g i c a l Current AntkopoZogy t r a n s i t i o n s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s . 22: 519-531. Heizer, R. 1939 The a r c h a e o l o g y o f c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . I : he e a r l y horizoti. U n i v e r s i t y o f CaZifornia AntkopoZogicaZ Reports No. 1 2 . H e i z e r , R., and A. E l s a s s e r 1980 The NaturaZ World of C a z i f o r n i a I n d i a s . u n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , B e r k e l e y and Las Anqeles. H e i z e r , R . , m d F . Fenenga 1939 A r c h a e o l o g i c a l h o r i z o n s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . A m e r i c a A n t k o p o Z o g i s t 41:378-339. Hoffman, J. M . 1976a S t u d i e s i n C a l i f o r n i a p a l e o p a t h o l o g y : C o m i n u t e d f r a c t u r e o f a humerus w i t h pseudo a r t h r o s i s f o r m a t i o n . Contributions o f t h e U n i u e ~ s i t yo f C a Z i f o m i a ArehaeoZcgy Research F a c i l i t y 30:25-39. 1976b

S t u d i e s i n C a l i f o r n i a paleopathology: Enlarged p a r i e t a l f o r m i n a . C o n t ~ b u t i o n so f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f CaZifornia ArchaeoZogy Research FaciZity 30: 42-61, An a n c h o n d r o p l a s t i c 1 9 7 6 ~ s t u d i e s iP C a l i f o r n i a p a l e o p a t h o l o g y : dwarf from t h e A u q u s t i n e s i t e . Contributions o f t h e Uniu e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a ArehaeoZogy Research F a c i l i t y 30:65105. Hoffman, J . M . , and L. Brunker 1976 S t u d i e s in C a l i f o r n i a P a l m p a t h o l o g y : C a l i f o r n i a p a l e o Conributions o f t h h~i u e r s i t y pathology hiblioqraphy. o f CaZifornia ArchaeoZogy Research FaciZity 30 :3-23. Hunt, E . , Jr., and J . W. Hatch 1981 The e s t i m a t i o n o f a g e o f d e a t h and a g e s o f f o r m a t i o n of t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s from measurements o f human l o n g b o n e s . American JournaZ o f Physical AnthropoZogy 5 4 ~ 4 6 1 - 4 6 9 . Johnson, J. 1367 The a r c h a e o l o g y o f t h e Comanche r e s e r v o i r l o c a l i t y , Sacramento AnthropoZogicaZ S o c i e t y Papers California. 6:l-370. Kennedy, K. 1360 The d e n t i t i o n o f I n d i a n c r a n i a o f t h e e a r l y and l a t e A r c h a e o l o q i c a l h o r i z o n s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . Reports o f U n i u e r s i t y of CaZifornia ArchaeoZogicaZ Survey No. 50, 41-50, L a l l o , J . , G. Annelagos, and J. Fmse 1978 Paleoepidemiology of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i n Dicksan Mound p o p u l a t i o n s . MedicaZ CoZZege of V i r g i n i a !&mterZy 14:1723.

460

DAVID N DICKEL ET AL

L a r s o n , C. 1981 S k e l e t a l and d e n t a l a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e s h i f t t o a g r i c u l t u r e on t h e Georgia' c o a s t . &Trent Anth?opoZogy 22:422423. Lee, R . 1972 P o p u l a t i o n growth and t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f s e d e n t a r y l i f e I n PopuZation Grouth: A n t h o among t h e !Kmg Bushman. pozogieaz Impzioations, e d i t e d by B. Spooner, p p . 329342. M.I.T. P r e s s , Cambridge. Leigh, R . 1928 D e n t a l p a t h o l o w o f a b a r i g i n a l C a l i f o r n i a . U n i u e r s i t y

o f CaZifornia PubZieations i n American ArehaeoZogy and Ethnograph 23: 399-440. Lewin, R . 1 9 8 1 D i s e a s e c l u e t o d a m o f a g r i c u l t u r e . Seienee 211:41. L i l l a r d , J., R. H e i z e r , and E . Fenenga 1939 An i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e a r c h a e o l o g y o f c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . Sacramento J r . CoZZege BuZZetin No. 2 . McHenry, H. 1968 T r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n l o n g b n e s o f p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n s . American J o m a Z o f PhysicaZ AnthropoZogy 2 9 : l 18. MS. 1969 M u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s o f C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n c r a n i a . on f i l e , Department of A n t h r o p l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Davis. McHenry, H., and P. Schulz 1976 The a s s o c i a t i o n hetween H a r r i s l i n e s and enamel h y p p l a s i a i n p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n s . A m e ~ c a nJournaZ o f PhysicaZ AnthropoZogy 4 4 : 507-512. 1978 H a r r i s l i n e s , enamel h y p o p l a s i a , a n d s u b s i s t e n c e change i n p r e h i s t o r i c c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . &ZZena Fress PubZicat i o n s i n ArohaeoZqy, Ethnography, and K i s t o q 11 : 35-49. Meiqhan, C. 1959 C a l i f o r n i a c u l t u r e s and t h e c o n c e p t o f an a r c h a i c s t a g e . American A n t i q u i t y 24:289-318. M o r a t t o , M. 1972 A study o f p r e h i s t o q i n t h e southern Neuada foothiZZs, CaZifornia. Ph .D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of Oregon, Eugene. M o r a t t o , M . , T. King, and W. W o l f e n d e n 1978 Archaeology and C a l i f o r n i a c l i m a t e . JournaZ o f Cazifornia AnthropoZogy 5 ~ 1 4 7 - 1 6 2 . Nemeskeri, J. 1970 Die palaodemosraphoscher P r o b l e m d e s Hittle-Domu-Beckens i n d e r B r o n z e z e i t . Homo 21:80-85. Neman, R. 1957 A comparative a n a l y s i s o f p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s f r m t h e lower Sacramento V a l l e y . Uniuersity o f Caziforn i a AreheoZogicaZ Suruey Reports No. 39. Roney , J 1966 P a l e o e p i d e m i o l o g y : An example from C a l i f o r n i a . I n Hman

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CENTRAL CALIFORNIA: PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE AND HEALTH

P a Z e o p a t h o Z o ~ ,e d i t e d by S. J a r c h o , p p . 99-107.

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U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven and Undo". R u f f , C. 1975 T r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n t h e l o n g b o n e s o f two p r e h i s t o r i c San F r a n c i s c o Bay p o p u l a t i o n s . M s . on f i l e , Department of Anthropoloqy, S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , Pa10 A l t o . S c h u l z , P. 1970 S o l a r o r i e n t a t i o n and p a l e o d e m g r a p h y i n t h e c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a Windmiller t r a d i t i o n . Center for ArchaeoZogiea2 Reseurch a t Davis B ~ b Z i c a t i o n2:18S-198. 1 9 8 1 Osteoarchaeoloqy and subsistence change i n p r e h i s t o r i c c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Davis. S c h u l z , P . , and J. Johnson 1980 An e a r l y a c o r n c a c h e from c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . JoumaZ o f C a Z i f o m i a a d Great Basin Antkropozogy 2 ( 1 1 :127-128. Scrimshaw, N . , C . T a y l o r , a n d J. Gordon WorZd Health 1968 I n t e r a c t i o n s o f n u t r i t i o n and i n f e c t i o n . Grqaaization Monoqrwh . . S e r i e s No. 57. Slaymaker, C . h y . Ph.D. 1982 A mode2 for t h e studu o f Coast Mimk E t h o q.r a p -~ d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Davis. Suchey, J. 1975 BioZogicaZ d i s t a n c e s of p r e h i s t o r i c c e n t r a l C a 2 i f o m i a

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popuzations derived from non-metric t r a i t s o f t h e cranium. Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , R i v e r s i d e . Willey, G. 1966 An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o American ArehaeoZogy ( v o l . 11. P r e n t i c e - M a l l . . E n ~ l e w o o dC l i f f s . Z i e q l e r , A. 1968 Q u a s i - a g r i c u l t u r e i n n o r t h c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a and i t s e f f e c t on a b r i g i n a l s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . D o e b e r AntkropoZogica2 S o c i e t y Papers 38:52-67. >

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The r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e and h e a l t h " a r from simple I t i s complicated by numerous f a c t o r s such e t t l e m e n t l o c a t i o n , -p o-p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , r e s o u r c e abundance nd s e a s o n a l a v a i l a b i l i t y , t h e age s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , I n a d d i t i o n , c u l t u r a l i n p u t i n t h e form nd i t s s a n i t a r y h a b i t s f food t a b o o s , food p r e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , and l i m i t e d a c c e s s t o r e s o u r c e s can a l t e r d i e t a r y p a t t e r n s and a v a i l a b i l i t y o f nutrients t o a population D i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s p e c i f i c n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s and h e a l t h s t a t u s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o document i n any human population because t h e biochemical f u n c t i o n s and i n t e r a c t i o n s of most n u t r i e n t s a r e m u l t i p l e and complex Moreover, i n v e s t i g a t o r s studying archaeological populations a r e faced with t h e t a s k of reconstructing t h e subsistence base before e s t a b l i s h i n g any r e l a t i o n s h i p i t may have w i t h t h e h e a l t h s t a t u s o f t h e population The chemical a n a l y s i s o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l human and , animal bone f o r e i t h e r m i n e r a l composition o r i s o t o p i c compos i-' t i o n p r o v i d e s a means o f d i e t a r y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and c o r r o b o r a t e s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence based on f a u n a l , b o t a n i c a l and a r t i f a c t u a l remains Dietary reconstruction, i n conjunction with e s t i m a t e s o f h e a l t h s t a t u s based on s k e l e t a l remains, p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i s f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e d e g r e e t o which a p o p u l a t i o n i s e x p l o i t i n g and a d a p t i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y t o a p a r t i c u l a r environmental s e t t i n g

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The Panamanian Isthmus of lower C e n t r a l America has a cultu-S k e l e t a l remains r a l sequence d a t i n g from a t l e a s t 10,000 B C t h a t d a t e from p o s s i b l y a s e a r l y a s 5000 B C span t h e t r a n s i t i o n i n s u b s i s t e n c e from h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g w i l d r e s o u r c e s t o t h e dependence on seed a g r i c u l t u r e S e t t l e m e n t and s u b s i s t e n c e data new a v a i l a b l e a r e , f o r t h e most p a r t , g e o g r a p h i c a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e c e n t r a l P a c i f i c c o a s t a l p l a i n and p a r t s o f western Panama These a r e a s a r e r i c h i n n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and have s u p p o r t e d some A t t h e time of t h e l a r g e s t p o p u l a t i o n s o f lower C e n t r a l America o f European c o n t a c t , l a r g e n u c l e a t e d v i l l a g e s under t r i b a l F i r s t h a n d accoun a u t h o r i t y were w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d in t h i s r e g i o n of t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s by Europeans d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a i n o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l remains of t h e e a r l s Panamanian c u l t u r e s

GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND SUBSISTENCE RESOURCES

Most o f t h e Isthmus o f Panama l i e s a t an e l e v a t i o n of l e s s than 500 m, b u t i t i s d i v i d e d by c e n t r a l mountain ranges averaging R a i n f a l l v a r i e s w i t h e l e v a t i o n an? 1000-2000 m above s e a l e v e l a i r currents--many p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y r e c e i v e 2000-2500 mm o f r a i n f a l l annually; some P a c i f i c c o a s t a l a r e a s r e c e i v e l e s s and some A t l a n t i c c o a s t a l a r e a s much more. The v e g e t a t i o n c o v e r i - most o f t h e P a c i f i c s l o p e and c o a s t a l p l a i n i s a deciduous 01 semideciduous f o r e s t , and e a s i l y converted i n t o savanna The KEppen c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f macroclimates f o r t h i s r e g i o n i s " t r o p i c a l wet and dry" ( A w ) , and p r o v i d e s a d i v e r s e p a t t e r n of moist and d r y subregions w i t h i n t h e rainshadow r e g i o n s o u t h of the divide The a r e a n o r t h of t h e Azuero p e n i n s u l a and around t h e Bay of P a r i t a i s predominantly a " t r o p i c a l d r y f o r e s t " (Myers 1969) I n c o n t r a s t , t h e Caribbean s l o p e s a r e covered w i t h conEvaporation t i n u o u s , nonseasonal " t r o p i c a l m o i s t f o r e s t " (Af) i n t h i s a r e a i s minimal due t o f r e q u e n t n i g h t t i m e r a i n f a l l s , (Bennett 1968; Holdridge and Budowski 1956; Myers 1969; P o r t e r 1973) Mammals t h a t can be found i n Panama today i n c l u d e v a r i o u s s p e c i e s of p r i m a t e s , w i l d f e l i n e and c a n i n e mammals, w e a s e l s , procyoniddae (such a s coatimundi and racoon) hooved mammals ( t a p i r , d e e r , and p e c c a r i e s ) , e d e n t a t e s ( s l o t h , a n t e a t e r , and a r m a d i l l o ) , and a v a r i e t y o f r o d e n t s , m a r s u p i a l s , and b a t s The marine fauna of t h e (Bennett 1968; Levy and Chonq 1977) P a c i f i c c o a s t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y abutidant, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e Gulf o f Panama and P a r i t a Bay due t o a s e a s o n a l upwelling t h a t b r i n g s about an i n c r e a s e i n phytoplankton production and s e a s o n a l influxes of s h e l l f i s h , crustaceans, schools of shallow water f i s h , and f l o c k s o f s e a b i r d s (Glynn 1972) T h i s , i n a d d i t i o n t o mud f l a t s , mangrove swamps, and lagoon e s t u a r y systems makes t h e To t h e west a l o n g t h e p a c i f i c f a r i t a Bay r e g i o n v e r y p r o d u c t i v e

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BROAD CULTURAL UNITS

The c u l t u r a l sequence f o r western and c e n t r a l Panama can be broken down i n t o f i v e major p e r i o d s of o c c u p a t i o n based on a r t i f a c t assemblage, s u b s i s t e n c e b a s e , s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n , and apparent s o c i o p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n

P a l e o i n d i a n (?-8000 B C ) Surface f i n d s of f l u t e d p o i n t s and s c r a p e r s demonstrate t h a t Paleoindian p o p u l a t i o n s once i n h a b i t e d t h e e a s t e r n p o r t i o n of t h e isthmus, b u t e x c a v a t i o n s i n rock s h e l t e r s and caves have n o t uncovered a s s o c i a t e d f e a t u r e s o r s k e l e t a l remains (Bird and Cooke 1977, 1978; Cooke 1984; Sander 1964) Excavations i n p r o g r e s s i n c e n t r a l Panama have r e c e n t l y uncovered what a p p e a r s t o b e PaleoIndian o c c u p a t i o n a l d e b r i s (A. J Ranere, p e r s o n a l communication)

Precerarnic-Archaic

(8000-2500 B C )

To d a t e , no a r c h a e o l o g i c a l remains have been d i s c o v e r e d d a t i n g t o t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e Preceramic p e r i o d (8000-5000 B C ) The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and s k e l e t a l d a t a f o r t h e l a t t e r p o r t i o n of t h i s p e r i o d come from rock s h e l t e r s i n c e n t r a l and western Panama (Bird and Cooke 1978; Cooke 1978; L i n a r e s and Ranere 1971; Ranere 1972, 1980) and t h e P a r i t a Bay c o a s t a l s h e l l midden s i t e Cerro Mangote (McGimsey 1956, 1957, 1959; McGimsey et a 1 1966; Ranere 1979, 1981; Ranere and Hansel1 1978)

E a r l y Ceramic-Early A g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s (2500-300 B C ) The i n i t i a l p a r t of t h e E a r l y Ceramic p e r i o d (2500-1000 B C ) i s w e l l known from Monogrillo, a s h e l l midden on t h e P a r i t a Bay c o a s t (Willey and McGimsey 1 9 5 4 ) , and from r e l a t e d f i n d s i n t h e

18 PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA c e n t r a l Panama rock s h e l t e r s La Cueva de 10s Ladrones and Aguadulce (Bird and Cooke 1978; Cooke 1978; Ranere and Hansel1 1978) These c u l t u r a l d e p o s i t s a r e a b s e n t from western Panamanian rock s h e l t e r s ( L i n a r e s and Ranere 1971) The l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e E a r l y Ceramic p e r i o d i s n o t well known. Only r e c e n t l y has a s i t e been found i n t h e P a r i t a Bay a r e a t h a t S * c u l t u r a l development from t h e e a r l i e s t demonstrates ceramic s i t e s t h r o u g h t h e l a t t e r p o r t i o n o f t h e E a r l y Ceramic p e r i o d , t o t h e succeeding p e r i o d o f A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e s (Ranere and Cooke 1982)

A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e s (300 B C -A D

500)

S e v e r a l a g r i c u l t u r a l v i l l a g e s have been recorded and i n v e s t i g a t e d on t h e a l l u v i a l p l a i n s of c e n t r a l P a c i f i c Panama (Cooke 1979, 1984; Ladd 1964; Willey and Stoddard 1954) They p r o v i d e evidence o f t h e f i r s t ceramic and a g r i c u l t u r a l v i l l a g e o c c u p a t i o n of t h e f e r t i l e v a l l e y s i n t h e western h i g h l a n d s ( L i n a r e s and Ranere 1971; L i n a r e s e t a 1 1975; L i n a r e s 1977a,b; L i n a r e s and S h e e t s 1980)

A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdoms (A.D

500-1550)

,

3

V a r i a t i o n s i n t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y o f b u r i a l goods s u g g e s t t h a t a rank s o c i e t y was e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e c e n t r a l P a c i f i c r e g i o n Excavations i n by A D 400-500 (Cooke 1984; H e l m s 1976, 1979) d i c a t e t h a t a s i m i l a r l e v e l o f o r g a n i z a t i o n i s reached in t h e western h i g h l a n d s a t a b o u t t h e same time ( L i n a r e s 1977b; L i n a r e s and Sheet's 1980) and along t h e P a c i f i c s l o p e o f western Panama by A D 700 However, chiefdoms n e v e r appear t o have formed along t h e Caribbean s l o p e s o f western Panama ( L i n a r e s 1980c)

PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE, SETTLEMENT, AND POPULATION GROWTH

A s h i f t i n emphasis from h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g t o seed a g r i c u l t u r e can be documented along t h e P a c i f i c s l o p e of c e n t r a l and western Panama Some form of v e g e c u l t u r e and t h e t e n d i n g of f r u i t and palm t r e e s probably was i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g scheme and remained i n p r a c t i c e t h r o u g h t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l p e r i o d s , a s it does today (Cooke 1984; L i n a r e s 1977b, 1980d; Smith 1980) Due t o c l i m a t i c and geographic v a r i a t i o n a s w e l l a s c u l t u r a l c h o i c e s , t h e t r a n s i t i o n d i d n o t o c c u r uniformly throughout the area The P a r i t a Bay r e g i o n i s t h e o n l y l o c a t i o n i n a l l of lower C e n t r a l America in which t h e r e has been a long h i s t o r y of c o a s t a l r e s o u r c e u t i l i z a t i o n , 5000 B C - p r e s e n t (Ranere e t a 1 1980)

Although t h e rock s h e l t e r s o f western Panama were occupied f r o m , c i r c a 5000 B - C , p o p u l a t i o n s d i d not i n of western Panama u n t i l approximately 1 1968) The Caribbean s l o p e s o f western i n t h e c u l t u r a l sequence (A D 6 0 0 ) , and h e r e seed a g r i c u l t u r e . never r e p l a c e d r o o t and t r e e c r o p s a s t h e s u b s i s t e n c e base ( L i n a r e s and Ranere 1971; L i n a r e s e t a 1 1975; L i n a r e Thus, a c h r o n o l o g i c a l d i s c u s s i o n of s i s t e n c e , and s e t t l e m e n t d a t a f o r p r e h i p r i m a r i l y on t h e 7000-year o c c u p a t i o n a l s e and a d j a c e n t r e g i o n s Supporting d a t a and a g r i c u l t u r a l v i l l a g e s o f t h e P a c i f i western Panama, w h i l e a v e r y b r i e f and d i f f e r e n t s c e n a r i o occurred on t h e Caribbean c o a s t

P a l e o i n d i a n (?-8000 B C . ) Paleoindian p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h e Chagres V a l l e y i n e a s t e r n Panama presumably were hunting some o f t h e known L a t e ~ l e i s t o c e fauna, i n c l u d i n g a v a r i e t y o f e x t i n c t l a r g e mammals (Cooke 1984; A t p r e s e n t , t h e r e i s no Gazin 1957) a s w e l l a s peccary and d e e r f o s s i l ev-idence f o r t e r m i n a l P l e i s t o c e n e mammals i n e a s t e r n Panama, where P a l e o i n d i a n l i t h i c s a r e found (Cooke 1984) The degree t o which w i l d f r u i t s and r o o t s o f t h e t r o p i c a l f o r e s t and savanna were u t i l i z e d i n t h i s r e l a t i v e l y s p e c i a l i z e d h u n t i n g scheme i s n o t known

The s u b s i s t e n c e d a t a f o r t h e Preceramic-Archaic p e r i o d (80002500 B C ) come from r o c k s h e l t e r s i n western and c e n t r a l Panama and t h e s h e l l midden s i t e of Cerro Mangote along P a r i t a Bay The d a t a c o n s i s t o f carbonized p l a n t remains, l i t h i c t o o l assemblages f a u n a l remains, p o l l e n , and p h y t o l i t h s Carbonized remains o f t h r e e p l a n t s a r e common in rock s h e l t e r s ; a t r e e legume, Algarrobo (Hymenea eourbaril) ; a cherryl i k e f r u i t , nanee (Byrsonima erassifolia} ; and f r u i t s of t h e eorozo palms (Acpoeomia v i n i f e r a and S h e e l k sonensis (Ranere and Hansel1 1978; Smith 1980) The palms p r o b a b l y c o n t r i b u t e d more t o t h e d i e t than t h e o t h e r two p r o d u c t s B o t a n i c a l remains were not found a t t h e c o a s t a l s h e l l midden s i t e o f Cerro Mangote, b u t l i t h i c assemblages s u g g e s t a common technology f o r procuremen and p r o c e s s i n g of food The preceramic l i t h i c t o o l k i t s u g g e s t s "simple e x t r a c t i v e technologies" (Fanere 1981) a s s o c i a t e d w i t h wild p l a n t s and poss i b l y w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e based on r o o t c r o p s ( L i n a r e s 1977b) The k i t i n c l u d e s edge-ground cobbles o r "edge g r i n d e r s " and boul milling stones

18 PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA Faunal remains from t h e rock s h e l t e r s i n c l u d e d e e r and a v a r i e t y of medium t o small mammals Remains o f r e p t i l e s and amphibians were r e l a t i v e l y r a r e , and f i s h m o l l u s k s , and f r e s h w a t e r t u r t l e s were i m p o r t a n t o n l y a t one s i t e (Cooke 1981) P h y t o l i t h and p o l l e n s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t seed c r o p s were p r e s e n t , b u t perhaps were n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of t h e subs i s t e n c e base P o l l e n and p h y t o l i t h s i d e n t i f i e d a s maize have' been found i n p r e c e r a m i c l e v e l s a t La Cueva de 10s Ladrones i n t h e highlands o f c e n t r a l Panama (Piperno 1980; Piperno and C l a r y 1982; Ranere and Cooke 1982) . P o l l e n i d e n t i f i e d a s an e a r l y v a r i e t y o r "wild" maize a l s o has been i d e n t i f i e d from Gatun Lake Additional palynological sediment c o r e s d a t i n g t o 5350-2280 B C evidence f o r a g r i c u l t u r e seen i n more r e c e n t sediments i s a b s e n t a t t h i s time ( B a r t l e t t e t a 1 1969) Recent s u r v e y s have r e s u l t e d i n p r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m a t e s of s i t e d e n s i t y a l o n g p o r t i o n s o f t h e Santa Maria River d r a i n a g e Open a i r preceramic s i t e s average a b o u t 25 m o r l e s s i n d i a m e t e r Larger s i t e s , e l l i p t i c a l i n shape cover about 450 m2 Aceramic s i t e d e n s i t y , based on a 2 5 km s u r v e y t r a n s e c t , i s e s t i m a t e d t o Based on t h e c a r r y be approximately 2 5 sites/km2 (Weiland 1982) i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e a r e a , Bennett (1968: 31) h a s a t t e m p t e d a " g r o s s approximation" o f t h e p o s s i b l e d e n s i t i e s o f human populations He s u g g e s t s an o v e r a l l d e n s i t y o f 1 3 persons/km2 f o r t h e Isthmus, w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 1 9 and 0 6 persons/km2 on t h e P a c i f i c and A t l a n t i c c o a s t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y

E a r l y Ceramic-Early A g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s (2500-300 B C ) During t h e f i r s t p a r t of t h e E a r l y Ceramic/Early A g r i c u i t u r a l ) , settlement continues i n the p a t t e r n of t h e p r e v i o u s p e r i o d (Ranere and Hansell 1978) Use o f t h e rock s h e l t e r s c o n t i n u e s , a l t h o u g h new l o c a t i o n s a r e occupied along t h e P a r i t a Bay, Monagrillo (Willey and McGimsey 1 9 5 4 ) , and Z a p o t a l 'Ranere and Hansell 1978) I n situ t r a n s i t i o n from p r e c e r a m i c t o :eramic o c c u p a t i o n i n rock s h e l t e r s s u g g e s t s t h a t no a p p r e c i a b l e :hange i n r e s o u r c e u t i l i z a t i o n o r technology o c c u r r e d (Cooke 1984; L i n a r e s 1976) P h y t o l i t h and p o l l e n a n a l y s e s from rock s h e l t e r c o n t e x t s show t h a t maize was d e f i n i t e l y p r e s e n t i n c e n t r a l Panama a t t h e t i m e ceramics were i n t r o d u c e d (Piperno 1980; Piperno and Clary 1982) ; b u t t h e c o n t i n u i t y i n s u b s i s t e n c e technology i m p l i e s t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a seed crop was no more t h a n a c a s u a l addition t o t h e subsistence base Preceramic and E a r l y Ceramic p e r i o d food procurement systems of c e n t r a l Panama involved transhumance among both c o a s t a l and inland resources The annual c y c l e involved d r y season and e a r l y wet season e x p l o i t a t i o n o f i n t e r t i d a l , m u d f l a t , mangrove, and e s t u a r y r e s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g s a l t , and wet season c o l l e c t i o n o f t r e e c r o p s and h u n t i n g f o r mammals I n a d d i t i o n , d u r i n g t h e Monagrillo p h a s e maize may have been cultivated. Occupational s i t e s a r e l o c a t e d on low h i l l s n e a r

i s t s p e r i o d (2500-1000 B C

LYNETTE NORR streams, n o t on t h e a l l u v i a l p l a i n s Highly mobile groups w i t h a low p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y may have c u l t i v a t e d t h e s e h i l l s l o p e s d u r i n g p a r t of t h e y e a r (Ranere and Cooke 1982) To d a t e t h e r e i s no evidence, b o t a n i c a l o r o t h e r w i s e , f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of r o o t crops during t h i s p e r i o d The l a s t 700 y e a r s o f t h e E a r l y Ceramic p e r i o d (1000-300 B C ) represent a period of l o c a l i n s f i u t r a n s i t i o n i n t o a g r i c u l t u r a l villages The p r e s e n c e o f l a r q e numbers o f p o l i s h e d s t o n e t o o l s and l a r q e l e g l e s s "breadboard" r i m m e t a t e s and c y l i n d r i c a l manos a f t e r 1000 B C s u g g e s t s an e x t e n s i v e u s e of maize (Ranere and Cooke 1982) P o l l e n from t h e Chagres River v a l l e y i n e a s t e r n The asPanama is i n d i c a t i v e of a g r i c u l t u r e 1150 B C -A D 150 s o c i a t i o n of l a r g e g r a i n s o f maize p o l l e n w i t h t h e s c a r c i t y o f t r e e p o l l e n , a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e of compositae and graminae p o l l e n , t h e p o l l e n of herbaceous weeds, and t h e p r e s e n c e of f i n e l y d i v i d e d charcoal a l l p o i n t toward nearby a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y The presence o f ~ a n i h o te s e u l e n t a p o l l e n and Ipomoea s p p o l l e n supp o r t s t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t manioc and p o s s i b l y sweet p o t a t o e s were c u l t i v a t e d d u r i n g t h i s time ( B a r t l e t t e t a 1 1969) -

Agricultural Villaqes

(300 B C -A D

500)

By 300 B C rock s h e l t e r s and c o a s t a l s h e l l middens were abandoned a s l i v i n g s i t e s , and n u c l e a t e d and permanent v i l l a g e s c u l t i v a t i n g maize, beans, and a v a r i e t y o f r o o t and t r e e c r o p s were e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e a l l u v i a l p l a i n s alonq t h e major r i v e r s of t h e P a c i f i c lowlands and i n t h e v o l c a n i c v a l l e y s o f t h e western Archaeological remains o f carbonized highlands (Cooke 1979, 1984 ) seed c r o p s a s w e l l a s t h e s t o n e t o o l s used t o p r o c e s s them a r e abundant The d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t by this time, maize had become a s t a p l e crop (Cooke 1984; L i n a r e s and Cooke 1975; L i n a r e s e t a 1 1975; Linares and S h e e t s 1 9 8 0 ) . The s i t e o f S i t i o S i e r r a alonq t h e Santa Maria River i n c e n t r a l Panama has y i e l d e d q u a n t i t i e s o f carbonized maize from b o t h domest i c and b u r i a l c o n t e x t s Numerous o t h e r i t e m s i n d i c a t i v e of a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s have been found on t h e f l o o r s o f s m a l l l i v i n g 235, i n c l u d i n g manos and m e t a t e s s t r u c t u r e s d a t i n g 65 B.C -A.D a s well a s polished stone axes Three v a r i e t i e s o f maize a r e p r e s e n t , and a s i n g l e fragment of a bean (Phaseotus v u l g a r u s ) was recovered from t h e s i t e (Cooke 1979, 1984) The faunal remains a t S i t i o S i e r r a a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of spec i e s from savanna and d i s t u r b e d h a b i t a t s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e land used by t h e s e v i l l a g e r s had been c u t r e p e a t e d l y and c l e a r e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l purposes (Cooke 1979, 1984) W h i t e - t a i l e d d e e r were hunted, b u t f i s h (predominantly from f r e s h w a t e r ) r e p r e s e n t t h e most common source of p r o t e i n (Ranere e t a 1 1980) The f a u n a l assemblage s u g g e s t s year-round human o c c u p a t i o n Included with t h e mammalian remains a r e a s s o r t e d b i r d s , r e p t i l e s , and amphibians (Cooke 1979, 1981; L i n a r e s and Cooke 1975) Data c o l l e c t e d a t

18 PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA s i t e s n e a r t h e c o a s t i n d i c a t e t h a t both maize and s h e l l f i s h were a l s o i m p o r t a n t components o f t h e d i e t (Ichon 1980; Ladd 1964) During t h i s p e r i o d , t h e f e r t i l e h i g h l a n d v a l l e y s o f western Panama were s e t t l e d by a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t were expandi n g t h e i r s u b s i s t e n c e base o f palm and r o o t c r o p s t o i n c l u d e maize and beans Carbonized p l a n t remains and ground s t o n e t o o l s a r e abundant i n t h e s e highland s i t e s Remains i n c l u d e c h a r r e d s p e c i mens o f beans ( P l i a s e o ~ u svutqarus) and maize ( L i n a r e s e t a l 1975; L i n a r e s 1977b; L i n a r e s and S h e e t s 1980) P o p u l a t i o n s grew r a p i d l y i n t h i s a r e a , a s t h e y d i d i n t h e c e n t r a l P a c i f i c region B~ t h e end of t h i s p e r i o d , t h e formation of a rank s o c i e t y was w e l l underway, a s evidenced by t h e beginning of a s i t e h i e r a r c h y a s w e l l a s an unequal d i s t r i b u t i o n of e l i t e A s i m i l a r t r e n d occurred i n c e n t r a l Panama goods i n b u r i a l s ( L i n a r e s 1977b; L i n a r e s and S h e e t s 1980) The h i g h l a n d occupation i n western Panama was i n t e r r u p t e d approximately A D 600 when Volcan Baru e r u p t e d ( L i n a r e s and S h e e t s , 1980; S h e e t s 1 9 8 0 ) , prompting m i g r a t i o n s t o b o t h c o a s t s ( L i n a r e s I t should be noted t h a t t h e m i g r a t i o n s toward 1977a, 1980a,d) t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t began two o r t h r e e c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n s u g g e s t i n g t h a t i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and a d e c r e a s e i n r e s o u r c e a v a i l a b i l i t y may have i n i t i a t e d t h e s e m i g r a t i o n s ( L i n a r e s 1977a, 1980a) The chiefdoms on t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t resembled contemporary chiefdoms i n c e n t r a l Panama The p o p u l a t i o n t h a t migrated t o t h e A t l a n t i c c o a s t became d i s p e r s e d , and r e t a i n e d an e g a l i t a r i a n s o c i o p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ( L i n a r e s and Ranere 1971; L i n a r e s 1980c)

A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdoms (A. D

500-5501

Much o f what i s known "aBout d i e t and p o p u l a t i o n f o r t h i s p e r i o d comes from r e p o r t s by European c h r o n i c l e r s of t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y (Cooke 1979; de Andagoya 1865; de Espinosa 1873, 1892; Fernandez de Oviedo Valdes 1853; Helms 1979; Lothrop 1937; Sauer 1966) I n c e n t r a l and p a r t s o f western Panama t h e r e e x i s t e d a number of chiefdoms whose s i z e and l o c a t i o n provided a c c e s s t o a I n some c a s e s , t e r r i t o r i e s wide v a r i e t y o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s ranged from t h e s e a t o t h e mountains, u s u a l l y f o l l o w i n g a major river valley S e t t l e m e n t s i n some a r e a s were n u c l e a t e d i n t o towns There such a s Nat5 i n c e n t r a l Panama and Darien i n e a s t e r n Panama were a l s o numerous s c a t t e r e d d w e l l i n g s n e a r waterways and c u l t i v a t e d f i e l d s i n t h e v a l l e y s and a l o n g t h e mountain s l o p e s E s t i m a t e s o f p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y by Bennett (1968:37, map 6 ) f o r t h e more populous r e g i o n s a r e 4-6 persons/km2 A g r i c u l t u r e , h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g provided t h e b a s i c subs i s t e n c e foods during t h i s p e r i o d Crops i n c l u d e maize, manioc, sweet p o t a t o e s , and o t h e r r o o t c r o p s , p e a n u t s , c h i l i p e p p e r s , p i n e a p p l e s , and coconuts M o s t e a r l y accounts a l s o r e p o r t an abundance of both t e r r e s t r i a l and marine fauna

LYNETTE NORR Archaeological knowledge o f t h i s p e r i o d comes from a number of s i t e s i n c e n t r a l and western Panama i n c l u d i n g S i t i o Conte (Lothrop 1937 ) , El H a t i l l o , Delgado , S i x t o P i n i l l a P l a c e (Ladd 19641, s e v e r a l s i t e s n e a r Tonosi (Ichon 19801, and S i t i o S i e r r a (Cooke 1979, 19841, La P i t a h a y a on I s l a Palenque a l o n g t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t ( L i n a r e s 1 9 8 0 c , e ) , and Cerro Brujo along t h e Caribbean c o a s t (Linares 1980b, f ) An a n a l y s i s of t h e f a u n a l remains (Cooke 1981, 1984; L i n a r e s and Cooke 1974; L i n a r e s 1976) shows a r e g i o n a l p a t t e r n i n r e s o u r c e utilization T e r r e s t r i a l f a u n a l remains, p r i n c i p a l l y d e e r , a r e quite scarce a t t h e P a c i f i c s i t e s The few s p e c i e s r e p r e s e n t e d a r e those i n h a b i t i n g open savanna and a r e a s c l e a r e d f o r c u l t i v a tion I n c o n t r a s t , t h e abundant t e r r e s t r i a l fauna a t Caribbean c o a s t a l s i t e s was composed p r i m a r i l y o f s o l i t a r y t r o p i c a l f o r e s t species

CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF BONE FOR DIETARY RECONSTRUCTION The chemical a n a l y s i s of human s k e l e t a l remains f o r m i n e r a l composition o r s t a b l e i s o t o p i c composition can b e a v a l u a b l e t o o l i n dietary reconstruction The r a t i o o f s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e s i n bone c o l l a g e n i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e r a t i o of s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e s i n t h e d i e t (De Niro and E p s t e i n 1978) Similarly t h e r a t i o of s t a b l e n i t r o g e n i s o t o p e s i n bone c o l l a g e n i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e r a t i o of s t a b l e n i t r o g e n i s o t o p e s in t h e d i e t (De Niro and E p s t e i n 1981). The r a t i o s o f t h e s e i s o t o p e s v a r y p r e d i c t a b l y i n nature Continual consumption of a food s o u r c e r i c h i n e i t h e r r aNt i o i n t h e 1 3 o~r 1 5 w~i l l r e s u l t i n a h i g h 13c/l^c o r ~ S N / ~ ^ body t o terresMarine fauna a r e r i c h i n both ^C and ^N comoared &. t r i a l organisms There i s one e x c e p t i o n , however t h e "c/^c r a t i o of p l a n t s t h a t have a four-carbon (C4) p h o t o s y n t h e t i c p a t h r a t i o t h a t i s found i n way i s v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l to t h e ^c/^c marine fauna.Some well-known C4 p l a n t s i n c l u d e maize, sorghum R a t i o s of l3c/l2c and l5KI/14~, e x p r e s s e d sugar cane, and m i l l e t i n p a r t s p e r m i l (o/oo) and r e l a t i v e t o an a n a l y t i c a l s t a n d a r d , The 6 v a l u e s of a sample may a r e w r i t t e n a s S^C o r s^^VS v a l u e s be e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e , r e l a t i v e t o t h e a n a l y t i c a l standard The v a r i a t i o n of 13c/12c r a t i o s i n n a t u r e , e x p r e s s e d

A t h i r d variation i n photosynthetic pathways i s t h e crassulaCAM plants use a metabolic process by cean m i d metabolism (CAM) which they switch t h e i r photosynthetic pathways from C3-like t o Most CAM plants are succulents and C4-like during night and day have a S^^C value somewhere between those o f C3 and C4 plants The pineapple i s a CAM plant which was eaten i n (Bumstead 1981 Panama prehistorica l2y

18 PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA

A

PDB FIGURE 18 2 Variations of S C values i n parts per mil (o/oo) i n nature (see Now and Coleman 1982) a s 613c v a l u e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e P D B ~s t a n d a r d , a r e shown i n F i g u r e While a l l o f t h e 6^-^C v a l u e s a r e n e g a t i v e , t h e S^-^C v a l u e s 18 2 f o r marine fauna and C4 p l a n t s a r e more p o s i t i v e than o t h e r t e r r e s t r i a l organisms Figure 18 3 provides a s i m i l a r representation These a r e exshowing t h e v a r i a t i o n o f 15N/14N r a t i o s i n n a t u r e p r e s s e d a s 615N v a l u e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e s t a n d a r d , atmospheric The 615N v a l u e s f o r marine and e s t u a r y fauna a r e more nitrogen Legumes, p o s i t i v e than t h e 6 1 5 N v a l u e s f o r t e r r e s t r i a l organisms which u t i l i z e n i t r o g e n f i x e d by s y m b i o t i c b a c t e r i a , e x h i b i t t h e most n e g a t i v e S^-^N v a l u e s A p p l i c a t i o n s o f s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p i c a n a l y s i s o f bone c o l l a g e n a r e l i m i t e d t o two s i t u a t i o n s : (1) t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of C4 p l a n t s ( p r i n c i p a l l y maize i n t h e New World) t o t h e d i e t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n i n l a n d environments, away from marine r e s o u r c e s , and ( 2 ) t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of marine fauna t o t h e d i e t s o f c o a s t a l i n d i v i d u a l s who were n o t p o t e n t i a l l y consuming C4 p l a n t s o r animals t h a t f e e d on C4 p l a n t s ( f o r a r e v i e w s e e Bumstead 1981 1982) A p i l o t study using preh i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l remains from c o a s t a l and i n l a n d s i t e s i n Costa Rica r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e & v a l u e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s from c o a s t a l s i t e s were more p o s i t i v e t h a n t h o s e from contemporary i n l a n d s i t e s These r e s u l t s r e f l e c t (Norr 1980, 1981a; Norr and Coleman 1982) t h e f a c t t h a t c o a s t a l p o p u l a t i o n s presumably consumed both maize and marine f a u n a , whereas many i n l a n d p o p u l a t i o n s a t e l i t t l e o r no marine fauna.

1 h e PDB standard i s a carbon dioxide gas prepared from a erateeeous belemnite, BeZemn-itella amerieana, from the Peedee formation of South Carolina

LYNETTE NORR

10

-5

0

A

+5

+lo

+15

+20

+25

ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN

FIGURE 18 3 Variations o f 6 15N values i n parts per m i l (o/oo) i n nature (see Now and Coleman 1982) The Panamanian example p r e s e n t s a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n However, t h e Panamanian sample a l s o i n c l u d e s s i t e s such a s Cerro Mangote, The which i s a preceramic-preagricultural c o a s t a l p o p u l a t i o n s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p i c composition o f bone c o l l a g e n from p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s would be i n d i c a t i v e of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of marine fauna ( n o t maize) t o t h e d i e t C o r r o b o r a t i n g evidence may be o b t a i n e d from t h e s t a b l e n i t r o g e n i s o t o p i c composition o f bone collagen from t h e same i n d i v i d u a l s (Norr 1981b; Norr and Coleman 1982; Schoeninger e t a 1 1983a,b) Although t h e s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e composition of bone c o l l a g e n from t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l populat i o n s w i l l be i n d i c a t i v e o f some combined c o n t r i b u t i o n of maize and marine fauna t o t h e d i e t , r e s u l t s from s t a b l e n i t r o g e n i s o t o p e a n a l y s i s w i l l be s u g g e s t i v e of what p o r t i o n of t h e d i e t c o n s i s t e d of o n l y marine fauna From t h i s , t h e maize c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e d i e t may b e i n f e r r e d While t h i s t y p e o f a n a l y s i s i s s t i l l i n an experimental s t a g e and e s t i m a t e s o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r r e s o u r c e t o t h e d i e t may be u n r e l i a b l e , s h i f t s through time i n d i e t a r y emphasis may b e determined by a n a l y s e s now i n p r o g r e s s (L Norr, unpublished)

SKELETAL REMAINS, PATHOLOGIES, AND STRESS INDICATORS

Human s k e l e t a l remains from t h r e e of t h e f i v e major time p e r i o d s d i s c u s s e d a r e r e p o r t e d h e r e (Table 1 8 1) C e n t r a l and western P a c i f i c Panama a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by approximately 87 i n d i v i d u a l s from a Preceramic-Archaic c o n t e x t , and 28 and 32 i n -

TABLE 18 1 Sizes of Samples of Individuals from Archaeologiaal S i t e s i n Central and Western Panama Period Precerk-Archaie (5000-2500 B C ) Agricultural Villages ( Z O O B C -A D 500) Agricu ltuval Chiefdoms (A D 500-1550)

tion

Site

"a2 Panama

Cerro Mangote

Li

Ce

Slumber of Individuate 87

. Central P a n a m a s % ~ Sierra Giron Tonosi area

25 3

Central Panama

13 1

Western Pacific coast Western Caribbean coast

38"

S i t i o Sierra VE-7 S i t i o Conte Tonost, area La Pitahaya

18

Cerro Bru.Jo

6

?a

81a

"Â¥skeletaremains not anuZyzed i n t h i s report d i v i d u a l s from A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e and A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdom contexts, respectively S i x i n d i v i d u a l s were recovered from t h e Caribbean c o a s t a l r e g i o n of western Panama. To d a t e , no s k e l e t a l remains have been uncovered from e i t h e r t h e P a l e o i n d i a n o r t h e Early Ceramic-Early A g r i c u l t u r a l i s t p e r i o d s . Additional s k e l e t a l remains have been excavated from t h e s o u t h e r n Azuero Peninsula (Ichon 1980) and from c e m e t e r i e s a t HE-1 (Ladd 1964) and S i t i o Conte (Lothrop 1 9 3 7 ) , b o t h i n t h e C e n t r a l P a c i f i c r e g i o n of Panama Some o f t h e L a t t e r a r e extremely fragmented and may n o t b e a v a i l able f o r analysis

Burials

Preceramic Archaic (5000-2500 B C

)

B u r i a l s a t Cerro Mangote were p l a c e d i n t o what a p p e a r s t o have been an a c t i v e l y accumulating s h e l l midden3 i n f l e x e d , bundle, o r p a r t i a l l y d i s a r t i c u l a t e d p o s i t i o n s i n s i n g l e , p a i r e d , o r group

3 ~ z c a v a t i o n si n 1979 by Ranere (1979) a t Cerro Mangote revealed the fast t h a t some of the burials were quite close t o the surface There i s some question as t o hovi ear@ i n the of t h e s h e l l mound p e c e m i c sequence (5000-2500 B C ) the Cerro Mangote individuals were interred.

--

LYNETTE NORR c o n t e x t s , with no c l e a r a s s o c i a t i o n s o f age o r sex Many were d i s t u r b e d when new b u r i a l s were added t o t h e midden, and subseq u e n t l y f r a c t u r e d from t h e weight o f t h e overburden The bundle b u r i a l s were i n a s t a n d a r d arrangement w i t h t h e s k u l l a t one end, t h e p e l v i s a t t h e o p p o s i t e end, t h e long bones a l o n g t h e two s i d e s , small bones i n t h e c e n t e r , and t h e r i b s on t o p More o f t e n than n o t , t h e bundles i n c l u d e d remains of more t h a n one i n d i v i d u a l , w i t h no s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l completely r e p r e s e n t e d (McGimsey e t a 1 1966; Banere 1 9 8 1 ) .

Agr-ural

V i l l a g e s (300 B C -A D

500)

"

A small cemetery d a t e d t o c i r c a 240 B C was excavated a t S i t i o Sierra Adult and c h i l d b u r i a l s were s i n g l e , f l e x e d , and accompanied by grave goods I n f a n t s were found e i t h e r i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h an a d u l t o r i n t h e household middens (Cooke 1977, 1979, p e r s o n a l communication) S k e l e t a l p r e s e r v a t i o n was good and i n d i v i d u a l remains ( t o t a l N = 28, i n c l u d i n g i n d i v i d u a l s from ~ i r 6 n )were n e a r l y complete, a l t h o u g h o c c a s i o n a l l y fragmented An a d d i t i o n a l 38 i n d i v i d u a l s excavated o n t h e Azuero P e n i n s u l a (Ichon 1980) a r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s

AgricuZtwal Chiefdoms (A D

500-1500)

S k e l e t a l remains uncovered a t S i t i o S i e r r a and La P i t a h a y a on I s l a Palenque i n western Panama a r e combined h e r e f o r a n a l y s i s The S i t i o S i e r r a b u r i a l s i n c l u d e 1 3 i n d i v i d u a l s ( t o t a l N = 32) from s i n g l e , extended i n t e r m e n t s i n a l a r g e cemetery The small sample i s undoubtedly b i a s e d (Cooke 1979, p e r s o n a l communication) The I s l a Palenque b u r i a l s i n c l u d e 18 i n d i v i d u a l s , many a s s o c i a t e d with an e l a b o r a t e l y adorned a d u l t male who probably was a highranking i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e chiefdom. Other remains, o f t e n incomp l e t e and fragmented, were encountered throughout t h e e x c a v a t i o n s A s i n g l e , contemporaneous tomb b u r i a l from (Linares 1980s) VE-7 ( C R McGimsey, p e r s o n a l communication) i s a l s o i n c l u d e d i n t h i s analysis B u r i a l s d i s c o v e r e d a t S i t i o Conte (Lathrop 1937) and 81 o f t h e b u r i a l s from t h e Azuexo P e n i n s u l a (Ichon 1980) d a t e t o t h i s p e r i o d , b u t were n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r a n a l y s i s

.

Caribbean Coastal Region of Western Panama (A. D

600-900)

A s i n g l e , p a r t i a l l y d i s a r t i c u l a t e d bundle b u r i a l , i n c l u d i n g p a r t i a l remains o f t h r e e i n d i v i d u a l s , was d i s c o v e r e d d u r i n g excav a t i o n a t Cerro Brujo The remains o f t h r e e a d d i t i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l s were i s o l a t e d d i s c o v e r i e s s c a t t e r e d throughout t h e e x c a v a t i o n s ( L i n a r e s l98Of)

18 PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA

477

Methods The p r o j e c t was i n i t i a l l y d i r e c t e d toward determining p r e h i s t o r i c d i e t through t h e chemical a n a l y s i s o f bone collagen Basic demographic information was recorded as bone samples were removed from chemical a n a l y s i s Sex and b i o l o g i c a l age a t t h e time of death were determined by standard macroscopic morphological i n d i cators I n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s , e i t h e r p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s o r osteomyelit i s , were recorded f o r each i n d i v i d u a l a s e i t h e r systemic o r l o c a l i z e d , a c t i v e o r healed Incidence of p o r o t i c hyperostosis, e i t h e r of t h e c r a n i a l v a u l t o r of t h e o r b i t s , was a l s o recorded a s a c t i v e o r healed and was graded f o r s e v e r i t y Circular c a r i e s , as well a s cases of h y p o c a l c i f i c a t i o n , of deciduous t e e t h a l s o were recorded C a r i e s , enamel hypoplasias , p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e , and sexual dimorphism i n o v e r a l l r o b u s t i c i t y were noted but were n o t systematically quantified Any u n c e r t a i n t y i n i d e n t i f y i n g a pathology o r i n recording has been coded a s t h e absence of data

-3

.;A t

,&

Results Tabulations of age and sex and pathology a r e presented i n Table 18 2 The A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e s (300 B C -A D 500) sample was t h e only one s u f f i c i e n t l y complete t o permit an e s t i m a t e of a d u l t ages The fragmentary information on a d u l t age a t death f o r the o t h e r two samples l i m i t s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of m o r t a l i t y prof i l e s and l i f e expectancy t a b l e s t o i n d i v i d u a l s who died before t h e age of 20 y e a r s The samples a r e small and t h e p i c t u r e i s f u r t h e r d i s t o r t e d by p r a c t i c e of i n t e r r i n g i n d i v i d u a l s k i l l e d t o accompany another i n death (Helms 1979; Lothrop 1937) For example, t h e 18 i n d i v i d u a l s from La Pitahaya include a proport i o n a l l y l a r g e number of ceremonial o r s a c r i f i c i a l b u r i a l s , p r i marily i n f a n t s and c h i l d r e n , t o accompany a high-ranking i n d i v i d u a l Children and i n f a n t s a l s o accompanied a d u l t male and female b u r i a l s a t t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l s i t e of Cerro Mangote and may have been associated with r i t u a l s a c r i f i c e For these reasons, only informatior on t h e age a t death i s provided i n Table 1 8 2 The a d u l t male: female r a t i o f o r t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l Cerro Mangote sample i s n e a r l y 1:1, suggesting t h a t n e i t h e r s e x was p r e f e r e n t i a l l y buried i n t h e s h e l l mound The A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e component a t S i t i o S i e r r a , however, e x h i b i t s a biased sex r a t i o of n e a r l y two a d u l t females f o r every a d u l t male, suggesting t h a t not a l l i n d i v i d u a l s were buried h e r e I t a l s o may be an i n d i c a t i o n of a polygynous mating system i n which c e r t a i n males may have had more than one female mate The b i a s e s discussed above regarding The small sample from skewed age compositions apply here a s well S i t i o S i e r r a and t h e b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s a t La Pitahaya may give an a t y p i c a l sex r a t i o f o r t h a t population Figure 18 4 shows t h e percentages of each sample a f f e c t e d by Twelve p e r c e n t of p r o t i c hyperostosis and long bone i n f e c t i o n s

3 $7

-,

TABLE 1 8 2 Tabulations of Age, Sex, and Incidence o f Infection, Porotic Hyperostosis, and Circular Caries for t h e Preceramic/Amtiaic, Agpi.cu1.t~r a t ViLlages, and A g r i d t u r a l Chiefdoms Skeletal Samples

Period and age group (years)

Number of individuals

Preceramic-Archaic 0- 4.9 5- 9.9 10-14.9 15-19.9

Adult

AgricuZtural Villages 0- 4.9 5- 9.9 10-14.9 15-19.9 20-29.9 30-39.9 40-49.9 50-59.9

,

Agricultural Chiefdoms 0- 4.9 5- 9.9 10-14.9 15-19.9

Adult

Caribbean Coast 0- 4 9 5- 9.9 10-14.9 15-19.9

Adult

Percentage of t o t a l for period

Sex Male Female

7

Long bane i n f e c t i o n Systemic LocaZized Active Healed Active Healed

No data

Porotic h ~ ~ e r o s t o s i - sCimutar dories No No Present data Present Arta

18

PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA

AGRICULTURAL VILLAGES AGRICULTURAL CH IEFDOflS

I

POI

AGRICULTURAL VILLAGES AGRICULTURAL CH IEFDOtIS 0 B

10

20

30

40

50%

--

LONG BONE INFECTION

FIGURE 18 4 The percentage of individuals from Preceramic/ Archaic, Agricultural Villages, and Agricultural Chiefdoms that exhibit ( a ) porotic hyperostosis, and ( b ) long bone i n f e c t i o n . t h e Preceramic-Archaic sample, 18% of t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e sample, and 33% o f t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdom sample showed s i g n s A t Cerro Brujo, o f e i t h e r a c t i v e o r healed, p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s one o f f o u r n e a r l y complete i n d i v i d u a l s showed i n d i c a t i o n s o f a s e v e r e c a s e of t h i s d e f i c i e n c y d i s e a s e The i n c i d e n c e o f i n f e c t i o n i n t h e Cerro Manqote p r e a q r i c u l t u r a l sample i s r a t h e r h i g h ( 2 6 % ) , and h a s been commented on by McGimsey e t a 1 (1966) The frequency o f a c t i v e , c h r o n i c , and systemic i n f e c t i o n i n c h i l d r e n under 10 y e a r s o f age i s p a x t i c u l a r l y h i g h , whereas l o c a l i z e d p e r i o s t e a l r e a c t i o n s , u s u a l l y i n t h e t i b i a and f i b u l a , a r e more common i n a d u l t s Infection is somewhat r a r e r among t h e e a r l y a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s from S i t i o S i e r r a , a f f e c t i n g o n l y two i n f a n t s and one o l d e r a d u l t male (15%) The a d u l t male had a systemic o s t e o m y e l i t i c i n f e c t i o n w i t h numerous l e s i o n s a f f e c t i n g p r i n c i p a l l y t h e t i b i a e , femora, u l n a e and The fragmented and p a r t i a l c r a n i a l v a u l t e x h i b i t e d clavicles similar lesions The d i s t r i b u t i o n , e x t e n t , and n a t u r e of t h e s e l e s i o n s a r e s u g g e s t i v e of a treponemal i n f e c t i o n o r of c h r o n i c

and p e r s i s t e n t o s t e o m y e l i t i s of staphyloccocal o r i g i n The higher incidence of i n f e c t i o n among t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdom sample ( 4 2 % ) i s c o n s i s t e n t with a decrease i n h e a l t h a s s o c i a t e d with sedentary l i f e and a g r i c u l t u r a l systems However, t h i s p a t t e r n was not observed among e q u a l l y sedentary Early A g r i c u l t u r a l period populations Circular c a r i e s and incidences of h y p o c a l c i f i c a t i o n were found frequently i n t h e deciduous t e e t h of t h e c h i l d r e n from t h e Agricult u r a l Village and A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdom p e r i o d s I n a process t h a t was probably i n i t i a l l y r e l a t e d t o p r e n a t a l l y formed enamel hypop l a s i a s , t h e t e e t h became carious when exposed t o s t a r c h y and s t i c k y weaning g r u e l s This c a r i o u s v a r i a t i o n of enamel hypoplasia i s n o t seen i n c h i l d r e n of t h e preceramic, p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l sample

DISCUSSION

Given t h e abundant n a t u r a l resources of t h e Isthmus of Panama p r e h i s t o r i c populations would b e expected to have e x h i b i t e d s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t p a t t e r n s of resource u t i l i z a t i o n t h a t could provide an Two major d i e t a r y p a t t e r n s can adequate and well-balanced d i e t be i d e n t i f i e d . The f i r s t subsistence p a t t e r n i s p r i m a r i l y a hunter-gathererarchaic scheme involving a g e n e r a l i z e d , wide-ranging p a t t e r n of resource u t i l i z a t i o n Low population d e n s i t y and high m o b i l i t y allowed f o r resource e x p l o i t a t i o n over a l a r g e a r e a Scheduling made optimal use of seasonal resources such a s marine fauna o r fruits The second s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n i s a more s p e c i a l i z e d one focusing on an a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a p l e The high production of a r e l i a b l e subsistence s t a p l e i s a s s o c i a t e d with an i n c r e a s e i n population d e n s i t y and a decrease i n t h e d i v e r s i t y of t h e resource base As a r e s u l t of t h e demand f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l production t h e environment may be modified i n ways t h a t l i m i t t h e range of resources a v a i l a b l e t o a population If the agricultural staple i s deficient i n s p e c i f i c n u t r i e n t s , and t h o s e n u t r i e n t s a r e not supplied by o t h e r complementary food sources, a d e c l i n e i n h e a l t h s t a t u s can be expected I n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama t h e s e two s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s a r e demonstrated f i r s t by t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l Cerro Mangote p o p u l a t i o and second by t h e e a r l i e r and l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s from S i t i o S i e r r a and La Pitahaya i n c e n t r a l and western P a c i f i c Panam For t h e p r e a g y i c u l t u r a l population* t h e r e is a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence documenting a broad-based d i e t a r y p a t t e r n and t h e consumpti of a wide v a r i e t y of resources t h a t would have met p r o t e i n , miner and vitamin needs Root crop vegeculture which m o s t l i k e l y was ' p r a c t i c e d by t h e time of t h e l a t t e r p o r t i o n of t h e PreceramicArchaic period, would have provided a good source o f c a r b o h ~ d s a t

18 PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA I n c i d e n c e o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s ( F i g u r e 1 8 4a) d u r i n g t h e Preceramic-Archaic i s q u i t e low, s u g g e s t i n g moderate b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y of iron The i n f e c t i o n r a t e , however, i s q u i t e h i g h ( F i g u r e 1 8 4b) I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e l a t e t h i s h i g h i n c i d e n c e of i n f e c t i o n t o s u b s i s t e n c e and n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s More d e t a i l e d information on enamel h y p o p l a s i a s might i d e n t i f y an annual o r seasonal s t r e s s t h a t i s not y e t e v i d e n t based on t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a , b u t ( e x c e p t f o r perhaps a s e a s o n a l s h o r t a g e i n r e s o u r c e s ) t h e r e i s no obvious d e f i c i e n c y i n t h i s p a t t e r n of s u b s i s t e n c e t h a t might lower r e s i s t a n c e and i n c r e a s e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o i n f e c tion The a p p a r e n t l y high i n c i d e n c e of i n f e c t i o n observed may be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n j u r i e s o r r e l a t e d t o poor s a n i t a r y h a b i t s r e s u l t i n g from t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of a p a r t i a l d e g r e e o f s e d e n t i s w ~ ith e x p l o i t a t i o n of c o a s t a l r e s o u r c e s The a g r i c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n o f s u b s i s t e n c e a p p a r e n t l y was a t i t s peak along t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t o f Panama d u r i n g t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l 500-1550) Maize was undoubtedly t h e subChiefdom p e r i o d (A.D s i s t e n c e s t a p l e and provided a high-carbohydrate, high-energy food source t h a t was s t o r a b l e f o r use d u r i n g food s h o r t a g e s Well-known n u t r i t i o n a l problems r e s u l t from a maize-based d i e t , however These n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a maize-based d i e t can be o f f s e t o n l y by e i t h e r s p e c i a l i z e d food p r e p a r a t i o n t e c h niques (such a s t h e u s e of l i m e o r f e r m e n t a t i o n ) o r t h e a d d i t i o n of a v e r y s p e c i f i c and n u t r i t i o n a l l y complementary s e t o f food r e s o u r c e s (such a s beans) t o t h e d i e t The common bean, Phaseolus v u ~ a r < s ,probably was a d i e t a r y component o f t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t a l chiefdoms and would have complemented t h e amino a c i d composition o f maize Unfortunately, besides maize and beans, many o t h e r d i e t a r y components, such a s r o o t c r o p s and marine fauna a l s o e x h i b i t a h i g h phosphorus:calcium r a t i o , and t h e i r i n c l u s i o n i n t h e d i e t would do l i t t l e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o a proper mineral balance Moreover much o f t h e phosphorus i s i n t h e form o f p h y t a t e s , t h e r e b y d e c r e a s i n g f u r t h e r t h e b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y of iron t o these populations E a r l y Spanish accounts r e f e r t o t h e numerous fermented maize and f r u i t beverages ( c h i c h a s ) consumed by t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t Agric u l t u r a l Chiefdom p o p u l a t i o n s (Helms 1979) According t o Derman e t a1 (1980) , i r o n a b s o r p t i o n from a fermented beverage can be 12 times t h a t from t h e same unfermented g r u e l T h i s p r a c t i c e may i n c r e a s e i r o n b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y b u t would be dependent on t h e d e g r e e of f e r m e n t a t i o n a s w e l l a s on t h e assumption t h a t t h e r e were no c u l t u r a l o r s o c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s t o t h e consumption of e h i e h a s The h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e of p r o t i c h p e r o s t o s i s i n t h e s q l e from t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdom p e r i o d (33%) ( F i g u r e 1 8 4a) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s p o p u l a t i o n was under some s t r e s s f o r d i e t a r y i r o n Requirements f o r vitamin C could be s a t i s f i e d by i n c l u d i n g There i s no a r c n i l i peppers and t r o p i c a l f r u i t s i n t h e d i e t c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence however, f o r nanee u t i l i z a t i o n a s i n p r e I n a d d i t i o n , i f c h i l i p e p p e r s were d r i e d , a g r i c u l t u r a l contexts. they would l o s e approximately 60% of t h e vitamin C t h e y c o n t a i n

482

LYNETTE NORR

Manioc and squash a l s o c o n t a i n moderate amounts o f vitamin C, b u t t h e water-soluble v i t a m i n would b e l o s t i f t h e s e were b o i l e d I n f e c t i o n r a t e s f o r t h i s same l a t e a g r i c u l t u r a l sample a r e A s y n e r g i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p betwee a l s o high (42%) ( F i g u r e 1 8 4b) i r o n d e f i c i e n c y and i n f e c t i o n h a s been suggested (Wadsworth 1975; s e e Goodman e t a 1 , Chapter 2, t h i s volume) While an o v e r a l l i n c r e a s e i n b o t h p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and i n f e c t i o n can be s e e n r e l a t i v e t o t h e e a r l i e r a g r i c u l t u r a l and p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l samples, a breakdown by age c a t e g o r i e s does n o t show , a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two ( F i g u r e 1 8 5 ) A comparison of t h e s e samples r e v e a l s a n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n For each age , c a t e g o r y , when t h e i n c i d e n c e of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n c r e a s e s , t h e r e i s a d e c r e a s e i n t h e i n c i d e n c e of i n f e c t i o n , and v i c e v e r s a ' The absence of an expected p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n f e c t i o and p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s may be a f u n c t i o n of t h e r e l a t i v e l y smal sample s i z e used i n t h e a n a l y s i s I f , however, t h e s e d a t a a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e frequency o f s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s i n t h e s e 3 p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s , then n o n - d i e t a r y f a c t o r s such a s poor s a n i t a t i o n , i n j u r y , and p a r a s i t e s may have c o n t r i b u t e d s i q n i f i c a n l y t o t h e i n c i d e n c e of i n f e c t i o u s l e s i o n s The'low i n f e c t i o n r a t i n t h e e a r l i e r a g r i c u l t u r a l population suggests t h a t t h i s l a t e r i n c r e a s e i n i n f e c t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o a n overdependence on a s i n g l e food s o u r c e , maize It i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t d u r i n g t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Chiefdom p e r i o (A.D 500-1550) , human p o p u l a t i o n s were changing t h e i r environmen more r a p i d l y t h a n new complementary r e s o u r c e s could be found t o supplement t h e d i e t . I f t h e r e s o u r c e s n e c e s s a r y t o complement a maize-based d i e t were both a v a i l a b l e and u t i l i z e d , an i d e n t i f i a b i n c r e a s e i n i n f e c t i o n and d e f i c i e n c y d i s e a s e would not b e expect Since we do f i n d i n d i c a t i o n s of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , i t i s reason t o conclude t h a t t h e s u b s i s t e n c e b a s e of t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s i s def i c i e n t and a f f e c t i n g h e a l t h s t a t u s I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e e a r l i e r A g r i c u l t u r a l V i l l a g e (300 B C -A.D 500) sample shows l i t t l e i n d i c a t i o n of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s The adoption of maize a s a d i e t a r y s t a p l e may have been a long proces Smaller amounts o f maize i n t h e d i e t , corn begun around 2500 B C plemented by abundant game and t r o p i c a l f r u i t s , probably provided well-balanced, n u t r i t i o n a l l y adequate d i e t f o r t h e 240 B C sampl I t was n o t maize p e r s e , t h a t c r e a t e analyzed from S i t i o S i e r r a t h e problem, b u t t h e l a r g e - g r a i n e d South American v a r i e t i e s were involved i n t h e s h i f t from maize a s a d i e t a r y component mixed economy t o maize a s a s u b s i s t e n c e base (Ranere and Cook 1982) The a g r i c u l t u r a l system t h a t was p r a c t i c e d a l o n g t h e C a r i b 600-900 was v e r y d i f f e r e n t from t h e maize a g r i c u l t u r a l c o a s t A.D p a t t e r n along t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t , r e s u l t i n g i n a r e l i a n c e on an a1 t e r n a t i v e high-carbohydrate food s o u r c e , p r i n c i p a l l y manioc. Unl i k e t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t a g r i c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n , t h i s was a swidden system and l a r g e a r e a s o f f o r e s t were n o t d e s t r o y e d The environ ment was changed v e r y l i t t l e , l e a v i n g t e r r e s t r i a l fauna and 0 t h f o r e s t r e s o u r c e s u n a l t e r e d and r e l a t i v e l y abundant

.

;

18 PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA

s-

0-4 9

5-9 9

1 0 - 1 4 9 15-ADULT

AGE I N YEAR A

PRECERAMIC/ARCHAIC

0-4 9

5-9 9

10-14,9

15-ADULT

AGE I N YEARS

A comparison of the incidence of i n f e c t i o n t o incidence of porotic hyperostosis f-----)by age category i n ( a ) individua'ls from preaqricuZturaL contexts, and (b) indiuiduaZs from agricu'lturaZ contexts FIGURE 1 8 5

LYNETTE NORR SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The i n f e c t i o n r a t e and i n c i d e n c e of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s f o r p r e h i s t o r i c c o a s t a l p o p u l a t i o n s from t h e Isthmus o f Panama show a g e n e r a l t r e n d t o i n c r e a s e i n frequency o v e r time The i n c r e a s e i n p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s can be r e l a t e d t o t h e g r e a t e r dependence on a l i m i t e d number o f d i e t a r y r e s o u r c e s , p r i m a r i l y maize The i n c r e a s e i n i n f e c t i o n r a t e o v e r time can i n t h e two a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s , be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g r e a t e r dependence on fewer d i e t a r y r e s o u r c e s and a r e s u l t i n g d e c r e a s e i n t h e n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y of t h e d i e t The somewhat u n u s u a l l y h i g h i n c i d e n c e of inf e c t i o n i n t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l sample may b e due t o i n j u r y and unsanitary l i v i n g conditions. An in-depth i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a g r e a t e r number o f s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s i s recommended Those t h a t seem p l a u s i b l e , g i v e n t h e f r e q u e n t l y fragmented n a t u r e o f t h e s k e l e t a l remains, i n c l u d e enamel h y p o p l a s i a s , c a r i e s , p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e , and perhaps growth a r r e s t l i n e s and a d u l t s t a t u r e An i n c r e a s e i n sample s i z e would g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s concerning t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between d i e t and h e a l t h s t a t u s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T h i s r e s e a r c h was supported by a Tinker Foundation F i e l d Research Grant and t h e Department of Anthropology Summer Research Fund a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , Urbana Skeletal material was provided f o r a n a l y s i s by Richard G Cooke, C h a r l e s R McGimsey 111, Olga P L i n a r e s , and Anthony J Ranere, w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e and cooperation of E l Museo d e l Hombre, Panama, and t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Arkansas Museum, F a y e t t e v i l l e Research f a c i l i t i e s were provided by t h e Smithsonian T r o p i c a l Research I n s t i t u t e , Balboa, Panama, and J e r r y Rose, Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y of Arkansas, F a y e t t e v i l l e . I wish t o thank b o t h Linaa J-I. Klepinger and George R Milner f o r t h e time t h e y devoted t o d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e s k e l e t a l remains I am deeply indebted t o my husband, Paul A Garber, f o r h i s h e l p f u l

18 PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA

REFERENCES B a r t l e t t , A S , E S Barqhoorn, and R Berqer Science 165-389-390 1969 F o s s i l maize from Panama Bennett, C F Ibero1968 Human i n f l u e n c e s of t h e zoogeography of Panama f k e r k a No 51 Bird J , and R Cooke 1977 Los a r t i f a c t o s m a s .antiques de Panama Revista Naeional de a u r a 6:7-31 1978 The occurrence i n Panama of two t y p e s o f Paleo-Indian proj e c t i l e points I n E a r l y man i n t h e New World from a circum-Pacific p e r s p e c t i v e , e d i t e d by A. L Bryan 1

Department o f Ant'hropology Universittf of Alberta Occasional Papers No 1, pp 263-272

Bumstead, M. T 1981 The p o t e n t i a l o f s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e s i n b i o a r c h a e o l o g i c a l anthropology In Biocultural adaptation: Comprehensive approaches t o s k e l e t a l a n a l y s i s , e d i t e d by D L Martin and M. P Bumstead. Department of Anthropology University of Massachusetts Research Reports No. 20. Amherst 1982 The p o t e n t i a l of s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e s i n b i o a r c h a e o l o g i c a l anthropology MS on f i l e , Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s Urbana Cooke R G 1977 E l hachero y e l c a r p i n t e r o : DOS a r t e s a n o s d e l panama p r e R e v b t a Panmefia de Antropologi.a No 2 colombino 1978 La cueva de 10s l a d r o n e s d a t o s p r e l i m i n a r e s s o b r e l a ocupaci6n f o r m i t i v a Aetos Si.mpos¥iioNaeional de Antropologia, Arqueologia, y ~ t h n o ' h i s t o r i ade Panam& 4 t h , pp 281304 1979 Los impactos de l a s comumidades a g r l c o l a r precolombinas e n 10s ambientes d e l t r o p i c 0 e s t a c i o n a l : Datos d e l panama prehist6rico Aetas S z h p o s h Internaeional de Eeolog-Za Tropical 4th1 3 : 917-973 1981 Los h a b i t o s a l i m e n t a r i o s de 10s i n d i g e n a s precolombinos dq.'/,;* Academia Panarnefia de Medieina y Cirugfa 6 (1):65- -''*'= panama 89 1984 Archaeological r e s e a r c h i n c e n t r a l and e a s t e r n Panama: A School o f American Research review o f some problems Advanced Seminar on Lower Central America , i n p r e s s de Andagoya, P Trans1865 Narrat$e of t h e proceedings of Pedrarias Davita l a t e d and e d i t e d by C R. Markhan Hakluyt S o c i e t y , London de Espinosa, G 1873 Relacion e proceso q u e l Licenciado Gaspur Despinosa, Alcalde Mayor, h i z o en e l v i a j e desde e s t a Ciudad de p a n a d a l a s p r o v i n c i a s de P a r i s e Nata e a l a s o t r a s proDoementos Ineditos de Indias v o l xx v i n c i a s comarcanas. j 2

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1892

LYNETTE NORR

Relacion hecha p o r Gaspar de E s p i n o s a , A l c a l d e Mayor de C a s t i l l a de Oro, dada 5 P e d r a r i a s de A v i l a , LugarT e n i e n t e General d e a q u e l l a s P r o v i n c i a s , de todo l o que s u c e d i 6 en l a e n t r a d a que h i z o en c e l l a s de o r d e n de Pedrarias Docwnentos Inedfbos de Colombia Vol 11 De Niro, M. J , and S E p s t e i n 1978 I n f l u e n c e of d i e t on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of carbon i s o t o p e s Geochimica e t Cosmochimiea Acta 42: 495-506 i n animals. 1981 I n f l u e n c e o f d i e t on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n i t r o g e n i s o t o p e s i n animals Geoch-Lmica e t Cosmochim~caActa 45 :341-351 Dennan D P , T H Brothwell, J D ~ o r r a r i c e ,W R Bezwoda, A. P MacPhail, M C Kew, M H S a y e r s , P B D i a l e r , and R. W C h a r l t o n 1980 I r o n a b s o r p t i o n from maize (Zea mays) and sorghum (Sorghum B r i t i s h Journal of NutKtion 43:271-279 vukare} beer Fernandez d e Oviedo y Valdes, G 1853 Historia general y n a t d de l a s Indias ( V O ~ 11, part: Vol 111) Real Academia d e l a H i s t o r i a , Madrid Gazin, c L 1957 E x p l o r a t i o n f o r t h e remains of g i a n t ground s l o t h s ii Panama. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n 1955-1956, pp 341-354 Glynn, P 1972 Observations o n t h e ecology o f t h e Caribbean and P a c i f i c c o a s t s o f Panama I n The Panamic b i o t a : Some o b s e r v a t i o n ; p r i o r t o a s e a - l e v e l c a n a l , e d i t e d by M L J o n e s Bulletin o f the Biological Society of Washington 2:13-33 Helms, M W 1976 Competition, power, and s u c c e s s i o n t o o f f i c e i n p r e I n Frontier adaptations i n Z O W ~ P Central Columbian Panama America, e d i t e d hy M W Helms and F Q. Loveland, pp 25-35 I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e Study o f Human I s s u e s , P h i l a d e l phia Ancient Panama: Chiefs i n search of p o w U n i v e r s i t y of Texas P r e s s , Austin ""ildrige, L R . , and G Budowski 1956 Report o f an e c o l o g i c a l s u r v e y o f t h e Republic o f Panama Caribbean Forester 1 7 :92 -110 -^
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Garden h u n t i n g i n t h e American t r o p i c s Human 'Ecology 4: 331-349 1977a Adaptive s t r a t e g i e s i n western Panama World Archaeology 8 :304-31 9 1977b Ecology and t h e a r t s i n a n c i e n t Panama: On t h e development o f s o c i a l rank and symbolism i n t h e c e n t r a l p r o v i n c e s 1976

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Dumbarton Oaks Studies i n Pre -Co lumbian A r t and Archaeology No 17 Conclusions I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c PanaPeabody ma, e d i t e d by 0 F L i n a r e s and A. J Ranere Museum Monographs NO 5 , pp 233-249 1980b Ecology and p r e h i s t o r y of t h e Aguacate P e n i n s u l a i n ~ o c h s d e l Toro I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama, e d i t e d by 0. F L i n a r e s and A J Ranere Peabody Museum Monographs No 5 , pp 57-66 1980c Ecology and p r e h i s t o r y o f t h e C h i r i q u i Gulf s i t e s In Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama, e d i t e d by Peabody Museum Monographs 0 F L i n a r e s and A. J Ranere NO 5 , pp 67-77 1980d I n t r o d u c t i o n I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama, e d i t e d by 0 F L i n a r e s and A J Ranere Peabody Museum Monographs NO 5 , pp 7-14 1980e La P i t a h a y a (IS-3) i n t h e Gulf o f C h i r i q u i : Mapping and excavation I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama Peabody Museum e d i t e d by 0 F L i n a r e s and A J Ranere Monographs NO 5 , pp 306-315 1980f The Aguacate s i t e s i n Bocas d e l Toro: Excavations and stratigraphy I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama, e d i t e d by 0. F L i n a r e s and A J Ranere Peabody Museum Monographs NO 5, pp. 292-305 L i n a r e s , 0 F , and R G Cooke 1975 Differenthi! e x f l o i t a t i o n of lagoon-estuary systems i n Panama. Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XL annual meeting o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r American Archaeology, D a l l a s L i n a r e s , 0 F., and A J Ranere 1971 Human a d a p t a t i o n t o t h e t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s o f western Panama Archaeology 24:346-355 L i n a r e s , 0. F , and P D S h e e t s 1980 Highland a g r i c u l t u r a l v i l l a g e s i n t h e v o l c a n ~ a r r6e g i o n I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama, e d i t e d by 0. F L i n a r e s and A. J Ranere Peabody Museum Monographs No. 5 p p 44-55 L i n a r e s , 0. F , P D S h e e t s , and E J. Rosenthal 1975 P r e h i s t o r i c a g r i c u l t u r e i n t r o p i c a l highlands Science 187:137-145 Lothrop, S K. 1937 C o d e An a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f c e n t r a l Panama, I 1980a

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LYNETTE NORR McGimsey, C. R. 1956 Cerro Mangote: A p r e c e r a m i c s i t e i n Panama Arneriean Antiquity 22 ~ 1 5 1 - 1 6 1 1957 F u r t h e r d a t a and a d a t e from Cerro Manqote, Panama American A n t q u i t y 23:434-435 1959 A s u r v e y o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y known b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s i n Aetas Cong~esoInternaeioml de Amerieanistas panama 3 3 ~ d2: 347-356 M B C o l l h s , and T W McKern McGimsey, C R 1966 Cerro Mangote and i t s population. P?per p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XXXVIIth I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of AiiIericanistsr Mar d e l Plata Myers, C W 1969 The e c o l o g i c a l geography o f c l o u d f o r e s t i n Panama 1 Ameriem M u s m of Natmaz History flmita&es No 2396 Norrr L. g 1980 Bone chemistry m d prehistoric d i e t : I n i & i a l r e s u l t e from ! Costa Riea. Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XLVth annual meeting 1 o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r American Archaeology, P h i l a d e l p h i a 5 1981a Prehistoric Costa Riean d i e t as determined from stable carbon isotope r a t i o s i n bone collagen. H r d l i c k a p r i z e winning paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e Lth a n n u a l meeting of t h e American A s s o c i a t i o n o f P h y s i c a l A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s r D e t r o i t 6 ! 1981b Prehistoric human d i e t i n louer C e ~ t r a ZAmerica: The Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e maize vs marine fauna problm I I I r d annual meeting of t h e S o c i e t y f o r A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Sciences San D i ~ g o Norr, L , and D D Coleman 1983 D i e t a r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f 13c/12c i n p r e h i s t o r i c bone c o l l a g e n from a t r o p i c a l c o a s t a l environment M s on f i l e , Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s , Urbana Piperno, D R. 19SO Phutolith evidence for maize e u ~ t i v a t i o ni n central P a m a p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XLVth du>ing t h e Early C&mie a n n u a l meeting o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r American Archaeology Philadelphia Piperno, D R. and K H Clary 1982 Phytolyths and pollen f r m arehaeologieal s i t e s i n central P a m a . Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XLIVth I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of h e r i c a n i s t s , Manchester England PortFr, D M 1973 The v e g e t a t i o n of Panama: A review I n vegetation and vegetational hi&ory of norbhern Lakin Amerieac e d i t e d by A. Graham, pp 167-201 E l s e v i e r , New Y o ~ k Ranere, A. J 1972 EarZy human a d a p t ~ t i o n seo flew World tropical forests Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Davis U n i v e r s i t y Microfilms, Ann Arbor M s on f i l e r 1979 Cerro Manqote, 1979: P r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t . Department o f Anthropologyr Temple U n i v e r s i t y

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Preceramic s h e l t e r s i n t h e Talamancan Range I n Adaptive r a d i a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Panama! e d i t e d by 0 F L i n a r e s and A J Ranere Peabody Museum Momgraphs NO 5 , pp 16-43 1981 The re-excavation and r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Cerro Mangote: A preceramic s h e l l midden i n c e n t r a l Panama M S on f i l e , Department of Anthropology, Temple U n i v e r s i t y Ranere, A J , and R. G Cooke 1982 The proyecto Santa MaKa: A multidisciplinary analyses of

p r e h i s t 0 r - L ~adaptations t o a t r o p i c a l watershed i n Panma Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XLIVth I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of Americanists, Manchester, England Ranere, A J , and P Hansel1 1978 E a r l y s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s along t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t of Panama I n P r e h i s t o K c coastal adaptationst e d i t e d by B L. S t a r k and B. Voorhies, pp. 43-59 Academic P r e s s , New York. Ranere, A. J , R. G Cooker and P Hansel1 1980 Food procurement i n t h e Parita &y region o f Panama, 5000 B C -500 A D Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XLVth annual meeting of t h e S o c i e t y f o r American Archaeology, P h i l a delphia. Sander, D 1964 L i t h i c m a t e r i a l from Panama: F l u t e d p o i n t s from Madden Actas y Memorias Congreso I n t e r n a c i o m l de Lake Amer
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patterns i n t h e Santa Maria drainage: A preZiminary a n a l y s i s Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XLIVth I n t e r -

n a t i o n a l Congress o f Americanists , Manchester , England Willey, G R . , and C R. McGimsey 1954 The Monagrillo C u l t u r e o f Panama Papers Cfab~da Musewri o f Archaeology and E t h m logy 49 (21 cc-+.+;5 +---y Willey, G. R., and T L Stoddard 1954 C u l t u r a l s t r a t i g r a p h y i n Panama : A p r e l i m ~ n a r y .~~po$$~-? American A n t i q u i t y 1 9 :332-343 :, t h e Giron s i t e

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CHAPTER 19 PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR: POSSIBLE TEMPORAL TRENDS AND CULTURAL CORRELATIONS

D. H

UbeZaker

Department of Anthropology N a t i o n a l Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n

INTRODUCTION

Ecuador i s d i v i d e d by t h e north-south-running Andes mountain c h a i n i n t o an e a s t e r n lowlands and a c o a s t a l s t r i p The s p a r s e l y populated e a s t e r n lowland r e g i o n is l a r g e l y t r o p i c a l f o r e s t , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by "heavy, almost year-round r a i n s and i n t e n s e h e a t , Subsistence w i t h dense f o r e s t and v i n e cover" (Willey 1971:8) i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y d e r i v e d from f i s h i n g , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e l a r g e r r i v e r s (Carneiro 1968) , h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g , and h o r t i c u l t u r e , w i t h manioc t h e p r i n c i p a l p r o d u c t The h i g h l a n d a r e a i n c l u d e s some of t h e h i g h e s t v o l c a n i c peaks i n t h e hemisphere (Chimborazo, 6310 m; Cotopaxi, 5943 m) a s w e l l a s a g r i c u l t u r a l l y r i c h mountain v a l l e y s a t lower e l e v a t i o n s Human e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e h i g h e s t e l e v a t i o n s i s mostly r e s t r i c t e d t o g r a z i n g , w i t h t h e sheep and c a t t l e of today r e p l a c i n g t h e llama of e a r l i e r t i m e s A t s l i g h t l y lower e l e v a t i o n s , t h e p o t a t o i s t h e p r i n c i p a l crop and a p p a r e n t l y d a t e s back t o p r e h i s t o r i c times According t o Meqgers (1966:23), a b o r i g i n a l c r o p s o f t h e highland v a l l e y s i n c l u d e maize, quinoa (Chenopodim q u i n u a ) , white c a r r o t (Amacacia e s d e n t a ) , squash, beans, and o t h e r t y p e s of t u b e r s The lower v a l l e y s produced avocados, guavas, chirimoyas, tomatoes and o t h e r f r u i t s , and agave ( f o r f i b e r ) The c o a s t a l s e c t i o n of Ecuador shows c o n s i d e r a b l e environmental v a r i e t y t h a t i s l a r g e l y produced by v a r i a t i o n i n r a i n f a l l , which i n t u r n i s i n f l u e n c e d by p a t t e r n s of ocean c u r r e n t s The n o r t h e r n h a l f o f t h e c o a s t a l a r e a b e n e f i t s from r e g u l a r r a i n f a l l ; consequently, a g r i c u l t u r e f l o u r i s h e s and many of t h e s p a r s e l y populated a r e a s resemble t r o p i c a l f o r e s t The s o u t h e r n h a l f (Guayas Province and s o u t h e r n Manabi Province) i s s e m i a r i d much PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE

491

Copyright 0 1984 by Academic Press, Inc All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISBN 0 12 179080 0

D. H. UBELAKER of t h e time s i n c e r a i n f a l l i s minimal and i r r e g u l a r There i s no doubt t h a t i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s a s w e l l a s today, marine and brackish-water f i s h and mollusks were a major d i e t a r y component f o r t h e c o a s t a l p o p u l a t i o n s , i f n o t t h e p r i n c i p a l means o f subs i s t e n c e i n many a r e a s A b o r i g i n a l l y , t h e a r e a supported maize a g r i c u l t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f l o o d p l a i n s of t h e major r i v e r s Other c r o p s probably i n c l u d e d manioc, sweet p o t a t o , a c h i r a , arrowr o o t , New World yam, p e a n u t s , and perhaps c o t t o n and t h e b o t t l e gourd Deer and s m a l l e r mammals were a v a i l a b l e a s a d i e t a r y supplement (Lathrap 1976)

CULTURAL H I STORY

if

Systematic a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o Ecuadorean preh i s t o r y were i n i t i a t e d by J a c i n t o J i j d n y Caamafio i n t h e e a r l y decades o f t h i s century and have continued through t h e e f f o r t s of many i n d i v i d u a l s and i n s t i t u t i o n s Most o f t h i s work h a s focused on t h e southern c o a s t , perhaps because t h i s a r e a o f f e r s t h e b e s t p r e s e r v a t i o n of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s and t h e most h o s p i t a b l e environment f o r excavation (Lathrap 1976: 1 5 ) Meggers (1966:154) summarized t h e p r e h i s t o r y o f t h e O r i e n t e region a s "almost unknown " S i n c e t h a t t i m e , P o r r a s Garc6s h a s documented more of t h e p r e h i s t o r i c chronology (1972a,b, 1975) and r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d h i s s t a r t l i n g d i s c o v e r y of a ceremonial c e n t e r i n t h e a r e a , w i t h radiocarbon d a t e s r a n g i n g from 270 B C t o A D 180 ( P o r r a s Garcgs 1981) Very l i t t l e d a t a have emerged on s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s , p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , o r temporal changes i n subsistence More i s known of t h e c u l t u r a l chronology of t h e highlands, b u t most of t h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g subs i s t e n c e and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s i n t h i s a r e a a l s o remain unresolved The most complete a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a come from t h e c o a s t , where most a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y has focused and import a n t r e s e a r c h problems a r e being i n v e s t i g a t e d Most a r c h a e o l o g i s t s r e c o g n i z e f o u r developmental p e r i o d s i n Ecuadorian p r e h i s t o r y : Preceramic ( b e f o r e 3000 B C ) ; Formative (3000 B.C t o about 500 B C ) ; Regional Development (500 B C t o A.D 5 0 0 ) , and I n t e g r a t i o n (A.D 500-1500) (Meggers 1966:25) AS i s t r u e f o r a l l of t h e Western Hemisphere, t h e d a t e of t h e f i r s t human appearance i n Ecuador is unknown The s i t e of E l Inga 22 km e a s t of Q u i t o , i n t h e h i g h l a n d s produced l i t h i c t o o l s ' d a t e d a s e a r l y a s 9030 y e a r s B P . ( B e l l 1965) However, t h e most ' complete d a t a on s u b s i s t e n c e from t h e Preceramic p e r i o d come fromi c o a s t a l Preceramic S i t e 80 (Veqas complex) o f t h e S t a Elena Peninsula Radiocarbon d a t e s from t h i s s i t e s u g g e s t an a n t i q u i t y ( S t o t h e r t 1976, 1977) Excavation produced a of about 7000 B C f a u n a l assemblage s u g g e s t i n g t h e r e s o u r c e u t i l i z a t i o n of d e e r fox, peccary, b i r d s , r a b b i t , r o d e n t s , s n a k e s , l i z a r d s , s m a l l and medium-sized f i s h , c r a b , and mollusks The p r e s e n c e of t h e

19 PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR brackish-water fauna s u g g e s t s t h a t mangrove environments were nearby Excavation a l s o produced sandstone g r i n d s t o n e s (manos), evidence of s t r u c t u r e s and a l a r g e cemetery o f both primary and secondary i n t e r m e n t s Collectively, t h e data suggest a l a r g e , semipermanent s e t t l e m e n t t h a t r e l i e d on h u n t i n g , g a t h e r i n g , and f i s h i n g f o r s u b s i s t e n c e , and perhaps experimented w i t h h o r t i c u l ture The f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d i n Ecuador i s b e s t known from t h e V a l d i v i a complex, d e f i n e d i n d e t a i l by Meggers e t a 1 (1965) This p e r i o d marks t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of p o t t e r y and i s t h e f o c u s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e d e b a t e on problems o f p o p u l a t i o n o r i g i n s and subsistence Meggers e t a1 (1965) f e l t t h a t s t y l i s t i c s i m i l a r i t i e s between E a r l y V a l d i v i a p o t t e r y and t h a t o f Kyushu Jomon p e r i o d s i t e s i n Japan s u g g e s t e d a t r a n s - P a c i f i c J a p a n e s e o r i g i n f o r Ecuadorean p o t t e r y Although Willey (1971:2 76) c o n s i d e r s t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " a l i k e l y p o s s i b i l i t y t o be k e p t i n mind," o t h e r s (Lathrap 1976; McEwan and Dickson 1978) have been rmre s k e p t i c a l Bischoff and V i t e r i Gamboa (1972) r e p o r t "pre-Valdivia" t r a n s i t i o n a l p o t t e r y termed "San Pedro" from s i t e G-31 a t V a l d i v i a Zevallos e t a 1 (1977) and Lathrap (1974, 1976) a l s o a r g u e f o r a more l o c a l o r i g i n o f Ecuadorean Formative ceramics Meggers (1966) suggested t h a t s u b s i s t e n c e i n e a r l y Formative times was p r i m a r i l y s e a o r i e n t e d w i t h some mangrove e x p l o i t a t i o n , hunting and g a t h e r i n g , and p e r h a p s i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r e She noted t h a t e a r l y Formative s i t e s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d n e a r t h e s e a and along what were then mangrove swamps She f e l t t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f Chorrera s i t e s along t h e banks of t h e major r i v e r s argued f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r e (manioc and/or maize) a t t h a t time (1500-500 B C ) Lathrap (1976) u s e s s i m i l a r arguments f o r an e a r l i e r development of a g r i c u l t u r e on t h e c o a s t He f e e l s t h a t many e a r l y V a l d i v i a s i t e s such a s Loma A l t a (15 km i n l a n d ) , Azucar (30 km i n l a n d ) , Real A l t o , and o t h e r s a r e l o c a t e d away from t h e s e a a l o n g river floodplains, locations ideal for agriculture According t o Jorge Marcos ( p e r s o n a l communication), V a l d i v i a s i t e s have now been found a t i n l a n d l o c a t i o n s throughout Guayas p r o v i n c e Zevallos e t a 1 (1977) i n t r o d u c e d such o t h e r s u p p o r t i v e evidence a s t h e following: 1 Charred o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l i n c l u d e d i n a V a l d i v i a s h e r d t h a t appeared t o be a k e r n e l o f maize 2 Decorations o n V a l d i v i a s h e r d s i n t e r p r e t e d a s s t y l i z e d cobs of maize 3 Impressions on V a l d i v i a s h e r d s t h a t appear t o have been made by stamping w i t h a c t u a l c o r n k e r n e l s 4 The p r e s e n c e of hand m i l l s perhaps used t o p r o c e s s a g r i c u l t u r a l products 5 The p r e s e n c e o f a b r a c k i s h w a t e r s n a i l t h a t may have been used f o r l i m e i n food p r o c e s s i n g 6. The p r e s e n c e o f b e l l - s h a p e d s t o r a g e p i t s i n ~ a l d i v i as i t e s t h a t may have been used f o r s t o r i n g d r i e d corn

D. H. UBELAKER 7 Charred corncobs from t h e h i g h l a n d s i t e of Cerro N a r r i o b e l i e v e d t o p r e d a t e 2000 B C P e a r s a l l (1978) claimed t o have d i s t i n g u i s h e d maize p h y t o l i t h s from t h e V a l d i v i a s i t e of Real A l t o and i n t e r p r e t e d them a s i n d i c a t o r s o f " o n - s i t e c u l t i v a t i o n of maize by a t l e a s t 2450 B.C " ( P e a r s a l l 1978:178) I n a d d i t i o n , Burleiqh and Brothwell (1978) measured carbon i s o t o p e r a t i o s in a dog s k e l e t o n found a t Real Alto and concluded t h a t "about 63% of i t s d i e t was d e r i v e d from maize" (Burleigh and Brothwell 1978 :359) I n s h o r t , most a r c h a e o l o g i s t s would a r g u e t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e was a t l e a s t " i n c i p i e n t " d u r i n g t h e E a r l y Formative and was i n t e n s i v e a t l e a s t by t h e L a t e Formative I n a d d i t i o n , many a g r e e t h a t t h e c i r c u m s t a n t i a l evidence assembled by Z e v a l l o s , L a t h r a p , and o t h e r s f o r i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e d u r i n g E a r l y Formative t i m e s i s convincing C l e a r l y , a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h i s e s p e c i a l l y needed i n comparative p h y t o l i t h s t u d i e s (maize v e r s u s o t h e r n a t i v e p l a n t s ) , t h e e f f e c t s o f marine foods on bone c o l l a g e n carbon i s o t o p e r a t i o s i n p r e h i s t o r i c Ecuador, and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s o f E a r l y Formative s i t e s The Real Alto s i t e h a s p r e s e n t e d n o t o n l y v a l u a b l e s u b s i s t e n c e i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t a p o s s i b l e ceremonial c e n t e r a s w e l l t h a t a t t e s t s t o t h e advanced l e v e l of s o c i a l complexity o f E a r l y Format i v e s o c i e t y (Lathrap e t a 1 1977; Marcos 1978) S e v e r a l s u g g e s t i o n s f o r p o p u l a t i o n movement and o u t s i d e cont a c t s have been o f f e r e d f o r t h e p e r i o d Through h i s a n a l y s i s o f excavated mollusk samples, Sarma (1974) s u g g e s t e d t h a t temporal s h i f t s i n p l u v i a l i t y due t o changes i n t h e l a r g e E l Nifio-Humboldt ocean c u r r e n t complexes r e s u l t e d i n c o n s i d e r a b l e environmental changes i n s o u t h c o a s t a l Ecuador t h a t i n f l u e n c e d human o c c u p a t i o n Sarma's a n a l y s i s suggested a r i d c o n d i t i o n s on t h e p e n i n s u l a from 5000 t o 2650 B C and from 1600 t o 1000 B C Meggers e t a 1 (1965) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e M a c h a l i l l a phase (15001000 B C a c c o r d i n g t o Lathrap 1976; o r 2000-1500 B C a c c o r d i n g t o Meggers 1966) i s c u l t u r a l l y d i s t i n c t from t h e e a r l i e r V a l d i v i a As menceramics, and t h e y d e t e c t a p o s s i b l e n o r t h e r n i n f l u e n c e t i o n e d e a r l i e r , t h e y p o s t u l a t e d a Japanese o r i g i n f o r V a l d i v i a ceramics Megqers (1966) s e e s Mesoamerican i n f l u e n c e i n t h e L a t e Formative Chorrera ceramics I n c o n t r a s t , Lathrap (1976) f e e l s t h a t V a l d i v i a c u l t u r e h a s a l o c a l o r i g i n t h a t u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v e s from t h e e a s t e r n lowlands tropical forest According t o Lathrap, (1976: 43) , The economic p r a c t i c e s and l i f e s t y l e o f t h e e a r l y s e d e n t a r y i n h a b i t a n t s of c o a s t a l Ecuador were an e x t e n s i o n o f T r o p i c a l F o r e s t c u l t u r e , which i t s e l f expanded o u t of t h e Amazon Basin, f i r s t t o t h e Guayas Basin and t h e n on west t o t h e coast I t was a T r o p i c a l F o r e s t economy f u r t h e r e n r i c h e d (Lathrap 1976: by t h e presence of developed r a c e s of corn 43) Lathrap (1963, 1976) f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t M a c h a l i l l a evolved d i r e c t l y o u t o f V a l d i v i a and s e e s M a c h a l i l l a - V a l d i v i a i n f l u e n c e i

19 PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR

t h e ceramics o f West Mexico He a r g u e s t h a t t h e Late Formative Chorrera phase e x h i b i t s h i g h l a n d , Amazonian, and E a s t Asian i n f l u e n c e s (Lathrap 1976: 37) and i n t u r n may have i n f l u e n c e d c u l t u r e s i n Mesoamerica, P e r u , and Guatemala. The Regional Development p e r i o d i n Ecuador (500 B C t o A.D 500) was a time o f well-developed i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e and continued e x p l o i t a t i o n o f s h e l l f i s h and d e e r on t h e c o a s t The p e r i o d shows evidence of i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and t h e development of m e t a l l u r g y and has been c h a r a c t e r i z e d by Meggers (1966:67) a s " t h e t i m e o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n s o c i o p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , f l o r e s c e n c e i n a r t s t y l e and e l a b o r a t i o n i n technology " Meggers s e e s s i m i l a r i t i e s in ceramics d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d w i t h t h o s e from A s i a , Mesoamerica, Costa Rica, and Peru Publ i s h e d r e p o r t s of s k e l e t a l remains from t h i s p e r i o d a r e confined t o small samples from t h e Guangala phase (Duckworth 1951; Van Bork-Feltkamp 1965) Sarma s (1974:122) mollusk a n a l y s i s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u g g e s t a p l u v i a l p e r i o d d u r i n g t h e e n t i r e r e g i o n a l development p e r i o d (Guangala p h a s e ) The g e n e r a l t r e n d of p o p u l a t i o n expansion and i n c r e a s e d r e l i a n c e on a g r i c u l t u r e continued i n t o t h e I n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d when, a c c o r d i n g t o Meggers (1966: 119) , " i n c r e a s i n g l y r e l i a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s p e r m i t t e d p o p u l a t i o n expansion and habit a t i o n s i t e s a r e more numerous than a t any o t h e r time Several a r e l a r g e enough t o b e c l a s s i f i e d a s urban c e n t r e s Occupational d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r became more e x t e n s i v e and d i f f e r e n c e s i n rank more pronounced " Meggers (1966) s u g g e s t s g e n e r a l Mesoamerican i n f l u e n c e i n p r e h i s t o r i c Ecuador a t this t i m e and Columbian i n f l u e n c e i n t h e Cara p h a s e o f t h e Northern h i g h l a n d s Sarma (1974:122) s u g g e s t s a r e t u r n t o g e n e r a l i z e d a r i d i t y on t h e S t a Elena p e n i n s u l a d u r i n g t h e I n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d The L a t e I n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d culminated i n t h e I n c a conquest of Ecuador, which focused p r i m a r i l y i n t h e h i g h l a n d s and began between 1463 and 1471 The S p a n i a r d s i n a u g u r a t e d t h e h i s t o r i c period i n t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h e s i x t e e n t h century

RELEVANT DATA FROM HUMAN SKELETAL BIOLOGY

Since 1973 I have worked c l o s e l y w i t h o f f i c i a l s of t h e Banco C e n t r a l d e l Ecuador, a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , and o t h e r s i n a c o l l a b o r a t i v e a t t e m p t t o assemble and a n a l y z e l a r g e samples o f human remains The aim o f t h e r e s e a r c h i s . t o document from p r e h i s t o r i c Ecuador p r e h i s t o r i c mortuary behavior i n Ecuador and t o examine temporal change and s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n i n p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l b i o l o g y Much o f t h e d a t a i s r e l e v a n t t o t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l problems d i s cussed e a r l i e r and o f f e r s t e n t a t i v e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between biology and c u l t u r e w i t h i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n s examined. The l a r g e , well-documented s k e l e t a l samples t h a t have been

APPROXIMATE OAT E

SITE

LOCAT ION

NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS I N SAMPLE

COAST GUAYAS PROVINCE COAST GUAYAS PROVINCE

-

GUANGALA OGSE M a

172

SAN LORENZO

6000

COAST GUAYAS PROVINCE COAST GUAYAS PROVINCE

COTOCOLLAO

HIGHLANDS PICHINCHA PROVINCE

REAL ALTO VALDIVIA IU PHASE

COAST GUAYAS PROVINCE

STA. ELENA

COAST GUAYAS PROVINCE

FIGURE 19 1 h i s t o r i c Ecuador

OGSE 8 0

192

Description o f human s k e l e t a l samples from w e -

Data p u b l i s h e d on assembled t o d a t e a r e l i s t e d i n F i g u r e 1 9 1 o t h e r s k e l e t a l samples (Duckworth 1951; Munizaga 1965; Van BorkFeltkamp 1965) a r e n o t included s i n c e e i t h e r t h e samples a r e t o o small f o r frequency d a t a o r t h e r e p o r t e d d a t a a r e not p r e s e n t e d i n a manner t h a t f a c i l i t a t e s comparison The o l d e s t sample d e s c r i b e d in F i g u r e 19 1 i s t h a t of OGSE-80 from t h e S t a Elena P e n i n s u l a , excavated by Karen S t o t h e r t w i t h s u p p o r t from t h e Banco C e n t r a l S i t e 80 r e p r e s e n t s t h e Preceramic Veqas d e l Ecuador i n Guayaquil complex, with radiocarbon d a t e s c l u s t e r i n g a t about 7000 B C ( S t o t h e r t 1977) Excavations completed by J u l y 1978, i d e n t i f i e d 65 b u r i a l f e a t u r e s r e p r e s e n t i n g a t l e a s t 192 i n d i v i d u a l s in a n B u r i a l f e a t u r e s i n c l u d e d both a r e a approximately 200 m2 i n s i z e One l a r g e secondary d e p o s i t primary and secondary i n t e r m e n t s contained a t l e a s t 1 8 a d u l t s and 1 9 s u b a d u l t s A n a l y s i s was l i m i t e d by t h e extreme fragmentation of t h e bones and. by t h e f a c t

19 PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR

497

t h a t s e v e r a l i n t e r m e n t s were l e f t i n s i t u f o r d i s p l a y purposes Data on bone r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f each f e a t u r e and o f t h e t o t a l sample, a r t i f i c i a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e s k e l e t o n , e s t i m a t e s o f l i v i n g s t a t u r e , measurements and o b s e r v a t i o n s , demography, and pathology have been p u b l i s h e d by Ubelaker (1980a) The E a r l y Formative s i t e o f Real A l t o d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r produced a n o t h e r l a r g e sample d a t i n g from t h e V a l d i v i a 111 phase Excavations between August 1974 and September 1975 (Lathrap e t a 1 1977) produced 72 i n d i v i d u a l s d a t e d t o t h e V a l d i v i a I11 phase (Marcos 1978) The m a t e r i a l i s y e l l p r e s e r v e d and r e p r e s e n t s both primary and secondary i n t e r m e n t s B i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s off t h e sample by t h e a u t h o r i s p r e s e n t l y i n p r o g r e s s The o n l y highland sample d e s c r i b e d i n F i g u r e 1 9 1 i s from t h e Cotocollao s i t e , l o c a t e d j u s t northwest o f Quito Excavations sponsored by t h e Banco C e n t r a l d e l Ecuador c u l m i n a t i n g i n 1978 produced a t l e a s t 199 human s k e l e t o n s d a t e d by an o v e r l y i n g l a y e r of v o l c a n i c a s h and a s s o c i a t e d radiocarbon d a t e s a t about 540 B C The remains were very fragmentary and r e p r e s e n t both primary and secondary d e p o s i t s Biological analysis s i m i l a r t o t h a t of s i t e OGSE-80 was p u b l i s h e d by Ubelaker (1980b) Excavations by t h e a u t h o r i n 1974 a t t h e c o a s t a l town o f San Lorenzo d e l Mate produced approximately 106 human s k e l e t o n s of t h e J a m b e l l i phase C u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l s from t h e s i t e a r e s t i l l under study; however, t e n t a t i v e ceramic a n a l y s i s s u g g e s t s a d a t e of No r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s a r e a v a i l a b l e and a n a l y s i s o f about 500 B C t h e human s k e l e t o n s i s i n p r o g r e s s Recent s a l v a g e e x c a v a t i o n s sponsored by t h e Banco C e n t r a l d e l Ecuador a t s i t e OGSE-MA-172 i n t h e modern c o a s t a l town of V a l d i v i a produced 27 b u r i a l f e a t u r e s w i t h an e a r l y Guangala p h a s e c u l t u r a l affiliation The human remains were analyzed by t h e a u t h o r from December 1981 t o January 1982- i n Ecuador and a r e e s t i m a t e d t o d a t e (Ubelaker, 1983) Analysis revealed t h e t o about 100 y e a r s B C p r e s e n c e of a t l e a s t 30 i n d i v i d u a l s o f b o t h s e x e s ranging i n a g e from newborn t o g r e a t e r t h a n 50 y e a r s Preservation i s excellent with l i t t l e fragmentation The remaining l a r g e documented human samples from p r e h i s t o r i c Ecuador a r e from t h e c o a s t a l s i t e o f Ayalan i n Guayas p r o v i n c e Excavations i n t h e mortuary a r e a of t h i s s i t e were i n i t i a t e d i n 1972 and continued by t h e a u t h o r i n 1973 Of t h e 8 1 recognized f e a t u r e s , 54 were l a r g e f u n e r a r y u r n s c o n t a i n i n g both primary and The remaining 27 non-urn f e a t u r e s secondary s k e l e t a l remains c o n s i s t o f primary i n t e r m e n t s a s w e l l a s secondary s k e l e t a l deRadiocarbon d a t e s and o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n s u g g e s t t h a t t h e posits urn samples d a t e from between A D 730 and A D 1600 and t h a t t h e non-urn samples d a t e from between 500 B C and A.D 1155 At l e a s t 384 i n d i v i d u a l s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e urn sample and 5 1 i n t h e e a r l i e r non-urn sample D e t a i l e d b i o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l i n formation on t h i s m a t e r i a l has been p u b l i s h e d by Ubelaker (1981)

D. H. UBELAKER

498

$7 '-'.I

The above-described samples f a l l s h o r t of t h o s e i d e a l l y

7T ^r

5.' g .,r-3

-

-

needed f o r a d e t a i l e d examination of temporal change and s p a t i a l v a r i a b i l i t y o f b i o c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s i n Ecuadorean p r e h i s t o r y They do, however, a l l o w a t e n t a t i v e look a t t h e emerging p a t t e r n and o f f e r d i r e c t i o n s f o r a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h Comparison of b i o l o g i c a l d a t a from t h e samples i s complicated by t h e v a r i a b i l i t y among samples i n bone p r e s e r v a t i o n and b u r i a l customs Skeletal remains from Ayalan and t h e Guangala s i t e from V a l d i v i a a r e s o w e l l preserved t h a t h i s t o l o g i c a l methods of age d e t e r m i n a t i o n could be employed and o b s e r v a t i o n s could be made on d e g e n e r a t i v e j o i n t d i s e a s e , s u b a d u l t l o n g bone growth, and f r e q u e n c i e s of l i n e s o f a r r e s t e d growth Fragmentation i n t h e Cotocollao and S t a Elena samples i s such t h a t t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s cannot be made r e l i a b l y . The manner of i n t e r m e n t p r e s e n t s s i m i l a r comparative problems I n t h e primary s k e l e t o n s recovered a t t h e ~ y a l a nnon-urn component Guanqala, and San Lorenzo s k e l e t a l d a t a can b e c o r r e l a t e d with i n formation about t h e i n d i v i d u a l ( a g e , s e x , c u l t u r a l i n c l u s i o n s ) Such c o r r e l a t i o n s o b v i o u s l y a r e n o t p o s s i b l e w i t h samples from t h e l a r g e secondary d e p o s i t s o f t h e Ayalan urn component, S t a . Elena, and Cotocollao. Thus, t o f a c i l i t a t e comparison, I have chosen only t h o s e b i o l o g i c a l t r a i t s t h a t can b e t r a c e d through a l l o f t h e samples a v a i l a b l e , and I have p r e s e n t e d t h e comparisons i n a manner t h a t a l l o w s f r e q u e n c i e s t o b e computed from b o t h primary and secondary i n t e r m e n t s Data from t h e Real A l t o and San Lorenzo samples a r e n o t i n c l u d e d s i n c e r e s e a r c h on t h e s e m a t e r i a l s is s t i l l i n progress

Stature Living s t a t u r e h a s been e s t i m a t e d from l o n g bone l e n g t h s using t h e formulas o f Genovgs o r T r o t t e r and G l e s e r ( s e e Ubelaker 1978: 44-45) Table 19 1 summarizes t h e s t a t u r e d a t a f o r f i v e samples in the series Only t h o s e s t a t u r e s t h a t could be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h sex a r e included Sex was determined from t h e s i z e o f t h e measured bone o r , i n t h e c a s e o f primary s k e l e t o n s , from o t h e r a s s o c i a t e d bones of t h e i n d i v i d u a l I n F i g u r e 19 2 t h e mean s t a t u r e v a l u e s Figure 19 2 a r e p l o t t e d through time f o r b o t h males and females s u g g e s t s l i t t l e , i f any, change i n s t a t u r e through t i m e In f a c t , t h e p r e h i s t o r i c s t a t u r e s a r e c l o s e t o p u b l i s h e d v a l u e s f o r contemporary Ecuadorean Indian p o p u l a t i o n s (Ubelaker 1981:115)

Demography Accurace demographic r e c o n s t r u c t i o n from s k e l e t a l remains depends on t h e assumption t h a t t h e a c q u i r e d samples a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e e n t i r e cemetery sample and of t h e a c t u a l d e a t h s i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n , and t h a t e s t i m a t e d ages a t d e a t h a r e reasonably accurate Table 19 2 summarizes r e l e v a n t demographic d a t a a v a i l The most r e l i a b l e d a t a a r e those a b l e f o r f i v e Ecuadorean samples

.IS

PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR

TABLE 1 9 1

Mean Values for Estimated M e and Female Living

Stature Stature Male Samp Ze AyaZdn urns non-urns Guangal a CotoeoZZao S t a . Elena

Fema l e

N

am

N

em

25

159 159 161 159 161

31 7 7

149 149 152 148

14

149

9 3 17 8

1

from Ayalan, s i n c e t h o s e samples were l a r g e and p r e s e r v a t i o n was such t h a t t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e methods of age d e t e r m i n a t i o n could be employed P r e s e r v a t i o n and age d e t e r m i n a t i o n were a l s o good f o r t h e Guanqala m a t e r i a l ; however, t h a t sample i s v e r y s m a l l f o r demographic a n a l y s i s and may show an u n r e a l i s t i c s h o r t a g e of adults Sample s i z e i s adequate f o r t h e S t a Elena and Cotocollao samples; however extreme f r a g m e n t a t i o n of much o f t h e m a t e r i a l Accordmay have a f f e c t e d t h e accuracy o f t h e a d u l t age e s t i m a t e s i n g l y , t h e d a t a on maximum l o n g e v i t y d e s c r i b e d i n Table 1 9 2 and p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 1 9 3 may r e f l e c t an i n c r e a s e i n l o n g e v i t y w i t h t h e Ayalan urn sample; however, it a l s o may be o n l y an a r t i f a c t

' 6 2 1 STA. ELENA

GUANGALA

COTOCOLLAO

NON URN

THOUSANDS OF YEARS

FIGURE 1 9 2 Estimated i n a h 1-( and female f----) l i v i n g I n t h i s and a l l subsequent f i g u r e s , t h e s t a t u r e through time p l o t of years r e f e r s t o thousands o f years B P , w i t h "0" r e f e r ring t o t k present.

19 PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR

33

-

31

-

29

-

27

-

25

-

2

-

21

-

19

-

?\

1 \

sTA ELENA

17151312-

8

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

i

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

THOUSANDS OF YEARS

L i f e expectancy through time a t b i r t h (-), FIGURE 1 9 4 age 5 (----) and age 15 J-( Trauma S k e l e t a l i n d i c a t i o n s of trauma a l s o show temporal change i n Table 19 3 and Figure 1 9 5 r e l a t e t h e r z t i o p r e h i s t o r i c Ecuador of t h e number of f r a c t u r e d bones i n each sample t o t h e number of I d e a l l y , d a t a on trauma should be i n d i v i d u a l s i n each sample presented i n terms o f t h e frequency of a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s ; howe v e r , t h a t i s n o t p o s s i b l e h e r e s i n c e much of t h e sample i s The d a t a suggest a sharp derived from secondary interments i n c r e a s e i n s k e l e t a l f r a c t u r e s during Guangala times with a gradual decrease t h e r e a f t e r Additional i n s i g h t i s gained by looking a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n In the of f r a c t u r e s on t h e skeleton through time (Table 19 4 ) S t a Elena sample, f r a c t u r e s a r e confined t o hand and f o o t bones Small, c i r c u l a r and t o t h e mid-shaft a r e a of t h e long bones depressed f r a c t u r e s of the f r o n t a l bone appear i n t h e Cotocollao and Guangala samples and a r e no longer apparent i n t h e Ayalsn I n Ayal^n, trauma t o t h e skeleton i s expanded t o i n c l u d samples C o l l e s ' s f r a c t u r e s of t h e d i s t a l ends of t h e r a d i u s and ulna t h a t normally r e s u l t from f a l l s

D. H. UBELAK

TABLE 19 3 Ratio of t h e Number of Bones Showing Trauma t o t Number of Individuals i n Each Sample Number of bones w i t h trauma

Sample Aya t6n Urns Son-urns Guanga la Cotoeo l l a o Sta. EZena

Number of 'Lndividuals i n sample

Rat

25 5 3

5

11

I n f e c t i o u s Disease Table 19 5 and F i g u r e 1 9 6 p r e s e n t t h e r a t i o of a d u l t bones showing evidence o f i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e t o t h e number o f a d u l t s i t h e v a r i o u s samples The d a t a p r e s e n t e d a r e l i m i t e d t o a d u l t s s i n c e evidence f o r i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i n s u b a d u l t s i s c o n f i n e d t o n l y one long bone fragment from t h e ~ y a l a nurn sample Again, d a t a on t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l s i n c e secondary i n t e r m e n t s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e samples The d a t show a dramatic i n c r e a s e o f p e r i o s t e a l l e s i o n s i n t h e Guangala sample followed by a n e q u a l l y d r a m a t i c r e d u c t i o n i n t h e Ayalan non-urn sample and a subsequent s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n t h e A y a l h ur sample

URN URN

I

8

I

7

I

6

I

5

I

I

I

I

4

3

2

1

THOUSANDS

pi ã

OF

I 0

YEARS

Ratio of bones showing trauma t o t h e number of FIGURE 19 5 individuals i n each sample t h p o q h time

TABLE 1 9 4

Skeletal Distribution of the Different !Types of Trauma i n Each Sample

Long bones non-CoZles ' s Frontal fractures fractures depressions Number % Number % Number % C - -o l l e .s ' s

Sample Ayaldn Urns Non-urns Gvangal a Cotoeo l Lao Sta Elena.

7 3

28 60

9

1

36 20

3 1

1 6

20 55

Rib fractures Number %

2

33 '40

12

Fractures of hands and feet Number % 6

24

2

2

67 40

5

45

Humerus dislocation Number % Total 1

20

25

5 3 5 11

D. H. UBELAKER

TABLE 19 5 Ratio of t h e Number o f Adult Bones w i t h Periosteal Lesions t o t h e Number of A d u l t s i n Each Sample Number o f bones with lesions

Sample Aya 'L&n Urns Non-urns GuangaZa Cotoeo U a o Sta. Elena

Number o f a d u l t s i n sample

Ratio

28

1 4 7 9

P o r o t i c Hyperostosis Data a r e a v a i l a b l e from a l l f i v e samples on t y p e s o f bony lesions usually called porotic hyperostosis Frequencies of t h i s pathology, expressed a s t h e r a t i o of t h e number of a f f e c t e d bones o f t h e c r a n i a l v a u l t t o t h e number o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e sample, The t a b l e shows t h a t such l e s i o n s a r e a r e given i n Table 19 6 absent i n t h e S t a Elena and Cotocollao samples, o c c u r w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t frequency in t h e Guanqala sample and t h e n d e c r e a s e i n frequency i n t h e ~ y a l hsamples

.45

-

40

-

GUANGALA

35-

30 .25

-

.20 -

15'lo-

STA. ELENA

.05 COTOCOLLAO

8

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

THOUSANDS OF

I 0

YEARS

FIGURE 19 6 . Ratio o f a d u l t bones w i t h p e r i o s t e a l l e s i o n s t o the number of a d u l t s i n each sample through time

1

19 PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR

TABLE 19 6 R a t i o o f the Number o f Bones of t h e Cranial V a u l t Shoving Porotie Hyperostosis t o t h e Number of I n d i v i d u a l s i n Each Sample Sample Ayalan Urns Non-urns Guangal a Cotoeo~lao Sta. Elena

Number of crania1 bones w i t h l e s i o n s

Number o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n sample

28

384

4 7 0

51 30 164

0

127

J TABLE 19 7 R a t i o o f the Number o f O r b i t s ~ 6 t C hribi t a l i a t o t h e Number o f I n d i v i d u a l s i n Eac Sample Sample Aya& urns Non-urns GuangaZa Cotoeo l l a o Sta. Elena

Number o f o r b i t s w i t h lesions

Number o f indivi.duak ¥i sample

Ratio

--I

07 08 23 0 0

7rbi-

Ratio

7

0 3 0

0

P o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s o f t h e o r b i t s ( c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a ) shows a similar pattern The t r a i t d o e s n o t appear i n t h e S t a Elena I t s g r e a t e s t frequency i s i n t h e Guangala and C o t o c o l l a o samples sample, followed by a d i s a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e Ayalan non-urn sample and a low frequency i n t h e Ayalan urn sample The temporal t r e n d i n p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s o f b o t h t h e v a u l t and o r b i t s i s shown i n Figure 19 7 and Table 19 7

Dental Hypoplasia F r e q u e n c i e s o f d e n t a l h y p o p l a s i a i n t h e samples a r e p r e s e n t e d i n Table 1 9 8 and F i g u r e 1 9 . 8 These d a t a r e f l e c t t h e frequency o f a f f e c t e d permanent t e e t h , n o t t h e number o f d e f e c t s o r t h e numb e r of a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s This pathology occurs with r e l a t i v e The l y low f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e S t a Elena and C o t o c o l l a o samples i n c i d e n c e i n c r e a s e s s h a r p l y i n t h e Guangala sample followed by a s l i g h t d e c r e a s e i n t h e ~ y a l s nnon-urn sample and then a d r a m a t i c i n c r e a s e a g a i n i n t h e Ayalan urn sample

D. H. UBELAKER Â

......

GALA

NON URN

0

THOUSANDS

YEARS

OF

FIGURE 19 7 Ratio o f bones w i t h p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s ( v a u l t and o r b i t s ) t o t h e number o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n each sample t h o u g h the Dental Disease Data a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e f i v e samples on t h r e e i n d i c a t o r s of d e n t a l d i s e a s e : c a r i o u s l e s i o n s , a l v e o l a r abscesses, and antemortem tooth l o s s Carious l e s i o n s a r e defined i n t h i s research as c a v i t i e s i n t h e t e e t h t h a t show evidence of t i s s u e necrosis with subsequent c o l l a p s e of t h e hard t i s s u e , a s opposed t o a l t e r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from developmental d e f e c t s o r from mechanical abrasion Observed l e s i o n s were about t h e s i z e of a pinhead o r l a r g e r Table 1 9 9 and Figure 19 9 p r e s e n t t h e percentage o f permanent, f u l l y formed t e e t h i n t h e sample i n which a t l e a s t one carious l e s i o n i s found Again, d a t a a r e not a v a i l able on t h e percentage o f a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s s i n c e secondary

TABLE 19 8 Percentage o f Fully Formed Permanent T e e t h u i f h Hypoplasia i n Each Sample - - -

-

Sample --

Aya ldn Urns Non-urns Guangal a Cotoco z.zao Sta. Elena

-

--

Number o f t e e t h i n sampZe

\

Number w i t h hypop l a s i a

Percentage

--

1966 429 73 1157 1989

115 6 2 3

7

5 8 1 4 2 7 3 4

19 PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR

?

URN

GUANGALA

.,

^

.

NON U R N

STA. E L E N A

COTOCOLLAO

THOUSANDS

FIGURE 19 8 through time.

OF

YEARS

Percentage of permanent t e e t h w i t h hypoplasia

i n t e r m e n t s and l o o s e t e e t h a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e sampl show a low f r e q u e n c y o f c a r i o u s l e s i o n s i n t h e S t a E l e n a and C o t o c o l l a o samples, an i n c r e a s e i n t h e Guanqala and ~ y a l a nnonu r n samples, and a n even g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e i n t h e Ayalan u r n sample T a b l e 1 9 1 0 and F i g u r e 1 9 10 p r e s e n t t h e r a t i o of a l v e o l a r a b s c e s s e s t o t h e number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s o n permanent t e e t h t e e t h

TABLE 19 9 Percentage of Fully Formed Permanent Teeth &th- a t Least One Carious Lesion Sample A y&n Urns K'on-urns Guunga l a Cotoeo l l a o Sta Elma

Number of t e e t h ¥i samp2.e 1966

N u m b e r carious

42 9 73

208 35 6

1157 1989

55

19

Percentage 11 8 8 3 3

D. H. UBELAKER URN

11-

10 9GUANGALA

8ld d

a

I-

NON -URN

7-

z

% 0-

w

65-

4STA. ELENA

3 Â

8

COTOCOLLAO I

1

I

I

I

1

I

I

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

THOUSANDS OF YEARS

FIGURE 1 9 9

Percentage of permanent t e e t h u i t h

carious lesion through time

Lt

l e a s t one

p r e s e n t p l u s t e e t h a b s e n t antemortem) i n t h e samples This r a t i o shows a temporal i n c r e a s e from S t a Elena through C o t o c o l l a o t o Guangala and t h e n a s h a r p r e d u c t i o n i n t h e Ayalsn samples The f i n a l d a t a s e t (Table 19 1 1 , F i g u r e 1 9 11) p r e s e n t s t h e r a t i o o f permanent t e e t h l o s t antemortem t o t h e number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s on permanent t e e t h ( t e e t h p r e s e n t p l u s t e e t h a b s e n t ) i n t h e samples The r a t i o i s low i n t h e two e a r l y samples, i n c r e a s e s t o a peak i n t h e Guangala sample, and t h e n d e c r e a s e s i n t h e Ayalan ' samples. These d a t a , a s w e l l a s t h o s e on a l v e o l a r a b s c e s s e s , a r e 7' somewhat i n e x a c t s i n c e t e e t h were n o t always a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e corresponding m a x i l l a e and mandibles -

TABLE 19.10 Ratio of the Number of Alveolar Abscesses i n Adults t o t h e Number of Observations (Teeth Present Plus Teeth Absent) on Permanent Teeth i n Each Sample

Sample Aya ldn Urns Non-urns Guanga la Cotoeo~lao Sta. Elena

Number of dental observations 2302 491 122 1244 1661

Number of abscesses 74

I3 10

87 10

Ratio 03 03 08 .07

.O1

19 PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR

0 7 -

0 8

0

06

-

.05

-

.04

-

t-

a

buANfaALA

URN

THOUSANDS OF YEARS

FIGURE 19 10 Ratio of the number of alveolar abscesses t o t h e number of observations of permanent t e e t h through time. \J

DISCUSSION

I t is n o t p o s s i b l e a t t h i s t i m e t o i d e n t i f y e x a c t c o r r e l a t i o n s between temporal chanqes i n s u b s i s t e n c e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and changes i n s k e l e t a l b i o l o g y Too l i t t l e i s known of t h e c u l t u r a l p r e h i s t o r y o f the a r e a , and t h e s k e l e t a l samples s t i l l a r e g r o s s l y l i m i t e d f o r such g e n e r a l i z a t i o n It i s p o s s i b l e , however, t o s u g g e s t some t e n t a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t may be e x p l a i n e d w i t h a d d i t i o n a l d a t a

TABLE 19 11 Ratio of Permanent Teeth Lost Anternortern t o Number of Observations on Presence of Permanent Teeth (Absent and Present)

V"

'-'Sample

Number of permanent t e e t h l o s t antemortern

Number of observations

336 62 49 87 102

2302 491 122 1244 1661

Ratio

Ay aldn

Urns Non-urns Guangala Cotoco 2 Lao Sta. Elena

15 13 40 07 06

-

,

.

< ~ - - .

.

.

^ D. H. UBELAKER 40

-

35

-

30 -

2

>-

25-

a

aL

20-

'5-

"

-5

l o - STA. E L E N A

0 5

-' 8

COTOCOLLAO I

I

I

I

7

6

5

4

THOUSANDS

OF

-

>

,

YEARS

FIGURE 19.11 Ratio o f permanent t e e t h l o s t anternortem t o t h e number of observations of permanent t e e t h through time C e r t a i n l y it can be s a i d t h a t s u b s i s t e n c e and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s h i f t e d markedly from t h e h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g s o c i e t y o f S t a Elena times t o t h e time o f C o t o c o l l a o , when i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e and c o n s i d e r a b l e s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n must have been present Yet a c u r i o u s p r o d u c t of t h i s s t u d y i s t h a t b i o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s e two samples a r e c o n f i n e d t o an i n c r e a s e ; i n alveolar abscesses The f a c t t h a t f r e q u e n c i e s o f c a r i e s and t o o t h l o s s remain c o n s t a n t makes even t h a t d i f f e r e n c e p u z z l i n g Of c o u r s e , t h e Cotocollao s i t e i s t h e o n l y h i g h l a n d sample i n the , s e r i e s , and t h e r a t e and t y p e o f b i o l o g i c a l change may have d i f f e r e d between t h e h i g h l a n d s and t h e c o a s t Also, it i s p o s s i b l e : t h a t although a g r i c u l t u r e was f u l l y d times, t h e p o p u l a t i o n may n o t have de dependence on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s f o r s u b s i s t e n c e u n t i l about t h e time of t h e Guangala phase Although t h e sample s i z e i s v e r y s m a l l , t h e Guangala d a t a show dramatic i n c r e a s e s i n n e a r l y a l l s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s , - - e s p e c i a l l y d e n t a l c a r i e s , t o o t h l o s s , d e n t a l h y p o p l a s i a , trauma, and i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e Determination o f whether t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s exaggerated i n t h e Guangala sample o r r e p r e s e n t s a g e n e r a l i z e s c o n d i t i o n i n t h e Regional Development p e r i o d p o p u l a t i o n must await f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . The t r e n d of i n c r e a s e d m o r b i d i t y c o n t i n u e s from t h e Guangala ' , phase i n t o t h e Late I n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d w i t h t h e A y a l h samples showing a r e g u l a r i n c r e a s e i n t h e frequency o f d e n t a l c a r i e s Most o t h e r s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s , however, show a d e c l i n e i n f r e quency between t h e Guangala and ~ y a l a nurn sample T h i s may i n d i c a t e a p e r i o d of p o p u l a t i o n adjustment a f t e r Guangala, followfiS

'

+

-

19 PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR

511

by renewed problems a s t h e p r o c e s s e s o f o v e r - r e l i a n c e on few agr i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s and i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y c o n t i n u e t o intensify A more e x a c t a p p r a i s a l o f b i o c u l t u r a l a s s o c i a t i o n s i n p r e However, i t i s h i s t o r i c Ecuador i s n o t p o s s i b l e a t t h i s time c l e a r t h a t although t h e a c q u i s i t i o n and development of a g r i c u l t u r e may have c o n t r i b u t e d t o p o p u l a t i o n expansion and t o i n c r e a s e d soc i a l complexity i n p r e h i s t o r i c Ecuador, it a l s o may have had d e l e t e r i o u s b i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s t h a t may have reduced t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e . More e x a c t s t a t e m e n t s on,' t h e d e t a i l s and t i m i n g of t h i s complex r e l a t i o n s h i p must a w a i t t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e Real Alto and San Lorenzo m a t e r i a l , t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of o t h e r l a r g e , w e l l documented s k e l e t a l samples, and more a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h on p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s

>

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Stephanie Darnadio and E l i z a b e t h Beard o f t h e Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n , f o r t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e survey and manuscript p r e p a r a t i o n Valuable advice on Ecuadorean archaeology was r e c e i v e d from B e t t y J Meggers o f t h e Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n ; J o r g e Marcos o f t h e Escuela P o l i t e c n i c a , Guayaquil, Ecuador ; and Olaf Holm and Karen S t o t h e r t o f t h e Banco C e n t r a l d e l Ecuador, Guayaquil, Ecuador

REFERENCES

B e l l , Robert E. 1965 ArchaeoZogieaZ i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a t t h e s i t e of E l Inga, Ecuador. Casa de l a C u l t u r a E c u a t o r i a n a , Quito Bischof, Henninq, and J u l i o V i t e r i Gamb a 1972 Pre-Valdivia o c c u p a t i o n s on t h e southwest c o a s t of Ecuador American Antiqu* 37; 548-551 .Burleigh, R. , and D Brothwell 1978 S t u d i e s on Amerindian dogs I Carbon i s o t o p e s i n r e l a t i o n t o maize i n t h e d i e t of domestic dogs from e a r l y J o u d of Avohaeo'iogieaz S c i e n c e Peru and Ecuador 5: 355-362 C a r n e i r o , Robert L 1968 The t r a n s i t i o n from h u n t i n g t o h o r t i c u l t u r e i n t h e Amazon Proceedings I n t e m a t i o n a Z Congress of AnthropoZoBasin g i e a l and EthnoIdgieaZ S c i e n c e s 8 t h 3:244-248 Duckworth, W. L. H. 951 Notes on s k u l l s of t h e Guangala P e r i o d , from La L i b e r t a d Appendix B i n t h e archaeology o f t h e Santa Elena P e n i n s u l a

7

D. H. UBELAKER i n southwest Ecuador Occasional Publications of t h e Cambridge University Museum of ArehaeoZogy and. Ethnology

No 1 Lathrap, Donald W 1963 P o s s i b l e a f f i l i a t i o n s o f t h e M a c h a l i l l a Complex o f c o a s t a l Ecuador American Antiquity 29 :239-240 1974 The moist t r o p i c s , t h e a n d l a n d s , and t h e appearance o f g r e a t a r t s t y l e s i n t h e New World Special Publications o f the Museum Texas Tech Univ 7:115-158 1976 Ancient Ecuador, culture, d a y and c r e a t i v i t y , 3000-300 B C F i e l d Museum o f N a t u r a l ~ i s t o r y ' ,Chicago Lathrap, Donald W , J o r g e G Marcos, and James A Z e i d l e r 1977- Real Alto: An a n c i e n t ceremonial c e n t e r Archaeology 30: 3-13 Marcos , J o r g e G a b r i e l 1978 The ceremonial precinct a t Real Alto: Organization of t i m e and space i n Valdivia society Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s Urbana-Champaign. McEwan , Gordon F , and D Bruce Dickson 1978 V a l d i v i a , Jomon fishermen, and t h e n a t u r e of t h e North Pacific: Some n a u t i c a l problems w i t h Meggers, Evans, and American E s t r a d a ' s (1965) t r a n s o c e a n i c c o n t a c t t h e s i s Antiquity 43: 362-371 Meggers, ~ e t J-t ~ 1966 Ecuador. P r a e g e r , New York Meggers, Betty J , C l i f f o r d Evans, and Emilio E s t r a d a 1965 Early Formative P e r i o d o f c o a s t a l Ecuador: The Valdivic and M a c h a l i l l a Phases Smithsonian Contributions t o AnthropoZogy 1 :1-234 Munizaga, Juan R. 1965 S k e l e t a l remains from s i t e s o f V a l d i v i a and M a c h a l i l l a phases Appendix 2 i n E a r l y Formative P e r i o d o f coas1,al SmithEcuador: The V a l d i v i a and M a c h a l i l l a p h a s e s sonian Contributions t o Anthropology 2 :219-234 P e a r s a l l , Deborah M 1978 P h y t o l i t h a n a l y s i s of a r c h e o l o g i c a l s o i l s : Evidence f o r Science 199:177maize c u l t i v a t i o n i n f o r m a t i v e Ecuador 178 P o r r a s Garces, Pedro I 1972a Secuencia S e r i a d a de 10s a r t e f a c t o s de p i e d r a p u l i d a de l a Fase de Cosanga en e l O r i e n t e (Cej a de Montana) d e l A t t i Conqresso Intermzionale Ecuador (Suramerica) Deglimerican'lsti 4 0 t h , pp. 59-63 1972b Supervivencia de tradition c e r h i c a comdn a l a s c u l t u r a s d e l Alto amazonas y de manera e s p e c i a l a l a s de l a zona A t t i Concpesso Intero r i e n t a l d e l Ecuador en Suramgrica naz'Lonale Deglimericanisti 4 0 t h , pp 51- 57 1975 Fase P a s t a z a : E l Formativo en e l O r i e n t e ~ c u a t o r i a n o Revista de 'La ~ n i v e r s i d a d~ a t 6 l i e aAno 111, No 1 0

19 PREHISTORIC HUMAN BIOLOGY OF ECUADOR

1981

513

S i t i o Sangay A informe p r e l i m i n a r de l a primera e t a p a

flumero Monografico de H i s t o r k y Geografia de la Revista de l a Universidad Catoliea No 29, p p 105-145 Sanna, Akkaraju V N Sarma 1974 Holocene paleoecology o f South C o a s t a l Ecuador. Proceedings of th American Philosophical Society 118:93-134 S t o t h e r t , Karen E 1976 The e a r l y p r e h i s t o r y o f t h e S t a Elena P e n i n s u l a , Ecuador : C o n t i n u i t i e s between t h e Preceramic and Ceramic c u l t u r e s

Actas del Congreso I n t e r m c i o d de Americanistas 4 1 s t , Vol 2 pp 88-98 1977 proy e c t o P a l e o i n d i o Pub'ioaaiones de l Museo Antropo l6g'ieo d e l Banco Central del Ecuador

I' PI

;

-

u

-

Ubelaker, Douglas H 1978 Human s k e l e t a l remains, excavat* analysis, interpretat i o n . Taraxacum, Washington 1980a Human s k e l e t a l remains from S i t e OGSE-80, a Preceramic s i t e on t h e S t a Elena P e n i n s u l a , c o a s t a l Ecuador Jourml of t k Washington Academy of Sciences 70 (1) 3-24 1980b P r e h i s t o r i c human remains from t h e C o t o c o l l a o S i t e ) Pichincha Providence, Ecuador Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 70 ( 2 ) :59-74 1981 The Ayalgn cemetery: A L a t e I n t e g r a t i o n P e r i o d b u r i a l Smithsonian Contribus i t e on t h e South Coast o f Ecuador t i o n s t o Anthropoloq'y No 29 1983 Human s k e l e t a l remains from OGSE-MA-172, an e a r l y Guangala cemetery s i t e on t h e c o a s t of Ecuador. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 73 ( I ):16-26 Van Bork-Feltkamp, A J 1965 Squelettes de Pahar Nederlands Museum voor Anthropolog i e , Amsterdam Willey, Gordon R. 1971 An introduction t o American archaeologu (Vol 11) P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Englewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y Z e v a l l o s , M C a r l o s , Walton C G a l i n a t , Donald W Lathrap, E a r l R. Leng, J o r g e G Marcos, and Kathleen M Klmpp 1977 The San Pablo corn k e r n e l and i t s f r i e n d s Science 196: 385-389

-

CHAPTER 20 PALEOPATHOLOGY I N PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS

Mawin J . Allison I n s t i t u t e de Antropologia Universidad de Tarapaca, A r i c a , C h i l e

T h i s c h a p t e r r e p o r t s on t h e p a l e o p a t h o l o g y o f 1 6 p o p u l a t i o n s The p o p u l a t i o n s from Peru and C h i l e ( s e e T a b l e s 20.1 and 20.2) e x t e n d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y from Ancash ( P e r u ) i n t h e North t o Tarapaca ( C h i l e ) i n t h e s o u t h , and t h e y range i n t i m e from 6000 t o 400 B.P. Both c o a s t a l and h i g h l a n d p o p u l a t i o n s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d , b u t a l l of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s s t u d i e d d i e d on t h e c o a s t . (We have no way of t e l l i n g where i n d i v i d u a l s were born o r where t h e y s p e n t most of their lives.) Both nomadic and s e d e n t a r y p o p u l a t i o n s a r e desc r i b e d a s a r e b o t h p o l i t i c a l l y independent g r o u p s and s a t e l l i t e communities ( o r c o l o n i a l o u t p o s t s ) of l a r g e r p o l i t i c a l u n i t s . One g r o u p , t h e most r e c e n t , i s a c o l o n i a l p o p u l a t i o n d a t i n g from t h e p e r i o d o f Spanish r u l e . The economies r e p r e s e n t e d i n c l u d e i n t e n s i v e marine h u n t i n g and f o r a g i n g economies w i t h i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r e (perhaps p r i m a r i l y f o r producing raw m a t e r i a l s ) ; g r o u p s w i t h mixed h e r d i n g and farming economies; and groups w i t h more i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l economies. A l l groups r e p r e s e n t e d employed some agriculture. C l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e c o a s t a l d e s e r t of Peru and C h i l e r e s u l t i n t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of mummies, o f t e n w i t h most of t h e i r i n t e r n a l o r g a n s i n t a c t . These b o d i e s c a n b e a u t o p s i e d much a s modern c o r p s e s a r e , w i t h s t a n d a r d l a b o r a t o r y t e c h n i q u e s . A c a u s e o f d e a t h can o f t e n b e e s t a b l i s h e d , and numerous s p e c i f i c d i s e a s e s may be i d e n t i f i e d . One r e s u l t of such d i a g n o s i s i s t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y a number o f s p e c i f i c d i s e a s e s a f f e c t i n g American I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n s p r i o r t o European c o n t a c t . ( I n cont r a s t , s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l a l o n e g e n e r a l l y r e f l e c t s l e s s than 20% of t h e d i s e a s e s t h a t plague human p o p u l a t i o n s . Most a c u t e

.

PALEOPETHOLOGY 4 T THE ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE

Cupynght  1984 by Acddemic Press, 1nc I" an> form rmewed ISBN 0-12 179080.0

' rights of rep~oductton

MARVIN J. ALLISON

516

TABLE 20.1 Location

Number

General Information on Peruvian Mummies Studies Years B. P. (radiocarbon)

Economy

Comments

Huacho Peru

Fis hinggatherer

Preceramic with c o t t o n - g o d s agriculture for rau materials f?)

ChongosPisco Peru

Fishing agricu lture

A Paracas culture

Ica Peru

Farmers

Nazca culture group from d i f f e r e n t valley

Toquilla Ancash Peru

Fishermen

Chima-Casma culture. Small v i l l a g e on beach, questionable farming, 'but access t o agrZ-cultural products

Huayuri Peru

Farmers

Small agricultural

Ica Peru

Farmers

Large c i t y , Ica cu2t u r e , i n Santa Cruz Valley

Pisco Peru

Farmers

Inca c u l t u r e individuals from Pisco Valley

Pisco Peru

Farmers (miners)

Inca and l e a Cozon i a l individuals from Pisco Valley (Mwga H&)

group l i v i n g i n the Piseo Valley

community, Wari c u l t u r e , i n Santa Cruz Valley

infectious diseases rarely, i f ever, leave skeletal lesions. See A l l i s o n 1979; A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 7 4 a , b , c ) . Since t h e skeleton i s a l s o p r e s e n t i n such i n d i v i d u a l s , it i s p o s s i b l e , u s i n g mummified remains, t o r e l a t e s o f t - t i s s u e f i n d i n g s t o s k e l e t a l f i n d i n g s t o e s t a b l i s h an e t i o l o g y f o r s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s t h a t o t h e r w i s e c o u l d n o t b e diagnosed ( A l l i s o n and G e r s z t e n 1 9 8 2 ) . Comparison of

20 PALEOPATHOLOGY IN PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS

TABLE 20.2 Location

General Information on Chilean Mummies Studied

Number

Years B. P . (radiocarbon)

Economy

Comments

Faldas de Morro Ariea

Maritime incipient agriculture

Coastal northern Chi leÑnomad

Azapa Arica

Marztime incipient agriculture

Probably r e l a t e d t o W a s de Morro people--nomads

Azapa A r i ea

Shepherds, agriculture

Alto Romirez people-nomads, highlanders

Azapa Ar i c a

Shepherds, agvieu lture

Cabuza people--villages ? Highlanders

Azapa Arica

Shepherds, agriculture

Classic Tiahuanaeo-v i l l a g e s ; highlanders spill-over population.

Azapa Arica

Farmers shepherds

Maitas culture-v i l l a g e s ; highlanders

Arica Chile

Huntersfishermenfarmers

Sun Miguel culture-sea-oriented v ilkges

Tarapaea Chile

Farmersgatherers

Ataeameno--vil lages-traders

s k e l e t a 1 and m m i f i ed remains o f i n d i v i d u a l s from t h e v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s r e p r e s e n t e d t h u s p r o v i d e s a p a r t i c u l a r l y good o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a s s e s s i n g t h e impact of s o c i a l , economic, and p o l i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s on human h e a l t h .

THE EVIDENCE OF BONES AND TEETH

One n o n s p e c i f i c measure o f t h e h e a l t h of a p o p u l a t i o n i s mort a l i t y , w i t h m o r t a l i t y d u r i n g t h e growth p h a s e p r o v i d i n g p e r h a p s t h e most s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r of n u t r i t i o n . Table 2 0 . 3 l i s t s t h e

518

MARVIN J. ALLISON

TABLE 20.3 Childhood M o r t a l i t y (under Age 1 5 ) from S i x C u l t u r a l Groups

ChiIdhood mortality Culture

(%)

Azapa A l t o Ramirez Cabuza T i ahuanaco Huari-Ica Colonial Inca-Ica

28 50 48 49 49 45

childhood m o r t a l i t y (under 1 5 y e a r s o f age) f o r s i x s e l e c t e d c u l t u r a l g r o u p s spanning r o u g h l y 2300 y e a r s . The e a r l i e s t p e o p l e of t h e Azapa c u l t u r e , w i t h e s s e n t i a l l y a marine economy, had a 2 8 % childhood m o r t a l i t y . A l l of t h e o t h e r c u l t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e c o l o n i a l group, had n e a r l y 50% m o r t a l i t y f o r c h i l d r e n under 1 5 y e a r s of age (Ashworth e t a l . 1976) The l a t t e r f i g u r e a p p e a r s t o be independent of c u l t u r e and of r e g i o n o f o r i g i n ( h i g h l a n d o r coast). Growth i s a l s o a n o n s p e c i f i c i n d i c a t o r o f h e a l t h , o f which n u t r i t i o n may b e one i m p o r t a n t component. Table 20.4 shows average s t a t u r e i n cm f o r a d u l t s from t h e same c u l t u r e s d e s c r i b e d i n T a b l e 20.3. The C o l o n i a l p o p u l a t i o n of I n c a and I c a i n d i v i d u a l s i s t h e only one t o show a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e from t h e o t h e r s i n t h e form of reduced s t a t u r e . T h a t such a r e d u c t i o n i n s t a t u r e might b e of n u t r i t i o n a l o r i g i n was e v i d e n t a t t h e time of e x c a v a t i o n , s i n c e a l l g r a v e s were poor i n f o o d s t u f f s , c l o t h e s were worn and p a t c h e d , and numerous women were b u r i e d w i t h newborn c h i l d r e n ( a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e i n d i c a t o r o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s ) . The o t h e r c u l t u r e s showed no e v i d e n c e of a s h o r t a g e of food i n t h e e x c a v a t i o n s and t h e i r s t a t u r e seems t o s u g g e s t r e l a t i v e 1 y good nutrition. H a r r i s l i n e s a r e a n o t h e r n o n s p e c i f i c measure of d i s e a s e t h a t may r e f l e c t a n u t r i t i o n a l e t i o l o g y ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 7 4 a , b , c ) . The d a t a i n T a b l e 20.5 s u g g e s t t h a t fewer i n d i v i d u a l s from c o a s t a l c u l t u r e s (where a g r i c u l t u r e may have been of secondary importance) had l i n e s . Furthermore, t h e c o a s t a l p e o p l e had fewer l i n e s p e r I t would p e r s o n t h a n p e o p l e from t h e h i g h l a n d o r i n l a n d c u l t u r e s . appear t h a t p e o p l e i n a c o a s t a l environment had a h e a l t h i e r c h i l d hood t h a n p e o p l e of h i g h l a n d o r i g i n . Poor n u t r i t i o n may b e one of t h e c a u s e s of H a r r i s 1i n e formation i n i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s ; however, H a r r i s l i n e s do n o t c o r r e l a t e w i t h p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n t h i s sample, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t m a l n u t r i t i o n i s n o t t h e major c a u s e o f l i n e formation h e r e . p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s was n o t common among c h i l d r e n even i n t h e C o l o n i a l group, where e v i d e n c e from g r a v e s s u g g e s t s a s h o r t a g e of

.

20 PALEOPATHOLOGY IN PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS

TABLE 20.4 Average S t a t u r e o f A d u l t s Based on Methods o f T r o t t e r and Gleser

Culture

Average stature (ern

Azapa A l t o Ramirez Cabuz a Tiahuanaeo Huari -IOU Colon-Lot Inea-Iea

166 166 166 169 163 156

food: o n l y 9% of t h e c h i l d r e n under 1 5 y e a r s of age d i s p l a y e d t h e symptoms. Among a pre-Columbian group of Wari-Ica c h i l d r e n from around t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e f i g u r e was 6 % . ( I n t h i s l a t t e r c a s e t h e r e was an abundance o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s i n t h e g r a v e s . ) I n n o r t h e r n C h i l e , p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s was uncommon i n a l l o f t h e c u l t u r e s s t u d i e d . While o c c a s i o n a l l y s e e n , it o c c u r s i n fewer o f c h i l d r e n under 1 5 y e a r s of age i n a l l samples. than 1% A review o f d a t a on o r a l p a t h o l o g y s u g g e s t s a number o f p a t t e r n s l i k e l y t o r e f l e c t food p r e p a r a t i o n and o r a l hygiene a s w e l l a s n u t r i t i o n . Elzay e t a l . (1977) and Sawyer e t a l . (1978a,b) r e v i e w i n d i v i d u a l s from c u l t u r e s e x t e n d i n g from 2600 B.P. t o t h e C o l o n i a l p e r i o d . They found a r e d u c t i o n i n jaw s i z e i n l a t e r cultures, a pattern often attributed to a s o f t d i e t requiring l i t t l e mechanical f o r c e t o m a s t i c a t e food. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e p a t t e r n i s complicated by t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of gene flow i n t r o d u c e d by t h e I n c a i n v a s i o n s s i n c e t h e mandibular body b u t n o t t h e ramus was reduced (Sawyer e t a l . 1 9 7 8 a , b ) . The I n c a and C o l o n i a l p e r i o d I n d i a n s have t h e h i g h e s t i n c i d e n c e o f m i s s i n g t e e t h (antemortem), a f i n d i n g t h a t p a r a l l e l s t h e p a t t e r n of i n c i d e n c e of d e n t a l c a r i e s . Groups w i t h h i g h c a r i e s r a t e s a l s o d i s p l a y e d h i g h r a t e s o f c a l c u l u s involvement. O s t e i t i s o c c u r r e d i n a l l p o p u l a t i o n s b u t was most f r e q u e n t i n t h e Nazca and I n c a groups. Enamel h y p o p l a s i a i n t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s seems t o b e r e l a t e d t o an i n c r e a s e i n "urban" l i v i n g s i n c e t h e e a r l i e r p o p u l a t i o n s , who presumably l i v e d i n small s o c i a l u n i t s , had l e s s enamel h y p o p l a s i a t h a n t h e l a t e r p e o p l e . T h i s may b e i n d i c a t i v e o f a l e s s s a t i s f a c t o r y d i e t a s c e r t a i n l y was t h e c a s e among t h e c o l o n i a l populations. A summary o f t h e s e n o n s p e c i f i c i n d i c a t o r s i n bones and t e e t h r e v e a l s t h a t w i t h a more complete a g r i c u l t u r a l economy, childhood m o r t a l i t y increased (although a s discussed l a t e r , t h i s i s probably e x p l a i n a b l e on t h e b a s i s of v i l l a g e l i f e and environment r a t h e r t h a n d i e t ) . S t a t u r e a l t e r a t i o n a s a r e s p o n s e t o poor n u t r i t i o n i s seen o n l y i n t h e c a s e of one c o l o n i a l group. H a r r i s l i n e s r e v e a l a p a t t e r n r e l a t e d t o geographic l o c a t i o n , which may b e r e l a t e d i n

MARVIN J. ALLISON

520

TABLE 20.5 The Frequency o f Harris Lines i n Mummies from S i x Coastal and Seven Inland C u l t u r e s Negative Cemetery

Culture

No.

No.

Huac ho Playa M i l l e r P h y a Millev Playa M i l l e r HuayuriHua yur'i-

Preceramic San Miguel San Migue-4 T-idhuanaco Wari Ica

21 6

16 4

8 19 12

8 10 7

85

59

Coastal t o t a l s Azapa Azapa Pica Azapa Azapa Azapa San Juan

Azapa A l t o Ramirez Atacameno Cabuza T-iahuanaco San Miguez Maaas Chiri Baya

Inland t o t a l s

.

-

%

76 67 74 100 53 58

69.4

Positive No. %

5

24 33 26

2 5 0 9

47

5

42

26

Lines/ positive

30.6

23 8 16 14 14 8 60

143

turn t o d i e t (although a d i e t a r y e t i o l o g y i s questionable s i n c e c o a s t a l c u l t u r e s spanning 2000-3000 y e a r s show s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o f H a r r i s l i n e s ) . The low l e v e l o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s would a l s o tend t o argue a g a i n s t d i e t a s a major f a c t o r i n t h e pathology. I n o r a l pathology a r e d u c t i o n i n mandible s i z e b u t n o t i n t h e s i z e o f t h e mandibular ramus s u g g e s t s a p a t t e r n of g e n e t i c r a t h e r t h a n d i e t a r y change. Enamel h y p o p l a s i a increased with urbanization. Tooth l o s s and i n c i d e n c e of c a r i e s appeared t o be r e l a t e d more t o t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of f o o d s t u f f s t h a n t o t h e s e l e c t i o n of foods.

THE EVIDENCE OF SOFT TISSUE

The g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s based on p a t h o l o g i c d a t a f o r bones and t e e t h can b e expanded by r e f e r e n c e t o s o f t - t i s s u e s t u d i e s . W e have d i s c u s s e d t h e childhood m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n s and t h e f a c t t h a t among e a r l y s e a mammal h u n t e r s - f i s h e r m e n - g a t h e r e r s , t h i s m o r t a l i t y r a t e was o n l y a b o u t h a l f t h a t s e e n i n l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l populations. I n b o t h g r o u p s , however, t h e major cause

20 PALEOPATHOLOGY IN PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS

521

TABLE 20.6 Acute Respiratory Disease i n Adults and Children of S i x Cultures

Culture

Origin

Asapa A l t o Rami-rez Cabusa Tiahuanaeo Hu& Inca-Ica

Coastal Mountain Mountain Mountain Mountain Mountain

Incidence f%) o f acute respiratory disease Children Adults

of d e a t h was a c u t e r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e ( s t r i k i n g b o t h s e x e s e q u a l l y ) . From T a b l e 20.6 i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t a c u t e r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e i n t h e form o f pneumonia was a major c a u s e of d e a t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s from b o t h c o a s t a l and mountain c u l t u r e s and i n d e e d was t h e major c a u s e of d e a t h among a l l p e o p l e from a l l time p e r i o d s independent of d i e t , involvement, o r s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t would be no e x a g g e r a t i o n t o s a y t h a t f o r t h e p a s t 8000 y e a r s most Americans have d i e d o f t h e same c a u s e s , a c u t e and c h r o n i c respiratory diseases. Even today i n modern L a t i n America t h e major c a u s e s o f d e a t h a r e pneumonia and t u b e r c u l o s i s . T a b l e 20.7 g i v e s t h e pathology of a c u t e pulmonary d i s e a s e seen i n 51 p r e Columbian mummies of i n d i v i d u a l s who d i e d o f pneumonia. Nearly 70% of t h e mummies showed b i l a t e r a l pneumonia t h a t could be c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d g r o s s l y a s bronchopneumonia o r l o b a r pneumonia Microscopic examination of t h e pneumonia seen i n t h e l u n g showed t h a t most c a s e s produced an abundant e x u d a t e c o n t a i n i n g remains of inflammatory c e l l s and b a c t e r i a (Group I V ) o r an e x u d a t e w i t h i n f l a m m a t o r y c e l l s and no b a c t e r i a (Group 111); l e s s t h a n 7% had only edema f l u i d (Group I ) and l e s s t h a n 10% had edema p l u s bact e r i a (Group 11). The g r o s s d i a g n o s i s o f pneumonia i s b a s e d on finding t h e lungs i n f l a t e d a t t h e time of autopsy. This s i g n i f i e s t h a t a t t h e t i m e o f d e a t h t h e y were f i l l e d w i t h f l u i d t h a t e v a p o r a t e d i n t i m e , a l l o w i n g t h e l u n g t o d r y i n t h e expanded p o s i t i o n . The l u n g s of a normal i n d i v i d u a l who d i d n o t d i e o f pulmonary d i s e a s e a r e completely d e f l a t e d and a b o u t t h e t h i c k n e s s of a p l a y i n g c a r d . A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e pneumonia a r e a r e a s o f c o l l a p s e d lung ( a t e l e c t a s i s ) a s w e l l a s a r e a s o f hemorrhage and emphysema ( l o c a l t r a p p i n g of a i r i n b l e b s due t o d i l a t a t i o n of pulmonary a i r v e s i c l e s ) , a l l c o m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e pneumonic p r o c e s s . A n t h r a c o s i s was i n c l u d e d i n t h e d a t a g i v e n i n t h i s t a b l e , and i t s low f r e q u e n c y i n d i c a t e d t h a t cooking was p r o b a b l y done o u t of d o o r s r a t h e r than i n a house where t h e smoke w i t h i t s carbon p a r t i c l e s would be i n h a l e d . T h i s i s l o g i c a l s i n c e t h e c l i m a t e a l l a l o n g t h e c o a s t and c o a s t a l v a l l e y s i n t h e a r e a s t u d i e d i s m i l d and f a v o r s o u t d o o r l i v i n g . The 4 4 % frequency of p l e u r a l a d h e s i o n s s u g g e s t s t h a t n e a r l y h a l f o f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s had had a t l e a s t one p r e v i o u s

MARVIN J. ALLISON

522

TABLE 20.7

I n c i d e n c e o f P a t h o l o g i c F i n d i n g s i n 51 Mummies

uifh A c u t e Pulmonary D i s e a s e

Pathologic finding Pneumonia Gross examination R i g h t lung L e f t lung Bilateral M i c r o s c o p i c exam'ination Group I Group I I Group I I I Group IV Pleural exudate Atelectasis Hemorrhage Emphysema An t h r a e o s i s Abscess Granulomas ( t u b e r c u l a r ? ) Pleural adhesions

I n c i d e n c e f %)

13.0 17.4 69.6 6.8 9.1 22.7 61.4 14.8 9.3 13.0 41 - 0 5.6 3.7 3.7 44.4

b o u t of pneumonia, b u t a b o u t h a l f of them d i e d o f t h e i r f i r s t a t t a c k . The p r e s e n c e o f a l u n g a b s c e s s i n n e a r l y 4% o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a c h r o n i c l o c a l f o c u s of i n f e c t i o n . The granulomas n o t e d a r e i n c i d e n t a l f i n d i n g s of a n o t h e r d i s e a s e , p r o b a b l y t u b e r c u l o s i s , c a s e s of which have been found i n n e a r l y a l l o f t h e c u l t u r e s under s t u d y h e r e . Extrapulmonary c o m p l i c a t i o n s s e e n , i n t h e o r d e r o f frequency i n t h e s e mummies, were p l e u r i s y , l i v e r d i s e a s e , k i d n e y d i s e a s e , p e r i c a r d i t i s , and e n d o c a r d i t i s . Modern l a b o r a t o r y technology makes it p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e s p e c i f i c e t i o l o g i c a g e n t of many o f t h e s e pneumonias (Dalton e t a l . 1 9 7 6 ) . I n one c a s e of bronchopneumonia, numerous s t r e p t o c o c c i were s e e n i n t h e s e c t i o n s of t h e lung; s e r o l o g i c a l t e c h n i q u e s r e A Wari man v e a l e d t h i s t o be a L a n c e f i e l d group A S t r e p t o c o c c u s . who d i e d o f C a r r i o n ' s d i s e a s e , Verruga p h a s e , had a bronchopneumonia due t o B a r t o n e l k b a c i l l i f o r m i s i d e n t i f i e d by e l e c t r o n microscopy (Martinez e t a l . 1975) on t h e b a s i s o f s i z e and f l a g e l l u m w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a s s o c i a t e d pathology ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1974b) An I n c a woman w i t h an e x t e n s i v e s k i n i n f e c t i o n d i e d o f a bronchopneumonia and b o t h l e s i o n s were shown t o have a y e a s t , ( T h i s i n d i v i d u a l may have been from t h e c o l o n i a l Candid0 s p . p e r i o d s i n c e i t s age a c c o r d i n g t o carbon d a t i n g o v e r l a p p e d t h e Such a d i s e a s e today c o u l d b e a s s o time of t h e Spanish conquest. c i a t e d with diabetes o r possibly a n u t r i t i o n a l deficiency, but n e i t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y can b e proven i n h e r c a s e . ) A t l e a s t two c a s e s of bronchopneumonia were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p o s s i b l e s a l m o n e l l o s i s

.

20 PALEOPATHOLOGY IN PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS group D i n f e c t i o n . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r group o f s a l m o n e l l a e i n c l u d e s t h e a g e n t of t y p h o i d f e v e r ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1982b; Sawicki e t a l . 1976). The e x i s t e n c e o f c h r o n i c r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e , mainly i n t h e form of t u b e r c u l o s i s throughout most of pre-columbian America, i s now w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d . A l l i s o n e t a l . (1973) r e p o r t e d t h e f i r s t c a s e of pre-Columbian t u b e r c u l o s i s w i t h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t i n g and a 1% d a t e o f a b o u t A.D. 700. The d i s e a s e was d i s c o v e r e d i n an 8-year-old Huari c h i l d who d i e d a f t e r a l o n g - s t a n d i n g i l l n e s s t h a t produced, a s i d e from t h e pulmonary d i s e a s e , l i v e r and kidney t u b e r c u l o s i s , t u b e r c u l o u s p e r i c a r d i t i s , and a p s o a s a b s c e s s w i t h P o t t ' s d i s e a s e i n t h e lumbar v e r t e b r a e . T h i s c a s e had a c i d - f a s t b a c i l l i i n many d i f f e r e n t o r g a n s and t h e t e r m i n a l e v e n t was a miliary tuberculosis. S i n c e t h e n more t h a n a dozen such c a s e s have been recorded w i t h numerous d i f f e r e n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t h i s d i s e a s e i n bone and s o f t t i s s u e ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 8 1 b ) . The d i s e a s e a s n o t e d i n t h e pre-Columbian I n d i a n i s q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h a t seen i n t h e United S t a t e s Caucasian p o p u l a t i o n and i n no way resembles t h e r a p i d , g a l l o p i n g consumption commonly d e s c r i b e d i n t h e modern I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e p r e - a n t i b i o t i c e r a . (This r a p i d l y f u l m i n a t i n g pulmonary d i s e a s e i s a r e f l e c t i o n o f a complete d i s r u p t i o n of t h e n a t i v e American's way of l i f e t h a t r e s u l t s i n i n c r e a s e d s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o many d i s e a s e s , among them t u b e r c u l o s i s . ) T h a t t h e pre-Columbian I n d i a n d i d n o t r e a c t s o d i f f e r e n t l y t o d i s e a s e t h a n t h e modern person i s seen i n a n o t h e r c h r o n i c pulmonary i n f e c t i o n , South American b l a s t o m y c o s i s (Paracoccidioidomycosis s e e A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 7 9 ) . T h i s g e n e r a l i z e d deep mycotic i n f e c t i o n i s caused by a fungus, Paraeoee'Ldio'ides 'bvasa<ens<s and i s o f low f r e q u e n c y , a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y seen i n t r o p i c a l o r s u b t r o p i c a l r u r a l a r e a s of South America. The p r e s e n t pre-Columbian c a s e was i n a 56-year-old woman who d i e d around A . D . 290 with pulmonary and r e n a l lesions. I t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h i s was an imported d i s e a s e i n northern Chile acquired during a trading expedition t o a t r o p i c a l a r e a , s i n c e among t h e g r a v e goods were numerous examples o f t r o p i c a l b i r d f e a t h e r s . The age o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e n a t u r e of t h e l e s i o n s a r e a l l s i m i l a r t o t h o s e seen i n modem c a s e s o f t h i s d i s e a s e . Munizaga e t a l . (1975) r e p o r t e d on pneumoconiosis i n a group of mummies o f s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y miners from C h i l e . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e frequency o f c h r o n i c i n f e c t i o u s pulmonary d i s e a s e i n t h i s group of miners was comparable t o t h a t s e e n i n a group o f modern s a n d b l a s t e r s who a l s o had pneumoconiosis ( B a i l e y e t a l . 1 9 7 4 ) . Thus, by a l l i n d i c a t i o n s t h e r e s p o n s e s of n a t i v e Americans from Peru o r C h i l e t o d i s e a s e a r e q u i t e comparable t o t h o s e of modem w h i t e Americans; and we must i n f e r t h a t d e v i a t i o n s from t h i s e s t a b l i s h e d norm may be due t o a l t e r a t i o n s i n t h e n a t i v e s o c i e t i e s with changes i n t h e economy and n u t r i t i o n a l b a s e . I f we c o n s i d e r t h a t r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e i s t h e major c a u s e of d e a t h i n c h i l d r e n of a l l c u l t u r e s , it should be r e l a t i v e l y easy t o measure t h e r e l a t i v e m o r t a l i t y of d i f f e r e n t a g e g r o u p s , comparing t h i s t o t h e m o r b i d i t y a s o b t a i n e d from H a r r i s l i n e s . T a b l e 2 0 . 8 p r e s e n t s such d a t a f o r a group of i n d i v i d u a l s belonging t o t h e

524

MARVIN J . ALLISON

TABLE 20.8 Maitas-Chiribaya Population S'howinq T o t a l M o r t a l i t y and Morbidity

(A) Age o f

eh-ildren a t death (years)

total population

Harris lines

(B)

Number o f dead eh; Zdren

(A + B = C) Morbidity

(^)

Percentage Mortality

Maitas-Chiribaya c u l t u r e o f n o r t h e r n Chile. I t i s obvious t h a t c h i l d r e n from b i r t h t o 1 y e a r of age have a low r e s i s t a n c e and t h a t 70% of t h o s e who become ill w i l l d i e , while l e s s than 1%of c h i l d r e n aged 8-12 w i l l d i e . Because among most p r i m i t i v e peoples t h e c h i l d r e n a r e l i m i t e d t o m o t h e r ' s milk a t t h i s e a r l y a g e , it i s probably s a n i t a t i o n r a t h e r than n u t r i t i o n t h a t causes t h i s mortality. This problem of poor s a n i t a t i o n a s a major cause of d i s e a s e i s f u r t h e r emphasized when we n o t e t h e change from a nomadic o r camp e x i s t e n c e t o t h e sedentary l i f e o f a v i l l a g e with f u l l a g r i c u l t u r e . Table 20.9 shows t h e e f f e c t s of a sedentary l i f e on t h e incidence of g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l d i s e a s e s . This t a b l e i l l u s t r a t e s c l e a r l y one problem t h a t a r o s e with a sedentary l i f e i n which contamination of food and water probably occurred due t o concentrat i o n o f population. Such population concentration p o s s i b l y r e s u l t e d i n t h e a b i l i t y t o f e e d more people, p a r t i c u l a r l y a s i r r i g a t i o n was developed, b u t it r e s u l t e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of new d i s e a s e s and a d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n h e a l t h . In the c u r r e n t a n a l y s i s , g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l problems were measured b y a l t e r a t i o n s i n t h e volume of f e c e s i n t h e l a r g e bowel o r changes in i t s c h a r a c t e r (blood) o r consistency. The i n c r e a s e d frequency of g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l d i s e a s e a a v a l i d o b s e r v a t i o n , b u t t h e a c t u a l e t i o l o g y of t h e i n f e c t i o u s agents i s not e a s i l y established. The only p o s i t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of an agent concerns two cases of salmonella group D , one of which r e s u l t e d i n a g e n e r a l i z e d i n f e c t i o n ; t h e i n d i v i d u a l d i e d of a p e r i t o n i t i s with e x t e n s i v e hemorrhage i n t o t h e g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t . I t i s probable t h a t o t h e r salmonellae were a l s o respons i b l e f o r o t h e r c a s e s o f g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l d i s e a s e s i n c e even today t h i s i s one of t h e most common i n f e c t i o n s of t h e bowel i n modern man.

20 PALEOPATHOLOGY IN PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS

TABLE 20.9 Incidence of Gastrointestinal Disease i n Indiui(A~alsfrom Four Cultural Groups o f Northern Chile

Culture

Incidence of gastrointestina l disease (%)

Asapa Alto Ramirez Cabuza Maitas-C'hiribaya

7 2 25 18

Fouant, A l l i s o n , and Gerszten (1982) completed a p r e l i m i n a r y survey o f i n t e s t i n a l p a r a s i t e s of C h i l e a n and Peruvian mummies. Although t h e o c c a s i o n a l whipworm, pinworm, and hookworm were found, t h e y were n o t common enough t o produce a s e r i o u s h e a l t h problem. T h i s i s p r o b a b l y due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e environment, which does n o t a l l o w f o r t h e completion o f t h e n a t u r a l c y c l e o f most p a r a s i t e s . The s i n g l e c a s e of hookworm i s o f i n t e r e s t ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 7 4 ~ )i n t h a t t h e f i n d i n g of Ancy'Lostoma has r e c e n t l y been confirmed i n pre-Columbian f e c a l m a t e r i a l from B r a z i l by Gongalves de Araujo (1980). Thus, it seems c e r t a i n t h a t a n c y l o s t o m i a s i s was a n a t i v e American d i s e a s e and t h a t t h e o t h e r hookworm Neeator was a l a t e r import i n t o t h e Americas, a s s u g g e s t e d by Soper ( 1 9 2 7 ) .

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND HEALTH

The a d v e n t of a g r i c u l t u r e p r o b a b l y was a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e event u a l l y f o r some t y p e o f c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . D i r e c t e v i d e n c e from s t u d i e s o f t h e Maitas-Chiribaya c u l t u r e o f n o r t h e r n C h i l e r e v e a l t h a t a t l e a s t i n one c a s e , t h i s was t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f t h e h e a l t h o f t h e b u l k o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n b u t t o t h e b e n e f i t of t h e r u l i n g p r i e s t c l a s s . Table 20.10 p r e s e n t s d a t a on t h r e e d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f p e o p l e from a M a i t a s h a b i t a t i o n a l s i t e w i t h what a p p e a r s t o be a temple d a t e d around 1000 B.P. A s can b e s e e n from t h i s t a b l e , t h e shamans were a p r i v i l e g e d group t h a t had about t h e same l i f e span a s o t h e r m a l e s , b u t were t a l l e r and had fewer bone l e s i o n s . The women a r e t r u l y a d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l group from t h e commoner males s i n c e w i t h t h e advent of a g r i c u l t u r e t h e r e has been a s e p a r a t i o n of d u t i e s i n (This was Andean s o c i e t y , w i t h women on a lower l e v e l t h a n men. n o t t r u e i n t h e e a r l y f i s h i n g and s e a mammal h u n t i n g s o c i e t i e s o f n o r t h e r n C h i l e , i n which women were b u r i e d w i t h harpoons, f i s h hooks, and l i n e s and used e l a b o r a t e s t r i n g t u r b a n s t h a t sometimes had s i l v e r o r copper ornaments, s u g g e s t i n g a s e x u a l l y e g a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y . ) I n t h e Maitas cemetery were numerous l a r g e b a s k e t s

TABLE 20.10

Data on Three SocialZy S t r a t i f i e d Adult Groups from a Maitas-Chiribaya Cemetery

Number

Age

Incidence of fractures

Incidence of osteoarthritie

Incidence of osteitis

f%)

Cervica 2

Lumbar

(%)

Bone lesions per person

165

0

18

18

9

0.4

Height (ern)

(%)

Shamans

12

Commoner males

20

31

162

35

25

30

20

1.3

Commoner females

49

38

159

16

29

39

18

2.1

30

20 PALEOPATHOLOGY IN PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS c a l l e d "capachos" t h a t were s u p p o r t e d by a tumpline t o t h e f o r e head; t h i s was probably r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c e r v i c a l v e r t e b r a l o s t e o a r t h r i t i s noted i n younger a d u l t s i n t h i s p o p u l a t i o n . The g r a v e s y i e l d e d abundant meat, f i s h , and a wide v a r i e t y of v e g e t a b l e s , s u g g e s t i n g n u t r i t i o n was a d e q u a t e . The shamans were s e p a r a t e d from t h e o t h e r males on t h e b a s i s of t h e u s e of e a r o r naments, l o i n c l o t h s , and s p e c i a l t y p e of h a t , and g o l d h a i r c l i p s . I n s u m , t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t h a t farming w i t h subsequent s t o r a g e o f p r o d u c t s improved t h e g e n e r a l h e a l t h of Andean populations. Rather, the impression is given t h a t sedentary v i l l a g e l i f e was d e t r i m e n t a l t o h e a l t h due t o crowding and s u b s e q u e n t s a n i t a t i o n problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v i l l a g e l i v i n g . S i m i l a r l y , s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n an a g r i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t y o n l y prov i d e d an improvement i n h e a l t h f o r t h e m i n o r i t y e l i t e p r i e s t group. Moreover, c o l o n i a l i s m seems t o have had a d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t on t h e h e a l t h o f t h e c o l o n i a l p e o p l e . I t would a p p e a r t h a t t h e l a r g e r p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f pre-Columbian t i m e s , t h e l a s t of which was t h e I n c a , were a b l e t o s t o r e and d i s t r i b u t e a g r i c u l t u r a l products t o provide a l e s s than optimal d i e t t o a l a r g e p o t e n t i a l l a b o r f o r c e , b u t a t t h e expense of i t s h e a l t h .

REFERENCES

A l l i s o n , M. J. 1979 Paleopathology i n Peru. Natural H i s t o w , Feb. I s s u e :74-82. A l l i s o n , M. J., and G e r s z t e n , E . 1982 P a l e o p a t m o m i n South American mummies, application of Medical C o l l e g e o f modern techniques ( t h i r d e d . ) V i r g i n i a , Richmond. A l l i s o n , M. J . , D. Mendoza, and A. P e z z i a 1973 Documentation of a c a s e of t u b e r c u l o s i s i n Pre-Columbian America. American Revieu of Respiratory Diseases 107: 985-991. A l l i s o n , M. J . , A. P e z z i a , E. G e r s z t e n , R. F. G i f f l e r , and D. Mendoza 1974a A s p i r a t i o n pneumonia due t o teeth--A r e p o r t of two Southern Medical Journal c a s e s , 950 A . D . and 1973 A.D. 67:479-483. A l l i s o n , M. J . , A. P e z z i a , E. G e r s z t e n , and D. Mendoza 1974b A c a s e of C a r r i o n ' s d i s e a s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h human s a c r i f i c e f o r t h e Huari c u l t u r e o f s o u t h e r n Peru. AmeY'Loan Journal of Physical Anthropology 41 :295-300. A l l i s o n , M. J . , A . P e z z i a , L. Hasegawa, and E . Gerszten 1974c A c a s e of hookworm i n f e s t a t i o n i n a Pre-Colunbian Arneri can. American Journal of Physical Ant'hropology 41 :103-105.

.

528

MARVIN J. ALLISON

A l l i s o n , M e J . , E . G e r s z t e n , H. J . Shadomy, J . Munizaga, and M. Gonzales 1 9 7 9 P a r a c o c c i d i o d o m y c o s i s i n a mummy. B u l l e t i n of t h e New York Academy of Medicine 55:670-683. A l l i s o n , M. J . , E. G e r s z t e n , J . Munizaga, C . S a n t o r o , and D. Mendoza 1981b T u b e r c u l o s i s i n Pre-Columbian Andean p o p u l p t i o n s . In Pre'historie T u b e r c d o s i s i n the Americas e d i t e d by J a n e B u i k s t r a , pp. 49-61. N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y Archaeoloq i c a l Program, E v a n s t o n , I l l i n o i s . A l l i s o n , M. J . , E. G e r s z t e n , and M . Fouant 1982b P a l e o p a t h o l o q y , t o d a y ' s l a b o r a t o r y i n v e s t i g a t e s y e s t e r d a y ' s d i s e a s e s . Diagnostic Medicine, S e p t . / O c t . I s s u e : 2 8 - 4 8 Ashworth, J. T . , M. J. A l l i s o n , E. G e r s z t e n , and A. P e z z i a 1976 The p u b i c s c a r s of p a r t u t i t i o n and g e s t a t i o n i n a g r o u p of Pre-columbian and c o l o f i a l P e r u v i a n m u m m i e s . American Journal of P h y s i c d Anthropology 45:85-89. B a i l e y , W. C . , M. Brown, H. A. Buecher, H. W e i l l , H . I c h i n o s e , and M. Z i s k i n d 1974 S i l i c o m y c o b a c t e r i a l d i s e a s e i n s a n d b l a s t e r s . American Review of Respiratory Diseases 110: 115. D a l t o n , H. P . , M . J. A l l i s o n , and A. P e z z i a 1976 The documen t a t i o n o f communicable d i s e a s e s i n P e r u v i a n m u m m i e s . Medical College of Virginia Quarterly 1 2 : 4348. E l z a y , R. P . , M. J. A l l i s o n , a n d A. P e z z i a 1977 A c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o n t h e d e n t a l h e a l t h s t a t u s o f f i v e Pre-columbian P e r u v i a n c u l t u r e s . Amerkan Journal of Physical Anthropology 46: 135-139. Goncalves d e A r a u j o , A. J. 1980 C o n t r i b u c a o ao e s t u d o d e h e l m i n t o s e n c o n t r a d o s em m a t e r i a l a r q u e o l o g i c o no B r a s i l - T e s e d e Mestrado. Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Rio d e J a n e i r o . Lumbreras, L. G. 1974 Los origenes de civilizae'ion en e l Peru. M i l l a B a t r e s , Lima. M a r t i n e z , A . J . , D. F u l t s , M. J. A l l i s o n , E. G e r s z t e n , and D. C. Stanley 1975 E l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p i c s t u d y o f t i s s u e s from Pre-Columbian Americans. Proceedings Electron Microscopy Society o f America 33rd Amiw 2 Meeting Las Vegas , p p . 55-60. Munizaga, J . , M. J. A l l i s o n , and E. G e r s z t e n 1975 Pneumoconiosis i n m i n e r s from a 1 6 t h c e n t u r y m i n i n g comB u l l e t i n of t h e New York Academy of Medicine 51: munity. 1281-1293. S a n t o r o , C. 1980 E s t r a t i g r a f i a y s e c u e n c i a c u l t u r a l f u n e r a r i a f a s e s : Azapa, A l t o Ramirez y Tiwanaku ( A r i c a , C h i l e ) . C?l.un.gco'a 6:24-45.

20 PALEOPATHOLOGY IN PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS S a w i c k i , V. A * , M. J. A l l i s o n , H. P. D a l t o n , and A. P e z z i a 1976 P r e s e n c e o f s a l m o n e l l a a n t i g e n s i n f e c e s from a P e r u v i a n mummy. B u l l e t i n of the flew York Academy of Medicine 5 2 : 805-813. Sawyer, D. R . , M. J . A l l i s o n , R. P. E l z a y , D. G. Page, and A. P e z z i a 1978a M a x i l l a r y and m a n d i b u l a r jaw s i z e i n Pre-Columbian P e r u . Medical College of Virginia Quarterly 1 4 ( 2 ) :101-108. Sawyer, D. R . , M. J. A l l i s o n , R. P. E l z a y , and A. P e z z i a A 1978b The d e n t a l h e a l t h s t a t u s o f Pre-Columbian P e r u v i a n s : study o f d e n t a l c a r i e s , missing t e e t h , a t t r i t i o n , o s t e i t i s and c a l c u l u s a n d bone l o s s . Medical College o f Virginia Quarterly 14 :1981-1988. S o p e r , F. L. 1927 The r e p o r t of a n e a r l y p u r e Aney~ostomaduodenale i n f e s t a t i o n i n South American I n d i a n s and a d i s c u s s i o n of i t s e t h n o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . American Journal of Hvqene 7 : 174-184.

CHAPTER 21 THE CHALLENGES AND REWARDS OF SEDENTISM: THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

Robert A. Ben* Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f Missouri-Columbia

INTRODUCTION

The Paloma p r o j e c t was d e s i g n e d t o p r o v i d e an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a n a l y s i s of a d a p t a t i o n t o s e d e n t i s m and food p r o d u c t i o n a t t h e v e r y l a r g e preceramic ( A r c h a i c ) s i t e of Paloma, C h i l c a V a l l e y , Peru. The s i t e a f f o r d s r e l a t i v e l y r a r e evidence concerning t h e p r e h i s t o r y o f t h e P e r u v i a n c o a s t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d between 8000 and 4500 B.P. when sedentism and food p r o d u c t i o n were e v o l v i n g . The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and e c o l o g i c a l d a t a f o r t h e r e g i o n a r e r e p o r t e d e l s e w h e r e and w i l l be summarized h e r e o n l y b r i e f l y ( s e e Benfer 1984a,b; Engel 1 9 8 0 ) . T h i s c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s demographic d a t a and p r e l i m i n a r y d a t a from p i l o t s t u d i e s on many d i f f e r e n t s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s t h a t , i n combination, y i e l d a compelling p i c t u r e of s u c c e s s f u l a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e c h a l l e n g e s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s of sedentism.

ECOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

I t i s commonly assumed t h a t e a r l y Peruvian c o a s t a l d w e l l e r s emigrated from t h e Andean h i g h l a n d s (MacNeish e t a l . 1975; Willey 1 9 7 1 ) . Upon r e a c h i n g t h e c o a s t , they found an extreme d e s e r t whose a r i d i t y was c h a l l e n g e d o n l y by about 50 s t r e a m s , many of which were n o t p e r e n n i a l , and by t h e heavy w i n t e r fog o r garua. I n t h e s e a a d j a c e n t t o t h e d e s e r t t h e y encountered one of t h e r i c h e s t biomass PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE

Copynghl '0 1984 by Academy Pres'i, 1nc All nghis of repn>dui.tion in iiny form reserved ISBN 0.12-179080.0

21 THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

533

by b o t h r a d i o m e t r i c d a t e s and f l u o r i n e a n a l y s e s ( s e e Appendix and T a b l e 21.241).

POPULATION CONTINUITY

A breeding The s i t e of Paloma i s a p l a c e , n o t a p o p u l a t i o n . population is t h e proper u n i t of a n a l y s i s (Bennett 1969), but it i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o know w i t h c e r t a i n t y t h e l i m i t s o f a b r e e d i n g p o p u l a t i o n from human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s . The 2000 y e a r s o f occup a t i o n a t Paloma from which most s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s were o b t a i n e d i s l o n g enough t o a l l o w c o n s i d e r a b l e p o p u l a t i o n movement. R e c e n t l y , C. T u r n e r ( p e r s o n a l communication) h a s found t h a t b i o l o q i c a l d i s t a n c e s between b u r i a l s from t h e e a r l i e r l e v e l s (#400-600) and t h e l a t e r l e v e l s , a s judged by d e n t a l t r a i t s , i s v e r y l a r g e , p e r h a p s t o o l a r g e t o b e e x p l a i n e d by i n s f i u change. Analysis of t h e c r a n i a l d i s c r e t e t r a i t s , s t a n d a r d anthropometric measurements, and C a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e d a t a ( B e n f e r 1 9 7 6 ) i s s t i l l pending. The p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s o f g e n e t i c d r i f t due t o i s o l a t i o n remain t o b e i n v e s t i g a t e d . However, Page (1974) found e v i d e n c e o f dec r e a s e d v a r i a n c e i n c r a n i a l measurements i n c o a s t a l P e r u v i a n s k e l e t o n s d u r i n g t h e t i m e p e r i o d o f Paloma, s u p p o r t i n g E r i c k s e n ' s (1962) h y p o t h e s i s t h a t c o a s t a l v i l l a g e s e x p e r i e n c e d b r e e d i n g i s o l a t i o n t h a t b r o k e down w i t h t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f a g r i c u l t u r e . T u r n e r ' s d a t a may b e d e t e c t i n g t h i s breakdown i n i s o l a t i o n , s i n c e t h e e a r l i e r , s m a l l e r samples show d e c r e a s e d v a r i a n c e i n many of t h e 23 d e n t a l t r a i t s s t u d i e d . Unequal sample s i z e s confound t h i s interpretation. S t a t u r e i s predicted t o decrease with inbreeding ( F a l c o n e r 1960) and contemporary human p o p u l a t i o n s s u p p o r t t h i s p r e d i c t i o n ( s e e S c h r e i d e r 1 9 6 7 ) . An i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e d o e s t a k e p l a c e a t Paloma, a s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e s e c t i o n , " S t a t u r e . "

SUBSISTENCE

The e a r l i e r l e v e l s ( l e v e l 400 and below) i n d i c a t e mixed h u n t i n g and c o l l e c t i n q i n t h e tornas, n e a r b y r i v e r v a l l e y s , and w e s t e r n Andean f l a n k s , w i t h e x p l o i t a t i o n o f m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s i m p o r t a n t . The m i d d l e o c c u p a t i o n ( l e v e l 300, t h e t h i c k e s t d e p o s i t s ) show an i n c r e a s e i n p l a n t remains, including p o s s i b l e c u l t i v a t i o n o r management of s u c h p l a n t s a s t h e t u b e r o u s b e g o n i a (Begonia g e r a n i i f o l i a ) , t h e b o t t l e g o u r d ( L a g e n a r i a s e r a r i a ) , and o t h e r imported p l a n t s such a s lima beans (Phaseotus t u n a t u s ) , squash ( C u a u r b i t a c e a e spp. ) , and p o s s i b l y o t h e r s (Weir and D e r i n q 1984) By l e v e l 200, a t h i n b u t w i d e s p r e a d o c c u p a t i o n , a g r e a t e r emphasis on m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s , and e v i d e n c e o f d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e t0rnU.s a r e

.

TABLE 21.1

Sex, Age, and Stratigraphic Leve l s for 201 Paloma Burials

(4600-5200 B.P. Age (years)

M

Fetus 0- 1 1- 4 5- 9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55+ Individua 2s for whom age i s approximate Baby (0-5) Child (6-14) Adult (15+)

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 5 1 2 1 1 1 1

0 0 1

16

F

?

)

(5200-5500 B. P.)

M

F

?

(5500-7000 B. P. )

M

F

?

Unassigned

M

F

?

Totals by sex

M

F

?

Totals byage

21

THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

A g e In Years

A g e In Y e a r s

FIGURE 21.1.

L i f e expectancy a t Paloma.

( a ) Total sample

( N = 168 males and females for whom accurate age estimates are

available; includes 44 individuals looking precise stratigraphic placement). ( b ) Sample divided by stratigraphic l e v e l ; smoothed 10-year age i n t e r v a l s . 2, l e v e l Z O O only ( N = 35); 3, l e v e l 300 only f N = 61); 4 , l e v e l 400 and 500 ( N = 4 8 ) . Sedentism and t r a n s i t i o n a l foods must have e a s e d year period. t h i s d i f f i c u l t t r a n s i t i o n from n u r s i n g t o a d u l t d i e t . The r e s u l t would have been t o i n c r e a s e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e a s more c h i l d r e n s u r v i v e d c h i l d h o o d , f o r c i n g some response i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n . 5. Delaying m a r r i a g e i s a s i m p l e response t o p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e . D i f f e r e n t i a l m o r t a l i t y d a t a may show such a r e s p o n s e . An unexpected f i n d i n g , p o s s i b l y r e f l e c t i n g marriage p r a c t i c e , i s r e v e r s a l of t h e u s u a l p a t t e r n i n which female m o r t a l i t y peaks i n t h e 20s and male m o r t a l i t y more commonly p e a k s i n t h e 3 0 s . The Paloma p a t t e r n i s t h e r e v e r s e , with 1 9 males and 11 females dying i n t h e i r 2 0 s , w h i l e 11 m a l e s and 1 8 females d i e d i n t h e i r 30s I have n o t p r e v i o u s l y ( c h i - s q u a r e = 3.8, p = .05, w i t h 1 d f )

.

21

THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

539

Jansen 1982), t h e s e d a t a suggest an i n c r e a s i n g dependency on marine r e s o u r c e s , i n compliance w i t h P a t t e r s o n ' s (1971) model. Other i n d i c a t o r s of d e n t a l s t r e s s , such a s l i n e a r enamel hypop l a s i a , abscessing, t o o t h s i z e , and p a t h o l o g i e s a r e not y e t s t u d i e d , although d a t a have been gathered by Edwards.

DENTAL ASYMMETRY

On t h e b a s i s of an assumed adequate and v a r i e d d i e t and a l a c k of s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s , we p r e d i c t e d l e s s d e n t a l asymmetry a t Paloma than i n e a r l i e r o r l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s (Benfer e t a l . , 1975). Gehlert (1979) r e p o r t e d on a p i l o t study o f t e e t h from Paloma (N = 20) compared with a l a r g e r Inca sample from t h e S i e r r a (N = 7 9 ) . She found 10 o u t of t h e 12 t e e t h a v a i l a b l e f o r comparison were more asymmetrical a t Paloma ( p < . 0 2 ) . Antiinez de Mayolo (1981) r e p o r t s t h a t Inca h e a l t h was q u i t e good o v e r a l l . In c o n t r a s t , f o r 8 o f 1 2 a v a i l a b l e t e e t h (excluding c a n i n e s and t h e t h i r d m o l a r ) , Palomans showed l e s s asymmetry than Indian I conclude from G e h l e r t ' s work t h a t t h e Paloma p o p u l a t i o n s Knoll. underwent more s t r e s s t h a n Incans but l e s s than t h e Indian Knoll foragers.

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

We p r e d i c t e d t h a t sexual dimorphism should l e s s e n over time (Benfer e t a l . 1975) a s a consequence of l e s s e n i n g sexual d i v i s i o n I t would be expected t o i n of l a b o r (Brace and Mahler 1971) c r e a s e i f i n b r e e d i n g were reduced.

.

Results Diameter of

Ferncral Head

The average diameter of t h e head of t h e femur was examined by s t r a t i g r a p h i c l e v e l and sex. There i s no change i n observed sexual dimorphism (males a r e about 1.1 times l a r g e r than females i n each time p e r i o d ) . F a c t o r s t h a t might have a f f e c t e d sexual d i morphism, a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e head of t h e femur, e i t h e r were absent o r canceled each o t h e r . S e l e c t i o n does not seem t o have been s t r o n q f o r t h i s measurement. There i s no r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e femoral diameter and t h e age a t d e a t h f o r males, and a very weak i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r females (r = -.32, p < . l , N = 3 3 ) . However, i f r e a l , t h i s

21 THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA. PERU

Bony Response t o Musculature F i g u r e 21.2 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s f o r specimens coded on a f o u r - p i n t s c a l e i n d i c a t i n g bony r e s p o n s e t o m u s c u l a t u r e (Brock, p e r s o n a l communication). A s can b e c l e a r l y s e e n , s e x u a l dimorphism declines noticeably. These r e s u l t s s u b s t a n t i a t e t r e n d s n o t i c e d by Page (1974) and S c o t t ( 1 9 7 4 ) . I t i s p l a u s i b l e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e e a r l i e s t i n h a b i t a n t s o f Paloma w e r e f o r a g e r s w i t h v e r y d i f f e r e n t r o l e s f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s ; a s t h e number o f s p e c i e s and t h e numb e r o f n i c h e s e x p l o i t e d i n c r e a s e d , r o l e d i v i s i o n l e s s e n e d . The o b v i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n , t h a t m a l e s d e c r e a s e d i n muscle mass due t o d i e t a r y s t r e s s e s t h a t a f f e c t m a l e s more s e v e r e l y t h a n b e t t e r - b u f f e r e d f e m a l e s , i s c o n t r a d i c t e d by o t h e r d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e t h a t s u g g e s t s t e a d i l y improving d i e t and g e n e r a l h e a l t h . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e s e d a t a p a r t l y c o n t r a d i c t my e a r l i e r o b s e r v a t i o n s and t h o s e o f Brock ( B e n f e r 19811, t h a t t h e b o n e s o f t h e e a r l i e r i n h a b i t a n t s were t h e most r u g o s e - - t h i s i s t r u e f o r t h e males o n l y . With r e s p e c t t o s e x u a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r , o n e c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n i s t h e amount o f swimming. Sharon Brock h a s n o t i c e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d amounts of r e a c t i o n a r e a s o n m a l e femora ( p o s s i b l y d u e t o swimming [L. F u r b e e , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ] ) , a s well a s frequent a u d i t o r y osteomas, r e s t r i c t e d e n t i r e l y t o males (Benfer 1 9 8 1 ) . I n sum, s k e l e t a l s i z e i n d i c a t o r s s u c h a s s t a t u r e and d i a m e t e r o f t h e head o f t h e femur do n o t s u p p o r t c h a n g e s i n s e x u a l d i m r p h i s m , a l t h o u g h o v e r a l o n g e r t i m e p e r i o d , Page o b s e r v e d s u c h changes. S c o t t found v e r y d r a m a t i c r e d u c t i o n i n s e x u a l dimorphism i n h e r a n a l y s i s o f a m a s t i c a t o r y f a c t o r . Here, muscle mass o f t h e p o s t c r a n i a l s k e l e t o n s u p p o r t s S c o t t ' s f i n d i n g s ~ s e x u a ldimorphism was d e c r e a s i n g between 8000 and 4500 y e a r s ago.

STATURE

Theory p r e d i c t s t h a t s t a t u r e w i l l d e c r e a s e i n mean s i z e and v a r i a n c e , w i t h i n l i n e s ( F a l c o n e r 1 9 6 0 ) , which we s u g g e s t e d m i g h t o c c u r ( B e n f e r e t a l . 1975) i f E r i c k s e n ' s (1962) h y p o t h e s i s w e r e c o r r e c t t h a t t h e r e w e r e a breakdown o f c o a s t a l v i l l a g e b r e e d i n g i s o l a t i o n a f t e r t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f a g r i c u l t u r e . We a l s o p r e d i c t e d s t a t u r e i n t h e t a l l r a n g e due t o a c c e s s t o m a r i n e p r o t e i n . It f o l l o w s t h a t i f a d a p t a t i o n was t a k i n g p l a c e , s t a t u r e a l s o s h o u l d have i n c r e a s e d a s a measure of h e a l t h ( s e e Nickens 1 9 7 6 ) .

Results T a b l e 21.3 p r e s e n t s t h e mean s t a t u r e and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r o n l y specimens w i t h c o m p l e t e l e n g t h s o f t i b i a o r femora, a s e s t i m a t e d by t h e s t a t u r e f o r m u l a s o f Genoves a s programmed i n

21 THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

OSTEITIS AND PERIOSTITIS

P e r i o s t i t i s and o s t e i t i s a r e common a t Paloma, i n d i c a t i n g h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s of i n f e c t i o n s . T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t change i n t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s by s t r a t i g r a p h i c l e v e l , where o s t e i t i s v a r i e s between 1 0 and 1 6 % and p e r i o s t i t i s between 22 and 25%.

HISTOMORPHOMETRICS

J a c k s o n h a s s t u d i e d t h e h i s t o r n o r p h o m e t r i c s o f a s m a l l sample o f 22 r i b specimens ( J a c k s o n 1 9 8 1 ) . Comparative s t u d i e s u t i l i z i n g t h e s e d a t a have a l s o been completed ( S t o u t 1 9 8 3 ) . Histomorphom e t r i c s o f a sample o f femora and t i b i a e a t Paloma a r e i n p r o g r e s s i n Stout's laboratory. Jackson found t h a t none o f t h e f i v e poss i b l y o s t e o p e n i c s p e c i m e n s , judged by g r o s s a p p e a r a n c e , i n c l u d e d i n h e r sample p r o d u c e d subnormal r a t e s o f bone t u r n o v e r compared t o o t h e r Palomans e x c e p t f o r o n e i n d i v i d u a l , a 55-year-old w i t h a below-average t u r n o v e r r a t e . J a c k s o n a l s o p o i n t e d t o a h i g h e r r a t e o f bone t u r n o v e r i n specimens from t h e e a r l i e r l e v e l s (400 and 500) t h a n t h e l a t e r l e v e l s (200 and 300) , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e t h i r d and f o u r t h d e c a d e s . These d i f f e r e n c e s a r e n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t (t = .53) f o r t h e samples. S t o u t (1983) n o t e s t h a t Paloma r e s e m b l e s t h e Ray and Gibson (Middle Woodland) p o p u l a t i o n s more t h a n t h e Ledders L a t e Woodland s a m p l e .

21 THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

545

s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between a d j a c e n t s o i l sample and bone sample. Adult f e m a l e s a r e l o w e r i n t h e l e v e l s o f b o t h z i n c (Zn/Ca x 1 0 0 ; t = 3.11 w i t h 1 0 df, p < . 0 2 ) and s t r o n t i u m ( n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y ) t h a n a r e a d u l t m a l e s . Lambert e t a l . (1979) r e p o r t e d no d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s e e l e m e n t s by s e x f o r t h e Gibson Middle Woodland s i t e , b u t s i m i l a r d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e L e d d e r s L a t e Woodland s i t e , T h e s e a u t h o r s a r g u e t h a t i n c r e a s e d consumption o f c a r b o h y d r a t e s i n t h e L a t e Woodland may have been measured i n d i e t a r y d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s e x e s . S i n c e Paloma i s a s e d e n t a r y v i l l a g e w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e of i n c r e a s e d c a r b o h y d r a t e a v a i l a b i l i t y o v e r e a r l i e r h u n t e r - c o l l e c t o r s , p e r h a p s t h e same p a t t e r n i s present. When t h e l a r g e sample o f 35 femora can be added, d i f f e r e n c e s among s t r a t i g r a p h i c l e v e l s w i l l be e v a l u a t e d w i t h t h i s h y p o t h e s i s i n mind. I had r e p o r t e d e a r l i e r t h a t s t r o n t i u m was l e s s v a r i a b l e among f e m a l e s t h a n m a l e s ( B e n f e r 1 9 8 1 ) - - f o r Sr/Ca x 100 r a t i o s , t h e v a r i a n c e o f m a l e s ( . 2 3 8 ) i s much g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f f e m a l e s ( . 0 1 9 ) (F = 23.53, p < .05 w i t h 6 and 4 df). The v a r i a n c e i n Zn/Ca x 100 i s n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l i n m a l e s (. 1 4 ) and f e m a l e s ( - 1 3 ) . These samples a r e q u i t e s m a l l , and s i n c e o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e n o t r e p o r t e d s i m i l a r f i n d i n g s ( f o r a n o t h e r c o a s t a l example s e e Edward 1 9 8 4 ) , t h e y must a w a i t c o n f i r m a t i o n w i t h l a r g e r s a m p l e s . I t would n o t seem t h a t f e m a l e bone, i f more p o r o u s , h a s merely changed toward t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o i l v a l u e s . T h i s d i d n o t happen w i t h t h e s e specimens when compared w i t h a d j a c e n t s o i l s t r o n t i u m v a l u e s . In any c a s e , f e m a l e s t e n d t o h a v e l o w e r v a l u e s t h a n m a l e s . The r e duced d i v i s i o n of l a b o r a r g u e d f o r on o t h e r grounds m i g h t s u g g e s t i n c r e a s e d s i m i l a r i t y o f d i e t f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s . The p r e s e n t sample i s t o o s m a l l t o t e s t t h i s c o n j e c t u r e . F i g u r e 21.3 p r e s e n t s a p l o t o f z i n c v e r s u s s t r o n t i u m a f t e r a d j u s t m e n t f o r c a l c i u m . The v a l u e s p r e s e n t e d a r e t h e r e s i d u a l s a f t e r l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n w i t h c a l c i u m ; a s i m i l a r p l o t c a n be obt a i n e d u s i n g t h e r a t i o o f c a l c i u m t o t h e two e l e m e n t s , b u t t h e p i c t u r e i s l e s s c l e a r . Calcium and z i n c show a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n (P = . 6 4 , p < . 0 1 ) b u t n o t c a l c i u m and s t r o n t i u m (P = .34, p > . 0 5 ) . R a t i o s s h o u l d n o t be u s e d t o a d j u s t v a l u e s u n l e s s t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s , a s w e l l a s t h e variances, a r e s i m i l a r , s i n c e simple r a t i o s w i l l n o t i n g e n e r a l remove a c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e numerator and denominator ( s e e A t c h l e y e t a l . 1 9 7 6 ) . From F i g u r e 2 1 . 3 it i s a p p a r e n t t h a t male and f e m a l e a d u l t s and c h i l d r e n can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d , s u g g e s t i n g t h e p o s s i b l e u t i l i t y of t h i s method i n demographic s t u d i e s . The e l e v a t e d v a l u e s f o r i n f a n t s c o u l d b e due t o t h e i r lower p r o t e i n i n t a k e on a d i e t o f m o t h e r ' s m i l k , t h e l e s s e r r e s i s t a n c e of t h e i r r e m a i n s t o c o n t a m i n a t i o n , o r b o t h . Edward (1981) found no s u c h c l u s t e r i n g by s e x . However, t h e male a d u l t s do show c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r l e v e l s o f z i n c , p e r h a p s a s a r e s u l t o f g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o l a n d mammals, s u c h a s c a m e l i d s and d e e r . The s t r o n t i u m l e v e l s may b e l e s s i n f o r m a t i v e d u e t o e l e v a t i o n i n l e v e l s d u e t o s h e l l f i s h e a t i n g ( S c h o e n i n q e r and P e e b l e s 1981; a l s o s e e n S i l l e n and Kavanaqh 1 9 8 2 ) . However, an i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d i n g i s t h a t while age a t d e a t h of a d u l t s i s n o t c o r r e l a t e d

21

THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

547

Zinc v a l u e s were low t o normal. Elevated v a l u e s can i n d i c a t e k w a s h i o r k o r . Chromium approached d i a b e t i c v a l u e s f o r two s p e c i mens, o n e o f which was a 1 7 - y e a r - o l d , s u g g e s t i n g a h i g h carbohyd r a t e d i e t ( s e e Wing and Brown 1 9 7 9 : 3 1 ) . Copper was found t o change i n o u r s i n g l e modern c o n t r o l sample d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f extreme d i e t a r y change. Changes were a l s o d e t e c t e d among p r o x i m a l , m i d d l e , and d i s t a l segments o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l specimens. Copper does n o t v a r y a s a s i m p l e f u n c t i o n of d i s t a n c e t o s c a l p , t h a t i s , t o e x p o s u r e t o c o n t a m i n a n t s , i n most Children maintained too modern examples where d i e t i s unchanged. long o n mother's milk have e l e v a t e d l e v e l s o f copper i n h a i r . Copper l e v e l s i n h a i r may a l s o v a r y w i t h anemia. One o t h e r r e s u l t s h o u l d b e mentioned: s t r o n t i u m i n h a i r was found t o be o f a b o u t t h e same o r d e r o f magnitude a s i n bone, t e n d i n g t o c o n f i r m t h e l a c k o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f bone specimens. The v e r y s m a l l s a m p l e s a n a l y z e d s o f a r s u g g e s t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f s t r o n g s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n d i e t t h a t conform t o t h e a r c h a e o b o t a n i c a l a n a l y s i s o f f o o d s p r e s e n t i n i n t e s t i n e s and c o p r o l i t e s . F u r t h e r work w i t h a much l a r g e r s a m p l e , i n p r o g r e s s , w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e it i s p o s s i b l e t o u s e h a i r w i t h c o n f i d e n c e a s a b i o p s y m a t e r i a l ( B e n f e r e t a l . 1978) .

SUMMARY

The r e s u l t s a r e summarized a s f o l l o w s : 1. S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were o b s e r v e d i n a g e c a t e g o r y d i s t r i b u t i o n s among s t r a t i g r a p h i c l e v e l s w i t h l a t e r l e v e l s e x h i b i t i n g l o w e r m o r t a l i t y of b o t h t h e young and t h e o l d a d u l t s . 2 . Microwear s t u d i e s of d e n t a l wear (Moore-Jansen 1982) s u p p o r t a protoagricultural diet. 3. Macrowear s t u d i e s show t h a t t h e r a t e o f wear was i n c r e a s i n g . 4 . With r e s p e c t t o d e n t a l asymmetry, Paloma i s more asymmetric a l t h a n a n I n c a s e r i e s , b u t less a s y m m e t r i c a l t h a n I n d i a n Knoll foragers. 5. No s i z e c h a n g e s were found i n s e x u a l dimorphism, i n e i t h e r s t a t u r e o r t h e maximum d i a m e t e r o f t h e head o f t h e femur. However, bony r e s p o n s e t o m u s c u l a t u r e showed a r e g u l a r change toward d i m i n i s h e d s e x u a l dimorphism o v e r time. 6 . Specimens from t h e t h r e e major s t r a t i g r a p h i c d i v i s i o n s i n creased regularly i n s t a t u r e . 7 . T i b i a 1 l e n g t h was found t o c o r r e l a t e n e g a t i v e l y w i t h t h e number o f H a r r i s l i n e s o b s e r v e d ; H a r r i s l i n e s may have d e c r e a s e d i n frequency o v e r time. 8. P e r i o s t i t i s and o s t e i t i s a r e f r e q u e n t and do n o t change i n frequency over time. 9 . H i s t o m o r p h o m e t r i c s of r i b s d i d n o t c o n f i r m c a s e s o f what appear t o be osteoporosis.

THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

.

1983a; Benfer e t a l . 1983) The adjustments of Paloma were not s t u d i e d b e f o r e and a f t e r a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e usual design adopted of n e c e s s i t y . R a t h e r , t h e s e adjustments were observed during t h e c e n t u r i e s p l a n t s (and p o s s i b l y animals) were shaped f o r domestic a t i o n i n t h i s h a b i t a t . Adjustments were s t r o n g enough t o be d e t e c t e d by paleodemography and s k e l e t a l and d e n t a l i n d i c a t o r s of h e a l t h and d i e t . What was t h e i r n a t u r e ? Presumably, adjustment t o sedentism, whether dependent on a c t u a l c u l t i g e n s o r n o t , i s n o t q u i c k l y accomplished. The advantages o f sedentism, such a s food s t o r a g e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , reduced s t r e s s on i n f a n t s from t r a v e l , and i n t i m a t e knowledge of l o c a l r e s o u r c e s , a r e o f f s e t somewhat by i n c r e a s e d p a r a s i t e loads from f e c a l contaminat i o n and probably by i n c r e a s e s i n i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s . ~ l t h o u g h warfare and competition f o r b e t t e r s e t t i n g s might be p r e d i c t e d t o o c c u r , t h e r e i s no evidence of such v i o l e n c e a t Paloma. If sedentism i s complete, and t h e o p t i o n of migration becomes unavaila b l e , o c c a s i o n a l p e r i o d s o f r e s o u r c e f a i l u r e become extremely stressful. The d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e argue f o r t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e e a r l y i n h a b i t a n t s were more s t r e s s e d than t h e l a t e r ones. I t i s reasonable t o assume t h a t t h e f i r s t i n h a b i t a n t s r e t a i n e d g r e a t e r m o b i l i t y , so t h a t t h e y may have s u f f e r e d a t times from t h e s t r e s s e s of m o b i l i t y a s w e l l a s t h e s t r e s s e s of sedentism. Living i n t h e nearby C h i l c a Valley i n t h e summer when it h a s water ( e i t h e r running o r i n shallow w e l l s ) and i n t h e fog o a s i s of Paloma i n t h e winter (when it blooms and g e n e r a t e s water and p l a n t s ) would be p o s s i b l e f o r a f a i r l y l a r g e group i n t h i s a r i d s t r e t c h of t h e c o a s t . Radiometric d a t e s from t h e Chilca I v a l l e y s i t e (Engel 1966), l e s s than 9 km away, completely o v e r l a p those of Paloma. Mortuary p r a c t i c e s a r e n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l (Q. F. M. V i a l l e j o s A . , p e r s o n a l communication). D e t a i l e d comparative s t u d i e s a r e required t o t e s t t h i s proposition. The degradation of t h e lamas, which i n c r e a s e d g r a d u a l l y a s monitored by twig diameter and reduction of s u i t a b l e s p e c i e s o f bushes used f o r firewood (Weir and Dering 1 9 8 4 ) , may have pushed t h e Palomans toward more i n t e n s i v e use of marine r e s o u r c e s a t t h e beach 3.5 krn from Paloma, a s w e l l a s more i n t e n s i v e management of water f o r c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e Chilca Valley. Such a p i c t u r e of why Paloma and o t h e r a l l u v i a l fan fog o a s i s s i t e s were abandoned i n f a v o r of r i v e r i n e s i t e s does n o t e x p l a i n t h e s t e a d i l y improving h e a l t h of t h e people. Could h e a l t h have improved a t t h e same time t h a t people were forced t o i n t e n s i f y t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n of both marine and c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t resources? The answer could be yes i f t h e s e methods r e s u l t e d i n s u r p l u s e s o f i n t e n s i v e l y e x p l o i t e d s p e c i e s t h a t could be s t o r e d a g a i n s t t h e o c c a s i o n a l f a i l u r e s of t h e fog o r t h e r i v e r , o r a g a i n s t changes i n t h e marine s p e c i e s a v a i l a b i l i t y , a l l of which a r e p r e d i c t a b l e consequences of t h e c y c l i c a l f a i l u r e of t h e Peruvian C u r r e n t , o r upwelling. The Paloma c a s e i l l u m i n a t e s t h e q u e s t i o n s t h a t r e l a t e t o skeletal, s t u d i e s of a d a p t a t i o n t o sedentism and food production.

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55 1

s t u d e n t s i n p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y - - e s p e c i a l l y Sharon Brock, S a r a h J a c k s o n , and D a n i e l S. Edwards. Without t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e s e and o t h e r s t u d e n t s , t h e p r o j e c t would n o t have a c h i e v e d i t s g o a l s . The work o f some p a r t i c i p a n t s i s mentioned i n t h i s p a p e r - - b u t t h e i r c r e d i t d e s e r v e s more s p a c e t h a n i s a v a i l a b l e h e r e . T h i s m a n u s c r i p t h a s been improved by h e l p f u l comments from Glen Weir, Louanna F u r b e e , James A. Gavan, and Mark Cohen. J. G e h l e r t , Barbara M.

APPENDIX

Space d o e s n o t p e r m i t a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e . T a b l e 21.Al p r e s e n t s a l l t h e r a d i o m e t r i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e s i t e . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e e x c e p t i o n a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n f o r a preceramic s i t e . L a t e r r e o c c u p a t i o n was c o n f i n e d t o o n e s m a l l a r e a . No a n i m a l s , o t h e r t h a n i n s e c t s , had d i s t u r b e d t h e s i t e . No r e c e n t p o t h u n t e r s had b o t h e r e d a p r e c e r a m i c s i t e . However, l i v i n g a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h a b i t a t i o n s , s t o r a g e p i t s , b u r i a l s , and t h e growth o f middens n a t u r a l l y d i s t u r b e d t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y somewhat. See E n g e l (1980) f o r a r e v i e w o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y a s it was known up t o 1976. Curr e n t l y t h e P e r u v i a n a r c h a e o l o g i s t , B e r n a r d i n o Oj eda ( s e e Oj e d a , l 9 8 2 ) , and t h e 1976 f i e l d s e a s o n d i r e c t o r , John W. G r e e r , and I , a r e working toward p r o d u c i n g a f i n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y b a s e d o n t h e e x c a v a t i o n s o f 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 , 1976, 1979, and 1 9 8 2 .

REFERENCES

A l l i s o n , M. J . , a n d E. G e r s z t e n 1982 Paleopathology i n South American Mummies: Application of Modem Techniques. V i r g i n i a Commonwealth U n i v e r s i t y , Richmond. A l l i s o n , M. J . , D. Mendoza, and A. P e z z i a 1974 A r a d i o g r a p h i c a p p r o a c h t o c h i l d h o o d i l l n e s s i n P r e Columbian i n h a b i t a n t s o f s o u t h e r n P e r u . American J o u d of Physical Anthropology 40:409-415. Angel, J . L. Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n P r e s s , 1971 The People of Lerna. Washington, D.C. ~ n t f i n e zd e Mayolo R., S a n t i a g o E. Banco C e n t r a l d e Reserva 1981 La N u t r i c k en e l Antigua Peru. d e l P e r u , Lima. A t c h l e y , W. R . , C. T. G a s k i n g s , and D. Andersor 1976 S t a t i s t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f r a t i o s . I . E r r o i r i c a l r e s u l s Systematic Zoology 25 :l37-148.

10. 11.

IS. 13. 14. 15. LA LA

16.

17. 18. 19.

N85 El20 HI36 UNIT I N105 E65 HI 01 UNIT I

N80 El15 HI3 UNIT I N100 El15 H29 T I 2 UNIT I N90 E40 Quebrada t e s t trench N90 E45 T l GIZA t e s t N50 El15 H22 UNIT I

N95 El15 TI1 HI1 Unit I N105 El15 HI03 F252 UNIT I W120 E65

Compositae

UGa 4117

UMC

Burned cane

UGa 4121

UMC

Tilandsia

UGa 4211

UMC

Vegetable

Ny-242

CIZA

Burnt t w i g s

UGa 4204

UMC

Human f e c e s

1-31 26

CIZA

Charcoa l

Bim-516

CIZA

Cordage

Ny-243

CIZA

Wood

UGa 3892

UMC

Charcoal

UGa 4212

UMC

5535 Â

95

'#300 was assigned by P . Dering, who i n h i s f i e l d , n o t e s wrote t h a t he used dering d e v i c e , t h a t h i s l e v e l s d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y correspond t o t h o s e i n UNIT necessary t o reexamine t h e p r o b a b i l i t y squares. Accordingly, I asked B . Oy'eda w i t h o u t i n f o m i n g him of t h e radiocarbon d e t e r r n i m t I o n . His p r o f i l e shows t h e which I concur, and which Dering a l s o considered.

#400 Oy'eda-#300; Benfer--#230; probably #300, b u t s tundard error high

Standard e r r o r t o o high

Submitted i n c o r r e c t l g as #300; #400 i n Fig. 16 i n E n q e I (1980)

Submitted a s #700 Standard e r r o r i s t o o large l e v e l s merely as an orI . I n 1982, it was t o recheck t h i s square, house a s l e v e l #230, w i t h

21 THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

1981

Comment on r e s e a r c h and development i n t h e S t o n e Age: T e c h n o l o g i c a l t r a n s i t i o n s among H u n t e r - G a t h e r e r s , by B r i a n Hayden. Current Anthropology 22: 532. D e r i n g , P . , and G. H. Weir 1979 A n a l y s i s o f p l a n t r e m a i n s from t h e P r e c e r a m i c s i t e o f P a l o m , Peru. I n R e p o r t t o t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e Foundat i o n , p p . A67-A76. Edward, J. 1984 Analysis b y neutron a c t i v a t i o n of human bone from the

H e l l e n i s t i c cemetery i n Asine, Greece. Archaeology 1 1 ~ 3 7 - 4 6 .

Jowndl of Field

Edwards, D. S. 1984 D e n t a l a t t r i t i o n and s u b s i s t e n c e o f t h e P r e c e r a m i c s i t e of Paloma, P e r u . Unpublished M.A. t h e s i s , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia. Engel, Frederic-Andre 1966 Geografia Human Prehistories y Agricultura Precolombina de Quebrada de Chitea. U n i v e r s i d a d N a c i o n a l d e A g r a r i a , Lima, P e r u . 1980 Paloma: V i l l a g e 613. I n Prehistoric Andean Ecology, e d i t e d by F r e d e r i c - A n d r e E n g e l , p p . 103-135. Humanities P r e s s , New York. E r i c k s e n , M. F. 1962 Undefonned Pre-Columbian c r a n i a from t h e N o r t h S i e r r a o f P e r u . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 20:209222. F a l c o n e r , D. S. 1960 Introduction t o Quantitative Genetics. Ronald P r e s s , New York. G e h l e r t , S. J. 1978 H a r r i s l i n e s o f Paloman t i b i a . I n Report t o t h e National S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , pp . A185-A189. 1979 Dental asymmetry i n tuo Peruvian archaeolog'ical samples. Unpublished M.A. p a p e r , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia. G r a f , V. B. Unpub1978 Trace element l e v e l s i n human 'hair a t c h i l d b i r t h . l i s h e d M.A. t h e s i s , Department o f Human N u t r i t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia. Hayden, B. Technological 1981 R e s e a r c h and development i n t h e S t o n e Age: t r a n s i t i o n s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s . Current Anthropology 22: 519-531. J a c k s o n , B. 1981 Histomorphometric a n a l y s i s o f r i b s from t h r e e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l populations. Unpublished M.A. t h e s i s , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia. Lambert, J. G . , C. B. Zpuznar, and J. E . B u i k s t r a 1979 Chemical a n a l y s e s o f e x c a v a t e d human bone from Middle and L a t e Woodland s i t e s . Arehaeometry 21 :115-129.

21

THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

557

t i o n , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Santa Barbara. Raymond, J . S. 1981 The m a r i t i m e f o u n d a t i o n s o f Andean c i v i l i z a t i o n : A r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e e v i d e n c e . American Antiquity 46:806-821. R e i t z , E. J . 1983 V e r t e b r a t e Fauna from Paloma, P e r u , 12B-VII-613. Manus c r i p t o f t h e Paloma P r o j e c t , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, M i s s o u r i . 1984 Informe p r e l i m i n a r i o s o b r e La Paloma. Appendix i n E l Proyecto P a l o m d e l a Universidad d e Missouri y E l Centro Zonas Aridas, i n d e I n v e s t i q a c i o n e s d e Zonas A r i d a s . press. Rostworowski d e Diez Canseco, M. 1981 Recursos naturales renovables y pesca, s i g l o s X V I y X V I I . I n s t i t u t e d e E s t u d i o s P e r u a n o s , Lima, P e r u . S c h o e n i n q e r , M. J . , and C. S. P e e b l e s 1981 E f f e c t of m o l l u s c e a t i n g on human bone s t r o n t i u m l e v e l s . Journal of Archaeological Science 8 :391 -397. S c h r e i d e r , E. 1967 Body-height and i n b r e e d i n g i n F r a n c e . Amer'kan J o u d of Physical Anthropology 26: 1-4. S c o t t , E. C . 1974 Dental v a r i a t i o n i n Precolmbian coastal Peru. Unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia. 1979 P r i n c i p a l a x i s a n a l y s i s o f d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n . American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 51 :203-212. S i l l e n , A., and M . Kavanagh A review. Yearbook 1982 S t r o n t i u m and p a l e o d i e t a r y r e s e a r c h : of Physical Anthropology 25 :67-90. s t o u t , S. 1983 The c o m p a r a t i v e c o r t i c a l bone h i s t o m o r p h o m e t r i c s o f s e v e r a l ANTHROPOS, i n p r e s s . a n c i e n t human p o p u l a t i o n s . T o r r e s , G. , J. , and C. Lopez Ocafia 1981 P r o d u c t i v i d a d p r i m a r i a e n l a s lomas d e l a C o s t a C e n t r a l Boletin de Lima 14:2-11. d e l Peru. U b e l a c k e r , D. A. 1981 Human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from s i t e CGSE-80, a P r e c e r a m i c s i t e o f S t a . E l n a P e n i n s u l a , c o a s t a l Ecuador. Journal o f Washington Academy of Science 7 0 : 3-24. Vehik, S . C. 1978 C l i m a t e , p o p u l a t i o n , s u b s i s t e n c e , and t h e c e n t r a l ~ e r u v i a n Lomas between 8 , 0 0 0 and 2,500 B.P. Appendix i n Report t o t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , pp. A112-A136. Weaver, D. S. 1980 Sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i l i a o f a known s e x and a g e sample o f f e t a l and i n f a n t s k e l e t o n s . American Journal of Physical Anthropoloqv 52 :191-195.

ROBERT A. BENFER Weir, G. H . 1978 P r e l i m i n a r y f o s s i l p o l l e n and m a c r o f o s s i l a n a l y s e s o f c o p r o l i t e s and s e d i m e n t s from t h e La Paloma V i l l a g e s i t e (12b-VII-613) a r e a , C h i l c a V a l l e y D r a i n a g e , P e r u . In R e p o r t t o t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , pp. A138-A182. Weir, G . H . , and J . P. D e r i n g 1984 The Lomas of Paloma: Human-environment r e l a t i o n s i n a c e n t r a l P e r u v i a n f o g oasis--Archaeobotany and p a l y n o l o g y . I n Andean Arehaeologg, e d i t e d by R. Matos M . University o f California Monographs i n Archaeology, i n p r e s s . W i l l e y , G . R. 1971 An Introduction t o ~rnericanArchaeology (Vol. 11). P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Englewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y . Wilson, D. J. 1 9 8 1 Of maize and men: A c r i t i q u e o f t h e m a r i t i m e h y p o t h e s i s o f s t a t e o r i g i n s on t h e c o a s t o f P e r u . American Anthropologist 8 3 : 93-120. Wing, E . S . , and A. B. Brown 1979 ~ a l e o n u t r i t i o n : Methods and t h e o q i n prehistoric foodways. Academic P r e s s , New York.

CHAPTER 2 2 POPULATION, HEALTH, AND THE EVOLUTION OF SUBSISTENCE: CONCLUSIONS FROM THE CONFERENCE

Anna C u r t e n h s Roosevelt Museum o f t h e American I n d i a n New York, New York

INTRODUCTION

The e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f human ecology h a s become a s u b j e c t o f broad t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r e s t H i s t o r i a n s , economists, demoqr a p h e r s , b i o l o g i s t s , and a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have s p e c u l a t e d e x t e n s i v e l y about t h e c a u s e s and consequences of changes i n e a r l y human p o p u l a t i o n , s u b s i s t e n c e , and h e a l t h , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e has been l i t t l e d e t a i l e d e v i d e n c e w i t h which t o e v a l u a t e t h e i r theories I n t h e l a s t few decades, however t e c h n i q u e s t o c o l l e c t and a n a l y z e r e l e v a n t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a have improved Studies o f s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s , a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remains, and human o s t e o l o q y have begun t o c r e a t e a c o n s i d e r a b l e body o f r e l e v a n t data I n o r d e r t o b r i n g some o f t h i s new evidence t o g e t h e r and review i t s t h e o r e t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , Mark Cohen and George Armelaqos o r g a n i z e d a Wenner-Gren-funded conference i n P l a t t s b u r g h , A t t h a t conference, physical anthroNew York, i n March of 1982 p o l o g i s t s s p e c i a l i z i n g i n d i f f e r e n t world r e g i o n s summarized t h e i r sequences T h e i r f i n d i n g s , which a r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h i s book, a r e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e o r i e s o f c u l t u r a l e c o l o g i c a l evolution

BOSERUP S POPULATION PRESSURE THEORY

One o f t h e major t h e o r i e s about t h e c a u s e s and consequences of The b e s t economic change i s t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y known e a r l y s t a t e m e n t of t h i s t h e o r y i s E s t e r Boserup s s h o r t book

The CondIfkions of Agr¥i.euztura Growth. PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE

559

The Economics of Agrarian Copyright 0 1984 by Academic Press, Inc All nghts of reproduction m any form reserved ISBN 0-12-1790800

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT

Change under Population Pressure, p u b l i s h e d i n 1965 Boserup a t t r i b u t e s t h e development of i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e t o t h e impetus given by p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e on s u b s i s t e n c e r e s o u r c e s According t o t h e t h e o r y , a growing p o p u l a t i o n p u t s p r e s s u r e on i t s food s o u r c e s and, i n r e s p o n s e , p e o p l e s t e p up l a b o r i n p u t s t o produce m r e food p e r u n i t o f l a n d The i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s i v e l a n d use i s supposed t o l e a d t o a d r o p i n l a b o r p r o d u c t i v i t y due t o dec l i n i n g s o i l f e r t i l i t y , which i n t u r n l e a d s t o t h e u s e of methods such a s plowing and f e r t i l i z a t i o n t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y Boserup argues t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n would n o t have o c c u r r e d without t h e s t i m u l u s o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e , because o f its greater labor costs She reasoned t h a t s t a b l e p o p u l a t i o n s would f o l l o w t h e p r i n c i p l e o f l e a s t e f f o r t and choose l e s s extens i v e s u b s i s t e n c e systems w i t h h i g h e r l a b o r p r o d u c t i v i t y Boserup d i d n o t e x p l a i n why some p o p u l a t i o n s might grow and o t h e r s might n o t , b u t d e n i e d t h a t environmental d i f f e r e n c e s i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l were r e s p o n s i b l e

POPULATION PRESSURE AND THE RISE OF AGRICULTURE

Mark Cohen has a p p l i e d Boserup's p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y t o human p r e h i s t o r y in t h e book The Food C r i s i s i n Prehistory: Overpopulationand the Origins of Agriculture (1977) Cohen and o t h e r s c h o l a r s , such a s Marvin H a r r i s ( 1 9 7 7 ) , b e l i e v e t h a t human p o p u l a t i o n growth i s a more g e n e r a l phenomenon t h a n supposed by Boserup and t h a t i t has o c c u r r e d f r e q u e n t l y throughout human h i s tory According t o t h i s v e r s i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y , c u l t u r a l s u b s i s t e n c e systems w i l l c o n t i n u a l l y e v o l v e toward h i g h e r and h i g h e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y i n o r d e r t o accommodate r e c u r r e n t p o p u l a t i o n growth. Cohen p o i n t s o u t t h a t by l a t e P l e i s t o c e n e t i m e s , growing p o p u l a t i o n s o f Homo s@ens h a s s p r e a d o v e r much o f t h e e a r t h and could have begun t o p u t p r e s s u r e on l o c a l food r e s o u r c e s Cohen b e l i e v e s t h a t i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s i v e r e s o u r c e u s e and human s e l e c t i o n of r e s o u r c e s t o i n c r e a s e food s u p p l i e s l e d t o t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e e a r l y Holocene According t o Cohen, t h e e a r l i e s t s u b s i s t e n c e economies of modern humans would have been focused on abundant game s p e c i e s t h a t a f f o r d e d p a l a t a b l e , e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e foods i n convenient packages He f e e l s t h a t a s p o p u l a t i o n s grew and p u t p r e s s u r e on food r e s o u r c e s , p e o p l e would have expanded t h e i r s u b s i s t e n c e t o i n c l u d e l e s s favored "foods o f g r e a t e r abundance, such a s p l a n t p r o d u c t s , i n v e r t e b r a t e s , and a q u a t i c f a u n a s , a p r o c e s s t h a t h a s been c a l l e d " t h e Broad-Spectrum r e v o l u t i o n " (Flannery 1969, 1973) E c o l o g i c a l l o g i c s u g g e s t s t h a t h i g h e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y subs i s t e n c e systems w i l l emphasize s p e c i e s w i t h "r" r e p r o d u c t i v e s t r a t e g i e s , which a r e h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e in c a l o r i e s p e r h e c t a r e , and c o n c u r r e n t l y w i l l deemphasize "K" s e l e c t e d food s o u r c e s which,

22 CONCLUSIONS a l t h o u g h more balanced n u t r i t i o n a l l y , a r e lo-wer i n p r o d u c t i v i t y per hectare P l a n t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , b e i n g low i n t h e t r o p h i c pyramid, would have f u r n i s h e d s u p p o r t f o r l a r g e r numbers o f p e o p l e than game and would have been more s t o r a b l e i n most c l i m a t e s than flesh. Cohen e n v i s i o n s t h e development o f a g r i c u l t u r e a s t h e r e s u l t of i n t e n s i f i e d e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e more p r o d u c t i v e p l a n t s p e c i e s , some o f which changed g e n e t i c a l l y i n t h e p r o c e s s , a s Flannery (1969, 1973) has p o i n t e d o u t , e l i c i t i n g f u r t h e r s e l e c t i o n by humans f o r g r e a t e r ca-loric v a l u e , s t o r a b i l i t y , and p r o d u c t i v i t y T h i s p r o c e s s of p o s i t i v e feedback i s supposed t o h a v e l e d t o a g r i c u l t u r e a s s u b s i s t e n c e systems came t o r e l y more and more on t h e p l a n t s with t h e g r e a t e s t c a p a b i l i t y f o r i n t e n s i v e harvesting Systems t h a t f o c u s on a few p r o d u c t i v e , h i g h l y c a l o r i c p l a n t s p e c i e s , a l t h o u g h a b l e t o s u p p o r t more p e o p l e p e r h e c t a r e , a r e i n h e r e n t l y l e s s s t a b l e and l e s s f a v o r a b l e n u t r i t i o n a l l y than more b r o a d l y based o n e s and would b e more s u b j e c t t o p e r i o d i c f a i l u r e s Cohen a r g u e s t h a t such systems would n o t have developed i n t h e absence of p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e He p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h i s t h e o r y p r e d i c t s n o t o n l y a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h i s t o r y of s u b s i s t e n c e economy but also a p a r t i c u l a r history of health. Early hunter-gatherers would b e r e l a t i v e l y w e l l n o u r i s h e d and f r e e of d i s e a s e The b u i l d u p of p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e among l a t e r h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s would have l e d t o a phase o f p o o r e r n u t r i t i o n and g r e a t e r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o disease The t h e o r y a l s o p r e d i c t s , a l t h o u g h Cohen d o e s n o t a c t u a l l y s a y s o , t h a t t h e i n s t a b i l i t y and n u t r i t i o n a l p o v e r t y of i n t e n s i v e , f o c a l s u b s i s t e n c e systems would c r e a t e a p a t t e r n o f c h r o n i c m a l n u t r i t i o n and s e v e r e p e r i o d i c famines d u r i n g l a t e r p r e h i s t o r i c times

ALTERNATIVE THEORIES

The l o g i c o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y h a s been c h a l l e n g e d by a v a r i e d group of competing t h e o r i e s , which have c o n t r a s t i n g p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d (Asch e t a 1 1972; Bin f o r d 1968; Bronson 1975; Ear l e and C h r i s t e n s o n 1980; Flannery 1969, 1973; Ford 1977; Hassan 1975, 1978, 1981; Hayden 1981; It i s argued t h a t p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e could n o t Jochim 1976) have been an i m p o r t a n t c a u s a l f a c t o r i n t h e h i s t o r y o f s u b s i s t e n c e because i t h a s been a b s e n t f o r much o f p r e h i s t o r y , due e i t h e r t o l i m i t a t i o n s o n growth through h i g h i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y and low a d u l t l i f e expectancy, o r t o t h e c u l t u r a l c o n t r o l of p o p u l a t i o n growth Many s c h o l a r s s e e p o p u l a t i o n growth a s a phenomenon r e s t r i c t e d t o r e c e n t t i m e s , caused mainly by h e a l t h improvements brought by t h e industrial revolution They argue t h a t , i n t h e absence of populat i o n p r e s s u r e , a d a p t i v e e v o l u t i o n a r y change i n human s u b s i s t e n c e i s l i k e l y t o minimize e f f o r t and maximize s u b s i s t e n c e q u a l i t y and reliability

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT By t h i s argument, s u c c e s s f u l c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n i s expected t o produce s m a l l - s c a l e , e q u i l i b r i u m s u b s i s t e n c e systems t h a t a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y s t a b l e , c o s t e f f e c t i v e , and f a v o r a b l e t o human health Contrary e v o l u t i o n a r y developments, such a s t h e r i s e and expansion of a g r i c u l t u r e and t h e growth o f p o p u l a t i o n , a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o d i s e q u i l i b r i a caused by environmental f l u c t u a t i o n s o r I t i s assumed t h a t human populachanges i n s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n t i o n s i z e w i l l remain i n e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y u n l e s s d i s t u r b e d by f a c t o r s i n t h e environment S e v e r a l s c h o l a r s e x p l a i n t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e e a r l y Holocene a s t h e consequence of a p e r i o d o f unusual environmental change Binford, followed by Flannery, has t h e o r i z e d t h a t f a v o r a b l e environmental changes o c c u r r i n g a t t h e end o f t h e P l e i s t o c e n e allowed i n c r e a s i n g s e d e n t i s m o f s e t t l e m e n t i n a r e a s of r i c h , c o n c e n t r a t e d r e s o u r c e s Sedentary s e t t l e m e n t i s supposed t o have l e d t o a h i g h e r b i r t h r a t e by making it e a s i e r f o r women t o s t a y home t o c a r e f o r c l o s e l y - s p a c e d c h i l d r e n The r e s u l t i n g p o p u l a t i o n growth p u t p r e s s u r e on s u b s i s t e n c e r e s o u r c e s i n neighboring marginal a r e a s , i n s p i r i n g t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f s u b s i s t e n c e and t h e r i s e of a g r i c u l t u r e Others h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t u n f a v o r a b l e environmental changes made s u b s i s t e n c e u n s t a b l e , and t h e y i n t e r p r e t t h e r i s e of a g r i c u l t u r e a s an a t t e m p t t o i n c r e a s e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y They s u g g e s t t h a t s o c i o p o l i t i c a l o f s u b s i s t e n c e ( e q , Ford 1977) e l i t e s came i n t o being b e c a u s e of t h e g r e a t e r management needs o f a g r i c u l t u r a l economies These t h e o r i e s might u s e f u l l y b e grouped under t h e c a t e g o r y o f " e q u i l i b r i u m " t h e o r i e s f o r t h e y s t r e s s human s u b s i s t e n c e systems a s equilibrium-seeking systems C u l t u r a l change i s o f t e n viewed a s o c c u r r i n g t o " r e g u l a t e " t h e human ecosystem, an approach t h a t Flannery, an e a r l y e n t h u s i a s t , has i r r e v e r e n t l y c a l l e d t h e "Serutan" h y p o t h e s i s The approach seems d e r i v e d u l t i m a t e l y from two s o u r c e s : t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l i s t ethnology and e q u i l i b r i u m - o r i e n t e d systems t h e o r y Cohen (1977) h a s summarized some o f t h e problems of t h e e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i e s , which o v e r e s G mate p o s t - P l e i s t o c e n e c l i m a t e change and i g n o r e t h e widespread evidence f o r h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r p o p u l a t i o n growth These t h e o r i e s a l s o tend t o a t t r i b u t e i n e x p l i c a b l e goal-seeking behavior t o s y s tems a s wholes, and t h e y t e n d t o view c o n t r o l by e l i t e s a s benign, even n e c e s s a r y " r e g u l a t i o n " f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e whole populat i o n , d e s p i t e evidence t o t h e c o n t r a r y In addition, despite t h e i r r e j e c t i o n of p o p u l a t i o n a s a prime c a u s a l f a c t o r , t h e equil i b r i u m t h e o r i s t s o f t e n b u i l d p o p u l a t i o n growth i n t o t h e i r e x p l a n a t i o n s w i t h o u t e x p l i c i t l y a c c o u n t i n g f o r i t s p r e s e n c e and effects These t h e o r i e s have somewhat d i f f e r e n t p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d t h a n Cohen's, and it i s c l e a r t h a t t o evaluate the empirical v a l i d i t y of t h e d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n s we need l o n g i t u d i n a l d a t a a b o u t p r e h i s t o r i c and e a r l y h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n growth, s u b s i s t e n c e , and h e a l t h To p r o v i d e such d a t a , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n this c o n f e r e n c e were asked t o summarize t h e r e l e v a n t evidence from t h e i r r e g i o n s o f s t u d y The

22 CONCLUSIONS

563

r e g i o n s covered i n t h i s review a r e t h e West Coast, Southwest, Midwest, and S o u t h e a s t o f t h e United S t a t e s , lower C e n t r a l America, Northwestern South America, Western Europe, t h e E a s t e r n Mediterranean, E a s t A s i a , and South Asia. Because o f t h e import a n c e o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e and growth in t h e o r e t i c a l arguments, t h e o r g a n i z e r s chose p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s t o summarize t h e r e g i o n a l d a t a and asked them t o p r e s e n t i n d e t a i l t h e o s t e o l o g i c a l evidence f o r demographic p a t t e r n s and p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s , an expected c o r r e l a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e

POPULATION GROWTH AND SEDENTISM

I n most o f t h e r e g i o n s reviewed, r e g a r d l e s s o f whether a g r i c u l t u r e was e v e r developed, p o p u l a t i o n growth seems t o o c c u r throughout t h e sequence, s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e e a r l i e s t occupations This growth m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n -period-by-period i n c r e a s e s i n t h e s i z e s and numbers o f known a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s Although and i n t h e numbers o f o s t e o l o g i c a l remains recorded. t h e r e i s always a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e a p p a r e n t growth i s an a r t i f a c t of a g r e a t e r d e s t r u c t i o n r a t e f o r e a r l i e r remains, t h e magnitude of t h e growth and i t s widespread occu-rrence seem una r g u a b l e evidence f o r a d i s t i n c t i v e , worldwide t r e n d of p o p u l a t i o n expansion. Knowledge a b o u t changes in t h e numbers and s i z e s o f s i t e s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s i s t h e by-product of decades o f g e n e r a l a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o n n a i s s a n c e r a t h e r t h a n t h e p r o d u c t o f systemat i c s i t e s u r v e y s , and t h e numbers o f known s i t e s i n a r e g i o n seems to r e f l e c t maze c l o s e l y t h e amount of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l work t h a t h a s been done i n a r e g i o n t h a n t h e a b s o l u t e number o f s i t e s occupied i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s Thus, i n o r d e r t o g e t comparative informat ion about changing p o p u l a t i o n s i z e from r e g i o n t o r e g i o n , it w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o c a r r y o u t planned s i t e s u r v e y s Until t h a t i s done, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s a y whether o r n o t t h e r e were p e r i o d s o f simultaneous r a p i d p o p u l a t i o n growth throughout t h e world a t c e r t a i n t i m e s , such a s d u r i n g t h e r i s e o f a g r i c u l t u r e I n a few r e g i o n s , such a s t h e Midwest and Southwest i n t h e United S t a t e s , d r o p s i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e o c c u r r e d l a t e i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s , a p p a r e n t l y due t o environmental changes t h a t d e c r e a s e d t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f r e s o u r c e s f o r human s u b s i s t e n c e And i n one r e g i o n , P e r u , r e s o u r c e overuse and exogenous environmental .change seem t o have reduced t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y f o r humans over t i m e i n some biomes, s u c h a s t h e f o g meadows Such c a s e s , however a r e e x c e p t i o n s t o t h e g e n e r a l p i c t u r e of growth, a f i n d i n g t h a t s u p p o r t s t h e view o f p a s t human demography e s poused by Cohen and H a r r i s The re dictions o f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m view, which i n c l u d e l o n g p e r i o d s o f s t a t i c p o p u l a t i o n s i z e , a r e (Discussion o f t h e demographic p r o c e s s e s t h a t n o t supported caused t h e growth whether d e c r e a s e d m o r t a l i t y i n c r e a s e d

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT f e r t i l i t y , o r a combination of b o t h , w i l l b e found i n t h e s e c t i o n on t h e p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l o s t e o l o g i c a l evidence, where t h e e v i d e n c e f o r h e a l t h and a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s i s summarized Contrary t o e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i e s l t h e r e seems t o b e no d e t e r m i n i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between p o p u l a t i o n growth and sedentism, f o r p o p u l a t i o n growth o c c u r s throughout t h e sequence whether o r n o t t h e r e was s e d e n t a r y s e t t l e m e n t l and t h e r a t e of growth d u r i n g t h e P a l e o l i t h i c and M e s o l i t h i c l a s b e s t a s can b e determinedl seems independent of permanence o f s e t t l e m e n t , which v a r i e s g r e a t l y from one r e g i o n t o a n o t h e r

ARCHmOLGICAL ECONOMY

I n o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e t h e r o l e o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i n subs i s t e n c e change, we need t o know i n d e t a i l how s u b s i s t e n c e a c t u a l l y changed i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s The p r e d i c t i o n s of t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e opposing t h e o r i e s i n t h e changes t h a t it e n v i s i o n s i n t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f s p e c i e s and consumption of d i f f e r e n t n u t r i e n t s U n f o r t u n a t e l y , period-by-period recons t r u c t i o n of t h e development of p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e economies And y e t t h i s h a s been t h e rnost d i f f i c u l t p a r t of t h i s review e x e r c i s e i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n it y i e l d s about t h e c a u s e s o f s u b s i s t e n c e changel a s Cohen h a s p o i r t e d o u t The problem i s t h a t , f o r most o f t h e r e g i o n s under s t u d y , t h e r e has been no s y s t e m a t i c c o l l e c t i o n o r s t u d y o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remainsl the e s p e c i a l l y a t s i t e s d a t i n g e i t h e r end o f the sequence: P a l e o l i t h i c and t h e l a t e ~ e o l i t h i c l The r i c h l y documented s e quences o f t h e Midwest and Southwest i n t h e Uniked S t a t e s , C e n t r a l Mexicol Panama, P e r u l and West Asia a r e r a r e e x c e p t i o n s The s m a l l a m u n t o f food remains t h a t have been r e c o v e r e d elsewhere were f o r t h e rnost p a r t c o l l e c t e d f o r t u i t o u s 1y d u r i n g e x c a v a t i o n s aimed mainly a t recovery o f a r t i f a c t s l and t h e s e chance f i n d s do n o t f u r n i s h a v e r y good i d e a of t h e s p e c t r m of s p e c i e s used f o r s u b s i s t e n c e , n o t t o speak of t h e q u a n t i t i e s i n which d i f f e r e n t foods were e a t e n Thus, f o r many o f t h e s e r e g i o n s a t p r e s e n t t h e r e is l i t t l e r e l i a b l e b a s i s f o r i n f e r r i n g p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t ence p a t t e r n s because a r c h a e o l o g i s t s have not p u r p o s e f u l l y c o l l e c t e d food remains I n s y s t e m a t i c sampling f o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remains, it i s important t o c o n t r o l f o r d i f f e r e n t s i z e c l a s s e s of m a t e r i a l If

'FOP most v r i t e r 8 , th terms P a l e o l i t h i c , M e s o l i t h i c , and Neol i t h i c have come t o have a nonchronoZogicaZ, s t a g e - l i k e meaning i n terms of s u b s i s t e n c e , as folZows: Pa l e o Z i t h i c - - e a r l y , extensive hunting-gathering, M e s o l i t h i c - - l a t e , i n t e n s i v e hunting-gathering subsistenee and i n c i p i e n t agricuZture; and NeoZithic--effective aqricul t u r e

22 CONCLUSIONS o n l y l a r g e p i e c e s o f animal bone a r e c o l l e c t e d , such a s t h o s e t h a t can be recognized d u r i n g t r o w e l i n g o r s h o v e l i n g , a s i s t h e common method, t h e n t h e consumption o f l a r g e animals w i l l be A t t h e same time p l a n t consumption w i l l g r e a t l y overestimated be g r o s s l y underestimated s i n c e carbonized p l a n t remains a r e a l most i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e c t and c o l l e c t by t r o w e l i n g and s h o v e l i n g alone I n o r d e r t o c o l l e c t s m a l l r l i g h t remains such a s s e e d s , small bones, and f i s h s c a l e s , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o u s e s o i l f l o t a t i o n o r d r y f i n e - s c r e e n i n g o f s t a n d a r d s o i l measures s o t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y by weight of t h e d i f f e r e n t food remains may be compared Larger remains a r e t h e most e a s i l y r e c o v e r e d in t h e absence of s c r e e n i n g and f l o t a t i o n , b u t t h e s e remains o f t e n a r e n o t t h e p r e dominant f o o d s i n t h e d i e t Payne (1972arb) h a s shown through f l o t a t i o n and s c r e e n i n g experiments t h a t t h e s m a l l e r , m r e d i f f i c u l t t o r e t r i e v e remains o f t e n make up t h e b u l k o f t h e food remains, and p r o p e r sampling changes d r a m a t i c a l l y t h e e s t i m a t e of t h e importance of d i f f e r e n t foods i n t h e d i e t Other experjments s u p p o r t t h i s conclusion (Ford 1979; S t r u e v e r 1968) Even where  £ m remains have been a s s i d u o u s l y c o l l e c t e d , t h e r e s t i l l may be no s e c u r e b a s i s from which t o i n f e r t h e i r p r o p o r t i o n i n t h e d i e t , because food remains o f t e n a r e n o t p r e s e r v e d i n t h e ground i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i r abundance i n t h e d i e t Most f m d is d e s t r o y e d by being e a t e n and d i g e s t e d ; what remains i s o f t e n a poor r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f what was e a t e n , a s B u i k s t r a p o i n t s o u t (Chapter 9 t h i s volume) I n a d d i t i o n I some a r c h a e o l o g i c a l foods (such a s r o o t c r o p s and d e l i c a t e f i s h hones) do n o t p r e s e r v e r e a d i l y , w h i l e o t h e r s (such a s n u t s , seed c r o p s r and l a r g e p i e c e s of animal bone) do, s o i t can be d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , t o compare d i e t a r y importance on t h e b a s i s o f t h e food remains a l o n e To determine l e v e l s o f consumptionI o t h e r methods a r e necess a r y # such a s s t u d i e s o f bone c h e m i s t r y and o f d e n t a l c a r i e s r c a l c u l u s I and a b r a s i o n I n c i d e n c e of gum and t o o t h d i s e a s e a n e damage i s o f t e n r e l a t e d t o d i e t c o n t e n t and t e x t u r e and may be used t o r e c o n s t r u c t a n c i e n t d i e t s Much h a s been done t o t r a c e l e v e l s o f c a r b o h y d r a t e consumption through study o f c a l c u l u s and c a r i e s I which a r e c l i n i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e consumption o f s t i c k y r c a r b o h y d r a t e - r i c h f o o d , b u t t h e r e have been few s t u d i e s t h a t t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n microscopic t o o t h wear (Rose e t a 1 , Chapter 1 5 t h i s volume, i s an e x c e p t i o n ) Chemistry has t h e pot e n t i a l t o r e v e a l l e v e l s of food consumption d u r i n g p r e h i s t o r y through a n a l y s i s o f t h e element composition of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l human bone T h i s i s p o s s i b l e because some elements and t h e i r i s o t o p e s a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e body i n a d e t e r m i n a b l e r e l a t i o n t o t h e amounts i n food By c a l c u l a t i n g t h e amounts o f r e r t a i n elements i n a n c i e n t human bone and comparing t h e r e s u l t s w i t h t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remains, o n e can sometimes d e t e r m i n e what foods were e a t e n i n what q u a n t i t i e s (  £ a0 b r i e f summary of t h i s f i e l d s e e Wing and Brown 1979) T h i s p r o c e d u r e works w i t h s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e s , which v a r y i n d i e t and t h u s i n human bone c o l l a g e n (and p o s s i b l y i n bone m i n e r a l a l s o ) a c c o r d i n g t o t h e amounts o f d i e t a m carbon d e r i v e d

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT from d i f f e r e n t p l a n t groups I n many r e g i o n s , l a n d food and s e a food a l s o c o n t r a s t s t r o n g l y i n carbon i s o t o p e r a t i o s Tauber (19811, f o r example, found a s h i f t from h i g h t o low 13c/12c r a t i o s i n a n c i e n t Danish s k e l e t o n s , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e average Mesol i t h i c d i e t among c o a s t a l i n h a b i t a n t s was h e a v i l y dependent on seafood, which has a h i g h r a t i o , whereas t h e N e o l i t h i c d i e t depended mainly on t e r r e s t r i a l f o o d l which has a low r a t i o This conclusion would n o t have been p o s s i b l e through s t u d y o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remains, which d i d n o t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e changes A s a n o t h e r examplel t h e New World food crop maize c o n t r a s t s i n ~ ~ / c I Z Cr a t i o w i t h most o t h e r a b o r i g i n a l f o o d s l making it p o s s i b l e t o t r a c e t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of t h i s important c e r e a l through t h e chemical a n a l y s i s of a n c i e n t human b n e s (Bender e t a 1 1981; van d e r Merwe and Vogel 1978; van d e r Merwe e t a 1 1981) Some elements o c c u r i n c o n t r a s t i n g q u a n t i t i e s i n p l a n t v e r s u s animal food A u s e f u l element i n t h i s r e g a r d i s s t r o n t i u m , which i s f a r more abundant i n p l a n t s than i n l a n d a n i mals, making it p o s s i b l e t o e s t i m a t e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s of p l a n t and animal food i n a p e r s o n ' s d i e t from chemical a n a l y s i s of t h e s k e l e t o n and a s s o c i a t e d animal bones (Brown 1973; Smith e t a 1 Chapter 5 , t h i s volume) Such s t u d i e s a r e d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t t o e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y , which p r e d i c t s changing p r o p o r t i o n s o f animal and p l a n t food i n human d i e t s through time The f i e l d s of archaeobotany, archaeozoology, d e n t a l pathology, and b n e chemistry a r e becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t i n a r chaeology due t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l importance of q u e s t i o n s about Money t o c a r r y o u t q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e d i e t change r e l e v a n t t e c h n i c a l s t u d i e s can b e b u i l t i n t o g r a n t p r o p s a l s l and many l a b r a t o r i e s w i l l c a r r y o u t chemical a n a l y s e s f r e e of charge I n t h e f u t u r e t h e s e m e t h d s can f i l l many of t h e gaps and uncert a i n t i e s i n e x i s t i n g knowledge about t h e h i s t o r y o f human subsistence

SUBSISTENCE CHANGE

Despite t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s of p r e s e n t evidence t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s m v e y c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e conference t e n d t o show t h a t , a s Cohen p r e d i c t e d l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i s a much b r o a d e r phenomenon than t h e r i s e of a g r i c u l t u r e , o c c u r r i n g among mobile a s w e l l a s s e d e n t a r y p e o p l e , i n b o t h a g r i c u l t u r a l and p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l subs i s t e n c e systems and i n e g a l i t a r i a n , ranked, and s t a t e s o c i e t i e s . Most r e g i o n s seem t o e x p e r i e n c e p r o g r e s s i v e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f s u b s i s t e n c e e x p l o i t a t i o n throughout p r e h i s t o r y During t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c s t a g e l s u b s i s t e n c e seems focused on r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e foods o f high n u t r i t i o n a l v a l u e l such a s l a r g e herd animals and m i g r a t o r y f i s h . Some p l a n t foods seem t o have been e a t e n , b u t they appear n o t t o have been q u a n t i t a t i v e l y i m p o r t a n t

22 CONCLUSIONS i n the diet S t o r a g e o f foods a p p e a r s e a r l y i n many sequences, even d u r i n g t h e P a l e o l i t h i c , a p p a r e n t l y t o save s e a s o n a l s u r p l u s e s f o r consumption d u r i n g s e a s o n s o f low p r o d u c t i v i t y A s hunting and g a t h e r i n g economies evolve d u r i n g t h e Mesol i t h i c f s u b s i s t e n c e i s expanded by e x p l o i t a t i o n of i n c r e a s i n g numbers o f s p e c i e s and by i n c r e a s i n g l y heavy e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e more abundant and p r o d u c t i v e p l a n t s p e c i e s The i n c l u s i o n of s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f p l a n t food i n p r e h i s t o r i c d i e t s seems t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h i n c r e a s e d u s e of food p r o c e s s i n g t o o l s , a p p a r e n t 1 A s Cohen s u g g e s t s , t o improve t h e i r t a s t e and d i g e s t i b i l i t y t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s i n g f o c u s - t h r o u g h t h e on a few s t a r c h y p l a n t s of h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y and s t o r a b i l i t y T h i s p r o c e s s of s u b s i s t e n c e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o c c u r s even i n r e g i o n s where n a t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e never developed I n C a l i f o r n i a , f o r example a s h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g p o p u l a t i o n s grew, s u b s i s t e n c e changed from an e a r l y p a t t e r n of r e l i a n c e on game and v a r i e d p l a n t r e s o u r c e s t o o n e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g emphasis on c o l l e c t i o n of a few s p e c i e s o f s t a r c h y s e e d s and n u t s I n t h e Near E a s t , c e r e a l s became t h e d i e t a r y s t a p l e even b e f o r e they were d o m e s t i c a t e d , and t h i s may prove t o have been t r u e i n o t h e r r e g i o n s w i t h abundant s t a n d s o f w i l d s e e d s I n most 2 e g i o n s r t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f p l a n t g a t h e r i n g l e d t o t h e development o f c effective agriculture i n the Neolithic Most e a r l y N e o l i t h i c economies seem t o have been mixed economies based mainly on a g r i c u l t u r e b u t supplemented w i t h f a d from hunting and g a t h e r i n g Late N e o l i t h i c i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e t y p i c a l l y focused on a few p r o d u c t i v e c e r e a l and legume c r o p s , and, i n some a r e a s r on s t a r c root crops T h i s widespread p r e h i s t o r i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of s u b s i s t e n c e seems t o have produced changes i n c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y , whether through e x p l o i t a t i o n of wild o r domestic s p e c i e s , b u t a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n had a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y f o r economic growth and i s h i s t o r i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a much g r e a t e r magnit u d e of p o p u l a t i o n growth t h a n most h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g economies What seems t o have happened i n many r e g i o n s i s t h a t i n t e n s i v e u s e o f wild p l a n t s produced changes i n t h e g e n e t i c and p h y s i o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p l a n t s These changes i n t u r n e l i c i t e d i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s i v e u s e o f t h e p l a n t s u n t i l some s p e c i e s became i r r e v o c a b l y a l t e r e d from t h e w i l d s t a t e Whether o r n o t t h happened i n a p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n seems t o depend p a r t l y on t h e s p e c i e s p r e s e n t (Cohen 1977) and p a r t l y on t h e environmental capac i t y t o support i n t e n s i v e land use I n many r e g i o n s s e e d s were important i n t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n e f f o r t and t h e i n t e n s i v e u s e of s e e d s f r e q u e n t l y l e d t o a g r i c u l t u r e , probably due i n p a r t ko t h e r e p r o d u c t i v e c h a r a c t e ~ ~ i s t i cosf t h e v a r i o u s s p e c i e s The more s u c c e s s f u l c r o p s s p r e a d r a p i d l y from r e g i o n to r e g i o n , b u t t h e r e a l s o i s evidence t h a t some s p e c i e s were independently domestic a t e d i n more t h a n one r e g i o n Cohen's t h e s i s i s a l s o supported by evidence of c h m g e i n d i e t c o n t e n t a s can be judged from bone c h e m i s t r y s t u d i e s and knowledge o f t h e n u t r i t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e changing s p e c t r m of A s he p r e d i c t s , e v o l u t i o n a r y change s p e c i e s used i n s u b s i s t e n c e

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT i n p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e has moved i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f h i g h e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y f o o d s , n o t toward f o o d s of h i g h e r - q u a l i t y nutrition o r greater r e l i a b i l i t y Early nonagricul t u r a l d i e t s appear t o have been high i n m i n e r a l s ? p r o t e i n ? v i t a m i n s , and t r a c e n u t r i e n t s , b u t r e l a t i v e l y low i n s t a r c h I n t h e development toward a g r i c u l t u r e t h e r e is a growing emphasis on s t a r c h y , h i g h l y c a l o r i c food o f h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y and s t o r a b i l i t y changes t h a t a r e n o t f a v o r a b l e t o n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y b u t t h a t would have a c t e d t o i n c r e a s e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y ? a s C ~ h e n ' st h e o r y s u g g e s t s Comparing developments i n p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e w i t h t h o s e i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e ? we s e e t h a t t h e two a r e d e f i n i t e l y c o r r e l a t e d i n time A s p o p u l a t i o n s have grown? s u b s i s t e n c e has i n c r e a s e d i n carrying capacity The t w o p r o c e s s e s seem t o t r a c k one a n o t h e r The r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n growth seems t o be determined by t e m p r a r y technoenvironmental l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e r a t e of economic i n t e n s i f ication. For example g r o w t h i s slow when based on e x p l o i t a t i o n of w i l d s p e c i e s b u t speeds up a s domesticated s p e c i e s a r e A p o s s i b l e mutually c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s developed o r d i f f u s e d f u r t h e r suggested by t h e tendency o f economic d e i n t e f i s i f i c a t i o n t o f o l l o w d r a s t i c d r o p s i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and d e n s i t y l a s i f t h e l e v e l of i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n were r e s p n s i v e t o t h e l e v e l o f population This c o r r e l a t i o n does n o t e s t a b l i s h c a u s a l i t y by i t s e l f , b u t it conforms t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e p p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e theory The sequence appears t o r e f u t e t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t p r e h i s t o r i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f s u b s i s t e n c e o c c u r r e d o n l y where sedentism f o s t e r e d p p u l a t i o n growthl f o r t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s proceeded whether p o p u l a t i o n s were s e d e n t a r y o r n o t And c o n t r a r y t o t h o s e who suppose t h a t i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i s o n l y a r e s p n s e t o t h e development o f s t r a t i f i e d s o c i a l systems, i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n c l e a r l y o c c u r s i n many d i v e r s e s o c i a l c o n t e x t s I t i s a more g e n e r a l phenomenon t h a n any p a r t i c u l a r p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n l occurr i n g i n some r e g i o n s l o n g b e f o r e chiefdoms and s t a t e s developed T h i s is n o t t o s a y t h a t changes i n s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n d i d n o t i n t e r a c t with t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n process I t w i l l be c l e a r fron t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n t h a t , under s t a t e s l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n was c a r r i d o u t w i t h l e s s r e g a r d f o r human h e a l t h t h a n it was i n popul a t i o n s independent o f e l i t e c o n t r o l The p r o c e s s of p o p u l a t i o n growth and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a p p a r e n t l y a l s o had e f f e c t s o n t h e t r a j e c t o r y of s o c i o p o l i t i c a l e v o l u t i o n l f o r i t was o n l y i n r e g i o n s with t h e e c o l o g i c a l c a p a c i t y t o s u p p o r t massive p p u l a t i o n growth through a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h e development of b u r e a u c r a t i c s t a t e s o c c u r r e d l a l t h o u g h chiefdoms came i n t o b e i n g i n s e v e r a l r e g i o n s where t h e r e was no indigenous system of a g r i culture

22

CONCLUSIONS PALEOPATHOLOGY AND POPULATION PRESSURE

Given t h a t p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n growth and s u b s i s t e n c e seem t o have i n t e r a c t e d b a s i c a l l y i n concordance w i t h Cohen's v e r s i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y , it i s c r u c i a l t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e i n c i d e n c e of p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e d u r i n g t h i s t i m e Without t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , we cannot t e l l whether p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i n s p i r e d t h e economic changes o r t h e economic changes merely p e r m i t t e d p o p u l a t i o n growth and a r o s e independently o f p o p u l a t i o n pressure U n t i l now, it has been a problem t o d e t e c t t h e e x i s t e n c e of population pressure i n archaeological populations Archaeologists have commonly i n f e r r e d p r e s s u r e i n d i r e c t l y , from a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence o f p o p u l a t i o n growth i n t h e form o f i n c r e a s e s i n t h e s i z e s and numbers o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s T h i s approach i s i n v a l i d , however, because it i g n o r e s t h e problem o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of p o p u l a t i o n growth t o expansion i n economy Although p o p u l a t i o n growth may p u t p r e s s u r e on a s u b s i s t e n c e system, economic growth may f r e e a p o p u l a t i o n from p r e s s u r e and a l l o w u n f e t t e r e d populat i o n growth f o r a t i m e The s i m p l e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t growth has o c c u r r e d does n o t i d e n t i f y which p r o c e s s h a s gone on I n other words, changes i n t h e s i z e of a p o p u l a t i o n may o r may n o t r e f l e c t p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e , s i n c e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s d e f i n e d as an unfavorable imbalance between a p o p u l a t i o n and i t s means o f s u p p o r t , and s o f a r knowledge of t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e systems and t h e s i z e o f p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s i s i n s u f f i c i e n t l y p r e c i s e t o t e l l u s whether a g i v e n p o p u l a t i o n supported by a given economy i n a given r e g i o n would o r would n o t have p u t p r e s s u r e on resources Cohen recognized t h a t d i r e c t evidence of p r e h i s t o r i c populat i o n p r e s s u r e e x i s t s i n t h e d a t a of p h y s i c a l anthropology, a l t h o u g h a r c h a e o l o g i s t s g e n e r a l l y have n o t used it This d i r e c t evidence i s t h e p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l and demographic d a t a embodied i n a n c i e n t human s k e l e t o n s from a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s throughout t h e world By r e c o r d i n g p a s t s u r v i v a l r a t e s and o s t e o l o g i c a l r e sponses t o p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s , t h e s e s k e l e t o n s have t h e p o t e n t i a l t o provide primary evidence o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , an expected r e s u l t of s e v e r e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e Although i t i s o f t e n not p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e c a u s e s of bone p a t h o l o g i e s , comparative, population-level study of c e r t a i n kinds of pathologies nevertheless may r e v e a l t h e frequency and d e g r e e of p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s a s a g e n e r a l phenomenon Even w i t h o u t knowing e x a c t c a u s e s , it is p o s s i b l e t o c r e a t e a h i s t o r y o f s t r e s s f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n of a given r e g i o n , and t h u s t o l e a r n how changes i n h e a l t h c o r r e l a t e w i t h changes i n p o p u l a t i o n , economy, and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n The p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e and e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i e s have d i f f e r Cohen's t h e o r y p r e d i c t s t h a t ent predictions i n t h i s regard p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s should be r e c u r r e n t and p e r s i s t e n t , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r l y severe s t r e s s possibly occurring during i n c i p i e n t agriculture I n contrast, t h e equilibrium theory p r e d i c t s t h a t

i

I

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s should occur o n l y r a r e l y and t h a t c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n should i n c r e a s i n g l y b u f f e r p e o p l e from s t r e s s In a d d i t i o n , t h e demographic e f f e c t s o f t h e change t o s e d e n t a r y settlement a r e interpreted d i f f e r e n t l y i n the d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s , s o t h a t most e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i s t s e x p e c t a d e c r e a s e i n m o r t a l i t y a t t h i s t i m e , whereas t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e proponents expect an i n c r e a s e Study o f t h e p a l e o p a t h o l o q i c a l d a t a can shed l i g h t on t h e s e d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p of human h e a l t h and economic development, a n d , i n a d d i t i o n , can y i e l d e v o l u t i o n a r y socioeconomic i n f o r m a t i o n about h e a l t h d i f f e r e n c e s between i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n

Among t h e p a t h o l o g i e s c o n s i d e r e d u s e f u l f o r r e c o r d i n g p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g : H a r r i s l i n e s , t o o t h enamel hypop l a s i a s , s t a t u r e r e d u c t i o n , c o r t i c a l bone l o s s , p o r o t i c hyperostos i s / c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a , and bone l e s i o n s caused by t h e i n f e c t i o u s Each t y p e of p a t h o l o g y y i e l d s d i s e a s e s ( B u i k s t r a and Cook 1981) a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t kind of i n f o r m a t i o n . Studied together r a t h e r t h a n i n i s o l a t i o n , t h e y t e l l more through t h e complementat i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n , a s Angel p o i n t s o u t (Chapter 3 t h i s volume) A major problem, however, i s t h a t o f d e t e r m i n i n g whether p a t h o l o gies a r e related t o nutritional s t r e s s o r other disease s t r e s s ( B u i k s t r a , Chapter 9 t h i s volume; Cook, Chapter 1 0 t h i s volume - N u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e a r e i n t e g r a l l y and s y n e r g i s t i c a l l y r e l a t e d w i t h one a n o t h e r , and, w h i l e m a l n u t r i t i o n can lower an i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e s i s t a n c e t o d i s e a s e , so a l s o can d i s e a s e cause m a l n u t r i t i o n by i n c r e a s i n g t h e body's need f o r c e r t a i n n u t r i e n t s Thus, i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t p a t h o l o g i e s might a r i s e i n a s k e l e t o n i n response t o a p a r t i c u l a r d i s e a s e and n o t because of any d e f i c i e n c y i n t h e diet However, s i n c e malnourished people a r e more s u b j e c t t o d i s e a s e t h a n well-nourished people, t h e p a t h o l o g i e s s t i l l a r e useI t is f u l i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e d e g r e e of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s commonplace i n community h e a l t h s t u d i e s t o i n f e r n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s from g e n e r a l h e a l t h s t a t u s , and t h e u s e of p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l i n d i c a t o r s i s a p a r a l l e l usage Because t h e growth r a t e of t h e young is considered a u s e f u l i n d i c a t o r of t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s o f a l i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n , some of t h e most u s e f u l p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s a r e t h o s e t h a t r e c o r d a suspension of growth d u r i n g t h e development of f e t u s e s , i n f a n t s , and c h i l d r e n Stress in adults is less d e t e c t a b l e due t o t h e l e s s e n e d s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f t h e a d u l t body t o both s t r e s s and bone remodeling Commonly s t u d i e d i n d i c a t o r s of suspended growth i n c l u d e enamel h y p o p l a s i a s , H a r r i s l i n e s , and s t a t u r e reduction Hypoplasias, which a r e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e a r t o o t h enamel d e f e c t s , a r e u s e f u l d i a g n o s t i c a l l y because t h e y mark e p i sodes t h a t can be d a t e d q u i t e p r e c i s e l y i n t h e development of t h e

22 CONCLUSIONS

57 1

individual They a l s o c o r r e l a t e w e l l w i t h m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n s , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t cause h y p o p l a s i a s a r e o f t e n l i f e threatening Although h y p o p l a s i a s do n o t i n themselves r e v e a l whether a s t r e s s stemmed from d i s e a s e o r from d i e t a r y s t r e s s , t h e r e i s p o t e n t i a l i n t h e f u t u r e f o r t r a c e element analys i s o f t h e enamel t o d e t e r m i n e whether t h e h y p o p l a s i a s c o r r e l a t e w i t h n u t r i e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s ( G i l b e r t 1975) With t h e s e , a s w i t h o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s , it has n o t been p o s s i b l e t o t i e s t r e s s e p i s o d e s down s e c u r e l y i n a temporal s e n s e , b u t perhaps t h i s w i l l be p o s s i b l e i n t h e f u t u r e I t i s thought t h a t h y p o p l a s i a s r e c o r d c h r o n i c s t r e s s o c c u r r i n g on an annual b a s i s o r more f r e q u e n t l y H a r r i s l i n e s , which r e c o r d a suspension of growth followed by catch-up growth a t t h e epiphyses o f long bones d u r i n g childhood, have g i v e n problems i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n Unlike enamel h y p o p l a s i a s , t h e i n c i d e n c e of H a r r i s l i n e s does n o t c o r r e l a t e w e l l w i t h h i g h e r mortality r a t e s P r e v i o u s l y , s c h o l a r s have assumed t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h more H a r r i s l i n e s w e r e t h o s e i n p o o r e r h e a l t h , b u t t h e l i n e s do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y appear i n t h e bones of t h e p e o p l e most s u b j e c t t o s t r e s s The l i n e s ' formation seems t o r e c o r d a good p e r i o d o f recovery from a s t r e s s , something t h a t may n o t b e f a l l a person who i s p o o r l y f e d o r s i c k Thus, it may b e t h a t t h e h e a l t h i e r people i n a s t r e s s e d p o p u l a t i o n a r e more s u b j e c t t o Another problem w i t h H a r r i s l i n e s than t h e less h e a l t h y p e o p l e H a r r i s l i n e s i s t h a t t h e y can be e f f a c e d by remodeling, u n l i k e hypoplasias The absence o f H a r r i s l i n e s , t h e n , does n o t t e l l whether o r n o t a person was s u b j e c t t o p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s b u t t h e i r presence does mark t h e o c c u r r e n c e of some kind of p h y s i o l o It i s thought g i c a l s t r e s s i n a person who recovered w e l l t h a t H a r r i s l i n e s r e c o r d e p i s o d i c s t r e s s , such a s famines o r epidemics Chronic p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s d u r i n g childhood growth c a u s e s s t a t u r e r e d u c t i o n o r s t u n t i n g ( S t i n i 1975) In addition, the s t u n t i n g o f growth due t o n u t r i t i o n a l o r d i s e a s e s t r e s s i s known t o a f f e c t t h e shape of t h e head and p e l v i s because p o r t i o n s of t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s do n o t expand a s they would w i t h normal growth (R. A Benfer, p e r s o n a l communication; Angel, Chapter 3 t h i s volume) F o r s e c u r e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f such s t r e s s - r e l a t e d changes i n a r e g i o n a l sequence, it i s n e c e s s a r y t o employ b i o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e s t u d i e s t o c o n t r o l f o r p o p u l a t i o n replacement by m i g r a t i o n , f o r gene flow could mimic t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l changes ( B u i k s t r a , Chapter 9 t h i s volume; Cook, Chapter 10 t h i s volume) Our understanding o f changes i n s t a t u r e throughout preh i s t o r y i s a s y e t u n c l e a r due t o t h e l a c k o f knowledge i n most r e g i o n s about p a t t e r n s of gene flow Severe p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s can a l s o produce l o s s o f c o r t i c a l bone i n long bones, b o t h among c h i l d r e n and a d u l t s and s t u d y o f t h i n s e c t i o n s by age and s e x can i l l u m i n a t e t h e p a t t e r n i n g of s t r e s s i n a p r e h i s t o r i c population This pathology, however, has n o t been s t u d i e d much a r c h a e o l o q i c a l l y , and it can be caused by changes i n a p e r s o n ' s a c t i v i t y l e v e l s a s w e l l a s i n n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s . Armelaqos and Martin (Martin and Annelagos 1979) have

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT shown how v a l u a b l e t h i s s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r can b e , and it should b e a useful area f o r f u t u r e study Two u s e f u l p a t h o l o g i e s reviewed by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h i s conf e r e n c e a r e p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a , which mark heightened p r o d u c t i o n of r e d blood c e l l s in t h e f a c t of c h r o n i c i r o n - d e f i c i e n c y anemia These p a t h o l o g i e s a r e n o t a b l e i n d i c a t o r s o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , because h i g h c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y a g r i c u l t u r a l d i e t s a r e o f t e n low i n i r o n I f one can c o n t r o l f o r i n c i d e n c e of g e n e t i c a l l y - o r p a r a s i t i c a l l y - c a u s e d anemias, t h e frequency o f por o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a can b e i n t e r p r e t e d q u i t e s e c u r e l y , a s evidence o f t h e d e g r e e 'of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s ( B u i k s t r a , Chapter 9 t h i s volume; Cook, Chapter 10 this volume) Occurrence of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i s recorded by t h e i n c i d e n c e o f both s p e c i f i c and g e n e r a l i z e d bone l e s i o n s The frequency o f t h e s e p a t h o l o g i e s i s expected t o i n c r e a s e w i t h t h e r i s e o f sedent a r y s e t t l e m e n t and w i t h i n c r e a s e d n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , which would synergistically increase t h e infectious disease r a t e A f i n a l potential indicator of population pressure i s the o v e r a l l m o r t a l i t y r a t e , which presumably w i l l show i n c r e a s e d r a t e s d u r i n g times of s e v e r e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e Mortality r a t e s a r e determined by q u a n t i t a t i v e study of d i f f e r e n t age and s e x c l a s s e s I t i s complicated by t h e of human s k e l e t o n s w i t h i n c e m e t e r i e s problem of a s c e r t a i n i n g whether a group of a n c i e n t s k e l e t o n s f a i r l y r e p r e s e n t t h e l i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n from which t h e y came Diff e r e n t i a l d i s p o s a l and p r e s e r v a t i o n of s k e l e t o n s o f c e r t a i n a g e s , such a s i n f a n t s o r people of v e r y h i g h s t a t u s , and d i f f i c u l t i e s of s e x i n g i n f a n t s k e l e t o n s o r aging t h o s e o f o l d p e o p l e , may skew the reconstructed proportions Nevertheless, determining mortalit y r a t e s from s k e l e t o n s i s a r o u t i n e method with which t o o b t a i n a b a s i c i d e a o f r a t e s of s u r v i v a l i n a n c i e n t p o p u l a t i o n s

HISTORY OF MORTALITY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS

Although t h e r e i s a r e l a t i v e l a c k of evidence f o r t h e Paleol i t h i c s t a g e , enough s k e l e t o n s have been s t u d i e d t h a t it seems c l e a r t h a t s e a s o n a l and p e r i o d i c p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s r e g u l a r l y a f f e c t e d most p r e h i s t o r i c h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g p o p u l a t i o n s , a s evidenced by t h e p r e s e n c e o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a s and H a r r i s l i n e s What a l s o seems c l e a r i s t h a t s e v e r e and c h r o n i c s t r e s s , w i t h high frequency o f h y p o p l a s i a s , i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e l e s i o n s , p a t h o l o g i e s r e l a t e d t o i r o n - d e f i c i e n c y anemia, and h i g h m o r t a l i t y r a t e s , i s n o t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e s e e a r l y p o p u l a t i o n s There i s no e v i dence o f f r e q u e n t , s e v e r e m a l n u t r i t i o n , and s o t h e d i e t must have been adequate i n c a l o r i e s and o t h e r n u t r i e n t s most o f t h e time During t h e M e s o l i t h i c , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f s t a r c h i n t h e d i e t r o s e , t o judge from t h e i n c r e a s e d o c c u r r e n c e . o f c e r t a i n d e n t a l d i s e a s e s , A t t h i s time, d i e t s b u t n o t enough t o c r e a t e an impoverished d i e t seem t o have been made up o f a r a t h e r l a r g e number of f o o d s , so

,

22

CONCLUSIONS

t h a t t h e f a i l u r e of one food source would not be c a t a s t r o p h i c There i s a p o s s i b l e s l i g h t tendency f o r P a l e o l i t h i c people t o be h e a l t h i e r and t a l l e r than Mesolithic people, b u t t h e r e i s no app a r e n t t r e n d toward increasing p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s during t h e Mesolithic Thus, it seems t h a t both hunter-gatherers and i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s r e g u l a r l y underwent population p r e s s u r e , but only t o a moderate degree During t h e periods when e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e f i r s t comes i n t o use t h e r e seems t o be a temporary upturn i n h e a l t h and s u r v i v a l r a t e s i n a few regions: Europe, North America, and t h e Eastern Mediterranean A t t h i s s t a g e , wild foods a r e s t i l l consumed p e r i o d i c a l l y and a v a r i e t y of p l a n t s a r e c u l t i v a t e d , suggesting t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of adequate amounts of d i f f e r e n t n u t r i e n t s Based on t h e i n c r e a s i n g frequency of t o o t h d i s e a s e r e l a t e d t o high carbohydrate consumption, it seems t h a t c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t s probably increased t h e s t o r a b l e c a l o r i e supply, removing f o r a I time any seasonal o r p e r i o d i c problems i n food supply I n most regions, however, t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e seems not t o have had t h i s e f f e c t , and t h e r e seems t o have been a s l i g h t i n crease in physiological s t r e s s . S t r e s s , however, does not seem t o have become common and widespread u n t i l a f t e r t h e development of high degrees of sedentism, At population d e n s i t y , and r e l i a n c e on i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e t h i s s t a g e i n a l l regions t h e incidence of p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s i n c r e a s e s g r e a t l y , and average m o r t a l i t y r a t e s i n c r e a s e appreci/ ably Most of t h e s e a g r i c u l t u r a l populations have high frequenc i e s of p o r o t i c hyperostosis and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a , and t h e r e i s a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e number and s e v e r i t y of enamel hypop l a s i a s and pathologies a s s o c i a t e d with i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e S t a t u r e i n many populations appears t o have been considerably lower than would be expected i f genetically-determined height maxima had been reached, which suggests t h a t t h e growth a r r e s t s Accompanying documented by p a t h o l o g i e s were causing s t u n t i n g t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s of poor h e a l t h and nourishment, t h e r e is a univ e r s a l drop i n t h e occurrence of H a r r i s l i n e s , suggesting a poor Incidence of carbohydrater a t e of f u l l recovery from t h e s t r e s s r e l a t e d t o o t h d i s e a s e i n c r e a s e s , apparently because s u b s i s t e n c e by t h i s time i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a heavy emphasis on a few s t a r c h y food crops Populations seem t o have grown beyond t h e p o i n t a t which wild food resources could be a meaningful d i e t a r y supplement, and even domestic animal r e s o u r c e s were commonly reserved f o r farm labor and t r a n s p o r t r a t h e r than f o r d i e t supplementation I t seems t h a t a l a r g e proportion of most sedentary p r e h i s t o r i c populations under i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e underwent chronic and l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g m a l n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e , e s p e c i a l l y during inThe causes of t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s a r e fancy and childhood l i k e l y t o have been t h e poverty of t h e s t a p l e crops i n most n u t r i e n t s except c a l o r i e s , p e r i o d i c famines caused by t h e i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l system, and chronic lack of food due t o both population growth and economic expropriation by e l i t e s The i n c r e a s e s i n i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e probably r e f l e c t both a poorer

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I

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ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT

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d i e t and i n c r e a s e d i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t i n crowded s e t t l e m e n t s , and i t i s , i n t u r n , l i k e l y t o have a g g r e v a t e d n u t r i t i o n a l problems Thus, it seems t h a t Cohen i s c o r r e c t i n supposing t h a t popul a t i o n p r e s s u r e was p r e s e n t through most of p r e h i s t o r y e x c e p t p o s s i b l y during t h e beginning o f e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e i n a few regions A 1 though p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s common i n p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s and t h u s does p r e c e d e t h e development o f a g r i c u l t u r e , it i s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s e v e r e a t t h i s t i m e , c o n t r a r y t o Cohen's e x p e c t a t i o n s The o r i g i n of a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e n , cannot a c c u r a t e l y be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f u n u s u a l l y h i g h l e v e l s o f p r e s s u r e a t t h e time Severe p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e o c c u r s o n l y a f t e r t h e development of h i g h l y i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e , when popul a t i o n s a r e dense and s e d e n t a r y , and s o c i o p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n is stratified I t seems s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t p o p u l a t i o n growth speeds up a t t h e v e r y time t h a t h e a l t h and m o r t a l i t y worsen I n o r d e r f o r growth t o occur i n such a s i t u a t i o n , t h e r e would have had t o be a subs t a n t i a l simultaneous i n c r e a s e i n n a t a l i t y In part, t h i s pattern c o n t r a d i c t s t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i s t s who hold t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e and sedentism b r i n g a n improvement i n h e a l t h On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e i n d i r e c t evidence f o r an i n c r e a s e i n n a t a l i t y , probably through c l o s e r c h i l d s p a c i n g , i s consonant w i t h both groups o f t h e o r i e s To b e t t e r understand t h e c a u s a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e p a t t e r n s , we need t o know more about t h e e t i o l o g y of t h e various physiological s t r e s s e s t h a t these p r e h i s t o r i c I t seems t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f popup o p u l a t i o n s were e x p e r i e n c i n g l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s d i f f e r e n t a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s and p l a c e s , a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of economic and s o c i o p o l i t i c a l development, and i n d i f f e r e n t demographic s i t u a t i o n s In addition, the rates, t y p e s , s e v e r i t y , and c a u s e s of p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s e s v a r y among t h e d i f f e r e n t age, sex, and s o c i a l c l a s s e s o f a p o p u l a t i o n , and f u r t h e r work i s r e q u i r e d t o e l u c i d a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t produce t h e s e p a t t e r n s

CHANGES I N ACTIVITY AND LABOR PRODUCTIVITY

An important assumption i n most t h e o r i e s - i s t h a t l a b o r produc-

t i v i t y d e c l i n e s w i t h i n t e n s i v e food p r o d u c t i o n . An i n t e r e s t i n g by-product o f t h i s review o f paleopathology i s e v i d e n c e f o r a marked change i n human a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s d u r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o T h i s p a t t e r n o f change shows up i n many sequences, agriculture i n c l u d i n g t h e Midwest and S o u t h e a s t i n t h e United S t a t e s , Western Europe, t h e E a s t e r n Mediterranean, t h e Near E a s t , E a s t A s i a , and South Asia During t h e P a l e o l i t h i c and t h e M e s o l i t h i c , both bones and t e e t h seem t o have r e c e i v e d much g r e a t e r u s e t h a n i n l a t e r t i m e s , and t h e r e s u l t was e x t e n s i v e t o o t h wear and t h e development o f l a r a e . ruaaed bonv s t r u c t u r e s and c o n s i d e r a b l e o s t e o a r t h r i t i s

22 CONCLUSIONS I n t h e t r a n s i t i o n from t h e M e s o l i t h i c t o N e o l i t h i c i n t h e s e r e g i o n s t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e drop i n s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y , o s t e o a r t h r i t i s , and d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n I t seems t h a t t h e development of s e d e n t a r y a g r i c u l t u r e eased mechanical s t r e s s on t h e body and t e e t h , t o judge from t h e s e changes, which seem t o have been achieved both through e v o l u t i o n a r y g e n e t i c change and through physi o l o g i c a l processes taking p l a c e during t h e l i v e s o f individuals S i g n i f i c a n t l y , it seems t o b e a r e s p o n s e t o much l e s s e n e d p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y a f t e r t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e Cohen (Chapters 1 and 23 t h i s volume) i n t e r p r e t s -these changes mainly a s evidence o f s t u n t i n g due t o n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s i n a c o n t e x t o f i n c r e a s e d popul a t i o n p r e s s u r e , b u t , a s Larsen (Chapter 1 4 t h i s volume), p o i n t s o u t , many of t h e p h y s i c a l changes r e l a t e t o a r e d u c t i o n i n muscular activity (Both t h e h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g l i f e w a y and t h e h a b i t u a l act i o n s o f p l a n t c u l t i v a t i o n and food p r e p a r a t i o n p u t s t r a i n s on t h e human s k e l e t a l frame , however, and o s t e o a r t h r i t i s continued to occ u r i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s , though a t a lower r a t e ) Change i n bone remodeling - p a t t e r n s a s an i n d i c a t o r of changing a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s seems a f r u i t f u l a r e a t o look i n t o i n t h e f u t u r e , b o t h f o r a b e t t e r understanding o f t h e c a u s e s and consequences o f t h e r i s e of a g r i c u l t u r e and f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g o c c u p a t i o n a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ( B u i k s t r a , Chapter 9, and Larsen, Chapter 1 4 , t h i s volume) To improve o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of s t r e s s t o bone remodeling, w e may need t o p u r s u e f u r t h e r l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s o f bone remodeling under known s t r e s s e s , t o improve our understanding of t h e mechanical and p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s t h a t cause t h e bone p a t h o l o g i e s The p a l e o p a t h o l o q i c a l evidence f o r d e c r e a s e d mechanical stress s u g g e s t s t h a t one of t h e t h i n g s t h a t t h e r i s e o f a g r i c u l t u r e might have brought i s an improvement i n t h e c o s t - b e n e f i t r a t i o of subsistence labor A s s u b s i s t e n c e p r o d u c t i v i t y p e r h e c t a r e was going up, t h e l a n d e x p l o i t e d f o r s u b s i s t e n c e became more c o n c e n t r a t e d s p a t i a l l y , and s o t h e r e was a d r o p i n l a b o r c o s t s p e r u n i t gained T h i s f i n d i n g i s c o n t r a r y t o most r e c e n t t h e o r e t i c i a n s ' e x p e c t a tions Only Bronson (1975) seems t o have p r e d i c t e d i t

SUMMARY

The d a t a g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r and summarized i n t h i s conference g i v e a p i c t u r e of widespread, r e c u r r i n g p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n growth, based on i n c r e a s e s through t i m e i n s i z e s and numbers o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s and i n numbers of human s k e l e t a l remains Concurrent w i t h t h i s growth, t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e t r e n d i n most r e g i o n s toward s u b s i s t e n c e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n f o r i n c r e a s e d production During t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c s t a g e , s u b s i s t e n c e seems t o have been based predominantly on t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of l a r g e r game s p e c i e s o f h i g h n u t r i t i o n a l v a l u e and e a s y a v a i l a b i l i t y , such a s

i

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576

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ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT

herd animals o r anadromous f i s h . During t h e Mesolithic s t a g e , however, s u b s i s t e n c e was p r o g r e s s i v e l y a l t e r e d t o include more foods such a s p l a n t s , which a r e abundant and s t o r a b l e b u t of r e l a t i v e l y low d i g e s t i b i l i t y and p a l a t a b i l i t y The c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s u b s i s t e n c e l a b o r during both p e r i o d s seems t o have been low, f o r t h e bodies of most i n d i v i d u a l s e x h i b i t s i g n s of extensive remodeling and wear under mechanical s t r e s s , and t h e r e a l s o seems t o have been s e l e c t i v e p r e s s u r e on t h e genome f o r t h e maintenance of l a r g e and r o b u s t bones and t e e t h . During both p e r i o d s , a l s o , s u b s i s t e n c e a d a p t a t i o n was a p p a r e n t l y i n e f f e c t i v e a t preventing p e r i o d s o f want, f o r most populations seem t o have r e g u l a r l y experienced periods of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , t o judge from t h e presence of s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s of t h e type t h a t record episodes of physiological s t r e s s Nonetheless, throughout t h e long period before e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e r e i s no e v i dence f o r chronic o r severe n u t r i t i o n a l o r d i s e a s e s t r e s s During t h i s p e r i o d , sedentism i s r a r e o r absent, and y e t populat i o n s grew during almost every period of occupation By t h e end of t h e Mesolithic, i n t h e e a r l y Holocene, t h e process of i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n had produced d i e t s i n c r e a s i n g l y focused on a few highly productive p l a n t food sources t h a t were r e l a t i v e l y s t a r c h y and low i n p r o t e i n , minerals, and vitamins This p a t t e r n i s i n f e r r e d from changes i n t h e archaeological food remains, a r t i f a c t s , p a t t e r n s of t o o t h d i s e a s e , and bone chemistry By e a r l y Neolithic times e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l crops had been developed o r borrowed i n most r e g i o n s , and t h e s e provided a g r e a t l y increased p o t e n t i a l f o r economic and demographic expansion and sedentary s e t t l e m e n t l a t e r i n t h e s t a g e I n a few r e g i o n s , t h e rapid economic expansion of t h e e a r l y N e o l i t h i c produced an upturn i n h e a l t h contemporary with a r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n population growth This seems t o be one of t h e few i n s t a n c e s when population p r e s s u r e may have been absent--due, apparently, t o t h e r a p i d expansion i n subsistence permitted by t h e i n c e p t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r e I n c o n t r a s t , during t h e l a t e r N e o l i t h i c , when systems of i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e had developed and dense, sedentary s e t t l e m e n t was t h e r u l e , t h e r e was a widespread, marked i n c r e a s e i n r a t e s of physiological s t r e s s and m o r t a l i t y , apparently due both t o lessened d i e t q u a l i t y , adequacy, and s t a b i l i t y , and t o increased r a t e s of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e This change i s evident i n t h e paleodemographic p a t t e r n s and t h e high frequencies of paleopathological i n d i c a t o r s of chronic s t r e s s Since population growth continued unabated; it seems t h a t t h e r e must have been a l a r g e i n c r e a s e i n b i r t h r a t e s t o balance t h e increased m o r t a l i t y Despite t h e adv e r s e long-term e f , f e c t s of N e o l i t h i c d e v e l o p e n t s on h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n , t h e period brought a c l e a r i n c r e a s e i n t h e l a b o r e f f i c i e n c y of s u b s i s t e n c e Throughout most of t h e world, t h e r i s e of e f f i c i e n t , sedentary a g r i c u l t u r e c o r r e l a t e s with a s u b s t a n t i a l drop i n d e n t a l and s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y and wear t h a t i s due, apparently, t o a decrease i n t h e amount of p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y needed f o r subsistence

22 CONCLUSIONS

577

I t i s c l e a r t h a t none o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s a r e completely confirmed o r f a l s i f i e d by t h e s e p a t t e r n s o f p r e h i s t o r i c data Cohen's v e r s i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y comes o f f b e t t e r t h a n most, i n t h a t p o p u l a t i o n growth, p r e s s u r e , and economic growth o c c u r c o n t i n u o u s l y throughout most sequences The cons i d e r a b l e i n t r i n s i c p o t e n t i a l o f human p o p u l a t i o n s f o r growth i s evidenced by t h e s u b s t a n t i a l growth t h a t took p l a c e even among mobile h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s and by t h e r a p i d growth o f p o p u l a t i o n even i n t h e f a c e of t h e heightened m o r t a l i t y r a t e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s Cohen' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e causa l r o l e o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s a l s o s u p p o r t e d by t h e u n i v e r s a l p r o g r e s s i o n of s u b s i s t e n c e systems toward g r e a t e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y , r a t h e r than toward improved n u t r i t i o n o r economic s t a b i l i t y The e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i e s f a r e l e s s w e l l Contrary t o t h e s e ' t h e o r i e s ' e x p e c t a t i o n of human a d a p t a t i o n , human s u b s i s t e n c e becomes l e s s s t a b l e and lower i n n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y a s a d a p t a t i o n proceeds, and t h e r e i s a p r e v a l e n c e o f p o p u l a t i o n growth and n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s t h a t t h e t h e o r i e s do n o t p r o v i d e f o r I n cont r a s t t o such t h e o r i e s , e a r l y h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s d i d n o t c o n t r o l t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s w e l l below c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y , f o r t h e p a t h o l o g i e s of t h e i r b o d i e s show r e p e a t e d e x p e r i e n c e of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e i r methods of p o p u l a t i o n management were s u f f i c i e n t t o keep them from c h r o n i c s t a r v a t i o n f o r which t h e r e is a b s o l u t e l y no evidence i n p r e a q r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s S e v e r a l t h e o r i e s , i n c l u d i n g Cohen's, p o s i t a p e r i o d of g r e a t e r population pressure occurring j u s t a s i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r e begins, b u t it seems c l e a r t h a t t h e r e was no p e r i o d o f i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n pressure a t t h a t juncture A g r i c u l t u r e probably developed a t t h i s time n o t because p r e s s u r e was any more s e v e r e t h a n b e f o r e b u t because p r e v i o u s p o p u l a t i o n growth and s u b s i s t e n c e change had f o s t e r e d a number o f s p e c i e s t h a t were a b l e -to respond t o i n c r e a s e d l a b o r i n p u t s w i t h i n c r e a s e d o u t p u t s , a t t r a c t i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y heavy r e l i a n c e on them f o r food in t h e f a c e o f c o n t i n u e d p o p u l a t i o n p r e s sure Another t e n e t common t o most t h e o r i e s about t h e r i s e o f a g r i c u l t u r e was t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e had g r e a t e r l a b o r c o s t s than hunti n g and g a t h e r i n g From t h e evidence of pathology, it seems t h a t l a b o r c o s t s d i d n o t i n c r e a s e b u t d e c r e a s e d w i t h t h e implementation of e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e . T h i s f i n d i n g adds a second impetus t o t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e : t h e p r i n c i p l e of l e a s t e f f o r t To some d e g r e e most t e n e t s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s can b e accommodated by s p e c i f y i n g d i f f e r e n t environmental, demographic, and s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t s f o r them ( t h i s approach i s e x p l a i n e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n Roosevelt 1980) Thus, a l t h o u g h p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e might be a c c e p t e d a s a major f o r c e f o r s u b s i s t e n c e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i n human p r e h i s t o r y , t h e r e w i l l be t i m e s and p l a c e s where t h e r e w i l l be e i t h e r no p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e o r no p o t e n t i a l f o r intensification So, i n t h e absence o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e , a f t e r an epidemic o r when p o p u l a t i o n s e n t e r an unpopulated r e g i o n , humans would a c t a s t h e e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r y p r e d i c t s , t o minimize e f f o r t and t o maximize n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y I n such a -t = = ':.: '-0 '.Â¥,-...-r'% -;;"$y,.-^;
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c o n t e x t , demographic p o t e n t i a l could a l s o b e optimized by r e l a x i n g population c o n t r o l s Larger p o p u l a t i o n s i z e could have g i v e n a group an advantage i n t h e f a c e of i n t e r g r o u p w a r f a r e and competit i o n for resources When p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e developed through t h e i n e v i t a b l e growth of p o p u l a t i o n , people would have i n t e n s i f i e d s u b s i s t e n c e a s f a r a s was technoenvironmentally p o s s i b l e Where environmental ' p o t e n t i a l i s l i m i t e d , people would have had t o c o n t r o l t h e i r popul a t i o n growth c u l t u r a l l y u n t i l some way t o i n t e n s i f y p r o d u c t i o n ' could be found I n r e g i o n s o f h i g h s u b s i s t e n c e p o t e n t i a l , populat i o n p r e s s u r e would encourage s u b s i s t e n c e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , which i s a q u i c k e r , more c o s t - e f f e c t i v e response t o s t r e s s t h a n populat i o n c o n t r o l , which i s o n l y a long-range s o l u t i o n because o f t h e , i n e v i t a b l e t i m e l a g between a change i n f a m i l y planning and t h e \ r e s u l t i n g change i n t h e s i z e of t h e p o p u l a t i o n The s p a t i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i v i t y o f a g r i c u l t u r e and i t s f a v o r a b l e l a b o r c o s t s make it s u s c e p t i b l e t o t a k e o v e r by e l i t e s , who could u s e t h e i r c o n t r o l of r e s o u r c e s t o e n s u r e t h e i r own n u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h i n t h e f a c e of p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e The burden of c e n t r a l i z e d e x p r o p r i a t i o n i n e f f e c t would have i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e on a l l b u t t h e e l i t e , and it may be t h a t t h i s phenomenon, along w i t h urban crowding, produced t h e widespread i n c r e a s e i n poor n u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h among p o p u l a t i o n s s u b s i s t i n g by i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e i n p r e i n d u s t r i a l s t a t e s

,

1

PALEOPATHOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY FOR THE FUTURE

The p a p e r s i n t h i s volume i l l u s t r a t e t h e g r e a t v a l u e o f archaeological-physical anthropological s t u d i e s f o r t h e elucidat i o n o f t h e o r i e s about human e v o l u t i o n , and t h e y show how import a n t it i s t o c o l l e c t , p r e s e r v e , and a n a l y z e p r e h i s t o r i c o s t e o l o q i c a l remains These p a p e r s a l s o demonstrate t h a t t o gain r e a l l y useful data requires goal-oriented f i e l d c o l l e c t i o n Where p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have been involved from t h e s t a r t , t h e r e s e a r c h has produced r e a l l y u s e f u l and s o p h i s t i c a t e d r e s u l t s based on h i g h - q u a l i t y and abundant d a t a Where t h e p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have had o n l y t h e l e a v i n g s of p r o j e c t s with o t h e r aims, i t h a s been v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o make u s e f u l i n f e r e n c e s because remains f r e q u e n t l y were n o t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c o l l e c t e d i n t h e f i e l d and were n o t p r e s e r v e d f o r a n a l y s i s i n museums o r r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r i e s , a s Palkovich p o i n t s o u t Because of t h e l a c k o f r e c o g n i t i o n of (Chapter 1 6 t h i s volume) t h e i r i n t e r p r e t i v e p o t e n t i a l , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s have o f t e n r e l e g a t e d t h e r e p o r t on s k e l e t a l remains t o an appendix i n t h e i r r e p o r t s , Museums, i n o r they have n o t b o t h e r e d t o have them a n a l y z e d t u r n , have n o t valued t h e s e remains and o f t e n have not p r o p e r l y c u r a t e d and conserved them There seems t o b e a l e s s o n t o a r chaeologists i n t h i s : t a k e c a r e over t h e e x c a v a t i o n , c o n s e r v a t i o n

22

CONCLUSIONS

a n a l y s i s , and c u r a t i o n of t h e human remains from your e x c a v a t i o n s Bone have n o t been of v e r y h i g h p r i o r i t y amonq a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , b u t t h e r i g o r of i n f e r e n c e s about many a s p e c t s o f p r e h i s t o r i c l i f e depends on t h e s e remains I t should b e obvious why o s t e o l o q i c a l remains a r e i n t e g r a l t o t h e study o f p r e h i s t o r i c human ecology, b u t t h e y a l s o have a cont r i b u t i o n t o make t o s t u d i e s o f p r e h i s t o r i c s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n For example, almost a l l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s of s o c i o p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t y p e s and p r o c e s s e s i n c l u d e humane c o l o g i c a l c a u s e s and consequences F r i e d ' s (1967) famous d e f i n i t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o l i f e - s u s t a i n i n g r e s o u r c e s a s a key t o s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s j u s t one example J u s t a few o f t h e a s p e c t s o f l i f e t h a t might b e expected t o be a f f e c t e d by d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t a t u s and rank a r e housing, c l o t h i n g , d i e t , h e a l t h c a r e , and o c c u p a t i o n S i g n i f i c a n t differences i n t h e q u a l i t y of these a s p e c t s o f L i f e w i t h i n a p o p u l a t i o n can b e expected t o have e f f e c t s on t h e h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n o f p e o p l e H e a l t h and d i e t a r y d i f f e r e n c e s , a s shown i n t h i s symposium, a r e r e f l e c t e d i n t h e bones and can b e s t u d i e d i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s Thus, paleopathology i s a primary method f o r t h e s t u d y o f p r e h i s t o r i c socioeconomic o r g a n i z a t i o n a s B u i k s t r a (Chapter 9 t h i s volume) and o t h e r s have p o i n t e d o u t Paleopathology can d e f i n e t h e h e a l t h and d i e t a r y c o r r e l a t e s o f s o c i o p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and can l e a d t o a b e t t e r understanding o f t h e p r o c e s s e s o f s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a tion For example without i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h e a l t h , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s might d e t e c t a system o f d i f f e r e n t i a l r a n k i n g , b u t t h e y would b e u n a b l e t o s a y much about t h e n a t u r e of t h e ranking because, w i t h o u t p a l e o b i o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e s k e l e t o n s , t h e r e would b e no i n f o r m a t i o n o n d i f f e r e n c e s i n h e a l t h o r d i e t o r age and sex between and w i t h i n t h e s o c i a l u n i t s Ethnographers a l s o could do more i n t h e s t u d y o f h e a l t h , d i e t , and demography We need e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s o f t h e v a r i o u s p a t h o l o g i e s r e l e v a n t t o t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of p r e h i s t o r i c change There i s a gap i n i n f o r m a t i o n between t h e l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s o f animals and t h e s t u d i e s o f t h e p r e h i s t o r i c dead To b e t t e r und e r s t a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e bone p a t h o l o g i e s t o l i v i n g p h y s i o l o g i c a l and g e n e t i c systems we need t o s t u d y them i n t h e f l e s h , and many o f t h e p a t h o l o g i c a l s t a t e s and p r o c e s s e s found among t h e a n c i e n t p o p u l a t i o n s a r e s t i l l o c c u r r i n g now, b u t g e n e r a l ethnographers o f t e n seem t o be u n i n t e r e s t e d o r unaware of them Basic ethnographic s t u d i e s o f n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e need t o b e done t o t e s t t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s and bone pathology and c h e m i s t r y . For example, we need t o know what l e v e l s o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s cause h y p o p l a s i a s and o t h e r The r e l a t i o n s h i p s p a t h o l o g i e s among p r e - i n d u s t r i a l p o p u l a t i o n s o f s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e p a t t e r n s t o d i e t need t o b e i n v e s t i g a t e d amonq l i v i n g people of known d i e t , a s do t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among l e v e l s of s t r o n t i u m i n t h e body, t h e environment, and food W e a l s o need t o l e a r n more a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s t r e s s I t i s common f o r ethnographers t o a s s e r t t o s t a t u r e depression t h a t " t h e i r " p o p u l a t i o n s a r e h e a l t h y and w e l l nourished because +

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ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT t h e male a d u l t s appear s o I t i s u s u a l , however, f o r t h e a d u l t s i n such p o p u l a t i o n s t o have v e r y low s t a t u r e , and t h e few ethnog r a p h i c s t u d i e s t h a t have been done of m a t e r n a l and i n f a n t h e a l t h and d i e t document t h e p r e s e n c e o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , a p r o b a b l e cause o f s t a t u r e r e d u c t i o n I f more were known about t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s and s t a t u r e r e d u c t i o n , s t r o n g e r i n f e r e n c e s could b e made on t h e b a s i s o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s t a t u r e variation We a l s o need ethnographic i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e human e c o l o g i c a l consequences and c o r r e l a t e s o f d i f f e r e n t forms o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l organization Most of t h e c a u s a l p r o c e s s e s t h a t s c h o l a r s e n v i s i o n a r e assumed; t h e y a r e n o t demonstrated Thus, we t h i n k t h a t t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s i n access t o life-sustaining resources within d i f f e r e n t types of s o c i e t i e s , b u t t h i s conclusion It i s a needs t o be a s s e s s e d w i t h s t u d i e s of l i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n s p a r t i c u l a r problem t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l ethnographers have n o t been a s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e l i f e o f women and c h i l d r e n a s t h e y a r e i n men, and t h e h e a l t h s t a t u s o f t h e community i s o f t e n i n f e r r e d f rom knowledge o f a d u l t males T h i s p r a c t i c e o f t e n y i e l d s an i n a c c u r a t e view because women and c h i l d r e n o f t e n have lower s t a t u s t h a n men, and, a s a consequence, t h e y may have l e s s f a v o r a b l e h e a l t h due t o r e s t r i c t e d a c c e s s t o some r e s o u r c e s . V a r i a t i o n w i t h i n even e g a l i t a r i a n p o p u l a t i o n s needs t o be r e c o g n i z e d and s t u d i e d b e f o r e we r e a l l y understand t h e meaning o f mean o r a v e r a g e h e a l t h . The s t u d y of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n seems incomplete i f we do not know what a r e t h e consequences t o h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n o f membership i n d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s , whether age-grade, g e n e a l o g i c a l , achieved, o r ascribed I f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s a r e going t o i n f e r t h e n a t u r e of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n from t h e h e a l t h c o r r e l a t e s o f rank and s t a t u s , then we need t o know more a b o u t t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s among l i v i n g peoples These e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l problems and gaps i n knowledge i l l u s t r a t e t h e i n e s c a p a b l e interdependence of t h e s u b f i e l d s of anthropology I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f ethnology r e q u i r e a knowledge o f t h e p a s t , t o understand t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e p a s t and Conversely, t h e f i e l d of t h e p r e s e n t and t h e r e a s o n s f o r them. archaeology i s dependent on s t u d i e s o f l i v i n g p e o p l e , s i n c e we must model many vanished p r o c e s s e s o f t h e p a s t on knowledge of t h e p r e s e n t n a t u r e of humans And any s t u d y of humans a s c u l t u r a l b e i n g s , whether p a s t o r p r e s e n t , e v e n t u a l l y w i l l run up a g a i n s t t h e need t o know t h e p h y s i c a l human, f o r c u l t u r e and t h e body c o n t i n u a l l y i n t e r a c t , and t o e x p l a i n one without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e o t h e r seems i m p o s s i b l e

22 CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES Asch, N B , R I Ford, and D L Asch 1972 Paleoethnobotany o f t h e K o s t e r S i t e :

I l l i n o i s State Museum Research Papers Investigations No 6

I

The a r c h a i c h o r i z o n s Vol 6 , Reports of

Bender, M M , D A B a r r e l s , and R L S t e v e n t o n 1981 F u r t h e r l i g h t on carbon i s o t o p e s and Hopewell a g r i c u l t u r e American Antiquity 46:34?-353 Binford L R. 1968 P o s t - P l e i s t o c e n e a d a p t a t i o n s . I n New perspectives i n archaeology, e d i t e d by S R. Binford and L. R. Binford, p p 313-341. Aldine, Chicago Boserup, E 1965 The conditions of agricultural- growth: The economics of agrarian change under p e a t i o n pressure Aldine , Chicago Bronson, B. 1975 The e a r l i e s t farming: Demography a s a cause and consequence i n Population, ecology, and s o c M evolution, e d i t e d by S P o l g a r , pp 53-78 Mouton, The Hague Brown, A 1973 Bone strontium as a dietary indicator i n 'human s k e l e t a l popuhtions Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan, Ann Arbor B u i k s t r a , J , and D C. Cook Annual Review of 1981 Paleopatholoqy: An American account Anthropology 9 : 933-970 Cohen, M N 1977 1h.e food c r i s i s i n prehistory: Overpopulation and the 0ri.g-i.n~of agric~lt-ure Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven Earle, T K and A. L. Christenson ( e d i t o r s ) 1980 Modeling change i n p r e h i s t o h subsistence economies Academic P r e s s , New York Flannery, K V 1969 O r i g i n s and e c o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s o f e a r l y d o m e s t i c a t i o n i n I n The domestication and exploiI r a n and t h e Near E a s t t a t i o n of plants and animals, e d i t e d by P J ucko and G W Dimbleby, pp 73-100 Aldine, Chicago 1973 The o r i g i n s o f a g r i c u l t u r e Annual Revieu of Anthropology 2: 271-310 Ford, Richard I 1977 Evolutionary biology and t h e e v o l u t i o n of human ecosystems: I n Explanation o f A c a s e s t u d y from t h e Midwestern U S A. prehistoric change, e d i t e d by J M H i l l , pp 153-184 U n i v e r s i t y o f New Mexico P r e s s , Albuquerque 1979 Paleoethnobotany i n American archaeology I n Advances i n ca'chaeological method and t k o r y (Vol 2 ) , e d i t e d by M. B S c h i f f e r , pp 285-336 Academic P r e s s , New York

I

!I

, i

I I

I

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT Fried, M 1976 The evolution York Gilbert, R I 1975 Trace element

of p o x t i c a l society

Random House, New

analysis of three s k e l e t a l Amerindian populations a t Dickson Mound. ~ h D d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department

of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts, Amherst Harris, M 1977 Cannibals and kings The oriqins of cultures Random House, New York. Hassan, F A 1975 Determination o f t h e s i z e , d e n s i t y , and growth r a t i o of hunting-gathering populations I n P o w a t i o n , ecology, and social evolution, e d i t e d by S P o l q a r pp 27-52 Mouton, The Hague 1978 Demographic archaeology I n Advances i n archaeo logical method and t k o r y (Vol l ) , e d i t e d by M B S c h i f f e r , pp 49-103 Academic P r e s s , New York 1981 Demographic archaeology Academic P r e s s , New York Hayden, B. 1981 Research and development i n t h e Stone Age: Technological Current Anthropology t r a n s i t i o n s among Hunter-Gatherers 22 ( 5 ) :519-548 Jochim, M. A. 1976 Hunter-Gatherer subsistence and settlement: A predictive Academic P r e s s , New York model Martin, P L , and G J Armelagos 1979 Morphometrics o f compact bone: An example from Sudanese American Journal of Physical Anthropo logy 51 : Nubia 571-578 Payne, S 1972a P a r t i a l recovery and sample b i a s : The r e s u l t s o f some I n Papers i n economic prehistory, s i e v i n g experiments e d i t e d by E S Higgs, pp 49-64 Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Cambridge 1972b On t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of bone samples from a r c h a e o l o g i c a l I n Papers i n Economic Prehistory, e d i t e d by sites E S Higgs, pp 65-82 Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Cambridge Roosevelt, A. C 1980 Pamana: Prehistoric maize and manioc subsistence along t h e Amazon. and Orinco Academic P r e s s , New York Stini, W A 1975 Adaptive s t r a t e g i e s o f human p o p u l a t i o n s under n u t r i t i o n a l stress i n Biosociat i n t e r r e l a t i o n s i n population adaptat i o n , e d i t e d by E S Watts, F E Johnston, and G W Lasker, pp 19-41 Mouton, The Hague Struever, S 1968 F l o t a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s f o r t h e recovery o f s m a l l - s c a l e American AntGuity 33 :353-362 a r c h a e o l o g i c a l remains

22

CONCLUSIONS

Tauber, ~ f o r d i e t a r y h a b i t s o f p r e h i s t o r i c man i n 1981 1 3 evidence Denmark Nature 292: 332-333 van d e r Merwe, N J , and J C Vogel c o n t e n t o f human c o l l a g e n a s a measure o f p r e h i s t o r i c 1978 "C d i e t i n Woodland North America Nature 276:815-816 A. C Roosevelt and J C Vogel van d e r Merwe, N 1981 I s o t o p i c evidence f o r p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e change a t Nature 292 :536-538 Parmana, Venezuela and A. B. Brown " Wing, E S 1979 P a l e o n u t r i t i o n : Method and theory i n p r e h i s t o r i c foodAcademic P r e s s , New York Ways

CHAPTER 2 3

PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE:

EDITORS' SUMMATION

Mark Nathan Cohen Department of Anthropology S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f N e w York College a t P l a t t s b u r g h

George J . Ame'Lagos Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y of Massachusetts-Amherst

INTRODUCTION

D e s p i t e t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l s t u d i e s and t h e problems o f i n t e r p o p u l a t i o n and i n t e r - r e g i o n a l c o m p a r a b i l i t y d i s c u s s e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r , t h e s t u d i e s i n t h i s volume c o l l e c t i v e l y d e s c r i b e a number of c l e a r t r e n d s in d a t a . Many o f t h e s e t r e n d s h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t b e a r i n g on d i s c u s s i o n s of c o m p a r a t i v e h e a l t h and o f economic and t e c h n o l o g i c a l " p r o g r e s s " a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e N e o l i t h i c Revolution. The d a t a c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f one long-standing c o n t r o v e r s y i n a n t h r o p o l o g y conc e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i v e h e a l t h of h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s and f a r m e r s . They a l s o a d d r e s s a second c o n t r o v e r s y concerning t h e r o l e o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h i n i n s t i g a t i n g economic change, but p r o v i d e no c l e a r r e s o l u t i o n of t h e l a t t e r . F i n a l l y , the techniques r e p o r t e d demonstrate approaches ( b u t a s y e t no aggregated d a t a ) t o a number of o t h e r l o n g - s t a n d i n g i s s u e s i n anthropology and p r e h i s t o r y .

PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE

Copyright 0 1984 hy Academic Preis. Inc All nghis of reprciduciion in any form reserved

ISBN 0-11-179080-0

MARK NATHAN COHEN AND GEORGE J . ARMELAGOS MAJOR TRENDS I N DATA ON HEALTH

The I n c i d e n c e o f I n f e c t i o n The c l e a r e s t m a j o r t r e n d i n t h e c o l l e c t e d d a t a c o n c e r n s t h e i n c i d e n c e o f i n f e c t i o n s a s m e a s u r e d by t h e f r e q u e n c y o f n o n s p e c i f i c s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s o f i n f e c t i o u s e t i o l o g y a s w e l l a s by t h e f r e q u e n c y o f c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c d i s e a s e s . Twelve s t u d i e s r e p o r t on t h e i n c i d e n c e o f i n f e c t i o n ( B u i k s t r a / C o o k [ C h a p t e r s 9 a n d l o ] ; Angel [ c h a p t e r 31 ; Goodman e t a l . [ c h a p t e r 111; N o r r [ c h a p t e r 181 ; A l l i s o n [ c h a p t e r 201 ; C a s s i d y [ c h a p t e r 121 ; Rathbun [ c h a p t e r 61 ; Rose e t a l . [ c h a p t e r 1 5 1 ; L a r s e n [ c h a p t e r 1 4 1 ; M e i k l e j o h n e t al. [ c h a p t e r 41 ; P e r z i g i a n e t a l . [ c h a p t e r 131 ; U b e l a k e r [ c h a p t e r 191 ) Most c o n c l u d e t h a t i n f e c t i o n was a more common and more s e r i o u s p r o b l e m f o r f a r m e r s t h a n f o r t h e i r h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g f o r e b e a r s ; and most s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s r e s u l t e d from some c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n c r e a s i n g s e d e n t i s m , l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n a g g r e g a t e s , and t h e w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d s y n e r g i s m between i n f e c t i o n a n d m a l n u t r i t i o n . A s e x c e p t i o n s , Rose e t a l . n o t e a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h r a t e of i n f e c t i o n s i n a h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g p o p u l a t i o n i n o n e o f t h e t h r e e s u b z o n e s o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i Valley t h a t t h e y d i s c u s s ; and Norr n o t e s a d e c l i n e i n i n f e c t i o n s from a h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g p o p u l a t i o n t o a n e a r l y f a r m i n g p o p u l a t i o n f o l l o w e d by a r i s e t o new, much h i g h e r l e v e l s w i t h more i n t e n s i v e f a r m i n g i n Panama. M e i k l e j o h n e t a l . r e p o r t a n i n c r e a s e in c r a n i a l i n f e c t i o n s , b u t n o t i n p o s t c r a n i a l l e s i o n s , w i t h t h e N e o l i t h i c i n E u r o p e . Rathbun r e p o r t s a h i g h e r r a t e o f i n f e c t i o n f o r N e o l i t h i c and C h a l c o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s than f o r pre-Neolithic groups i n I r a n , but, s u r p r i s i n g l y , notes t h a t Bronze and I r o n Age s a m p l e s showed t h e l o w e s t r a t e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o r e p o r t i n g on generalized l e s i o n s o f i n f e c t i o n , two s t u d i e s ( P e r z i g i a n e t a l . and B u i k s t r a a n d Cook) n o t e an i n c r e a s e i n t h e frecfuency of m y c o b a c t e r i a l ( t u b e r c u l a r ) i n f e c t i o n s i d e n t i f i a b l e i n t h e s k e l e t o n s o f f a r m i n g o r l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s ; and o n e s t u d y ( A l l i s o n ) working w i t h mummies documents a n i n c r e a s e i n r a t e s of g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l i n f e c t i o n s w i t h sedentism and a g r i c u l t u r e , a l t h o u g h no t r e n d i n r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e s was f o u n d . Where i t was p o s s i b l e t o document s e v e r a l s t a g e s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t , some s t u d i e s (Goodman e t a l . ; ~ n g e l )f o u n d a p r o g r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e i n t h e frequency of i n f e c t i o n s while o t h e r s noted an i n i t i a l s u r g e o f i n f e c t i o n r a t e s accompanying t h e a d o p t i o n o f agr i c u l t u r e w i t h l a t e r rebound s u g g e s t i v e o f a more s u c c e s s f u l a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e new l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s ( U b e l a k e r ; R o s e e t a l . ; I n c o n t r a s t , C a s s i d y s u g g e s t s t h a t i n f e c t i o n s , and most Rathbun) o t h e r h e a l t h p r o b l e m s , were more commonly f o u n d i n l a t e , m a i z e dependent farming s i t e s than i n e i t h e r hunter-gatherer o r t r a n s i t i o n a l groups.

.

.

23 EDITORS' SUMMATION Chronic Malnutrition The s t u d i e s a l s o s u g g e s t f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t l y t h a t t h e adoption of farming was accompanied by a d e c l i n e i n t h e o v e r a l l q u a l i t y of n u t r i t i o n . The c l e a r e s t i n d i c a t o r o f t h i s i s provided by t h e inc i d e n c e o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a ( p o r o s i t y o f t h e s k u l l and o r b i t s ) c o n s i d e r e d i n d i c a t i v e of anemia. Sixteen s t u d i e s ( A l l i s o n ; B u i k s t r a and Cook; Goodman e t a l . ; Martin e t a l . [ c h a p t e r 81; Norr; Smith e t a l . [ c h a p t e r 51; Kennedy [chapter 7 1 ; Angel; Cassidy; Rathbun; Rose e t a l . ; Larsen; Meiklejohn e t a l . ; Palkovich [ c h a p t e r 161 ; P e r z i g i a n e t a1 ; Ubelaker) n o t e r a t e s of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s a n d most conclude t h a t t h e l e s i o n s appear o r i n c r e a s e with f a n n i n g , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t anemia i s p r i m a r i l y a d i s e a s e of a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s . (Such anemia i s most commonly a t t r i b u t e d t o poor n u t r i t i o n b u t may a l s o be g e n e t i c o r p a r a s i t e r e l a t e d . ) Martin e t a l . , however, r e p o r t no comparative hunterg a t h e r e r d a t a ; A l l i s o n , ~ e i k l e j o h ne t a l . , and Larsen r e p o r t g e n e r a l l y low r a t e s o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s with no c l e a r t r e n d , a s do Rose e t a l . f o r o n e o f t h e i r s t u d y areas. Palkovich r e p o r t s no temporal t r e n d b u t d o e s n o t e t h a t , geographically, p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s c o r r e l a t e s w i t h dependence on maize farming. Rathbun n o t e s t h a t o r b i t a l l e s i o n s c l e a r l y i n c r e a s e through time but t h a t c r a n i a l l e s i o n s a r e h i g h i n t h e N e o l i t h i c and d e c l i n e t h e r e a f t e r . Other i n d i c a t o r s of c h r o n i c m a l n u t r i t i o n (slowing of growth, t h i n n i n g o f lonqbone c o r t i c e s , changes i n s k u l l base and p e l v i c i n l e t ) a r e more s p o r a d i c a l l y r e p o r t e d , and, i n some cases, l e s s c e r t a i n of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , b u t a p p e a r g e n e r a l l y t o support a s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n . P a l k o v i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t chronic malnutrition became an i n c r e a s i n g l y s e v e r e problem i n t h e American Southwest w i t h t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r e , and s h e provides d a t a i n d i c a t i n g s e v e r e stress i n l a t e r (Pueblo) groups, l a r g e l y i n t h e form o f s i g n s of i n f a n t i l e m a l n u t r i t i o n ; b u t she o f f e r s no good comparative d a t a o n e a r l i e r p e r i o d s . Goodman e t a l . r e p o r t t h a t a slowing of g r o w t h i n c h i l d h o o d ( a s measured by a t t a i n e d l e n g t h and c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f bone f o r age) s u g g e s t s t h a t growth dampening from m a l n u t r i t i o n was most marked i n t h e i r l a t e r a g r i Cook s i m i l a r l y a r g u e s t h a t t h e slowing of c u l t u r a l groups. growth and t h e t h i n n i n g o f l o n g bone c o r t i c e s may be s i g n s of r e l a t i v e m a l n u t r i t i o n i n g r o u p s f i r s t adopting maize a q r i c u l t u r e i n I l l i n o i s . Cassidy s u g g e s t s t h a t c o r t i c a l thinning of bone i s i n d i c a t i v e of p o o r e r n u t r i t i o n i n a l a t e farming group than i n an e a r l i e r h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g group i n Kentucky. In t h e Old World, Smith e t a l . r e p o r t t h a t bone c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s i s g r e a t e r f o r Middle ~ a l e o l i t h i cand ~ p i p a l e o l i t h i c Natufian p o p u l a t i o n s t h a n f o r l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l groups i n t h e Levant, s u g g e s t i n g b e t t e r n u t r i t i o n f o r t h e e a r l i e r groups; and t h e y c i t e a s t u d y o f c o r t i c a l hypertrophy suggestive of calcium d e f i c i e n c y i n e a r l y f a n n i n g g r o u p s . For t h e ~ e d i t e r r a n e a n , Angel u s e s measurements o f s k u l l b a s e h e i g h t and p e l v i c i n l e t d e p t h a s i n d i c e s of n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y and f i n d s a d e c l i n e i n

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MARK NATHAN COHEN AND GEORGE J. ARMELAGOS

t h e o v e r a l l q u a l i t y o f n u t r i t i o n from P a l e o l i t h i c through Mesol i t h i c t o N e o l i t h i c fanning groups. S e v e r a l of t h e s t u d i e s a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t a d e c l i n e i n a d u l t s i z e , s t a t u r e , and s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y as h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s became f a r m e r s might be i n d i c a t i v e of d e c l i n i n g q u a l i t y o f n u t r i t i o n (Kennedy f o r I n d i a ; Angel f o r t h e Mediterranean; Larsen f o r Georgia; Meiklejohn e t a l . f o r E u r o p e ) , b u t t h i s was a p o i n t of c o n t e n t i o n i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n s . Not a l l of t h e s t u d i e s a g r e e on t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s i n d i c a t o r and n o t a l l show s i m i l a r t r e n d s . Meiklejohn e t a l . r e p o r t a d e c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e from t h e P a l e o l i t h i c through t h e M e s o l i t h i c t o t h e N e o l i t h i c i n Europe f o l l o w e d by a rebound, b u t c a u t i o u s l y conclude t h a t t h e t r e n d might r e f l e c t e i t h e r d i e t a r y s t r e s s o r a l t e r e d a c t i v i t i e s . Smith e t a l . show a d e c l i n e i n s t a t u r e from P a l e o l i t h i c t o M e s o l i t h i c groups i n t h e Levant with a rebound i n some N e o l i t h i c groups, b u t a r g u e a g a i n s t c o n s i d e r i n g t h e d e c l i n e i n s t a t u r e an i n d e x o f d e c l i n i n g n u t r i t i o n , s i n c e t h e r e a r e no accompanying s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s ( a l t h o u g h t h e y do c o n s i d e r t h e rebound i n one N e o l i t h i c (It was noted a t t h e congroup a r e f l e c t i o n o f improved d i e t ) . f e r e n c e , however, t h a t d i e t a r y l i m i t a t i o n s might s e l e c t f o r small i n d i v i d u a l s who would n o t , t h e n , n e c e s s a r i l y d i s p l a y s i g n s of s t r e s s i n t h e i r own s k e l e t o n s a l t h o u g h t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s were e v o l v i n g t o meet s t r i n g e n t d i e t a r y c o n d i t i o n s . ) A l l i s o n , while u s i n g d e c l i n i n g s t a t u r e a s an i n d e x of poor n u t r i t i o n , saw no t r e n d i n t i m e i n Peru o t h e r t h a n a d e c l i n e i n s t a t u r e among groups s u b j e c t t o c o l o n i a l domination. Cassidy and Ubelaker r e p o r t no c l e a r t r e n d s i n s t a t u r e through t i m e . P e r z i g i a n e t a l . r e p o r t an i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e from h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s t o t r a n s i t i o n a l groups i n Ohio followed by a decrease from t r a n s i t i o n a l t o f u l l y a g r i c u l t u r a l groups. Rose e t a l . s u g g e s t t h a t an i n c r e a s e i n s i z e i n t h e Caddoan r e g i o n of t h e Lower M i s s i s s i p p i Valley might r e f l e c t an inereuse i n a v a i l a b l e p r o t e i n with farming, while n o t i n g t h a t a d e c l i n e i n s i z e , r e f l e c t i n g declining n u t r i t i o n , occurred i n the Lower M i s s i s s i p p i Valley proper. B u i k s t r a and Cook n o t e an i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e f o r women, but n o t f o r men, a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n i n I l l i n o i s d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s l e a d them t o conclude t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f n u t r i t i o n was d e c l i n i n g . Changes i n s e x u a l dimorphism, sometimes c o n s i d e r e d i n d i c a t i v e of changing n u t r i t i o n , show no c o n s i s t e n t t r e n d . Several d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s of changing dimorphism a r e noted. Moreover, a d e c l i n e i n dimorphism (once equated with poor n u t r i t i o n ) c o n s i s t s i n some c a s e s of a r e l a t i v e d e c r e a s e i n male s i z e and i n o t h e r s o f an i n c r e a s e i n female s i z e . Hence, t h e meaning of dimorphism i t s e l f a s an i n d e x appears t o b e ambiguous.

I n d i c a t o r s of Episodic S t r e s s One o f t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g and, i n some ways, most problema t i c s e t s of d a t a i s provided by s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s of t h e d i s r u p t i o n of childhood growth. Two such i n d i c a t o r s a r e commonly

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reported with s u r p r i s i n g l y c o n f l i c t i n g r e s u l t s . Harris lines a r e r e p o r t e d i n seven s t u d i e s c o m p a r i n g h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s and farmers (Goodman e t a l . ; B u i k s t r a a n d Cook; A l l i s o n ; Cassidy; Rathbun; Rose e t a l . ; P e r z i g i a n e t a l . ) Most c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e frequency o f l i n e s i s h i g h e r i n h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s t h a n i n t h e farmers who f o l l o w them, p o s s i b l y s u g g e s t i n g more f r e q u e n t growth-disrupting s t r e s s e s i n t h e e a r l i e r g r o u p s . Rathbun, i n c o n t r a s t , r e p o r t s an i n c r e a s e t h r o u g h t i m e ; and A l l i s o n p r i m a r i l y o f f e r s a geographic r a t h e r t h a n a t e m p o r a l c o m p a r i s o n . Cook n o t e s t h a t t h e lowest f r e q u e n c y o f H a r r i s l i n e s o c c u r s i n h e r t r a n s i t i o n a l group. L i n e a r enamel h y p o p l a s i a s (LEH) a n d enamel m i c r o d e f e c t s of t e e t h t e l l a v e r y d i f f e r e n t s t o r y . I n o n e s t u d y , Rose e t a l . 1 r e p o r t ( i n t h e v e r s i o n o f t h e i r p a p e r p r e s e n t e d t o t h e conference) t h a t i n t h e Caddoan r e g i o n o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i Valley, l a t e hunterg a t h e r e r s and w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d f a n n e r s h a d comparable r a t e s of h y p o p l a s i a s ; b u t t h e y n o t e t h a t n o d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e from t r a n s i t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t on o t h e r g r o u n d s t h e y b e l i e v e t o be the most s t r e s s e d . Ten o t h e r s t u d i e s (Goodman e t a l . ; B u i k s t r a and Cook; A l l i s o n ; Smith e t a l . ; Kennedy; Angel; Cassidy; P e r z i g i a n e t a l . ; U b e l a k e r ; and, v e r y t e n t a t i v e l y , Rathbun) a l l r e p o r t t h a t t h e f r e q u e n c y and/or s e v e r i t y o f t h i s i n d i c a t o r of growth disrupt i o n i n c r e a s e s i n f a r m i n g a n d l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s i n comparison t o h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s , s u g g e s t i v e o f more f r e q u e n t and/or more severe e p i s o d e s of s t r e s s i n l a t e r g r o u p s . T h r e e s t u d i e s (Cassidy; Smith e t a l . ; P e r z i g i a n et a l . ) a l s o n o t e t h a t h y p o p l a s i a s o f d e c i d u o u s t e e t h ( i n d i c a t i n g e p i s o d e s of p r e n a t a l s t r e s s presumably r e f l e c t i n g poor m a t e r n a l h e a l t h ) a r e more common i n l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s than i n h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g g r o u p s . I n a d d i t i o n , Norr s t a t e s t h a t c a r i o u s e n a m e l h y p o p l a s i a s and h y p o c a l c i f i c a t i o n o f d e c i d u o u s t e e t h a r e common i n h e r l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s but not i n h e r h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s ; and B u i k s t r a and Cook n o t e t h a t .while t h e i n c i d e n c e o f d e c i d u o u s h y p o p l a s i a s d o e s n o t i n c r e a s e through time i n t h e i r sample, t h e t e n d e n c y o f s t r e s s e d i n f a n t s t o d i e e a r l y P a l k o v i c h a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t episodic i n c r e a s e s i n l a t e r groups. s t r e s s would have been a n i n c r e a s i n g l y s e v e r e problem f o r increasi n g l y d e n s e and immobile f a r m i n g g r o u p s i n t h e American Southwest, b u t s h e o f f e r s no d a t a on LEH t o s u p p o r t t h e s u g g e s t i o n . The a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n t h e p a t t e r n s o f H a r r i s l i n e s and enamel d e f e c t s may b e r e s o l v e d i n v a r i o u s ways. One p s s i b i l i t y i s t h a t t h e two r e p r e s e n t stresses o f d i f f e r i n g e t i o l o g y . Both a r e c o n s i d e r e d g e n e r a l i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s s u f f i c i e n t t o c a u s e growth d i s r u p t i o n , b u t i n n e i t h e r c a s e i s t h e range of poss i b l e s t r e s s i n g a g e n t s w e l l d e f i n e d . Hence, it i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y t r e n d s i n d i c a t e a t r a d e - o f f o f one fom of s t r e s s

.

~ o s eet at. have eliminated a s p e t s of their discussion in t h i s volume 'in response to space constraints. However, they have informed us (personal, communication) that t b i r interpretation of t h i s point has not changed.

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f o r another. One s t u d y ( C a s s i d y ) s u g g e s t s t h a t m i n o r , r e g u l a r hunger p e r i o d s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s may h a v e b e e n t r a d e d f o r more i r r e g u l a r and more s e v e r e s t r e s s e s o f f a r m i n g l i f e i n v o l v i n g b o u t s of i n f e c t i o n and more s e r i o u s famine a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c r o p f a i l u r e . I t was a l s o p o i n t e d o u t i n s e v e r a l of t h e c h a p t e r s and i n d i s c u s s i o n t h a t , o f t h e two, enamel h y p o p l a s i a s a r e a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y t h e more v a l i d and r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t o r of g e n e r a l s t r e s s . H a r r i s lines a r e s u b j e c t t o s u b s e q u e n t e r a s u r e d u r i n g g r o w t h , w h i l e enamel h y p o p l a s i a s a r e n o t . Moreover, H a r r i s l i n e s r e c o r d n o t s o much t h e c e s s a t i o n o f g r o w t h a s t h e s u b s e q u e n t compensatory a c c e l e r a t i o n o f growth. I t was a r g u e d by some a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e t h a t t h e l o w e r frequency o f H a r r i s l i n e s i n f a r m i n g p o p u l a t i o n s m i g h t r e f l e c t c h r o n i c m a l n u t r i t i o n and t h e r e s u l t i n g f a i l u r e of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n p h a s e a s much t h e a c t u a l i n c i d e n c e o f g r o w t h a r r e s t . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d by r e s e a r c h r e p o r t e d by Murchison e t a l . (1983) s u g g e s t i n g t h a t p r o t e i n d e p r i v e d Rhesus monkeys d e v e l o p fewer H a r r i s l i n e s t h a n t h o s e f e d a h e a l t h i e r d i e t . A t b e s t , t h e r e f o r e , t h e two i n d i c a t o r s t a k e n t o g e t h e r s u g g e s t t h a t no r e l a x a t i o n o f e p i s o d i c s t r e s s r e s u l t e d from t h e a d o p t i o n of f a n n i n g i n most r e g i o n s . They may i n d i c a t e t h e t r a d e - o f f o f one type o f s t r e s s f o r a n o t h e r ; more p r o b a b l y , t h e y i n d i c a t e a n e t i n c r e a s e i n such e p i s o d e s . I t s h o u l d b e noted, however, t h a t b o t h h y p o p l a s i a s and H a r r i s l i n e s r e f l e c t n o t j u s t t h e i n c i d e n c e of s t r e s s e p i s o d e s b u t t h e i n c i d e n c e o f s u c h e p i s o d e s that uere survived by t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i n q u e s t i o n . One p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a low i n c i d e n c e o f h y p o p l a s i a s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s i s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s commonly f a i l e d t o s u r v i v e any s t r e s s e s s u f f i c i e n t t o p r o d u c e l e s i o n s . (The p o s s i b i l i t y must a l s o b e e n t e r t a i n e d t h a t c h a n g e s i n t o o t h s t r u c t u r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a d o p t i o n o f f a r m i n g somehow made it i n c r e a s i n g l y l i k e l y t h a t c h i l d h o o d s t r e s s e s would b e r e f l e c t e d i n h y p o p l a s t i c l e s i o n s . ) However, h y p o p l a s i a s a r e known t o occur commonly i n w i l d a n i m a l s i n c l u d i n g o t h e r p r i m a t e s and t h e y a r e r e p o r t e d among t h e A u s t r a l o p i t h e c i n e s (White 1 9 7 8 ) . Moreover, t h e y a r e known t o o c c u r i n f a i r l y h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e t e e t h o f r e c e n t and modern A u s t r a l i a n a b o r i g i n e s (Smith e t a l . , C h a p t e r 5, t h i s volume) Hence, t h e i r r e l a t i v e s c a r c i t y among r e p o r t e d p r e h i s t o r i c hunter-gatherers suggests a r e a l , r e l a t i v e s c a r c i t y o f m a j o r s t r e s s e p i s o d e s and s u p p o r t s t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t e p i s o d i c s t r e s s was a s much, o r more commonly, f e l t by f a r m i n g p o p u l a t i o n s t h a n by t h e i r h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g f o r e b e a r s .

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Physical Stress The d a t a on p h y s i c a l s t r e s s a s measured by a r t h r i t i s , s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y and p h y s i c a l i n j u r y ) a r e more mixed, b u t seem t o a r g u e , on b a l a n c e , f o r a r e d u c t i o n i n p h y s i c a l s t r e s s and t h e r e f o r e a p r o b a b l e r e d u c t i o n i n work l o a d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a d o p t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r e . I t should be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t b o t h a r t h r i t i s and muscular r o b u s t i c i t y a r e l i k e l y to r e f l e c t t h e s e v e r i t y o f peak or

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i n t e r m i t t e n t demand on m u s c l e s and j o i n t s r a t h e r than simply t h e number of hours of work i n v o l v e d i n t h e two economies. The d a t a t h u s s u g g e s t t h a t i n most r e g i o n s s u c h peak demand was g r e a t e r f o r h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s t h a n f o r f a n n e r s ; b u t it does not n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e t h a t farming r e s u l t e d i n a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e time invested i n t h e food q u e s t . The arthritis d a t a a r e a l s o Complicated by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s d i s c u s s e d commonly displayed h i g h e r average ages a t d e a t h ( s e e below) t h a n d i d t h e fanning p o p u l a t i o n s from t h e same r e g i o n . The hunter-gatherers would t h e r e f o r e b e expected t o d i s p l a y more a r t h r i t i s as a function of age even i f workloads w e r e comparable. Smith e t a l . s u g g e s t t h a t t h e g r e a t e r r o b u s t i c i t y of p r e N e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e Levant i s s u g g e s t i v e of g r e a t e r f u n c t i o n a l demand on t h e s k e l e t o n . Kennedy concludes t h a t prefarming groups i n I n d i a were s u b j e c t t o more physical s t r e s s than farming groups a s e v i d e n c e d by s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y and degenera t i v e a r t h r i t i s . Meiklejohn e t a l . s u g g e s t t h a t s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r r a t e s of a r t h r i t i s i n d i c a t e g r e a t e r f u n c t i o n a l demands on t h e s k e l e t o n i n t h e European M e s o l i t h i c t h a n i n t h e Neolithic. Rathbun's f i g u r e s f o r I r a n s u g g e s t t h a t high a r t h r i t i s l e v e l s among ( a r e l a t i v e l y aged sample o f ) Neanderthals was followed by h i g h e r l e v e l s f o r l a t e p r e - f a n n i n g groups and by Neolithic ( f a r m i n g ) l e v e l s e q u a l t o o r g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of the Neandertals ( b u t i n a g e n e r a l l y y o u n g e r p o p u l a t i o n ) . Only a f t e r the N e o l i t h i c d i d r a t e s of a r t h r i t i s d e c l i n e i n t h i s r e g i o n . I n t h e New World, L a r s e n s u g g e s t s t h a t Amerindian groups i n Georgia a l s o d i s p l a y a d e c l i n e i n r o b u s t i c i t y and i n a r t h r i t i s accompanying t h e a d o p t i o n o f f a r m i n g ; and P e r z i g i a n e t a l . n o t e a d e c l i n e i n p h y s i c a l s t r e s s i n a g r i c u l t u r a l populations i n Ohio. Rose e t a l . , however, n o t e a d e c r e a s e in arthritis from hunterg a t h e r e r t o t r a n s i t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n s followed by an increase t~ new, h i g h e r l e v e l s w i t h i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e in the Caddoan reOsteophytosis shows a g i o n o f t h e lower M i s s i s s i p p i V a l l e y . s i m i l a r p a t t e r n i n t h e Lower M i s s i s s i p p i V a l l e y proper, whereas o s t e o a r t h r i t i s simply d e c l i n e s t h r o u g h t i m e . Cassidy n o t e s t h a t a r t h r i t i s i s most marked i n l a t e a g r i c u l t u r a l populations i n Kentucky, b u t she s u g g e s t s an i n f e c t i o u s e t i o l o g y f o r t h e a r t h r i t i s i n q u e s t i o n ; and Goodman e t a l . a r g u e f o r a progressive i n c r e a s e i n v a r i o u s k i n d s o f a r t h r i t i s a s a g r i c u l t u r e was adopted and intensified in Illinois. The i n c i d e n c e o f t r a u m a , b o t h a c c i d e n t a l and violence-related, shows a s i m i l a r l y mixed p i c t u r e , g e n e r a l l y decreasing i n some s t u d y r e g i o n s w i t h t h e a d o p t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e (Rathbun; Meiklejohn e t a l . ; P e r z i g i a n e t a l . ) w h i l e i n c r e a s i n g i n others (Goodman e t a l . ; Kennedy). Rose e t a l . s e e n o t r e n d i n t h e i r trauma data b u t do s u g g e s t t h a t i n t e r p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e was h i g h e s t e a r l y i n one of t h e i r sequences and h i g h e s t v e r y l a t e i n a n o t h e r . For t h e most p a r t , however, t h e r e p o r t i n g o f trauma and t h e resolution of a c c i d e n t a l and v i o l e n c e - r e l a t e d trauma i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o permit s t a t e m e n t s about t r e n d s i n t h e two c l a s s e s . There i s a s y e t no

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c l e a r r e s o l u t i o n t o t h e debate about hunter-gatherer non-violence; but the evidence does not seem t o suggest any simple p a t t e r n of change.

Mean Age a t Death Perhaps t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s concern changes i n t h e mean age a t d e a t h a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o a g r i c u l t u r e Thirteen of t h e r e g i o n a l s t u d i e s provide d a t a (of varying q u a l i t y ) bearing on t h i s i s s u e . These d a t a a r e presented in a v a r i e t y of forms and a r e t h e r e f o r e d i f f i c u l t t o summarize. Moreover, t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of ages-at-death from s k e l e t a l populations t o t h e a c t u a l dynamics o f l i v i n g populations i s complex (Howell 1982; S a t t e n s p i e l and Harpending 1 9 8 3 ) . Nonetheless it i s of i n t e r e s t , and counter t o p r e v a i l i n g wisdom, t h a t 10 of t h e s e sequences e i t h e r conclude, o r provide fragmentary evidence suggesting, t h a t mean age a t d e a t h (and/or l i f e expectancy a t various ages) dsel-vned with t h e adoption of farming. Working with r e l a t i v e l y good, w e l l - c o n t r o l l e d samples (A7 = 114, 2 2 4 , 219, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) from a s i n g l e well-defined l o c a t i o n , Goodman e t a l . suggest t h a t t h e r e was a p r o g r e s s i v e d e c l i n e i n l i f e expectancy f o r a l l a g e c l a s s e s a s h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s f i r s t adopted and then i n t e n s i f i e d a g r i c u l t u r e i n I l l i n o i s . With l a r g e r samples ( N s = 300-800) (Cook, p e r s o n a l communication) Cook f i n d s some increase i n l i f e span as c u l t i g e n s were added t o a hunting and gathering d i e t , but an i n c r e a s e i n a g e - s p e c i f ic m o r t a l i t y a s maize a g r i c u l t u r e was a d o p t e d (followed by a p a r t i a l rebound in l i f e expectancy i n a l a t e r , int e n s i v e maize f a n n i n g group). Cassidy f i n d s t h a t a maize-fanning group i n Kentucky ( N = 2 9 6 ) had a lower l i f e expectancy f o r both s e x e s and f o r a l l a g e groups t h a n d i d an e a r l i e r hunting and gatheri n g group ( N = 2 9 5 ) . Ubelaker n o t e s t h a t l i f e expectancy a t birth W a s r e l a t i v e l y h i g h in an e a r l y hunter-gatherer group (fl = 1 9 2 ) ~ r o s e s l i g h t l y i n what may b e a t r a n s i t i o n a l group (71? = 199) (which, however, s t i l l e x h i b i t e d a low c a r i e s r a t e , leading him t o q u e s t i o n t h e i r d e g r e e o f r e l i a n c e on a g r i c u l t u r e ) and then f e l l s h a r p l y i n an i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l group (7? = 30) before a P a r t i a l rebound o c c u r r e d (N = 4 3 5 ) . He suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a t r e n d toward i n c r e a s i n g i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y through h i s sequenceL i f e expectancies a t more advanced ages (E5 and E15) f l u c t u a t e d more i r r e g u l a r l y o v e r time, b u t t h e e a r l i e s t , c l e a r l y hunting and g a t h e r i n g , p o p u l a t i o n had l i f e expectancies a t both ages comparable t o t h e average of l a t e r groups. Larsen, w h i l e c a u t i o n i n g t h a t a v a i l a b l e samples (N = 152, 1 7 7 ) are u n l i k e l y t o b e t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e (because both show t o o h i g h a p e r c e n t a g e o f s u r v i v o r s t o adulthood), nonetheless n o t e s t h a t t h e a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e a v a i l a b l e sample of fanners is l o w e r than t h a t o f t h e e a r l i e r hunter-gatherers i n Georgia. He r e p o r t s h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e s of farmers dying i n a l l age c l a s s e s b e l o w 2 5 and h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e s o f hunter-gatherers dying i n a l l a g e c l a s s e s o v e r 2 5 w i t h t h e exception of t h e 30-35 year age

23 EDITORS' SUMMATION

593

b r a c k e t . Even i f s u b a d u l t m o r t a l i t y is d i s c o u n t e d , t h e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l a d u l t s have t h e h i g h e r a v e r a g e a g e a t death. In the v e r s i o n of t h e i r c h a p t e r p r e s e n t e d t o t h e c o n f e r e n c e , Rose e t a l . 1 working w i t h samples o f s i m i l a r s i z e , s u g g e s t t h a t i n t h e Caddoan r e g i o n of t h e lower M i s s i s s i p p i , h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s had a lower p r o b a b i l i t y o f d y i n g b o t h a s c h i l d r e n and a s young a d u l t s than did l a t e r farmers. I n t h e Lower M i s s i s s i p p i V a l l e y p r o p e r , they also s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e l o w e s t m o r t a l i t y was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a dispersed h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r group. Working w i t h more f r a g m e n t a r y a n d / o r s c a t t e r e d d a t a , a number of o t h e r s t u d i e s r e p o r t s i m i l a r t r e n d s . Angel n o t e s a decrease in a d u l t l i f e e x p e c t a n c y from P a l e o l i t h i c = 59) t o M e s o l i t h i c J = 120) and N e o l i t h i c (N = 1 0 6 ) f o r m a l e s i n t h e Mediterranean. For f e m a l e s he r e p o r t s a n i n c r e a s e i n a d u l t l i f e expectancy from P a l e o l i t h i c (fl = 53) t o M e s o l i t h i c (N = 63) followed by a d e c l i n e t o l e v e l s a t o r below t h a t o f t h e P a l e o l i t h i c f o r t h e N e o l i t h i c (-A7 = 2 0 0 ) . Kennedy n o t e s t h a t t h e a g g r e g a t e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l sample from I n d i a (A7 = Â ± 1 0 0 d i s p l a y s h i g h e r a g e s a t d e a t h than do l a t e r agricultural populations. Rathbun, who claims no t r e n d because h i s samples a r e s o s m a l l , c i t e s f i g u r e s on average age a t d e a t h o f known a d u l t s p e c i m e n s t h a t a r e h i g h e r f o r p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l i n d i v i d u a l s (A? = 9 ) t h a n f o r e a r l y a g r i c u l t u r a l ( N e o l i t h i c ) groups (S = 6 9 ) . I n h i s t a b l e s , 1 0 s m a l l s a m p l e s of N e o l i t h i c b u r i a l s g e n e r a l l y have a v e r a g e a g e s a t d e a t h f o r a d u l t s below t h o s e of the S h a n i d a r N e a n d e r t a l s and t h e p r e - N e o l i t h i c Hotu population ( a l though t h e l a t t e r may b e s e l e c t g r o u p s . ) And A l l i s o n s u g g e s t s t h a t childhood m o r t a l i t y was l o w e s t i n h i s e a r l i e s t population (although r e c o v e r y b i a s i s p r o b a b l y i n v o l v e d in t h i s s a m p l e ) . These l a t t e r s t u d i e s , w h i c h s u f f e r from v e r y poor sampling of e a r l y h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g p o p u l a t i o n s , mean r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e i n d i v i d u a l l y ; b u t c o l l e c t i v e l y , i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e l a r g e r and b e t t e r c o n t r o l l e d samples d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , and b o l s t e r e d by "the e v i d e n c e o f o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s o f h e a l t h , t h e y b e g i n t o suggest a f a i r l y widespread p a t t e r n o f d e c l i n i n g mean a g e a t d e a t h with the C e r t a i n l y t h e d a t a a t l e a s t challenge t h e adoption of fanning. p r e v a i l i n g r e v e r s e a s s u m p t i o n . I t must b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e s e d a t a may r e f l e c t changes i n f e r t i l i t y and p o p u l a t i o n growth r a t e s a s w e l l a s i n m o r t a l i t y ( S a t t e n s p i e l and Harpending 1 9 8 3 ) . Howe v e r , s e v e r a l o f t h e s t u d i e s r e p o r t a downward t r e n d i n l i f e exp e c t a n c y even when o n l y a d u l t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d . Three s t u d i e s do s u g g e s t a n i n c r e a s e i n mean age a t death with farming. Smith e t a l . r e p o r t a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n l i f e expectancy from l a t e p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l ( ~ a t u f i a n )p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e Levant through t h e Bronze a g e ; P e r z i g i a n e t a l . c i t e a comparison

(u

I ~ o s ee t d.have eziminated a s p e c t s of t h e i r discussion i n t h i s volume i n response t o space c o n s t r a i n t s . However, they 'have informed u s (personal commun-Lcation) t h a t t h e i r vizterpretation of t h i s point has n o t changed.

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MARK NATHAN COHEN AND GEORGE J. ARMELAGOS

s u g g e s t i n g b e t t e r s u r v i v o r s h i p f o r an a g r i c u l t u r a l ( S = 4 4 ) group i n Ohio t h a n f o r p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l groups (.S = 13271, b u t t h e y n o t e t h a t t h e l a t e r , s m a l l e r sample a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e s subadult m o r t a l i t y accounting a t l e a s t i n p a r t f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n l i f e e x p e c t a n c y . F i n a l l y , f i g u r e s p r o v i d e d by Norr might a l s o b e read a s suggesting g r e a t e r survivorship t o adulthood i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s compared t o p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s i n Panama, b u t s h e adds s e v e r a l d i s c l a i m e r s , b o t h a b o u t t h e s i z e ( N = 8 7 , 2 8 , 3 2 ) o f h e r samples and a b o u t p r o b a b l e a g e b i a s e s r e l a t e d t o known b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s .

THE RELATIVE HEALTH OF HUNTER-GATHERERS AND FARMERS Taken a s a whole, t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s f a i r l y c l e a r l y s u g g e s t an o v e r a l l d e c l i n e i n t h e q u a l i t y - - a n d p r o b a b l y i n t h e length--of human l i f e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a d o p t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r e . T h i s dec l i n e was o f f s e t i n some r e g i o n s , b u t n o t i n o t h e r s , by a d e c l i n e i n p h y s i c a l demands on t h e body. The s t u d i e s s u p p o r t r e c e n t e t h n o g r a p h i c s t a t e m e n t s and t h e o r e t i c a l arguments a b o u t t h e r e l a t i v e l y good h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n o f h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s . They a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s were r e l a t i v e l y w e l l b u f f e r e d a g a i n s t e p i s o d i c s t r e s s . These d a t a c a l l i n q u e s t i o n s i m p l i s t i c p o p u l a r i d e a s a b o u t human p r o g r e s s . They a l s o c a l l i n q u e s t i o n models of human p o p u l a t i o n growth t h a t a r e based on assumed p r o g r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e s i n l i f e expectancy. The d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t t h e w e l l documented expansion o f e a r l y f a r m i n g p o p u l a t i o n s was accomplished i n s p i t e o f g e n e r a l d i m i n u t i o n of b o t h c h i l d and a d u l t l i f e expect a n c y r a t h e r t h a n being f u e l e d by i n c r e a s e d s u r v i v o r s h i p . I t s h o u l d be s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r / f armer comparison 'lumps t o g e t h e r a number of s e p a r a t e a d a p t i v e s h i f t s whose i m p o r t a n c e i n a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e changes i n h e a l t h i s n o t always c l e a r . The e f f e c t s of p o p u l a t i o n growth, o f new f o o d s , o f farming a s an a c t i v i t y , o f s e d e n t i s m , of t h e d i s p e r s a l o r n u c l e a t i o n of s e t t l e m e n t s , and o f changing p o l i t i c s a l l need t o b e e v a l u a t e d s e p a r a t e l y . S e v e r a l o f t h e c h a p t e r s a l l u d e t o t h e e f f e c t s o f some o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s but t h e t a s k of s o r t i n g o u t t h e i r individual e f f e c t s o n h e a l t h is approached most s c i e n t i f i c a l l y i n t h i s volume by Rose e t a l . , who u s e a comparison o f t h e i r t h r e e s u b r e g i o n s o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i Valley t o i s o l a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b l e s , ' n o t i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e e f f e c t s of population nucleat ion.

23 EDITORS' SUMMATION THE POPULATION PRESSURE MODEL

Although t h e d a t a p o i n t f a i r l y c l e a r l y t o a d e c l i n e i n h e a l t h a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e o r i g i n s o f a g r i c u l t u r e , i t is n o t y e t c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e y c o n f i r m t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f t h e (Boserupian) population p r e s s u r e model o f a g r i c u l t u r a l o r i g i n s . The g e n e r a l l y negative s l o p e o f h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n d o conform t o t h e model. Moreover, p o p u l a t i o n growth i s i d e n t i f i e d a s a c o n c o m i t a n t of changes i n h e a l t h and economy in most o f t h e s e q u e n c e s ( a l t h o u g h n o t i n a l l p o r t i o n s o f a l l s e q u e n c e s ) ; and t h e s e q u e n c e of p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l economic changes i n most r e g i o n s d i s c u s s e d i s c o n s i s t e n t with p r e d i c t i o n s a b o u t economic c h a n g e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and/or d e c l i n i n g r e s o u r c e s ( C h r i s t e n s o n 1980; Cohen 1977; E a r l e 1980; Hespenheide 1 9 8 0 ; O'Connell and Hawkes 1981; Winterhalder 1981). On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e d a t a , though mixed, suggest an o v e r a l l d e c l i n e i n work l o a d and p h y s i c a l stress t h a t may have helped t o m o t i v a t e t h e economic t r a n s i t i o n , r e d u c i n g t h e n e c e s s i t y t o postul a t e d e c l i n i n g r e s o u r c e s a n d / o r growing p o p u l a t i o n s a s a necessary s t i m u l u s t o economic change. I n some o f t h e s t u d i e s , t h e r e f o r e , it i s p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r p r e t p a t h o l o g y t r e n d s i n terms o f t h e s c e n a r i o d e s c r i b e d by Reidhead (1980) i n which p o p u l a t i o n s a r e s e d u c e d by d e c l i n i n g l a b o r c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e ( r a t h e r than being forced t o a d o p t i t ) b u t i n c u r unanticipated h e a l t h problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s e d e n t i s m , n u c l e a t i o n , p r o t e i n s h o r t a g e , and c r o p f a i l u r e t h a t r e s u l t from t h e t r a n s i t i o n . Moreover, some of t h e s t u d i e s i n q u e s t i o n s u g g e s t t h a t s t r e s s (whether o r n o t it o c c u r s i n a p a t t e r n o f p r o g r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e a s a p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e model m i g h t s u g g e s t ) may occur w i t h o u t conc o m i t a n t e v i d e n c e o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h (Angel) o r may b e more r e a d i l y e x p l a i n e d by o t h e r f a c t o r s s u c h a s p o p u l a t i o n n u c l e a t i o n (Rose e t a l . ) o r p o l i t i c a l e x p l o i t a t i o n ( M a r t i n e t a1 ; A l l i s o n ; Goodman e t a l . ) The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h e a l t h t r e n d s 'before t h e adoption of agr i c u l t u r e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t f o r e v a l u a t i o n of t h e populat i o n p r e s s u r e hypothesis, which p r e d i c t s d e c l i n i n g (or a t l e a s t s t e a d y ) l e v e l s o f h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n r a t h e r than improvements i n h e a l t h (compare Hayden 1 9 8 1 ) a s h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s approach t h e t r a n s i t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s e t r e n d s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y hard t o u n r a v e l i n t h e absence o f good e a r l y ( " P a l e o " ) h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s A s n o t e d , s e v e r a l of t h e Old World s t u d i e s (Meiklejohn e t a l . ; Angel; Smith e t a l . ; Kennedy) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e i s a d e c l i n e i n s i z e b e g i n n i n g i n t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c and e x t e n d i n g through t h e M e s o l i t h i c . Such a w i d e s p r e a d t r e n d c o u l d be o f f e r e d as evidence o f a d e c l i n e i n n u t r i t i o n o r s e l e c t i o n f o r reduced n u t r i t i o n a l n e e d s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s b e f o r e t h e a d o p t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e , s u p p o r t i n g a p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e model; b u t , as d i s c u s s e d above, One s t u d y shows t h e t r e n d t h i s interpretation is controversial. p a r a l l e l e d by o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s o f i n c r e a s i n g n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s (Angel) w h i l e two o t h e r s do n o t (Smith e t a l . ; Meiklejohn e t a l . )

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Decreasing s i z e and r o b u s t i c i t y might a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d evidence o f d e c l i n i n g l a b o r demands, s u p p o r t i n g t h e Hayden model. Changes i n t h e f r e q u e n c i e s of e p i s o d e s of growth a r r e s t p r i o r t o t h e a d o p t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e would b e , p e r h a p s , t h e most import a n t d a t a f o r resolving t h i s controversy. A population pressure model would p r e d i c t i n c r e a s i n g o r a t l e a s t s t e a d y r a t e s of such i n d i c a t o r s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s a s s o c i a t e d with growing populat i o n s and changing economic s t r a t e g i e s , s i n c e it would s u g g e s t t h a t new food economies wrought no n e t improvement i n economic h o m e o s t a s i s . The Hayden h y p o t h e s i s p r e d i c t s t h e d e c l i n e of such i n d i c a t o r s because it assumes an i n c r e a s e i n economic b u f f e r s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , althougl/ good comparisons can be made between h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s and farmers w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i n c i d e n c e of growth a r r e s t e p i s o d e s ( a s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e ) , t h e r e a r e r e l a t i v e l y few d a t a on which t o measure changes i n t h e i r f r e q u e n c i e s among p r e a q r i c u l t u r a l popu a t i o n s . One p i o n e e r i n g s t u d y i n Europe w i t h very small samples ( S othwell 1963) d i d r e p o r t an i n c r e a s e i n f . h y p o p l a s i a s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c compared t o t h e P a l e o l i t h i c . In t h i s volume, f i n d no t r e n d i n t h e incidence of hypop l a s i a from U ~ ~ ~ ~ h P ~ t~o & Ep~ i p a~l eto lhi t h i i c i n t h e Levant. Two o t h e r s t u d i e s in t h e symposium, not y e t d i s c u s s e d because t h e y i n v o l v e no f u l l y a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s , a r e worthy of n o t e i n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n . Dickel e t a l . (Chapter 1 7 ) r e p o r t on t h e r e l a t i v e h e a l t h o f e a r l y a n d l a t e h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g populat i o n s o f C a l i f o r n i a , t h e l a t t e r employing a very i n t e n s i v e h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g s t r a t e g y i n v o l v i n g t h e p r o c e s s i n g of a c o r n s i n a

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r e g u l a r p a t t e r n showing a n e t i n c r e a s e i n frequency through time ( o r , p o s s i b l y , no n e t t r e n d i f t h e confounding e f f e c t s o f European-introduced d i s e a s e s d u r i n g a p o r t i o n of t h e i r l a t e p e r i o d a r e c o n s i d e r e d ) . P o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s was g e n e r a l l y r a r e i n t h i s group and showed no t r e n d . S t a t u r e d e c l i n e d s l i g h t l y e a r l y i n t h e sequence b u t g e n e r a l l y showed no s i g n i f i c a n t t r e n d and o v e r a l l l i f e expectancy decreased through time f o r most age classes. Taken t o g e t h e r , t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s suggest no n e t improvement o v e r t i m e i n h e a l t h o r economic homeostasis. Data from a second study (Benfer, Chapter 2 1 ) of a "protoa g r i c u l t u r a l " p o p u l a t i o n i n Peru w i t h some i n c i p i e n t c u l t i v a t i o n seems t o s u g g e s t a p r o g r e s s i v e improvement i n h e a l t h over time. The sequence documents a s e r i e s of q u a n t i t a t i v e s h i f t s i n economy among p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t f i r s t moved toward i n c r e a s i n g dependence on m a n i p u l a t e d o r c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t s p e c i e s and then s h i f t e d back toward i n c r e a s i n g dependence on seafood. The s h i f t s were

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accompanied by an o v e r a l l improvement i n s u r v i v o r s h i p ( t o t a l 1681, an i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e , and a d e c r e a s e i n Harris l i n e formation. (Benfer c o n s i d e r s t h e l a t t e r a good i n d i c a t o r of r e l a t i v e s t r e s s i n t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s s i n c e t h e r e is a n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between H a r r i s l i n e s and s t a t u r e among i n d i v i d u a l s . ) On t h e o t h e r hand, Benfer a l s o p r o p o s e s t h a t s e v e r a l means were being adopted t o c u r t a i l p o p u l a t i o n growth, s p e a k s o f population p r e s s u r e and i n t e n s e c o m p e t i t i o n f o r r e s o u r c e s , and n o t e s t h a t h i s P e r u v i a n s were l i v i n g i n a p r o g r e s s i v e l y degraded environment. A l l of t h e l a t t e r s u g g e s t t h a t p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e played a r o l e i n i n s t i g a t i n g economic changes by a p o p u l a t i o n more s u c c e s s f u l than most a t m a i n t a i n i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l well-being of i n d i v i d u a l s amidst d e c l i n i n g r e s o u r c e s . I n sum, t h e s e d a t a p r o v i d e some s u g g e s t i v e evidence b u t no c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n of d e c l i n i n g h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n among l a t e r h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s a s a p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e model might suggest. Conversely, t h e d a t a may show a d e c l i n i n g workload among l a t e h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s , b u t o t h e r w i s e , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e Benfer s t u d y , t h e y p r o v i d e l i t t l e i n d i c a t i o n o f any g e n e r a l , p r o g r e s s i v e improvement i n h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s 1 l i f e s t y l e s and economic homeostasis.

IV =

APPROACHES TO OTHER PROBLEMS OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL INTEREST Although t h e conference was p r i m a r i l y d e s i g n e d t o address t h e t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d above, it was a l s o designed t o a l e r t a n t h r o p l o g i s t s / p r e h i s t o r i a n s and s k e l e t a l b i o l o g i s t s t o t h e pot e n t i a l f o r c r o s s - f e r t i l i z a t i o n between t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f i e l d s . The Food Crisis in Prehistory (Cohen 1 9 7 7 ) , a l t h o u g h e x p r e s s l y d e a l i n g w i t h p r e d i c t i o n s a b o u t changing d i e t , n u t r i t i o n , and h e a l t h , was w r i t t e n l a r g e l y i n i g n o r a n c e of t h e p o t e n t i a l (and even of t h e e x i s t i n g ) c o n t r i b u t i o n of s k e l e t a l pathology t o t h e i s s u e s under d i s c u s s i o n . And, i n r e c e n t y e a r s , much of t h e cont i n u i n g d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s e a n d o t h e r r e l a t e d i s s u e s h a s continued t o i g n o r e t h e s k e l e t a l d a t a . On t h e o t h e r s i d e , much of t h e work i n s k e l e t a l pathology, d e r i v e d from a t r a d i t i o n focusing on s p e c i f i c d i s e a s e s and t h e i r d i a g n o s i s , has n o t been designed w i t h a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l i s s u e s i n mind; a n d , a s became c l e a r i n t h e p r o c e s s o f d e s i g n i n g and h o l d i n g t h e c o n f e r e n c e , even many s k e l e t a l b i o l o g i s t s i n t e r e s t e d i n p r e h i s t o r y have n o t b e e n aware of t h e f u l l p o t e n t i a l of t h e i r t e c h n i q u e s f o r r e s o l v i n g a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l i s s u e s . I n many c a s e s t h e y have n o t been aware of t h e i s s u e s themselves, T h e r e f o r e , it seems i m p o r t a n t t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o some a d d i t i o n a l examples o f a p p r o a c h e s t o a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l problems o f f e r e d by t h e s t u d i e s i n t h i s book, even though t h o s e problems a r e t a n g e n t i a l t o our main g o a l s and t h e d a t a a r e n o t y e t systema t i c a l l y a v a i l a b l e o r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e p o r t e d i n t h e volume.

MARK NATHAN COHEN AND GEORGE J. ARMELAGOS S e v e r a l c h a p t e r s ( B u i k s t r a ; Smith e t a l . ; M a r t i n e t a l . ; Benfer) d i s c u s s t h e u s e o f s k e l e t a l d a t a a s a means o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d e g r e e of g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y and g e n e t i c i s o l a t i o n among g r o u p s s p a n n i n g t h e economic t r a n s i t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n s . A s B u i k s t r a p o i n t s o u t , t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a new group t h a t c o i n c i d e n t a l l y b r i n g s new t e c h n o l o g y and new d i s e a s e s t o a r e g i o n and t h e appearance of new s t r e s s e s i n a n i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n g e n t on a d o p t i o n of a new economy. Moreover, t h e meanings o f c e r t a i n s k e l e t a l i n d i c e s s u c h a s a l t e r e d s t a t u r e , when t h e y occur w i t h i n a p o p u l a t i o n a r e very d i f f e r e n t from when t h e y o c c u r w i t h replacement o f o n e p o p u l a t i o n by a n o t h e r . S k e l e t a l d a t a a r e a l s o a n i m p o r t a n t supplement t o a r t i f a c t s t u d i e s i n a s s e s s i n g models o f c u l t u r a l t r a n s m i s s i o n , d i f f u s i o n , and t r a d e , a s w e l l a s i n a s s e s s i n g models o f p o p u l a t i o n " f l u x , " p o p u l a t i o n movement, and b r e e d i n g i s o l a t i o n . (See C a v a l l i - S f o r z a 1983; Wobst 1974) S e v e r a l c h a p t e r s i n t h e volume (Smith e t a l . ; Rathbun; Norr; Benfer; Angel) d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y employ d a t a from new t e c h n i q u e s o f t r a c e element and i s o t o p e a n a l y s i s of s k e l e t o n s t o supplement a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e f u s e i n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g human d i e t s . Smith e t a l . c i t e o n e s t u d y by S c h o e n i g e r (which t h e y c o n s i d e r c o n t r o v e r s i a l ) s u g g e s t i n g a d e c l i n e i n t h e p e r c e n t a g e of animal p r o t e i n i n t h e d i e t from Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o E p i p a l e o l i t h i c i n .he L e v a n t , a r e s u l t t h a t , i f c o r r e c t , adds s u p p o r t t o a r c h a e o l o [ i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e "Broad-Spectrum r e v o l u t i o n " and t o t h e ? o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e model. Smith e t a l . a l s o u s e s t r o n t i u m a n a l y s i s t o s u g g e s t t h a t animal p r o t e i n may have i n c r e a s e d i n i m portance i n t h e d i e t over l a t e hunter-gatherer l e v e l s i n a t l e a s t some p a r t s o f t h e Levant d u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h e a d o p t i o n of animal husbandry. I n a d d i t i o n , Smith e t a l . c i t e a s t u d y u s i n g s t r o n t i u m a n a l y s i s a s a means o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e age of weaning and d i e t s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o p u l a t i o n s , an a p p l i c a t i o n t h a t could h e l p r e s o l v e a major ongoing c o n t r o v e r s y a b o u t t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e N e o l i t h i c Revolution on n u r s i n g p r a c t i c e s and t h e r e l a t i o n between a l t e r e d n u r s i n g and t h e a p p a r e n t i n c r e a s e i n human f e r t i l i t y t h a t accompanied t h e a d o p t i o n of farming ( c f . Cohen 1980; Hassan 1980; Konner and Worthman 1980; Lee 1 9 8 0 ) . Benfer n o t e s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t r a c e element a n a l y s i s , u s i n g h a i r , t o d e t e r m i n e s e a s o n a l t r e n d s i n d i e t , supplementing d a t a on l o n g e r term t r e n d s o b t a i n e d from bone. F i n a l l y , i m p l i c i t i n s e v e r a l o f t h e s t u d i e s i s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r u s i n g t r a c e element and i s o t o p i c a n a l y s i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a g e and s e x d i s t r i b u t i o n o f food consumpt i o n p a t t e r n s w i t h i n a p o p u l a t i o n (and t h e changing p a t t e r n of t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n t h r o u g h t i m e ) , d a t a r a r e l y a v a i l a b l e from o t h e r a r chaeological refuse. S e v e r a l of t h e c h a p t e r s , s t u d y i n g o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s o f h e a l t h d i s c u s s e d above, a l s o p r o v i d e d a t a on age and s e x d i s t r i b u t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r s t r e s s e s and t h e i r changes o v e r time t h a t can b e used t o t e s t a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s about t h e s t r u c t u r e of s o c i a l groups and about changes i n s o c i e t y r e l a t e d t o major economic s h i f t s . L a r s e n , f o r example, u s e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n Âe c t i o u s

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l e s i o n s , d e n t a l c a r i e s , and s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y t o measure the d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s of t h e adoption of farming on males and f e males, and it i s c l e a r t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s more broadly t o determine t h e e f f e c t s of economic change on t h e r e l a t i v e health, n u t r i t i o n , workload, and, i n d i r e c t l y , s t a t u s of t h e sexes. The age and sex d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f v a r i o u s s t r e s s o r s (particul a r l y e p i s o d i c r a t h e r than chronic s t r e s s o r s ) a r e used i n several of t h e s t u d i e s ( s e e e s p e c i a l l y Cassidy; Goodman e t a l . ; Martin e t a l . ; Benfer) a s a means o f determining n o t o n l y t h e " n a t u r a l " d i s t r i b u t i o n of h e a l t h problems, b u t a l s o t h e c u l t u r a l l y determined focus o f s t r e s s . Cassidy and Benfer a r e perhaps most e x p l i c i t i n s u q g e s t i n g t h a t s o c i a l s t r a t e g i e s i n t e n t i o n a l l y focus b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s and even death on p a r t i c u l a r age o r sex c l a s s e s a s a matter of a d a p t i v e p o l i c y ; but o t h e r s t u d i e s (Goodman e t a l . ; Martin e t a l . ) d e s c r i b e methods f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of chronic m a l n u t r i t i o n through age c l a s s e s ; and, of c o u r s e , m o r t a l i t y prof i l e s f o r many p o p u l a t i o n s d i s p l a y t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of deaths, j u s t a s t h e s t u d i e s of H a r r i s l i n e s and enamel hypoplasias (see e s p e c i a l l y Cassidy; Goodman e t a l . ) provide d a t a on age and sex d i s t r i b u t i o n s and p e r i o d i c i t y of e p i s o d i c s t r e s s o r s . The combined h e a l t h i n d i c a t o r s a r e a l s o used i n s e v e r a l of t h e c h a p t e r s t o a s s e s s t h e importance o f high s o c i a l rank i n a f f o r d i n g r e a l economic p r i v i l e g e s a s measured by h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n (Palkovich; A l l i s o n ; Angel; B u i k s t r a and Cook) Such s t u d i e s add a dimension t o t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between mere rank and r e a l c l a s s p r i v i l e g e ( s e e Fried 1967). One c h a p t e r (Buikstra) d i s c u s s e s t h e u s e s of s k e l e t a l data t o d i s t i n g u i s h a s c r i b e d and achieved s t a t u s . And s e v e r a l chapters (Martin e t a l . ; Goodman e t a l . ; A l l i s o n ) comment on t h e e f f e c t s (The impact i s l a r g e l y of p o l i t i c a l c e n t r a l i z a t i o n on h e a l t h . n e g a t i v e i n t h e s e s t u d i e s .) These d a t a p r o v i d e one approach f o r t e s t i n g t h e o r i e s t h a t view e a r l y c e n t r a l i z e d p o l i t i c a l systems a l t e r n a t e l y a s supportive homeostatic mechanisms (Service 1975) o r a s systems e s s e n t i a l l y e x p l o i t i v e of s u b j e c t populations !pried 1967) This i s n e c e s s a r i l y a h i g h l y s e l e c t i v e l i s t f r o m among a pot e n t i a l l y r i c h a r r a y of a r e n a s i n which anthropology, p r e h i s t o r y , and s k e l e t a l biology might b e n e f i t from b e t t e r communication. We hope t h a t t h i s volume w i l l s e r v e n o t o n l y t o s t i m u l a t e new work on t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d b u t a l s o t o promote c r e a t i v e exp l o r a t i o n of new avenues of j o i n t r e s e a r c h among t h e s e f i e l d s .

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REFERENCES

Brothwell, Don 1963 The macroscopic d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y o f some e a r l i e r populat i o n s . In Dental ant'hmpo'Logy, e d i t e d by D. R. Brothwell, Pergamon, Oxford. pp. 271-288.

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C a v a l l i - S f o r z a , L. L. 1983 The t r a n s i t i o n t o a g r i c u l t u r e and some o f i t s consequenc e s . HOW h m n s adopt, e d i t e d by D. O r t n e r , p p . 103-120. S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n , Washington, D .C. C h r i s t e n s o n , Andrew 1980 Changes i n t h e human n i c h e i n r e s p o n s e t o p o p u l a t i o n I n Modeling prehistoric subsistence economies, growth. e d i t e d by T. E a r l e and A. L. Chri s t e n s o n , p p . 31-72. Academic P r e s s , New York. Cohen, M. N. Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977 The food c r i s i s i n prehistory. New Haven. 1980 S p e c u l a t i o n s on t h e e v o l u t i o n o f d e n s i t y measurement and p o p u l a t i o n r e g u l a t i o n i n Homo s a p i e n s . I n Biosocial mechanisms of population regulation, e d i t e d b y M . N . Cohen, R. S. Malpass, and H . G. K l e i n , pp. 275-304. Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven. E a r l e , Timothy 1980 A model o f s u b s i s t e n c e change. I n Modeling prehistoric subsistence economies, e d i t e d by T. E a r l e and A . L. Academic P r e s s , New York. C h r i s t e n s o n , pp 1-29. F r i e d , Morton 1967 The evolution of po'Lztiea'L society. Random House, New York . Hassan, F e k r i 1980 The g r o w t h and r e g u l a t i o n o f human p o p u l a t i o n i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s . I n Biosocial mechanisms of population reguf a t i o n , e d i t e d by M . N. Cohen, R. S. Malpass, and H. G . K l e i n , pp. 305-320. Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , N e w Haven. Hay den, B r i a n 1981 R e s e a r c h and development i n t h e Stone Age. Current Ant h ~ o p o l o g y2 2 : 519-548. Hespenheide, H. A. 1980 E c o l o g i c a l models o f r e s o u r c e s e l e c t i o n . I n Modeling prehistoric subsistence economies, e d i t e d by T. E a r l e and A. L. C h r i s t e n s o n , p p . 73-78. Academic P r e s s , New York. Howell, Nancy 1982 V i l l a g e composition i m p l i e d by a p a l e o d e n o g r a p h i c l i f e table: t h e Libben s i t e . American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 59:263-270. Konner, M e l v i n , a n d C a r o l Worthman 1980 N u r s i n g f r e q u e n c y , gonad f u n c t i o n , and b i r t h s p a c i n g among Science 207: 788-791. !Kunq Hunter-Gatherers Lee, R. B. 1980 L a c t a t i o n , o v u l a t i o n , i n f a n t i c i d e and women's work: A s t u d y of hunter-gatherer population regulation. In BiosooiaZ mechanisms of population ~ e g u l a t i o n ,e d i t e d by M. N. Cohen, R. S . Malpass, and H . G . K l e i n , p p . 321-348. Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven.

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23 EDITORS' SUMMATION M u r c h i s o n , M . A . , D . W. Owsley, a n d A. J . R i o p e l l e 1 9 8 3 Transverse line formation i n protein deprived phesus monkeys. P a p e r p r e s e n t e d t o t h e annual meeting of the Paleopathology As s o c i a t i o n , Indianapolis. O f C o n n e l l , J . F . , a n d K r i s t e n Hawkes 1981 Alyawara p l a n t use a n d o p t i m a l f o r a g i n g t h e o r y . In Hunter -Gatherer foraging s t r a t e g i e s , e d i t e d by B . W i n t e r h a l d e r a n d E . A . S m i t h , pp. 99-125. ~ l d i n e , Chicago. R e i d h e a d , Van 1980 The e c o n o m i c s o f s u b s i s t e n c e change: A t e s t of an o p t i m i z a t i o n model. In Mode ling prehistoric s u b s i s t e m economies, e d i t e d b y T. E a r l e and A . L. Christenson, pp. 141-186. Academic P r e s s , New York. S a t t e n s p i e l , L i s a a n d Henry H a r p e n d i n g 1 9 8 3 S t a b l e p o p u l a t i o n s a n d s k e l e t a l a g e . A m e ~ c a nAntiquity 48:489-498. S e r v i c e , Elman 1975 Origins of the s t a t e and eiviti-sation. Norton, New York. W h i t e , Tim D. 197 8 E a r l y h o m i n i d enamel h y p o p l a s i a s . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 4 9 : 79-84. W i n t e r h a l d e r , Bruce 1 9 8 1 O p t i m a l f o r a g i n g s t r a t e g i e s and Hunter-Gatherer research i n a n t h r o p o l o g y : t h e o r i e s a n d models. I n BunkerSatherev foraqing s t r a t & e s , e d i t e d by B. ~ i n t e r h a l d e r a d E. A. S m i t h , p p . 13-35. A l d i n e , Chicago. Wobst, M. 1 9 7 4 B o u n d q c o n d i t i o n s f o r p a l e o l i t h i c s o c i a l Systems: A s i m u l a t i o n a p p r o a c h . faneriaan Antiquity 39: 147-177-

4 '

A Group, 194-211 Acorns, 439, 441-444, 452-456, 596 Adena, 307-338 Age at death of skeletons, 17 591 592, 594 in the American Southwest, 431 434, 435 in California, 453-454 in Ecuador 498-501 in Georgia, 368-370, 372, 380 in Illinois, 261 291 295, 299, 300 in Kentucky 320, 324, 326, 329, 330-332 in the Levant, 117- 120 in the Mediterranean, 54-57 in Panama, 477 in Peru, 535-536, 545-546, 547 in South Asia, 173, 184 in Southwest Asia, 144- 145, 158 Age determination from skeletons, 17 57 260-261 274, 453-454. 477 Age, effects on health, 26-27 368, 379, 380 Agriculture adoption of, 1 2, 560-562, 567 573, 576 585-595 in the American Southwest, 425, 426, 436 in Ecuador 493-494 in Europe, 77-78 in Georgia, 368, 369, 387 in Illinois, 235-261 in Kentucky 307 309, 314, 318, 319, 335, 337 in the Levant, 101- 130 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 61 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 393, 394, 398, 401 406, 408,409,412,414,416 in Nubia, 194, 196, 203, 210

in Panama, 466, 469. 470, 475, 478, 479, 482 in Peru and Chile, 515, 517 520, 531 547-549 in South Asia, 169, 183-184 in Southwest Asia, 137-161 intensification of, 560-561 567 573, 574, 577 585-595 in the American Southwest, 426, 430, 432, 433, 436 in Ecuador 493-495, 5 10, 5 11 in Illinois, 235-261 272, 277 in Kentucky 315, 318, 334-335, 337 in the Levant, 101- 130 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 63-65 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 399, 406, 417 in Nubia, 194, 198-21 1 in Ohio, 349, 354, 355-357 361 in Panama. 467 468, 470, 47 1 476, 478, 479, 481 482 in Peru q d Chile, 516, 517 519, 520, 527 in South Asia, 169-1 85 in Southwest Asia, 137- 161 American Southwest, 425-436, 587 Anasazi, 426-436 Ancylosroma, 525 see also Hookworm Anemia, see Porotic hyperostosis Animal domestication, 61 62, 107- 108, 153, 173, 184, 198, 199, 515, 517 573, 598 as a source of infection, 160 as a source of trauma, 159 Anthracosis, 521 Antibiotics, natural, 208, 210 Aquatic resources, 1 3, 566, 576, 597 in California, 440-444, 453-454 in Ecuador 492-495

INDEX in Europe, 78 as an explanation of stature reduction, 91 in Georgia, 369, 386 in Illinois, 217 227-229, 235, 246 in Kentucky 308-309, 314, 318 in the Levant, 109 in the Mediterranean, 58, 60, 66 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 401 403, 404, 417 in Nubia, 196, 197 in Ohio, 347 in Panama, 466, 467 469, 471 472, 474, 475, 480 in Peru and Chile, 516-518, 531-534, 538-539, 541 543, 548, 549 Archaic period, economy and health of populations, 4, see also Preceramic period in California, 439-456 in Illinois, 221 224-226, 229, 235-261 in Kentucky 307-338 in the Mississippi River-Caddoan region, 395, 396 in Ohio, 347 350-355 in Panama. 466. 468, 474-476, 478, 479, 48 1 Arthritis, 35-36, 574-575, 590-592 in Europe, 8 1 82 in Georgia, 367 373-374, 379, 382, 383, 385, 386 infectious, 325-326, 330-332, 591 in Illinois, 260, 294-295, 298 in Kentucky 321 325-327 329-332 in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan region, 405, 406, 410, 412, 414, 415 417 in Peru and Chile, 526, 527 in South Asia, 177-180, 183-184 in Southwest Asia, 154, 156- I59 Ascaris, 329 Asymmetry in the skeleton as an indication of stress, 21 256, 326, 539, 547 Australian aborigines, 124, 590

Ballana, see X Group Bartonella, 5 11 Barley 53, 58, 61 106, 107 197 198, 200 Basketmaker culture, 426-428, 430, 436 Beans, 226, 308, 315, 318, 319, 333, 349, 398, 399, 430, 433, 470, 471 481 533 Biological distance, see Genetic continuity of populations Birth spacing, see Fertility

Birth trauma, 177 Blastomycosis, 259, 523 Boserup, Ester 1 3, 261 559-560 Bone attained length-for-age 18, see also Growth cortical thickness and maintenance, 4, 20, 570, 571 575, 587 588, 599 in the American Southwest, 434 in Georgia, 376-378, 381 386 in Illinois, 244-245, 247 249, 272 279-282, 297 299-300 in Kentucky 322, 326, 330, 331 333 in the Levant, 120- 122 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 66 in Nubia, 206-208, 210 in Ohio, 352, 360 in Peru and Chile, 543, 547-548 in South Asia, 181 185 Bone remodeling, see Bone, cortical thickness Broad spectrum foraging, 560, 561 567 568, 576, 598, see also Aquatic resources; Archaic; Gathering economy Hunting economy; Mesolithic period; Perceramic period in California, 439-456 in Ecuador 492, 493, 5 10 in Europe, 78, 126 in Illinois, 226 in Kentucky 309, 337 in the Levant, 126 in the Mediterranean, 58-59, 337 in Panama, 464, 467 468, 470, 480 in P ~ N - h dChile, 516, 517 520, 533-534, 541 548 Bronze Age, health and economy of in the Levant, 112, 113, 114, 116, 123 in the Mediterranean, 63-66 in South Asia, 170- 185 in Southwest Asia, 140- 160 Burials, see Mortuary practices

C Group, 194-211 Caddoan culture, 393-399, 405-409 Cadmium, 546, 548, see also Trace element analysis Calcium, 62, 126- 127 159, 208, 244, 245, 259, 333, 386, 544-546 California, 439-456, 567 596 Cancer paleopathology of, 68, 157 177 179 Candida, see Infection, yeast Cannibalism, 329

INDEX

Carbon isotopes, see Isotopic analysis of bone Caries, as an indicator of health and diet, 5, 7 37 565, 573, 589, 599 in California, 448-450 in Ecuador 506-508, 5 10 in Europe, 84-87 92 in Georgia, 367 371-373, 374, 379, 382, 383, 385, 386 in Illinois, 252-256, 258 in Kentucky 320, 321 323, 324, 328, 329,331 332 in the Levant, 123- 125 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 394-408, 415 in Nubia, 203, 205, 210 in Ohio, 355-356, 361 in Panama, 477 in Peru and Chile, 519-520 in South Asia, 178- 179, 183 in Southwest Asia. 150- 151 157- 159 Caries, circular 240, 252-253, 477 478, 481 589 Cereals, in the diet, 58, 59, 61-66, 105-107 197 200, see also specific cereals Chalcolithic in the Levant, 112, 114, 116, 123 in South Asia, 170- 185 in Southwest Asia, 140- 160 i. Childbirth, as a cause of mortality see Mortality Chile, 515-527 Chromium, 547 Climate, as a factor in economy and health, 53, 58, 76-77 217-219, 425-427 432-436, 442-443, 455-456, 464, 467 491 494, 495, 532, 562, 563 Christian period, 194-21 1 Coevolution of host and parasite, 160 Cohen, Mark, 560-561 567-569, 574-575, 577 Colonialism, 518, 522, 588, see also Political centralization; Political exploitation Copper 547 548 Coprolites, see Feces Cranial osteoporosis, see Porotic hyperostosis Craniofacial morphology in the Levant, 111 113-116, 125 in Nubia, 199, 202-203, 210 in Peru and Chile, 519-520, 533, 541 in South Asia, 174 in Southwest Asia, 140- 141 Cremation, see Mortuary practices

Cribra orbitalia, see Porotic hyperostosis Cropping frequency, 197, 198, 200 Crowding, see Population nucleation; Population pressure Culture change, as a source of stress, 418, see also specific transitions

D Dairy products in the diet, 129, 175, 198 Degenerative joint disease, see Arthritis Dental attrition, see Tooth wear Dental crowding, 177 Dental malocclusion, 177 Dental morphology 111 276; see also Tooth size Dental pathology 5, 25-29, 36-37 573, 589-590, 599, see also Caries; Enamel Hypoplasias; Periodontal disease; Tooth wear in the American Southwest, 430 in California, 445-447 448-450, 453-455 in Ecuador 505-509 in Europe, 84-87 92 in Georgia, 367 371-374, 379, 382-386 in Illinois, 229, 252-256, 258, 285-289. 297 -299 in Kentucky 320, 321 326, 328, 329 in the Levant 121- 125 in the Mediterranean, 54-56 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, ¥'394-399 401-408, 415 in Nubia, 203, 205-206, 210 in Ohio, 353-356, 361 in Panama, 477 478, 480, 481 in Peru and Chile, 519-520, 539 in South Asia, 173, 177 184 in Southwest Asia, 141 149-153, 157 Depopulation, see Population decline Diabetes, 547 Diarrhea, see Infection, gastrointestinal Diet, see Agriculture; Animal domestication; Aquatic resources; Broad spectrum foraging,, Gathering economy Hunting economy Isotopic analysis of bone; Trace element analysis; Tooth microwear; Tooth wear; specific nutrients Diseases endemic in California, 447 in Illinois, 236, 297 in Kentucky 321 325, 328. 330, 331 332

INDEX in the Levant, 130 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 415, 418 in the Mediterranean, 59-60 in the Levant, 130 in Ohio, 358 in Peru and Chile, 522 in Southwest Asia, 153 epidemic, 2, 59, 64, 68, 155, 229, 571- see also Stress, episodic Dislocations, see Trauma Division of labor see Women, health of, social status of Domestic animals, see Animal domestication

Ecuador 491 -5 11 586-588, 592 Elites, see Stratification of societies Enamel hypocalcification, of teeth, 29, 477 480, 589 Enamel hypoplasia, of teeth, 4, 25-27 570-573, 579, 589-590, 599 in California, 445-447 453, 455 of deciduous teeth, 26, 252-253, 322, 326, 328, 330-332, 354, 480, 589, 596 in Ecuador 505-506, 510 in Europe, 87 89 in Georgia, 368 in Illinois, 255-256, 285-286, 297 299 in Kentucky 322, 326-328, 330, 331 in the Levant, 121 123-124 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 64, 68 in Nubia, 205-206 in Ohio, 353-355, 361 in Panama, 477 481 in Peru and Chile, 5 19-520, 539 in South Asia, 176, 179, 184 in Southwest Asia, 147-148, 150-151 Enamel microdefects (of teeth), 27-29, 589 in Georgia, 368 in Illinois, 225, 252-253, 287-289, 297, 299 in Nubia, 205-206 Endocarditis, 522 Epipaleolithic period, 101- 130, see also Mesolithic period Equilibrium theory 562, 577 Europe, Western, 75-100, 586-588, 591 595, 596

Famine, see Stress, episodic Farming, see Agriculture

Fats in the diet, 224-227 Feces, analysis of, 314, 532, 534, 538, 543 Femur shaft index as an indicator of stress, 54-56, 59, 352, 376-378, 381 Fertility 51 52, 54-56, 77 336, 361 427 454, 456, 562, 574, 576, 593 Fiber dietary and health, 66, 396, 399, 403 Fire, 439 Fish, see Aquatic resources Fishing, see Aquatic resources Food preparation techniques effects on health, 159, 324-325, 333, 396, 519, 521 in relation to tooth size, 175 Foraging, see Gathering economy Hunting economy Foraging, marine, see Aquatic resources Formative period, 492-494, 496, 497 499, 500-510 Fort Ancient, 307-338, 348-361 Fractures, see Trauma Functional demand, see Stress, mechanical

G

~-

Gallstones, 66 Gathering economy 560, 561 567 573, 585-595 in the American Southwest, 425, 426, 430, 433 in California, 439-456 in Ecuador 492, 493, 5 10 in Georgia, 368-369, 386 in Illinois, 226, 227 in Kentucky 308, 309, 314, 318-319 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 395-399, 401 403, 404 in Nubia, 196, 197 200 in Ohio, 347 361 in Panama, 464, 467 468, 480 in Peru and Chile, 516, 517 533, 534, 541 543 Gender effects on health 26; see also Sexual dimorphism; Women Genetic continuity of populations, 571 598 in California, 440-441 in Illinois, 216, 222, 227-228, 276-277 in Kentucky 307 315 in the Mediterranean, 53 in Nubia, 197, 199 in Peru and Chile, 519, 520, 533, 542, 548 in Southwest Asia, 138 Genetic distance, see Genetic continuity of populations

INDEX Genetic drift, 533 Genetic factors in host resistance, 15, 277-279 and malaria, 60 in stature, 240 Georgia, economy and health in, 367-388. 586-588, 591 592 Gourds. 226, 235, 308, 314, 318, 533 Growth disruption of, 4, 16, 18, 23-25, 570, 571 573. 576, 587 589, 590. see also Enamel hypoplasia; Harris lines in the American Southwest, 434 in California, 444-447 450, 453-455 in Ecuador 505-506, 5 10 in Illinois, 247-256. 272, 279-282, 297 299-301 in Kentucky 322-330 in Peru and Chile, 518-520, 523, 542, 547 548 in South Asia, 176, 184 in Southwest Asia, 147-148 skeletal, as an indicator of health, 4, 16, 17-21 570, 587 588, 595, 596, 599, see also Stature in the American Southwest, 434 in California, 448 in Ecuador 498-499 in Georgia, 374-379, 381 -383 in Illinois, 237-240, 249, 272, 279-282, 297 299-301 in Kentucky 335, 336 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 60, 62 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 407 409, 412, 414-416 in Nubia, 204-205, 210 in Ohio, 349-352, 361 in Peru and Chile. 518, 519, 525, 526, 533, 539, 541 547 in South Asia, 181 in Southwest Asia, 143, 147 slowing of as a sign of stress in childhood, see Growth slowing of, intrauterine, 358 Growth arrest, see Growth, disruption of

Hayden, Brian, 1 455-456, 595, 596 Harris lines, 4, 23-25, 570-572, 589-590, 596, 598, 599 in California, 444-447 450, 454, 455 in Georgia, 367 in Illinois, 247-252

in Kentucky 322, 325, 329, 330, 333 in the Levant, 121 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 408-409, 416 in Ohio, 352-353 in Peru and Chile, 518-520. 523, 542, 547 548 in South Asia, 176, 184-185 in Southwest Asia, 147-148, 152-154, 158 Hellenistic period, in the Levant, 112 Herding, see Animal domestication Histomorphometrics, 543, 547 see also Bone, cortical maintenance Hookworm, 60, 62, 525 Hopewell, 222, 223, 314, 400, 403 Howell's Sigma ratio, 52 Hunger periods, see Stress, episodic; Stress, seasonal Hunting economy 560, 567 573, 575, 585-595 in the American Southwest, 425. 426, 433 in California, 441 443, 448-450 in Ecuador 492-494, 510 in Europe, 76-78 in Georgia, 368-369, 372, 386 in Illinois. 226-227 235, 272, 300 in Kentucky 308, 309,314, 318, 319 in the Levant, 107--108, 127 in the Mediterranean, 58-60 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 399, 401 403 in Nubia, 196, 197 200 in Ohio, 347 349, 361 in Panama, 464, 467 468, 470, 480, 483 in Peru and Chile, 516, 517 533-534, 543 in South Asia, 170

Illinois, health of prehistoric populations in, 18, 28, 33, 215-230, 235-262, 271-301 359, 586-589, 591 592 Inbreeding, effects of, 533, 538, 548 Inca, 518, 519 India, see South Asia Infant mortality see Mortality infant Infanticide, see Mortality, social Infection, 4, 32-34, 570, 572-574, 586, 590, 598 in the American Southwest, 432, 434, 436 associated with age at death, 291 357 in California, 444, 446 in Ecuador 502, 504, 5 10

INDEX gastrointestinal, 62, 152, 153, 524-525, 586 in Georgia, 367 370-371 379-380, 383, 385, 386 in Illinois, 229, 236, 259, 291-293, 297 299 in Kentucky 321 325 328-332, 334 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 405-406, 408-410, 412, 414, 415, 417 418 in Nubia, 208-210 in Ohio, 356-358 in Panama, 477-484 in Peru and Chile, 515, 516, 5 19, 520-527 538, 542, 547 549 respiratory 521-523, 586; see also Pneumonia; Tuberculosis secondary to trauma, 85, 155, 481 482, 484 of skin, 522 in South Asia, 177 180 in Southwest Asia, 154, 158-159 synergistic with malnutrition, 3 1 81 155, 208, 291 297 299, 325, 330, 332, 335, 353, 358-360, 382, 408, 432, 434, 436, 444, 481 482, 484 yeast, 522 Integration period, 492, 496, 497 499, 500, 501 503-510 Intestinal contents, see Feces, analysis Iron, in the diet, 29, 62, 159, 244, 332, 386, 409, 415, 417 430-432, 481 572, see also Porotic hyperostosis Iron age, health and nutrition in the Mediterranean, 64-65 in South Asia, 170-185 in Southwest Asia, 142 Irrigation, 63, 149, 199, 201 427 430 Isotopic analysis of bone, 5, 7 37-38, 565, 579, 598 in Costa Rica, 472-474 in Ecuador 494 in Europe, 92 in Illinois, 226, 252 in Ohio, 349 in Panama, 472-474 in South Asia, 185

K Kebaran, 101-130 Kentucky economy and health in, 307-338, 586-589, 591 592

Kidney disease, 522 Kidney or bladder stones, 323 !Kung San, 1 3

Labor demands of different economies, 1 2, 63, 198, 244, 336, 347 380-381 406, 455, 560, 574-576, 591 596, see also Arthritis, Muscular development Lactation, health effects of, 159, see also Women, health of Lead in the diet, 153 Lee, Richard, 1 Leisure time, see Labor demands of different economies Leprosy 32 Levant, 101-136, 567 587 588, 591 593, 595, 596, 598 Life expectancy 2, 3, 4, 16-17 561 592-594 in the American Southwest, 431 434, 435 in California, 452-456 in Ecuador 500 in Illinois, 260-261 295-296 in Kentucky 320, 329-332 in the Levant, 118-120, 124 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 58, 59, 65-66 in Nubia, 209-21 1 in Ohio, 360 in Peru, 534-537 in South Asia, 173 in Southwest Asia, 139, 144-145, 158 Life tables, 16-17 139, 144, 158, 274-276, 295,432, 434,435, 453 Liver disease, 522 Linear enamel hypoplasia, see Enamel hypoplasia Long bones, attained length and circumference, see Growth

,

M Maize, 215, 223, 225-227 229, 244-258, 272, 289, 299, 300, 308, 314-315, 318, 319, 331 347 348, 349, 351 358, 359, 360, 361 368, 380, 382, 386, 387 394, 398-410, 415-418, 430, 433, 469-471 473, 481, 482, 484, 491 493, 566, 586, 587 Malaria, 30, 59, 62, 64, 67 149, 182-183, see also Porotic hyperostosis Malnutrition chronic, 18, 60-63, 65, 181-184,

" 7 INDEX

203-208, 322, 334, 381 382, 427 432, 434, 436, 518, see also Bone, cortical thickness and maintenance; Growth, Porotic hyperostosis; Stress, chronic episodic, 2, 147 229, 286-287 353, 409, 412, 416, 417 430, 436, 439, 443-447 450, 455, 456, see also Enamel hypoplasia; Growth disruption; Harris lines Manioc, 470, 471 482, 493 Meat, as a component of human diets, 3, see also Animal domestication; Hunting economy in California, 449-450 in the Levant, 107-108, 126, 127 129 in the Mediterranean, 58, 59, 60, 61 62, 66 in Southwest Asia, 153 Mediterranean, region, health and economy in, 51-73, 586-588, 593, 595 Meroitic period, 194-21 1 Mesolithic period, health and nutrition in, 4, 564, 566, 567 572-576, 588, 596, see also Epipaleolithic period in Europe, 75-77 in the Mediterranean, 54, 60, 61 / in Nubia, 194-21 1 in South Asia. 169-185 Migration, 147 158 Millet, 197 Mining and disease, 523 Mississippi Valley (Central), 393, 394, 400-402, 410, 412-413, 586, 588, 589, 591 593, 594 Mississippi Valley (Lower), 402-406, 410, 412, 413, 586, 588, 589, 591 593, 594 Mississippian period, 223-225, 228-229, 235-261 272-301 307-338, 348, 350-357 386, 401 402, 404, 41 1 412, 414, 417 Mortality 3, 16-17 563, 570-572, 574, 576, 577 592-594 in the American Southwest, 431 434, 436 in California, 452-456 in childbirth, 59, 66, 454, 456, 518, 538 in Ecuador 498-502 female, see also Women, health of in California, 456 in the Levant, 120 in the Mediterranean, 54-56 in Peru and Chile, 5 18 in Southwest Asia, 142, 144-145, 158

in Georgia, 368-370, 387 of infants, 119, 157 209, 320, 324, 326, 329, 330, 332, 358, 360, 431 436, 453-454, 524, 534-535, 538 in Kentucky 320, 324, 326, 329, 330-332 in the Levant, 118-120 in the Mediterranean, 54-56 in Nubia, 209-21 1 in Ohio, 360 in Panama, 477 in Peru and Chile, 517-520, 524-525, 534-536, 547 seasonal, 443-444, 450 socially induced, 324, 332, 335,336, 337 467 477 534, 599 in South Asia, 173, 184 in Southwest Asia, 139, 144, 158 subadult in the American Southwest, 431 436 in California 453, 454 in Georgia, 369 in Kentucky 320, 324, 326, 329-331 in the Levant, 120 in Nubia, 209 in Ohio, 360 in Peru and Chile, 518, 524, 534-536, 538 in Southwest Asia, 139 Mortuary practices in the American Southwest, 427 431 432 in Calfomia, 444-445, 453 in Ecuador 495, 497 498 in Illinois, 216, 219-223, 240, 242, 274 in Kentucky 314, 326, 327 in the Levant, 118 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 398 in Panama, 467 471 475-476 in Peru and Chile, 518, 525, 527 534, 549 in South Asia, 173 in Southwest Asia, 138- 139 Mummies, analysis of, 328, 515-517 520-527 532, 586 Muscular development, as an indicator of workload, 5, 574-576, 588, 592-594, 599 in Georgia, 374, 376-379 in Illinois, 243-244 in Ohio, 35 1-352 in Peru and Chile, 540-541 547 in South Asia, 174, 184

INDEX

Natufian, 103-130 Neandertals, 110-111 124, 140, 144, 146, 150 Necator 525, see also Hookworm Neolithic Period, health and nutrition, 564, 566, 567 575, 577 586-588, 596 in Europe, 78-79, 81 -94 in the Levant, 103-130, 138 in the Mediterranean, 61 -63 in Nubia, 194-21 1 in South Asia, 169-185 in Southwest Asia, 138, 140-161 Nile River changes in level effecting economy 194, 197 201 210 Nitrogen, see Isotopic analysis of bone Nomadism, as a source of stress, 59, 60, 62, 549 Nordin's index, 245-246 Nubia, Sudanese, economy and health in, 31 192-211 587 Nuts, in the diet. 217 224-226, 229, 235, 246, 314, 318, 347 403, 433, see also Acorns

Obesity 249 Odontometrics, see Dental morphology Tooth size Ohio, economy and health in, 31 35, 347-361 586, 587 588, 589, 591 594 Ohio River Valley, 307-338, 347-361 Oral pathology see Dental pathology Osteitis, see Infection Osteoarthritis, see Arthritis Osteolytic bone reactions, 434-436, see also Porotic hyperostosis Osteomyelitis, see Infection Osteopenia, 543 Osteophytosis, see Arthritis Osteoporosis, see Bone, cortical thickness of Otitis media, 155

Paleodemography 570, 592-594, see also Age at death; Fertility Mortality in the American Southwest, 431 434, 436 in California, 450-455 in Ecuador 498-502 in Georgia, 368-370

in Illinois, 260-261 274-276, 295-296, 298, 299, 301 in Kentucky 320, 324, 326, 329-331 in the Levant, 118-120 in Nubia, 209-21 1 in Ohio, 360-361 in Panama, 477 in Peru, 534-538, 548 in South Asia, 173 in Southwest Asia, 139, 144 Paleoindian, economy and health of populations, 4, 7 221 308, 425, 466, 468, 475 Paleolithic, economy and health of populations, 4, 7 59-60, 76-77 564, 566, 572-575, 587, 588, 596 in Europe, 76-78 in the Levant, 101 130 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 58-60 in South Asia, 170-185 in Southwest Asia, 140-160 Panama, 463-484, 586, 587 594 Pastoralism, see Animal domestication Pelvic inlet, measurement of as an indicator of choronic stress, 21 52, 54-56/59, 62, 63, 242, 571 587 Pelvic scars of parturition, 54-56, 66 Pericarditis, 522 Periodontal disease, 565 in Ecuador 506-508, 510 n Europe, 87 92 in Georgia, 368, 385, 387 in Kentucky 320, 324, 329 in Illinois, 258 in the Levant, 125 in Nubia, 210 in Panama, 477 in South Asia, 177-179, 183 in Southwest Asia, 150-151 157 159 Periostitis, see infections Peritonitis, 524 Peru, health of prehistoric populations in, 18, 515-527 531-553, 586, 587, 588, 589, 593, 596-597 598 Phytates, binding iron and zinc, 62, 65, 66, 68. 481 Pinworm, 525 Platymeric index, see Femur shaft index Pneumonia, see Pulmonary disease Political centralization, health effects of, 3, 7 63-67 568, 580, 588 in Ecuador 494-495

INDEX in Illinois, 223-224, 229, 235, 272-274, 300-301 in the Mediterranean, 63-67 in the "Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 393, 399, 401 403, 404, 412, 418 in Nubia, 197 198, 200, 201 206, 209-2 11 In Panama, 467 471, 476, 478 in Peru and Chile, 515, 518, 522, 525, 527 Political exploitation, health effects, 573, 578, 588, 595 in Illinois, 223-224, 229, 272, 300 in Nubia, 197-21 1 in Peru and Chile, 5 18, 522, 527 Polygyny 477 associated Stature and sexual dimorphism, 146 Population decline, 222, 399, 434, 563, 568 Population density 2, 15 in the American Southwest, 426, 427 433 in California, 439, 440, 443, 447 452, 455 in Ecuador 495-5 11 in Europe, 76-78 in Georgia, 388 in Illinois, 227-229, 259-261 272, 299-301 in Kentucky 309, 318, 319, 336, 338 in the Levant, 105, 130 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 60, 61 64, 67 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 393, 394, 398, 409, 413 in Nubia, 198 in Ohio, 360-361 in Panama, 464, 469, 480 in Peru, 538 in Suth Asia, 173 in Southwest Asia, 139 Population growth, 2, 3, 17 60-62, 68, 560, 562-564, 567 569, 573-576, 593-595, 598 in the American Southwest, 426, 427 433 in California, 440, 447 450, 452, 454-456 in Ecuador 495 in Europe, 76-78 in Georgia, 368, 380 in Illinois, 222, 227 229, 236, 259-261 272, 299, 301 in Kentucky 309, 314, 315 318, 335, 336 in the Levant, 105, 128 in the Mediterranean, 60-62, 68 in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan region, 393, 398, 400, 403, 409, 415-417

^

in Nubia, 198-202, 210 in Ohio, 361 in Panama, 471 480 in Peru, 534, 537 538 in South Asia, 169, 173, 183 in Southwest Asia, 139-140 Population of hunter-gatherers, 2, 53-54, 58-60, 76-78, 169-173 Population nucleation and dispersal, 6, 7, 594, 595 in the American Southwest, 430, 433, 434, 436 in Georgia, 368, 380 in Illinois, 229, 259, 261 in the Mediterranean, 62, 63 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 398, 401 406, 408, 409, 412, 414, 415-418 in Nubia, 199-20 1 206 in Ohio, 349, 361 in Panama, 464 in Peru and Chile, 5 19, 524, 527 in Southwest Asia, 139, 147 158-159 Population pressure, 559-564, 566, 568, 569, 572-574, 576-578, 595-598 in California, 455 in Europe, 87 92 in Illinois, 261 in Kentucky 335, 337 338 in the Levant, 129 in the Mediterranean, 65, 67 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 393-394 in Peru, 534, 537 in South Asia, 169, 183 Population size, and infection rates, 2, 59, 64, 159, 259, 358, 380, 524 Population regulation, 335 336, 455, 534, 536-538 547 561 562, 578, see also Mortality social Porotic hyperostosis, 29-31 570, 572, 573, 587 596 in the American Southwest, 427-429, 430, 432, 434 in California, 444 in Ecuador 504-505 in Europe, 81 92 in Georgia, 382, 386, 387 in Illinois, 240, 257-258, 289-290, 297 299 in Kentucky 321 325-327 329-332 in the Levant, 120-121

INDEX in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 60, 65, 67-68 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 405, 406, 409, 410, 415, 417 in Nubia, 205-206, 210 in Ohio, 359-360 in Panama, 477-479, 481 483-484 in Peru and Chile, 518-520 in South Asia, 178, 181-183 in Southwest Asia, 149, 154, 159 Pott's disease, 523, see also Tuberculosis Preceramic period, see also Archaic period in Ecuador 492, 496-497 499, 500-510 in Peru, 531 553 Pregnancy health effects of, 159, 456, see also Women, health of Protein, adequacy of in the diet, 598 in the American Southwest, 433 in Georgia, 381 382, 385 in Illinois, 224-229 in Kentucky 319 in the Mediterranean, 59-60, 62-63, 65-66 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 399, 401 408 in the Levant, 129 in Nuhia, 210 in Panama, 4 6 4 4 7 0 in South Asia, 181-182 Protein-calorie malnutrition in the American Southwest, 434, 436 in Illinois, 244-245, 249, 252, 258 in Kentucky 335 in Nubia, 208 Pueblo, 426-428, 430-436 Pulmonary disease, 521-523, see aiso Tuberculosis

R Radio-opaque lines, see Harris lines Radiographs, uses in diagnosis, 24, 32, see also Harris lines Rainfall, see Climate Rank, see Stratification of societies Regional Development Period, in Ecuador 492, 495-497 500-5 10 Resource degradation. 533, 534, 549, 563, 597 Rice, 175, 184 Rickets, 182, see also Vitamin D Rohusticity see Growth; Bone, cortical maintenance, Muscular development

s Salmonella, 522, 523, 524

Sampling bias in studies, 6, 17 52-53, 75, 79-80, 104, 137-139, 159-160, 170, 177 194. 216,219-221 236, 237 247 256, 276, 310-312, 427 431 474-476, 496-498, 564-565, 592-594 Sanitation, 527 548 Scurvy see Vitamin C Sea levels, changing, and human economies and health, 53, 64 Seafood, see Aquatic resources Sedentism, as a factor in health, 2, 562-564, 568, 569, 573, 574, 576, 586, 594, 595 in the American Southwest, 426-427 in California 439, 441 443, 447 454, 455 in Ecuador 494 in Europe, 77-78 in Georgia, 368, 379, 380, 387 in Illinois, 228-229 in Kentucky 309, 315, 319 in the Levant, 129, 130 in the Mediterranean, 59-60 in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan region, 393, 403, 409, 416 in Nubia, 196 in Ohio, 349, 359 in Panama, 470, 480, 481 in Peru and Chile, 524. 527 532, 537 545, 549 in Southwest Asia, 139 Seeds, as economic resources, 3, 59, 224, 225 Sex, methods of determination from the skeleton, 275 Sexual dimorphism, as an indicator of health, 5, 18, 20-21 588 in California, 448 in Ecuador 499 in Europe, 88-91 92 in Georgia, 383-385 in Illinois. 237 243-244, 255, 256, 280-282, 297 299 in the Levant, 112, 128 in the Mediterranean, 54-56 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 407 408, 412-414 in Nubia, 205 in Ohio, 350-352 in Panama, 477 in Peru, 539-541 547 in South Asia, 174- 175 in Southwest Asia, 143-147 157- 159 Sickle cell trait, see Porotic hyperostosis Size as an indicator of health and stress, see

INDEX Bone, cortical maintenance; Growth; Muscular development; Stature Skeleton, growth of as indicator of health, see Growth, skeletal Skeletons, limitations in the diagnosis of disease, 515-516 patterns of stress seen in, 13-68 Skin disease, see Infection, of skin Skull-base height, as an index of nutrition, 54-56, 59, 60, 62, 65, 67 571 587 Social status, see Stratification of societies South Asia, economy and health of, 169- 185, 587-589, 591 593, 595 Southwest, see American Southwest Southwest Asia, 137- 167 586, 587 589, 591 593 Spanish Conquest, effects on health in the New World, 515, 522 Squash, 226, 235, 308, 314, 318, 399, 430, 433, 533 Stable carbon isotopes, see Isotopic analysis of bone Stable nitfogen isotopes, see Isotopic analysis of bone Staphylococcus, 32, 358, 480, see also Infection Starvation, episodic, 2, 333, see also Stress, episodic State level of organization, health effects of, see Political centralization Stature as an indicator of health and nutrition, 5, 18, 19-20, 570, 573, 579-580, 588, 595, 596, 598 in the American Southwest, 430 in California, 448 in Ecuador 498-499 in Europe, 88-91 92 in Georgia, 379, 381 -383, 387 in Illinois, 223, 237 240-242, 272, 279-282, 297 299, 301 in Kentucky 335 in the Levant, 111-113, 127-129 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 59, 60, 62, 66, 67 in Nubia, 203 in Ohio, 350 in Peru and Chile, 518, 519, 525, 526, 533, 539, 541 547 548 inSouth Asia, 173-175, 181 184 in Southwest Asia, 141 143- 146, 158-159 in relation to climate, 174- 175

Storage of food, 61-62, 153, 208, 210, 225-227 229,309, 314,400,416,417 430, 440, 443-444, 455, 481 493, 527 543, 548, 549, 561 567 568, 576 Stratification of societies, effects on health, 7 26, 562, 568, 573, 574, 578, 579, 599 in the American Southwest, 430,-432 in California, 439, 441 in Ecuador 494, 495, 5 10 in Georgia, 385, 387 in Illinois, 216, 221-224, 235, 236, 240, 242, 255, 272, 300 in Kentucky 309, 324, 326, 327 in the Mediterranean, 66, 67 in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan region, 395, 399-401 404, 415, 417 in Nubia, 200 in Ohio, 355 in Panama, 467 47 1 476 in Peru and Chile, 525-527 in South Asia, 184 in Southwest Asia, 147 160 Streptococcus, 32, 522, see also Infection Stress annual, 251 286-287 309, 325, 330, 332, 334,353, 416, 417 439, 443, 444, 446, 447 450, 456 chronic, 15-23, 482, 561 572, 573, 576, 577 587-588 cumulative effects of, 15-23 demographic, see Population pressure episodic, 1 3, 15, 16, 23-29, 152, 251 353, 409, 412, 416, 417 430, 436, 439, 443, 444, 446, 447 450, 455, 456, 542, 547-549, 561 569, 571 572, 576, 588-590, 594, see also Enamel hypoplasia; Harris lines general model of, 13-17 277-279 mechanical, 83, 159, 367 380-383, 385, 387 406, 408, 409, 412, 414, 415, 574-576, 590-592, 594, 595, see also Arthritis; Labor costs prenatal, 23, 26, see also Enamel hypoplasias of deciduous teeth Striae of Retzius, see Enamel microdefects Strontium content of bone as an indicator of diet, see also Trace element analysis in Georgia, 386 in Illinois, 228 in the Levant, 126-128, 129 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 62 m Peru, 544-545, 547, 548 in Southwest Asia, 153- 154, 159

INDEX Subperiosteal hemorrhage, 33 Sudanese Nubia, see Nubia Syphilis, see Treponemal infection

T Teeth antemortem loss in Europe, 87 in Ecuador 506, 508-5 10 in Illinois, 258 in Kentucky 323, 324, 329 in the Levant, 124-125 in Peru and Chile, 519 in South Asia, 177 in Southwest Asia, 157 pathologies of, see Dental pathology Tetracycline, naturally occurring in stored grain, 208-210 Thalassemia, see Porotic hyperostosis Tooth microwear analysis, 396, 403, 538, 547 565 Tooth size in the Levant, 111 113, 118-119 in Nubia, 210 in Peru, 539 in South Asia, 175-176 Tooth wear and diet, 37 574, 575 in California. 453 in Europe, 85 in Illinois, 258 in Kentucky 322-324, 332 in the Levant, 124- 125 in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 395, 396, 403 in Nubia, 203, 210 in Peru, 538, 543, 547 in South Asia, 179, 183 in Southwest Asia, 149- 1.51 157 Trace element analysis of bone as an indicator of diet, 5, 7 37 565, 566, 571 598 in Georgia, 386, 387 in Illinois, 223, 228, 242-244 in the Levant, 126- 128, 129 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 60-63 in Peru, 544, 546-547 in South Asia, 185 in Southwest Asia, 153, 159 of hair 546-547 598 Trade, 598 in Illinois, 235, 272, 274, 299, 301 in the Mediterranean, 59, 63

in the Mississippi Valley-Caddoan region, 418 in Nubia, 197-202, 211 in Peru and Chile, 523 Transverse lines, see Harris lines Trauma, 34-35, 591-592 in California, 441 in Ecuador 501 -503, 5 10 in Europe, 87-88, 92 in Georgia, 385, 387 in Illinois, 260, 293-294, 298-300 in Kentucky 321 325 in the Levant, 121 in the Mediterranean, 59-60, 67 in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan region, 405, 406, 410, 412 in Ohio, 360, 361 in Peru and Chile, 526, 549 in South Asia, 177- 180, 183 in Southwest Asia,' 154-156, 158- 159 violence related, 3, 15, 34-35, 578, 592 in California, 441 in Ecuador 501 502 in Europe, 87-88, 92 in Georgia, 386 in Illinois, 260, 299-301 in the Levant, 121 in the Mediterranean, 59-60, 67 in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan region, 401 406, 409, 412, 416, 417 in Ohio, 360-361 in Peru, 549 in South Asia, 177-178, 183 in Southwest Asia, 155, 159 Trephination, 156 Treponemal infection, 157 180, 259, 321 325, 328, 330-332, 414, 415 Tryptophan, 244 Tuberculosis, 4, 33, 68, 157 229, 246, 254, 258, 259, 328, 358-359, 521 523

Urbanization, see Population nucleation Undernutrition, see Malnutrition, protein-calorie malnutrition

Vertebral osteophytosis, see Arthritis Violence, see Trauma, violence related Vitamin A, 52, 180

INDEX Vitamin C, 52, 180, 183, 481-482 Vitamin D, 52, 59, 60, 62, 121

Warfare, see Trauma, violence related Water wheel, 198, 200-201 Weanlings, nutrition and disease, 3 1 124, 152, 245, 252, 258, 299, 326, 329, 331 332, 335-337 360, 408, 409, 434, 453, 598 Wheat, 53, 61 183, 197 200 Whipwonn, 525 Wilson bands, see Enamel microdefects Women discriminated against in diet, 336, 337 health of, 3, 31 580, 598, 599, see also Sexual dimorphism in the American Southwest, 43 1 in California, 454, 456 in Ecuador 499 in Georgia, 370-378, 381 383 in Illinois, 228-229, 237 241-243, 247 249, 255, 256, 260, 283, 293, 295 m Kentucky 323-326, 329, 330, 335, 336 in the Levant, 120 in the Mediterranean, 54-56, 59, 62, 65-66 in the Mississippi Valley -Caddoan region, 408, 413, 414 in Nubla, 203, 206-208, 210

in Peru and Chile, 518, 525 534-536, 537 539, 542, 545, 548 in South Asia, 182 m Southwest Asia, 142, 149& 156, 158-159 labor costs to, 3, 147 social status, of 3, 598, 599 in the American Southwest, 431 in Illinois, 228-229, 237 241 -244, 247-249, 255, 256, 260 n the Levant. 120 in the Medite ranean, 67 in Panama, 477 in Peru and Chile, 525, 534, 536-539, 545 in Southwest Asia, 147

15&-

x X Group, 194-211

Yaws, see Treponemal infecti Yeast, see Infection, yeast

I

Zinc, 63, 65, 359, 544-547 548, see also Trace element analysis