Opening Skinner's Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century

Introduction

I did my first p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t w h e n I was f o u r t e e n years o l d . T h e r e w e r e r a c c o o n s l i v i n g i n t h e walls o f o u r o l d M a i n e v a c a t i o n h o u s e , a n d o n e day I s t u c k m y h a n d i n t h e c r u m b l i n g plaster a n d p u l l e d o u t a squalling baby, still m i l k - s m e a r e d , its eyes c l o s e d a n d its t i n y paws p e d a l i n g in t h e air. D a y s later t h e sealed eye slits o p e n e d , a n d b e c a u s e I'd h e a r d o f K o n r a d L o r e n z a n d his i m p r i n t e d d u c k l i n g s , I m a d e sure t h e m a m m a l saw me first, its s t r e a m i n g field o f v i s i o n t a k i n g i n m y f o r m — h a n d s a n d feet a n d f a c e . I t w o r k e d . I m m e d i a t e l y the r a c c o o n — I called her A m e l i a E a r h e a r t — b e g a n to f o l l o w m e e v e r y w h e r e , w r e a t h i n g a r o u n d m y ankles, s c r a m b l i n g u p m y calves w h e n she was afraid. S h e f o l l o w e d m e t o t h e t o w n b o o k store, t o s c h o o l , d o w n busy streets, i n t o b e d , b u t i n t r u t h , I b e g a n t o take o n m o r e o f h e r b e h a v i o r s t h a n she m i n e . E v e n t h o u g h I was t h e i m p r i n t e r , w i t h A m e l i a at my side I l e a r n e d to fish in a p o n d w i t h m y h u m a n paws; I l e a r n e d t o l a t c h o n t o t h e soft s c r e e a t t h e base o f a r o t t i n g t r e e and c l i m b ; I l e a r n e d t h e pleasures o f n o c t u r n i t y , t h e s i l ver-wet

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results:

"Imprinting," I wrote in my science n o t e b o o k , "happens to the m o t h e r t o o . " W h o , I w o n d e r e d , i n f l u e n c e d w h o m i n this s y m b i o t i c p a i r i n g ? C o u l d s p e c i e s shift f r o m t h e i r specific shapes a n d b e c o m e ,

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t h r o u g h e x p o s u r e , s o m e t h i n g a l t o g e t h e r o t h e r ? W a s t h e r e really a b o y raised b y w o l v e s , a c h i m p a n z e e w h o s i g n e d w i t h words? T h e q u e s tions fascinated m e t h e n , and still d o t o d a y M o r e fascinating t o m e b e c a m e , o v e r t i m e , a s I g r e w older, t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h o n e e x p l o r e d these q u e s t i o n s : t h e hypothesis, t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l design, t h e detailed qualitative d e s c r i p t i o n , t h e breathless or b o r i n g wait for results. I was first h o o k e d o n A m e l i a a n d later h o o k e d o n t h e pure p l o t that s t r u c tures a l m o s t all p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s , i n t e n t i o n a l o r n o t . W h i l e i t w o u l d b e r e d u c t i v e t o say a r a c c o o n rests a t t h e b o t t o m o f this b o o k , A m e l i a i s c e r t a i n l y t h e i m a g e that c o m e s t o m i n d w h e n I t h i n k of its etiology. B e y o n d that, I have for a l o n g t i m e felt that p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s are fascinating, b e c a u s e at t h e i r best t h e y are c o m p r e s s e d e x p e r i e n c e , life distilled to its p o t e n t i a l l y e l e g a n t e s s e n c e , t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l test t u b e parsing t h e n o r m a l l y b l e n d e d parts s o y o u m i g h t see love, or fear, or c o n f o r m i t y , or c o w a r d i c e play its r o l e in particular c i r c u m s c r i b e d c o n t e x t s . G r e a t p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s amplify a d o m a i n o f b e h a v i o r o r b e i n g usually b u r i e d i n t h e p e l l m e l l o f o u r fast a n d frantic lives. P e e r i n g t h r o u g h this lens i s t o see s o m e t h i n g o f ourselves. W h e n I studied p s y c h o l o g y in g r a d u a t e s c h o o l , I again h a d t h e c h a n c e t o p e r f o r m e x p e r i m e n t s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s o n all sorts o f a n i mals. I saw t h e e m b r y o of an angel fish g r o w from a few single cells to a fully finned t h i n g in f o r t y - e i g h t h o u r s flat—life p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r its puzzle p i e c e s r i g h t b e f o r e my eyes. I saw stroke v i c t i m s d e n y t h e r i g h t sides o f t h e i r faces a n d H i n d s i g h t patients m y s t e r i o u s l y read l e t ters despite t h e i r dead eyes. I o b s e r v e d p e o p l e w a i t i n g for elevators a n d had this as my salient q u e s t i o n : W h y is it that p e o p l e c o n t i n u ously press t h e b u t t o n w h e n t h e y ' r e w a i t i n g i n t h e lobby, e v e n t h o u g h t h e y k n o w , i f i n t e r v i e w e d , that i t w o n ' t m a k e t h e e l e v a t o r c o m e any faster? W h a t d o e s " e l e v a t o r b e h a v i o r " say a b o u t h u m a n b e i n g s ? I also, o f c o u r s e , read t h e classic p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s w h e r e t h e y had b e e n h o u s e d — i n a c a d e m i c j o u r n a l s , mostly, r e p l e t e w i t h quantified data and b l a c k - b a r g r a p h s — a n d i t s e e m e d s o m e w h a t sad to m e . It s e e m e d sad that t h e s e insightful a n d d r a m a t i c stories

w e r e r e d u c e d t o t h e f l a t n e s s that c h a r a c t e r i z e s m o s t scientific reports, a n d had t h e r e f o r e utterly failed to c a p t u r e w h a t o n l y real narrative c a n — t h e m e , desire, plot, h i s t o r y — t h i s i s w h a t w e are. T h e e x p e r i m e n t s d e s c r i b e d i n this b o o k , and m a n y o t h e r s , deserve t o b e n o t o n l y r e p o r t e d on as research, b u t also c e l e b r a t e d as story, w h i c h is w h a t I have h e r e t r i e d to d o . O u r lives, after all, are n o t data points a n d m e a n s a n d m o d e s ; t h e y are s t o r i e s — a b s o r b e d , r e c o n f i g u r e d , r e w r i t t e n . W e m o s t fully i n t e grate that w h i c h i s t o l d a s tale. M y h o p e i s that s o m e o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s will b e m o r e fully t a k e n i n b y readers n o w that t h e y have b e e n translated i n t o narrative f o r m . P s y c h o l o g y a n d its allied professions represent a h u g e disparate f i e l d that funnels d o w n t o t h e single synapse w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y radiating o u t w a r d t o d e s c r i b e w h o l e groups o f h u m a n b e i n g s . T h i s b o o k d o e s n o t c o n t a i n , b y any m e a n s , all t h e e x p e r i m e n t s that r e p r e sent t h e r e a c h o f that arc; i t w o u l d take v o l u m e s t o d o that. I have c h o s e n t e n e x p e r i m e n t s b a s e d o n t h e i n p u t o f m y c o l l e a g u e s and m y o w n narrative tastes, e x p e r i m e n t s that for m e a n d o t h e r s s e e m t o raise t h e b o l d e s t q u e s t i o n s i n s o m e o f t h e b o l d e s t ways. W h o are w e ? W h a t m a k e s u s h u m a n ? A r e w e truly t h e a u t h o r s o f o u r o w n lives? W h a t d o e s i t m e a n t o b e m o r a l ? W h a t does i t m e a n t o b e free? I n telling t h e stories o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s , I revisit t h e m f r o m m y c o n t e m p o r a r y p o i n t o f view, asking w h a t r e l e v a n c e t h e y have for u s now, i n this n e w w o r l d . D o e s S k i n n e r ' s b e h a v i o r i s m have m e a n i n g for c u r r e n t - d a y n e u r o p h y s i o l o g i s t s w h o c a n p r o b e t h e n e u r a l c o r r e lates

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c o m e d i c e x p e r i m e n t o n m e n t a l illness, its p e r c e p t i o n a n d diagnoses, still h o l d t r u e today, w h e n w e supposedly a b i d e b y m o r e o b j e c t i v e diagnostic c r i t e r i a i n t h e n a m i n g o f " d i s e a s e " ? C a n w e e v e n define as disease s y n d r o m e s that have no c l e a r - c u t p h y s i o l o g i c a l e t i o l o g y or p a t h o p h y s i o l o g y ? I s p s y c h o l o g y , w h i c h deals h a l f i n m e t a p h o r , h a l f i n statistics, really a s c i e n c e at all? Isn't s c i e n c e i t s e l f a f o r m of m e t a p h o r ? A l o n g t i m e ago, i n t h e late 1 8 0 0 s , W i l h e l m W u n d t , l o n g c o n s i d e r e d p s y c h o l o g y ' s f o u n d i n g father, o p e n e d o n e o f t h e f i r s t i n s t r u m e n t -

based p s y c h o l o g y labs in t h e w o r l d , a lab d e d i c a t e d to m e a s u r e m e n t , a n d s o a s c i e n c e o f p s y c h o l o g y was b o r n . B u t a s these e x p e r i m e n t s d e m o n s t r a t e , it was b o r n b r e e c h , b o r n badly, a c h i m e r i c a l o r g a n i s m w i t h a m b i g u o u s l i m b s . N o w , o v e r o n e h u n d r e d years later, t h e beast has g r o w n up. W h a t i s it? T h i s b o o k d o e s n ' t answer this q u e s t i o n , b u t i t does address i t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f S t a n l e y M i l g r a m ' s s h o c k m a c h i n e , B r u c e A l e x a n d e r ' s a d d i c t e d rats, D a r l e y a n d Latane's s m o k e - f i l l e d rooms, M o n i z ' s lobotomy, and o t h e r experiments as well. I n this b o o k w e see h o w p s y c h o l o g y i s inevitably, ineluctably, m o v i n g t o w a r d a d e e p e r a n d d e e p e r m i n i n g o f b i o l o g i c a l frontiers. W e see h o w t h e c l u m s y cuts o f M o n i z t r a n s f o r m e d , o r t r a n s m o g r i f i e d , d e p e n d i n g o n y o u r p o i n t o f view, i n t o t h e sterile b l o o d l e s s surgery called cingulotomy. We hear about the inner workings of a n e u r o n , a n d h o w g e n e s e n c o d e p r o t e i n s that b u i l d t h o s e b l u e eyes, that m e m o r y , r i g h t there. A n d yet, w h i l e w e c a n e x p l a i n s o m e t h i n g of the

process

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t h o u g h t , w e are far f r o m e x p l a i n i n g w h y w e have t h e t h o u g h t s , w h y w e gravitate t o w a r d this o r that, w h y w e h o l d s o m e m e m o r i e s a n d discard o t h e r s , w h a t t h o s e m e m o r i e s m e a n t o us, and h o w t h e y shape a life. K a n d e l , or S k i n n e r , or Pavlov, or W a t s o n c a n d e m o n s t r a t e a c o n d i t i o n e d response, o r o p e r a n t , a n d t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h i t gets e n c o d e d i n t h e brain, b u t w h a t w e d o w i t h that i n f o r m a t i o n o n c e it's t h e r e d e p e n d s o n c i r c u m s t a n c e s o u t s i d e t h e r e a l m o f s c i e n c e entirely. I n o t h e r words, w e m a y b e able t o define t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l substrates o f m e m o r y , b u t i n t h e e n d w e are still t h e o n e s w h o weave, o r n o t , still t h e o n e s w h o w o r k t h e raw m a t e r i a l i n t o its f i n a l f o r m a n d meaning. W r i t i n g a b o u t these e x p e r i m e n t s has b e e n , therefore, a n e x e r c i s e i n w r i t i n g a b o u t b o t h s c i e n c e a n d art. I t has p r o v i d e d m e w i t h a c h a n c e t o learn a b o u t o u t c o m e s w h i l e s t u d y i n g t h e personalities o f t h e players w h o c h o s e t o investigate, for all sorts o f reasons, t h e set o f events that led t h e m t o t h e i r f i n a l data. A n d t h e n t o o b s e r v e h o w that data fueled t h e i r futures a n d t h e i r pasts, h o w t h e y used it, or failed to d o so. T h i s b o o k , above all, has b e e n a c h a n c e for m e t o g o b a c k i n

history, a n d to t h i n k

forward

as well. W h a t c o m e s n e x t , in this

twenty-first c e n t u r y ? I have an i n k l i n g . In t h e m e a n t i m e , Pavlov's bell i s r i n g i n g . S u r g e o n s are, this v e r y m o m e n t , m i n i n g o u r c r e n u l a t e d brains. W e are c o n d i t i o n e d , revealed, freed, a n d a c c o u n t a b l e . S o m e o n e shouts a n order. W e d o o r d o n o t obey. N o w , t u r n t h e page.

I

Opening Skinner's Box B.

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S K I N N E R ' S

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B. F. Skinner, America's leading neo-behaviorist, was born in 1904 and died in 1990. He is known in the field of psychology for his famous animal experiments in which he demonstrated the power of rewards and reinforcements to shape behavior. Using food, levers, and other environmental cues, Skinner demonstrated that what appear to be autonomous responses are really cued, and in doing so he threw into question the long-cherished notion of free will. Skinner spent much of his scientific career studying and honing what he came to call operant conditioning, the means by which humans can train humans and other animals to perform a whole range of tasks and skills through positive reinforcement. Skinner claimed that the mind, or what was then called mentalism, was irrelevant, even nonexistent, and that psychology should only focus on concrete measurable behaviors. His vision was to build a worldwide community where the government would consist of behavioral psychologists who could condition, or train, its citizens into phalanxes of benevolent robots. Of all the twentieth century's psychologists, his experiments and the conclusions he drew about the mechanistic nature of men and women may be the most reviled, yet continuously relevant to our increasingly technological age.

6

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o this, perhaps, is t h e s t o r y . T h e r e ' s a m a n called S k i n n e r , w h i c h

is an ugly n a m e by any a c c o u n t , a n a m e w i t h a knife in it, an

i m a g e of a s k i n n e d fish flopping on a h o t d o c k , its heart barely visible i n its m a n t l e o f m u s c l e , k a - b o o m . A n d this m a n S k i n n e r , this m a n i a cal p s y c h o l o g i s t w i t h a grizzly h e a d o f c o a r s e w h i t e hair, h e s u p p o s edly raised his o w n b a b y in a b o x so as to b e t t e r train her, like s o m e circus a n i m a l , like s o m e seal w i t h a b r i g h t ball o n its n o s e . T h e story g o e s that B . F . S k i n n e r , w h o had c o v e r t c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e N a z i s , desired n o t h i n g m o r e than to s h a p e — a n d shape is t h e operative w o r d h e r e — t h e b e h a v i o r o f p e o p l e s u b j e c t e d t o gears and b o x e s and b u t t o n s and strict schedules o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t s o that, u n d e r his hand, whatever humanity he touched turned to bone. Say t h e n a m e " S k i n n e r " t o t w e n t y c o l l e g e - e d u c a t e d p e o p l e , a n d fifteen o f t h e m will r e s p o n d w i t h a n adjective like " e v i l . " T h i s I k n o w t o b e true, a s I have d o n e i t a s a n e x p e r i m e n t . O f t h o s e fifteen w h o r e s p o n d e d , t e n b r o u g h t u p t h e b a b y i n t h e b o x — w h a t was h e r n a m e t h e y ask, J u l i a , K i m b e r l y , A n n i e M a y ? — w h o was s o traumatized b y h e r father's p r o t o c o l s t h r o u g h o u t h e r i n f a n c y that she w o u n d u p killing h e r s e l f in a h o t e l r o o m , w i t h r o p e and a p i s t o l — t h e details are unclear. T h i s m u c h w e p r e s u m e w e k n o w : H e r n a m e was D e b o r a h . H e w a n t e d t o train her, s o h e kept h e r c a g e d for t w o full years, p l a c i n g w i t h i n h e r c r a m p e d square space bells and f o o d trays and all m a n n e r o f m e a n p u n i s h m e n t s and b r i g h t rewards, a n d h e t r a c k e d h e r progress o n a g r i d . A n d t h e n , w h e n she was t h i r t y - o n e and frankly p s y c h o t i c , she sued h i m for abuse i n a g e n u i n e c o u r t o f law, lost t h e case, and s h o t h e r s e l f i n a b o w l i n g alley i n B i l l i n g s , M o n t a n a . B o o m b o o m w e n t t h e g u n . Its r e s o n a t i n g s o u n d signaled t h e e n d o f b e h a v iorism's heyday and t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e dark suspicions that have c l o u d e d it e v e r s i n c e . I n t h e 1 9 6 0 s , S k i n n e r gave a n i n t e r v i e w t o b i o g r a p h e r R i c h a r d I . E v a n s i n w h i c h h e o p e n l y a d m i t t e d that his efforts a t social e n g i n e e r i n g had i m p l i c a t i o n s for fascism and m i g h t b e used for totalitarian ends. S u c h a m a n i t w o u l d b e b e t t e r t o i g n o r e , b u t w e can't. I n 1 9 7 1 ,

Time m a g a z i n e n a m e d h i m t h e m o s t influential living p s y c h o l o g i s t . A n d a 1 9 7 5 survey identified h i m as t h e b e s t - k n o w n scientist in t h e U n i t e d States. H i s e x p e r i m e n t s are still h e l d i n t h e highest e s t e e m b y o u r c o n t e m p o r a r y N o b e l laureates, o u r n e u r o p h y s i o l o g i s t s . H e d i s c o v e r e d s o m e t h i n g that has stayed. W h a t is it? T y p e " B . F . S k i n n e r " i n t o y o u r search e n g i n e a n d y o u w i l l get thousands o f hits, a m o n g t h e m t h e W e b site o f a n o u t r a g e d father w h o d a m n e d t h e m a n for m u r d e r i n g a n i n n o c e n t child; a W e b site w i t h a skull, and A y n R a n d w r i t i n g , " S k i n n e r is so obsessed w i t h a hatred o f man's m i n d and virtue, s o i n t e n s e a n d c o n s u m i n g a h a t r e d that it c o n s u m e s i t s e l f and in t h e e n d w h a t we liave are o n l y gray ashes and a f e w s t i n k i n g c o a l s " ; a m e m o r i a l of sorts for D e b o r a h , w h o had supposedly died i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s : " D e b o r a h , o u r hearts g o o u t t o y o u . " A n d t h e n a tiny red l i n k that reads, " F o r D e b o r a h S k i n n e r herself, c l i c k here." I did. A p i c t u r e of a b r o w n - h a i r e d m i d d l e - a g e d w o m a n scrolled d o w n . " M y n a m e i s D e b o r a h S k i n n e r , " t h e c a p t i o n read, " a n d my suicide is a m y t h . I am alive and well. T h e b o x is n o t w h a t i t s e e m s . M y father i s n o t w h a t h e s e e m s . H e was a brilliant p s y c h o l o g i s t , a c o m p a s s i o n a t e parent. I w r i t e to dispel t h e l e g e n d s . " L e g e n d s . S t o r i e s . T r u e tales. Tall tales. Perhaps t h e c h a l l e n g e o f understanding Skinner's experiments will be primarily discriminatory, separating c o n t e n t from controversy, a sifting t h r o u g h . W r i t e s p s y c h o l o g i s t and historian J o h n A . M i l l s , " [ S k i n n e r ] was a m y s t e r y w r a p p e d in a riddle w r a p p e d in an e n i g m a . " I d e c i d e d to w a d e in, slowly.

H E WAS B O R N i n 1 9 0 4 . T h i s m u c h i s for sure. B e y o n d that, t h o u g h , w h a t I f i n d i s a tangle o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . H e was o n e o f A m e r i c a ' s p r e m i e r behaviorists, a m a n of real rigidity w h o slept in a b r i g h t y e l l o w c u b i c l e from J a p a n called a beddoe, b u t at t h e s a m e t i m e he c o u l d n o t w o r k unless his desk was cluttered, and he said of his o w n c o u r s e , " I t is a m a z i n g t h e n u m b e r o f trivial a c c i d e n t s w h i c h have m a d e a differ-

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9

DUX

e n c e . . . . I d o n ' t b e l i e v e m y life was p l a n n e d a t any point." B u t t h e n h e often w r o t e h e felt like g o d and " a sort o f savior t o humanity." W h e n S k i n n e r was a fellow at H a r v a r d , he m e t and fell in love w i t h a w o m a n n a m e d Y v o n n e , w h o w o u l d later b e c o m e his wife. I see t h e m o n Friday nights, d r i v i n g t o M o n h e g a n ' s G u l l P o n d w i t h t h e b l a c k c o n v e r t i b l e t o p folded b a c k a n d s o m e k i n d o f m o o d y j a z z playing o n t h e radio. O n c e a t t h e p o n d , t h e y take o f f t h e i r c l o t h e s a n d s k i n n y - d i p , t h e b r a c k i s h waters o n t h e i r b o d i e s , t h e c o o l n i g h t air, t h e m o o n a s n i p p e d h o l e in t h e sky. I read in a dusty t e x t in t h e b a s e m e n t of a library that after training sessions, he used to take his c a g e d p i g e o n s o u t a n d h o l d t h e m i n his h u g e h a n d , s t r o k i n g t h e i r d o w n y heads w i t h his first finger. I was v e r y surprised to l e a r n that b e f o r e he w e n t to H a r v a r d to study p s y c h o l o g y in 1 9 2 8 , S k i n n e r ' s aspiration was to be a novelist, a n d h e h a d spent e i g h t e e n p r i o r m o n t h s h o l e d u p i n his m o t h e r ' s attic w r i t i n g l y r i c prose. H o w h e w e n t from l y r i c prose t o t i m e d rates o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s n o t all c l e a r t o m e — h o w a m a n c a n m a k e such a sharp swerve. H e w r i t e s that w h e n h e was a r o u n d t w e n t y - t h r e e , h e c a m e across an article by H. G . W e l l s in t h e New York Times Magazine i n w h i c h W e l l s stated that given t h e c h a n c e b e t w e e n saving t h e life o f Ivan Pavlov o r G e o r g e B e r n a r d Shaw, Wells w o u l d c h o o s e Pavlov, b e c a u s e s c i e n c e i s m o r e r e d e m p t i v e than art. A n d indeed, the world n e e d e d redemption. T h e Great W a r had e n d e d o n e d e c a d e ago. S h e l l - s h o c k e d soldiers suffered from flashb a c k s a n d depressions; asylums w e r e p a c k e d ; t h e r e was an u r g e n t n e e d for s o m e k i n d o f t r e a t m e n t s c h e m e . W h e n S k i n n e r w e n t t o Harvard, in 1 9 2 8 , as a graduate student, t h e s c h e m e was largely p s y choanalytic.

Everyone

everywhere

was

lying

down

on

leather

c o u c h e s a n d fishing e p h e m e r a l tidbits from t h e i r pasts. F r e u d ruled, along with

the venerable W i l l i a m James, w h o had written

The

Varieties of Religious Experience, a t e x t a b o u t i n t r o s p e c t i v e soul states, w i t h n o t o n e e q u a t i o n i n it. T h a t , i n fact, was t h e state o f p s y c h o l o g y w h e n S k i n n e r e n t e r e d ; it was a n u m b e r l e s s field s h a r i n g m o r e w i t h

K a g a n ' s office b u i l d i n g , W i l l i a m J a m e s H a l l , i s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n w h e n I arrive, so I have to d o d g e a n d w e n d my way t h r o u g h a c o n crete maze, above me banners flapping, "Warning. Hard Hat Area." I r i d e t h e e l e v a t o r up. T h e e n t i r e b u i l d i n g is in a reverential hush. D e e p , deep beneath me, in the bowels of the basement w h e r e artifacts are stored, w h e r e supposedly s o m e o f S k i n n e r ' s b l a c k b o x e s are encased, j a c k h a m m e r s gnaw through old c o n c r e t e and I can hear a tiny v o i c e yelling, " P r e s t o . " I g e t o f f o n f l o o r fifteen. T h e e l e v a t o r d o o r s part a n d b e f o r e m e , a s t h o u g h in a d r e a m , sits a tiny b l a c k dog, a t o y b r e e d , its m o u t h a r e d r e n t in its o t h e r w i s e dark fur face. T h e d o g stares a n d stares at m e , s o m e sort o f s e n t r y — I d o n ' t k n o w . I love dogs, a l t h o u g h toys are n o t my p r e f e r e n c e . I w o n d e r w h y t h e y ' r e n o t my p r e f e r e n c e . As a c h i l d I h a d a t o y d o g a n d it b i t m e , so p e r h a p s I've b e e n c o n d i t i o n e d against t h e m , a n d I c o u l d b e r e c o n d i t i o n e d w i t h rewards s o I c o m e t o c h a m p i o n t h e shitzu o v e r t h e s h e p h e r d . I n any case, I b e n d d o w n t o pat t h e little d o g , a n d as t h o u g h it senses my dislike, it flies i n t o a frenzy, b a r i n g a set of impressive a n d v e r y u n - t o y - l i k e t e e t h a n d snarling as it leaps u p t o grab m y e x p o s e d w r i s t . " G a m b i t ! " a w o m a n shouts, r u n n i n g o u t f r o m o n e o f t h e offices. " G a m b i t stop that! O h m y g o d , did h e h u r t y o u ? " " I ' m f i n e , " I say, b u t I ' m n o t f i n e . I ' m shaking. I have b e e n n e g a tively r e i n f o r c e d — n o , I have b e e n p u n i s h e d . I will n e v e r trust a t o y again, a n d I d o n ' t W A N T that t o c h a n g e . S k i n n e r w o u l d say h e c o u l d c h a n g e it, b u t h o w c h a n g e a b l e a m I , are w e ?

PROFESSOR KACAN SMOKES

a pipe. H i s office smells like pipe,

that s e m i s w e e t r a n c i d o d o r o f b u r n t e m b e r s . H e says w i t h t h e k i n d o f total assurance I associate w i t h t h e I v y L e a g u e cast, " L e t m e tell y o u , y o u r f i r s t c h a p t e r s h o u l d n o t b e S k i n n e r . I t was P a v l o v i n t h e early t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y and t h e n T h o r n d i k e a d e c a d e later w h o did t h e f i r s t experiments showing the p o w e r o f conditioning. S k i n n e r e l a b o -

rated o n this w o r k . B u t his findings can't e x p l a i n t h o u g h t , language, reasoning, m e t a p h o r , o r i g i n a l ideas, o r o t h e r c o g n i t i v e p h e n o m e n a . N o r will t h e y explain guilt o r s h a m e . " " W h a t a b o u t , " I say, " S k i n n e r ' s e x t r a p o l a t i o n s from his e x p e r i m e n t s ? T h a t w e have n o free will. T h a t w e are r u l e d o n l y b y r e i n forcers. D o y o u b e l i e v e t h a t ? " " D o you b e l i e v e t h a t ? " K a g a n asks. " W e l l , " I say, "I d o n ' t absolutely rule o u t t h e possibility that we are always e i t h e r c o n t r o l l e d or c o n t r o l l i n g , that o u r free will is really j u s t a response to s o m e c u e s t h a t — " B e f o r e I can finish my s e n t e n c e , K a g a n dives u n d e r his desk. I m e a n that literally. He springs from his seat a n d g o e s h e a d forward i n t o n e t h e r r e g i o n s b e n e a t h his desk so I c a n n o t see h i m a n y m o r e . " I ' m u n d e r m y desk," h e shouts. " I ' v e N E V E R g o t t e n u n d e r m y desk b e f o r e . I s this n o t a n act o f free w i l l ? " I blink. W h e r e K a g a n was sitting is j u s t space. B e n e a t h his desk, I hear a rustle. I ' m a little w o r r i e d a b o u t h i m . I t h i n k he said to m e , over the p h o n e w h e n I asked for t h e interview, that he had a bad b a c k . " W e l l , " I say, a n d suddenly my hands feel c o l d w i t h fear, "I guess it c o u l d b e a n act o f free will o r i t c o u l d b e that y o u ' v e — " A g a i n , K a g a n w o n ' t let m e f i n i s h . H e ' s still u n d e r t h e desk, h e w o n ' t c o m e up, he's c o n d u c t i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w i n a d u c k - a n d - c o v e r c r o u c h . I c a n ' t even see h i m . H i s v o i c e rises, d i s e m b o d i e d . " L a u r e n , " h e says, " L a u r e n , t h e r e i s n o way y o u can e x p l a i n m y b e i n g u n d e r this desk r i g h t n o w a s a n y t h i n g b u t a n act o f free will. It's n o t a response to a r e i n f o r c e r or a c u e . I've N E V E R g o t t e n u n d e r m y desk b e f o r e . " " O k a y , " I say. We sit t h e r e for a m i n u t e , he d o w n there, I up h e r e . I t h i n k I h e a r that d a m n d o g i n t h e hall, s c r a t c h i n g . I ' m afraid t o g o b a c k o u t there, but I no l o n g e r want to be in here. I am caged by contingencies, and so I sit v e r y still.

KACAN,

IT A P P E A R S

t o m e , i s s o m e w h a t dismissive o f S k i n n e r ' s

c o n t r i b u t i o n s . B u t c e r t a i n l y t h e r e are ways i n w h i c h S k i n n e r ' s e x p e r i m e n t s — e v e n i f t h e y are d e r i v a t i v e — a r e b o t h c u r r e n t l y relevant a n d helpful i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a b e t t e r w o r l d . I n t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s S k i n n e r ' s b e h a v i o r a l m e t h o d s w e r e taken t o state asylums and applied t o t h e severely p s y c h o t i c . U s i n g his p r i n c i p l e s o f o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n ing, hopelessly s c h i z o p h r e n i c patients w e r e able t o l e a r n t o dress t h e m s e l v e s , t o f e e d t h e m s e l v e s , e a c h rise o f t h e s p o o n rewarded w i t h a c o v e t e d cigarette. L a t e r in t h e c e n t u r y , c l i n i c i a n s b e g a n using t e c h n i q u e s like systematic desensitization and f l o o d i n g , drawn directly from S k i n n e r ' s o p e r a n t r e p e r t o i r e , t o treat p h o b i a s and p a n i c d i s o r ders, and these b e h a v i o r a l t r e a t m e n t s are still w i d e l y e m p l o y e d a n d o b v i o u s l y efficacious today. Says S t e p h e n K o s s l y n , professor o f p s y c h o l o g y at Harvard, " S k i n n e r will m a k e a c o m e b a c k , I p r e d i c t it. I m y s e l f a m a real S k i n n e r fan. S c i e n t i s t s are j u s t n o w m a k i n g e x c i t i n g n e w discoveries that p o i n t t o t h e n e u r a l substrates o f S k i n n e r ' s f i n d ings." K o s s l y n explains t h e e v i d e n c e that t h e r e are t w o m a j o r l e a r n i n g systems i n t h e brain: t h e basal ganglia, a c o l l e c t i o n o f spidery synapses l o c a t e d d e e p i n t h e paste o f t h e a n c i e n t brain, w h e r e habits are g r o o v e d , a n d t h e frontal c o r t e x , that b i g r u m p l e d b u l g e that rose i n t a n d e m w i t h o u r reason and a m b i t i o n . T h e frontal c o r t e x , n e u r o scientists h y p o t h e s i z e , i s w h e r e w e l e a r n h o w t o t h i n k i n d e p e n d e n t l y , to visualize t h e future a n d plan based on t h e past. It is w h e r e c r e a t i v ity and all its surprising swerves o r i g i n a t e , but, says K o s s l y n , " O n l y a p o r t i o n o f o u r c o g n i t i o n s are m e d i a t e d b y this c o r t e x . " T h e rest o f l e a r n i n g , says K o s s l y n , "a significant a m o u n t , is h a b i t driven, a n d S k i n n e r ' s e x p e r i m e n t s have led us to search for t h e neural substrates o f these habits." I n e s s e n c e , Kosslyn i s saying, S k i n n e r l e d scientists t o t h e basal ganglia, h e led t h e m d o w n , d o w n i n t o t h e b a s e m e n t o f t h e brain, w h e r e t h e y sifted t h r o u g h n e u r a l tangles t o f i n d t h e c h e m i s t r y b e h i n d t h e p e c k s a n d presses a n d all t h o s e c o n d i t i o n e d c a r t w h e e l s w e d o o n t h e g r e e n grass, i n t h e s u m m e r . Says B r y a n

Porter, an

experimental

psychologist w h o

applies

S k i n n e r i a n - b a s e d b e h a v i o r i s m t o address traffic safety p r o b l e m s , " O f

c o u r s e b e h a v i o r i s m is n e i t h e r b a d n o r dead. S k i n n e r ' s b e h a v i o r i s m is responsible for s o m a n y b e n e f i c i a l social i n t e r v e n t i o n s . U s i n g b e h a v ioral t e c h n i q u e s w e have b e e n able t o r e d u c e d a n g e r o u s driving, i n t e r m s o f t h e n u m b e r o f red lights run, b y t e n t o t w e l v e p e r c e n t . A l s o b e c a u s e o f S k i n n e r , w e k n o w that p e o p l e r e s p o n d b e t t e r t o rewards than p u n i s h m e n t . S k i n n e r ' s t e c h n i q u e s have b e e n i n s t r u m e n t a l i n helping the huge population of anxiety-disordered people overcome, o r e x t i n g u i s h , t h e i r p h o b i a s . T h a n k s t o S k i n n e r , b a c k w a r d autistics n o w k n o w h o w t o p u t o n c l e a n shirts and feed t h e m s e l v e s . T h a n k s t o S k i n n e r , y o u k n o w h o w t o give y o u r k i d positive r e i n f o r c e m e n t . Y o u k n o w that rewards w o r k far b e t t e r i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f b e h a v i o r than p u n i s h m e n t , b e c a u s e S k i n n e r s o stressed t h e p o w e r o f positive r e i n f o r c e m e n t . T h i s has h u g e i m p l i c a t i o n s politically, i f o u r g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d j u s t a b s o r b that. In fact," says P o r t e r , " i n a w e i r d c i r c u i t o u s way, w e have S k i n n e r t o t h a n k for t h e v e r y p o p u l a r b e l i e f that it's best t o b e k i n d t o p e o p l e , t o give t h e m A's w h e n m a y b e t h e y deserve B ' s , t o k e e p s a y i n g , ' O h w h a t a g o o d j o b y o u ' r e d o i n g ' e v e n i f they're n o t . S k i n n e r , " says P o r t e r l a u g h i n g , " a l t h o u g h h e m i g h t n o t have liked it, is practically n e w age." I ask P o r t e r a b o u t t h e daughter. W a s she raised in a b o x ? Is she dead? P o r t e r sighs. " O k a y , " h e says. " H e raised h e r i n a b o x , b u t it's n o t w h a t y o u t h i n k , really." " I s she d e a d ? " I ask. P o r t e r misses j u s t t h e slightest b e a t , or do I i m a g i n e it? " N o , " h e f i n a l l y says. H e clears his throat. " D e b o r a h S k i n n e r i s alive." H i s v o i c e drops. " A n d she's d o i n g fine, really." B u t t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g i n t h e w a y h e delivers this p r o n o u n c e m e n t that m a k e s me d o u b t h i m . T h e r e is a suspicious s y m p a t h y in his v o i c e , a s t h o u g h she's j u s t survived s o m e h o r r i d s o r t o f surgery.

MY C H I L D C R I E S in t h e n i g h t . S h e w a k e s s o a k e d in sweat, eyeballs b u l g i n g , dreams m e l t i n g a s she c o m e s t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s . " S h h h h .

S h h h h . " I h o l d h e r b o d y against m i n e . H e r b e d c l o t h e s are s o a k e d , h e r hair a dark m a t of pressed curls. I stroke h e r h e a d , w h e r e t h e fontanels have l o n g s i n c e sealed. I stroke t h e slope o f h e r f o r e h e a d , w h e r e t h e frontal c o r t e x daily sprouts its e x u b e r a n t r o o t w o r k , a n d t h e n m o v e my h a n d d o w n to h e r taut n e c k , w h e r e I i m a g i n e I feel t h e basal g a n glia, its s e a w e e d - l i k e snarls. I h o l d my c h i l d in t h e n i g h t , a n d outside h e r b e d r o o m w i n d o w a d o g h o w l s , a n d w h e n I l o o k , t h e a n i m a l is soap-white in the moonlight. At first my c h i l d cries b e c a u s e she's scared, a series of b a d dreams I ' m guessing. S h e ' s t w o and h e r w o r l d is e x p a n d i n g w i t h fearful speed. B u t t h e n , as t h e nights go by, she cries simply b e c a u s e she longs

t o b e h e l d . S h e has b e c o m e h a b i t u a t e d t o these p r e d a w n

e m b r a c e s , to t h e r o c k i n g chair's r h y t h m w h i l e t h e sky o u t s i d e is so g e n e r o u s l y salted w i t h stars. My h u s b a n d a n d I are e x h a u s t e d . " M a y b e we s h o u l d S k i n n e r i z e her," I say. " W e s h o u l d w h a t ? " h e says. " M a y b e we should employ Skinnerian principles to break her of h e r habit. E v e r y t i m e w e g o t o h e r and p i c k h e r up, we're g i v i n g h e r w h a t S k i n n e r w o u l d call positive r e i n f o r c e m e n t . W e have t o e x t i n guish t h e b e h a v i o r b y r e d u c i n g a n d t h e n e l i m i n a t i n g o u r responses." M y h u s b a n d a n d I are h a v i n g this c o n v e r s a t i o n i n b e d . I ' m surprised b y h o w n i m b l y m y t o n g u e takes i n a n d swirls o u t t h e l a n g u a g e o f B . E I practically s o u n d like a n e x p e r t . S p e a k i n g S k i n n e r i a n i s a l m o s t fun. C h a o s c o n f i n e d . R e s t r e t u r n e d . " S o y o u ' r e suggesting," h e says, " t h a t w e j u s t let h e r c r y i t out." H e sounds weary. All parents k n o w this d e b a t e . " N o , " I say. "Listen. N o t c r y it out. P u t h e r on a strict rate of reduced reinforcement. T h e f i r s t t i m e she cries, w e p i c k h e r u p for o n l y three minutes. T h e n e x t t i m e she cries, w e o n l y p i c k her u p for t w o minutes. We c o u l d even use a stopwatch." My v o i c e grows e x c i t e d , or is it a n x ious? " T h e n w e gradually l e n g t h e n t h e a m o u n t o f t i m e w e allow h e r t o cry. J u s t very very gradually," I say. "Slowly, we'll extinguish t h e b e h a v ior if we extinguish o u r responses . . . t h e c o n t i n g e n c i e s , " I say, tracing

my hand along the sheet's pattern, a series of g r e e n grids, w h a t o n c e l o o k e d like c o u n t r y c h e c k e r b o a r d but n o w l o o k s like lab paper. My h u s b a n d eyes m e , warily I m i g h t add. He is n o t a p s y c h o l o g i s t , b u t i f h e w e r e , h e w o u l d b e o f t h e C a r l R o g e r s s c h o o l . H e has a soft v o i c e , a still softer t o u c h . " I d o n ' t k n o w , " h e says. " W h a t e x a c t l y d o y o u t h i n k w e ' l l t e a c h her by doing this?" " T o sleep t h r o u g h t h e n i g h t a l o n e , " I say. " O r , " h e says, " t o realize that w h e n she n e e d s help, w e w o n ' t respond, that w h e n there's d a n g e r real o r i m a g i n e d , w e ' r e n o t there. T h a t ' s n o t t h e w o r l d v i e w I w i s h to impart." N e v e r t h e l e s s , I w i n t h e d e b a t e . W e d e c i d e t o S k i n n e r i z e o u r girl, i f o n l y b e c a u s e w e n e e d rest. It's brutal i n t h e b e g i n n i n g , h a v i n g t o h e a r h e r s c r e a m , " M a m a m a m a , papa!," h a v i n g t o p u t h e r d o w n a s she stretches o u t h e r s c r u m p t i o u s a r m s i n t h e dark, b u t w e d o it, and here's w h a t happens: I t w o r k s like m a g i c , o r s c i e n c e . W i t h i n five days t h e c h i l d acts like a trained n a r c o l e p t i c ; as s o o n as she feels t h e crib's s h e e t o n h e r c h e e k , she drops i n t o a dead t e n - h o u r stretch o f sleep, and all o u r nights are q u i e t . Here's t h e thing. A n d all o u r nights are quiet. B u t s o m e t i m e s now, w e c a n n o t sleep, m y h u s b a n d a n d I . H a v e w e r e m e m b e r e d t o t u r n t h e m o n i t o r o n ? I s the dial u p h i g h e n o u g h ? D i d t h e pacifier b r e a k o f f i n h e r m o u t h , so she will s m o t h e r as she is s o o t h e d ? We stay up, and through the m o n i t o r we can sometimes hear the sound of her breathing, like a staticky w i n d , but n o t o n c e does h e r v o i c e b r e a k t h r o u g h — n o t a yelp, a giggle, a sweet sleep-talk. S h e has b e e n eerily g a g g e d . S h e sleeps s o still, i n h e r w h i t e b a b y b o x .

S O M E O F T H E actual b o x e s that S k i n n e r used have b e e n a r c h i v e d a t Harvard. I g o t o v i e w t h e m . T h e y are i n t h e b a s e m e n t o f W i l l i a m J a m e s Hall, still u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n . I have to w e a r a hard hat, a h e a v y y e l l o w shell on my h e a d . I go d o w n , d o w n t h e stairs. T h e r e is a m o i s t

stink i n t h e air, a n d b l a c k flies b u z z like n e u r o n s , e a c h o n e p l u m p w i t h p u r p o s e . T h e walls t h e m s e l v e s are p o r o u s , a n d w h e n y o u press t h e m , a fine w h i t e p o w d e r c o m e s o f f in y o u r hands. I pass a w o r k e r in h i p - h i g h b o o t s , s m o k i n g a c i g a r e t t e , t h e b r i g h t tip sizzling like a c o l d sore at t h e c o r n e r of his lip. I i m a g i n e this cellar is full of rats; t h e y c a r e e n a r o u n d t h e b o x e s , t h e i r glass-pink eyes, t h e i r scaly tails flicking: w h a t f r e e d o m ! Up ahead, I see a h u g e dark s t a i n — o r is it a s h a d o w ? — o n a b r i c k wall. " T h e r e t h e y are," my guide, a buildings a n d g r o u n d s p e r s o n , says and p o i n t s . I g o forward. A h e a d o f m e i n t h e cellar's dimness, I c a n m a k e o u t large glass display cases, a n d w i t h i n t h e m s o m e sort o f s k e l e t o n . C l o s e r up, I see it is t h e preserved remains of a bird, its hollow, flight-friendly b o n e s a r r a n g e d t o give i t t h e appearance o f mid-soar, its skull full o f tiny p i n p r i c k h o l e s . O n e o f S k i n n e r ' s p i g e o n s , perhaps, t h e eye sockets deep, w i t h i n t h e m a tiny living g l e a m , a n d t h e n it g o e s . I m o v e my gaze from b o n e s to b o x e s . It is at this p o i n t that I feel surprised b y w h a t I see. T h e b o n e s are i n l i n e w i t h this man's o m i n o u s mystery, b u t t h e b o x e s , t h e f a m o u s b o x e s — t h e s e are t h e f a m o u s b l a c k b o x e s ? T h e y are, for starters, n o t b l a c k . T h e y are a n i n n o c u o u s gray. D i d I read t h e b o x e s w e r e b l a c k , or did I j u s t c o n c o c t that, in t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n w h e r e fact a n d m y t h m e e t t o m a k e all m a n n e r o f o d d o b j e c t s ? N o , t h e s e b o x e s are n o t b l a c k , a n d t h e y are rather r i c k e t y l o o k i n g , w i t h a n e x t e r n a l spindle g r a p h i n g d e v i c e a n d tiny levers for training. T h e push pedals are s o small, a l m o s t c u t e , b u t t h e f e e d i n g dishes are a c o l d institutional c h r o m e . T h i s is w h a t I d o : I put my h e a d in. I lift t h e lid a n d put my h e a d d e e p inside a S k i n n e r b o x , w h e r e t h e s m e l l is of scat, fear, f o o d , feathers, things soft a n d hard, g o o d a n d bad; h o w swiftly a n o b j e c t s w i t c h e s f r o m b e n i g n t o o m i n o u s . H o w difficult i t i s t o b o x e v e n a b o x . Perhaps, I t h i n k , t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e w a y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g S k i n n e r the man is to hold h i m as two, n o t one. T h e r e is Skinner the i d e o l o g u e , t h e g h o u l i s h m a n w h o d r e a m t o f establishing c o m m u n i t i e s o f p e o p l e t r a i n e d like pets, and t h e n t h e r e i s S k i n n e r t h e scientist, w h o

m a d e discrete discoveries that have f o r e v e r c h a n g e d h o w w e v i e w b e h a v i o r . T h e r e is S k i n n e r ' s data, irrefutable a n d brilliant, t h e p o w e r o f i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t , t h e s h e e r range o f b e h a v i o r s that can be molded, enhanced, or extinguished, and then there is Skinner's philosophy, w h e r e , I i m a g i n e , he e a r n e d his dark r e p u t a t i o n . T h e s e t w o things perhaps have b e e n m i x e d u p i n t h e public's m i n d , i n m y m i n d certainly, as s c i e n c e a n d t h e ideas it s p a w n e d m e l d e d i n t o a m y t h i c a l mess. B u t t h e n again, c a n y o u really separate t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f data from its p r o p o s e d social uses? C a n w e c o n s i d e r just splitting t h e a t o m , a n d n o t t h e b o m b a n d t h e b o n e s that followed? I s n o t s c i e n c e i n d e l i b l y r o o t e d i n t h e soil o f social c o n s t r u c t i o n , s o that t h e value o f w h a t w e discover i s i n e x t r i c a b l y tied t o t h e value o f t h e uses w e discover for t h e discovery? R o u n d and r o u n d w e g o . It's a l e x i c a l , syntactical puzzle, n o t t o m e n t i o n a m o r a l o n e , n o t t o m e n t i o n a n intellectual o n e o f grave i m p o r t — t h e idea that s c i e n c e a n d its data are best evaluated in a b o x , apart f r o m t h e h u m a n hands that will inevitably give it its shape. Q u e s t i o n s o f a p p l i c a t i o n a s a m e a n s o f m e a s u r i n g data's w o r t h aside, w h a t are all t h e m e c h a n i s m s , so to speak, that c o n t r i b u t e d to Skinner's infamy? H o w a n d w h y did t h e bizarre m y t h o f t h e dead d a u g h t e r ( w h o is supposedly q u i t e alive), t h e b l a c k b o x e s , a n d t h e r o b o t i c scientist take p r e c e d e n c e o v e r w h a t I a m c o m i n g t o see should m a y b e b e a m o r e n u a n c e d v i e w o f a m a n w h o h o v e r e d b e t w e e n l y r i c prose a n d n u m b e r c r u n c h i n g , a m a n w h o s k i n n y dipped j u s t after he ran his rats and birds, a m a n w h o h u m m e d W a g n e r , that c o m p o s e r o f pure s e n t i m e n t , w h i l e h e studied t h e single reflex o f a g r e e n frog? H o w did all this c o m p l e x i t y get lost? S u r e l y S k i n n e r h i m s e l f is partly to b l a m e . " H e was greedy," says a s o u r c e w h o wishes t o r e m a i n a n o n y m o u s . " H e m a d e o n e d i s c o v e r y and h e tried to apply it to t h e w h o l e w o r l d , a n d so he fell o v e r a ledge." A n d yet, there's m u c h m u c h m o r e than g r e e d that turns u s off. S k i n n e r , i n d e v e l o p i n g n e w d e v i c e s , raised q u e s t i o n s that w e r e a n affront t o t h e W e s t e r n i m a g i n a t i o n , w h i c h prides i t s e l f o n l i b e r t y w h i l e a t t h e s a m e t i m e h a r b o r i n g h u g e d o u b t s a s t o h o w solid o u r

supposed f r e e d o m s really are. O u r fears o f r e d u c t i o n i s m , o u r suspic i o n s that w e really m a y b e n o m o r e than a series o f a u t o m a t e d responses, did n o t , a s s o m a n y o f u s like t o t h i n k , c o m e t o p r o m i n e n c e i n t h e industrial age. T h e y are way, w a y o l d e r than that. E v e r s i n c e O e d i p u s raged at his carefully calibrated fate, or G i l g a m e s h struggled to set h i m s e l f free from his god's p r e d e s t i n e d plans, h u m a n s have w o n d e r e d a n d d e e p l y w o r r i e d a b o u t t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h w e o r c h e s t r a t e o u r o w n a g e n t i c a c t i o n s . S k i n n e r ' s w o r k was, a m o n g o t h e r things, t h e square c o n t a i n e r i n t o w h i c h t h o s e w o r r i e s , forever resurrected, were poured in the shadow of the twentieth century's new gleaming machines.

B E F O R E I L E A V E the S k i n n e r archives for g o o d , I m a k e o n e m o r e stop, a n d that's t o v i e w t h e f a m o u s b a b y b o x i n w h i c h S k i n n e r raised his dead o r living D e b b i e . T h e b o x itself, I learn, has b e e n d i s m a n tled, b u t I see a p i c t u r e of it, from Ladies' Home Journal, w h i c h ran an article a b o u t t h e i n v e n t i o n i n 1 9 4 5 . I f y o u w i s h t o raise y o u r r e p u t a t i o n as a scientist, Ladies' Home Journal is p r o b a b l y n o t t h e b e s t c h o i c e o f outlets. T h e fact that S k i n n e r c h o s e t o publish his supposed s c i e n tific i n v e n t i o n s i n a s e c o n d - t i e r w o m e n ' s m a g a z i n e speaks o f his v e r y p o o r " P R " skills. " B A B Y IN

A BOX"

t h e h e a d i n g to t h e article reads, a n d b e n e a t h that t h e r e is, i n d e e d , a p i c t u r e of a b a b y in a b o x , a c h e r u b i c - l o o k i n g D e b o r a h g r i n n i n g , hands plastered o n Plexiglas sides. B u t read further. T h e b a b y b o x , i t turns o u t , was really n o m o r e t h a n a n u p g r a d e d playpen i n w h i c h y o u n g D e b o r a h spent a f e w h o u r s a day. W i t h a t h e r m o s t a t i c a l l y c o n trolled e n v i r o n m e n t , it g u a r a n t e e d against diaper rash and k e p t nasal passages clear. B e c a u s e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e was so fine-tuned, t h e r e was n o n e e d for blankets, a n d s o t h e d a n g e r o f suffocation, every m o t h e r ' s n i g h t m a r e , was e l i m i n a t e d . S k i n n e r outfitted his b a b y b o x w i t h padding m a d e o f special m a t e r i a l that a b s o r b e d o d o r s a n d w e t n e s s s o a w o m a n ' s w a s h i n g t i m e was r e d u c e d by half, and she was free to use

h e r hands for o t h e r pursuits—this in an era b e f o r e disposable diapers. I t all s e e m s h u m a n e , i f n o t d o w n r i g h t feminist. A n d t h e n , read still further. B y g i v i n g t h e c h i l d a truly b e n e v o l e n t e n v i r o n m e n t , a n e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h n o p u n i s h i n g dangers ( i f t h e b a b y fell d o w n , i t w o u l d n ' t h u r t b e c a u s e the c o r n e r s w e r e padded t o e l i m i n a t e hard k n o c k s ) , a n e n v i r o n m e n t , in o t h e r words, that c o n d i t i o n e d by providing pure reward, S k i n n e r h o p e d to raise a c o n f i d e n t s w a s h b u c k l e r w h o b e l i e v e d she c o u l d master h e r surroundings and s o w o u l d approach t h e w o r l d that way. I t all s e e m s , w i t h o u t a d o u b t , g o o d i n t e n t i o n e d , i f n o t d o w n r i g h t n o b l e , and sets S k i n n e r f i r m l y i n h u m a n e waters. B u t t h e n (and there is always a but then in this tale), I read S k i n n e r ' s p r o p o s e d n a m e for his i n v e n t i o n : H e i r C o n d i t i o n e r . T h i s i s e i t h e r f r i g h t e n i n g o r j u s t plain foolish.

T H E R E A R E T H O U S A N D S u p o n thousands o f " D e b o r a h S k i n n e r s " listed o n - l i n e , b u t n o n e o f t h e m pan o u t . I'd like t o find her, c o n f i r m h e r status as living. I t e l e p h o n e a D e b o r a h S k i n n e r , a u t h o r of a c o o k b o o k titled Crab Cakes and Fireflies, and a f o u r - y e a r - o l d D e b o r a h , and several d i s c o n n e c t e d n u m b e r s . I

call D e b o r a h s in

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D e b o r a h s o n treadmills, D e b o r a h s selling real estate and h a w k i n g credit cards, b u t n o n e c a n c l a i m t h e y k n o w a B. F. S k i n n e r . N o , I d o n ' t find D e b o r a h S k i n n e r a n y w h e r e i n A m e r i c a , n o r d o I find records of a death in B i l l i n g s , M o n t a n a . B u t w h a t I do find, in t h e c i r c u i t o u s , associative w a y that t h e I n t e r n e t w o r k s , is h e r sister, J u l i e Vargas, a professor o f e d u c a t i o n a t t h e

University of West

V i r g i n i a . I dial. " I ' m w r i t i n g a b o u t y o u r father," I say after I establish that she is an actual offspring. In t h e b a c k g r o u n d , pots and pans clang. I h e a r w h a t sounds like a k n i f e — c h o p c h o p — a n d I i m a g i n e her, S k i n n e r ' s o t h e r girl, the o n e w h o missed t h e m y t h , b o i l i n g t h e plainest o f p o t a t o e s , slicing b r i g h t chips o f carrots o n a n o l d c u t t i n g b o a r d s o m e w h e r e w h e r e n o o n e can see her.

" O h , " she says, " a n d w h a t a b o u t h i m are y o u w r i t i n g ? " T h e r e i s n o d o u b t I h e a r s u s p i c i o n i n h e r v o i c e , a n o b v i o u s e d g e o f defensiveness. "I am w r i t i n g , " I say,"about great p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s , a n d I w a n t t o i n c l u d e y o u r father i n t h e b o o k . " " O h , " she says, a n d w o n ' t g o further. " S o , I was w o n d e r i n g i f y o u c o u l d tell m e w h a t h e was like." C h o p c h o p . I hear, on h e r side, a s c r e e n d o o r slam shut. " I was w o n d e r i n g , " I say, t r y i n g again, " i f y o u c o u l d tell m e w h a t y o u t h i n k of-—" " M y sister is alive a n d w e l l , " she says. I have n o t , of c o u r s e , even asked h e r this, b u t it's c l e a r m a n y o t h e r s have; it's c l e a r t h e q u e s t i o n tires h e r ; it's c l e a r she k n o w s that e v e r y q u e r y a b o u t h e r family b e g i n s a n d ends in t h e sordid spots, bypassing e n t i r e l y t h e w o r k itself. "I saw h e r p i c t u r e on t h e W e b , " I say. " S h e ' s an artist," J u l i e says. " S h e lives in E n g l a n d . " " W a s she c l o s e to y o u r f a t h e r ? " I say. " O h , w e b o t h were," J u l i e says, a n d t h e n she pauses, a n d I c a n practically feel things p u s h i n g against t h e p a u s e — m e m o r i e s , feelings, h e r father's hands o n h e r h e a d — " I miss h i m terribly," she says. T h e knife i s silent n o w ; t h e s c r e e n d o o r n o l o n g e r slams, and i n t h e space w h e r e t h o s e sounds w e r e c o m e s J u l i e S k i n n e r Vargas's voice, a voice loaded with m e m o r y , a kind of nostalgic i n c o n t i n e n c e , it pours t h r o u g h ; she c a n n o t help herself. " H e had a way w i t h c h i l dren," she says. " H e loved t h e m . O u r m o t h e r , well, o u r m o t h e r w a s — " and she w o n ' t finish that s e n t e n c e . " B u t o u r father," she says, " D a d used t o m a k e u s kites, b o x kites w h i c h w e flew o n M o n h e g a n , a n d h e t o o k us to t h e circus e v e r y year a n d o u r d o g , H u n t e r , he was a b e a g l e and D a d taught h i m t o play h i d e a n d s e e k . H e c o u l d t e a c h a n y t h i n g a n y t h i n g , so o u r d o g played h i d e a n d s e e k a n d we also had a cat that played t h e p i a n o , it was a w o r l d , " she s a y s , " . . . t h o s e kites," she says, " w e m a d e t h e m w i t h string a n d sticks a n d flew t h e m i n t h e sky." " S o to y o u , " I say, " h e was a really great guy." " Y e s , " she says. " H e k n e w e x a c t l y w h a t a c h i l d n e e d e d . "

" W h a t a b o u t , " I ask, " H o w do y o u feel a b o u t all t h e c r i t i c i s m his w o r k has e n g e n d e r e d ? " J u l i e laughs. T h e laugh i s m o r e like a b a r k . " I c o m p a r e i t t o D a r w i n , " she says. " P e o p l e d e n i e d D a r w i n ' s ideas b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e t h r e a t e n i n g . My father's ideas are t h r e a t e n i n g , b u t t h e y are as great as Darwin's." " D o y o u agree w i t h all y o u r father's i d e a s ? " I say. " D o y o u a g r e e w i t h h i m that w e are j u s t a u t o m a t o n s , that w e have n o free will, o r d o y o u t h i n k h e t o o k his e x p e r i m e n t a l data t o o f a r ? " J u l i e sighs. " Y o u k n o w , " she says, " i f m y father m a d e o n e mistake, i t was in t h e words he c h o s e . P e o p l e h e a r t h e w o r d control a n d t h e y t h i n k fascist. If my father had said p e o p l e w e r e informed by t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t s , o r inspired b y t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t s , n o o n e w o u l d ' v e h a d a p r o b l e m . T h e truth a b o u t m y father," she says, "is that h e was a p a c i f i s t . H e was also a c h i l d a d v o c a t e . H e did n o t b e l i e v e i n A N Y p u n i s h m e n t b e c a u s e h e saw firsthand w i t h t h e animals h o w i t didn't w o r k . M y father," she said, "is responsible for t h e repeal o f t h e c o r p o r a l p u n i s h m e n t r u l i n g i n C a l i f o r n i a , b u t n o o n e r e m e m b e r s h i m for that. " N o o n e r e m e m b e r s , " she says, h e r v o i c e r i s i n g — s h e ' s a n g r y n o w — " h o w h e always answered E V E R Y l e t t e r h e g o t w h i l e t h o s e humanists," a n d she practically spits t h e w o r d o u t , " t h o s e supposed humanists, t h e I ' m o k a y y o u ' r e o k a y s c h o o l , t h e y didn't e v e n b o t h e r t o answer t h e i r fan m a i l . T h e y w e r e t o o busy. M y father was n e v e r t o o busy for p e o p l e , " she says. " N o , n o , he wasn't," I say, a n d suddenly I ' m a little f r i g h t e n e d . S h e seems a little edgy, this J u l i e , a little t o o passionate a b o u t dear o l d dad. " L e t m e ask y o u s o m e t h i n g , " J u l i e says. I can tell from t h e t o n e o f h e r v o i c e that this q u e s t i o n i s g o i n g t o b e big, p o i n t e d ; it's g o i n g t o put m e o n t h e spot. " C a n I ask y o u s o m e t h i n g ? " she says. " T e l l me honestly." " Y e a h , " I say. " H a v e y o u actually e v e n R E A D his w o r k s like Beyond Freedom and Dignity, o r are y o u j u s t a n o t h e r s c h o l a r o f s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s ? "

" W e l l , " I say, s t u m b l i n g , " I ' v e read A L O T o f y o u r dad's w o r k , believe m e — " "I b e l i e v e y o u , " she says, " b u t have y o u read Freedom and Dignity?" " W e l l n o , " I say "I was s t i c k i n g to t h e p u r e l y scientific texts, n o t t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l treatises." " Y o u can't separate s c i e n c e from philosophy," she says, a n s w e r i n g m y earlier q u e s t i o n . " S o d o y o u r h o m e w o r k , " and n o w she sounds like any o l d m o t h e r , o r aunt, h e r v o i c e c a l m , creased w i t h w a r m t h , c h o p c h o p , she i s b a c k t o t h e carrots, t h e plain o l d p o t a t o e s . " D o y o u r h o m e w o r k , " she says, " a n d t h e n w e ' l l talk."

T H A T N I G H T , I p u t t h e b a b y t o b e d . I take d o w n t h e w o r n , d o g eared c o p y of Beyond Freedom and Dignity, t h e treatise I have a s s o c i ated w i t h o t h e r totalitarian texts, t h e treatise that, like Mein Kampf, I have l o n g o w n e d b u t n e v e r really read, a n d n o w I b e g i n . " T h i n g s g r o w steadily w o r s e a n d it is d i s h e a r t e n i n g to find that t e c h n o l o g y itself is increasingly at fault. Sanitation and m e d i c i n e have m a d e t h e p r o b l e m s o f population c o n t r o l m o r e acute. W a r has a c q u i r e d a n e w h o r r o r w i t h t h e i n v e n t i o n o f n u c l e a r w e a p o n s , a n d t h e affluent pursuit o f happiness i s largely responsible for p o l l u t i o n . " A l t h o u g h this was w r i t t e n in 1 9 7 1 , I m i g h t as w e l l be r e a d i n g a speech by Al G o r e , or a G r e e n Party mission statement from 2 0 0 3 . I t i s t r u e that f u r t h e r i n t o t h e t e x t S k i n n e r says s o m e t r o u b l i n g things like, " B y q u e s t i o n i n g the c o n t r o l exercised b y a u t o n o m o u s man and demonstrating the control exercised by the e n v i r o n m e n t , a science o f behavior questions the c o n c e p t s o f dignity and worth." B u t t h e s e sorts o f s t a t e m e n t s are b u r i e d i n a t e x t i m m e n s e l y p r a g m a t i c . S k i n n e r i s c l e a r l y p r o p o s i n g a h u m a n e social p o l i c y r o o t e d i n his e x p e r i m e n t a l findings. H e i s p r o p o s i n g t h a t w e a p p r e c i a t e t h e i m m e n s e c o n t r o l ( o r i n f l u e n c e ) o u r s u r r o u n d i n g s have o n us, a n d s o sculpt t h o s e s u r r o u n d i n g s in s u c h a w a y that t h e y " r e i n f o r c e p o s i tively," o r i n o t h e r w o r d s , e n g e n d e r adaptive a n d c r e a t i v e b e h a v i o r in all c i t i z e n s . S k i n n e r is a s k i n g s o c i e t y to f a s h i o n c u e s t h a t are m o s t

likely t o d r a w o n o u r b e s t selves, a s o p p o s e d t o c u e s that c l e a r l y c o n f o u n d us, c u e s s u c h a s t h o s e that e x i s t i n p r i s o n s , i n places o f poverty. I n o t h e r w o r d s , stop p u n i s h i n g . S t o p h u m i l i a t i n g . W h o c o u l d a r g u e w i t h that? S e t t h e r h e t o r i c aside. D o n o t c o n f u s e c o n tent with controversy. T h e c o n t e n t says, " O u r age i s n o t suffering from a n x i e t y b u t from wars, c r i m e s , a n d o t h e r d a n g e r o u s

things. T h e

feelings

are

the

b y p r o d u c t s o f b e h a v i o r . " T h i s s t a t e m e n t i s t h e s u m total o f S k i n n e r ' s reviled a n t i m e n t a l i s m , his i n s i s t e n c e that w e focus n o t o n m i n d b u t o n b e h a v i o r . R e a l l y it's n o different than y o u r m o t h e r ' s favorite saying: a c t i o n s speak l o u d e r than words. A c c o r d i n g t o S k i n n e r — a n d N e w A g e a u t h o r N o r m a n C o u s i n s — w h e n w e a c t meanly, w e feel meanly, and n o t v i c e versa. W h e t h e r y o u agree w i t h this o r n o t , it's hardly a n t i h u m a n i t a r i a n . A n d later o n i n t h e b o o k , w h e n S k i n n e r w r i t e s that m a n exists irrefutably in relationship to his e n v i r o n m e n t and c a n n e v e r b e free o f it, i s h e talking a b o u t c o n f i n i n g c h a i n s , a s m o s t have i n t e r p r e t e d it, o r s i m p l y t h e silvery w e b w o r k that c o n nects us to this a n d this a n d that? I saw J e r o m e K a g a n j u m p u n d e r his desk, assuring m e h e h a d free will a n d c o u l d exist i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f his e n v i r o n m e n t . M a y b e h e i s a c t i n g o u t o f a m o r e p r o b l e m a t i c tradit i o n , patriarchal a n d a l o n e . I n

S k i n n e r ' s view, w e

appear t o

be

e n t w i n e d a n d must take responsibility for t h e strings that b i n d us. C o m p a r e this t o t h e c u r r e n t - d a y feminist C a r o l G i l l i g a n , w h o w r i t e s that w e live i n a n i n t e r d e p e n d e n t n e t a n d w o m e n realize a n d h o n o r this. G i l l i g a n , a n d all o f t h e feminist psychotherapists w h o f o l l o w e d , c l a i m we are relational as o p p o s e d to strictly separate, and that until we see o u r w o r l d that way, a n d build a m o r a l i t y p r e d i c a t e d on this irrefutable

fact, w e

will

continue

to

crumble.

From where

did

Gilligan a n d J e a n B a k e r M i l l e r a n d o t h e r feminist theorists draw t h e i r t h e o r i e s ? S k i n n e r ' s spirit hovers in t h e i r words; m a y b e he was t h e first feminist p s y c h o l o g i s t , o r m a y b e feminist p s y c h o l o g i s t s are secret S k i n n e r i a n s . E i t h e r way, w e have v i e w e d t h e m a n t o o simply. I t s e e m s w e b o x e d h i m b e f o r e h e c o u l d q u i t e b o x us.

I U L I E , W H O I S c o m i n g t o B o s t o n for business, invites m e t o visit B. F. Skinner's old house, at 11 O l d D e e R o a d in C a m b r i d g e . It is a beautiful day w h e n I drive there, gardens g r o w i n g tall spires of p u r ple. J u l i e is old, m u c h o l d e r than I e x p e c t e d , h e r skin translucent a n d delicate, h e r eyes g r e e n . S h e lets m e in. T h i s i s B . F . S k i n n e r ' s h o u s e , w h e r e h e lived a n d died, w h e r e h e w e n t h o m e after l o n g lab days d u r i n g w h i c h h e discovered this i n c r e d i b l y pliant nature o f m a m malian life, o u r ties to o u r c o m m u n i t i e s a n d all t h e i r various c o n t i n g e n c i e s . Operant conditioning—a c o l d phrase for a c o n c e p t that m i g h t really m e a n we are sculptors and sculpted, artists and a r t w o r k , r e s p o n sible for t h e p r o m p t s w e fashion. T h e h o u s e has stayed i n t h e family. S p e a k i n g o f fashion, its c u r r e n t o c c u p a n t i s S k i n n e r ' s granddaughter, K r i s t i n a , w h o , J u l i e i n f o r m s m e , is a b u y e r for F i l e n e ' s . T h e k i t c h e n table is c o v e r e d w i t h V i c t o r i a ' s S e c r e t catalogues, pictures o f b l a c k l a c e panties set side b y side w i t h o l d p h o t o s o f P a v l o v and his d r o o l i n g dog. J u l i e leads m e downstairs, t o t h e study S k i n n e r was sitting i n w h e n , nearly o n e d e c a d e a g o , h e d r o p p e d i n t o a c o m a a n d died. S h e o p e n s t h e d o o r . "I have preserved e v e r y t h i n g e x a c t l y as it was w h e n he was t a k e n away," J u l i e says, a n d I t h i n k I h e a r tears in h e r v o i c e . T h e study i s musty. T h e r e i s against o n e wall that h u g e y e l l o w b o x w h e r e h e n a p p e d a n d listened t o m u s i c . O n t h e walls are pictures o f D e b o r a h , o f J u l i e a s a child, o f H u n t e r t h e d o g . A h u g e b o o k i s o p e n to t h e precise page it was so m a n y years ago. H i s glasses are folded on t h e desk. H i s v i t a m i n s are l i n e d up, several b u l l e t - s h a p e d capsules he n e v e r g o t t o swallow o n that d i m day w h e n h e was c a r t e d away, a n d n o t m u c h later b u r i e d i n his f i n a l b o x , t h e real b l a c k b o x , b o n e s now. I t o u c h t h e v i t a m i n s . I lift a glass w i t h s o m e b l u e e v a p o r a t e d e l i x i r in a residue a r o u n d t h e r i m . I t h i n k I s m e l l h i m , B. F. S k i n n e r , t h e s m e l l o f o l d age and oddity, stale sweat, d o g d r o o l , bird scat, sweetness. H i s f i l e s are o p e n a n d I read t h e labels: " P i g e o n s P l a y i n g P i n g P o n g , " " A i r C r i b E x p e r i m e n t , " a n d t h e n on a file in t h e v e r y b a c k , " A m I a H u m a n i s t ? " T h e r e is s o m e t h i n g q u i t e v u l n e r a b l e a b o u t h a v i n g a file that so o p e n l y asks such a q u e s t i o n , perhaps t h e c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n .

" C a n I read i t ? " I ask, a n d J u l i e says, " S u r e . " We are b o t h w h i s p e r i n g now, h u s h e d in t h e past preserved. S h e pulls it o u t . H i s h a n d w r i t i n g is c r a m p e d and messy, a n d o n l y v e r y little of it is l e g i b l e . I read, " f o r t h e g o o d o f m a n " and t h e n , several s e n t e n c e s later, " t o preserve a n d survive w e must," and toward t h e e n d o f t h e o l d d e c a y i n g page, w h a t l o o k s like, " I w o n d e r i f I a m w o r t h w h i l e . " I l o o k at J u l i e . " A r e y o u g o i n g to f o r m a l l y archive this m a t e r i a l ? " I ask, " O r are y o u j u s t g o i n g t o k e e p i t h e r e ? " H e r eyes are brilliant i n t h e study's d i m n e s s , a n d that, a l o n g w i t h t h e w a y she has obsessively e n s h r i n e d h e r father's w o r l d , leads me to t h i n k that, for her, he is t h e o n e c o n t i n g e n c y she w i l l n e v e r q u e s t i o n , t h e o n e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c u e she is truly enslaved to. W o u l d B. F. S k i n n e r have w a n t e d s u c h slavish d e v o t i o n o r w o u l d h e have e n c o u r a g e d h e r t o g o forth, g o w i d e r i n search o f n e w reinforcers that w o u l d g e n e r a t e n e w responses that w o u l d give rise t o n e w data a n d ideas w h i l e t h e p i g e o n s p e c k a n d t h e rats k e e p r u n n i n g a n d r u n n i n g . " Y o u see this," says J u l i e , and she points to a small e n d table n e x t to a reclining chair. " H e r e i s the p i e c e o f c h o c o l a t e m y father was eating j u s t before t h e c o m a c a m e , " and w h e n I l o o k d o w n , it is there, a p i e c e of dark c h o c o l a t e on a c h i n a plate w i t h a real B. F. b i t e m a r k fossilized in the c h u n k . "I w a n t to save this c h o c o l a t e forever," she says. I ask, " H o w old is i t ? " and she says, "It's over a d e c a d e old and still in g o o d shape." I stare at her. A little later, after she leaves t h e r o o m , I lift the gnawed square and study it closely. I see precisely w h e r e his m o u t h m e t the candy's edge, and t h e n , pulled by s o m e string I c a n n o t see, a c u e I never k n e w was c o m i n g , or perhaps a streak of utter freedom (for I do n o t k n o w t h e answer after all this, I do n o t k n o w t h e answer), I raise m y a r m — o r m y a r m i s raised—and I put t h e c h o c o l a t e i n m y m o u t h . O l d c h o c o l a t e , dusty c h o c o l a t e , I take a tiny bite, leave my m a r k right n e x t t o his, and o n m y teeth t h e taste o f s o m e t h i n g very strange and slightly sweet.

2

Obscura S T A N L E Y O B E D I E N C E

MILCRAM TO

AND

AUTHORITY

In 1961, a twenty-seven-year-old Yale assistant professor of psychology, Stanley Milgram, wanted to study obedience to authority. In a post-Holocaust world, people were struggling to understand how scores of SS officers had shot, gassed, noosed, and otherwise tortured twelve million people to death, supposedly on orders from their commanders in chief. The generally accepted explanation had to do with the thenpopular notion of "the authoritarian personality," which hypothesized that certain kinds of childhood experiences of a strict, Teutonic cast produced people who would do anything to anyone if instructed. Milgram, a social psychologist, suspected that this explanation was too narrow. He purportedly believed the answer to destructive obedience lay less in the power ofpersonality and more in the power of situation. In Milgram's view, any especially persuasive situation could cause any rational human being to abandon moral precepts and, on orders, commit atrocities. To test his hypothesis, Milgram set up one of psychology's grandest and most horrible hoaxes. He created a fake but convincing "shock machine." He recruited hundreds of volunteers and ordered them to deliver what they believed were lethal levels of electricity to an actor who feigned pain and even death. How far would people go under orders? What percentage of ordinary civilians would obey the experimenter's mandates to shock? What percentage would rebel? Here is what he found.

PART

ONE:

THE

EXPERIMENT

P

ossibly y o u are l a t e . Y o u are r u n n i n g d o w n a small side street in N e w Haven, C o n n e c t i c u t . I t i s J u n e 1 9 6 1 , and ahead o f you

l o o m t h e spires o f t h e Y a l e E p i s c o p a l i a n C h u r c h . T h e streets smell o f s u m m e r , w e t c r u s h e d f l o w e r s a n d s p o i l e d fruit, a n d m a y b e , b e c a u s e o f this, y o u already feel a little ill. I n a n t i c i p a t i o n . B e c a u s e o f t h e o d o r . S o m e t h i n g s w e e t a n d s i n g e d i n t h e air. O r perhaps y o u are n o t late. Perhaps y o u are t h e responsible type, w i t h m i n u t e s to spare, and so y o u are strolling and there is no m o o n b e c a u s e it is raining, a s u m m e r rain darting d o w n silver a n d sideways and m a k i n g the streets smell strongly o f sewage and c e m e n t . I n this scenario, as well, y o u already feel a little sick, in anticipation, a l t h o u g h of w h a t y o u c a n n o t say. T h e r e is that o d o r , s o m e t h i n g rotting in t h e air. Y o u are c a r r y i n g t h e ad. J u s t t w o w e e k s a g o y o u r i p p e d i t from its n e w s p r i n t p a g e : " W e W i l l Pay Y o u $ 4 . 0 0 for O n e H o u r o f Y o u r T i m e . P e r s o n s N e e d e d for a S t u d y o f M e m o r y . " A n d b e c a u s e i t was Y a l e , a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e cash, e n o u g h t o b u y a n e w b l e n d e r t o replace t h e o n e that w e n t kaput, and b e c a u s e , w e l l , it's all i n t h e n a m e o f s c i e n c e , y o u said yes. N o w y o u are o n y o u r way. O n y o u r way! T h e side streets are s o . . . sideways; t h e y c u r v e a n d tip, t h e b r i c k s b u c k l i n g , g r e e n w e e d s t h r u s t i n g u p b e t w e e n t h e pavers.You t r i p . Y o u straighten y o u r s e l f up. Y o u c o m e t o t h e a d d r e s s — L i n s l y - C h i t t e n d e n H a l l , a gray d o o r — a n d y o u are j u s t a b o u t t o o p e n i t w h e n i t o p e n s i t s e l f a n d a m a n c o m e s from t h e o t h e r side, his face all r e d — a n d c o u l d t h o s e b e tears s t r e a m i n g d o w n his c h e e k s ? H e hustles o f f i n t o t h e shadows, and y o u , it's y o u r t u r n . Y o u g o in. First off, y o u are p a i d . Y o u go i n t o a r o o m , w h i c h is in w o r s e shape than t h e sidewalk that l e d y o u h e r e , walls flaking, n a k e d pipes in a c o m p l e x m e s h w o r k o n t h e c e i l i n g , a n d a stern m a n i n a w h i t e c o a t w h o gives y o u t h r e e fresh s m a c k e r s a n d f o u r quarters, c o l d i n y o u r palm. He says, " H e r e is y o u r c o m p e n s a t i o n . It is y o u r s to k e e p r e g a r d less o f w h a t happens," o r s o m e s u c h thing. W h a t , y o u w o n d e r , i s going to happen?

A n o t h e r m a n c o m e s i n t o the r o o m . He's g o t a round face and a silly grin and a straw hat sideways on his head. He's g o t blue eyes, but they're n o t the ice blue o f intelligence o r the c o r n f l o w e r blue o f passion; they're a bland, b o i l e d blue. E v e n before all that happens, y o u think, This man does not look smart. His n a m e , he says, is Wallace s o m e t h i n g or other. H i , y o u say, my n a m e is Goldfarb, or W e n t w o r t h — p i c k a n a m e , any n a m e will do. Just r e m e m b e r , either way, whatever n a m e , this is y o u . T h e e x p e r i m e n t e r says, " W e are interested i n l e a r n i n g a b o u t t h e effects o f p u n i s h m e n t o n l e a r n i n g . T h e r e has b e e n v e r y little s y s t e m atic research i n t o this s u b j e c t , and w e are h o p i n g o u r findings w i l l b e o f s o m e h e l p t o e d u c a t i o n a l systems." H e says, " I n this e x p e r i m e n t , o n e o f y o u will b e t h e l e a r n e r and r e c e i v e s h o c k s w h e n y o u m a k e a m i s t a k e i n w o r d pairs read t o y o u , and t h e o t h e r o n e will b e t h e t e a c h e r , w h o w i l l a d m i n i s t e r t h e s h o c k s w h e n t h e w o r d pair r e p e t i t i o n i s w r o n g . N o w , " t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r asks, " w h i c h o n e o f y o u w o u l d like t o b e t h e learner, w h i c h o n e t h e t e a c h e r ? " Y o u l o o k a t — w h a t ' s his n a m e ? — W a l l a c e . A n d W a l l a c e shrugs. Y o u shrug. T h e e x p e r i m e n t e r says, " W e ' l l d o a drawing." H e holds o u t t w o p i e c e s o f f o l d e d paper. Y o u p i c k o n e , W a l l a c e picks o n e . Y o u o p e n yours: " t e a c h e r , " i t says. T h a n k g o d . W a l l a c e says, laughing, " L o o k s like I ' m t h e learner." T h e e x p e r i m e n t e r m o t i o n s for y o u and W a l l a c e t o f o l l o w h i m . Y o u d o . Y o u go d o w n a short dark hallway and i n t o a r o o m that l o o k s like a cell. " S i t in this chair," t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r says to W a l l a c e , and W a l l a c e does. T h i s is no o r d i n a r y chair. T h i s is a g o d d a m n e l e c t r i c chair, w i t h a s w i t c h plate on t h e table and straps and strange suckers to p u t on t h e skin. " W e ' v e g o t t o strap h i m d o w n , " t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r says, m e a n i n g strap W a l l a c e d o w n , and suddenly you're b e n d i n g o v e r this b i g m a n , b u c k l i n g h i m i n t o t h e seat as t h o u g h he's j u s t a baby, his skin, w h e n y o u brush it, surprisingly soft. T h e e x p e r i m e n t e r takes a c a n o f paste and says, " R u b this o n his hands, for t h e e l e c t r o d e s , " a n d b e f o r e y o u k n o w it, y o u are massaging grease i n t o this l o o s e - f l e s h e d m a n , and y o u feel oddly ill and a tad aroused, and t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r says, " T i g h t e n t h o s e belts," and s o y o u do. Y o u grease and t i g h t e n ,

pulling t h e straps on t h e b l a c k belts so W a l l a c e is harnessed and w i r e d up, and j u s t b e f o r e y o u leave, y o u l o o k at h i m , a c a p t u r e d m a n , his pale eyes a little scared, j u s t a glint of fear, and y o u w a n t to s a y , " S h h h . N o t h i n g b a d will h a p p e n here."

N O T H I N G B A D W I L L h a p p e n h e r e . N o t h i n g b a d will h a p p e n here. Y o u repeat that t o

yourself as you follow the e x p e r i m e n t e r out of

o n e c e l l - l i k e r o o m and i n t o a n o t h e r c e l l - l i k e r o o m w h e r e t h e r e i s n o e l e c t r i c chair, b u t instead a h u g e g e n e r a t o r w i t h d i m e - s h i n y b u t t o n s , b e n e a t h w h i c h are p r i n t e d t h e v o l t a g e s — 1 5 , 3 0 , 4 5 , all t h e w a y u p t o 4 5 0 . " D a n g e r , E x t r e m e S h o c k , x x x , " i t says o n t h e t o p - l e v e l levers. Jesus H C h r i s t . W h o is HI D i d J e s u s have a m i d d l e n a m e ? Haley, H a l i f a x , H u s t o n ? Y o u are starting t o t h i n k s e r i o u s l y a b o u t J e s u s ' m i d d l e n a m e ; s o m e t i m e s that h a p p e n s t o y o u — y o u t h i n k a b o u t t h e w r o n g t h i n g , s o y o u w o n ' t have t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e r i g h t t h i n g . Halifax. Haley. H u s t o n . A n d m e a n w h i l e t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r i s saying, " Y o u will read these w o r d s e q u e n c e s t o W a l l a c e t h r o u g h t h e m i c r o p h o n e . F o r e a c h m i s t a k e h e m a k e s , y o u give h i m a s h o c k . Y o u start a t t h e lowest, 1 5 , and go up. M a y I give y o u a sample s h o c k ? " O h sure, y o u ' v e always liked samples, sample spoons o f i c e c r e a m , sample fabric swatches, miniature s h a m p o o samples in drug stores, so w h y n o t a sweet little sample s h o c k ? Y o u offer y o u r a r m . It l o o k s w h i t e and floppy in the fluorescent laboratory lights. It is an ugly a r m , w i t h dark dots w h e r e the hairs spring up. T h e e x p e r i m e n t e r lowers s o m e p r o n g e d device o n t o y o u r very o w n skin and y o u feel a pair o f h o t fangs, t h e kiss of a stingray. Y o u flinch away. " T h a t was 45 volts," t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r says. "Just so y o u ' l l k n o w w h a t the p u n i s h m e n t is like." O k a y okay. You begin.

L A K E , L U C K , HAY,

SUN.

Tree, loon, laughter, child. T h e w o r d pairs

have a k i n d of p o e t r y to t h e m , and n o w y o u are happy, all t h e s e lakes

and l o o n s , and W a l l a c e , w h o s e v o i c e c o m e s c r a c k l i n g a t y o u t h r o u g h a tiny m i c r o p h o n e , also s e e m s happy. " K e e p ' e m c o m i n g b o y ! " h e shouts, a n d y o u l o b h i m chocolate, waffle, valentine, cupid, a n d that's w h e n h e m a k e s his f i r s t mistake. H e forgets t h e c u p i d , u n l u c k y i n l o v e . Y o u give t h e f i r s t s h o c k , j u s t 1 5 volts, a k i t t e n i s h t i c k l e , n o t h i n g to worry about. B u t that f i r s t s h o c k c h a n g e s things. Y o u c a n j u s t tell. Wallace's v o i c e , w h e n h e repeats t h e n e x t w o r d pair, i s s o m b e r , s e r i o u s , b u t , g o d d a m n it, h e m a k e s a n o t h e r mistake! Y o u give h i m 3 0 volts. N e x t try, g o o d boy, he gets it r i g h t , and t h e n again, he gets it r i g h t . Y o u find y o u ' r e r o o t i n g for h i m , a n d t h e n he screws up tree house. T h e n he screws up dahlia a n d grass a n d b e f o r e y o u k n o w it, y o u ' r e up to 1 1 5 volts; y o u w a t c h y o u r finger land o n t h e press-pad, t h e n a c r e o u s nail, t h e k n u c k l e , w h i c h i s t h e hardest part o f t h e h a n d . Y o u press d o w n . T h r o u g h t h e m i c r o p h o n e c o m e s t h e s o u n d o f a scream. " L e t m e o u t , let m e out! I've h a d e n o u g h , let m e o u t t a h e r e ! " Y o u ' r e starting t o shake. Y o u can feel w e t crescents u n d e r y o u r a r m s . Y o u t u r n t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r . " O k a y , " y o u say. " I guess w e g o t t a stop. H e wants o u t . " " T h e e x p e r i m e n t requires that y o u c o n t i n u e , " this p o k e r face says. " B u t h e wants o u t ! " y o u say. " W e can't c o n t i n u e i f h e wants o u t . " "The

e x p e r i m e n t requires that y o u

c o n t i n u e , " h e repeats, a s

t h o u g h y o u ' r e hard o f h e a r i n g , w h i c h y o u ' r e n o t , y o u ' r e n o t ! Y o u r hearing's f i n e , a n d s o i s y o u r v i s i o n , t w e n t y - t w e n t y . Y o u have t h e absurd desire t o tell this m a n all a b o u t y o u r c l e a n bill o f health a n d y o u r e x c e l l e n t eyes a n d y o u r g o o d grades i n c o l l e g e a n d y o u r r e c e n t p r o m o t i o n a t w o r k . Y o u w a n t t o tell M r . W h i t e C o a t that y o u ' r e a d e c e n t p e r s o n w h o has always w a n t e d t o help, w h o w o u l d d o a n y t h i n g n o t t o disappoint, b u t y o u ' r e s o sorry, s o sorry, y o u c a n n o t c o n t i n u e t h e e x p e r i m e n t , y o u h a t e t o disappoint b u t — " P l e a s e c o n t i n u e , " h e says. Y o u b l i n k . S o m e t i m e s t h e sun blinks i n a n d o u t , o n days w h e n c l o u d s scuttle across t h e sky. T h a t is t h e best k i n d of day, fresh b l u e sky, c l o u d s as w h i t e as bandages, a crisp flag snapping at t h e tip of its

p o l e . Y o u c o n t i n u e . S o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e c l o u d a n d t h e flag y o u f o u n d y o u r s e l f g o i n g o n . Y o u d o n ' t k n o w why, y o u h a t e t o disapp o i n t , and this e x p e r i m e n t e r s e e m s s o sure o f h i m s e l f a n d a s y o u c o n tinue, y o u recall h o w o n c e , w h e n y o u w e r e a c h i l d , t h e r e was a n eclipse, a n d t h e sun a n d t h e m o o n m e r g e d i n a g o l d e n b u r n i n g minute. W a l l a c e m a k e s a mistake. H e m a k e s three, four mistakes, a n d n o w you're u p t o 1 5 0 volts, a n d he's s c r e a m i n g , " I have a h e a r t c o n d i t i o n . L e t m e o u t o f h e r e ! I n o l o n g e r w i s h t o b e i n this e x p e r i m e n t , " a n d t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r i s standing r i g h t n e x t t o y o u a n d saying, " G o o n , please, t h e s h o c k s are painful b u t t h e y are n o t h a r m f u l . T h e r e w i l l b e n o p e r m a n e n t tissue d a m a g e . " Y o u are fighting tears. Y o u r n a m e i s G o l d f a r b , o r W i n e g a r t e n , o r W e n t w o r t h . W h a t i s y o u r n a m e ? Y o u ' r e n o t s o sure. " B u t h e has a heart c o n d i t i o n , " y o u say, y o u t h i n k y o u say, o r i s y o u r m i n d j u s t w h i s p e r i n g t o itself? " T h e r e will b e n o p e r m a n e n t tissue d a m a g e , " h e repeats, and y o u s h o u t , " F o r god's sake, w h a t a b o u t t e m p o r a r y d a m a g e ? " a n d h e says, " T h e e x p e r i m e n t requires that y o u c o n t i n u e , " and y o u say, y o u ' r e c r y i n g now, or y o u ' r e l a u g h i n g n o w , y o u r s t o m a c h ' s l a u g h i n g h e e - h e e - h a w w h i l e y o u r eyes are d r i b b l i n g tears, y o u say, " W h y d o n ' t w e j u s t g o i n t h e r e a n d c h e c k o n h i m ? Let's j u s t m a k e sure he's okay," and M r . W h i t e C o a t shakes his h e a d , y o u c a n h e a r t h e b o n e s c l i c k i n his n e c k — c l i c k c l i c k , n o n o , g o o n , y o u t o u c h y o u r o w n n e c k a n d y o u are s h o c k e d , n o p u n i n t e n d e d , y o u are s h o c k e d t o feel h o w slippery w e t it is, f r o m sweat, a n d also h o w o d d l y b o n e l e s s it is; y o u press a n d press, b u t y o u c a n n o t find any scaffolding in y o u r n e c k . Is this e x p e r i m e n t e r a d o c t o r ? " A r e y o u a d o c t o r ? " y o u ask. " A r e y o u c o n v i n c e d t h e r e w i l l b e n o p e r m a n e n t tissue d a m a g e ? " H e seems s o sure o f himself, j u s t like a d o c t o r , w h i c h y o u ' r e n o t , even t h o u g h y o u g o t g o o d grades i n s c h o o l , h e k n o w s w h a t he's d o i n g . Y o u don't. H e wears a w h i t e c o a t . S o y o u c o n t i n u e u p t h e ladder o f levers, r e a d i n g w o r d pairs, a n d s o m e t h i n g strange has h a p p e n e d t o y o u . Y o u c o n c e n t r a t e totally o n y o u r task. Y o u read e a c h w o r d pair carefully, carefully, y o u press t h e levers like a p i l o t at his p a n e l . Y o u r

range o f vision n a r r o w s t o t h e m e c h a n i c s a t h a n d . Y o u are flying i n t o s o m e t h i n g . Y o u are flying t h r o u g h s o m e t h i n g , b u t w h a t i t i s y o u c a n n o t say.You have a j o b to do. T h i s is n o t a b o u t t h e sky outside. T h i s is n o t a b o u t sun, b o n e s , blinks, flags. Y o u have a j o b t o do, a n d s o flesh fades away, a n d W a l l a c e fades away, and in his p l a c e , a g l e a m i n g machine. A t 3 1 5 volts W a l l a c e gives o n e last, b l o o d - c u r d l i n g s c r e a m a n d t h e n stops. H e falls silent. A t 3 4 5 volts y o u t u r n t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r . Y o u feel v e r y o d d . Y o u feel hollow, a n d t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r , w h e n h e speaks, s e e m s to fill y o u up w i t h his air. " C o n s i d e r s i l e n c e a w r o n g answer," he says, a n d that s e e m s so funny y o u start to s n e e z e a n d l a u g h . Y o u j u s t l a u g h and laugh a n d press t h o s e levers, b e c a u s e t h e r e is n o w a y o u t , n o w a y t o say, " N o ! N o ! N o ! " I n y o u r h e a d y o u c a n say it, b u t i n y o u r hands y o u can't, a n d y o u u n d e r s t a n d n o w h o w great t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e h e a d a n d t h e h a n d s — i t i s m i l e s o f u n b r o k e n tundra. W i t h y o u r h e a d y o u say n o a n d w i t h y o u r hands y o u t a p d a n c e u p a n d d o w n t h e s h o c k b o a r d , i n a n d a r o u n d t h e words—skirt, flair, floor, swirl;goose, feather, blanket, star—and all t h e w h i l e t h e r e is j u s t this e e r i e s i l e n c e p u n c t u a t e d b y e l e c t r i c skillet sizzles, a n d n o m a n . T h e r e is no m a n here.

IT IS L I K E w a k i n g up. It is like falling asleep and d r e a m i n g o f l o o n s a n d sharks and t h e n w a k i n g up, a n d t h e w h o l e t h i n g i s over. T h e e x p e r i m e n t e r says, " W e c a n stop now," and t h r o u g h t h e d o o r c o m e s W a l l a c e , his hat still sideways o n his head, n o t a hair o u t o f place. H e l o o k s fine. " B o y , y o u really s h o o k m e u p i n there," h e says, " b u t n o hard feelings." H e p u m p s y o u r hand. " W o w , " h e says, " y o u ' r e sweating. C a l m d o w n . G e e z I ' m k n o w n for m y m e l o d r a m a , b u t I ' m fine," a n d the experimenter echoes, "Wallace is just fine. T h e shocks weren't as b a d as t h e y s e e m e d . T h e danger, lethal level, that's o n l y for small l a b o ratory animals, w h i c h is w h a t we usually use t h e g e n e r a t o r for." Oh, y o u t h i n k . W a l l a c e leaves. A spry little m a n n a m e d M i l g r a m enters t h e r o o m

and says, " D o y o u m i n d i f I ask y o u s o m e q u e s t i o n s ? " T h e n h e s h o w s y o u a p i c t u r e o f a s c h o o l b o y b e i n g flogged and takes d o w n y o u r e d u c a t i o n level a n d w h e t h e r y o u ' v e e v e r b e e n i n t h e a r m y a n d w h a t r e l i g i o n y o u are and y o u are s o n u m b — y o u answer e v e r y t h i n g — a n d y o u are also s o c o n f u s e d . S o t h e s h o c k g e n e r a t o r was geared for m i c e , n o t m e n ? A r e y o u a m o u s e o r a m a n ? I f W a l l a c e really wasn't hurt, t h e n w h y did h e s c r e a m s o l o u d ? W h y did h e h o l l e r a b o u t his heart? Y o u k n o w a b o u t hearts. Y o u k n o w a b o u t b o n e s a n d b l o o d , w h i c h y o u h a p p e n to have on y o u r hands. A rage rises up. Y o u l o o k at this n i m b l e little M i l g r a m a n d y o u say, " I g e t it. T h i s wasn't a b o u t l e a r n i n g a t all. T h i s was a n e x p e r i m e n t a b o u t o b e d i e n c e , o b e d i e n c e t o authority," a n d M i l g r a m , w h o i s o n l y t w e n t y - s e v e n years o l d a n d t e r ribly y o u n g t o b e p i o n e e r i n g such a controversial, d a m a g i n g , i l l u m i nating, a n d finally f a m o u s setup, M i l g r a m turns t o y o u . H e has g r e e n eyes, t h e c o l o r o f lollipops, a n d a little red s c r i b b l e o f a m o u t h . " T h i s was a b o u t o b e d i e n c e , " y o u repeat, a n d M i l g r a m says, " Y e s , i t was. I f y o u hadn't guessed it, I w o u l d have t o l d y o u later, in a standard l e t t e r I mail to my subjects. Sixty-five percent of my subjects behaved just as y o u did. It is totally n o r m a l for a p e r s o n to m a k e t h e c h o i c e s y o u did i n t h e situation w e put y o u in. Y o u have n o t h i n g t o feel badly a b o u t , " b u t y o u , y o u w o n ' t b e taken in. Y o u w o n ' t b e reassured. H e f o o l e d y o u o n c e , b u t h e w o n ' t f o o l y o u t w i c e . T h e r e are n o reassuring words for w h a t y o u ' v e l e a r n e d in his lab t o n i g h t . Lake. Loon. Swan. Song. Y o u have l e a r n e d y o u have b l o o d on y o u r hands. A n d a b o d y built for t h e words o f o t h e r m e n .

O T H E R M E N . M a y b e that o n e across t h e street o r i n t h e h o u s e n e x t door, b u t n o t y o u . T h i s i s w h a t you, t h e reader, m a y b e t h i n k i n g . S h o u l d you have h a d t h e o u t r a g e o u s l u c k to have f o u n d y o u r s e l f in Linsly-Chittenden Hall at Yale University on a limpid J u n e night in 1 9 6 1 , you w o u l d n o t have d o n e such a t h i n g . Y o u r n a m e , after all, is not Goldfarb or W i n e g a r t e n or W e n t w o r t h . Y o u

are, perhaps, a

Buddhist. A vegetarian. A hospice volunteer.You w o r k with troubled

y o u t h , o r d o n a t e m o n e y t o t h e S i e r r a C l u b , o r cultivate t h e m o s t a m a z i n g p h l o x , p u r p l e - p i n k clusters o f m i n i a t u r e f l o w e r s i n a c i t y garden. N o t y o u . B u t yes, you. F o r S t a n l e y M i l g r a m p r o v e d i t t o b e true, in L i n s l y - C h i t t e n d e n H a l l , a n d t h e n later in a lab in B r i d g e p o r t , a n d t h e n still later in replications all a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . S i x t y - t w o to sixty-five p e r c e n t o f us, w h e n f a c e d w i t h a c r e d i b l e authority, will f o l l o w orders t o t h e p o i n t o f lethally h a r m i n g a p e r s o n . T h i s s e e m s i m p r o b a b l e , i m p o s s i b l e , especially b e c a u s e y o u a r e — I a m — a humanist at heart. S o w e r e his s u b j e c t s , m a n y o f t h e m . "I am a g o o d w o r k e r . I provide for my family. . . . T h e o n l y b a d t h i n g a b o u t m e , I d o get t i e d u p i n m y w o r k — I p r o m i s e t h e kids t o do

something, take

them

somewhere, and

then

have

to

cancel

b e c a u s e I g e t called o u t on a j o b . " " I e n j o y m y j o b . I have a n e n j o y a b l e family, t h r e e c h i l d r e n . . . . I like to g r o w flowers a r o u n d my yard. I like to raise a v e g e t a b l e garden p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e I like fresh vegetables." T h e s e w e r e self-descriptions g i v e n b y t w o o f M i l g r a m ' s fully o b e d i e n t s u b j e c t s after t h e testing. F r e s h vegetables. F l o w e r s . T h o s e p u r p l e - p i n k p h l o x i n o u r gardens. P r i o r to b e g i n n i n g his e x p e r i m e n t , Stanley M i l g r a m , an assistant professor at Yale, t o o k a poll. He asked a group of e m i n e n t psychiatrists h o w t h e y t h o u g h t subjects w o u l d b e h a v e i n his simulated situation. H e also polled Yale undergraduates and a handful o f regular N e w H a v e n folks. All c a m e u p w i t h the s a m e prediction. P e o p l e w o u l d n o t a d m i n ister t h e shocks all the way. T h e y w o u l d b r e a k o f f at 1 5 0 volts, m a x i m u m , save for t h e p a t h o l o g i c a l fringe o f crypto-sadists w h o w o u l d play every lever as t h e v i c t i m s c r e a m e d . E v e n today, forty years after t h e l e s son o f M i l g r a m has supposedly b e e n learned, p e o p l e still say, " N o t m e . " Yes y o u . T h e p o w e r o f M i l g r a m s e x p e r i m e n t s lies, perhaps, r i g h t h e r e , i n t h e great gap b e t w e e n w h a t w e t h i n k a b o u t ourselves, a n d w h o w e frankly are.

M I L G R A M WAS C E R T A I N L Y n o t the first psychologist t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h o b e d i e n c e , n o r t h e first p s y c h o l o g i s t to d e c e i v e his subjects (the s h o c k m a c h i n e was utterly fake, t h e l e a r n e r and t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r paid actors M i l g r a m h a d h i r e d t o d o t h e j o b ) , b u t h e was t h e f i r s t t o d o so, o n b o t h a c c o u n t s , systematically. H o w e v e r , b e f o r e M i l g r a m , there was a m y s t e r i o u s e x p e r i m e n t e r b y t h e n a m e o f C . Landis, w h o i n a n u n n a m e d l a b o r a t o r y i n Wales i n 1 9 2 4 f o u n d that s e v e n t y - o n e p e r c e n t of his subjects w e r e w i l l i n g to decapitate a rat at t h e e x p e r i menter's insistence. I n 1 9 4 4 a p s y c h o l o g i s t b y t h e n a m e o f D a n i e l F r a n k realized that h e c o u l d g e t his subjects t o p e r f o r m t h e oddest acts j u s t b e c a u s e h e w o r e t h e w h i t e c o a t w h e n h e m a d e t h e request: "Please stand o n y o u r head," " P l e a s e w a l k b a c k w a r d w i t h o n e eye closed," " P l e a s e t o u c h y o u r t o n g u e t o t h e w i n d o w . " It is unlikely that M i l g r a m was i n f l u e n c e d by these p e r i p h e r a l blips o f research. F o r o n e thing, M i l g r a m , w h o h a d aspired t o b e c o m e a political scientist, had n o t taken a single p s y c h o l o g y c o u r s e in his four undergraduate years a t Q u e e n s C o l l e g e , s o h e was b y n o m e a n s i n t i m a t e w i t h t h e literature o f t h e f i e l d . F o r another, M i l g r a m , a v o l u b l e little m a n , gave credit w h e r e credit was due. He points to t h e social scientist S o l o m o n A s c h a s b e i n g t h e m a n w h o m a d e h i m , i f any o n e m a n c a n m a k e a n o t h e r . W h i l e o b t a i n i n g his graduate degree, M i l g r a m served as Asch's research assistant at P r i n c e t o n . A s c h was hard at w o r k on an e x p e r i m e n t i n v o l v i n g g r o u p pressure. In a study using lines of different lengths, A s c h f o u n d that his subjects w o u l d capitulate to t h e group's p e r c e p t i o n s , so if t h e g r o u p said l i n e A was clearly l o n g e r than line B , even w h e n i t o b v i o u s l y wasn't, t h e baffled s u b j e c t w o u l d say s o t o o , a b a n d o n i n g his o w n beliefs in an effort to c o n f o r m . B a c k t h e n , a n d still now, A s c h was a giant in social s c i e n c e research, but M i l g r a m , i n c h e s s h o r t e r than he and smaller in stature in all sorts o f o t h e r ways, w o u l d s o o n o u t p a c e his m e n t o r . M i l g r a m admired Asch. B u t lines, well, lines l a c k e d lyrical p o w e r , a n d M i l g r a m , like S k i n n e r , was a lyricist at heart. He w r o t e librettos a n d children's s t o n e s , q u o t e d K e a t s and R i l k e . H e saw his f i f t y - o n e - y e a r - o l d father die ° f heart failure and always b e l i e v e d h e t o o w o u l d g o early, s o h e was

p o w e r e d by a b r i g h t light. " W h e n we m a r r i e d , " says his w i d o w , A l e x a n d r a M i l g r a m , " S t a n l e y t o l d m e h e w o u l d n ' t live past f i f t y - o n e , b e c a u s e h e l o o k e d j u s t like his father. H e always had a sense o f his future as v e r y short. T h e n , w h e n S t a n l e y d e v e l o p e d heart troubles in his thirties, he k n e w , we b o t h k n e w , his days w e r e n u m b e r e d . " A n d perhaps it was for this reason he didn't w a n t lines, s o m e t h i n g straight a n d narrow. H e w a n t e d t o devise a n e x p e r i m e n t that w o u l d cast such a glow, or a pall, over t h e earth it w o u l d leave s o m e things s i m m e r i n g for a l o n g , l o n g t i m e . H e w a n t e d s o m e t h i n g h u g e w i t h heart. " I was t r y i n g t o t h i n k o f a w a y t o m a k e Asch's c o n f o r m i t y e x p e r i m e n t m o r e h u m a n e l y significant," h e said i n a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h Psychology Today. "I was dissatisfied that t h e test of c o n f o r m i t y was j u d g m e n t s a b o u t lines. I w o n d e r e d w h e t h e r groups c o u l d pressure a p e r s o n i n t o p e r f o r m i n g a n act w h o s e h u m a n i m p o r t was m o r e r e a d ily apparent, perhaps b e h a v i n g aggressively towards a n o t h e r p e r s o n , say by a d m i n i s t e r i n g severe s h o c k s to h i m . " M i l g r a m was n o stranger t o s h o c k s . E v e n b e f o r e h e ' d seen his father die, h e k n e w a b o u t fear. H e h a d spent his c h i l d h o o d years i n t h e S o u t h B r o n x , w h e r e wildflowers g r e w i n gutters a n d c o c k r o a c h e s scuttled across b u c k l e d l i n o l e u m . I n his family's living r o o m , h e a v y curtains c l a m p e d o u t sunlight a n d t h e radio was b i g a n d b o x y , w i t h a p i e c e o f b u b b l e d glass p r o t e c t i n g t h e c h a n n e l pad. M i l g r a m was fascin a t e d by that radio. He was fascinated by its tiny plastic pores, its s e r rated dials that m o v e d t h e w h i t e w a n d u p a n d d o w n , s o t h e r e was m u s i c , n o w laughter, n o w w e e p i n g , n o w w a l t z i n g — s o m a n y sounds, b u t t h e y always resolved i n t o this: It was 1 9 3 9 and S t a n l e y was six. It was 1 9 4 2 and h e was j u s t o n t h e cusp o f a c e r t a i n sort o f d e e p e n i n g . T h r o u g h t h e radio, w h i c h his f a m i l y l i s t e n e d t o e v e r y day b e c a u s e t h e y h a d relatives i n E u r o p e , c a m e t h e death reports a n d t h e sounds o f t h e S S and shovels o n h o t c o n c r e t e . H e g r e w i n t o a d o l e s c e n c e w i t h this a s his b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c — b o m b s a n d b u r n s — a n d m e a n w h i l e his b o d y was d o i n g its o w n d e t o n a t i o n s . H o w confusing: s e x and terror. We can o n l y guess; it says so n o w h e r e .

I N I 9 6 0 M I L G R A M left P r i n c e t o n a n d his m e n t o r A s c h t o take a n assistant professorship at Y a l e . S o o n after his a p p o i n t m e n t he b e g a n s u b m i t t i n g e x p e n s e reports for s w i t c h e s and e l e c t r o d e s ; i n t h e Y a l e archives are m o c k - u p scripts a n d n o t e s dated a r o u n d that t i m e i n M i l g r a m ' s h a n d w r i t i n g : " a u d i o c a b l e t h r o u g h c e i l i n g . . . sparks, p r a c tice

electrode

application

procedure. James Justin

McDonough,

e x c e l l e n t v i c t i m , A + v i c t i m , p e r f e c t a s v i c t i m , m i l d and submissive." R e a d i n g t h e s e n o t e s i t i s difficult t o avoid t h e sense o f M i l g r a m a s part imp, a little J e w i s h l e p r e c h a u n , his s c i e n c e s o a k e d in j o k e . In fact, M i l g r a m did have a k e e n sense o f c o m e d y , and i t m a y b e h e , m o r e than any o t h e r scientist, w h o has s h o w n u s h o w small t h e space between

art

and

experiment,

between

humor

and

heartlessness,

b e t w e e n w o r k a n d play. " S t a n l e y loved, L O V E D w h a t h e did," says M r s . M i l g r a m . H o w c o u l d h e n o t have? H e used t o address letters, drop t h e m o n t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y sidewalks, a n d t h e n o b s e r v e w h o w o u l d p i c k t h e m up, w h o w o u l d mail t h e m , h o w a n d why. H e d e v e l o p e d a t e c h n i q u e c a l l e d " q u e u e b a r g i n g , " a k i n d o f guerrilla social s c i e n c e in w h i c h S t a n l e y s p r u n g f r o m a h i d i n g p l a c e a n d darted i n t o a q u e u e , all t h e w h i l e o b s e r v i n g t h e r e a c t i o n s o f t h o s e h e h a d c u t i n front of. He w e n t outside, i n t o a b r i g h t b l u e day, p o i n t e d at t h e sky, and t i m e d h o w l o n g i t t o o k t o amass a c r o w d , all o f w h o m s t o o d there, staring a t n o t h i n g . H e was i n g e n i o u s , subversive, absurd. B u t , unlike Sartre, o r B e c k e t t , M i l g r a m m e a s u r e d absurdity. " H e b o t t l e d it," says p s y c h o l o g y professor L e e R o s s o f S t a n f o r d University. " H e b o t t l e d absurd b e h a v i o r s i n his lab, s o w e c o u l d see t h e m . S t u d y them. That's what makes h i m . . . him."

S O M I L G R A M P U T i n orders for e l e c t r o d e s , t h i r t y s w i t c h e s , b l a c k belts, a n d a u d i o e q u i p m e n t — a l l t h e props for t h e d a n g e r o u s play h e was a b o u t t o e n a c t , t h e play that w o u l d , q u i t e literally, r o c k t h e w o r l d and put s u c h a d e n t i n his c a r e e r h e w o u l d n e v e r q u i t e r e c o v e r . H e started w i t h Y a l e students, and, m u c h t o his surprise, e v e r y o n e o f t h e m complied, shocking their way blithely up

the switchboard.

" Y a l i e s , " his wife A l e x a n d r a told m e h e said. " W e can't draw any c o n clusions f r o m Y a l i e s . " Says M r s . M i l g r a m , " S t a n l e y was sure i f h e w e n t b e y o n d t h e c o l l e g e c o m m u n i t y h e w o u l d g e t a m o r e representative sample, and m o r e defiance," so he did. M i l g r a m put an ad in t h e New Haven Register, a n a d calling for a b l e - b o d i e d m e n b e t w e e n t h e ages o f twenty

and fifty, " f a c t o r y w o r k e r s , skilled laborers, professionals,

c o o k s . " He r e c r u i t e d a y o u n g A l a n E l m s , t h e n a graduate student at Yale, t o h e l p h i m find and k e e p a steady supply o f v o l u n t e e r s . E l m s , w h o i s n o w s i x t y - s e v e n and t e a c h i n g a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f D a v i s , clearly r e m e m b e r s his w o r k w i t h M i l g r a m . Elms's v o i c e is slow, tired. I c a n n o t help b u t t h i n k i t i s t h e v o i c e o f a m a n w h o has b e e n s h o c k e d h i m s e l f , s e e n s o m e t h i n g bad. " A r e y o u

glad y o u w e r e

t h e r e ? " I ask h i m . " O h yes," E l m s says. He sighs. " I t was a very, v e r y powerful t h i n g . I t i s n o t s o m e t h i n g y o u w o u l d forget." H e pauses. " I will n e v e r regret b e i n g involved." A n d s o started t h e e x p e r i m e n t s , that s u m m e r o f 1 9 6 1 , t h e s u m m e r o f a b n o r m a l l y w a r m w e a t h e r , o f a b a t infestation i n t h e c h u r c h ' s b e l fry, t h e

summer you

went stumbling down

the

side

streets, a d

c l u t c h e d i n y o u r hand. A l l t o g e t h e r , M i l g r a m r e c r u i t e d , w i t h Elms's help, o v e r a h u n d r e d N e w H a v e n m e n . H e tested t h e m a l m o s t always at n i g h t . T h i s gave t h e w h o l e t h i n g a g h o u l i s h air, w h i c h it did n o t n e e d , for t h e r e w e r e m o c k screams and skulls o n t h e g e n e r a t o r . M i l g r a m alerted t h e area p o l i c e : Y o u m a y h e a r o f p e o p l e b e i n g t o r tured. It is n o t true. It is an act. A n act, apparently, that was q u i t e c o n v i n c i n g t o t h e s u b j e c t s , w h o sweated a n d s q u i r m e d t h e i r w a y t h r o u g h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s p r o d dings. M a n y w e r e visibly upset a t b e i n g t o l d t o c o n t i n u e a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e s h o c k s ; o n e s u b j e c t had a l a u g h i n g c o n v u l s i o n so severe t h e e x p e r i m e n t had t o b e s t o p p e d . L a u g h i n g ? W h y l a u g h i n g ? T h e o d d t h i n g was, t h e r e was a l o t o f l a u g h t e r g o i n g o n , a l o t o f strangled h e e haws and b e l l y - a c h i n g bursts. S o m e have said t h e l a u g h t e r indicates that e v e r y o n e k n e w M i l g r a m t h e I m p had struck again, that this was j u s t a frivolous j o k e . S o m e say his subjects w e r e l a u g h i n g at h i m , such

a n o b v i o u s b i t o f trickery. E l m s disagrees. " P e o p l e w e r e l a u g h i n g o u t o f anxiety. W e w e r e l a u g h i n g , M i l g r a m a n d I , o u t o f d i s c o m f o r t . " M i l g r a m a n d E l m s o b s e r v e d t h e subjects b e h i n d a o n e - w a y m i r r o r , and i n b e t w e e n f i l m i n g t h e u n b e l i e v a b l e o b e d i e n c e t h e y t h e m s e l v e s c o u l d n o t have p r e d i c t e d , t h e y d a b b e d a t t h e i r eyes w i t h h a n k i e s , for s o m e t h i n g h e r e was h o r r i b l y , h o r r i b l y funny. T h a t scholars and w r i t e r s have used t h e l a u g h t e r present d u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t as a sign of its essential frivolousness s h o w s little a b o u t t h e e x p e r i m e n t and a l o t a b o u t t h e rather simplistic n o t i o n s w e h o l d i n regards t o c o m e d y , tragedy, a n d t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e t w o . C o m e d y a n d tragedy are i n e x t r i c a b l y i n t e r t w i n e d , i n sign, i n symbol, in etymology. M i l g r a m h i m s e l f laughed o n e m o m e n t , and said in a n o t h e r that w h a t he had d i s c o v e r e d was " t e r r i f y i n g and depressing." A l e x a n d r a M i l g r a m reports, " T h e results, w h i c h h e did N O T expect t o b e s o high, made h i m cynical about people." O f c o u r s e t h e y did. M i l g r a m h a d e x p e c t e d c o m p l i a n c e , b u t n o t a t t h e a s t o u n d i n g rate o f sixty-five p e r c e n t o f subjects w i l l i n g t o deliver w h a t t h e y b e l i e v e d w e r e lethal s h o c k s . N o , h e h a d n o t e x p e c t e d that. I n a n a t t e m p t t o c o a x m o r e defiance o u t o f his subjects, h e v a r i e d t h e conditions. He m o v e d the learner into the r o o m with the subject, r e m o v e d t h e m i c r o p h o n e , a n d h a d t h e s u b j e c t deliver t h e s h o c k s b y forcing t h e learner's h a n d o n t o a m e t a l plate. C o m p l i a n c e did drop t h e n , b u t n o t by m u c h . T e r r i f y i n g . D e p r e s s i n g , yes. A full thirty p e r c e n t o f subjects w e r e w i l l i n g t o repeatedly slam t h e learner's h a n d o n t o t h e s h o c k plate, e n d u r e t h e s o u n d o f his screams, and w a t c h h i m slump over, all u n d e r orders f r o m t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r . Milgram's

experiment

was

funded

by

the

National

Science

F o u n d a t i o n . T h e m o n i e s c a m e i n J u n e . J u l y a n d A u g u s t passed i n a sizzle o f b l u e sparks. I n S e p t e m b e r , o n l y t h r e e m o n t h s i n t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t , M i l g r a m w r o t e t o his b a c k e r s , t e l l i n g t h e m o f his results: " I n a naive m o m e n t s o m e t i m e ago, I o n c e w o n d e r e d w h e t h e r i n all o f t h e U n i t e d States a v i c i o u s g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d f i n d e n o u g h m o r a l i m b e ciles t o m e e t t h e p e r s o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a national system o f death camps, o f t h e sort that w e r e m a i n t a i n e d i n G e r m a n y . I a m n o w

b e g i n n i n g t o t h i n k that t h e full c o m p l e m e n t c o u l d b e r e c r u i t e d i n N e w Haven." I m a g i n e w h a t i t must have b e e n like for M i l g r a m , a s h e was m a k i n g these discoveries. Was h e u p a t nights? D i d h e t o u c h his children's faces a n d feel h o w t h e y w e r e n o t s o soft, t h e j u t t i n g r i d g e o f his daughter's c h e e k b o n e s , t h e tiny w h i t e t e e t h ? D i d t h e n o r m a l N e w H a v e n streets take o n s h a d o w a n d c u r v e ? M i l g r a m ' s d i s c o v e r y was n o t that p e o p l e w i l l h u r t o r kill o n e a n o t h e r ; w e have always k n o w n that t o b e true. M i l g r a m ' s d i s c o v e r y was that p e o p l e will d o s o i n t h e a b s e n c e o f aggression; h e effectively d i s e n t w i n e d m u r d e r from rage, for his subjects w e r e n o t a n g r y ; t h e y w e r e q u i e t g o o d folks w i t h p h l o x in t h e i r gardens and c h i l d r e n in c r i b s . M i l g r a m was a social p s y c h o l o g i s t , w h i c h m e a n s h e h a d t o u n d e r stand his findings p r i m a r i l y in t e r m s of t h e situation, for that is social psychology's c l a r i o n call. In the eyes of social psychology, p e r s o n a l i t y — who you are—matters less than place—where you are—and M i l g r a m said h e was d e m o n s t r a t i n g this, h o w any n o r m a l p e r s o n c a n b e c o m e a killer if he finds h i m s e l f in a place w h e r e k i l l i n g is called for. He used his e x p e r i m e n t s , to g r e a t e r a n d lesser degrees o v e r t h e years, to e x p l a i n t h e appalling b e h a v i o r a t M y Lai i n V i e t n a m , and i n N a z i G e r m a n y , w h e r e his w o r k i s i n e x t r i c a b l y h i t c h e d t o H a n n a h Arendt's thesis o n t h e b a n a l i t y o f evil, t h e b e a u r o c r a t i c E i c h m a n n blindly t a k i n g orders, p r o p e l l e d b y forces e x t e r n a l t o h i m . Today, years a n d years after M i l g r a m ' s e x p e r i m e n t , social p s y c h o l o g i s t s still s o u n d this b e l l , p r o c l a i m i n g that w h a t matters i s c o n t e x t , n o t p s y c h e . Says L e e R o s s , c o a u t h o r of The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology, "I w o u l d n ' t say t h e r e are no stable c h a r a c t e r attributes in a p e r son that c o n t r i b u t e t o m o r a l o r i m m o r a l b e h a v i o r , b u t t h e y are far o u t w e i g h e d b y w h e r e t h e p e r s o n is, a n d a t w h a t t i m e , a n d w i t h w h o m . " I n o t h e r words, R o s s a n d his c o l l e a g u e s c l a i m that o u r b e h a v i o r s d o n o t result s o m u c h f r o m a stable set o f i n t e r n a l i z e d prefe r e n c e s o r beliefs, b u t r a t h e r f r o m e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s that c h a n g e , like w i n d and w e a t h e r . M i l g r a m a s c r i b e d t o this g e n e r a l w o r l d v i e w , yet o n c l o s e r i n s p e c -

t i o n t h e r e are glitches that suggest h e was n o t s o sure. F o r i n s t a n c e , i f he b e l i e v e d it was all, or mostly, situation that p r o p e l l e d his v o l u n teers, t h e n w h y did h e a d m i n i s t e r a p e r s o n a l i t y test a t t h e e n d o f e a c h s h o c k session? W h y did h e g a t h e r data o n e d u c a t i o n , r e l i g i o n , m i l i tary s e r v i c e , a n d g e n d e r ? W h y did he later, as a professor at C i t y C o l l e g e o f N e w Y o r k , c h a i r a d o c t o r a l dissertation that t o o k a s its s u b j e c t t h e individual c h a r a c t e r traits o f n o n c o n f o r m i s t s , b y a y o u n g S h a r o n Presley? S o m e t h i n g i n t h e s u b j e c t must have i n t e r e s t e d h i m . N o t l o n g after t h e initial e x p e r i m e n t s , M i l g r a m a n d E l m s w e n t o n a h u n t for p e r s o n a l i t y traits that c o r r e l a t e w i t h o b e d i e n t or defiant b e h a v i o r . T h e y did f o l l o w - u p studies o f t h e i r s u b j e c t s , s c r u t i n i z i n g t h e i r lives a n d psyches for clues as to w h o did w h a t and why. T h i s , understand, i s a n o - n o i n t h e field o f social p s y c h o l o g y . S n o r t s R o s s , "It's p e r s o n a l i t y stuff, a n d w e d o n ' t D O that. M i l g r a m didn't D O that." B u t h e did. H e w e n t w i t h E l m s a n d m e a s u r e d individual m e n , and w r o t e a paper o r t w o . A n d h e c o u l d o n l y have d o n e this b e c a u s e h e k n e w t h e situation was n o t a total e x p l a n a t o r y factor. L i s t e n , i f i t had b e e n , i f M i l g r a m h a d c r e a t e d a situation s o all e m b r a c i n g a n d solidly persuasive, t h e n h e w o u l d have a c h i e v e d o n e h u n d r e d p e r c e n t o b e d i e n c e . B u t h e a c h i e v e d sixty-five p e r c e n t , w h i c h m e a n s that thirty-five p e r c e n t defied t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r a n d t h e situation. W h y ? W H Y ? T h i s is a q u e s t i o n no social p s y c h o l o g i s t can answer. It is at this critical j u n c t u r e that social p s y c h o l o g y breaks d o w n . It c a n tell y o u a b o u t aggregate b e h a v i o r , b u t i t can tell y o u n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e naysayers, t h e e x o t i c tendrils that curl o f f t h e m a i n frame a n d give sprout to s o m e t h i n g strange. H e r e , M i l g r a m had devised a study in w h i c h thirty-five p e r c e n t o f his plants, t o e x t e n d t h e m e t a p h o r , c a m e u p c r i m s o n , h y b r i d — i t was n o t t h e soil; i t m u s t have b e e n s o m e t h i n g in t h e seed. I n t h e m i d - 1 9 6 0 s , M i l g r a m a n d E l m s called subjects b a c k t o t h e lab and a d m i n i s t e r e d b a t t e r i e s o f p e r s o n a l i t y tests. O n e was called t h e Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory ( M M P I ) , another the T h e m a t i c A p p e r c e p t i o n Test. E l m s did e x t e n s i v e o n e - o n - o n e i n t e r v i e w i n g , asking o b e d i e n t and defiant subjects a b o u t t h e i r c h i l d h o o d s ,

t h e i r relationships w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r s a n d fathers, t h e i r earliest m e m o r i e s . T h e y f o u n d v e r y little. " C a t h o l i c s w e r e m o r e o b e d i e n t than J e w s . W e did f i n d that," E l m s tells m e . " A n d t h e l o n g e r o n e ' s m i l i t a r y e x p e r i e n c e , t h e m o r e o b e d i e n t . W e also f o u n d that defiant v o l u n t e e r s m e a s u r e d h i g h e r o n t h e M M P I ' s social responsibility scale, but," sighs E l m s , " t h a t scale supposedly measures n o t o n l y g r e a t e r c o n c e r n for social a n d m o r a l issues, b u t also a t e n d e n c y towards c o m p l i a n c e a n d a c q u i e s c e n c e , so w h a t d o w e learn from that? N o t m u c h ? T h a t c o u l d d e s c r i b e e i t h e r an o b e d i e n t or a defiant s u b j e c t . " I t was v e r y difficult for E l m s a n d M i l g r a m t o f i n d any c o n s i s t e n t c h a r a c t e r traits in defiant versus o b e d i e n t subjects. T h e y did find that o b e d i e n t subjects r e p o r t e d b e i n g less c l o s e t o t h e i r fathers d u r i n g childhood

than

defiants

did.

As

children,

they

found

obedients

r e c e i v e d e i t h e r spankings o r v e r y little p u n i s h m e n t , w h e r e a s defiants h a d b e e n p u n i s h e d b y severe b e a t i n g s o r b y s o m e k i n d o f d e p r i v a t i o n — d i n n e r , perhaps. S l i g h t l y m o r e o b e d i e n t s h a d served o n active m i l i t a r y duty. M o s t o b e d i e n t s i n t h e m i l i t a r y a d m i t t e d t o s h o o t i n g a t m e n ; m o s t defiants d e n i e d it. W h e n y o u l o o k a t this i n f o r m a t i o n , w h a t d o y o u get? N o t a w h o l e lot. A defiant is b e a t e n , an o b e d i e n t is spanked. A defiant is c l o s e to his father, an o b e d i e n t distant. A defiant scores h i g h on a social responsibility scale that measures, a m o n g o t h e r things, a c q u i e s c e n c e . E i t h e r t h e scale i s w r o n g , o r t h e defiant a n d t h e o b e d i e n t have s o m a n y strands i n t h e m w e c a n n o t c l e a n l y sort i t o u t .

I , F O R O N E , w a n t t o sort i t o u t . I clearly r e m e m b e r t h e f i r s t t i m e I heard a b o u t t h e M i l g r a m e x p e r i m e n t s . I was at B r a n d e i s University, w h e r e I did my undergraduate w o r k . I was sitting on t h e lawn on a M a y day and all t h e c h e r r y trees w e r e i n b l o o m , petals o f t h e palest, m e m b r a n o u s pink. We w e r e having class in t h e spring air, and t h e s o c i o l o g y professor said, " S o they s h o c k e d and s h o c k e d , " and a shiver w e n t through m e , b e c a u s e I r e c o g n i z e d t h e situation. I k n e w intuitively,

immediately, that I w o u l d have d o n e it, o b e d i e n t soul that I a m . I c o u l d understand perfectly h o w y o u get b o u n d i n t o a situation, h o w y o u lose y o u r o w n eyes, y o u r o w n m i n d , h o w you e m p t y o u t and j u s t obey, obey, b e c a u s e w h o are y o u anyway? I r e m e m b e r l o o k i n g at my hands, then, o n t h e lawn, w i t h t h e c h e r r y trees all fluttery above. M y hands are like y o u r hands, three lifelines and tiny cross hatchings, a n d I said to myself, " W h a t w o u l d I n e e d to have w i t h i n me in order to d i s o b e y ? " I was skinny then, my hips sharp, my eyes shiny. I did w h a t I c o u l d to fit in. I always have. Z a p zap. I w a n t e d to k n o w w h a t it w o u l d take to c h a n g e m e , g r o w m e , up, away, a n e x o t i c tendril curling o f f the m a i n frame, no. No. S u c h a simple w o r d . So hard to h o l d in t h e m o u t h .

T H A T WAS Y E A R S ago, b u t still today I w a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d . E l m s says t o m e o v e r t h e p h o n e , " W e didn't find any s t r o n g stable p e r s o n ality traits in e i t h e r o b e d i e n t s or defiants," a n d I ask, " A r e t h e r e any subjects f r o m t h e M i l g r a m e x p e r i m e n t s I c a n speak t o , any that are still a l i v e ? " H e answers, " T h e archives are sealed until 2 0 7 5 . T h e n a m e s are c o n f i d e n t i a l . " I m a y be o b e d i e n t , b u t that d o e s n ' t stop me f r o m b e i n g nosy. I called this p e r s o n , that p e r s o n , w h o l e d m e t o this p e r s o n a n d that person. W e e k s w e n t by. I called priests and rabbis and M i l g r a m s c h o l ars, and d u r i n g this search I read, in s o m e r e f e r e n c e I c a n n o t r e l o c a t e , that o n e o f t h e defiant M i l g r a m v o l u n t e e r s later t u r n e d u p a t M y Lai and refused to s h o o t . I p i c t u r e d this m a n , n o w sixty, n o w seventy, l i v ing in a c l e a n s i m p l e h o u s e w i t h p o t s of basil by his front d o o r . I had t o find h i m . H e called.

PART

TWO:

THE

PEOPLE

I n e v e r saw t h e basil. I n e v e r saw his h o u s e . A n d he was n o t , it turns ° u t , t h e M y Lai m a n . B u t h e was, this s e v e n t y - e i g h t - y e a r - o l d n a m e d J o s h u a Chaffin, i n t h e M i l g r a m e x p e r i m e n t s way b a c k t h e n , a n d h e

was, h e p r o m i s e s m e , defiant. T h e f i r s t t h i n g h e says t o m e over t h e p h o n e is, " Y e a h , I was t h e r e . I was in that lab, and I o n l y w e n t to 1 5 0 volts. I f I'd g o n e any h i g h e r , b e l i e v e m e , I w o u l d n ' t b e talking t o y o u r i g h t n o w . T h a t w o u l d b e b e t w e e n m e a n d m y psychiatrist." A defiant s u b j e c t , a n d a funny o n e at that! E v e n b e f o r e I m e e t J o s h u a in p e r s o n , I c a n tell he's affable, a real s w e e t h e a r t , his v o i c e w i t h a slight yiddishy lilt, his eyes, w h i c h I c a n j u s t i m a g i n e , soft a n d sweater-gray. J o s h u a keeps me on t h e p h o n e for a l o n g , l o n g t i m e . It's as t h o u g h he's b e e n j u s t w a i t i n g for a r e p o r t e r to call a n d ask h i m a b o u t his f a t e ful role i n t h o s e l o n g - a g o , n o w m u c h - m a l i g n e d e x p e r i m e n t s . H e says, " Y o u y o u n g p e o p l e today j u s t d o n ' t have a n appreciation for h o w c o n v i n c i n g t h e situation was. I didn't d o u b t it for a m o m e n t . N e v e r crossed my m i n d it was a h o a x . T h e g e n e r a t o r had a g o l d plate on it that said ' M a d e i n W a l t h a m Massachusetts,' w h i c h i s j u s t t h e k i n d o f place e q u i p m e n t like that w o u l d b e m a d e , i f y o u see w h a t I m e a n . A n d i f y o u t h i n k t h e o b e d i e n c e h a d t o d o w i t h Y a l e , like Yale's p r e s tige, t h i n k again b e c a u s e M i l g r a m m o v e d his w h o l e act to a storefront in B r i d g e p o r t a n d p e o p l e still s h o c k e d . I s h o c k e d . I feel b a d a b o u t that. I s h o c k e d b u t I o n l y w e n t t o 1 5 0 , 1 b r o k e o f f a t 1 5 0 . " H e keeps repeating this, as t h o u g h to reassure himself, a n d it is strange h o w fresh the w h o l e t h i n g is in his m i n d — t h e lab, t h e b l u e stutters of sparks, the learner's screams, all perfectly preserved in t h e b o t t l e of this o l d man's body. He ages; t h e e x p e r i m e n t stays still in t i m e . W e m a k e a r r a n g e m e n t s t o m e e t . H e lives, still, i n N e w H a v e n , a n d m a n y days h e walks b y L i n s l y - C h i t t e n d e n H a l l . S o m e t i m e s h e e v e n g o e s d o w n to t h e b a s e m e n t , w h e r e it all t o o k p l a c e . " I t was a real mess t h e n , " J o s h u a says to m e , " b u t I c a n see t h e s c e n e j u s t perfectly as it was, this gray d o o r , a n d pipes. P i p e s e v e r y w h e r e . " I drive up to see h i m on a beautiful s u m m e r day. T h e air a n d sky are i n c r e d i b l y soft, a n d t h e gulls' screams have t h e saddest s o u n d . N e w H a v e n l o o k s vacant, e m p t i e d o f c o l l e g e students b u t littered w i t h mattresses a n d t r u n k s piled b y t h e c r u m b l i n g c u r b s . We m e e t at a restaurant. O u t s i d e t h e light is b r i g h t a n d b l i n d i n g .

A n d then there's the close dimness o f t h e interior, w h e r e candles flicker on tiny tables in a perpetual evening. E v e r y o n e here is old, and eating fish. J o s h u a , w h o has described h i m s e l f for m e , waits at a table way in the b a c k , w h e r e napkins are folded i n t o the shapes of swans. I sit. O u r f o o d c o m e s . J o s h u a forks u p a p i e c e o f b r e a d e d f i s h , pops i t i n his m o u t h , a n d c h e w s vigorously. " I was a n assistant professor o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l studies," J o s h u a says, " a n d I saw this ad, a n d I t h o u g h t , w h y n o t ? B a c k t h e n , four dollars was s o m e substantial s u m o f m o n e y , a n d I n e e d e d m o n e y . S o I did it." H e p r o c e e d s t o tell m e w h a t t h e " i t " c o n s i s t e d of, t h e s t o r y w e n o w already k n o w — h o w h e r u b b e d e l e c t r o d e paste o n t o t h e learner's skin, h o w h e heard t h e f i r s t g r u n t o f pain s o m e w h e r e a r o u n d 7 5 volts, h o w t h e grunts g o t l o u d e r , h o w t h e s c r e a m was sharp a n d c a m e crackling through the m i c r o p h o n e , h o w Joshua turned to the e x p e r i m e n t e r a n d said, " T h i s isn't right," a n d t h e d a m n e x p e r i m e n t e r , " T h e damn e x p e r i m e n t e r ! " J o s h u a says, little flakes o f f i s h flying f r o m his m o u t h , his l i v e r - s p o t t e d hands t r e m b l i n g w i t h t h e m e m o r y o f it, " T h e d a m n m a n tells m e t o c o n t i n u e . " " A n d y o u ? " I say, l e a n i n g forward, a l t h o u g h t o w a r d w h a t I am n o t sure. M o r a l i t y ? As t h o u g h that is a single c o n c r e t e c o n s t r u c t o n e c a n grasp. " I said t o that e x p e r i m e n t e r , ' N o . ' " I w a t c h J o s h u a ' s m o u t h as he f o r m s t h e w o r d no, t h e w o r d I have such trouble u t t e r i n g , t o n g u e to t h e p i n k palette, spit it o u t . No. " I said," repeats J o s h u a , " I said, ' I ' v e b e e n i n a f e w e x p e r i m e n t s before a n d this isn't right,' a n d I was g e t t i n g all w o u n d up, h e a r i n g the learner's screams a n d I was g e t t i n g sweaty a n d my h e a r t was o i n g really, really fast, so I s t o p p e d a n d I a n n o u n c e d , ' E n o u g h . ' " " A n d w h y did y o u d o t h a t ? " I say. " I m e a n , w h a t e n a b l e d y o u t o break off, w h e n s o m a n y o t h e r s c o u l d n ' t ? " I really w a n t to h e a r his answer. I have driven all these m i l e s to hear h o w a m a n m a k e s h i m s e l f a u t o n o m o u s . T o h e a r h o w a m a n s e v e

r s the strings that m a k e o u r lives a p e r f o r m a n c e o f pure puppetry.

J o s h u a is n o t a puppet. He m o v e s his o w n m u s c l e s .

J o s h u a dabs his m o u t h w i t h t h e starched w h i t e n a p k i n . H e pulls a t t h e napkin's p e a k , t h e swan collapses, a n d h e cleans his lips. H e l o o k s toward t h e c e i l i n g , pauses, and t h e n says, " I was w o r r i e d a b o u t m y heart." "About your heart?" I echo. " I was w o r r i e d , " J o s h u a says, l o w e r i n g his h e a d and l o o k i n g a t m e , " t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t was c a u s i n g me so m u c h stress that I m i g h t have a h e a r t attack, and also," he adds, almost as an a f t e r t h o u g h t , " a n d also, I didn't w a n t to h u r t a guy." I n o d . I t i s i m p o s s i b l e n o t t o n o t i c e that " t h e g u y " c a m e s e c o n d , J o s h u a ' s h e a r t first, a l t h o u g h w h o c o u l d b l a m e h i m ? Still, this was n o t t h e answer I was e x p e c t i n g from my m o r a l m a n . I was e x p e c t i n g something

coated

with Judeo-Christian

gloss,

something

high-

m i n d e d like, " T h e r e has always b e e n a d e e p e t h i c a l i m p e r a t i v e w i t h i n me to do unto my neighbor as . . . " N o s u c h l u c k . J o s h u a , i t turns o u t , was w o r r i e d a b o u t his heart, and his d e f i a n c e c a m e from this c o n c e r n , at least in his retrospective r e n d i t i o n . H e g o e s o n t o tell m e h o w after t h e e x p e r i m e n t h e was s o o u t r a g e d that t h e n e x t day he burst i n t o M i l g r a m ' s office at Y a l e and f o u n d t h e professor c a l m l y b e h i n d his desk, grading papers. J o s h u a said, " W h a t y o u are d o i n g i s w r o n g . W r o n g ! Y o u are upsetting naive s u b j e c t s . Y o u d o n ' t s c r e e n p e o p l e for m e d i c a l p r o b l e m s . Y o u c o u l d give s o m e o n e a heart attack, that e x p e r i m e n t ' s so stressful." Joshua

recalls

Milgram

looking

up

at

him. Milgram

seemed

u n p e r t u r b e d . H e said, " I a m sure w e will n o t b e g i v i n g any subjects heart attacks," a n d J o s h u a said, " Y o u almost gave m e o n e , " w h e r e o n t h e t w o h a d a l o n g talk. M i l g r a m essentially c a l m e d J o s h u a d o w n and praised h i m for his defiant p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d t h e n , b e f o r e he left, M i l g r a m said, " M r . Chaffin, I'd appreciate i t i f y o u , y o u k n o w , kept i t quiet." " K e p t w h a t q u i e t ? " J o s h u a said. " T h e e x p e r i m e n t , " M i l g r a m r e s p o n d e d . " W h a t it's really a b o u t . I ' m still testing subjects a n d I d o n ' t w a n t t h e m , obviously, t o k n o w we're l o o k i n g a t o b e d i e n c e , n o t l e a r n i n g . "

" W e l l , " J o s h u a says t o m e , " I t h o u g h t a b o u t that o n e f o r awhile, I m e a n , k e e p i n g it q u i e t . I t h o u g h t m a y b e I s h o u l d go to t h e p o l i c e . B e c a u s e I was really, really m a d . I t h o u g h t a b o u t it." " A n d did y o u ? " I

say, " g o t o t h e p o l i c e , o r o t h e r w i s e b l o w

Milgram's cover?" Chaffin's eyes flutter o h s o briefly. T h e w a i t e r c o m e s o v e r and whisks o u r plates away, so b e t w e e n us n o w t h e r e is j u s t a w h i t e e x p a n s e o f t a b l e c l o t h a n d a c a n d l e i n a p o o l o f w a x . " N o , " says Joshua. " N o w h a t ? " I say. " N o , I k e p t t h e real n a t u r e of t h e e x p e r i m e n t s a secret," says J o s h u a . "I didn't tell on M i l g r a m . " I t h i n k it o d d , h o w he is so p r o u d o f defying M i l g r a m , w h e n a t s o m e o t h e r , larger level, h e o b e y e d M i l g r a m ' s m o s t essential m a n d a t e . A n d n o w m y eyes flutter, f o r i t i s confusing, t h e m o r a l c e n t e r I c a n n o t find. I find, instead, a regular, c h a r m i n g , c o n t r a d i c t o r y , c o m p l e x m a n w i t h liver spots o n his hands.

I A S K | O S H U A a b o u t his life. T h e surprises k e e p t u m b l i n g o u t . T h e r e i s absolutely n o t h i n g t o suggest that J o s h u a ' s defiant l a b o r a t o r y b e h a v i o r c a r r i e d o v e r in any way to his c h o i c e s outside t h e lab. A c o r p o r a t e m a n , h e s p e n t m a n y years w o r k i n g for E x x o n . H e calls environmentalists " t r e e h u g g e r s . " A t age t w e n t y - f i v e h e j o i n e d t h e service and was s h i p p e d t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . " I was a n e x c e l l e n t s o l dier," J o s h u a says. " W e t o o k t h o s e S O B J a p s a n d l o c k e d t h e m up." " D i d y o u kill a n y b o d y i n t h e w a r ? " I ask. " I t was W o r l d W a r I I , " says J o s h u a . " I t was a different k i n d o f war." " I k n o w , " I say. B u t t h e S O B c o m m e n t , t h e c a g i n g o f J a p s , t h e tree buggers, t h e m i l i t a r y m a n , t h e c h o i c e t o k e e p M i l g r a m ' s c o v e r — i t j u s t doesn't f i t w i t h t h e o t h e r w i s e l o w - v o l t a g e b e h a v i o r Chaffin seems so p r o u d of. ' D i d y o u kill a n y b o d y in t h e w a r ? " I ask again, a n d as I do, I recall Elms's c o m m e n t s , that o b e d i e n t s a l m o s t always s h o t a t p e o p l e d u r i n g military s e r v i c e , defiants hardly ever.

" I d o n ' t k n o w , " says J o s h u a . H e shifts u n c o m f o r t a b l y . " D i d y o u d o a n y t h i n g i n t h e w a r y o u w i s h e d y o u h a d n ' t ? " I ask. "I d o n ' t k n o w , " says J o s h u a . "I . . . W a i t e r ! " he says, " I ' d l i k e s o m e c o f f e e , " and s o t h e n c o m e s c o f f e e , a n d c r e m e b r u l e e , w h i c h h e eats t o o fast, his m o u t h full o f sugar, a n d s i l e n c e .

I C A L L E L M S . " S o , " I say,"I f o u n d a defiant s u b j e c t a n d it t u r n s o u t h e talks a b o u t l o c k i n g u p S O B J a p s a n d b e i n g a g o o d soldier, a n d o v e r r i d i n g his o w n values t o k e e p M i l g r a m ' s c o v e r " a n d E l m s , w h o s e v o i c e today s o u n d s m o r e tired t h a n ever, says, " W e l l , h o w p e o p l e act i n o n e situation i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h o w t h e y a c t i n a n o t h e r . " I speak t o a f e w o t h e r social p s y c h o l o g i s t s w h o r e p e a t that s a m e idea t o m e , using phrases l i k e " l a c k o f cross-situational c o n s i s t e n c y . " L e e R o s s says, " C h a f f i n j u s t proves that it's n o t p e r s o n a l i t y that defines b e h a v ior, it's situation," but, frankly, that c o m m e n t s e e m s e n t i r e l y u n i l l u m i n a t i n g . T o say that C h a f f i n b e h a v e d defiantly i n o n e situation a n d o b e d i e n t l y i n a n o t h e r s i m p l y b e c a u s e p e o p l e are a h o d g e p o d g e o f u n p r e d i c t a b l e responses is a p r e t t y p i s s - p o o r e x p l a n a t o r y m o d e l , a n d I ' m n o t g o i n g t o a c c e p t it. Chaffin's case i n n o w a y proves that t h e r e are no p e r s o n a l i t y traits associated w i t h d e f i a n c e a n d its o p p o s i t e , o b e d i e n c e , b u t w h a t i t d o e s prove, i f a s a m p l e size o f o n e c o u l d ever prove a n y t h i n g , is that h o w a s u b j e c t acts in t h e l a b o r a t o r y d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y g e n e r a l i z e t o h o w h e o r she will act i n situations o u t s i d e t h e laboratory, w h i c h is a w h o l e different issue. T h i s issue, c a l l e d e x t e r n a l validity i n t h e f i e l d o f p s y c h o l o g y , and b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d as generalizability, presents a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m for laboratory psychology. F o r what g o o d does it do to demonstrate findings that c a n n o t b e r e p l i c a t e d o u t s i d e t h e c l e a n w h i t e walls o f a d e c i d e d l y small scientific r o o m ? P i c t u r e a scientist d i s c o v e r i n g a n e w a n t i b i o t i c that w o r k s a m a z i n g l y w e l l o n m a l e rats i n s u p e r - s t e r i l i z e d cages w i t h o n e testicle only. T h a t d i s c o v e r y lacks e x t e r n a l validity, for m o s t m e n have t w o testicles and, as a g e n e r a l rule, k e e p t h e i r l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s less t h a n sterile.

Q u e s t i o n s o f e x t e r n a l validity have plagued t h e M i l g r a m e x p e r i ments from their very i n c e p t i o n . P e o p l e have criticized the e x p e r i m e n t s for c r e a t i n g a situation that lacks any m u n d a n e realism, m e a n i n g a situ a t i o n s o u n l i k e t h e conflicts o f real life that t h e h u m a n drama i t portrays is, i n fact, irrelevant t o t h e w o r l d i n w h i c h w e live. W h i l e t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c seized on t h e findings w i t h f e r v o r — g o i n g so far as to publish t h e m in t h e New York Times, " 6 5 % in Test B l i n d l y O b e y O r d e r s t o Inflict Pain," and t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e m i n t o a n A B C t e l e vised m o v i e called The Tenth Level, s t a r r i n g W i l l i a m S h a t n e r as t h e w i r y - h a i r e d , slightly m a d M i l g r a m — t h e smaller c i r c l e o f p s y c h o l o g y looked askance at the e x p e r i m e n t . Scholar B e r n i e M i x o n claimed that M i l g r a m had n o t necessarily studied o b e d i e n c e at all; rather, he had studied trust, for t h e s u b j e c t s that had " g o n e all t h e w a y " had every reason t o b e l i e v e i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s g o o d w i l l . Still o t h e r s q u i b b l e w i t h t h e trust hypothesis, and say, n o , it's n o t trust that M i l g r a m studied; w h a t he did is create this entirely staged situation that tells us little a b o u t t h e d e c i d e d l y unstaged lives in w h i c h we find ourselves. S o m e say t h e M i l g r a m e x p e r i m e n t " d o e s n o t h i n g b u t i l l u m i n a t e itself," w h i c h i s harsh c r i t i c i s m , essentially casting t h e c o m p l e x setup as a p i e c e of solipsistic t h e a t e r that k e e p s e y e i n g its o w n m a c h i n a t i o n s and m u r m u r i n g , i n t h e words o f H e n d e r i k u s S t a m , " A r e n ' t w e c l e v e r ? " Ian Parker, w h o w r o t e a b o u t t h e e x p e r i m e n t s for Granta m a g a z i n e , eventually dismisses t h e m as a p i e c e of t r a g i c o m i c theater, a v i e w that t h e distinguished s c h o l a r E d w a r d E . J o n e s u p h e l d earlier w h e n h e r e j e c t e d M i l g r a m ' s first o b e d i e n c e p a p e r for his j o u r nal b e c a u s e " w e are led t o n o c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t o b e d i e n c e , really, b u t rather are e x h o r t e d t o b e impressed w i t h t h e p o w e r o f y o u r situation as an i n f l u e n c e c o n t e x t . " One

of the

most vocal

Milgram

detractors

is

Daniel Jonah

G o l d h a g e n , a f o r m e r professor a t H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y and a u t h o r o f the b o o k Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. G o l d h a g e n has serious d o u b t s a b o u t b o t h t h e generalizability o f M i l g r a m ' s specific o b e d i e n c e e x p e r i m e n t and t h e resulting o b e d i e n c e p a r a d i g m a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n for w h y g e n o c i d e s o c c u r . " T h e

M i l g r a m e x p e r i m e n t m a k e s m o r e m i s t a k e n assumptions a b o u t t h e Holocaust

than

just

about

anything

else

ever

published,"

says

G o l d h a g e n . " H i s o b e d i e n c e t h e o r i e s j u s t d o n ' t apply. P e o p l e d i s o b e y c r e d i b l e a u t h o r i t i e s all t h e t i m e . T h e A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t says x . W e d o y . E v e n i n t h e m e d i c a l w o r l d w h e r e p e o p l e assume b e n i g n m o t i v e s o n t h e parts o f t h e i r physicians, patients still all t h e t i m e n e g l e c t t o f o l l o w orders. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e situation M i l g r a m set up, w h e r e subjects didn't have a n y t i m e t o reflect o n w h a t t h e y w e r e d o i n g , i s n o t h o w t h e real w o r l d w o r k s . I n t h e real w o r l d , S S officers w e r e killing d u r i n g t h e day a n d g o i n g h o m e t o t h e i r families a t night. I n t h e real w o r l d , p e o p l e have p l e n t y o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o alter t h e i r c o u r s e o f b e h a v i o r . W h e n t h e y d o n ' t , it's n o t b e c a u s e t h e y ' r e scared o f authority, b u t b e c a u s e t h e y c h o o s e n o t to. T h e M i l g r a m e x p e r i m e n t s illustrate n o t h i n g a b o u t this f a c t o r o f c h o i c e . " W e l l , this i s a m o u t h f u l . A n d m u c h o f i t was hard for M i l g r a m t o take, o n t h e o n e hand, b u t o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t was fun. H e g o t a l o t o f a t t e n t i o n . S c h o l a r s p u z z l e d o v e r t h e m e a n i n g o f his d a r k - h e a r t e d w h i t e - w a l l e d lab w h i l e P e t e r G a b r i e l c o m p o s e d a s o n g for M i l g r a m called " W e D o W h a t W e ' r e T o l d . "

N O O N E , H O W E V E R , c o u l d tell j u s t w h a t t h e M i l g r a m e x p e r i m e n t s meant, what they measured or predicted, or h o w m u c h meaning to a s c r i b e t o t h e i r findings. W a s i t o b e d i e n c e , trust, e x t e r n a l c o m p u l s i o n , o r s o m e t h i n g else? " R e a l l y , " says L e e R o s s , " t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t s , w h a t , exactly, t h e y i l l u m i n a t e a b o u t h u m a n b e i n g s i s profoundly mysterious." Meanwhile,

alongside

the

methodological

critiques

that

were

t u m b l i n g in, a n o t h e r sort o f fervor was b r e w i n g . M i l g r a m published his findings i n 1 9 6 3 . I n 1 9 6 4 D i a n a B a u m r i n d , a c h i l d psychologist, published i n t h e f i e l d ' s leading j o u r n a l a severe r e p r i m a n d o f M i l g r a m on

ethical

grounds; he

had

deceived

his

subjects, failed

to

get

i n f o r m e d c o n s e n t , a n d caused t r a u m a . A c o l l e a g u e at Yale t i p p e d o f f the A m e r i c a n Psychological Association and Milgram's m e m b e r s h i p

application was u p h e l d for a year, w h i l e he was investigated. " Y o u have t o understand," says L e e R o s s , " t h i s w h o l e e t h i c a l t h i n g was h a p p e n i n g i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s , t h e 1 9 6 0 s , " h e repeats, " w h e n p e o p l e w e r e p r i m e d f o r it. T h e T u s k e g e e e x p e r i m e n t o f w i t h h o l d i n g t r e a t m e n t for syphilitic b l a c k m e n h a d j u s t c o m e t o press, a n d t h e h o r r i b l e N a z i e x p e r i m e n t s , a n d t h e g e n e r a l a n t i - s c i e n t i s m ; it was in this light that M i l g r a m was investigated." Investigated h e was. H e l d u n d e r t h e b r i g h t l a b o r a t o r y lights o f his colleagues a n d f o u n d w a n t i n g . H e s q u i r m e d and struggled. A t parties, p e o p l e r e c o i l e d w h e n t h e y heard w h o h e was. B r u n o B e t t e l h e i m , paragon o f h u m a n i s m , called M i l g r a m ' s w o r k vile. W h e n i t c a m e t i m e for t e n u r e , M i l g r a m was

d e n i e d t h e ivy halls

of Yale

and

Harvard; " W h o w o u l d have h i m ? " says his w i d o w M r s . M i l g r a m . " I n those days y o u n e e d e d to have u n a n i m o u s approval for a t e n u r e c a n didate and S t a n l e y was so controversial." Stanley, it s e e m s , w a n t e d it b o t h ways: he w a n t e d to be a m a v e r i c k and h e w a n t e d a c c e p t a n c e ; h e w a n t e d t o s h o c k t h e w o r l d a n d t h e n be taken in to its f o r g i v i n g e m b r a c e . U n i v e r s i t y after university t u r n e d h i m d o w n . H e — n o t his s u b j e c t s , n o t J o s h u a , b u t h e , S t a n l e y M i l g r a m — b e g a n t o have h e a r t troubles. T h e t h i c k b l u e aortal s t e m got c l o g g e d w i t h grease; t h e flap m u s c l e s faltered. A t t h i r t y - o n e h e was h i r e d b y t h e C i t y C o l l e g e o f N e w Y o r k a s a full professor, n o t a bad m o v e for s u c h a y o u n g m a n , b u t at t h i r t y - e i g h t he h a d already suffered t h e f i r s t o f f i v e m y o c a r d i a l infarctions, his h a n d g o i n g u p t o his c l o s i n g throat, a s h o o t i n g a c h e in t h e shoulder, k n e e s b u c k l i n g under, revived, revived again, e a c h t i m e t h e p u m p a little w e a k e r . W h a t killed S t a n l e y M i l g r a m i s w h a t kills all o f us: life itself. T h e wear and tear, t h e t a m p o f t i m e , t h e i n e v i t a b l e d e c a y e g g e d o n b y t o o m a n y eggs, t o o m u c h m e a t a n d fear a n d loss. H e h a d a l o t o f loss: t h e loss of his father at a y o u n g age, a m a n w h o l o o k e d j u s t like h i m and a s a b a k e r a n d e v e r y m o r n i n g c a m e h o m e w i t h t w o challas, t h e i r 'ps braided a n d b u t t e r e d . He lost his father, a n d t h e n he lost t h e prestige o f I v y L e a g u e t e n u r e , a n d t h e n h e lost a n u n v a r n i s h e d r e p u tation as he was attacked, and a t t a c k e d again, for his i n h u m a n e l a b o -

r a t o r y p r a c t i c e s . " I t was awful for Stanley. J u s t awful," says M r s . M i l g r a m . I press h e r t o say m o r e , b u t she w o n ' t . I n 1 9 8 4 , w h e n h e was f i f t y - o n e years old, he felt a wave of nausea w h i l e listening to a student's dissertation defense. " H e hadn't e a t e n l u n c h that day," says M r s . M i l g r a m , " I ' m j u s t sure o f it, and h e h a d a real w o m e n ' s l i b b e r for a n office assistant. S h e w o u l d n ' t e v e n g e t h i m a glass o f w a t e r i f h e asked," a n d so he sat there, p a r c h e d a n d n a u s e o u s . H i s g o o d friend I r w i n K a t z a c c o m p a n i e d h i m h o m e o n t h e subway, and M i l g r a m must have felt h o w t h e steady r h y t h m o f t h e rails c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e flopping o f his o w n starving h e a r t . A l e x a n d r a M i l g r a m p i c k e d h e r h u s b a n d u p a t t h e train station a n d drove h i m r i g h t t o t h e e m e r g e n c y r o o m . H e was still w a l k i n g a t that p o i n t . H e was pale i n t h e face, and his hands s h o o k . H e w e n t straight t o t h e nurse's station a n d said, " M y n a m e is S t a n l e y M i l g r a m a n d I am h a v i n g my fifth h e a r t attack," and t h e n h e d r o p p e d t o his k n e e s . " H e was g o n e , " M r s . M i l g r a m e x p l a i n e d t o m e , taken t o a n o t h e r r o o m , w h e r e his shirt was r i p p e d o p e n a n d suckers, electrodes, and paste w e r e pressed o n t o his chest. The experiment requires that you continue, continue, continue. T h e y s h o c k e d h i m o n c e , t w i c e , w h o k n o w s h o w often his b o d y rose i n t o t h e air, flailing like a fish's, shock shock, t h e b l a c k cardiac cuffs b e a t i n g d o w n . B u t h e was g o n e , and c o u l d n o t b e s h o c k e d b a c k i n t o b e i n g .

H I S N A M E IS not J a c o b P l u m f i e l d ; he does not have b l u e eyes or live i n a part o f B o s t o n called J a m a i c a P l a i n . H e i s n o t s e v e n t y - n i n e , b u t he is s o m e w h e r e n e a r t h e r e . I w i l l give h i m a b e a r d , I t h i n k , silverw h i t e stubble, a n d I w i l l say, for t h e sake of t h e story, that his lover's name is J i m . J a c o b P l u m f i e l d will speak w i t h m e o n t h e c o n d i t i o n o f o n e h u n dred p e r c e n t a n o n y m i t y . H e was i n t h e M i l g r a m e x p e r i m e n t s and, u n l i k e J o s h u a , was o b e d i e n t t o t h e e n d o f t h e s h o c k b o a r d . H e says his hands still h u r t w i t h w h a t he did. P e o p l e q u e s t i o n w h a t M i l g r a m c r e a t e d : a false situation, an u n e t h ical situation. O n e t h i n g is for sure: his situation m a d e s o m e powerful

m e m o r i e s , for b o t h J o s h u a a n d J a c o b speak o f i t a s t h o u g h i t w e r e yesterday, t h e i r eyes i g n i t e d . If t h e l a b o r a t o r y is n o t a real situation, as m a n y M i l g r a m c r i t i c s have c i t e d , t h e n w h y o r h o w has i t m a n a g e d t o stamp i t s e l f so solidly i n t o these m e n ' s u n d e n i a b l y real lives, to take up r e s i d e n c e alongside anniversaries, children's b i r t h s , first sex? " I was t w e n t y - t h r e e , " says J a c o b , " a p o s t d o c . " H e g o e s o n t o tell m e a tale w i t h O s c a r W i l d e flourishes. He was h a v i n g a secret affair w i t h a r o o m m a t e , struggling w i t h a b u r g e o n i n g h o m o s e x u a l identity. " I n high s c h o o l and c o l l e g e I'd d o n e e v e r y t h i n g to fit in," says J a c o b . " E v e r y t h i n g ! I was t h e g o l d e n boy. I g o t great grades. I h a d a g o r geous girlfriend. All t h e w h i l e , t h o u g h , I k e p t l o o k i n g at b o y s ' b a c k s w h e n w e w e n t s w i m m i n g , t h e i r b a c k s . I d o n ' t k n o w why." Finally, in his p o s t d o c year, J a c o b a c t e d on his i m p u l s e , falling in love w i t h a n d c o n s u m m a t i n g a relationship w i t h his r o o m m a t e , w h o , i t t u r n e d o u t , was j u s t e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h h o m o s e x u a l i t y a n d s o o n left h i m for a girl. B u t J a c o b r e m e m b e r s t h o s e nights o f l o v e m a k i n g , the r o o m h o t , t h e s u c k i n g sounds o f t h e i r p u d d l e d chests c o m i n g together, t h e u n b e a r a b l e e x c i t e m e n t . A n d t h e n , t h e suite m a t e left h i m for a girl, and J a c o b was devastated. "I felt it in my body, t h e shame o f b e i n g gay. W h y c o u l d n ' t I like a g i r l ? " H e m a s t u r b a t e d compulsively, p i c t u r i n g "awful things." A n d t h e n h e saw t h e ad. H e answered it. " G o d k n o w s why," h e says t o m e . H e w e n t t o M i l g r a m ' s lab t h r e e days after t h e b r e a k u p , his appendages h u r t i n g a n d bruised, s e m e n - s t i c k y hands, a n d w h e n t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r said, " T h e r e will b e n o p e r m a n e n t tissue d a m a g e , please c o n t i n u e . . . " " W e l l , " says J a c o b , "I j u s t c o n t i n u e d . I was so depressed I a l m o s t didn't care, a n d I was t h i n k i n g , ' N o p e r m a n e n t tissue d a m a g e , he's g o t be right, I pray he's r i g h t , I d o n ' t w a n t any p e r m a n e n t tissue d a m e, do / have p e r m a n e n t tissue d a m a g e ? ' " He d e s c r i b e s a s c e n e h e r e t h e screams o f t h e l e a r n e r m e r g e d w i t h his o w n self-loathing, a j o i n t pain, a n d up he w e n t , utterly w i t h o u t a c e n t e r , h a v i n g spurted it all o u t in s e c r e t s h a m e s . "Afterwards,"

said J a c o b , " w h e n

I

was

debriefed

afterwards,

explained w h a t had h a p p e n e d , I was h o r r i f i e d . R e a l l y , really h o r r i -

f i e d . T h e y k e p t saying, ' Y o u didn't h u r t a n y o n e , d o n ' t w o r r y , y o u didn't h u r t anyone,' b u t it's t o o late for that. Y o u c a n never," says J a c o b , "really d e b r i e f a s u b j e c t after an e x p e r i m e n t like that. Y o u ' v e g i v e n s h o c k s . Y o u t h o u g h t y o u w e r e really g i v i n g s h o c k s , and n o t h i n g can take away from y o u t h e k n o w l e d g e o f h o w y o u a c t e d . T h e r e ' s n o turning back." I recall, w h i l e s p e a k i n g w i t h J a c o b , t h e words o f B o s t o n C o l l e g e s o c i o l o g y professor D a v i d K a r p , w h o said t o m e , "Just i m a g i n e w h a t it must be like for t h o s e subjects, to have to live t h e i r w h o l e lives k n o w i n g w h a t t h e y w e r e capable o f . . . " " S o , " I say t o J a c o b , " I w o u l d guess y o u t h i n k t h e e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e essentially u n e t h i c a l , that t h e y c a u s e d y o u h a r m . " J a c o b pauses. H e strokes his d o g . " N o , " h e says. " N o t a t all. I f a n y thing, just the opposite." I l o o k at h i m . " T h e e x p e r i m e n t s , " h e c o n t i n u e s , " c a u s e d m e t o reevaluate m y life. T h e y c a u s e d m e t o c o n f r o n t m y o w n c o m p l i a n c e a n d really struggle w i t h it. I b e g a n to see c l o s e t e d h o m o s e x u a l i t y , w h i c h is j u s t a n o t h e r f o r m of c o m p l i a n c e , as a m o r a l issue. I c a m e o u t . I saw h o w essential it was to develop a strong m o r a l c e n t e r . I felt my o w n m o r a l w e a k n e s s a n d I was appalled, so I w e n t to t h e e t h i c a l g y m , if y o u see what I mean." I n o d . I see w h a t he m e a n s . "I c a m e o u t , " he says, " a n d that t o o k a l o t o f strength a n d built a l o t o f strength, a n d I saw h o w pathetically v u l n e r a b l e I was to authority, so I k e p t a strict eye on m y s e l f and l e a r n e d to b u c k e x p e c t a t i o n s . I w e n t f r o m b e i n g a g o o d y - t w o - s h o e s g o l d e n b o y w i t h a d e e p s e c r e t h e a d e d straight for m e d i c a l s c h o o l , to a gay activist t e a c h i n g i n n e r - c i t y kids. A n d I credit M i l g r a m w i t h g a l v a n i z i n g this." A r g o t , t h e d o g , has laid his w e t n o s e i n J a c o b ' s lap. J a c o b strokes and strokes t h e snout. T h e r o o m we are in has a bay w i n d o w , a m a p l e floor, a b u i l t - i n h u t c h w i t h a silver clasp. It's a lovely, peaceful r o o m . I c o u l d sleep in a r o o m like this. So m u c h has b e e n settled, stilled, in a r o o m like this. It is p a i n t e d w h i t e , w i t h w h i t e sailcloth curtains a n d a

passionflower plant o n t h e w i n d o w s i l l . J a c o b lives simply. N e a r i n g t h e e n d o f his life, h e has m i n i m a l m o n e y saved, a l t h o u g h his l o n g - t e r m partner, J i m , a lawyer, has m o r e . J a c o b shows m e t h e first p i n k t r i a n gle h e ever p r o u d l y w o r e . E v e r y w h e r e y o u l o o k i n this c o n d o m i n i u m , y o u can see signs o f J a c o b ' s alternative l i f e — t h e i n n e r - c i t y t e a c h i n g awards, t h e active resistance t o m a t e r i a l g o o d s . H e , t h e o b e d i e n t o n e , has lived b y far the m o r e defiant lifestyle than J o s h u a , t h e defiant o n e , w h o w o r k e d a s a t o p officer for E x x o n , and t h e n t h e army. S o w h a t are w e left w i t h ? A g a i n , q u e s t i o n s o f validity, for i f t h e e x p e r i m e n t d o e s little to predict h o w a man's c h o i c e s in t h e lab will translate i n t o c h o i c e s outside t h e lab, and i f w e a c c e p t p r e d i c t i o n , and generalizability, a s o n e o f t h e m a i n goals o f a scientific e x p e r i m e n t , t h e n , i n d e e d , are n o t M i l g r a m ' s critics r i g h t ? D o u g l a s M o o k , a social scientist, w r o t e a n article called " I n D e f e n s e o f E x t e r n a l Invalidity," i n w h i c h h e q u e s t i o n s t h e w h o l e n o t i o n o f using generalizability a s a n i n d i c a t o r o f a n e x p e r i m e n t ' s worthiness. " U n l e s s a researcher's p u r p o s e is of a specifically applied nature . . . t h e representativeness o f t h e l a b o r a t o r y i n t e r m s o f m u n dane realism m a y b e irrelevant." I n o t h e r words, i f y o u d o n ' t plan o n using y o u r findings i n t h e real w o r l d , t h e n w h o cares w h e t h e r o r n o t the findings are relevant to it. W e l l , I guess that's okay. B u t w h e r e , in terms o f t h e m y s t e r i o u s M i l g r a m e x p e r i m e n t s , does a n a r g u m e n t like M o o k ' s actually leave us? A p e r s o n , say, a c r i t i c , c o m e s to an e x p e r i m e n t t h e s a m e way a reader c o m e s to a n o v e l ; t h e r e are similar a e s thetic

demands

learned. Y o u

in

terms

cannot close

o f structure, p a c i n g , revelation, lesson The Brothers Karamazov and say, " V e r y

interesting, a l t h o u g h I've n o idea w h a t i t was a b o u t , " b e c a u s e y o u j u s t can't. A p i e c e o f literature m a k e s its way i n t o c a n o n based largely o n the m e a n i n g it imparts in o u r lives. M i l g r a m ' s e x p e r i m e n t s are i n d i s putably i n t h e c a n o n . A n d yet, n o o n e can agree o n t h e t h e m e — a story o f o b e d i e n c e ? N o . A s t o r y o f trust? N o . A p i e c e o f t r a g i c o m i c theater? N o . A n e x a m p l e o f e t h i c a l w r o n g d o i n g ? N o . W h a t message has M i l g r a m sent us, i n w h a t sort o f b o t t l e , o n w h i c h sea?

Perhaps t h e best t h i n g t o do, t h e n , i s t o t u r n t o t h e subjects t h e m selves, for t h e y are, m o r e than even M i l g r a m , t h e bearers o f his b a d o r g o o d n e w s . A n d w h e n y o u d o that, w h e n y o u turn t o t h e subjects a n d ask, " W h a t was this all a b o u t for y o u ? " y o u start to h e a r a similar story that m a y finally pull t h e c o n f l i c t i n g threads t o g e t h e r : D i d h e m e a s u r e o b e d i e n c e or trust? Was his situation real or false? D i d his subjects k n o w i t was a h o a x o r w e r e t h e y f o o l e d ? Was this t h e w o r k o f a n i m p o r a scientist? D o e s generalizability m a t t e r o r n o t ? Says J a c o b , " T h e e x p e r i m e n t c h a n g e d m y life, caused m e t o live less a c c o r d i n g t o authority." H a r o l d T a k o o s h i a n , a f o r m e r student o f M i l g r a m ' s and a professor at F o r d h a m University, recalls a b i n d e r of letters o n M i l g r a m ' s desk: " I t was a b i g b l a c k b i n d e r filled w i t h h u n dreds o f letters from subjects, and many, m a n y o f t h e letters said h o w m u c h t h e o b e d i e n c e e x p e r i m e n t s h a d taught t h e m a b o u t life, a n d h o w t o live it." S u b j e c t s c l a i m e d t h e e x p e r i m e n t c a u s e d t h e m t o r e t h i n k t h e i r relationship t o a u t h o r i t y a n d responsibility; o n e y o u n g m a n e v e n said that as a result of his p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e M i l g r a m e x p e r i m e n t s , h e b e c a m e a c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t o r i n t h e war. So this, perhaps, is w h a t w e ' r e left w i t h : an e x p e r i m e n t that derives its significance n o t from its quantifiable findings, b u t from its p e d a gogical power. Milgram's o b e d i e n c e

experiments

had the

ironic

effect o f m a k i n g his subjects, a t least s o m e o f t h e m , less o b e d i e n t . A n d that i s pretty s t u n n i n g — a n e x p e r i m e n t s o p o t e n t i t does n o t d e s c r i b e o r d e m o n s t r a t e , s o m u c h a s d e t o n a t e , a k i n d o f social p s y c h o l o g y e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e a t o m b o m b , o n l y this t i m e i n t h e s e r v i c e o f c r e a t i o n , n o t d e s t r u c t i o n , for a s M i l g r a m h i m s e l f said, " F r o m these e x p e r i m e n t s c o m e s awareness a n d that m a y b e t h e first step towards change." A s for t h e p e r s o n a l i t y variables associated w i t h o b e d i e n c e a n d defiance, I c a n n o t l o c a t e t h e m , m u c h , I ' m sure, t o t h e social p s y c h o l ogists' glee. N e v e r t h e l e s s , I b e l i e v e t h e y are t h e r e , for we are n o t s i m ply t h e situations in w h i c h we find ourselves. M i l g r a m , h i m s e l f a great b e l i e v e r i n t h e p o w e r o f t h e situation, w e n t l o o k i n g for t r a i t s — so h o w great a b e l i e v e r was h e ? — a n d he w r o t e in an often o v e r -

l o o k e d s t a t e m e n t , "I am c e r t a i n t h e r e is a c o m p l e x p e r s o n a l i t y basis t o o b e d i e n c e a n d d i s o b e d i e n c e . B u t I k n o w w e have n o t f o u n d it." B u t I r e m e m b e r on that late spring day at B r a n d e i s , w h e n I first heard o f t h e M i l g r a m e x p e r i m e n t s , h o w I felt a s h o c k o f r e c o g n i t i o n , and t h e i m m e d i a t e k n o w l e d g e that I c o u l d do such a thing, unsteady as I a m . A n d I k n e w I c o u l d do s u c h a thing, n o t b e c a u s e s o m e strange set o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s p r o p e l l e d m e to, n o . T h e i m p e t u s lay w i t h i n m e , like a little h o t spot. It was n o t e x t e r n a l . It was i n t e r n a l . A little h o t spot. U p t h e s h o c k b o a r d . H o w often had I , have you, heard a racial slur a n d said n o t h i n g in o r d e r to k e e p t h e p e a c e ? H o w often have I, have you, seen s o m e t h i n g w r o n g at w o r k , m a y b e a mistreated c o l l e a g u e , a n d d o n e n o t h i n g s o y o u r o w n j o b stays steady? T h e little h o t spot travels inside us. C e r t a i n situations m a y m a k e it g l o w b r i g h t e r , and o t h e r s d i m m e r , b u t t h e m o r a l failing that lies at t h e heart o f s o m a n y h u m a n s , well, t h e r e i t lies, a t t h e heart, w h i c h c a n n o t , after i t has failed o n e t o o m a n y t i m e s , b e s h o c k e d b a c k i n t o b e i n g . I feel my o w n heart, c l i p p e t y c l o p , a n d I see my o w n hands, and I'd like t o t h i n k , n o w that I've m a d e s u c h a n i n t i m a t e a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h M r . M i l g r a m , w i t h J o s h u a and J a c o b a n d y o u , yes you, I'd like to t h i n k I'd do t h e d a n c e a little differently w h e n my n u m b e r is called. I l o o k at my hands, h e r e , on this m i d s u m m e r day, a n d I see h o w t h e lines g o e v e r y w h i c h way, u p a n d d o w n , g o o d a n d b a d — there is no way to k n o w for sure. S i x t y - f i v e p e r c e n t did. T h i r t y - f i v e p e r c e n t didn't. A n d t h e n t h e g o o d are b a d a n d t h e b a d are g o o d . It's all m i x e d up. M y hands hurt, a n d are h u g e w i t h possibility. N o w i t i s evening. M y t w o - y e a r - o l d d a u g h t e r has l e a r n e d a n e w w o r d i n Spanish. "Obscura!

Obscura!" she

keeps s h o u t i n g , w h i c h she says

m e a n s "darker! darker!" S h e c o m e s u p t o m e , and w i t h m y hands, m y hugely possible hands, I h o l d her.

3 On Being Sane in Insane Places E X P E R I M E N T I N G P S Y C H I A T R I C

WITH

D I A G N O S I S

In the early 1970s, David Rosenhan decided to test how well psychiatrists were able to distinguish the "sane" from the "insane." Psychiatry as a field is, of course, predicated on the belief that its own professionals know how to reliably diagnose aberrant mental conditions and to make judgments based on those diagnoses about a person's social suitability—performance as a parent, parolee's flight risk, prisoner's ability to be reformed. Rosenhan was conscious and critical of the huge amount of social control psychiatrists had, so he devised an experiment to test whether their actual skills were on par with their power. He recruited eight other people, and together they faked their way into various mental institutions, and then once in the ward, they acted completely normally. The goal: to see whether the psychiatrists would detect their sanity, or whether the psychiatrists' judgments would be clouded by presuppositions (i.e., if the patient is there, labeled a patient, then he must be crazy). Rosenhan's experiment elegantly explores the way the world is always warped by the lens we are looking through. His experiment implies we are inextricably immanent, suffused with subjectivity, and as such, it adds as much to the literature of philosophy as it does to psychology and psychiatry.

H

e lost his wife. He lost his daughter. He lost his m i n d to a

series o f small strokes and n o w D a v i d R o s e n h a n , Stanford

professor e m e r i t u s o f l a w a n d p s y c h o l o g y , n o w h e can barely b r e a t h e . H e was standing a f e w m o n t h s a g o i n his Palo A l t o k i t c h e n w h e n h e first felt it, a rising n u m b n e s s in his legs. By t h e t i m e he g o t to the e m e r g e n c y r o o m , his legs w e r e g o n e , and t h e n his arms, a n d t h e n his torso, and t h e n , at last, his lungs. D o c t o r s , confused, c o u l d n o t d e t e r mine

e x a c t l y w h a t was ailing this r e n e g a d e researcher, o n e w h o

devoted t h e b e t t e r part o f his c a r e e r t o the dismantling o f psychiatric diagnosis. N o w h e r e h e was, a diagnostic q u e s t i o n himself. R o s e n h a n ' s face froze. A s o f this w r i t i n g , h e still c a n n o t say m a n y w o r d s . H i s silence is a h o l e in t h e s t o r y that follows, a story i t s e l f a b o u t h o l e s and how, i n a series o f s t u n n i n g e x p e r i m e n t s , R o s e n h a n f o u n d t h e m i n w h a t w e t h o u g h t was t h e f i r m field o f psychiatry.

I T WAS 1 9 7 2 .

S p i r o A g n e w had j u s t resigned. T h o m a s Sasz had

w r i t t e n The Myth of Mental Illness. R. D. L a n g had c h a l l e n g e d p s y c h i atrists to r e t h i n k s c h i z o p h r e n i a as a f o r m of possible poetry. O n l y recently, flags had w a v e d o n t h e snouts o f guns, signaling cease-fire i n Vietnam. R o s e n h a n , a newly minted psychologist with a j o i n t degree i n law, did n o t g o t o V i e t n a m , b u t a c c o r d i n g t o o n e c o l l e a g u e , h e had observed h o w m a n y m e n used m e n t a l illness a s a w a y o f avoiding t h e draft. It was fairly easy to fake s o m e s y m p t o m s — h o w easy, exactly, was it? R o s e n h a n , w h o loved adventure, d e c i d e d t o try s o m e t h i n g out. I n t h e early 1 9 7 0 s h e was n o t yet a f a m o u s social scientist. H e was n o t at his prestigious post at Stanford, b u t t e a c h i n g in s o m e smaller c o l l e g e , studying h e r o i c altruism. T h e r e f o r e , w h a t follows was a rather sudden swerve. A l m o s t o n i m p u l s e h e called e i g h t friends and said s o m e t h i n g like, " A r e y o u busy n e x t m o n t h ? W o u l d y o u have t i m e to fake y o u r w a y i n t o a m e n t a l hospital a n d see w h a t happens, see if they c a n tell y o u ' r e really s a n e ? " Surprisingly, so t h e story g o e s , all eight w e r e n o t b u s y n e x t m o n t h , and all e i g h t — t h r e e p s y c h o l o -

gists, o n e g r a d u a t e student, a p e d i a t r i c i a n , a psychiatrist, a painter, a n d a h o u s e w i f e — a g r e e d to take t h e t i m e to try this t r e a c h e r o u s t r i c k , a l o n g w i t h R o s e n h a n himself, w h o c o u l d hardly wait t o get started. Says p s e u d o p a t i e n t M a r t i n S e l i g m a n , " D a v i d j u s t called m e u p a n d s a i d , ' A r e y o u busy n e x t O c t o b e r ? ' " a n d I s a i d , ' O f c o u r s e I ' m busy n e x t O c t o b e r , ' but by the end of the conversation, he had me laughing a n d saying yes. I gave h i m all o f O c t o b e r , w h i c h i s h o w l o n g t h e experiment took." I n fact, i t t o o k l o n g e r t h a n that. First, t h e r e was training. R o s e n h a n i n s t r u c t e d his c o n f e d e r a t e s very, v e r y carefully. F o r five days p r i o r to t h e a p p o i n t e d date, t h e y w e r e t o stop s h o w e r i n g , shaving, a n d b r u s h i n g t h e i r t e e t h . A n d t h e n t h e y w e r e , o n t h e a p p o i n t e d date, t o disperse t o different parts o f t h e c o u n t r y , east t o west, a n d present t h e m s e l v e s a t various p s y c h i a t r i c e m e r g e n c y r o o m s . S o m e o f t h e hospitals R o s e n h a n had c h o s e n w e r e p o s h a n d built o f w h i t e b r i c k ; o t h e r s w e r e s t a t e - r u n gigs w i t h u r i n e - s c e n t e d c o r r i d o r s a n d graffitis c r a t c h e d walls. T h e p s e u d o p a t i e n t s w e r e t o present t h e m s e l v e s a n d say w o r d s a l o n g these lines: "I am h e a r i n g a v o i c e . It is saying thud." R o s e n h a n specifically c h o s e this c o m p l a i n t b e c a u s e n o w h e r e i n t h e p s y c h i a t r i c literature are t h e r e any reports of any p e r s o n h e a r i n g a v o i c e that c o n t a i n s such o b v i o u s c a r t o o n angst. Upon

further

questioning,

the

eight

pseudopatients

were

to

answer c o m p l e t e l y honestly, save for n a m e a n d o c c u p a t i o n . T h e y w e r e t o feign n o o t h e r s y m p t o m s . O n c e o n t h e ward, i f a d m i t t e d , t h e y w e r e t o i m m e d i a t e l y say that t h e v o i c e h a d disappeared a n d t h e y n o w felt fine. R o s e n h a n t h e n gave his c o n f e d e r a t e s a lesson in m a n a g i n g m e d i c a t i o n , h o w t o avoid s w a l l o w i n g i t b y slipping i t u n d e r t h e t o n g u e s o i t c o u l d later b e b l u r t e d b a c k t o t h e t o i l e t b o w l . " I t t o o k m e awhile," recalls M a r t i n S e l i g m a n , " i t t o o k m e a w h i l e t o g e t t h e pill t h i n g r i g h t , and I was so n e r v o u s . I was n e r v o u s I'd a c c i d e n t a l l y swallow a pill if t h e y f o r c e d o n e on m e , b u t I was m o r e n e r v o u s a b o u t h o m o s e x u a l rape." T h e p s e u d o p a t i e n t s p r a c t i c e d for a f e w days. M u c h o f t h e p r a c t i c e was, admittedly, passive, l e t t i n g e n t r o p y a n d o d o r w e n d t h e i r way in.

T h e i r hair g r e w o u t a n d c l u m p e d . T h e i r b r e a t h g o t a g r e e n i s h tinge. T h e y l e a r n e d to t u c k fat pills and p e a - s i z e d pills in t h e cavern b e n e a t h t h e t o n g u e , a n d t h e n t o turn t h e h e a d sideways a n d s u r r e p t i tiously spit. It was a u t u m n t h e n , and a fat harvest m o o n h u n g in t h e sky. G o b l i n s i n b r i g h t capes drifted d o w n t h e streets, w i t c h e s c a r r y i n g f l i c k e r i n g p u m p k i n s . T r i c k ? O r treat?

T H E A C T U A L DAY

that R o s e n h a n d e p a r t e d for o n e o f P e n n -

sylvania's state hospitals was brilliant. T h e sky was a frosty p r e - w i n t e r blue, t h e trees like b r u s h e s d i p p e d i n pots o f paint, t u r n e d upward and w e t w i t h c o l o r . R o s e n h a n pulled i n t o t h e p a r k i n g lot. T h e m e n t a l hospital had G o t h i c buildings, e v e r y w i n d o w c a g e d . O r d e r l i e s i n pale b l u e s m o c k s floated o n t h e g r o u n d s . O n c e i n t h e admissions u n i t , R o s e n h a n was l e d t o a small w h i t e r o o m . " W h a t is t h e p r o b l e m ? " a psychiatrist asked. " I ' m h e a r i n g a v o i c e , " R o s e n h a n said, and t h e n he said n o t h i n g else. " A n d what is

the

voice

saying?" the

psychiatrist

questioned,

falling, u n b e k n o w n s t t o h i m , straight i n t o R o s e n h a n ' s r a b b i t h o l e . " T h u d , " R o s e n h a n said. I i m a g i n e he said it a little smugly. " T h u d ? " T h e psychiatrist asked. " D i d y o u say t h u d ? " " T h u d , " R o s e n h a n said again. T h e psychiatrist p r o b a b l y s c r a t c h e d his h e a d . H e c o u l d have b e e n confused, b e m u s e d . H e c o u l d have put d o w n his p e n , his pad o f paper, and stared for a s e c o n d a t t h e c e i l i n g . T h e p r o b l e m is, w e d o n ' t k n o w w h a t e x a c t l y h a p p e n e d i n any o f t h e a d m i t t i n g r o o m s , b e c a u s e R o s e n h a n has n e g l e c t e d t o give any detailed r e p o r t s . W e d o k n o w e a c h p s e u d o p a t i e n t , R o s e n h a n i n c l u d e d , said t h e v o i c e was o f t h e same sex a s h e o r she, that i t h a d b e e n b o t h e r i n g t h e p s e u d o p a t i e n t t o s o m e e x t e n t , that h e o r she h a d c o m e t o t h e u n i t o n t h e a d v i c e o f friends w h o had h e a r d "this was a g o o d hospital." R o b e r t Spitzer, o n e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ' s m o s t p r o m i n e n t Psychiatrists, and a severe c r i t i c o f R o s e n h a n , w r o t e i n a 1 9 7 5 article

in t h e Journal of Abnormal Psychology in r e t o r t to R o s e n h a n ' s findings, " S o m e foods taste delicious but leave a b a d aftertaste. So it is w i t h R o s e n h a n ' s study." H e goes o n t o state, " W e k n o w very little a b o u t h o w t h e pseudopatients presented themselves. W h a t did t h e p s e u d o p a tient say." In a f o o t n o t e to t h e article, Spitzer writes, " R o s e n h a n has n o t identified t h e hospitals used i n this study b e c a u s e o f his c o n c e r n w i t h c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y and t h e p o t e n t i a l for a d h o m i n u m attack. H o w e v e r , this d o e s m a k e it i m p o s s i b l e for a n y o n e at t h e s e hospitals to c o r r o b o rate o r c h a l l e n g e his a c c o u n t o f h o w t h e p s e u d o p a t i e n t s a c t e d and h o w t h e y w e r e p e r c e i v e d . " S p i t z e r later says, in a p h o n e c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h m e , " A n d this w h o l e business o f thud. R o s e n h a n uses that a s p r o o f o f h o w r i d i c u l o u s psychiatrists are b e c a u s e t h e r e h a d n e v e r b e e n any reports b e f o r e o f ' t h u d ' a s a n a u d i t o r y h a l l u c i n a t i o n . S o w h a t ? As I w r o t e , o n c e I had a patient w h o s e c h i e f p r e s e n t i n g c o m plaint was a v o i c e saying,'It's okay, it's o k a y ' I k n o w of no such r e p o r t in t h e literature. T h i s d o e s n ' t m e a n t h e r e isn't real distress." I d o n ' t w a n t to c h a l l e n g e Spitzer, b u t a v o i c e saying, "It's okay," sounds pretty okay to me. S p i t z e r pauses. " S o h o w i s D a v i d ? " h e f i n a l l y asks. " A c t u a l l y n o t so g o o d , " I say. " H e ' s lost his w i f e to c a n c e r , his d a u g h t e r N i n a in a car crash. H e ' s h a d several strokes and is n o w suff e r i n g from a disease t h e y can't q u i t e d i a g n o s e . He's paralyzed." T h a t S p i t z e r doesn't say o r m u c h s o u n d s o r r y w h e n h e hears this reveals t h e depths to w h i c h R o s e n h a n ' s study is still h a t e d in t h e field, even after forty years. " T h a t ' s w h a t y o u get," S p i t z e r says, " f o r c o n d u c t i n g s u c h an inquiry."

R O S E N H A N W A S L E D d o w n a l o n g hallway. All across t h e c o u n t r y , u n b e k n o w n s t t o h i m , t h e e i g h t o t h e r pseudopatients w e r e also b e i n g a d m i t t e d . R o s e n h a n m u s t have b e e n scared, e x h i l a r a t e d . H e was a j o u r n a l i s t , a scientist at t h e a p e x , p u t t i n g his b o d y on t h e l i n e for k n o w l e d g e . H e wasn't l o o k i n g t h r o u g h s o m e m i c r o s c o p e , s o m e t e l e s c o p e ; h e was i n actual o r b i t , d a m n it, h e was w a l k i n g o n t h e m o o n .

A n d t h e m o o n it was, t h e w a r d was a sterile p l a c e w h e r e sailors a n d m o c k professors and w o m e n w i t h b l o t c h y m o u t h s floated i n t h e weightless w o r l d o f t h e i r visions. R o s e n h a n was t a k e n t o a r o o m a n d t o l d t o undress. D i d h e n o t e h o w his b o d y was n o l o n g e r his? S o m e o n e i n s e r t e d a t h e r m o m e t e r i n t o his m o u t h , w r a p p e d a b l a c k c u f f a r o u n d his a r m , pressed o n his pulse a n d read it: n o r m a l , n o r m a l , n o r m a l . E v e r y t h i n g was n o r m a l , b u t n o o n e s e e m e d t o see. H e said, " Y o u k n o w , t h e v o i c e isn't b o t h e r i n g m e a n y m o r e , " and t h e d o c t o r s j u s t smiled. " W h e n w i l l I g e t o u t ? " w e c a n i m a g i n e R o s e n h a n asked, his v o i c e perhaps rising now, s o m e p a n i c h e r e — w h a t h a d h e d o n e , m y g o d . " W h e n will I g e t o u t ? " " W h e n y o u are w e l l , " a d o c t o r answered, o r s o m e t h i n g t o this effect. B u t h e was w e l l : n o r m a l , n o r m a l , n o r m a l , 1 1 0 o v e r 8 0 , a pulse o f s e v e n t y - t w o , a t e m p that h o v e r e d i n t h e m i d z o n e o f m o d e r a t e , h o m e o s t a t i c , a m a c h i n e well greased. It didn't matter. It didn't m a t t e r that h e was totally l u c i d . H e was d i a g n o s e d w i t h p a r a n o i d s c h i z o phrenia a n d k e p t for m a n y days.

T H E R E WAS A glassed-in office, w h i c h R o s e n h a n c a m e t o call t h e " b u l l pen." Inside nurses flurried a b o u t , busy as a blizzard, p o u r i n g c h e r r y - r e d m e d i c i n e s i n t o plastic cups. Pills a b o u n d e d , pills as p l e n t i ful as candy, as fat as fireballs, as p e t i t e as t h e sugary p i n k dots on strips

of long white

paper. R o s e n h a n

cooperated

absolutely. H e

" t o o k " t h e pills t h r e e t i m e s a day a n d t h e n r u s h e d t o t h e b a t h r o o m t o spit t h e m b a c k o u t . H e c o m m e n t s o n h o w all t h e o t h e r patients w e r e d o i n g this t o o , b e i n g fed t h e i r m e d i c a t i o n a n d h e a d i n g e n masse t o the toilets, a n d h o w n o o n e m u c h c a r e d s o l o n g a s t h e y w e r e well behaved. M e n t a l patients are "invisible . . . u n w o r t h y of a c c o u n t , " R o s e n h a n writes. H e describes a nurse c o m i n g i n t o t h e d a y r o o m , u n b u t t o n i n g her shirt, and fixing h e r bra. " O n e did n o t have t h e sense that she was b e i n g seductive," R o s e n h a n reports. " R a t h e r , she didn't n o t i c e us." H e saw patients b e i n g b e a t e n . H e describes h o w o n e patient was severely

p u n i s h e d simply b e c a u s e he said to a nurse, "I like y o u . " R o s e n h a n does n o t d e s c r i b e t h e nights, w h i c h must have b e e n l o n g , lying i n that n a r r o w b e d w h i l e orderlies w i t h flashlights did f i f t e e n - m i n u t e c h e c k s , their g o l d b e a m s illuminating n o t h i n g , absolutely n o t h i n g . W h a t did h e t h i n k o f t h e n ? D i d h e miss his wife, M o l l y ? D i d h e w o n d e r h o w his t w o toddlers w e r e g e t t i n g o n ? T h a t w o r l d must have s e e m e d so far away, even t h o u g h it was no m o r e than a h u n d r e d miles away; this is w h a t s c i e n c e t e a c h e s us. O s m o s i s is an illusion in t h e social w o r l d . M e m b r a n e s are n o t s e m i p e r m e a b l e ; t h e y are solid sheaths separating s p a c e s — y o u there, me here. M a y b e in t i m e o n l y a s e c o n d separates us, b u t in bias, in label, t h e distance is forever. R o s e n h a n and c o n f e d e r a t e s w e r e given s o m e therapy, and w h e n t h e y t o l d o f t h e j o y s and satisfactions and d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s o f a n o r d i nary l i f e — r e m e m b e r , t h e y w e r e m a k i n g n o t h i n g u p save t h e o r i g i n a l p r e s e n t i n g c o m p l a i n t — a l l o f t h e m f o u n d that t h e i r pasts w e r e r e c o n f i g u r e d t o f i t t h e diagnosis: " T h i s w h i t e 3 9 year o l d m a l e . . . manifests a l o n g h i s t o r y of c o n s i d e r a b l e a m b i v a l e n c e in close relationships . . . affective stability is absent . . . a n d w h i l e he says he has several g o o d friends, o n e senses c o n s i d e r a b l e a m b i v a l e n c e i n t h o s e relationships." W r o t e R o s e n h a n i n Science, o n e o f t h e field's m o s t prestigious j o u r nals, in 1 9 7 3 , " C l e a r l y , t h e m e a n i n g a s c r i b e d to his verbalizations . . . was d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e diagnosis, s c h i z o p h r e n i a . A n entirely different m e a n i n g w o u l d have b e e n a s c r i b e d i f i t w e r e k n o w n that t h e m a n was ' n o r m a l . ' " The

strange

thing

was,

the

other

patients

seemed

to

know

R o s e n h a n was n o r m a l , even w h i l e t h e d o c t o r s did n o t . A n u m b e r o f t h e o t h e r c o n f e d e r a t e s u n d e r g o i n g similar i n c a r c e r a t i o n s all across t h e c o u n t r y also had this e e r i e e x p e r i e n c e , that t h e insane c o u l d d e t e c t t h e sane b e t t e r than t h e insane's treaters c o u l d . Said o n e y o u n g m a n , c o m i n g u p t o R o s e n h a n i n t h e d a y r o o m , " Y o u ' r e n o t crazy. Y o u ' r e a j o u r n a l i s t or a professor." S a i d a n o t h e r , " Y o u ' r e c h e c k i n g up o n t h e hospital." W h i l e i n t h e hospital, R o s e n h a n f o l l o w e d all orders, asked for privileges, h e l p e d o t h e r patients deal w i t h t h e i r p r o b l e m s , offered

legal advice, p r o b a b l y played his fair share o f P i n g - P o n g , and t o o k c o p i o u s n o t e s , w h i c h t h e staff l a b e l e d a s " w r i t i n g b e h a v i o r " and saw a s a part o f his p a r a n o i d s c h i z o p h r e n i c diagnosis. A n d t h e n o n e day for a reason as arbitrary as his admission, he was discharged. T h e air was b u r n i n g w i t h c o l d . H e had l e a r n e d s o m e t h i n g severe: h e had l e a r n e d a b o u t i n h u m a n i t y i n asylums; h e had l e a r n e d psychiatry was psychiatrically sick. H e w o n d e r e d , i n h o w m a n y hospitals all across this c o u n t r y w e r e p e o p l e b e i n g similarly m i s d i a g n o s e d , m e d i c a t e d , and h e l d against t h e i r wills. D i d t h e label o f madness b e g e t madness, so that t h e diagnosis sculpts t h e brain, and n o t t h e o t h e r w a y around? O u r brains d o n o t , perhaps, m a k e us. M a y b e w e m a k e o u r brains. M a y b e w e are m a d e b y t h e tags affixed t o o u r flesh. I t was n e a r i n g w i n t e r , and I i m a g i n e all sorts of s n o w was falling, o b s c u r i n g t h e s u p posedly f i x e d o u t l i n e s o f h o u s e s and cars and buildings. T h e g r o u n d s o f t h e hospital w e r e g o i n g fast, w h i t e a s light, w i t h o u t substance.

IN 1 9 6 6 , Y E A R S p r i o r to R o s e n h a n ' s adventure, two researchers, R . R o s e n t h a l and L . J a c o b s o n , did a n e x p e r i m e n t i n w h i c h they a d m i n istered to children in Grades 1 through 6 an IQ test w i t h a bogus n a m e : " T h e Harvard Test o f Inflected Acquisition." T h e test was said t o b e a n indicator o f a c a d e m i c b l o o m i n g , o r "spurting," w h e n i n fact t h e test measured o n l y s o m e nonverbal skills. Teachers w e r e told that students w h o did well on the test w e r e e x p e c t e d to m a k e u n p r e c e d e n t e d gains within the n e x t year. In truth, the test c o u l d predict no such thing. M e a n i n g l e s s results w e r e released to t h e t e a c h e r s , and in o n e year's t i m e R o s e n t h a l and J a c o b s o n e x a m i n e d t h e c h i l d r e n . T h e y f o u n d that those assigned to t h e " s p u r t i n g " g r o u p had, in fact, m a d e larger a c a d e m i c gains than t h o s e n o t assigned. M o r e w o r r i s o m e , t h e spurting g r o u p h a d a significant rise in IQ scores, especially in G r a d e s 1 and 2, i n d i c a t i n g that one's " i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t i e n t " has as m u c h to do w i t h o p p o r t u n i t y and e x p e c t a t i o n as it does w i t h fixed capacity. E v e n earlier, a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , a n o t h e r " e x p e r i m e n t " o f this sort revealed t h e p o w e r o f e x p e c t a t i o n s i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h i s is,

i n d e e d , a v e r y strange story that involves a h o r s e n a m e d H a n s , w h o e v e r y o n e b e l i e v e d c o u l d d o m a t h e m a t i c s . I f y o u gave H a n s a m a t h p r o b l e m , this h o r s e , w h o s o o n c a m e t o b e called C l e v e r H a n s , w o u l d tap o u t t h e answer w i t h his h o o f ! P e o p l e paid m o n e y t o m e e t H a n s a n d t o test h i m , e x p e r i m e n t i n g o v e r a n d o v e r again w i t h w h a t is, u n d o u b t e d l y , t h e largest lab a n i m a l k n o w n t o p s y c h o l o g y . However, o n e skeptic in

1 9 1 1 , a man by the name of Oskar

Pfungst, w e n t t o H a n s a n d p u t h i m t h r o u g h his paces. H e o b s e r v e d h i m w i t h his spectacles and sticks o v e r m a n y days and nights, a n d f o u n d that t h e h o r s e , i n d e e d , did n o t k n o w m a t h b u t h a d simply l e a r n e d t o tap his f o o t based o n subtle c u e s from t h e o b s e r v e r s . F o r instance, as

the

horse

reached the

correct

n u m b e r o f taps, t h e

observers w o u l d give v e r y subtle signals that t h e h o r s e had l e a r n e d t o take in; a n u n c o n s c i o u s rise o f t h e e y e b r o w s , a tilt o f t h e h e a d , a n d H a n s w o u l d stop. L o and b e h o l d , i t h a d n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h k n o w l e d g e o f m a t h ; i t h a d o n l y t o d o w i t h s u b t e r r a n e a n signals sent b y t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , a b s o r b e d b y t h e o h s o a b s o r b e n t a n i m a l that b o t h horses

and

humans

are, a n d t h e n

i n t e r p r e t e d to

fit t h e

existing

s c h e m a , w h i c h in this case was so absurd it o n l y u n d e r s c o r e s h o w far w e will g o t o c o n f i r m w h a t e v e r i t i s w e w a n t . R o s e n h a n k n e w o f R o s e n t h a l and J a c o b s o n . H e k n e w o f Hans the C l e v e r H o r s e a n d O . Pfungst, t h e skeptic a n d savior o f sanity. B u t h e k n e w s o m e t h i n g else t o o . W h i l e all o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s s h o w e d t h e p o w e r o f bias a n d c o n t e x t i n d e t e r m i n i n g reality, n o n e had d o n e s o i n r e f e r e n c e t o m e d i c i n e , o f w h i c h p s y c h i a t r y s o proudly c l a i m e d i t s e l f a part. T h e s e w e r e g e n u i n e M . D . s a t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a state h o s pital, and t h e y h a d m a d e v e r y b a d mistakes, b u t w o r s e than that, t h e y had m a d e d u m b mistakes. U p o n m e e t i n g u p w i t h his c o n f e d e r a t e s after

the

whole

experiment

had b e e n

c o n d u c t e d , east

to

west,

R o s e n h a n discovered that all b u t o n e o f t h e m had b e e n d i a g n o s e d a s s c h i z o p h r e n i c , b a s e d on a single silly s y m p t o m (the e x c e p t i o n h a d b e e n g i v e n t h e diagnosis o f " m a n i c depressive psychosis," a n equally w e i g h t y l a b e l ) . R o s e n h a n f o u n d that t h e m e a n hospital stay was n i n e t e e n days, w i t h t h e l o n g e s t b e i n g f i f t y - t w o and t h e shortest

seven. He f o u n d that all c o n f e d e r a t e s had e x p e r i e n c e d a real r e d u c tion in status. A n d , lastly, R o s e n h a n f o u n d that all w e r e released w i t h t h e i r disease i n r e m i s s i o n , w h i c h m e a n s , o f c o u r s e , that t h e i r essential sanity was n e v e r d e t e c t e d and that t h e i r present sanity was u n d e r s t o o d as a t e m p o r a r y blip, to r e m i t and r e m i t again. R o s e n h a n was a bald b o x y m a n in his thirties w h e n all this h a p p e n e d . He was k n o w n as an e n t e r t a i n e r , h o l d i n g at his h o u s e seders for as m a n y as fifty p e o p l e . He l o v e d lavish parties and eventually installed t w o dishwashers i n his k i t c h e n t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e plates for all

those

knishes. Says

good

friend

and

Stanford

colleague

F l o r e n c e K e l l e r , " D a v i d ' s t h e o n l y m a n I k n o w w h o e n l a r g e d his h o u s e after his kids left for c o l l e g e , so he c o u l d have m o r e revelers over." T h e n K e l l e r pauses. " H e had a w a y w i t h words," s h e says. " B u t you also n e v e r felt y o u really k n e w h i m . He had a m a s k o n . " I n d e e d h e did. A n d , i n d e e d , w e are often e a g e r t o reveal i n o t h e r s t h e v e r y t e n dencies w e sense i n ourselves. T h e r e f o r e , i t m i g h t have b e e n w i t h s o m e g l e e that i n t h e early 1 9 7 0 s R o s e n h a n t o o k u p his p e n and w r o t e t h e paper that w o u l d burst like a b o m b i n t h e w o r l d o f p s y c h i atry, d e n u d i n g i t o f its status, t h e p a p e r d e s c r i b i n g his findings o f t h e p s e u d o p a t i e n t e x p e r i m e n t . " O n B e i n g S a n e i n Insane P l a c e s " was published in t h e prestigious j o u r n a l Science, w h i c h is i r o n i c b e c a u s e R o s e n h a n was calling i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e v e r y validity o f s c i e n c e , a t least as it applies to psychiatry. At o n e p o i n t early in t h e article, R o s e n h a n j u s t lays i t o n t h e l i n e . H e claims that diagnosis i s n o t c a r ried w i t h i n t h e p e r s o n , b u t w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t , and that any d i a g n o s tic process that lends i t s e l f so readily to massive errors of this sort c a n n o t be a v e r y reliable o n e .

SCIENCE,

A

MAGAZINE

still p u b l i s h e d today, has a c i r c u l a t i o n o f

about sixty t h o u s a n d . In g e n e r a l , from w h a t I c a n see, h a v i n g p e r u s e d m a n y issues of it now, a lead article g e n e r a t e s m a y b e a handful of

h o w e v e r , g e n e r a t e d a f l o o d o f f l u o r e s c e n t missives e n o r m o u s l y fun t o read, t h e a r g u m e n t s incisively stated. R o s e n h a n dissed p s y c h i a t r y as s c i e n c e , a n d i n d o i n g so, h e e g g e d m a n y o f A m e r i c a ' s psychiatrists t o p u t t h e i r best f o o t forward and s h o w t h e k e e n i n t e l l i g e n c e that r u n s b e n e a t h t h e i r often q u e s t i o n a b l e claims:

M o s t physicians do not assume that patients w h o seek help are liars; they can therefore, of course, be m i s l e d . . . . It would be quite possible to conduct a study in w h i c h patients trained to simulate histories of myocardial infarction would receive treatment on the basis of history alone (since a negative electrocardiogram is not diagnostic) but it would be preposterous to conclude from such a study that physical illness does n o t exist, that medical diagnoses are fallacious labels, and that "illness," and "health" reside only in doctor's heads.

T h e pseudopatients did not behave normally in the hospital. H a d their behavior b e e n n o r m a l they w o u l d have walked to the nurse's station and said, " L o o k , I am a n o r m a l person w h o tried to see if I could get into the hospital by behaving in a crazy way or saying crazy things. It w o r k e d and I was admitted to the hospital, but n o w I w o u l d like to be discharged from the hospital.

A n d m y favorite:

If I were to drink a quart of b l o o d and, c o n c e a l i n g what I had done, c o m e t o the e m e r g e n c y r o o m o f any hospital v o m i t i n g b l o o d , the b e h a v i o r o f the staff w o u l d b e quite predictable. I f they labeled and treated me as having a peptic ulcer, I doubt that I could argue c o n v i n c i n g l y that medical science does not k n o w h o w to diagnose that c o n d i t i o n .

R o b e r t Spitzer, that spry psychiatrist trained i n psychoanalysis, w h o h e l d his o w n prestigious post a t t h e Institute for B i o m e t r i c s a t C o l u m b i a University, was b y far t h e m o s t distressed. H e didn't w r i t e

a

letter.

He

wrote

two

entire

papers

devoted

to

dismantling

R o s e n h a n ' s findings, t o t a l i n g t h i r t y - t h r e e pages o f dense, e x t r e m e l y c o g e n t prose. " D i d y o u read m y responses t o R o s e n h a n ? " S p i t z e r asks w h e n I p h o n e h i m . " T h e y ' r e pretty brilliant, aren't t h e y ? " S p i t z e r argues many, m a n y things. At r o o t he is a r g u i n g for t h e validity of psychiatry, and its diagnostic practices, as s o u n d scientific, medical p r o c e d u r e s . " I b e l i e v e i n t h e m e d i c a l m o d e l o f psychiatry," h e says t o m e , w h i c h m e a n s h e believes p s y c h i a t r i c disorders are g e n e r ally t h e s a m e as disorders of t h e lungs or liver and c a n be v i e w e d as such, and w i l l s o m e d a y b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s o f tissue a n d synapse, things that squirt in t h e brain's b l a c k b o x . W r i t e s S p i t z e r in his response

to

Rosenhan: "What

were

the

results?

According

to

R o s e n h a n , all t h e patients w e r e d i a g n o s e d at discharge as ' i n r e m i s sion.' A r e m i s s i o n is clear. It m e a n s w i t h o u t signs of illness. T h u s , all o f t h e psychiatrists apparently r e c o g n i z e d that all o f t h e p s e u d o p a tients w e r e , to use R o s e n h a n ' s t e r m , ' s a n e . ' " Spitzer goes on to m a k e a case for t h e credibility of psychiatry as a medical profession. R e a d i n g Spitzer's articles and the letters following R o s e n h a n ' s publication, I find m y s e l f swayed, as in a tennis m a t c h . On the o n e hand the study was flawed. If I drank a quart of b l o o d and if I v o m i t e d i t i n the E R . . . , w h i c h must m e a n psychiatry really i s n o different from its supposedly m o r e m e d i c a l kin. B u t wait a m i n u t e , in the b l o o d scenario, I wouldn't be held for fifty-two days, and besides, b l o o d is n o t thud. I m e a n , b l o o d is far m o r e c o m p e l l i n g a p r e s e n t a t i o n — swayed, swayed, sanity and insanity, valid and invalid, here is w h e r e I am. It is 1 9 7 6 and / am t h e patient. T h i s , by t h e way, is n o t a s i m u l a tion. J u s t t w o years after R o s e n h a n p r e s e n t e d his findings, I, a m a w k ish f o u r t e e n - y e a r - o l d , e n t e r e d an East C o a s t m e n t a l institution w i t h all sorts of s y m p t o m s that definitely did n o t i n c l u d e h a l l u c i n a t i o n s . I was d o i n g things f o u r t e e n - y e a r - o l d s do, and t h e n s o m e . I l i k e d drama and fancied m y s e l f a b u r g e o n i n g V i r g i n i a W o o l f . O n t h e o t h e r hand, I wasn't all act. My o w n s y m p t o m s aside, in t h e " b i n " — a s I c a m e to call the hospital almost a f f e c t i o n a t e l y — I saw s o m e things. I saw t h e glassed-in nurse's station, t h e c a n d y stripers p u s h i n g c h r o m e carts,

t h e l u n a t i c m a n i c w i t h sweat r u n n e l l i n g d o w n his face, t h e w o m a n n a m e d R o s a , f o u n d in t h e b a t h r o o m , n e c k b u n c h e d in a n o o s e . I saw s o m e things. I saw things that w e r e definitely n o t in t h e d o c t o r ' s heads, like that n e c k i n t h e n o o s e . F o r m e , therefore, p s y c h i a t r i c i l l ness is a b s o l u t e l y real. H o w e v e r , all of us patients used to g a t h e r in t h e d a y r o o m , w h e r e t h e s m o k e was t h i c k a s yarn, and trade o u r d o c t o r given diagnoses like kids trade marbles: " b o r d e r l i n e " was b r i g h t a n d b l u e ; " s c h i z o p h r e n i a " was scarlet w i t h a s m e a r o f w h i t e ; " d e p r e s s i o n " was a dull t i n n y g r e e n , c l o u d y as a cataract, n o t w e l l r e s p e c t e d . O n e suicide a t t e m p t was pretty piss p o o r , t h r e e gave y o u s o m e status, a n y t h i n g o v e r t e n gave y o u grave respect. L i k e c r i m i n a l s in a p r i s o n , we swapped t r i c k s o f t h e trade, e g g e d o n , n o d o u b t , b y t h e labels a n d m e d i c a l a t t e n t i o n we w e r e given, so that at s o m e p o i n t it b e c a m e d i m cult t o k n o w w h e t h e r w e preexisted t h e labels, o r t h e labels c o n structed us. I, for o n e , g o t sicker in t h e b i n , t h e same way staph infections spread in a hospital. A n d as for t h e claim that the p s e u d o p a tients did n o t act normally, b e c a u s e t h e n o r m a l t h i n g w o u l d have b e e n to go up and c o p to the e x p e r i m e n t , well, I witnessed a lovely y o u n g girl n a m e d Sarah, a S m i t h C o l l e g e student, m e e k and quiet and by all a c c o u n t s m i d d l e o f t h e road, w h o every day asked gently t o b e released, and every day she was d e n i e d . So w h o ' s to say? In R o s e n h a n s study, the staff beat patients and w o k e t h e m w i t h , " Y o u m o t h e r f u c k i n g son of a bitch," and this in private as well as public facilities. I was in a semipublic facility and no staff ever swore at m e . It is true that t h e psychiatrist i n c h a r g e o f m y case spent very little t i m e w i t h m e , b u t a c t u ally I r e m e m b e r h i m in crisp detail, b e c a u s e I liked h i m so m u c h . His n a m e was D r . S u , and he c a m e from a n o t h e r country, and he had a little b r o o m of a mustache, and for s o m e o d d reason he often had a b a s e ball m i t t w i t h h i m . We used to m e e t in a small office and he w o u l d lean forward, l o o k at t h e cuts on my arms, like little Hps these cuts were, b e c a u s e I kept t h e m fresh and o p e n w i t h stolen shards. He w o u l d l o o k at t h e cuts and say w i t h true feelings, "It's such a shame, L a u r e n . It's such a s h a m e y o u have to hurt yourself."

ROSENHAN'S EXPERIMENT,

L I K E , perhaps, any p i e c e o f g o o d art,

is prismatic, powerful, and flawed. Y o u can argue w i t h it, as in all of the above. As in D r . Su and his unquestioningly kind words: it's such a shame. N e v e r t h e l e s s , there are, it seems to m e , s o m e essential truths in R o s e n h a n ' s findings. Labels d o d e t e r m i n e h o w w e v i e w w h a t w e view. P s y c h i a t r y is a fledgling s c i e n c e , if a s c i e n c e at all, b e c a u s e to this day it lacks firm k n o w l e d g e of practically any physiological substrates to m e n t a l illness, and s c i e n c e is based on t h e body, on measurable matter. Psychiatrists d o j u m p t o j u d g m e n t , n o t all o f t h e m b u t a l o t o f t h e m , and they can be p o m p o u s , probably b e c a u s e they're insecure. In any case, R o s e n h a n ' s study did n o t help this insecurity. T h e e x p e r i m e n t was g r e e t e d w i t h outrage, and t h e n , at last, a c h a l l e n g e . " A l l right," said o n e hospital, its institutional c h e s t all puffed up. " Y o u t h i n k we don't k n o w w h a t we're d o i n g ? Here's a dare. In t h e n e x t three m o n t h s send as m a n y pseudopatients as y o u like to o u r e m e r g e n c y r o o m , and w e ' l l d e t e c t t h e m . G o ahead." H e r e was the gauntlet, t h r o w n d o w n . N o w R o s e n h a n , built like a b o x e r , liked a fight. S o h e said sure. H e said i n t h e n e x t t h r e e m o n t h s h e w o u l d s e n d a n u n d i s c l o s e d n u m b e r o f pseudopatients t o this particular hospital, and t h e staff w e r e t o j u d g e , i n a sort o f e x p e r i m e n t a l reversal, n o t w h o was insane, b u t w h o was sane. O n e m o n t h passed. T w o m o n t h s passed. A t t h e e n d o f three m o n t h s t h e hospital staff r e p o r t e d t o R o s e n h a n that t h e y had detected with a high degree of confidence forty-one of R o s e n h a n ' s pseudopatients. R o s e n h a n had, i n fact, sent n o n e . C a s e c l o s e d . M a t c h over. P s y c h i a t r y h u n g its h e a d .

W E O N C E B E L I E V E D i n psychiatry a s a f o r m o f deity; t h o s e w e r e t h e g o l d e n days, t h e 1 9 3 0 s , ' 4 0 s , ' 5 0 s , w h e n psychoanalysis c a m e t o d o m i n a t e t h e discipline w i t h answers for pretty m u c h e v e r y t h i n g . Y o u r h i s t o r y c o u l d heal y o u ; c u r l up and c r y ; m a n i a was v i e w e d as "a wish to eat, a wish to be eaten and a w i s h to go to sleep." T h e strange t h i n g was, psychoanalysis, w h i c h b e c a m e o n e and t h e same as p s y c h i a t r y so totally did it d o m i n a t e t h e field, c a r e d v e r y lit-

tie for t h e actual r i g o r s of diagnosis itself. T h e r e was a m a n u a l ; t h e r e still

is.

It's

called

the

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual on

Mental

Disorders," DSM" for short. T h e first e d i t i o n was w r i t t e n in 1 9 5 2 , t h e s e c o n d i n 1 9 6 8 . T h e s e c o n d was i n use a t t h e t i m e o f t h e p s e u d o p a tients' admission. In DSM II, t h e s y m p t o m s for s c h i z o p h r e n i a are hazy, b a s e d on things like " r e a c t i o n n e u r o s i s " and " a t t a c h m e n t difficulties," and, a s R o s e n h a n points o u t , t h e m o r e a m b i g u o u s t h e l a n guage, t h e m o r e r o o m for error. I t was i n this c o n t e x t that p r o m i n e n t psychiatrists s u c h as A d o l p h M e y e r said, "I feel b u t rarely t h e u r g e to g o far a h e a d o f t h e attitude o f i n q u i r y t o a n e e d o f finality w h i c h will take care o f its o w n l a c k o f necessity." D e s p i t e such o b v i o u s o b f u s c a t o r y language, psychiatry e n j o y e d a span o f g o l d e n years w h e n p e o p l e b e l i e v e d i n i t deeply, a n d spent thousands u p o n thousands o f dollars d o i n g that b e l i e v i n g o n t h e i r b a c k s . " D a v i d R o s e n h a n , " says F l o r e n c e K e l l e r , R o s e n h a n ' s c l o s e friend, "was really o n e o f t h e first o f that era t o a n n o u n c e , ' G u e s s w h a t guys? T h e e m p e r o r has n o clothes.' I t m i g h t b e fair t o say h e single-handedly

dismantled

psychiatry,

and

it's

never

recovered

since." K e l l e r pauses. S h e is c h i e f p s y c h o l o g i s t at a Palo A l t o i n p a t i e n t unit. " I m e a n , l o o k a r o u n d y o u . W h o ' s g o i n g i n t o p s y c h i a t r y today? Y o u can't find a psychiatrist for y o u r units a n y m o r e . T h e r e are no m o r e psychiatrists b e c a u s e p s y c h i a t r y as a field is pretty m u c h dead, and i t w o n ' t b e revitalized until there's h a r d - c o r e p r o o f o f p a t h o g e n esis, o f t h e role n e u r o n s and c h e m i s t r y play i n all this. T h e n , m a y b e , i t will m a k e a c o m e b a c k . " S p i t z e r disagrees. He has to. H e ' s a psychiatrist. S p i t z e r disagrees n o w — " I t h i n k t h e r e are a l o t o f e x c i t i n g things g o i n g o n i n o u r f i e l d " — a n d h e disagreed i n 1 9 7 3 , w h e n t h e p s e u d o p a t i e n t e x p e r i m e n t was p u b l i s h e d . I f R o s e n h a n s i n g l e - h a n d e d l y set o u t t o d i s m a n t l e psychiatry, Spitzer, b a c k t h e n , s i n g l e - h a n d e d l y set o u t t o restore it. T o g e t h e r w i t h a g r o u p o f e s t e e m e d c o l l e a g u e s , h e t o o k that flimsy little d i a g n o s t i c and statistical m a n u a l , t h e o n e that c o n tained enough ambiguity to allow R o s e n h a n and confederates to

g e t a d m i t t e d , a n d gave i t a g o o d g o i n g - o v e r . H e p l u c k e d e v e r y e p h e m e r a l , s u b j e c t i v e t h i n g that h e c o u l d . H e s c o u r e d i t f o r signs o f p s y c h o b a b b l e . H e t i g h t e n e d d i a g n o s t i c c r i t e r i a s o that e a c h a n d e v e r y o n e o f t h e m was m e a s u r a b l e , a n d i n o r d e r t o qualify f o r any diagnosis, t h e r e w e r e v e r y s t r i c t g u i d e l i n e s a b o u t w h i c h s y m p t o m s , for h o w l o n g , for h o w o f t e n . DSM III includes a lot of language like t h e following: " P a t i e n t must display at least four of t h e f o l l o w i n g s y m p t o m s from c r i t e r i a A for at least t w o w e e k s , three o f the f o l l o w i n g s y m p t o m s f r o m criteria B , and o n e from criteria C . " DSM II had no such guidelines. T h e r e w e r e phrases like, " T h e c h i e f characteristics o f disorders i s anxiety, w h i c h may b e directly felt o r expressed o r w h i c h m a y b e u n c o n s c i o u s l y and automatically c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e utilization o f various defense m e c h a nisms." W e l l , no m o r e . Spitzer argued that t h e i n n o v a t i o n of DSM III, two h u n d r e d s o m e pages l o n g e r than DSM II, was "a defense of the medical m o d e l a s applied t o psychiatry." I f patients m e t t h e extensive criteria, t h e y had a n illness. I f t h e y didn't, t h e y w e r e well. A m b i v a l e n c e , potty training, e p h e m e r a l , u n t e n a b l e anxieties m a t t e r e d n o t a w h i t .

P S Y C H I A T R Y S I N C E R O S E N H A N has t r i e d a d m i r a b l y t o l o c a t e t h e physiological origins o f mental disease—mostly, although n o t t h o r oughly, in vain. In t h e 1 9 8 0 s t h e r e was a p r o m i s i n g n e w d i a g n o s t i c test for depression

called the dexamethasone

suppression test in

w h i c h a c e r t a i n m e t a b o l i t e was isolated i n t h e u r i n e o f s o m e sad folks. T h i s d i s c o v e r y was g r e e t e d w i t h g r e a t e n t h u s i a s m . S o o n , v e r y s o o n , w e c o u l d d i a g n o s e depression like w e d i a g n o s e d a n e m i a : squat over this cup, t h r e e a m b e r drops on a prepared slide, and voila! Y o u were or you weren't, and there would be no argument. T h a t test proved n o t v e r y f o o l p r o o f , s o i t w e n t straight i n t o t h e trash h e a p o f history. S i n c e t h e n , psychiatrists have t r i e d t o d e v e l o p o t h e r tests f o r diagnoses a n d failed. R e c e n t l y t h e w o r k o f C h a r l e s N e m e r o f f , at E m o r y U n i v e r s i t y , has t a k e n t h e field a step forward by

s h o w i n g that t h e b r a i n s h i p p o c a m p u s i s s o m e 1 5 p e r c e n t smaller i n depressed p e o p l e and that rat pups d e p r i v e d o f t h e i r m o t h e r s d e v e l o p a

surplus

of stress

neurotransmitters. T h i s

is

exciting

stuff, b u t

w h e t h e r it illuminates cause or c o r r e l a t i o n is u n c l e a r . I f all this s e e m s far afield o f R o s e n h a n ' s study, i t isn't. M u c h o f t h e c u r r e n t - d a y research is a k n o w i n g or u n k n o w i n g response to R o s e n h a n ' s c h a l l e n g e and t h e i n h e r e n t a n x i e t i e s i t raises i n " s o f t " scientists. Says Spitzer, " T h e n e w classification system o f t h e DSM i s s t r i n g e n t and scientific." Says R o s e n h a n , " N o t h i n g u n d e r s c o r e s t h e c o n s e n s u a l nature

of psychiatric

disorders

more

than t h e

recent

action by the A m e r i c a n Psychiatric Association to delete h o m o s e x u ality from

the

Diagnostic and

Statistical Manual on

Mental Disorders

( D S M - I I , 1 9 6 8 ) . W h a t e v e r one's o p i n i o n regarding t h e n a t u r e o f h o m o s e x u a l i t y , t h e fact that a professional association c o u l d v o t e on w h e t h e r o r n o t h o m o s e x u a l i t y s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d a disorder surely u n d e r s c o r e s b o t h t h e differences b e t w e e n p s y c h i a t r i c / m e n t a l d i s o r ders and t h e c o n t e x t - s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f p s y c h i a t r i c o n e s . C h a n g e s i n i n f o r m e d p u b l i c attitudes toward h o m o s e x u a l i t y have b r o u g h t a b o u t c o r r e s p o n d i n g c h a n g e s i n p s y c h i a t r i c p e r c e p t i o n o f it." To w h i c h S p i t z e r replies, "All diagnoses are m a n m a d e classifications, s o that c r i t i c i s m i s r i d i c u l o u s . I ' m telling y o u , w i t h t h e n e w d i a g n o s t i c system i n place, R o s e n h a n ' s e x p e r i m e n t c o u l d n e v e r h a p p e n today. I t w o u l d n e v e r w o r k . Y o u w o u l d n o t b e a d m i t t e d a n d i n t h e E R t h e y w o u l d d i a g n o s e y o u a s deferred." " D e f e r r e d , " b y t h e way, is a special c a t e g o r y that allows c l i n i c i a n s to do j u s t that, officially p u t o f f a diagnosis d u e t o l a c k o f i n f o r m a t i o n . " N o , " repeats Spitzer, " t h a t e x p e r i m e n t c o u l d n e v e r b e successfully r e p e a t e d . N o t in this day and age." I d e c i d e to try.

M A N Y T H I N G S A R E t h e s a m e . T h e sky i s a p o i g n a n t b l u e . T h e trees are t u r n i n g , e a c h scarlet l e a f like a little h a n d falling d o w n on o u r g r e e n a u t u m n lawn. I n t h e stores t h e r e w i l l s o o n b e plastic p u m p -

kins, a n d fresh p u m p k i n s c h i l d r e n will b u y and carve w i t h knives t o o h u g e for t h e i r hands, o p e n i n g t h e c i r c l e o f t h e skull, s c o o p i n g o u t t h e innards, so m a n y seeds in t h e r e , so m a n y tangled d e n d r i t i c fibers, and such a m o i s t smell. M y o w n c h i l d i s t o o y o u n g for p u m p k i n s ; she has just

turned

two, and

perhaps

because

of R o s e n h a n

and

all

the

research he has s p a w n e d i n t o " e t i o l o g y a n d p a t h o g e n e s i s , " I often w o r r y a b o u t h e r brain, w h i c h I p i c t u r e p i n k - r e d a n d r u m p l e d i n its casement. " Y o u ' r e W H A T ? " m y h u s b a n d says t o m e . " I ' m g o i n g to try it," I say. " R e p e a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t e x a c t l y as R o s e n h a n a n d his c o n f e d e r a t e s did it a n d see if I g e t a d m i t t e d . " " E x c u s e m e , " h e says, " d o n ' t y o u t h i n k y o u have y o u r family t o consider?" " I t ' l l n e v e r w o r k , " I say, t h i n k i n g o f Spitzer. " I ' l l b e b a c k i n a n hour." " A n d suppose you're n o t ? " " C o m e g e t m e , " I say. He t o u c h e s his b e a r d , w h i c h is g e t t i n g a little l o n g . He is w e a r i n g a g e e k shirt, c l o s e r to plastic than c o t t o n in its c o n t e n t s , w i t h a R o r s c h a c h i n k s p l o t c h from a n u n c a p p e d p e n o n t h e c h e s t p o c k e t . " C o m e get y o u ? Y o u t h i n k t h e y ' l l b e l i e v e m e ? T h e y ' l l l o c k m e u p too," h e says, a l m o s t hopefully. M y h u s b a n d was b o r n t o o late t o e n j o y t h e sixties, w h i c h i s s o m e t h i n g h e sorely regrets. H e pauses, f i n g e r i n g his b e a r d . A m o t h flies in t h r o u g h t h e o p e n w i n d o w a n d beats insanely against t h e lit o r b i n t h e c e n t e r o f o u r dusky r o o m . O n t h e wall t h e m o t h ' s s h a d o w is as b i g as a bird. We w a t c h t h e m o t h . We smell t h e season. " I ' m c o m i n g t o o , " h e f i n a l l y says.

N O , H E I S N O T . S o m e o n e has t o w a t c h t h e baby. I d o m y preparations. I don't s h o w e r or shave for five days. I call a friend w i t h a r e n e gade streak a n d ask i f I c a n use h e r n a m e i n lieu o f m y o w n , w h i c h " u g h t b e r e c o g n i z e d . T h e plan i s t o use h e r n a m e a n d t h e n have her, later, w i t h h e r l i c e n s e , g e t t h e records so I c a n see j u s t w h a t has b e e n

said. T h i s friend, Lucy, says yes. She s h o u l d p r o b a b l y be l o c k e d up. " T h i s is so funny," she says. I spend a considerable p o r t i o n o f t i m e practicing i n front o f m y m i r ror. " T h u d , " I say, and crack up, no p u n intended. " I ' m , I ' m here . . ." — a n d n o w I feign a w o r r i e d e x p r e s s i o n , c r i n k l e d c r o w ' s - f e e t at my e y e s — " I ' m h e r e b e c a u s e I ' m h e a r i n g a v o i c e and it's saying thud," and t h e n e a c h t i m e , standing i n front o f this full-length m i r r o r , smelly and w e a r i n g a floppy b l a c k velvet hat, I start to laugh. I f I laugh, I'll o b v i o u s l y b l o w m y c o v e r . T h e n again, i f I d o n ' t laugh, and i f I tell t h e w h o l e truth a b o u t m y h i s t o r y save for this o n e little s y m p t o m , a s R o s e n h a n and c o m p a n y did i n t h e o r i g i n a l e x p e r i m e n t , w e l l , t h e n I m i g h t really g o t h e w a y o f t h e ward. T h e r e i s o n e significant difference i n m y retest setup. N o n e o f R o s e n h a n ' s folks had any p s y c h i a t r i c history. I, h o w e v e r , have a f o r m i d a b l e p s y c h i a t r i c h i s t o r y that i n c l u d e s lots o f l o c k u p s , a l t h o u g h , really, I ' m fine now. I d e c i d e I'll fake m y history, d e n y any p s y c h i a t r i c i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e past, and this lie, I k n o w , is a radical d e p a r t u r e from t h e o r i g i n a l p r o tocol.

Thud.

I kiss t h e b a b y g o o d - b y e . I kiss my husband g o o d b y e . I haven't s h o w e r e d for five days. My teeth are smeary. I am w e a r i n g paintsplattered b l a c k leggings and a T-shirt that says, "I hate my generation." " H o w do I l o o k ? " I say. " T h e same," m y h u s b a n d says.

I D R I V E T H E R E . T h e r e is n o t h i n g like a road trip in early a u t u m n . O u t s i d e t h e city, t h e air is fragrant w i t h feed and leaves. A red b a r n sits s e r e n e l y in a field b e n e a t h a sky w i t h s c u d d i n g c l o u d s and clear shots o f sunlight. T o m y left a river boils, w h i t e w i t h f o a m from the r e c e n t rains. It rears up, smashes i t s e l f hysterically o n t o t h e flat backs o f r o c k s , like a w o m a n flinging h e r s e l f d o w n , l e t t i n g e v e r y t h i n g l o o s e , a l l u v i u m , silt, p e b b l e s from a m u r k y a n c i e n t history. I have c h o s e n a hospital m i l e s o u t o f t o w n w i t h a n e m e r g e n c y r o o m set up specifically for p s y c h i a t r i c issues. I have also c h o s e n a

hospital w i t h an e x c e l l e n t reputation, so f a c t o r that in. It is on a hill. It has a w i n d i n g drive. I n o r d e r t o e n t e r t h e p s y c h E R , y o u must stand i n front o f a f o r m i d a b l e b a n k of d o o r s in a bustling w h i t e hallway a n d press a buzzer, at w h i c h p o i n t a v o i c e o v e r an i n t e r c o m calls o u t , " C a n I h e l p y o u ? " A n d y o u say, " Y e s . " I say, " Y e s . " T h e d o o r s o p e n . T h e y appear t o part w i t h o u t any e v i d e n c e o f h u m a n effort t o reveal a t r i o o f p o l i c e m e n sitting i n t h e shadows, their silver badges tossing light. O n a T V m o u n t e d h i g h i n o n e c o r ner, s o m e o n e s h o o t s a h o r s e — b a n g — t h e bullet e x p l o d e s a star in t h e fine forehead, b l o o d on b l a c k fur. " N a m e ? " a nurse says, b r i n g i n g me to a registration desk. " L u c y S c h e l l m a n , " I say. " A n d h o w d o y o u spell S c h e l l m a n ? " she asks. I ' m a t e r r i b l e speller and I hadn't c o u n t e d on this little p h o n e t i c hurdle; I do my best. " S - H - E - L - M - E - N , " I say. T h e nurse w r i t e s i t d o w n , studying t h e i d i o s y n c r a t i c spelling. " T h a t ' s an o d d n a m e , " she says. "It's plural." " W e l l , " I say, " i t was an Ellis Island thing. It h a p p e n e d at Ellis Island." S h e l o o k s u p a t m e a n d t h e n scribbles s o m e t h i n g I c a n n o t see o n the paper. I ' m w o r r i e d she's g o i n g to t h i n k I have a delusion that involves Ellis Island so I say,"I've n e v e r b e e n to Ellis Island; it's a f a m ily story." " R a c e , " she says. " J e w i s h , " I say. I w o n d e r if I s h o u l d have said Protestant. T h e fact is I am J e w i s h , b u t I ' m also p a r a n o i d — n o t as a g e n e r a l rule, of c o u r s e , but at this particular p o i n t — a n d I d o n ' t w a n t t h e J e w i s h t h i n g used against m e . Of what

am

I

so

scared?

No

one

can

commit

me.

Since

R o s e n h a n s study, i n part b e c a u s e o f R o s e n h a n s study, c o m m i t m e n t laws are far m o r e s t r i n g e n t , a n d so l o n g as I d e n y h o m i c i d a l or s u i c i dal urges, I ' m a free w o m a n . " Y o u ' r e a free w o m a n , L a u r e n , " I tell m

y s e l f , w h i l e i n t h e b a c k o f m y m i n d i s that rushing hysterical river

W l

t h its b u r i e d a l l u v i u m a n d s t i n k — s m a s h smash.

I am in c o n t r o l . I tell this to m y s e l f w h i l e t h e rivers rush. I d o n ' t feel i n c o n t r o l t h o u g h . A t any m o m e n t s o m e o n e m i g h t r e c o g n i z e m y gig. As s o o n as I say, " T h u d , " any w e l l - r e a d psychiatrist c o u l d say, " Y o u ' r e a trickster. I k n o w t h e e x p e r i m e n t . " I pray t h e psychiatrists are n o t w e l l read. I am b a n k i n g on this. T h i s e m e r g e n c y r o o m i s e e r i l y familiar t o m e . T h e nurse takes t h e n a m e that is n o t my n a m e and t h e address that does n o t exist; I m a k e u p a street w i t h a lovely s o u n d t o it: R u m R o w , 3 3 R u m R o w , a place w h e r e pirates g r o w g r e e n things i n t h e i r gardens. T h e e m e r g e n c y r o o m is similar b e c a u s e in my past I have b e e n in m a n y that w e r e j u s t like this for u n d e n i a b l y real p s y c h i a t r i c s y m p t o m s , b u t that was a l o n g t i m e ago. Still, t h e smells b r i n g me b a c k : sweat a n d fresh c o t t o n a n d b l a n k n e s s . I feel n o sense o f t r i u m p h , j u s t sadness, for t h e r e is real suffering s o m e w h e r e h e r e , a n d a h o r s e c r u m p l e s i n t o hay w i t h a scarlet star on his f o r e h e a d , a n d t h e s m e l l is t h e smell a n d t h e nurse is t h e nurse; n o t h i n g c h a n g e s . I am b r o u g h t to a small r o o m that has a s t r e t c h e r w i t h b l a c k straps a t t a c h e d t o it. " S i t , " t h e E R nurse tells m e , a n d t h e n i n walks a m a n , closing the d o o r behind h i m — c l i c k click. " I ' m M r . Graver," h e says,"a c l i n i c a l nurse specialist, and I ' m g o i n g to take y o u r pulse." A h u n d r e d beats p e r m i n u t e . " T h a t ' s a little fast," says M r . Graver. " I ' d say it's o n t h e v e r y h i g h side o f n o r m a l . B u t o f c o u r s e , w h o w o u l d n ' t be n e r v o u s , given w h e r e y o u are a n d all. I m e a n , it's a psych E R . T h a t w o u l d m a k e a n y o n e n e r v o u s . " A n d h e shoots m e a kind, soft smile. "Say," he says, " c a n I offer y o u a glass of s p r i n g w a t e r ? " A n d b e f o r e I c a n answer, he's j u m p e d up, disappeared, o n l y to r e e m e r g e w i t h a tall flared glass, almost elegant, a n d a single l e m o n slice of t h e palest w h i t e - y e l l o w . T h e l e m o n slice s e e m s s u d d e n l y s o beautiful t o m e , the w a y i t flirts w i t h c o l o r b u t c a n n o t q u i t e assume it, t h e way its w h i t e ness is tentative, h o w it c o m e s to t h e cusp, always. H e hands m e t h e glass. T h i s , also, I h a d n o t e x p e c t e d — s u c h k i n d ness, s u c h s e r v i c e . R o s e n h a n w r i t e s a b o u t b e i n g d e h u m a n i z e d . S o

far, i f anyone's d e h u m a n i z e d here, it's M r . Graver, w h o i s fast b e c o m ing m y o w n p e r s o n a l butler. I take a sip. " T h a n k y o u so m u c h , " I say. " I s t h e r e a n y t h i n g else I c a n get y o u ? A r e y o u h u n g r y ? " " O h no n o , " I say. " I ' m fine really." " W e l l , n o offense b u t y o u ' r e o b v i o u s l y n o t fine," says M r . Graver. " O r y o u w o u l d n ' t b e h e r e . S o what's g o i n g o n , L u c y ? " h e asks. " I ' m h e a r i n g a v o i c e , " I say. H e w r i t e s that d o w n o n his i n t a k e s h e e t , nods k n o w i n g l y . " A n d the voice is saying?" "Thud." T h e k n o w i n g n o d stops. " T h u d ? " h e says. T h i s , after all, i s n o t w h a t p s y c h o t i c v o i c e s usually r e p o r t . T h e y usually s e n d o m i n o u s messages a b o u t stars a n d snakes a n d tiny h i d d e n m i c r o p h o n e s . " T h u d , " I repeat. " I s that I T ? " h e says. " T h a t ' s it," I say. " D i d t h e v o i c e start slowly, o r did i t j u s t c o m e o n ? " " O u t of t h e blue," I say, a n d I p i c t u r e , for s o m e reason, a plane falling o u t o f t h e b l u e , its n o s e diving d o w n w a r d , s o m e o n e screams. I am starting, actually, to feel a little crazy. H o w hard it is to separate role

from

reality, a

phenomenon

social

psychologists

have

long

p o i n t e d o u t to us. I r u b my t e m p l e s . " S o w h e n did t h e v o i c e c o m e o n ? " M r . G r a v e r asks. " T h r e e w e e k s ago," I say, j u s t as R o s e n h a n a n d his c o n f e d e r a t e s reported. H e asks m e w h e t h e r I a m e a t i n g a n d s l e e p i n g okay, w h e t h e r t h e r e have b e e n any p r e c i p i t a t i n g life stressors, w h e t h e r I have a h i s t o r y of trauma. I a n s w e r a definitive no to all of t h e s e things; my appetite is g o o d , sleep n o r m a l , m y w o r k p r o c e e d s a s usual. " A r e y o u s u r e ? " h e says. " W e l l , " I say, "as far as t h e t r a u m a g o e s , I guess w h e n I was in t h e third grade a n e i g h b o r n a m e d M r . B l a u e r fell i n t o his p o o l a n d died. I didn't see it, b u t it was sort of t r a u m a t i c to h e a r a b o u t . "

M r . G r a v e r c h e w s o n his p e n . H e ' s t h i n k i n g hard. I r e m e m b e r M r . B l a u e r , a n O r t h o d o x J e w i s h m a n . H e d i e d o n S h a b b a t , his y a r m u l k e floating t o t h e t o p o f t h e p o o l , a d e e p velvet b l u e , j u s t b o b b i n g there. " T h u d , " M r . G r a v e r says. " Y o u r n e i g h b o r w e n t t h u d i n t o his p o o l . Y o u ' r e h e a r i n g 'thud.' W e m i g h t b e l o o k i n g a t p o s t - t r a u m a t i c stress disorder. T h e h a l l u c i n a t i o n c o u l d b e y o u r m e m o r y t r y i n g t o process t h e trauma." " B u t it really wasn't a b i g deal," I say. " I t was j u s t . . . " " I ' d say," he says, his v o i c e g a i n i n g c o n f i d e n c e n o w , " t h a t h a v i n g a n e i g h b o r d r o w n c o n s t i t u t e s a t r a u m a t i c loss. I ' m g o i n g t o g e t t h e psychiatrist to evaluate y o u , b u t I really suspect w e ' r e l o o k i n g at p o s t - t r a u m a t i c stress disorder w i t h a rule o u t o f o r g a n i c b r a i n d a m age, b u t t h e b r a i n d a m a g e is w a y far d o w n t h e l i n e . I w o u l d n ' t w o r r y a b o u t that." H e disappears. H e i s g o i n g t o get t h e psychiatrist. M y pulse goes from 1 0 0 t o 1 5 0 a t l e a s t — I c a n feel i t — f o r surely t h e psychiatrist will see r i g h t t h r o u g h m e , o r w o r s e , h e w i l l w i n d u p b e i n g s o m e o n e I k n o w , from h i g h s c h o o l , a n d h o w w i l l I e x p l a i n m y s e l f ? T h e psychiatrist e n t e r s t h e little l o c k e d r o o m . H e i s w e a r i n g b a b y b l u e scrubs a n d has n o c h i n . H e l o o k s hard a t m e . I l o o k away. H e sits d o w n , a n d t h e n h e sighs. " S o y o u ' r e h e a r i n g ' t h u d , ' " h e says, s c r a t c h i n g t h e chinless c h i n . " W h a t c a n w e d o for y o u a b o u t t h a t ? " " I c a m e h e r e b e c a u s e I'd like t h e v o i c e t o g o away." " I s t h e v o i c e c o m i n g from inside o r o u t s i d e y o u r h e a d ? " h e asks. "Outside." " D o e s i t e v e r say a n y t h i n g o t h e r than t h u d , like, m a y b e , kill s o m e one, or yourself?" "I d o n ' t w a n t to kill a n y o n e or myself," I say. " W h a t day o f t h e w e e k i s i t ? " h e asks. N o w , h e r e I r u n i n t o a n o t h e r p r o b l e m . It's actually a holiday w e e k e n d , s o m y sense o f t i m e i s a little t h r o w n off. S e n s e o f t i m e i s o n e w a y psychiatrists j u d g e w h e t h e r a p e r s o n i s n o r m a l o r a b n o r m a l . "It's Saturday," I say, I pray. H e w r i t e s s o m e t h i n g d o w n . " O k a y , " h e says. " S o y o u ' r e e x p e r i e n c -

i n g this v o i c e i n t h e a b s e n c e o f A N Y O T H E R p s y c h i a t r i c s y m p toms." " D o I have p o s t - t r a u m a t i c stress disorder," I ask, " l i k e M r . G r a v e r suggested?" " T h e r e ' s a lot w e d o n ' t k n o w i n psychiatry," t h e d o c t o r says, a n d suddenly h e l o o k s s o sad. H e rubs t h e b r i d g e o f his n o s e , his eyes m o m e n t a r i l y c l o s e d . W i t h his h e a d b o w e d , I c a n see a small bald spot, t h e size o f M r . B l a u e r ' s y a r m u l k e o n t h e d o m e o f his scalp, a n d I w a n t to say, " H e y . It's okay. T h e r e ' s a l o t we d o n ' t k n o w in t h e w o r l d . " B u t instead I say n o t h i n g a n d t h e psychiatrist l o o k s sad, a n d baffled, and t h e n says, " B u t t h e v o i c e i s b o t h e r i n g y o u . " " S o r t of, yeah." " I ' m g o i n g to give y o u an a n t i p s y c h o t i c , " he says, a n d as s o o n as he says this, t h e sadness g o e s away. H i s v o i c e assumes an a u t h o r i t a t i v e t o n e ; t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g he c a n do. A pill is so m u c h m o r e than a pill. It's a p o i n t o f p u n c t u a t i o n . I t breaks u p t h e b l u r r y l o n g lines b e t w e e n this and that. S t o p h e r e . Start h e r e . B e g i n . " I ' m g o i n g t o give y o u R i s p e r d a l , " h e says. " T h a t s h o u l d q u i e t t h e auditory c e n t e r s i n y o u r brain." " S o y o u t h i n k I ' m p s y c h o t i c ? " I ask. " I t h i n k y o u have a t o u c h o f psychosis," h e says, b u t I g e t t h e f e e l ing he has to say this, n o w that he's p r e s c r i b i n g R i s p e r d a l . Y o u can't p r e s c r i b e an a n t i p s y c h o t i c unless y o u r diagnosis supports that. It b e c o m e s fairly clear t o m e that m e d i c a t i o n drives t h e d e c i s i o n s , and n o t t h e o t h e r w a y a r o u n d . In R o s e n h a n ' s day it was p r e e x i s t i n g p s y c h o a n a l y t i c s c h e m a t h a t d e t e r m i n e d w h a t was w r o n g ; i n o u r days, it's t h e p r e e x i s t i n g p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l s c h e m a , t h e pill. E i t h e r way, R o s e n h a n ' s p o i n t that diagnosis d o e s n o t reside i n t h e p e r s o n s e e m s to stand. " B u t do I appear p s y c h o t i c ? " I ask. H e l o o k s a t m e . H e l o o k s for a l o n g l o n g t i m e . " A little," h e finally says. " Y o u ' r e k i d d i n g m e , " I say, r e a c h i n g up to adjust my hat. " Y o u l o o k , " h e says, " a little p s y c h o t i c a n d q u i t e depressed. A n d

depression can have p s y c h o t i c features, s o I ' m g o i n g t o p r e s c r i b e y o u an antidepressant as w e l l . " " I l o o k d e p r e s s e d ? " I e c h o . T h i s actually w o r r i e s m e b e c a u s e depression hits c l o s e r t o h o m e . I've h a d i t b e f o r e and, w h o k n o w s , m a y b e I ' m g e t t i n g it again, a n d he sees it b e f o r e I do. M a y b e this e x p e r i m e n t i s m a k i n g m e depressed, d r i v i n g m e crazy, o r m a y b e I c h o s e t o d o this e x p e r i m e n t a s a w a y o f u n c o n s c i o u s l y r e a c h i n g o u t for help. T h e w o r l d is all haze. H e w r i t e s o u t m y p r e s c r i p t i o n s . T h e e n t i r e i n t e r v i e w takes less than t e n m i n u t e s . I a m o u t o f t h e r e i n t i m e t o eat C h i n e s e w i t h t h e real L u c y S c h e l l m a n , w h o says, " Y o u s h o u l d ' v e said, ' t h w a c k ' instead o f ' t h u d , ' o r ' b a m b a m . ' It's e v e n funnier." L a t e r o n , I fill my p r e s c r i p t i o n s at t h e a l l - n i g h t p h a r m a c y . A n d then, in

the

spirit

of experimentation, I

take

the

antipsychotic

R i s p e r d a l , j u s t o n e little pill, a n d I fall i n t o s u c h a d e e p c h a r c o a l sleep that n o t a s o u n d c o m e s t h r o u g h , a n d I float, weightless, in a n o t h e r w o r l d , s e e i n g v a g u e s h a p e s — t r e e s , rabbits, angels, s h i p s — b u t as hard as I peer, I c a n o n l y w o n d e r w h a t is w h a t .

I T ' S A L I T T L E fun, g o i n g i n t o E R s a n d playing this g a m e , so o v e r t h e n e x t e i g h t days I d o i t e i g h t m o r e t i m e s , nearly t h e n u m b e r o f admissions R o s e n h a n a r r a n g e d . E a c h t i m e , o f c o u r s e , I a m d e n i e d a d m i s s i o n — I d e n y I am a threat a n d I assure p e o p l e I am able to do m y w o r k a n d take care o f m y c h i l d — b u t strangely e n o u g h , m o s t t i m e s I am g i v e n a diagnosis of depression w i t h p s y c h o t i c features, e v e n t h o u g h , I am n o w sure, after a t h o r o u g h s e l f - i n v e n t o r y a n d t h e s o l i c i t e d o p i n i o n s o f m y friends a n d m y physician b r o t h e r , I a m really n o t depressed. As an aside, b u t an i m p o r t a n t o n e , a p s y c h o t i c d e p r e s s i o n is n e v e r m i l d ; in t h e DSM it is listed in t h e severe category, accompanied

by

gross

and

unmistakable

motor

and

intellectual

i m p a i r m e n t s . " N o , y o u d o n ' t s e e m depressed like that, o r a t all," m y friends a n d b r o t h e r tell m e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n t h e E R s I a m s e e n a s such, this despite m y d e n y i n g all s y m p t o m s o f t h e d i s o r d e r — a n d I

a m p r e s c r i b e d a total o f t w e n t y - f i v e a n t i p s y c h o t i c s a n d sixty a n t i depressants. A t n o p o i n t d o e s a n i n t e r v i e w last l o n g e r t h a n t w e l v e a n d a h a l f m i n u t e s , a l t h o u g h at m o s t places I n e e d e d to w a i t an average o f t w o a n d a h a l f h o u r s i n t h e w a i t i n g r o o m s . N o o n e e v e r asks me, beyond a cursory religious-orientation question, about my cultural b a c k g r o u n d ; n o o n e asks m e i f t h e v o i c e i s o f t h e s a m e g e n d e r as I; no o n e gives me a full m e n t a l status e x a m , w h i c h i n c l u d e s m o r e detailed and easily a d m i n i s t e r e d tests to i n d i c a t e t h e gross d i s o r g a n i zation

of thinking

that

almost

always

accompanies

psychosis.

E v e r y o n e , h o w e v e r , takes m y pulse.

I C A L L B A C K R o b e r t S p i t z e r a t C o l u m b i a ' s Institute for B i o m e t r i c s . " S o what do you predict would happen if a researcher were to repeat t h e R o s e n h a n e x p e r i m e n t in this day and a g e ? " I ask. " T h e r e s e a r c h e r w o u l d n ' t b e a d m i t t e d , " h e says. " B u t w o u l d they be diagnosed? W h a t w o u l d the doctors do about that?" " I f they o n l y said w h a t R o s e n h a n and his confederates said?" h e asks. " Y e a h , " I say " T h u d , h o l l o w , o r e m p t y a s t h e o n l y s y m p t o m s ? " h e says. " Y e a h , " I say. " T h e y w o u l d b e g i v e n a diagnosis o f deferred. T h a t ' s w h a t I p r e dict w o u l d h a p p e n , b e c a u s e t h u d , h o l l o w , a n d e m p t y as isolated symptoms don't yield e n o u g h information." " O k a y , " I say. " L e t me tell y o u , I t r i e d this e x p e r i m e n t . I actually did it." " Y o u ? " h e says, a n d pauses. " Y o u ' r e k i d d i n g m e . " I w o n d e r i f I h e a r defensiveness e d g i n g i n t o his v o i c e . " A n d w h a t h a p p e n e d ? " he says. I tell h i m . I tell h i m I was n o t g i v e n a d e f e r r e d diagnosis, b u t that almost e v e r y t i m e I was given a diagnosis of p s y c h o t i c depression plus a p o u c h of pills. " W h a t k i n d o f pills?" h e asks.

"Antidepressants, a n t i p s y c h o t i c s . " " W h a t kind o f a n t i p s y c h o t i c s ? " h e asks. " R i s p e r d a l , " I say. " W e l l , " he says, and I p i c t u r e h i m tapping his p e n against t h e side of his skull, "that's a v e r y light a n t i p s y c h o t i c y o u k n o w . " " L i g h t , " I say. " T h e p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l r e n d i t i o n o f l o w f a t ? " " Y o u have a n attitude," h e tells m e , " l i k e R o s e n h a n d i d . Y o u w e n t in w i t h a bias and y o u f o u n d w h a t y o u w e r e l o o k i n g for." "I w e n t in," I say, " w i t h a t h u d , and from that o n e w o r d a w h o l e s c h e m a was w o v e n and pills w e r e given despite t h e fact that n o o n e really k n o w s h o w o r w h y t h e pills w o r k o r really w h a t t h e i r safety is." Spitzer, in his b i o m e t r i c s lab at C o l u m b i a , doesn't say a n y t h i n g . I w o n d e r w h a t a b i o m e t r i c s lab really is. It hadn't o c c u r r e d to me until n o w t o q u e s t i o n that title, o r q u e s t i o n w h a t i n t h e w o r l d a p s y c h i a trist was d o i n g there. Bio metric. T h e m e a s u r e m e n t of life. I see h i m , now, s u r r o u n d e d by b o t t l e s , test tubes, e a c h o n e filled w i t h a c h e m i cal c o l o r — A t l a n t i c b l u e for depression, e l e c t r i c g r e e n for m a n i a , plain o l d happiness a lavender mist. A n d still S p i t z e r is silent. I w a n t to ask, " W h a t e x a c t l y is it that y o u do, on a d a y - t o - d a y basis?" b u t t h e n , he clears his throat. " I ' m disapp o i n t e d , " he says, and I t h i n k I h e a r real defeat, t h e s l u m p i n g of shoulders, t h e p e n put d o w n . "I t h i n k , " S p i t z e r says slowly, a n d t h e r e is a r a w h o n e s t y in his v o i c e now, "I t h i n k d o c t o r s j u s t d o n ' t like to say 'I d o n ' t know.' " " T h a t ' s true," I say, " a n d I also t h i n k t h e zeal to p r e s c r i b e drives diagnosis in o u r day, m u c h like t h e zeal to p a t h o l o g i z e drove d i a g n o sis in R o s e n h a n ' s day, b u t e i t h e r way, it d o e s s e e m to be m o r e a p r o d u c t o f fashion, o r fad." I a m t h i n k i n g this: I n t h e 1 9 7 0 s A m e r i c a n d o c t o r s d i a g n o s e d s c h i z o p h r e n i a i n t h e i r patients m a n y t i m e s m o r e than B r i t i s h d o c t o r s did. S c h i z o p h r e n i a was i n v o g u e this side o f t h e sea. A n d now, i n t h e t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y , diagnosis o f d e p r e s s i o n has r i s e n dramatically, a s have t h o s e o f p o s t - t r a u m a t i c stress disorder and a t t e n t i o n - d e f i c i t h y p e r a c t i v i t y disorder. I t appears, therefore, that n o t o n l y d o t h e i n c i -

d e n c e s o f c e r t a i n diagnoses rise a n d fall d e p e n d i n g o n p u b l i c p e r c e p t i o n , b u t also t h e d o c t o r s w h o are g i v i n g these labels are still d o i n g so w i t h perhaps t o o little regard for t h e DSM c r i t e r i a t h e field d i c t a t e s — t h e c r i t e r i a t o e n s u r e against sloppy g u e s s w o r k , t h e c r i t e r i a o u t o f w h i c h g r o w t h e t r e a t m e n t plan, t h e prognosis, t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e person's past, t h e future, folding toward t h e m .

H E R E ' S W H A T ' S D I F F E R E N T : I was not a d m i t t e d . T h i s is a v e r y significant difference. N o o n e e v e n t h o u g h t a b o u t a d m i t t i n g m e . I was m i s l a b e l e d b u t n o t l o c k e d up. H e r e ' s a n o t h e r t h i n g that's different: every single m e d i c a l professional was n i c e t o m e . R o s e n h a n and his confederates felt d i m i n i s h e d by t h e i r diagnoses; I, for w h a t e v e r r e a son, was treated w i t h palpable kindness. O n e psychiatrist t o u c h e d m y arm. O n e psychiatrist said, " L o o k , I k n o w it's scary for y o u , it must be, h e a r i n g a v o i c e like that, b u t I really have a feeling that t h e R i s p e r d a l will take care of this i m m e d i a t e l y . " In his words, I heard my words, t h e o n e s I, as a p s y c h o l o g i s t , often use w i t h patients: You have this. The medication will do this- A n d I speak such words n o t to p r o m e nade m y p o w e r , b u t j u s t t o d o s o m e t h i n g , t o b r i n g a b a l m , s o m e h o w . If we can o n l y fix a m y s t e r y in s p a c e — A t l a n t i c b l u e depression, the haziness o f happiness a n d w h e r e o n t h e c o n t i n u u m i t l i e s — i f w e can o n l y pin t h e s e things d o w n for j u s t t h e t i m e it takes a n e u r o n to pulse, well t h e n m a y b e w e c o u l d get o u r hands a n d heads a r o u n d e m o t i o n , sculpt it to b r i n g s o m e solace. I b e l i e v e this is w h a t drove the psychiatrists I saw, n o t pigheadedness. O n e psychiatrist, u p o n h a n d i n g m e m y p r e s c r i p t i o n , said, " D o n ' t fall t h r o u g h t h e c r a c k s , Lucy. W e w a n t t o see y o u b a c k h e r e i n t w o days for a f o l l o w - u p . A n d k n o w w e ' r e h e r e t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s a day, for a n y t h i n g y o u n e e d . I m e a n that. A N Y T H I N G . " I felt so guilty t h e n , so t o u c h e d . " T h a n k y o u so m u c h , " I said. "I can't tell y o u h o w m u c h y o u r kindness m e a n s . " " B e well," h e said. T h e n he disappeared t h r o u g h t h e s w i n g i n g glass doors, a n d I w e n t

o u t i n t o the night, w h e r e the stars w e r e n u m e r o u s and accusing, like c o l d c o i n s pressed against b l a c k tin, and w h e n I t u r n e d b a c k to l o o k at the E R , its w i n d o w s w e r e blazing, and there was a sharp s c r e a m — h u m a n pain in so m a n y forms, and o n e person's desire to k e e p a n o t h e r c o m p a n y , t o k e e p kin, t o break bread, and b r i n g l e m o n s i n water. T h i s is t h e h u m a n side of psychiatry, and it should be celebrated.

N O W , T H R E E W E E K S have passed s i n c e m y last E R d e b a c l e , and o u t o f t h e blue, m y d a u g h t e r has d e v e l o p e d a n obsession w i t h B a n d - A i d s . H e r dolls have m a n y hurts n o t visible t o t h e h u m a n eye. I c o m e h o m e a t t h e e n d o f t h e day and f i n d B a n d - A i d s applied t o t h e e x p o s e d f l o o r j o i s t s , t h e k i t c h e n c a b i n e t s , t h e walls, as t h o u g h t h e walls t h e m s e l v e s are w o u n d e d . O u r h o u s e hurts, a n d i t i s o l d . I n t h e n i g h t i t creaks. M y d a u g h t e r c r i e s . S o m e t i m e s she c r i e s for n o reason a t all, e x c e p t , I t h i n k , that t h e r e are thuds w e c a n n o t c a p t u r e , and w h e n this k n o w l e d g e dawns o n her, she t h r o w s h e r s e l f t o t h e f l o o r a n d s c r e a m s , " I j u s t w a n t t o g o t o t h e z o o ! " I c o m f o r t her, t h e n , w i t h B a n d - A i d s . O n e for y o u , o n e for m e , until w e are w r a p p e d . S h e loves t o s e e m e slide t h e B a n d - A i d s o u t o f t h e i r c o n t a i n e d c a r d b o a r d b o x e s , lift t h e p a p e r w r a p p e r to my t e e t h , tear a slit, a n d t h e n , m o m e n t s later, p e e l b a c k the plastic layers to reveal t h e sticky tabs, t h e p l u m p c o t t o n pad s m a c k in t h e tape's taupe c e n t e r . I lay it on h e r skin. T h e B a n d - A i d s s o o t h e , even t h o u g h w e don't k n o w j u s t w h a t o r w h e r e h e r w o u n d is.

ROSENHAN

U S E D T H E results o f his study t o discredit p s y c h i a t r y as

a m e d i c a l specialty. B u t are t h e r e n o t many, m a n y diseases o r w o u n d s i n o u r c o u n t r y ' s pain

c l i n i c s , o n c o l o g y c e n t e r s , p e d i a t r i c wards,

w h e r e e t i o l o g y , p a t h o g e n e s i s , e v e n label itself, are hazy? D o e s the w o m a n have f i b r o m y a l g i a o r E p s t e i n - B a r r virus? D o e s t h e p e r s o n have epilepsy o r a brain t u m o r t o o small t o b e d e t e c t e d ? F o r a t i m e R o s e n h a n h i m s e l f was suffering f r o m a m y s t e r i o u s disease that c o u l d be

given many

names, depending on

the

practitioner. W h a t we

k n e w : H e c o u l d n o t speak. H e c o u l d n o t b r e a t h e w i t h o u t his e x t e r i o r lung. W h a t w e d o n ' t k n o w : why, h o w , t h e m i l l i o n s o f ways a b o d y g o e s b a d , h o w t o heal o r e v e n help. I'd like v e r y m u c h t o help R o s e n h a n , w h o a s o f this w r i t i n g i s still in a W e s t C o a s t hospital, paralyzed, e v e n his v o c a l cords. H i s friend F l o r e n c e K e l l e r says t o m e , " H e ' s had s o m a n y tragedies. T h r e e years ago his wife M o l l y died o f l u n g c a n c e r . T h e n t w o years a g o his daughter N i n a died in a car crash in E n g l a n d . It's b e e n t o o m u c h for h i m . " T h e r e f o r e , I'd like to tell h i m I redid his study a n d h a d a g r a n d old t i m e , b e c a u s e I t h i n k i t w o u l d please h i m t o k n o w this. H e is, now, at s e v e n t y - n i n e - y e a r s old, at t h e eve of his life a n d will s o o n perform

the

greatest

experiment

o f all,

the

stepping

over

into

a n o t h e r w o r l d , from w h e r e t h e results are n e v e r ever r e t u r n e d . I w o u l d like t o g o visit R o s e n h a n . " I d o n ' t t h i n k n o w w o u l d b e a g o o d t i m e , " J a c k , his s o n , says. " H e still can't talk a n d he's v e r y tired." B u t it's n o t talking I ' m after. I'd j u s t like to see h i m . I p i c t u r e , r i g h t now, a nurse b a t h i n g h i m . I p i c t u r e w h a t I w o u l d b r i n g to h i m , this essay, perhaps, m y c o p y o f his o r i g i n a l article, all u n d e r l i n e d and starred, t o s h o w h i m h o w w e last, h o w o u r w o r d s fold i n t o t h e future. I d o n ' t even k n o w t h e m a n , b u t I have an u n r e a s o n a b l e f o n d ness for h i m . I ' m partial t o j o k e s t e r s , t o adventures, t o p e o p l e i n pain. A s a n e x - m e n t a l patient, I ' m impressed w i t h a n y o n e w h o cares t o understand t h e i n t r i c a c i e s o f that distant w o r l d . S o I w o u l d b r i n g R o s e n h a n gifts, this essay, an apple, a w a t c h w i t h a face large e n o u g h t o see t h e swirl o f t i m e , and f r o m m y daughter, b o x e s a n d b o x e s o f Band-Aids.

4 In the Unlikely Event of a Water Landing DARLEY MANUAL—A

AND

LATANE'S

FIVE-STAGE

TRAINING APPROACH

In 1964 there occurred a bizarre crime in New York City that catalyzed two young psychologists to investigate uHtness behavior. Although John Darley and Bibb Latane were not Jewish, and never explicitly or implicitly tied their work to Nazi Germany, the results of their experiments in human helping behavior have been used in the service of a particular twentieth-century Western obsession: comprehending the Holocaust. Darley and Latane devised a series of experiments wherein they tested the conditions necessary for people to ignore one another's cries for aid, and the conditions wherein compassion holds sway. In some ways similar to Milgram's experiment on the surface, Darley and Latane's work has deeper significant differences. Milgram was looking at obedience to a single authority. Darley and Latane were looking at the opposite: what happens when, in a group crisis, there is no authority to take charge.

I.

YOU,

Y

THE

POTENTIAL

AN

EVENT

HELPER., IS

MUST

NOTICE

OCCURRING

esterday I o r d e r e d my gas masks, o n e for t h e baby, o n e for m e .

My h u s b a n d thinks this is crazy and refuses to be i n c l u d e d . It

i s S e p t e m b e r 2 6 , 2 0 0 1 , early fall, lyrical light, t h e T w i n T o w e r s d o w n b u t still s m o l d e r i n g . N o t l o n g a g o I r e c e i v e d an e m a i l that read:

Warning: G e r m Warfare Do

not

open

any

blue

envelope

from

The

Klingerman

Foundation if it c o m e s to you in the mail. T h e s e supposed "gifts" contain small sponges loaded with the K l i n g e r m a n virus, w h i c h has so far killed twenty A m e r i c a n s . . .

P r o b a b l y a h o a x , but still. In a congressional w h i t e paper of far m o r e authority I recently read h o w easy it w o u l d be to disseminate anthrax: put the virus in an aerosol bottle, depress t h e plastic nozzle, and w a t c h the w h i t e mist rise i n t o the air. My h u s b a n d says, " L e t ' s focus on t h e real e m e r g e n c y , w h i c h i s t h e d e c l i n e o f civil liberties and t h e buildup o f troops i n t h e Persian Gulf." B u t w h a t i s t h e real e m e r g e n c y ? T h e situation in this c o u n t r y is suddenly so a m b i g u o u s , difficult to decipher. T h e r e f o r e , I have ordered my gas m a s k s — i t has c o m e to t h i s — f r o m a military supply store in V i r g i n i a . T h e y arrive at my d o o r in a swift t w e n t y - f o u r hours, and n o w I u n p a c k t h e m . I am surprised to see that b e n e a t h the plain cardboard c a r t o n , t h e masks are delicately, even l o v ingly wrapped, the way s o m e soaps are, in pale green tissue paper that emits a soft lavender scent. I u n w r a p the tissue paper, layer after luscious c r u m p l e d layer, until I get to the source, until I see the s h o c k of black rubber, t h e canisters shaped like snouts, t h e straps w i t h b i g b u c k les, and the shield for t h e eyes. H e r e t h e y are. Perhaps I have o v e r reacted. J o h n M . D a r l e y and B i b b Latane, t w o psychologists w h o have studied t h e h u m a n propensity to d e n y e m e r g e n c i e s , m i g h t say n o . " G i v e n t h e w o r k o f D a r l e y and Latane," says psychiatrist Susan M a h l e r , " w e should n o w k n o w that the best way to respond to possible crisis is to err on t h e side of c a u t i o n . " N o w I p i c k up my gas mask and try it on. It fits to my face w i t h a l o u d s u c k i n g sound. T h e gas mask for my daughter is really unbearable. It is so small, such a dense miniaturization of horror. I h o l d it in my hand. I call h e r over and try to put it on her, but she backs away, cries out, of course. H e l p is so hard to give.

2.

YOU

MUST IN

INTERPRET

WHICH

HELP

THE

EVENT

IS

NEEDED

AS

ONE

I n 1 9 6 4 , J o h n D a r l e y a n d B i b b L a t a n e h a d little interest i n studying styles o f crisis m a n a g e m e n t . T h e y w e r e t w o y o u n g p s y c h o l o g i s t s , assistant professors t r y i n g t o rise t h r o u g h t h e ranks o f a c a d e m i a . T h e n s o m e t h i n g h a p p e n e d . I offer t h e details h e r e n o t for t h e i r o b v i o u s s h o c k value, b u t b e c a u s e t h e y u n d e r s c o r e h o w b i z a r r e w e r e t h e responses o f t h e t h i r t y - e i g h t witnesses w h o saw t h e s c e n e a n d offered n o assistance. I t was M a r c h 1 3 , F r i d a y t h e t h i r t e e n t h actually, i n t h e year 1 9 6 4 . T h e early p r e d a w n h o u r s i n Q u e e n s , N e w Y o r k , w e r e c o o l a n d m o i s t , b r e e z e s c a r r y i n g t h e s c e n t o f snow. C a t h e r i n e G e n o v e s e , c o m m o n l y c a l l e d Kitty, was c o m i n g h o m e f r o m h e r l a t e - n i g h t shift a t t h e b a r w h e r e she w o r k e d as a m a n a g e r . G e n o v e s e , t w e n t y - e i g h t , was a s l e n d e r w o m a n w i t h p u n k i s h b l a c k hair a n d a d e l i c a t e p i x y face. H e r eyes w e r e g e m - g r e e n . S h e drove h e r c a r i n t o a p a r k i n g l o t a d j a c e n t t o h e r a p a r t m e n t , w h e r e she lived a l o n e . S h e pulled h e r c a r i n t o a space a n d s t e p p e d o u t . It was 3 A . M . S h e n o t i c e d , j u s t after h e r first strides t o w a r d h e r b u i l d i n g , a h u n c h e d figure in t h e distance, a s u s p i c i o u s - l o o k i n g m a n , so she q u i c k l y v e e r e d r i g h t , t o w a r d t h e p o l i c e call b o x o n t h e c o r n e r . C a t h e r i n e G e n o v e s e n e v e r m a d e i t t o t h e call b o x . T h e m a n , later identified as W i n s t o n M o s e l e y , s c r e w e d a k n i f e d e e p i n t o h e r b a c k , and then, w h e n she t u r n e d to face h i m , deep into h e r gut as well, and there was b l o o d . S h e screamed. S h e said, specifically, these words: " O h m y god! H e stabbed m e ! Please help m e ! Please help m e ! " Immediately, lights flickered o n i n t h e c r o w d e d u r b a n n e i g h b o r h o o d . M o s e l e y saw t h e m . In his trial he said he saw t h e lights b u t he "didn't feel these people

were

coming down

the

stairs." Instead

of c o m i n g down

s o m e o n e yelled, " L e t that girl a l o n e , " a n d s o M o s e l e y ran o f f and C a t h e r i n e , s t a b b e d i n several places, dragged h e r s e l f i n t o t h e s h a d o w o f a b o o k s t o r e d o o r , w h e r e she lay. T h e a p a r t m e n t b u i l d i n g lights w e n t o f f t h e n . T h e street was silent.

M o s e l e y , h e a d e d toward his car, heard t h e silent streets, saw t h e w i n d o w s darken, and d e c i d e d t o t u r n b a c k t o finish his j o b . First, h o w ever, he o p e n e d his c a r d o o r a n d e x c h a n g e d his s t o c k i n g cap for a fedora. T h e n h e p r o w l e d d o w n t h e street again, f o u n d t h e w o m a n c u r l e d and red a n d w e t , and started to stab w h e r e h e ' d left off, s l o t ting o p e n h e r b o d y a t t h e throat a n d genitals. A g a i n , she s c r e a m e d . A n d s c r e a m e d . M i n u t e s passed. A g a i n , lights c a m e o n i n a p a r t m e n t windows—imagine

them—dabs

of yellow

both

Catherine

and

W i n s t o n m u s t have s e e n , so there and yet so absent. A g a i n , M o s e l e y retreated, a n d n o w C a t h e r i n e m a n a g e d , s o m e h o w , t o s t u m b l e i n t o t h e hall o f h e r b u i l d i n g , w h e r e , o n c e again, m i n u t e s later, M o s e l e y found h e r a n d set o u t t o f i n i s h t h e j o b . S h e c r i e d for h e l p and t h e n stopped c r y i n g . S h e m o a n e d . H e lifted h e r skirt, c u t o f f h e r u n d e r c l o t h e s , and r e p o r t e d i n his trial, " S h e was m e n s t r u a t i n g . " T h e n , n o t k n o w i n g w h e t h e r she was dead o r alive, h e p u l l e d o u t his penis, b u t was u n a b l e t o a c h i e v e a n e r e c t i o n . S o h e lay d o w n o n t o p o f h e r body and had an orgasm then. T h i s c r i m e occurred over a thirty-five-minute period, between 3 : 1 5 a n d 3 : 5 0 A . M . I t o c c u r r e d i n a series o f t h r e e separate attacks, all o f t h e m d r a w n o u t a n d p u n c t u r e d w i t h screams for help. P e o p l e , t h e witnesses, t h o s e w h o flicked o n t h e i r lights, c o u l d b o t h h e a r a n d see. T h e y did n o t h i n g . T h e r e w e r e t h i r t y - e i g h t witnesses i n all, w a t c h i n g from t h e i r w i n d o w s as a w o m a n was s t a b b e d and snuffed. O n l y w h e n i t was over did o n e o f t h e m call t h e p o l i c e , b u t b y t h e n she was dead, and t h e a m b u l a n c e c a m e to cart h e r away, and it was four in t h e m o r n i n g , and t h o s e w h o saw w e n t b a c k t o sleep. A t f i r s t , t h e m u r d e r was r e p o r t e d like any o t h e r m u r d e r o f any other working-class w o m a n in Q u e e n s . It received a four-line m e n tion in t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n s e c t i o n of t h e New York Times. S o o n , h o w ever, t h e e d i t o r o f that s e c t i o n , A . M . R o s e n t h a l , w h o has s i n c e w r i t t e n a b o o k called Thirty-Eight Witnesses: The Kitty Genovese Case, learned that t h e r e had, i n d e e d , b e e n a sizable g r o u p o f p e o p l e w a t c h l r

i g t h e m u r d e r and d o i n g a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g t o help. T h i r t y - e i g h t

people, R o s e n t h a l reports, s t o o d b y w i n d o w s , n o r m a l

men

and

w o m e n , w h o " h e a r d h e r s c r e a m h e r last h a l f h o u r away and did n o t h ing, n o t h i n g a t all t o give h e r s u c c o r o r even c r y alarm." W h e n t h e Times r e p o r t e d n o t t h e murder, but, later, i n a series o f separate articles, t h e bizarre b e h a v i o r o f t h e bystanders, t h e n a t i o n w e n t i n t o m o r a l overdrive. L e t t e r s from readers p o u r e d in. "I feel it is t h e duty of The New York Times to try to o b t a i n t h e n a m e s of t h e w i t nesses involved and t o publish t h e list," o n e reader w r o t e . " T h e s e p e o p l e s h o u l d b e h e l d u p for p u b l i c r i d i c u l e s i n c e t h e y c a n n o t b e h e l d responsible for t h e i r i n a c t i o n . " A n o t h e r w o m a n , t h e w i f e o f a professor w r o t e , " T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e i r s i l e n c e — a n d o f t h e c o w ardice and indifference i t r e v e a l e d — a r e staggering. I f t h e laws o f N e w Y o r k State d o not prescribe s o m e form o f punishment, then w e b e l i e v e y o u r n e w s p a p e r s h o u l d pressure t h e state legislature for an a m e n d m e n t t o t h e s e laws. A n d s i n c e these p e o p l e d o n o t c h o o s e t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i r m o r a l responsibility w e feel i t w o u l d b e appropriate, as a f o r m of c e n s u r e , for t h e Times to publish, preferably on page 1, t h e n a m e s and addresses o f all t h i r t y - s e v e n p e o p l e involved." John

Darley

of N e w York

University

and

Bibb

Latane

of

C o l u m b i a University, like s o m a n y o t h e r N e w Y o r k e r s , read t h e s e l e t ters. T h e y , like e v e r y o n e else, w o n d e r e d w h y n o o n e had h e l p e d . Was i t apathy, o r w e r e t h e r e o t h e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l forces a t w o r k ? D a r l e y recalls h u n k e r i n g d o w n for a w h i l e to focus on this singular, q u i t e c u r r e n t event. E x p e r t s from all c o r n e r s offered h y p o t h e s e s to e x p l a i n w h y t h e witnesses did w h a t t h e y did. R e n e e C l a i r e F o x o f B a r n a r d C o l l e g e ' s s o c i o l o g y d e p a r t m e n t said t h e w i t n e s s e s ' b e h a v i o r was a p r o d u c t o f "affect d e n i a l " ; t h e y h a d b e e n , i n o t h e r words, s h o c k e d i n t o i n a c t i o n o r n u m b n e s s . R a l p h S . B a n a y h y p o t h e s i z e d that T V was t o b l a m e ; A m e r i c a n s , h e said, are s o s u b j e c t t o a n endless stream o f v i o l e n c e from t h e television that t h e y c a n n o l o n g e r separate real life from t h e s c r e e n . T h e s a m e D r . B a n a y also offered u p t h e proverbial p s y c h o a n a l y t i c e x p l a n a t i o n s , t h e sort o f t h i n g that, a d e c a d e later, R o s e n h a n w o u l d so discredit in his p s e u d o p a t i e n t study. B a n a y said, " T h e y [the witnesses] w e r e deaf, paralyzed, h y p n o t i z e d w i t h e x c i t a t i o n . Persons w i t h m a t u r e , well i n t e g r a t e d personalities w o u l d n o t

have a c t e d this way." K a r l M e n n i n g e r w r o t e , " P u b l i c apathy is i t s e l f a manifestation o f aggressiveness." D a r l e y a n d L a t a n e w e r e n o t happy w i t h these e x p l a n a t i o n s , i n part b e c a u s e , like M i l g r a m , t h e y w e r e e x p e r i m e n t a l social p s y c h o l o g i s t s w h o b e l i e v e d less i n t h e p o w e r o f p e r s o n a l i t y than i n t h e p o w e r o f situation, a n d in part b e c a u s e t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s defied intuitive sense. H o w does a n o r d i n a r y p e r s o n stand b y w h i l e a y o u n g w o m a n i s raped a n d m u r d e r e d in a c r i m e that s t r e t c h e d o u t o v e r h a l f an h o u r ? I t w o u l d have b e e n s o easy t o s e e k help, s o easy t o m e r e l y p i c k u p t h e p h o n e a n d call in. T h e r e was n o risk t o life o r l i m b for t h e witnesses. T h e r e c o u l d have b e e n n o d a m a g i n g legal i m p l i c a t i o n s for " g e t t i n g involved." A p o r t i o n o f t h e witnesses, w e c a n b e sure, had c h i l d r e n , and s o m e w e r e i n t h e h e l p i n g professions, s o these p e o p l e w e r e n o strangers t o c o m p a s s i o n . S o m e t h i n g m y s t e r i o u s was a t w o r k that night, t h e n i g h t K i t t y G e n o v e s e was killed, t h e n i g h t s p r i n g was c a r e e n i n g a r o u n d t h e c o r n e r o f w h a t had b e e n a m i l d w i n t e r , g r e e n buds c o m i n g early to all t h e trees, tiny n i p p l e d b r a n c h e s , o p e n i n g up.

3.

YOU

MUST

ASSUME

PERSONAL

RESPONSIBILITY

S o m e e x p e r i m e n t s start w i t h a h y p o t h e s i s , o t h e r s w i t h j u s t a q u e s t i o n . M i l g r a m , for i n s t a n c e , did n o t have a h y p o t h e s i s as to h o w his subjects w o u l d react; h e j u s t w a n t e d t o see. T h e s a m e for R o s e n h a n , w h o k n e w s o m e t h i n g w o u l d h a p p e n b u t was n o t sure w h a t . D a r l e y and L a t a n e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a d b e e n f o l l o w i n g b o t h t h e c r i m e and t h e nation's responses, a n d s o m e t h i n g didn't fit. T h e y m a y have t h o u g h t a b o u t o t h e r similar i n c i d e n t s , f o r i n s t a n c e , h o w , i f y o u ' r e i n a building a n d t h e fire a l a r m g o e s off, a n d n o o n e s e e m s w o r r i e d , y o u t o o m i g h t d e c i d e it's o k a y ; o r i f y o u ' r e w a l k i n g d o w n t h e street, and s o m e o n e falls, and n o o n e offers t o help, y o u t o o m i g h t k e e p w a l k i n g on. F o r t h e t w o p s y c h o l o g i s t s , these m u n d a n e e x a m p l e s c o u l d have held clues as to w h a t really h a p p e n e d that early s p r i n g n i g h t , b e h i n d the w i n d o w s . S o t h e y set a b o u t c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x p e r i m e n t . F o r o b v i o u s reasons

t h e y c o u l d n o t replicate a murder, so instead t h e y r e p l i c a t e d a seizure. T h e y r e c r u i t e d naive subjects a t N e w Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y ( N Y U ) t o participate i n w h a t appeared t o b e a study o f student adaptation t o urban c o l l e g e life. A student sat in a separate r o o m and s p o k e i n t o a m i c r o p h o n e for t w o m i n u t e s a b o u t t h e challenges a t N Y U . I n a series o f separate b u t a u d i o - w i r e d r o o m s w e r e tape recorders c a r r y i n g o t h e r students' stories, b u t t h e naive s u b j e c t didn't k n o w t h e v o i c e s w e r e p r e - r e c o r d e d ; t h e s u b j e c t b e l i e v e d t h e r e w e r e actual n e i g h b o r s . T h e instructions w e r e very specific. T h e naive s u b j e c t was t o wait i n turn w h i l e e a c h p r e - r e c o r d e d v o i c e c a r r i e d o n a b o u t its t r o u b l e s . W h e n t h e subject's turn c a m e , h e o r she c o u l d speak for t w o m i n u t e s . W h e n i t was n o t t h e subject's turn, t h e m i c r o p h o n e w o u l d b e off, and t h e s u b j e c t was t o listen i n a sort o f t a g - t e a m g r o u p therapy. I n the o r i g i n a l e x p e r i m e n t , fifty-nine w o m e n and t h i r t e e n m e n participated. T h e first v o i c e t o speak was t h e p r e - r e c o r d e d v o i c e o f t h e s u p p o s edly " e p i l e p t i c " student. H e c o n f e s s e d t o t h e " g r o u p " that h e was p r o n e t o seizures. H e s p o k e w i t h a halting e m b a r r a s s m e n t . H e said t h e seizures w e r e especially b a d w h e n studying for e x a m s . H e said N e w Y o r k was a t o u g h place t o live a n d N Y U a t o u g h c o l l e g e t o master. T h e n his v o i c e b l i n k e d off. A n o t h e r v o i c e c a m e o n . T h e naive s u b j e c t , understandably, t h o u g h t this was a n o t h e r live p e r s o n , n o t a tape r e c o r d e r w h i r r i n g i n a n adjacent r o o m . T h i s v o i c e s p o k e . I t was robust a n d hearty. T h e n t h e naive s u b j e c t s p o k e , a n d t h e dise m b o d i e d v o i c e s w e n t r o u n d a n d r o u n d , until at last this h a p p e n e d . A seizure started. T h e naive s u b j e c t , o f c o u r s e , c o u l d n o t see t h e seizure, b e c a u s e he or she was in a separate r o o m , n o r c o u l d t h e s u b j e c t see o r h e a r t h e r e a c t i o n s o f t h e o t h e r s u p p o s e d subjects, b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e supposedly in separate r o o m s , a l t h o u g h really t h e y w e r e all on a tape n e x t d o o r . T h e epileptic a c t o r b e g a n s p e a k i n g i n a n o r m a l v o i c e , w h i c h b e c a m e increasingly s c r a m b l e d , l o u d e r , m o r e insistent, until i t r e a c h e d a c r e s c e n d o o f pleas: " I - e r - u m - I

think I-I

need-er-if-if

c o u l d - e r - e r s o m e b o d y e r - e r - e r - e r - e r - e r give m e a l i t t l e - e r - g i v e m e a little h e l p h e r e b e c a u s e - e r - I - e r I ' m e r - e r - h - h a v i n g a - a - a - real p r o b lem-er-right

now

and

I-er-if somebody

could

help

me

out it

w o u l d — i t w o u l d - e r - e r - e r s-s-sure be g o o d . . . b e c a u s e I've g o t a-a one of the-er-sei

e r - e r things c o m i n g o n a n d - a n d - a n d I c o u l d

really u s e - e r - u s e s o m e h e l p s o i f s o m e b o d y w o u l d - e r - g i v e m e a little h-help-uh-er-er-er-er-er

c-could

somebody

er-er-help-

er-uh-uh

uh ( c h o k i n g sounds) . . . I ' m g o n n a d i e - e r - e r - I ' m . . . g o n n a d i e - e r h e l p - e r - e r - s e i z u r e - e , " a n d t h e n a final c h o k e , a n d silence. N o w t h e o n e live listener, w h o o f c o u r s e t h o u g h t t h e r e w e r e a t least o n e , o r t w o , o r f i v e o t h e r live listeners, c o u l d , a t any p o i n t , get up a n d go d o w n t h e hall and ask t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r for help. B e f o r e leaving t h e g r o u p to t h e i r discussion, t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r said, in t h e interest o f privacy, h e w o u l d e x e m p t h i m s e l f a n d w o u l d get t h e s u b j e c t ' s r e a c t i o n s later, b y m i c r o p h o n e . H o w e v e r , t h e e x a m i n e r had also told t h e s u b j e c t to please f o l l o w p r o t o c o l and speak in order. D a r l e y and Latane had b e e n careful to set up their e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s s o they m i m i c k e d t h e G e n o v e s e murder. I n the G e n o v e s e murder, the witnesses had seen t h e o t h e r witnesses b u t w e r e unable to c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h t h e m , separated as they w e r e by panes of glass. In this e x p e r i m e n t , t h e witness was able to hear o t h e r confederates, b u t was prevented from seeing o r c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h t h e m due t o t h e separate r o o m s and the m i c r o p h o n e s , w h i c h w e r e o n l y on w h e n it was a particular " p e r s o n ' s " c h a n c e to speak. So w h e n t h e seizure happened, the subject k n e w others c o u l d hear, and also k n e w h e o r she c o u l d n o t c o n f e r w i t h t h e others, b e c a u s e the s o u n d system was off. T h e c o n c o c t e d seizure i n D a r l e y a n d Latane's e x p e r i m e n t lasted for a full six m i n u t e s , similar to t h e G e n o v e s e murder, w h i c h was n o t a single stab b u t a series over t h e arc of a n i g h t . T h e students had a c h a n c e t o t h i n k , a n d t h e n t o a c t . H e r e are t h e results: v e r y few a c t e d — t h i r t y - o n e p e r c e n t t o b e e x a c t , similar t o M i l g r a m ' s t h i r t y t w o t o thirty-five p e r c e n t d i s o b e d i e n c e rate. B u t t h e n i t gets m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d . D a r l e y and L a t a n e v a r i e d t h e size o f t h e " g r o u p s . " W h e n a s u b j e c t b e l i e v e d h e o r she was i n a g r o u p o f four o r m o r e , t h e s u b j e c t was unlikely t o s e e k h e l p for t h e v i c t i m . O n t h e o t h e r hand, eighty-five p e r c e n t o f subjects w h o b e l i e v e d t h e y w e r e i n a dyad w i t h t h e

e p i l e p t i c student, w i t h n o o t h e r bystanders, s o u g h t help and did s o w i t h i n t h e first t h r e e m i n u t e s o f t h e crisis. D a r l e y a n d L a t a n e also f o u n d that i f subjects i n any size g r o u p did n o t r e p o r t t h e e m e r g e n c y w i t h i n t h e first t h r e e m i n u t e s , t h e y w e r e h i g h l y u n l i k e l y to do so at any p o i n t . S o , i f y o u are o n a p l a n e w h e n i t i s h i j a c k e d , and y o u d o n o t a c t w i t h i n t h e first 1 8 0 s e c o n d s , y o u are u n l i k e l y to act at all. In t h e case o f e m e r g e n c i e s , t i m e i s n e v e r o n y o u r side. T h e l o n g e r y o u wait, t h e m o r e paralyzed y o u b e c o m e . K e e p that i n m i n d , a n d body. M o r e interesting, h o w e v e r , than t h e relationship b e t w e e n t i m e a n d h e l p i n g b e h a v i o r is t h e relationship b e t w e e n g r o u p size a n d h e l p i n g behavior. Y o u

would think

that t h e

larger t h e

group, the

more

e m b o l d e n e d y o u w o u l d b e c o m e , t h e less fearful, t h e m o r e likely y o u w o u l d b e t o r e a c h o u t across danger. After all, d o w e n o t feel m o s t i n t i m i d a t e d a l o n e , in t h e dark, in t h e b a c k ally, w h e r e no light shines d o w n ? A r e w e n o t , a s animals, m o s t afraid and hesitant w h e n w e s i n gularly r o a m t h e P l e i s t o c e n e plains, o u r predators e v e r y w h e r e , t h e p r o t e c t i v e h e r d dispersed? L a t a n e a n d Darley's e x p e r i m e n t c h a l l e n g e s t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y adage o f safety i n n u m b e r s . T h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t a c r o w d o f bystanders that inhibits h e l p i n g b e h a v i o r . I f y o u have t h e u n l u c k y e x p e r i e n c e of, say, falling o f f a F e r r i s w h e e l at a c a r nival, y o u m i g h t j u s t b e i g n o r e d , a s Icarus was i g n o r e d w h e n h e fell t h r o u g h t h e b l u e skies w h i l e t h e c i t y t e e m e d b e n e a t h h i m a n d p e o ple t u r n e d s o casually away. H o w e v e r , i f y o u find y o u r s e l f i n t h e desert w i t h o n e o t h e r p e r s o n , a n d a s a n d s t o r m c o m e s , y o u c a n c o u n t o n his help, eighty-five p e r c e n t o f t h e t i m e , a t least a c c o r d i n g t o these findings. W h e n subjects first h e a r d t h e p h o n y fit, t h e y b e c a m e scared. N o t o n e s u b j e c t displayed t h e k i n d o f apathy s o m a n y h y p o t h e s i z e d was a t w o r k w i t h i n t h e G e n o v e s e witnesses. T h e e x a m i n e r h e a r d over t h e m i c r o p h o n e subjects saying, " M y g o d , he's h a v i n g a fit." O t h e r s gasped o r simply said, " O h . " S o m e said, " O h g o d , w h a t s h o u l d I do." Subjects were

sweaty a n d t r e m b l i n g w h e n

the

e x a m i n e r finally

e n t e r e d t h e r o o m , after six m i n u t e s o f seizure had resulted i n n o call for help. " I s he all right, is he b e i n g t a k e n care o f ? " t h e bystanders

asked, clearly upset. W e d o n ' t k n o w w h o t h e y are, b u t t h e G e n o v e s e witnesses w e r e p r o b a b l y upset t o o , m o r e frozen i n fear o r i n d e c i s i o n , than in t h e syrupy u r b a n lassitude p e o p l e suspected. W h e n p o l i c e asked t h e G e n o v e s e witnesses w h y t h e y did n o t help, t h e y w e r e at a loss for words. "I didn't w a n t to get involved," they said, b u t n o n e c o u l d really give a c o h e r e n t r e p o r t o f t h e i r i n t e r n a l m o n o l o g u e d u r i n g t h o s e thirty-five m i n u t e s o f h o r r o r . D a r l e y a n d Latane's subjects also had no idea w h y t h e y hadn't a c t e d , a n d these w e r e N Y U c o l l e g e students w i t h a d v a n c e d verbal skills. D a r l e y a n d L a t a n e s u r m i s e that, far from feeling apathy, subjects " h a d n o t d e c i d e d n o t t o respond. R a t h e r , t h e y w e r e still i n a state o f indecision and conflict c o n c e r n i n g w h e t h e r to respond or not. T h e e m o t i o n a l b e h a v i o r o f these n o n r e s p o n d i n g subjects was a sign o f t h e i r c o n t i n u i n g c o n f l i c t , a c o n f l i c t that o t h e r subjects resolved by responding." B e c a u s e response rates w e r e so consistently tied to g r o u p size, D a r l e y and L a t a n e u n d e r s t o o d w h a t n o o n e else yet had: a p h e n o m e n o n t h e y c a m e t o call "diffusion o f responsibility." T h e m o r e p e o p l e witnessing an event, t h e less responsible any o n e individual feels and, indeed, is, b e c a u s e responsibility is evenly distributed a m o n g t h e c r o w d . Diffusion o f responsibility i s further c o m p o u n d e d b y social etiquette so strong it overrides even life-and-death situations; it w o u l d be terrible, after all, to be the o n l y o n e to m a k e a fuss, and perhaps for n o t h i n g as well. W h o is to say what's a real and what's a false e m e r gency. " W e t h o u g h t it was a lover's quarrel," said o n e G e n o v e s e w i t ness. "I didn't k n o w e x a c t l y w h a t was happening," said several D a r l e y and Latane subjects. I understand this. S o , probably, do y o u . A p o o r l y clad man falls on t h e street. Is he having a heart attack or did he j u s t trip? Is he a " b u m , " w h o is d r u n k and m i g h t c o p a feel if y o u reach out? S u p p o s i n g h e d o e s n ' t w a n t y o u r help, y o u r b l e e d i n g - h e a r t - l i b e r a l help, and he yells at y o u , and y o u are s h a m e d in t h e m a r k e t p l a c e , the public square, y o u r politics and t e n d e n c i e s revealed for w h a t they truly are, self-righteous and discriminatory. W e d o u b t ourselves. D o we ever d o u b t ourselves! F e m i n i s t psychologists like C a r o l Gilligan

have w r i t t e n at l e n g t h a b o u t h o w girls in this culture lose t h e i r " v o i c e " and t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o n c e they turn t h e treacherous c o r n e r i n t o a d o l e s c e n c e , b u t e x p e r i m e n t s like D a r l e y and L a t a n e s suggest this loss o f c o n f i d e n c e i s spurious. W e n e v e r had it. W e are animals cursed w i t h a c o r t e x that has b l o o m e d so b i g a b o v e o u r snake brains that instinct and i t c o r o l l a r y — c o m m o n s e n s e — g e t s q u e l c h e d .

4.

YOU

MUST

DECIDE

WHAT

ACTION

TO

TAKE

T h e story is n o t over. It gets still stranger. We are u n l i k e l y to h e l p o t h e r s , D a r l e y and L a t a n e discovered, m o r e b e c a u s e o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f o t h e r observers than b e c a u s e o f i n g r a i n e d apathy. W h a t h a p p e n s , however, w h e n t h e " o t h e r " i n n e e d o f h e l p i s n o w us? W h a t h a p p e n s i f w e f i n d ourselves i n a social setting, and i n possible danger? W i l l w e act o n b e h a l f o f o u r o w n b o d i e s , a t t h e v e r y least? T h e critical phrase h e r e is "possible danger." In clear danger, as in conflagrations, t h e snake brain u n c o i l s and hisses its directives. B u t m o s t o f life, and m o s t e m e r g e n c i e s , reside i n s o m e m o r e n u a n c e d place, in twilight times w h e r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is difficult. Y o u feel a l u m p on y o u r breast: w h a t is it? T h e h o u s e smells like gas, or is it tea? D a r l e y and Latane's w o r k shows us that even s o m e t h i n g as supposedly stark as a crisis is really malleable narrative; e m e r g e n c i e s are n o t fact, b u t c o n s c i o u s c o n s t r u c t i o n , and this m a y b e w h y w e fail. O u r stories, writes psychiatrist R o b e r t C o l e s in his b o o k

The Call of Stories:

Teaching and the Moral Imagination, give m e a n i n g to o u r lives. T h e flip side of t h e story a b o u t stories is this: t h e y lead us absurdly astray. A s e c o n d e x p e r i m e n t c o n d u c t e d b y D a r l e y and L a t a n e o c c u r r e d i n a r o o m w i t h a vent. T h e t w o p s y c h o l o g i s t s r e c r u i t e d t w o c o l l e g e students as a c t o r s . O n e c o l l e g e student was t h e naive s u b j e c t . All w e r e to sit in a r o o m t o g e t h e r and fill o u t a q u e s t i o n n a i r e on c o l l e g e life. Several m i n u t e s i n t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t , t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t s , c r o u c h e d deep i n t h e building's d u c t w o r k , released a f o r m o f n o n h a z a r d o u s b u t entirely c o n v i n c i n g s m o k e t h r o u g h t h e r o o m ' s vent. P i c t u r e it. A t first t h e s m o k e w i s p e d up slowly, b u t n o t so slowly that it wasn't

i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e naive s u b j e c t . T h e c o n f e d e r a t e s w e r e i n s t r u c t e d t o k e e p filling o u t t h e i r f o r m s , t o display n o fear. T h e y did. T h e s m o k e started p o u r i n g like c r e a m , c o m i n g faster, heavier, s m e a r ing t h e air and b l o t t i n g o u t figures, faces. T h e s m o k e was a n irritant and caused o n e t o c o u g h . E a c h t i m e , t h e s u b j e c t l o o k e d a l a r m e d , l o o k e d a t t h e s m o k e g o i n g from wisp t o waft, l o o k e d a t t h e c a l m c o n f e d e r a t e s , and t h e n , clearly c o n f u s e d , w e n t b a c k t o f i l l i n g o u t t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . A f e w s u b j e c t s w e n t o v e r to t h e v e n t and i n s p e c t e d it, and t h e n l o o k e d a t t h e c o n f e d e r a t e s , w h o did n o t s e e m t o care, and t h e n w e n t b a c k t o f i l l i n g o u t t h e f o r m . H o w o d d ! A few o f t h e s u b j e c t s asked w h e t h e r i t was unusual, s m o k e p o u r i n g from t h e v e n t , b u t t h e c o n f e d e r a t e s j u s t s h r u g g e d t h e q u e s t i o n off. I n t h e entire e x p e r i ment, only o n e subject reported the smoke to the experimenter d o w n t h e hall w i t h i n four m i n u t e s , o n l y three r e p o r t e d t h e s m o k e w i t h i n t h e entire e x p e r i m e n t a l p e r i o d , and t h e rest n o t a t all. T h e y d e c i d e d , based o n t h e social c u e s o f t h e c o n f e d e r a t e s , rather than t h e material e v i d e n c e , to i n t e r p r e t t h e e m e r g e n c y as a harmless failure of t h e a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g system, and u n d e r t h e spell o f that story, t h e y j u s t h a c k e d away until m a n y m i n u t e s h a d passed, and there was a fine w h i t e f i l m i n t h e i r hair and o n t h e i r lips, and t h e e x a m i n e r c a m e i n and called it off. N o w , this i s funny. T h i s perhaps m o r e than any o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t shows t h e p u r e folly that lives at t h e h e a r t of h u m a n b e i n g s ; it runs so c o u n t e r t o c o m m o n sense that w e w o u l d r a t h e r risk o u r lives than break rank, that we value social e t i q u e t t e o v e r survival. It puts E m i l y Post in a w h o l e n e w p l a c e . M a n n e r s are n o t frivolous; t h e y are m o r e forceful than lust, than fear, m o r e p r i m a l — t h a t d e e p p r e e n i n g . W h e n D a l e y and L a t a n e v a r i e d t h e e x p e r i m e n t s o t h e naive s u b j e c t was alone i n t h e r o o m , h e o r she a l m o s t always c o n s t r u c t e d t h e story o f s m o k e as an e m e r g e n c y and r e p o r t e d it immediately.

SOCIAL

CUING.

T h e bystander effect. Pluralistic i g n o r a n c e . T h e

s c i e n t i f i c - s o u n d i n g phrases b e l i e t h e absurdities t h e y d e s c r i b e . Across

t h e street f r o m me is a beautiful c h u r c h w i t h e m e r a l d m o s s t a m p e d b e t w e e n t h e s t o n e s . S o m e t i m e s I g o t o this c h u r c h , for t h e s i n g i n g . After S u n d a y s e r m o n s , a c o l l e c t i o n basket gets passed a r o u n d . O n e day, w h i l e i n t h e midst o f reading t h e stories o f s m o k e a n d s t a b b i n g , I n o t i c e d that t h e basket, b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e first p e r s o n in t h e first pew, was already m y s t e r i o u s l y p l i e d w i t h a flurry of folded dollar bills. A f e w w e e k s later, my sister, a b a r t e n d e r , c o n f e s s e d to me h o w she " s a l t s " h e r tip c u p a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f e a c h e v e n i n g w i t h a few fives a n d tens: "I get a l o t m o r e tips that way," she t o l d m e . " P e o p l e t h i n k p e o p l e b e f o r e t h e m have g i v e n . A n d s o t h e y d o t o o . " W e are driven b y i m i t a t i o n . T h e D a r l e y a n d L a t a n e e x p e r i m e n t s galvanized e t h o l o g i s t s t o l o o k for similar t e n d e n c i e s i n " t h e w i l d . " D o giraffes, for i n s t a n c e , give a l o t o f sideway g l a n c e s b e f o r e e a t i n g from t h e t o p o f that tree? D o p r i m a t e s d e p e n d o n t h e r e a c t i o n s o f t h e p a c k b e f o r e figuring o u t h o w t o p r o c e e d ? Here's a tale a b o u t turkeys: T u r k e y m o t h e r s k n o w t o care for t h e i r y o u n g o n l y w h e n t h e y h e a r t h e b a b i e s m a k e a v e r y particular c h i r p i n g s o u n d . I f t h e c h i c k s fail t o m a k e that s o u n d , t h e m o t h e r i s s u b o p t i m a l l y c u e d , a n d t h e c h i c k s die. S o strong i s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f that particular social c u e that scientists have b e e n able t o attach tape r e c o r d i n g s o f t h e c h i c k s ' c r i e s o n t o p o l e c a t s , t h e turkey's p r i m e predator, and thus fool t h e m o t h e r i n t o m a t e r n i t y w h i l e s h e i s m u r d e r e d b y t h e w i r e d beast. E t h o l o g i s t s c l a i m social c u i n g , o r fixed patterns o f b e h a v i o r , i n animals like birds i s instinctual, a part o f t h e brain's paste a n d circuits, w h i l e in h u m a n s it exists in a n o t h e r plane, a p r o d u c t o f l e a r n i n g . S c i e n t i s t s d o u b t w e have any particular " c u i n g " g e n e . I , for o n e , t h i n k w e m i g h t . I r e m e m b e r b e i n g p r e g n a n t and h o w s h o c k e d I was that my b o d y c o u l d m a k e a baby, a w h o l e separate o t h e r , w i t h n o c o n s c i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n f r o m m e . H o w did i t k n o w w h a t t o d o ? C e l l s , i t turns o u t , are e n g a g e d i n c o n t i n u o u s c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h o n e a n o t h e r , s e n d i n g e a c h o t h e r c h e m i c a l c u e s t o t h e n set o f f a l o o p i n g cascade o f events that, o v e r t i m e , b e c o m e particular h u m a n parts a n d t h e n t h e c o m p l e x w h o l e . T h e h u m a n h e a r t i s m a d e w h e n o n e single cell c u e s a n o t h e r , a n d t h e n that cells nudges yet

a n o t h e r , and so h e r e is t h e h a n d , t h e t o n g u e , t h e b o n e s , w h i c h are fine w h i t e wires eventually s h e a t h e d w i t h t h e silk o f flesh. I n m y case, t h e c u e s w e r e all c o r r e c t and so I have my girl, and she is g o o d .

I N A W O R L D w h e r e e v e r c o m p l e x signals—cellular, c h e m i c a l , c u l t u r a l — c a s c a d e t h r o u g h us and a r o u n d us w i t h a m a z i n g alacrity, we simply d o n ' t have t i m e to sift t h r o u g h all t h e e v i d e n c e and take c o n sidered a c t i o n . W e w o u l d b e paralyzed i f w e did. T h a n k s t o social c u i n g , and its c h e m i c a l c o m p o n e n t s , w e can build b a b i e s and sit silently w h e n silence i s called for. B e c a u s e o f social c u i n g w e k n o w w h e n t o waltz, w h e n t o b r e a k bread, w h e n t o m a k e love. O n t h e o t h e r hand, as D a r l e y and L a t a n e have d e m o n s t r a t e d , o u r interpretive gear, like t h e t u r k e y m o t h e r ' s , is far from f o o l p r o o f . B a s e d on t h e s m o k e e x p e r i m e n t s , D a v i d Phillips, a s o c i o l o g i s t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f California, has discovered a particularly bizarre side to t h e story. D a t a from t h e F B I and state law e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n c i e s clearly s h o w that after any w e l l - p u b l i c i z e d suicide, t h e n u m b e r o f fatalities from plane and car crashes rise. Phillips has d u b b e d this p h e n o m e n o n " t h e W e r t h e r effect," b e c a u s e after G o e t h e published The Sorrows of Young Werther, a b o u t a n o v e r w r o u g h t fictional c h a r a c t e r w h o killed h i m s e l f for u n r e q u i t e d love, a rash o f suicides rippled t h r o u g h e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y G e r m a n y . Phillips e x a m i n e d t h e suicide statistics i n t h e U n i t e d States b e t w e e n 1 9 4 7 and 1 9 6 8 . H e f o u n d that w i t h i n t w o m o n t h s after every front-page suicide story, an average of fifty-eight m o r e p e o p l e than usual killed themselves. M o r e disturbing is t h e data that shows t h e rise in car and plane w r e c k s f o l l o w i n g s u c h w e l l publicized suicides. W r i t e s R o b e r t C i a l d i n i , a social scientist at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A r i z o n a , " I c o n s i d e r this insight brilliant. First [the W e r t h e r effect] explains t h e data beautifully. If these w r e c k s really are instances o f imitative suicide, i t m a k e s sense that w e s h o u l d see a n increase i n t h e w r e c k s after suicide stories a p p e a r . . . . F o r several r e a s o n s — t o p r o t e c t t h e i r reputations, to spare t h e i r families t h e s h a m e a

n d hurt, t o a l l o w t h e i r d e p e n d e n t s t o c o l l e c t o n i n s u r a n c e p o l i c i e s —

t h e y d o n o t w a n t t o appear t o have killed t h e m s e l v e s . . . . S o p u r p o sively, furtively, t h e y cause t h e w r e c k of a c a r or a plane t h e y are o p e r a t i n g . . . a c o m m e r c i a l airline p i l o t c o u l d dip t h e n o s e o f a n a i r craft . .. t h e driver of a c a r c o u l d suddenly swerve i n t o a tree." T h i s is hard for me to b e l i e v e . Imitative single suicides I c a n understand, b u t is t h e W e r t h e r effect, or social c u i n g , so strong that it w o u l d really cause a rise in c o m m e r c i a l plane crashes f o l l o w i n g , say, K u r t C o b a i n ' s death? W o u l d pilots o f planes o r trains w h o have h a r b o r e d suicidal impulses, b u t n e v e r b e e n able t o act o n t h e m , b e s o l i b e r a t e d i n t o i m i t a t i o n b y a f r o n t - p a g e s t o r y that t h e y w o u l d b r i n g d o w n o t h e r lives as well? D a r l e y says, in a p h o n e c o n v e r s a t i o n , " W e l l , t h e r e are c e r t a i n l y a l o t o f instances o f p e o p l e b e i n g c u e d i n t o s u i c i d e , b u t m a y b e t h e plane crash t h i n g i s a n e x a g g e r a t i o n . " O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , C i a l d i n i , o n e o f t h e m o s t c i t e d living social p s y c h o l o g i s t s , swears b y t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e data. " T r u l y frightening," h e w r i t e s i n his b o o k o n i n f l u e n c e , "are t h e n u m b e r o f i n n o c e n t p e o p l e w h o die i n t h e bargain. . . . I have b e e n sufficiently effected b y these statistics t o b e g i n t o take n o t e o f front page suicide stories a n d t o c h a n g e m y b e h a v i o r in t h e p e r i o d after t h e i r initial a p p e a r a n c e . I am especially c a u t i o u s b e h i n d t h e w h e e l o f a car. I a m reluctant t o take e x t e n d e d trips r e q u i r i n g a l o t of air travel. If I m u s t fly d u r i n g such a p e r i o d I purchase substantially m o r e flight i n s u r a n c e t h a n I n o r m a l l y w o u l d . D r . Phillips has d o n e us a s e r v i c e by d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e odds for survival w h e n w e travel c h a n g e m e a s u r a b l y for a t i m e f o l l o w i n g t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f c e r t a i n kinds o f front page stories. I t w o u l d s e e m o n l y p r u d e n t to play t h o s e odds." H o w , I w o n d e r , is C i a l d i n i p l a n n i n g to play t h e odds n o w that suicide stories have b e e n in t h e front page for w e l l over a m o n t h , a n d s h o w n o signs o f dispersing? H e m u s t b e h i d i n g i n a h a n d - b u i l t b u n k e r s o m e w h e r e . I call h i m up. A w o m a n n a m e d B o b e t t e tells me he's i n G e r m a n y and w o n ' t b e b a c k for q u i t e s o m e t i m e . " I s h e afraid t o fly b a c k ? " I ask her. " O h , " she says, " t h e s e are scary, scary t i m e s . O f c o u r s e D r . C i a l d i n i k n o w s t h e r e will b e m o r e attacks, t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c u i n g m a k e s it inevitable."

" W o u l d he t h i n k it's strange that I p u r c h a s e d a gas m a s k ? " I ask her. " O f c o u r s e n o t , " she says. " B u t h e w o u l d also say t o y o u that i n light o f w h a t h a p p e n e d , y o u have t o live y o u r life and live i t b e t t e r . " " D o e s he have a gas m a s k ? " I ask. S h e d o e s n ' t answer.

IT A L L A P P E A R S g r i m . T h e s e are g l o r i o u s a u t u m n days, a sudden Indian s u m m e r , the air smelling o f w a r m e d f r u i t pulp from t h e apple trees, w h e r e every o r b is flush. I p i c k apples w i t h my daughter, h o l d i n g h e r h i g h in my arms so she c a n p l u c k t h e fruit from its tentative t e t h e r on t h e tree, h o l d it in h e r hand, b i t e it o p e n , h e r tiny teeth p u n c t u r i n g the s k i n — s w e e t j u i c e a n d b e e s . T h e b e e s drive u s inside. T h e m o s q u i toes are h a v i n g a renaissance, their n o s y noses b u r r o w i n g i n t o o u r e x p o s e d skin, and welts swell. I spray D E E T and o t h e r c h e m i c a l things, but the bugs are o f s o m e strange, strong strain; t h e y g o o n h u m m i n g , h i g h e r and higher. T h e s e are glorious days b u t for t h e bugs and the D E E T and t h e dead m o u s e I find b e n e a t h t h e stove, j u s t its furred husk and the debris of decay h e r e and t h e r e — i t s last breath was l o n g ago. W h o c o u l d feel happy i n such times? T h e D o w slides, t h e dogs are restless, and t h e n t h e Cialdinis and Darleys and W e r t h e r s o f the w o r l d are c l a i m i n g h o w bad builds on bad, stupidity begets stupidity, publicity drives t h e day until we are all w r a p p e d in a m e d i a m o v i e w h e r e the reel w o n ' t stop. W h a t h o p e for us is there, really? Y o u read a b o u t M i l g r a m and feel badly. Y o u read o f S k i n n e r and feel confused. Y o u read R o s e n h a n ' s findings and feel o u r folly, b u t y o u read these e x p e r i m e n t s and y o u feel s o m e t h i n g far m o r e lethal than e v e n t h e lethal s h o c k s : Y o u feel c o n t a g i o n . Y o u feel h o w w e infect o n e a n o t h e r w i t h o u r immobility, o u r diffusions, o u r confusions. Is there a gas mask for that?

5.

YOU

MUST

THEN

TAKE

ACTION

His n a m e i s A r t h u r B e a m a n a n d he's n o t f a m o u s , a l t h o u g h m a y b e h e should b e . B e a m a n , a social scientist a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M o n t a n a ,

m a d e an interesting d i s c o v e r y that he and his c o a u t h o r s r e p o r t e d in 1 9 7 9 in The Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. I w e n t in search o f t h e actual study and f o u n d i t i n t h e e x p e c t e d , dusty library t o m e , t h e p a p e r e x t r e m e l y short, d e n s e w i t h c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s and A

t w o - t a i l e d tests and quantitative s y m b o l s like , # , + , - , and — , w h i c h m a y b e w h y n o o n e k n o w s o f t h e i r findings. A n e x p e r i m e n t , i n o r d e r t o b r e a k b e y o n d t h e c o n t a i n e r o f s c i e n c e , n e e d s t o have s o m e p o e t r y in its p r e s e n t a t i o n , s o m e s m o k e , s o m e s h o c k , a verbal trill or t w o . B u t let's try t o s h u c k o u r w a y t h r o u g h B e a m a n ' s w e i g h t y w r i t i n g style and try t o f i n d t h e fruits o f t h e w o r k , w h i c h are this: i f y o u e d u cate a g r o u p o f p e o p l e a b o u t t h e c o n c e p t s o f social c u i n g , pluralistic i g n o r a n c e , t h e bystander effect, t h e n y o u i n s o m e sense i n o c u l a t e t h e m against t h e s e b e h a v i o r s i n t h e future. T h u s , w h a t y o u have j u s t read, these t w e n t y or s o m e o d d pages, these e i g h t t h o u s a n d words, is as m u c h a p i e c e of p e d a g o g y as it is d e s c r i p t i o n or r e p o r t . A c c o r d i n g t o B e a m a n ' s findings, n o w that y o u k n o w h o w p r o n e y o u are t o miss t h e c r u c i a l b e a t , y o u are far less likely to fall v i c t i m to interpretative mishaps. It m i g h t even be fair to say that I b o u g h t o n e k i n d of gas mask and w o v e a n o t h e r , w i t h words, to p r o t e c t against a different sort o f threat. B e a m a n t o o k a g r o u p o f c o l l e g e students. H e s h o w e d t h e m f i l m s o f D a r l e y a n d Latane's seizure a n d s m o k e e x p e r i m e n t s , f i l m s that clearly articulated for t h e v i e w e r w h a t D a r l e y and L a t a n e d e v e l o p e d a s t h e f i v e stages o f h e l p i n g b e h a v i o r :

1. Y o u , t h e p o t e n t i a l helper, must n o t i c e an e v e n t is o c c u r r i n g . 2 . Y o u must i n t e r p r e t t h e e v e n t a s o n e i n w h i c h h e l p i s n e e d e d . 3 . Y o u must assume p e r s o n a l responsibility. 4 . Y o u must d e c i d e w h a t a c t i o n t o take. 5 . Y o u must t h e n take a c t i o n .

T h e students w h o saw t h e f i l m s and l e a r n e d t h e n e c e s s a r y stages that c u l m i n a t e d in g o o d citizenship w e r e nearly t w i c e as likely to offer help than t h o s e w i t h o u t such e d u c a t i o n . S t u d e n t s s o e x p o s e d ,

o r i n o c u l a t e d , held o u t t h e i r hands t o ladies w h o slipped o n t h e i c e , to p e o p l e in fender b e n d e r s , to t h e e p i l e p t i c w i t h a sudden s e i z u r e — a c c i d e n t s are e v e r y w h e r e , these w a t e r landings. O n e has t o w o n d e r why, i f e d u c a t i o n i s s o effective i n c h a n g i n g t h e rates o f h e l p i n g b e h a v i o r and p r o m o t i n g effective crisis m a n a g e m e n t , it isn't a p e r m a n e n t part o f o u r n a t i o n a l pedagogy. I t w o u l d b e s o easy t o slip i t i n t o t h e m a n d a t o r y c o u r s e o n first aid, o r C P R c e r t i f i c a t i o n , o r e v e n p u b lic s e r v i c e billboards. Five s i m p l e things y o u n e e d t o do. E s p e c i a l l y now, a s o u r n a t i o n appears t o b e r o u n d i n g s o m e c r i t i c a l b e n d , w e n e e d t o k n o w . I f t h e bus b l o w s up, w e n e e d t o k n o w . N o w that I k n o w , I feel I am b e t t e r prepared. We are i n s t r u c t e d by politicians to go a b o u t o u r business, b u t to be alert for strange signs. I d e c i d e it is t i m e , and go d o w n t o w n . O n e w e e k has passed s i n c e this country's largest terrorist attack, a n d t h e r e are r u m b l i n g s that a n o t h e r o n e i s c o m i n g this w e e k e n d . " Y o u must g o a b o u t y o u r business," e v e r y o n e says, and, really, w h a t else c a n y o u do? So I go d o w n t o w n , despite t h e fact that c r o w d s n o w put m e o n edge. B o s t o n i n the a u t u m n is lovely, g i l d e d w i t h w a r m sunlight, t h e grass in t h e city graveyard a teal A t l a n t i c g r e e n . T h e city, h o w e v e r , is oddly quiet, and w h a t sounds t h e r e are have a h e i g h t e n e d significance, e v e r y t h i n g saturated w i t h m e a n i n g . A c h i l d screams as his s w i n g arcs h i g h i n t o t h e air. A n e w s p a p e r left on a park b e n c h t w i t c h e s in t h e w i n d . Up on B e a c o n Hill I see my favorite B o s t o n site, t h e o n e I have loved s i n c e I was a little girl, t h e statehouse's g o l d d o m e , b e n e a t h w h i c h I used to i m a g i n e all m a n n e r of strange w i n g e d creatures c o n v e n e d , and I was right. N o w , t h e politicians are n o w h e r e to be seen, b u t w h a t I do find, by t h e iron gate, is a b a d - l o o k i n g boy, of a b o u t e i g h t e e n , w i t h an aggressively bald h e a d s p o r t i n g an e t c h e d b l u e cross. He is in his u n i form, t h o s e l a c e - u p b l a c k b o o t s , t h e A r y a n hair o n his arms g i v i n g o f f a glint. He l o o k s very suspicious. A knife handle, or w h a t appears to be a knife handle, j u t s from his p o c k e t . He is h u n c h e d in a c o r n e r , clearly trying n o t t o b e seen, and s k e t c h i n g s o m e t h i n g fast—a r o u t e into t h e statehouse, a r o u t e o u t , w h o k n o w s . W e heard, j u s t t h e o t h e r day, that sketches of embassies and airports, a l o n g w i t h c r o p - d u s t i n g

manuals, w e r e p l u c k e d from dens i n D e t r o i t . T h e b o y i s m u t t e r i n g s o m e t h i n g to himself. He says, " A i r . " He says, " S w a l l o w . " D e s p i t e all I have read a n d studied a b o u t b e i n g a bystander, I am still n o t at all sure w h a t t o do. T h e safest t h i n g w o u l d b e t o r e p o r t h i m , b u t h o w really r i d i c u l o u s that w o u l d b e ! T h i s i s t h e p r o b l e m w i t h e d u c a t i o n . S t e p n u m b e r o n e . Y o u have to r e c o g n i z e that h e l p is n e e d e d . In a w o r l d m o r e s h a d o w than sun, this is n o t easy to do. Instead, I go a little c l o s e r t o t h e b a d - l o o k i n g boy, t h e n e o - N a z i , o r s o m e o n e ' s k i n d rebellious son, a n d t h e n all o f a sudden, sensing m y p r y i n g p r e s e n c e , h e w h i p s his h e a d toward m e , a n d I see his eyes are a cut-glass g r e e n , in liquid. I s m i l e at h i m , a little s h a k y smile. H e p o n d e r s m e u p a n d d o w n a n d t h e n smiles b a c k . We say n o t a w o r d , b u t he k n o w s w h a t I am t h i n k i n g : t h e fast, furious s k e t c h e s , t h e m i l i t a r y c r o u c h , t h e baldness, t h e badness, e v e r y where. T h e p e n c i l he is using is s h o r t , w i t h a t h i c k c h a r c o a l n o s e , a n d it gives o f f lush fuzzy lines o f design. T h i s I k n o w b e c a u s e t h e b o y n o w , understanding m y t h o u g h t s (that w e c a n h e a r e a c h o t h e r s o m e t i m e s w i t h o u t any words e x c h a n g e d , yet at o t h e r t i m e s n o t even a s c r e a m helps us m a k e s e n s e — h o w o d d this is, h o w c o n f u s i n g t h e m u l t i p l e languages o f life), turns his s k e t c h pad t o w a r d m e s o I c a n see w h a t h e i s u p t o , a n d o n i t t h e r e are n o e x i t o r egress routes o r a n y t h i n g suspicious. T h e r e i s j u s t a d r a w i n g o f t h e single tree on t h e s t a t e h o u s e l a w n , its leaves in t h e p i c t u r e so i n t r i c a t e l y r e n d e r e d , so m u l t i p l y v e i n e d . A n d t h e n I see it, h o w inside e v e r y l e a f t h e r e is t h e slightest s u g g e s t i o n of a h u m a n face, life at t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o r a t t h e v e r y e n d . I t i s n o t clear. B u t t h e p i c t u r e i s lovely. N o w t h e b o y rips i t from his s k e t c h p a d a n d gives i t t o m e . I take it h o m e . I h a n g it h e r e , a b o v e my desk, a n d s o m e t i m e s as I type these w o r d s , I stop to stare i n t o t h e b r a n c h e s w h e r e t h o s e h a l f - b o r n h u m a n faces h o v e r , t h e leaves' w e b w o r k s o l o a d e d w i t h m e s s a g e a n d m y s t e r y a n d m u l t i p l e m e a n i n g s . I k n o w t h e five stages, a n d still t h e s t o r y swerves.

Quieting the Mind THE

EXPERIMENTS

LEON

OF

F E S T I N C E R

Leon Festinger was bom May 8, 1919, to parents of Russian descent. He studied psychology at City College of NewYork, and then pursued a graduate degree at the University of Iowa, where he was mentored by the well-known German psychologist Kurt Lewin. Eventually Lewin and Festinger moved to MIT, and in 1957, Festinger published his best-known work, A T h e o r y of Cognitive Dissonance, in which he writes, "The psychological opposition of irreconcilable ideas (cognitions) held simultaneously by one individual, created a motivating force that would lead, under proper conditions, to the adjustment of one's belief to fit one's behavior—instead of changing one's behavior to fit one's belief (the sequence conventionally assumed)." Festinger was a rigorous researcher and experimentalist. In order to test his theory of "irreconcilable ideas," better known now as "cognitive dissonance," he constructed a series of small, strategically complex, and surprising experiments that were the first of their kind to illuminate the rationalizing machinations of the human mind.

H

e r n a m e was M a r i o n K e e c h . H i s n a m e was D r . A r m s t r o n g . T h e y lived i n L a k e C i t y , M i n n e a p o l i s , a c o l d w i n d y place

w h e r e t h e w i n t e r s w e r e all w h i t e , w h e r e s n o w fell f r o m s m e a r e d c l o u d s , e a c h flake like a little message, a design to be d e c o d e d . A n d in this vast landscape M a r i o n K e e c h , an o r d i n a r y h o u s e w i f e , r e c e i v e d o n e day a letter from a b e i n g n a m e d S a n a n d a . It c a m e n o t in an e n v e l o p e , b u t in a h i g h - d e n s i t y v i b r a t i o n that c a u s e d h e r h a n d to shiver across t h e n o t e b o o k page, a n d t h e w o r d s said this: " T h e u p r i s i n g o f t h e A t l a n t i c b o t t o m will s u b m e r g e t h e land o f t h e A t l a n t i c seaboard; F r a n c e will s i n k . . . . R u s s i a will b e c o m e o n e great sea . . . a great wave rushes i n t o t h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n s . . . for t h e p u r p o s e o f purifying i t o f t h e earthlings, a n d c r e a t i n g t h e n e w order." T h e m e s sages, after that, c a m e t o M a r i o n K e e c h fast a n d furious. T h e y w a r n e d o f a n i m p e n d i n g flood, o n m i d n i g h t , D e c e m b e r 2 1 . B u t all w h o b e l i e v e d i n a g o d n a m e d S a n a n d a w o u l d b e saved. M a r i o n K e e c h b e l i e v e d . D r . A r m s t r o n g , a physician w h o h e l d a prestigious post at a n e a r b y c o l l e g e , a n d w h o m e t M r s . K e e c h at a flyi n g s a u c e r club, also c a m e t o b e l i e v e . S o did B e r t h a and D o n a n d A n d r e w a n d q u i t e a few o t h e r s . T h e y b e c a m e a c u l t a n d m a d e t h e i r preparations. It was N o v e m b e r a n d nights fell fast, darkness s l a m m i n g d o w n , as tactile as tar. T h e g r o u p put o u t a single press release to a n e w s agency, b u t o t h e r than that t h e y s h u n n e d publicity, for o n l y a few w e r e c h o s e n b y S a n a n d a , a n d t o spread p a n i c s e e m e d c r u e l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , w o r d g o t o u t , a n d m i d w e s t e r n e r s from I d a h o t o I o w a w e r e c u r i o u s , b e m u s e d . L e o n Festinger, a t h i r t y - o n e - y e a r - o l d psyc h o l o g i s t a t t h e n e a r b y U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a , heard a b o u t t h e cult and d e c i d e d t o infiltrate it. W h a t w o u l d h a p p e n , h e w o n d e r e d , w h e n m i d n i g h t o n D e c e m b e r 2 1 c a m e a r o u n d a n d n o spaceship l a n d e d , n o rains c a m e ? W o u l d t h e g r o u p lose faith? H o w d o h u m a n b e i n g s react, F e s t i n g e r w a n t e d t o k n o w , w h e n p r o p h e c y fails? F e s t i n g e r o r g a n i z e d a few c o h o r t s to go u n d e r c o v e r , p o s i n g as believers and g a i n i n g e n t r y i n t o t h e cult. T h e y o b s e r v e d t h e m e m -

b e r s ' i n t e n s e preparation for t h e solstice e v e n t . Kitty, a c u l t m e m b e r ,

quit h e r j o b , sold h e r h o m e , and left w i t h h e r infant d a u g h t e r t o take u p r e s i d e n c e w i t h M r s . K e e c h . D r . A r m s t r o n g , t o o , was s o c o n v i n c e d o f t h e i m m i n e n t f l o o d that h e j e o p a r d i z e d his j o b a s a d o c t o r b y p r e a c h i n g in t h e e x a m i n i n g r o o m , a n d so was s u m m a r i l y fired, left h i g h a n d dry w i t h a simple s t e t h o s c o p e and a reflex h a m m e r — i t didn't matter. W o r l d l y g o o d s , prestigious titles, t h e y w e r e irrelevant t o t h e savior S a n a n d a , a n d t o t h e n e w planet w h e r e these p e o p l e w e r e g o i n g , far, far from h e r e , invisible in t h e sky e x c e p t for an o c c a s i o n a l flash o f light, like a r e d rent o p e n i n g u p a n d t h e n s u c k e d b a c k i n t o blackness. On

the

eve

of the

actual

f l o o d , believers

and

the

incognito

researchers g a t h e r e d i n M a r i o n K e e c h ' s living r o o m for i n s t r u c t i o n s , w h i c h c a m e i n t h e f o r m o f a u t o m a t i c w r i t i n g s a n d p h o n e calls from s p a c e m e n p o s i n g a s p e o p l e playing practical j o k e s , b u t w h o really had c o d e d messages to deliver. F o r instance, o n e caller said, " H e y , there's a flood i n m y b a t h r o o m , w a n n a c o m e o v e r a n d c e l e b r a t e ? " a n d this was so o b v i o u s l y a secret signal from Sananda's special assistant that t h e g r o u p expressed delight. A m e s s a g e c a m e in t h e f o r m of a m y s t e r i o u s p i e c e o f tin f o u n d i n t h e w e a v e o f t h e living r o o m rug. T h e tin was a w a r n i n g that g r o u p m e m b e r s m u s t r e m o v e all m e t a l f r o m t h e i r c l o t h i n g b e f o r e e n t e r i n g t h e spaceship, w h i c h w o u l d park a t t h e street c u r b i n j u s t t e n m o r e m i n u t e s ! Frantically, t h e w o m e n b e g a n t e a r i n g t h e eyelets a n d clasps from t h e i r brassieres; t h e m e n p l u c k e d out b u t t o n s ; o n e o f t h e researchers, w h o h a d a m e t a l zipper i n his pants, was hastily r e m o v e d to a b e d r o o m , w h e r e D r . A r m s t r o n g , in a surge o f p a n i c , b r e a t h i n g heavily and e y e i n g t h e c l o c k , c u t o u t t h e c r o t c h so t h e r e was a great gash w h e r e t h e m i d w e s t e r n w i n d s e e p e d through. It was 1 1 : 5 0 P . M . t h e n , ten m i n u t e s to t o u c h d o w n . P e o p l e had quit j o b s , sold

h o m e s , alienated

family

members—they

were

heavily

invested. T h e t w o c l o c k s in M r s . K e e c h ' s h o u s e c l i c k e d loudly, first a sound as steady as a heart and t h e n a s o u n d m o r e and m o r e o m i n o u s as m i d n i g h t c a m e , and w e n t . C l i c k c l i c k w e n t the c l o c k , the tsking o f a tongue, n o t a drop falling from the frozen sky, t h e land outside as

p a r c h e d as C a n a a n , as dense in its darkness. S o m e cult m e m b e r s , visibly s h o c k e d , w e p t i n t o their hands. O t h e r s j u s t lay o n c o u c h e s , staring blankly i n t o t h e e m p t y air. Still others p e e r e d b e t w e e n t h e curtains at the great spotlights sweeping t h e yard, spotlights n o t from a spaceship, as t h e y had so h o p e d , but from news stations, c o m e to have s o m e fun.

P R I O R T O T H E G r e a t E v e n t , t h e c u l t m e m b e r s had e s c h e w e d a l m o s t all publicity, save for a single w a r n i n g in a press release, this despite t h e fact that n e w s o f t h e c o m i n g catastrophe had spread across t h e M i d w e s t and m e m b e r s r e c e i v e d m a n y requests t o speak o n c a m e r a . N o w , h o w e v e r , as t h e n i g h t w o r e on and t h e sky stayed dry, F e s t i n g e r o b s e r v e d a strange t h i n g starting t o h a p p e n . T h e c u l t m e m b e r s swept o p e n t h e curtains t o t h e c a m e r a c r e w s . T h e y invited t h e m in, g a l lantly, manically, o f f e r i n g t h e m tea a n d c o o k i e s . M a r i o n K e e c h , sitting in t h e living r o o m chair, r e c e i v e d an u r g e n t message from a h i g h density b e i n g that said, o n c e she h a d s c r i b b l e d it o u t , to c o n t a c t as m a n y m e d i a stations as possible a n d r e p o r t that t h e f l o o d did n o t c o m e b e c a u s e " t h e little g r o u p sitting all n i g h t l o n g had spread so m u c h light that g o d saved t h e w o r l d from d e s t r u c t i o n . " M r s . K e e c h called A B C , C B S , and t h e New York Times, a n d this was a c o m p l e t e a b o u t - f a c e ; n o w , she w a n t e d to talk. A r o u n d 4 A.M. a n e w s m a n p h o n e d . H e h a d p h o n e d j u s t a few days earlier a n d asked, w i t h m u c h sarcasm, i f M r s . K e e c h w o u l d like t o c o m e o n his s h o w and c e l e b r a t e an e n d - o f - t h e - w o r l d party, to w h i c h she had r e s p o n d e d by s l a m m i n g d o w n t h e receiver, h e a t e d , furious. N o w , w h e n h e called b a c k t o bait h e r o v e r t h e failure o f t h e p r o p h e c y , she said, " C o m e r i g h t out! T h i s m i n u t e ! " C u l t m e m b e r s p h o n e d Life, Time, a n d Newsweek, a n d in the e n s u i n g days gave d o z e n s o f i n t e r v i e w s t o r e p o r t e r s , all i n a n a t t e m p t t o c o n v i n c e t h e p u b l i c that t h e i r a c t i o n s a n d beliefs w e r e n o t i n vain. T h e y g r e e t e d n e w s o f a D e c e m b e r 2 1 e a r t h q u a k e i n Italy w i t h j o y and d a n c i n g . " T h e earth's skin [is] slipping." D i s s o n a n c e . A m i l l i o n rationalizations, fault lines in t h e e a r t h , in t h e brain, and all sorts o f ways t o s e w t h e m up. W e can o n l y i m a g i n e

Festinger's fun, and also his sorrow, as he saw t h e way p e o p l e leap to lies, o v e r l o o k , sift t h r o u g h , sort o u t , t a m p d o w n . To Festinger, t h e dramatic increase in p u b l i c proselytizing f o l l o w i n g such an o b v i o u s failure was c o m p l e t e l y c o u n t e r i n t u i t i v e and b e c a m e t h e basis for a t h e o r y and a set o f e x p e r i m e n t s h e d e s i g n e d t o test t h e t h e o r y : c o g nitive d i s s o n a n c e . W h a t F e s t i n g e r f o u n d , i n his infiltration o f t h e cult and in his readings of t h e history, was that it is precisely w h e n a b e l i e f is d i s c o n f i r m e d that religious groups b e g i n to proselytize, a sort of desperate defense m e c h a n i s m . T h e d i s j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t o n e believes

and

the

factual e v i d e n c e

is

highly

u n c o m f o r t a b l e , like

s c r a t c h i n g o n slate. S o o t h i n g can c o m e o n l y i f m o r e and m o r e p e o p l e sign o n t o t h e spaceship, so to speak, b e c a u s e if we are all flying this t h i n g t o g e t h e r , t h e n surely w e m u s t b e right.

IT S E E M S F I T T I N G that a m a n like F e s t i n g e r w o u l d discover c o g n i tive d i s s o n a n c e . F e s t i n g e r had a g r u m p y m a n n e r , and d a n d r u f f on his lapels, and w h e r e v e r h e w e n t , h e g r a t e d . E l l i o t A r o n s o n was o n e o f Festinger's graduate students w a y b a c k i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s , w h e n b e h a v i o r i s m still d o m i n a t e d t h e day. " F e s t i n g e r was an ugly little m a n , " says A r o n s o n , " a n d m o s t students w e r e so afraid o f h i m t h e y w o u l d n ' t take his seminars. B u t h e had a c e r t a i n w a r m t h a b o u t h i m . H e was also t h e o n l y g e n i u s I have e v e r m e t . T h a t ' s it. I w o n ' t say m o r e . " After t h e c u l t study, F e s t i n g e r and his c o l l e a g u e s set o u t to e x p l o r e c o g n i t i v e d i s s o n a n c e in all its d i m e n s i o n s . In o n e e x p e r i m e n t , t h e y paid s o m e p e o p l e t w e n t y dollars t o lie and o t h e r p e o p l e o n l y o n e dollar t o lie. W h a t t h e y f o u n d i s that t h o s e w h o had lied for o n e d o l lar w e r e far m o r e likely to c l a i m , after t h e fact, that t h e y really believed t h e lie, than t h o s e w h o ' d e a r n e d t h e t w e n t y dollars. W h y w o u l d that b e ? F e s t i n g e r h y p o t h e s i z e d that i t i s m u c h harder t o j u s tify lying for a dollar; y o u are a g o o d , smart p e r s o n , after all, and g o o d , smart p e o p l e d o n ' t do b a d things for no real reason. T h e r e f o r e , b e c a u s e y o u c a n ' t take b a c k t h e lie, and y o u ' v e already p o c k e t e d t h e

measly m o n e y , y o u b r i n g y o u r beliefs i n t o a l i g n m e n t w i t h y o u r a c t i o n s , s o a s t o r e d u c e t h e d i s s o n a n c e b e t w e e n y o u r s e l f - c o n c e p t and y o u r q u e s t i o n a b l e b e h a v i o r . H o w e v e r , t h o s e folks w h o w e r e paid t w e n t y dollars to lie, t h e y didn't c h a n g e t h e i r beliefs; in effect, t h e y said, " Y e a h , I lied, I didn't b e l i e v e a w o r d of w h a t I said, b u t I g o t paid well." T h e t w e n t y - d o l l a r subjects e x p e r i e n c e d less d i s s o n a n c e ; t h e y c o u l d find a c o m p e l l i n g j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h e i r fibs, and that j u s t i f i c a tion had d o u b l e digits and a crisp snap. Dissonance

theory

took American

psychology by

storm. " B y

storm," says A r o n s o n . " I t was T H E T H I N G . I t was s o elegant. I t offered such elegant explanations for such mysterious behavior." D i s s o n a n c e t h e o r y e x p l a i n e d , for instance, t h e l o n g baffling fact that d u r i n g the K o r e a n War, t h e C h i n e s e had b e e n eerily efficient at getting A m e r i c a n P O W s t o espouse c o m m u n i s m . T h e C h i n e s e did this, n o t t h r o u g h t o r ture or t h r o u g h b i g gilded bribes, b u t m e r e l y by offering t h e prisoners a bit of r i c e or candies for w r i t i n g an a n t i - A m e r i c a n essay. S u b s e q u e n t to w r i t i n g t h e essay and getting t h e prize, m a n y soldiers c a m e to c o n vert to c o m m u n i s m . T h i s is odd, especially because we t e n d to believe brainwashing is a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h a series of fierce scrubbings w i t h caustic soap, o r piles o f glittering prizes. B u t dissonance t h e o r y predicts that t h e more paltry the reward for e n g a g i n g in b e h a v i o r that is inconsistent w i t h one's beliefs, the m o r e likely the person is to c h a n g e his or h e r beliefs. It makes a k i n d of c r o o k e d sense. If y o u sell y o u r s e l f for a p i e c e of candy, or a single cigarette, or a scatter of rice, y o u had b e t t e r c o m e u p w i t h s o m e c o n v i n c i n g reason w h y y o u did this, lest you feel y o u are, j u s t simply, a s c h m u c k . If y o u can't take b a c k t h e essay, or the lie, t h e n y o u c h a n g e y o u r beliefs so t h e y no l o n g e r scrape and scratch and y o u are saved from s c h m u c k d e m . T h e C h i n e s e w e r e m a s ters at intuitively understanding c o g n i t i v e dissonance; t h e y held tiny trinkets i n t h e i r palms and, f r o m t h e force o f these, g o t g r o w n m e n t o o p e n and c h a n g e their very m o l d a b l e m i n d s . F e s t i n g e r a n d his students d i s c o v e r e d several different f o r m s o f dissonance. W h a t he observed in the cult, he called the B e l i e f / D i s c o n f i r m a t i o n Paradigm. W h a t h e o b s e r v e d w i t h t h e l y i n g for

m o n e y , h e called t h e Insufficient R e w a r d s P a r a d i g m . A n o t h e r type, t h e I n d u c e d C o m p l i a n c e P a r a d i g m , is best illustrated by an e x p e r i m e n t in w h i c h c o l l e g e freshman, a t t e m p t i n g to g e t i n t o a fraternity, w e n t t h r o u g h severe o r m i l d hazing rites. T h o s e w h o w e n t t h r o u g h t h e severe h a z i n g rites c l a i m e d m u c h m o r e a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e g r o u p than t h o s e w h o hadn't. W i t h these s i m p l e e x p e r i m e n t s , F e s t i n g e r t u r n e d all o f p s y c h o l o g y o n its head. H e t u r n e d S k i n n e r hard o n his head. After all, S k i n n e r had said rewards r e i n f o r c e and p u n i s h m e n t e x t i n g u i s h e s , b u t this little m a n L e o n , this s h e d d i n g sloppy scholar, had, w i t h a f e w swift strokes, s h o w n b e h a v i o r i s m was w r o n g . W r o n g ! W e are driven b y p u n i s h m e n t and paltriness; a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e h u m a n universe sits n o t a b i g c h u n k o f c h e e s e b u t a tiny scrap o f s o m e t h i n g , and there are n o p i g e o n s , n o rats, n o b o x e s . T h e r e are o n l y h u m a n b e i n g s m o t i v a t e d b y m i n d s that must b e m a d e c o m f o r t able. S k i n n e r t o o k m e n t a l i s m right o u t o f t h e picture, leaving u s w i t h j u s t o u r m e c h a n i s t i c c o n d i t i o n e d responses, and t h e n a l o n g c a m e L e o n , cranky, a c e r b i c L e o n , and h e h a n d e d u s b a c k o u r c o m p l e x brains, and he said, in effect, human behavior cannot be explained by reward theory alone. Human beings THINK. They engage in

the most

amazing mental gymnastics, all just to justify their hypocrisy. F e s t i n g e r did n o t have a happy v i e w o f h u m a n nature. H e s m o k e d t w o packs o f unfiltered C a m e l s a day and d i e d o f liver c a n c e r a t age s i x t y - n i n e . It is no surprise that Festinger's tastes ran to t h e e x i s t e n tialists: Sartre w i t h his h o l l o w e d universe; C a m u s , w h o b e l i e v e d m a n spends his entire life t r y i n g to c o n v i n c e h i m s e l f that he is n o t absurd. M a n , t h o u g h t Festinger, was n o t a rational b e i n g , b u t a rationalizing b e i n g . He lived w i t h his s e c o n d wife, Trudy, in a village a p a r t m e n t , w h e r e , I i m a g i n e , his cigarette glittered o r a n g e in t h e l o w light, w h e r e b o o k s l i n e d t h e study walls, w h e r e a single m e z u z a h was p i n n e d to t h e d o o r frame, a tiny silver scroll, inside, s o m e story.

I K N O W A story. It's o n e F e s t i n g e r w o u l d p r o b a b l y like. N o t far from m

e , i n t h e small city o f W o r c e s t e r , Massachusetts, lives a w a l k i n g talk-

i n g e p i t o m e o f rationalization. H e r n a m e i s L i n d a S a n t o . Fifteen years ago, h e r t h r e e - y e a r - o l d daughter, Audrey, fell i n t o t h e family s w i m m i n g p o o l and was discovered floating face d o w n , i n t h e d e e p e n d . S h e was r e s c u e d a n d resuscitated, b u t h e r brain had b e e n b l o t t e d o u t , j u s t a f e w e l e c t r i c a l squiggles at t h e base, w h e r e t h e h e a r t b e a t is c o n trolled, w h e r e t h e sweat glands s e n d t h e i r signals, that sort o f t h i n g . T h e base. Fifteen years a g o L i n d a S a n t o — a b o u t w h o m I have read m a n y articles a n d w h o has appeared m a n y times o n l o c a l television a s halfh e r o , h a l f - o d d i t y — f i f t e e n years a g o she b r o u g h t h e r b a b y A u d r e y h o m e , h o o k e d up to life support, a t r a c h e o t o m y h o l e drilled in h e r throat, a n d she b a t h e d t h e c h i l d a n d t u r n e d h e r t e n t i m e s a day so h e r skin stayed rosy a n d n o t a single b e d s o r e p u c k e r e d , and she p r o p p e d h e r girl's h e a d on w h i t e satin pillows, shaped like hearts, and she surr o u n d e d h e r girl w i t h religious relics, b e c a u s e Linda's C a t h o l i c faith h a d always b e e n strong. A u d r e y lay in b e d w h i l e on a l e d g e a b o v e her, J e s u s h e l d his heart and M a r y l o o k e d o n i n a n attitude o f e c s t a s y — t i n y statues, h u g e statues, stigmata o n p o r c e l a i n palms, t h e b l o o d b e e t - r e d a n d dried. A few m o n t h s after t h e a c c i d e n t , a c c o r d i n g to various n e w s p a p e r articles, h e r h u s b a n d left her. N o w she h a d n o m o n e y . S h e h a d t h r e e o t h e r c h i l d r e n . T h e religious relics a r o u n d Audrey's bedside b e g a n t o m o v e . T h e y w o u l d , o f t h e i r o w n a c c o r d , t u r n and face t h e t a b e r n a c l e . R e a l b l o o d o o z e d o u t o f Christ's c r a c k e d w o u n d s . S t r a n g e oils b e g a n t o t r a c k t h e faces o f t h e saints. A n d A u d r e y herself, well, h e r eyes o p e n e d a n d t i c k e d b a c k a n d forth, b a c k a n d forth, and e v e r y L e n t she s c r e a m e d in pain, and t h e n fell i n t o a deep, d e e p sleep, on Easter. P e o p l e b e g a n t o c o m e t o Audrey, p e o p l e w i t h m u l t i p l e sclerosis and b r a i n t u m o r s and h e a r t disease a n d depression. T h e y b e g a n t o c o m e a n d take h o m e w i t h t h e m s o m e o f t h e m i r a c u l o u s h o l y oils d r i p p i n g from t h e relics. I n t h e S a n t o h o u s e h o l d , m i r a c l e s o c c u r r e d fast, o n e after t h e o t h e r , as t h e ill p i l g r i m s k n e e l i n g by t h e girl's b e d side w e n t from b l i n d e d n e s s to sight, as A u d r e y h e r s e l f b e g a n to b l e e d from e v e r y o r i f i c e a s t h o u g h she w e r e suffering t h e sins o f t h e w h o l e

w o r l d . L i n d a claims that she was n o t mystified. S h e k n e w h e r d a u g h ter was a saint, that G o d had c h o s e n A u d r e y to be a v i c t i m soul, to take o n t h e pains o f o t h e r p e o p l e s o that t h e y c o u l d b e h e a l e d . L i n d a had seen i t w i t h h e r o w n eyes. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e date o f Audrey's d r o w n i n g was A u g u s t 9 , a t 1 1 : 0 2 i n t h e m o r n i n g , and o n l y forty years b e f o r e that, o n A u g u s t 9 , a t 1 1 : 0 2 i n t h e m o r n i n g , t h e U n i t e d States had d r o p p e d t h e b o m b o n Nagasaki. O n e i n c i d e n t , a c c o r d i n g t o L i n d a , h a d s h a m e d all o f h u m a n k i n d ; n o w this i n c i d e n t was t o r e d e e m it. T h e S a n t o story i s classic Festinger, t h e way t h e m o t h e r ' s m i n d twists t o t u r n a t e r r i b l e tragedy i n t o s o m e t h i n g o f salvage, c o n s o n a n c e a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h a series of rapid rationalizations. H o w , I w o n d e r , w o u l d a p e r s o n w h o s o e m b o d i e s Festinger's t h e o r y actually react to its e x p l i c a t i o n ?

L I N D A ' S V O I C E O N t h e p h o n e i s hoarse and slow; s o m e t h i n g i n its s o u n d surprises m e . I ' m a w r i t e r , I tell her. I've s e e n h e r on T V . I ' m e x p l o r i n g b e l i e f and faith a n d a m a n n a m e d F e s t i n g e r — " W h a t is it y o u w a n t to k n o w ? " L i n d a asks. Perhaps w h a t I h e a r is simply c e l e b r i t y fatigue. O n e m o r e i n t e r v i e w i n t h e thousands she's given, b u t she'll d o i t again i f she has t o — f o r Audrey, t o spread t h e word. " I f y o u ' r e a j o u r n a l i s t w h o wants t o c o m e p h o t o g r a p h m y girl, I can tell y o u r i g h t now, y o u have t o ask t h e c h u r c h — " " N o , " I say. " I w a n t t o k n o w i f y o u k n o w o f a m a n n a m e d Festinger, a n d his e x p e r i m e n t s . . . " "Festinger," she says, cackling, and t h e n she doesn't say anything else. " T h e r e was o n c e this group," I say, " a n d t h e y b e l i e v e d a savior w o u l d c o m e for t h e m o n D e c e m b e r 2 1 , a n d Festinger, a p s y c h o l o gist, studied w h a t h a p p e n e d w h e n D e c e m b e r 2 1 c a m e a r o u n d and they w e r e n ' t saved." T h e r e ' s a l o n g pause o n t h e p h o n e . W h a t I ' m d o i n g s e e m s suddenly c r u e l . When they weren't saved. In t h e b a c k g r o u n d I can h e a r

m y s t e r i o u s s o u n d s , a k n o c k i n g , t h e s c r e e c h o f a c r o w flying skyward. " F e s t i n g e r , " L i n d a says. " I s that a J e w i s h n a m e ? " " A b s o l u t e l y , " I say. " J e w i s h p e o p l e ask g o o d q u e s t i o n s , " she says. " A n d C a t h o l i c s ? " I say. " W e c a n q u e s t i o n . F a i t h i n o u r G o d , " L i n d a says. " I t isn't always a b s o l u t e . E v e n i f y o u have a d i r e c t e m a i l t o J e s u s , t h e line g o e s d o w n s o m e t i m e . " S h e stops speaking; I c a n h e a r s o m e t h i n g c l o t t e d i n h e r voice. " F o r y o u ? " I say. " H a s t h e line g o n e d o w n ? " " I have breast c a n c e r , " L i n d a c o n t i n u e s . " I ' v e h a d i t for t h e last seven years. I j u s t f o u n d o u t I ' m in my fifth r e c u r r e n c e , a n d I'll tell y o u , today I ' m tired." I lift my h a n d to my o w n c h e s t , w h i c h has its o w n c h i s e l e d spots from m u l t i p l e b i o p s i e s , t h e cells b e n e a t h t h e skin s q u i r m i n g r e c k lessly. " C a n Audrey, w o u l d y o u ask h e r t o h e a l — " L i n d a i n t e r r u p t s m e . " Y o u w a n t t o k n o w t h e t r u t h ? " she says, h e r v o i c e sharp. " D o y o u and F e s t i n g e r w a n t t o k n o w what's w h a t ? O n a b a d day, a day like today, I d o u b t w h e t h e r suffering has m e a n i n g . W r i t e that d o w n , " she says.

W H A T F E S T I N G E R W R O T E : t h e s e e k i n g o f c o n s o n a n c e is a " d r i v e s t a t e . " W e s p e n d o u r lives p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n o n l y to i n f o r m a t i o n that is c o n s o n a n t w i t h o u r beliefs, w e s u r r o u n d ourselves w i t h p e o p l e w h o will s u p p o r t o u r beliefs, a n d w e i g n o r e c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n f o r m a t i o n that m i g h t cause u s t o q u e s t i o n w h a t w e have built. A n d yet, L i n d a S a n t o p o i n t s t o t h e f l a w s i n this t h e o r y , a n d t h e e x p e r i m e n t s d e s i g n e d t o test it. S o m e w h e r e , n o t far f r o m m e , r i g h t this m i n u t e , sits a w o m a n in s e m i d a r k n e s s , a n d she c a n c l i n g to n o t h ing. H e r c a n c e r , a n d h e r daughter's failure t o heal it, are dissonant with

h e r prevailing paradigm, b u t instead o f s e e k i n g c o n s o n a n c e

t h r o u g h rationalization, as Festinger, a n d I, p r e d i c t e d , L i n d a s e e m s to

b e i n s o m e suspended place, w h e r e beliefs b r e a k u p and f o r m n e w patterns w e c a n n o t yet q u i t e see. W h o k n o w s w h a t n e w shapes o f faith m i g h t e m e r g e from Linda's willingness t o w i t h h o l d rationalizat i o n for real revision? F e s t i n g e r n e v e r e x p l o r e d this p h e n o m e n o n — h o w d i s s o n a n c e leads t o d o u b t a n d d o u b t leads t o light. N o r does h e e x p l o r e w h y s o m e p e o p l e c h o o s e rationalization as a strategy, a n d o t h e r s c h o o s e revision. I t h i n k a b o u t L i n d a . I t h i n k a b o u t o t h e r s . W h a t a l l o w e d Isaac N e w t o n t o e x c h a n g e t h e p a l m o f g o d for gravity, o r C o l u m b u s t o c o m e away w i t h a c u r v e d rimless w o r l d ? T h r o u g h out all o f h i s t o r y t h e r e have b e e n e x a m p l e s o f p e o p l e w h o , instead o f clapping t h e i r hands o v e r t h e i r ears, p u s h e d i n t o d i s s o n a n c e , w i l l i n g t o h e a r w h a t m i g h t e m e r g e . Festinger, actually, i s o n e o f t h o s e p e o p l e . His ideas and e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e h i g h l y dissonant w i t h t h e S k i n n e r i a n w i s d o m o f his day. A n d h e p u r s u e d it. W h y ? " D i s s o n a n c e , " says E l l i o t A r o n s o n , l e a d i n g d i s s o n a n c e r e s e a r c h e r and Professor E m e r i t u s a t U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a C r u z , " d i s s o n a n c e i s really n o t a b o u t l o o k i n g a t h o w p e o p l e c h a n g e . T h e t h e o r y j u s t didn't c o n c e r n i t s e l f w i t h that." " D o n ' t y o u t h i n k that's a s h o r t c o m i n g to t h e t h e o r y ? " I ask. "Understanding

why

some

people

resolve

dissonance

creatively,

w h i l e o t h e r s d u c k and cover, c o u l d i l l u m i n a t e a lot." A r o n s o n pauses. " I n J o n e s t o w n , " h e says, " n i n e h u n d r e d p e o p l e killed t h e m s e l v e s as a w a y of r e s o l v i n g d i s s o n a n c e . A f e w p e o p l e didn't kill t h e m s e l v e s , that's true, b u t n i n e h u n d r e d did a n d that's remarkable. T h a t ' s w h a t t h e t h e o r y focuses o n , t h e vast, vast m a j o r i t y w h o h a n g o n t o t h e i r beliefs e v e n until death." I am n o t a great p s y c h o l o g i s t , like L e o n , b u t after talking to L i n d a , I have an o p i n i o n , a n d it is this: D i s s o n a n c e t h e o r y falls a little s h o r t b e c a u s e it a c c o u n t s o n l y for t h e w a y we reify narratives, and n o t for the way we revise t h e m . In d o i n g so, d i s s o n a n c e is p r e s e n t e d as a u n i d i m e n s i o n a l state, a k i n d o f senseless c l a n g i n g , w h e n , i n fact, t h e sound o f s o m e t h i n g o u t o f t u n e c a n also s h a r p e n o u r ears a n d s e e d n e w songs. " D o n ' t y o u t h i n k , " I say to A r o n s o n , " t h a t in failing to e x p l o r e t h e

p e o p l e w h o r e s p o n d t o d i s s o n a n c e b y c r e a t i n g n e w paradigms t o i n c o r p o r a t e n e w i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e t h e o r y misses a n i m p o r t a n t aspect o f t h e h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e ? " W h y , I ask A r o n s o n , d o e s h e t h i n k s o m e people

rationalize, w h i l e

others

more

deeply

revise? A n d m o r e

importantly, h o w d o t h o s e p e o p l e i n t h e midst o f a m a j o r p a r a d i g m shift deal w i t h t h e l o n g days, w e e k s , m o n t h s o f grating, and w h a t c a n t h e i r ability to t o l e r a t e s u c h sounds a n d sensations t e a c h us a b o u t h o w w e m i g h t d o t h e same, i n search o f a w i d e r life? " H a s a n y o n e studied these types o f p e o p l e ? " I ask. " T h a t ' s h u m a n g r o w t h stuff," A r o n s o n says t o m e . " I w o u l d s p e c u late that t h e types o f p e o p l e w h o r e s p o n d t o d i s s o n a n c e w i t h h o n e s t i n t r o s p e c t i o n w o u l d have h i g h , w e l l - g r o u n d e d s e l f - e s t e e m , o r t h e y m i g h t also have really l o w s e l f - e s t e e m , s o t h e y ' v e g o t n o t h i n g t o lose by saying, ' G e e z , I guess e v e r y t h i n g I invested in really d o e s n ' t m a k e m u c h sense; I ' m really a j e r k . ' " " B u t have y o u

actually

done

any

experiments where

you've

l o o k e d a t w h o t h e s e p e o p l e are, a n d h o w t h e y e x p e r i e n c e t h e disson a n c e ? D o y o u have any d a t a ? " " W e d o n ' t have any data," A r o n s o n says, " b e c a u s e w e d o n ' t have p e o p l e . P e o p l e like y o u ' r e talking a b o u t are f e w a n d far b e t w e e n . "

I G O T O visit L i n d a . W o r c e s t e r , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , i s a b o u t a n h o u r from m y h o m e . A n o l d s o o t y mill city, i t h o u s e s h o l l o w e d - o u t f a c t o r i e s and d e c r e p i t stores. I f L i n d a w e r e t o revise h e r narrative o f t h e saint daughter, o f t h e suffering i n all its s u p r e m e sense, w h a t w o u l d she have left? W h a t n e w narrative c o u l d possibly b r i n g c o m f o r t i n h e r situation? I've b e e n asking h o w d i s s o n a n c e leads o n e d e e p e r , b u t depth is d a n g e r o u s ; it's w h e r e t h e o c t o p i live, w h e r e t h e sharp shark teeth are b u r i e d . T h e S a n t o h o m e i s o n a c h e e r y side street. T h e m o d e s t r a n c h h o u s e i s p a i n t e d t h e c o l o r o f flesh, e a c h w i n d o w s p o r t i n g a pair o f plastic shutters. I r i n g t h e d o o r b e l l , w h i c h c h i m e s m e r r i l y inside the

h o u s e , and t h e n a v o i c e calls o u t , " M e e t m e n e x t d o o r , i n t h e c h a p e l . " I assume that was Linda's v o i c e . F o r a m o m e n t I press my ear to t h e d o o r and hear guttural breathing sounds, t h e c l a n g i n g of a b e d p a n — Audrey. S h e is e i g h t e e n now. S h e bleeds monthly. H e r m o t h e r is dying. I find t h e c h a p e l in t h e garage. It is d a m p and e v e r y w h e r e I l o o k are statues d r i p p i n g oil w i t h tiny D i x i e cups tied t o t h e i r c h i n s t o c a t c h t h e royal runoff. A w o m a n c o m e s in w i t h strangely u n f o c u s e d eyes, i n h e r hands a c o n t a i n e r l o a d e d w i t h c o t t o n balls. " M y name's R u b y , " she says, " I v o l u n t e e r here." S h e presses t h e c o t t o n balls t o t h e w e t saints and t h e n drops e a c h swab i n t o a Z i p l o c k bag. " P e o p l e o r d e r these," she says. "It's h o l y oil. It c a n c u r e j u s t a b o u t anything." I w a n t to ask R u b y h o w she justifies t h e startling fact that t h e h o l y oil c a n n o t c u r e its k e e p e r , L i n d a , m o t h e r of t h e saint, b u t I don't. I w a t c h R u b y walk a r o u n d t h e c h a p e l d a b b i n g u p oil w i t h swabs o f c o t t o n and t h e n I s a y — I j u s t c a n n o t help m y s e l f — " H o w d o y o u k n o w s o m e o n e doesn't c o m e o u t h e r e a t n i g h t and p u t oil o n these statues w h e n y o u c a n ' t s e e ? " S h e spins t o l o o k a t m e . " L i k e w h o ? " she says. I shrug. " I ' v e seen it myself," she says. "I was standing by Audrey's b e d t h e o t h e r day and o n e o f t h e religious relics j u s t started g u s h i n g o i l , hemorrhaging o i l , so I k n o w . " T h e d o o r to the chapel opens, a wedge of bright afternoon sunlight in t h e d i m d a m p space, and in steps L i n d a . H e r hair is brittle, purposefully c u r l e d , and she wears large h o o p e a r r i n g s set against a pale l i n e d face. " T h a n k y o u for a g r e e i n g t o see m e , " I say. " T h a n k y o u for a g r e e ing to discuss y o u r faith w i t h me in this difficult situation." L i n d a shrugs. S h e sits, o n e leg s w i n g i n g b a c k and forth, like a child. " M y faith," she says, " m y faith started w h e n I was in utero. If I didn't have my faith, I'd be a t u r n i p in a padded cell right now." " W h a t d o e s y o u r faith m e a n ? " I ask her.

" I t m e a n s , " she says, " i t m e a n s I have to turn things o v e r to G o d , which

is

hard, b e c a u s e

I'm

short

and

so

are

you—we're

both

N a p o l e o n i c t y p e s — s o it's hard." S h e c a c k l e s , this L i n d a . I study h e r face. T h e r e is, to be sure, glitter in h e r eyes, b u t b e h i n d t h e glitter, a flat p o o l of fear. " W e l l , " I say, " y o u t o l d m e o v e r t h e p h o n e that m a y b e y o u w e r e starting t o q u e s t i o n y o u r faith, q u e s t i o n y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g that y o u r d a u g h t e r is a saint, that sort of t h i n g . . . " I trail off. L i n d a raises h e r e y e b r o w s , e a c h o n e t w e e z e d i n t o a perfect p e a k . " I didn't p u t it q u i t e like that," she says. " Y o u t o l d m e y o u w e r e having s o m e d o u b t s , a n d I w a n t e d t o talk about h o w y o u — " " T h o s e w e r e i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l . Essentially, I have n o d o u b t s . " S h e sounds angry. " O h , " I say. " L i s t e n , " she says. " I k n o w w h o I a m a n d I k n o w w h o m y d a u g h t e r is. Audrey, she has a direct e m a i l l i n e t o G o d . A u d r e y g o e s t o G o d w i t h requests f r o m sick p e o p l e , a n d G o d takes away t h e sickness. It's n o t A u d r e y w h o takes away t h e sickness," L i n d a says. "It's G o d , b u t A u d r e y has his fax n u m b e r , if y o u see w h a t I m e a n . " I nod. " L e t m e tell y o u , " L i n d a c o n t i n u e s . " O n c e w e had a c h e m o p a t i e n t c o m e to see Audrey. A f e w days later A u d r e y d e v e l o p e d an i n t e n s e red rash, like she was o n fire. W h e r e c o u l d this rash have c o m e from? W e called a d e r m a t o l o g i s t t o t h e h o u s e . H e was J e w i s h , b u t a v e r y n i c e m a n . A n d he says, ' T h i s is a rash that a c h e m o p a t i e n t gets,' a n d w h e n w e c o n t a c t e d t h e c h e m o patient, h e r rash was g o n e . Y o u see," says L i n d a , " A u d r e y t o o k t h e patient's painful rash, that's w h a t my d a u g h t e r does." L i n d a g o e s o n t o tell m e a n o t h e r story, a b o u t a w o m a n w i t h o v a r ian c a n c e r w h o , after visiting Audrey, had a s o n o g r a m that s h o w e d a s h a d o w y angel on h e r ovaries a n d all t h e c a n c e r g o n e . I d o n ' t b e l i e v e these things. L i n d a g o e s o v e r to t h e t a b e r n a c l e , lifts up a c o v e r e d cup, a n d s h o w s m e what's inside. O i l , a n d floating w i t h i n t h e o i l , a b e a d o f

b l o o d . " W e ' v e had this oil analyzed," she says, " b y o v e r thirty different c h e m i s t s . A n d it's o f n o variety k n o w n t o m a n k i n d . " " W h y , " I say softly, " t h e n why, L i n d a , can't t h e oil or Audrey's intercessions t o G o d , w h y c a n ' t t h e y heal y o u ? " L i n d a is q u i e t . S h e is q u i e t for a l o n g t i m e . I see h e r eyes m o v e b a c k i n t o h e r head, i n t o s o m e v e r y private place I c a n n o t get to. I d o n ' t k n o w w h e r e she is, if s h e has died a small death, if she is sitting i n senselessness, i f she's m a k i n g n e w s e n s e — t h e w e a v i n g w h e e l s are t u r n i n g and t u r n i n g . S h e l o o k s u p a t t h e c e i l i n g . R u b y , w h o i s still i n the c h a p e l , l o o k s up at t h e c e i l i n g t o o . T h e n at l o n g last L i n d a says, "It's spread t o t h e b o n e . " " T h e r e g o e s J e s u s , " R u b y says, a n d p o i n t s t o a r e l i c i n front o f us, and sure e n o u g h , I see it: J e s u s is w e e p i n g grease, t w o t i n y drops sliding d o w n his f i g u r i n e d f a c e , c o l l e c t i n g i n t h e creases o f his neck. I stare at this p h e n o m e n o n . I have my o w n little fit of c o g n i t i v e dissonance r i g h t t h e r e : ( 1 ) I do n o t b e l i e v e in t h e C a t h o l i c faith or its rather c h e e s y - l o o k i n g m i r a c l e s , b u t (2) that statue is o o z i n g , a l t h o u g h o f c o u r s e i t c o u l d b e b u t t e r s o m e o n e p u t o n i t that's n o w m e l t i n g , b u t h o w a m I t o k n o w f o r sure? I o b s e r v e m y o w n m i n d , t o s e e i f i t leaps t o c o g n i t i v e c l o s u r e . B u t t e r . B u t t e r . B u t t e r . A c c o r d i n g t o Festinger's theory, I will r e d u c e this d i s s o n a n c e by e x p l a n a t i o n . B u t I don't really have an e x p l a n a t i o n . It's p r o b a b l y butter. B u t it m i g h t n o t b e butter. W h o ' s t o say h o w g o d appears, i n w h a t signs, w h a t s y m bols? W h o ' s t o say for sure? W e t h r e e stand i n t h e c h a p e l w a t c h i n g Jesus cry. F r o m inside t h e h o u s e I c a n h e a r t h e m o a n o f a b r a i n - d e a d girl, a nurse shushing, a n d I i m a g i n e Linda's h o r r o r , fifteen years ago, seeing h e r t h r e e - y e a r - o l d drifting i n t h e d e e p e n d . I d o n ' t k n o w i f there's a reason these things h a p p e n , or if t h e r e are saints w h o can see into h e a v e n , or if pain has a d i v i n e p u r p o s e . I d o n ' t k n o w w h y t h e statue w e e p s , w h y t h e b e a d o f b l o o d i s i n t h e c h a l i c e . I c a m e h e r e l o o k i n g for Linda's willingness to t o l e r a t e d i s s o n a n c e , b u t w h a t I have found, in s o m e v e r y small sense, is my o w n , for my m i n d r i g h t n o w is o p e n , and all I c a n do is ask.

"It's in my b o n e s , " L i n d a repeats, " a n d I d o n ' t k n o w h o w l o n g I have left." " Y o u ' r e h e r m o t h e r , " I say t h e n . " Y o u ' v e t a k e n c a r e o f h e r for e i g h t e e n years. S h e has h e a l e d t h o u s a n d s u p o n thousands o f p e o p l e . S h e s h o u l d heal y o u . " L i n d a smiles wanly. " L a u r e n , " she says, " A u d r e y hasn't h e a l e d m e b e c a u s e I've n e v e r asked h e r to. A n d I n e v e r w o u l d . S h e m i g h t b e a saint, b u t she's also my girl, my baby. I w o u l d n e v e r ask her, or a l l o w her, to take on my pain. A m o t h e r d o e s n ' t ask that of a c h i l d . A m o t h e r doesn't give suffering. S h e takes it away."

T H E W O M E N L E A V E . L i n d a tells m e she will b e g o i n g t o S l o a n K e t t e r i n g C a n c e r C e n t e r s o o n . I sit for a little w h i l e l o n g e r in t h e c h a p e l , b y myself. Clearly, w h a t e v e r d o u b t s L i n d a e x p r e s s e d o n t h e p h o n e w e r e s o fleeting s h e c a n b a r e l y a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m . N o w , I w a n t t o pray. B u t n o prayers c o m e . " A m o t h e r d o e s n ' t request that o f h e r c h i l d , " L i n d a said, " A m o t h e r d o e s n ' t give suffering. S h e takes i t away." T h i s m i g h t be a rationalization, a w a y for L i n d a to avoid h e r daughter's failing h e r b y simply n e v e r asking her, a n d thus t h e story stays intact. B u t it's m o r e than that. It's also a n act o f d e e p c a r i n g . F r o m inside t h e h o u s e I h e a r L i n d a now, c r o o n i n g t o h e r daughter, a n d s o m e o n e gurgles i n return, a n d f o r a l m o s t t w o d e c a d e s n o w , she's d o n e this, day in, day o u t , m i n i s t e r e d . D i d F e s t i n g e r ever c o n s i d e r h o w o u r j u s t i f i c a t i o n s are t o save n o t o n l y ourselves, b u t o t h e r s t o o ? D i d h e ever c o n s i d e r h o w lies a n d l o v e are i n t e r t w i n e d ?

I L E A V E L I N D A . T h e day i s extravagant, b a c k w a r d , s u m m e r i n w i n ter, b u r i e d bulbs spearing u p w a r d t h r o u g h t h e g r o u n d , flaunting t h e i r p u r p l e flags. When

I

was in graduate s c h o o l s t u d y i n g p s y c h o l o g y , I

once

w o r k e d o n t h e n e u r o l o g i c a l u n i t o f a large hospital. T h e r e w e r e a few p e o p l e t h e r e like Audrey, c u r l e d i n t o c o m a s , t h e i r l i m b s stiff a n d c o l d .

S o m e t i m e s I'd stand o v e r these p e o p l e — a b o y I particularly r e m e m b e r — a n d I'd say t h e alphabet, w o n d e r i n g i f t h e letters w o u l d w e n d t h e i r way in, i f t h e r e are parts o f u s d e e p u n d e r g r o u n d that n e v e r t h e less still stay awake, w a t c h i n g t h e w o r l d w h i l e b u r i e d . It was in graduate s c h o o l that I first l e a r n e d s o m e scientists are actually

studying

the

neural

basis

of d i s s o n a n c e

Ramachandran, o n e o f the most well-known

theory.

V.

S.

n e u r o l o g i s t s o f this

century, is investigating t h e neural substrates responsible for denial and revision. He claims we have a n e u r o n a l "devil's a d v o c a t e " d e v i c e l o c a t e d s o m e w h e r e in o u r left l o b e . T h e devil's a d v o c a t e signals a little n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r a l a r m w h e n i t d e t e c t s j a b s a t o u r sealed b e l i e f systems, and that's w h a t allows us to e v e n e x p e r i e n c e d i s s o n a n c e . In o u r r i g h t l o b e , h o w e v e r , w e have a S c h e h e r a z a d e o f synapse a n d cell, a gleeful and powerful c o n f a b u l a t o r that often o v e r r i d e s its h o r n e d opponent. " B u t n o t all brains," says M a t t h e w L i e b e r m a n , assistant professor of psychology and social psychology at the University of California, Los Angeles, " n o t all brains engage in rationalizations, in such intense singlethemed

storytelling."

Lieberman

has

repeated

Festinger's

lying-

f o r - o n e - d o l l a r - v e r s u s - l y i n g - f o r - t w e n t y - d o l l a r s e x p e r i m e n t w i t h East Asians, " a n d East Asians e n g a g e in far fewer rationalizations than A m e r i c a n s do." L i e b e r m a n is pretty sure that t h e East Asian brain, based o n years and years o f Z e n p r a c t i c e , o r simply b e c a u s e i t has m a t u r e d in a c u l t u r e that can t o l e r a t e paradox ( w h a t is t h e s o u n d of one

h a n d c l a p p i n g ? ) , has a different " n e u r a l s i g n a t u r e " than t h e

A m e r i c a n brain. "It's n o t that East Asian p e o p l e d o n ' t e x p e r i e n c e diss o n a n c e , " L i e b e r m a n says, " b u t t h e y have less of a n e e d to r e d u c e it, probably b e c a u s e t h e structures that s e e k linear t h o u g h t patterns have b e e n r e w i r e d t h r o u g h spiritual e x e r c i s e . " L i e b e r m a n w o n d e r s i f the a n t e r i o r c i n g u l a t e gyrus serves as t h e h u m a n " a n o m a l y d e t e c t o r , " or "devil's advocate," a n d if, in East Asian p e o p l e , that brain part has fewer pathways t o t h e prefrontal c o r t e x , w h e r e w e m a k e o u r g a m e plans. " I f this i s t h e case," says L i e b e r m a n , " t h e n East Asians e x p e r i e n c e t h e s a m e a m o u n t o f c o g n i t i v e d i s s o n a n c e that w e do, b u t t h e y

feel less c o m p e l l e d t o act o n it." I n o t h e r w o r d s , East Asians may b e b e t t e r able to sit w i t h it, h o l d in t h e i r c u p p e d hands a t h i n g that m a k e s no s e n s e — a carp w i t h o u t water, a tree w i t h o u t r o o t s , a b e a u t i ful b r a i n - d e a d girl.

I AM W O R R I E D about the weather. It is D e c e m b e r 3, and the t e m perature i s s i x t y - t w o d e g r e e s . T h e sky l o o k s m e l t e d , t h e single rose b l o o m i n g i n o u r garden i s a p o c a l y p t i c . M y h u s b a n d c a r r i e s m y d a u g h t e r outside, his feet s i n k i n g i n t o t h e d a m p l o a m y lawn, a n d t h e y p i c k t h e rose, b r e a k i n g i t o f f and b r i n g i n g i t t o m e . F e s t i n g e r c l a i m e d that, ironically, w o r r y c o u l d b e a w a y o f r e d u c i n g c o g n i t i v e d i s s o n a n c e . Y o u feel afraid for no g o o d reason, so y o u c r e a t e a reason, a n d t h e r e b y justify y o u r w o r r y H o w c a n o n e tell t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e j u s t a n d t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n s ? Perhaps if I w e r e East Asian, I w o u l d n ' t e v e n try. B u t t h e fact o f t h e m a t t e r is, t h e p l a n e t appears t o b e w a r m ing. It is early D e c e m b e r , and t h e w i n d smells like rot, a n d I find a b e e t l e o n t h e g r o u n d , its j o i n t e d h o o k e d l i m b s w a v i n g i n t h e w a r m air, a c l e a r p o o l o f o o z e f l o w i n g from its s e g m e n t e d belly. L i n d a has g o n e t o the S l o a n - K e t t e r i n g C a n c e r C e n t e r and i s b a c k h o m e by now. S i n c e my visit w i t h h e r a w e e k ago, I've t h o u g h t a lot a b o u t h e r — o r perhaps I should say, my a n t e r i o r cingulate gyrus has t h o u g h t a lot a b o u t her. I've d o n e s o m e sleuthing, and there are serious m e d i c a l experts w h o c l a i m A u d r e y is, indeed, a rarity. T h e J e w i s h d e r matologist said,"I c a n n o t explain h e r skin c o n d i t i o n in any way e x c e p t to say it was caused by c h e m o t h e r a p y , a c h e m o t h e r a p y the m o t h e r says she n e v e r had." Audrey's pediatrician says, "I don't k n o w . I have seen crosses o n h e r palms, crosses o f b l o o d , w h a t y o u c o u l d call stigmata, but they are u n d e r a layer of skin, so t h e y c o u l d n ' t have b e e n c u t there. I don't k n o w . M e d i c i n e wants t o put r o u n d things i n t o r o u n d holes, but in Audrey's case, it's a square thing and it doesn't fit." Currently, according to Linda, the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h is formally investigating A u d r e y for possible s a i n t h o o d . " O h , I h o p e she m a k e s saint," R u b y says t o m e , like it's a c h e e r l e a d i n g squad. T h e last t i m e

t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h c o n s i d e r e d n a m i n g s o m e o n e a saint was i n 1 9 8 3 , w h e n a w o m a n prayed o v e r a t h r e e - y e a r - o l d girl w h o had swallowed a b o t t l e o f T y l e n o l . T h e c h i l d r e c o v e r e d , despite h e r b e i n g o n t h e d o o r s t e p o f death. I call L i n d a S a n t o . S h e has had h e r breast o p e r a t i o n by n o w and s h o u l d b e r e c o v e r i n g . H e r v o i c e sounds w e a k , w a v e r i n g . " S t a g e four," she tells m e , " t h e y c u t o u t m y breast a n d f o u n d i t e v e r y w h e r e , e v e r y w h e r e . " I p i c t u r e it, t h e c a n c e r , e e l - b l a c k , b e e t l e - b l a c k . I p i c t u r e it. T h e y c u t i t o u t . N o w she i s h o m e , a n d h o b b l i n g , n u r s i n g h e r s e l f o n t h e o n e h a n d and h e r small saint o n t h e o t h e r . I drive b a c k o u t to see her. It is n e a r i n g t h e solstice; already t h e sun is sliding d o w n t h e sky w h e n I arrive, and my s h a d o w is l o n g on the gold g r o u n d . Fifty years ago, M a r i o n K e e c h and D r . A r m s t r o n g and B e r t h a and D o n and all the rest waited for Sananda and his silver rains, and w h e n t h e y didn't c o m e , t h e y found a way to explain it. Fifteen years ago, Audrey S a n t o fell i n t o h e r p o o l , and w h e n she n e v e r r e c o v ered, t h e y f o u n d a way to explain it. N o w , a p p r o a c h i n g t h e S a n t o h o m e , I don't go to the front d o o r or the chapel door. Instead, I c r e e p around to the side and p e e r in o n e of t h e w i n d o w s , and then I see her, Audrey herself, lying in a b r i g h t p i n k b e d r o o m , h e r hair, so l o n g and full of shine, massed across t h e satin pillows, falling to t h e floor in a single b l a c k sheet. H e r eyes are fixed, o p e n . S h e l o o k s radiant, e x c e p t for her m o u t h , w h e r e a single string o f drool drops d o w n . T o tell t h e truth, I d o n ' t k n o w w h y I ' m h e r e . I c a m e t o L i n d a b e c a u s e I w a n t e d t o o b s e r v e s o m e o n e e n t e r i n g d i s s o n a n c e and p u t ting t o g e t h e r a n e w paradigm b e c a u s e o f it, b u t she didn't s h o w m e that. S h e c l u n g , instead, t o h e r j u s t i f i c a t i o n s , h e r rationalizations, but w i t h so m u c h love! Is it t h e love I am drawn to, this m o t h e r a n d d a u g h t e r w o v e n t o g e t h e r b y years o f breath and t o u c h ? O r i s i t that I am drawn by t h e d i s s o n a n c e I am e x p e r i e n c i n g , t h e fact that t h e weird things h a p p e n i n g h e r e , in this h o u s e , rankle against my n o t i o n of h o w t h e w o r l d w o r k s , and I w a n t to figure it o u t ? I see a s h a d o w to my left and I t u r n . I swear it is L e o n h i m s e l f in t h e dusk of this D e c e m b e r day, s c a m p e r i n g a r o u n d , s c o w l i n g and l e p r e c h a u n - l i k e at

t h e s a m e t i m e . W h a t w o u l d h e say a b o u t t h e S a n t o miracles? H e ' d r e m i n d m e that all o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i s t h e result o f c o g n i t i v e d i s s o n a n c e and its s u b s e q u e n t rationalizations. W r i t e s F e s t i n g e r in When Prophecy Fails, t h e M e s s i a h was n o t supposed to "suffer pain," so t h e followers e x p e r i e n c e d great distress w h e n t h e y saw h i m c r y i n g o u t on t h e cross. It was at this m o m e n t , F e s t i n g e r speculates, that f o l l o w ers q u e l l e d t h e i r d o u b t s b y b e g i n n i n g t o proselytize. I t h i n k this is funny, C h r i s t i a n i t y recast as c o g n i t i v e d i s s o n a n c e . I also t h i n k it's a little sad. It speaks o n l y of c o n s t r i c t i o n , defensive p e o ple w i t h blinders on t h e i r eyes. B u t , in fact, C h r i s t i a n i t y was also an o p e n i n g , a d o o r w a y that m i l l i o n s u p o n m i l l i o n s s t r e a m e d t h r o u g h . N o w , I r i n g t h e S a n t o s ' d o o r b e l l and t h e n wait for L i n d a i n t h e c h a p e l . I t i s dark i n t h e c h a p e l , a n d t h e walls r e e k o f saturated o i l , o f old c l o t h e s and i n c e n s e . I go to t h e c h a l i c e , lift up t h e cup, a n d stare d o w n i n t o it, w h e r e t h e oil w i t h t h e b e a d o f b l o o d sits j u s t a s i t did w e e k s and w e e k s b e f o r e . W h o will take care o f A u d r e y i f L i n d a dies? W h e n L i n d a dies? I t o u c h t h e tiny, p o i n t e d face o f a J e s u s and m y hands c o m e away glossy and w e t . I stare at my hands. T h e light is really g o i n g now, t h e day is so short, b u t my h a n d is g l o w i n g and glossy w i t h this oil. I lift up my pant leg and r u b t h e o i l on a r a z o r n i c k I g o t t h e o t h e r day, w h i l e s h o w e r i n g . M y skin soaks i t u p and t h e c u t closes over, so t h e r e is no m a r k t h e r e a n y m o r e , or is it j u s t t o o dark t o really see? Perhaps I a m s e e i n g things, b u t t h e nature o f t h o s e things I c a n n o t q u i t e tell. W h o k n o w s , m a y b e G o d m a k e s h i m s e l f k n o w n t h r o u g h a c h e a p plastic relic, in a r a n c h - s t y l e h o u s e . I really, really c a n n o t say for sure. I am b e t w e e n stories, p e n d i n g a paradigm, w i t h o u t j u s t i f i c a t i o n or rationalization, a r i c h and p r o f o u n d p l a c e to b e . H e r e , for this m o m e n t , h a n g i n g b e t w e e n d i s s o n a n c e and c o n s o n a n c e , I am q u i e t . I am peaceful. T h i s is w h a t Festinger's e x p e r i m e n t s missed, w h a t it's like to live in t h e gap b e t w e e n c o n s o n a n c e a n d diss o n a n c e , w h e r e n e w t h e o r i e s take shape, n e w beliefs are a b o u t t o b e b o r n , o r s o m e t h i n g m u c h smaller, j u s t a p e r s o n , j u s t m e , w i t h m y hands h e l d o u t , m y b o d y h e l d h i g h , w i d e o p e n — n o e n d i n g .

Monkey Love HARRY

HARLOW'S

PRIMATES

Harry Harlow's experiments with wire monkeys are central demonstrations in the psychology of attachment. Harlow was able to show that infant monkeys cared more for a soft surrogate mother than a metal milk-bearing one, and with this finding, a whole science of touch was born. His experiments, many captured on film, are chilling and underscore the power of proximity in our lives.

bedience. Conformity. Cognitive. Cuing. T h e s e w e r e the words V^_-^ and

Harry

Harlow

didn't

like

them.

He

wanted

to

talk

a b o u t love. He was at a c o n f e r e n c e o n e day, speaking a b o u t love, and every t i m e h e used t h e w o r d , o n e o f the scientists w o u l d i n t e r r u p t and say, " Y o u must m e a n proximity, d o n ' t y o u ? " until at last Harlow, a brash m a n w h o c o u l d also b e strangely shy, said, " I t m a y b e that p r o x i m i t y is all y o u k n o w of love; I t h a n k G o d I have n o t b e e n so deprived." T h a t was j u s t like h i m , t o m a k e such a s t a t e m e n t , i n p u b l i c n o less; he was prickly, i m p o l i t e , a m a n w h o is r e m e m b e r e d by s o m e w i t h real distaste and by o t h e r s w i t h fondness. " M y father," says his son J a m e s H a r l o w , " I r e m e m b e r h o w h e t o o k m e o n all these trips; h e

took me

to

Hawaii

where we got to

eat d i n n e r w i t h

Gregory

B a t e s o n a n d his g i b b o n ; h e b o u g h t m e i c e c r e a m c o n e s ; w e flew o n d o u b l e d e c k e r planes." B u t i t d o e s n ' t take m u c h p r o b i n g t o f i n d t h e story's o t h e r side. " H a r l o w was a real bastard; he t r i e d to ruin m e , " a f o r m e r student says. " H e hated w o m e n , h e was a P I G , " says a n o t h e r , b o t h o f w h o m ask n o t t o b e identified. B u t t h e r e h e was, t h e P I G , u p o n t h e p o d i u m , i n 1 9 5 9 , s p e a k i n g s c i e n c e i n a w a y n o o n e had dared t o b e f o r e , i n j e c t i n g statistics w i t h h e m o g l o b i n and heart, t h e N a b o k o v o f p s y c h o l o g y . H i s e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e l o n g m e d i t a t i o n s o n love, a n d all t h e ways we r u i n it.

L I T T L E IS K N O W N o f H a r l o w ' s c h i l d h o o d . H e was b o r n in 1 9 0 5 as H a r r y Israel, t o L o n and M a b e l Israel, o f Fairfield C o u n t y , I o w a . H i s father was a failed i n v e n t o r , his m o t h e r a d e t e r m i n e d w o m a n w h o perhaps f o u n d t h e m i d w e s t e r n t o w n a little small for h e r tastes. S h e was, H a r l o w r e c o l l e c t s in a partly finished a u t o b i o g r a p h y , n o t a w a r m w o m a n — M a b e l Israel, standing b y t h e living r o o m ' s p i c t u r e w i n d o w , l o o k i n g o u t o n t o t h e street, w h e r e i t was always w i n t e r , t h e sky t h e c o l o r o f s o m e t h i n g soiled, t h e land flat, w e t s n o w falling i n c l u m p s from t h e tangles o f b l a c k b r a n c h e s . Harlow

experienced

bouts

o f depression

throughout

his

life;

maybe here is w h e r e they began, in the l o n g midwestern winters, the land flat and forever s t r e t c h i n g o u t , t h e days f e e b l e , a m e a g e r sun l a n c e d o f its light b y four o ' c l o c k e a c h a f t e r n o o n . O r m a y b e i t was i n t h e distance b e t w e e n his m o t h e r a n d h e ; h e m u s t have l o n g e d for s o m e t h i n g s o o t h i n g . A t s c h o o l , h e did n o t f i t i n . " H e was a w e i r d l i t tle misfit," says his b i o g r a p h e r D e b o r a h B l u m . H a r l o w was i n t e r e s t e d i n p o e t r y a n d d r a w i n g . T h e I o w a s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m offered c o u r s e s like " F a r m M a n a g e m e n t a n d C r o p R o t a t i o n " a n d " H o w t o C o o k t o Please Y o u r M a n . " O n e day, his f o u r t h - g r a d e t e a c h e r gave a p o e t r y w r i t i n g a s s i g n m e n t , a n d this was s o e x c i t i n g for h e w o u l d f i t i n t o this, h e c o u l d b e a part o f t h i s — u n t i l t h e s u b j e c t was revealed: t h e beauty of brushing your teeth. B r u s h i n g your teeth. Brushing your

t e e t h . B y age ten, H a r l o w had b e g u n t o draw e v e r y free m i n u t e h e lad. B e n d i n g over t h e large sketch pad, t o n g u i n g his o w n t e e t h i n i e r c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ; he m a d e a strange and beautiful land called razoo, and this land h e p o p u l a t e d w i t h w i n g e d animals and h o r n e d leasts, e v e r y t h i n g f l u i d , f l y i n g , s w o o p i n g , and w h e n h e was d o n e ith t h e picture, h e w o u l d b i s e c t t h e beasts w i t h sharp b l a c k lines, lalve t h e m , q u a r t e r t h e m , so t h e animals lay on t h e page, all b l o o d y : o l o r and still s o m e h o w beautiful, vivid, and vivisected. H a r l o w g r a d u a t e d from t h e Fairfield C o u n t y H i g h S c h o o l , w e n t t o R e e d C o l l e g e for o n e year, and t h e n c o m p l e t e d his u n d e r g r a d u a t e i d graduate w o r k a t Stanford, w h e r e e v e r y o n e was e l o q u e n t and w h e r e Harlow, w h o had a s p e e c h i m p e d i m e n t , felt t o o shy to talk. N o place, H a r l o w often said, m a d e h i m feel m o r e i n s e c u r e than Stanford. T h e r e f o r e , h e w o r k e d like a dog. H e studied w i t h L e w i s T e r m a n , t h e f a m o u s I Q r e s e a r c h e r w h o was j u s t t h e n p r o b i n g i n t o gifted c h i l d r e n . T h e r e was H a r l o w w i t h his lisp and there w e r e these s h i n i n g c h i l d r e n c o m i n g i n t o t h e lab, p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r b r i g h t b l o c k s and puzzle p i e c e s . T e r m a n t o l d H a r l o w h e w o u l d a m o u n t t o n o t h ing, that t h e m o s t h e c o u l d e x p e c t for h i m s e l f was a j o b a t a c o m m u nity c o l l e g e . B u t H a r l o w pleaded, and at last T e r m a n said s o m e t h i n g t o t h e effect o f , " C h a n g e y o u r n a m e from Israel t o s o m e t h i n g , s o m e i n g else . . . and w e ' l l see w h a t we can do." So H a r l o w p i c k e d Harlow, and T e r m a n , i n 1 9 3 0 , g o t h i m a j o b a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n , w h e r e t h e lakes are like b i g b l u e eyes i n t h e m i d d l e o f the l a n d - l o c k e d land, and t h e w i n t e r w i n d i s full o f t e e t h . H a r l o w w o u l d g o w h e r e v e r h e was sent. H e lisped and l i m p e d his way from s u n n y Palo A l t o t o M a d i s o n , W i s c o n s i n . H e m a r r i e d o n e o f Terman's gifted c h i l d r e n , w h o was n o w n o t a c h i l d , C l a r a M e a r s , nth h e r I Q o f 1 5 5 , and T e r m a n w r o t e a l e t t e r o f c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s : " I happy t o see t h e j o i n i n g o f Clara's e x t r a o r d i n a r y h e r e d i t a r y m a t e rial w i t h Harry's p r o d u c t i v i t y as a p s y c h o l o g i s t . " A n i c e letter, I suppose, t h o u g h it sounds m o r e like a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y than h u m a n bonding, and t h e p u t - d o w n is e v e r so slight. C l a r a has t h e a m a z i n g genetic p o t e n t i a l . H a r l o w , w h a t d o e s h e have? W h a t d o e s h e H A V E ?

T h i s was a q u e s t i o n that p l a g u e d H a r r y H a r l o w for all of his life, a q u e s t i o n he asked over a n d over a g a i n — i n t h e darkest days, in t h e s h e e r y e l l o w days w h e n h e was happy—still h e asked t h e q u e s t i o n , always s u s p e c t i n g that his gifts w e r e f l e e t i n g , a c q u i r e d o n l y b e c a u s e o f a great a n d s t u b b o r n and finally strangulating grip. W h e n H a r l o w c a m e t o M a d i s o n , h e p l a n n e d t o study rats, b u t h e w o u n d u p w i t h m o n k e y s , rhesus m o n k e y s , a small agile b r e e d . E v e r T e r m a n ' s s t u d e n t , h e b e g a n b y devising a test o f m o n k e y i n t e l l i g e n c e , a sort o f s i m i a n I Q profile, a n d h e was e x t r e m e l y successful a t p r o v i n g that t h e s e little p r i m a t e s c o u l d solve p r o b l e m s in ways far m o r e c o m p l e x than prior primate researchers had ever thought. His r e p u t a t i o n rose. M a d i s o n gave h i m a n o l d b o x f a c t o r y for a p r i m a t e lab, a n d students s o u g h t h i m o u t . W h e n

studying the m o n k e y s ,

H a r l o w w o u l d separate t h e infants f r o m t h e i r m o t h e r s a n d p e e r s , a n d this i s h o w h e s t u m b l e d i n t o f a m e . H e was s t u d y i n g t h e m o n k e y head, b u t h e o b s e r v e d t h e m o n k e y h e a r t , a n d h e w o n d e r e d . T h e infant m o n k e y s , w h e n separated, b e c a m e e x t r e m e l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e t e r r y c l o t h t o w e l s c o v e r i n g t h e c a g e f l o o r s . T h e y w o u l d lie o n t h e m , g r i p t h e m i n t h e i r tiny fists, t a n t r u m i f t h e y w e r e t a k e n away, j u s t like a h u m a n infant w i t h a ratty b l a n k e t or a stuffed bear. T h e m o n keys l o v e d t h e s e towels. W h y ? T h i s was a h u g e q u e s t i o n . A t t a c h m e n t had p r e v i o u s l y b e e n u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s o f nutritive rewards. W e love o u r m o t h e r s b e c a u s e w e l o v e t h e i r m i l k . A b a b y clings t o its m o t h e r b e c a u s e i t sees t h e s w o l l e n breasts, t h e tan a u r e o l e a n d t h e n u b o f n i p p l e rising f r o m its p l e a t e d folds, and i t feels thirst o r h u n g e r . K e n n e t h H u l l a n d C l a r k S p e n c e t h e m s e l v e s h a d said all o f h u m a n a t t a c h m e n t is p r e d i c a t e d on drive r e d u c t i o n : h u n g e r is a p r i m a r y drive a n d w e w a n t t o r e d u c e it; s o are thirst a n d s e x . F r o m t h e 1 9 3 0 s t h r o u g h t h e 1 9 5 0 s , t h e t h e o r y o f drive r e d u c t i o n a n d its l i n k t o love w e n t u n q u e s t i o n e d . H a r l o w , h o w e v e r , b e g a n t o q u e s t i o n it. H e fed t h e b a b y m o n k e y s b y hand, w i t h little plastic b o t t l e s , a n d w h e n h e t o o k t h e b o t t l e s away, t h e infants j u s t s m a c k e d t h e i r lips a n d m a y b e w i p e d a w h i t e d r i b b l e o f f t h e i r h a i r y c h i n s . B u t w h e n H a r l o w t r i e d t o take t h e t e r r y c l o t h

towels away, well, t h e simians s c r e a m e d like a s l a u g h t e r h o u s e , t h r o w i n g t h e i r small b o d i e s d o w n and c l u t c h i n g a t b u n c h e s o f c l o t h . T h i s fascinated

Harlow. T h e

simians

screamed.

(Somewhere

else,

in

a n o t h e r t i m e , M a b e l h a d s t o o d b y t h e w i n d o w , h e r s o n j u s t t w o feet from h e r plush b u t c o o l side. A n i m a l s flew in a p e r s o n a l forest, slashed w i t h b l a c k lines, b l e e d i n g b l u e a n d red.) H e w a t c h e d t h e m o n k e y s s c r e a m and t h o u g h t love. W h a t i s love? T h e n H a r l o w saw. A s his b i o g r a p h e r B l u m w r i t e s , t h e best way t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e heart, was to b r e a k it. A n d so started his brutal a n d beautiful career.

RHESUS

MACAQUE

MONKEYS

share r o u g h l y n i n e t y - f o u r p e r c e n t

o f t h e i r g e n e t i c h e r i t a g e w i t h h u m a n s . A n o t h e r way t o put this i s that h u m a n s are n i n e t y - f o u r p e r c e n t rhesus m a c a q u e m o n k e y , six p e r c e n t p e o p l e . M o v i n g u p t h e p h y l o g e n e t i c scale, w e are a p p r o x i m a t e l y ninety-eight percent orangutan or approximately ninety-nine perc e n t c h i m p a n z e e , w i t h j u s t t h e barest f l e c k o f f l e s h a s solely h u m a n . T h i s i s precisely w h y p s y c h o l o g i c a l researchers have l o n g gravitated toward

the

use

of primates

in

their

experiments.

Says

primate

researcher R o g e r F o u t s , " M o n k e y s have a w h o l e r e p e r t o r i e o f l a n guage, a n entire, c o m p l e x i n t e l l i g e n c e that w e fail t o value o n l y because o f o u r Cartesian view o f the world." O b v i o u s t o Fouts, m a y b e , b u t n o t t o H a r l o w , w h o said, " T h e o n l y t h i n g I c a r e a b o u t i s w h e t h e r a m o n k e y will t u r n o u t a p r o p e r t y I c a n publish. I d o n ' t have any love for t h e m . I n e v e r have. I d o n ' t really like animals. I despise cats. I h a t e dogs. H o w c o u l d y o u love m o n k e y s ? " T h e e x p e r i m e n t r e q u i r e d w i r e c u t t e r s , c a r d b o a r d c o n e s , h o t coils, steel nails, and soft c l o t h . H a r l o w used t h e w i r e c u t t e r s to fashion a wire m o t h e r , its t o r s o p a t t e r n e d w i t h small squares e v e r y w h e r e , a s i n gle i n f l e x i b l e breast " o n t h e ventral front." Affixed to this breast, a steel nipple p i e r c e d w i t h a tiny h o l e t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e m o n k e y m i l k could flow. T h e n , H a r l o w f a s h i o n e d a soft surrogate, a c a r d b o a r d c o n e b u n t e d in a t e r r y c l o t h t o w e l .

W e designed the m o t h e r surrogate i n terms o f h u m a n - e n g i n e e r i n g principals. . . . We produced a perfectly proportioned, streamlined b o d y stripped of unnecessary bulges and appendages. R e d u n d a n c y in the surrogate mother's system was avoided by reducing the n u m ber of breasts from two to o n e and placing this unibreast in the upper thoracic sagittal position, thus maximizing the natural and k n o w n perceptual and m o t o r capabilities o f the infant o p e r a t o r . . . . the result was a mother, soft, warm, and tender, a m o t h e r with infinite patience, a m o t h e r available 24 hours a d a y . . . . furthermore we designed a m o t h e r - m a c h i n e with maximal maintenance efficiency since failure of any system or function could be resolved by simple substitution of black boxes and n e w c o m p o n e n t parts. It is o u r opinion that we engineered a very superior m o n k e y mother, although this position is n o t held universally by m o n k e y fathers.

S o , they started. T h e y t o o k a g r o u p o f n e w b o r n rhesus m a c a q u e babies and put t h e m in t h e cage w i t h t h e t w o surrogate m o t h e r s : the w i r e m o t h e r full of food, t h e c l o t h m o t h e r w i t h an e m p t y breast and a sweet smile. L a b assistants' notes detail t h e trauma o f the e x p e r i m e n t : t h e real m o t h e r m a c a q u e s , realizing their babies w e r e b e i n g stolen, s c r e a m i n g and b a n g i n g their h e a d against t h e cage; t h e infants c h o o c h o o i n g as they w e r e hurled i n t o a separate space. H o u r after h o u r this animal fear g o i n g o n , and t h e lab f i l l e d w i t h t h e stench o f it, a n x i o u s scat, soft stools indicating, H a r l o w writes, high emotionality. T h e cages w e r e smeared g o l d w i t h grief, t h e infant m a c a q u e s all balled over themselves w i t h their tails held high to s h o w t h e i r tiny o o z i n g anuses. B u t t h e n , H a r l o w o b s e r v e d s o m e t h i n g a m a z i n g start t o h a p p e n . W i t h i n a m a t t e r o f days, t h e b a b y m a c a q u e s transferred t h e i r a f f e c tions from t h e real m o t h e r , w h o was n o l o n g e r available, t o t h e c l o t h surrogate m o t h e r , t o w h o m t h e y c l u n g , o v e r w h o m t h e y c r a w l e d , m a n i p u l a t i n g h e r face i n t h e i r m i n i a t u r e hands, b i t i n g h e r gently, s p e n d i n g h o u r s u p o n h o u r s o n h e r b e l l y and b a c k . T h e c l o t h m o t h e r , h o w e v e r , had n o m i l k , s o w h e n t h e y o u n g s t e r s w e r e h u n g r y , t h e y w o u l d s c a m p e r off, dart o v e r t o t h e steel m a m m a r y m a c h i n e — t h e

c h i c k e n - w i r e m o t h e r — a n d t h e n , h a v i n g had t h e i r f i l l from t h e f o u n tain, r u n b a c k t o t h e safety o f t h e soft t o w e l . H a r l o w g r a p h e d t h e m e a n a m o u n t o f t i m e t h e m o n k e y s spent n u r s i n g versus cuddling, a n d his heart must have pattered fast, for h e was o n t h e b r i n k o f discovery, and t h e n h e was o v e r discovery's edge. " W e w e r e n o t surprised t o d i s c o v e r that c o n t a c t c o m f o r t was a n i m p o r t a n t basic affectional o r love variable, b u t w e did n o t e x p e c t i t t o o v e r s h a d o w s o c o m p l e t e l y t h e variable of nursing; i n d e e d , t h e disparity is so great as t o suggest that t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f nursing . . . i s that o f i n s u r i n g frequent a n d i n t i m a t e b o d y c o n t a c t o f t h e infant w i t h t h e m o t h e r . " H e r e H a r l o w was establishing that love g r o w s from t o u c h , n o t taste, w h i c h is why, w h e n t h e m o t h e r ' s m i l k dries up, as it inevitably d o e s , t h e c h i l d c o n t i n u e s to love her, a n d t h e n t h e c h i l d takes this love, t h e m e m o r y o f it, and recasts i t o u t w a r d , s o that every i n t e r a c t i o n is a replay and a revision of this early tactile t o u c h . " C e r t a i n l y , " w r i t e s H a r l o w , " m a n c a n n o t live b y m i l k a l o n e . " T h e 1 9 3 0 s t o 1 9 5 0 s was a c o l d era i n c h i l d r e a r i n g . T h e famous pediatrician

Dr. Benjamin

Spock

advised

feeding

by

schedule;

S k i n n e r u n d e r s t o o d t h e infant i n t e r m s o f its p r i o r patterns o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d p u n i s h m e n t , s o that i f y o u w a n t e d t o stop a b a b y from c r y i n g , y o u w e r e to stop rewarding it by p i c k i n g it up. N e s t l e a n d R o s s l a b o r a t o r i e s d i s c o v e r e d f o r m u l a , w h i t e p o w d e r , plastic nipples, tepid w a t e r f r o m t h e faucet. J o h n W a t s o n f a m o u s l y w r o t e , i n his b o o k s a b o u t h o w t o rear c h i l d r e n , " D o n o t o v e r i n d u l g e t h e m . D o n o t kiss t h e m g o o d n i g h t . R a t h e r , give a b r i e f b o w and shake t h e i r h a n d b e f o r e t u r n i n g o f f t h e light." W e l l , H a r l o w was g o i n g to take all that d r e c k to t h e dreck b i n and replace i t w i t h the R E A L truth, w h i c h was that y o u should never shake a baby's h a n d . Y o u should n o t hesitate to h o l d h i m . T o u c h is c r i t ical, n o t a spoiler b u t a saver; however, t h e g o o d news is, any old palm will do. " L o v e for t h e real m o t h e r and love for t h e surrogate m o t h e r appear to be v e r y s i m i l a r . . . . As far as we can observe, t h e infant m o n key's affection for t h e real m o t h e r is very strong, b u t no stronger than that o f the e x p e r i m e n t a l m o n k e y for the surrogate c l o t h m o t h e r . "

In H a r l o w ' s lab, at this t i m e , t h e r e rose an air of great e x c i t e m e n t . T h e researchers had s t u m b l e d i n t o a m a j o r love variable and h a d disc o u n t e d a n o t h e r love v a r i a b l e — f e e d i n g — a s o f m i n i m a l i m p o r t a n c e , a n d t h e y c o u l d s h o w all this on a g r a p h . It was w i n t e r in M a d i s o n , t h e n , dead i n t h e m i d d l e o f a v e r y c o l d w i n t e r , t h e trees e n c a s e d i n i c e like c h a n d e l i e r s . S t u d e n t s w a t c h e d s n o w fall, saw it pile up in l o o s e drifts on t h e ledges of t h e l a b o r a t o r y w i n d o w s , a n d felt it was a time o f pure e x c i t e m e n t . H a r l o w and c o m p a n y had identified " c o n t a c t c o m f o r t " a s a n essential c o m p o n e n t o f love. S u r e l y t h e r e w e r e o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s . W h a t a b o u t m o t i o n o r facial features? W h e n w e are f i r s t b o r n , w e see o u r m o t h e r ' s face as a series of shifting shadows, triangles sliding o n e over t h e o t h e r , a swirl o f s o m e t h i n g that m i g h t b e hair, t h e n u b o f s o m e t h i n g that m i g h t b e a n o s e , o r a nipple, w e d o n o t k n o w . W e o p e n o u r eyes a n d l o o k upward, a n d t h e r e i s t h e w o m a n i n t h e m o o n , a planet b e a m i n g b a c k at us, w i t h beautiful b l u e spots. Surely, H a r l o w h y p o t h e s i z e d , t h e face i s a n o t h e r love variable. T h e original surrogates had p r i m i t i v e faces w i t h b l a c k b i c y c l e reflectors for eyes. N o w H a r l o w o r d e r e d his lab assistant, W i l l i a m M a s o n , to m a k e a really g o o d m o n k e y mask. T h e plan was t o take yet a n o t h e r n e w b o r n m a c a q u e and give it a surrogate w i t h s o m e b e a u t y a n d see w h a t sort o f a t t a c h m e n t followed. H o w e v e r , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l m o n k e y was b o r n b e f o r e t h e face was finished, so in a rush, H a r l o w d r o p p e d t h e n e w b o r n i n t h e c a g e w i t h its t e r r y c l o t h m o m , w h o had o n l y a b l a n k featureless f l a t l a n d for a face. N o eyes. N o n o s e . N o t h i n g . I t did n o t s e e m t o matter. T h e little m o n k e y loved t h e faceless m o t h e r , kissing it, n i b bling it. W h e n t h e o r n a m e n t a l m o n k e y m a s k — s o m u c h prettier, s o m u c h m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g — w a s finally finished, t h e b a b y w o u l d have n o n e o f it. T h e researchers tried t o attach t h e m a s k e d ball t o t h e surrogate m o t h e r , and t h e infant s c r e a m e d in h o r r o r , r u s h e d to a c o r n e r o f its cage, r o c k e d violently, grasping its raw genitals. T h e y b r o u g h t the m a s k e d m o t h e r closer, closer, a n d t h e little m o n k e y r e a c h e d o u t its hand, flipped t h e ball around, so t h e b l a n k side was staring. O n l y t h e n did h e c o m e forward, ready t o play. N o m a t t e r h o w m a n y t i m e s t h e y

t u r n e d t h e m a s k e d m o t h e r toward the baby, t h e b a b y t u r n e d t h e mask away, and t h e n at last he l e a r n e d to r e m o v e t h e h e a d c o m p l e t e l y , r e t u r n i n g h i m s e l f t o t h e blank, featureless face, p r e f e r r i n g t h e o r i g i n a l view, i m p r i n t e d — s o m e m i g h t say, inscripted, t h e t e m p l a t e for all that follows. M a n y have called H a r l o w ' s e x p e r i m e n t s c r u e l — t o y a n k apart m o t h e r and child, to devise w i r e feeding stations w i t h sharp nipples, t o listen t o p r i m a t e s c r y i n grief, t o w a t c h t h e m c l i n g t o m a n n e q u i n s b e c a u s e t h e y have n o t h i n g e l s e — i t m a y b e c r u e l , yes. B u t t h e r e i s also s o m e t h i n g powerful and affirmative a b o u t w h a t he gave us: t h e sure k n o w l e d g e that o u r n e e d s are m o r e c o m p l e x than simple h u n g e r , that we s e e k to c o n n e c t at all costs, that we care n o t a w h i t for c o n v e n tional beauty, and will always find t h e first face t h e loveliest f a c e — n o m a t t e r h o w far w e g o .

THIS ALL O C C U R R E D

d u r i n g t h e late 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s . H a r l o w

was studying love a n d h a d earlier fallen o u t o f love. H e was always a t his lab, n e v e r a t h o m e . C l a r a , w i t h t h e h i g h I Q , well, she was a t h o m e taking care o f t h e i r t w o b a b i e s , w h i l e n i g h t after n i g h t h e r h u s b a n d was o u t in t h e o l d b o x factory, devising test after m o n k e y test. It was a c o l d , c o l d w i n t e r in M a d i s o n , a n d H a r r y H a r l o w had an affair. " T h a t ' s w h y m y parents b r o k e up," says H a r l o w ' s oldest s o n , R o b e r t Israel. "It's v e r y simple, my father had an affair." C l a r a left w i t h h e r t w o c h i l d r e n , later t o m a r r y a c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k e r and live i n a trailer i n t h e s o u t h w e s t part o f t h e c o u n t r y . H a r l o w b a r e l y s e e m e d t o n o t i c e . T h e r e was a w o m a n — w e d o n ' t k n o w w h o s h e is, possibly a s t u d e n t — a n d t h e n t h e r e was this o t h e r w o m a n w h o m h e called t h e I r o n M a i d e n . T h e I r o n M a i d e n was a special surrogate m o t h e r H a r l o w had designed; she s h o t o u t sharp spikes a n d blasted h e r b a b i e s w i t h air so c o l d a n d forceful t h e infants were

t h r o w n b a c k against t h e bars

o f t h e i r c a g e s , c l i n g i n g and

s c r e a m i n g . T h i s , c l a i m e d H a r l o w , was a n evil m o t h e r , a n d h e w a n t e d t o see w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n . H e r e i s w h e r e H a r l o w b e g i n s t o e a r n his darker r e p u t a t i o n . H e r e

is w h e r e he steps from s c i e n c e i n t o fairy t a l e s — b r u t a l s t e p m o t h e r s , t h e B r o t h e r s G r i m m , t h e Iron M a i d e n i n a m a g i c forest w h e r e trees put d o w n t h e i r s e c o n d legs a n d start t o w a l k away. W h y did H a r l o w w a n t to see s u c h things? A n i m a l rights activists say he's a sadist, pure and s i m p l e . I , myself, d o n ' t t h i n k that's it, a l t h o u g h w h a t drove h i m — t h e v a r i a b l e s — I c a n n o t q u i t e d e t e c t . D i d M a b e l have sharp spikes? T o o easy. Was his nature essentially, s e r o t o n e r g i c a l l y tilted t o w a r d t h e difficult? Perhaps, b u t t o o easy. W a s it that he had seen s o m e things? H e did a stint w i t h t h e a r m y w h e r e h e w e n t t o N e w M e x i c o a n d o b s e r v e d soldiers setting o f f a t o m i c blasts. H e saw t h e f i r e c l o u d , t h e b l a c k fallout i n t h e distance, t h e h u g e h o r r i f i c light. H e has n e v e r w r i t t e n a b o u t that. B u t t h e I r o n M a i d e n , h e has w r i t t e n a b o u t her, a l m o s t w i t h g l e e . H e m a d e m a n y variations: s o m e iron m a i d e n s p u m p e d freezing c o l d w a t e r o v e r t h e i r children; o t h e r s s t a b b e d t h e m . N o m a t t e r w h a t t h e t o r t u r e , H a r l o w o b s e r v e d that t h e b a b i e s w o u l d n o t let g o . T h e y would not be deterred; they would n o t be thwarted. My god, love is strong. Y o u are m a u l e d a n d y o u c o m e c r a w l i n g b a c k . Y o u are frozen, and yet still y o u s e e k heat from t h e s a m e w r o n g s o u r c e . T h e r e i s n o partial r e i n f o r c e m e n t to e x p l a i n this b e h a v i o r ; t h e r e is o n l y t h e dark side o f t o u c h , t h e reality o f p r i m a t e relationships, w h i c h i s that t h e y c a n kill us w h i l e t h e y h o l d us—that's sad. B u t again, I find s o m e beauty. T h e b e a u t y i s this: W e are creatures o f great faith. W e will build b r i d g e s , against all odds w e will b u i l d t h e m — f r o m h e r e t o there. F r o m m e t o y o u . C o m e closer.

LIKE

MILGRAM,

H A R L O W had a flair for t h e dramatic, t h e lyrically

p e r v e r t e d , a n d s o h e filmed his m o n k e y s c l u t c h i n g t h e i r m o t h e r s o f w i r e a n d snow, p r i c k e d b y iron m a i d e n s . T h e m o v i e s are powerful, powerful d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f d e s p e r a t i o n , a n d h e was n o t afraid t o s h o w t h e m . H e k n e w that p o p u l a r s c i e n c e has a n e l e m e n t o f art, even entertainment. I n 1 9 5 8 , h e was e l e c t e d president o f t h e A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i c a l

A s s o c i a t i o n , a n o t insignificant h o n o r . S o h e w e n t t o W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , w i t h his m o n k e y m o v i e s a n d prepared t o take t h e p o d i u m . H e was j u b i l a n t . H e

had r e m a r r i e d a

fellow psychologist, Margaret

K u e n n e ; h e called h e r Peggy. H e s t o o d o n t h e dais i n a c a v e r n o u s convention r o o m , l o o k i n g out at a c r o w d of serious, bespectacled faces, and he said, " L o v e is a w o n d r o u s state, deep, t e n d e r , and rewarding. B e c a u s e o f its i n t i m a t e and p e r s o n a l nature i t i s regarded b y s o m e a s a n i m p r o p e r t o p i c for e x p e r i m e n t a l research. B u t w h a t ever o u r p e r s o n a l feelings m a y b e , o u r assigned m i s s i o n a s p s y c h o l o gists i s t o analyze all facets o f h u m a n and a n i m a l b e h a v i o r i n t o t h e i r c o m p o n e n t v a r i a b l e s . . . . P s y c h o l o g i s t s , o r a t least p s y c h o l o g i s t s w h o w r i t e t e x t b o o k s , n o t o n l y s h o w n o interest i n t h e o r i g i n and d e v e l o p m e n t o f love o r affection, b u t t h e y s e e m t o b e unaware o f its v e r y existence." It's a g r a n d s t a t e m e n t , m a d e for a g r a n d o c c a s i o n by a m a n w h o knows h o w to market

himself. H e

interspersed his

speech

with

b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e film clips o f t h e s c i - f i - l o o k i n g surrogates and the babies w h o d e p e n d e d o n t h e m . A t the e n d o f his s p e e c h , w h i c h h e titled " T h e N a t u r e o f L o v e " and later published i n

the American

Psychologist, H a r l o w operatically c a m e to a c r e s c e n d o and a c o n c l u sion all at o n c e :

If the research completed and proposed makes a contribution, I shall be grateful; but I have also given full thought to the possible practical applications. T h e s o c i o e c o n o m i c demands of the present and the threatened s o c i o e c o n o m i c demands of the future have led American w o m e n to displace, or threaten to displace, the American man in scie n c e and industry. If this problem continues, the problem of proper child rearing practices faces us with startling clarity. It is cheering in view of this trend to realize that the American male is physically endowed with all the really essential equipment to c o m p e t e with the A m e r i c a n female on equal terms in o n e essential activity: the rearing of infants. We n o w k n o w that w o m e n in the working classes are not needed in the h o m e because of their primary mammalian

capabilities; and it is possible in the foreseeable future that neonatal nursing will not be regarded as a necessity, but as a luxury, a form of conspicuous consumption, limited perhaps to the upper classes. B u t whatever course history may take, it is comforting to k n o w that we are n o w in contact with the nature of love.

I i m a g i n e a m o m e n t of stunned silence, t h e n thunderous applause. T h e lights flicker o n . H a r l o w holds up his hands: No m o r e . Please more. M o r e was to c o m e . H a r l o w had released research that effectively s h o w e d a c l o t h surrogate m o t h e r was m o r e i m p o r t a n t than a nursing m o t h e r and c o u l d stand in j u s t as well as t h e real m o t h e r , for the infants c a m e t o " l o v e " t h e i r b u n t i n g and appeared t o mature well i n h e r prese n c e , playing a n d e x p l o r i n g . S o o n after that speech, t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n at M a d i s o n put o u t a press release: " M o t h e r h o o d O b s o l e t e , " i t a n n o u n c e d . T h e popular press followed. A n d H a r l o w ? W e l l , his career leapt up, or crossed over, from the professional realm i n t o t h e culture at large. He was on To Tell the Truth, and C B S m a d e a d o c u m e n tary o f his w o r k , narrated b y C h a r l e s C o l l i n g w o o d . T h e essential m e s sage was m u r k y in its m e a n i n g for w o m e n : y o u r babies don't n e e d y o u , on the o n e hand; go o u t and get free, on t h e other. It was a feminist p u t - d o w n , a m i x e d - u p , snarled, multilayered missive that o o z e d b o t h love and l o n g i n g , a p o t e n t c o m b i n a t i o n . H a r l o w had t w o m o r e c h i l d r e n w i t h his n e w wife. P e g g y h a d a n a d v a n c e d d e g r e e i n p s y c h o l o g y and, like C l a r a , she t o o d r o p p e d o u t o f t h e w o r k f o r c e t o raise h e r b a b i e s . H a r l o w i s q u o t e d saying, later i n his life, " B o t h m y wives h a d t h e g o o d sense n o t t o b e w o m e n ' s l i b bers; t h e y k n e w a m a n was m o r e i m p o r t a n t than a n y t h i n g else." P a m e l a H a r l o w was b o r n , and t h e n h e r y o u n g e r b r o t h e r J o n a t h a n . Today, t h e c h i l d r e n are m i d d l e - a g e d . P a m e l a m a k e s m e t a l sculptures in O r e g o n , h e r w o r k s t r i k i n g and severe. J o n a t h a n is a w o o d w o r k e r ; h e m a k e s , a m o n g o t h e r things, tiny p i n e b o x e s that h e sells t o craft stores: " B o x e s , " h e says— Boxes.

S O M E T H I N G WAS N O T g o i n g well. S o m e t h i n g b a d was h a p p e n i n g . A c l o t h m o t h e r was j u s t as g o o d as a real m o t h e r ; t o u c h was central t o t h e p r i m a t e heart, and yet, h e r e i t was: O v e r t h e f o l l o w i n g year Harlow noticed the cloth-mothered monkeys were not thriving— this, after he had m a d e s u c h a b o l d p r o n o u n c e m e n t in front of all his peers. W h e n h e t o o k t h e c l o t h - m o t h e r e d m o n k e y s o u t t o play and m a t e , t h e y w e r e v i o l e n t l y antisocial. T h e females attacked t h e males and k n e w n o t h i n g a b o u t c o r r e c t sexual p o s t u r i n g . S o m e

o f the

c l o t h - m o t h e r e d m o n k e y s b e g a n t o display autistic-like features, r o c k ing and b i t i n g t h e m s e l v e s , sores b l o s s o m i n g o p e n o n t h e i r b l a c k arms, t h e b l o o d rising up t h r o u g h t h e fur like b r i g h t pulp. I n f e c t i o n s set in. O n e c l o t h - m o t h e r e d m o n k e y c h e w e d o f f its entire h a n d . S o m e t h i n g , n o w h e saw, s o m e t h i n g had g o n e terribly, t e r r i b l y w r o n g . " O f course

he

was

d i s a p p o i n t e d , " says

Harlow's

biographer,

D e b o r a h B l u m . " H e t h o u g h t h e ' d i s o l a t e d t h e o n e v a r i a b l e essential to m o t h e r i n g , t o u c h , a n d t h a t this was a traveling v a r i a b l e , so to speak; a n y o n e c o u l d p r o v i d e it, a n d h e ' d m a d e that a n n o u n c e m e n t p u b l i c , and t h e n , o v e r t h e n e x t year, h e saw his m o n k e y s g e t v e r y f u c k e d up." A New York Times r e p o r t e r c a m e o u t to M a d i s o n to do a f o l l o w - u p o n t h e soft m o t h e r s u r r o g a t e a n d H a r l o w l e d h i m t o his lab, w h e r e a t r o o p o f r o c k i n g , h e a d - b a n g i n g m a c a q u e s sat i n c a g e s , e a t i n g o f f t h e i r fingers. " I a d m i t it," said H a r l o w . " I have m a d e a mistake." L e n R o s e n b l u m , o n e o f H a r l o w ' s students a t t h e t i m e and n o w a r e n o w n e d m o n k e y r e s e a r c h e r i n his o w n right, says, " S o w e c a m e t o understand t h e r e w e r e o t h e r variables t o m o t h e r i n g ; i t wasn't j u s t t o u c h , and i t wasn't j u s t face. W e h y p o t h e s i z e d i t had s o m e t h i n g t o d o w i t h m o t i o n t o o . W e m a d e a surrogate that c o u l d r o c k , and t h e babies w e r e a l m o s t n o r m a l t h e n , n o t c o m p l e t e l y , b u t almost. W e t h e n tried a r o c k i n g surrogate w i t h o n e h a l f h o u r a day w h e n t h e b a b y c o u l d play w i t h a live m o n k e y and that p r o d u c e d an absolutely n o r mal kid. W h a t this m e a n s is that t h e r e are t h r e e variables to l o v e — t o u c h , m o t i o n , and p l a y — a n d i f y o u c a n supply all o f those, y o u are m e e t i n g a primate's needs."

capabilities; and it is possible in the foreseeable future that neonatal nursing will not be regarded as a necessity, but as a luxury, a form of conspicuous consumption, limited perhaps to the upper classes. B u t whatever course history may take, it is comforting to k n o w that we are n o w in contact with the nature of love.

I i m a g i n e a m o m e n t of stunned silence, t h e n thunderous applause. T h e lights flicker o n . H a r l o w holds up his hands: No m o r e . Please more. M o r e was t o c o m e . H a r l o w had released research that effectively s h o w e d a c l o t h surrogate m o t h e r was m o r e i m p o r t a n t than a nursing m o t h e r and c o u l d stand in j u s t as well as t h e real m o t h e r , for t h e infants c a m e to " l o v e " t h e i r b u n t i n g and appeared to mature well in h e r prese n c e , playing a n d e x p l o r i n g . S o o n after that s p e e c h , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n at M a d i s o n put o u t a press release: " M o t h e r h o o d O b s o l e t e , " i t a n n o u n c e d . T h e popular press followed. A n d H a r l o w ? W e l l , his career leapt up, or crossed over, from t h e professional realm i n t o the culture at large. He was on To Tell the Truth, and C B S m a d e a d o c u m e n tary o f his w o r k , narrated b y Charles C o l l i n g w o o d . T h e essential m e s sage was m u r k y in its m e a n i n g for w o m e n : y o u r babies don't n e e d y o u , on t h e o n e hand; go o u t and get free, on the other. It was a feminist p u t - d o w n , a m i x e d - u p , snarled, multilayered missive that o o z e d b o t h love a n d l o n g i n g , a p o t e n t c o m b i n a t i o n . H a r l o w h a d t w o m o r e c h i l d r e n w i t h his n e w w i f e . P e g g y had a n a d v a n c e d d e g r e e i n p s y c h o l o g y and, like C l a r a , she t o o d r o p p e d o u t o f t h e w o r k f o r c e t o raise h e r b a b i e s . H a r l o w i s q u o t e d saying, later i n his life, " B o t h m y wives h a d t h e g o o d sense n o t t o b e w o m e n ' s l i b bers; t h e y k n e w a m a n was m o r e i m p o r t a n t than a n y t h i n g else." P a m e l a H a r l o w was b o r n , a n d t h e n h e r y o u n g e r b r o t h e r J o n a t h a n . Today, t h e c h i l d r e n are m i d d l e - a g e d . P a m e l a m a k e s m e t a l sculptures in O r e g o n , h e r w o r k s t r i k i n g and severe. J o n a t h a n is a w o o d w o r k e r ; h e m a k e s , a m o n g o t h e r things, tiny p i n e b o x e s that h e sells t o craft stores: " B o x e s , " h e says— Boxes.

S O M E T H I N G WAS N O T g o i n g well. S o m e t h i n g b a d was h a p p e n i n g . A c l o t h m o t h e r was j u s t as g o o d as a real m o t h e r ; t o u c h was central t o t h e p r i m a t e heart, and yet, h e r e i t was: O v e r t h e f o l l o w i n g year Harlow n o t i c e d the c l o t h - m o t h e r e d m o n k e y s were not thriving— this, after he had m a d e s u c h a b o l d p r o n o u n c e m e n t in front of all his peers. W h e n h e t o o k t h e c l o t h - m o t h e r e d m o n k e y s o u t t o play and m a t e , t h e y w e r e v i o l e n t l y antisocial. T h e females a t t a c k e d t h e males and k n e w n o t h i n g a b o u t c o r r e c t sexual p o s t u r i n g . S o m e

o f the

c l o t h - m o t h e r e d m o n k e y s b e g a n t o display autistic-like features, r o c k ing and b i t i n g t h e m s e l v e s , sores b l o s s o m i n g o p e n o n t h e i r b l a c k arms, t h e b l o o d rising up t h r o u g h the fur like b r i g h t pulp. I n f e c t i o n s set in. O n e c l o t h - m o t h e r e d m o n k e y c h e w e d o f f its entire hand. S o m e t h i n g , n o w h e saw, s o m e t h i n g had g o n e terribly, t e r r i b l y w r o n g . " O f course

he

was

d i s a p p o i n t e d , " says

Harlow's

biographer,

D e b o r a h B l u m . " H e t h o u g h t h e ' d isolated t h e o n e v a r i a b l e essential to m o t h e r i n g , t o u c h , a n d that this was a traveling v a r i a b l e , so to speak; a n y o n e c o u l d p r o v i d e it, a n d h e ' d m a d e t h a t a n n o u n c e m e n t p u b l i c , and t h e n , o v e r t h e n e x t year, h e saw his m o n k e y s g e t v e r y f u c k e d up." A NewYork Times r e p o r t e r c a m e o u t to M a d i s o n to do a f o l l o w - u p o n t h e soft m o t h e r s u r r o g a t e a n d H a r l o w l e d h i m t o his lab, w h e r e a t r o o p o f r o c k i n g , h e a d - b a n g i n g m a c a q u e s sat i n c a g e s , e a t i n g o f f t h e i r fingers. " I a d m i t it," said H a r l o w . " I have m a d e a mistake." L e n R o s e n b l u m , o n e o f H a r l o w ' s students a t t h e t i m e and n o w a r e n o w n e d m o n k e y r e s e a r c h e r i n his o w n right, says, " S o w e c a m e t o understand t h e r e w e r e o t h e r variables t o m o t h e r i n g ; i t wasn't j u s t t o u c h , and i t wasn't j u s t face. W e h y p o t h e s i z e d i t had s o m e t h i n g t o d o w i t h m o t i o n t o o . W e m a d e a surrogate that c o u l d r o c k , and t h e babies w e r e almost n o r m a l t h e n , n o t c o m p l e t e l y , b u t almost. W e t h e n tried a r o c k i n g surrogate w i t h o n e h a l f h o u r a day w h e n t h e b a b y c o u l d play w i t h a live m o n k e y and that p r o d u c e d an absolutely n o r mal kid. W h a t this m e a n s is that there are three variables to l o v e — t o u c h , m o t i o n , and p l a y — a n d i f y o u can supply all o f those, y o u are m e e t i n g a primate's n e e d s . "

R o s e n b l u m g o e s o n t o repeat that " t h e k i d s " o n l y n e e d e d o n e h a l f h o u r a day of play w i t h a live m o n k e y . "It's amazing," says R o s e n b l u m , "it's a m a z i n g h o w little o u r n e r v o u s system needs i n o r d e r t o turn o u t normal." In s o m e respects I ' m glad to h e a r this. I i n t e r p r e t these results to m e a n : it's i n c r e d i b l y hard to mess up y o u r c h i l d . A little j i g g l e , a soft sweater, a n d o n l y thirty m i n u t e s o f actual p r i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n . A n y m o t h e r c a n d o this: lazy, w o r k i n g , w i r e d , i r o n — w e c a n d o it! H a r l o w said w e c a n . B u t why, i f H a r l o w ' s findings are s e e m i n g l y s o reassuring, s o all a b o u t love, w h y d o t h e y l o d g e i n t h e gut like o n e o f his e x p e r i m e n tal spikes? W h y , i n e x p l o r i n g research a b o u t affection, d o w e shiver t h r o u g h t h e results? A n d it's n o t j u s t m e o r y o u . It's H a r l o w h i m s e l f . H e ' s shivering. He's h a v i n g affairs a g a i n — h e c a n n o t b e faithful t o o n e w o m a n — a n d now, m a y b e as he discovers that t h e s o f t - m o t h e r e d m o n k e y s are a c t u ally autistic, he b e g i n s to d r i n k m o r e heavily. D a y s are so s h o r t o u t in W i s c o n s i n , early e v e n i n g b l o t t i n g o u t w h a t little light t h e r e is, e x c e p t for t h e y e l l o w g l e a m in t h e s h o t glass. H a r l o w felt t r e m e n d o u s , t r e m e n d o u s pressure. H e felt t h e applause o f his o r i g i n a l findings and h e h a d t o k e e p i t up. H e s c r a m b l e d , a n d b e t w e e n 1 9 5 8 a n d 1 9 6 2 , h e p u b l i s h e d m u l t i p l e papers. He bravely p u b l i s h e d t h e fact that his surrogate-raised m o n k e y c h i l d r e n w e r e e m o t i o n a l l y disturbed, and from t h e r e h e w e n t o n t o identify t h e variables essential t o a v o i d i n g this f a t e — m o t i o n and a d o l l o p o f live p l a y — u s i n g scores o f infant m a c a q u e s to prove his p o i n t s . " H a r r y always h a d to t o p himself," says H e l e n L e R o y , his assistant. " H e was always l o o k i n g for t h e n e x t p e a k t o c o n q u e r . " L i k e o t h e r s o f similar disposition, h e c o n q u e r e d his peaks w i t h a b l a d d e r o f w i n e , a p e n p o i s e d , a d o - b e t t e r d e m o n i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d . H e n e v e r lost his lisp. A n n e L a n d e r s b e g a n t o w r i t e a b o u t h i m i n h e r a d v i c e - t o m o t h e r s c o l u m n . W h a t w o u l d his n e x t e x p e r i m e n t b e ? H i s wife c a m e d o w n w i t h breast c a n c e r , t h e tapestry o f m i l k ducts infilt r a t e d — c a r c i n o m a — a sickly discharge f r o m h e r nipples. S h e h a d a

few years left t o live. H a r l o w w o r k e d harder. W h e r e c o u l d h e rest his head? T h e m o t h e r l e s s m o n k e y s lost t h e i r m i n d s , c h a t t e r e d madly. H i s p u b l i s h e d , powerful research m a d e its w a y i n t o b a b y care p r o d u c t s — m o s t n o t a b l y t h e sling a n d t h e S n u g l i , w h i c h have added w a r m t h t o t h e ways w e parent infants. W i l l i a m S e a r s , t h e f a m o u s a t t a c h m e n t parenting advocate, a pediatrician w h o preaches sleeping with your b a b i e s , k e e p i n g t h e m c l o s e at all t i m e s , is a H a r l o w - m a d e m a n , w h e t h e r h e k n o w s i t o r n o t . O r p h a n a g e s , social s e r v i c e a g e n c i e s , t h e b i r t h i n g industry all h a d c r i t i c a l p o l i c i e s altered b a s e d in part on H a r l o w ' s findings. T h a n k s i n part t o H a r l o w , d o c t o r s n o w k n o w t o p l a c e a n e w b o r n directly on its m o t h e r ' s b e l l y after b i r t h . A l s o t h a n k s i n part t o H a r l o w , w o r k e r s i n o r p h a n a g e s k n o w it's n o t e n o u g h t o prop a b o t t l e ; t h e f o u n d l i n g m u s t b e h e l d , r o c k e d , see, smile. T h a n k s t o H a r l o w a n d his c o l l e a g u e s i n t h e study o f a t t a c h m e n t , w e have b e e n h u m a n i z e d — w e possess a n e n t i r e s c i e n c e o f t o u c h , a n d s o m e o f this c a m e f r o m cruelty. T h e r e ' s t h e p a r a d o x .

C A N C E R IS A L W A Y S b a d , b u t i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s it was w o r s e t h a n it is today. R a d i a t i o n c a m e i n h i g h volts a n d b e a m s , t h e b o d y m a r k e d with

a

b l a c k - i n k e d X , bull's-eye. C h e m o t h e r a p y was

practically

p r i m i t i v e ; t h e doses, i n h u g e g r e e n caustic vials, w e r e m a i n l i n e d i n t o t h e a r m , s e n d i n g waves o f h e a t a n d nausea t h r o u g h t h e b o d y H a r l o w and his wife w e n t several t i m e s a w e e k . I h o p e he h e l d h e r h a n d . He must have s e e n t h e d o c t o r c l e a r i n g t h e s y r i n g e o f air, a graceful arc o f w a t e r l a n d i n g like a tear splash on t h e tiled floor, and t h e n i n t o t h e vein, P e g g y l e a n i n g o v e r a basin he h e l d for her, h e r s t o m a c h d e p o s i t ing its c o n t e n t s in a rush of pure nausea. " T h o s e w e r e dark, dark years," says H a r l o w ' s s o n J o n a t h a n , w h o was e l e v e n w h e n his m o t h e r was d i a g n o s e d , s e v e n t e e n w h e n she died. P e g g y b e c a m e visibly m o r e and m o r e ill, t h e c a n c e r d o i n g its c a n c e r d a n c e , m o v i n g f r o m breast t o l u n g t o liver, t h e w o m a n t u r n m g saffron yellow, h e r m o u t h p u l l e d b a c k i n a m a s k e d g r i m a c e , h e r teeth p e c u l i a r l y sharp l o o k i n g , m o n k e y t e e t h , m a d . T h i s i s h o w I

i m a g i n e it. I t m u s t have b e e n b a d , b e c a u s e d u r i n g that t i m e H a r l o w ' s already d a n g e r o u s d r i n k i n g t u r n e d w o r s e . S t u d e n t s recall h a v i n g t o stop b y t h e l o c a l b a r a t t h e evening's e n d and s c o o p H a r l o w o f f t h e stool t o drive h i m h o m e . C o l l e a g u e s say t h e r e w e r e m o r e than a few o c c a s i o n s w h e n , a t h o t e l c o n f e r e n c e s , they'd have t o put h i m t o b e d , his h e a v y h e a d s i n k i n g i n t o t h e sheets. Years w e n t b y and t h e o r i g i n a l surrogate-raised m a c a q u e s g r e w o l d e r a n d older. T h e y did n o t k n o w h o w t o play o r m a t e . N o w , t h e females w e r e fertile, a d o l e s c e n c e k i c k i n g in, t h e follicles r i p e n i n g eggs. H a r l o w w a n t e d to b r e e d t h e females b e c a u s e he h a d a n e w idea, a n e w q u e s t i o n . W h a t kinds o f m o t h e r s w o u l d m o t h e r l e s s m o t h e r s m a k e ? T h e o n l y way t o tell was t o get t h e m pregnant. B u t d a m n b i t c h e s , t h e y w o u l d n ' t raise their tails and b e n d t h e i r hairy hips. H e tried putting, a s h e put it, very e x p e r i e n c e d , o l d e r m a l e m o n k e y g e n t l e m e n i n t o t h e cages, b u t the females c l a w e d t h e i r faces. At last he devised w h a t h e called " a rape r a c k , " w h e r e i n h e tied t h e females d o w n so t h e males c o u l d m o u n t t h e m . It was a successful d e v i c e , in that t w e n t y o f t h e m o t h e r l e s s m o t h e r s w e r e i n s e m i n a t e d a n d gave b i r t h . I n a n article published i n 1 9 6 6 called " M a t e r n a l B e h a v i o r o f R h e s u s M o n k e y s Deprived o f M o t h e r i n g and Peer Associations i n Infancy," H a r l o w r e p o r t e d his results. A p o r t i o n o f t h e r a p e - r a c k m o t h e r s killed t h e i r infants; o t h e r s w e r e indifferent; a f e w w e r e " a d e quate." T h i s , again, is powerful stuff, b u t I, for o n e , am unsure w h e t h e r it provides us w i t h n e w k n o w l e d g e , or simply c o n f i r m s w h a t we all intuitively knew, a t t h e e x p e n s e o f m a n y m o n k e y s ' lives. R o g e r F o u t s feels strongly that t h e i n f o r m a t i o n H a r l o w " d i s c o v e r e d " i n his d e p r i v a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s was n o t o n l y o b v i o u s b u t d e r i v ative. " H a r l o w n e v e r referred t o D a v e n p o r t a n d R o g e r s , " F o u t s says. " B e f o r e Harlow, D a v e n p o r t and R o g e r s put chimpanzees in boxes and w h e n t h e y saw w h a t h a p p e n e d , t h e y n e v e r did i t again." "The

problem

with

Harlow,"

says

primate

researcher

Len

R o s e n b l u m , "is t h e way h e d e s c r i b e d things. H e did i t t o g e t a rise o u t o f p e o p l e . " R o s e n b l u m g o e s o n t o tell this h a l f - a m u s i n g story: H a r l o w was a c c e p t i n g a n h o n o r b e f o r e a large c r o w d o f p s y c h o l o -

gists. I n t h e a u d i e n c e w e r e t h r e e nuns, w h i t e habits, w i n g e d h e a d p i e c e s , heavy crucifixes o n chains. F r o m his p o s i t i o n a t t h e p o d i u m , H a r l o w saw t h e nuns and t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o s h o w t h e a u d i e n c e p i c tures o f t w o m o n k e y s c o p u l a t i n g . " H e l o o k e d directly a t t h e nuns," R o s e n b l u m says, c h u c k l i n g , " a n d a n n o u n c e d , ' H e r e i t is, t h e s e r m o n o n t h e m o u n t . ' " T h e nuns, t h e y j u s t w i t h e r e d . T h e y sank straight i n t o t h e i r habits. " I t was v i n t a g e H a r l o w , " R o s e n b l u m says. " H e always w a n t e d t o get a rise o u t o f p e o p l e . H e w o u l d n e v e r say ' t e r m i n a t e d . ' H e w o u l d say 'killed.' W h y c o u l d n ' t he have called t h e rape r a c k a restraining d e v i c e ? If he had, he w o u l d n ' t have such a m i x e d r e p u t a t i o n today." It is clearly t r u e that H a r l o w preferred t h e dramatic, b u t I t h i n k R o s e n b l u m has i t w r o n g . T h e issue, after all, i s n o t w h a t w e call o u r devices, b u t w h a t w e d o t o animals w i t h t h e m . T h e a n i m a l rights m o v e m e n t was partly b o r n o u t o f H a r l o w ' s w o r k . E v e r y year, a t t h e University

of Madison

Primate

Research

Center,

the

Animal

L i b e r a t i o n F r o n t has a d e m o n s t r a t i o n w h e r e t h e y sit shiva in t h e p r e s e n c e o f thousands o f stuffed K m a r t m o n k e y s . T h i s s e e m s absurd t o m e — t h e use o f t h e H e b r e w w o r d shiva, for " g r i e f , " t h e K m a r t a n i mals. It m a k e s r i d i c u l o u s s o m e t h i n g that is n o t r i d i c u l o u s , a n d that s o m e t h i n g is a q u e s t i o n : W h a t are p s y c h o l o g i s t s ' rights in t h e use of animals for research? H a r l o w c a n b e c r e d i t e d for f o m e n t i n g that question straight t o t h e b o i l i n g surface o f a n i m a l s c i e n c e .

R O G E R F O U T S IS a research psychologist w h o is also an animal rights activist, a rare c o m b i n a t i o n . He lives in O r e g o n , in a tiny m o u n t a i n o u s t o w n w h e r e a q u e o u s trees are always g r e e n and d e w e d with drops o f rain, w h e r e t h e land smells like leaves, m u l c h e d and r i c h . F o u t s spends m o s t o f his t i m e w i t h his g o o d friend and c h i m panzee W a s h o u , w h o drinks coffee every m o r n i n g and likes t o play tag. O v e r t h e years, F o u t s has g r o w n f o n d o f t h e animals h e studies, and c o u l d n e v e r h a r m t h e m for t h e sake o f s c i e n c e . F o u t s studies c h i m p a n z e e l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n , a n area o f i n q u i r y that does n o t

d e m a n d knives o r b l o o d . Says F o u t s , " A n y r e s e a r c h e r w h o i s w i l l i n g to sacrifice his animals is m o r a l l y q u e s t i o n a b l e . " W i l l i a m M a s o n , o n e o f H a r l o w ' s students i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s and n o w a p r i m a t e r e s e a r c h e r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a at D a v i s , says he is n o t at all sure w h e t h e r t h e ends justify t h e m e a n s . M a s o n c l a i m s h e has n e v e r q u i t e b e e n able to i n t e g r a t e his desires as an investigative scientist w o r k i n g on animals w i t h his p e r s o n a l m o r a l proclivities. In o t h e r words, M a s o n feels it's w r o n g to h u r t an animal, b u t he still can see t h e reasons for d o i n g so. A n i m a l rights activists are n o t m o v e d b y expressions o f a m b i v a lence. T h e y

are

a fierce, d e t e r m i n e d b u n c h w h o

regularly

cite

H a r l o w in t h e i r literature as a fascist torturer. M o v i n g b e y o n d t h e inflamed l a n g u a g e and i n t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e issues, a n i m a l rights activists c l a i m that t h e use o f animals i n research delivers v e r y little valid i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e y are q u i c k t o c i t e t h e t h a l i d o m i d e fiasco. I n t h e 1 9 5 0 s t h a l i d o m i d e was tested o n animals and s h o w e d n o t e r a t o g e n i c effects, b u t w h e n h u m a n s t o o k it, babies w i t h s e r i o u s birth defects w e r e b o r n . A l o n g these s a m e lines, t h e h u m a n i m m u n o d e f i c i e n c y virus ( H I V ) a d m i n i s t e r e d t o c h i m p s for t h e purposes o f studying t h e disease p r o d u c e s no s y m p t o m s w h a t s o e v e r ; penicillin is t o x i c in g u i n e a pigs; aspirin causes b i r t h defects in m i c e and rats and is v i r ulently p o i s o n o u s to cats. As for m o n k e y s , w e l l , t h e y m a y be a lot like us, b u t t h e y are n o t c a r b o n c o p i e s , n o t b y a l o n g shot; t h e b r a i n o f a rhesus m a c a q u e is o n e t e n t h as large as a h u m a n ' s , and it develops at a far faster clip. A b a b y rhesus m a c a q u e is b o r n w i t h t w o thirds of its brain already adult-sized; a h u m a n infant's b r a i n is o n l y o n e f o u r t h its adult size. S o h o w far, i f a t all, can y o u g e n e r a l i z e from o n e species t o a n o t h e r ? T h a t , o f c o u r s e , depends o n w h o y o u ask. N o o n e will deny that t h e m o n k e y is a m o d e l , and a m o d e l is an a p p r o x i m a t i o n of the domain

it

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tricky, m u r k y w o r d that slip-slides on t h e page, swells and shrinks d e p e n d i n g o n w h o interprets it. A n i m a l rights activists like R o g e r F o u t s a n d A l e x P a c h e c h i o m i g h t say t h e p r i m a t e brain is a p i s s - p o o r a p p r o x i m a t i o n and doesn't justify t h e s q u a l o r a n d pus and pain w e heap o n t h e animals o f laboratory

s c i e n c e . B u t s o m e o n e like S t u a r t Z o l a - M o r g a n , a w e l l - r e g a r d e d m e m o r y r e s e a r c h e r i n C a l i f o r n i a , o b v i o u s l y feels t h e m o n k e y brain i s a treasure trove o f secrets that i l l u m i n a t e h o w t h e h u m a n m i n d m i g h t w o r k . Z o l a - M o r g a n p r o b e s t h e m o n k e y m i n d w i t h scalpel a n d shears so as to l o c a t e t h e r e g i o n s responsible for r e c o l l e c t i o n , s i m p l e c r u d e r e c o l l e c t i o n like p h o n e n u m b e r s a n d t h e lyrical r e c o l l e c t i o n s that give s h a d o w a n d shape t o o u r lives: t h e p i c n i c table, t h e c r e a m c h e e s e s a n d w i c h , t h e smell o f t h e o u r m o t h e r ' s m i n k c o a t . Z o l a - M o r g a n ' s surgical e x p l o r a t i o n s have d e e p e n e d o u r u n d e r standing o f m e m o r y . T h e r e c a n b e n o q u e s t i o n a b o u t that. A n d m e m o r y i s c r u c i a l t o w h o w e are, a s e n s o u l e d p r i s m a t i c p e o p l e . A n d yet, t o a c h i e v e this k n o w l e d g e , Z o l a - M o r g a n m u s t a n e s t h e t i z e his m o n k e y patient, t h e n w r a p a c o r d a r o u n d t h e n e c k t o c u t o f f all b l o o d supply t o t h e brain, wait until t h e cells u n d e r g o apoptosis, and t h e n w a k e t h e m o n k e y u p t o study its ability t o recall. S o m e t i m e later, t h e m o n k e y i s " s a c r i f i c e d , " a n d its brain e x a m i n e d for areas o f damage, b l i g h t e d , dead areas, l o b e s w h i t e w i t h scar a n d stump. "I t h i n k h u m a n life is m o r e valuable than a n i m a l life," says Z o l a M o r g a n . I n a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h D e b o r a h B l u m , h e says, " W e have a real o b l i g a t i o n to c a r e f o r t h e s e animals w e l l . B u t is my son's life w o r t h m o r e t h a n a m o n k e y ' s life? I d o n ' t e v e n have to t h i n k a b o u t that answer."

I D O . I do have to t h i n k a b o u t that answer. It's n o t at all as c l e a r to m e that h u m a n life has s o m e intrinsically h i g h e r w o r t h — n o , n o t a s clear t o m e a t all. N o t w h e n I see a d o l p h i n a r c i n g o u t o f t h e water, b l o w i n g j e t s o f froth from that h o l e i n its h e a d . N o t w h e n I see h o w , a s t h e earth's e n v i r o n m e n t c h a n g e s , t h e d e m i s e o f o n e species alters the n e x t , so e v e n t h e algae in t h e o c e a n we m u s t r e s p e c t , for it k e e p s us, q u i t e literally afloat. T h i s is j u s t w h a t I t h i n k , r i g h t h e r e , r i g h t now, today, t h e birds i n t h e g u t t e r o f m y h o m e h a v i n g h a t c h e d a f e w noisy slick c h i c k s w i t h t h e i r b e a k s spayed o p e n . I am disturbed by a cuff strangling a m o n k e y ' s n e c k . I a m disturbed, o f c o u r s e , b y t h e I r o n

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H a r l o w , perhaps he was disturbed as well. F o r all his p r o n o u n c e m e n t s a b o u t h o w h e didn't care for his m o n k e y s a n d didn't like animals, s o m e o f his students suggest that t h e nature o f his w o r k b e g a n t o really b o t h e r h i m . C e r t a i n l y , a s t h e years w e n t o n , a n d t h e d r i n k i n g increased, s o m e t h i n g — m a n y things—were b o t h e r i n g him. I n 1 9 7 0 H a r l o w ' s w i f e P e g g y died. A r o u n d t h e s a m e t i m e , h e w o n t h e N a t i o n a l M e d a l o f S c i e n c e Award. H i s eyes w e r e b l a n k and h o o d e d . H i s m o u t h was an a n e m i c p i n k , t h e barest slit for a s m i l e . H e said t o H e l e n L e R o y o n t h e eve o f a c c e p t i n g his m e d a l , " N o w I have n o t h i n g left t o strive for." T h i n g s t u r n e d p r e c i p i t o u s l y w o r s e . W i t h o u t his w i f e , H a r l o w c o u l d n o t c o o k o r clean o r m a k e his b e d o r g e t o u t o f b e d . H e felt h e h a d r e a c h e d t h e p i n n a c l e o f his career, that h e was standing o n t h e farthest, finest peak, l o o k i n g o u t , a n d t h e r e was n o w h e r e t o g o b u t d o w n . " I h a d t o c o o k for m y father," says J o n a t h a n . " H e was helpless w i t h o u t m y m o t h e r . " H a r l o w dragged his w a y i n t o his lab, all t h o s e c a g e s , s t a c k e d o n e o n t o p o f t h e o t h e r , all t h o s e b l a n d bars a n d t h e w h i t e c l o u d s i n t h e sky a n d t h e scat. T h e scat. H e was j u s t s o tired. T h e rape r a c k . T h e scat. T h e cries o f despair a n d t h e c h i c k e n - w i r e surrogate a n d t h e t e r r y c l o t h , w h i c h m a y have s e e m e d t e r r i b l e t o h i m j u s t t h e n , its n u b b l y surface like sandpaper, i r r i t a t i n g t h e skin, r u b it. H e was s o tired t h e n , H a r l o w was. H e b u r i e d his w i f e Peggy. A t s c h o o l , talking t o students, this i n c r e d i b l e , forceful fatigue w o u l d c o m e o v e r h i m , a n d he'd j u s t have t o sleep. S o h e did. I n t h e m i d d l e of a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h a student, H a r l o w started to put his h e a d d o w n on his desk a n d take a nap. It was so easy to sleep on his desk! H e j u s t c l o s e d his eyes a n d let t h e i r talking lull h i m . H e was n o t w e l l . H i s w i f e h a d h a d c a n c e r o f t h e breast; H a r l o w , i t s e e m e d , h a d c a n c e r o f t h e m i n d . I t b e c a m e o b v i o u s t o e v e r y o n e that h e was b r e a k i n g d o w n a n d i n desperate n e e d o f repair. I n M a r c h o f that year, H a r r y H a r l o w w e n t o f f t o t h e M a y o C l i n i c i n M i n n e s o t a , w h e r e h e s u b m i t t e d t o a series o f e l e c t r o s h o c k t r e a t m e n t s , n o w h e t h e a n i m a l strapped d o w n o n t h e table, his h e a d shaved, gel applied

h e r e and there, dab it on t h e t e m p l e s , s m e a r it o v e r t h e eyes, his b o d y n o l o n g e r his. Today, e l e c t r o s h o c k therapy i s s t r e a m l i n e d a n d t o n e d ; b a c k t h e n i t was all A C , blasts o f c u r r e n t s q u i g g l i n g t h r o u g h t h e wires, i g n i t i n g t h e sluggish n e u r o n s . H e r e was H a r l o w , a n e s t h e t i z e d , s c r u b b e d , s u c c u m b i n g t o a p r o c e d u r e that c o u l d b e called e x p e r i m e n t a l , for n o o n e k n e w w h y i t w o r k e d o r h o w , o r w h e n , o r if. H i s b o d y j e r k e d a h u n d r e d t i m e s . H e w o k e u p w i t h c o t t o n and c l o u d s i n his m o u t h , a n d n o m e m o r y , a n d s o m e w h e r e his w i f e w a l k e d w i t h his m o t h e r in a m i d w e s t e r n t o w n , a n d w i n g e d beasts w e r e in t h e sky.

THEN

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M a d i s o n , b u t p e o p l e said h e was n e v e r t h e s a m e again. H e was p r o n o u n c e d " r e c o v e r e d , " b u t he talked a little s l o w e r a n d didn't m a k e wise c r a c k s a n d b e c a m e t h e slightest b i t softer i n his i n t e r a c t i o n s . W i t h o u t a wife, h e was lost. H e called C l a r a M e a r s , o u t i n h e r trailer i n A r i z o n a . " C o m e b a c k , " h e said. T h e years h a d b e e n hard f o r C l a r a , t o o . S h e had h a d a s o n w h o d r o w n e d in a river o u t s i d e t h e trailer h o m e . H e r s e c o n d h u s b a n d h a d also

died. W i d o w a n d w i d o w e r

j o i n e d t o g e t h e r and w a l k e d t h e aisle o n c e m o r e , r e m a r r i e d . A n d T e r m a n ? W h a t did h e t h i n k ? H i s gifted c h i l d r e n , w i t h s u c h p r o m i s e , all o f t h e m w i t h s u c h h i g h I Q s , t h e y had a m o u n t e d t o v e r y little. B u t that's a n o t h e r story. W e are a l m o s t d o n e . H a r l o w and Clara, l o o p d e l o o p . B a c k a t the b e g i n n i n g , e x c e p t for this: Harlow's interests had shifted slightly. He no l o n g e r w a n t e d to study m a t e r n a l deprivation. In t h e 1 9 6 0 s there was the rise o f b i o l o g i c a l psychiatry and the h o p e that m e d i c a t i o n s m i g h t alleviate m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s . T h a t interested Harlow. Possibly h e h o p e d i f h e had a n o t h e r b o u t o f depression, h e c o u l d get a pill and n o t a s h o c k . Possibly he was already on s o m e pills, and t h e y w e r e o n l y h a l f helpful. In any case, he w a n t e d to k n o w w h a t caused depression and what c u r e d it, so, o n c e again, he t u r n e d to his rhesus m a c a q u e s . He built a b l a c k isolation c h a m b e r in w h i c h an a n i m a l was h u n g upside d o w n f o r u p t o t w o years, u n a b l e t o m o v e o r see t h e w o r l d ,

fed t h r o u g h a g r i d a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e V - s h a p e d d e v i c e . T h i s H a r l o w called " t h e well o f despair." I n d e e d , i t was successful i n c r e a t i n g a p r i m a t e m o d e l o f m e n t a l illness. T h e animals, o n c e r e m o v e d , after m o n t h s o r years, w e r e shattered and p s y c h o t i c . N o t h i n g H a r l o w did c o u l d b r i n g t h e m b a c k . T h e r e appeared t o b e n o c u r e . N o w a y t o contact, to comfort. I n t h e e n d , H a r l o w died o f Parkinson's disease. H e c o u l d n o t stop shaking.

E V E R Y W H E R E I C O there are animals. A squirrel leaps from w i r e t o wire. Slugs, h u g e and i n d e c e n t , crawl o u t o f t h e garden and laze o n t h e c o n c r e t e steps. T o u c h t h e m , and y o u r f i n g e r s are sticky w i t h gel. C a t s cry. A w h i t e d o g finds its way i n t o o u r yard and sits there, s p h i n x like, l i c k i n g its p i n k paws. I w o u l d like to g e t a m o n k e y , b u t my h u s b a n d says this is a b a d idea. He w o r k s in a lab and says m o n k e y s smell. I say, p u t t i n g d o w n a b o o k of Harlow's s e l e c t e d papers, From Learning to Love,"You have no idea h o w m u c h I L O V E m o n k e y s , " and I ' m surprised t o h e a r real e m o t i o n , i f n o t passion i n m y v o i c e . " A r e y o u t u r n i n g i n t o a n animal a c t i v i s t ? " h e asks. " I ' l l tell y o u , " I say, "after reading w h a t this m a n did to t h o s e a n i mals, and w h a t w e d o t o m o n k e y s today, i n f e c t t h e m w i t h H I V , give t h e m b r a i n t u m o r s , w h e n they're s o o b v i o u s l y o u r c o u s i n s , I'll tell y o u I ' m against it. It's w r o n g . H a r l o w was w r o n g . All t h e m o n k e y research he s p a w n e d is w r o n g . " " S o y o u ' r e telling m e , " h e says, " t h a t i f y o u had t o c h o o s e b e t w e e n a c u r e for C l a r a , if she g o t sick, and a m o n k e y ' s life, y o u ' d c h o o s e t h e m o n k e y over your kid?" I k n e w i t was g o i n g t o c o m e t o this. It's w h a t H a r l o w w o u l d have said, w h a t Z o l a - M o r g a n d o e s say: o u r h u m a n lives are i n t r i n s i cally m o r e v a l u a b l e ; m o n k e y studies y i e l d i n f o r m a t i o n that helps t h o s e lives. " O f c o u r s e I'd c h o o s e C l a r a , " I say slowly, " b u t that's b e c a u s e n i n e t y - n i n e p e r c e n t o f m e i s a m o n k e y , a n d any m o n k e y w o u l d

c h o o s e its c h i l d . " B u t w h a t I c a n ' t q u i t e e x p l a i n t o h i m i s that w h i l e ninety-nine percent of me may be instinct, or animal impulse, or m a m m a l i a n love, there's that o n e p e r c e n t o f m e that's n o t from t h e forests, and this f r a g m e n t o f s e l f c a n see that t o h u r t o n e i s s o m e h o w , s o m e w h e r e , t o h u r t all. T h i s o n e p e r c e n t i s m a y b e w h e r e m y reason resides, a n d my reason tells me it is rarely defensible to c a u s e suffering t o s e n t i e n t b e i n g s , especially i f that data can b e e x t r a p o l a t e d b y other means. W h a t , I w o n d e r , i s t h e o n e p e r c e n t o f u s that's n o t c h i m p a n z e e , t h e t w o p e r c e n t that's n o t o r a n g u t a n , t h e m e r e six p e r c e n t that's n o t r h e sus m a c a q u e ? I'd like to k n o w . Is that w h e r e o u r spirit resides? Is that a sliver of angel, or g o d , m a n d a t i n g us to see t h e forest for t h e trees, t h e w h o l e h u g e i n t e r r e l a t e d tapestry o f life? It's s u c h a small p e r c e n t age, so hard to live t h e r e , w h e r e we are h u m a n , a n d thus responsible. Today, I go to a p r i m a t e lab. H a r l o w ' s p r i m a t e lab is still up and running, housing over two thousand monkeys in Wisconsin. I go to a n o t h e r lab, l o c a t e d in M a s s a c h u s e t t s . I w o n ' t d e s c r i b e it; w e ' v e heard e n o u g h . H e r e is w h e r e c u r e a n d death a n d s h e e r d i s c o v e r y sit side by side. T h e cages are stacked o n e o v e r t h e o t h e r , w i t h t h e animals i n pairs inside. It smells of c l e a n i n g s o l u t i o n and d o g treats. I k n e e l d o w n n e x t to a c a g e a n d slip my hands b e t w e e n t h e bars, a n d a p r i m a t e c o m e s u p t o m e , m o u t h s m e like a h o r s e m i g h t m o u t h m y palm, lips all dry a n d velvety. I recall reading that o n c e H a r l o w was w o r k i n g a t n i g h t a m o n g his m o n k e y s , a n d h e a c c i d e n t a l l y l o c k e d h i m s e l f inside o n e o f t h e cages. F o r h o u r s and h o u r s h e sat t h e r e a n d c o u l d n ' t get o u t . T h e W i s c o n s i n sky was dark; i n t h e distance h e heard revelers. " H e l p , " h e s h o u t e d from b e h i n d t h e bars. " H e l p help." A t last s o m e o n e heard, b u t b y t h e n H a r l o w was c o l d , a n d scared. " C a n I h o l d a m o n k e y ? " I ask my guide. He lets m e , a n d I can't b e l i e v e h o w l u c k y I a m , t o h o l d a m o n k e y , t o h o l d h u m a n history, the P l e i s t o c e n e era, t h e N e o l i t h i c era, t h e dinosaurs l o n g b e f o r e that, r o a m i n g flat fields and b r i n e . I g a t h e r t h e little b r o w n ball of fur and m u s c l e up i n t o my a r m s . It is a y o u n g o n e . It wraps its i n c r e d i b l e m u s t y a r m s a r o u n d my n e c k . Its heart is b e a t i n g fast; it is scared.

S c a r e d o f m e ? S c a r e d o f captivity? S c a r e d o f b e i n g free? " S h h h , " I say to t h e m o n k e y , my m o n k e y , and I l o o k i n t o its w r i n k l e d face, an old m a n , a baby, t h e saddest, w e t t e s t eyes, a n d suddenly I feel it is H a r l o w h i m s e l f I am h o l d i n g . T h i s is funny to m e — H a r l o w r e i n c a r n a t e d as a m o n k e y , in my a r m s r i g h t n o w — i t ' s funny a n d it's n o t . I stroke t h e hard h e a d . I l o o k a t t h e lifelines o n t h e p a l m . T h e y w i n d b a c k t o W i s c o n s i n , t o a small h o u s e i n I o w a , t o m a n y drives a n d desires. T h e lines are p i n k a n d tangled. T h e a n i m a l shivers i n m y a r m s . "Just rest," I say, a n d I try to b r i n g h i m close, as c l o s e as I c a n .

7 Rat Park THE

RADICAL

A D D I C T I O N

EXPERIMENT

In the 1960s and 1970s scientists conducted research into the nature of addiction. With animal models, they tried to create and quantify craving, tolerance, and withdrawal. Some of the more bizarre experiments involved injecting an elephant with LSD using a dart gun, and pumping barbiturates directly into the stomachs of cats via an inserted catheter. With cocaine alone, overfive hundred experiments are still performed every year, some on monkeys strapped into restraining chairs, others on rats, whose nervous system so closely resembles ours that they make, ostensibly, reasonable subjects for the study of addiction. Almost all animal addiction experiments have focused on, and concluded with, the notion that certain substances are irresistible, the proof being the animal's choice to self-administer the neurotoxin to the point of death. However, Bruce Alexander and coinvestigators Robert Coambs and Patricia Hadaway, in 1981, decided to challenge the central premise of addiction as illustrated by classic animal experiments. Their hypothesis: strapping a monkey into a seat for days on end, and giving it a button to push for relief, says nothing about the power of drugs and everything about the power of restraints—social, physical, and psychological. Their idea was to test the animals in a truly benevolent environment, and to see whether addiction was still the inevitable result. If it was, then drugs deserved to be demonized. If it wasn't, then perhaps, the researchers suggested, the problem was not as much chemical as cultural.

I

k n o w a j u n k i e . E m m a i s h e r n a m e . A t s i x t y - t h r e e years old, she i s a s c i e n c e d e a n at a small N e w E n g l a n d c o l l e g e , and e v e n w h e n

she's n o t in h e r office, she's stylishly dressed, today in l i n e n pants a n d a s c a r f t h e c o l o r o f m e r l o t . A f e w m o n t h s ago, s o m e t h i n g b a d h a p p e n e d t o t h e b o n e s i n E m m a ' s b a c k . T h e v e r t e b r a e , w h i c h snap t o g e t h e r like L e g o s , b e g a n t o l o o s e n and slip. T o ease t h e pressure, she w e n t u n d e r t h e knife a n d c a m e u p t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s w i t h a surgical seam and o n e brown bottle

of O x y C o n t i n , the

m e d i c i n a l disks

releasing h e r to a place w i t h o u t pain. O p i u m , called i n o l d e n days t h e S a c r e d A n c h o r o f Life, t h e P l a n t o f J o y , M i l k o f Paradise, w r i t t e n a b o u t b y classic G r e e k physicians a s c u r i n g " c h r o n i c h e a d a c h e , epilepsy, apoplexy, tightness o f b r e a t h , c o l i c , lilac p o i s o n , hardness o f t h e spleen s t o n e , the troubles t o w h i c h w o m e n are s u b j e c t , m e l a n c h o l y a n d all p e s t i l e n c e . " O p i u m , a strange s u b s t a n c e harvested from t h e l e g g y p o p p y plant w i t h its testicular p o d full o f seed; i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d , n u r s i n g w o m e n used t o b r e w t h e p o p p y plant's seeds, d r i n k t h e tea, a n d q u i e t t h e i r fitful infants. O p i u m , possibly t h e p r e c u r s o r t o R i t a l i n , t h e first p s y chotropic,

sold

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as

"Infant's

Q u i e t n e s s " and " M r s . Winslow's S o o t h i n g Syrup E m m a L o w r y , h o w e v e r , has a different v i e w o f t h e drug. S u r g e r y c u r e d t h e b a d b o n e s i n h e r b a c k b u t left h e r w i t h " a t e r r i b l e d e p e n d e n c e . I n e v e r m u c h t h o u g h t a b o u t drugs, n e v e r m u c h c a r e d for t h e m o n e w a y or t h e o t h e r , b u t I'll tell y o u , I'll n e v e r l o o k at a p o p p y plant and t h i n k it's p r e t t y — n e v e r , ever again," she says w h e n I visit h e r in h e r h o m e , a s o l a r - p a n e l e d c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h h i g h w h i t e walls. Today, E m m a i s reading a b o o k b y G e o r g e E l i o t , talking o n t h e p h o n e t o h e r staff a b o u t h i r i n g p r o c e d u r e s , and i n b e t w e e n that, telling me h e r tale. S h e d o e s n ' t n e e d to tell me really. I c a n see it, in t h e way, after t w o h o u r s w i t h o u t a dose, h e r b o d y b e g i n s to q u i v e r ; I w a t c h h e r ease t w o tablets from t h e b o t t l e , place t h e m o n t h e pad o f h e r t o n g u e . S h e c o u l d , i t s e e m s , n o m o r e refuse t h e s e pills than a plant c o u l d d e n y t h e sun it tilts toward.

H e r s is a c o m m o n , u n d i s p u t e d story. O u r predecessors m a y have t h o u g h t o p i u m a n elixir, b u t w e k n o w b e t t e r , w e w i t h o u r n e e d l e s g o n e b l u n t from sharing, o u r c o l l e c t i v e nasal cavities collapsing. W e k n o w drugs are addictive. I f y o u m a i n l i n e h e r o i n l o n g e n o u g h , y o u will d e v e l o p a taste for it. I f y o u s m o k e c r a c k c o c a i n e , y o u will b e r u s h e d and r o c k e d and later feel t h e n e e d for m o r e . W e t h i n k these things b e c a u s e t h e m e d i a and t h e m e d i c a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t have r e p e a t edly t o l d us it is so, t h e i r p r o o f in P E T scans s h o w i n g brains b r i g h t red w i t h craving. A n d yet, in t h e e n d , even p r o o f i t s e l f is a cultural c o n s t r u c t . B r u c e A l e x a n d e r , P h . D . , a p s y c h o l o g i s t w h o lives i n V a n c o u v e r , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , w i l l tell y o u this. He has spent his life studying t h e nature o f a d d i c t i o n and has c o m e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n that i t d o e s n o t reside i n t h e p h a r m a c o l o g y o f a drug a t all, b u t i n t h e c o m p l e x w e a v e o f u n s u p p o r t i v e s o c i e t i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o A l e x a n d e r , t h e r e i s n o such t h i n g as a c h e m i c a l that causes a d d i c t i o n , as, say, a n t h r a x causes p u l m o n a r y distress. In A l e x a n d e r ' s s c h e m a , a d d i c t i o n is n o t a fact, b u t a narrative, and o n e q u i t e p o o r l y p l o t t e d . T h e r e f o r e , h e v e r y m u c h d o u b t s t h e stories o f t h e E m m a L o w r y s , o r t h e A A c o n v e r t s , o r t h e research b y E . M . J e l l i n e c k , w h o was t h e first physician t o d u b a l c o h o l i s m a disease in t h e 1 9 6 0 s , and t h e later research by J a m e s O l d s and P e t e r M i l n e r , w h o f o u n d that animals i n cages will c h o o s e c o c a i n e o v e r f o o d until t h e y starve t o death, b o n e d rodents. Instead, A l e x a n d e r has t w o stark claims: ( 1 ) t h e r e is really n o t h i n g " i n h e r e n t l y a d d i c t i v e " a b o u t any drugs, a n d ( 2 ) r e p e a t e d e x p o s u r e s t o even t h e m o s t e n t i c i n g drugs d o n o t usually lead t o p r o b l e m s . " T h e vast m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e , " A l e x a n d e r says, " w i l l use even t h e m o s t addictive substances, and will use t h e m perhaps repeatedly, b u t there i s N O i n e x o r a b l e progression t o hell." H i s t o r y m a y prove h i m r i g h t . P r i o r t o t h e t e m p e r a n c e m o v e m e n t , w h e n o p i u m was legal, a d d i c t i o n levels r e m a i n e d at a steady o n e p e r cent o f the population. Despite the E m m a Lowrys o f the world, A l e x a n d e r can r e c i t e studies that support his v i e w like s o m e m u s i cians play scales, in full c o m m a n d of t h e i r k e y b o a r d s — t h e study, for

i n s t a n c e , d o n e fifteen years ago, that s h o w e d t h e vast m a j o r i t y o f h o s pitalized patients e x p o s e d t o c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h doses o f m o r p h i n e w e r e able t o c o m e o f f w i t h o u t a p r o b l e m o n c e t h e i r pain h a d resolved, a n d t h e O n t a r i o h o u s e h o l d survey, w h i c h s h o w e d that n i n e t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f O n t a r i a n s w h o use c o c a i n e d o s o less than o n c e per m o n t h . In a

1974

S a n F r a n c i s c o study that f o l l o w e d

t w e n t y - s e v e n regular c o c a i n e users o v e r an e l e v e n - y e a r p e r i o d , all respondents

remained

gainfully

employed; only

one, during

the

decade, had turned into a compulsive imbiber. Eleven of the respondents r e p o r t e d t h e y had used t h e i r addictive d r u g daily at s o m e p o i n t , b u t w e r e n o l o n g e r d o i n g so. S e v e n o f t h o s e eleven h a d r e d u c e d t h e i r c o n s u m p t i o n from seven t o t h r e e g r a m s . A l e x a n d e r i s especially f o n d o f c i t i n g t h e V i e t n a m W a r a s a natural e x p e r i m e n t i n drug addiction; ninety percent o f the m e n w h o b e c a m e "addicted" t o h e r o i n o n t h e w a r fields s t o p p e d using o n c e t h e y hit h o m e turf, s t o p p e d simply a n d quietly, n e v e r t o g o b a c k t o c o m p u l s i v e use. A n d t h e n there's t h e e x c e l l e n t c r a c k c o c a i n e survey: a 1 9 9 0 study o f y o u n g A m e r i c a n s w h i c h s h o w e d that 5.1 p e r c e n t o f t h e m h a d used c r a c k o n c e i n t h e i r life, b u t o n l y 0 . 4 p e r c e n t h a d used i t t h e m o n t h o f t h e i n t e r v i e w , a n d less than 0 . 0 5 p e r c e n t h a d used i t t w e n t y o r m o r e days i n t h e m o n t h o f t h e i n t e r v i e w . " T h e r e f o r e , " c r o w s A l e x a n d e r t o m e , " i t w o u l d s e e m t h e m o s t addictive d r u g o n earth causes persistent a d d i c t i o n i n n o m o r e than o n e user i n o n e h u n d r e d . " W e c o u l d g o o n . T h e r e are still m o r e studies t o prove his p o i n t s , and A l e x a n d e r likes t o s o u n d t h e m . I n fact, h e likes t o rant a n d rave. He speaks in a soft v o i c e t i n g e d w i t h a b i t of B r i t i s h , I t h i n k , b u t t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g c o m p u l s i v e i n his talk, his eyes w i d e a n d s o r t o f startled b e h i n d t h e i r oval glasses, his folded hands t i g h t e n i n g to prove a p o i n t . " D o y o u use any drugs y o u r s e l f ? " I ask h i m , b e c a u s e he s o m e t i m e s s e e m s a little tilted. He says, " W i t h special friends, I use acid. I d o n ' t use it regularly, b u t it has p r o v i d e d me w i t h t h e o p p o r t u nity

for

profound

self-understanding."

He

pauses.

I'm

waiting.

" O n c e , " h e says, " I t o o k s o m e L S D a n d felt m y h e a d was i n a dragon's m o u t h , a n d w h e n I l o o k e d d o w n , m y l o w e r b o d y was i n

a n o t h e r beast's m o u t h a n d I t h o u g h t , ' O k a y , I'll j u s t lie d o w n and die.' S o that's w h a t I did. M y h e a r t s e e m e d t o stop b e a t i n g . I k n e w n o t t o fight t h e beasts. As s o o n as I s t o p p e d resisting, t h e m o n s t e r s t u r n e d i n t o a y e l l o w b e d of flowers, a n d I floated away. S i n c e t h e n I have n o t feared m y mortality." " H o w l o n g a g o was t h a t ? " I ask h i m . " T w e n t y - f i v e years a g o o r so," h e says. W e l l , I t h i n k that's a pretty g o o d a d v e r t i s e m e n t for acid. N o t o n l y does i t b r e a k y o u i n t o B u d d h i s m faster than y o u c a n c r a c k t h e easiest k o a n , b u t i t k e e p s y o u t h e r e w i t h o u t , apparently, m u c h f o l l o w - u p . I eye h i m , warily. As a p s y c h o l o g i s t I have w o r k e d in s u b s t a n c e abuse facilities, and I have seen f i r s t h a n d t h e powerful c h e m i s t r y o f craving. I'd like to dismiss A l e x a n d e r as a pure propagandist, e x c e p t t h e r e is this p r o b l e m a t i c , delightful, fascinating fact: A l e x a n d e r has facts, i n t h e f o r m o f his o w n i n g e n i o u s e x p e r i m e n t s , t o prove his t h e o r i e s and substantiate t h e studies he so likes to q u o t e . Y o u c a n resist him, or you can c o m e with h i m , here and here and here, to the o d d est places, w h e r e y o u r a s s u m p t i o n s die d o w n a n d i n t h e i r place, a n o p e n f i e l d — s t r a n g e sorts o f flowers, all o f t h e m u n e x p e c t e d .

B R U C E A L E X A N D E R WAS raised i n " a red, w h i t e , a n d b l u e " h o u s e h o l d . H i s father, a n a r m y officer a n d later a n e n g i n e e r for G E , spent t h e last years o f his life insisting h e b e called C o l o n e l A l e x a n d e r . A t n i n e t e e n years o f age, A l e x a n d e r , w h o s e early p h o t o g r a p h s s h o w a h e a r t b r e a k i n g l y h a n d s o m e m a n , m a r r i e d a h e a r t b r e a k i n g l y beautiful w o m a n , and t o g e t h e r t h e y m o v e d t o a tiny t o w n called O x f o r d , O h i o . O x f o r d was often c o l d , a n d t h e O h i o R i v e r m a d e a dull gray c u t t h r o u g h t h e tasseled c o r n f i e l d s . T h e m a r r i a g e w e n t c o l d quickly. A l e x a n d e r was studying p s y c h o l o g y as an u n d e r g r a d u a t e at M i a m i U n i v e r s i t y w h e n h e saw H a r r y H a r l o w ' s f a m o u s m o n k e y tapes. " I t h o u g h t , ' H e r e is a m a n w h o is s t u d y i n g t h e nature of love, a n d I am u n l u c k y in love, so I s h o u l d s e e k this m a n as my m e n t o r . ' " W h i c h he did. H e w r o t e H a r l o w a l e t t e r a n d was i n v i t e d t o M a d i s o n t o study

for his master's a n d d o c t o r a l d e g r e e s . A l e x a n d e r w e n t , fully e x p e c t i n g t o learn s o m e t h i n g , o r e v e r y t h i n g , a b o u t t h e ties that b i n d . H e traveled, t h e n , across t h e land, e x c h a n g i n g o n e c o l d state for a n e v e n c o l d e r o n e , a l t h o u g h h e had n o idea a t t h e t i m e . H e arrived a t H a r l o w ' s lab t o b e i m m e d i a t e l y assigned t o t h e m a t e r n a l d e p r i v a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s , r e c o r d i n g h o w m a n y t i m e s a day a m o t h e r l e s s m o t h e r m o n k e y b i t o r o t h e r w i s e abused h e r y o u n g . H e w a t c h e d t h e m o n keys, b u t h e w a t c h e d still m o r e carefully H a r l o w h i m s e l f . " H e was a t e r r i b l e d r u n k , " says A l e x a n d e r . " H e was always, always i n t o x i c a t e d . I t h o u g h t , w h a t w o u l d p r o p e l a m a n t o s o absent h i m s e l f f r o m t h e w o r l d ? I t h o u g h t a b o u t that a l o t . I c a m e to H a r l o w ' s lab w a n t i n g to study love, b u t I w o u n d up c o n t e m p l a t i n g a d d i c t i o n . " T h e V i e t n a m W a r b r o k e o u t . A l e x a n d e r , n o w d i v o r c e d , left his wife a n d t w o toddlers for C a n a d a , b e c a u s e " I b e c a m e radicalized. I c o u l d n o t live i n this c o u n t r y a n y m o r e . " A c r o s s t h e b o r d e r , h e s i g n e d on as an assistant professor at S i m o n Fraser University, a n d as c h a n c e w o u l d have it, t h e p s y c h o l o g y d e p a r t m e n t assigned h i m to t e a c h a c o u r s e i n h e r o i n a d d i c t i o n , s o m e t h i n g h e k n e w little a b o u t . H e did an i n t e r n s h i p h i m s e l f at a s u b s t a n c e abuse c l i n i c in V a n c o u v e r , a n d it was t h e r e h e first b e g a n t o c o n s i d e r a d d i c t i o n i n ways distinctly n o n p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l . " I especially r e m e m b e r this o n e p a t i e n t . H e h a d a C h r i s t m a s t i m e j o b a s S a n t a C l a u s i n a m a l l . H e c o u l d n ' t d o his j o b unless h e was h i g h o n h e r o i n . H e w o u l d s h o o t up, c l i m b i n t o that red S a n t a C l a u s c o s t u m e , put o n t h o s e b l a c k plastic b o o t s , a n d s m i l e for six h o u r s straight. I b e g a n to c o n s i d e r t h e n that t h e c u r r e n t t h e o r i e s o f s u b s t a n c e abuse w e r e w r o n g ; that p e o p l e used, n o t b e c a u s e t h e y H A D t o p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l l y , b u t b e c a u s e t h e s u b s t a n c e was o n e valid way o f adapting t o difficult c i r c u m s t a n c e s . " T h i s thinking violated the theories b a c k then and continues to go against t h e t h e o r i e s o f today, despite t h e f r e q u e n t nods c o n t e m p o r a r y researchers m a k e t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f " c o m p l e x factors." R e a d e n o u g h c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n v e n t i o n a l s u b s t a n c e abuse literature, a n d y o u ' l l n o t e that it all starts o u t w i t h an a c k n o w l e d g m e n t that e n v i r o n m e n t plays a role, and t h e n it slides l i c k e t y - s p l i t i n t o t h e i n e v i t a b l e

l o c k s t e p e l e c t r i c a l and c h e m i c a l cascades that o v e r t a k e t h e h u m a n brain, t h e H a r l o w heart. B a c k i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s , t h e r e was a l o t o f very c o m p e l l i n g research i n t o t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l m e c h a n i s m s o f a d d i c t i o n , a n d that research d o m i n a t e d t h e day, a n d today as well. In 1 9 5 4 , at M c G i l l University, t w o y o u n g p s y c h o l o g i s t s , J a m e s O l d s a n d P e t e r M i l n e r , w e r e t h e first to discover the fact that a w h i t e lab rat will m o n o m a n i a c a l l y press a lever to r e c e i v e e l e c t r i c a l brain stimulation in w h a t was t h o u g h t t o b e " t h e reward c e n t e r . " I n several f a m o u s variations o f t h e o r i g i n a l O l d s a n d M i l n e r e x p e r i m e n t , scientists s u c h a s M . A . B o z a r t h and R . A . W i s e h o o k e d t h e animals u p t o self-injecting catheters and let t h e m get h i g h as kites w h i l e t h e y slowly starved to death. T h e s e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s e n d e d , q u i t e literally, i n b o n e s , b o n e s , delicate lattice w o r k , w h i t e piping, w h i s k e r s . I n still a n o t h e r set o f e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e w h i t e lab rats w o u l d r e c e i v e a n opiate b o l u s i f they w e r e w i l l i n g to cross an e l e c t r i c a l field that delivered severe s h o c k s to t h e i r padded paws. N o w , a b r i e f digression i n t o t h e a n a t o m y o f the paw. D e s p i t e its l e a t h e r y feel, its c r a c k e d and calloused appearance, an animal paw has nearly as m a n y n e r v e e n d i n g s as t h e head of a penis; it is sensation p a c k e d in p i n k . A n d yet, t h e rodents crossed t h e c h a r g e d f i e l d , flinching, squealing, and t h e n collapsed o n t h e o t h e r side, s u c k i n g up their drug t h r o u g h a straw. W e l l , this was c o m p e l l i n g e v i d e n c e for t h e p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l p o w e r o f c e r t a i n substances, was i t n o t ? T h i s was c o m p e l l i n g e v i d e n c e that a d d i c t i o n is a p h y s i o l o g i c a l inevitability. After all, y o u c o u l d replicate these e x p e r i m e n t s i n m o n k e y s , and t h e r e w e r e h u m a n c o r r e l a t e s e v e r y w h e r e , drifting d o w n o u r i n n e r - c i t y streets, r u m m a g i n g i n o u r trash. A l e x a n d e r , h o w e v e r , read t h e research a n d was n o t c o n v i n c e d . He followed Olds and Milner's work. T h e two psychologists were g e t t i n g q u i t e f a m o u s ; i n fact, perhaps t h e y s h o u l d n o t b e this story's subplot, b u t its m a i n m e a t , O l d s a n d M i l n e r ; A l e x a n d e r was virtually u n k n o w n . O l d s and M i l n e r d e c i d e d t h e y w a n t e d t o l o c a t e t h e brain's "pleasure c e n t e r s " a n d h y p o t h e s i z e d that t h e y e x i s t e d i n t h e s u b r e t i c ular f o r m a t i o n . T h e y split a r o d e n t skull o r t w o , i m p l a n t e d tiny e l e c trodes h e r e a n d t h e r e on a brain no b i g g e r than a b e a n , a p p e n d i n g

t h e e l e c t r o d e s first w i t h dental glue and later, for stability, w i t h tiny j e w e l e r screws, a n d t h e n s t e p p e d b a c k t o see w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n . H e r e ' s w h a t h a p p e n e d : T h e rats appeared t o love t h e small c o r t i c a l sizzles. A n e l e c t r o d e p l a c e d j u s t t h e tiniest b i t t o t h e r i g h t caused t h e a n i m a l to b e c o m e i n c r e d i b l y d o c i l e ; a little b i t to t h e left and it p r a c tically p a n t e d in pleasure; a little d o w n a n d it l i c k e d its genitals until t h e y w e r e awash i n gloss; upward a n d t h e appetite e x p a n d e d e x p a n sively. O l d s a n d M i l n e r h y p o t h e s i z e d that t h r o u g h o u t t h e brain t h e r e are h o t spots o f pleasure, a n d t h e y p r o v e d this b y s h o w i n g that w h e n t h e rats c o u l d self-stimulate by pressing a l e v e r that delivered a pulse to t h e i r e x p o s e d brains, t h e y w o u l d do so up to six t h o u s a n d t i m e s an h o u r i f t h e e l e c t r o d e was e m b e d d e d j u s t right. "Just right," it turns o u t , was in what's called t h e m e d i a n forebrain b u n d l e . T h a t , O l d s proudly p r o c l a i m e d , was t h e pleasure c e n t e r . I m y s e l f w e n t to see this b u n d l e , b e c a u s e , well, pleasure's hard to resist. A friend o f m i n e w h o w o r k s i n a rat lab i n t r o d u c e d m e t o a n o t h e r friend w h o w o r k s in a rat lab, and I w a t c h e d a " s a c r i f i c e d " animal's m e n i n g e s b e i n g p e e l e d b a c k t o reveal t h e coils a n d r u m p l e s o f c o g n i t i o n , v o l i t i o n , a n d there, a few skeins and gray strands, t h e w e a v e of pleasure, surprisingly m o n o t o n e . A l e x a n d e r , m e a n w h i l e , was c o u n s e l i n g his h e r o i n abusers, m o s t o f t h e m dirt p o o r a n d disaffected. W h y , A l e x a n d e r w o n d e r e d , i f t h e pleasure c e n t e r i s s o easily s t i m u l a t e d b y p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l a g e n t s , i f w e are s o easily t a k e n over, t h e n w h y d o o n l y a p o r t i o n o f users b e c o m e addicts? C e r t a i n l y all o f u s are i n p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e d e l i c i o u s b u t sadly p l a i n - l o o k i n g m e d i a n f o r e b r a i n b u n d l e . A l e x a n d e r k n e w w h a t t h e rest o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r s w e r e f o r g e t t i n g , b a c k t h e n , i n the 1 9 6 0 s and 1 9 7 0 s , w h e n m a n y magazines featured the n e w l y f o u n d c o u n t r y o f pleasure o n its c o v e r , t h e b r a i n aloft, o n a b l u e s t e m . A l e x a n d e r k n e w that p h y s i o l o g i c a l " f a c t s " e x i s t i n c o m p l e x sets o f e m o t i o n a l a n d s o c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s ; p h a r m a c o l o g y i s l i n k e d t o l u c k a n d w e a t h e r , c o i n c i d e n c e a n d pay raises, w h i t e beards a n d plastic p r e s e n t s . H e k n e w t h e s e t h i n g s , b u t h e h a d n o p r o o f . H e wanted proof.

Groups of psychologists and pharmacologists began to hypothesize a b o u t t h e nature o f d r u g a d d i c t i o n , b a s e d o n t h e pleasure c e n t e r findings. D r u g s , perhaps, are like c h e m i c a l e l e c t r o d e s . T h e y e x c i t e that d o r m a n t m e d i a n forebrain b u n d l e , causing i t t o crave m o r e and m o r e , t h e s a m e w a y s c r a t c h i n g a b u g b i t e o n l y ignites t h e i t c h . T h a t ' s t h e s i m p l e e x p l a n a t i o n . B u t it's n o t v e r y specific o r s c i e n tific. O n a p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l level, researchers b e g a n t o c l a i m a n i n t e r esting story. W e have i n o u r heads a little p h a r m a c o l o g y factory. W e have e n d o r p h i n s , w h i c h are e x a c t l y like opiates, t h e body's natural pain killers; w e have d o p a m i n e ; w e have s e r o t o n i n — w e all k n o w a b o u t t h a t — a d r u g o f c a l m a n d reason, and, left t o its o w n devices, t h e b o d y j u s t m a n u f a c t u r e s these little vials o f g o o d n e s s , i n m o d e r a t e a m o u n t s , t o g e t u s t h r o u g h . H o w e v e r , w h e n w e start i m p o r t i n g from foreign c o u n t r i e s , t a k i n g , say, M e x i c a n d o p e i n t o o u r b a l a n c e d b l o o d o r C h i l e a n c r a c k still s m o k i n g i n its b o w l , t h e n o u r b o d y thinks, " O k a y , let's take a b r e a k . " W e stop p r o d u c i n g o u r o w n natural drugs a n d c o m e t o rely o n a n e x t e r n a l s o u r c e , a k i n d o f m i x e d - u p foreign e c o n o m i c p o l i c y that leaves u s d e p l e t e d i n t h e e n d , w i t h o u t i n t e r n a l resources. I n o t h e r words, o u r b o d y adapts t o t h e s y n t h e t i c i n p u t b y c e a s i n g its o w n private p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s is called, in f a n c y t e r m s , " t h e n e u r o a d a p t i v e m o d e l , " a n d it poses, o n c e again, that drugs inevitably t h r o w o f f o u r h o m e o s t a t i c systems and m a k e i t s o w e m u s t cross distant b o r d e r s . " B u t , " says A l e x a n d e r , "let's take the d o p a m i n e d e p l e t i o n hypothesis. Y o u use c o c a i n e e n o u g h and y o u r brain stops p r o d u c i n g d o p a m i n e , so y o u have t o take m o r e c o c a i n e , w h i c h e x c i t e s d o p a m i n e p r o d u c t i o n . Let's start w i t h that h y p o t h e s i s . T h e r e ' s n o hard e v i d e n c e that t h e d o p a m i n e d e p l e t i o n causes p e o p l e to crave m o r e c o c a i n e . " I d e c i d e to call in a c o n s e r v a t i v e , t h e f o r m e r assistant d r u g czar, a Yale m a n , H e r b K l e b e r . " O f c o u r s e there's e v i d e n c e , " h e says t o m e . " H a v e y o u seen t h e P E T studies? T h e r e ' s definitely d o p a m i n e d e p l e t i o n i n a c o c a i n e user's brain a n d that d e p l e t i o n is strongly associated w i t h i n c r e a s e d craving." Yes? N o ? M a y b e ? I n n o o t h e r s e g m e n t o f p s y c h o l o g y d o y o u get,

perhaps, s u c h c o n f l i c t i n g answers than in d r u g studies, w h e r e politics a n d s c i e n c e d o n o t s o m u c h i n f o r m a s infuse e a c h o t h e r . " L o o k , " says J o e D u m i t , a professor o f p s y c h o l o g y a t M I T . " P E T studies c a n b e unreliable. It's easy t o c r e a t e i m a g e s that l o o k like they're s h o w i n g a great c h a n g e , b u t t h o s e i m a g e s c a n b e m i s l e a d i n g . W h o k n o w s ? " D u m i t sighs. S t u d y i n g t h e brain all day sounds hard. It's an endless, h o p e l e s s e x e r c i s e in t r y i n g to use t h e s e l f to see b e y o n d t h e self. J u s t give m e a glass o f w i n e .

ALEXANDER

WANTED

PROOF.

H e was living i n V a n c o u v e r , a

beautiful c i t y e d g e d w i t h sea. H e o b s e r v e d o t h e r scientists' j u n k i e rats. T h e y had, i n s o m e cases, c a t h e t e r s i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e i r raw shaved b a c k s , t h e i r cages c r a m p e d and dirty. M a y b e h e r e was p r o o f , its b a r e b e g i n n i n g s . A l e x a n d e r t h o u g h t , " I f I lived like that in a c a g e , I'd g e t as high

as

possible

too." W h a t would

happen, he

wondered, if he

r e m o v e d t h e c a g e or, i n o t h e r w o r d s , altered t h e cultural constraints? W o u l d t h e i n e v i t a b l e p h y s i o l o g i c a l fact o f a d d i c t i o n stay t h e s a m e i n happier

surroundings?

Alexander

wondered

this

to

himself and

s m i l e d . H e has a n i n c r e d i b l y s w e e t smile, t w o dents o f dimples o n e i t h e r side o f his face, a n i c k i n his c h i n like s o m e strange b e i n g t o u c h e d h i m way b a c k w h e n , in the w o m b . He smiled and thought, " R a t park." A n d t h e n h e b e g a n t o b u i l d it. Instead of a small c r a m p e d cage, A l e x a n d e r and coinvestigators R o b e r t C o a m b s and Patricia Hadaway c o n s t r u c t e d a t w o - h u n d r e d square-foot h o u s i n g c o l o n y for their w h i t e W i s t e r lab rats. I n t o this space, w h i c h t h e y h e a t e d j u s t right, they put d o w n delicious cedar shavings and all m a n n e r o f b r i g h t balls and w h e e l s a n d tin cans. T h e y m a d e sure, as this was to be a c o - e d colony, that there was a m p l e space for mating, special space for b i r t h i n g , r o o m to r o a m for the t o o t h y males, w a r m nests for the lactating females. T h e n , A l e x a n d e r , C o a m b s , and Hadaway painted t h e walls o f t h e rats' R i t z C a r l t o n i n j e w e l e d greens a n d saffrons. T h e y painted d e c i d u o u s trees, m o u n t a i n s r i b b o n e d w i t h roads and studded w i t h tiny trees, creeks flowing over s m o o t h

stones. T h e y cared little f o r t h e actual e n v i r o n m e n t a l a c c u r a c y o f the backdrop. J u n g l e s gave way to evergreens; s n o w m e l t e d i n t o sand. A l e x a n d e r , C o a m b s , and H a d a w a y devised a f e w different e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s for t h e rats. O n e t h e y called t h e S e d u c t i o n . T h i s c o n d i t i o n is p r e d i c a t e d on t h e fact that rats have a sweet t o o t h and are rarely, i f e v e r k n o w n , t o t u r n d o w n dessert. I n t h e S e d u c t i o n c o n d i t i o n , t h e investigators put s i x t e e n lab rats i n t o t h e f a n c y rat park a n d kept a n o t h e r s i x t e e n i n t h e standard l a b o r a t o r y c a g e s , w h e r e space was c r a m p e d a n d isolation e x t r e m e . B e c a u s e plain m o r p h i n e i s bitter, a n d rats h a t e b i t t e r n e s s , t h e researchers gave b o t h sets o f rats m o r p h i n e - l a c e d w a t e r s p r i n k l e d w i t h sucrose, at first j u s t a little sucrose, b u t as t h e days progressed, m o r e and m o r e , until t h e d r i n k was a veritable daiquiri o f sugary delight, d e l i v e r i n g supposedly i r r e sistible o p i o i d s i n a n irresistible liquid. T o b o t h sets o f rats, t h e y also gave plain o l d tap water, w h i c h must have l o o k e d so gray a n d filmy, n e x t to the stocked and glowing bottles. Here's w h a t t h e y found: T h e c r a m p e d and isolated caged rats loved the m o r p h i n e - l a c e d w a t e r right from its subtle, sugary start, slurping it up and, I i m a g i n e , falling d o w n dazed, their p i n k eyes stoned, their m i n i s c u l e w i z e n e d feet w a v i n g slowly in the airy air. T h e rat-park residents, however, resisted d r i n k i n g t h e n a r c o t i c solution, n o m a t t e r h o w sweet the researchers m a d e it. W h i l e they did occasionally i m b i b e (females m o r e than males), t h e y consistently s h o w e d a preference for t h e straight H Q and w h e n t h e t w o groups w e r e c o m p a r e d , t h e caged 2

isolated rats drank up to sixteen times m o r e than t h e park residents, clearly a finding of statistical significance. H i g h l y interesting is t h e fact that w h e n t h e researchers added N a l o x o n e t o the m o r p h i n e - l a c e d water in the rat park, t h e rat-park rats reversed their aversion to the n a r c o t i c w a t e r and drank it. N a l o x o n e is a substance that negates the effects o f opioids but spares t h e sugary taste o f the c o n d u i t . T h i s rather stunning finding shows, perhaps m o s t clearly of all, h o w rats, w h e n in a " f r i e n d l y " place, will actually avoid anything, h e r o i n included, that interrupts their n o r m a l social behaviors. T h e rats liked the s w e e t e n e d water, so l o n g as t h e y didn't get stoned. At least in rodents, opiates are

actually, in favorable situations, distinctly undesirable, w h i c h is a far c r y from o u r understanding o f t h e m a s i n h e r e n t l y t e m p t i n g .

We think these results are socially as well as statistically significant. If rats in a reasonably n o r m a l e n v i r o n m e n t consistently resist o p i ate drugs, then the "natural affinity" idea is w r o n g , an overgeneralization o f e x p e r i m e n t s o n isolated animals. T h e s e f i n d i n g s are c o m p a t i b l e with the n e w " c o p i n g " i n t e r p r e tation of h u m a n opiate addiction if o n e keeps in m i n d that rats are by nature e x t r e m e l y gregarious, active, curious animals. Solitary c o n f i n e m e n t causes extraordinary psychic distress in h u m a n beings and is likely to be j u s t as stressful to o t h e r sociable species, and therefore to elicit e x t r e m e forms of c o p i n g b e h a v i o r such as the use of powerful analgesics and tranquilizers, in this case m o r p h i n e . It may also be that socially housed rats resist m o r p h i n e because it is such a powerful anesthetic and tranquilizer. As such, it i n t e r feres with a rat's (or a person's) ability to play, eat, mate and engage in o t h e r behaviors w h i c h make life rewarding.

T h e S e d u c t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s h o w e d that t h e r e is, i n fact, n o t h i n g inherently, i n e x o r a b l y s e d u c i n g a b o u t opiates, a n d as s u c h it s t o o d as a real c h a l l e n g e t o t h e t e m p e r a n c e mentality, w h i c h rose t o p r o m i n e n c e i n this c o u n t r y a s p r o h i b i t i o n laws c a m e i n t o effect and w h i c h , i n o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r , weaves a n d has w o v e n t h r o u g h s o m u c h o f a d d i c t i o n research. In 1 8 7 3 , a j o u r n a l i s t o b s e r v i n g a t e m p e r a n c e rally w r o t e , " T h e n t h e ladies, j o i n e d b y t h e spectators, sang, 'Praise G o d f r o m w h o m all blessings flow,' w h i l e l i q u o r s w e r e rolled i n t o t h e street. O f t h e w o m e n a r o u n d , s o m e w e r e c r y i n g , a f e w a l t e r n a t e l y s i n g i n g and r e t u r n i n g t h a n k s . . . " Y o u c a n see that q u o t e a s t h e b a r e l y visible fuel b e h i n d O l d s a n d M i l n e r ' s w o r k , b e h i n d t h e c u r r e n t d r u g wars a n d t h e scientists w h o support t h e m , and b e h i n d t h e naysayers, like A l e x a n d e r , w h o have d o n e s o m e i n g e n i o u s things t o refute a superstition s o e n t r e n c h e d w e d o n ' t e v e n k n o w w e h o l d it.

THE

EXPERIMENT,

HOWEVER,

was

not

complete.

Alexander,

C o a m b s , and Hadaway successfully s h o w e d that rats will resist even the m o s t irresistibly delivered drug if it interferes w i t h the alternatively gratifying opportunities available to t h e m . H o w e v e r , the research t e a m had a n o t h e r question, and this o n e had to do w i t h addiction already in progress. T h e y had tried to start an addiction in the fancy rat resid e n c e s , pretty unsuccessfully. T h e opposition, however, c o u l d easily say, " F i n e . G i v e a rat Nautilus e q u i p m e n t and sex t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s a day and it w o n ' t get high. In the real world, p e o p l e are m o r e vulnerable, and they may b e g i n to use at a bad p o i n t in their lives, and o n c e they've started an addictive pursuit, they c a n n o t stop. T h e withdrawal is so painful, it in and of itself guarantees c o n t i n u e d use." So to test this assumption, t h e researchers again t o o k t w o sets of rats and kept o n e set i n their cages. T h e o t h e r set t h e y m o v e d t o rat park. O v e r t h e n e x t fifty-seven days, w h i c h is a g o o d l o n g t i m e in heroin time, they m a d e j u n k i e s o u t o f each and every rodent, giving t h e m n o liquid t o drink e x c e p t t h e m o r p h i n e - l a c e d water. " L o n g e n o u g h , " writes Alexander, " t o p r o d u c e t o l e r a n c e and physical d e p e n d e n c e . " T h e y t h e n again provided b o t h groups w i t h b o t h plain and m o r p h i n e water. Predictably, the c a g e d g r o u p c o n t i n u e d to partake in t h e m o r p h i n e ; t h e rat-park group, even when already addicted, however, did n o t c h o o s e t h e m o r p h i n e s o l u t i o n regularly and i n fact decreased t h e i r m o r p h i n e use, despite withdrawal. T h e implications: addictions in progress are n o t i n e x o r a b l e . As d r u g researcher S t a n t o n P e e l e points o u t , e v e r y o n e s e e m s to agree that n i c o t i n e is even m o r e highly a d d i c tive than h e r o i n , and yet n i n e t y p e r c e n t o f p e o p l e w h o start s m o k i n g quit o n their o w n , w i t h o u t any " p r o g r a m " o r " s p o n s o r " o r " p r o f e s sional help." B u t w h a t a b o u t withdrawal? A l e x a n d e r suggests that withdrawal m a y n o t be t h e force we t h i n k it is. " R a t s in rat park s h o w e d w h a t l o o k e d t o b e s o m e m i n o r withdrawal signs, t w i t c h i n g , w h a t have y o u , b u t t h e r e w e r e n o n e o f t h e m y t h i c seizures a n d sweats y o u so often hear a b o u t . " W e l l , m a y b e n o t for rats, b u t surely for h u m a n s , as we have seen it b e f o r e o u r very o w n eyes. R e t o r t s A l e x a n d e r , " T h e vast m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e w h o e x p e r i e n c e h e r o i n

withdrawal have s o m e t h i n g like a c o m m o n c o l d . T h a t ' s it." H i s p o i n t , b o r n e o u t by his rat-park findings: w h i l e withdrawal is real, it is n o t n e c essarily t h e force o u r m e d i a has d e s c r i b e d , w h a t w i t h t h e f l a g r a n t f l u s and deep tissue miseries. A n d m o r e importantly, withdrawal does n o t c o n s i g n t h e user to repeated use, if t h e rats are any e x a m p l e . A l e x a n d e r says, "I t h i n k withdrawal, like drugs t h e m s e l v e s , is consistently o v e r played; it's part of t h e narrative p e o p l e have heard a b o u t drugs, and so c o n t i n u e to tell; it's t h e paradigm by w h i c h d r u g users i n t e r p r e t w h a t m a y be in fact o n l y d i s c o m f o r t , n o t agony. C e r t a i n l y t h e rats did n o t appear t o b e i n agony. N e i t h e r w e r e t h e V i e t n a m vets o r t h e scores o f others w h o start, g o t h r o u g h withdrawal, and t h e n stop." A l e x a n d e r ' s research suggests that a d d i c t i o n s are in fact q u i t e s u b j e c t t o free will. R a t s and h u m a n s p i c k u p t h e proverbial p i p e a n d t h e n put i t b a c k d o w n , n o p r o b l e m . A n d w h e n t h e y d o n ' t put i t b a c k d o w n , it's n o t b e c a u s e there's s o m e t h i n g i n h e r e n t l y irresistible a b o u t t h e substance, b u t b e c a u s e t h e particular set o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e m a m m a l f i n d s i t s e l f i n offers n o b e t t e r alternatives than s u c h d e s t r u c tive s n a c k i n g . A d d i c t i o n in A l e x a n d e r ' s w o r l d is a life-style strategy, and like all h u m a n - c o n s t r u c t e d strategies, it's m a l l e a b l e to e d u c a t i o n , diversion, o p p o r t u n i t y . It's a c h o i c e . A l e x a n d e r r e m e m b e r s rat park w e l l , e v e n t h o u g h he's s i x t y - t w o n o w a n d h e did t h e e x p e r i m e n t o v e r t w e n t y - f i v e years a g o . H e r e m e m b e r s a d d i c t i n g his animals a n d t h e n w a t c h i n g , w a i t i n g , t o see w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n . " W e talked a b o u t i t all t h e t i m e , o v e r dinner, o n w e e k e n d s . M y kids c a m e u p and m e t t h e rats, did s o m e data c o l l e c t i o n . I t was o f c o u r s e t r e m e n d o u s l y e x c i t i n g t o see all t h e c o m m o n l y held n o t i o n s a b o u t a d d i c t i o n s o c h a l l e n g e d b y t h e rats. I've h a d o n l y o n e g o o d idea i n m y life," A l e x a n d e r says, " a n d that was it. B u t o n e g o o d idea, w h o c a n c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h a t ? " I d o n ' t h e a r wistfulness in his v o i c e w h e n he utters this s t a t e m e n t , b u t m a y b e s o m e t h i n g ever s o slightly disappointed, even t h o u g h h e denies it. T h e fact is, w h i l e t h e rat-park study is e x t r e m e l y significant in its findings, a n d poses relevant c h a l l e n g e s to ourselves c o l l e c t i v e l y

and individually, t h e fact is, n o o n e paid m u c h a t t e n t i o n , t h e n o r now. " W e w r o t e u p the findings," A l e x a n d e r says. " W e w a n t e d t h e m t o b e published in Science and Nature. T h a t ' s w h e r e t h e y should have g o n e . B u t t h e papers w e r e r e j e c t e d . A g a i n and again. It was disappointing." At last a w e l l - r e s p e c t e d b u t smaller j o u r n a l , Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, p u b l i s h e d t h e rat-park findings. "It's a g o o d j o u r n a l , " A l e x a n d e r says, " i t has as m u c h credibility as y o u c o u l d ask for, b u t it's n o t as w i d e l y read. It's, it's p h a r m a c o l o g y . "

ALEXANDER'S

CAREER,

with

its

psychosocial

slant,

remained

m o d e s t , w h i l e i n t h e m e a n t i m e , b i o l o g i c a l paradigms rose t o p r o m i n e n c e , s p i n n i n g o f f still m o r e scientific studies. In t h e

1970s a

Stanford researcher, A v r a m G o l d s t e i n , discovered t h e body's natural o p i a t e s — e n d o r p h i n s — a n d speculated that h e r o i n abusers w e r e defic e n t i n this e n d o g e n o u s substance. H e h y p o t h e s i z e d that i n j e c t i n g addicts w i t h e n d o r p h i n s w o u l d e l i m i n a t e t h e i r cravings; t h e strategy failed c o m p l e t e l y , b u t it didn't matter. It g o t g o o d press b e c a u s e it was a b i o l o g i c a l l y based e x p l a n a t i o n in a c u l t u r e w i t h a taste for j u s t such e x p l a n a t o r y m o d e l s — m o d e l s o f m o l e c u l e s , m o d e l s that e s c h e w o r even i g n o r e t h e issues A l e x a n d e r cares m o s t a b o u t : race, class, t h e n u a n c e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f o u r multilayered lives. A l e x a n d e r i s a n g r y s o m e t i m e s . H e accuses t h e b i o m e d i c a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f suppressing i m p o r t a n t scientific i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f d r u g t a k i n g for political purposes. After all, i f rat park's findings w e r e given t h e i r due, w e w o u l d have t o c l e a n u p o u r i n n e r city projects and c h a n g e o u r p o l i c i e s , funding e d u c a t i o n o v e r m e d icalization. Alexander's

critics, however, accuse

him

o f distorting

i n f o r m a t i o n in hopes of inflaming a public debate, and b e i n g t h e star at its center. T h i s a c c o r d i n g to drug czar K l e b e r , w h o is proud of his Yale e d u c a t i o n and disdainful o f any research " n o r t h o f t h e C o n n e c t i c u t R i v e r . " A c c o r d i n g t o K l e b e r ' s Ivy L e a g u e c o m p a s s , rat park h a p p e n e d i n t h e scholarly equivalent o f t h e tundra, w h i c h m a y b e w h y t h e drug

czar says, " W h e n

I f i r s t heard o f that V a n c o u v e r e x p e r i m e n t , I

t h o u g h t i t was i n g e n i o u s . N o w I t h i n k i t has all sorts o f m e t h o d o l o g ical flaws." " L i k e w h a t ? " I ask h i m . " I can't r e m e m b e r , " h e says. " A l e x a n d e r says y o u say a d d i c t i o n is p r e t t y m u c h i n e v i t a b l e , that e x p o s u r e leads t o a d d i c t i o n . " K l e b e r says, " T h a t ' s r i d i c u l o u s ! I n e v e r said that a n d I d o n ' t t h i n k that." " I f you don't t h i n k that," I say,"then w h y aren't you for legalization?" " C a f f e i n e , " h e says. " H o w m a n y p e o p l e are a d d i c t e d t o caffeine i n this c o u n t r y ? " " A lot," I say. "Roughly

twenty-five

million," he

says, " a n d

h o w m a n y are

a d d i c t e d t o n i c o t i n e ? R o u g h l y f i f t y - f i v e m i l l i o n . A n d h o w m a n y are addicted to heroin? T w o million. T h e m o r e people exposed to a drug, t h e m o r e b e c o m e addicted. N i c o t i n e i s easy t o get, s o w e ' r e s w a r m i n g w i t h addicts. I f h e r o i n w e r e easy t o get, t h e n u m b e r o f a d d i c t i o n s w o u l d dangerously, dangerously rise." A n d yet, A l e x a n d e r claims that a d d i c t i o n levels r e m a i n e d steady b e f o r e t e m p e r a n c e , a t m e r e l y o n e p e r c e n t . H e also says that saying availability leads to a d d i c t i o n is like saying f o o d leads to obesity, w h i c h clearly i t d o e s n ' t i n t h e vast m a j o r i t y o f cases. K l e b e r c o n t i n u e s . " N o w , " h e says, " h o w l o n g w o u l d i t take y o u t o get a glass o f b e e r ? " " A m i n u t e , " I say, t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e m a s o n - g r e e n b o t t l e s w e have c o l d i n t h e fridge. " A n d h o w l o n g w o u l d i t take y o u t o g e t a c i g a r e t t e ? " h e asks. " T w e n t y m i n u t e s , " I say, p i c t u r i n g t h e c o n v e n i e n c e store several b l o c k s away. " R i g h t , " h e says. " A n d h o w l o n g , " h e says, his v o i c e d r o p p i n g , " w o u l d i t take y o u t o get c o c a i n e ? " T h a n k g o d w e ' r e o n t h e p h o n e d u r i n g this c o n v e r s a t i o n , b e c a u s e my face g o e s red a n d my eyes, I feel t h e m flinch. T h e fact is, I c o u l d

get c o c a i n e o r its c h e m i c a l e q u i v a l e n t i n t h r e e s e c o n d s f l a t , a l o n g w i t h various h a l l u c i n o g e n i c plants m y c h e m i s t r y - l o v i n g h u s b a n d has f o u n d advertised o n t h e I n t e r n e t . W e ' r e a family o f p h a r m a c o p h i l e s . " H o w l o n g ? " h e repeats, a n d i s i t m y i m a g i n a t i o n , o r d o I hear s o m e t h i n g a little t h r e a t e n i n g in t h e d r u g czar's v o i c e n o w , like he suspects? " A l o n g t i m e , " I say, t o o quickly. " H o u r s . W e e k s . " " S o y o u s e e m y p o i n t , " h e says. "Availability increases e x p o s u r e , e x p o s u r e increases a d d i c t i o n . " A n d yet, h e r e I a m , as e x p o s e d as a n y o n e c o u l d possibly b e ; we have access t o p o p p y straw tea, m a g i c m o l e c u l e s , p r e s c r i b e d h y d r o m o r p h o n e , tiny w h i t e disks, a n d n o n e o f i t interests m e . I have o c c a sionally w o n d e r e d w h y it is that I have no desire to try t h e b o u n t i f u l mind-altering

drugs

in

my

midst, w h i l e

my

husband, w h o

has

c h r o n i c pain, likes t o partake. I often w o r r y a b o u t m y h u s b a n d , w h o n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y sits d o w n w i t h a c u p o f tea a n d t w o h y d r o m o r p h o n e tablets a n d sips until his pupils t u r n tiny. I have said to h i m , " Y o u ' l l s o o n b e h o o k e d , i f y o u aren't already," a n d h e has said t o m e , b e i n g a rat-park fan himself, " Y o u k n o w t h e R E A L research, L a u r e n . I ' m in a c o l o n y , n o t in a c a g e . "

I N T H E M E A N T I M E , t h e r e are t h e actual addicts, w h o c a r e n o t a w h i t for t h e t h e o r i e s o r t h e p o l i t i c s , b e c a u s e t h e y are simply suffering i n t h e i r skins a n d w a n t relief. T h e r e is, for i n s t a n c e , E m m a L o w r y , w h o s e o w n b o d y tells a tale it is difficult to i g n o r e . W h i l e she, like my h u s b a n d , lives i n t h e h u m a n e q u i v a l e n t o f rat park, she s e e m s u n a b l e t o e x t r i c a t e h e r s e l f from t h e soft sway o f h e r m e d i c i n e s . E v e r y t i m e she tries t o c u t d o w n h e r dose, " A w f u l things h a p p e n . M y s t o m a c h g o e s i n t o spasm." T h e n e x t t i m e I visit her, she s e e m s desperate. " N o o n e t o l d m e this stuff was T H I S d a n g e r o u s , " she says. S h e has taken t o using a n e x a c t o k n i f e t o shave o f f tiny c r e s c e n t s from t h e pill, m a k i n g i t m i n u t e l y smaller e a c h t i m e she s w a l l o w s — a slowly d i m i n ishing d o t — i n t h e h o p e s o f easing h e r s e l f from h e r h o o k . A t t h e

same t i m e , a n O x y C o n t i n scare i s r i p p l i n g t h r o u g h o u r c o u n t r y . T h e New York Times Magazine w r i t e s on its c o v e r " O X Y C O N T I N " and everywhere

frightened

pharmacists

are

putting

up

signs,

"No

O x y C o n t i n here," i n t h e h o p e s o f diverting b r e a k - i n s . It is n o t hard to find e v i d e n c e that g o e s against rat park's c o n c l u sions. W e a l t h y p e o p l e , w i t h all t h e i r n e e d s m e t , are often s u b s t a n c e abusers, a n d t h e r e is c o m p e l l i n g e v i d e n c e that s h o w s t h e brain's significant alteration w h e n c o n s i s t e n t l y e x p o s e d t o o p i o i d s o r c o c a i n e , an

alteration

that

very

well

might

make

free

will

irrelevant.

A l e x a n d e r , o f c o u r s e , has a n a n s w e r t o t h e s e o b j e c t i o n s : t h e r i c h are a s c a g e d b y social strife a s any o f us; t h e P E T scans o f altered brains prove o n l y c o r r e l a t i o n , n o t c a u s a t i o n . Y o u c a n listen t o A l e x a n d e r ' s c o u n t e r a r g u m e n t s t o his c r i t i c s , b u t l i s t e n i n g d o e s n o t h i n g t o dispel t h e u n d e n i a b l e reality that despite w h a t A l e x a n d e r s h o w e d w a y b a c k w h e n , i n his p a i n t e d r o d e n t d r e a m l a n d , t h e e x p e r i m e n t has d o n e l i t tle t o alter t h e w a y w e c o l l e c t i v e l y t h i n k a b o u t substances and thus, to some degree, e x p e r i e n c e them. Therefore, what makes the e x p e r i m e n t great? K l e b e r says, " T h e e x p e r i m e n t ' s n o t great." A l e x a n d e r h i m s e l f says, " R a t park's n o t f a m o u s . W h y w o u l d y o u i n c l u d e it? I t has a small c u l t f o l l o w i n g , b u t that's it." T r u e , rat park m a y n o t be big; n e i t h e r is S h e r w o o d A n d e r s o n ' s

Winesburg, Ohio or R i c h a r d

Seltzer's essay, " L e s s o n s o f a K n i f e . " T h o s e w o r k s , h o w e v e r , are little g e m s that r e s o n a t e i n ways subtle b u t strong. M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e y b e c a m e the unacknowledged models from w h i c h m o r e recognized literature was spun; so it is w i t h A l e x a n d e r ' s rats. H i s e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e in part r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e f a m o u s surveys, c i t e d earlier in this chapter, w h i c h showed h o w unlikely addiction is in the h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n . H i s e x p e r i m e n t s i n part l e d t o intensive studies o f c a n c e r patients o n m o r p h i n e , and t h e fascinating research that i s n o w b e i n g d o n e o n t h e b i o - p s y c h o - s o c i a l differences b e t w e e n using m o r p h i n e for pain, w h e r e i t rarely leads t o a d d i c t i o n ( E m m a e x c l u d e d , o f c o u r s e ) , and u s i n g i t for pleasure, w h e r e i t supposedly m o r e often leads t o t r o u b l e . M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , his e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e i n part r e s p o n s i b l e for a n i n t e r e s t i n g s t r i n g o f w o r k that f o l l o w e d t h e effects

o f e n v i r o n m e n t o n h u m a n physiology. I n 1 9 9 6 , research c o n d u c t e d i n Iran s h o w e d that w o m e n l i v i n g i n s i n g l e - f a m i l y h o u s i n g units had significantly h i g h e r fertility rates t h a n w o m e n l i v i n g i n m u l t i f a m i l y units, m e a n i n g fertility g o e s d o w n a s c r o w d i n g g o e s up. S t u d i e s o f p r i s o n s have s h o w n that as density i n c r e a s e s , so t o o do p r o b l e m s like s u i c i d e , h o m i c i d e , a n d illness. H u m a n s in small spaces p e r f o r m far w o r s e o n tests o f p r o b l e m s o l v i n g t h a n d o t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n m o r e c a p a c i o u s settings.

T H E D E C I D E D L Y L U K E W A R M r e c e p t i o n rat park g o t m a y have disa p p o i n t e d A l e x a n d e r , b u t n o t for l o n g . U n l i k e his t e a c h e r , Harlow, A l e x a n d e r d o e s n o t appear p r o n e t o depression o r substance abuse, a l t h o u g h h e does m e n t i o n , q u i t e a f e w t i m e s , that h e has b e e n u n l u c k y i n love. T h a t l a c k o f l u c k , h o w e v e r , didn't s e e m t o g e t i n t h e w a y o f his c o n t i n u e d , rather v i v a c i o u s e x p l o r a t i o n s i n t o t h e q u e s t i o n a t h a n d . R a t park w e n t t h e w a y o f a midlist b o o k , a n d h e j u s t k e p t o n thinking, planning, j o i n i n g . He j o i n e d the board for the Portland H o t e l , a d o w n t o w n Vancouver establishment w h e r e HIV-positive addicts c a n c o m e for c l e a n n e e d l e s , a w a r m r o o m , a n d a w a y to die in dignity. H e studied C h i n a ' s o l d o p i u m dens, w h e r e t h e walls h a d a fine w h i t e s c r i m o f p o w d e r c l i n g i n g t o t h e i r c r a g g y surface. H e b e g a n to read P l a t o , " t h e first p s y c h o l o g i s t , " even as S i m o n Fraser U n i v e r s i t y w i t h d r e w his funding based on rat park's p u b l i c i t y failure. Eventually, t h e university, i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a n i m a l rights activists, w h o f o u n d t h e rat lab's v e n t i l a t i o n system i n a d e q u a t e , shut t h e w h o l e t h i n g d o w n , o n l y to r e o p e n it m o n t h s later as a student c o u n s e l i n g s e r v i c e — w i t h o u t a v e n t i l a t i o n system upgrade. " I t wasn't o k a y for t h e rats," A l e x a n d e r says, " b u t for h u m a n s it was fine." H e speaks w i t h o u t b i t t e r n e s s , t h o u g h . Instead, labless a n d ratless, A l e x a n d e r t u r n e d t o w a r d history, f u n n e l i n g h i m s e l f b a c k i n t o t h e p o r t h o l e s o f t h e past, l o o k i n g t o l o n g - l o s t cultures for still m o r e clues a s t o h o w a d d i c t i o n d o e s a n d d o e s n ' t h a p p e n . H e was i n t e r e s t e d t o f i n d that t h e r e have b e e n m a n y t i m e s i n h u m a n h i s t o r y w h e n a d d i c -

t i o n was practically nil: t h e C a n a d i a n Indians, f o r i n s t a n c e , p r i o r t o assimilation, h a d a n e g l i g i b l e a d d i c t i o n rate, as did o u r v e r y o w n B r i t i s h b r o t h e r s b e f o r e t h e upheavals o f t h e Industrial R e v o l u t i o n , w h e n p e o p l e f a r m e d and lived o f f t h e land a n d w a t c h e d t h e m o o n , that m e d i c i n a l disk in t h e sky. A l e x a n d e r f o u n d that a d d i c t i o n rates s e e m to g r o w n o t as d r u g availability increases, b u t as h u m a n d i s l o c a t i o n , t h e i n e v i t a b l e result o f a f r e e - m a r k e t society, b e c o m e s c o m m o n place. H i s t h e o r y : a f r e e - m a r k e t s o c i e t y treats its p e o p l e as p r o d u c t s , t o b e u p r o o t e d , m o v e d , altered, a c c o r d i n g t o e c o n o m i c n e e d . " A t t h e e n d o f t h e 2 0 t h century, for r i c h a n d p o o r alike, j o b s disappear o n s h o r t n o t i c e , c o m m u n i t i e s are w e a k and unstable, p e o p l e r o u t i n e l y c h a n g e families, o c c u p a t i o n , t e c h n i c a l skills, languages, nationalities, software a n d i d e o l o g i e s as t h e i r lives progress. P r i c e s a n d i n c o m e s are n o m o r e stable than social life. E v e n t h e c o n t i n u e d viability o f c r u c i a l e c o n o m i c systems i s i n q u e s t i o n . F o r r i c h a n d p o o r alike, d i s l o c a t i o n plays h a v o c w i t h t h e delicate i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n s o f p e o p l e , society, t h e physical w o r l d a n d spiritual values that are n e e d e d to sustain p s y c h o s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n . " I n t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e s e things, says A l e x a n d e r , w e , like rats in c a g e s , turn to substitutes, n o t b e c a u s e t h e substitutes are alluring i n a n d o f t h e m s e l v e s , b u t b e c a u s e o u r c i r c u m s t a n c e s are deficient, w e w i t h o u t o u r gods. In t h e final analysis t h e n , A l e x a n d e r t h e r e n e g a d e is really a traditionalist i n t i e - d y e . Years o f radical i n q u i r y have led h i m t o this c o n servative

conclusion: what

matters

are

the

ties

that

b i n d , love,

affection, and t h e daily r h y t h m s that rise from t h e s e — f r i e n d s h i p , family, a small p l o t to w o r k . W e e k e n d s he spends on his small island farm, w r i t i n g in t h e early m o r n i n g s , s t r u c t u r i n g a s i m p l e life. M a y b e h e r e i s w h e r e h e a n d his o p p o n e n t , K l e b e r , can c o m e t o g e t h e r . A l e x a n d e r believes that difficult c i r c u m s t a n c e s lead t o a d d i c t i o n ; K l e b e r believes it is e x p o s u r e to fixed p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l properties. B u t in t h e e n d these different scientists are asking for similar t h i n g s — that t h e w e b o f social structure b e beautiful a n d m e a n i n g f u l , that families replace gangs, that tradition provide d i r e c t i o n in a wasted culture. W r i t e s K l e b e r , " O u r p o l i c i e s s h o u l d a i m t o r e d u c e d r u g use

a n d a d d i c t i o n t o a m a r g i n a l p h e n o m e n o n . . . . A t its best A m e r i c a strives to give all its c i t i z e n s t h e c h a n c e to d e v e l o p t h e i r talents." Says A l e x a n d e r , " W h e n w e p r o v i d e o u r c h i l d r e n w i t h h e r i t a g e a n d beliefs that

bring

shape

to

culture, we

reduce

the

likelihood

of psy-

c h o p a t h o l o g y . " I n t h e e n d i t c o m e s d o w n t o dignity, and b o t h m e n b e l i e v e in it.

I W I S H I c o u l d w e n d m y w a y t o a solid e n d i n g , b u t i n t h e study o f solid substances, e v e r y t h i n g is, finally, as w a v y as an o p i o i d dream. A c c o r d i n g t o "findings," E m m a L o w r y , b e c a u s e she t o o k opiates for pain

and

not

for

pleasure, s h o u l d

not

be

addicted, but

she

is.

A c c o r d i n g t o "findings," m y h u s b a n d , w h o has c o n s i s t e n t e x p o s u r e , s h o u l d b e addicted, a n d h e isn't. K l e b e r claims a d d i c t i o n rates rise w i t h e x p o s u r e , and h e has t h e figures t o s h o w it; A l e x a n d e r says i f that w e r e true, p o p p y - g r o w i n g cultures w o u l d b e a d d i c t e d cultures, and they're n o t . W h o k n o w s w h a t t h e facts are h e r e . In t h e e n d , t h e n , I d e c i d e to see for myself. S a m p l e size: o n e . H y p o t h e s i s : n o n e . I ' m i n a c a g e o r a c o l o n y , I ' m n o t sure w h i c h . M y h o u s e i s large, m y life g o o d , m y h u m a n i n t e r a c t i o n s r i c h a n d robust, b u t I ' m a f r e e - m a r k e t gal, as dislocated as any in this n e w m i l l e n n i u m , w h e r e I have n o r e l i g i o n , n o e x t e n d e d family, n o g o d . W h a t I d o : I take my husband's h y d r o m o r p h o n e pills. I d e c i d e I'll take t h e m for fifty-seven days, like A l e x a n d e r ' s rats, a n d t h e n see w h a t happens w h e n I try to stop. I s w a l l o w t w o . I s w a l l o w t h r e e . S u r e e n o u g h , I g e t h i g h . I get happy. T h e air feels silky, a n d w h e n I see a seagull in t h e T a r g e t p a r k i n g l o t , I t h i n k it's t h e m o s t beautiful bird ever, s u g a r - w h i t e a n d winged. T h r e e days g o by. F o u r . I ' m feeling f i n e . I have w e e k s o f regular n i g h t l y o p i a t e use, o f m o o n i n g a t t h e m o o n a n d t h i n k i n g e v e r y t h i n g b o t h silly a n d sweet. D u r i n g t h e days, I w a t c h myself. Am I l o o k i n g forward t o m y n i g h t l y elixir? A m I C R A V I N G it? I w a t c h for signs o f c r a v i n g j u s t like early i n m y p r e g n a n c y I w a t c h e d for c r a m p s that

m i g h t signal a m i s c a r r i a g e : t h e r e , a little s o m e t h i n g , oh my g o d , it's h a p p e n i n g — d i d I feel that? Was it a t w i n g e ? B u t t h e r e was no b l o o d t h e n , a n d there's n o n e n o w . M y s t o m a c h starts t o h u r t . F o r m e , t h e m o r p h i n e is like a difficult dessert, unpleasant to g e t d o w n , fun to actually digest, b u t a l t o g e t h e r u n r e m a r k a b l e . I'd r a t h e r have d i n n e r w i t h a friend t h a n s e n t i m e n t a l i z e a seagull, in t h e e n d . A n d , after f o u r t e e n days, w h e n I stop abruptly, I am a little c r a n k y a n d stuffy in m y n o s e , b u t w h o k n o w s , m y kid's g o t t h e flu. W h a t this little e x p e r i m e n t s h o w s m e i s ( p i c k o n e ) :

(a) T h e r e in fact is n o t h i n g i n h e r e n t l y addictive a b o u t m o r p h i n e , a n d t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l substrates o f w i t h d r a w a l are overplayed. (b) As K l e b e r m i g h t say, I l a c k t h e d e f i c i e n t g e n e that w o u l d increase my vulnerability to addiction. (c) B e c a u s e I did n o t p r o c e e d to i n j e c t i o n , w h e r e t h e h i g h is higher

and

the

median

forebrain bundle

more

intensively

stimulated, I wasn't really at any risk anyway. (d) I do live in a c o l o n y , n o t a c a g e . (e) N o o n e k n o w s .

P i c k o n e , o r n o n e . I m y s e l f have really n o idea. I ' m tired n o w . A n d m y c o r t i c a l pleasure c e n t e r s w i l l call m e away f r o m this i n t e r p r e t i v e task l o n g b e f o r e I even g e t c l o s e to c o m p r e h e n s i o n ; I w i l l be called back

to

my

regular life, w h e r e

my

husband occasionally

needs

painkillers, w h e r e m y h o u s e leaks o n t h e left side b u t i s w a r m a n d familiar, w h e r e m y c h i l d toddles, a n d t h e s n o w falls like l a t t i c e w o r k outside m y w i n d o w — m y w o r l d , i m p e r f e c t , b u t g o o d e n o u g h f r o m w h e r e I stand n o w , apart f r o m it, K l e b e r h e r e , A l e x a n d e r there, m y s e l f i n t h e midst o f t h e i r m a z e .

IN T H E E N D , I w a n t to see rat park for myself. I w a n t to lie in it a n d feel its space, s m e l l t h e p u n g e n t c e d a r shavings, crispy in my fingers. I'd like to feel I ' m in a land, a t i m e , as h o n e s t as t h e Indians b e f o r e

t h e y w e r e assimilated, a land, m a y b e , that has my h a n d prints in it, that g r o w s b e c a u s e I t e n d e d it, e r e c t ears o f c o r n splitting t h e i r seams. So I g o . A l e x a n d e r has saved t h e w o o d e n p l y w o o d walls, rat park's b a c k d r o p , w h e r e t h e c o n i f e r o u s trees b r u s h t h e skin o f a p e r f e c t sky. T h e r e are c l o u d s h e r e , p i n k streaked a n d w h i t e , a n d a river burbles as it runs t o w a r d s o m e sea b e y o n d t h e b a c k d r o p . I m a g i n e living in a p l a c e like this, o r its h u m a n e q u i v a l e n t , a k i n d o f p e r p e t u a l C a l i f o r n i a w i t h o u t any fault lines, w h e r e f o o d s o u r c e s n e v e r d i m i n i s h , w h e r e t h e r e are no predators, w h e r e t h e s m e l l is always like t h e secret insides o f y o u r g r e a t - g r a n d m o t h e r ' s w o o d - l i n e d c h e s t . A l e x a n d e r calls rat park a n o r m a l e n v i r o n m e n t : he says, " W e suspect that the normal

environment

provided

by

our

colony

allowed

the

rats

e n o u g h s p e c i e s - s p e c i f i c gratifying b e h a v i o r s o m o r p h i n e was i r r e l e vant." B u t w h e n y o u see t h e preserved p i e c e s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t , t h e p a i n t e d p l y w o o d , w h e n y o u c o n s i d e r t h e a b u n d a n t f o o d , t h e readily available e x e r c i s e e q u i p m e n t , t h e river in its plush streaks of silver, " n o r m a l e n v i r o n m e n t " does n o t c o m e t o m i n d . W h a t c o m e s t o m i n d i s " p e r f e c t e n v i r o n m e n t , " o f w h i c h I feel sure t h e r e are n o n e i n t h e labless worlds w e live in. H e r e m a y b e o n e o f A l e x a n d e r ' s biggest m e t h o d o l o g i c a l flaws. H e c r e a t e d h e a v e n a n d f o u n d — n o s u r p r i s e — that i n i t w e are happy. B u t w h e r e i s t h e r e h e a v e n o n e a r t h ? D o e s rat park truly reflect "real life," possible life, or d o e s it in fact o n l y c o n firm that a d d i c t i o n i s o n l y avoidable i n a w o r l d o f u t t e r m y t h , w h i c h i s n o t , n e v e r has b e e n , a n d n e v e r will b e t h e h u m a n w o r l d , w e w i t h o u r d e n t e d g e n e s a n d buildings. I n t h e e n d , A l e x a n d e r — t h e m a n u n l u c k y i n love, t h e m a n m a r r i e d a n d d i v o r c e d t w o t i m e s , t h e m a n w h o has j u s t n o w , a t s i x t y s o m e t h i n g , settled d o w n w i t h his third s p o u s e — i n t h e e n d this m a n is a r o m a n t i c . H e believes rat park i s possible i n o u r w o r l d , that w e c a n c o n s t r u c t a culture full o f g e n t l e g i v e - a n d - t a k e . W h o k n o w s , m a y b e he's r i g h t . T h e r o m a n t i c v i e w o f t h e w o r l d , w h i c h holds that w e are able t o actualize o u r p o t e n t selves i f o n l y g i v e n t h e c h a n c e , i s a s p o w erful a n d persuasive a stance as its o p p o s i t e , t h e classical view, my view, r o o t e d in s k e p t i c i s m , e v e n c y n i c i s m : life is hard; e v e r y w h e r e

y o u t u r n t h e r e are flaws; e v e r y c o l o n y y o u e n t e r is really a c a g e , a n d if y o u squint hard e n o u g h , y o u ' l l b e able t o m a k e o u t t h e bars a r o u n d y o u r body. T h a t ' s m y view, b u t I c a n ' t , a n d c e r t a i n l y d o n ' t w a n t , t o prove it.

B A C K AT H O M E ,

I r e c e i v e a p h o n e call f r o m E m m a L o w r y w h o

tells m e that she's finally " o f f " t h o s e " d a m n drugs." S h e says she'll n e v e r use painkillers again. I k n o w if I call A l e x a n d e r up and tell h i m E m m a ' s story, h e ' l l b e g i n t o rant a n d rave. H e ' l l f i n d all sorts o f smart reasons as to w h y it d o e s n ' t c o n t r a d i c t his data: m a y b e she was still in t h e c a g e o f pain a n d wasn't q u i t e a d m i t t i n g it; m a y b e h e r happy home

was

really

dimmed

with

an

unacknowledged

depression;

m a y b e h e r h u s b a n d has n e v e r b e e n s o supportive; m a y b e she w o r k s t o o hard. H e w o u l d say w h a t he's said t o m e s o m a n y t i m e s b e f o r e : " I have n e v e r m e t a p e r s o n , L a u r e n , never, i n m y thirty years o f s e a r c h ing, w h o h a d a d e q u a t e i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l r e s o u r c e s a n d w h o was a n addict. N e v e r . F i n d m e o n e a n d I'll t h r o w o u t all m y beliefs." I w o n ' t call u p A l e x a n d e r and tell h i m a b o u t E m m a . N o r will I call u p K l e b e r a n d tell h i m a b o u t m y h u s b a n d , and h o w h e , e x p o s e d a n d i m m e r s e d , s e e m s to have sidestepped m a j o r d r u g p r o b l e m s . I d o n ' t w a n t t o h e a r t h e i n e v i t a b l e diatribes that c o m e f r o m b o t h sides o f t h e q u e s t i o n . T h e real d r u g w a r m a y n o t exist i n o u r streets, b u t i n o u r a c a d e m i e s , w h e r e scientists hiss a n d search, compulsively, i n t o x i c a t e d b y t h e q u e s t i o n s t h e y are p u r s u i n g . A n d w h a t , finally, are these q u e s t i o n s ? W h a t does t h e fierce d e b a t e a b o u t a d d i c t i o n really stand for? It d o e s n ' t stand for itself, that's clear. A d d i c t i o n is really, it s e e m s , a b o u t q u e s t i o n s o f c h e m i s t r y a n d its i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h free will, responsibility a n d its relationship t o c o m p u l s i o n , deficit and h o w w e c a n creatively c o m p e n s a t e o r n o t . I h e a d upstairs to my study. It is n i g h t n o w and t h e little painted lamp o n m y e n d table glows, infusing t h e shade i n t o n e s o f yellow and gold. T h e walls h e r e are also w a r m , painted halo-yellow, h u n g with prints of plums and p e a c h e s on s k e t c h e d stems. I love my study. I love

h o w t h e cat, fat and furry, sleeps curled on t h e daybed, almost g r o a n i n g as he purrs in pleasure. T h e cat is a n e w addition to o u r h o u s e h o l d . We t o o k h i m i n b e c a u s e w e have m i c e , m a n y m i c e , s c u r r y i n g u n d e r o u r floorboards, h a n g i n g o f f t h e coils i n the b a c k o f t h e fridge. E v e n now, w i t h t h e cat, I can hear t h e m c h i r p i n g in t h e h e a t i n g duct, a n e w litter I suppose, their naked heads, t h e smell of m i l k . M i c e . I can hear t h e m w h e n I sleep, infiltrators, gymnasts, they p r a n c e and birth and scratch. T h e y c h e w tiny holes i n t h e R i t z C r a c k e r b o x e s , s o the spoils o f c o m fort spill out. M i c e . I h o p e they're happy here.

8 Lost in the Mall THE

FALSE

MEMORY

EXPERIMENT

Memories are the footprints we leave in our lives; without them we look back and see just a blank stretch of snow, or someone else's signature entirely. If there is anything that makes us, as a species, feel some kind of continuous authenticity, it is our memory. Plato believed in a form of absolute, or ideal memory, a sphere one could reach where all of one's past would appear to be perfectly preserved. Freud waffled on the subject, sometimes claiming memory a mishmash of dream and fact, but just as often claiming it as movie, rerun, the film scrolled in some section of the brain recoverable through free association. Our notions of memory are largely based on these two men's ideas: Freud and Plato, by no means bad company to keep. Psychologist Elizabeth Loftus, however, decided to challenge the field's great fathers. Her hunch? Memory is as slippery as a stream, as unreliable as a rat. One of the field's most innovative female experimental psychologists, Loftus invented a rather alarming and philosophically profound experiment designed to test the text of our rememberances so as to determine whether to call them fictions or to call them facts. Her results caused outrage.

F

irst she studied stop signs, beards, b a r n s , and knives. " W a s n ' t that traffic signal y e l l o w ? " she m i g h t ask h e r subjects, and sure

e n o u g h , o n c e she had i m p l a n t e d t h e possibility, h e r subjects r e m e m -

b e r e d y e l l o w w h e n t h e reality was red. S h e s h o w e d m o v i e s i n h e r l a b — a s h o t - g u n n e d face, a m a s k e d m a n o n a n e m p t y s t r e e t — a n d w h e n she asked q u e s t i o n s like, " D o y o u recall that m a n had a b e a r d ? " m o s t recalled a beard, b u t t h e m a n was really m a s k e d . " O n l y t h e f l i m siest c u r t a i n separates reality from i m a g i n a t i o n , " e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g i s t and U n i v e r s i t y o f W a s h i n g t o n professor E l i z a b e t h Loftus says, and she has powerfully p r o v e d it in h e r p r i z e - w i n n i n g e x p e r i m e n t s o n h o w m e m o r y gets c o n t a m i n a t e d b y t h e subtlest suggestion. Tell s o m e o n e h e saw a b l u e b a r n and h e ' l l m a k e t h e b a r n b l u e , t h e brain b l e e d i n g its facts, o u r w o r l d a w a t e r c o l o r painting, t h e k i n d my c h i l d m a k e s , l o o s e soupy pictures that m i g h t b e this o r m i g h t b e that: all c l o u d . Well before

she b e c a m e

famous—or infamous, depending on

w h e r e y o u cast y o u r v o t e — L o f t u s ' s findings o n m e m o r y d i s t o r t i o n w e r e clearly c o m m o d i f i a b l e . I n t h e 1 9 7 0 s and 1 9 8 0 s she provided assistance to defense a t t o r n e y s e a g e r to prove to j u r i e s that eyewitness a c c o u n t s are n o t t h e s a m e a s c a m c o r d e r s . " I ' v e h e l p e d a l o t o f p e o ple," she says. S o m e o f t h o s e p e o p l e : t h e Hillside Strangler, t h e M e n e n d e z b r o t h e r s , O l i v e r N o r t h , T e d B u n d y . " T e d B u n d y ? " I ask, w h e n she tells this to m e . Loftus laughs. " O h , " she says, " t h i s was b e f o r e w e k n e w h e was Bundy. H e hadn't b e e n a c c u s e d o f m u r d e r yet. He was w r o n g l y identified in a k i d n a p p i n g c h a r g e . " " A r e y o u s u r e ? " I ask her. " H o w can y o u b e s o c o n f i d e n t t h e p e o ple you're r e p r e s e n t i n g are really i n n o c e n t ? " S h e doesn't directly answer. S h e says, " I n c o u r t , I g o b y t h e e v i d e n c e . . . . O u t s i d e o f c o u r t , I ' m h u m a n and e n t i t l e d t o m y h u m a n feelings." W h a t , I w o n d e r , are h e r h u m a n feelings a b o u t t h e l e t t e r from a c h i l d - a b u s e survivor w h o w r o t e , " L e t m e tell y o u w h a t false m e m o r y s y n d r o m e does t o p e o p l e like m e , as if y o u care. It m a k e s us i n t o liars. False m e m o r y s y n d r o m e i s s o m u c h m o r e c h i c than c h i l d a b u s e . . . . B u t there are c h i l d r e n w h o

t o n i g h t w h i l e y o u sleep are b e i n g raped, and b e a t e n . T h e s e c h i l d r e n m a y n e v e r tell b e c a u s e ' n o o n e will b e l i e v e t h e m . ' " "Plenty o f p e o p l e will b e l i e v e t h e m , " says Loftus. P s h a w ! S h e has a r a u c o u s laugh and a v o i c e w i t h a b i t of w h e e d l e in it. S h e is strange, I t h i n k , a little l o o s e inside. S h e veers b e t w e e n t h e professional and t h e personal w i t h a n alarming

alacrity. " T h e

results

of our

experiment

showed

that

t w e n t y - f i v e p e r c e n t of o u r r e s p o n d e n t s , w h i c h is a statistically significant m i n o r i t y , w e r e s u b j e c t to . . . " — s e n t e n c e s like that and t h e n a sudden swerve, a b r i e f b e a t o f s i l e n c e and, " D i d I tell y o u a b o u t m y v a l e n t i n e ? " T o d a y is F e b r u a r y 1 4 . S h e ' s j u s t r e c e i v e d a card from h e r e x - h u s b a n d , w h o m she refers t o a s h e r " w a s - b a n d , " G r e g g . " Y o u k n o w w h a t I love a b o u t y o u ? " Loftus reads from t h e card. " A l l y o u r Freudian slips." Loftus laughs. "I still love my w a s - b a n d , " s h e says. " T o o b a d h e r e m a r r i e d s u c h a twit." I n 1 9 9 0 s o m e t h i n g b i g h a p p e n e d t o Loftus. M o s t lives c a n n o t b e defined by particular t u r n i n g p o i n t s . M o s t lives b u i l d i n c r e m e n t a l l y , a series o f s e d i m e n t a t i o n s that o v e r t i m e yield a shape w e can see, i f a t all, o n l y b y t h e v e r y e n d . N o t s o for Loftus. I n 1 9 9 0 , a lawyer, D o u g H o r n g r a d , called

h e r to

testify

in

a

particularly

t r o u b l i n g case.

H o r n g r a d ' s c l i e n t was a s i x t y - t h r e e - y e a r - o l d m a n , G e o r g e F r a n k l i n , w h o s e beautiful r e d - h e a d e d d a u g h t e r E i l e e n c l a i m e d she r e m e m b e r e d , t w e n t y or so years after t h e fact, that h e r father raped and m u r d e r e d h e r b e s t friend. It's a l o n g g r u e s o m e s t o r y o f stones and skulls, p e r f e c t for Loftus, t h e diva o f d r a m a . S h e j u m p e d o n it. " T o t a l l y f o r g e t t i n g that y o u w i t n e s s e d s o m e t h i n g that t r a u m a t i c , and t h e n suddenly recalling i t w h o l e decades after t h e fact? B u r y i n g every detail and t h e n h a v i n g it float flashbulb i n t o y o u r m i n d , every i n c h i n t a c t , I d o n ' t t h i n k so," says Loftus. Loftus d o e s n o t dispute t h e fact that t r a u m a happens ( " o f c o u r s e c h i l d r e n are h u r t a t t h e hands o f o t h e r s " ) , o n l y that i t can b e severed c o m p l e t e l y from c o n s c i o u s n e s s , stored u n m a r r e d in an a n t e r i o r capsule, like s o m e s u n k e n treasure c h e s t that o n e day o p e n s to reveal its g r e e n m i n e r a l stones, its c h u n k s o f b r i g h t ore. W h e n i t c o m e s t o m e m o r y , Loftus says, t h e shine fades fast. S h e has o b s e r v e d firsthand h o w r e c o l l e c t i o n s c a n b e c o n t a m i -

nated; h e r early e x p e r i m e n t s had s h o w n h e r h o w i t always decays w i t h t i m e . N o w this m a n , G e o r g e F r a n k l i n , was a b o u t t o b e c o n v i c t e d based o n n o t h i n g b u t his g r o w n girl's r e m e m b r a n c e s , e x c a vated a t t h e hands o f s o m e n e w - a g e therapist w h o p r a c t i c e d all sorts o f suggestion. S u g g e s t i o n ! T h a t ' s Loftus's personal h o b g o b l i n . P e o p l e are j u s t so suggestible, t h e i r skin m o r e like shift barely c o v e r i n g b o n e and m u s c l e ; a n y t h i n g c a n c o m e t h r o u g h . It's scary. S o , Loftus w e n t t o testify o n b e h a l f o f G e o r g e F r a n k l i n , w e n t t o tell t h e j u r y E i l e e n ' s m e m o r y c o u l d n o t b e c o u n t e d o n a s a c c u r a t e , n o t b e c a u s e o f E i l e e n , p e r say, b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e m e c h a n i c s o f m e m o r y itself, t h e way i t rusts i n t h e rain. I n o n e o f t h e m o s t p u b l i c i z e d r e c o v e r e d m e m o r y cases o f t h e d e c a d e , Loftus s t o o d b e f o r e t h e c o u r t and t o l d of a m i n d that blends fact w i t h fiction as a part of its n o r m a l c o u r s e ; she t o l d h o w h e r subjects in t h e lab m a d e red signs yellow, put b a r n s in places w h e r e t h e y n e v e r w e r e , recalled b l a c k beards on bald c h i n s . E i l e e n s p o k e o f seeing t h e s t o n e h e r father used t o crush the skull o f h e r best friend Susan, s e e i n g t h e r i n g f l a s h i n t h e sunlight, s e e i n g again, i n h e r mind's eye, a bit o f b l o o d , a bit o f b l u e , a n d Loftus said, " U n t r u e . All these details E i l e e n later read a b o u t in n e w s p a p e r reports." T h e j u r y didn't b u y it, didn't b u y Loftus, that is, and she w e n t h o m e defeated. S h e claims i t was this e v e n t that shaped h e r future w o r k . F r a n k l i n was c o n v i c t e d o f raping and m u r d e r i n g his daughter's best friend m o r e than t w o decades after t h e fact, and Loftus felt a c h i l l . " M y m i s s i o n in life," she says to m e , " m y mission since t h e n has a n d always will be to help t h e falsely a c c u s e d . I realized that talking a b o u t barns a n d stop signs and yield signs wasn't g o i n g to cut it as e v i d e n c e , especially in t h e n e w c l i m a t e , w h e r e r e c o v e r e d m e m o r y therapy was all t h e rage, and e v e r y o n e b e l i e v e d in t h e reality of repression. I realized I was g o i n g to have to prove n o t that it's p o s sible to distort a m e m o r y , w h i c h g o d k n o w s I've proven, b u t that it's possible to plant an entirely false memory in a person." Loftus says these words w i t h g l e e — t r i c k or treat, it's always t r i c k , t h e little g o b l i n . S h e has a P h . D . from Stanford. S h e ' s a m a t h w h i z . S h e has a g e n i u s for putting h e r f i n g e r right o n t h e pulse o f p o p u l a r culture, p o l l i n a t i n g i t

w i t h t h e spores o f h e r beliefs. A n d listen, m a n y o f h e r beliefs are g o o d . S o m e are m a y b e n o t s o g o o d . I n t h e e n d , she's p r o b a b l y j u s t like t h e rest o f us, o n l y amplified, a b l e n d o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and b l i n d ness, w i t h m a n y soft spots.

IT WAS 1 9 9 0 w h e n Loftus testified in t h e F r a n k l i n trial, disputing t h e validity o f E i l e e n ' s repressed m e m o r y . O n l y a f e w years earlier, E l l e n Bass and L a u r a D a v i s had p u b l i s h e d t h e i r p h e n o m e n a l l y s u c cessful b o o k The Courage to Heal: A Guide for Women Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse, w h i c h , m u c h t o Loftus's disgust, a n n o u n c e d , " I f y o u t h i n k y o u w e r e abused, . . . t h e n y o u w e r e . " O t h e r therapists w e r e i n s t r u c t i n g t h e i r traumatically repressed patients t o " l e t t h e i m a g i n a t i o n r u n wild." A r o u n d this t i m e , t h e c o u r t s b e g a n p e e l i n g b a c k t h e statute o f l i m i t a t i o n s for s e x abuse c r i m e s ; instead o f f i v e years from t h e t i m e o f o c c u r r e n c e , charges c o u l d b e pressed f i v e years from t h e moment

of memory

retrieval, w h i c h

meant

that

hundreds

upon

thousands o f elderly parents w e r e n o w b e i n g a c c u s e d b y t h e i r t h e r a pized

daughters. " T h e r e

were

accusations

o f satanic

cults," says

Loftus, " A n d never, ever, has t h e F B I f o u n d a single p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e to s u p p o r t this stuff." A c o n v e r g e n c e o f factors. T h e Bass and Davis b o o k . T h e F r a n k l i n trial. B u t m o s t l y letters p o u r i n g i n from across t h e c o u n t r y from p a r ents w h o had seen h e r d e f e n d G e o r g e F r a n k l i n , and w h o w e r e p l e a d i n g w i t h h e r for help. C o u p l e s w r o t e a b o u t c h i l d r e n a c c u s i n g t h e m o f g r o t e s q u e satanic abuses b e y o n d any b e l i e v a b i l i t y — a c c u s a t i o n s G o t h i c and s e e m i n g l y absurd, a c c u s a t i o n s that destroyed families and devastated m o t h e r s and fathers, w h o swore t h e i r i n n o c e n c e . " M y h o m e b e c a m e a o n e - w a y relay station for these p e o p l e , " says Loftus, " a n d m y p h o n e bills w e r e h u n d r e d s o f dollars e a c h m o n t h , and I k n e w I c o u l d n ' t help t h e m unless I c o u l d scientifically prove that t h e m i n d n o t o n l y distorts real m e m o r i e s b u t c a n create totally false o n e s . I w a n t e d to prove e x p e r i m e n t a l l y that this was possible. B u t h o w ? T h e r e are all t h e s e e t h i c a l i s s u e s — g o d , w h a t w i t h h u m a n

e t h i c s c o m m i t t e e s y o u c a n ' t g e t A N Y T H I N G b y a n y m o r e . Y o u try o n e tiny harmless p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t on a p e r s o n a n d it's like y o u ' r e a d o c t o r l e a v i n g syphilis untreated." S h e c h u c k l e s . " T h e best t h i n g t o d o w o u l d b e t o plant a m e m o r y o f sexual abuse," she says, " b u t that's n o t e t h i c a l , s o I t h o u g h t and t h o u g h t a b o u t h o w t o c o m e u p w i t h a n e x p e r i m e n t a l situation that t o u c h e d o n t r a u m a b u t did n o t t r a u m a t i z e . It t o o k me a l o n g t i m e . I w e n t t h r o u g h so m a n y different s c e n a r i o s . " " L i k e w h a t ? " I ask her. " O h g o d , " she says, " I can't r e m e m b e r now." A n d t h e n i t c a m e t o her, h o w she c o u l d d o it, e x p e r i m e n t a l l y i m p l a n t false m e m o r i e s w i t h o u t v i o l a t i n g e t h i c a l g u i d e l i n e s . Loftus and h e r students c a m e u p w i t h L o s t i n t h e M a l l , a D o n D e l l i l o - t y p e t r i c k that captures o u r n a t i o n a l as well as individual absurdities.

T H E E X P E R I M E N T H A D m a n y phases. I n s o m e pretest versions, Lofts h a d university students a t t e m p t to i m p l a n t false m e m o r i e s in t h e i r siblings o v e r T h a n k s g i v i n g v a c a t i o n , tape t h e sessions, a n d t h e n present t h e m t o h e r after t h e holiday. T h e s e , a l t h o u g h part o f t h e pilot, proved t o b e s o m e o f t h e r i c h e s t d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f fact b u c k ling u n d e r fiction's w e i g h t . I n t h e f o r m a l e x p e r i m e n t , she r e c r u i t e d , w i t h h e r assistant J a c q u e l i n e P i c k r e l l , t w e n t y - f o u r individuals. Loftus prepared for e a c h s u b j e c t a small b o o k l e t c o n t a i n i n g t h r e e w r i t t e n a c c o u n t s o f real c h i l d h o o d m e m o r i e s p r o v i d e d b y a subject's family m e m b e r , and o n e false w r i t t e n a c c o u n t o f b e i n g lost i n t h e maD. T h e c o n s t r u c t e d stories, d o n e w i t h family m e m b e r s w h o a g r e e d t o h e l p i n t h e h o a x , w e r e e a c h o n e paragraph l o n g . S u b j e c t s c a m e t o t h e lab, read t h e m e m o r y b o o k l e t s , a n d w e r e i n s t r u c t e d t o e l a b o r a t e o n t h e m w i t h t h e i r o w n r e c o l l e c t i o n s , a n d i f t h e y had n o n e , t o simply w r i t e , " I d o n ' t r e m e m b e r this." W h a t surprised Loftus m o s t a b o u t t h e results o f h e r e x p e r i m e n t w e r e n o t t h e statistically significant figures, b u t t h e narrative detail that a c c o m p a n i e d s o m e o f t h e false m e m o r i e s . " T h e detail p e o p l e

c o n f a b u l a t e a n d t h e n b e l i e v e i n j u s t astounds m e , " Loftus says, b u t h e r v o i c e i s n o t a s t o u n d e d — i t ' s d e l i g h t e d , like she has c o m e t o t h e c o r e o f fairy tales, p e e l e d b a c k t h e brain t o find w h e r e m y t h s are m a d e . I n o n e pretest, for instance, C h r i s , w h o had b e e n c o n v i n c e d b y his o l d e r b r o t h e r J i m that he had b e e n lost in a s h o p p i n g mall at age five, r e c o u n t e d t h e false e p i s o d e w i t h flourish and feeling. J u s t t w o days after t h e m e m o r y i m p l a n t a t i o n , C h r i s r e p o r t e d , " T h a t day I was so scared I w o u l d n e v e r see my family again. I k n e w that I was in t r o u ble." B y day t h r e e C h r i s was recalling c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h m o m : " I r e m e m b e r m o m telling m e n e v e r t o d o that again." A f e w w e e k s later C h r i s , e n t i r e l y u n s u s p e c t i n g , r e t u r n e d t o t h e lab w i t h t h e small m e m ory

seed

now

in

hothouse

b l o o m , c o l o r f u l , scentful, absolutely

a u t h e n t i c a l l y i n a u t h e n t i c , a p e r f e c t plastic pearl: "I was w i t h y o u guys for a s e c o n d and I t h i n k I w e n t o v e r to l o o k at t h e toy store, t h e K a y B e e toy a n d u h , we g o t lost, and I was l o o k i n g a r o u n d and I t h o u g h t , 'uh o h , I ' m in t r o u b l e n o w ' Y o u k n o w . A n d t h e n I . . . I t h o u g h t I was never g o i n g to see my family again. I was really scared y o u k n o w . A n d t h e n this o l d m a n , h e was w e a r i n g b l u e flannel, c a m e u p t o m e . . . h e was k i n d o f o l d . H e was k i n d o f bald o n t o p . . . h e had a r i n g o f gray hair. H e had glasses." A m a z i n g . N o n e o f t h e details had b e e n p r o v i d e d i n t h e tiny suggested seed; apparently o u r m i n d s a b h o r b l a n k spots, are existentially u n p r e p a r e d for e m p t i n e s s . We fill in. Loftus's w o r k reveals e x a m p l e after e x a m p l e o f this k i n d o f c o n fabulation. In a n o t h e r p i l o t study, an Asian girl c o n f a b u l a t e d an entire K m a r t , t h e t e r r y - c l o t h feel o f t h e towels, t h e l o n g w h i t e w i n c i n g lights, t h e l u r c h of t h e slippery aisles as she ran to find h e r g r a n d mother. In the formal experiment, twenty-five percent of the subj e c t s suddenly r e m e m b e r e d b e i n g lost i n a mall and, w h e n d e b r i e f e d , expressed surprise, o r even s h o c k , a t t h e d e c e p t i o n .

" L O S T I N T H E M A L L , " says psychiatrist J u d i t h H e r m a n , f o u n d e r o f V i c t i m s o f V i o l e n c e and a u t h o r o f Father-Daughter Incest, "is c u t e . It's a c u t e e x p e r i m e n t that tells us e x a c t l y t h e o p p o s i t e of w h a t Loftus

thinks she's telling us. Loftus thinks she's telling us that p e o p l e s ' m e m o r i e s can't b e relied u p o n , b u t l o o k a t h e r data. S e v e n t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f h e r subjects did n o t c o n f a b u l a t e . T h e y w e r e reliable." Bessel

van

d e r K o l k , a n o t h e r psychiatrist

who

specializes

in

t r a u m a , i s even m o r e f o r t h c o m i n g . " I hate E l i z a b e t h Loftus," h e says. " I can't even b e a r t o h e a r t h e n a m e . " Loftus k n o w s h e r r e p u t a t i o n i n s o m e circles. I t doesn't s e e m t o b o t h e r her. T h i s m a y b e b e c a u s e she's s o passionate a b o u t h e r s c i e n c e that t h e politics s i m p l y cease t o exist, o r i t m a y b e b e c a u s e she k n o w s , like any g o o d s e l f - p r o m o t e r , that n o p u b l i c i t y i s b a d p u b l i c i t y and bad p u b l i c i t y is b e t t e r than no publicity. W h e n I ask h e r a b o u t H e r m a n ' s c o m m e n t , t h e s e v e n t y - f i v e - p e r c e n t n o n c o n f a b u l a t o r s and t h e i m p l i c a t i o n that, therefore, m o s t survivors are telling t h e truth, s h e snorts. " I t h i n k t w e n t y - f i v e p e r c e n t i s a V E R Y significant m i n o r ity," she says. " F u r t h e r m o r e , L o s t in t h e M a l l b e c a m e a s p r i n g b o a r d for o t h e r false m e m o r y e x p e r i m e n t s that g o t as m u c h as a fifty p e r c e n t o r even h i g h e r c o n f a b u l a t i o n rate." Loftus g o e s o n t o tell m e what some of those other experiments were: the "impossible m e m ory

experiment," where

subjects

were

induced

to

believe

they

recalled t h e first f e w days o f t h e i r infancies; t h e s p i l l i n g - t h e - p u n c h at-the-wedding

experiment,

where

people

dredged

up

fictional

m e m o r i e s of a w h i t e dress, a crystal b o w l flying from t h e i r hands, a p i n k , s e e p i n g stain; t h e i r fault. " T h e best false m e m o r y planter i n this c o u n t r y , " Loftus says, "is S t e v e P o r t e r , f o r m e r l y from U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Y o u s h o u l d see that guy." After Loftus's L o s t in t h e M a l l e x p e r i m e n t , P o r t e r was able t o c o n v i n c e r o u g h l y fifty p e r c e n t o f his subjects that they'd survived a v i c i o u s animal a t t a c k in c h i l d h o o d . " A n d o f c o u r s e , " says Loftus, " i t n e v e r h a p p e n e d . "

L O F T U S P U B L I S H E D H E R Lost i n the M a l l f i n d i n g s i n 1 9 9 3 i n the American

Psychologist. T h e

mood

in

this

country

was

exuberant.

E v e r y w h e r e walls w e r e c o m i n g d o w n . M i k h a i l G o r b a c h e v a n n o u n c e d t h e disintegration o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . B e r l i n i n t e g r a t e d . I n this

country, scores o f p e o p l e w e r e identifying t h e i r o w n iron curtains, their o w n split selves, and pushing p i e c e s together. W h a t w e w a n t e d was w h o l e n e s s , a u n i t e d world, a single self, no m o r e c o v e r t c o n s t r u c tions. T h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m e d i a w e n t t o w o r k r e p o r t i n g astounding events, t h e U S S R m o r p h i n g i n t o R u s s i a , a suddenly accessible land w h e r e r e i n d e e r lived and t h e sun set in a S i b e r i a w h e r e t h e grass was t h e c o l o r o f c o r n , t h e c o l o r o f rust. N o t s o far away, i n o u r o w n c o u n try w e had o u r o w n , typically s c h m a l t 2 y and solipsistic version o f this g o i n g o n : M i s s A m e r i c a stepped forward and c l a i m e d she'd r e c o v e r e d n e t h e r w o r l d s o f frosted m e m o r i e s i n t h e b a s e m e n t o f h e r brain and, having lured t h e m to t h e surface w i t h a silver h o o k , was on h e r w a y t o b e c o m i n g c o m p l e t e . " I split i n t o a day c h i l d w h o s m i l e d and g i g gled and a n i g h t child w h o lay awake in a fetal position, o n l y to be p r i e d apart b y m y father." T h a n k s t o t h e fishing e x p e d i t i o n that h e r therapy was, M i s s A m e r i c a , however, was finally c o m i n g together. S o t o o for R o s e a n n e B a r r , w h o s e caustic i r o n c u r t a i n c a m e straight d o w n w h e n she c o n f e s s e d on t h e c o v e r of People m a g a z i n e , "I A m a n I n c e s t Survivor." R o s e a n n e c l a i m e d she had m u l t i p l e p e r s o n alities, b u t she was i n t e g r a t i n g , a l o n g w i t h m a n y o t h e r p e o p l e , m o s t l y w o m e n , s o m e m e n , w h o s e v o i c e s j o i n e d t h e j u b i l a n c e , and t h e terror. So

p o p u l a r was

the

idea o f r e c o v e r e d m e m o r i e s that

Time and

Newsweek r e p o r t e d on t h e m , a n d a P u l i t z e r prize—winning n o v e l , J a n e S m i l e y s A Thousand Acres, d e s c r i b e d t h e m . It was i n t o this c l i m a t e that Loftus published h e r study. It was a c l i m a t e of outrage and healing, p i n k scars and t e n d e r i n t i m a t e tissues; it was t h e t i m e of a certain story. A n d Loftus c h a l l e n g e d it, saying, in effect, that a lot of p e o p l e can be i n d u c e d to believe false things at s o m e o n e else's suggestion. W h o is to say these s o - c a l l e d survivors weren't b e i n g i n d u c e d at t h e hands of their therapists, especially those w h o actively practiced suggestion? After she published h e r article o n Lost in t h e M a l l , Loftus w e n t on r e c o r d saying she disbelieved a n u m b e r o f abuse narratives; t h e y w e r e c o n c o c t i o n s , same a s h e r subjects'. S h e t h e n w e n t o n e step further and c h a l l e n g e d the w h o l e Freudian n o t i o n o f repression. A c c o r d i n g t o Loftus, there i s absolutely n o s u b -

stantial e v i d e n c e that repression as a p s y c h o l o g i c a l or neural m e c h a nism exists. Loftus instead posits that the rising of repressed m e m o r i e s is really a c o n c a t e n a t i o n of fantasy, fear, i n n u e n d o , and news, w i t h wisps o f truth w o v e n in. T h e r e are t w o kinds o f truths, Loftus says, " S t o r y truth and h a p p e n i n g - t r u t h . . . . As we put m e a t and m u s c l e on the bare b o n e s o f the h a p p e n i n g truth, w e can get c a u g h t up, captured i f y o u will, w i t h t h e n o t i o n o f o u r o w n stories. W e b e c o m e confused a b o u t w h e r e t h e h a p p e n i n g truth leaves o f f and t h e story truth b e g i n s . " As to w h y s o m e o n e w o u l d c o n c o c t such a g r u e s o m e tale, Loftus says, " T h e real facts are s o m e t i m e s so subtle as to defy language. A person can't find the words to talk a b o u t banal hurts that nevertheless have a searing significance, so they substitute an o b v i o u s plot. O t h e r times a person c o n c o c t s a story that t h e y believe w i t h every cell in their bodies b e c a u s e it provides t h e m w i t h an identity: survivor." N o w , n o o n e particularly likes t o have the d o m i n a n t paradigm c h a l l e n g e d , b u t to do it w h e n t h e stars at t h e story's c e n t e r s are v i c tims, and w h e n o n e o f t h e story's m a i n t h e m e s i s t h e destructiveness of denial, to do it t h e n takes c o u r a g e , w h i c h Loftus clearly has. A l o n g , l o n g t i m e ago, D a r w i n held b a c k his t h e o r i e s b e c a u s e h e feared relig i o u s reprisal; m a n y scholars a c c u s e F r e u d o f a b a n d o n i n g his o r i g i n a l t h e o r i e s regarding t h e

o r i g i n s o f hysteria b e c a u s e

he k n e w they

w o u l d n ' t fit well w i t h t h e sexual a n d social m o r e s o f V i c t o r i a n V i e n n a . N e v e r for a s e c o n d did Loftus c o n s i d e r d o i n g this. "I c o u l d n ' t wait t o get m y ideas o u t there," she says. Part o f h e r c o u r a g e surely c o m e s f r o m a c o m p u l s i o n toward controversy. Part o f h e r c o u r a g e surely c o m e s from a d e e p e r place, b u t w h a t it is I do n o t k n o w . " A f t e r I published my findings, p e o p l e did t h e m e a n e s t things," Loftus says. " I ' v e h a d to have b o d y guards. P e o p l e t h r e a t e n e d to sue programs that w e r e inviting m e a s their speaker; t h e y w r o t e letters o f c o m p l a i n t s t o W a s h i n g t o n ' s g o v e r n o r ; t h e clinical p s y c h o l o g y students at t h e university practically hissed w h e n I w a l k e d by. My students and I e n d u r e d a l o t o f abuse," she says, " b u t y o u k n o w w h a t ? W e didn't repress any o f it."

LOFTUS

F R E Q U E N T L Y W A L K S around campus with only o n e ear-

r i n g o n , b e c a u s e she has h e r o t h e r ear pressed t o t h e r e c e i v e r o f h e r p h o n e s o m a n y h o u r s o f t h e d a y S h e sleeps little, and w h e n she d o e s , she dreams o f w o r k , statistics splattered across h e r m i n d , h i g h - f l y i n g planes, lectures w i t h n o n o t e s . S h e i s u t t e r l y f o c u s e d , c o n s t a n t l y fueled. T h e r e f o r e , t h e c r i t i c i s m s did n o t h i n g t o stop h e r — n o t t h e w o m a n w h o yelled " w h o r e " i n t h e a i r p o r t a few years b a c k ; n o t t h e e g g e d w i n d o w s o f h e r h o m e , t h e y o l k s d r y i n g t o a crisp

crust,

o b s c u r i n g h e r v i e w o f t h e m o u n t a i n s . Instead, Loftus j u s t p l u n d e r e d o n , a c c r u i n g e n e m i e s and f r e q u e n t - f l i e r m i l e s a n d fans a n d f a m e at a rather a s t o u n d i n g clip. O u t s i d e h e r office, a c c u s e d parents w e r e p o s t i n g love letters a n d s u p p o s e d survivors w e r e s e n d i n g hate mail; inside, Loftus j u s t w o r k e d o n . After she s u c c e e d e d i n i m p l a n t i n g false m e m o r i e s o f s u r v i v i n g a t r a u m a t i c e v e n t , she b e g a n t o w o n d e r , w o u l d i t b e possible t o

i m p l a n t false m e m o r i e s o f p e r p e t r a t i n g a n

event?

B e f o r e she c o u l d c o n s t r u c t a n e x p e r i m e n t t o test this, a n a s t o u n d i n g case c a m e forward. O l y m p i a , W a s h i n g t o n , a p l a c e w h e r e t h e trees are always g r e e n , w h e r e t h e fields are softly m o u n d e d . A c h u r c h , a C h r i s t i a n m a n w h o s e n a m e was Paul. Paul I n g r a m . H e was f o r t y - o n e years o l d a n d had t w o d a u g h t e r s . T h e s e t w o d a u g h t e r s o n e day r e m e m b e r e d , d u r i n g a religious retreat w h e r e sins w e r e called forth and darkness dispelled, that t h e y had b e e n h o r r i f i c a l l y abused b y t h e i r father. T h e i r father, Paul, was

questioned

by

detectives, held

for

hours

in

a

c r a m p e d r o o m , a tape r e c o r d e r w h i r r i n g : did y o u do it, did y o u do it? T h e d e t e c t i v e s asked, l e a n i n g forward, s o c l o s e Paul c o u l d p r o b a b l y feel t h e soft blast o f b r e a t h o n his f a c e . H e was a m i d d l e - a g e d m a n , this Paul, f r i g h t e n e d o f Satan's w i l y ways, a n d t h e d e t e c t i v e s w e r e sayi n g things like, " Y o u did i t . Y o u r d a u g h t e r s w o u l d n ' t lie." D a y t u r n e d i n t o n i g h t t u r n e d i n t o day—sleeplessness, c o f f e e , q u e s t i o n s — r e m e m b e r , try to p i c t u r e it. Paul tried. He said, "Jesus, O J e s u s , O J e s u s , M e r c i f u l J e s u s h e l p m e , " c r y i n g a n d c l u t c h i n g the table. A n d t h e n , after days o f drilling i n t e r r o g a t i o n , o f vivid s c e n e s t h e detectives s k e t c h e d w h e n h e supposedly f o n d l e d his d a u g h t e r s ' breasts, h e said

h e r e m e m b e r e d . H e said i t haltingly a t f i r s t . " S w e e t J e s u s , o h sweet J e s u s , " h e kept calling o u t and t h e n h e said i t was c o m i n g clearer. R i g h t t h e r e i n that r o o m this m a n Paul I n g r a m f i r s t c o n f e s s e d t o r a p i n g b o t h his daughters, and t h e n h e w e n t o n , h e j u s t w e n t o n . H e r e c a l l e d rapes and g a n g bangs a n d an entire d e c a d e - l o n g p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a S a t a n i c c u l t — i t b e c a m e real t o h i m — t h e c h a n t i n g , t h e things h e did. H e w e p t . H e was i m p r i s o n e d . Loftus, o f c o u r s e , w h e n she heard a b o u t this case, a n d t h e k i n d o f q u e s t i o n i n g I n g r a m u n d e r w e n t , well, Loftus raised o n e eyebrow, s m e l l e d s o m e t h i n g f i s h y , and t h o u g h t a b o u t it. S h e g o t i n t o u c h w i t h h e r friend a n d c u l t e x p e r t R i c h a r d O f s h e , w h o t r u n d l e d d o w n t o see Paul in his j a i l cell. O f s h e , like Loftus, is an e x p e r t in suggestibility, a n d like Loftus, he has a passion for revealing t h e fictions that m a n y facts are. S o O f s h e w e n t t o see I n g r a m , and h e t o l d h i m that o n e o f his sons a n d o n e o f his daughters had a c c u s e d Paul o f f o r c i n g t h e m t o have sex w i t h e a c h o t h e r w h i l e Paul w a t c h e d . I n g r a m ' s eyes w e n t w i d e . O h . O h . I n g r a m said w h a t h e always said, i n t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , " I guess I d o n ' t r e m e m b e r that." " T r y t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e s c e n e , try t o see i t h a p p e n i n g , " O f s h e said. H e t o l d I n g r a m t o return t o his j a i l cell and try " p r a y i n g o n " t h e s c e n e . A n d t h e n O f s h e w e n t away. W h e n h e c a m e b a c k a day later ( n o t e h o w similar this s t r u c t u r e i s t o Loftus's L o s t i n t h e M a l l e x p e r i m e n t , planting t h e m e m o r y , w a i t ing twenty-four to forty-eight hours), Ingram had c o m p o s e d an e n t i r e c o n f e s s i o n a b o u t a n e v e n t that O f s h e had c o m p l e t e l y c o n c o c t e d . H e w r o t e that yes, h e h a d f o r c e d his d a u g h t e r and s o n t o have s e x i n front o f h i m , a n d h e w r o t e a b o u t i t i n g r a p h i c detail, t h e pink, t h e pleasure, t h e h o r r o r . O f s h e a n d Loftus p r e s e n t e d this as e v i d e n c e t o t h e c o u r t that I n g r a m was b e i n g led d o w n t h e p r i m r o s e path o f presuppositions, that he was so m a l l e a b l e as to confess to a n y t h i n g . A n d i n d e e d , later o n w h e n t h e y told I n g r a m t h e story was false, h e r e c a n t e d all t h e o t h e r s u p p o s e d m e m o r i e s , b u t it was t o o late for h i m — h e was b e h i n d bars, w h e r e h e has stayed for t o o m a n y years, guilty o f o n e t h i n g for sure: a g r a p h i c i m a g i n a t i o n . Loftus l e a r n e d f r o m t h e I n g r a m case that t h e t e n d e n c y toward

i n v e n t i o n is strong and all e n c o m p a s s i n g . It is a t e n d e n c y so strong it o v e r r i d e s self-preservation. W e d o n ' t o n l y c o n c o c t stories that m a k e u s l o o k i n n o c e n t ; n o , w e c o n c o c t stories a t all costs, b e c a u s e w e n e e d to, b e c a u s e we have to. So powerful is t h e urge to have a socially s a n c t i o n e d narrative that w e will a d o p t o n e even i f i t m e a n s w e are t h e villain at its c e n t e r . M e a n w h i l e , Loftus h e r s e l f was sleeping less and less. H e r w o r k acquired a k i n d o f frenetic energy. M u c h o f w h a t she d r e w o u r attention t o was valid and balanced. S h e w r o t e i n o n e article, "False m e m o ries can be created by a small suggestion from a trusted family m e m b e r , b y h e a r i n g s o m e o n e lie, b y suggestion f r o m a psychologist . . . o f c o u r s e , t h e fact that false m e m o r i e s can be p l a n t e d tells us n o t h i n g a b o u t w h e t h e r a g i v e n m e m o r y o f c h i l d sexual abuse i s false o r n o t , n o r d o e s it tell us h o w o n e m i g h t distinguish t h e real cases from t h e false o n e s . T h e findings o n t h e malleability o f m e m o r y do, h o w e v e r , raise q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e w i s d o m o f c e r t a i n r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s b e i n g p r o m o t e d in s e l f help b o o k s . . . and by s o m e therapists t h e m s e l v e s . " T h a t ' s n o t h i n g i f n o t n u a n c e d . B u t t h e n , n o t l o n g after, i n a n o t h e r article, Loftus w r i t e s , " W e live in a strange and p r e c a r i o u s t i m e that r e s e m b l e s a t its h e a r t t h e hysteria and superstitious f e r v o r o f t h e w i t c h trials." S h e t o o k rifle lessons and to this day keeps t h e firing i n s t r u c t i o n sheets and targets p o s t e d a b o v e h e r desk. I n 1 9 9 6 , w h e n Psychology Today i n t e r v i e w e d her, she burst i n t o tears t w i c e w i t h i n t h e first t w e n t y m i n u t e s , labile, l u b r i c a t e d , theatrical, still w h i p smart, talking a b o u t t h e b l u r r y b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n fact and fiction w h i l e she h e r s e l f lived i n a n o t h e r b l u r r y b o u n d a r y , b e t w e e n c o n v i c t i o n and c o m p u l s i o n , passion and h y p e r b o l e . " T h e w i t c h hunts," she said, b u t t h e analogy is w r o n g , and provides us w i t h perhaps a m o r e a c c u r a t e w i n d o w i n t o Loftus's s t r e t c h e d p s y c h e t h a n i n t o o u r o w n t i m e s , for t h e w i t c h h u n t s w e r e p r e d i c a t e d o n u t t e r n o n s e n s e , and t h e abuse scandals w e r e p r e d i c a t e d o n s o m e t h i n g all t o o real, w h i c h Loftus s e e m e d t o forget: W o m e n are abused. M e m o r i e s d o matter. T a l k i n g t o her, feeling h e r h i g h - f l y i n g energy, t h e zeal that b u r n s

u p t h e c e n t e r o f h e r life, y o u have t o w o n d e r , why. Y o u are f o r c e d t o ask t h e v e r y k i n d of q u e s t i o n Loftus m o s t a b h o r s : did something bad happen to her? F o r she h e r s e l f s e e m s driven by dissociated d e m o n s , and so I ask. W h a t happened to you? T u r n s o u t , a lot. Loftus g r e w up w i t h a c o l d father w h o taught h e r n o t h i n g a b o u t love b u t e v e r y t h i n g a b o u t angles. A m a t h e m a t i c i a n , he s h o w e d h e r t h e b e a u t y o f t h e triangle's strong tip, t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f t h e c i r c l e , t h e r i g o r o u s m i s s i o n o f calculus. H e r m o t h e r was softer, m o r e dramatic, p r o n e to d e e p depressions. Loftus tells all this to me w i t h little feeling. "I have no feelings a b o u t this r i g h t now," she says, " b u t w h e n I ' m in t h e right space I c o u l d cry." I s o m e h o w d o n ' t b e l i e v e h e r ; she s e e m s so far from real tears, from t h e o r i g i n a l griefs, s o i m m e r s e d i n t h e operas o f o t h e r s . Loftus recalls h e r father t a k i n g h e r o u t to see a play, a n d in t h e car, c o m i n g h o m e at night, t h e m o o n h a n g i n g a b o v e t h e m like a s t o p w a t c h , t i c k t i c k , h e r father saying to her, " Y o u k n o w , there's s o m e t h i n g w r o n g w i t h y o u r m o t h e r . S h e ' l l n e v e r b e well again." H e r f a t h e r was r i g h t . W h e n Loftus was f o u r t e e n , h e r m o t h e r d r o w n e d i n t h e family s w i m m i n g p o o l . S h e was f o u n d floating face d o w n i n t h e d e e p e n d , i n t h e s u m m e r . T h e sun was j u s t c o m i n g up, t h e sky a m e s s o f reds a n d b r u i s e . Loftus recalls t h e s h o c k , t h e siren, a n o x y g e n m a s k c l a m p e d o v e r h e r m o u t h a s she s c r e a m e d , " M o t h e r m o t h e r m o t h e r , " h y s t e r i a . T h a t i s a k i n d o f d r o w n i n g . " I l o v e d her," Loftus says. " W a s i t s u i c i d e ? " I ask. S h e says, " M y f a t h e r t h i n k s so. E v e r y y e a r w h e n I g o h o m e for C h r i s t m a s , m y b r o t h e r s and I t h i n k a b o u t , b u t w e ' l l n e v e r k n o w , " s h e says. T h e n s h e says, " I t d o e s n ' t matter." " W h a t doesn't m a t t e r ? " I ask. " W h e t h e r it was or it wasn't," she says. " I t doesn't m a t t e r b e c a u s e it's all g o i n g to be okay." T h e n I h e a r n o t h i n g on t h e line b u t s o m e static. " Y o u t h e r e ? " I say.

" O h I ' m here," she says. " T o m o r r o w I ' m g o i n g t o C h i c a g o , s o m e g u y on death row, I ' m g o n n a save h i m . I gotta testify. T h a n k g o d I have my w o r k , " she says. " Y o u ' v e always had y o u r w o r k , " I say. " W i t h o u t it," she says, " w h e r e w o u l d I b e ? "

I N L O F T U S ' S U N I V E R S I T Y o f W a s h i n g t o n office, she has a picture o f h e r s e l f standing w i t h a S u p r e m e C o u r t j u s t i c e , and n e x t t o it, a p i c t u r e o f D e m i M o o r e ' s b o d y o n t o p o f w h i c h Loftus has p e r c h e d a p h o t o g r a p h o f h e r o w n h e a d . " I w i s h I had t h i n n e r thighs," s h e tells m e . M a y b e t h e o d d c o m b i n a t i o n o f l o o p i n e s s w i t h gravity has c o n t r i b u t e d t o h e r success. S h e i s c e r t a i n l y accessible; b y t h e e n d o f t h e i n t e r v i e w , I k n o w n o t o n l y Loftus's s h o e size b u t h e r bra size t o o . " C a n w e k e e p that o u t o f t h e chapter," she asks; w e c a n . S h e has, p e r haps, o f any p s y c h o l o g i s t this c e n t u r y , crossed t h e l i n e b e t w e e n t h e professional and t h e public. She's b e e n on Oprah, Sally Jesse Raphael. She's p u b l i s h e d in Glamour on t h e o n e h a n d and in j o u r n a l s w i t h n a m e s like Psychology and Its Neural Substrates on t h e o t h e r . It's c l e a r w h y s o m e p e o p l e , alleged v i c t i m s a n d t h e i r accusers, w o u l d feel s o strongly a b o u t her, b u t h o w o r w h y has she m a n a g e d t o b e c o m e s o k n o w n in c e r t a i n fields? W h a t is t h e r e s o n a n c e in h e r message? Loftus i s talking a b o u t s o m u c h m o r e than m e m o r y . She's talking a b o u t a u t h e n t i c i t y and w h e t h e r , as h u m a n b e i n g s , we have it. S h e ' s p o i n t e d o u t t o t h e p u b l i c — i n a w a y n o p o s t m o d e r n s c h o l a r ever c o u l d — h o w pastiche are o u r pasts, h o w all o f u s are artists w h o s e i m a g e s have o n l y t h e vaguest relationship to reality. S h e has tossed us i n t o an existential abyss, and we d o n ' t like it h e r e . S h e has m a d e us all A l z h e i m e r ' s patients, l o n g b e f o r e o u r brains have b e g u n t o atrophy, for in Loftus's w o r l d , m e m o r y decays, its traces so far from i n d e l i b l e ; as s o o n as an e v e n t hits t h e h i p p o c a m p u s , it b e g i n s its dissolution. Loftus's v i e w o f m e m o r y and its i n c r e d i b l y fragile structure runs c o u n t e r t o d e e p l y h e l d n o t i o n s and n e u r o l o g i c a l beliefs. W e have

i n t e r p r e t e d Freud's w o r k o n repression t o m e a n that w e h o l d p i e c e s o f o u r pasts i n clear capsules and c a n access t h e m — o u r l i v e s ! — w i t h e n o u g h verbal m a n e u v e r i n g . Loftus says n o : w h a t w e access i s halfd r e a m , h a l f - c o n s t r u c t , e n t i r e l y unreliable. T h u s , w i t h o n e s w o o p o f h e r h a n d , this p s y c h o l o g i s t has driven a stake t h r o u g h F a t h e r Freud's h e a r t . W e d o n ' t like that, o u r father. S o m e t i m e s o o n after F r e u d , a r e s e a r c h e r b y t h e n a m e o f W i l d e r Penfield f o u n d w h a t appeared t o b e t h e m a t e r i a l substrates o f Freud's repression. H e split t h e skulls o f e p i l e p t i c patients and, b e f o r e t a k i n g o u t t h e d a m a g e d tissue, m o v e d a c h a r g e d p r o b e a r o u n d o n t h e i r bare brain tissue w h i l e t h e patients w e r e c o n s c i o u s . P e n f i e l d f o u n d that w h e n h e t o u c h e d c e r t a i n areas i n a person's brain, all t h e s e m e m o r i e s s e e m e d to float b a c k , crisp a n d c l e a r — m e m o r i e s o f a c h i l d c r y i n g b y a s t o n e wall, m e m o r i e s o f a m o t h e r , m e m o r i e s d r e n c h e d i n y e l l o w ; i t lived i n us, o u r w h o l e lives. M o s t o f u s d o n ' t k n o w Penfield's w o r k , b u t i t has m a d e its w a y i n t o o u r culture, his c h a r g e d p r o b e , t h e secret drawers d e e p i n t h e brain w h e r e y e l l o w and m o t h e r s live. O f Penfield, Loftus says, " L e t ' s l o o k a t t h e data. O n l y t h r e e p e r c e n t o f his patients actually had these m e m o ries w h e n t h e p r o b e t o u c h e d t h e i r brain, a n d w e have n o idea i f t h e y w e r e real m e m o r i e s o r d r e a m fragments." T r u e . B o o m . T h e r e g o e s Penfield; he's o n t h e f l o o r w i t h F a t h e r F r e u d . A f t e r L o s t in t h e M a l l a n d its r a t h e r a s t o u n d i n g results, a n d after t h e f o l l o w - u p e x p e r i m e n t s b y o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s , w h o w e r e able t o implant such e x t r e m e m e m o r i e s as b e i n g attacked by vicious animals, Loftus b e g a n t o t a c k l e t h e w h o l e n o t i o n o f repression. S h e already s u s p e c t e d that m a n y repressed m e m o r i e s w e r e p r o b a b l y false m e m o r i e s s u g g e s t e d b y therapists a n d self-help b o o k s , a n d f r o m t h e r e it was an easy leap to q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r repression really e x i s t e d at all, as a p s y c h o l o g i c a l or n e u r o l o g i c a l p h e n o m e n o n . W a s t h e r e any real p r o o f o f repression? she w o n d e r e d . I n o u r c u l t u r e , this i s like a s k i n g i f there's any real p r o o f o f t h e sun. It's u p t h e r e , y o u c a n see it, it singes y o u r skin. B u t I c a n ' t see repression, Loftus said. S h o w me. N o one could.

S h e w e n t o n a h u n t t h e n . Perhaps repression was repressed s o m e w h e r e , and she c o u l d dig it from its dirt a n d e x a m i n e its m e c h a n i s m s . S h e e x a m i n e d hundreds o f papers o n t h e s u b j e c t , b u t n o t o n e o f t h e m p r e s e n t e d real e v i d e n c e that p e o p l e c a n c o m p l e t e l y forget a trauma, store i t i n h u m a n R A M , a n d t h e n call i t b a c k u p o n c u e years later. T h e r e ' s n o indisputable n e u r o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e o f this, n o repression coffer that has e v e r b e e n definitely identified in t h e b r a i n . B u t m o r e than that, h e r studies o f t r a u m a s h o w e d j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e o f w h a t t h e d o m i n a n t cultural story said. W h a t Loftus f o u n d was that most

trauma

survivors

obsessively

remember

what

happened

to

t h e m . T h e r e are, for i n s t a n c e , n o cases o f H o l o c a u s t v i c t i m s j u s t f o r getting they were in concentration camps, or plane-crash victims j u s t f o r g e t t i n g w h e n t h e j e t w e n t d o w n , o n l y t o recall i t o n t h e i r e i g h t y fifth birthday, w h e n t h e y take t h e C o n c o r d e t o F r a n c e . W h i l e that m a y be true, and Loftus eagerly cites this as e v i d e n c e , she o v e r l o o k s t h e fact that these traumas are different from sexual abuse traumas, w h i c h are s h r o u d e d in secrecy, erased as t h e acts are p e r f o r m e d . Says Loftus w h e n I t h r o w this h e r way, " I f s e c r e c y i s t h e ingredient

o f repression,

then

why

aren't

all

sexual

abuse

acts

repressed? T h e y ' r e a l m o s t all secret." " W h a t kind of evidence would you need in order to believe in r e p r e s s i o n ? " I ask. " C o r r o b o r a t i o n , " she says. "It's so simple." B u t simple it is n o t . Says J u d i t h H e r m a n , " L a u r e n , as a p s y c h o l o g i s t y o u s h o u l d k n o w . T h e r e ' s plenty, P L E N T Y o f e v i d e n c e that repression i s possible. L o o k a t C h a r c o t , J a n e t . " A n d i n d e e d D a n i e l S c h a c h t e r , a m e m o r y researcher at Harvard, cites o n e case in w h i c h a f o r t y - y e a r old m a n , b o t h e r e d b y a n intrusive m e n t a l i m a g e o f h i m s e l f a t t e n years old s u r r o u n d e d by assaultive boys, was eventually able to u n c o v e r a traumatic m e m o r y regarding this i n c i d e n t a n d sexual abuse. T h e event was t h e n c o r r o b o r a t e d b y a c o u s i n , w h o had b e e n present d u r i n g t h e abuse. S o there's o n e e x a m p l e ; i t can h a p p e n . H o w e v e r , S c h a c h t e r also w r i t e s , " . . . there is as yet little or no scientifically credible e v i d e n c e that p e o p l e w h o have suffered years o f v i o l e n t o r h o r r i f i c abuse after

t h e years o f i n f a n c y a n d early c h i l d h o o d can i m m e d i a t e l y and indefinitely forget a b o u t t h e abuse."

W H E N L O F T U S WAS y o u n g , she kept a diary. It was a small red v i n y l - c o v e r e d b o o k w i t h pages l i n e d i n pale b l u e . S h e k n e w h e r m o t h e r s o m e t i m e s read it, so she devised an i n g e n i o u s strategy for p r e s e r v i n g h e r privacy. S h e w o u l d w r i t e o n e a c c e p t a b l e s t o r y o n t h e actual diary page, a n d i f t h e r e was s o m e t h i n g really p e r s o n a l , she w o u l d w r i t e it on a separate page, a p p e n d it w i t h a paperclip, and t h e n , i f she felt h e r m o t h e r was o n t h e p r o w l , she w o u l d h i d e t h e p a p e r - c l i p p e d pages. T h e s e p a p e r - c l i p p e d pages Loftus c a l l e d h e r " r e m o v a b l e truths." R i g h t from t h e b e g i n n i n g t h e n , Loftus lived in a w o r l d that was shape shifting and relentlessly narrative. R i g h t f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g she s u s p e c t e d h i s t o r y was c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d this i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s , b e f o r e " p o s t m o d e r n " h a d l a n d e d o n anyone's lips. P r e c o c i o u s . P r e s c i e n t . H e r c r i t i c s , h o w e v e r , resist t h e t r o p e o f r e m o v a b l e truths, especially as t h e y apply to trauma. Says B e s s e l van d e r K o l k , " L o f t u s m a y have s h o w n us that kids in a lab c a n t h i n k t h e y w e r e lost in a mall, b u t this cannot be

applied

to

traumatic

memory. Traumatic

memory

is

e n c o d e d in t h e brain e n t i r e l y differently." Van der K o l k , a h a n d s o m e D u t c h psychiatrist w h o lives in B o s t o n ' s S o u t h E n d , on a fairy-tale street of c o b b l e s t o n e s and gas lamps, a street that seems stuck in t i m e , believes " t h e b o d y keeps t h e score." H i s street has preserved its history; so t o o does the brain. Van der K o l k ' s t h e o r y of trauma and m e m o r y g o e s s o m e t h i n g like t h i s : W h e n a traumatic event happens to a person, it is frequently so o v e r w h e l m i n g that it c a n n o t be c o m p r e h e n d e d b y t h e n o r m a l narrative m e a n s . S o t h e m e m o r y o f the event gets stored in the nonnarrative parts of t h e brain, t h e s o m a t o s e n sory c o r t e x , w h e r e it exists as m u s c l e aches, k e e n b u t nameless surges of panic, serrated flashbacks that burst and t h e n dissolve b e f o r e t h e m i n d c a n say w h a t i t saw. T h e j o b o f healing, a c c o r d i n g t o van der K o l k , i s t o s o m e h o w elevate the nonnarrative trauma i n t o the storytelling circuits

o f t h e brain, s o t h e spell c a n b e b r o k e n b y speech and t h e n w o v e n i n t o the larger tapestry of the person's life story, w h e r e it can take up resid e n c e as o n e event a m o n g many, b l e n d i n g in, integrated. Loftus c l a i m s van der K o l k has n o real e v i d e n c e o f this t h e o r y , a l t h o u g h van d e r K o l k , in his w r i t i n g s , cites brain i m a g i n g studies and a n e c d o t a l e v i d e n c e . Loftus calls a n e c d o t a l e v i d e n c e " a n e c d a t a . " A n d even, she m i g h t say, i f van d e r K o l k ' s lyrical t h e o r y o f splits a n d m e r g e r s w e r e c o r r e c t , i t still w o u l d n ' t s u p p o r t t h e idea o f repression p e r se. S u r e , t h e p e r s o n m a y have p h y s i o l o g i c a l responses to c u e s that b r i n g b a c k t h e t r a u m a . S u r e t h e y m a y have p a n i c attacks a n d m u s c l e stiffness a n d all t h e rest. B u t j u s t b e c a u s e t h e b o d y c o n t a i n s traces o f h o r r o r d o e s n ' t m e a n t h e m i n d has c o m p l e t e l y f o r g o t t e n it. A s k s h e l l s h o c k e d soldiers i f t h e y forget t h e i r battles? A s k rape v i c t i m s i f t h e y forget t h e m a n i n t h e greasy alleyway? T h e b o d y k e e p s t h e s c o r e , Loftus m i g h t say, b u t that d o e s n ' t m e a n t h e m i n d has taken t i m e off. J u d i t h H e r m a n cites a s e v i d e n c e for t h e t h e o r y that t r a u m a t i c m e m o r y is reliable, and that it is e m b l a z e d in t h e brain, c e r t a i n lab e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h rats. W h e n rats l e a r n e d a task in a state of h i g h stress, i t was difficult, i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , for t h e m t o s u b s e q u e n t l y extinguish their behaviors. " T h i s is an animal analogue, if you will, of t h e ' i n d e l i b l e i m p r i n t ' o f t r a u m a t i c events o n m e m o r y . " W h a t Loftus says t o this, " A n d t h e y a c c u s e m e o f g e n e r a l i z i n g f r o m c o l l e g e s t u dents to t r a u m a v i c t i m s . T h e y ' r e g e n e r a l i z i n g from a rat!" Loftus began a broad survey of o t h e r studies regarding traumatic m e m o r y and its reliability. S h e cites o n e study o f children w h o had w i t nessed a sniper attack on their s c h o o l . I m m e d i a t e l y after the shooting, children r e p o r t e d w h e r e they w e r e and w h a t they w e r e seeing. A w e e k or so after t h e shooting, however, the children's m e m o r i e s had faded or b e c o m e distorted, and they gave reports that differed from their original ones. A little girl, for instance, w h o had b e e n in the schoolyard at the t i m e o f the shooting, later reported she had b e e n outside t h e playg r o u n d fence. H e r m e m o r y s e e m e d far f r o m emblazed; w i t h i n seven days it was already g o i n g t h e way of decay. C o l l e a g u e s of Loftus's stud-

ied m e m o r i e s of the Challenger explosion. T h e day after the explosion U l r i c h Neisser o f E m o r y University asked p e o p l e w h e r e they were w h e n they saw the space shutde b l o w up. T h e y t o o k d o w n specific accounts from witnesses. "I was standing in front of a p h o n e b o o t h . " "I was frying an egg in my k i t c h e n , the radio on the windowsill." A n d t h e n Neisser followed up on these accounts they did the day after the explosion. Very few of the respondents gave the same a c c o u n t they did the day after the explosion. T h e i r m e m o r i e s had shifted considerably, so the egg m o r p h e d i n t o m e a t l o a f m o r p h e d into the b e a c h , and the p h o n e b o o t h , Dali-like, m e l t e d and stretched its shape so it was a m u s e u m . W h e n subjects were s h o w n their original accounts, written fresh in the wake o f disaster, they c o u l d n o t believe t h e m . T h e y felt certain o f their c u r r e n t description, w h i c h illuminates the tenuous c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n feeling sure and b e i n g right. T h e false m e m o r i e s w e r e saturated with subjective veracity, so fictions felt like facts in a topsy-turvy world.

WHEN

THE

CHALLENGER

b l e w up, I was w i t h m y sister in t h e

Tufts U n i v e r s i t y cafeteria. W e w e r e eating tuna-fish sandwiches, l e t tuce

with

scalloped

edges

peeking out between

the

tan

crusts.

O u t s i d e t h e h u g e plate-glass w i n d o w s , t h e trees b r a n c h e d d e n d r i t i cally, bare and b l a c k against t h e shiny sky. I have always r e m e m b e r e d this, b u t n o w I ' m n o t s o sure. I ' m n o t s o sure o f anything. M a y b e I was i n m y m o t h e r ' s living r o o m , w i t h t h e y e l l o w b r o c a d e d furniture and t h e c o a r s e raspy rug, w a t c h i n g on t h e television the t w o - t a i l e d p l u m e o f v a p o r i n t h e darkness. B u t n o , I t h i n k . T h a t ' s n o t quite right. It was raining that day, was it n o t ? A n d my b i g - c h e s t e d Irish b o y f r i e n d and I w e r e d r i n k i n g b e e r a t t h e B l a c k R o s e pub, o r was that later, at night? T h e spaceship was always falling, w h e n e v e r we t u r n e d o n that T V ; w h a t I r e m e m b e r are t h e j u b i l a n t faces o f the c r o w d , tipped toward t h e p a t r i o t i c sky, and t h e n t h e s u c k i n g - i n sound, t h e O h . O h , and t h e ship b r e a k i n g up, fluffy p i e c e s o f i t drifting d o w n , t h e b o d i e s invisible, already g o n e .

" W h e r e w e r e y o u w h e n t h e Challenger b l e w u p ? " I ask Loftus. "I was in my office, a l o n e , " she says, and I p i c t u r e h e r there. A n d t h e n I p i c t u r e h e r a l o n e i n h e r h o m e , h e r spacious W e s t C o a s t h o m e , t h e ties from h e r e x - h u s b a n d still in t h e c l o s e t , as t h o u g h he m i g h t s o m e d a y return. " H e left b e c a u s e I c o u l d n ' t stop w o r k i n g , " s h e says. " H e w a n t e d t o take vacations and lead a n o r m a l life. M y idea o f fun is to sit in front of my c o m p u t e r and try to figure things out." Loftus has no husband, and she has no c h i l d r e n , w h i c h she says she regrets. " B y t h e t i m e w e tried, i t was t o o late," she says. " I was t h i r t y six. E v e r y m o n t h , a little spot o f b l o o d o n m y underwear." I p i c t u r e h e r a l o n e i n h e r office o r a l o n e i n h e r h o m e , a l o n e , m o s t o f all,

in

her

field

o f inquiry,

while

another

woman,

Christa

M c A u l i f f e falls t h r o u g h t h e sky. I have to w o n d e r , if a m a n w e r e aski n g Loftus's q u e s t i o n s , w o u l d h e b e s o q u e s t i o n e d ? B u t i n truth, I d o n ' t t h i n k its g e n d e r that o c c a s i o n a l l y u n d e r m i n e s h e r credibility. It's n o t that she's falling t h r o u g h s o m e sky, radically a l o n e , w h e r e a w o m a n s h o u l d n ' t b e . It's t h e fact that w h e n all is said and d o n e , Loftus does n o t s e e m q u i t e i n c o n t r o l . S h e does n o t appear t o b e s t e e r i n g h e r ship. S h e blurts o u t o d d c o m m e n t s , has targets f r o m a rifle p r a c t i c e affixed to h e r office wall; b u t at t h e s a m e t i m e she does brilliant m e m o r y e x p e r i m e n t s w h i l e c o m p a r i n g h e r s e l f t o S c h i n d l e r . S h e calls m e up, t h e n slams d o w n t h e p h o n e , and t h e n calls b a c k sheepishly: " G o d that was rude." N o e x p l a n a t i o n , s o strange. " I j u s t , " she says, " I j u s t have this N E E D t o r e u n i t e families fractured b y false m e m o r y accusations; I j u s t w a n t to r e u n i t e p e o p l e , " Loftus says, this m o t h e r l e s s girl, w h o , t w e n t y years after a d i v o r c e , still keeps h e r w a s band's b e l o n g i n g s i n a cradle i n h e r living r o o m . " T h i s N E E D , " she says to m e , " r e u n i o n s , " she says to m e , b u t she appears to have little c o n s c i o u s n e s s that t h e n e e d i s e v i d e n c e o f w h a t she's t r y i n g s o hard to

disprove. T h e r e

is s o m e t h i n g split o f f in

Loftus, unresolved,

d a m p e d d o w n , w o r k i n g its way o u t sideways. S h e i s t h e survivor w h o q u e s t i o n s t h e validity o f survivorship. T h a t ' s o n e way o u t o f a b i n d . B u t listen, Loftus has g i v e n us m a n y gifts. H e r singular free fall has

y i e l d e d absolutely significant insights that w e c a n ' t dismiss. W h e r e w e r e y o u w h e n t h e Challenger b l e w up? D o y o u r e m e m b e r this? D o y o u r e m e m b e r that? W h a t Loftus has s h o w n u s i s h o w h i g h w e f l y , h o w far t h e g r o u n d — w e are weightless. " W h a t g r o u n d s y o u ? " I ask her. " I f y o u can't trust m e m o r y , w h a t can y o u rely u p o n . " I ' m t h i n k i n g o f h o w D o s t o y e v s k y c l a i m e d that a f e w g o o d m e m o r i e s w e r e all o n e n e e d e d t o find faith i n t h e w o r l d . B u t after y o u ' v e lived i n L o f t u s - l a n d for awhile, it's hard t o k n o w w h e r e to p l a c e y o u r faith. " D o y o u have a r e l i g i o n ? " I ask her. " W h a t do y o u h a v e ? " I ask her, b u t w h a t I really m e a n is: w h a t do any o f u s have t h e n ? W h a t ? Loftus doesn't answer m e . Instead she says, "I w r o t e a letter to my m o t h e r a f e w days ago." S h e shows it to m e .

Dear Mother, It's Sunday, it's raining, it's dreary outside. I woke up this m o r n i n g with a sense of dread. You've been gone for forty y e a r s . . . . I'd like to tell you s o m e of the things I've done in the past four decades. R e c e n t l y I gave a speech about my research on m e m o r y at a confere n c e in Chicago. It was a National C o n f e r e n c e On Wrongful Death convictions and T h e D e a t h Penalty. W h i l e there, I watched twenty six m e n and two w o m e n , all wrongly convicted former death row inmates, weep and hug each other

My work has brought me into

contact with people suffering a terrible i n j u s t i c e . . . . W h e n I ' m n o t w o r k i n g on the research or teaching my classes, I spend time o n the cases o f the falsely accused. O f course, I ' m n o t sure that s o m e o n e I ' m helping is b e i n g falsely accused rather than rightly, but the idea that the accusations could well be w r o n g c o n sumes m e . . . . I feel c o m p e l l e d to help and almost guilty if I let up for a minute. W h y am I such a w o r k - a - h o l i c ? D o e s it give me a way to escape from painful thoughts? D o e s it help me feel an i m p o r t a n c e that is and was otherwise missing from my life. . . . Me n o w : busy

with work, and I don't have m u c h time to think about w h a t is missing. A family love and closeness. That's what I miss. That's what I miss about you. Love forever, Beth

I n t h e e n d , t h e n , Loftus d o e s n o t give m e a n answer a b o u t w h a t she has, rather w h a t she has n o t . In t h e e n d , t h e r e is this flash of insight and o n e w o m a n ' s plain pain. M a y b e that's all any o f u s have, j u s t plain pain. N o solid m e m o r i e s , b u t real regrets, regrets a s s u b s t a n tial a s s t o n e s — w e c a n c o u n t o n t h o s e . W e c a n , like Loftus, pile t h o s e stones o n e o n t o p o f t h e o t h e r , standing skyward, s t r e t c h i n g o u t toward s o m e t h i n g .

Memory Inc. ERIC

K A N D E L ' S

SEA

SLUG

EXPERIMENT

In the 1980s, Elizabeth Loftus based many of her claims on the "fact" that there were no neural mechanisms for repression. In this chapter, however, we will meet one of Loftus's challengers, Eric Kandel, who performed a series of experiments that have given long-outmoded Freudian concepts a new lift. Kandel originally aspired to become a psychoanalyst; he recalls its golden days of intellectual vibrancy, but he became enamored, eventually, with the biology of the brain. Kandel set out on a journey to discover the actual workings of memory, its intricate cellular mechanisms. Kandel, now seventy-three, is the oldest scientist in this collection, but he is practicing in the youngest way; his techniques and areas of inquiry define the field's future and, at the same time, stake a solid claim for a radically reductive approach to the human mind.

PART

I

ONE

t was 1 9 5 3 . T h e day of t h e surgery was h o t , still, t h e sky a b l u e white

shimmer

above

Hartford. T h e

young

m a n , H e n r y , had

severe epilepsy, w i t h fits so frequent t h e y h a d j u s t a b o u t r u i n e d his

life.

Henry

spent

his

time

seizing

and

dreaming

o f life

before

epilepsy, w h e n his h a n d h a d b e e n steady e n o u g h t o s h o o t rifles i n t h e w o o d s . H i s father was appalled by his son's disease. H i s m o t h e r t r i e d t o h o l d h i m a s h e f o a m e d i n t o frenzies. D r u g s did n o t w o r k . E x e r c i s e did n o t w o r k . Prayer did n o t w o r k . T h e n D r . S c o v i l l e , o f H a r t f o r d H o s p i t a l , offered t h e family a n e x p e r i m e n t a l c u r e . T h e y said yes. H e n r y a n d his family didn't k n o w D r . S c o v i l l e . T h e y did n o t k n o w , for i n s t a n c e , that h e was f o n d o f t h e l o b o t o m y , h a v i n g p e r f o r m e d w e l l o v e r t h r e e h u n d r e d , g o i n g i n t o area m e n t a l hospitals w i t h his h a n d - c r a n k e d drill and m o v i n g from patient t o p a t i e n t until he'd d o n e e v e r y o n e . S c o v i l l e was unusually h a n d s o m e — a n y o n e c o u l d see t h a t — a n d t h e f a m i l y m a y have sensed his upper-class h e r itage, b u t surely t h e y w e r e n o t aware that t h e i r s u r g e o n - t o - b e was c o n s i d e r e d b y s o m e t o b e recklessly a u d a c i o u s . I n his free t i m e S c o v i l l e liked t o r a c e red J a g u a r s o n C o n n e c t i c u t ' s o p e n h i g h w a y s , p u r s u e d b y t h e p o l i c e . H e liked t o s p e n d m o n e y , and his w i f e tells o f how, i n a n a t t e m p t t o w o o her, h e leapt o n t o t h e r u n n i n g b o a r d o f a moving Chevrolet. " H e is an innovator, never willing to accept the status q u o . B e h i n d a facade of w i l d activity, driven by an insatiable e g o , h e seeks b e t t e r ways o f d o i n g things," o n e c o l l e a g u e w r o t e o f him

in

t h e Journal of Surgical Neurology.

A n d i t was t o this m a n that H e n r y was g i v i n g his h e a d . H e h a d n o idea. D r . S c o v i l l e h a d a n idea. H e s u s p e c t e d H e n r y ' s seizures m i g h t b e k i n d l i n g d e e p i n t h e wetlands o f t h e t e m p o r a l l o b e s , a little spark q u i c k l y c a t c h i n g f l a m e i n a supposedly toss-away part o f t h e brain: t h e h i p p o c a m p u s . S c o v i l l e offered t o e x c i s e H e n r y ' s h i p p o c a m p u s . H e h a d d o n e this o p e r a t i o n b e f o r e o n several patients w i t h epilepsy, and i t s e e m e d t o c u r e t h e m . H e t o l d this t o H e n r y . W h a t h e didn't tell H e n r y was that all t h e p r i o r patients h a d b e e n severely p s y c h o t i c b e f o r e t h e surgery, and s o t h e r e was n o w a y o f assessing w h a t sort o f d a m a g e t h e p r o c e d u r e m a y have d o n e . I n t h o s e days, n o t m u c h was k n o w n a b o u t t h e b i o l o g y o f t h e brain. O n e psychiatrist o b s e r v e d that his p s y c h o t i c p a t i e n t s e e m e d t o c a l m d o w n w h i l e r i d i n g a b u m p y train; from t h e r e o n in, t h e t r e a t -

m e r i t c o n s i s t e d o f s h a k i n g t h e p o o r m a n for g r e a t e r a n d g r e a t e r t i m e l e n g t h s . O t h e r d o c t o r s b e l i e v e d malaria m i g h t c u r e s c h i z o p h r e n i a . B a s e d o n a series o f e x p e r i m e n t s b y K a r l Lashley, scientists b e l i e v e d that t h e r e w e r e n o specific locales l i n k e d t o m e m o r y i n t h e brain. Lashley, i n 1 9 2 9 , r e m o v e d different p o r t i o n s o f live rat brains and f o u n d that n o o n e e x c i s e d p o r t i o n had any m o r e effect o n m e m o r y than any o t h e r e x c i s e d p o r t i o n . M e m o r y , c o n c l u d e d L a s h l e y — m e m ory, t h o u g h t S c o v i l l e — w a s diffuse, w i t h o u t l o c a l e , scattered like widely sown seed over the w h o l e rind of the c o r t e x . B a s e d o n this last a s s u m p t i o n , S c o v i l l e had n o hesitation a b o u t removing

Henry's

hippocampus. T h e

o p e r a t i n g r o o m was

cool.

H e n r y lay awake o n t h e steel table. B e c a u s e t h e r e are n o n e r v e s i n t h e brain, s u c h surgery was p e r f o r m e d w i t h t h e p a t i e n t c o m p l e t e l y c o n s c i o u s , o n l y a l o c a l a n e s t h e t i c t o n u m b t h e skin o f t h e scalp. S w o o s h w e n t t h e shot o f l i d o c a i n e . A m o m e n t later H e n r y m u s t have seen S c o v i l l e c o m i n g a t h i m w i t h his h a n d - c r a n k e d drill, a n d t h e n t w o h o l e s w e r e b o r e d a b o v e e a c h o f his o p e n eyes, a n d i n t o these h o l e s S c o v i l l e i n s e r t e d a small spatula, w i t h w h i c h h e j a c k e d u p H e n r y ' s frontal l o b e s . T h e o p e r a t i n g r o o m was q u i e t . N u r s e , h a n d m e this. N u r s e , h a n d m e that. B u t o t h e r w i s e , n o s o u n d . S c o v i l l e was l o o k i n g i n t o H e n r y . H e was l o o k i n g u n d e r t h e h o o d o f H e n r y ' s brain, and h o w beautiful it was b e n e a t h t h e c o r t i c a l c o r a l reef, in t h e brain's i n t e r i o r capsules, w h e r e pyramidal cells are shaped like h y a c i n t h , i n c o m p l e x c o n e s , w h e r e n e u r o n s are tiny b u t dense. I n t o this n e t h e r r e g i o n S c o v i l l e n o w i n s e r t e d a silver straw. S c o v i l l e slowly t h r e a d e d t h e silver straw d e e p i n t o H e n r y ' s pulsing brain, a n d t h e n — t h e r e — h e s u c t i o n e d o u t t h e p i n k - g r a y s e a h o r s e shape o n e i t h e r side, t h e e n t i r e h i p p o c a m p u s n o w g o n e . Inside H e n r y ' s h e a d , a great gap appeared, a r a g g e d h o l e w h e r e o n c e s o m e t h i n g h a d lived. W h a t did H e n r y feel a s S c o v i l l e s u c k e d o u t his h i p p o c a m p u s ? H e was, after all, w i d e awake, t h o r o u g h l y alert, a n d t h e h i p p o c a m p u s , a l t h o u g h n o o n e k n e w i t a t t h e t i m e , i s t h e seat o f m a n y o f o u r m e m -

o r i e s . D i d H e n r y feel his past leave h i m in a single s u c k ? D i d he feel t h e e n t r a n c e o f forgetfulness, like a c o l d t h i n g c o m i n g in, o r was i t m o r e a sensation o f sliding: y o u r lover, y o u r q u a l m s , t h e cats calling beneath the porch in the summer—all dropping down into nothing? In t h e days f o l l o w i n g t h e surgery, it b e c a m e clear that H e n r y was having far f e w e r fits. It also b e c a m e clear that he had lost t h e ability to f o r m any m e m o r i e s . A nurse i n t r o d u c e d herself, left, and five m i n utes later, H e n r y had n o t t h e faintest idea w h o she was. H e did r e c o g n i z e his m o t h e r , b u t a n y o n e h e m e t o r a n y t h i n g h e l e a r n e d from t h e day o f surgery o n w a r d h e c o u l d n ' t retain. Fifty years later, H e n r y is still that way. He lives n o w , a v e r y o l d m a n , in a n u r s i n g h o m e n e a r M I T . H i s m o t h e r died i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s , a n d e v e r y t i m e H e n r y hears this n e w s , he c r i e s afresh, b e l i e v i n g he is h e a r i n g it for t h e first t i m e . He t h i n k s T r u m a n i s still president. I n his n u r s i n g h o m e , h e c a n f o r m n o n e w relationships, c a n n o t retain t h e shape o f a face o r t h e s o u n d o f a v o i c e : face and v o i c e , t h e essential c o m p o n e n t s o f c o m f o r t . H e n r y , n o w k n o w n i n t h e m e d i c a l literature a s H . M . , has n o c o m f o r t . A f e w w e e k s after H e n r y ' s surgery, w h e n his m e n t a l c o n f u s i o n did n o t c l e a r up, D r . S c o v i l l e realized h e h a d i n a d v e r t e n t l y a m p u tated t h e mill o f m e m o r y , a s w e l l a s t h e seizure's starting p o i n t . H e m a y have b e e n f r i g h t e n e d , t h e n . H e m a y have felt b a d . B u t w h a t likely s t r u c k h i m t h e m o s t was t h e scientific i m p o r t o f his w a y w a r d o p e r a t i o n , for i t s h o w e d that K a r l L a s h l e y was

wrong. Wrong!

M e m o r y was n o t a s c a t t e r i n g o f sites, i m p o s s i b l e t o l o c a t e , a s Lashley h a d w r i t t e n a n d scientists o f t h e day h a d s u b s e q u e n t l y b e l i e v e d . O b v i o u s l y , t h e h i p p o c a m p u s was t h e royal seat o f r e m e m b e r i n g , for w i t h o u t it, H e n r y was c o n s i g n e d t o a s t r e t c h o f t h e palest present. S c o v i l l e p u b l i s h e d his findings f r o m this g r a n d b u t b o t c h e d e x p e r i m e n t . H e h a d t o u c h e d t h e tissue o f m e m o r y , w h i c h was n o t spiritual o r m y t h i c a l i n its e s s e n c e . M e m o r y was flesh. I t c o u l d b e p i n p o i n t e d , like a c o u n t r y on a map. T h e r e . T h e r e lives y o u r past. T h e r e lives y o u r future. I n t h e s e a h o r s e . B e n e a t h t h e c o r t i c a l c o r a l reef. I n o n e man's silver straw.

PART

T W O

B r e n d a M i l n e r m a y b e t h e p e r s o n w h o has c o m e t o k n o w H . M . b e t ter than a n y o n e else. S h e recalls t h e case, h o w she heard w i t h h o r r o r w h a t S c o v i l l e had d o n e and t h e n w a n t e d t o see i t for herself. B a c k t h e n , i n 1 9 5 7 , w h e n S c o v i l l e first p u b l i s h e d his findings, M i l n e r was studying m e m o r y w i t h W i l d e r Penfield, t h e f a m e d physician w h o t o u c h e d his e p i l e p t i c patients' b a r e brains w i t h a n e l e c t r i c p r o b e , o b s e r v e d w h e t h e r t o u c h , o r s m e l l , o r vision was stimulated, a n d t h e n t a c k e d o n t o t h e actual r e g i o n a p i e c e o f paper stating w h a t t h e r e g i o n was responsible for. T h i s i s h o w early brain m a p p i n g h a p pened, with Post-it notes. M i l n e r m a y have b e e n ready t o g o o u t o n h e r o w n . S h e m a y have b e e n tired o f t h e p a p e r trail. S h e says that w h e n she h e a r d a b o u t H e n r y , she g r a b b e d a f e w m e m o r y tests a n d h o p p e d on t h e first train. S h e had s e e n m e m o r y loss b e f o r e , b u t H . M . offered h e r t h e c h a n c e t o study t h e purest f o r m o f a m n e s i a ever k n o w n t o h u m a n k i n d . B r e n d a M i l n e r wanted to k n o w exactly what mental functions H . M . had lost, b u t m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , she w a n t e d t o k n o w w h a t m e n tal f u n c t i o n s H . M . had b e e n spared. F o r instance, w h i l e h e c o u l d n ' t recall a c o n v e r s a t i o n h e l d five m i n u t e s prior, he c o u l d still w a l k , a n d w a l k i n g i s a k i n d o f m e m o r y , i s i t n o t ? H . M . did n o t k n o w , u p o n g e t ting up in t h e m o r n i n g , that he was supposed to b r u s h his t e e t h , b u t o n c e a t o o t h b r u s h was p l a c e d in his h a n d , his h a n d t o o k over. Perhaps this is similar to w h a t musicians e x p e r i e n c e w h e n t h e y are deep in a s o n g , t h e i r hands t a k i n g over, r h y t h m p o u r i n g t h r o u g h their fingers, as t h o u g h e a c h o n e is t i p p e d w i t h its o w n tiny brain, separate from t h e m a i n c a l y x . O v e r years o f tests a n d o b s e r v a t i o n , B r e n d a M i l n e r was able t o s h o w a few i m p o r t a n t things a b o u t t h e m e c h a n i c s o f m e m o r y , w i t h H . M . a s h e r p r o o f . Y e s , t h e h i p p o c a m p u s i s clearly essential for m e m o r y o f e x p l i c i t , a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l d e t a i l — o n e m i g h t call i t t h e c o r e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s itself-—but t h e r e is a n o t h e r m e m o r y system l o c a t e d in

a w h o l e o t h e r p l a c e i n t h e brain, a n d this M i l n e r c a l l e d p r o c e d u r a l m e m o r y , o r u n c o n s c i o u s m e m o r y . E v e n if, a n d w h e n , w e lose o u r ability t o recall n a m e s a n d faces, w e m a y still k n o w h o w t o r i d e a b i k e , o r s m o k e a cigarette. H . M . c o u l d n ' t tell y o u h o w o l d h e was, o r r e c o g n i z e his face i n a m i r r o r , b u t i f y o u b r o u g h t h i m b a c k t o his old H a r t f o r d n e i g h b o r h o o d , h e w o u l d w e n d his w a y t h r o u g h t h e streets, w a l k u p t h e steps t o his o l d h o u s e , k n o c k o n t h e d o o r o f a past h e c o u l d find f e w w o r d s for. H e n r y was living p r o o f that Freud's u n c o n scious h a d a n actual n e u r a l basis. B u t h o w t h o s e n e u r o n s w o r k e d , n o one knew. M i l n e r d r e w h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t t h e n e u r a l substrates

of

m e m o r y , n o t b y o b s e r v i n g t h o s e substrates, b u t b y w a t c h i n g t h e i r manifestations i n a n i n t a c t o r g a n i s m , a w h o l e h u m a n b e i n g , H e n r y . T h i s was h e r singular gift t o p s y c h o l o g y , t h e l o n g - t e r m study o f H . M . a n d t h e resulting k n o w l e d g e that m e m o r y operates o n a t least t w o levels. S i n c e M i l n e r , i n part inspired b y M i l n e r , scientists have d i s c o v e r e d m u l t i p l e separate m e m o r y systems i n o u r brains: t h e r e i s p r o c e d u r a l m e m o r y , w h i c h i s m o s t l y t h e u n c o n s c i o u s m e m o r y for m o t o r skills; s e m a n t i c m e m o r y , w h e r e b y w e retain facts; declarative m e m o r y , w h e r e b y w e k n o w w h o w e are. T h e r e are e v e n , s o m e s c i e n tists suggest, separate m e m o r y e n g i n e s for separate c a t e g o r i e s , o u r k n o w l e d g e o f fruits i n o n e neural stream, o u r k n o w l e d g e o f v e g e t a bles in a n o t h e r , cats h e r e , dogs t h e r e , so all o u r w o r l d , it s e e m s , lives crunched up in cortical containers.

PART

THREE

E r i c K a n d e l is n o t at all afraid to h i d e t h e fact that he is a r e d u c t i o n ist, that for h i m s c i e n c e is lived in a series of disassembled parts, n o t t h e i n t a c t o r g a n i s m . F o r K a n d e l , t h e secrets o f m e m o r y lie i n t h e study o f h o w n e r v e cells talk t o t h e i r n e i g h b o r s . K a n d e l started o u t t r a i n i n g to b e c o m e a psychoanalyst, b u t in his f o u r t h year o f m e d i c a l s c h o o l h e h e a r d a b o u t t h e H . M . case a n d i t made an impression on him. He subsequently decided to do a post-

d o c t o r a l fellowship a t t h e N a t i o n a l Institutes o f H e a l t h ( N I H ) i n B e t h e s d a , w h e r e h e t o o k intracellular r e c o r d i n g s o f t h e h i p p o c a m p u s o f a cat. " I was g o o d a t it," says K a n d e l , w h o i s n o w i n his seventies. " I didn't realize h o w g o o d I'd b e a t lab w o r k . " K a n d e l was b o r n i n V i e n n a . H i s father o w n e d a t o y store, a n d so, o n t h e o n e hand, h e h a d access t o a c h i l d h o o d full o f c o l o r . B u t t h e n , i n 1 9 3 8 , Hitler's a r m y m a r c h e d in. K a n d e l recalls K r i s t e l l n a c h t , all that glass, a n d later t h e t o o t h b r u s h e s t h e J e w s w e r e f o r c e d t o use t o s c r u b t h e streets. O n e has t o w o n d e n W h a t role d o e s t h e H o l o c a u s t play i n Kandel's l i f e l o n g d e d i c a t i o n t o t h e cellular study o f m e m o r y ? K a n d e l says, " S o m e t i m e s I feel I have n o t f a c e d things fully e n o u g h . I c a n tell y o u e v e r y t h i n g that h a p p e n e d to m e , b u t I have no affect s u r r o u n d i n g t h e s e events. B y t h e g r a c e o f g o d I c o u l d have e n d e d u p a t D a c h a u a n d I can talk a b o u t it, b u t I can't feel t h e fear." I n 1 9 3 9 K a n d e l e m i g r a t e d t o t h e U n i t e d States. H e g r e w u p i n N e w Y o r k , w h i l e , f i f t y m i l e s away from h i m , i n C o n n e c t i c u t , H . M . , j u s t a b o u t his age, was n e g o t i a t i n g a w h o l e different k i n d o f c h i l d hood.

Kandel

turned

out

to

be

unusually

bright.

He

went

to

H a r v a r d . D e s p i t e t h e c h i l d h o o d trauma, his brain e x p a n d e d , g r o w i n g e v e r m o r e d e n s e w i t h n e w k n o w l e d g e . H . M . , o n t h e o t h e r hand, was j u s t e x p e r i e n c i n g his f i r s t seizure; h e was d r o p p i n g o u t o f s c h o o l a s K a n d e l was rising t h r o u g h its ranks, H . M . ' s brain aflame in all t h e w r o n g ways. T h e t w o had n e v e r talked, o f c o u r s e , b u t t h e i r lives w o u l d i n t e r s e c t i n space, s o m e p l a c e a b o v e o u r heads, a b o v e o u r flesh, w h e r e w e m e e t and t o u c h a n d m i g h t n o t e v e r k n o w . A t H a r v a r d K a n d e l was captivated b y psychoanalysis, b u t o n c e h e e n t e r e d t h e n e u r o s c i e n c e lab in m e d i c a l s c h o o l , his focus shifted. "Actually," says K a n d e l , "I n e v e r really t h o u g h t psychoanalysis and n e u r o s c i e n c e w e r e i n c o m p a t i b l e . F r e u d , after all, was a n e u r o l o g i s t . Psychoanalysis p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n s i t s e l f w i t h m e m o r y , a n d m y w o r k is t r y i n g to i l l u m i n a t e m e m o r y m e c h a n i s m s . I t h i n k o n e will u l t i m a t e l y b e able t o s h o w t h e neural bases for m a n y p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l principles."

K a n d e l i s c h a r m i n g . H e wears a b r i g h t - r e d b o w tie, and susp e n d e r s . H e i s i n t e r e s t e d i n j o i n i n g t h e disparate f i e l d s o f p s y c h o analysis and n e u r o s c i e n c e , b u t that is really a s e c o n d a r y pursuit for h i m . H i s p r i m a r y pursuit started o v e r f o r t y years ago, i n that N I H lab, w h e r e , i n a n a t t e m p t t o e l u c i d a t e t h e b i o l o g y o f m e m o r y , h e studied n e r v e cells i n t h e h i p p o c a m p u s . T h e h i p p o c a m p u s , h o w e v e r , i s hard t o w o r k w i t h . I t has m i l l i o n s o f n e u r o n s , a n d thousands o f t h e m c a n fit inside this o. It w o u l d take K a n d e l years to t r a c e such tiny, c o m p l e x a r c h i t e c t u r e . H e n e e d e d a n o t h e r m o d e l . " I n t h e 1 9 5 0 s and 1 9 6 0 s , m a n y b i o l o g i s t s a n d m o s t p s y c h o l o g i s t s b e l i e v e d that l e a r n i n g was t h e o n e area o f b i o l o g y i n w h i c h t h e use o f s i m p l e a n i mal m o d e l s . . . was least likely to s u c c e e d . . . . It was my b e l i e f , h o w ever, that c o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e use o f a s i m p l e e x p e r i m e n t a l system t o study l e a r n i n g w e r e m i s p l a c e d . I f e l e m e n t a r y f o r m s o f l e a r n i n g are c o m m o n t o all animals w i t h a n e v o l v e d n e r v o u s system, t h e r e must b e c o n s e r v e d features i n t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f l e a r n i n g a t t h e c e l l and m o l e c u l a r level that c a n b e studied effectively e v e n i n s i m p l e i n v e r t e b r a t e animals." W i t h this b e l i e f , K a n d e l did an e x t e n s i v e search for a suitable experimental

a n i m a l , a n d settled

on

slugs, specifically

the

giant

m a r i n e snail aplysia. Aplysia has o n l y t w e n t y t h o u s a n d n e u r o n s , m a n y o f t h e m visible t o t h e eye. H e r e w o u l d b e a n a n i m a l a t o n c e simpler to study, b u t still relevant to h u m a n b e i n g s b e c a u s e , as K a n d e l says, o u r n e r v o u s systems are t h e s a m e , straight d o w n t h e f o o d c h a i n . " I n e e d e d a radically r e d u c t i o n i s t a p p r o a c h t o t h e p r o b l e m o f m i n d , " K a n d e l says. S o h e settled o n aplysia, p u r p l e , g e l a t i n o u s , leaving b e h i n d a pale trace o f w e t n e s s o n t h e p a l m .

THIS

IS WHAT

K a n d e l did. H e trained his sea slugs. H e t o u c h e d

t h e i r g o o p y b o d i e s — t h e i r s i p h o n s — w i t h a n e l e c t r i c p r o b e , and the sea slug's gill w i t h d r e w . K a n d e l , a l o n g w i t h several o f his c o l l e a g u e s , s o o n d i s c o v e r e d that this simple reflex c o u l d b e m o d i f i e d b y three different f o r m s o f l e a r n i n g : h a b i t u a t i o n , sensitization, and classical

c o n d i t i o n i n g . O f c o u r s e S k i n n e r and Pavlov had discovered s o m e w h a t similar things, b u t w h a t t h e y called " l e a r n i n g t h e o r y " i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c e n t u r y , K a n d e l was calling " m e m o r y " a t t h e c e n tury's e n d . S a m e p r o b l e m . D i f f e r e n t p a c k a g i n g . B u t p a c k a g i n g i s i m p o r t a n t ; i t i n f l u e n c e s h o w w e see

and question

the

contents

w i t h i n . In framing t h e pursuit as a p r o b l e m , in part, of m e m o r y , K a n d e l cleared t h e w a y for a n a l l - o u t investigation i n t o h o w w e h o l d o u r histories, a n d this was perhaps t h e c o r e q u e s t i o n o f a p o s t Holocaust world. K a n d e l also w e n t o n e c r i t i c a l step further than S k i n n e r i n his study o f p i g e o n s o r M i l n e r i n h e r study o f H . M . K a n d e l o b s e r v e d w h a t actually h a p p e n e d to t h e sea slug's n e u r o n s as t h e y l e a r n e d — r e m e m b e r e d — a n e w task. M a n y scientists from as far b a c k as t h e eighteenth century had hypothesized about what happened to n e u rons w h e n m e m o r y f o r m e d , b u t n o o n e h a d a s yet e v e r d e m o n s t r a t e d a thing. In 1 8 9 4 Santiago R a m o n y Cajal proposed a t h e o r y of m e m o r y storage a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h m e m o r y i s stored i n t h e g r o w t h o f n e w neural c o n n e c t i o n s . A l e x a n d e r F o r b e s p r o p o s e d that m e m o r y i s stored b y a s e l f - r e e x c i t i n g c h a i n o f n e u r o n s . D o n a l d H e b b later c h a m p i o n e d this theory, b u t that's all t h e s e w e r e : t h e o r i e s . U n t i l K a n d e l , n o o n e had translated intuitive b e l i e f i n t o physical p r o o f . S o , K a n d e l trained his sea slugs, a n d h e w a t c h e d . H e m e a s u r e d . H e c o n d i t i o n e d t h e slug to w i t h d r a w its gill w h e n e v e r it was t o u c h e d , and as he did this, he actually o b s e r v e d , w i t h a m i c r o s c o p e a n d a r e c o r d i n g d e v i c e , aplysia's n e u r o n s c h a n g e . H e d i s c o v e r e d that t h e links b e t w e e n t h e n e u r o n s , c a l l e d synapses, g r e w s t r o n g e r b y passing e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l signals that r e i n f o r c e d t h e relationship. H e w a t c h e d t w o n e u r o n s , o n e sensory, t h e o t h e r m o t o r , pass s t r o n g e r impulses t o each o t h e r a s b e h a v i o r b e c a m e e n g r a v e d . Therefore, the use-it-or-lose-it credo is correct. Every time you p r a c t i c e a task, y o u further b u r n i n t o y o u r brain t h e w e b w o r k o f n e u r o n s responsible for c a r r y i n g o u t that task; t h e m o r e y o u r e h e a r s e a m e m o r y , telling it to y o u r s e l f o v e r a n d over, t h e s t r o n g e r a n d s m o o t h e r t h e e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n t h o s e particular

synapses in y o u r skull. I k n o w this to be true. We have in o u r h o u s e a small p i a n o . M y fingers a t first w e r e c l u m s y o n t h e keys. N o w t h o u g h , a f e w w e e k s later, h a v i n g played e v e r y day, I feel a l i n k e d l o o p de l o o p in my brain. I feel h o w t h e g r o o v e s up t h e r e give grease t o m y fingers s o t h e y c a n trot s m o o t h l y o v e r t h e n o t e s , j u s t o n e s i m ple s o n g . B u t b y playing that p i a n o , I j o s t l e d a t least t w o n o n c o m m u n i c a t i n g n e u r o n s i n t o a relationship, a n d this, in t h e e n d , is w h a t m e m o r y d e p e n d s o n — r e l a t i o n s h i p — o u r brains are relentlessly relational, yes, it's o n e b i g m a t c h . c o m i n there, strangers c o n t a c t i n g strangers, finding t h e i r w e l l - w o r n ways t o e a c h other's d o o r s .

K A N D E L WAS O N E o f t h e first t o actually provide a m o l e c u l a r m o d e l o f primitive m e m o r y . N o w h e had another question. How, h e w o n d e r e d , did t h e brain c o n v e r t s h o r t - t e r m i n t o l o n g - t e r m m e m o r y ? Perhaps h e t h o u g h t o f H . M . T h e fact that H . M . was able t o r e m e m b e r t h e face o f his m o t h e r even w i t h o u t a h i p p o c a m p u s suggests that t h e h i p p o c a m p u s i s t h e b i n d i n g site w h e r e m e m o r i e s g o , t o b e w r a p p e d u p i n r i b b o n and t h e n transferred t o a l o n g - t e r m storage b i n e l s e w h e r e i n t h e c o r t e x . H . M . ' s m o t h e r ' s face was o b v i o u s l y p r o c e s s e d and b o u n d i n t h e h i p p o c a m p u s l o n g b e f o r e t h e surgery, and t h e n a r c h i v e d w h e r e n o knife c o u l d r e a c h . V o l u m e s o f i m p r e s s i o n s , noises, feelings, i n t e r a c t i o n s h a p p e n t o u s e v e r y day, and i f w e r e t a i n e d i t all, w e ' d b e i n a sea o f m e n t a l clutter. Instead w h a t w e usually recall are g e n e r a l impressions o f o u r past: for m e it's m y grandfather's h o u s e , its c e d a r smell, t h e dense w h i t e sky o f s o m a n y w i n t e r s that i t b e c o m e s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r I a m recalling the sky, o r m y m e m o r y o f t h e sky. B u t t h e n t h e r e are t h o s e few m e m o ries f r o m t h e past that stand distinctive, e v e n if i n c o r r e c t . I r e m e m b e r w a l k i n g i n t h e field o n e w i n t e r m o r n i n g a n d c o m i n g u p o n a h u g e h o l e in t h e g r o u n d , a n d w h e n I l o o k e d d o w n i n t o it, I saw a man's hat floating on t h e water. I r e m e m b e r t h e t i m e I m i x e d t w o vials from my c h e m i s t r y set t o g e t h e r , a n d c r e a t e d a small b u t impressive e x p l o s i o n . I r e m e m b e r m y m o t h e r telling m e D r . K i n g had b e e n

s h o t , and I t h o u g h t she m e a n t my pediatrician, w h o s e n a m e was also D r . K i n g . I r e m e m b e r v e r y w e l l o u r n e i g h b o r s , t h e seven c h i l d r e n w h o w e r e b u r n e d t o death i n a n i g h t t i m e fire, t h e s t e n c h o f s m o k e that h u n g i n o u r h o u s e for w e e k s . T h e q u e s t i o n : W h a t process i n m y brain allowed t h o s e m e m o r i e s t o e x i t t h e i r s h o r t - t e r m status, g e t t w i n e d u p i n t h e h i p p o c a m p u s , and t h e n stored for m y perusal o n this p a p e r r i g h t n o w ? K a n d e l b e l i e v e d t h e r e was a m e c h a n i s m that a l l o w e d for t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f s h o r t t e r m to l o n g t e r m , and, as is typical of h i m , he w e n t at it like a k a m i k a z e r e d u c t i o n i s t , this t i m e using n o t t h e simple sea slug, but a snippet o f it. H e c o r e d aplysia a n d put j u s t t w o o f its preserved n e u rons in b r o t h . H e t h e n m a n i p u l a t e d t h e n e u r o n s s o that t h e y " t a l k e d " t o o n e a n o t h e r , so that n e u r o n 1 g r e w synaptic c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h n e u r o n 2. T h i s was t h e m e c h a n i c s o f m e m o r y i n its m o s t m i n i m a l i s t f o r m . K a n d e l t h e n s h o w e d that by b l o c k i n g a tiny m o l e c u l e deep in n e r v e cell 1, a m o l e c u l e called c A M P - r e s p o n s e e l e m e n t b i n d i n g protein ( C R E B ) , h e c o u l d disrupt t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n . W i t h C R E B b l o c k e d , t h e events associated w i t h l o n g - t e r m m e m o r y f o r m a t i o n — p r o t e i n synthesis, t h e g r o w t h o f n e w synapses—did n o t o c c u r . W h a t , exactly, is C R E B ? It's a m o l e c u l e that dwells in t h e nucleus of a brain c e l l , and its p u r p o s e is to s w i t c h on t h e genes n e e d e d to p r o d u c e t h e proteins that g r o o v e p e r m a n e n t c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e cells. T h a t ' s t h e s i m p l e scientific answer. T h e m e t a p h o r i c a l answer: C R E B i s a cell's o w n V e l c r o ; w h e n it's " o n , " y o u r mother's v o i c e a n d y o u r first ballet recital stick to t h e circuits of cells for years; w h e n it's " o f f , " y o u c a n still recall things, b u t it's brief, that p h o n e n u m b e r j u s t sliding from y o u r m i n d . O r w e can try i t a n o t h e r way. S h o r t - t e r m m e m o r i e s , perhaps, are a little like crushes, with a single surge o f c h e m i s t r y that fades fast; l o n g - t e r m m e m o r i e s are m o r e like marriages, b o u n d t o g e t h e r , e v e n trapped together, s o y o u c a n n o t get a n e w p o i n t o f view. C R J i B — s o physiologically fixed, s o m e t a p h o r i cally malleable, Velcro, glue, snap, s e x — C R J i B is as lyrically p o t e n t as it is scientifically significant. It gives us a way to grasp ourselves.

C R E B was a finding that m a d e a real splash in psychology. It was a finding that allowed psychologists, a n d o t h e r s , their first glimpse at t h e m a k i n g s o f p e r m a n e n t m e m o r y . I t also raised, for t h e first t i m e , the possibility that we c o u l d m a n i p u l a t e o u r m i n d s at a level of specificity previously u n h e a r d of. T i m Tully, a f o r t y - t w o - y e a r - o l d researcher at that t i m e , heard a b o u t Kandel's C R E B and g o t e x c i t e d . Tully g e n e t i cally r i g g e d his fruit flies so t h e y w e r e b o r n w i t h t h e ability to have massive a m o u n t s o f C R E B s w i t c h e d o n , and, sure e n o u g h , h e had created

insect

geniuses, drosophila

with

photographic

memories.

T h e y c o u l d learn a fruit-fly task in o n e training session, as o p p o s e d to n o r m a l fruit flies, w h o h a d t o have a b o u t t e n p r a c t i c e rounds b e f o r e t h e y recalled w h a t e v e r t r i c k t h e y w e r e b e i n g taught. Tully and K a n d e l e n t e r e d i n t o a c o m p e t i t i o n t h e n — a p l y s i a versus drosophila, t h e slug against t h e f l y — a n d w i t h i n years K a n d e l c r e a t e d C R E B - e n h a n c e d sea slugs w h o c o u l d r e c a l l — w h a t ? I c a n ' t i m a g i n e — t h e swirls on a n e i g h b o r i n g seashell, t h e c o l o r s o f a c o r a l reef, o r s o m e t h i n g far m o r e p r o saic, a paired association, f o o d in a c o r n e r of t h e c a g e . A l o n g w i t h C R E B , K a n d e l also discovered C R E B repressor, a m o l e c u l e that caused m i c e to almost instantly forget w h a t e v e r n e w tasks they had learned. K a n d e l realized t h e implications. I n 1 9 9 7 h e j o i n e d u p w i t h Harvard m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g i s t W a l t e r G i l b e r t , t h e venture c a p i talist J o n a t h a n F l e m i n g , and t h e neuroscientist A x e l U n t e r b e c k , and t o g e t h e r t h e y f o u n d e d a c o m p a n y called M e m o r y P h a r m a c e u t i c a l s , w h i c h , today, as I w r i t e , t r y i n g to k e e p all t h e details of this c o m p l e x story i n m y a g i n g brain, today, r i g h t n o w , M e m o r y P h a r m a c e u t i c a l s i s c l o s i n g i n o n a n e w class o f drugs that p r o m i s e t o revise o u r n o t i o n s o f age, o f t i m e , t u r n i n g u s all, perhaps, i n t o m i n i Prousts, b o r n e aloft o n t h e s i m p l e s c e n t o f c i n n a m o n , o r tea, o r t h e sudden b a k e r y smell pouring through those doors.

I O N C E R E A D , o r w r o t e , I c a n ' t recall n o w , a story a b o u t a w o m a n w h o d e c i d e s t o forget. T h i s w o m a n lives a l o n e i n a h o u s e w i t h roses on t h e wallpaper, and she has b e e n u n l u c k y in love, a n d she is old,

a n d so, o n e day, she d e c i d e s t o j u s t f o r g e t t h e roses o n t h e wallpaper. After that, she decides t o forget t h e c o f f e e c u p she's h o l d i n g , a n d t h e n t h e h a n d that holds it, and t h e n t h e legs that m o v e h e r t h r o u g h t h e l o n e l y w o r l d , a n d a s she forgets e a c h p i e c e o f herself, she gets smaller a n d smaller, sitting t h e r e in h e r k i t c h e n , she is shaved away, and she forgets h e r face, h e r eyes, until at last t h e r e is n o t h i n g b u t h e r heart left, a n d t h e n she forgets that t o o , and so she floats, u n c o n s c i o u s and free a n d utterly u n h u m a n . T h e tale p o i n t s t o t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f m e m o r y i n o u r sense o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e alive. W e h e a r i t all t h e t i m e : M e m o r y m a k e s u s w h o w e are. T h o s e w h o f o r g e t t h e past are c o n d e m n e d t o r e p e a t it. M e m o r y i s narrative, g i v i n g c o n t i n u i t y a n d m e a n i n g t o o u r e x i s t e n c e s . W e are, i f n o t o b s e s s e d w i t h m e m o r y , a t least d e e p l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h it. T h i s m a y b e b e c a u s e it's a f o r c e o f s u c h m e t a p h y s i c a l and m o l e c u l a r i m p o r t . I t m a y also b e , h o w e v e r , that w e are l i v i n g i n a t i m e that has e l e v a t e d m e m o r y to a u n i q u e status; e v e r y w h e r e we g o , w e see m e m o r y . O u r c o m p u t e r s h o l d m u c h o f o u r m e m o r i e s , a n d s o b e c o m e e x t e n s i o n s o f o u r brains. B y t h e y e a r 2 1 1 0 , h a l f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w i l l b e o v e r t h e age o f fifty, a n d b e c a u s e t h o s e p e o p l e — me and y o u — a r e living longer, greater and greater percentages will fall b e h i n d t h e h a z e o f d e m e n t i a , o r straight i n t o t h e s w a m p o f A l z h e i m e r ' s . I m p r o v e d s c r e e n i n g d e v i c e s m e a n that m a n y o f u s n o w k n o w w e have A l z h e i m e r ' s i n its earliest stages, a n d s o w e w i l l w a t c h our o w n brain waning. K a n d e l ' s c o m p a n y , M e m o r y P h a r m a c e u t i c a l s , k n o w s this. T h e c o m p a n y , s o m e forty m i n u t e s from t h e N e w Y o r k S t a t e P s y c h i a t r i c Institute, i s l o c a t e d o f f t h e G a r d e n S t a t e P a r k w a y i n M o n t v a l e , N e w Jersey. Inside t h e r e are twisty c o r r i d o r s , rats a n d cats in cages, h u s k e d brains h u n g u p o n strings, s i c k l e - s h a p e d slices o f a n i m a l c o r t i c e s suspended in rich broth, closely m o n i t o r e d by Unterbeck's team of t w e n t y d r u g - d i s c o v e r y scientists. T h e c o m p a n y ' s g o a l : t o f i n d a c h e m i c a l c o m p o u n d that will h e l p t h e d i s e m b o d i e d n e u r o n s i n t h e Petri dish, a n d t h e n t h e e m b o d i e d n e u r o n s i n t h e h u m a n h e a d , t o f o r m stronger, l o n g e r - l a s t i n g c o n n e c t i o n s . T h e h o p e : t o

enhance

C R E B p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l l y , s o that w e m a y e m e r g e from t h e h a z e o f a g e - r e l a t e d m e m o r y loss, o u r senses n e w l y sharp. K a n d e l believes his drugs, w h i c h M e m o r y P h a r m a c e u t i c a l s has started t o develop, will b e available t o t h e p u b l i c i n t e n years. T h e c o m p o u n d b e i n g d e v e l o p e d i s actually n o t targeted a t A l z h e i m e r ' s patients; i t is, instead, for y o u a n d m e , t h e b u l k o f t h e b a b y b o o m e r s w h o c a n ' t recall t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e c a r keys, o r that t i p - o f - t h e t o n g u e w o r d . T h e actual d r u g o n trial i s called P h o s p h o d i e s t e r a s e - 4 , and, s o far, w h e n g i v e n t o v e r y g r i z z l e d m i c e , i t y a n k e d t h e m i n t o y o u t h again, t h o s e o l d o c t o g e n a r i a n s r u n n i n g m a z e s as efficiently as any r o d e n t y o u n g s t e r . " T h e little r e d pill," K a n d e l calls it. O f all t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s , n o n e have y i e l d e d an actual t r e a t m e n t that is p o i s e d for s u c h h u g e i m p a c t w h e n i t hits. Already, e v e n b e f o r e its release, it is m i r e d in e t h i c a l issues. A drug, Kandel

says, for

normal, age-related

memory

impairment. Well,

a c c o r d i n g t o s o m e scientists, a g e - r e l a t e d m e m o r y i m p a i r m e n t b e g i n s at twenty, so s h o u l d we pass these c r i m s o n capsules a r o u n d in o u r children's j u n i o r year o f c o l l e g e ? M a y b e w e s h o u l d give t h e m t o o u r t e e n a g e r s p r i o r t o t a k i n g t h e S A T , o r e v e n d u r i n g t h e inevitable K a p l a n p r e p a r a t o r y c o u r s e . W i l l c e r t a i n c o m p a n i e s require that t h e e m p l o y e e s use t h e drugs, o r will e m p l o y e e s feel t h e y have t o i n order t o k e e p p a c e w i t h t h e i m b i b e r i n c u b i c l e 4 ? T h e s e are t h e o b v i o u s e t h i c a l q u e s t i o n s . Less o b v i o u s : W h a t h a p p e n s i f this drug, b y h e l p i n g u s c o n s o l i d a t e a n d store m e m o r y , also s o m e h o w l o o s e n s t h e lids o f o u r archives, s o o u r past c o m e s p o u r i n g o v e r us, a k i n d o f nostalgic i n c o n t i n e n c e that carries w i t h i t t h e o h s o specific m e m o r y y o u didn't e v e n k n o w y o u h a d o f y o u r aunt i n a tide p o o l , o f t h e humidifier in t h e hallway in y o u r h o u s e , its dial w i t h e v e r y n u m b e r e t c h e d , illum i n a t e d , t h e s m e l l o f y o u r father's n e c k , t h e s w o o s h i n g s o u n d o f sprinklers u n d e r g r o u n d , t h e key i n t h e c o r n e r , t h e dust o n t h e l o n g a g o ledge? W h o ' s t o say? T h e drugs that are m e a n t t o propel u s invig-

o r a t e d i n t o t h e future m i g h t trap us in a past so detailed a n d d e s c r i p tive w e c a n n o t c o n c e n t r a t e o n w h e r e w e are. T h e r e are a m i l l i o n potential problems w i t h m e m o r y - e n h a n c i n g drugs. R a m p u p C R E B and g o d k n o w s w h a t will happen t o o u r hold on the present as well as t h e past. E v e n if t h e past doesn't c o m e p o u r ing b a c k , m i g h t n o t such a drug m a k e every aspect of t h e present so unforgettable that we are k i c k i n g around in mental clutter? T h e r e ' s a reason, after all, w h y o u r brains are capable of forgetting. T h e r e ' s an evolutionary imperative. W e toss o u t t h e detritus and keep w h a t w e n e e d in order to survive, in a h i g h - t e c h world, on t h e P l i o c e n e plains. I w o n d e r i f a n y o n e has e v e r c o n s i d e r e d t h e benefits o f m e m o r y loss. W h i l e I ' m sure this s h o w s m y gross naivete, I've n e v e r c o n s i d e r e d A l z h e i m e r ' s , o n c e t h e p a t i e n t has crossed t h e line i n t o its fluid w o r l d , to be as h o r r i b l e as it's portrayed. O u r m e m o r i e s , after all, are b u l k y noisy things that k e e p us trapped in t h e past or fretting a b o u t t h e future. W e are s o busy r e m e m b e r i n g b a c k w a r d o r p r o j e c t i n g f o r ward (and t h i n k i n g forward i s a k i n d o f m e m o r y , for w h a t e v e r e x p e c tations y o u p r o j e c t are based o n w h a t y o u have l e a r n e d ) that w e rarely dwell i n t h e present. W e p r o b a b l y have little idea o f w h a t t h e actual pure present feels l i k e — r i g h t n o w — u n t a i n t e d b y o u r sense o f time. A n i m a l s p r o b a b l y have an idea, a n d t h e y s e e m a happy lot, a n d late-stage A l z h e i m e r ' s patients m a y have an i d e a — i n fact, in D a v i d S h e n k ' s e x c e l l e n t b o o k , The Forgetting, he q u o t e s an A l z h e i m e r ' s patient: "I didn't k n o w I c o u l d see such serenity in this disease, b u t I have; life is v e r y beautiful as t h e c u r t a i n slowly closes." Perhaps H . M . felt s o m e t h i n g similar, s o m e w h e r e . F o r H . M . , e v e r y single t i m e h e tasted a strawberry, it was t h e first t i m e . E v e r y t i m e he saw snow, it was b r a n d n e w s n o w falling from t h e sky. E v e r y t i m e h e was t o u c h e d , i t was t h e f i r s t t o u c h , t h e o r i g i n a l t o u c h ; c o m e h e r e .

K A N D E L M U S T K N O W a b o u t t h e dangers associated w i t h t o o m u c h m e m o r y , and, conversely, t h e h u m a n brain's n e e d t o forget. O n e o f

t h e m o s t f a m o u s patients i n t h e literature o f n e u r o l o g y was a t w e n t y o n e - y e a r - o l d m a n , treated b y A . L . L u r i a . S., a t t w e n t y years o l d , had such vivid recall y o u c o u l d present h i m w i t h four c o l u m n s o f n u m b e r s , and after o n l y a m o m e n t ' s g l a n c e , he c o u l d r e c i t e t h e m all b a c k to y o u . L u r i a tested S. for years, and m a y b e m o s t a m a z i n g was that even after m u c h t i m e had passed S . c o u l d r e m e m b e r every single c o l u m n ; h e c o u l d r e m e m b e r t h e precise a r r a n g e m e n t s o f words o n a page; t w e n t y years later h e still k n e w e v e r y story w o r d for w o r d i n every n e w s p a p e r p r i n t e d in his p r o v i n c e . S., h o w e v e r , had serious p r o b l e m s . H e was u n a b l e t o glean m e a n i n g from a n y t h i n g he read. S h o w h i m

The Odyssey and he c o u l d

r e c i t e t h e t h o u s a n d - p a g e t o m e b a c k t o y o u after six m i n u t e s o f staring, b u t h e had n o idea w h a t i t m e a n t . P e o p l e baffled h i m b e c a u s e h e was u n a b l e to read facial expressions. So c a u g h t up was he in t h e m i n i s c u l e m e c h a n i c s o f a m o u t h m o v i n g that h e c o u l d n ' t step b a c k and s e e — w a s that a smile or a s m i r k ? S. c o u l d n ' t for t h e life of h i m i m a g i n e h o w h e m i g h t solve t h e p r o b l e m . H e n e v e r did solve it. S . lived, d u l l - w i t t e d and aimless, c r i p p l e d by his k e e n capacities. A n d t h e n , t h e r e are t h e less f l o r i d e x a m p l e s o f people's n e e d t o forget. T h e V i e t n a m vet, for i n s t a n c e , w h o obsessively replays t h e t r a u m a i n his brain. T h e c h i l d raped i n h e r o w n c a n o p i e d b e d . T h e boy, j u s t n i n e , h e a r i n g t h e c r a c k o f glass and s e e i n g his father dragged o f f u n d e r a m i d n i g h t m o o n , perhaps n e v e r t o return. W e w a n t t o r e m e m b e r , b u t perhaps for K a n d e l , and us all, we have an equally strong n e e d t o forget. K a n d e l m i g h t well d e n y any p e r s o n a l m o t i v a t i o n s for his w o r k i n m e m o r y - s u p p r e s s i n g drugs, a

concoction

that M e m o r y P h a r m a -

ceuticals is also investigating. He m i g h t say he is m o t i v a t e d simply by a love o f scholarship, t h e raw thrill o f discovery, b u t o n e w o n d e r s . W h e n K a n d e l discovered C R E B , h e also discovered its opposite. H e discovered that t h e n o r m a l h u m a n b r a i n has built w i t h i n i t m e c h a nisms that a l l o w for forgetting. Essential to these m e c h a n i s m s is an e n z y m e called c a l c i n e u r i n . K a n d e l and his t e a m , i n 1 9 9 8 , o v e r e x pressed t h e g e n e responsible for c a l c i n e u r i n p r o d u c t i o n in rats and

f o u n d , sure e n o u g h , t h e rats had T e f l o n - c o a t e d c o r t e x e s ; e v e r y t h i n g slipped off. Fears w e r e f o r g o t t o n . C o u l d M e m o r y P h a r m a c e u t i c a l s , o r o n e o f its rivals, m a k e such a d r u g for h u m a n s ? T i m Tully already has o n e i n t h e w o r k s . I f m a r k e t e d , t h e d r u g c o u l d b e used w i t h i n t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s o f a trauma, a n d i t w o u l d d e l e t e y o u r m e m o r y o f t h e trauma, a l o n g w i t h w h a t e v e r else h a p p e n e d that day. S u c h a d r u g c o u l d be used for survivors o f t e r r i b l e events, terrorist b o m b i n g s , plane crashes, v i c i o u s personal attacks. S u c h a d r u g w o u l d effectively o b l i t e r a t e t h e diagnosis o f p o s t - t r a u m a t i c stress disorder; p o s t - t r a u m a w o u l d be a pill, a p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l capsule o f w a t e r from t h e river L e t h e , w h e r e o l d souls i n H a d e s go to erase t h e i r pasts. K a n d e l m i g h t like t h e idea o f a d r u g for forgetting, and o n t h e o n e h a n d this m a k e s sense, given h o w his difficult past is always t h e r e and n o t there, present b u t " l a c k i n g i n affect." D o e s h e see p o t e n t i a l ethical p r o b l e m s w i t h s u c h a drug? D o e s he see it c o u l d be used in survivors o f t h e n e x t g e n o c i d e , a s a t o o l o f political silencing, given t o t h e girl in h e r b e d b e f o r e h e r father rapes her? Yes, K a n d e l surely sees these things. W h i c h m a y b e o n e reason why, w h i l e h e has discovered the m o l e c u l a r - c h e m i c a l processes involved i n forgetting, h e and A x e l U n t e r b e c k , M e m o r y P h a r m a c e u t i c a l s ' C S O , are n o t actively pursing the c o m p o u n d . In t h e e n d , it s e e m s , K a n d e l in t h e e n d is casting his l o t w i t h t h e p o w e r a n d i m p o r t a n c e o f m e m o r y . O n t h e day I see h i m , a sunny s p r i n g day, light streaming i n t o his m u l t i w i n d o w e d office, on this day K a n d e l i s w o r k i n g o n his o w n m e m o i r s . " Y o u see this," h e says, w a v i n g a s h e a f o f papers a t m e , " t h e s e are m y m e m o i r s , I ' m b e g i n n i n g t h e m . I w a n t to set it all d o w n for my children, b e f o r e it's t o o late." H e sets t h e s h e a f o f papers o n t h e coffee table b e t w e e n us. I'd like to lift t h e pages up and have a l o o k , b u t I k n o w I ' m n o t w e l c o m e to them. Kandel's eyes flick away from t h e m a n u s c r i p t , over toward t h e w i n d o w s in his office. "I was six i n c h e s from D a c h a u , " he says, "and that's o n e reason w h y I like to squeeze e v e r y t h i n g I can o u t of life."

K a n d e l t h e n tells me he's g o i n g to Austria in a few m o n t h s , that he's o r g a n i z i n g a c o n f e r e n c e there. I assume it will be a scientific c o n f e r e n c e , b u t w h e n I ask, he says n o . " A u s t r i a , " he says, "has n e v e r faced its past, w h i c h t h e o t h e r E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s did. I ' m g o i n g t o A u s t r i a t o d o a c o n f e r e n c e t o h e l p t h e c o u n t r y recall w h a t h a p p e n e d , " a n d I p i c t u r e h i m t h e n , w i t h a s y r i n g e , i n j e c t i n g i n t o Austria t h e C R E B - e n h a n c e r drug, s o all t h o s e m u c k e d - u p brains are j o s t l e d b a c k t o K r i s t e l l n a c h t . K a n d e l started o u t his c a r e e r w o n d e r i n g h o w a single n e u r o n r e m e m b e r s , a n d h e i s finishing i t w o n d e r i n g h o w t o help a w h o l e c o u n t r y f o r m n e w neural pathways, a national set o f synapses. H i s t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y canvases have b e e n a t o n c e m i n i s c u l e a n d m a m m o t h , t h e a p p r o a c h u n d o u b t e d l y reductive, b u t y i e l d i n g insights s o m u c h m o r e than t h e s u m o f t h e i r separate parts.

A FEW D A Y S after visiting w i t h K a n d e l , I g o t o K e n d a l l S q u a r e , w h e r e M I T sits amidst c o f f e e shops and b o o k s t o r e s . I ' m h e r e t o use the

library, b u t

instead

of turning

right

and

heading

out

onto

M e m o r i a l D r i v e , w h e r e t h e e n t r a n c e is, I t u r n left and w a l k d o w n t h e n a r r o w side streets and alleys o f this c a m p u s . I've lived i n B o s t o n m y w h o l e life, b u t I've n e v e r b e e n b a c k h e r e , i n t h e b o w e l s o f s c i e n c e , w h e r e students h u r r y past m e , c e l l p h o n e s c l u t c h e d i n t h e i r hands. I d o n ' t k n o w w h e r e I ' m g o i n g , j u s t w a l k i n g , t h e s p r i n g t i m e air w i t h its faint smell of soap a pleasure to b r e a t h e , the m a g n o l i a trees in b l o o m , t h e i r flowers b i g as a r t i c h o k e s , I p i c k o n e . I t h i n k of Kandel's little red pill a n d w o n d e r i f s o o n w e will b e able t o u n d o n o t o n l y aging, b u t death itself, a p u r p l e pill for that, w o u l d we w a n t it? If we k n e w w e c o u l d live t o see o u r children's children's children's c h i l dren's c h i l d r e n , w o u l d w e say yes? A n d i n saying yes, w o u l d w e n o t lose w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e h u m a n , b i r t h and death b r a c k e t i n g b a c k o u r m e m o r i e s , g i v i n g o u r lives s o m e shape? W h a t , exactly, is o u r shape as w e a c c e p t a n d fund and finally i m b i b e w h a t e v e r e n h a n c e r s w e can? Kandel is taking us to n e w cognitive heights, but at s o m e point we m a y f i n d ourselves s p i n n i n g i n space, w i t h n o tether.

N o w , up ahead of m e , I see a v e r y o l d m a n l e a n i n g on a nurse, t a k i n g i n s o m e sun o n t h e sidewalk. N e x t t o t h e m i s a b u i l d i n g w i t h t i n t e d d o o r s . I squint. T h e b u i l d i n g says, " C l i n i c for N e u r o l o g i c a l D i s o r d e r s . " I s n o t H . M . h o u s e d n e a r h e r e ? I w o n d e r i f that c o u l d b e h i m even as I k n o w it's n o t . I go closer, parsing my way d o w n t h e sidewalk. T h e old m a n has b l a n d , b o i l e d eyes, a n d j u s t above t h e m , I i m a g i n e Scoville's h o l e s . H . M . H e lost his o w n personal h i s t o r y even a s h e t o o k u p p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n c e i n t h e larger literature o f a n e v e r e x p a n d i n g field. It s e e m s a p o o r trade-off, t e r r i b l y unfair, a n d t h e n I k n o w , w h e n I see that old m a n standing there, that I w o u l d rather have m y m e m o r i e s than see things a n e w each t i m e , than o v e r a n d o v e r again b i t e i n t o fruit, t h e e n j o y m e n t s u c k e d b a c k i n t o blackness b e f o r e it c a n leave t h e faintest residue. L e t us leave residues, stains, pictures, prints. L e t u s take K a n d e l ' s m e d i c i n e , i f i t c o m e s t o us, and return t o p e o p l e w h o have lost t h e m t h e i r lives, pulling t h e m o u t o f t h e gap o f f o r g e t t i n g that i s i n wait for u s all, i f w e live l o n g e n o u g h . B u t n o drug, o f this I a m sure, n o drug will b e able t o stave o f f senility indefinitely. W e may b e p o s t m o d e r n , b u t w e are n o t , i n fact, p o s t h u m a n . N o s c i e n c e , i n any f i e l d , has yet t o deliver u s from o u r o w n flesh. Eventually, t h e lights g o o u t . W e g o b a c k , i n t o blackness. N o w , t h e o l d m a n and his nurse b e g i n t o shuffle toward t h e b u i l d ing, g o i n g i n t o t h e tinted-glass e n t r a n c e . After they've left, I stand by t h e d o o r s , l o o k i n g in, b u t all I see is my o w n face reflected b a c k to m e , and I am disturbed. It must be s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e glass, its wavers or tints, b u t t h e r e I a m , l o o k i n g terribly tired, my face full of h o l e s , eyes s u n k e n in, a n d on my forehead, strange spots, w h a t are they? F r e c k l e s , m o l e s b l e e d i n g o u t o f t h e i r borders, o r reflections o f my aged n e u r o n s suspended in a c o r t i c a l sea, t h e synapses s h r i n k i n g , s h r i n k i n g , even as I t h i n k .

10 Chipped THIS

C E N T U R Y ' S MIND

MOST

RADICAL

C U R E S

Practitioners of current-day psychosurgeries—lobotomies, leucotomies, and cingulotomies—insist the procedures are not experimental; their claim raises questions as to how the term at hand should be defined. If one defines an experimental procedure as one lacking institutional acceptance, then psychosurgery indeed is not experimental; insurance carriers cover it. However, as this chapter explores, lobotomy, or its offshoot, cingulotomy, is performed with as much guesswork as actual knowledge, is rooted far more in opinion than fact, and is always an unpredictable journey into the grayest matter. Psychosurgery's long history, and ironically its dark reputation, illuminate perhaps most powerfully the central ethical questions raised by experimental psychology throughout the twentieth century, while at the same time laying the groundwork for the field's future excavations into the tactile minds of human beings.

PART

H

ONE

is h e a d is on a stamp, in P o r t u g a l . T h i s seems appropriate for the

father

of lobotomy—that

every

day

thousands

of

m o u t h s t o n g u e h i m t o tackiness, flip h i m b a c k w a r d i n t o c a v e r n o u s

bins, his c o r t e x run through sorters and sheers, b u r i e d b e n e a t h m o u n tains of w h i t e , o n l y to e m e r g e days later at its destination, this head, his head, still stuck o n , scored w i t h dark lines, a date pressed in like a brand. A n t o n i o E g a s M o n i z , t h e m a n o n t h e stamp a n d t h e w i n n e r o f t h e N o b e l P r i z e i n 1 9 4 9 for his d i s c o v e r y o f psychosurgery, was b o r n a t t h e turn of last century, in a small coastal fishing village m i l e s from L i s b o n . L i t t l e i s k n o w n o f his m o t h e r o r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f his b i r t h , b u t w e can i m a g i n e h e c a m e o u t h e a d first, t h e m i d w i f e p l a c i n g h e r hands o n e i t h e r side o f his still-soft skull a n d p u l l i n g h i m like a r o o t e d v e g e t a b l e from t h e red earth. M o n i z ' s father was l a n d e d g e n try, a n d his c h i l d h o o d h o m e was large, w i t h a c h a p e l on t h e s e c o n d floor, a tiny flame b u r n i n g on a silver platter. M o n i z did n o t live w i t h his m o t h e r , and, i t turns o u t , h e did n o t live w i t h his father for l o n g . H e spent his y o u t h i n t h e n e x t t o w n over, w i t h an u n c l e n a m e d A b a d e l d e , w h o was a priest a n d w o r e t h e frock and collar. Strangely, A b a d e l d e failed t o c o n v e y t o M o n i z t h e e x p e c t e d priestly things, t h e i m a g e of C h r i s t on a cross, a h u m b l e life w h e r e t h e p o o r shall i n h e r i t . A b a d e l d e was a m a n infused w i t h a sense

o f Portugal's g l o r i o u s past, t h e b l o o d , t h e

battlefields, t h e

d r e a m - b l u e seas on w h i c h w h i t e sails w a l k e d like apparitions; he read t o t h e boy, t h e finest literature, s o M o n i z c o u l d r e c i t e e p i c p o e m s b e f o r e h e started s c h o o l , c o u l d translate passages o f Latin, his o w n brain like a blade, h o n e d and s h i n e d in his uncle's hands. He

went

to

college, of course—such

a

boy

would

have

no

c h o i c e — a n d i n his s e n i o r year h e d e c i d e d t o study m e d i c i n e . T h e w i n t e r that year was chilly in L i s b o n , a n d t h e p e a c o c k s at t h e palace died. M o n i z d e v e l o p e d g o u t in his hands, so all his j o i n t s swelled red and tender, his fingers c u r l i n g up i n t o claws. He n e v e r fully r e c o v e r e d from t h e g o u t , and years later, w h e n he did his l o b o t o m i e s , he had to have help h o l d i n g t h e knife, his assistant m a k i n g t h e critical cuts w h i l e M o n i z l o o k e d o n , instructing from t h e sidelines as his patients, c o m p l e t e l y awake, c o u l d h e a r his words, words like, " C u t t h e n e r v e tract. G o d e e p e r i n t o t h e left l o b e . A r e y o u feeling a n y t h i n g strange,

B u t that was yet t o c o m e . I n t h e late 1 8 0 0 s M o n i z was j u s t a y o u n g m a n a t C o i m b r a C o l l e g e w i t h h u r t i n g hands a n d a desperate desire t o s o m e h o w m a k e his m a r k i n t h e vast f i e l d o f n e u r o l o g y . W h e n t h e a c u t e g o u t passed, h e p a c k e d his bags a n d t o o k a train t o Paris, w h e r e h e studied w i t h P i e r r e M a r i e a n d J u l e s D e j e r i n e , f o r m e r students o f C h a r c o t . M o n i z r o a m e d t h e wards o f S a l p e t r i e r e a n d w a t c h e d p e o p l e f o a m a n d faint a n d t r e m b l e ; i t must have a m a z e d h i m , h o w utterly strange p e o p l e c a n b e , h o w v e r y s i c k t h e i r souls, a n d i t s e e m e d o b v i o u s t o h i m that t h e r e was n o s c h i s m b e t w e e n m i n d a n d matter. F r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g h e saw m e n t a l illness a s utterly o r g a n i c , t h e p r o d u c t o f a t a n g l e d neural n e t . B a c k i n P o r t u g a l , h e w o n d e r e d h o w o n e m i g h t visualize t h e b r a i n . T h i s a l l - i m p o r t a n t o r g a n lay o u t o f r e a c h , e n c a s e d i n a c a g e o f b o n e . Surely, i f o n e c o u l d see t h e brain, o n e m i g h t b e able t o see t h e i l l nesses affecting it. Perhaps t h e r e w e r e t u m o r s , burst b l o o d vessels. H e e x p e r i m e n t e d , t h e n , w i t h dyes a n d cadavers. S i n c e t h e s e v e n t e e n t h century, scientists had b e e n t r y i n g t o use dyes t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e m i c r o s c o p i c o r t h e m e r e l y obfuscated. T h e r e h a d b e e n saffron dyes, dyes m a d e o f c r u s h e d c r o c u s , silver nitrate dyes that glossed t h e veins o f a leaf's body, b u t n o o n e had yet s e e n i n t o t h e skull o f a h u m a n . B e f o r e M o n i z actually altered t h e h u m a n b r a i n , his a m b i t i o n was j u s t t o v i e w it. A n d that is w h a t he

did. He d e v e l o p e d a dye that c o u l d be

i n j e c t e d straight i n t o t h e n e c k ' s b l o o d vessels, spreading u p w a r d t o i l l u m i n a t e , w i t h t h e aid o f a n x - r a y m a c h i n e , t h e previously h i d d e n b r a n c h e s o f vessels and l o b e s . W i t h this i n v e n t i o n , M o n i z m a d e i t possible to l o c a t e t u m o r s a n d fault lines; he m a d e it possible to see sickness i n t h e pulsing h u m a n head. B u t success c a m e a t a p r i c e . Says E l l i o t Valenstein, " T h i n k a b o u t it. W h o w o u l d have had t h e h u b r i s t o i n j e c t b r o m i d e i n t o t h e c a r o t i d arteries o f live h u m a n b e i n g s ? W h o w o u l d have dared t o have d o n e that? I ' m sure m a n y p e o p l e h a d t h o u g h t o f i t b e f o r e , b u t a m a n like M o n i z , w h o let his a m b i t i o n s get t h e b e t t e r o f h i m , he's t h e o n e w h o actually did it."

First i n t o cadavers, t h e n i n t o p e o p l e h e p l u c k e d from his o w n t h r i v i n g n e u r o l o g y p r a c t i c e ; h e s h o t t h e patients u p and o n e o f t h e m died, t h e b r a i n aflame, b a c k l i t b l u e and silver. M o n i z c l a i m e d h e was " t o r m e n t e d " b y t h e death. N e v e r t h e l e s s , h e w e n t ahead, s h o o t i n g u p patient after patient. H e c a l l e d his t e c h n i q u e angiography, and it b e c a m e w i d e l y used a n d still i s today, albeit w i t h m o r e t e c h n o l o g i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . A n g i o g r a p h y is an indispensable d i a g n o s t i c t o o l . M o n i z strode i n t o t h e landscape o f people's lives a n d t o o k things h e s h o u l d n ' t h a v e — w h i c h i s w h y he's n o t l i k e d — b u t he left, he always left, s o m e useful things b e h i n d . T h e father o f psychosurgery, y o u can h a t e h i m b u t c h a n c e s are, i n m a n y ways, h e c o u l d have h e l p e d y o u r h e a d .

A C H I L D D E V E L O P S vision first, grasp s e c o n d . W e have t o see w h a t i t i s w e w a n t t o h o l d . S o i t was w i t h M o n i z . First h e saw t h e brain, a n d t h e n w i t h his g o u t - s w o l l e n hands, h e w a n t e d t o t o u c h it, t o try t o c h a n g e it. T h i s was i n t h e 1 9 2 0 s a n d 1 9 3 0 s w h e n t h e r e w e r e few available t r e a t m e n t s f o r m e n t a l patients e x c e p t institutionalization, s o m e living o u t t h e i r w h o l e lives raving a n d sweat stained. M o n i z k n e w this, a s u p t o o n e third o f t h e patients i n his t h r i v i n g n e u r o l o g y p r a c t i c e w e r e psychiatrically i m p a i r e d . D o c t o r s had already tried i n d u c i n g h y p o g l y c e m i c c o m a s , c o o l i n g cures, r e m o v a l o f t e e t h and c o l o n s , i n j e c t i o n s o f malaria; it's strange. O n t h e o n e h a n d w e have F r e u d , w h o was rising t o p r o m i n e n c e i n V i e n n a , p u t t i n g forth a s c h e m e o f h u m a n m i n d that relied entirely o n history, and a t nearly t h e v e r y s a m e t i m e w e had M o n i z , w h o b e l i e v e d that t h e o n l y cure was a s o m a t i c cure. T h e r e c e n t debates o v e r c h e m i s t r y versus history, drugs versus talk, are n o t r e c e n t at all. We are j u s t r e p e a t i n g t h e same o l d schisms, w i t h n o t necessarily m u c h m o r e o r less insight. I n 1 9 3 5 , a t t h e age o f s i x t y - o n e , M o n i z w e n t t o L o n d o n f o r a n e u r o l o g y c o n f e r e n c e . It was h e l d in a g r a n d hall, w i t h v e r y F r e n c h l o o k i n g busts of alabaster, a m a r b l e floor, a g r a n d c e i l i n g s p o r t i n g m e d a l l i o n s leafed w i t h gold. M a n y i m p o r t a n t m e n w e r e t h e r e , i n

dark suits and w h a l e - b o n e b u t t o n s , eyeglasses on c h a i n s , all c o n v e n i n g t o h e a r t h e latest reports i n e x p e r i m e n t a l studies. O n e l e c t u r e r talked a b o u t b u r n i n g t h e m o t o r strip i n t h e c o r t e x o f a dog; a n o t h e r p r o c l a i m e d h e had severed t h e a u d i t o r y c o r t e x i n a m o n k e y . T h e n c a m e a pair o f researchers, C a r l y l e J a c o b s o n and J o h n F u l t o n , w h o d e s c r i b e d a f e m a l e p r i m a t e n a m e d B e c k y w i t h a v e r y b a d attitude. S h e was always s c r e a m i n g and pissing o n things a n d t u r n i n g o v e r h e r f o o d a n d w a t e r dish in a frenzy. Finally these researchers put B e c k y to sleep, lifted up t h e lid of h e r head, did a snip snip to t h e fibers c o n n e c t i n g t h e frontal l o b e s t o t h e l i m b i c system, a n d u p o n a w a k e n i n g , t h e a n i m a l was supposedly t r a n s f o r m e d . S h e was q u i e t and peaceful. H e r i n t e l l i g e n c e appeared t o b e intact, a s she c o u l d d o all t h e m o n k e y tests, b u t w h a t e v e r snarl had c a u s e d t h e c h a o s was g o n e . It was c u r e b y s u b t r a c t i o n , r e m o v i n g s o m e t h i n g instead o f setting i t straight. M o n i z heard t h e B e c k y l e c t u r e , t h e c h i m p g o n e g r a c i o u s , a n d h e t h o u g h t o f his o w n patients b a c k i n P o r t u g a l , t h e o n e s i n t h e ward, t h e o n e s i n his c l i n i c w h o c o u l d n ' t stop shaking, a n d h e was b o l d . H e s t o o d up, t h e r e i n that l e c t u r e hall, b e n e a t h t h e g o l d - l e a f e d m e d a l lions and c h a n d e l i e r s , he s t o o d up a n d said o u t l o u d , so all c o u l d hear, " W h y w o u l d i t n o t b e feasible t o relieve a n x i e t y states i n m a n b y surgical m e a n s ? " H i s t o r y has i t that e v e r y o n e was startled, i f n o t s h o c k e d b y M o n i z ' s s u g g e s t i o n , t h e m e n m a y b e b l i n k i n g a n d swiveling t o see j u s t w h o had s p o k e n . T h e r o o m g r e w q u i e t . W a s t h e s i l e n c e b e c a u s e e v e n s c i e n c e has its t a b o o s , a place b e y o n d w h i c h o n e m a y n o t travel? O r was t h e s i l e n c e b e c a u s e m o s t m e n i n that r o o m had already t h o u g h t o f traveling there, a n d w e r e h e a r i n g i n M o n i z ' s words n o t t h e s h o c k o f trespass b u t o f r e c o g n i t i o n ? After all, these d o c t o r s k n e w , a s d o w e , that t h e h i s t o r y o f s c i e n c e has b e e n t h e h i s t o r y o f o n e i n c u r s i o n m o r e s e e m i n g l y inappropriate than t h e n e x t . I n o u r t i m e w e have t h o s e w h o w a n t t o c l o n e w h o l e h u m a n s , this desire s p r i n g i n g i n part from t h e p r o c e d u r e s that p r e c e d e d i t — i n v i t r o fertilization, assisted h a t c h i n g , s i n g l e - s p e r m i n j e c t i o n s , test t u b e s s p r o u t i n g d e i c e d life. L i k e c l o n i n g , l o b o t o m y was a t t a c h e d t o a c h a i n o f p r i o r i n t e r v e n -

tions. A u t o p s i e s , o n c e p r o h i b i t e d b y r e l i g i o n , eventually b e c a m e a c c e p t a b l e , and so t h e h u m a n viscera was o p e n e d , t h e heart held in a h a n d . E v e r m o r e d a r i n g e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d o n dogs and pigs, t h e i r parts strewn a b o u t , and t h e n live h u m a n s w i t h electrodes at t h e i r skulls, t h e i r b o d i e s flipping and t w i t c h i n g . T r e a t m e n t had b e e n o n e steady progression i n t o t h e skin, b e y o n d t h e skin, and the m e n a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e u n d e r s t o o d this. W e understand this. M a y b e M o n i z was t h e o n l y o n e daring t o utter w h a t m a n y have secretly w h i s p e r e d — L e t me go there. Let my knife excise a piece of his hurting head. It m a d e intuitive sense, e v e n b e f o r e J a c o b s o n and Fulton's c h i m p a n z e e l e c t u r e . D o n o t t h o s e i n p s y c h i c pain b o w t h e i r heads and rub their t e m p l e s , as t h o u g h to erase t h o s e fiery frontal lobes? M o n i z traveled b y train b a c k t o P o r t u g a l . H e t o o k a slow walk t h r o u g h s o m e o f t h e city's wards, w h e r e h e regularly did rounds. T h e patients w e r e f o a m i n g and filthy, and w h e n distress o v e r t o o k t h e m , t h e y w e r e p l u n g e d i n t o w o o d e n tubs o f i c e . M o n i z k n e w a b o u t these t e r r i b l e tubs, and t h e w e t r u b b e r suits, and t h e ropes for restraint. In t h e 1 9 3 0 s , i f y o u w e r e a d m i t t e d t o a m e n t a l hospital, c h a n c e s are y o u w o u l d stay t h e r e for an average of seven years, c o m p a r e d to today, w h e r e y o u ' l l stay for t h r e e days i f y o u ' r e lucky. T h e halls w e r e p a c k e d w i t h D a n t e - e s q u e figures w r i t h i n g i n t h e i r rings o f hell, p e o p l e w h o prayed t o aliens a n d felt angels sleeping i n t h e i r s t o m a c h s . T h e patients m a y have l o o k e d up, seen M o n i z strolling, his r o u n d shiny f a c e and navy blue suit. H e was h e r e t o help t h e m , was h e n o t ? T h e y didn't k n o w that b e f o r e he h a d e n t e r e d t h e wards, j u s t as s o o n as he h a d stepped o f f his train, h e h a d g o n e straight t o t h e m o r g u e and o r d e r e d up t h r e e cadavers. U s i n g a p e n , M o n i z had " p r a c t i c e d " his t e c h n i q u e , s t a b b i n g i t i n t o t h e cadaver's c o r t e x until h e g o t the right angle and depth. T h e r e . L i k e that. T h e first p a t i e n t i s k n o w n t o h i s t o r y a s M r s . M . S h e was sixtyt h r e e years o l d . S h e was severely depressed and a n x i o u s . S h e had p a r a n o i d ideas, b e l i e v i n g t h e p o l i c e w e r e t r y i n g t o p o i s o n her. B e f o r e h e r hospitalization she had secretly b e e n p r a c t i c i n g prostitution in h e r a p a r t m e n t until o t h e r residents f o r c e d h e r t o stop. M r s . M . was

miserable in the deep damp m a n n e r of the melancholic. S o m e t i m e s , she c o u l d n o t stop shaking. S h e h a d b e e n i n t h e ward for a total o f four a n d a h a l f years. T h e n i g h t b e f o r e t h e surgery h e r hair was c u t a n d h e r scalp c l e a n e d w i t h a l c o h o l . O f w h a t was she t h i n k i n g ? H o w was this p r o c e d u r e e x p l a i n e d t o her? D i d she grasp its e x p e r i m e n t a l nature? D i d she care, after s o m u c h pain? T h a t n i g h t , t h e last n i g h t o f life w i t h a n i n t a c t brain, she w e n t t o sleep i n t h e n a r r o w ward b e d , a n d M o n i z , h e stayed up in his palatial h o u s e , t h e w i n d o w s ablaze, t h e sea a dark i n k e d line outside. " O n t h e eve o f m y f i r s t a t t e m p t , m y j u s t i f i e d a n x i e t y a n d all fears a t t h e m o m e n t w e r e swept aside i n t h e h o p e s o f o b t a i n i n g favorable results. I f w e c o u l d suppress c e r t a i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o m p l e x e s b y destroying c e l l - c o n n e c t i n g groups . . . this w o u l d be a great step f o r ward, m a k i n g a f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o o u r k n o w l e d g e o f t h e o r g a n i c basis o f p s y c h i c f u n c t i o n s . " I n d e e d M o n i z did have a t h e o r y regarding w h y l o b o t o m y w o u l d w o r k . H e h a d heard a b o u t i t w o r k i n g o n B e c k y , t h e female c h i m p , b u t he was g o i n g on m o r e than that. M o n i z b e l i e v e d that insanity was a series o f t h o u g h t s that w e r e literally physiologically f i x e d i n t h e brain's n e r v e f i b e r s . T h e f i x a t i o n s w e r e fossilized i n t h e fibers c o n n e c t i n g t h e forebrain t o t h e thalamus, and i f M o n i z c o u l d c u t t h o s e f i b e r s , h e c o u l d free a p e r s o n of n o x i o u s ideas and feelings. As it turns o u t , M o n i z ' s t h e o r e t i c a l s c h e m e is p r o b a b l y far t o o simplistic, b u t it is p r e scient o f K a n d e l , w h o proved that m e m o r y a n d its attendant affect reside in a neural net. K a n d e l says, " M o n i z m a d e s o m e c o n t r i b u t i o n s . " S o did M r s . M . , o f c o u r s e , w h o s e c o n t r i b u t i o n was h e r p o o r l y b e h a v e d b u c k l i n g brain. O n N o v e m b e r 1 1 , 1 9 3 5 , s h e was transferred from t h e M a n i c o m e B o m b a r d a A s y l u m t o t h e n e u r o l o g y s e r v i c e o f t h e S a n t a M a r i a hospital, w h e r e h e was w a i t i n g . T h e f i r s t l o b o t o m y was n o t actually d o n e b y blade. M r s . M . lay d o w n on a table, w h e r e u p o n h e r shaved scalp was s w a b b e d w i t h n o v o c a i n e and t w o p e n p o i n t - s i z e d h o l e s w e r e drilled o n e i t h e r side

o f h e r skull, i n t o w h i c h M o n i z and his assistant L i m a inserted a n a l c o h o l - f i l l e d syringe. M o n i z b e l i e v e d a n i n j e c t i o n o f a l c o h o l w o u l d be a safe a n d effective m e t h o d for destroying n e r v e tissue. He pushed the plunger down. Five h o u r s after surgery, M o n i z r e c o r d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h his c o n v a l e s c i n g patient: " W h e r e is your house?" "Calcada of Desterio." " H o w many fingers?" " F i v e . " S h e r e s p o n d e d w i t h slight hesitation. " H o w o l d are y o u ? " L o n g hesitation. S h e was n o t precise. " W h a t hospital is t h i s ? " S h e did n o t respond. " D o y o u prefer m i l k o r b o u i l l o n ? " " I prefer m i l k . " Her

answers

certainly

didn't

indicate

significant

spectacular

i m p r o v e m e n t ; i f anything, t h e y i n d i c a t e d s o m e c o g n i t i v e d e c l i n e , but M o n i z wasn't w o r r i e d . H e k n e w that a p e r i o d o f c o n f u s i o n f o l l o w i n g brain surgery is n o r m a l . He h a d t h e patient transferred to a r o o m , w h e r e she spiked a small fever, after w h i c h she was transferred b a c k t o t h e asylum. T w o m o n t h s later, o n e o f t h e asylum's psychiatrists m a d e t h e following evaluation o f M r s . M . :

T h e patient behaved normally. S h e is very calm, anxiety is not apparent. M i m i c r y still a little exaggerated. G o o d orientation. C o n s c i e n c e , intelligence, and behavior intact. M o o d slightly sad, but s o m e w h a t justified because o f her c o n c e r n about her future. Fair appreciation of her previous pathological state; appreciation of h e r situation is appropriate. T h e r e are no new pathological ideas or other symptoms and for the most part previous paranoid ideas are primarily g o n e . T h a t is to say, after the treatment the patient's anxiety and restlessness had

declined rapidly with a c o n c o m i t a n t marked attenuation of paranoid features.

C l e a r l y a success. Except—no

one

knows

what

happened

to

Mrs. M. because

M o n i z ' s w o r k suffers from p o o r f o l l o w - u p . W h a t b e c a m e o f h e r brain a s i t f l o a t e d w i t h its neural cords c u t ? D i d h e r i m p r o v e m e n t c o n tinue? D i d she relapse? W h e r e i s h e r v o i c e i n this tale? W e d o n ' t k n o w . T h e cords have b e e n cut. After M r s . M . , M o n i z p r o c e e d e d t o find m o r e patients. H e c h o s e patients based o n availability, n o t diagnosis, and h e has b e e n c r i t i c i z e d for this. He used h u m a n s as g u i n e a pigs and c o n d u c t e d his e x p e r i m e n t w i t h o u t t h e d o u b l e - b l i n d p r o c e d u r e . H o w e v e r , h o w could h e have c r e a t e d a d o u b l e - b l i n d e x p e r i m e n t ? T h e r e is no w a y to give o n e g r o u p of patients a s h a m l o b o t o m y , a n o t h e r g r o u p a real o n e . A n d as for t h e patients t h e m s e l v e s , it's true, t h e y w e r e used as g u i n e a pigs. B u t t h e n there's this: m a n y o f t h e m w e r e i n a rapid state o f d e c l i n e , h e a d i n g toward a n inevitable d e t e r i o r a t i o n . T h a t b y n o m e a n s m a k e s t h e patients less h u m a n , b u t i t does alter t h e c o s t - b e n e f i t ratio. M o n i z was p r o b a b l y t h i n k i n g , This could really help these people who have nothing left to try, and if it doesn't help, it surely won't make them worse. They are as bad off as can be. M o n i z w r i t e s , "I r e c o g n i z e d that t h e m e t h o d c o u l d b e harmless, and capable o f b e n e f i t i n g t h e insane." S o h e w e n t ahead, p l u c k i n g patients w h e r e v e r h e c o u l d , drilling t h e m , filling t h e bulbs o f t h e i r heads w i t h c o l d clear a l c o h o l , and t h e n c h e c k i n g t h e i r vital signs as t h e e t h e r b u r n e d t h r o u g h i n t e l l i g e n t tissue. Afterward, several scarred and b a r r e n places on t h e brain, like land l o o k s as it is seen from an airplane f o l l o w i n g a forest fire. M o n i z , i n his initial e x p e r i m e n t , s u b j e c t e d t w e n t y patients t o the p r o c e d u r e , first using a l c o h o l and t h e n s w i t c h i n g to a l e u c o t o m e , a bladed i n s t r u m e n t that sliced sideways, c u t t i n g neural c o n n e c t i o n s , d a m a g i n g tissue. H e saw s o m e r e m a r k a b l e things. M o n i z saw patients seized w i t h a l i f e t i m e o f a n x i e t y g r o w c a l m ; h e saw delusional ideas d w i n d l e ; patients w h o h a d spent years i n t h e asylum n o w r e t u r n e d

h o m e , s o m e o f t h e m even t o w o r k . H e p e r f o r m e d a l o b o t o m y o n a t h i r t y - s i x - y e a r - o l d w o m a n w h o , d u r i n g a voyage t o t h e B e l g i a n C o n g o , t h r e w h e r c l o t h e s o v e r b o a r d t h e ship and, in a d e e p d e p r e s sion, swallowed sulfuric acid. After t h e p r o c e d u r e t h e family f o u n d h e r " i n e x c e l l e n t c o n d i t i o n . J u s t a s she was b e f o r e t h e psychosis." T h e patient h e r s e l f said, a f e w days after h e r surgery, "It's over n o w . I w a n t t o g o b a c k t o live w i t h m y daughters." O f t h e t w e n t y o r i g i n a l cases, M o n i z c l a i m e d a c o m p l e t e c u r e for seven o f t h e m , a partial c u r e for a n o t h e r seven, and six w h o w e r e u n h e l p e d . A l t o g e t h e r t h e n , supposedly seventy p e r c e n t o f t h e patients had s o m e significant r e m i s s i o n o f l o n g - s t a n d i n g intractable m e n t a l illness w i t h n o r e p o r t e d l o n g - t e r m p r o b l e m a t i c side effects. S c h o l a r s o f p s y c h o s u r g e r y dispute these n u m b e r s , c l a i m i n g that l a c k o f l o n g t e r m f o l l o w - u p s k e w e d t h e early results in a far t o o favorable d i r e c t i o n . T h e y also c l a i m that t h e fact that I Q scores t e n d e d t o rise postoperatively m e a n s v e r y little, b e c a u s e t h e IQ test is n o t at all s e n sitive t o t h e types o f brain d a m a g e inflicted b y l o b o t o m y . T h e s e claims u n d o u b t e d l y have m e r i t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e bald b r u t e story o f M o n i z and t h e s u r g e o n s w h o f o l l o w e d i n his footsteps c o n t a i n s w i t h i n i t n u m e r o u s patients w h o e x p e r i e n c e d e i t h e r significant r e l i e f o r m u c h i m p r o v e d b e h a v i o r , and this data, i f w e are t o b e l i e v e it, d e m a n d s w e r e c o n s i d e r o r renarrate t h e story o f p s y c h o s u r g e r y a s a possibly g o o d e n o u g h c u r e for s o m e patients i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a t i m e without Thorazine or Prozac.

M O N I Z P U B L I S H E D H I S findings in 1 9 3 7 in the American Journal of Psychiatry, and so it was that l o b o t o m y m a d e its way to t h e U n i t e d States. T w o s u r g e o n s , W a l t e r F r e e m a n and J a m e s Watts, w e n t t o w o r k o n this side o f t h e sea. F r e e m a n and Watts d e v e l o p e d a t e c h n i q u e called t h e transorbital l o b o t o m y , w h e r e t h e y e n t e r e d t h e brain w i t h a sharply p o i n t e d i n s t r u m e n t j u s t above t h e eyeball, forcing t h e p o i n t t h r o u g h t h e b o n y o r b i t i n t o t h e brain's quadrants. T h e essential difference

between

the Watts-Freeman

transorbital

procedure

and

M o n i z ' s prefrontal p r o c e d u r e i s t h e m e t h o d o f access. M o n i z w e n t i n a t t h e hairline. T h e A m e r i c a n s u r g e o n s w e n t straight for t h e softest d o o r , i n s e r t i n g t h e i r knives u p a n d u n d e r t h e o p e n eyes, a n d t h e n cutting what they could. As h o r r i f y i n g as this p r o c e d u r e sounds, F r e e m a n a n d Watts h a d findings similar t o M o n i z ' s w h e n t h e y r e s t r i c t e d t h e i r o p e r a t i o n o n l y t o patients suffering from a n x i e t y a n d depression. F r e e m a n r e c o u n t s o n e w o m a n from T o p e k a , Kansas, w h o suffered from severe a g i t a t i o n and c h o s e t h e o p e r a t i o n o v e r i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n . A s w i t h M r s . M . , she h a d h e r hair c u t t h e n i g h t b e f o r e , w e e p i n g a s t h e curls c a m e off, a n d t h e n t h e n e x t m o r n i n g she was delivered, h e r h e a d as bald as an infant's b o t t o m , p i n k and w a i t i n g , slit. F r e e m a n and Watts w e n t i n a n d t h e n s e w e d u p h e r scalp, a n d t h e w o m a n , l y i n g o n t h e table, r e p o r t e d , w i t h a sense o f awe, that all h e r t e r r o r was n o w g o n e . Freeman: Are you happy? Patient:Yes. Freeman: D o you r e m e m b e r b e i n g upset w h e n you c a m e here? Patient:Yes, I was quite upset, wasn't I? F r e e m a n : W h a t was it all about? Patient: I don't know. I s e e m to have forgotten. It doesn't s e e m important now. F r e e m a n w r o t e that t h e results w e r e extraordinary. " J u d g m e n t a n d insight are apparently n o t d i m i n i s h e d , a n d t h e ability t o e n j o y e x t e r nal events is c e r t a i n l y increased." A l t o g e t h e r , in t h e i r initial spree, t h e t w o s u r g e o n s p e r f o r m e d five m o r e o p e r a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e n e x t six w e e k s a n d f o u n d that i n all o f t h e patients, w h o shared " a substratum, a c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r o f worry, a p p r e h e n s i o n , i n s o m n i a , n e r v o u s t e n s i o n , t h e r e was a lifting o f t h e m e s h o f anxiety." A n d t h e n , o f course, there w e r e t h e downsides. Seizures. D e a t h s . B u r s t b l o o d vessels. A blade lost in t h e brain. Postsurgical infections. R e l a p s e s . I n c o n t i n e n c e . M o n i z writes o f o n e w o m a n w h o , four days after t h e surgery, shouted obscenities and sang; o t h e r patients b e c a m e

childlike, c l u t c h i n g

teddy

bears

and

following

directions

meekly.

F r e e m a n wrote, " L o b o t o m y patients may m a k e g o o d citizens," a chilling c o m m e n t b u t n o t in its essence different from the criticisms levied at the psychiatric drugs w e i m b i b e today. O n e o f the myriad central q u e s tions was, did l o b o t o m y lead to a loss of s o m e "vital spark"? M o s t patients in fact did n o t clutch at teddy bears and shout obscenities after t h e surgery, or if they did so, it was o n l y for a while. B u t here's w h a t wasn't for a while: m a n y l o b o t o m y patients were j u s t a tad bit flatter after their skulls w e r e sewn up, a slight and subtle shift, as t h o u g h the patients were n o t really themselves, but X e r o x copies, in black and white, the quirks and curves c o m p r i s i n g their character irreproducible. H o w e v e r , there is s o m e t h i n g to be said for flattening, and t h e spark, i f i t burns t o o brightly, can singe t h e skin. O n e l o b o t o m i z e d p s y c h i a trist was able, after surgery, to r u n his o w n psychiatric c l i n i c . A n o t h e r built an e x t r e m e l y profitable business and flew his o w n plane. So w h o ' s to say? W h a t m a k e s l o b o t o m y great is n o t necessarily w h a t it did or didn't do, b u t how, in its extremity, it forces us to question m e d ical ethics: W h a t constitutes i n f o r m e d c o n s e n t ? Is it ethical to substitute o n e f o r m o f o r g a s m i c brain dysfunction for a n o t h e r ? C a n d o c t o r s ever justify h a r m i n g apparently healthy h u m a n tissue? Is there s o m e i n h e r e n t sanctity t o t h e h u m a n brain? W i l l surgeons s o o n , i f they have n o t already, b e c o m e t h e l o n g a r m o f t h e law? I t i s i r o n i c that t h e o p e r ation feared to r e m o v e t h e soul, t h e spark, forces us to ask t h e q u e s tions that b r i n g us right to t h e b u r n i n g place, w h e r e we must w e i g h w h a t we're willing t o lose, and tussle w i t h t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f cure. T h e press, n e v e r k n o w n for its c o m p l e x i t y , c a u g h t o n t o t h e n e w p r o c e d u r e and p r o m o t e d it. In

1 9 4 8 t h e New York Times ran this

headline:

S u r g e r y used o n t h e s o u l - s i c k ; r e l i e f o f obsessions is reported. N e w B r a i n t e c h n i q u e is said to have aided 6 5 % of t h e m e n t a l l y ill persons on w h o it was tried as a last resort, but s o m e leading neurologists are highly skeptical of it.

Harper's i n 1 9 4 1

r e p o r t e d t h e t e c h n i q u e a s revolutionary. T h e

Saturday Evening Post t o u t e d it as w e l l . T h e n appeared patient t e s t i m o n i a l s , n o t at all unlike t h e testimonials we have today, m e a n t h a l f as a d v e r t i s e m e n t , h a l f a s m e d i t a t i o n . O n e such patient, b y t h e n a m e o f H a r r y D a n n e c k e r , w r o t e an article in t h e 1 9 4 5 Coronet Magazine entitled "Psychosurgery C u r e d M e . " He describes h i m s e l f before the l o b o t o m y as hopelessly suicidal, w i t h n o t h i n g left to live for, a n d after t h e l o b o t o m y , a s having e m e r g e d " f r o m that t e r r i b l e u n d e r w o r l d o f t h e s i c k m i n d . " H a r r y D a n n e c k e r lifted his h e a d u p and m a r c h e d i n t o t h e a u t o m e c h a n i c s business, w h e r e h e r e p o r t e d significant s u c cess. I n his article h e w r i t e s , " M y p u r p o s e . . . i s a s i m p l e o n e : i t m a y give h e a r t a n d c o u r a g e to readers w h o have afflictions such as I had, o r w h o have friends w i t h similar m i s e r a b l e obsessions."

W H Y , T H E N , H A V E w e persisted i n narrating l o b o t o m y a s purely evil? Its d o w n s i d e s are e v i d e n t : a seizure rate s o m e t i m e s as h i g h as thirty p e r c e n t , a n d its A m e r i c a n evangelizer, F r e e m a n , a tilted c o r t i c a l c o w b o y r i d i n g h i g h w i t h his knife, n o t b o t h e r i n g t o sterilize his i n s t r u m e n t s o r e v e n drape t h e p a t i e n t b e f o r e t h e t e n - m i n u t e p r o c e dure i n w h i c h h e r i p p e d o u t cords. F r e e m a n did a l o t t o give l o b o t o m y its b a d n a m e ; like t h e d o c t o r s o f today w h o p r e s c r i b e o u r n e w e s t antidepressants for j u s t a b o u t any ill, F r e e m a n was i n d i s c r i m i nate i n his c h o i c e o f patients, e v e n a s h e appeared t o care for t h o s e h e c u t , s e n d i n g t h e m C h r i s t m a s cards e v e r y year, traveling across t h e c o u n t r y i n his van t o c h e c k o n t h e i r progress. Despite

the

poor outcomes

reported

h e r e , despite

Freeman's

m y o p i c a n d zealous v i e w o f t h e k n i f e a s c u r e - a l l , t h e r e i s still n o q u e s t i o n that this surgery h e l p e d n u m b e r s o f p e o p l e . A c o n g r e s s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e f o r m e d i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s t o investigate psychosurgery, w i t h a plan to o u t l a w it, f o u n d , m u c h to t h e i r surprise, that p s y c h o s u r g e r y is a l e g i t i m a t e p r o c e d u r e that " c a n b e o f significant t h e r a p e u t i c value i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f c e r t a i n disorders o r i n t h e r e l i e f o f c e r t a i n s y m p t o m s . " T h e c o m m i t t e e w e n t further a n d stated p s y c h o s u r g e r y was " a

p o t e n t i a l l y b e n e f i c i a l therapy." E l l i o t Valenstein, o n e o f t h e sharpest c r i t i c s o f t h e l o b o t o m y , w r i t e s that " f o l l o w i n g a l o b o t o m y , m a n y a g i tated a n d a n x i o u s patients did e x p e r i e n c e a s t r i k i n g r e l i e f from t h e i r m o s t t r o u b l e s o m e s y m p t o m s . In t h e best cases this led to a n o r m a l ization o f b e h a v i o r . " W h y , t h e n , has l o b o t o m y b e e n preserved i n t h e dust bins o f h i s tory, t o l d as a l o n g dark tale in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of s o m a t i c treatm e n t s , a d a n g e r o u s digression? Perhaps w e n e e d t o see l o b o t o m y like this b e c a u s e , well, b e c a u s e o f o u r brains. W e m a y b e w i r e d t o prefer a n e a t s c h e m e o f b l a c k a n d w h i t e over o n e w i t h gray. A n d perhaps w e n e v e r q u i t e g r o w o u t o f t h e p u e r i l e b e l i e f that i f this o b j e c t i s bad, t h e n that o b j e c t must b e g o o d . W e take pleasure i n p o l a r i z a t i o n , t h e w a y things o n o p p o s i t e ends o f a single axis b e c o m e clear a n d s e e m i n g l y definitely defined. T h e r e f o r e , i n o r d e r t o justify t h e general b e n e v o l e n c e o f o u r p s y c h i a t r i c cures today, w e u n d e r s c o r e t h e b a r b a r i s m o f w h a t t h e y o n c e w e r e . D a r k a n d light. W e didn't k n o w w h a t w e w e r e d o i n g b a c k t h e n , B U T W E D O N O W W e say this a s w e p o p o u r P r o z a c pills, o u r R i t a l i n tablets, a s w e toy w i t h o u r h o r m o n e s , e g g i n g o n o u r estrogen i n t h e h o p e s o f happiness. B u t h o w different, really, are o u r c o n t e m p o r a r y cures from t h e i r historical b r e t h r e n ? L o b o t o m y has b e e n w i d e l y c r i t i c i z e d for its l a c k o f s p e c i ficity. S u r g e o n s drilled i n t o t h e head, s t u c k in sharp things, snapped t h e t o u g h tissue o f d r e a m a n d t h o u g h t , and k n e w n o t w h a t t h e y w e r e snapping. T h e y had vague ideas, o f c o u r s e — s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e thalamus a n d t h e frontal l o b e s , e m o t i o n a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e — b u t t h e y didn't u n d e r s t a n d w h a t u n d e r b r u s h in t h e brain t h e y w e r e really c l e a r i n g . C o n s i d e r , h o w e v e r , P r o z a c today. It is a d r u g hailed for its s u p p o s e d specificity, a n d we like that. It m a k e s us feel we k n o w w h a t w e are d o i n g , s h o o t i n g w e l l - a i m e d missiles i n t o o u r m i n d now, instead o f s o m e p r i m i t i v e p l u n g e w i t h a knife. T h e t r u t h o f t h e m a t t e r is, t h o u g h , n o o n e really k n o w s w h e r e o r h o w P r o z a c o p e r a t e s i n t h e brain; n o o n e understands its m e c h a n i s m s . " P h a r m a c o l o g i c a l specificity," says r e s e a r c h e r H a r o l d S a c k h e i m , "is a m y t h . " A n d like l o b o t o m y , n o o n e k n o w s q u i t e w h y P r o z a c cures. I t i s a b o u t a s b l u n t

a t o o l as any M o n i z used. W h e n d o c t o r s p r e s c r i b e a P r o z a c pill, t h e y are a c t i n g as did M o n i z , blindly b u t in great faith, w i t h a real desire to heal, and w i t h at least as m u c h w i s h as fact. P e o p l e also c r i t i c i z e l o b o t o m y b e c a u s e it is irreversible. H o w e v e r , w h o ' s t o say o u r c u r r e n t i m b i b e m e n t o f p s y c h i a t r i c pills isn't d o i n g grave i n d e l i b l e d a m a g e w e have yet t o u n e a r t h ? Psychiatrist J o s e p h G l e n m u l l e n has g i v e n w a r n i n g that P r o z a c use can cause A l z h e i m e r type plaques a n d tangles i n t h e b r a i n , w h i c h m a y b e w h y s o m a n y i m b i b e r s c o m p l a i n t h e y can't retain a t h i n g , t h e p l a c e m e n t o f t h o s e car keys or even w h e r e t h e car is parked. It is also possible that o u r n e w e s t m e d i c a t i o n s c o u l d , over t h e l o n g haul, cause irreversible dyskinesias, so in t w e n t y years this P r o z a c n a t i o n m i g h t be t w i t c h i n g its way t h r o u g h t h e forgetful days. W e take t h e m anyway, o u r pills, b e c a u s e w e hurt, b e c a u s e w e have to, and s o t o o did t h e patients w h o lay d o w n for a l o b o t o m y . D i d t h e y lose t h e i r vital spark after t h e p r o c e d u r e ? T h i s has b e e n , o f all things, t h e m o s t persistent p u b l i c o b j e c t i o n t o t h e l o b o t o m i z e d patient; that i n c u t t i n g i n t o t h e frontal l o b e s , t h e p o r t i o n of t h e brain that is b i g g e s t in h u m a n s and that shrinks as w e m o v e d o w n t h e p h y l o g e n e t i c line, d o c t o r s w e r e c u t t i n g i n t o t h e c o r e o f t h e soul and afterwards: e m p t y . W h e t h e r or n o t this was t h e case is actually less i n t e r e s t i n g than t h e fact that w e have t h e v e r y s a m e fears and c r i t i c i s m s o f o u r c o n t e m p o r a r y cures. T h r o u g h o u t all o f history, actually, w h e n e v e r p r e sented

with

an

opportunity

for

psychic

well-being,

we

have

i m m e d i a t e l y feared losing t h e dividends o f darkness. R i l k e did n o t w a n t t o e n t e r psychoanalysis b e c a u s e h e was afraid h e w o u l d g e t well and n o l o n g e r have p o e t r y t o w r i t e . T h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i n t h e play Equus, w h o s e love for horses b r i n g s m u c h m e a n i n g to his life, finally agrees t o psychotherapy, o n l y t o find he's b e e n talked straight o u t o f his passion. In today's day and age t h e r e are novelists and windsurfers and m o t h e r s and b u s i n e s s m e n w h o c o m p l a i n t h e i r nifty n e w pills are m a k i n g t h e m "less i n t e n s e " o r "less creative." W h e n o n e l o o k s a t t h e persistence of the complaint in every type of psychiatric intervention, o n e starts to w o n d e r w h e t h e r it has less to do w i t h t h e i n t e r -

v e n t i o n a t h a n d and m o r e t o d o w i t h o u r c o m p l e x relationship t o suffering, w h i c h w e hate even a s w e b e l i e v e i t h u m a n i z e s us. T h e l o b o t o m y m a y or m a y n o t have r e m o v e d a vital spark, b u t perhaps no m o r e so, n o less s o than w h a t w e d o t o feel b e t t e r today. A s for w h e t h e r or n o t that vital spark is integral to o u r h u m a n i t y , ask H e n r y D a n n e k e r . A s k M r s . M. I i m a g i n e t h e m saying, as seriously ill as t h e y w e r e , " W h o gives a rat's ass a b o u t vital spark? J u s t deliver me from my symptoms." E x t r e m e suffering snuffs o u t t h e spark. O r m a k e s i t irrelevant. W e wish t o b e delivered.

I N 1 9 4 9 , W H E N M o n i z was awarded t h e N o b e l P r i z e for his d i s c o v ery of the lobotomy, the procedure popularized to the point where twenty thousand operations alone were performed in the U n i t e d States, and t h e Nation w r o t e i t was w o r r i s o m e , h o w w e w e r e c r e a t i n g c o n g l o m e r a t e s o f b r a i n - d a m a g e d p e o p l e a s citizens o f this c o u n t r y . B y s o m e estimates, a total o f thirty-five t h o u s a n d o p e r a t i o n s w e r e p e r f o r m e d i n t h e U n i t e d States b e t w e e n 1 9 3 6 and 1 9 7 8 , w i t h t h e highest frequency o c c u r r i n g in c o n j u n c t i o n with the N o b e l Prize, and a fast falling o f f o c c u r r i n g after psychotic

was

discovered.

1 9 5 0 , w h e n t h e first a n t i -

Pharmacology

and

all

the

profits

it

s p a w n e d w e r e b o r n i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s and that, a l o n g w i t h a g r o w i n g l o w r u m b l e o f p u b l i c suspicion regarding t h e cure, led t o l o b o t o m y s fall from favor. A drug s e e m e d so m u c h better, less invasive, even t h o u g h t h e side effects w e r e o b v i o u s stupefaction, sweating, and a c u t e m o t o r restlessness. I t s e e m s w e w o u l d r a t h e r e n t e r t h e brain t h r o u g h o u r s t o m a c h s t h a n do so directly, s a m e as we w o u l d often rather talk a r o u n d a t e r r i b l e truth than t o u c h it. T h e r e w e r e o t h e r factors a s well. T h e n a t i o n was b e c o m i n g increasingly

suspicious

of unregulated

medical

experimentation.

S t a n l e y M i l g r a m ' s s h o c k m a c h i n e set o f f a n ethical furor over w h a t o n e m a y d o t o subjects, a s did t h e T u s k e g e e e x p e r i m e n t , w h e r e d o c tors d e n i e d s o m e b l a c k m e n syphilitic

treatment so they could

o b s e r v e t h e d e m i s e o f t h e i r brains. Perhaps m o s t i m p o r t a n t , t h e press caught on to p h a r m a c o l o g y as the n e w n e w thing and began p r o m o t i n g it as it o n c e did l o b o t o m y , so t h e p u b l i c had a n o t h e r c u r e that h e l d w i t h i n it all o u r h o p e a n d d e s p e r a t i o n . By the

1 9 7 0 s , fewer than t w e n t y l o b o t o m i e s w e r e b e i n g p e r -

f o r m e d e a c h year i n this c o u n t r y , e v e n a s a small g r o u p o f n e u r o s u r g e o n s c o n t i n u e d t o refine t h e i r t e c h n i q u e s s o that less a n d less o f t h e brain was l e s i o n e d , resulting in f e w e r and f e w e r negative side effects. T h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s saw t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s t e r e o t a x i c i n s t r u m e n t s that m a d e it possible to insert a small e l e c t r o d e that destroys v e r y m i n u t e bits o f t a r g e t e d tissue, i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e r a t h e r b l i n d g r o p i n g s o f t h e blade. S u r g e o n s also b e g a n f o c u s i n g less o n t h e frontal l o b e s , a n d m o r e o n t h e l i m b i c s y s t e m , o t h e r w i s e k n o w n a s " t h e e m o t i o n a l brain." T h e y b e g a n t a r g e t i n g a particular part o f t h e l i m b i c system, t h e c i n g u l a t e gyrus, an area supposedly responsible for m e d i a t i n g anxiety. It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e , h o w e v e r , that t h e r e appears t o b e v e r y little a g r e e m e n t , t h e n a n d n o w , a s t o w h a t brain sites t o slash, a n d this l a c k o f a g r e e m e n t u n d e r s c o r e s p s y c h o s u r g e r y ' s e x p e r i m e n t a l nature. D i f f e r e n t n e u r o s u r g e o n s appear t o have favorite c o r t i cal targets, a bias that preexists t h e patients. S o m e , for i n s t a n c e , truly b e l i e v e that a n a m y g d a l e c t o m y — r e m o v a l o f t h e a m y g d a l a — w o r k s w o n d e r s , w h i l e o t h e r s h o l d fast t o t h e site o f t h e c i n g u l a t e gyrus a n d still o t h e r s p r o m o t e t h e c a u d a t e n u c l e u s . A c o m b i n a t i o n o f l a c k o f c o n s e n s u s i n t h e field a n d its h i s t o r y o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l c h a r a c t e r s has k e p t m o d e r n - d a y l o b o t o m i e s , dressed up in different n a m e s , a lastd i t c h o p t i o n for o n l y t h e sickest a m o n g us, a p r o c e d u r e s h r o u d e d in secrecy, in s h a m e .

PART

TWO

Massachusetts General Hospital is located on Fruit Street in d o w n t o w n B o s t o n . Its h i g h - t e c h buildings a n d g l e a m i n g glass d o o r s are at odds w i t h its n e i g h b o r h o o d o f c o b b l e - s t o n e d pathways a n d titled t o w n h o u s e s w h e r e b r i g h t f l o w e r b o x e s c h a r m e v e r y w i n d o w ledge. I f

y o u w e r e t o stand j u s t a b l o c k away, i n h i s t o r i c B e a c o n H i l l , y o u w o u l d n e v e r k n o w h o w c l o s e y o u are t o o n e o f t h e m o s t t e c h n i c a l l y p r o f i c i e n t institutions in this c o u n t r y . Y o u c a n n o t get p s y c h o s u r g e r y easily in this c o u n t r y ; in fact, it is o u t l a w e d i n several states, i n c l u d i n g C a l i f o r n i a a n d O r e g o n . T h e U S S R , w h e n i t was t h e U S S R , b a n n e d p s y c h o s u r g e r y c o m p l e t e l y , a s b e i n g o u t o f k e e p i n g w i t h its Pavlovian past. Patients w h o s e e k this c u r e have t o l o o k l o n g and hard; t h e y have t o have e x h a u s t e d every o t h e r t r e a t m e n t o p t i o n , a n d prove i t t o t h e e t h i c s c o m m i t t e e b e f o r e t h e y c a n get any holes drilled in t h e i r heads. E m i l y Este, from B r o o k l y n N e w Y o r k , has suffered depression all her life, and she was unable to get approved for a l o b o t o m y by the Mass G e n e r a l Psychosurgery E t h i c s C o m m i t t e e b e c a u s e she had n o t tried e n o u g h rounds o f electroconvulsive therapy. C h a r l i e N e w i t z , o n the o t h e r hand, from Austin, Texas, was approved. He had b e e n through over thirty rounds o f s h o c k therapy and o n m o r e than t w e n t y - t h r e e different psychiatric medications; h e can n a m e t h e m , t i c k i n g t h e m o f f o n his fingers like little r h y m e s — L u v o x , C e l e x a , Lamictal, Effexor, lithium, Depakote,

Prozac,

Risperdal,

Haldol,

Serzone,

Zoloft,

Remeron,

W e l l b u t r i n , C y t o m e l , D e x e d r i n e , I m i p r a m i n e , Parnate, Nortiptyline, T h o r a z i n e — C h a r l i e n a m e s his meds, his o w n personal p o e m o f o n e life, his life, lived in perpetual illness. C h a r l i e is a f o r t y - y e a r - o l d b i g b e a r of a m a n w i t h t h e barest s h a d o w o f a m u s t a c h e a n d d a z e d - l o o k i n g eyes, eyes that s e e m c l o u d y from all t h e c o n c o c t i o n s he a n d his psychiatrist have p o u r e d i n t o t h e b o t t l e o f his body. W h e n C h a r l i e was t w e n t y - t w o years o l d and working as a geological engineer in Texas, he developed, quite out of t h e b l u e , i n c a p a c i t a t i n g obsessive c o m p u l s i v e disorder ( O C D ) . T h e u r g e to c o u n t , c h e c k , a n d tap g l u t t e d his m i n d , h e l d up his hands, so h e c o u l d d o n o t h i n g — n o t w o r k , n o t l o v e — h e was frozen i n r e p e t i tious rituals. " T h e suddenness o f i t was amazing," C h a r l i e says. " I was okay, a n d t h e n o n e day, I was n o t okay." A n d so it w e n t from there. T h i s h i g h l y skilled e n g i n e e r , a m a n w h o k n e w h o w t o read t h e flat faces o f r o c k s for t h e oil that m i g h t

lie b e n e a t h t h e m , b e c a m e a recluse, h o v e r i n g in his h o t Dallas apartm e n t , t u r n i n g o n o n e t o e i n circles. C h a r l i e feels h e i s o n e o f t h e u n l u c k y o n e s i n that h e didn't r e s p o n d t o any o f t h e drugs his psychiatrist, D r . R o b e r t s , p r e s c r i b e d for h i m . I n o n e way he's r i g h t , b u t i n a n o t h e r way he's w r o n g . C h a r l i e i s u n l u c k y , b u t he's n o t a m o n g t h e m i n o r i t y i n his l a c k o f response,

despite

what

Psychopharmacologists

the

industry

and the

would

lead

drug companies

us

to

that b a c k

think. them

proudly p r o c l a i m that p h a r m a c o l o g y i s t h e brave n e w w o r l d o f m e n tal illness t r e a t m e n t , that pills t h e size of peas have fairy-tale p o w e r , that w e c a n feel t h e m t h r o u g h piles u p o n piles o f c o n f u s i o n a n d c l o u d s , that t h e y c a n alter o u r sleep, pull us i n t o alertness, t u r n us m o r e sensitive o r less sensitive, e a c h capsule m a d e b y e a c h c o m p a n y j a m - p a c k e d w i t h p o w d e r s and proteins that elevate. T h i s is t h e message, a n d it's w r o n g , n o t o n l y b e c a u s e it's o b v i o u s l y oversimplified. It's m o r e d e e p l y w r o n g than that. T h e statistics d r u g c o m p a n i e s and m a n y p s y c h o p h a r m a c o l o g i s t s like t o q u o t e are that seventy p e r c e n t o f p e o p l e w h o try m e d i c a t i o n will g e t b e t t e r , a n d thirty p e r c e n t w o n ' t , s o d o n ' t w o r r y , y o u have a g o o d c h a n c e . I f w e l o o k c l o s e r t h o u g h , a different sort o f s t o r y e m e r g e s . It's t r u e that roughly

seventy

percent

of people

who

take

medication

will

r e s p o n d , b u t i n reality o n l y thirty p e r c e n t will r e s p o n d robustly; t h e rest e x p e r i e n c e o n l y m i n i m u m o r m o d e r a t e relief, a n d o f t h e total patient p o p u l a t i o n , s o m e

estimate

that u p

t o sixty p e r c e n t will

d e v e l o p a d r u g t o l e r a n c e that m a k e s t h e i r m e d i c a t i o n eventually u s e less. S o refigure. O f all t h e p e o p l e t a k i n g pills, t h e vast m a j o r i t y o f t h e m e i t h e r stay seriously sick, o r g e t o n l y s o m e w h a t b e t t e r , a n d " s o m e w h a t better," w h e n y o u ' r e h o r r i b l y h o b b l e d t o b e g i n w i t h , isn't m u c h t o c e l e b r a t e . P h a r m a c o l o g y has h e l p e d , b u t n o t nearly e n o u g h . T h e s e statistics a l o n e s h o u l d m a k e u s w o n d e r w h y w e c a n n o t b e a t o n c e c r i t i c a l o f psychosurgery, w h i l e a t t h e s a m e t i m e respectful o f its p l a c e i n o u r c o n t e m p o r a r y c a n o n . C h a r l i e N e w i t z and D r . R o b e r t s w o r k e d l o n g and hard t o get C h a r l i e approved for p s y c h o s u r g e r y at M a s s G e n e r a l . H e r e is still

a n o t h e r way i n w h i c h the p r o c e d u r e differs m a r k e d l y from M o n i z ' s t i m e : First, s t e r e o t a x i c i n s t r u m e n t s m a k e i t possible t o c r e a t e d e l i b e r ate lesions that avoid t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f p e r i p h e r a l brain tissue, thus m i n i m i z i n g t h e c h a n c e s f o r u n w a n t e d side effects, and, s e c o n d , n o o n e is w a l k i n g t h e w a r d halls a n y m o r e , p l u c k i n g patients at r a n d o m . At

the

end

of the

twentieth

century, strict

guidelines

for p s y -

chosurgery were constructed by the National C o m m i t t e e for the Safety o f H u m a n S u b j e c t s , t h e sort o f c o m m i t t e e F r e e m a n ' s a n d M o n i z ' s m e d i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s sorely l a c k e d .

O N D E C E M B E R 15, 1 9 9 9 , C h a r l i e N e w i t z a n d his wife Sasha f l e w t o B o s t o n . C h a r l i e m e t his n e u r o s u r g e o n t h e r e a n d s u b m i t t e d t o endless rounds o f testing. T h r o u g h o u t , Sasha, a d i m i n u t i v e b l o n d w h o speaks w i t h a s o u t h e r n a c c e n t , l o o k e d scared. W h e n Sasha m a r r i e d C h a r l i e i n h e r early t w e n t i e s , h e was s y m p t o m - f r e e . T h e n o n e day, h e was i n c a p a c i t a t e d ; obsessive c o m p u l s i v e disorder c a n w o r k like that, a p p e a r i n g swiftly on a s e e m i n g l y c l e a r life. " I ' m afraid," Sasha k e p t saying. " W i l l h e b e any d u m b e r after t h e p r o c e d u r e ? " she asked t h e d o c t o r s , in t h e halls, in t h e testing r o o m s , a n d t h e n she says it to C h a r l i e himself, w h i l e we are e a t i n g pizza in a B e a c o n H i l l deli. " H o n e y , " she says i n h e r s w e e t s o u t h e r n v o i c e , " h o n e y , I j u s t h o p e y o u ' r e n o t d u m b e r after this o p e r a t i o n . " C h a r l i e , w h o i s lifting a w e d g e o f p e p p e r o n i p i e t o his m o u t h , stops all m o v e m e n t . T h e p i e hangs s u s p e n d e d , a n d t h e n h e places i t s l o w l y b a c k o n his plate, w h e r e R o r s c h a c h b l o t s o f grease have spread. " M y greatest fear," h e says slowly. H e t o u c h e s his t e m p l e . " M y greatest fear f o r s o m e r e a s o n isn't a b o u t b e i n g d u m b . " H e l o o k s at Sasha, at m e , t h e r e p o r t e r he's let in to this i n t i m a t e t i m e in his life. " M y greatest fear a b o u t t h e p s y c h o s u r g e r y i s that afterwards, I'll b e i n c o n t i n e n t . I've read that s o m e t i m e s h a p p e n s . I j u s t d o n ' t w a n t t o b e w h i z z i n g all o v e r myself," h e says. H e l o o k s t o w a r d his wife, smiles, takes h e r h a n d . " O r w h i z z i n g o n y o u e i t h e r , " h e tells her. Sasha laughs.

T h e n e x t m o r n i n g dawns clear and c o l d . T h e sun i s the c o l o r o f o r a n g e sherbet i n the sky. T h e c o b b l e s t o n e s o f B e a c o n Hill have o n t h e m a dangerous skim o f i c e that cracks w i t h y o u r w e i g h t ; d o w n y o u go. W e — S a s h a , Charlie, and I — m e e t in a courtyard w h e r e , from an a n c i e n t - l o o k i n g b r i c k building, s o m e o n e is playing a bugle, t h e s o u n d terribly clear and full o f p o r t e n t . " D o y o u hear t h a t ? " C h a r l i e asks. W e m a k e o u r way d o w n the hill, taking little m i n c i n g steps. D e s p i t e all t h e facts and figures I've read by now, I t o o find it hard to believe C h a r l i e w o n ' t be left a little d u l l - w i t t e d by this procedure. I t o o t h i n k that here, right now, is a vital h u m a n n a m e d C h a r l i e , but in a m a t t e r of m e r e hours, s o m e t h i n g substantial will have b e e n sliced from his soul. T h i s m a k e s o u r descent d o w n t h e hill almost m y t h i c , full o f m e a n i n g ; earlier this c e n t u r y F r e e m a n had w r i t t e n that psychosurgery does take s o m e t h i n g essential from the patient, b u t in t h e days and years f o l l o w ing t h e p r o c e d u r e , a newer, mature s e l f is b o r n from the l o b o t o m i z e d lesions. Charlie's surgeon, has assured h i m that he will e x p e r i e n c e no intellectual or personality deficits; t h e p r o c e d u r e is so finely h o n e d now, it targets o n l y the p r o b l e m a t i c tissue. In any event, we slide d o w n the i c e . B r i g h t daggers o f i c e h a n g from t h e eaves and drip. A t t h e hospital, C h a r l i e i s g i v e n his I D b r a c e l e t and t h e n lies d o w n . H i s h e a d is shaved a n d s w a b b e d w i t h a l c o h o l . Sasha starts to cry. " H o w m a n y cuts are y o u g o i n g t o m a k e ? " C h a r l i e asks. " T w o , " t h e s u r g e o n says. " N o , " says C h a r l i e . " N o ? " t h e s u r g e o n says. " N o , " C h a r l i e repeats. " I c a n ' t j u s t m a k e o n e , " t h e s u r g e o n says. " Y o u w o n ' t get any symptom relief with one." " I k n o w that," says C h a r l i e , and his eyes are w i d e a n d glistening. " I w a n t s y m p t o m relief. I d o n ' t w a n t o n e c u t a n d I d o n ' t w a n t t w o . I w a n t three," he says, "at least."

ALTHOUGH

D O C T O R S T O D A Y are q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t t h e differ-

e n c e s b e t w e e n c i n g u l o t o m y and l o b o t o m y , t h e y i n fact share signifi-

c a n t similarities. N e i t h e r l o b o t o m y n o r c i n g u l o t o m y involves c u t t i n g any o b v i o u s l y diseased tissue; t h e y b o t h c u t apparently healthy p i n k ish gray a n d w h i t e matter, t u r n i n g t h e H i p p o c r a t i c o a t h — d o n o h a r m — r i g h t o n its h e a d . O f c o u r s e , s o m e t i m e s h a r m leads t o health, c h e m o t h e r a p y b e i n g a case in p o i n t , plastic surgery a still m o r e subtle e x a m p l e , t h e n o s e sawed o f f and afterward, t h e b l o o d i e d patient's c r i sis o f c o n f i d e n c e c u r e d . There

are

important

lobotomy, surgeons

differences

separate

some

in

the

of the

procedure cables

though.

In

connecting the

frontal l o b e s t o t h e thalamus. I n c i n g u l o t o m y , s u r g e o n s separate s o m e o f t h e n e r v e tracts from t h e frontal l o b e s t o t h e c i n g u l a t e gyrus, w h i c h is t h e p l a c e in o u r brain supposedly responsible for m e d i a t i n g anxiety. W i t h these neural cords c u t , a n x i o u s , obsessive messages s u p p o s e d l y can't g e t t h r o u g h ; t h e p h o n e l i n e i s d o w n . S u z a n n e C o r k i n , h e a d o f t h e p s y c h o l o g y d e p a r t m e n t a t M I T , did o n e o f t h e l o n g e s t p r o s p e c t i v e studies o f c i n g u l o t o m y p a t i e n t s i n t h e c o u n t r y a n d f o u n d i t t o b e a p r o c e d u r e that did n o t m a r n o r m a l e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s b u t did d e c r e a s e s o m e p s y c h i a t r i c s y m p t o m s . I n this c o u n t r y , s c o r e s o f h o p e l e s s patients have b e e n r e s t o r e d t o sanity b y t h e c i n g u l o t o m y , w h i c h was b o r n , o f c o u r s e , f r o m its p a r e n t , M o n i z . U n l i k e M o n i z ' s l o b o t o m y , h o w e v e r , t h e r e have b e e n n o deaths a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p r o c e d u r e ; n o blades are e v e r lost i n the brain. In t h e o p e r a t i n g r o o m , C h a r l i e ' s h e a d is p l a c e d in a steel h a l o to ensure he holds it a b s o l u t e l y still d u r i n g t h e drilling. A h i g h - t e c h i m a g i n g d e v i c e reflects C h a r l i e ' s brain o n a v i d e o s c r e e n . T h e c i n g u late gyrus l o o m s large a n d grainy as a planet b e a m e d b a c k to E a r t h . A d o c t o r p o s i t i o n s a drill r i g h t a b o v e C h a r l i e ' s t e m p l e s , and t h e n it is in, slipping past t h e strangely y i e l d i n g skin. O n t h e s c r e e n y o u c a n see it, t h e drill's b i t m a k i n g its w a y oh so slowly t h r o u g h dunes a n d r i p ples o f C h a r l i e ' s c o r t e x . A n d t h e n , t h e n e e d l e stops. I t slashes s i d e ways, a n d a w h i t e l i n e — t h e l e s i o n — a p p e a r s o n t h e v i d e o screen. T h i s is a l i n e that w i l l lead to health, b u t to C h a r l i e it l o o k s like a minus

sign

or a

frown, a n d

it's

m o n o g r a m m e d into

the

tissue.

A n o t h e r o n e appears. C h a r l i e ' s eyes are w i d e o p e n . T h e s u r g e o n m o v e s t h e n e e d l e and C h a r l i e ' s m o u t h starts t w i t c h i n g . His left h a n d leaps. " S o r r y , " t h e d o c t o r says. " C a n y o u b l i n k y o u r e y e s ? " " C a n y o u c o u n t b a c k w a r d s from seven." " A l m o s t d o n e , " t h e s u r g e o n says. " C a n y o u tell m e y o u r n a m e ? " " I can't," says C h a r l i e , l y i n g b r a c e d o n t h e table, his v o i c e t h i c k and slurred. " Y o u d o n ' t k n o w y o u r n a m e ? " t h e s u r g e o n asks, l o o k i n g w o r r i e d . "I can't . . . C h a r l i e . . . y o u k n o w , " he says, " n o w my t o n g u e ' s all numb."

IN 19 9 7 Discover m a g a z i n e ran an article titled " L o b o t o m y s B a c k . " A n d w h i l e t h e a u t h o r o f that article clearly saw t h e t r e n d a s disturbing, it m i g h t actually be a w e l c o m e d e v e l o p m e n t in s o m e instances. It m i g h t actually b e that M o n i z was o n t o s o m e t h i n g , that t h e dark digression was n o t psychosurgery, b u t p s y c h o p h a r m a c o l o g y . W e have n e v e r b e e n able t o create a d r u g that acts w i t h t h e specificity o f modern-day

psychosurgery. N o

drug

can

go

right

to

the

one-

m i l l i m e t e r target o f tissue o n t h e c i n g u l a t e gyrus. D r u g s are like o i l spills; t h e y leak e v e r y w h e r e , a n d w a s h e d up on s h o r e are t h e slick b l a c k birds, t h e i n s o m n i a and sweats. Says n e u r o s c i e n t i s t H a r o l d S a c k h e i m , " D o y o u t h i n k sexual d y s f u n c t i o n i s a result o f Prozac's specificity? N o , o b v i o u s l y t h e S S R I s are t a r g e t i n g o t h e r systems a s well. O n t h e o t h e r hand, a n i n t e r v e n t i o n that can target a v e r y s p e cific p i e c e o f tissue, w i t h o u t o v e r l o a d i n g t h e w h o l e system, w i t h o u t c a u s i n g massive brain dysfunction, w h i c h is w h a t m e d i c a t i o n does, that's w h e r e t h e future o f p s y c h i a t r y is." S a c k h e i m w o r k s a t t h e N e w Y o r k S t a t e P s y c h i a t r i c Institute, a n o l d b r i c k b u i l d i n g i n N e w Y o r k . S a c k h e i m believes i n t h e efficacy o f m o d e r n p s y c h o s u r g e r y ; h e also believes that w h e n M o n i z drilled t h e friable skull o f o l d M r s . M . , h e was c r e a t i n g a p o r t h o l e t h r o u g h w h i c h m u c h m o r e than a singular c u r e c o u l d b e c o n v e y e d . T h a t surgical e x p e r i m e n t lay t h e f o u n d a t i o n for s o m e o f psychiatry's m o s t p r o m i s i n g future cures, and t h e cures

aren't pills, a n y m o r e . T h e cures are c i n g u l o t o m i e s — w h a t C h a r l i e i s h a v i n g — p r e c i s e w h i t e lesions i n a n a n c i e n t brain system. A n d t h e n m o r e . S a c k h e i m speaks o f e x c i t i n g and o m i n o u s n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s : transcranial m a g n e t i c s t i m u l a t i o n w h e r e i n m a g n e t i c fields are h e l d o v e r t h e h e a d i n t h e h o p e s o f r e c a l i b r a t i n g a n o u t - o f - b a l a n c e brain; g a m m a knife surgery w h e r e radiation i n t h e f o r m o f g a m m a rays i s a i m e d a t h o t spots o n t h e c o r t e x ; a n d finally, d e e p b r a i n s t i m u l a t i o n , w h i c h sounds a l m o s t spa-like, r u b there. D e e p b r a i n s t i m u l a t i o n has already b e e n approved b y t h e F o o d a n d D r u g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n for t h e t r e a t m e n t o f Parkinson's disease, a n d S a c k h e i m predicts that w i t h i n t h e n e x t f e w years it will be used for m e n t a l illnesses as well. T h i s p r o c e d u r e requires t h e bilateral i m p l a n t a t i o n o f t w o tiny e l e c t r o d e s that stimulate specific brain l o c a l e s , r e g i o n s responsible for, say, o b s e s sive w o r r y , o r rage, o r c o m p u l s i v e b e h a v i o r , o r t e r r i b l e m e l a n c h o l y . T h e t h e o r y , S a c k h e i m e x p l a i n e d t o m e w h e n I visited h i m b e f o r e C h a r l i e ' s surgery, i s that " w e k n o w t h e neural circuitry, t h e specific tissue, i m p l i c a t e d i n c e r t a i n c o g n i t i v e states. S o w e c a n d o a P E T scan, find that tissue, i m p l a n t a n e l e c t r o d e w h i c h b y c o n t i n u o u s l y stimulating t h e c i r c u i t effectively takes it o f f l i n e . " As to t h e c h a r g e that p s y c h o s u r g e r y and possibly its offshoots like d e e p brain s t i m u l a t i o n

h a r m h e a l t h y tissue, S a c k h e i m is swift to

r e t o r t , a l m o s t angrily: " D e p r e s s i o n h a r m s h e a l t h y b r a i n tissue. T h e r e ' s a m p l e e v i d e n c e that depression a n d stress are n e u r o t o x i c , n e c r o t i c ; depressed people's h i p p o c a m p i are up to fifteen p e r c e n t smaller than n o r m a l , " says S a c k h e i m , h o l d i n g u p his t h u m b a n d forefinger, s h o w i n g m e t h e smallest space b e t w e e n t h e m , j u s t e n o u g h t o slide a knife. O u r cures are o n l y as g o o d as o u r c o u r a g e .

C H A R L I E ' S S U R G E R Y IS

finished.

H e ' s w h e e l e d b a c k t o his r o o m

w i t h a b i g w h i t e b a n d a g e w r a p p e d a r o u n d his head. W h e n his wife sees h i m , she says, " H o n e y , h o n e y ? " H e m a k e s t e r r i b l e s m a c k i n g sounds w i t h his lips a n d puts his finger up his n o s e a n d t h e n cracks up laughing. "Just kidding," h e says. " I ' m f i n e . I'd like s o m e i c e c r e a m . "

It appears his h u m o r is still intact, a n d if h u m o r is n o t at least part of t h e spark, I c a n ' t i m a g i n e w h a t else is. Five days later he's b a c k in T e x a s . I wait a w h i l e b e f o r e I call h i m . W h e n I do, h e says, " T h e O C D is g o n e , a n d that's i n c r e d i b l e . " " G o n e , " I say. " O r at s u c h a l o w level," he says, " t h a t it's n o t b o t h e r s o m e . " O u t t h e r e in T e x a s it is h i g h a n d d r y C h a r l i e ' s h e a d is clear, t h e t w o tiny e n t r y p o i n t s c l o s i n g o v e r w i t h t h e t h i n n e s t m e m b r a n e o f s k i n — d o e s his w i f e t o u c h h i m t h e r e ? H e i s well, a n d h e has, awfully o r wonderfully, t w o m o r e holes i n his h e a d that m a n a g e t o b e a t o n c e utterly h i g h - t e c h a n d grossly p r i m i t i v e , t w o h o l e s that p o i n t t o t h e future e v e n as t h e y t e t h e r us to t h e past. C h a r l i e says, " T h e O C D ' s g o n e b u t I ' m f e e l i n g a little low." It's i m p o s s i b l e t o k n o w w h e t h e r he's l o w b e c a u s e he's lost t h e t h i n g that b o t h t o r t u r e d a n d titillated h i m , o r w h e t h e r t h e surgery set o f f s o m e depression, o r w h e t h e r he's j u s t e x p e r i e n c i n g w h a t F r e u d called t h e i n e v i t a b l e m i s e r y o f n o r m a l life. H e has n o m e m o r y i m p a i r m e n t f r o m t h e surgery, and as is often t h e case, a r e c e n t b a t t e r y o f tests s h o w e d his I Q t o b e h i g h e r n o w than i t was preoperatively. " A r e y o u glad y o u did i t ? " I ask. "I w o u l d do it again in a s e c o n d , " he says. "It's r e m a r k a b l e . I have n o m o r e O C D . N O M O R E O C D . I f t h e depression d o e s n ' t g o away, I ' m g o i n g b a c k . I w a n t a n o t h e r lesion." G o o d g o d ! D o c t o r raise m y dose. D o c t o r increase t h e c o r t i c a l cuts. N o m a t t e r w h a t t h e facts show, n o m a t t e r h o w persistently t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p o i n t s t o t h e possible efficacy o f p s y c h o s u r g e r y a n d t h e inefficacy o f m e d i c a t i o n , t h e r e i s still s o m e t h i n g h o l y a b o u t that t h r e e - p o u n d w r i n k l e d w a l n u t w i t h a s h e e n . It m a y be that as d o c t o r s e n t e r i t m o r e a n d m o r e directly a n d discretely, w e ' l l b e c o m e used t o h a v i n g h o l e s i n o u r h e a d , a n d w e ' l l s h o w t h e m like w e d o o u r o t h e r surgical scars—breast r e d u c t i o n , brain r e d u c t i o n , n o difference. B u t I d o u b t this. M o n i z gave us a w a y o u t of p h a r m a c o l o g y ; he gave us a p r o c e d u r e that l e d to a p r o c e d u r e that is l e a d i n g n o w to a p r o c e d u r e as small a n d n e a t as a m i c r o c h i p , so t h a n k y o u . T h a n k h i m . B u t he

also gave us s o m e t h i n g else, I t h i n k . It has yet to be s e e n , b u t of all t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ' s great e x p e r i m e n t s , he gave us, I h y p o t h e s i z e , a c e r t a i n c h e r i s h e d r e l u c t a n c e that, w h i l e it will n o t stop us in o u r surg i c a l j o u r n e y s , will n e v e r t h e l e s s prove t o u s again a n d again h o w w e b e l i e v e t h e b r a i n is sacred.

Conclusion

I

b e g a n this b o o k i n search o f D e b o r a h S k i n n e r , t h e elusive, m y t h o l o g i z e d daughter o f t h e t w e n t i e t h century's m o s t radical n e o b e h a v -

iorist, and I never found her. I ' m sure she is alive, b u t I did n o t c o m e across any data that c o u l d c o n v i n c e m e o f h e r m e n t a l status. After years of serving as h e r father's e x p e r i m e n t a l subject, did she fare well? D i d she thrive? Is she d e n t e d or d a m a g e d in s o m e way? I don't know. T h e r e are m a n y things w e d o n ' t k n o w i n regards t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , n o t t h e least o f w h i c h i s its effects o n h u m a n s u b -

j e c t s , w h o are its d u b i o u s b e n e f i c i a r i e s . W i t h o u t e x p e r i m e n t s such a s Milgram's, or Rosenhan's, or Moniz's, we would be poorer in knowle d g e a n d i n story, b u t w h o , i n t h e e n d , can c a l c u l a t e t h e c o s t - b e n e f i t ratio and say w i t h c o n f i d e n c e w h a t it is? I w a n t e d , w h e n I c a m e t o t h e e n d o f this b o o k , t o offer u p a n answer, a conclusion, b u t as o f t e n t i m e s h a p p e n s in e x p e r i m e n t s , w h i c h this b o o k u l t i m a t e l y is, t h e data yields o n l y n e w d o m a i n s for further e x p l o r a t i o n . W h e n I l o o k b a c k o v e r t h e s e pages, I c a n see m u c h r i c h m a t e r i a l , b u t i t all resists t h e k i n d o f e n c a p s u l a t i o n that w o u l d allow me to p e n a m e s s a g e for t h e future. S u c h a message, if I w e r e even capable o f c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g o n e , w o u l d c o n s t i t u t e a s e c o n d b o o k ,

o c c l u d i n g , perhaps, t h e o n e w e have h e r e . T h e r e f o r e , I c o n c l u d e , t h e m e s s a g e of this b o o k is this book, w i t h D e b o r a h S k i n n e r missing and K a n d e l ' s m y s t e r i o u s little red pills. U l t i m a t e l y t h e pattern must b e d i s c e r n e d b y t h e reader w i l l i n g t o dwell w i t h i n t h e m a n y v i e w p o i n t s c o m p r e s s e d b e t w e e n these c o v e r s . I do n o t i c e , however, certain c o m m o n threads haphazardly e m e r g ing from these chapters, a series of questions that i n f o r m and give d e n sity t o m a n y o f these e x p e r i m e n t s . O v e r and over again arise issues o f f r e e will ( S k i n n e r , A l e x a n d e r , Loftus, M o n i z ) , c o n f o r m i t y / o b e d i e n c e (Milgram, Darley and Latane, Festinger, R o s e n h a n ) , the perceptual i n a d e q u a c y and inevitable i m m i n e n c e o f t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n ( R o s e n h a n , Loftus, K a n d e l ) , and t h e ethics o f e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n itself o n living beings (Harlow, S k i n n e r , M i l g r a m , M o n i z ) . E v e n the m o s t technically proficient e x p e r i m e n t s , like Kandel's, ultimately c o n c e r n themselves n o t w i t h t h e value-free questions w e traditionally associate w i t h " s c i e n c e , " of w h i c h p s y c h o l o g y insists it is a part, b u t w i t h t h e kinds of ethical and existential questions we associate w i t h philosophy. I n h e r d e e p l y c r i t i c a l essay o n p s y c h o l o g y , D o r o t h y B r a g i n s k y w r i t e s , " T h e literature o f t h e f i e l d o f p s y c h o l o g y i s t e s t i m o n y t o o u r failure t o e x p l o r e and investigate any m e a n i n g f u l p r o b l e m s i n m e a n ingful ways. I n d e e d , i f all that r e m a i n e d o f o u r s o c i e t y for a n t h r o p o l ogists o f t h e future w e r e t h e p s y c h o l o g y j o u r n a l s , t h e y w o u l d have t o c o n c l u d e that w e e n j o y e d n e a r paradise. A l t h o u g h w e have w i t n e s s e d d u r i n g this c e n t u r y s o m e o f t h e m o s t e n o r m o u s v i o l e n t , social, p o l i t ical, e c o n o m i c and p e r s o n a l upheavals, t h e v o l u m e s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l research d o n o t reflect u p o n o r r e c o r d t h e s e events." E a r l i e r in t h e c e n t u r y W i l l i a m J a m e s , in a l e t t e r to his b r o t h e r H e n r y , expressed similar s e n t i m e n t s : " I t i s i n d e e d strange t o h e a r p e o ple talk t r i u m p h a n t l y o f ' t h e N e w P s y c h o l o g y ' and w r i t e ' H i s t o r i e s o f P s y c h o l o g y ' w h e n i n t o t h e real e l e m e n t s and forces w h i c h t h e w o r d covers n o t t h e f i r s t g l i m p s e o f clear insight exists. A string o f raw facts, a little gossip a n d w r a n g l e a b o u t o p i n i o n s ; a little classification and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o n t h e m e r e descriptive level . . . b u t n o t a single l a w in t h e sense in w h i c h physics shows us laws, n o t a single p r o p o s i -

tion from w h i c h any c o n s e q u e n c e can b e casually d e d u c e d . " A n d i n another letter to a poet, J a m e s writes, " T h e only Psyche n o w r e c o g n i z e d by s c i e n c e is a decapitated frog w h o s e w r i t h i n g s express d e e p e r truths than y o u r w e a k - m i n d e d p o e t s e v e r d r e a m e d . " B r a g i n s k y and J a m e s have a p o i n t , a l t h o u g h it s h o u l d be j u s t that, a p o i n t , n o t an eclipse of t h e e n t i r e q u e s t i o n at h a n d . It is t r u e that there is a k i n d of r i d i c u l o u s reductiveness to c e r t a i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l pursuits and f o r m u l a t i o n s ; it is t r u e that t h e rise of l o g i c a l positivism and its m e r g i n g w i t h p s y c h o l o g y in t h e 1 9 4 0 s did a l o t to p e r v e r t t h e kinds o f c o n v e r s a t i o n s scholars i n t h e field w e r e able t o have. A n y o n t o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n had t o b e translated i n t o a " f o r m a l m o d e o f s p e e c h , " w h e r e i t b e c a m e s i m p l y t h e issue o f m e a s u r a b l e relations b e t w e e n w e l l - d e f i n e d words. T h i s sort o f t h i n g i s tiring, and w h i l e i t passes for t h o r o u g h n e s s , it's often really j u s t pickiness o f t h e m o s t o b n o x i o u s sort. A n d i t i s true that c e r t a i n subspecialties o f p s y c h o l o g y w e r e all t o o happy t o study t h e t i m e d r e a c t i o n rates o f t h e W i s t e r rat ad n a u s e a m , as t h o u g h that is relevant to t h e grave issues we g r a p ple w i t h , i n o u r h u m a n heads. T h a t said, h o w e v e r , B r a g i n s k y and J a m e s are n o t at all c o m p l e t e l y c o r r e c t i n t h e i r assessment o f p s y c h o l o g y ' s social i r r e l e v a n c e . E v e n a cursory glance at s o m e of the prior century's leading experiments shows a series of setups clearly d e f i n e d at t a c k l i n g t h e deepest p r o b l e m s o f living life i n t h e particular t i m e w e live i t — p r o b l e m s o f c r u elty, o f g e n o c i d e , o f c o m p a s s i o n , o f love problems

and

how

it

happens;

o f m e m o r y and meaning, o f justice, o f autonomy. T h e

e x p e r i m e n t s investigated these t h e m e s s o persistently and i m a g i s t i cally that t h e y are, i n d e e d , a l m o s t fablistic; t h e y c e r t a i n l y " p r o v e " h o w e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y and its supposedly sterile irrelevant labs n o t o n l y reflect real life, b u t are real life. W h a t we learn, perhaps, in t h e e n d is that w h a t happens in t h e lab happens in t h e w o r l d , b e c a u s e t h e lab lives in t h e w o r l d and is u n d o u b t e d l y as real, and t h e r e f o r e as r e l evant, a s y o u r breakfast table, o r y o u r b e d . After all, m a n y

of

M i l g r a m ' s s u b j e c t s c l a i m that t h e y w e r e p r o f o u n d l y altered, and e d u c a t e d , b y t h e revelations o f that setup; M a r t i n S e l i g m a n , o n e o f

Rosenhan's

pseudopatients, w e p t w h e n

he

told

me

t h e story o f

e n t e r i n g a m e n t a l hospital u n d e r false premise, t h e c r u e l t y and also t h e kindness o f w h a t h e f o u n d t h e r e . T h i r t y years later, S e l i g m a n , h i m s e l f a f a m o u s p s y c h o l o g i s t , still r e c o u n t s his r o l e in t h e e x p e r i m e n t as a vivid, l i f e - a l t e r i n g event that taught h i m a b o u t t h e p o w e r o f c o n t e x t and e x p e c t a t i o n i n shaping e x p e r i e n c e . A n d b e c a u s e , despite w h a t its c r i t i c s say, e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y really is of t h e w o r l d , its q u e s t i o n s are naturally raw, c o m p e l l i n g , h o r rifying, funny. W h y d o w e l a c k t h e m o r a l c e n t e r from w h i c h r e b e l l i o n grows? W h y d o w e fail t o offer o u r i m m e d i a t e and global n e i g h b o r s a h e l p i n g hand? W h y , t i m e and again, d o w e a b a n d o n o u r o w n p e r c e p t i o n s and capitulate t o t h e T h e s e are s o m e o f t h e

dominant point of view?

dominant questions o f twentieth-century

e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y , and t h e y are interesting n o t o n l y for t h e i r o b v i o u s r e l e v a n c e t o t h e w o r l d , b u t also for t h e i r strange a b s e n c e from psychotherapy, a subspecialty o f p s y c h o l o g y . A t w h a t p o i n t does e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y and clinical p s y c h o l o g y m e e t ? A p p a r e n t l y at no p o i n t . I i n t e r v i e w e d twelve l i c e n s e d p r a c t i c i n g p s y c h o l o g i s t s — p s y c h o l o g i s t s seeing patients, d o i n g t h e r a p y — a n d n o n e o f t h e m even knew m o s t o f these e x p e r i m e n t s , n e v e r m i n d used t h e m i n t h e i r w o r k . O f c o u r s e , t h e r e can b e n o c o h e r e n t discipline w h e n s u b s p e cialties fail to c r o s s - p o l l i n a t e e a c h o t h e r ; that's o n e p r o b l e m . A b i g g e r p r o b l e m i s h o w m u c h i s p s y c h o t h e r a p y losing b y failing t o absorb t h e data, or d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , y i e l d e d by its c l o s e c o u s i n ? P s y c h o t h e r a p y , as it e v o l v e d in t h e t w e n t i e t h century, is all a b o u t feeling good, to its d e t r i m e n t I b e l i e v e . E x p e r i m e n t a l psychology, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w i t h its relentless pursuit o f ethical q u e s t i o n s a b o u t o b e d i e n c e , c o n formity, is all a b o u t doing good, and w h e n we do g o o d , w h e n we act w i t h h o n o r , w e have a c h a n c e t o e x p e r i e n c e dignity. I f clinical p s y c h o l o g i s t s , w h o have b e e n trained t o pass n o j u d g m e n t , o r t o h o l d t h e patient in " u n c o n d i t i o n a l regard," instead dared to focus on t h e i r patients' m o r a l lives, using i n f o r m a t i o n from M i l g r a m , o r A s c h , o r R o s e n h a n , o r Loftus, t h e y m i g h t finally offer w h a t e v e r y o n e really wants: a true c h a n c e at t r a n s c e n d e n c e .

A s for e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y , even i f w e can't q u i t e see w h a t subdisciplines it has i n f l u e n c e d , we can c e r t a i n l y see w h a t disciplines it has b e e n i n f l u e n c e d by O v e r and over again in w r i t i n g this b o o k , I asked myself, W h a t i s a n e x p e r i m e n t ? A r e these d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o r t r u e scientific pursuits? W h a t is s c i e n c e ? Is p s y c h o l o g y s c i e n c e ? Is it fiction? Is it p h i l o s o p h y ? T h a t it is. E x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y ' s insist e n c e o n asking t h e ethical and existential q u e s t i o n s articulated b y A u g u s t i n e , b y K a n t , b y L o c k e and H u m e shows that its b l o o d l i n e i s here, in this tradition. E x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y is in t h e e n d perhaps, a way of systematically asking p h i l o s o p h i c a l q u e s t i o n s that escape m e a s u r e m e n t j u s t as y o u apply t h e tape to t h e m . Perhaps this is a s h a m e . After all, p s y c h o l o g y has had a great s t r u g gle t o b r e a k w i t h t h e h u m a n i t i e s , t o d i s e n t w i n e i t s e l f from t h e t e n t a cles o f philosophy, w h e r e for s o l o n g , i n t h e 1 8 0 0 s , i t was s u b s u m e d . T h e first psychologists w e r e p h i l o s o p h e r s . F o r a l o n g t i m e n o d i s t i n c t i o n was m a d e b e t w e e n t h e t w o pursuits, and t h e n o n e day, i n t h e late 1 8 0 0 s , that m a n n a m e d W i l h e l m W u n d t said, Enough of this! He said, You philosophers can sit around and think all you want, but I'm going to measure something, damn it. He left his c o l l e a g u e s t u g g i n g at t h e i r beards, staring at t h e sky, w h i l e h e , W u n d t , started a lab w i t h all sorts o f i n s t r u m e n t s and b e g a n t o m e a s u r e t h e measurable things. T h u s , p s y c h o l o g y as a s c i e n c e was, supposedly, b o r n . It had b i r t h defects r i g h t from t h e start. It n e v e r really b r e a t h e d on its o w n , this c o n j o i n e d p s y c h o l o g y - s c i e n c e d u o . I f s c i e n c e i s defined a s t h e systematic pursuit o f q u e s t i o n s resulting i n t h e revelation o f universal

laws, p s y c h o l o g y

has

failed

and

failed

again.

Science

d e p e n d s o n t h e ability t o n a m e , isolate, and t e m p o r a l i z e p h e n o m e n a , b u t h o w d o y o u separate t h e t h o u g h t from t h e t h i n k e r , o r t h e idea from t h e c u r r e n t i n w h i c h i t f l o w s ? H o w d o y o u survey a stream o f t h o u g h t itself? O n e can h o l d a b o d y still, b u t a b e h a v i o r ? T h e nature o f t h e field i t s e l f defies successful scientific e x p l o r a t i o n and e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , w h i c h hardly m e a n s w e m u s t dismiss t h e p r i o r chapters, n o t a t all. B u t t h e e x p e r i m e n t s , m a n y o f t h e m anyway, m a y b e best u n d e r s t o o d as k i n e t i c philosophy, p h i l o s o p h y in a c t i o n ; t h e e x p e r i -

merits m a y b e a t t h e i r m o s t successful w h e n t h e y a l l o w t h e m s e l v e s , o r we allow t h e m , to y i e l d us intuitive as o p p o s e d to quantifiable i n f o r m a t i o n . M i l g r a m ' s w o r k i s a powerful p i e c e o f m y s t e r i o u s theater. H a r l o w s h o w s u s i n o u r b o n e s , i n o u r l o n e l y b o d i e s , w h a t loss l o o k s like, and w e k n o w i t t o b e true, w h e t h e r w e can quantify i t o r n o t . I n fact, w e n e e d n o t derive a H a r l o v i a n law, for t o d o s o w o u l d b e b o m bastic, l i m i t i n g love t o a c u r r e n t set o f e q u a t i o n s . W h e n p s y c h o l o g y has tried to do this, it has s o u n d e d foolish, b l o a t e d , and i n s e c u r e . We have n o s c i e n c e h e r e , and that m a y b e g o o d . A n d yet, I do n o t m e a n to i m p l y that there can be no s c i e n c e h e r e . S o m e domains within the field—notably neuropsychology—clearly l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f c h e m i s t r y , b i o l o g y , and physics. It is c l e a r to me that K a n d e l has s o m e t h i n g to m e a s u r e , a n d that he is w o r k i n g w i t h discrete p h e n o m e n a that yield c o n s e n s u a l a g r e e m e n t : 7 7 m is a sea slug. This is its neuron. W h e n I started this b o o k , I t h o u g h t I w o u l d find a natural narrative arc that w o u l d b e g i n w i t h e x p e r i m e n t s c l o s e l y allied w i t h t h e h u m a n i t i e s and t h e n w o u l d gradually, o v e r t i m e , m o v e i n t o e x p e r i m e n t s m o r e a n d m o r e akin t o t h e natural s c i e n c e s as t h e c e n t u r y progressed. H o w e v e r , it turns o u t that arc is n o n e x i s t e n t . T h e r e have always b e e n a t least t w o s c h o o l s o f e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y , r i g h t from its bare b e g i n n i n g s : o n e s c h o o l i n t e r ested i n s o m a t i c e x p e r i m e n t s (here w e place M o n i z , a t t h e century's b e g i n n i n g , and K a n d e l , a t t h e c e n t u r y ' s e n d ) , a n d a n o t h e r s c h o o l m o r e interested i n d e s c r i b i n g social o r c o g n i t i v e p h e n o m e n a . O u r fascination w i t h t h e n e u r o n i s n o t h i n g n e w ; t h e d e c a d e o f t h e brain has really b e e n t h e c e n t u r y o f t h e brain, t e m p e r e d w i t h o t h e r kinds o f questions. A q u e s t i o n : as we m o v e further i n t o t h e twenty-first century, will experiments

that

are

decidedly

nonsomatic,

like

Milgram's

or

R o s e n h a n ' s or Festinger's, finally fall by t h e wayside? W i l l all e x p e r i mental

psychology

occur

at

the

level

of the

single

synapse?

C u r r e n t l y , t h e N a t i o n a l Institutes o f M e n t a l H e a l t h reserves t h e vast b u l k o f its funding for s o m a t i c and n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s , and that, a l o n g w i t h ethical guidelines and a litigious society, m a k e s it

u n l i k e l y we w i l l ever see a M i l g r a m , or e v e n a Festinger, today. T o o b a d , I say, for t h e r e was an u n d e n i a b l e r i c h n e s s to t h e w o r k , e v e n as I r e c o g n i z e its p r o b l e m s . K a n d e l believes that a s this n e w c e n t u r y progresses, a b i o l o g y o f t h e m i n d w i l l eventually eclipse all o t h e r subspecialties a n d t h e e x p e r i m e n t s t h e y m i g h t spawn. H e b e l i e v e s that w e will find t h e neural substrates for e v e r y t h i n g , and, o n c e w e have, o n c e p s y c h o l o gists have, w e l l t h e n , perhaps t h e field c a n finally free i t s e l f f r o m its s c i e n t i s m to b e c o m e truly scientific. As for myself, I await this day in great e a g e r n e s s , b e c a u s e s o m u c h w i l l b e possible. I f w e k n o w t h e n e u r o n a l basis o f o b e d i e n c e , o f love, o f tragedy, o f c o m p u l s i o n , t h e n c a n w e n o t fix it, radiate it, i r r i g a t e it, d o s o m e t h i n g t o it? M y o w n h e a d hurts, a n d I l o o k forward t o t h e cures b r o u g h t o n b y n e w k n o w l e d g e . O n t h e o t h e r hand, m y o w n h e a d hurts, a n d t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g t o b e said n o t really for pain m a y b e , b u t for mystery. I ' m n o t sure I w a n t a p s y c h o l o g y so smart it c a n tell me w h i c h a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l leads t o w h a t n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r that leads t o t h e s m i l e y o u see o n m y f a c e . I ' m n o t sure I w a n t t o k n o w m y parts, m y L e g o l i m b s , for t h e n w h e r e are t h e q u e s t i o n s ? B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l w r i t e s that our questions keep us human. B u t o f c o u r s e , t h e r e will always b e n e w q u e s t i o n s , i f o n l y t h e q u e s t i o n a b o u t h a v i n g n o q u e s t i o n s a n d w h a t that m e a n s , a n d h e r e w e are, b a c k t o p h i l o s o p h y again. I t s e e m s w e can't escape. N o m a t t e r h o w technologically proficient o u r newest experiments, we cannot e s c a p e t h e residue o f m y s t e r y a n d m u r k , s o w e c a r r y t h e residue w i t h us. W e s e e k o u t answers. W e try this a n d that. W e love a n d w o r k . W e kill a n d r e m e m b e r . W e live o u r lives, e a c h o n e a divine h y p o t h e s i s .

Endnotes

CHAPTER

ONE:

OPENING

SKINNER'S

BOX

F o r the interview with R i c h a r d I. Evans, see his book B. F. Skinner; the Man and His Ideas (Dutton, N e w Y o r k , 1 9 6 8 ) , p. 5 4 . Time, September 2 1 , 1 9 7 1 , and the Gale O n - L i n e Encyclopedia (Web address www.gale.com) are just two of the citations that list Skinner as being a highly influential psychologist. He was also referred to, again and again, in the many interviews I did regarding a whole range of e x p e r i ments; he is clearly felt everywhere in the field of experimental psychology, from c o n t e m p o r a r y neurobiology to social psychology. Ayn R a n d had a lot to say about Skinner, m u c h of it negative, some of which can be found in her book Philosophy, Who Needs It (Macmillan, N e w York, 1 9 8 1 ) ; I refer the reader specifically to p. 1 0 3 . J o h n Mills, Control, a History of Behavioral Psychology ( N e w York University Press, N e w York, 1 9 9 8 ) , p. 1 2 3 , is the source for the Winston Churchill quote applied to Skinner regarding mysteries wrapped in enigmas. Skinner's quotes about his own life were drawn largely from Daniel Bjork's thorough and thoughtful biography of Skinner, B. F. Skinner, A Life (Basic Books, N e w York, 1 9 9 3 ) ; I specifically refer the reader to pp. 1 0 4 , 1 5 2 , 7 1 , and 8 7 . F o r an excellent, cogent description of Skinner's operant conditioning experiments, see M o r t o n Hunt's

The Story of Psychology

(Doubleday, N e w York, 1 9 9 3 ) , p. 2 7 2 , as well as Skinner's original papers, such as "Superstition in the Pigeon," Journal of Experimental Psychology 38 ( 1 9 4 8 ) , pp. 168—172. S o m e of Skinner's particularly unique means of phrasing language, such as "thank you for positively reinforcing me today," c a m e from interviews with his daughter, Julie Vargas, w h o not only provided me with access to the family archives, but also took the time to read and make corrections to this chapter. TV

Guide, O c t o b e r 17, 1 9 7 1 , published one review about Beyond Freedom and Dignity in which the reviewer compared Skinner's system to a dog obedience school. J e r o m e Kagan, of Harvard University, invited me to his office, regaled me with tales, and read over his portion of the chapter as well. All J e r o m e Kagan quotes c o m e from direct face-to-face interviews with him. Quotes from Stephen Kosslyn and Bryan Porter also c o m e from interviews. Kosslyn refers to interesting work being done on the basal ganglia and habit formation; for m o r e specifics on this, I refer the reader to the work of Ann Graybiel, professor of brain and cognitive sciences

and

investigator

at

MIT's

McGovern

Institute

for

Brain

Research

( h t t p : / / w e b . m i t . e d u / m c g o v e r n ) . T h e Skinner boxes are no longer housed in the basement ofWilliam James Hall; they are now in a classroom on the first floor. T h e Ladies' Home Journal article that first mentioned "Baby in a B o x " was from the O c t o b e r 1 9 4 5 issue; citations from Beyond Freedom and Dignity (Alfred A. Knopf, N e w York, 1 9 7 1 ) can be found on pp. 1, 1 9 , 12, and 4.

CHAPTER

TWO:

OBSCURA

Quotes from Milgram's subjects are from the Yale University Archives, as well as Alan Elms's papers and books, specifically Social Psychology and Social Relevance (Little, B r o w n , Boston, 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 1 3 1 . Milgram's interview with Psychology Today is also housed in the Yale archives, and can be found in the J u n e 1 9 7 4 issue, p. 7 2 . Alexandra Milgram spent a long time with me on the telephone, and her recollections of her husband, his life, his work, and the specifics of his death were invaluable in preparing this chapter. T h e Yale University Archives contain m u c h material regarding Milgram's mail orders and requests for the electrical gadgetry required of his experiment, in addition to an original sketch of his shock machine, scripts he intended for his A+ victim James M c D o n o u g h to enact, and copies of the initial ads that went out asking for volunteers. Copies of these ads can also be found in many other publications, including Milgram's own Obedience to Authority; An Experimental View (Harper and R o w , N e w York, 1 9 7 4 ) , and Ian Parker's "Obedience," in Granta 71 (Autumn, 2 0 0 0 ) . Lee Ross, professor of psychology at Stanford University, also provided me with interviews from which quotes are taken. Alan Elms's direct quotes are drawn from numerous interviews he was kind enough to give me, in addition to an extremely useful paper, "Personality Characteristics Associated with Obedience and Defiance toward Authoritative Control," Journal of Experimental Research in Personality ( 1 9 6 6 ) , pp. 2 8 2 - 2 8 9 . Sharon Presely s dissertation, "Values and Attitudes of Political Resisters to Authority," has the dissertation publication n u m ber of A A t 8 2 1 2 2 1 1 . "Joshua Chaffin" is a pseudonym to protect the identity and privacy of this defiant Milgram subject. T h e New York Times article stating " 6 5 % in Test . . . " was cited in Parker's "Obedience," p. 1 1 4 . B. Mixon's paper questioning the validity of Milgram's result is " W h e n Is Obedience Obedience?" Journal of Social

Issues 5 1 , no. 3 (Fall 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 5 5 . Edward E. Jones's rejection of Milgram's original obedience paper was cited in Parker's "Obedience"; other, similar objections can be found in the Yale archives from his National Science Foundation funders, w h o questioned whether the experiment went beyond demonstration and w h o also, initially, questioned its ethics. Daniel Jonah Goldhagen's quotes are from an interview. Diana Baumrind's 1 9 6 4 article, "Some Thoughts on the Ethics of Research: After R e a d i n g Milgram's Behavioral

Study of Obedience," American

Psychologist

19

( 1 9 6 4 ) , pp. A1X-A2A, was the seminal paper that brought to light the putative ethical violations of this experiment. "Jacob Plumfield," is also a pseudonym to protect the identity and privacy of this obedient Milgram subject. David Karp's words are drawn from personal interviews. "In Defense of External Invalidity," by Douglas M o o k , is in American Psychologist 38 (April 1 9 8 3 ) , pp. 3 7 9 - 3 8 7 . S o m e of subjects' letters to Milgram, including the one from the conscientious objector, can be found in Obedience to Authority, p. 1 9 6 . Harold Takooshian's quotes c o m e from an interview. T h e chapter's final Stanley Milgram quotes again c o m e from Obedience to Authority, pp. 1 9 6 , 3, and 2 0 5 .

CHAPTER THREE:

ON

BEING

SANE

IN

INSANE

PLACES

J a c k Rosenhan's descriptions of his father and his childhood c o m e from a personal interview. Martin Seligman's descriptions of his part in the pseudopatient experiment are drawn from interviews and email exchanges I had with him. R o b e r t Spitzer's comments and reactions to the experiments are drawn from an interview and from his writings on the subject, " O n Pseudoscience in Science, Logic in Remission and Psychiatric Diagnosis: A Critique of Rosenhan's ' O n Being Sane in Insane Places,' "Journal of Abnormal Psychology 8 4 , no. 5 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , pp. 4 4 2 - 4 5 2 . T h e descriptions of Rosenhan's inpatient experience are drawn from his article " O n Being Sane in Insane Places," Science 1 7 9 Qanuary 1 9 7 3 ) ; for the description of the nurse fixing her bra, patients being beaten, and other neglects and abuses, see p. 2 5 6 and 2 5 3 ; for examples of charts kept on pseudopatients, see p. 2 5 3 ; and for Rosenhan's quote, "clearly, the meaning ascribed . . . " p. 2 5 3 . T h e quote from the inpatients to R o s e n h a n and confederates can be found on p. 2 5 2 of the article, and the "writing behavior," on p. 2 5 3 . Rosenthal and Jacobson's experiment with IQ and expectation was published in "Teacher's Expectancies: Determinates of Pupils IQ Gains," Psychological Reports 19 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , pp. 1 1 5 - 1 1 8 . To locate discharge quotes of pseudopatients, see Rosenhan's article, p. 2 5 2 . Florence Keller's words c o m e from a personal interview. F o r the letters written in response to Rosenhan's article, see Paul R. Fleischman, "Letters: Psychiatric Diagnosis," Science 80 (April 1 9 7 3 ) ; the reader can also find there the letter by Fred M. Hunter. T h e letter regarding the quart of blood is by J. Kety and is cited in R o b e r t Spitzer's " M o r e on Pseudoscience in Science and the Case for Psychiatric Diagnosis," Archives of General Psychiatry 33

(April 1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 4 5 9 - 4 7 0 . Q u o t e from Adolph Meyer is cited in Edward Short, A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (John Wiley and Sons, Inc., N e w York, 1 9 9 7 ) , p. 1 7 5 .

CHAPTER

FOUR:

IN THE

UNLIKELY

EVENT OF A WATER L A N D I N G

Transcripts and descriptions of the Kitty Genovese murder, as well as the letters from the New York Times, are drawn from A. M. Rosenthal's book, Thirty-Eight Witnesses: The Kitty Genovese Case (University of California, Berkeley, 1 9 9 9 ) ; see pp. xix, xxi, 4, 4 3 , 4 6 , 4 0 , and 4 1 - 4 2 . Q u o t e from Susan Mahler drawn from personal interview. Quotes from J o h n Darley recalling the catalyst for the experiment are drawn from a personal interview. Quotes about the pre-recorded seizure, the experiment's m e t h ods, the subjects' reactions, and the statistical results are from J o h n Darley and Bibb Latane's paper, "Bystander Intervention in Emergencies: Diffusion of Responsibility," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 8, no. 4 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , pp. 3 7 7 - 3 8 3 . Quotes from Genovese witnesses w h o chose not to get involved are from Rosenthal's book, pp. 2 7 , 3 2 , and 3 4 . "Oh my god! He stabbed me! Please help me," cited on www.crimelibrary.com/serial/killers/predators/kitty.genovese/3html?sec=2.

Darley

and Latane's interpretation of a bystander's inaction in their own experiment is from their above-mentioned article, pp. 3 8 1 and 3 8 2 . All data from Darley and Latane's phase two, smoke experiment, is drawn from their paper "Group Inhibition of Bystander Intervention in Emergencies," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 10, no. 3 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , pp. 2 1 5 - 2 2 1 . David Phillip's studies into the Werther effect are cited in R o b e r t Cialdini's book, Influence, the Psychology of Persuasion (William Morrow, N e w York, 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 1 4 6 . T h e writings of R o b e r t Cialdini are also drawn from this book, pp. 1 4 6 - 1 4 7 and 1 4 9 - 1 5 1 . T h e effects of education as inoculation in the bystander effect are cited in A. Beaman, P. Barnes, B. Klentz, and B. Mcquirk's paper, "Increasing Helping Rates through Information Dissemination: Teaching Pays," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 4 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , pp. 406—411.

CHAPTER FIVE:

QUIETING THE

MIND

" T h e psychological opposition of irreconcilable ideas . . ." quote is from Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, Calif., 1 9 5 7 ) , p. 8 6 3 . All quotes regarding the Marion K e e c h / p r o p h e c y experiment are taken from Leon Festinger, H e n r y W. R i e c k e n , and Stanley Schacter's work, Wlien Prophecy Fails (Harper and R o w , N e w York, 1 9 5 6 ) ; see pp. 5 6 , 1 6 9 , 1 7 5 , and 182. N o t e that all names of subjects in this experiment are pseudonyms chosen by Festinger. T h e quote from Elliot Aronson is drawn from an interview with him. T h e lying-for-one-dollar-versus-twenty-dollars experiment is from L. Festinger and C. Carlsmith, "Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance," Journal of

Abnormal and Social Psychology 58 ( 1 9 5 9 ) , pp. 2 0 3 - 2 1 0 . T h e Induced Compliance Paradigm is from E. Aronson and J. Mills, " T h e Effect of Severity of Initiation Rites on Group Liking," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 59 ( 1 9 5 9 ) , pp. 1 7 7 - 1 8 1 . Material regarding Linda and Audrey Santo is from personal interviews with Linda Santo and friends of the family, in addition to TV shows and numerous articles written on the subject. Festinger's quote "we spend our lives paying attention only to information consonant with our beliefs," is from "A T h e o r y of Cognitive Dissonance," p. 3 6 1 . V. S. Ramachandran's articles and books, specifically Phantoms in the Brain (William Morrow, N e w York, 1 9 9 8 ) , describe some of what could be c o n sidered the neural correlates to cognitive dissonance. As of this writing, Mathew Lieberman's work with East Asians and cognitive dissonance at U C L A is ongoing and unpublished; material comes from an interview. Festinger's speculations on Christianity as a form of cognitive dissonance can be found in When Prophecy Fails, pp. 2 4 - 2 5 .

CHAPTER SIX:

MONKEY

LOVE

M u c h of the material regarding Harlow's life came from his biographer, Deborah Blum, w h o was kind enough to provide me with information, via personal interview, before she finished and published her own excellent volume on Harlow's life, Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection (Perseus, Cambridge, Mass., 2 0 0 2 ) . R o b e r t Israel, Harlow's son, also provided me with autobiographical writings, as did James Harlow, w h o described for me his father's drawings and imaginary land of Yazoo. Material regarding Harlow's testing of monkey intelligence is drawn from H. Harlow and J. B r o m e r , " A Test Apparatus for Monkeys," Psychological Record 2 ( 1 9 3 8 ) , pp. 434—436. T h e written quote regarding the human heart and breaking it comes from Deborah Blum's book, The Monkey Wars (Oxford University Press, N e w York, 1 9 9 4 ) , p. 8 2 . T h e descriptions of wire and cloth mother monkeys are from H. Harlow,"The Nature of Love," American Psychologist 13 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , p. 3. T h e description of the primate reaction to separation comes from Clara Mears Harlow's volume of her husband's papers, From Learning to Love: The Selected Papers of H. F. Harlow (Praegar, N e w York, 1 9 8 6 ) . T h e quote "we were not surprised to discover that contact comfort was an important basic affectional love variable . . ." comes from Harlow, " T h e Nature of Love," p. 5, as does the quote "Man cannot live by milk alone." J o h n Watson's quote is cited in M o r t o n Hunt's The Story of Psychology (Anchor Books, N e w York, 1 9 9 3 ) , p. 2 5 9 . T h e quote "love for the real mother and love for the surrogate mother appear to be very similar" is from " T h e Nature of Love," p. 2 0 . T h e faceless-versus-masked-mother experiment is described in From Learning To Love. R o b e r t Israel's words are from a personal interview. All quotes from Harlow's speech to the American Psychological Association are cited in Harlow, " T h e Nature of Love." Harlow's c o m m e n t s about wives and women's lib-

bers are from a personal communication from Deborah Blum. Jonathan Harlow's description of his own work is from a personal interview. Descriptions of the effects of the cloth mother-raised monkeys' later pathologies are from From Learning to Love, p. 2 8 2 . T h e description of the New York Times reporter and Harlow's response to him is from a personal interview with Deborah Blum. Len Rosenblum, one of Harlow's former students, also provided me, via an interview, with descriptions of some of the later experimental variations. Helen LeRoy's words are from a personal interview. T h e experiment with the "rape rack" appears in a 1 9 6 6 paper, " T h e Maternal

Behavior

of Rhesus

Monkeys

Deprived

of M o t h e r i n g

and

Peer

Associations in Infancy," reprinted in From Learning to Love. R o g e r Fouts's words are also from a personal interview, while William Mason's statements about animal experimentation as it relates to his own ethics are from Deborah Blum's The Monkey Wars, as is the interview with Stuart Z o l a - M o r g a n . Descriptions of "the well of despair" can be found in L. Joseph Stone, Henrietta T. Smith, and Lois B. Murphy's edition, The Competent Infant; Research and Commentary (Basic Books, N e w York, 1 9 7 3 ) .

CHAPTER

SEVEN:

RAT

PARK

T h e physician Galen wrote extensively on opium, and his words regarding the substance as a means of curing "chronic headache," etc. can be found in his published List

of Medical

Indications, which

I

found

cited

on

www.opites.net

(accessed

1 / 3 / 2 0 0 2 ) . T h e names of opium, as "Mrs. Winslow's Soothing Syrup," etc., are also posted on that site, as well as in B r u c e Alexander's book, Peaceful Measures, Canada's Way out of the War on Drugs (University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1 9 9 0 ) . Alexander's two claims about the nature of addiction are from a personal interview as well as an unpublished manuscript, "Do Heroin and C o c a i n e Cause Addiction; T h e Interplay of Science and Conventional Wisdom," which can be accessed by contacting Alexander at the Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, Canada. That manuscript also cites the Ontario household survey and the 1 9 7 4 San Francisco Study. Alexander's direct, conversational quotes are drawn from my personal interviews of him, as was the biographical information regarding his early life and his memories of Harlow's monkey lab. T h e information on the electric brain stimulation experiment and its relationship to pleasure centers is drawn from James Olds and Peter Milner's paper, "Positive Reinforcement Produced by Electrical Stimulation of Septal Area and O t h e r R e g i o n s of the R a t Brain," Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 47 ( 1 9 5 4 ) , pp. 4 1 9 - 4 2 2 . T h e experiments involving animals hooked up to self-administering catheters were very c o m m o n in the 1970s and 1980s; the one I cite here is from M. A. Bozarth and R. A . W i s e , "Intracranial Self Administration of M o r p h i n e into the Ventral Tegmental Area in Rats," Life Sciences 28 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 5 5 1 - 5 5 5 . Olds and Milner also published, in their

263

1 9 5 4 paper cited above, that rats will self-administer pleasurable electrical pulses up to 6 , 0 0 0 times an hour. Herb Kleber's comments regarding P E T studies and the rat park experiment in general are from a personal interview. Q u o t e from J o e Dumit drawn from personal conversation. R a t park statistics are drawn from B. Alexander, B. Beyerstein, P. Hadaway, and R. B. Coambs's paper, "Effect of Early and Later Colony

Housing

on

Oral

Ingestion

of Morphine

in

Rats,"

Pharmacology,

Biochemistry, and Behavior 1 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 5 7 1 - 5 7 6 . Naloxone is used to reverse the potentially lethal effects of a heroin overdose; it has also recently been discovered as an effective agent in treating autism. Some researchers theorize that autism, with its vacant stares and intensely inward behavior, is in part the result of a brain saturated in opiate-like substances called endorphins. A small percentage of children given naloxone show a reduction in rocking, chanting, and other repetitive behaviors. On naloxone these children are better able to interact with the world, and, most importantly, with those in their specific "colony," in far m o r e socially appropriate ways. T h e quote "we think these results are socially as well as statistically significant . . . " is cited in B. Alexander, P. Hadaway, and R. C o a m b s , " R a t Park Chronicle," in Illicit Drugs in Canada, edited by J. Blackwell and P. Erickson (Toronto University Press, Toronto, 1 9 9 9 ) , pp 65—66. Temperance quotes are cited from www.prohibition .history.ohio-state.edu/xeniah.html (accessed on 5 / 1 5 / 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e quote, "long enough to produce tolerance and physical dependence" is from " R a t Park Chronicle," p. 6 5 . Information about percentages of smokers w h o quit is from Stanton Peele, The Diseasing of America: Addiction Treatment out of Control (Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1 9 8 9 ) , p. 2 0 2 . Avram Goldstein's research on endorphins is cited in Richard R e s t a c k , " T h e Brain Makes Its O w n Tranquilizers," Saturday Review, March 5 , 1 9 7 7 . W h y opiates rarely lead to addiction when they are used for pain appears to be unclear. Neurophysiologists use diffuse phrases to describe the mechanisms underlying the hypothesis that opiates are less addictive when used for pain than pleasure. "There's just some sort of difference in the pain versus the pleasure systems in the brain," one researcher said to me. " O n a neurocircuitry level, heroin interacts differently with pain than with pleasure." Answers like this, while obfuscatory, are also instructive. T h e y serve as potent reminders about how litde we know and how vastly nonspecific that knowledge is, despite the high gloss of drug company advertisements and the ease with which we engage in a kind of collective "neurospeak." Research into crowding and fertility in Iran is from A. Padyarfar, " T h e Effects of Multifamily Housing on Marital Infertility in Iran," Social Biology 4 2 , no. 3 / 4 ( 1 9 9 6 ) , pp. 2 1 4 - 2 2 5 . Prison studies regarding crowding are from G. M c C a i n , V. C. C o x , and P. B. Paulus, " T h e Relationship between Illness Complaints and Degree of Crowding in a Prison Environment," Environment and Behavior 8 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 2 8 3 - 2 9 0 . T h e study of humans and problem-solving abilities in small spaces is from G. W. Evans, "Behavioral

and

Psychological

Consequences of Crowding in

Humans," Journal of Applied Social Psychology 9 ( 1 9 7 9 ) pp. 2 7 - 4 6 . Alexander's

thoughts on dislocation, free market societies, and addiction are drawn from his article " T h e Globalization of Addiction," Addiction Research 8, no. 6 ( 2 0 0 0 ) , pp. 5 0 1 - 5 2 6 . Herb Kleber's quote is from "Clinical and Societal Implications of Drug Legalization," in Substance Abuse, edited by H. Kleber, J. Calafano J r . , and J o h n C. Demers (William and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 8 6 2 .

CHAPTER EIGHT:

LOST

IN THE

MALL

All quotations that are not identified as coming from Loftus's articles are from personal interviews. In addition, I relied on Jill Niemark's article, " T h e Diva of Disclosure: M e m o r y Researcher Elizabeth Loftus," Psychology Today 2 9 , no. 1 ( 1 9 9 6 ) , p. 4 8 . In the interviews with Loftus we focused on her false m e m o r y experiments, with the result that the wider range of her work is not reflected in this chapter. Loftus has been instrumental in using her work on m e m o r y and its malleability to alter the legal system's appraisal of eyewitness accounts, and in J u n e 2 0 0 1 she was awarded the William James Fellow Award for scientific achievement. T h e award read, in part,

Elizabeth Loftus is an example of the rare scientist w h o is instrumental in both advancing a scientific discipline and in using that discipline to make critical contributions to society. . . . Beginning in the mid 1970's, following acclaimed basic research on the workings of semantic memory, she waded into relatively uncharted waters, investigating how and under what c i r c u m stances complex memories change . . . her innovative yet highly rigorous research on this topic brought her renewed praise in the scientific c o m m u nity. At the same time, however, she realized the fundamental applications of her related findings to the legal system, particularly in understanding the circumstances under which a sincere eyewitness may have misidentified an innocent defendant. It is not hyperbole to say that in response to her ingenious laboratory work and her ubiquitous public presence, both the quality of basic m e m o r y research and the fairness of the criminal justice system have advanced substantially.

F r o m the American Psychological Association William James Fellow Award presentation, on J u n e 14, 2 0 0 1 . T h e quotes "if you think you were abused . . . then you were," and "let your imagination run wild," are cited in E. Loftus, "Creating False Memories," Scientific American 2 2 7 , no. 3 ( 1 9 9 7 ) . Loftus has described for me, and provided me with, examples of the letters she received from parents w h o believed they were falsely accused; for m o r e information on these types of correspondences, I refer the reader to the False M e m o r y Foundation W e b site (www.fmsfonline.org).

•>6 5

Quotes from Chris, one of Loftus's pretest subjects, are from E. Loftus, " T h e Reality of Repressed Memories," American Psychologist 48 ( 1 9 9 3 ) , p. 18. T h e Asian girl w h o confabulated the K m a r t story is cited in E. Loftus, " T h e Reality of Repressed Memories." Quotes from Judith H e r m a n are drawn from a direct interview, as with quotes from Bessel van der Kolk. Marilyn Van Derber was the 1 9 5 8 Miss America who, on May 8, 1 9 9 1 , delivered a public statement in a small college auditorium in Denver, Colorado, regarding her history of sexual abuse. H e r c o m m e n t s were later reported in The Rocky Mountain News, May 1 1 , 1 9 9 1 : 6 , and in People,

June 1 0 ,

1 9 9 1 . R o s e a n n e Barr's confession is from People, O c t o b e r 7, 1 9 9 1 . Jane Smiley's novel is A Thousand Acres (Ivy Paperbacks, N e w York, 1 9 9 6 ) . Given the plethora of incest reports, in the realms of both fiction and journalism at that time, there is an obvious question with no clear answer: Why was multiple personality disorder ( M P D ) — a consequence, many thought, of severe abuse—becoming so popular at the time that it did? W h a t cultural forces led to MPD's popularity in the 1980s? A possible, if plain, hypothesis is that in the 1980s, managed care c a m e into being. U n d e r managed care guidelines, most mental disorders required medication and, concomitantly, a physician to prescribe them, with the exception of M P D , for which there was no agreed-upon drug treatment. Managed care, therefore, posed a real threat to the vast majority of mental health workers, who, because they are not M.D.'s, have no prescribing rights. Therefore, it may have been to m u c h of the m e n tal health profession's financial benefit to diagnose M P D , because otherwise, psychologists, social workers, and counselors had to refer their patients to physicians. T h e quote "story truth and happening truth . . . " comes from E. Loftus, The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse (St. Martin's Press, N e w York, 1 9 9 4 ) , pp. 3 8 - 3 9 . Quotes from the Paul Ingram case are from R i c h a r d Ofshe and Ethan Watter's book, Making Monsters: False Memories, Psychotherapy, and Sexual Hysteria (Charles Scribner's, N e w York, 1 9 9 4 ) , pp. 1 6 9 and 1 7 2 . Lawrence W r i g h t , in his book Remembering Satan (Alfred A. Knopf, N e w York, 1 9 9 4 ) , has written a full account of the Ingram case as well. Elizabeth Loftus also writes about it in The Myth of Repressed Memories. T h e quote "false memories can be created by a small suggestion from a trusted family m e m b e r . . . and by some therapists t h e m selves" is from " T h e Reality of Repressed Memories," p. 19. "We live in a strange and precarious time . . ." is from E. Loftus, " R e m e m b e r i n g Dangerously," Skeptical Inquirer 19 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 2 0 . Schachter's words and ideas are from Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind, and the Past (Basic Books, N e w York, 1 9 9 6 ) , pp. 2 6 4 - 2 6 5 , and a personal interview. Judith H e r m a n s reference to rats and high stress is from Judith H e r m a n , " C r i m e and Traumatic Memory," Bulletin of American Psychiatry and Law 2 3 , no. 1 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 8. T h e sniper study is from R. S. Pynoos and K. Nadar, "Children's M e m o r y and Proximity to Violence," Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 28 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 2 3 6 - 2 4 1 . T h e Challenger explosion