Old Testament Exegesis: A Guide to the Methodology, Second Edition (Resources for Biblical Study 39)

Old Testament Exegesis

SOCIETY OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE Resources for Biblical Study

Edited

by

Marvin A. Sweeney

N u m b e r 39

OLD TESTAMENT EXEGESIS A Guide to the Methodology by Odil Hannes Steck translated by James D.

Nogalski

OLD TESTAMENT EXEGESIS A Guide to the Methodology

by

Odil Hannes Steck translated by

James D. Nogalski

S C H O L A R S PRESS Adanta, Georgia

OLD TESTAMENT EXEGESIS A Guide to the Methodology Second Edition

Copyright © 1998 by the Society of Biblical Literature All rights reserved. No part of this work may bo reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by means of any Information storage or retrieval System, except as may be expressly permitted by the 1976 Copyright Act or i n w r i t i n g from the publisher. Requests for permission should be addressed i n w r i t i n g to the Rights and Permissions Office, Scholars Press, P.O. Box 15399, Atlanta, GA 30333-0399, USA. L i b r a r y of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Steck, Odil Hannes. [Exegesis des Alten Testaments. English] Old Testament exegesis : a guide to the methodology / by Odil Hannes Steck ; translated by James D. Nogalski. — 2nd ed. p. cm. — (Resources for biblical study ; ao. 39) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-7885-0465-7 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Bible. O.T.—Oiticism, Interpretation, etc.—Methodology. I . Title. I I . Series. BS1174.2.B3713 1998 221.6Ό1—dc21 98-2095S

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

1 he growing precision of cur understanding should enhance, and not diminish our sense of wonder. Alfred Brendel, pianist

Contents ί Prefaie ta the English Edition Preface

xiii xv

Eoravord to the 12th Edition Translators Preface

xix xxiii

PART O N E : I N T R O D U C T T O N

1

§1 Foundation and Overview

3

A. The Task of Old Testament Exegesis 13. Imagination and Methodological Direcfion during Exegetical Work I . The Value and Limits of Methodological Direction I I . The Employment of Fantasy and Imagination ΠΙ. Results C. Overview of die Methods of Old Testament Exegesis .1. The Stock of Methods TL Grouping the Methods I I I . lnterdcpendenee of the Methods TVT Characterizing the Individua! Methods V Coneerning the Question o f the Expansion of the Stock of Methods 7

3 5 5 6 14 14 14 15 17 18 20

§2 General Bibliograph) for Exegetical Work

24

PART TVYO: T H E M E T H O D S

37

§3 Text Criticism A. The Task

39 39

víii

Contents

Β. Commentary on the Approach and the Method I . Relationship to Literary Criticism Π. The Procedural Steps ĪIĪ. Prineiples for the Text Critieal Decision ĪVT Summary o f the Text Crnica) Procedure C. Results Ü. Literature §4 Literary Criticism

40 40 41 42 44 44 45 47

A. The Task I . The Overarching Question of the Development of an O k i 'lèstamcnt 'lest I L Determining the Task of Literary Criticism I I I . Terminolog)—

47 51 53

B. Commentary on the Approach and Method

53

I . The Question of a Text's Literary Tnregrity I I . Methodological Prineiples for the Question of a Text's Literary lntcgrity I I I . The Question of Larger Literary Contexts I V Summary of the Literary Critical Procedure C. Results D. Literature §5 The Transmission 1 lístorical Approach A. T h e Task I . Determination I I . Terminolog) B. Commentary on the Approach and the Method I . Rclationsliip to Literary Criticism I I . Transmission TIistoric.il Processes ΙΠ. Methodological Questions for the Analytieal Process I V The Synthetic Process V Applications for the Transmission Historical Approach V I . Summary of the Procedure of Transmission History C. Results I . Jnsigln into the Origin and Changes of a Transmission U n i t within Oral Tradition I I . Transmission I listory as AcruaJizing Procedure I I I . Transmission History as the History of the Religion and Faith of fsrael TV Access to Historical and Religio-Historical Data D. Literature

47

53 54 57 58 59 60 63 63 63 64 65 65 66 68 69 69 70 71 71 71 71 72 72

Contents

§6 Redaction Historical Approach A. The Task B. Commentary on the Approach and .Method I . Relationship to Literary Criticism I I . Redaction Historical Processen I I I . Summary of the Redaction Historical Procedure C. Results I . Insight into the Changes o f a Text in Written Tradition I I . Redaction History as Actualizing Procedure I I I . Redaction History as the History o f Israel's Faith D . Literature

§7 Form Critical Approach A. The Task

ix

75 79 80 80 81 89 92 92 92 92 92

95 95

I . The Overarching Question o f the Presuppositions of a Text or Its Stages I I . Starting Point I I I . Determination TV. Terminolog}' Β. Commentary on the Approach and Method I . Constituent Questions I I . Concerning the Question of the Linguistic Shape Summary of the Procedural Steps I I I . Determining the Gerne I V The Question of the Genre l l i s t o r y Summary of the Steps V Regarding the Question o f the Life Setting Summary o f the Steps V I . Area of Usage C. Results I . Result of the Question o f ihe Linguistic Shaping and the Determination of Genre I I . Results of the Question o f the Genre History I I I . Results of the Question o f the Life Setting D. Literature

§8 Tradition Historical Approach A. The Task

95 96 100 101 102 102 103 105 106 109 109 110 114 11 5 115 115 116 116 117

121 121

I . Starting Point

121

I I . Determination I I I . Terminolog)'

123 124

χ Β. Commentary on the Approach and Method I . Differentiation from the Transmission Historical Approach I I . Areas o f Tradition Historical Inquiry I I I . Recognizing Ftxed Contents

125 125 125 128

IV. The Concept History Approach V. The Tradition Historical Approach as Historical Process

129 133

V I . The Tradition Historical Approach and the History of Motifs

134

V I I . Steps of the Tradition Historical lnvestigation of a Text C. Results I . Comprehending the Text's Profile Π. Tnsight into Connections D. Literature §9 Determining the Historical Setting A. The Task " B. Commentary on the Approach and Method I . Daring a Text I I . The Contemporary History and Social Environment of a 'lèxt I I I . Identifying the Externa! Reaüties Mentioned in the Text TV Determining Author and Addressee V Concerning Materialistic Historical Interpretation of Old Testament Texts V I . Overview of the Approach to the I listorical Setting C. Results D. Literature

PART T I TREF: PURPOSE §10 Interpretation as Determination of the Text's Historical Meaning

135 140 140 140 141 143 143 143 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 149

151 153

A. The Task B. Relationship to the Methodological Approaches

153 156

C. Commentary on the Exemtion I . Interpreting die Text in Its Own Formative Arena I I . Interpreting the Text in Its Old Testament Development D. Considering the Text's Historical Meaning in Light

158 158 163

of the Present E. Suggestion for Proceeding with the Acquisitum and Presentetion Ε Translation o f the Text G. Literature

166 167 168 169

Contents

PART F O U R : I L L U S T R A T I O N §11 The Exegetical Process Using Gen 28; 10-22 as Example

xí

171 173

A. First Provisional Translation of the llebrew Text B. Observations I . Concept of the Text as Component of Today's World I I . Concept of the Text as a Component of Its Historical World

173 174 174 175

C. Methodologically Directed Procedurcs I . Text Criticism I I . The Question of die Text's Development I I I . The Question of the Presuppositions of the Stages of Gen 28:10-22

182 183 183 193

D. Interpreting the Historically Deteraiined Meaning of Gen 28:10-22 in Its Various Stages of G r o w t h I . The Individua! Transmission Stages I I . The O l d Testament Development TIT. Considering the Text's Movement of Meaning in Light of Our Presem Time

Appendix: Literat/m Ulustrating the Exegetical Treatment of a Text

199 199 201 201

202

Preface to the English Edition

T h i s guide t o the m e t h o d o l o g y o f O l d Testament exegesis has been used i n the G e r m a n speaking w o r l d for 25 years. I n 1989 (for the 12th e d i t i o n ) , i t was t h o r o u g h l y revised and expanded. T h e 13th e d i t i o n f r o m 1993 is n o w presented i n E n g l i s h translation. T h i s b o o k is not an i n t r o d u e t i o n t o self-study, b n t presumes an academic setting (advanced seminar, etc.) i n w h i c h the p r i n e i ­ ples o f this m e t h o d o l o g y can be i l h i s t r a t e d to the student. Examples i l l u s t r a t i n g the various points o f the m e t h o d o l o g y ean he found i n the footnotes o f this w o r k b o o k . Changes have been undertaken for the benefit o f E n g l i s h readers regardi n g the bibliographic references i n the G e r m a n e d i t i o n . W h e r e translations o f G e r m a n works exist i n E n g l i s h , these are m e n t i o n e d (even i f they are n o t translations o f the most recent e d i t i o n o f that w o r k ) . I n addition, m o r e recent publieations t r e a t i n g eertain subjeets have been added t o the E n g l i s h version o f this guide. VVith the aid o f scientific exegesis, this manual shows one h o w t o ap­ proach the historical meaning o f O l d Testament texts d u r i n g the p e r i o d o f their produetive f o r m a t i o n . T h i s m e a n i n g is the original m e a n i n g o f an O l d Testa­ m e n t text w i t h i n the transmission r e a l m o f the O l d Testament. T h i s mean­ i n g must be proeessed because i t is the foundational m e a n i n g . T h i s mean­ i n g is constitutive i o r the t o r m u l a t i o n and the c o n t e x t o f an O l d Testament text. For this reason, this w o r k b o o k places particular emphasis u p o n t w o aspeets: (1) H i s t o r i c a l exegesis must proceed from the existing text and the final context rather than from diachronic hypotheses. (2) T h e c o m p l e x i l y o f the O l d Testament, i n its existing f o r m , however, forces one t o diachronic exegesis. I t does so because the o r i g i n o f the f o r m u l a t i o n (!) can o n l y be understood as arising i n a particular t i m e i n A n e i e n t Israel. T h e procedures o f § 6 and § 1 0

xiv

Preface to the E n g l i s h E d i t i o n

demonstrate that exegetically historical w o r k m u s t u l t i m a t e l y arrive at the shape o f the text and the context as i t exists i n the O l d Testament. T h e subject o f this guide is n o t the applieation o f O l d Testament texts or alternative, methods for understanding the O l d Testament. T h e s e alternative methods include reader response c r i t i c i s m , deconstruction, feininist, m a t e r i a l ist, and psychological approaches (seeJ.Ch. E x u m and D.J.A. Clines, eds. T h e N e w L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m and the H e b r e w B i b l e , J S O T . S 143, Sheffield, 1993; and below, p. - ) . T h i s guide concentrates o n historical exegetical methods. I wish to thank die translator, Prof. D r . James N o g a l s k i , and ali those w h o have helped h i m for t h e i r concerted efforts i n m a M n g this guide accessible to the E n g l i s h speaking w o r l d . Special m e n t i o n should be made f o r the help o f Prof. D r s . Pamela J. Scalise and M a r k Ε . Seifrid, as w e l l as R u t h F u n k , Peter Schwagmeier, and K o n r a d S c h m i d , w h o compared drafts o f this manuscript w i t h the G e r m a n . Finally, the O l d Testament C o l l o q u i u m o f T h e S o u t h e r n Baptist T h e o l o g i c a l Seminary and Prof. D r . Steven T u e l l read the E n g l i s h translation and offered helpfu] correetions and insights at k c y juncturcs. I n a d d i t i o n , I w i s h to thank the .Society o f Biblical L i t e r a t u r e , Scholars Press, and N e u k i r c h e n e r Verlag for h e l p i n g t o make this translation possible. Finally, 1 wish to m e n t i o n Prof. D r . M a r v i n Sweeney for his careful reading as e d i t o r o f the series Reources for Biblical Study. Z ü r i c h , M a y 1995 Odil Hannes Steck

Preface

D c a r Reader, You should w o r k w i t h this book. Perhaps y o u have already t h u m b c d througl) i t , and glanced t h r o u g h p o r t i o n s . The first I m p r e s s i o n was probably: it's all so c o m p l i c a t e d , so difficult. D o n ' t w o r r y . T l i i s b o o k w i l l n o t confuse \ ou, b u t w i l l help to clarify y o u r thoughts. r

I can p i c t u r e the Situation. A short t e x t lies before y o u f r o n i the O l d Testament—in H e b r e w . You must exegete i t . You desire to c o m p r e h e n d this text, b u t h o w should y o u proceed? I n the grasp o f this text, do we say w h a t we w a n t to hear, or does it teil us w h a t we should hear? O n e must ask the ques­ t i o n self-criticaUy, because an a n d e r n text cannot defend itself. Tt has l o n g outlived its author w h o c o u l d p r o t e c t i t . I t needs y o u r help. T h i s book can acc o m p a n y y o u as y o u become an attorney, mediator, and defender o f the text, i n order that i t can speak it? message, and come to life for us. W h a t is necessary for tliis task? U n d e r s t a n d i n g the words presumes knowledge. T h i s is certainly the case a m o n g l i v i n g people, but even m o r e so for an a n d e r n text. T h i s book w o u l d like t o s h o w y o u h o w one acquires such knowledge. T h e historical t o o l , developed over generations, w i l l be delivered t o y o u as precisely and exactly as we use i t today. Its service to y o u , and to die text, is to find the k n o w l e d g e neces­ sary for understanding, by means o f the clarification o f v e r y simple questions. Your text has been variously t r a n s m i t t e d i n the ancient manuscripts. H o w did i t read originallv? § 3 o f this b o o k w i l l help y o u w i t h this question. C o p y r i g h t s d i d not yet exist i n a n t i q u i t y . Even i n a short text, Statements from various times can stand next t o one another. T h a t is no deficiency. I t is the richness of an ancient text. T o take die text seriously means to distinguish the Statements i n the text, to separate that w h i c h was once separated, and also to listen separately t o each o f the voices i n the text f r o m various times as p o r t i o n s o f various l i t e r a r y w o r k s o f the O l d Testament t o w h i c h they once belonged. B u t one may n o t forget die r e t u r n t r i p , tfie t r i p f r o m the Separation

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Preface

back again t o the u n i t y , t o the h a r m o n y o f the voices i n the text as i t Stands before us. T h a t is the path by w h i c h G o d has been manifested i n the course o f the text's development. § § 4 - 6 w i l l teach y o u h o w to distinguish various b i b l i ­ cal witnesses i n y o u r text; to hear t h e m separately; and then to hear t h e m again together. B u t n o w on to the goal o f understanding, w h a t is i t that these voices w a n t to sav? W h o c v e r speaks prudently, formulates precisely. T h e r e f o r e , understand­ i n g p r i m a r i l y means to listen t o the language; t o pereeive h o w s o m e t h i n g is said—and how i t is n o t said. I f y o u r text is f o r m c d a c c o r d i n g to a c o m m o n pattern, then i t provides insight i n to what i t wants t o say, like b i r t h announcements and menus i n o u r t i m e . § 7 seeks t o prepare the way tor the question o f the l i n g u i s t i c shape o f y o u r text. A text intends m u c h m o r e than just w h a t is there. W h e n c o n t e m p o raries wilh the same level o f k n o w l e d g e interchange linguistically, they can also understand one anodicr t h r o u g h allusions, associations, and connotations. W e are not contemporaries w i t h ancient Israel. W e must i n q u i r e i n t o those things connected w i t h a text w h i c h are left unspoken. § 8 formulates the ques­ t i o n o f the text's intellectual connotations. § 9 treats the question o f the ex­ pressed, h i s t o r i c a l h concrete associations from the t i m e o f f o r m u l a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g the date, author, and the addressee o f y o u r text. r

These are simple, necessary questions. T h e y help partially clarify how one can experience what the text has to sav, and how i t lived d u r i n g the t i m e when it was f o r m u l a t e d and transmitted i n A n c i e n t Israel. T h e goal and c u l m i n a t i o n o f ali exegesis is to determine and to t r a č e the contents o f the text's Statements in o r d e r to become its attorney, as far as diose o f us from a later t i m e are able t o do. § 1 0 w i l l make i t easier f o r y o u t o reach this goal. T h e questions are simple, even though the path t o elucidation i n this book is not quite as simple hecausc o f the great a n t i q u i t y o f the texts, the m a n n c r o f t h c i r transmission, and the f o r e i g n , u n f a m i l i a r w o r l d w h i c h one encounters d i e r e i n . T h i s difficulty is also related to die current status o f die t o o l w h i c h we m u s t lay before you i n all its refinement and precision. A n y o n e standing at the b e g i n n i n g o f one's study does n o t master i t i n the i n i t i a l encounter. However, w h e n using this book, one can concentrate on that w h i c h is most i m p o r t a n t i n every section. Teaching sessions, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t r o d u c t o r y exegesis courses, w i l l help y o u concentrate o n that w h i c h is most i m p o r t a n t . T h e y w i l l also help you t o g r o w w i t h this book. I t is so w r i t t e n that even at the end o f one's study (in exams, master's w o r k , o r even doctoral w o r k ) , i t can still servc as an o r i e n t a t i o n and as Stimulation i n the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l questions o f O l d Testament exegesis. Last but n o t least, please r e m e m b e r that this b o o k has all types o f O l d Testament texts i n view, but n o t every text asks all o f the questions e x p l i cated i n this book. Even the p r i n t type o f this w o r k b o o k w i l l m e e t y o u half-way, i n order that you can find y o u r way t h r o u g h the w h o l e t h i n g . As v o n w i l l see, one must dif-

Preface

xvii

ferentiate between the larger ( s e r i f ) and the smaller (sans s e r i f ) p r i n t . As y o u know, even the "small p r i n t " is i m p o r t a n t , b u t i n our case secondary, namely to be used for closer scrutiny, for exphcation and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . T h e shaded sidebars are a second help. They einphasige i n p r i n t the concrete procedural directions for the individual methods. I n exegetical w o r k w i t h tliis b o o k I w i s h y o u joy, courage, c o n c e n t r a t i o n , and t h r o u g h i t all, the discovery o f h o w r i e h a b i b l i c a l text is, and h o w rieh i t can still make us.

Foreword to the i2th Edition

Λ decade lies between the 8 d i e d i t i o n o f this book, w h i c h H e r m a n n Barth and I u n d e r t o o k , and the c u r r e n t l y revised 12th e d i t i o n . A revision has thus become necessary i n l i g h t o f the l i t e r a t u r e references alone. A t the same t i m e one m u s t consider numerous changes i n the specific development o f the discussion, at least briefly and selectively. Greater engagement and expansions have been undertaken in § 1 , i n order t o facilitate c n t r y and o r i e n t a t i o n , and in § 6 , i n order t o p r o p e r l y convey the b l o s s o m i n g o f the redaction-historical questions i n recent years. Kurther, there is an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the inter-related m e t h o d o l o g i c a l steps o f § § 4 - 6 and § § 7 - 9 respeetively. Finally, the f o r m u lation o f conerete p r o c e d u r a l direetions for the individual methods should faciJitate the practical u t i l i z a t i o n o f the w o r k b o o k . A n u m b e r o f places have been shortened i n order t o keep the siže and cost o f a student b o o k m a n ageable. Above a l i , extensive dialogue w i d i o t h e r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l positions has been reduced. I t is sufficient i f o u r position f r o m the 8th e d i t i o n is d o c u mented. T h e overall strueture and, t o a large extent, even the t o r m u l a t i o n ot the w o r k b o o k , have n o t been ehanged f o r the 12th e d i t i o n . Feedback f r o m assistants and students indicates these elements have p r o v e n effective i n practical terms t o those w h o use the b o o k . Reesons o f c o n t i n u i t y i n the essential o u t look enable this, and reasons o f cost require i t . D r . H e r m a n n Barth asked me t o undertake and t o be responsible for the revision by myself. For some time, he has n o t been involved i n academic education, b u t i n the pastorate. H e is n o w e m p l o y e d by the Evangelical C h u r c h o f G e r m a n y i n Hanover. W i t h a heavy heart ΐ n o w follow his request t o take his name o f f o f the t i t l e page o f the w o r k b o o k . I n c o n t i n u i n g thankfulness and afíìliation 1 emphasize the extensive c o n t r i b u t i o n w h i c h he p r o v i d e d i n

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F o r e w o r d to the 12th E d i t i o n

the preparation and f o r m a ü o n o f this b o o k d u r i n g an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y f r u i t f u l and pleasant collaboration. H i s c o n t r i b u t i o n remains preserved directJy o r i n d i r e c t l y even i n this new e d i t i o n . T h e purpose of this w o r k b o o k remains unehanged. I n this regard, what we said i n the f o r e w o r d o f the 8 t h e d i t i o n can o n l y be repeated. The w o r k b o o k , " n o w as before, proceeds f r o m the supposition that the goal o f the discipline o f O l d Testament studies n o t o n l y ineludes the acquisition o f certain factual k n o w l e d g e , b u t also ineludes the a d o p t i o n o f exegetical methods for deter­ m i n i n g the o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g o f O l d Testament transmissions. O n l y thus can one achieve discemment w i t h the results o f research and I n s t r u c t i o n i n proce­ dure w h i c h transcends nierc reception. T h e r e f o r e , as b e t ö r e , the w o r k b o o k is conceived p r i m a r i l v for use by teacher and student as a S y n o p s i s o f the i n d i v i d u a l methods: t h e i r d e n n i t i o n , t h e i r procedural steps, and t h e i r significanec for the t o t a l h i s t o r i c a l under­ standing o f an O l d Testament text. T h i s is done w i t h o u t d e t r i m e n t to die b o o k s c l a i m ot c o n t r i b u t i n g to the preselit discussion o f m e t h o d i n O l d Testa­ m e n t research. W i t h this decision about the purpose, the book docs n o t wish to be, indeed cannot be, an i n t r o d u e t i o n to sclf-study. Rather, i t is designed for use i n academic I n s t r u c t i o n . I t is related t o , indeed dependent u p o n , the processes o f the d e m o n s t r a t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n o f the methods w h i c h take place there. I t w o u l d like to p r o v i d e a w r i t t e n basis f o r this p o s i t i o n . For the m o m e n t , i f we disregard the w o r k b o o k ' s approach and the adop­ t i o n o f its perspectives c o n c e r n i n g the purpose o f O l d Testament research, the f o l l o w i n g reasons present themselves for u s i n g the b o o k d u r i n g one's coursc o f study and oceupational practice: 1.

As a w o r k b o o k , its p r i m a r y f u n e t i o n lies i n classroom sessions and the processes o f exegetical education. Specifically, i t is used to aecompany die Student i n several areas: b e g i n n i n g exegesis courses and papers; d e m o n s t r a t i n g and p r a c t i c i n g a transparent process i n exegetical lectures and Seminars; advanced seminar papers and exegesis papers i n the discipline o f O l d Testament.

2.

As for the purpose, we envision that u s i n g this b o o k d u r i n g one's edu­ cation w i l l aid the user i n a c q u i r i n g basic exegetical capabilities. A m o n g diese capabilities, we inelude die m ä s t e n " o f die approaches and the padis t o w a r d S o l u t i o n s w h i c h are essential for exegetically d e t e r m i n i n g mean­ i n g . Relatedly, the capabilities inelude the competency t o detennine w h i c h results the specific m e t h o d o l o g i c a l approach t o the p r o b l e m produces w h e n d e t e r m i n i n g exegetical m e a n i n g . L e a r n i n g and p r a c t i c i n g these capabilities aids d i s c e m m e n t w h e n p r e p a r i n g O l d Testament texts exe­ getically and w h e n s i f t i n g t h r o u g h commentaries, etc.

3.

I n the exegetical practice o f pastors and teachers o f r e l i g i o n , i t is i m p o r ­ tant that onc master the basic capabilities acquired i n one's study. T h i s

F o r e w o r d to the 12th E d i t i o n

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mastery protects one from u n d i s c e r n i n g surrender to available secondary literature, and aids one i n the critical use o f this l i t e r a t u r e . I t also enables one to pursue exegetical questions reasonably as they ariše i n p r a c ü c e . Be­ cause o f the p r e p a r a t i o n t i m e available, the w o r k b o o k itself n o longer serves, i n its entiretv, as a guide in many theological vocations. T h e r e f o r e , the basic capabilities acquired w i t h its help d u r i n g one's study become even m o r e i m p o r t a n t . N a t u r a l l y , one can freely consult the w o r k b o o k for I n f o r m a t i o n and as a reminder, even i n one's practice." M y heartfelt thanks go to the Z ü r i c h assistants, D r . R . G . K r a t z and E . Bosshard, w h o bave allowed mc to learn f r o m t h e i r teaching experiences w i t h the w o r k b o o k , and w h o have aided me w i t h advice and deed i n the re­ vision. Heartfelt thanks also go t o D r . H . B a r t h , w h o p r o v i d e d me w i t h critical insights f o r the revision, and t o B r i g i t t a Rotach, w h o helped me w i t h the e d i t o r i a l w o r k , and w h o , together w i t h students N i c o l e C h a r m i l l o t and M a r t i n Riwar, very conscientiously helped ine correet the galleys. I am no less grateful to M r s . R. F t u i k for all her care i n t y p i n g the manuscript, and to Ne/tkirehener Vertagter their d e t e n n i n e d effort to produec a elcar and econotnical teaching book for students. 1 hope this book, even i n its revised f o r m , aids the understanding and the awe o f the O l d

testament.

1

Z ü r i c h , N o v e m b e r 1988 Odil Hannes

Steck

i The mono of the book is taken from A. Brendel. Musical Tbtmgbts miti Afttrtbmghts (Princeton Univcrsity Press. 1976), 37.

Translator s Preface to the English Version, second printing

C o m m e n t s from students and colleagues w h o have u t i l i z e d this w o r k i n E n g l i s h underscore its usefulness and usability w i t h i n classroom settings. These comments have been o v e r w h e l m i n g l y positive, attesting t o the validity o f a historical exegetical i n t r o d u c t i o n w h i c h b o t h defines the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l components and teaches students how t o utilize t h e m for themselves. M o r e over, Steck's presentation illustrates h o w these components relate to one another, and m a n y have expressed appreciation for this I n t e g r a t i o n . T h e feedback has also indicated that the scope o f this w o r k must be given due consideration w i t h i n the didactic process, as Professor Steck states. A d ­ vanced students w h o have used this w o r k have c o m m e n t e d that i t has helped t h e m to p u t the pieces together. Rather t h a n seeing die exegetical components as an eclectic assortment w h i c h o n l y "specialists" o f the various components can " d o , " Steck's i n t r o d u c t i o n illustrates for t h e m h o w the perspective p r o vided by each m e t h o d o l o g i c a l lens adds d e p t i i to the w h o l e . T h e w o r k b o o k , w h i l e concise i n its f o r m a t , contains m o r e I n f o r m a t i o n than a b e g i n n i n g student can possibly absorb w i t h i n the confincs o f a typical course i n t r o d u c i n g the exegetical process. L e l t t o ü i e m s e l v e s , b e g i n n i n g s t u ­ dents w i l l struggle to c o m p r e h e n d this w o r k . C e r t a i n measures can, however, help insure that b e g i n n i n g students benefit from the b o o k at a level appropriate to t h e i r present skill. B e g i n n i n g students should concentrate u p o n die larger ( s e r i f ) t y p e and especially the summaries beside the shaded sidebars. T h o s e teaching b e g i n n i n g students can help by i n t e g r a t i n g the book's presen­ t a t i o n i n t o the class itself. T w o approaches have w o r k e d w e l l i n tliis regard.

XXIV

Translators Preface

T h e class can process G e n 2 8 . 1 0 - 2 2 since chapter 11 uses this t e x t t o i l l u s trate the m e t h o d . O r , one can lead the class t h r o u g h the various m e t h o d o ­ logical observations i n class as they relate to another text. B o t h approaches help b e g i n n i n g students c o m p r e h e n d the methods b y i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e m o n a familiär text. T h i s second p r i n t i n g has corrected several t y p o g r a p h i c a l errors, and i n response t o feedback, the e n t i r e b o o k has been r e f o r m a t t e d w i t h larger type t o make i t m o r e reader ffiendly. L o m b a r d , I L , 1998 James D.

Nogalski

Part One

Introduction

A n y o n e s t u d y i n g theology because o f the desire to address the people and the questions o f o u r t i m e may be puzzled when l o o k i n g at the syllabus o f an i n t i O d u c t o r y course on O l d Testament exegesis at the b e g i n n i n g o f die course and w h e n considering the table o f Contents o f tliis guide to die methodology. T h e d i r e c t i o n o f the w o r k o n biblical texts runs backwards. T h e biblical texts are n o t b r o u g h t ever nearcr to o u r present t i m e i n t h e i r authoritative significance for a Christian's faith, doctrine, and life. Instead, they are distanced fur­ ther and further f r o m today, and placed i n the Situation o f t h e i r o r i g i n , w h i c h lies well i n die past. D o diese t w o movements not cancel themselves out? N o — a necessary cormection exists between the t w o . T h e goal o f all theological w o r k is to b r i n g the biblical w o r d o f G o d to life, and to give i t d y n a m i c and relevant expression for h u m a n i t y today. T h e task o f all theological w o r k is to make sure, i n this process o f conveying tbe material, t h a t the w o r d o f the biblical G o d remains that w h i c h confronts and w h i c h speaks w h a t humans by themselves d o not always k n o w o r desire. W i t h i n the framework o f C h r i s t i a n theology, Old Testament exegesis also has a c o n c e n i for d e t e r m i n i n g the goal and task i n t r o d u c e d i n diis w o r k b o o k . Exegesis has a subservient, but at tbe same t i m e an undeniable role. W h y ? T h e biblical w o r d o f G o d i n d i e O l d Testament reeeived its f o r m u l a t i o n i n a certain t i m e and t h r o u g h h u m a n witnesses w i t h l i n g u i s t i c and experiential horizons w h i c h are more than t w o thousand years older t h a n ours. I i the f o r m u l a t i o n s o f these ancient texts are t o become understandable, then one must ask about their meanings w h e n these formulations arose and w h e n they c i r c u lated inside the O l d Testament. T h e r e f o r e , O l d Testament exegesis necessarily inquires i n t o the past for the original meaning o f the text. T h e i n q u i r y o f O l d Testament exegesis i n t o the o r i g i n a l historical m e a n i n g has fundamental significance i f these ancient texts are to be protected f r o m the caprice to w h i c h we o f today honorably, dishonorably, o r u n k n o w i n g l y subject t h e m i n order to hear w h a t we w a n t to hear f r o m t h e m . I t also has fundamental signiheance i f r

INTRODUCTION

the texts are t o be allowed t o speak their o w n message, i n contrast t o ali later recipients. These Statements are t r u e even t h o u g h , for us today, the i n q u i r y is o n l y a first step o n the path o f c o n v e y i n g the w o r d o f G o d t o w a r d w h i c h ali theological disciplines m u s t w o r k t o g e d i e r responsibly. O u r w o r k b o o k Stands w i t h i n this framework. I t sccks to i n t r o d u c e one c o n s t i t u e n t task o f die b i b l i ­ cal speaking about G o d i n the present, b u t i t is a fundamental and indispensable approach. T h i s approach asks about the o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g w h i c h maintains the o u d o o k , character. and richness o f an O l d Testament text against any p a t r o n i z i n g treatment o f the biblical message d i r o u g h a later message. A l i use o f the O l d Testament today, l o r t h e o l o g ) and the ehureh, m u s t be measured against diis approach. N o less so, d i e frequendymisused and painful reception h i s t o r y o f d i e O l d Testament d u r i n g t w o m i l l e n n i a must be measured against i t . O n e c o u l d object, especially i n the case o f the Bible, d i a t i t is p r i m a r i l y the reader w h o actively contributes t o the m e a n i n g o f the text. T h e objeetion contains s o m e t h i n g valid, b u t at the satne t i m e s o m e t h i n g dangerous. I t is undisputable that a reader p r o d u e t i v e l y cooperates i n the p e r c e p t i o n o f the text's dimensions o f m e a n i n g w h i c h cxceed the o r i g i n a l author's i n t e n t i o n . Nevertheless, the m e a n i n g o r i g i n a l l y given, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h b i b l i c a l texts, m u s t be proteeted over against reader associations about the t e x t . i n o r d e r that a h e r m e n e u t i c a l l y responsible r e c e p t i o n remains o n the text's path o f meaning, and does n o t allow the r e c i p i e n t t o c o n t r o l the t e x t . Should the his­ torical association disappear, then so w o u l d the o u t l o o k o f the biblical text for today, and i t w o u l d be fatally replaced by the subjeetive, a r b i t r a r y refleetions o f "the t e x t i n me." T h e r e f o r e , the principal task o f exegesis is t o p r o t e c t the text's o u d o o k .

Foundation and Overview

A. T H E T A S K O F O L D T E S T A M E N T E X E G E S I S O l d Testament exegesis is the endeavor t o d e t e r m i n e the historieal, sci­ entific, and documentable m e a n i n g o f texts w h i c h have been t r a n s m i t t e d i n the O l d Testament. Exegesis, therefore, confronts the task o f d e t e r m i n i n g the m e a n i n g and the i n t e n t i o n o f Statements i n the encountered t e x t . I t does so w i t h i n the text's historical sphere o f o r i g i n , and i n the d i f f e r c n t phases o f its O l d Testament development, so that today the t e x t manifests its historical eharacter. Exegesis is a scientific procedure to the degree that its u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a text is grounded exclusively upon knowledge and arguments whose a p p r o p r i ateness t o die subject can be evaluated ( a p p r o v i n g l y o r d i s a p p r o v i n g l y ) by others, and whose rationale can be substantiated. Exegesis certainly does n o t m a i n t a i n its scientific eharacter by o r i e n t i n g itself to die experimental and e m p i r i c a l sciences, and by b i n d i n g itself to their ideal o f an ever m o r e precise o h jeetive k n o w l e d g e . Exegesis w o u l d then have to l i m i t itself t o the analysis and d e s c r i p t i o n o f die l i n g u i s t i c surface o f the texts. However, texts are a f o r m a l o u t g r o w t h o f life events y e t they supersede that life linguisrically. T h e r e f o r e , by means o f a d y n a m i c process, exegesis must understand texts as an event i n w h i c h die f o l l o w i n g Clements lead t o the cxisting l i n g u i s t i c expression, i n c l u d i n g t h e i r "unspoken h o r i z o n o f m e a n i n g , " ( J I . - G . G a d a m e r ) . T h i s process ineludes the historieal and social c o n d i t i o n s , intellectual conccptions, e x p e r i enees, irnpulses, the author's coneeptual purpose, and the eharacter of the 1

1

Qnoted literature will ojily be cited with an abbreviated title if the complete bibliographical reference can be taken trom the Literature section (D) of the current ehapter. or relatedly, in the case of literature on methodology, the introduction to the Old Testament, und thcology of the Old Testament (scetions H,G, and Ν in ehapter iwo).

§1

FOUNDATION A N D OVERVIEW

addressee. Exegesis can be evaluated against its subject m a t t e r o n l y i f i t can p r o v i d e an intersubjectivcly g r o u n d c d account o f the historical life w h i c h terminates linguistically i n the text. Scientific exegesis does n o t , therefore, consider the text as a defenseless object w h i c h submits itself t o the superior grasp o f the scholar. Rather, i t considers die t e x t as a l i v i n g e n t i t y w l i i c h appears in relationship to life. T h e fundamental attitudes o f scientific exegesis are therefore a t t e n t i o n , the rcadiness t o learn, the capacity to encounter, and the r e c o g n i t i o n o f l i m i t s i n relationship t o the text as s o m e t h i n g other, o r something foreign.

2

T o the extent that scientific exegesis relates to the historical d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the text's m e a n i n g , i n the p e r i o d o f its produetive forma t i o n , i t is l i m i t e d t o d e t e r m i n i n g the o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g inside the transmission realm o f the O l d Testament. As noted above, its d i r e e t i o n of understanding is thereby d i f ferentiated f r o m the event o f a m o d e r n bible reader's personally encountered understanding. T h e i n d i v i d u a l i t y and depth o f a bible readers understanding has been determined esscntially by expericnces o f the present. Scientific exe­ gesis brings the text itself i n t o dircet relationship w i t h those expericnces. Scientific h i s t o r i c a l exegesis does n o t depreciate this d i r e c t l y applied under­ standing, b u t is able to clarify and to e n r i c h i t t h r o u g h the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g o f the text: (1) b y c o r r e c t i n g arbitrary, subjeetive exp l o i t a t i o n o f tbe text; (2) by i n d i c a t i n g the central subject m a t t e r o f the text; and (3) by exposing the text's particular impulses w h i c h the present needs. Scientific historical exegesis is thereby an attorney f o r the o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g o f the text, p r o v i d i n g the fundamental c o n t r i b u t i o n i o r the clarification and e n r i c h m e n t o l applied understanding. N a t u r a l l y , applied understanding r e quires still m o r e extensive theological help. Clarifications o f meaning beyond O l d Testament exegesis are necessary to the extent that an O l d Testament text receives aspeets o f m e a n i n g w h i c h are expanded or m o d i f i e d t h r o u g h the witness o f the N e w Testament and t h r o u g h f'ar-reachitig ehanges i n the experience o f reality, These clarifications takc place i n the theological realrns o f the New Testament, C h u r c h H i s t o r y , the history o f dogma, and the h i s t o r y o f theology. A l s o , they take place t h r o u g h d o g m a t i c dieology, ethics, and practical theology, i n relationship t o the f o r m , validity, and O b l i g a t i o n o f the expanded o r m o d i f i e d m e a n i n g o f die text i n the face o f the present e x p e r i -

• In addition. Kaiser, Exegtthvl MelhvtL 40f. says eorreelly: "Scholarsliip requires diat we give reasons lor our judgments and avoid uniounded assertions; diat we inake clear our dependence on the work oi olhers; that we specitv tiie degrce ol probability of our results; that we pre­ sent unsettleil or presently iusoluble or ncwly arísun problems tor what thuv are and, it circuinstances perniit, gire the reasons why we have not gone into thein or given answers/' In. light of exegesis performed both orally and in wrirten tomi, one should einphasige that in addition to the supporting argiimcnts ot an opinion, one should undeniably inelude a reasoned deliberarion that exehides possiblc alternatives, in ones srienrifie inter-siibjeetively interpreted rationale (the prineiple of the exclusion of the oppositc).

I m a g i n a t i o n and M e d i o d o l o g i c a l D i r e c t u m D u r i n g Exegetical W o r k

5

ence o f reality. O n l y after these clarifications, i n w h i c h theolog)' has its undeniable task, can and should one t u r n back again to a higher plane. Specifically, one should be led by the content, d i r o u g h theological responsibility. to an ap­ plied understanding o f the text for today as the goal ot the totalily. T h e n , n o l i m i t s are placed before the vision of b r i n g i n g the message o f the biblical text p r o d u c t i v e l y i n t o play for h u m a n i t y in the present rime, w h e t h e r in the f o r m o f the traditional sermon, role plays, o r bible dramas. A l s o , scientific historical exegesis is always critical exegesis. Its execution necessarily ineludes critically r e c o g n i z i n g one's o w t i , o r alien, presuppositions c o n c e r n i n g the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o l the text (above all as they eome to l i g h t i n Β 11 1). I t also ineludes the necessity o f r e c o g n i z i n g any preconeeptions i m posed by exegetical t r a d i t i o n or b y constellations f r o m the h i s t o r y o f research, b y w h i c h everyone a d m i t t e d l y remains influenced. Once recognized, critical exegesis must c o n t r o l the preconeeptions b y r e l y i n g u p o n the original mean­ i n g o f die text. A t the same time, the critique is directed at the text itself. T h i s Statement does not mean arrogant criticism o f the text, rather i t means an a t t i tude o f methodological doubt, w h i c h leads to a distinetive historical f o r m a t i o n o f j u d g m e n t o n various pereeptions, approaches, a n d conclusions i n the face o f a text 's eharacter. I t also interrogates the text's c l a i m o f t r u t h in its h i s t o r i ­ cal S i t u a t i o n .

B. I M A G I N A T I O N A N D M E T H O D O L O G I C A L DURING EXEGETICAL WORK

DIRECTION

I . T h e Value and L i m i t s o f M e t h o d o l o g i c a l D i r e c t i o n Scientifically established exegetical w o r k is m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y transparent w o r k . Nevcrtbeless, it is n o t exhausted by the c o r r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n and evaluation o f the methodological Steps for a given text. T h e process o f d e t e r m i n i n g the historical meaning of the text i n its life Situation is m u c h more c o m p l e x . T h e r e f o r e , the value and l i m i t s o f the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l Steps must be more closely d e t e r m i n e d . A n y o n e u t i l i z i n g m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i n t r o d u e t i o n s must be conscious o f the facttlrat the individual methods derive f r o m an arsenal o t elementary questions about the historical understanding o f a text. These questions were already m e n t i o n e d i n the preface and inelude the f o l l o w i n g : T h e transmission o f the text i n the ancient manuscripts is not consistent; w h a t is the original w o r d i n g (see § 3 ) ? ; T h e O l d Testament w r i t i n g s have f r e q u e n t l y g r o w n by means o f a p r o t r a c t e d transniission process; h o w far do the oldest parameters reach, and w h a t are later expansions and contexts (see § § 4 - 6 ) ? ; E v e r y l i n g u i s t i c u t t e r ance partieipates in the imellectual w o r l d o f its audior; what patterns o f speech and coneepts does the text presuppose (see § § 7 - 8 ) ? ; I n the same manner,

6

§1

F O U N D A T I O N .AND O V E R V I E W

every text participates i n the historical and socio-historical realities o f its rime; h o w can one determine the t e x t s historical realm, i n c l u d i n g t h a t o f its author and addressees (see §9)? T h e methods w h i c h are c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y elaborated (text c r i t i c i s m . l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , the transmission-historical and r e d a c t i o n historical approaches; the f o r m critical and t r a d i t i o n historical approaches; and the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the historical setting) then constitute the development o f an intellectual path where these questions w i l l find answers. B y its questions and by w e i g h i n g observations and arguments, tbe description o f mediods pays a t t e n t i o n to insights and possibilities w h i c h have proven effective o n m a n y i n d i v i d u a l texts. I n its p r e h m i n a r y sketch, the description o f methods presupposes images o f expectation and the a n t i c i p a t i o n o f results as suggested by the c u r r e n t State o f exegetical science. B u t t h c r e i n lies the p r o b l e m o f m e t h o d o ­ logical exegetical w o r k . U t i l i z i n g methods w h i c h depend u p o n the State o f re­ search and w h i c h antieipate results must neither patronize the texts, n o r allow the texts t o p r o v i d e answers o n l y aecording t o the manner o f the questions. The text does not have to subjugate itself to the c u r r e n t State o f the descrip­ t i o n o f methods. Rather, the u t i l i z a t i o n of the methods must r e m a i n steadfast to die data o f die text. B u t w h a t access does historical exegesis have t o the data o f the text except die access o f questions, observations, and a r g u m e n t a t i o n guided b y the m e t h ­ ods? H e r e , the exegete's i m a g i n a t i o n plays a decisive r o l e i n l o o k i n g at the selected text, b y e m p l o \ d n g fantasy i n the desire t o understand a text historically. T h i s fantasy is n o t obstrueted and n o t vet r i g i d l y c o n t r o l l e d b y m e t h o d o l o g i ­ cal Instructions. O n the basis o f the original hermeneutical u n i t y berween the text and today's reader, one's fantasy and imagination must thereby move i n t w o directions d u r i n g constant reading and reflection. (One should first read and reflect u p o n the text i n E n g l i s h . O n e should also read the H e b r e w text, w h i c h should be p r e l i m i n a r i l y processed and translated at die b e g i n n i n g of the exegetical w o r k , w i d i the help o f a grainmar, dictionary, and i f need be, a concordance.) O n (he one hand, the exegete envisions how die text offers itself as a c o m p o ­ nent of today
I m a g i n a t i o n and M e t h o d o l o g i c a l D i r e c t i o n D u r i n g Exegetical W o r k

versation partners, even for a sermon o r lecture). T h e s e impressions and effects influence any historical understanding today, p r i m a r i l y subconsciously, and they represent a hermeneutical u n i t y bctween text and reader, w h i c h must certainly be regained i n an applied understanding after the exegetical h i s t o r i ­ cal i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . E m p l o y i n g fantasv and i m a g i n a t i o n hclps t o make one c o g nizant o f these impressions and effects. I t also helps to keep t h e i r influence active, b u t at the same t i m e under c o n t r o l , A series o f simple questions can stimulate the power o f conceptualizat i o n . T h e exegete poscs these questions to himsclf/herself and to others when specifically considering the text. T h e s e inelude: •

W h a t fcelings, reactions, and associations does the t e x t call f o r t h i n me? (For example: innate/foreign; m y t e x t / n o t m y text; i n v i t i n g / repulsive; happy/sad; i l h u m n a t i n g / v a g u e ) T

• W h a t does the text say to me that is new, and i n w h i c h life Situation does i t address me? • W h a t is i m p o r t a n t to me thematically, and i n view o f the Statements o f the text, to w h a t do I n o t relate? • W h a t do I recognize as familiär? • W h a t Stands o u t t o me? • W h a t do I miss? T

• W h a t do I not understand? • W h a t disturbs me, or stimulates disagrecment? (For example, as a "learned" C h r i s t i a n , as a w o m a n , as a m a n , as a democratic person t o w h o m absolute royal power is a t h i n g o f the past, as a person w h o wants to find himself/herself, as an engaged c i t i z e n w h o intercedes o n behalf o f universal h u m a n rights, and w h o takes offence at tbe "eruelty" o f die O l d Testament.) • W h a t dawns o n me regarding specific Statements? • W h a t do 1 t h i n k about w h e n reading? G i v e n the desire to u n d e r ­ stand, w h a t do J draw upon tor comparison? • T o w h i c h people, i n w h i c h life Situation, c o u l d I show the text as an e n r i c h i n g , i l l u m i n a t i n g w o r d o f God?

The answers to these questions will turn out very differenty for various exegetes be­ cause, when fantasizing. these questions largely employ active and knowledgeable awareness of the present, life experience, knowledge of people. self-awareness, and ecucalion. Yet the goal of this line o i questioning is by no means uniformrty. Rather the goal is to make one conscious of a realistic üfe-like situating of the text in one's own time which shall again take effect after one's exegetical-theological investigation has been clarifted. The deveiopment of text dimensions that present themselves alongside the historical-exegetical investigat
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of multiple endeavoi's, which are themselves also systematized. An overview is given m the periodical mstallment entitled. "Zugänge zur Bibel," EvTn 45 (1985): 469-56C; English readers consutt j.C. Exum and D.J.A. Clines (eds.), The New Literary Ctitkism cnd the Hebrew Bible, JSOTS 143, Sheffield, 1993. An example in conne.ction with historical exe­ gesis isthe essay by H. Utzschneider. 'Das hermeneutische Problem der Uneindeutigkert biblischer Texte—dargestellt an Text und Rezeption d e Erzählung von jakob am jabbok (Gen 32,23-33), EvTh 48 (1988): 182-198 Compare the recent w o r k U.H.J. Körtnet; Der r

inspirierte Leser. Zentrale Aspekte

biblischer Hermeneutik,

Göttingen,

1994.

2. C o n c e i v i n g the Text as a C o m p o n e n t o f Its O w n H i s t o r i c a l W o r l d For this linc o f questioning, w h i c h cannot be overestimated, die goal is to achieve a comprehensive historical c o n c e p t i o n o f the h i s t o r i c a l arena, o r i g i n , I n t e n t i o n , m e a n i n g and effect ot die text i n its t i m e , t h r o u g h the e m p l o y m e n t o f fantasy and i m a g i n a t i o n p r i o r t o and alongside the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l w o r k . T h e preceding endeavor o f p o r t r a y i n g the text as a c o m p o n e n t o f the present w o r l d n o w sharpens the vision f o r the portrayal o f the t e x t i n its historical eharacter. M o r e o v e r , at this p o i n t i n die w o r k i n g procedure, one is certainly not concerned w i t h exaet, unchangeable insights. Rather, one is concerned w i t h observations and impressions t h a t present themselves w h e n one looks at l e n g t h i n t o the H e b r e w text ( w h i c h has been p r e l i m i n a r i l y translated and w i t h w h i c h one has become familiär) w i t h t r a n q u i l i t y and w i t h the greatest possible precision. Even the power o f historical conceptualization can be aroused by a series o f elementary questions. T h e y m a r c h in eontinuous oscillation between o b ­ servations u p o n the text c o n c e r n i n g the effort o f acliieving an understand­ i n g of the factors o f o r i g i n , and the i m a g i n a t i o n o f a total p i c t u r e o f historical understanding. T h i s larger p i c t u r e encompasses an image o f the i n t e n t i o n , meaning, and effect o f the text, and i t sees die text as a life-event o f its time. /. Imagination from Text Obset~catimis Text observations are the alpha and omega o f this stage o f the w o r k , w h e n they are directed t o w a r d the formal as well as the material flow o f die text. T h e observations serve to aequaint one well w i ü i die text to be treated i n its o r i g i n a l language, and to draw a t t e n t i o n t o its distinetiveness. They also p r o v i d e the first possibility for creative exegetical discoveries p r i o r t o the w o r k w h i c h w i l l be g u i d e d by the methods and the secondary l i t e r a t u r e , where these discoveries can then be substantiated, examined, and explained. T

1. Freely Roamirig Observations on the Text T h e f o l l o w i n g w o r k i n g procedure is recommended as the starting p o i n t : F i r s t , one should translate one's t e x t over and over again u n t i l one is u t t e r l y f a m i l i ä r w i t h i t . T h e n , using freely r o a m i r i g observations, one should note e v e r y t h i n g i n the t e x t w h i c h strikes one as a historical phenonienon.

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2. Observations on tbe Linguistic Sbape of tbe Text O n l y then does a phase o f directed Observation follow. F.ssentially, these observations constitute pure text observations regarding tbe linguistic sbape, w h i c h even the beginner should be able to list w i t h the k n o w l e d g e o f H e b r e w already acquired. a. Obseroations from Sentence to Sentence First, one proceeds t h r o u g h the text, n o t verse by verse, b u t sentence by sentence (compare also Η . Schweizer, Biblische Texte verstehen, see § 2 H , p. 3 7ff; B . W i l l m e s , Bibelauskgung, see § 2 ) . T h e l i n g u i s t i c observations are especially directed t o w a r d die type o f sentence f r o m w h i c h the text is composed, t o w a r d the manner o f p r o m i e n t connectors between die sentences, and t o w a r d die eharacter o f die succession of sentences i n the text (aspects w h i c h are the result o f the c o n t i n u i t y o r the change i n the types o f sentences and the tense). I n detail, die approach is elucidated thus: • •

H o w far does die first sentence extend (in terms o f content and grammar)? H o w is the sentence construeted (sentence parts and t h e i r p o s i t i o n ; die type o f sentence such as: n o m i n a l sentence, verbal sentence, inverted ver­ bal sentence, m a i n clause, o r dependent clause; and the tense)? W h a t does this type o f sentence c o n s t r u e t i o n express f o r the content? (subject/object, accent, a c t i o n / c o n d i t i o n , temporal c o n d i t i o n )

• •

W l i i c h o f the exegete's expectations o f content does this l i n g u i s t i c shape correct? D o the same for sentences t w o , three, etc., u n t i l the end o f the text. A l o n g w i d i tliis procedure, one should pay a t t e n t i o n to the m a n n e r i n w h i c h the new sentence is related to the previous sentence or sentences. Is the sentence attached to the previous sentence(s) o r not? ( A r e all l i n ­ guistic and material referenecs inissing?) A n d w h a t type o f possible eonnection exists? Does a dependeney exist u p o n the previous sentence or not, i n the sense o f a parallel o r subsidiary o r d e r i n g (the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the m a i n clause and dependent clauses, relative sentences, infinitive construetions), and i f so w h a t funetion does the dependeney express? Is diere a c o n t i n u a t i o n or change o f subject, object, t y p e o f sentence, tense, o r temporal condition? H o w far do the series o f connected sentences extend, and w h e n does an I n t e r r u p t i o n take place? ( I n certain situations this is an i m p o r t a n t clue to die strueture!) D o the individua] sentences offer any relationships w h i c h p o i n t beyond the text u n d e r investigation and show that i t belongs i n a larger l i t e r a r y context?

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I n the succession o f sentences, d o repeated p r i n c i p a l words, catchwords, o r w o r d pairs manifest themselves in explainable positions? W h a t do these observations inside the succession o f sentences signify for the content? b. Observations on the Text as a Whole T h e observations acquired r e g a r d i n g die succession o f sentences leads t o the next step o f the w o r k , namely observations on the entirety of the treatcd Text. F l o w is the text struetured, according to agreement between formal and c o n t e n t observations? O n e must observe the l i n g u i s t i c a l l y reeorded m a c r o - o r g a n i z a t i o n i n the main paragraphs and the m i c r o o r g a n i z a t i o n i n the subsidiary paragraphs, as well as t h e i r inner s y n tactical Organization i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the individua! sentences and i n the relationships/correspondences between the sentences and the sentence parts, I n detail, the f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s can p r o v i d e d i r e c t u m : •

A r e diere H e b r e w organizational markers ( l o r example, lāken, hinnēh, we'attāh, independent personal pronouns, interrogative pronouns)? A r e there additional t u r n i n g p o i n t s i n the flow (changes o f scene, action, Jocation, persons, speech formulas)?

•

•

Is diere one l o u n d a t i o n a l stylistic pattern w h i c h conveys tbe e n t i r e Orga­ nization (for example, seven i m p e r a t i v e s i n Ps 100, some w i t h ki; the " w e " and the " n o n - w e " i n Ps 46)? D o r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the b e g i n n i n g and end d e t e r m i n e the t o t a l O r ­ ganization o f the t e x t ( f r a m i n g inclusio)? A r e there symmetries i n the sequence o f the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t s (for example, according to the pattern A B A ß or A B B A ) ? W h a t do the succession o f the sentence t y p e o r tense i n the text p r o v i d e for its Organization? W h i c h essential perspectives are thereby recorded (principal Statements, subordinate Statements, conditions, die progression o f m o v e m e n t / a c t i o n , and the relative and absolute aspects o f time)? T o w h a t extent are the individua! sections u n d e r Observation essential parts o r non-essential parts o f the whole? I n its present linguistic shape, is there a perspective i n w h i c h the t e x t appears as a h a r m o n i z e d succession o f Statements? Can one find a d o m i n a n t Substantive Statement that fashions the flow o f the text and determines die Organization? D o i n t r o d u c t i o n , climax, change, or Statement o f purpose play a role in the Organization o f the text? H o w are the i n d i v i d u a l sections under Observation i n the t e x t s t r u e t u r e d by themselves? Even w i t h i n this smaller framework, do correspondences, w o r d r e l a t i o n ­ ships, o r subject relationships manifest diemselves (such as inclusios, o r

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parallel f o r m u l a t i o t i s i n sentences, i n words, o r i n c o n t r a d i c t o r y State­ ments)? •

W h i c h elements o f the Statement i n an i n d i v i d u a l section stand i n rela­ tionship, f o r m a l l y and materially, t o that w h i c h precedes and follows? I t is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t one virite the Hebrew text one time according t o

the observations gained c o n c e r n i n g the macrostructure and the m i c r o s t r u c ture i n order that its c o n s t r u c t i o n also becomes graphically visible. By way o f example, i n Ps 100, the seven imperative Statements, w h i c h i n ­ elude verses lb—5, then stand under one another i n seven rows. I n Ps 46, one can w r i t e the five ehains o f Statements ( 4 6 : 2 - 4 , 5 - 7 , 8 , 9 - 1 1 , 1 2 ) so d i a t their n o m i n a l Statements, as w e l l as the developmental Statements and f u r t h e r dcvelopmental Statements dependent u p o n t h e m , likewise stand under one another. Observable agreements i n syntax and use o f tense then play an i m ­ p o r t a n t role. A l s o , one should graphically accentuate the symmetrica! c o n ­ s t r u c t i o n o f Isa 1:21-26 i n its t w o segments ( 1 : 2 1 - 2 3 , 2 4 - 2 6 ) by d r a w i n g i n the brackets o f inelusion: 1:21a ( A ) ; 1:21b (B); 1:22 ( C ) ; 1:23 ( D ) ; 1:24 ( D ' ) ; l : 2 5 a ß b ( C ' ) ; 1:26a ( B ' ) ; 1:26b

(A'). A t the same t i m e , d i e special p o s i t i o n o f

1:25aa Stands out. 3. Further Text Observations Finally, i t is i m p o r t a n t d i a t every exegetical w o r k e r gives careful c o n sideration to two points: First: I n its o w n t i m e , d i d the text appear as an understandable, i n herently completed Statement, o r m u s t the c o n t e x t be taken w i t h i t (relationship o f the t e x t t o the i m m e d i a t e / w i d e r context)? Second; W h a t remains unelear c o n c e r n i n g ali these text obser­ vations, o r relatedly, w i t h the translation, w h i c h m u s t be clarified via additional Information? A t this p o i n t , i t is profitable for the experienced exegete—but n o t for the beginner w h o w o u l d here be overburdened—to elucidate the text further w i t h various specific observations. • T o what extent does the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t help t o delineate the lexical breadth of meaning for die words? r

• W h a t tvpes o f words fashion the text (for example, action verbs or verbs o l circunistance, abstraet or conerete substantives)? •

W h a t stylistic devices appear in the text? W h a t c o u l d be t h e i r material Intention?

• W h a t means does the t e x t e m p l o y i n o r d e r to offer its material Statements (for example, conerete or abstraet substantives, images, comparisons, metaphors)? •

W h a t conceptions are awakened by real, conerete sequences o r by linguistic images (metaphors) i n the text? W h a t should the listeiier/

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r e a d e r see b e f o r e one's o w n i n n e r eye b e c a u s e i t is expressed o r i n t e n d e d ? A n d w h a t s h o u l d one not sce b e c a u s e the f o r m u l a t i o n p o i n t s i n a n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n a n d e x c l u d e s c e r t a i n a s s o c i a t i o n s ? M o s t o f the s e v e r e l y n e g l e c t e d o b s e r v a t i o n s w h i c h c h a l l e n g e the exegete's h i s ­ torical (!) fantasy, are to be m a d e here r e g a r d i n g d i e d e s i r e d c l a r i t y o f the text. •

W i t h i n the thematic f r a m e w o r k o f the text. w h a t w o u l d also be c o n c e i v a b l e o r expected, b u t is n o t spoken? A r e Statements m i s s i n g be­ c a u s e they w e r e c o n s i d e r e d s e l l - e v i d e n t at d i a t t i m e , o r w e r e they del i b e r a t e l y o m i t t e d ?

II. Imagination of the Realities of the Origin of the Text '•SS

·

I n w h i c h Situation d i d the text o r i g i n a t e (time, locality, i n s t i t u t i o n a l f r a m e w o r k , a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l events; tbe p e r s o n w h o speaks the text; the p e r s o n s w h o h e a r it)?

•

W h i c h e x p e r i c n c e s c o u l d s t a n d in the b a c k g r o u n d o f the Speaker and hearer/reader? W h i c h e x p e r i e n t i a l l y g u i d e d d e s i g n a t i o n s w e r e p r o v i d e d ? W h i c h e x p e r i e n c e s w e r e a d d r e s s e d i n the text d i r e c t l y o r indirectly?

III. Imagination of the Intention, Meaning, and Effect ofthe Text •

W h a t p r e c i s e l y c o m p e l l e d the S p e a k e r to f o r m u l a t e t h i s text in l i g h t o f the realities o f o r i g i n ?

•

W h a t d o e s the Speaker w a n r to effect in that historical l o c a l i t y w h e n the text is h e a r d (for e x a m p l e , i n s i g h t , a c t i o n ) ?

•

H o w do the m a t e r i a l S t a t e m e n t s , i n t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r f o r m a n d r e l a t i o n i n the text, h a n g t o g e t h e r w i t h the realities o f o r i g i n ?

•

W nat do the m a t e r i a l Statements o f the text, a n d t h e i r f o r m a n d respect, have i n c o m m o n w i t h o t h e r Statements i n the O l d Testament? W h a t attracts a t t e n t i o n as a s u r p r i s i n g n e w a e c e n t ?

•

W h i c h e x p e r i e n c e o f r e a l i t y o f its t i m e d o e s die text desire to c l a i ify a n d i n f l u e n c e ? W h i c h u n m i s t a k a b l e e x p e r i e n c e s , i n t r u s i o n s , a n d p e r s p e c t i v e s o f r e a l i t y a r e b o u n d w i t h the S t a t e m e n t s o f G o d i n the text?

•

W n i c h view o f h u m a n i t y or Israel i n its t i m e a n d w o r l d d o e s t h e text o p e n ?

•

h i l i g h t o f the m a t e r i a l S t a t e m e n t s , w h a t c o n t r a s t i n g Statements o r S u p p l e m e n t s d o e s the O l d Testament ö f t e r e l s e w h e r e ?

•

W h a t effect d i d die text a c t u a l l y have i n the r e a l m o f a n c i e n t Israel for die s h o r t - t e r m ( w i t h the b r s t h e a r i n g ) o r for the l o n g - t e r m ( w i t h its w i d e r t r a n s m i s s i o n ) ? D o e s the a c t u a l effect d e v i a l e f r o m the i n t e n t i o n o f the Speaker, a n d w h a t c o u l d be the e x p e r i e n t i a l r e a s o n s for s u c h ?

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Even w i t h questions like these, the answers o f different exegetes w i l l deviate from one another b o t h p r i o r to and after the methodologically guided, scien­ tific investigation o f the text. T h i s deviation is connected w i t h the fact that, at anv given time, t w o essential factors come i n t o plav i n v a r y i n g degrees: the exegete's p r i o r knowledge and the ability for historical I n t u i t i o n . (1) Prior knowledge heips to decrease a text's historical strangeness and resistance on tne levei of material cognizance. Sirriuttaneously, it essentialiy determines the number of possibilities available for comparison and association. This Statement is certainly true for the extremely important area of general knowledge, hence ot education in the broadest sense. On a large scale, it mamtains the perspectives of understanding, analogies, comparisons. and contrasts for ascertaining the text's historical eharacter For example: A. von Menzels presentation of the court of Frederick the Great enables one to see the scene in i Sam 20:24f as Saul's "round table" (G. von Rad), and to recognize the modest royal household; knowledge of the constitutional entity and the democratic formation of intention within the constiiutionai organs of our time sharpens the view of the king's funetion in the royal psalms; one may com pare the night visions ofZechariah with the night poems of N . Lenau, or psalms of lamentation with the protest songs of B. Dylan. and the lament poems of N . Sachs, etc. It is naturaily self-evident that speciaiized prior knowledge in the area of the Old Testament prepares historical and textual materials for substantiation, deepening, and shaping through historical observations and imagination. In the process of imagination, this speciaiized prior knowledge can be expanded, where necessary, by examination of reference works. (2) The ability to conceive hisloncaiiy is an indispensable presupposition if the text is to sîep forth from the medium of letters and paper, and oecome visible as a life-event •n its time. To present the realities of ihe Lext's origin ciearly by means of the controlled employment of historical fantasy is just as important as the attemptto situate the mate­ rial Statements, animately and tangibly, in their original historical field of relationship, and to reproduce the realities and events named in the text itself by means of the power of conceptualization. One must note einphatically that this imaginative progression t h r o u g h the text, r e l a t i n g to the realities o f o r i g i n , i n t e n t i o n , meaning, and the effect on its historical w o r l d , is n o t c o m p l e t e d just once prior to the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y d i ­ rected exegetical w o r k . Radier, this progression condnuously and productively accompanies and l i m i t s these elements as a part o f the exegetical w o r k . I t is recommended that exegetically advanced students w i t h c o r r e sponding p r i o r k n o w l e d g e o f the discipline and the m e t h o d o l o g y ( b u t not necessarily the beginner) deepen the phase o f intensive observations. T h e y can do so by fundamentally clarifying and p r o f i l i n g the text State­ ments by means o f H e b r e w concordances [and electronic search p r o grams for the O l d Testament], w i d i o u t secondary l i t e r a t u r e or current hyporhescs about the text.

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Several things will bring the exegete further clarification and, above ali. will bring directed questions for the further exeget cal processing of the text in every methodo­ logical field. These inelude: parallel and deviating examples regarding the use o f words and the. syntactical form; ferrcting oui contrasting concepts. lecurring semantic fields, and corresponding formulations, whether these appear in the immediate context. in the same book, or in speciaiized languages such as wisdom, cult. law, and prophecy. Instead of these elements, the beginner can pursue the important words in the corresponding articles of theological dictionaries. The beginner should n o t however, be distracted by the abundance of material offered in the dictionaries, nor by the opinions presented there. From the outset, the beginner should not avoid the a cl of clarifying and diseovering the text to be treaied, :

Ι Π . Results V e r y diverse impressions and elements w i l l come t o l i g h t i n the i m a g i n a ­ tive, holistic act o f understanding a text w h e n one employs fantasy, i n t u i t i o n , Observation, and the capacity o f association. Some o f these m u s t even be abandoned as i n c o r r e c t based u p o n m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y g u i d e d e x a m i n a t i o n . S t i l l , this imaginative act provides three opportunities w h i c h are indispensable for an adequate historical m e a n i n g . F i r s t , i t l i m i t s the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l constriction w h i c h results f r o m a dependeney u p o n the c u r r e n t State o f research b y the text's imaginative and discernible characteristics. Second, the imaginative act provides a holistic view o f the t e x t as a historical life-event, a perspec­ tive w h i c h is all too easily lost under the partial aspeets ot the individua! m e t h ­ ods. I t is, however, precisely that perspective w h i c h must d i e n be taken up and administered i n the interpreta ti on as a substantiated h i s t o r i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d m e a n i n g , by u t i l i z i n g the results o f the methodical O p e r a t i o n . T h i r d , the imaginative act provides the articulated r e l a t i o n s h i p between text and I n ­ terpreter t h a t attains its goal i n a t h e o l o g i c a l l y substantiated applied under­ standing o f the text. T h u s , exegetical w o r k is completed by reciprocally l i m i t i n g and e n r i c h i n g historical i m a g i n a t i o n and m e t h o d i c a l l y directed questions. T h i s r e c i p r o c i t y m u s t bc kept i n view, even t h o u g h the task o f m o r e closcly eharacterizing the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l Steps dominates i n that w h i c h foUows.

C. O V E R V T E W O F T H E M E T H O D S O F OED T E S T A M E N T EXEGESIS I . T h e Stock o f M e t h o d s T h e stock and description o f the exegetical methods, as already m e n t i o n e d , are dependent u p o n the c u r r e n t state o f exegetical science and its insights i n t o the f o r m a t i o n o f O l d Testament texts. I t is thus necessary that the existing

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methods constantly be further developed. A l s o , new methodological quesdons ariše f r o m new a t t e n d o n to tbe text. A t present, new approaches have appeared i n several areas: i n the field o f linguistic structural analysis; i n die investigation o f effective l i i s t o r y as the harvesting o f a text's power o f m e a n i n g w h i c h is no l o n g e r familiär; o r i n the p a r t i c u l a r l y debated psycho-analytical text i n t t x p r e t a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , approaches arise today i n w h i c h the b e w i l d e r m e n t o f the exegete is b r o u g h t emphatically i n t o play. O n e may m e n t i o n so-called " f e m i nist" and "socio-historical" exegesis. W e w i l l come back to these at the end o f diis section. T h e manual h i n g before y o u concentrates o n the fundamental, proven, and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y elaborated approaches: t e x t - c r i t i c i s m , l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , the transmission-historical and redaction-historical approaches, the f o r m critical and t r a d i t i o n - h i s t o r i c a l approaches, and, o f course, d e t e r n i i n i n g the historical setting. These various m e t h o d o l o g i c a l Steps are constituent ques­ tions o f historical understanding, and they each aim at particular aspects o f the text. T h e y are thus n o t h i n g m o r e than preparatory w o r k for die central ex­ egetical task: interpreting the text's h i s t o r i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d m e a n i n g . T h i s act o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w h i c h is freqiiently called detailed or contextual exegesis, does n o t exist as a sequence o f procedures w h i c h are guided b y the constituent m e t h o d o l o g i c a l questions. W^ith its historical focus, w h i c h the text itself c o n veys, the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n aims m o r e t o w a r d a coneeption o f the entire text as a l i n g u i s t i c utterance o f life i n its t i m e . I t uses all individual insights syndiesized f r o m die m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y fragmentary procedures. Ehe results o f this his­ torically determined m e a n i n g o f the text are finalh/ b r o u g h t i n t o Operation b y a t t e m p t i n g a precise E n g l i s h translation o f the text. I I . G r o u p i n g the M e t h o d s Each o f die m e t h o d o l o g i c a l approaches takes its reference f r o m certain O l d Testament t e x t markers. A historical perspective o n these realities o f the text should also be a t t e m p t e d w i d n n the f r a m e w o r k o f the descriptions o f the individual mediods. A n i n i t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n can already be p r o v i d e d . to the extent that the m e d i o d o l o g i c a l questions allow themselves to be d i v i d e d i n t o two groups relative to the d i r e c t i o n o f questioning and die reference p o i n t i n the texts. 1.

O n e g r o u p o f methods is governed b y the question o f die e v o l u t i o n o f the text: t e x t - c r i t i c i s m , l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c i s m , transmission-historical approach and the redaction-historical approach relate to the fact that, as a r u l e , the text at hand has n o t arisen i n a single stroke. Rather, i n its t e x t history, the text has undergone a multi-stage development f r o m its o r i g i n a l oral f o r m up to and i n c l u d i n g its manuscript transmission, an e v o l u t i o n w h i c h the methodological approaches ascertain and clarify.

16

2.

§1

FOUNDATION A N D OVERVIEW

T h e second g r o u p o f methods is governed by the question o f the presuppositions o f a text, o r relatedly, its ascertained textual stages. T h e f o r m critical and t r a d i t i o n - h i s t o r i c a l approaches, as well as the question o f the historical setting, relate t o the faet that. the f o r m o f the text, at every stage o f its devclopment, has been d e t e r m i n e d by stipulations and components w h i c h are presupposed by the author: the p e c u l i a r i t y o f the language spoken by the author, the preset genres o f h u m a n speech i n the author's c u l t u r a l w o r l d , the conceptions and t h o u g h t struetures o f the author's i n tellectual w o r l d , the c o n t e m p o r a r y historical realities, social realities, and the historical setting o f the addressee o f author's utterance.

B o t h groups of methods likewise allow themselves to be depicted i n a graphic display as follows. 1. T h e Q u e s t i o n o f the E v o l u t i o n o f a T e x t Original O T Text

Oldest Written Stage

Oldest Oral Stage

i

RH

Syntheric Process

111 TC;

BUS

LC;

Analytical Proeess

B U S = Bibìiti Hebraica Stuttgartensia; T C = 'lèxt Crítíeisin; L C = Literary Critieism; T H = Transmission History; U H = Redaetiun Historv

T h e evolution o f an O l d Testament text allows itself to be portrayed as a g r o w t h process w h i c h falls i n t o three larger phases: (1) delivery and evolution in oral transmission u p t o its first w r i t t e n record; (2) delivery and evolution i n Witten transmission u p to the c o m p l e t i o n o f the produetive f o r m a t i o n o f O l d Testament t r a d i t i o n , at least i m t i l the a t t a i n m e n t o f the canonical v a l i d i t y o f the text; and related t o this approach, (3) the delivery and development o f the t e x t h i s t o r y i n the manuscripts, u p to its presentation i n Biblia Hebraica. E x e ­ gesis attempts, first o f ali, to peel away the various layers i n an analytical process, by w o r k i n g backwards, i n o r d e r to t r a č e the development o f the text i n its historical course syntbetically, and thereby to t r a č e the influencing powers and the g o v e r n i n g markers.

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2. T h e Q u e s t i o n o f the Presuppositions o f a T e x t and Its Stages T.inguistie Arena

Tntelleetual World

Form Criticism

Contemporary I Iisrory, Social Realities, and Addressee Historical Setting

y Text

Ehe diagram illustrates s i m p l y h o w language, c u l t u r a l l y preexisting genres, the i n t e l l e c t u a l w o r l d , as w e l l as c o n t e m p o r a r y historical and social reali­ ties, are e m b o d i e d i n one p a r t i c u l a r text (or relatedly, i n each stage o f its de­ v e l o p m e n t ) . I n the. tliree areas, i n q u i r y ( c o n t a i n i n g and encompassing m a n y i n d i v i d u a l texts) can and must also be made i n t o the h i s t o r y o f l i n g u i s t i c s t r u c t u r a l characteristics the h i s t o r y o f a concept o r an entire conceptual arena, and i n t o the h i s t o r y o f the political and social realities i n the larger his­ torical context. ΠΤ. Interdependence o f the M e t h o d s T h e g r o u p i n g o f tbe methods undertaken i n the previous section represents a reflection o f die relationship o f dieir content to one another, and i n this regard, i t has led to a division i n t o t w o areas o f questioning. T h a t does n o t mean, however, that the executioi? o f exegetical w o r k should be d e t e r m i n e d by a c o r r e s p o n d i n g p a r t i t i o n . Radier, the i n t e r m i n g l i n g o f the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l steps, o s c i l l a t i n g between expansion and c o r r e c t i o n , is indispensable. S i m u l taneously, this i n t e r m i n g l i n g means t h a t the question about the text's presup­ positions should be asked f o r each stage o f its development. T h e changes o f a text, or text complex d u r i n g t h e i r oral or w r i t t e n transmission, do n o t make themselves k n o w n w i t h o u t d e t e r m i n i n g each different historical setting or the linguistic patterns and theological strearns affecting the text. T h e interdepen­ dence o f the methods rcaches even i u r t h e r , and connects all of the m e t h o d o ­ logical Steps to an o v e r - a r c h i n g S y s t e m o f c o r r e l a t i o n , as w i l l be explained at l e n g t h i n the detailed presentation o f the methods."

> One hears repeatcdly of the experience that time is not sufficient in a two-hour introductory exegesis course to offer initial text observations, prese.ntaüous, and praetice which are equally

18

§1

FOUNDATION

AND

OVERVIEW

I V C h a r a c t e r i z i n g the I n d i v i d u a l M e t h o d s

4

1. T e x t C r i t i c i s m T h e task o f t e x t c r i t i c i s m is t o c o n f i r m the " o r i g i n a l t e x t o f the O l d Testa­ m e n t " ( " O r i g i n a l T e x t " , " o r i g i n a l w o r d i n g " ) by c r i t i c a l l y s o r t i n g the H e b r e w t e x t transmission as w e l l as die ancient translations. " O r i g i n a l t e x t " means t h a t t e x t f o r m w h i c h exists i n the O l d Testament at the conelusion o f the process o f produetive, w r i t t e n formation.

2. L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m L i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m investigates i n d i v i d u a l texts and larger t e x t complexes at the stage o f the w r i t t e n , fixed f o r m u l a t i o n o f the w o r d i n g . I t t h e r e f o r e asks about: a.

the l i t e r a r y i n t e g r i t y o f a t e x t ;

b.

its larger l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t (in cases w h e r e the t e x t is l i t e r a r i l y i n t e g r a t e d ) o r its l a r g e r l i t e r a r y contexts ( i n cases w h e r e the t e x t exists f r o m t w o

or

m o r e l i t e r a r y layers o r w h e r e i t has been i n e o r p o r a t e d as an i n t e g r a t e d t e x t i n t o a larger c o n t e x t , a c o n t e x t w h i c h also c o n r i n u e d t o develop).

weighted for every step of Old Testament exegesis. If die ume frame of the course camiot be ex­ panded, die following Suggestion could be considcred. The progressiva of the introduetory course, and then related]} the wriung of die exegesis paper are coiicentrated upon die following sieps, subsequent to an initial translation of die text (§1151): -

1. an Observation phase aecording to §1 Β II; 2. deeiphering die lext-critical apparatus of BUS (§3 Β1Γ 1 a): ?. an analytical (§4) and a synthetic literary-critical st3ge limited to a given text and its immediate con­ text (from §6 Redaction History, p. 78); 4. form criticism (FormgcsMcbtc) related to the linguistic shape, strueturc, and, if necessary. the form {Gattung) of a rext {§7 li 1UIT); 5. traJiu'on hisiory relative tu the intellectual baeliground ol eoneepts, word cnsemblcs, and images in the text formulauons (§8); 6. an interpretation (§10) with the incorporation of the clarification of the historical settins; of the text (§9): 7. definitive translation of the text (§10 F). In the introduetory phase, the more difficult and overtaxing questions and decisions regarding text criticism (§}), transmission history (§5), and redaction history (§6), can bc brieflv presented and explamed in die progression of the introduetory course. A more precise presentarion and praetiee, demanded by text complexes, must follow in other places of study, namely within the frame of ex­ egetical Icctorcs and scminars (for which this workbook is also coneeived). -

4 This workbook will follow tbe "Journal of Biblical Literature Instructions for Contribmors" in: AAR/SBl 199? Membmhip Directory and HanJbitok, Atlanta, 1993, p.385 400, for die abbreviarions for biblical books, Hebrew transcriprion. and significant resources. Abbreviations used for some German works may not be present in this resource. In that case, abbreviations will follow the abbreviations in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. K . Galling, ed. 6 vols., plus index. Tübingen, 31957-1965.

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3. T h e Transmission-historical A p p r o a c h Transmission h i s t o r y concerns die oral transmission o f an individual passage, o r relatedly a larger complex. C o n c e n t r a t i n g u p o n die oral transmission distinguishes transmission h i s t o r y f r o m l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . P r o c e e d i n g analytically, transmission h i s t o r y i n q u i r c s b e h i n d the oldest w r i t t e n setting o f a text, back t o its oral o r i g i n . A synthetic process then reverses the d i r e e t i o n o f questioning, and attempts to depict the historical process and the c o n t e x t o f the text's develop­ m e n t f r o m its first recognizable oral f o r m t o the oldest w r i t t e n setting. Trans­ mission h i s t o r y accentuatcs the operative historical factors and i n t e n t i o n s o f the

Statements.

4. T h e Redaction-historical A p p r o a c h Redaction h i s t o r y continues the synthetic aspect o f transmission history, except i n the arena o f w r i t t e n transmission. I t thereby traces the h i s t o r y o f a t e x t from its first w r i t t e n f o r m t h r o u g h its expansion (or c o m m e n t a r y ) by add i t i o n s , and t h r o u g h its i n e o r p o r a t i o n i n t o larger complexes, up to its final setting i n the present l i t e r a r y context. I t determines the historical factors and i n t e n t i o n s of the Statements operative i n this history. 5. T h e F o r m - h i s t o r i c a l A p p r o a c h F o r m c r i t i c i s m w o r k s o u t the l i n g u i s t i c genre o f a particular text (no m a n e r w h a t siže) for each o f its ascertained stages o f g r o w t h . I n its course, f o r m c r i t i c i s m investigates the l i n g u i s t i c f o r m a t i o n o f the text. I t also deter­ mines the genres w h i c h the text ineorporates and utilizes, as w e l l as t h e i r bfe setting. F o r m c r i t i c i s m aims at a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y appropriatc understanding o f the construetion and the i n t e n t i o n o f d i e Statement i n the encountered text. I t performs this task t o the degree that one can recognize the distinetive ehar­ acter o f the l i n g u i s t i c shape, i n c l u d i n g the ehoice o f genre. T h i s shape p r o ­ vides die perspective f r o m w h i c h the c o n t e n t is vicwed and the i n t e n t i o n for w h i c h i t is formulated. b i this context, f o r m c r i t i c i s m necessarily inquires b e y o n d the individua! texts t o the c o n s t r u e t i o n eleinents and the formative models o f the language used by the O l d Testament authors. Further, i t ascertains the h i s t o r y o f the genres and pursues their f o r m u l a t i o n s i n various texts. 6. T h e T r a d i t i o n - h i s t o r i c a l A p p r o a c h F o r each developmental step, t r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y seeks a text's particular characteristic based u p o n i n t e l l e c t u a l , theological, or r e l i g i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n texts. I n a d d i t i o n , t r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y determines die t h o u g h t struetures, m a ­ terial, concepts, o r conceptual complexes, as well as their deviations, w h i c h are presupposed by the text, taken u p i n t o the text, o r assimilated by its author. Parallel to the i n q u i r y i n t o individual texts, yet superseding i t , t r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y

20

§1

FOUNDATION A N D OVERVIEW

also considers the i n t e l l e c t u a l , theological, and r e l i g i o - h i s t o r i c a l contexts themselves. I n particular i t considers the h i s t o r y o f the various conccpts and their coexistence w i t h i n the framework o f a larger profiled conception. 7. D e t e r m i n i n g the H i s t o r i c a l S i t u a t i o n T h e goal ot this approach is to i d e n t i f y the rime o f c o m p o s i t i o n and, i f possible, the author and addressees o f the text (or its i n d i v i d u a l layers). T h e n this approach seeks to h i g h l i g h t m o r e precisely the c o n t e m p o r a r y historical and social realities i n the e n v i r o n m e n t o t the text's o r i g i n . I n the f o l l o w i n g , all o f these c o n s t i t u e n t m e d i o d o l o g i c a l questions w i l l necessarily be presented ideally, one after another. I n the practice o f exegeti­ cal w o r k , however, they achieve application t h r o u g h continuous i n t e r r e l a t i o n and m u t u a l expansion. V C o n c e r n i n g the Q u e s ü o n o f die Expansion o f the Stock o f M e t h o d s The p r i m a r y stock o f methodological approaches described above, w h i c h this w o r k b o o k wants to i n t r o d u c e , has been designed for tbe p r i n c i p a l exe­ getical question c o n c e r n i n g the o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g o f the texts at the t i m e o f t h e i r o r i g i n . These approaches were n o t decreed by exegetes, b u t were oceasioned by the biblical subject matter itself, and they are directed v e r y s i m p l y t o w a r d t h a t w h i c h one must clarify if one wisbes to see a t e x t i n its o r i g i n a l setting: t o w a r d the formative relationships o f a text, and t o w a r d the intended substance o f its Statements w h e n i t was f o r m u l a t e d . E v e n for the c u r r e n t r e ­ vision o f the w o r k b o o k , there is essentially n o t h i n g to change r e g a r d i n g the stock o f methods. Despite all the differences i n execution, u n a r u m i t y exists between this m e t h o d o l o g i c a l b o o k and those by G . F o h r e r and H . Schweizer (cf. § 2 1 1 ) , i n t h a t the O l d Testament t e x t should speak i n its o w n words and o u t l o o k , w i t h the help o f rcasoned and i n t e r s u b j e c ü v e l y c o n t r o l l a b l e explanations. L i d e e d , O l d Testament exegesis is a c o n s t i t u e n t task o f understanding. By k e e p i n g one's o w n presuppositions i n check, one should come as close as possible t o the o r i g i n a l historical meaning i n w h i c h die text should be understood w i t h i n the sphere o f the O l d Testament itself. N o w as before, this w o r k b o o k is m o r e cautious when i t comes to the question o l the r e c e p t i o n o f linguistic investigations for the sequence, resources, and execution of a m e t h o d o l o g y concerned w i t h O h l Testament exegesis. M o r e t h o r o u g h discussion is r e q u i r e d t o u f i l i z e app a r e n t l y c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y neutral l i n g u i s ü c s t a r t i n g p o i n t s for d e s c r i b i n g the distinetive charecter o f v e r y r e m o t e liistorical texts, such as O l d Testament texts. T h u s , the present manual does n o t b e g i n its m e d i o d o l o g i c a l l y g u i d e d Steps w i t h a l i n g u i s ü c analysis or a descriprion o f the text's strueture. Rather, i t

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21

allocates this indispensable (!) task to an i n i t i a l Observation phase (see § 1 ) and to a mediodological analysis o f the l i n g u i s ü c shape o f the particular g r o w t h e l ements o f a text i n die framework o f f o r m h i s t o r y (see § 7 ) . S t i l l , even i n this Situation, the signilicance o f l i n g u i s t i c analysis and a structural d e s c r i p t i o n is asserted for each (!) o f the m e d i o d o l o g i c a l steps, by means o f the constantly r e q u i r e d i n t r i n s i c examination o f the i n t e r a c t i o n o f the i n d i v i d u a l exegetical procedures. A i n o n g the approaches c u r r e n d y b r o u g h t i n t o play, "feminist" and "sociohistoričar questions (see §9) i n particular are not to be viewed over against die classical stock o f mediods as c o m p e t i n g , alternative methods. T h e i r legitimate concerns, w h i c h are not always p r o p e r l y considered i n exegetical practice, c o n ­ c e r n i n g i n q u i r y i n t o a text's options r e g a r d i n g the p o s i t i o n o f w o m a n and socially vulnerable persons, can find t h e i r place e n t i r e l y w i t h i n the frame o f the existing methodological perspectives. Additionallv, they can also find their place i n the procedural steps p r i o r t o the explicit execution o f the exegetical w o r k (see above §1 I I 1), and i n the f o l l o w i n g : the reception h i s t o r y i n die time f o l l o w i n g the O l d Testament text, as i t is encountered i n die diseiplines o f N e w Testament and C h u r c h H i s t o r y ; and a d i c o l o g i c a l l y responsible det e r m i n a t i o n o f the O l d Testament text's m e a n i n g for the present (see below, § 1 0 D ) , as i t w o u l d be acquired i n die diseiplines o f Systematic and Practical Theology. T h e fact that one has agreed u p o n the goal o f O l d Testament exegesis is o f essential significance for the i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f such approaches i n the process o f exegesis itself. F o r the exegete, the goal is t o act as an attorney f o r the w i l l of the text. T h e exegete should reasonably advance that w h i c h die text itself o r i g i n a l l y wanted t o witness f r o m G o d , over against the w o r l d and h u manity. T h e goal o f exegesis cannot be to subdue the text u n d e r a d o m i n a t i n g measure of c u r r e n t socio-political wishful d i i n k i n g o r an i n d i v i d u a l m o d e l o f experience. Relatedly, the goal is not p r i m a r i l y to determine h o w the text funct i o n e d or h o w i t funetions f o r ine. A c c o r d i n g l y , the goal is also n o t t o determine how the text should or should n o t c o n t m u e to f u n e t i o n . T h e most deeisive t h i n g p a v i n g the way f o r exegesis is not the " I " i n the face o f the text, b u t i n aecordance w i t h the self-understanding o f the biblical w o r d , the text i n its l i b e r a t i n g , critical and r e o r i e n t i n g o u t l o o k towards h u m a n i t y and the Irving w o r l d . A l s o the concerns o f "structuralexegesis'" do not have their place alongside but inside the stock of methods. Structural signals i n die f o r m u l a t i o n provide i m p o r t a n t insights i n t o the o r i g i n a l desire o f the Statements w h i c h f o r m the text, b u t must be correlated w i d i die C o n t e n t s and formative relationships o f the text (see § 7 ) . By contrast, caution and p r i n c i p a l objection are offered over against a socalled "psycho-analytical exegesis" o f O l d Testament texts. Especially the w r i t -

§1

F O U N D A H O N A N D OVERVIEW

5

ings by E . D r e w e r m a n n c u r r e n t l y come to m i n d i n this arena. Exegetical m e t h o d o l o g y , i n the sense o f this w o r k b o o k , is the m e t h o d o l o g y for a hist o r i c a l l y related subject m a t t e r i n v i e w o f its o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g . I t c o n s i d ­ ers the t i m e r e s t r i c t i o n of the development and f o r m u l a t i o n o f the texts. C o r respondingly, i t should be said t h a t a so-called "serriiotic exegesis" should be disregarded, i f i t abandons the fundamental quesdon o f the o r i g i n a l m e a n ­ i n g o f biblical texts i n t h e i r f o r m u l a t i o n and i n n e r - b i b l i c a l transmission; o r i f i t abandons the task o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g the historical things o f the past as such." Finally, one should object to d e t e r m i n i n g m e a n i n g for biblical texts derived f r o m l i t e r a r y studies o r New L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m i f one believes one is able t o arrive at sound conclusions w i t h o u t the qualification that these texts are historical entities w i t h historical, l i n g u i s t i c , and s t r u c t u r a l characteristics.' T h e historical o r i g i n o f biblical texts cannot, under any circumstances, be dis­ regarded i n the process o f understanding. Recently, R. K n i e r i m has c o r r e c t l y reaccented this when d e l i m i t i n g various false paths o f an ahistorical under­ standing.

Ä

T h e comments i n diis s e c ü o n h o p e t u l l y serve students as an initial o r i e n t a t i o n i n t o c u r r e n t movements i n the m e t h o d o l o g y . H o p e f u l l y , they fix the o u t l o o k u p o n the essentials o f O l d Testament exegesis. N a t t i r a l l y , w i t h o u t already h a v i n g acquired solid g r o u n d i n g , the b r e v i t y i n w h i c h they are offered here, cannot do justice t o the c u r r e n t divergence o f exegetical m e t h o d ­ o l o g y t o w a r d new entryways and starting points, w h i c h are c u r r e n t l y b e i n g att e m p t e d , probed. and discussed. T h e w o r k b o o k c3nnot, therefore, take u p this divergence, I t m u s t be satisfied w i t h b r i e f remarks. Above all, these fields o f discussion concern the question o f the genesis o f O l d Testament texts as such, as they are treated i n the O-aditional frame o f chapters 7 - 9 o f this w o r k b o o k . Recent methods approach

from

new s t a r t i n g points: l i n g u i s t i c - s t r u c t u r a l

d i e o r y , c o m m u n i c a t i o n and I n f o r m a t i o n theory, and the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f 7

m y t h and s y m b o l , f o l k l o r e , a n t h r o p o l o g y , and sociolog) . Recent articles b y

?

For discussion, cornpare G, Lohfink and R. Pesch, Tiefenpsychologie und keine Exegese, SBS 12°, 1987; A Corres and W. Kasper, Tiefenpsycbologiscbe Deutung des Glaubens. Anfragen an Eugen DreivetTnajw, Q D I i i , 19S8; as well as in Condensed form, W. Groß, "Sollen wir ägyptischer werden, um wirklich christlich zu sein?" ThQ 166 (1986): 224-226: G . Lohfink, T h Q 167 (1987): 225-227; cornpare also 11. Schweizer, Biblische Texte verstehen. 1986, p. 101Ϊ. 6 Comparc, for example, YV. Vogels, Readingond l'rcachirtg the Bible: A New Sc-mioticApp/vach, VVihnington, 1986. Cuiley (See note 9), 175ff, presents signítícant atteiiipts of semiotie exegesis. 7 Cornpare for example, D. Λ. Robertson, The Old Testament und tbe Literary Gritic, Philadel­ phia, 1977. 8 R. Knierim, "Criticism of Literary Features, Form, Tradition, and Redaction," in D.A. Knight and G . M . Tucker, The liehen: Bible and Its Modern Interpreters. Philadelpliia-Chico. 1985, 123-165, especiallyp. 123-128.

O v e r v i e w o f tJhe .Methods o f O l d Testament Exegesis

23

R. K n i e r i m (see note 8), H . D . P r e u ß , and R . C . C u l l e y p r o v i d e an i n i t i a l over­ view o í the diverse and divergent endeavors.

9

I n closing, the approaches and the stock o f methods o f O l d Testament exegesis reflect the double aspcct o f d i e i r subject matter. L o o k i n g at the o r i g i n o f the texts, exegesis is a historical discipline. L o o k i n g at the i n t e n t i o n o f the Statements o f the texts, i t is a theological discipline. As such, one single, b u t decisive fundamental presupposition is i m p a r t e d i n all historical-exegetical w o r k : the admission that the O l d Testament means w h a t i t says w h e n i t speaks o f G o d . G o d is differentiated f r o m w o r l d and h u m a n i t y , and should n o t be reinterpreted as an extrapolation o f an aspect w h i c h stems o n l y f r o m the inner space o f the w o r l d and h u m a n i t y .

9 H . D . Preuß, "Linguistik—Literaturwissenschaft—Altes Testament," VF 17 (1982): 2-28 (literature): R . C . Culiey, "Exploring New Directions," in Tbe Hebrew Bible (sce note 8), 167-200 (bibliography); cornpare also more recent works, e.g„ P.R. House, Beyond Fonn Criticism: Essays in Old Testament Literary Criticism, Winoiia Lake, 1992; J . C . Exum and O.J.A. Clines, The New Lit­ erary Criticism and the Hebreu- Bible, JSOT.S 143, Sheffield, 1993. For the "canonical approach,'' see B.S. Childs § 2 N and the references in §61511.

General Bibliography for Exegetical Work

T h e b i b l i o g r a p h i c refcrences i n this section, as w e l l as the l i t e r a t u r e sec­ tions o f § § 3 - 1 0 must cull a t h o u g h t f u l selection for the user. I m p o r t a n t studies w h i c h could n o t be listed may be easily gathered f r o m the recent p u b l i cations cited. A charactcristic abbreviation o f the title is p r o v i d e d i n parentheses for the l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h is m o r e frequendy cited i n the f o l l o w i n g .

A. B I B L I O G R A P H I C AIDS R G G , BI I H , T R T , A B D , Ī D B , eonimentaries (see section Ο below), O l d Testament Tntroiluctions (see section G below) Bibliea. Rome: since 1920, see: Supplement Elenehus bibliographicus Biblicus. Internationale Zeitschriftenschau für Bibelwissenschaft und Grenzgebiete. Stuttgart, Düsseldorf, since 1951/52. S. Schwertner. Theologische Realenzyklopädie. Abkürzungsverzeichnis. Berlin—New York, Τ 992. For English Rendels: Religion Index One: Periodicals. Berkeley, since 1949. Religion Index Two: Multi-Author Works. Berkeley, since 1950. Old Testament Abstracts. Washington, since 1978. W.G. Hupper. Index to Engbsh Periodical Literature on the O l d Testament and A n ­ cient Near Tastern Studies, since 1987. Addidonal helps in: O. Kaiser and W.G. Kümmel. Exegetical Method (look under section Η ) , ρ. 90-92, tootnotc 82. D. Stuart, O l d "Testament Exegesis. Philadelphia, 1980. p. 93-136. B. W. Anderson. Understanding the O l d Testament. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1986, p. 652-676. P.C. Craigie. The O l d Testament: Its Background, G r o w t h , and Content. Nashville, 1986, p. 333-340. SBL Instructions for Contributors. J B L 107 (1988): 579-596. (standard abbreviations) 4

Bibliograph}'

25

Β. SOURCES. T E X T S , A N D T R A N SLATI O N S Biblia Hebraica. R. Kittel, ed. After the 7th edition. Stuttgart, 1951 ( B H K ) . Biblia Hebraica Stutigartensia. K. Eiliger and W. Rudolph, eds. Stuttgart, 1968 to 1977 (BUS); sealed down edition, Í984. The Hebrcw University Bible. V I . I I . G o s h c n - G o t ī s t c i n , C. Rabin, S. Talrnon, eds. Jerusalem, 1975 (begun). Septuaginta. Vetus Testainentum Graecum auctoritate Academiae Scienüarum Gottingensis editum. Göttingen. 1931 (begun). Septuaginta. A. Rahlfs. ed. Stuttgart, 1982; sealed down edition, 1979. The Septuagint with Apocrypha: Greek and English. Grand Rapids, 1993. Die Apokryphen und Pscudepigraphen des Alten 'lèstaments. E. Kautzsch, ed. 2 vols. Tübingen, 1900 (1921, Darmstadt, 1975). Altjüdisches Schrifttum außerhalb der Bibel. P. Rießier. trans, and ed., Augsburg, 1928 (Freiburg, T984). Jüdische Schriften aus hellenistisch-römischer Zeit. W . G . K ü m m e l , ed. Gütersloh, 1973 (begun). The O l d Testament Pseudepigrapha. J.H.C. Charlesworth, ed. 2 vols. London, 1983, 1985. E. Lohse. Die Texte aus Qumran. Dannstadt ''1986. F. G. Martinez. Tbe Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English. Leiden, 1994.

C. LEX1CA VV. Gesenius. Gesenius' Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to tbe O l d "Testament Scripttires. Grand Rapids, 1949. VV. Gesenius. Hebräisches und Aramäisches H a n d w ö r t e r b u c h über das Alte 'lestament. Revised by R. Meyer and H . Donner. 18th edition, faseiele I : Berlin— Göttingen - Heidelberg, 1962; fascicle I L 1995. Ε Brown, S.R. Driver, and C.A. Briggs. Α Hebrew and English Lexicon of the O l d Testament. Oxford: 1907 (reprinted with correetions 1953, 1957, 1972). L . Koehlcr and VV. Baumgartner. Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Tibros. Leiden, 1953 (1958 with Supplement), (deiinilions in English and German) W . L . Holladay. A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the O l d Testament. Grand Rapids, »'1988. VV Baumgarmer. B. Hartmann, E.Y. Kutscher, and others. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon ot die Old Testament. 3 vols. Vol. 1: Leiden, 1994. D.J.A. Clines. The Dictionary of Classical Hebrew. Vol. I : Sheffield, 1993.

D. G R A M M A R S H . Bauer and P. Leander. Historische Grammatik der hebräischen Sprache des Alten 'Testamentes, vol. 1: Einleitung, Schriftlehre, Laut- und Formenlehre. Halle 1922 (Hildesheim. 1962, 1965). E. Jenni. Lehrbuch der hebräischen Sprache des Alten Testaments. Basel. Ί 9 8 1 . R. Meyer. Hebräische Grammatik. Berlin, vol. I 31%6 (1982); vol. I I 31969; vol. I I I , '1972; vol. 1V; 1972; single vol. edition, 1992.

26

§2 G E N E R A L B I B L I O G R A P T I Y F O R E X E G E T I C A L W O R K

W. Richter. Grundlagen einer althebräischen Grammatik. 3 vols. St. Ottilien, 1978-1980. VV. Schneider. Grammatik des Biblischen Hebräisch. Munich, "1985. H . Schweizer. Metaphorische Grammatik. St. Ottilien, 1981. R. Barthelmus. Einführung in das Biblische Hebräisch. M i t einem Anhang: Biblisches Aramäisch. Zürich, 1994. For English Readers: E. Ben Z v i , M . Hancock, and R. Beinert. Readings in Biblical Hebrew: A n Interniediate Textbook. New Häven, 1993. J. Blau. A Granimar of Biblical Hebrew. Wiesbaden, 1976. W. Gesenius and E. Kautzsch. Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar. Oxford, '"1983. M . Greenberg. Introduction to Hebrew. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1965. Ε J o ü o n . Α Grammar of Biblical Hebrew, trans, and rev. by T . Muraoka. 2 vols. Rome, 1991. R Kelley. Biblical Hebrew: A n Introduetory Grammar. Grand Rapids, 1992. B. Kittel, V. Hoffer, and R. W r i g l u . Biblical Hebrew: A Text and Workbook. New Häven, 1989. T.O. Lambdin. Introduction to Biblical Hebrew. New York, 1971. C. L . Seow. A Grammar for Biblical Hebrew. Nashville, 1987. J. Weingreen. A Practical Grammar for Classical Hebrew. 2nd ed. Oxford. 1959.

SPECIFICALLY FOR S Y N T A X K. Bartebtius. 11Y11. Bedeutung und Punktion eines hebräischen »Allerweltswortes«. St. Ottilien, 1982. C. Brockelmann. Hebräische Syntax. Neukireheu, 1956. W. G r o ß . Otto Rössler und die Diskussion um das althebräische Verbalsystem. B N 18 (1982): 28-78. P. Kustár. Aspekt im Hebräischen. Theologische Dissertationen vol. LX. Basel, 1972. D. Michel. Grundlegung einer hebräischen Syntax, 1. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1977. For English Readers: E l . Andersen. The Sentence in Biblical Hebrew. The Hague—Paris, 1974 (1980). B. W d t k e and M . O'Connor. A n Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Winona Lake, Indiana, 1990. W.G.E. Watson. Classical Hebrew Poetry. JSOT.S 26. Sheffield, 1984. R.J. Williams. Hebrew Syntax. Toronto, T976 (1982).

E. C O N C O R D A N C E S S. Mandelkern. Veteris lestamenti Concordantiae llebraicae atque Chaldaicae. Berlin 1937 (Graz 1955: Jerusalem—Tel Aviv, 1971). G. Lisowsky and L . Rost. Konkordanz zum Hebräischen Alten Testament. Stuttgart, -T966 (1981). A. Even-Shoshan. A New Concordance o f the Bible. Jerusalem, 1982. E. Match and U.A. Redp.itb. Λ Concordance to the Septuagint. 2 vols. Grand Rapids, 1987.

ßibliography

27

Strong's Exhaustive Concordance. Nashville. 1890 (1986). Several excellent computerized concordance programs are now available, e.g. Bible Windows. Ε BIBER K N O W L E D G E AI. Augustin andj. Kegler. Bibelkunde des Alten Testaments. Gütersloh 1987. G. Fohrer. Das Alte Testament. Einführung in Bibelkunde und Literatur des Alten Testaments und in Geschichte und Religion Israels. Gütersloh, pari 1 , 1980; parts 2 & 3, Ί 9 8 0 . H . D . Preuß and K . Berger. Bibelkunde des Alten und Neuen Testaments, vol. 1: Altes Testament. Heidelberg, 1993. O . H . Steck. Arbeitsblätter Altes lestament für Einführungskurse. Zurieh, -'1993. C. Westermann. Abriß der Bibelkunde. Stuttgart, 1 9 9 1 . (English translation of 4th edition; Handbook to the Old Testament. Alinneapolis, 1967.) ;

5

li

Cornpare also: W . I I . Schmidt, VV. T h i e l , and R. Hanhart. Altes lestament. Grundkurs Theologie, vol. 1. Stuttgart—Berlin—Köln—Mainz, 1989. For English Readers: The German discipline of Bibelkunde has no precise parallel in English. Westermann's Handbook is one of the few which have been translated. M a n y o f the newer O l d Testament introduetions do, however, provide some overviews of die biblical con­ tent (cf. section G. below). See also: R.E. Clements, ed. Tbe World of Ancient Israel. Cambridge, 1989. A S . van der Woude. The W o r l d of the Old Testament. Bible Handbook, vol. 11. Grand Rapids, 1989.

G. I N T R O D U C T O R Y Q U E S T I O N S J. Hempel. Die althebräischc Literatur aund ihr hellenistisch-jüdisches Nachleben. Wildpark-Potsdam, 1930 (Berlin 1968). O. Kaiser. G r u n d r i ß der Einleitung in die kanonischen und deutcrokanonischen Schriften des Alten Testaments. Vols 1-3. Gütersloh, 1992-1994. R. Smend. Die Entstehung des Alten Testaments. Theologische Wissenschaft 1. Stuttgart—Berlin—Köln—Mainz, Ί 9 8 9 . For English readers: B.W. Andereon. Understanding the O l d Testament. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, *1986. B. Bandstra. Reading tbe Old Testament: An Introduction to the Old Testament. Belmont, C A 1995. B.S. Childs. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Philadelphia, 1979 (1980). P.C. Craigie. The O l d Testament: Its Background, Growth, and Content. Nashville, 1986. R. Coggins. Introducing the Old Testament. Nashville, 1990. O. Eißfeldt. The Old Testament: A n Introduction. Oxford, 1974.

28

§2 G E N E R A L B 1 B L I O G R A P H Y F O R E X E G E T I C A L W O R K

G. Fohrer. Introduction to the Old lestament. Nashville, 1968. N . K . Gottwald. The Hebrew Bible. A Socio-Literary Introduction. Philadelphia, 1985. Ο. Kaiser. Introduction to the Old lestament. Oxford, 1975. R. Rendtorff. The Old Testament: A n Introduction. Philadelphia, 1985. W . U . Schmidt. Old Testament Introduction. New York, 1990. J.A. Soggin. Introduction to die Old 'lestament. Philadelphia, 1976 ( Ί 9 8 9 ) .

Η. EXEGETICAL M E T H O D O L O G Y Tl. Barth and T. Sehramm. Selbsterfahrung mit der Bibel. Ein Schlüssel zum Lesen und Verstehen. M u n i c b — G ö t t i n g e n , 1977 ( Ί 9 8 3 , abridged). G. Fohrer, H . W Hotfhiann, F. Huber, L . M a r k e n , and G. Wanke. Exegese des Alten Testaments; Einführung in die Methodik. Uni-Taschenbücher ( L T B ) 267. Heidelberg, "1993 (Fohrer, Exegese). H . Gunkel. Ziele und Methoden der E r k l ä r u n g des Alten Testaments, in: Gunkel, Reden und Aufsätze, 11-29. Göttingen, 1913. W Richter. Exegese als Literaturwissenschaft: E n t w u r f einer alttestamentlichen L i t ­ eraturtheorie und Methodologie. (Exegese). Göttingen, 1971. I. Schreiner, cd. Einführung in die Methoden der biblischen Exegese. W ü r z b u r g , 1971 (Schreiner, Einführung). H . Schweizer. Biblische Texte verstehen. Arbeitsbuch zu Hermeneutik und Methodik der Bibelinterpretarion. Stuttgart—Berlin—Köln—Mainz, 1986. W. Stenger. Bibhsche Methodenlehre. Düsseldorf, 1987. B. Willrnes. Bibelauslegung—genau genommen. B N B 5. Munich, 1990. For English Re/idt-rs:

|. Barton. Reading the Old 'lestament; Method in Biblical Study. Philadelphia, 1984 (T996). J . H . Hayes, and C R . Holladay. Biblical Exegesis: A Beginners Handbook. rev. ed. Adanta, 1987. O. Kaiser. Old Testament Exegesis. I n : O. Kaiser and W G . Kümmel, Exegetical Method, 1-41. New York, 1981. K . Koch. The Growth of the Biblical Tradition: The Eorm-Critical Method. New York, 1969. E. Kreutz. The Historical-Critical Method. Philadelphia, 1975. (See also the entire series by Fortrcss Press: Guides to Biblical Scholarship). S.L. McKenzie and S.R. Havnes. To Each Its O w n Meaninsr A n Introduction to Biblical Criticisins and Their Meaning. Louisville, 1993 ( 1999). R. Morgan and J. Barton. Biblical Imerpretafions. Oxford, 1988. D. Stuart. O l d Testament Exegesis; A Printer for Students and Pastors. Philadelphia, Ί980. :

I . I N F O R M A T I O N O N SPECIFIC T O P I C S Bibel-Lexikon. H . Haag, ed. Einsiedeln—Zürich—Köln, -'1968. Neues Bibel-Lexikon. M . G ö r g and B. Lang, eds. Zürich (in fascicles. fascicle 1, 1988).

Bibiiography

29

Dictionnaire de la Bible, Supplement. Begun by L . Pirot et Λ. Robert. Continued under the direetiun ol I I . Ca/.elles and A. Feuillel. Paris, 1928 (begun). Evangelisches Kirchcnlexikon. E. Fahlbusch., ed. 4 vols. Gottingen, '1986-1993. K. Galling, ed. Biblisches Reallexikon. H A T 1 1. Tübingen, -1977. Biblisch-Historisches Handwörterbuch. B. Reickc and L . Rost, eds. 4 vols. Gottingen. 1962-1979. ( B H H ) Theologische Realenzyklopädie. G. Krause und G. .Müller, eds. Berlm-New York, 1976 (begun) ( T R E ) . Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum. Stuttgart, 1950 (begun). Reclams Bibellexikon. K. Koch, ed. Stuttgart. 1987. Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. K. Galling, ed. 6 vols., plus index. T ü b i n ­ gen, 4957-1965. (RGG) 4

For English Readers: Tbe Ancbor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. New York, 1992 (ABD). Encyclopaedia Judaica, 16 vols. Jerusalem, 1971 (Index vol., 1972). The Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible. 4 vols. New York—Nashville, 1962 (Supple­ ment 1976). Mercers Dictionary of the Bible. Macon, 1991. M . Notb. The Old'lestament World. London, 1966 ( O T W ) .

J. B I B L I C A L A R C H A E O L O G Y A N D GEOGRAPHY

r

H . Donner. Einführung in die biblische Landes- und Altertumskunde. Dannstadt, Τ 988. V. Fritz. Art. Bibehvissenschaft 1/1. Archäologie (Alter Orient und Palästina). T R E V I (1980), p. 316-345. M . N o d i . Der Beitrag der Archäologie zur Geschichte Israels. VT.S 7 (1960): 262-282 (also in: N o t h . Aufsätze zur biblischen Landes- und Altertumskunde. H . W . Wolff, ed. 2 vols. vol. 1, 34-51. Neukirchen-Vluyn 1971. . Das Buch Josua. H A I " I 7. o. 142-1 51: Verzeichnis der Ortsnamen. T ü b i n g e n , Ί971. Orte und Landschaltcn der Bibel, vol. 1; O. Keel, M . Küchler, and Chr. L'ehlinger. Geographisch-geschichtliche Landeskunde. Z ü r i c h — G ö i t i n g e n , 1984; vol. 2: O. Keel and M . Küehler. Der Süden. Zurich—Gottingen, 1982. H . Weippert. Palästina in vorhellenistischer Zeit. Handbuch der Archäologie 11.1. Munich, 1988. For English Reuden: Y. Aharoni. The Land of the Bible. Α Historical Geography. Philadelphia, 1967. D. Baly. Geographical Companion to the Bible. London, 1963. Encyclopaedia of Archaeologiea! Excavations in the Holy Land. Λ1. Avi-Yonah, ed. London, vol. I , 1975; w l . Π, 1976; vol. ΙΠ, 1977; vol. IV, 1978. New edition: E. Stern, ed. Jerusalem, 1994. V Fritz. A n Introduction to Biblical Archaeology. JSOT.S 172. Sheffield. 1994. Z. Kallai. Historical Geography of the Bible. Leiden, 1986.

30

§2 G E N E R A L B I B L I O G R A P I Ī Y F O R E X E G E T I C A L W O R K

K. Kenyon. Archaeology in the Holy Land. Revised edition. New York/London, *1985. A. Mazar. Archaeology of the Land o f the Bible, 10,000-586 BCK. New York, 1990. M . N o t l i . Old Testament World. London, 1966, p. 2-179. Also cornpare die literature in I and L .

B I B L E ATLASES A. Aharoni, M . Avi-Yonah. The Macmillan Bible Adas. New York, 1968. Atlas o f Israel. Published by Survey o f Israel. Ministry o f Labour Israel. Amsterdam, •'1970. TI. Gtithe. Bibelatlas. Leipzig, 1926. The Times Adas of the Bible. J.B. Pritchard, ed. London, 1987. Oxford Bible Atlas. H . G . May, ed. London—New York, 1974. J.B. Pritchard, ed. The Harper Concise Atlas of the Bible, 1991. Palästina. Historisch-archäologische Karte m i t E i n f ü h r u n g und Register. Ε . H ö h n e , ed. Göttingen, 1981 (special printing from B H H , vol. I V ) .

K. T H E H I S T O R Y A N D S O C I A L L I F E O F ISRAEL A. A l t . Grundfragen der Geschichte des Volkes Israel. Eine Auswahl aus den Kleinen Schriften. Munich, 1970. G. Dalman. Arbeit und Sitte in Palästina, vol. I - V I I . Gütersloh, 1928-1942 ( H i l d e ­ sheim 1964). 11. Donner. Geschichte des Volkes Israel und seiner Nachbarn in G r u n d z ü g e n . 2 vols. Göttingen, 1983, 1986; single volume edition, 1987. A . H J . Gunneweg. Geschichte Israels bis Bar Kochba. Theologische Wissenschaft, vol. 2. Stuttgart—Berlin—Köln—Mainz, Ί 9 8 4 . E. Kutsch. A r t . Israel I I . Chronologie der Könige von Israel und Juda. R G G I I I , col. 942-944; cf. also the time charts in tbe appendix to the volumes by A. Jepsen, » K o m m e n t a r zum Alten Testament (KAT)« and H . Donner, cited above, 229ff. K . Matthiae and W. 'Thiel. Biblische Zeittafeln. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1985. M . Metzger. G r u n d r i ß der Geschichte Israels. Neukirchen-Vlun, 1988. H . P. Müller. Art. Gesellschaft I I . Altes 'Testament. 'TRE X U (1984), p. 756-764 (bib­ iiography!). W. Schottroff. Soziologie und Altes Testament. V F 19 (1974): 46-66. J.A. Soggin. A History of Israel. London, 1984. W T h i e l . Die soziale Entwicklung Israels i n vorstaadicher Zeit. Neukirchen-Vluyn, '1985. 3

7

For English Readers: G.W. Ahlström. The History o f Ancient Palestine. Minneapolis, 1993. R. Albertz. A History of Israelite Religion in the Old Testament Period. 2 vols. Louisville, 1994. A. A l t . Essays on Old lestament History and Religion. Oxford, 1966. H J . Boeeker. Law and the Administration of Justice in the Old Testament and Ancient East. Minneapolis, 1980.

Bibliography

31

J. Bright A History of Israel. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, 1981. J.H. Hayes andJ.M. Miller, eds. Israelitc andJudean History. London, 1977. S. Herrmann. A History of Israel in O l d Testament Times. London, -1981. J . M . Miller and J . H . Hayes. A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. London, 1986. M . N o t h . The History o f Israel. London, i 9 6 0 . J. Pedersen. Israel. Its Life and Culture. London - Copenhagen, vols. I—II, 1926 (last imprint, 1964); vols. ΙΉ-Γν 1940 (1959 with additions. last imprint, 1963). R. de Vaux. Ancient Israel: Its Life and hisututions. New York, 1961. . The Early History of Israel. London, 1978. The World History of the Jewish People. B. Maz-ar, ed. Vols. T-VITI. Jerusalem— London, 1964-1984.

SOURCE M A T E R I A L Textbuch zur (beschichte Israels. Κ. Galling, ed. T ü b i n g e n , Ί 9 7 9 . G. l . Davies. Ancient Hebrew Inscriptions. Cambridge, 1991. Tl. Donner and W. Röllig. Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften, mit einem Beitrag von O. Rössler. Wiesbaden, vol. I , 1 9 7 1 ; vol. 2 . 1 9 7 3 ; vol. 3, 1969. K . J a r o š . Hundert Inschriften aus Kanaan und Israel. Fribourg, 1982. J. Renz and W. Röllig. Handbuch der althebräischen Epigraphik. Vols. I ; 11/1; I I I . Dannstadt, 1995K.A. Smelik. Writings from Ancient Israel: A Handbook of Historical and Religious Documents. Louisville, 1991. Cornpare also die source collections in L .

L . ISRAELS E N V I R O N M E N T HISTORY Fischer Weltgeschichte, vols. 2-4: Die Altorientalischen Reiche Ι-ΙΠ. E. Cassin, J. Bottćro and J. Vercoutter. Frankfurt/M., 1965-1967. Fischer Weltgeschichte, vol. 5: Griechen und Perser. Die Mittehneerwelt im Altertum Τ H . Bengtson, ed. Frankfurt/M.. 1965. Fischer Weltgeschichte, vol. 6: Der Hellenismus und der Aufstieg Roms. Die M i t telmeerwelt im Altertum I I . P. Grimal, ed. Frankturt/M., 1965. Orientalische Geschichte von Kyros bis Mohammed. H O I , 2, 4. Leiden—Köln, fascicle 1A, 1971;fascicle2, 1966. W Helck. Geschichte des Alten Ägypten. H O 1,1,3. Leiden, 1968 (1981). E.A. Knauf. Die L'mwelt des Alten Testaments. Stuttgart, 1994. A. Scharff and A. Moortgat. Ägypten und Vorderasien i m A l t e r t u m . M u n i c h , 1950 (1962). H . Schmökel. Geschichte des Alten Vorderasien. H O I , 2, 3. Leiden, 1957 (1979). For English Readers: The Cambridge Ancient Historv. Cambridge, Vols. 1/1-11/2 1970-1975; Vol. I I I , 1925 (1965); Vol. IV, 1926 (1969); V o l V I I / 1 , 1 9 8 4 .

32

The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge, Vol. I I , 1985. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Cambridge, vol. I , 1984; vol. I I , 1989. iVI.A. Dandamaev. A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. Leiden, 1989. Ν . Grimal. A History o f Ancient Egypt. Oxford, 1992. L . L . Grabbe. Judaism from Cyrus to Hadrian. Vol. I . Aliniieapolis, 1992. W.W. Hallo and W K , Simpson. The Ancient Near East. A History. New York— Chicago—San Francisco—Atlanta, 1971. Η . Sancisi-Weerdenburg, ed. Achaemenid History. Leiden, 1987 (begun). E. M . Yamauchi. Persia and the Bible. Grand Rapids, 1990. GUTTURAL HISTORY A N D T H E HISTORY OF RELIGION J. Assrnann. Ägypten. Theologie und Frömmigkeit einer frühen Hochkultur. UrbanTaschenbücher 366. Stuttgart, 1984. IT. Bonnet. Reallexikon der ägyptischen Religionsgeschichte. Berlin, 1952 ( 1971). H . Brunner. Grundzuge der altägyptischen Religion. Dannstadt, 1983. H . and H . A . Frankfurt, J. A. Wilson, and T. Jacobsen. FrühJicht des Geistes. Wand­ lungen des Weltbildes im Alten Orient. Urban-Bücher 9. Stuttgart, 1954 (En­ glish, 1946); revised version, 1981 under the title: Alter Orient—Mythos und Wirklichkeit. H . Gese, M . Flöther, and K. Rudolph. Die Religionen Altsyriens, Altarabiens und der Mandäer. Die Religionen der Menschheit, Vol. 10/2. Stuttgart—Berlin—Köln— Mainz, 1970. A. Goetze, Klcinasien, TĪAW U L I ,3,3.1, Munich -1957. Handbuch der Religionsgeschichte. J.P. Asmussen und I . Laesoe, eds. G ü t t i n g e n , vol. 2, 1972; vof. 3, 1975. F. Hornung. Einführung in die Ägyptologie. Darmstadt, Τ 984. . Grundzüge der ägyptischen Geschichte. Darmstadt, Τ 988. Kulturgeschichte des Alten Orient. H . Schmökel, ed. Stuttgart, 1961 (1981). Lexikon der Ägyptologie. W Helck and E. Otto eds. Wiesbaden, vols. I - V f f l , 1975-1988.' B. Meissner. Babylonien und Assyrien. Heidelberg, vol. 1, 1920; vol. 2, 1925. Reallexikon der Assyriologie. Currently 6 vols. Berlin—(Leipzig)—New York, 1932-1983. Rebgionsgeschichte des Alten Orient. FIO I , 8,1,1. Leiden—Köln, 1964. G. Widengren. Die Religionen Irans. Die Religionen der Menschheit, vol. 14. Stuttgart, 1965. W ö r t e r b u c h der Mythologie. Part 1: Die alten Kulturvölker, vol. I : G ö t t e r und Mythen im Vorderen Orient. I l . W . Ilaussig, ed. Stuttgart, 1965. 2

For English Readers: British Museum Trustees. A n Introduction to Ancient Egypt. New York, 1979. L.R. Fisher. Ras Shamra Parallels. 2 vols. Rome, 1972, 1975. J.C.L. Gibson. Canaanite Myths and Legends. Edinburgh, Τ 9 7 8 . J. Gray. The Legacy of Canaan. The Ras Shamra Texts and their Relevance to the Old Testament. VT.S 5. Leiden, 1965Hisroria Religionum. Handbook for die History of Rcligions. C.J. Blecker and G. Widengren, eds. vol. I : Religions of the Past. Leiden, 1969. r

Bibliograph y

33

J.C. de Moor. A n Anthology of Religious Texts from Ugarit. Leiden, 1987. S. iMorenz. Egyptian Religion. London, 1973. M . N o t h . Old Testament World, p. 278-297. A . L . Oppenheim. Ancient Mesopotatnia. Chicago, 1964. H . Ringgren. Religious of the Ancient Near Last. London, 1973. W von Soden. Introduction to die Ancient W o r l d . The Background of the Ancient Orient. Grand Rapids, 1993. J.H. Walton. Ancient lsraelite Literature in Its Cultural Context: A Survey of Parallels between Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts. Grand Rapids, 1989.

SOURCE M A T E R I A L Altorientalische Texte zum Alten Testament. 11. G r e ß m a n n , ed. Berlin—Leipzig, -1926(1970). Altorientalische Bilder zum Alten Testament. H . G r e ß m a n n . ed. Berlin—Leipzig, M927 (1970). Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments. O. Kaiser. G ü t e r s l o h , fascicles since 1981. For English Rendas: Ancient Egyptian Literature. 3 vols. M . Lichtheim, ed. Berkeley, 1975-1980. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relaring to the Old Testament. J.B. Pritchard, ed. Princeton, Τ 969. The Ancient Near East in Picnires Relating to the Old Testament. J.B. Pritchard, ed. Priuceton, -1969. Before the Muses: A n Anthology o f Akkadian Literature. 2 vols. B.R. Foster, ed. Bethesda, M D , 1993. Near Eastern Religious Texts Relating to the Old Testament. W Beyerlin. ed. London, 1978. Cornpare the source material mentioned in K . M . T O P I C A L EXEGESIS A B D , I D B , R G G , B H H , T R E , concordanccs (sec Ε above), eommentaries (see under O), Old Testament theologies (see under N ) . J. Barr. The Semantics of Biblical Language. Oxford, 1961. E, Jenni and C. Westennann, eds. Mark E. Biddle, trans. Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament. 3 vols. Peabody, M A , 1997. G.J. Botterweck and H . Ringgren, eds. Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, 1971 (begun). G. Kittel and G. Friedrich, ed. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Grand Rapids, 1964 (begun).

N. OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY R. Albert/.. A History of lsraelite Religion in die Old Testament Period. 2 vols. Louisville, 1994.'

34

§2 G E N E R A L B I B L I O G R A P H Y F O R E X E G E T I C A L W O R K

B. S. Childs. O l d Testament Theology in a Canonical Context. Minneapolis, 1989. . Biblical Theology o f the O l d and New Testaments. .Minneapolis, 1993. W. Eichrodt. Theology of the Old Testament. 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1961 & 1967. G. Fobrer. History o f Eraelite Religion. Nashville, 1972. . Theologische Grundstrukturen des Alten Testaments. Berlin—New York, 1972. G. Hasel. O l d Testament Theology: Basic Issues in the Current Debate. Grand Rapids, 1991. J . H . Hayes and F. Prussner. O l d Testament Theology: Its History and Development. Adanta, 1985. O. Kaiser. Der Gott des Alten Testaments. Theologie des Alten Testaments. Ü B T . Göttingen, 1993. O. Keel and Chr. Uehlinger. Göttinnen, Götter, und Gottessymbole. Q D 134. Freiburg, i.B.,T993. AI. Oeming. Gesamtbiblische Theologien der Gegenwart. Stuttgart—Berlin—Köln— Mainz, 1987. L G . Perilue. Tbe Collapse o f History: Reconstrucring Old Testament Theology. Overtures to Biblical Theology. Minneapolis, 1994. H . D. Preuß. Old Testament Theology. 2 vols. Louisville, 1995 and 1996. G. v. Rad. Old Testament Theology. 2 vols. San Francisco, 1962 & 1965. H . Graf Reventlow. Problems of Biblical Theology in the Twenrieth Century. Philadelphia, 1986. W H . Schmidt. The Faith of the Old Testament: A History. Philadelphia, 1983. C. Westermann. Elements of O l d Testament Theology. Atlanta, 1982. W. Zimmerli. O l d Testament Theology in Outline. Edinburgh, 1978. 4

2

O. I M P O R T A N T O L D T E S T A M E N T C O M M E N T A R 1 E S Das Alte Testament Deutsch (ATD). ( Y Herntrich and) A . Weiser, eds. G ö t t i n g e n , 1949 (begun); O. Kaiser und L . Perlitt, recent editors. (Several volumes in E n ­ glish) Biblischer Kommentar (BK) Altes Testament. Begun by M . Norh. S. l l e r m i a n n , W . U . Schmidt and H . W . Wolff, eds. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1955 (begun). Die Botschaft des Alten Testaments. Erläuterungen alttestatnentlicher Schriften. Stuttgart. Commentaire de l'Ancien Testament ( C A T ) . R. Martin-Achard and others, eds. Neuchâtcl—Paris, 1963 (begun). Echter Bibel. Altes Testament. F. Nötschcr, ed. 4 vols. and index volume. W ü r z b u r g , -1955-1960. Die Neue Echter Bibel ( N E B ) . Kommentar zum Alten Testament m i t der Eiuheitsübersetzung. J.G. Plöger and J. Schreiner, eds. W ü r z b u r g . Handbuch zum Alten Testament ( H A T ) . O. Eißfeldt, ed. Tubingen, 1934 (begun). Handkommentar zum Alten Testament ( H K ) . W Nowaek, ed. G ö t o n g e n , 1892-1938. Die Heilige Schrift des Alten Testaments. Begun by F. Feldinann and H . Herkenne. F. Notscher, ed. Bonn, 1924-1960. Kommentar zum Alten Testament ( Κ Α Τ ) . Ε. Sellin, ed. Leipzig 1913-1939; W. Ru­ dolph, K . Elliger, F. Hesse and O. Kaiser, recent eds. Gütersloh, 1962 (begun).

BibJiography

35

Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament ( K H C ) . K . M a r t i , ed. T ü b i n g e n 1897-1922. De Prediking van het Oude Testament. Nijkerk. La Samte Bible. Begun by L . Pirot, continued bv A. Clamer. Paris. Die Schriften des Alten Testaments (SAT). Göttingen, 1911-1915, '1920-1925. Zürcher Bibelkommentare. G. Fohrer, H . H . Schmid and S. Schulz, eds. Zürich ( - Stuttgart). For English Readers: The Anchor Bible. W. F. Albright and D . N . Freedman, eds. New York, 1964 (begun). The Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New English Bible. P.R. Ackroyd, A.R.C. Leaney, and J.W. Packer, eds. Cambridge, 1971 (begun). The Century Bible. New Edition (also: New Serics). H . H . Rowley, ed. London. The Eonns of the Old Testament Literature. R. Knierim and G . M . Tucker, eds. Grand Rapids. Henneneia. A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible. Philadelphia. The International Critical Commentary ( I C C ) . S. Driver, Λ. Plummer and C A . Briggs, eds. Edinburgh, 1895 (begun). International Theological Commentary ( I T C ) . F.C Holmgren and (i.A.F. Knight, eds. Grand Rapids. The Interpreters Bible (IB). O l d Testament, 6 vols. New York—Nashville, 1952-1956 (1979). The Jerome Biblical Commentary. R.E. Brown, J.A. Fitzmyer and R.E. Murphy, eds. London Dublin—Melbourne, 1970. New Century Bible. London. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. R. Hubbard, ed. Grand Rapids. O l d Testament Library ( O T L ) . London—Louisville. Peake's Commentary: on the Bible. H . H . Rowley, O l d Testament Editor. London (etc.), 1962. W o r d Biblical Commmentary. J . D . W Watts, O l d Testament Editor. Waco, Texas. P. TECHNTQUF.S O F S C I E N T I F I C P R O C E D U R E G. Adam. Zur wissenschaftlichen Arbeitsweise. Adam, Kaiser, Kümmel. Einführung (see under H ) , p. 96-128 (p. 1271": bibliography). A Raffelt. Proseminar Theologie. Einführung i n das wissenschaftliche Arbeiten und in die theologische Buchkunde. Freiburg—Basel—Wien, 1985.

Part Two

The Methods

1

Text Criticism

Α.

I H K TASK

F r o m t h e i r first r e c o r d i n g to the i n v e n t i o n o f the p r i n t i n g press, O l d l e s t a m e n t texts were t r a n s m i t t e d and circulated o n l y by t r a n s c r i p t i o n , w h e d i e r i n die original language o r i n translation. N u m e r o u s manuscripts and manuscripts fragments i n die libraries and museums o f the w o r l d witness d i i s process w h i c h lasted a t o t a l o f t w o and one h a l f m i l l e n n i a . T h e oldest texts found t o this date, p r i m a r i l y the manuscripts f r o m the caves o f Q u m r a n , date back t o the second Century B.c. M a n u s c r i p t transmission is, as a rule, n o t w i d i o u t error. D e v i a t i o n s between manuscripts ' and incomprehensible versions ( " c o r r u p r i o n s " ) also d o c u m e n t this tendency f o r O l d l e s t a m e n t text c r i t i ­ cism. T w o processes come under p r i m a r ) ' consideration as the sourccs ofmistakes: u n i n t e n t i o n a l oversight d u r i n g t r a n s c r i p t i o n (e.g. c o n f u s i o n o f s i m i l a r letters, haplography, d i t t o g r a p h y , O m i s s i o n t h r o u g h h o m o i o t e l e u t o n ) , and i n t c n t i o n a l changes (e.g. i m p r o v i n g a supposed mistake i n die Vorlage, replaci n g o r expanding unusual cxpressions, and r e m o v i n g objectionable f o r m u lations). 11

u

17

10 Α η esample: In Isa 11:1 b, the Masoreric text transmission rcads, " . . . and a shoot from its roots will hear fruit (yipreb)"; the Scptuagint, the Vulgare and other ancient translations by contrast oflfer Λ verh with the meaning "come forth'' (LXX: άναβήσεται; Vulg.: ascriulet). 11 An example: In the Masorctic text transmission, Isa 11:3 begins widi die formuUuon, väbärihi beyir'at ybvh ("and his--diat is the Lord s—smelling is on the fear of YHYVH"), a formulation which makes absolutely no sense in this form. I- An extensive representation, with commentary, of die mistakes which arc typical for the manuscript transmission of the Old Testament is offered with numerous cxamples in: Delitzsch, Lese- und Schreibfehler, VVürthwein, The Text, ofthe Old Testament, p. 107-112 (there also additional literature); Τον, Textaal Criticism, p. 6-13, 232-285; McCartcr, Text/ωί Criticism, p. 26-61.

40

§3

T E X T CRITICISM

C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , text c r i t i c i s m has the task o f l o c a t i n g mistakes w h i c h have crept i n d u r i n g the text h i s t o r y and, i f possible, o f cstablishing the " o r i g i ­ nal text o f the O l d Testament" ( " o r i g i n a l t e x t , " " o r i g i n a l w o r d i n g " ) , by c r i t i cally s c r u t i n i z i n g the H e b r e w text transmission (or x\rainaic i n p o r t i o n s o f Ezra and D a n i e l ) as w e l l as the ancient translations. T h e " o r i g i n a l t e x t " means, i n essence, that w o r d i n g w h i c h existed i n the O l d l e s t a m e n t

at

the end o f die process o f p r o d u c t i v e , w r i t t e n f o r m a t i o n . As a rufe, this p o i n t is reached at least w i t h the a t t a i n m e n t o f a text's canonical validity. I t does not, however, uneqinvocally allow itself t o be fixed c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y . M o r e over, the endpoint o f productive f o r m a t i o n difFers a m o n g tbe various groups o f O l d Testament w r i t i n g s and even i n the i n d i v i d u a l w r i t i n g s . A n approximate arrangement leads i n t o the t i m e p e r i o d between die 4 t b Century B . C . and the Ist Century A . D .

B. C O M M E N T A R Y O N

EHE APPROACH

AND T H E METHOD I . Relationship t o L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m Prior t o the e n d p o i n t o f p r o d u c t i v e t e x t f o r m a t i o n , intmtional changes w i t h i n d i e arena o f the w r i t t e n transmission o f a text b l o c k m e n t i o n e d i n sec­ t i o n A (such as additinns, and corrections of" t'ormulation), fall w i t h i n the arena o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . All changes i n d i e text o c c u r r i n g afier the above m e n ­ t i o n e d break constitnte text critical p r o b l e m s (such as t r a n s c r i p t i o n mistakes, transcriber glosses, d o g m a t i c changes). Obviously, transcription oversights can intrude into the text transmission. even be­ fore this break, Their explanation devoives principally to text criticism, Nevertheless. it is difficult to determme in a gíven instance when the transcription oversight has entered, In certain situations, a text critical diagnosis can also refer to the processes prior to the end of productive Oid Testament formuiation of transmission. Correspondingly this di­ agnosis must then be treated within the framework of literary criticism or transmission history; Hence, deviations of the Septuagint from the Masoretic text in a number of Old Testament books raises the question vvhether or not we are dealing with t w o separate ancient transmission lines, i.e. two (or more mìxed) "original texts" at the end of the for­ mation process. :j

1Cornpare Old lestament introduetions for the arrangement and siz.e of Jeremiah, or the diesis of H.J. Stoebe for 1 Sam 17:1-18:5 ( F T 6 [1956]: 397-413, espeeially 41 If).

C o m m e n t a r y o n the A p p r o a e l i and die M e t h o d

I I . T h e Procedural S t e p s

41

w

1. Establishing and C r i t i c a l l y S c r u t i n i z i n g the T r a n s m i t t e d Text a. Generally, R H K and its apparatus suffices tor the Establishment o f the t r a n s m i t t e d t e x t . A detailed exegetical treatment o f a text, h o w ­ ever, demands specific examination o f the various t e x t witnesses using special t e x t edirions. is

I n the first place, the t e x t transmission o f tbe o r i g i n a l H e b r e w (or A r a m a i c ) should be taken i n t o account, followed i n die second place by the t e x t transmission o f ancient translations. These text transniissions allow deduetions c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r H e b r e w (or A r a m a i c ) Vorlage. For o r i e n t a t i o n c o n ­ c e r n i n g the paths o f transmission for O l d Testament texts, cornpare the graphics i n Fohrer {Introduction, 515 and Exegese, 40). Under the limitaiion of thosc languages normally learned, the following should be consulted: 1. 2. 3.

4.

5.

Text, witnesses from the recent Palestinian manuscript discoveries (particularly Qumran)'* Samaritanus' LXX — Brooke—McLean—Thackeray—Manson (begun 1906) — - Göttingen edition (begun i 931) — Rahlfs " Vetos Latina — Sabatier — Edition of Erzabtei Beuron (begun 1949) Vulgate* - Edition of trte Benedictine order (begun i 926) — Edition of the W ü r t t . Bibelanstalt (ed. R. Weber) 7

1B

9

0

it Herc. we follow Würthwein, Text, ρ. 113-120; see ako MeCarter, Textual Criticism, p. 62-75. IS T h e B H S evidence is gi'eatly reduced. and die apparatus also contains literary critical proposítions. The Hebrew Univcrsity Bible ( H U B ) project Stands out at the forefront. For deciphering the language of the apparatus, compare H.P. Rüger, An English Key to the hitin Words and

Abbreviations and the Symbols of Bibtica Hebraica Stuttgartensia (Stuttgart, 1981); and R. Wonne­ berger, Understanding BHS. p. 4011. • 6 For references to the text distribution, sec Würthwein, Text, p. 30-32, cspecialfy foowotes 60,6i; and Tov, Textual Criticism, p. 21-79. 100-12 1. For references to the text distribution, sec Würthwein, Text, p. 45; Tov, Textaal Criticism, p. 80-100. 1 7

18 Würthwein, Text. p. 76ff; Tov, Textual Criticism, p. 134-148. 1° Würthwein, Text, p. 92ff; Tov, Textaal Criticism. p. 134. 20 Würthwein. Text, p. 99; Tov, Textual Criticism, p. 153.

42

§3

T E X T CR1T1CLSM

b. Critical scrutiny means g r o u p i n g the text witnesses according to their w e i g h r (see I I I 1); e l i i n i n a t i n g easily recognizable textual c o r r u p tions and changes; and c o r r e l a t i n g t e x t witnesses dependent u p o n one anodier.

2. L i n g u i s t i c and M a t e r i a l E x a m i n a t i o n o f dre Various Text Transmissions a. Linguistic examination aims speeifieally at the lexical, m e t r i c a l stylistic, and grammaticai analysis o f the text: 1. Lexical inspection: Does the f b n n u l a t i o n under investigation p r o ­ vide m e a n i n g i n the context? I n a d d i t i o n t o the f a m i l i ä r dictionaries, the concordance can bc consulted for i l l u m i n a t i n g a word's r ä n g e o f meaning. 2. M e t r i c a l - s t y l i s t i c inspection: Is this particular ( p o r t i o n o f the) verse possible metrically-stylistically? W i t h poetic texts, one should consider the parallelismus memborum. I n l i g h t o f the p r o b lems c o n c e r n i n g H e b r e w meter, caution is advised r e g a r d i n g changes based on metrical observations. 3. G r a m m a t i c a i inspection: Is this particular ( p o r t i o n o f the) verse possible grammaticaUy? I n text c r i ü c i s m , die grammaticai analy­ sis finds its expression p r i m a r i l y i n the e l u c i d a t i o n o f unusual forms, peculiar construetions, as well as rare syntactical rigurcs. b. Material examination asks: Is this w o r d o r this verse possible i n this Iocation for reasons o f content, history, or die h i s t o r y o f theology? T h i s question comes closely i n t o contact w i t h other exegetical ap­ proaches. O f t e n , i t can o n l y be answered w h e n die results o f f u r d i e r exegetical procedures are taken i n t o consideration. H e r e i t is shown that t e x t c r i t i c i s m Stands i n comprehensive c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h the rem a i n i n g methods.

3. Reasoned Decision See the f o l l o w i n g tor the mediodological prineiples w h i c h enable a de­ cision regarding w h i c h text f o r m is considered as the " o r i g i n a l text."

I I I . Prineiples for the T e x t C r i t i c a l D e c i s i o n 1. I n i p o r t a nee o f the Text Witnesses T h e o l d text-critical r u l e nmnusetiptaponderantur non numerantur ("manu­ scripts evaluated, n o t counted") means that the decision for a particular read-

C o m m e n t a r y o n the A p p r o a c h and the M e t h o d

43

i n g cannot be g r o u n d e d i n the sheer m i m e r i c a l m a j o r i t y w h i c h the t e x t w i t ­ nesses afford. Rather, a decision can o n l y be g r o u n d e d i n the i m p o r t a n c e o f the witnesses. T h e importance o f the individual text witnesses ensues from the text h i s t o r y w i t h its c h a n g i n g relationships and dependencies. a. As a r u l e , M T takes preference over cvery other transmission, as l o n g as i t is n o t defeetive h n g u i s t i c a l l y and materially. T h e reason for this precedence is that i t is the transmission o f the o r i g i n a l language and rests u p o n a calculated process o f transmission o f the text t h r o u g h careful studies. W i t h i n M T , the consonanlal stability has a higher status than the vocalization. W h e n M T offers a faultless and underslandable text, a decision against M T is c o n ceivable, and even probable in several places, but i t must be careful grounded. b . A c c o r d i n g to t h e i r signifieance f o r text c r i t i c i s m , the further sequencc of text witnesses is: text witnesses f r o m recent Palestinian manuscript finds ( p a r t i c u l a r l y Q u m r a n ) , and Samaritanus; further, witnesses ( r e t r o v e r t e d i n t o H e b r e w ) f r o m L X X , A q u i l a , Symmachus, T h e o d o t i o n , Peshitta, T a r g u m , V u l g a t e , Vetus L a t i n a , the coptic translations, and the E t h i o p i c , A r a b i c and Armcnian translations. 1

As findings w h i c h are to be taken seriously alongside M T , such text w i t ­ nesses o n l y come i n t o question, i f i t is demonstrable that they are n o t already dependent u p o n M T , and do n o t owe t h e i r deviations to tendencies o f d i e i r o w n transmission o r translation. 2. Decision between Rqually Tmportant T e x t Witnesses I f a decision between t w o equally i m p o r t a n t text witnesses becomes nec­ essary, then the f o l l o w i n g holds force: a. Lectio difficilior lectio probabilior ("the m o r e difficult the reading, the m o r e probable a reading"—to the extent that the kctio difficilior is n o t meaningless, and is m o r e readily explained as a t r a n s c r i p t i o n oversight). T h i s rule, however, is o n l y a result o f the more general p r i n c i p l e : b. T h a t reading is secondary whose o r i g i n f r o m the other can be c o n ceived w i t h the least constraint. 3. E x p l a n a t i o n o f the Discarded Reading A f t e r deciding for a particular reading, one must explain h o w the deviati n g reading o f die text transmission č a m e to be (at least for M T ) . 4. Conjectures Free textual reconstruetions, d i a t is suppositions about the o r i g i n a l w o r d i n g , w h i c h are n o t supported t h r o u g h any available text witnesses, are to be used w i t h the greatest frugality. As a r u l e , they are only aeceptable i f no - l Würthwein, Text, ρ. 114.

44

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available t e x t transmission provides a meaningfnl text. However, i t should be noted that the text witnesses themselves may already c o n t a i n conjectures over against an incomprehensible text. I f a conjecture is unavoidable, then i t should be appended as elosely as possible to the imagery of the letters o f M T IV. S u m m a r y o f the Text C r i t i c a l Procedure 1. Establishing and critically s c r u t i n i z i n g the transmitted t e x t a. W h a t does M T öfter? b . W h a t does tbe critical apparatus o f BF1S, as w e l l as B H K ' (!), offer? I t is recommended diat one Consulting die witnesses m e n tioned i n Β I I l a based o n special text editions. c. W h a t do the commentaries offer? I f the need arises, deviations f r o m M T i n the text witnesses are to be contemplated i n t h e i r o w n textual context, and c u s t o m a r i l y trans­ lated i n t o E n g l i s h . d. H o w do the texts allow themselves to be grouped, critically evaluatcd, and sorted, according t o Β 11 l b and I I I 1? 2. E x a m i n i n g tbe various text witnesses a. linguistically (lexically, grammatically, stylistically) b. materially A i d s : concordance, dictionary, grammar, commentaries 3. Decision according to the f o l l o w i n g criteria: a. M T takes preference as a r u l e ! {manuscripta ponderantur non nu­ merantur). b. W i t h equally i m p o r t a n t readings: ledio diffkilior lectio probabilior. c. C o r r o b o r a t i o n : Secondary readings should be explainable f r o m die preferred. d. I f no reading lays claim t o the o r i g i n a l w o r d i n g (crux): conjec­ ture. N o t e : F u r t h e r methodological treatment o f the text can, i f need be, necessitate revision o f one's text critical j u d g m e n t .

C. R E S U L T S T e x t c r i t i c i s m is the fundamental endeavor c o n c e r n i n g die w o r d i n g o f the text. I t seelcs to restore the " o r i g i n a l " w o r d i n g o f the text b y c r i t i c a l l y assessing the text transmission. D e t e r m i n i n g die textual base provides the i n ­ dispensable p r e l i m i n a r y w o r k for subsequent exegetical procedures. O n c e die w o r d i n g is established, then these procedures can and must be applied.

Literature

45

D. L I T E R A T U R E 1. I N T R O D U C T I O N , F O U N D A T I O N , A N D O V E R M E W O. Eißfeldt. The Old Testament: A n Introduction, §§ 113-125: p. 669-721 (additional references throughout and p. 778-785; for die execution of text criticism, see especiallyp. 718-720, 785). E E . Deist. Witnesses to the O l d Testament: Introducing Textual Criticism. The L i t ­ erature of the Old Testament 5. Pretoria, 1988. G. Fohrer. Introduction, §§ 78-80: ρ. 489-515 (additional references throughout and p. 529-530). . Exegese, § 4 ( L . Markert). O. Kaiser & W . G . Kümmel. Exegetical Method, ρ. 5-11. P.K. McCarter. Tēxtual Criticism: Recovering the Text of the Hebrew Bible. Philadel­ phia, 1986. _M. N o t h . O T W , §§ 40-47: p. 301-363. R. Smend. Einleitung des AT, §§ 3-5. E. Tbv. Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible. Minneapolis, 1992. . "Textual Criticism." A B D , Vol. 6, 393-412. R. Wonneberger. Understanding BHS: Α Manual for the Users o f Bibha Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Rome, 1990. E. W ü r t h w e i n . The Text of the O l d Testament: An Introduction to the Biblia He­ braica. Grand Rapids, '1995. Regarding Hebrew Poctry: Alter, R. The A r t of Biblical Poctry. New York, 1985. O. Eißfeldt. The O l d Testament; A n Introduction, § 6: p. 57 64 (additional references also p. 988f). G. Fohrer. Introduction, § 5, p. 43-49 (additional references also p. 517-518). O. Kaiser. Introduction, § 27, p. 326-337. K . Koch. The Growth of Biblical Tradition, p. 91-100. J.C. Kugel. The Idea of Biblical Poetry: Parallelism and Its History. New Häven, 1981. M . O'Comior. Hebrew Verse Stiucture. Winona Lake, Indiana, 1980. D . L . Petersen and K . H . Richards, Interpreting Hebrew Poetry. Minneapolis, 1992. W.G.E. Watson. Classical Hebrew Poetry. JSOT.S 26. Sheffield, 1984. For lexicons, grammars and Literature on syntax, see § 2 C D .

IT F U R T H FR S T U D Y A N D C R I T I C A L A L T E R N A T I V E S A. Aejmelaetis, ed. O n the Trail of the Septuagint Translators: Collected Essays. Kampen, 1993. P.S. Brock. "A Qassified Bibliograph}' of the Septuagint." In: Arbeiten zur Literatur und Geschichte des Hellenistischen Judentums VT. Leiden, 1973. F. Delitzsch. Die Lese-und Schreibfehler i in Alten Testament. Berlin—Leipzig, 1920.

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J A . Fitzmyer. The Dead Sea Scrolls. Major Publications and Tools for Study. p. 205-237. Atlanta,-Ί990. RAY. Klein. Textual Criticism of die O l d lestament: The Septuagint after Qumran. Philadelphia, Μ 981. S. Olofsson. The L X X Version: Α Guide to the Translation lèchnique of the Sep­ tuagint. Coniectanea ßiblica. Old Testament Series 30. Stockholm, 1990. M . H . K . Peters. "Septuagint." A B D , Vol. 5, 1093-1104. Qumran and die History of the Biblical Text. E M . Gross and S. Tàlmon, eds. Cam­ bridge, MA—London, 1975. De Septuaginta. Festschrift for J.W. Wevers. Λ. Pietersma and C. Cox, eds. Mississauga, Ontario, 1984. H.-J. Stipp. Textkritik-Literarkritik-Entwieklung. F.Thl. 66 (1990): 143-159. Studies in the Septuagint: Origins, Recensions, and lnterpretations. Selected Essays with a Prolegomenon by S. Jellicoe. New York, 1974. Additional Bibliography in E. Würthwein. The Text of the Old Testament, p. 242-276, as well as in the notes and work of R. Wonneberget-. Understanding BHS, p. 77-85.

ΙΠ. TLLUSTRATFvT. F . X E C U T T O N D . Barthélemy. Cntique textuelle de l'Ancien Testament, vol. 1: Josué, Juges, Rudi, Samuel, Rois, Chroniques, Esdras, N é h é m i e , Ester. O B O 50/1. Fribourg, 1982; vol. 2: Isafe,Jérémie, Lamentations. O B O 50/2. Fribourg, 1986: Vol. 3: Ezechiel, Daniel, et les 12 Prophètes. O B O 50/3. Fribourg, 1992." R.W. Klein. " D ö i n g Textual Criticism." In Textual Criticism o f the Old lestament: The Septuagint after Qumran. p. 62-84. Philadelphia, T 9 8 1 . R. Wonneberger. Understanding BUS (in entirety). Additional examples of text critical work may be found in the volumes and fascicles of the Biblischer Kommentar series (or Hermeneia and Word in English), where the re­ sults of the text critical procedure are summarized extensively in connection with the translation.

Literary Criticism

A. T H E T A S K Ε T h e O v e r a r c h i n g Q u e s t i o n o f the D e v e l o p m e n t o f an O l d Testament Text I n practice, the subject o f exegetical w o r k is an O l d Testament t e x t several verses i n l e n g t h , once i t has been t e x t crirically clarified. D u r i n g the his­ torical Observation phase o f this w o r k (see above §1 Β Π 2), this text's t r a i n o f t h o u g h t may appear consistent. N o t infrequently, however, i t may also appear to be w i t h o u t inner cohercnee. T h e t e x t may bc eonfusing because i t exhibits repetitions, m u l t i p l e climaxes, o r m u l t i p l e Statements o f i n t e n t i o n . T h e t e x t can e x h i b i t gaps or breaks where a t r a n s i t i o n is missing. I t can even manifest contradictions w h i c h i n fact should be m u t u a l l y exclusive. B o t h impressions— consistency or inconsistency—can prove either true o r false i n the subsequent m e t h o d o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f the text. F o r example, supposed inconsistency can be disproved when consistency arises f r o m the inelusion o f tbe context, by n o t i n g C o n v e n t i o n s o f f o r m (see § 7 ) , by n o t i n g content associations b o u n d t o the f o r m u l a t i o n at that t i m e (see § 8 ) or by n o t i n g historical realities (see § 9 ) . T h e apparcnt deficiency o f the text's material coherency w h i c h causes the impression o f inconsistency is t h e n , i n reality, o u r deficiency o f k n o w l e d g e . However, this impression of inconsistency can be t r u e i f these ineonsistencies r e m a i n , o r i f new ones become visible, even after d i s m a n t l i n g o u r lack o f k n o w l e d g e by the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l treatment o f die text. A s far as we can see, w i t h ali exegetical responsibility, die O l d Testament is füll o f such cases o f e n d u r i n g inconsistencies or o f supposed consistencies. H o w does one exp l a i n that? b i the Biblia Hebtaica, we encounter individua! O l d Testament texts i n the framework o f O l d Testament books. However, these books are a particular type

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w h i c h is u n f a m i l i a r t o us as c o n t e m p o r a r y users o f the book. F r o m the o u t set, these books could be c o m p l e t e l y independent w o r k s o f l i t e r a t u r e — f o r example, Isaiah, Jeremiah, die B o o k o f the Twelve, o r the b o o k o f Psalms. However, O l d Testament books can also have o r i g i n a l l y been only parts o f larger w o r k s of literature. F o r example, the books o f L e v i t i c u s and 1 K i n g s were never f o m i u l a t e d as isolated w o r k s . F o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a p a r t i c u l a r text, b o t h cases are significant because we cannot adequately understand a text w i t h o u t die contexts to w h i c h i t belongs. As a rule, the literary w o r k s to w h i c h the t e x t belongs have n o t been w r i t t e n d o w n i n a single s i t t i n g , regardless o f whether they covcr the cntirc biblical book at band. W h a t we have before us i n such a w o r k , i n tnany cases, is n o t h i n g more than the final literary state w h i c h has developed i n t o a w r i t i n g over time. T h e most significant t h i n g about the process is t h a t the more recent editions o f a literary w o r k do n o t replace the f o m i u l a t e d material o f the older version. Rather, they i n a i n t a i n i t , b u t they expand, enlarge, and reorder i t . l n d e e d , newer editions ineorporate o t h e r transmissions, o r even other w r i t i n g s , i n t o the text; or they t r a n s p o r t the received t e x t i n t o other l i t e r a r y works. T h i s process is not just presented as the faithful t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f that w h i c h was given, as seen later i n the eonscientiousness o f the M a s o r e t i c transmission. I t also represents a productive c o n t i n u a t i o n w h i c h enlarges the text. T h e process is m o t i v a t e d by the effort to add I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a p p r o p r i a t i o n , and actualization for a new t i m e to the older e d i t i o n . I t also struetures the c o r r e s p o n d i n g enlarged e d i t i o n . O l d Tes­ t a m e n t exegesis operates w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k o f this h i s t o r y o f p r o d u c t i v e g r o w t h . I n order to securc the o r i g i n a l context's c o n t r i b u t i o n t o understand­ i n g a text i n a w r i t i n g , exegesis must therefore necessarily ask: D u r i n g w h i c h phase o f the literary g r o w t h were the text's c o m p o n e n t parts o r i g i n a l l y f o m i u ­ lated? A n d h o w d i d that w r i t i n g l o o k d u r i n g this phase? Exegesis m u s t pay a t t e n t i o n t o the larger path o f m e a n i n g w h i c h a particular t e x t takes w h e n tbe w r i t i n g in w h i c h it Stands is expanded. T h e manifestation o f undeniahle inconsistcncies is connected w i t h this ex­ panded eharacter ol the o r i g i n o f O l d Testament w r i t i n g s , even i n the n a r r o w confines o l a single text. T h e great faithfulness w i t h w h i c h o l d e r f o r r n u lations remained proteeted d u r i n g a w r i t i n g ' s c o n t i n u i n g p r o d u c t i v e develop­ m e n t brings w i t h i t anodier Situation. M a n y O l d Testament l i t e r a r y w orks demonstrate inconsistencies between the actualizations and expansions w h i c h are o l d e r and diose w h i c h are more recent. T h e inconsistencies are n o t i c e able i n die c u r r e n t shape o f the e n t i r e w o r k , b u t occasioually they may even be n o t i c e d i n a single passage where i o r m u l a t i o n s from different phases o f the work's development stand side b y side. Exegetically c o n f i r m e d inconsisten­ cies are therefore signs o f the w r i t i n g ' s development, its productive evolution, or even the development o f an individual text w i t h i n that w r i t i n g . r

H o w do e n d u r i n g inconsistencies reveal diemselves? A n d w h y d o they necessitate that one n o t v i e w individual O l d 'lestament texts (such as a narrative

T h e Task

49

or a p r o p h e t i c speech) o r especially larger text complexes (such as the Pentateuch or an entire p r o p h e t i c b o o k ) as the result o f one o r i g i n a l f o r m u l a t i v e act? I n o t h e r words, w h y n o t view the inconsistencies as texts w h i c h have been f o m i u l a t e d i n one setting by one author? I n scholarly circles a w h o l e series o f imlkators has l o n g confirmed the impression that the texts have g r o w n to the c u r r e n t f o r m by means o f an anonymous process." Above ali, material differences and tensions w i t h i n a text, or a t e x t - c o m p l e x , stand i n the way o f their d e r i v a t i o n from a single author. Lnstead, these differences i m p l y that one must r e c k o n w i t h several layers o f g r o w d i , different sources, or relatedly the act o f c o l l e c t i o n . T h e fact that the text has attained its c u r r e n t w o r d i n g t h r o u g h several formulative acts over an extended period is also frequently p r o v e n by divergences i n the language and f o r m a t i o n o f die text-' —or its historical backg r o u n d ( i n e l u d i n g cultic and historical-theological realities).' A d d i t i o n a l l y , i t is proven by c o n f i r m i n g that the same text appears m o r e t h a n once, oceasionally i n different versions. " 23

4

5

2

I f one diinks o f the o r i g i n and eharacter o f today s texts, then i t w i l l surely seem s t r ä n g e to learn that m a n y O l d Testament texts have been processed over the course o f ccnruries by r e f o r m n l a t i o n , broadening, expansion, and even by I n s e r t i o n i n t o larger contexts. O n e must, however, take i n t o aecount the reali­ ties o f a n t i q u i t y i n general and o f A n c i e n t Israel i n particular. A t that p o i n t , the intellectual creation o f a single person, and the specific f o r m o f the l i n g u i s t i c ntterance do n o t y e t represent an independent asset. I n the present t i m e , the

d y n a m i c n a r r a t i o n o f sagas and fairy tales provides a certain analogy. T h e es­ sential S t i m u l u s for the p r o d u e t i v e l y developing transmission w i d i i n die O l d Testament lies i n changes in experientialperspective. Even diese changes require

'Die perspectives arc only mentioned here. For speeification and expansion, sce below Β II 1 (p. 53f) and §5 Β ΠΙ (ρ. 65). For example: Tbc. two versions of the miracle of the sea in F.xod 14:2 l f can hardly have stnnd side by sidc in the samc narraiivc trom the beginning: 1) .Moses divides ihc sca into two dams of warer on the righr and Icft; 21 an cast wind blowing through the night canscs rhe watcr to recede. 24 For example. in the main portion of die bookof Judges (2:6-16:31), it is possible to isolate different independent transmissions (e.g. die Deborah-Barak narrative, in ehapter 4, and die song of Deborah, 5:2-3 la) and a bracketing, Schematizing frame (+.M-5; 5:31b) based on linguistic and formal criteria. This determination iodientes redactionaJ reworking of older narrative material. 25 For example. in lsaiah, the historical background of chapters 1-39 is hmdaiiiem.illy diflerent from chapters 40lf. After ehapter 40, there is no reference to die historical Situation of die latrer eigbtli Century, in which the prophet lsaiah appeared (1.1; 6:1; 7:13, etc.). bistead, the specches arc spoken in the time of die c.xile (45:1: Cyrus; 47; 52:7-12, etc.). Chapters 40ff were therefore attributed to an uiiknown prophet of tliis period (»Deutero-Isaiah«). Also, the histori­ cal background of chapters 1-39 is not unified (cf. 11:11-16 or 21:1-10). This variety leads to die differentiation ot later, post-Isaianic pieces. 2f- Examples inelude: the parallel* Gen 12.10-20; 20:1-18; and 26:1-13; 1 Sam 23:19 24: 23 parallels 26:1-25; 1 Kgs 17:17-24parallel? 2 Kgs 4:8-37; and Ps 14 = Ps 53.

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i n t e r p r e t i v e and actualizing revisions o f the texts i n l i g h t o f the a u t h o r i t y o f existing transmissions. T h e s e revisions rcveal that one's o w n t i m e is i n t e r preted and mastered w i t h the reeeived texts and b y the received texts. In o r d e r to see the range of possibilities. one can become oriented with the fol­ lowing portroyal

of the chronologicai

sequence

of the phases

of development

for an Oid

Testament literary work. The following picture is suggested in many cases: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Initially, individuo! umts are formulated and transmitted orally. For example: a prophetic speech, a wisdom saying, a legat saying, a culiic psaim, or an ancestral narrative. While still orciiy transmitted, individua! texts can be strung together o r colieaed. Beyond the setting for the speech in stage ( I ) , now ihe context of the coHection also influences the meaning of the single unit. An important Station on the path of transmission is the initial written record of these units o r colieaions and their attachment to a writing. Now a literary entity arises. In order to fashion this literary entity, n e w text components can be attached which are speciticaily formulated to unree and to strueture the whole. From the outset, these t e x t components serve the redaction of t h e transmitted material within the framework of t h « writing. Additional!-/. however, individual interpretive additions can oceasionaily appear in this stage which do not have the entire writing in their honzon. Apparently, this stage quite decisively affected t h e transmission of prophetic speeches. The prophetic pnonouncements, for example, stnpped of their original communicative setting, were n o w compressed into a Condensed formulation for written transmission in a future time. W i t h this initial recording phase, the end of an Old Testament writing's productive path of transmission is, as a rule, a long way from complcte. The writing which originated in this manner develops further. How? Different possibilities come into view which are also partially related to one another: (a) Tbe writng grows in siže and becomes a corpus when it ineorporates similarly developed writings; or it grows when it enters another writing. With such processes, newly formulated t e x t material arises to unite and to strueture the new totaiity. Quite obviously, the entire construetion is organized anew during this stage. (b) The writing is not intertwined with other writ­ ings to become a new corpus, but it grows from within (e.g. the book of Ezekiel). In th;s case, one must also reckon with the following for each growlh stage: isolated additions, additions strueturing the wnole. and n e w accents based on arrangement. (c) Some of the Ẅest t e x t components of an Old Testament writing can even have the intention of iiterarily anehoring this writing to large "canonical" Corpora: Ps I , with its accentuation of t h e Torah and its use of josh I , anehors the psalter to the Torah and the Nebúm. Mal 3:22-24 diso anehors the Book of the Tweive to the prophetic canon.

T h i s process reveals the f o l l o w i n g : T h e accents of meaning f r o m an i n d i ­ vidual t e x t are ehanged over the course o f the p r o d u c t i v e transmission o f O l d lestament w r i t i n g s . Exegetical w o r k seeks these accents o f m e a n i n g i n o r d e r to discern the fullness o f tbe witness w i t h i n die O l d Testament itself. Exegeti­ cal w o r k must i l l u m i n a t e the changes by d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g and c o o r d i n a t i n g the

T h e Task

51

text components according to developmental phases. Inconsistencies i n a par­ ticular text are n e i l h e r reasons t o destroy biblical entities by arrogant attack n o r to overemphasize the individual parts. Rather, inconsistencies aid i n quest i o n i n g and observing the nmltiplicity ofperceptions of God w h i c h a t e x t can already accrue i n the process o f its transmission w i t h i n the O l d Testament. § § 4 - 6 serve as the m e d i o d o l o g i c a l investigation o f this State o f affairs. W i t h § 4 we enter a field o f closely related methods, w h i c h ali concentrate u p o n the text's development d u r i n g the t i m e i n w h i c h the text is p r o d u e t i v e l y fashioned w i t h i n the O l d Testament. T h e procedures o f l i t e r a r y criticism ( § 4 ) , transmission h i s t o r y ( § 5 ) , and redaction h i s t o r y ( § 6 ) , w h i c h w i l l be m o r e extensively presented i n the f o l l o w i n g , each concentrate on a particular aspect o f this p h e n o m e n o n , the development o f an O l d Testament text. By contrast, changes to the text w h i c h have taken place o n the o t h e r side o f the b o u n d a r y o f p r o d u c t i v e , d e v e l o p i n g transmission do n o t b e l o n g i n the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l field w h i c h we n o w enter. Rather, as we stated i n § 3 , they b e l o n g i n the area o f text c r i t i c i s m . I f one looks at tbe conerete transmission processes i n the O l d Testament, then one distinetion is certainly i m p o r t a n t i n p r i n c i p a l : A r e the processes oral or written in nature? A n u m b e r o f O l d Testament texts have existed o n l y i n w r i t t e n f o r m (such as amials, lists, and probably also the Succession H i s t o r y ' o f 2 Sam 9 - 2 0 + 1 K g s 1-2). For a m a j o r i t y o f texts, however, one should aecept an oral and w r i t t e n transmission phase. Accordingly, the processes o f p r o d u c ­ tive transmission l o o k different. T h e y are recorded i n the texts differently, and methodologically, they must be approaehed differently. T h e y m u s t be approaehed on the w r i t t e n level w i t h l i t e r a r y criticism and redaction history, and they must be approaehed o n the oral level w i t h transmission history. I I . D e t e r m i n i n g the Task o f L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m L i t e r a r y criticism is assoeiated w i t h the realni of w r i t t e n transmission, and i t therefore iiivestigates the text at die stage o f its jived, written f o r m uhi­ ti on. T h i s f o r m u l a t i o n could have been fixed i n a single setting and w i t h i n the frame o f a larger l i t e r a r y context w h i c h still exists w i t h i n the O l d Testament w i t h o u t m o d i f i c a t i o n s . I f so, the literary critical i n q u i r y provides no results. I n the vast m a j o r i t y o f cases, however, a given f o r m u l a t i o n , and its c u r r e n t context w i t h i n the O l d 'lestament. materialize d u r i n g a l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y w h i c h may be rather b r i e f o r l e n g d i y . A particular formulation can later be ineorporated i n t o a larger l i t e r a r y complex i v i t h o u t notable changes. However, i t 27

28

2" F.xamples inelude the book of Ruth and perhaps Lamentations. 28 Examples inelude the Holiness Code (Lev 17-26) which w3s inserted into die Priestly wriling and the Succession story (2 Sam 9-20+1 Kgs 1-2), which was ineorporated inlo the Deutcrononiistic history.

52

can also have g r o w n i n several phases. For example, d u r i n g the c o m p o s i ü o n

of

new l i t e r a r y e n t i ü e s , i t can be c o m p i l e d f r o m several previously i n d e p c n d c n t formulations.

29

Additionally,

i t may

o r may

not

have experienced expan-

sions and additions.'" A c c o r d i n g l y , l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m asks:'

1.

1

Is the t e x t u n d e r investigation f o r m u l a t e d i n one s e t t i n g o r at d i f f e r e n t times and as a r u l e by d i f f e r e n t audiors? T h i s is the question o f the text's literary integrity, o r i n o t h e r words, die q u e s ü o n o f its o r i g i n a l coherence and consistency.

2.

I n die case o f u n i t y , for w h i c h w i d e r l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t was the text l i r s t for­ mulated? O r , i n the case o f disunity, for w h i c h w i d e r l i t e r a r y contexts was the

t e x t t r a n s m i t t e d and

f o r m u l a t e d d u r i n g its various d e v e l o p m e n t a l

stages? O r , i n w h i c h e x p a n d i n g w i d e r l i t e r a r y contexts has a u n i f i e d t e x t 2

developed over time?- T h i s is the question o f the larger literary contexts,

29 LCxamples inelude die ilood story ((Jen 6:5-8:22) and die miracle-storv of die erossing of the sea (Exod 13:17-14:3 1). Relatedly, one may also inelude the Pentateueh itself to the extent that one dews it as a combination of written sources. 50 Examples inelude Deut 28 (Verses 45—68 are a later expansion; sce the commentaries.); Isa 11 (Verses 6-9,10,11-16 arc later additions, cornpare the discussion in the commentaries); the book of Job (Chapters 32-37 arc clcarly rccognizable as an addendum. See further the Old Testa­ ment introduetions). -U Kaiser (Exegetical Method, ρ. 12-14; for dclimitation sec also Huber in Fohrer, Exegese, p. 45,48f) considers the delimitation of the texts and die analysis ot their strueture part ol die task of literary criticism. According to his presentation, they canuot be pertonned without the Instru­ ments of fonn-cricicism. These tasks will therefore be assigned to the form critical process (See below, §7B II, ΙΠ.1. [p. 102-108] and C I [p. 115]), where die scope of a passage can be clarified out of its larger literary context. Conversclv, bv invesrigating the text in light of its immediate context, literary criticism can occasionally provjde the impression that die given text, with its scope, presents no imlependent pericope, because apparent pronouncements from the immediate context must be included (for example, i i Isa 6:4-6 were die subject ot die exegesis). For Richter {Exegese, p. 49t,6.3-65,69), literary criticism cannot overstep the inner realni of the text, or text-complex, under analysis. For him, the larger literary contexts in which the text/text complex belong (and relatedly the smaller units contained therein), arc not yet determinable in this methodological Step (cf also Huber, p. 48,57f). However, one should ask whether Riditer's literary critical starting point is achievable according to the eharacter of the act of his­ torical recognition and in executing historical work. He seeks to exclude prejüdices by preconeep­ tions that are condidoued by the liistory of research, and therefore limits himself solely tü the Observation and die evaluation ol lonnaliml linguistic indicators. In order to avoid erroueous conclusions, the literary critical process should begin more broadly, in the sense of a coinprehensive historical approach. A text, in its literary "unity or compositum," is not just a linguistic phenomenon, it is 3I50 a historical phenomenon. Tins historical aspect and die process of analysis must continually correct one anodier interactivcly. Therefore, the analy ucal result requires crosschecking with those things which arc historically conceivablc (see below, p. 56). Also, the analytical procedure must observe, from the beginning, that the origin and development of the text m3y not be scen without the historical events associated with it. In die practice of exegetical work, this cross-cliecking happens interitionally, repeatedly, by taking up insights already acquired from the

C o m m e n t a r y o n the A p p r o a c h and M e t h o d

53

to w h i c h also belongs the q u e s ü o n o f the strueture o f these contexts and the position o f the text under investigation w i d i i n those contexts. B o d i questions are dierefore analytical approaches o f literary c r i t i c i s m . t h e first analyzes the individual text w h i l e the seeond analyzes the literary contexts o f the layers o f the individual text. T h e synthetic flip side o f this approach is the task o f the redaction critical investigation (see §6). I t deals w i t h the manner i n w h i c h these layers g r o w together, t h e i r relationships and t h e i r changes, and the manner i n w h i c h they come to be situated i n t h e i r c u r r e n t literary context.

ΠΙ. Terminology The component "literary" in the term literary criticism should connote the delimitation of literary criticism to the period in which the development a text proeeeds to the level of its fixed, written formulation. The definition and aims of "literary" by tne disci­ pline of literary studies or (modern or new) literary criticism are not intended bere (see the discussion of New Literary Criticism above, §1 CV).

B. C O M M E N T A R Y O N T H E A P P R O A C H A M ) M E T H O D I . T h e Question o f a Texts Literary Integrity T h i s approach traditionally dominates literary critical research. I t finds its p r i m a r y utilization in the narrative w r i t i n g s o f the O l d Testament as well as i n the p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s . Recently, however, t h r o u g h the w o r k o f W B e y e r l i n and K . Seybold, and others, i t has also become i m p o r t a n t for the Psalter. I t examines whether a text has been fixed i n w r i t t e n f o r m by one author, or a g r o u p o f authors, i n the course o f a single formulative act. I f not, and l i t e r a r y disu n i t y is d e t e r m i n e d , then the additional task results, namely separating the

sub-diseipbnes of "Introduction to the Old Testament" and the "History of Israel'* (see l f and lg below, p. 54, and footnote 41). Without doubt. caution is also recommended over against an uncridcal, uncontrolied aeeeptance of scholarly opinions. Still, in this regard, the interdependency between tbe literary critical resulr and the insights of other exegetical technique.s operates as the crucial stage. This interdependency already makes it necessary, within the literary critical analysis, to consider those processes of a text's development to which the other methodological aspects of exegesis are related (especially transmission liistory, below, p. 55. and further pp. 63fi). At the same time, however, it requires diat one hold open the literary critical result. This broader starting point of literary criücal work is also consistent with the fact that, if need be, the larger literary con­ texts of a text can be detennined within its scope. Limiüng the literary critical question only to the text under invesügation will not be the procedure of this textbook, since text Clements, several verses in length, have never experienced a literarily independent existence (cf also Knierim, [see above footnote Η] ρ. 1 ,í 1 f).

54

§4

L I T E R A R Y CRJTTICISM

fixed, w r i t t e n formulations analytically." As a r u l e . those possibilities already mentioned (Α.I. and A.2.) w i l l come i n t o play. I I . M e t h o d o l o g i c a l Prineiples for the Question o f a Text's Literary Integrity 1. I n d i c a t i o n o f L i t e r a r y D i s u n i t y W h e n investigating the l i t e r a r y i n t e g r i t y o f texts, l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m must be methodologically careful to ask o n l y those questions w h i c h are s t r i c t l y re­ lated t o die transmission stage o f the w r i t t e n fixation, that is, to the layer o f the given f o r m u l a t i o n . T h e f o l l o w i n g matters are thus i m p o r t a n t : a. Doublets: T h e same line o f content is f o r m u l a t e d twice w i t h i n the same paragraph. b. D o u b l e or m u l t i p l e transmissions: Ehe same p í e e e appears m o r e than once w i t h i n larger text complexes ( i n a different version). c. Secondary brackets: T h e f o r m u l a t i o n s o f various text c o m p o n e n t s are clearly recognizable as balanced and are related to one another. d. Tensions i n vocabulary (lexical, grammaticai, syntactical, t e r m i nological), especially contradictions and breaks i n the t e x t s p r o ­ gression. e. Differcnces i n the m a n n e r o f speech and style ( f o r m , l i n g u i s t i c usage; p o e t r y and prose i n the same text). 1. Differences of historical background (different historical realities w h i c h are chronological, cultic, legal, and theological). g. For certain l i t e r a r y layers, or sources, significant theological assertions, phrases, and linguistic peculiarities. h. Tensions and unevenness o f content as w e l l as elements t y p i c a l for a genre. F o r the examination o f the context, see footnote 31, and ΠΤ below. I t is self-evident that interdependency also exists w i t h the procedures o f § 7 - 9 at this p o i n t . M o r e o v e r , carefully processed impressions f r o m the Observation phase (see above, §1 I I 1, and especially I I 2) can be applied to the text here w i d i p r o f i t . T h e y are now processed methodically and explained w h i l e excludi n g possible alternatives. I n the case o f literary disunity, the various text components should be ordered chronologically, relative to one another ( W h a t is older/vounger? W h a t is dependent/independent?), i f the l i t e r a r y critical analysis has produced criteria for d o i n g so (cf f u r t h e r § 6 A ) ^> Huber, ρ. 54-57. attenipts to elassily the resulting possibilities.

C o m m e n t a r y on the Approach and M e t h o d

55

2. L i m i ta t i on s T h e validity and effectiveness o f the questions about the t e x t produced by 1 a-h are subject t o l i m i t a t i o n s i n certain cases: a. Observations from I a and b remam ambiguous without additional support by I d,e.f. and/or g. For today's exegete, a danger exists with I a which is obvious. One presupposes a strictly logical, consistent train of thought, in our ser-se, as the ideal (the exorbitant demand of modern iogic upon an ancient text). However precisely for that reason one is able to scrutinize that danger This prescpposition of a strictly logical text, however, would imscortstrue the histoccal chcmacter of the texts as much as if the ques­ tion of a text's particular stylistic devices were neglected (e.g. repetition, and the complex use of images and metaphors). Under certain circumstances, lb, taken by itself, can too quickly give way to a modern perception about a text's multiple appearance.b. Moreovei: the strength of the facts mentioned in / b also depends upon the cnarGcter of the work under investigation (intention, strueture, acquaintance with the transmission). Double and multiple transmissions weigh heavier in a ciosed work that is fashioned by a unified concept (such as if the Succession History of David contained such a concept) than in a work which is dependent upon pre-existing text matenal, and which collects, composes, and reworks transmissions which have been passed down (such as the History of Davids Ascendency in I Sam 16-2 Sam S). M

c. The criteria of Id-h llkewise do not.operate without limitations. (!) A t any rate, with early Old Testament texts one may frequently observe that the authors of larger literary works ineorporate various types of oral transmissions which come to them, virtuaily unehanged. They even protect the ancient, Transmitted wording, Thus, within the same i'rterary work, tensions in vocabulary, manner of speech, style, and content can be due to this coliecting and codifying (by contrast, the Priestiy writing and the Books of Chronicles arc different). Thus, these tensions do not derive from literary disunity. (2) The facts mentioned in ( I ) apply not only m view of the collective eharacter of the larger work as a whole, but even more for the individual secf/ons of such works. Here, one may demonstrate that a list of criteria used by literary criticism at the turn of the Century, which continue to be partally operative today. cannot be utilized unconditionally in literary critical analysis. Certain features can akeady derive from processes •η the oral pre history of a text and ihus find a transmission historical Solution.' These features inelude diffenenc.es in language (words, style), in nistoncal and chronological details, in the presupposrtions of legal, social, and religious (cult and piety) conditions, in ethical and theological understanding, and in material contradictions'' Likewise, the impression of literary disunity can be misleading in redactionaily formulated texts be­ cause the compiexity of the statements. or the order of the Statements, stems from their relatedness to the entire wrrtmg (see below, §6), Observing tensions of the type mentioned m Id-h therefore demands, for meth­ odological reasons, that one suspend judgment during a text's literary critical treatment 35

0

,4

• Cornpare Gen 12:1 Off and 26:lff within the Yahwist's narrative and the consequences of the undifferentiated appraisal by exegetes who ascribe Gen 12 and 26 to two sourees. -5 Cornpare again Gen 12 and 26. •iΛ C f Noth, t'enhtMtchal Irailitium, p. 20f. '" F. Baumgärtel, "Bibelkritik 1. AT." in R G C , vol 1, colurnn 1186 (literary mricism). ,

56

§4

LITERARY CRITICISM

untii one concludes the transmission

historical and the redacVon historical investigation. As

a resiilt of the interdependence of the methods, even the procedures in §§7-9 can once again provide viewpoints for the question of the literary integrity. Ί he intention of this Ob­ servation is not to dvveli on our impressions of the text's inconsistency (or consistency). Rather, the intention is to push forwaivt to the emergence of the text itself. Statec slmply: Literary criticism is not persuasive just because one can use rt, rather it is persuasive where the text forces one to use rt. Only when the tensions cannot be explained in favor of literary unity must the literary criticai consideration be applied anew. Then the criteria cited in section I can be evaluated for the formative layer without impediment d. The convmcmg proof that a literarty fixed Vortage (e.g. source text) has seen used, can only be presented if the copy's original formulation can be extricatec as an adequately closed entity, free of influence from the borrowing author. Acceptance of several (actors will necessarily weaken such proof, although it must not eíiminate it. These factors inelude: aeeepting that the author has only taken up the copy mcompletely, aeeepting that numerous places adapt their formulation to the new context, or aeeepting that transposrtions of the original text occurred with the borrowing. e. In order to counterartthe danger of analytical oversensitivrty, one should. by com trasi, attempt to undersiand and to interpret a given text synthetically, as a si/pstomive toto/ity, in the sense of synchronic reflection. In the course of such a process, individual threads, which appear to be füll of tension. can also be seen eiachronieally and devclopmentaüy as complimentary aspects added t o a complete and thoughtfully construeted totalfty. Here, one must also observe the interdependence of the various methodologi­ cal approaches. The Old Testament author's genre, opinion, and the type of presentation play an important roe as the subject of cross-checking questions. They can deümit the lit­ erary critical endeavor because literary analysis cannot depe-nd upon that which appears inconsistent t o the modern reader's logteal, stylistic. and material demands upon a text. Rather, the historical approach oflrterary analysis has t o infer what was literarily possible at the time of the text's literary formulation. and what was not, f. One critically correctlve funetion of the literary critical anaiysis. similar t o the ap­ proach in section e ) , finally requires a procedure by which one must test whether the achieved result is even ivslorically conceivab'e for the development of an Old Testament text. In so doing, one must consider the diverse eharacter of Old Testament transmis­ sions/Generaliy in those places where longer transmission historical growth of material becomes apparent on a braad basis (as for example in Genesis), comprehension has to make room for the thoughtful transmission historical perspective. In light of the mdependent narrative unrts it « difficult to coneeive histoncaliy that the texts are combined from literary sources even t o the level of half-verses. By contrast the literary critical view has proven itself in the Pentateuch in those piac.es where entire narrative units have been Ifterarily distinguished/' ' If texts provide utile in the way of reference points for a transmission histoncal development tnen, on the basis of observations which indicate disunity, one may 38

1

5S Cornpare O.H. Steck. Wahrnehmungen, ρ. 16-35 (especially 26ff), for Gen 2:46-3:24. Also, Steck, Der Seböpfimgsberkbt der Priestersrbrift, -'1981 (especially p. 26-30, 244-255); also I I . Barth, Die Jesaja-Wbrte in derjosiazeit, 1977. p. 10f, 86-88, 187-1 »9, for Isa 28:7h- 22; 29.1-7;

and 31:l-4+8à. W Comparc also §5 Β II 1 (p. 66f). 40 Comparc, Koth, Pcntatcuchal Tiadirions, p. 24f.

C o m m e n t a r y o n the A p p r o a c h and M e t h o d

57

reckon historically with the literary adaptation of a fixed, written text. These observations afow one to confirm short explanatory additions and giosses. They also confirm expansions, revision into collections, ar.d supplemcntal redactions. Those places where one must accourrt for fixed Statements already in oral tsaaüon (prophetic speeches, partia! psalms. legal sayings, wisdom speeches. and apparently even in prophetic narratives) create a particularly dlfficult problem for literary crilicism and transmission history. In these cases it is scarcely possible to decice from the text. rtseif whether the processes represent written or oral expansion. Overlapping viewpoints must be taken into account regarding the place of origin. the tradent. and purpose in order to reach a decison. If ma­ terial arguments dictate an oral development of the text. then the analysis must insure critically that the results correspond to the growth process as it would be possible in oral trädition. I I I . T h e Q u e s t i o n ot L a r g e r L i t e r a r y Contexts I f the t e x t u n d e r investigation is itself n o t already the larger l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t (as for example, i f an entire p r o p h e t i c book w i l l be analyxed), d i e n the text 's relationship to the preceding and the f o l l o w i n g c o n t e x t should be examined l i t e r a r y critically. T h i s procedural step begins by taking stock o f the given i m m e d i a t e and broader context. T h i s step is pursued by the literary critical inquiry i n t o the context. I t takes i n t o ac­ c o u n t this context's Contents, its arrangement (in the sense o f strueture and composition—see footnote 80), and its t h o u g h t progression. I t does so i n order t o distinguish that w h i c h o r i g i n a l l y belonged together l i t e r a r i l y f r o m m o r e recent contexts i f necessary. This process leads to the determination ot the o r i g i n a l l i t e r a r y layer as w e l l as, it necessary, d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f m o r e recent layers to w h i c h the entire text under investigation belongs." T h u s , the task o f classifying a text i n t o the respeetive l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t to w h i c h i t belongs must even be p e r t o r m e d i f the t e x t u n d e r consideration is l i t e r a r i l y homogenous. I n the beginners praetice, l i t e r a r y critical results w i l l be applied f r o m the present State o f d i e discipline ot i n t r o d u c t i o n . T h i s discipline w i l l provide I n ­ f o r m a t i o n for the historical i d e n t i t i c a t i o n o f the l i t e r a r y layers ' as w e l l as results regarding l i n g u i s t i c c o n t o u r and f o r m ( § 7 ) . 4

41 Kxamples: The larger literary context ol Arnos 8:1-2 (die harvest basket vision of Arnos) was originally the vision cycle ot Arnos 7:1-8; 8:1-2; 9:1-4. This cyck was later expanded and has hecn combined with other transmission complexes to roakc the current book of Arnos (cf Kaiser, Old Testament bitroduetion, p. 217f). The larger literary context of 1 Sam 26 is first the history of the ascendancy of David. Later, the context becomes a narrative work which combines the histoiy of the ascendancy widi the Succession History to the throne. Later still the context becomes the Deutcronomistic history. The larger literary context of Gen 9:1-6 is first the Priesdy writing, dien developmental stages in which die priesdy writing has been worked into larger literary works. Naming the layer. author, date and place of composition, material profile, etc. 4 2

58

§4

LITERARY CRITICISM

T h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f larger l i t e r a r y contexts essentially occurs w i t h i n the frame o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . However. these results require expansion, d i f ferentiation, and verification by the r e m a i n i n g m e t h o d o l o g i c a l procedures. T h e s e procedures w i l l evaluate the result o l the t e x t — i m m a n e n t l i t e r a r y analysis for its historical plausibility. I t is i m p o r t a n t to pay attention to die f o l ­ l o w i n g : the unified profile o f Statements o f a larger l i t e r a r y context; the transmission process standing behind that context i n c l u d i n g the redaction his­ torical perspective; the f o r m and the historical setting o f that context. IV. S u m m a r y o f the L i t e r a r y C r i t i c a l Procedure 1. The question o f die t e x t s l i t e r a r y integrity: a. Is the t e x t understandable by itself, or does i t represent o n l y a segment w h i c h requires the context? E x a m i n a t i o n o f the edges o f the text, examination o f the corpus w i t h regard t o linguistic reference signals w h i c h relate the text to the context (e.g. suffixes, u n i n t r o d u c e d persons, presuppositions o f the action). b. Is the f o r m u l a t i o n o f the corpus l i t e r a r i l y homogeneous or not? Use o f the g u i d i n g question and the C o n t r o l l i n g question above in Β I I . c. I n the case o f l i t e r a r y disunity: — precise d c l i n c a t i o n and division o f the text f o r m u l a t i o n s i n t o different l i t e r a r y layers. — content relationship o f die layers t o one another: F o r example, t w o originally independent formulations are combined secondarily w i t h o r w i t h o u t redactional f o r m u l a t i o n s c o n n e c t i n g and compensating t h e m . A l s o , an existing l i t e r a r y f o r m u l a t i o n receives a gloss, isexpanded, or enlarged ( i n c o n j u n c t i o n t o what?). — relative c h r o n o l o g i c a l relationship o f the layers t o one anodier, i f the l i t e r a r y critical analysis offers indices for this task. Observe: Possible alternatives m u s t be expressly e l i m i n a t e d w i t h ra­ tionale, and a revision o n die basis o f the procedures o f § § 5 - 9 must be held open d u r i n g the process. 2. T h e question o f the larger l i t e r a r y contexts o f the unified text or, re­ latedly, o f the different l i t e r a r y layers: a.

Reconsidcration o f question l a : W h i c h passage o f the i m m e d i ­ ate c o n t e x t (previous o r subsequent) does the text ( o r the particular l i t e r a r y text layer) specifically presuppose?

b. For w h i c h O l d Testament l i t e r a r y w o r k was the t e x t (or the i n d i ­ vidual l i t e r a r y layer) first formulated? H o w is this l i t e r a r y w o r k arranged, and where does the t e x t (or text layer) stand w i t h i n t h a t arrangement? ( p r e p a r a t i o n for the

Results

59

redaction historical question r e g a r d i n g the intended p o s i t i o n o f the text (or text u n i t ) i n the l i t e r a r y w o r k , c f § 6 Β I I 2). D o the m o r e recent layers o f the text have parallels i n other places o f this l i t e r a r y work? (preparation for the redaction his­ torical question: D o these internal stages relate to one another as individual expansions or redactional processes? C f § 6 Β I I 2.) C o r r o b o r a t i n g question: T o w h a t extent d o the l i t e r a r y critical Undings in the text under investigation correspond to the l i n g u i s ­ tic and material eharacter o f the larger l i t e r a r y framework? c. I n what broader literary contexts was the text under investigation transierred w i t h its l i t e r a r y layering, even if this transferring d i d n o t affect the f o r m u l a t i o n o f this particular text? ( C o r r e l a t i o n with §6) The c o m p o n e n t questions b and c stnve t o w a r d the larger c o n t e x t in w n i c h a Statement has been formulated or the context in w h i c h iL e n t e r e d the Old Tes­ t a m e n t . They prepare t h e redaction historical investigation (§6) and the deter­ mination o f an :ndividual s t a t e m e n t s meaning within the frame of its entire con­ t e x t (§ i 0). Practically, o n e must rely u p o n s e c o n d a r y literature (Oid Testament introduetions, c o m m e n t a r i e s and their introductions, m o n o g r a p h s ) for clarification o f b and c. Even f o r t h e beginner. this reiiance η no w a y excludes t h e possibiiity of limited contributions o n t h e basis of the text under investigation.

C. R E S U L T S T h e results o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m can be seen i n the fact that i t performs the necessary groundwork for other exegetical stages. Transmission history can begin its analysis w i t h the oldest l i t e r a r i l y homogenous version o f the passage under considerarion (or relatedly its [sourcel c o m p o n e n t s ) w h i c h was obtained by l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . Redaction history employs the results achieved by l i t e r a r y critical analysis when i t coberently riresents the history o f die encountered text i n the realm o f w r i t t e n transmission and w h e n i t coherently presents the oper­ ative w o r k i n g procedures and motifs. A t the p o i n t i n w h i c h the larger l i t e r a r y context o f a text is demonstrated, and at the p o i n t i n w h i c h the t e x t s place in the context is d e t e r m i n e d , l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m makes i t possible to inquirc into the author, place, and time for the l i t e r a r y version. Simultaneously, this d e m o n strarion provides the respeetive l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t i n whose f r a m e w o r k the t e x t can be m a t e r i a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d i n the c o n e l u d i n g section o t determining the his­ torical meaning.** 43 Examples: Arnos 8:1-2 should first be interpreted in the context of die vision cycle, Cor­ respondingly, the components of the Yahwistic prima! history should be interpreted brst and foremost in the (rame of die Yahwistic work, etc.

60

§4

LITERARY CRITICISM

D. L I T E R A T U R E I. I N T R O D U C T I O N , FOUNDATION, A N D OVERVIEW J. Barton. "Sumte Criticism." ABD, vul. 6, 162-165. G. Fohrer. Exegese, § 5 (Ε H ü b e t ) , § 9B (G. Fohrer). Ν . Habel. Literary Criticism of the Old Testament. Guides to Biblical Scholarship. Old Testament Series. J.C. Rylaarsdam, ed. Philadelphia, 1971. Ο Kaiser. Exegetical Method, ρ. 11-16. K. Koch. The Growth of tbe Biblical Tradition, p. 68-78. M . Notli. A History of Pentateuchal Traditions. p. 5-41 (esp. p. 20-25). Atlanta, 1981 (reprint, 1972 translation).

II. EXPANSION A N D CRITICAL ALTERNATIVES I . Engnell. Methodological Aspects o f O l d Testament Study. VT.S 7 (1960); 13-30 (esp. 21 ff). K. Rcraltorff. "Literarkritik und Traditionsgeschiehte." F.vTh 27 (1967): 138-153. . 'Die Problem of the Process of Transmission in the Pentateuch JSOT.S 89. Sheffield, 1990. VV. Richter. Exegese, p. 49-72. H . Ringgren. "Literarkritik, Formgeschichte, Überlieferungsgeschichte. Erwägungen zur Methodenfrage der alttestamentlichen Exegese." T h L Z 91 (1966): col. 641-650. S. Segert. "Zur Methode der alttestamentlichen Literarkritik." A r O r 24 (1956): 610-621. H J . Stoebe. "Grenzen der Literarkritik i m Alten Testament." T h Z 18 (1962): 385-400. J.H. Tigay, ed. Empirical Models for Biblical Criticism. Philadelphia, 1985. ΠΙ. E X E M P L A R Y E X E C U T I O N I I . Gunkel. Genesis. TTK Ϊ / 1 . p. 137-140. (Literary criticism on Gen 6:5-9,17,28f.) G ö t t i n g e n , 1 9 1 0 (=T977). I I . - J . Ilermisson. Deuterojesaja. BK X I . Fascicle 7. p. 1-80. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1987. W Richter. Die Bearbeitungen des »Retterbuches« in der deuteronomischen Epoche. B B B 2 1 . p . 1-62 (Literary criticism o n j u d g 2-12). Bonn, 1964. C R . Seitz. "The Crisis of Interpretation over the Meaning and Purpose of the Exile." F T 35 (1985): 78-97 (Literary Criticism. on Jer 21,24,27,37-43). Κ. Seybold. Bilder zum Tempelbau. Die Visionen des Propheten Sacharja. SBS 70. p. 11-23. (Literary criticism on Zech 1-8). Stuttgart, 1974. 3

TV H I S T O R Y O F R E S E A R C H R.E. Clements. Α Century of O l d Testament Study. Rev. ed. Guildford, 1983. O. Eißfeldt. "Literarkritische Schule." R G G ' , vol. 4, col. 388-390. Η . G r e ß m a n n . "Die Aufgaben der alttestanientlicben Forschung." Z A W 42 (1924): 1-33 (esp. 2-8).

Literature

61

N . C . Habel. Literary Criticism of the Old Testament. Minneapolis, 1971. H.F. Hahn. "The Critical Approach to tbe Old Testament." Old Testament in Modern Research, p. 1-43. Philadelphia, 1954. R. Knierim. "Criticism of Literary Features, Form, Tradition, and Redaction." Tn D.A. Knight and C M . Tucker, The Hebrew Bible and Tts M o d e m Interpreters. Philadelphia-Chico, 1985, p. 128-136. D.A. Knight, ed. Julius Wellhausen and His Prolcgomemi to the History of Israel. Semeia 25 (1983). K . Koch. The Growth of the Biblical Tradition. p. 68-76. H.-J. Kraus. Geschichte der historisch-kritischen Erforschung des Alten Testaments, (see die subject index under "Literarkritik."). Neukirchen-Vluyn, Τ 982.

The Transmission Historical Approach

Λ. T U E T A S K L Deicrniination I f ari O l d Testament text o r text complex developed i n the realni o f oral speech before its t r a n s c r i p t i o n , then one utilizes the transmission historical approach. Above all, the f o l l o w i n g state o f affairs offers the reason for inquiry b e l i i i i d a text's oldest asccrtainable w r i t t e n phase i n t o the realm o f its previous oral transmission. T h e content o f a text, or even parts o f a text, appears to be independent o f its i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t ( i n c l u d i n g aspects o f b o t h f o r m and genre, i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f § 7 ) . T h u s , i n the t i m e o f its first utterance, the text was originally understandable w i t h o u t additional text material. One dius appears to encounter the phenomenon o f a "stmill unii." O n the one band, l i t e r a r y e n t i ties so small i n siže were n o t t r a n s m i t t e d in w r i t t e n f o r m separately, and their c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h other "small u n i t s " i n t o a c o l l e c ü o n is a secondary process. O n e the other hand, such phenomena arise i n conjunction w i t h spoken actions (eult, school w i s d o m , legal o r a t i o n , prophetic p r o n o u n c e m e n t , narrative act i v i t y ) . For these t w o reasons, die assumption is oftered that here one encounters the r e c o r d i n g o f small, o r i g i n a l l y oral speech units. Indeed, i n special cases i t even appears that these small units experienced changes d u r i n g oral t h e i r transmission w h i c h is still detectable, as t e x t observations can suggest (along w i t h investigation on die basis o l § § 7 and 9). T h e transmission historical approach concerns itself w i t h such justifiable deductions f r o m the oldest w r i t t e n f o r m o f the text back i n t o die arena o f die oral development and transmission. A c c o r d i n g l y , the precision o f these trans­ mission historical deductions manifests itself differently d e p e n d i n g u p o n the extent o f the first w r i t t e n r e c o r d i n g u p o n the f o r m u l a t i o n o f the text. O f t e n

64

§5

T H E TRANSAIISIUN HISTORICAL APPROACH

i n the area o f eult, w i s d o m , and law, one can situate the given f o r m u l a t i o n i n the oral phase for reasons o f usagc. W i t h p r o p h e t i c logia, i t is f r e q u c n t l y n o t possible t o reconstruet the coinplete, o r i g i n a l l y oral f o r m u l a t i o n b e h i n d the Condensed, w r i t t e n f o r m . T h e w r i t t e n f o r m can even tako aecount o f the ef­ fect o f die prophetic w o r d . W i t h individual narratives, the possibility d i a t one can t r a č e the f o r m u l a t i o n 's oral phase is generally even smaller, as w i l l be shown below. A t the same time, the transmission historical approach is o f essential significanec. I t provides insight i n t o the development and o r i g i n o f die text, i n t o the text's purpose and use i n conerete situations, and i n t o die i n s t i t u t i o n s o f Israel. E u r d i e r , the transmission historical approach i l b m i n a t e s the appearanec, independence, and c o n t o u r o f "smaller u n i t s " w i t h i n the w r i t t e n trans­ mission o f the O l d Testament. T h e task o f transmission h i s t o r y is therefore to d e t e r m i n e the f o n u and development o f the text i n diis oral transmission phase, i n as m u c h as that is possible, and to e.xtract any other supportable conelusions from this area. 44

Transmission h i s t o r y first proceeds analytically. I t begins w i t h the oldest l i t e r a r i l y homogenous version o f a t e x t , or relatedly its c o m p o n e n t (source) parts, as established i n the l i t e r a r y critical stage. I t then inquires further, back i n t o the realni i n w h i c h the t e x t has been orally t r a n s m i t t e d and i n w h i c h i t was o r i g i n a l l y f o r m u l a t e d . Transmission h i s t o r y thereby aims at a p h e n o m e ­ n o n f r e q u c n t l y encountered i n A n c i e n t Israel: a m a j o r i t y o f texts have d i e i r o r i g i n in the realni ol" l i v i n g speech (such as individual narratives, legal s t i p u lations, prophetic speeches, and cultic songs). T h e y are first conveyed i n oral transmission. D u r i n g this oral transmission, changes can also enter die trans­ m i t t e d material. A. synthetic stage begins w i t h the analytical results, b u t reverses the direct i o n o f i n q u i r y . T o the extent that i t is possible and that i t is suggested by e v i dence, this stage atrempts to p o r t r a y the development o f the t r a n s m i t t e d text, i n its historical derivation and context, f r o m its first recognizable oral form t o die oldest w r i t t e n f o r m u l a t i o n . I t h i g h l i g h t s the effective changes and his­ torical factors. I I . Terminolog)

7

Elsewhere in exegetical l i t e r a t u r e , one also finds the t e r m "transmission h i s t o r y " l i m i t e d t o the h i s t o r y o f a transmission u n i t , o r the merger o f i n d i ­ vidual pieces, d u r i n g the stage o f oral t r a n s m i s s i o n .

45

I t m u s t also be n o t c d ,

44 The task is thus a constituent question within the framework of the overarehing question about the development of an Old Testament text (see above, §4 Λ I [p. 47ffj). 45 Gompare Fohrcr. Introduction, ρ. 2 9 0 1 (ehart). Recently Fohrer {Exegese, p. 119ff) has

modified his rlcfinition in so far as hc also atrributes "possible earlier, and therefore "precursory", stages of codification" (p. 120, cmphnsis ours) to transmission history. However, for Fohrer, diis

C o m m e n t a r y on the A p p r o a c h and the M e t h o d

65

however, that "transmission h i s t o r y " w i l l often be perceived i n another sense w h i c h ineludes redaction h i s t o r y or w h i c h is related t o the analysis o f a spe­ cific text's w r i t t e n or oral p r e h i s t o r y . M a n y use the t e r m " t r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y " as a s y n o n y m for "transmission h i s t o r y " i n the n a r r o w e r sense, as used by us. L i k e w i s e , m a n y use the t e r m "transmission h i s t o r y " i n a broader sense w h i c h ineludes w r i t t e n t r a n s m i s s i o n . Finally, i n o r d e r t o differentiate be­ tween the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l process and die subject w h i c h i t investigates, the designation for the m e t h o d contains the c o m p o n e n t o f ' ' c r i t i c i s m " , w h i c h m a n y researehers use i n the sense o f f o r m i n g scientific j u d g m e n t (transmis­ sion c r i t i c i s m , t r a d i t i o n c r i t i c i s m ) . T h e same goes for die methods ot redaction history, f o r m history, and t r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y . ' 4 6

47

43

49

0

Β. C O M M E N T A R Y O N T H E A P P R O A C H A N D T H E M E T H O D 1. Relationship to L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m

51

1. Expansion M e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y refleetive l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m and transmission h i s t o r y c o m p l e m e n t one another meaningfully. A n a l y t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n i n g a text's de­ v e l o p m e n t d u r i n g the w r i t t e n transmission stage is conducted b y l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , w h i l e d e t e r m i n i n g the oral transmission stage is conducted by the transmission historical approach. 2. D e l i m i t a t i o n W h e n critically distinguished f r o m l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , the transmission historical approach should b r i n g the f o l l o w i n g to bear: a.

T h e o r i g i n and f o r m a t i o n o f numerous O l d Testament texts derive from the arena o f oral transmission.

b.

T h e prineiples o f oral transmission can be considerably differentiated f r o m those of w r i t t e n transmission. ' 5

expansion has a purely theoretical eharacter, since the "precursory" codification stage is no longer something which is "'immediately available." 4* Classic examples: Nodis The Druteronvmistk History and Tbe Chroiiiclcr's History (see below, §6 D 111 [p. 93]) and Pentateuchtil Tradilwns (see above, p. 60). 47 Su Koch, íirtnetb ofBiblictd 'Tradition, ρ. 38,51,531,57. 48 So, for example, Κ Baumgärtel, R G G \ vol. 1, col. 1187. 4? So, for example, von Rad, Old Testament Theology, vol. 1, ρ. I lf,187,306f. etc.; A.H..J. Gunneweg, B H H , vol. 3. col. 2018-2020. 50 Cornpare, for example, Fohrer, Exegese, p. 7,12 If. 51 C f also §4 Β II 2f (p. 55). 52 Cf. §4 A l l (beginning on p. 51) with §4 Β I I 2f (p. 55). See also Koch, Grmsth of Biblical Tradition, §7 (especially, p. 89-91.) 1

66

§5

T H E TRANSMISION HISTORICAL APPROACH

O n e should dius certainly note the f o l l o w i n g : Frequently, die outline, contour, and e s s e n ü a l traits are determined i n the reahn o f oral transmission, especially i n narrative texts. However, n o t every specific f o r m u l a t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d therein. ' 5

I I . Transmission H i s t o r i c a l Processes'

4

55

Transmission h i s t o r y can be applied w i t h a prospect for conerete results to those texts w h i c h arose i n the r e a l m o f oral transmission and to those w h i c h were also occasionally subjected to certain changes and formarive i n f l u ences d u r i n g oral transmission. 1. l y p e and M ä n n e r o f Changes I n order to understand the t y p e and manner i n w h i c h the transmission S e g m e n t s (small units) were changed d u r i n g oral transmission one must c o n sider d i a t O l d Testament texts derive f r o m extremely diverse formative rela­ tionships. T h e means o f influence u p o n individual segments are v e r y different depending u p o n the formative circumstanccs. I n those places where traditions had been populär narrative material before they were recorded i n w r i t t e n f o r m , one should consider d i a t o n l y the C o n ­ tents were i n i t i a l l y fixed d u r i n g the oral phase.' T h u s , these transmissions were still relatively open for r e f o r m u l a t i o n , broader development, correlat i o n , and i n t e r t w i n i n g w i t h o t h e r narratives and w i t h p o r t i o n s o f other nar­ ratives. T h e c o m p o s i t i o n of different elements necessarily produces certain tensions. B y contrast, i t is less apparent that the o r i g i n a l w o r d i n g was c o n stantly changed d u r i n g oral transmission w h e n i n s r i t u t i o n a l frameworks ( o r relatedly reflective procedure) lead to fixed f o r m u l a t i o n s w h i c h c o u l d t h e n be o r a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d . " I n those cases, the effect o f the transmission tradent 6

5

5' The following is valid in diese cases: If verse numbers are assigned during the course of a transmission historical analysis, then, in contrast to literary criticism. die isolation of verses or verse parts does not generali}' intend a tixed voeubulary. Radier die assignation iudicates the extent of transmission components they contain. 5+ Hermisson. Jakobs Kampf am Jabbok, 251-257, offers important. extensive reflecüons upon the presuppositions for the origin and transmission of orally transmitted produets in hght of narratives.

55 Cf. section V below, p. 69. '<> Sociologically: in die main, die period of die tribal System of Israel before l ü ü ü BCt, bul still in die Nordiern Kiligdoin; tradems: perhaps travelling story tellers. "lexts in the Old Tes­ tament: especially i n Genesis to Samuel; Example: Gen 32:23—33 (cf. Eiliger, Der Jaivbskampf am Jabbok, and Hermisson, cited above). J.R Floß, Wer schlügt s w ? , demonstrates that one may rrack a preliterary phase of this text bv linguistic investigation, in contrast to E . Blum, Komposition (p. 140f}; 175ff).' 57 Sociologically: in tbe monarchial period of Israel and under the influence o f courdy culture diese institutional frameworks are expanded; rradents: schools and school-like groups. Texts in tbe Old lestament: especially cult songs. legal sayings. and, in pari, prophetic logia, wisdom sayings, but also theologically conteniplativc narratives about prophets.

C o m m e n t a r y o n the Approaeh and die M e t h o d

67

m o r e l i k e l y m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n the o r d e r i n g o f the c o l l e c t i o n , i n i n t e r p r e t i v e a n d a c t u a l i z i n g i n t r o d u c t i o n s , e x p a n s i o n s , appendixes, o r c o n n e c ü v e p i e c e s (as l o n g as these are n o t b e t t e r a t t r i b u t c d t o the w r i t t e n t r a n s m i s s i o n p h a s e ) .

2. M a t e r i a l Character o f the Changes T o u n d e r s t a n d the Substantive m a t e r i a l e h a r a c t e r o f the c h a n g e s w h o s e t r a n s m i s s i o n s can be a t t r i b u t e d to the c o u r s e o f the t r a n s m i s s i o n history', o n e must consider a broad array o f possibilities:

a.

n e w material accents" (especially narrative);

b.

Substantive t h e o l o g i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s (for e x a m p l e , the m e o r p o r a t i o n o f

e.

c h a n g e s o n the basis o f d i s p l a c e m e n t ( r e g a r d i n g p o p u l a t i o n s , t e r r i t o r y ,

pre-Israelite m a t e r i a l i n t o the s p h e r e o f Israelite r e l i g i o n T ' ' ;

s e t t i n g , l e a d i n g f i g u r e s ) o r p a r t i c u l a r ( h i s t o r i c a l ) events i n the r e a l m o f 60

transmission ; d.

c h a n g e s o n the basis o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l o r t h e o l o g i c a l

a l t e r a t i o n s i n the

6 1

tradent circle ; e.

changes associated w i d i uniting individual pieces into a collection (assiniilations, harmonizations, tetherings, enrire c o n n e c ü v e pieces).

62

58 Example: In the Pemiel saga of Gen 32:23-33, the namine scene (32:28-30a) is a secondarily added narrative modi because it Interrupts tbe demand and the bcstowal of blessing (32: 27b,30b) and forms a second ebmax to the narrative beside the namingof the jilace (32:51). " Example: bi the pre-lsraelitc/Canaanitc form of the Pernici saga, the man liad reallv threateneil Iiis divine counterpart (as 32:26f dcmonstiatcs). However, the Israelite version, through its additions of 32:29,31bß (even clearer in the version of Hos 12:4f), cxprcsses that Jacob was fundamentally the loser in this balile. He had only endured (y/Win 32:29), and thus is his life spared (32:31). The formulations of 32-.26f have been implicitly transformed widiout change to the word­ ing (these are also transmission historical changes). <•* Example: The original Cannel story in 1 Kings 18 wams to show how a people vacillating between Y i l V V H and Baal were led lo a significant YHWHconfession in the tinie of Aliah (corrcspondence between 18:31 and 18:39!). By contrast, 18:l9h,20,40 highlighl die events of the Willing of the Baal prophet». This displacement of accem signifies a rcworlcing which acnializcs rhe older Cai'inel transmission luider the iinpression of die reign ofjehu and his eradication of tbe Baal worshippers(2 Kgs 10:18-271. f'l Example: The expansion of the Pcnuel saga in 32:33, which etiologically connects a cer­ tain table cusrom wirb Jacobs limp, happens first when the saga leaves its pre-lsraelite and its proto-Israelite transmission circle, which was still limited to tbc people of Jacob, and was passed on by transmission tradents oriented toward all Israel. <·- Example: 1 Kings 18:18b, 19a are components of a collectors transition (because of laier reworkings, only incompletely reeeived) from the droughi narrative (17:16; 18:1-2a [2b- 16?], 17-18a) to the Carniel story (18:21-39). For examples from die Pentateuch, sec Noth, Penl/ttemhallraditnms, especially p. 198-227. Fohrers {Exegese, p. 12üf,128f,139f,l 41 f) djffcrcntiation «ithin the realm of oral transmis­ sion represents an unnecessary complication, which is also impractical in light of the te.xt material. He distinguishes between "colleetor's ordering," which he assigns to transmission criticism, and ''composition," which should be invesugated in composition criticism and redaction criticism. I3y contrast, we assign all proeeedings taking place in die realm of oral transmission to transmission

68

ΓΠ. M e t h o d o l o g i c a l Questions for the A n a l y t i c a l Process"'

yjyi

1. Is the text under investigation t r a n s m i t t e d elsewhere i n the O l d Testament o r i n Israel's e n v i r o n m e n t in a manner w h i c h does n o t indicate l i t e r a r y dependence {double and multiple transmission)} * W h a t does comparison provide? 6

2. H o w does this t e x t appear under foun critical inspection}^ Does this inspection indicate an e n t i t y w h i c h is c o m p l e t e , free-standing, and independent o f the context? I n a narrative text, w h a t do the seenie strueture and, above ali, the lines o f tension produce for the question o f the coherence and c o n ­ sistency o f a small unit? C a n one determine lines in the profile o f the genre (elimax, lines o f tension, i n t r o d u c t i o n , conelusion; expanded genre, m i x e d genre) or by c o m p a r i n g genre historical results w h i c h allow eonelusions c o n ­ c e r n i n g the transmission historical processes and w h i c h allow a reconstruetion o f the preliterary fonii(s)? ' w

3. W h e r e do material tensions and curiosities exist w h i c h , however, n o l o n g e r allow l i t e r a r y division? W h i c h lines are n o t eonceivable, or are even i m p r o p e r , at the t i m e o f the text's l i t e r a r y c o m p o s i t i o n and thus p o i n t to a p r i o r arena o f transmission h i s t o r y ? 67

4. W h i c h lines allow themselves to be classified to a specific transmission stage for theological, historical, linguistic, o r history o f religions reasons?°*

historv, and ali proceedings taking place in the written transmission realm wc assign ro literary criticism and redaction history. f> Richter rejects argumentation solely on die basis of content criteria for transmission his­ torical analysis (Exegese, 44.152-163; there under the tenu "tradition criticism," c f discussion above, p. 65). Such caution is warranted. However, one should also doubt whether deduetions concerning preliterary stages of a text are possible exclusively on the basis of linguisuc-structural indices. It is not eonceivable why material tensions, history of religions phenomena, or culrural history phenomena (that is to sav phenomena related to the content of the text) may not be evaluated as signs of an oral prehistory of the text unit as such, especially since linguistic-structural tensions can be missing trom a text widi a preliterary prehistory. Reaching beyond the transmis­ sion historical process to odier exegetical processes is therefore again essential. t> bor examples. sce footnote 26. 65 Again, the interdependence of the methods is revealcd! 66 Example: the multiple elimax of Gen 32:23-33 (see above, footnotes 58 and 61). 6" Example: die presentation of Y H W H ' s wrestling with Jacob in Gen 32:26f (see above, footnote 59). Example: the Jolling of the Baal priests in 1 Kgs 18:40 in distinetion to the historical set­ ting of the Gannel scene as a «hole (see above, footnote 60). 4

6 S

C o m m e n t a r y on the Approach and die M e t h o d

69

5. Does the homogenous genre p r o p e r t y ( § 7 ) necessitate the acceptance o f the oral o r i g i n o f a small u n i t for a text whose f o r m u l a t i o n is fixed because o f die artna in which it is utilized (cult, w i s d o m , law)? 6. Does a corresponding Unding simultaneously necessitate f u r d i e r i n q u i r y i n t o an oral transmission f o r m despite redactional rrworking o f the f o r m u l a t i o n ( p r o p h e t i c logia)? I V T h e Synthetic Process B y m o b i h V i n g historical ( § 9 ) and f o r m critical ( § 7 ) considerations, die synthetic presentation o f a transmission u n i t s path i n oral t r a d i t i o n should i l l u m i n a t e the reasons for the o r i g i n o l d i a t transmission u n i t . T h e synthetic presentation should endeavor t o explain the historical necessities and the i n t e n t i o n s w h i c h have d e t e r m i n e d the transmission u n i t s development and the changes w i t h i n the frame o f oral transmis­ 6

sion. " T h e same is t r u e for the process o f the c o n n e c t i o n o f several such transmis­ sion units i n the realm o f oral transmission i n t o a larger transmission complex (collections, narrative cycles). W i t h the question o f the i n t e n t i o n s o f trans­ mission, the synthetic process o f the transmission historical approach already furnishes elements for d e t e r m i n i n g historical meaning ( § 1 0 ) . V. Applications for the Transmission H i s t o r i c a l A p p r o a c h I n d i v i d u a l texts as well as large text complexes (for example, pentateuchal sources) allow themselves to be treated transmission historically r e g a r d i n g die transmission components assimilated i n t h e m and their shape i n oral tra­ d i t i o n . A m o n g the O l d Testament w r i t i n g s , the historical books generally prove productive for a transmission historical investigation. I n a d d i t i o n to the narrative transmission, i t is especially i m p o r t a n t to consider the legislative material as w e l l . By contrast, changes scarcely appear i n o l d e r w i s d o m and cult texts i n the phase o f oral transmission. W i t h p r o p h e t i c logia, the trans70

71

W A close correlation thus cxisrs between the transmission historical approach and the deter­ mination of the historical setring of transmission layers! 0 For example, one has to consider the problems which the Book of the Covenant creates in this regord. Sce tbe recent work of F.. Otto, Wandel der Rechtsbegründungen in der Gesellschaftsgeschtchte des antiken Israel. Eine Reebtsgescbicbte des ^Bundesbitcbes« Ex XX 22-XXIH ] 5, Leiden, 1988. '1 In the Psalter, however, transmission historical and literary critical problems are nevertheless settled in die arena of the formulations of individual psalms". This fact is demonstrated, for example, in the invesngarions of W. Beyerlin and K . Seybold. Cf. K . Seybold, lntroducing tbe Psalms. Edinburgh, 1990, p. 255ff (more extensive bibliography in tbe German edition, Die Psalmen. Eine Einführung, 1986, p. 208ff). 7

70

§5

T H E TRANSMISĪON HISTORICAL APPROACH

mission historical i n q u i r y is i n p r i n c i p a l necessary, b u t progrcss t o w a r d the p r e l i t e r a r y formulations is frequently blocked. V E S u m m a r y o f the Procedure o f Transmission H i s t o r y 1. A n a l y t i c a l Questions a. Does the l i t e r a r i l y homogenous text, or one o f its l i t e r a r i l y independent layers, suggest materinireasons i n d i c a t i n g an orally trans­ m i t t e d piece existed previously? A n d can one exclude a p u r c l y literary (!) i m i t a t i o n o f the eharacter o f small units (perhaps i n relation t o the genre)? 7

b. Does Β I I I 1-6 provide analytical text indicators which strengdien this supposition? I

c. W h a t sbape d i d the oral transmission take? — Possibly, the f o r m u l a t i o n is reeeived c o m p l e t e l y intact (for example, i n cult songs, sacral and profane legal stipulations, w i s d o m sayings, even, w i t h qualification, the i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f prophetic logia). F r o m the other side, can one isolate elements o f the f o r m u l a t i o n w h i c h m o r e l i k e l y b e l o n g to the w r i t t e n recording? — Less o f the f o r m u l a t i o n is reeeived intact (for example, w i t h prophetic logia). W h a t can one isolate as a l i n g u i s t i c or material presupposition o f the literarily-compressed p r o p h e t i c logia w h i c h comes closer t o d i e i r oral l i n g u i s t i c shape? — T h e f o r m u l a t i o n is p r o b a b l y n o t reeeived intact, b u t possibly the o u t l i n e , perspective, or emphases are reeeived (for ex­ ample w i t h individual narratives). 2. Synthetic Questions a. W h a t are die reasons for the origin and transmission o f the text's reconstrueted oral phase, and w h a t are the conditions o f its i n s t i t u t i o n a l framework (§9)? b. A r e Uiere indeed indicators o f a change (transmission h i s t o r y ) w i t h i n the oral t r a d i t i o n , and w h a t arc the reasons and the m a ­ terial signals o f tliis change (see Β I I 2)?

•

#vK

c. A r e there compositional indicators i n the context that the text, o r text laver, was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o orally t r a n s m i t t e d collectiotis of correspondingly small units? I f so. w h a t material change does this process produce? N o t e : Transmission historical investigations are necessary, b u t they are to a large degree reconstruetions. F o r this reason, they require S u p p o r t f r o m similar Undings according to § 7 and § 9 .

Results

71

C. R E S U L T S I . l i i s i g h t i n t o the O r i g i n and Changes o f a Transmission U n i t within Oral Tradition I f one is able to t r a č e a text's o r i g i n and, i f necessary, its formative changes back i n t o the realm o f oral t r a d i t i o n , then transmission h i s t o r y prepares indis­ pensable insights for understanding this text. One can detect locality, t i m e , rationale, and the arena o f usage c o n c e r n i n g the o r i g i n and the changes. T o gether w i t h the transmission form's characteristic components, these insights Ieave traces i n oral t r a d i t i o n up to die oldest l i t e r a r y version o l the text. A l s o , o n the basis o f diis prehistory, diese insights make the text understandable. Π . Transmission H i s t o r y as A c t u a l i z i n g Procedure Transmission historical research makes the transmission procedure under­ standable as a process o f continual realization and actualization b e g i n n i n g w i t h die realm o f oral tradition. -' I t does so even w h e n this process p r i m a r i l y shaped the present t e x t i n die subsequent w r i t t e n phase (see § 6 ) . T h i s p r o ­ cedure may be classified i n three aspects: 7

1.

T h e revision o f older transmission pieces and, at times, t h e i r new r e a l i ­ zation is a conspicuously frequent feature i n the O l d Testament. T h o s e responsible for such transmission apparently operated f r o m the convict i o n t h a t b o t h texts and speeches are n o t s i m p l y " f i n i s h c d " i f t h e i r con­ erete ehronologieal reference has faded. N o w , as before, these texts c o u ceal an i n n e r actuality " w h i c h c o u l d always have fresh m e a n i n g extracted f r o m t h e m " i n a changed Situation.''

2.

T h e o l d transmission piece gains its actuality i n the changed S i t u a t i o n , b u t o n l y t h r o u g h r e a p p r o p r i a t i o n and interpretation. Simple r e p e t i t i o n does n o t suífice. T h e strueture o f the transmission process inside the O l d Testament, i n a certain respect, can stimulate and o r i e n t the task o f r e a p p r o p r i a t i n g and actualizing O l d Testament texts i n the present.

3.

I I I . Transmission H i s t o r y as the H i s t o r y o f die R e l i g i o n and E a i d i o f Israel T h e analytical p o r t i o n o f the transmission historical investigation o f texts 4

can p r o v i d e access to historical dara.' T h e synthetic aspect o f the transmis-

Comparc- especially von Rad, Old Testament Tbeology, vol. 1, p. 3-5.129f, and Vol. 2, p. 42-44,45-49, and context. 7J V. Rad, loc. rit., Vol. 2, p. 46. •4 Cf. IV below.

§5

T H E T R A N S M I S I O N H I S T O R I C A L .APPROACH

sion historical investigation creates the c o n d i t i o n that one may f u r t h e r m o r e observe a v e r y particular k i n d o f h i s t o r y . U n d e r transmission historical Ob­ servation, even a small text u n i t like G e n 32:23-33 presents itself as a series o f developmental stages w h i c h eonceal a kind of r e l i g i o - h i s t o r i c a l e o m p e n d i m n . F u r t h e r m o r e , one may recognize the h i s t o r y o f IsraePs faith f r o m the trans­ mission h i s t o r y of larger text complexes. O n e recognizes this h i s t o r y as a re­ 75

sponse to specific historical experiences understood as C o m i n g f r o m Y I I Y V H , and as the I n t e g r a t i o n o f n e w l y encountered intellectual conceptions- T r a n s ­ mission h i s t o r y thereby opens the possibility o f r e t r a c i n g the p a t h o f Israels f a i d i and its i n c l i n a ü o n s , especially i n tbe r e a l m o f Israelis beginnings. IV. Access to H i s t o r i c a l and R e l i g i o - H i s t o r i c a l Data I n their final f o r m w h i c h n o w lies at hand, Statements f r o m O l d Testament texts frequendy stand i n tension w i t h the im3ge w h i c h the h i s t o r i a n must depict for the h i s t o r y o f Israel. T h i s fact at first appears to d i m i n i s h greatly die value o f the O l d Testament as a source o f research for the h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l . Transmission history, however, has changed this Situation. O n e must differentiate the question o f the text's historical content, to the degree that t r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y allows one to pereeive the t e x t i n various developmental stages. N o w each o f the developmental stages allows itself t o be investigated separately f o r its historical content. O n the one hand, the historical c o n t e n t can relate d i r e c d y to details offered i n the text. O n the other hand, however, i t is given i n d i r e c t l y i n the relationships and the processes by w h i c h those responsible for transmission were d e t e r m i n e d i n their o w n time p e r i o d . O n l y then do eross references between archaeology, o r die h i s t o r y o f r e l i g i o n , and reports o f die O l d Testament texts o f t e n become clear. 76

77

D. L I T E R A T U R E 1. I N T R O D U C T I O N , F O U N D A T I O N A N D O W . R V T E W G. Fohrer. Exegese, § 9A+B D.A. Knight. 'Tradition History." A B D , Vol. 6, p. 633-638. K . Koch. The Growth of Biblical Tradition, p. 38-57. VV.E. Rast. Tradition History and the Old lestament. Guides to Biblical Scholarship. Old Testament Series. J. C. Rylaarsdam, ed. Philadelphia, 1972.

s

" Cornpare Rendtorff, Geschichte und Überlieferung, especially ρ. 83,85,88ff. 16 This fact should not be cvaluated as negative too quickly. For the problem, cf. von Rad, Old Testament Theolgy. vol. 1, p. 3-5,105-111. T> For discussion of the whole question, sec especially Koch, Growth of Biblical Tradition. p. 54-56.

Literature

73

Π. E X P A N S I O N A N D C R I T I C A L A L T E R N A T I V E S I I . Birkeland. Zum hebräischen Traditionswesen. Die Komposition der prophetischen Bücher des Alten 'lestaments. A N V A O 11. Hist.-Filos. Klasse. 1938 N o . 1, Oslo, 19.38. E. Blum. Die Komposition der Vätergeschichte. W M A N T 57. Ncukirchcn-Vluyn, 1984. K. Jeppesen and B. Otzen. eds. The Productions of Time. Tradition History in Old Testament Scholarship. Sheffield, 1984. D.A. Knight, ed. Tradition and Theology in the Old Testament. Philadelphia, 1977. S. Mowinckel. Prophet)- and Tradition. A N V A O I I . llist.-Eilos. Klasse. 1946 N o . 3. Oslo, 1946. G. v. Rad. Old Testament Theology, Vol. 1, esp. p. 8-10,12-14,121-135; Vol. 2, everywhere. R. Rcndtorff. Geschichte und Überlieferung. I n : Studien zur Theologie der alttestamentiiehen Liberlieferungen (Festschrift. G. von Rad), p. 81-94. Neukirchen, 1961. . Literarkritik und Traditionsgeschichte. E v T h 27 (1%7); 1 38-153. W. Richter. Exegese, 152-165. H . Ringgren. Literarkritik, Formgeschichte, Uberlieferungsgeschichte. T h L Z 91 (1966): 641-650. Works Dedicated to the Discussion o f Oral Tradition: R.C. Culley. "Exploring New Directions." In U.A. Knight and G.A. Tucker. The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters. Philadelphia, 1985. p. 167-200. , ed. Oral Tradition and Old Testament Studies. Seineta 5 (1976). G. Fohrer. Introduction to the Old 'lestament, § 3: p. 36-41 (see also additional liter­ ature on 568f). R. Knierim. "Criticism of Literary Features, Form, Tradition, and Redaction." I n : D.A. Knight and G.A. Tucker, The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters. Philadelphia, 1985. p. 123-165. K. Koch. Tbe Growth of Biblical Tradition, 78-91 (note especially the most impor­ tant literature on ρ. 78f). A.B. L o r d . Tbe Singer of Tales. Cambridge, M A 1960. H. A. Stolz and R.S. Shannon, eds. Oral Literature and die Formula. A n n Arbor, 1976.

I I I . EXEMPLARY E X E C U T I O N G. W. Goars. Genesis. FOTT. I . Grand Rapids, 1983. K. Elliger. Der Jakobskampf am Jabbok. Gen 32,23ff als hermeneiitisches Problem. Z T b K 48 (1951): 1-31 (also in: Elliger, Kleine Schriften zum Alten lestament. T h l î 32. ρ. 141-173. Munich, 1966). J. P. Floß. Wer schlägt wen? Textanalytische Interpretation von Gen 32,23-3.3. B N 20 (198.3): 92-132; B N 21 (1983): 66-100. H . -J. Hermisson. Jakobs Kampf am Jabbok (Gen. 32,23-33). Z T h K 71 (1974): 239-261. J. Jeremias (s. § 6 D I I I ) .

74

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Μ . N o t h . A History of Pcntateuchal Traditions. Atlanta, 1981. O . H . Steck. Überlieferung und Zeitgeschichte in den Elia-Erzählungen. W M A N T 26. Neukirchen-Vluyu, 1968.

I V H I S T O R Y OF RESEARCH H.-J. Kraus. Z u r Geschichte des Überlieferungsbegriffs in der alttestamendichen " Wissenschaft. E v T h 16 (1956): 371-387. . Geschichte der historisch-kritischen Erforschung des Alten Testaments. Neu­ kirchen-Vluyn, 31982 (See tbe subject index under "Uberlieferung", "Uberlie­ ferungsgeschichte").

Redaction Historical Approach

T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n to § § 4 - 6 above ( § 4 A I ) offered an ideal m o d e l c o n ­ c e r n i n g die o r i g i n o f an O l d Testament w r i t i n g . I n most cases, this o r i g i n does n o t oceur i n a single act w h i c h conceives and composes a w r i t i n g i n the final f o r m w h i c h comes to us. Rather, this o r i g i n oceurs i n a multi-stage process over an extended p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h an older p o r t i o n is occasionally ex­ panded and n e w l y aecented. As a r u l e , the origin of an Old Testament literary n-ork therefore means the history of origin! T h i s h i s t o r y o f o r i g i n o f an O l d Tes­ tament w r i t i n g can even stand o u t sharply i n a specific text. T h i s contrast is particularly true i f transmission historical and literary critical analysis establish that the text contains transmission Clements, and especially formulations, f r o m different times. T h e m o r e recent material is thereby attached t o older, p r e existing material and enriches die older material w i t h new accentuations w h i c h change the older material. Exegesis cannot neglect this aspect i f i t wants to do justice to the i n t e n t i o n o f the Statement, o r more precisely, to the m a j o r i t y o f v i c w p o i n t s i n a series o f Statements w h i c h follow u p o n one another. A n d exegesis cannot neglect this aspect i f i t wants to make accessible the k e r y g m a t i c riches o f the text's final t o n n w h i c h are articulated as a w o r d f r o m vari­ ous transmission witnesses f r o m different O l d 'lestament times. T h e r e f o r e , one has to t r a č e the course o f a w r i t i n g ' s developmental h i s t o r y i n the v i e w points ehanging w i t h i n the text. I t is possible that transmission historical analysis demonstrated that the text goes back t o an oral transmission f o r m (old individual narratives) or t o an oral speech f o r m (individual sayings or c u l t i c texts). Further, one may have to aceomit for a subsequent transmission phase, still w i t h i n oral t r a d i t i o n , w h i c h arranged o r collected these units and p r o v i d e d t h e m w i t h new accents o f meaning. I f so, t h e n one calls u p o n the transmission historical synthetic approach to elucidate this process, as we n o t e d i n § 5 . As we saw, i t appears c x t r e m c l y diffieult to make progress t o w a r d this oral p r e h i s t o r y o f the components o f

76

§6

REDACTION HISTORICAL APPROACH

O l d Testament w r i t i n g s and to encounter historical findings w h i c h are even plausible w i t h i n that prehistory. Today this d i f f i c u l t y is recognized even i n those places where one must undoubtedly aecount for a prehistory, u n l i k e the times w h i c h euphorically u t i l i z e d form criticism under the supposition i t could almost access die original biblical act o f proelamation. T o backtrack behind the formative material o f a text's f o r m u l a t i o n is m u c h m o r e d i f f i c u l t tban one diinks, b u t i f necessary, one must do so hypothetically, using careful, reasoned deduetions. By contrast, one encounters relatively f i r m g r o u n d w i t h the developmen­ tal phases o f a text i n an O l d Testament l i t e r a r y w o r k on the written level-— phases (3) and (4) i n our ideal pattern. H e r c , as l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m analytically elucidates, one encounters fixed f o r m u l a t i o n s and literary contexts for the i n ­ dividual text. H e r e one sees l i n g u i s t i c and material inconsistencies w i t h i n the individual text itself or regarding its immediate o r its w i d e r context. Fixed v o cabularies may be separated f r o m one another and arranged c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y in relation to one another, possibly even i n a single l i t e r a r y u n i t . H e r e , even w i t h a l i t e r a r i l y homogenous text, one may often observe d u r i n g the w r i t ­ ing's developmental history, that the text comes t o stand i n diverse contexts w i t h different accentuations. Redaction h i s t o r y concerns itself w i t h the area o f w r i t t e n transmission, above ali w i t h the analytical materials f r o m l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . I t envisions these analytical materials synthetically as elements o f a h i s t o r i c a l , transformationaJ process w i t h i n the framework o f a text's devel­ opmental history—hence the component "history" i n redaction history. T h e c o m p o n e n t "redaction" i n r e d a c t i o n h i s t o r y iniplies that a linguistieally p r e existing text w o u l d be revised i n this process, in the sense o f a changed c o n ­ s t r u e t i o n . T h u s , one discerns the eharacter o f the redactional measures. P r e existing text material (also n o w newly integrated) or several l i t e r a r y entities are j o i n e d i n t o a new w h o l e , by means o f r e o r d e r i n g ( c o m p o s i t i o n ) a n d / o r d i e redactor's o w n , new, textual i n s c r i p t i o n s . As a r u l e . these measures have also been carefully conceptualized. Ehe new is therefore constructed by c o n s t i t u tive j o i n i n g t o the o l d , o r relatedly, i n k e e p m g w i t h die o l d . C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , redactional and pre-existing material f o r m a n e w l y understood whole i n die r e s u l t i n g w r i t i n g . I n this respect, redaction is a t e x t - b o u n d shaping w h i c h is characteristically differentiated i n m e t h o d and perspective f r o m a w r i t i n g ' s more original formulation.

Such changing, redactional processes of revision appear in different ways with wideiy divergent literary horizons. Severe.! important cases of redactional proceedings are mentioned

bere as typicai

exampies.

I. When formeriy oraiiy transmitted material is first written down {"first written version"), it may already mvolve meanmgfu! redactional processes. These processes are evident in the deiiberate ordering in which the transmitted material has now been incorporated. They are evident in the revision of the formulations by which the transmitted

T h e Task

material is acclimated to the entire writing and its sequence of Statements. As a result, the transmitted material is now only understandable within the framework of the writing as a whole. These procedures are evident in new redactional formulations which were first formulated for the developing wnting without a transmission historical basis. and which may directly express the redactionai intention. These new expressions range from small. commentary-like insertions into sma'l sections of a text, to more comprehensive new formulations (such as superscriptions and subscriptions) which have the entire wnting in view and which serve to strueture that wnting. 2, If an Old Testament writing alneady exists, then its "continuation" {"Fortschrei­ bung") can appear subsequently, for example in the following procedures: a.

b.

c.

d.

Occasionally, individual commentary-iike additions are utiüzed in light of small text sections. These additions range from glosses (linguistic or historical) to speech formulas and to additions of content and theology. They are attached to the immediate context linguisticaliy and/or by content. Over time, such additions, whose honzons are limited to the immediate context mstead of the entire writing, can develop further with particular Lhemes, They may be atxached in Clusters onto passages of the origi­ nal literary entity. However, if it is not recognizable that additions are components serving an expanded rcstructuring of the whole (!) writing (that is, if they are treated as isolated additions). then the redaction historical approach finds application only in the narrow .framework of the additions immediate context. In the text bemg exegetically treated, more recent additions, which literary criticism elucidates. can also be pan ofthe total redaction ofthe writing. This is the case when corresponding additions are found elsewhere in the wnting. Included among these corresponding additions are those which are aüke in content, in the redactional method. or which come from the same historical period. They shed new light on the reeeived writing as a whole. In this case, the task of the redaction historical approach is expanded to determine what the continuation found in this particular text wants to contribute to the total redactional profile. As a rule, only one variety of (b) constitutes literarily homogenous additions, frequently somewhat larger in size. They not only represent an expansion of a pre-existing im­ mediate context, but also have been formulated speoficoily foi the writing es redac­ tional productions. These additions were alneady mentioned under section I). They are of greatest significance for the redactional profile because here the concerns of the redaction can unfold freely through new accents or detailed material expansions. Precisely because these newly formulated Statements also wish to revise something, it is not astounding that they take up many formulations from the entire writing, pointing backwaixis and forward. They referto other redactional formulations in the writing. They restrueture and reaccent the context with older formulated material. And thus they provide direction to the reader for the entire writing in its redactional sense. Also, one shouid observe the position of the specific formulations. They often have a materially strueturing Function for the whole. The redactional revision of a writing can also be aecomplished with or without addi­ tions to the text by resttveturing the entire reeeived writing. This restrueturing changes the perspective by shedding a different light upon the text being treated because, in some cases, a writing's newly available macrostrueture (reaügned into struetured sections) wants to understanc the text differently (as well as the associated text).

78

e.

§6

REDACTION HISTORICAL APPROACH

Finally. in addition to cases in which the redaction historical process not only continues the existing wnting by restructuring and by specific formulations, one must also account for those cases which conneci where with the given writing to prcduce

pre existing

transmitted

material

from

else­

a new entity. This pne-existing material may

be of a type which is oral or written. Conjoining two writings into one new redac­ tional whole can provide a new dimension of meaning for each text component in both writings when the conjoming occurs with deliberation and with redactional structuring. The preceding list of possibilities manifests the redactional processes o f revision. ft seeks to make dear what must be taken into account in this methodological stage. It is a bnoad field in the true sense of the word. The beginner snould not become discouraged with this breadth, and should limit himself/herself more precisely to potentiell redactional manifestations within the assigned text f o r the most part, additions and the immediate context are the working horizon. For the wider literary horizon of the assigned text (the redactional development c f the Old Testament literary work from which this text ongmates), the beginner may rely prirnanly upon Information from Old Testamen* introduetions, upon recommended secondary literature, and upon directions from the instruetor, The task of independently investigating texts redaction historically in the framework ofthe history of development for an entire literary work requires a precise knowledge of this work down to its particular formulations. And it invoives tedious, detailed concordance work. Practicaliy, it can only be undertaken with special concentration in the discipline o f t h e Old Testament in the coneluding phase of one's studies. The following comments for this area can only be given as initial Instructions, H e r e are three d e l i m i t i n g remarks to close this i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o the redac­ t i o n historical approach: First, b o t h the r e v i s i n g and that w h i c h is revised b e l o n g t o " r e d a c t i o n " . Accentuations w h i c h have been ineorporated in the redaction process, do n o t allow themselves to he elevated t o the p o i n t that one investigates o n l y the re­ v i s i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n s (restrueturings, new f o r m u l a t i o n s ) . Rather, these i n t e r ventions are eonstantly plaeed i n r e l a t i o n s h i p to that w h i c h was revised. Its m e a n i n g m u s t therefore be d e t e r m i n e d as tbe new understanding ofthe revised. T h a t w h i c h is revising certainly direets h o w that w h i c h is revised is n o w to be u n d e r s t o o d and to be read. T h e redactors o f O l d Testament w T Ì t i n g s were generali}' n o t o f the o p i n i o n that t h e i r redactional S t a t e m e n t s invaliilated the older, revised Statements. F o r d i e m , the w r i t i n g is vaiid i n the t o t a l i t y o f ali of its Statements. T h e redactional S t a t e m e n t s show die reader, however, d i a t the older (now revised) t e x t n o w has o n l y a parrial v a l i d i t y w h i c h is h m i t e d c o n c e r n i n g rime, persons, and/or content. For example, older j u d g m e n t State­ ments and redactional salvation Statements can stand side by side on the r e ­ 7

dactional level o f a p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g . However, the revised and the re\ ising m a t e r i a l do n o t stand o u t f r o m one another by the typeface used i n the devel-

T h e Iask

79

o p m e n t o f an O l d Testament w r i t i n g . T h e n h o w d i d an ancient reader recognize die redactional meaning? T h e ancient reader recognized the redactional m e a n i n g by continuous reading o f the w r i t i n g , above a l l , in the m a c r o s t r u c tural and i n the m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l position i n w h i c h the redaetionallv revising Statements are placed. T h e s e Statements are recognized especially at the be­ g i n n i n g and end o f the w r i t i n g , the b e g i n n i n g and end o f the major section o f the w r i t i n g , or the b e g i n n i n g and end o f the individual pericope. A1J o f this has i m p l i c a t i o n s for exegetical praxis, namely, that the meaning o f redactional ad­ ditions must be d e t e r m i n e d i n relationship to the pre-existing text element w h i c h was revised. (See footnote 205 below.) Second, i t is necessary to offer a w a r n i n g against the o p i n i o n diat one can, or even should, l i m i t oneself solely t o exegesis o f die final form of tbe text reached i n B H and thereby avoid the h y p o t h e t i c a l i n q u i r y i n t o older stages. I n numerous cases, the final f o r m o f an O l d Testament text indicates complex, even c o n t r a d i c t o r y Statements w h i c h must be clarified. T h e r e f o r e , these State­ ments force one to diachronic analysis ( l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , see § 4 ) and synthesis (redaction h i s t o r y ) . O f course, the m e a n i n g intended i n the final f o r m m u s t also be d e t e r m i n e d . However, i t is o n l y diseernible i f one can grasp the p r o ­ ductive reaccentuation o f the last hand. T h i s task, however, presupposes clarification o f the previous stages w h i c h have the same status as the final f o r m o f the text i n the riches o f the O l d Testament witness. A so-called " h o l i s t i c exe­ gesis" must ask itself h o w i t w i l l avoid exegetical arbitrariness w i t h o u t dia­ c h r o n i c textual perspective. T h i r d , the redaction historical approach may also be pereeived t h o r o u g h l y as an approach to the p r o b l e m o f the history of reception (cf C h r . ü o h men, see D b e l o w ) . However, one must be sure to k e e p i n m i n d that exegetical interest is n o t l i m i t e d t o the r e c e p t i o n , the p r o d u c t i v e a p p r o p r i a t i o n . A l o n g side the reception, o f equal value, Stands the question o f the older material's o w n meaning, o f the m e a n i n g o f the reeeived. B o t h must be secn i n r e l a t i o n ­ ship t o one another i n order that a text's productive transmission process releases a movement o f meaning (see § I O C I I ) . I n k e e p i n g w i t h the exegetical praxis w i t h i n one's studies, the f o l l o w i n g development o f the redaction historical approach concentrates p r i m a r i l y on the redaction historical processes w i t h i n the framework o f a specific text to be treated.

A. T H E T A S K W i t h the redaction historical approach, exegesis continues the trans­ mission historical w o r k , i n reg-ard to its synthetic aspect, b u t for the realm o f written transmission. I t thereby eoncludes the investigation o f the productive

80

§6

REDACTION HISTORICAL APPROACH

7S

transmission process o f die text i n the O l d Testament. T h i s approach traces the text's h i s t o r y from its first w r i t t e n f o r m t h r o u g h its expansion, o r relatedly c o m m e n t a r y , by means o f additions. Tt also traces a text's h i s t o r y t h r o u g h its i n c o q i o r a t i o n i n t o larger complexes all the way up t o its final version i n the c u r r e n t literary context. T h i s approach thereby determines the operative his­ torical factors and the i n t e n t i o n s o f the Statements. " 7

T h e redaction historical approach as such brings i n t o focus the course o f the development and the p o s i t i o n i n g o f a text w i t h i n a w r i t i n g by die relative c h r o n o l o g i c a l order o t the redactional actions. T h e approach thereby w o r k s t h r o u g h the older t e x t phases, new relationships, changes i n f o r m u l a t i o n s , and changes i n context. Ehe r e d a c t i o n historical approach understands these elements as redactional process. T h e procedural steps o f § 7 and § 8 w i l l t h e n c o n t r i b u t e f o r m critical and t r a d i t i o n historical perspectives w h i c h f u r t h e r clarifies this process. T h e procedural step o f § 9 w i l l also a t t e m p t t o pursue ab­ solute c h r o n o l o g i c a l , historical necessities and i n t e n t i o n s for the r e d a c t i o n historical development as described. A s w i t h the procedural steps o f § § 3 - 9 as a w h o l e , all o f this preparatory w o r k is undertaken for the final, decisive p r o ­ cedural step o f § 1 0 . I n § 1 0 , d e t e r m i n i n g the historical m e a n i n g is undertaken for the individual redactional text stages (see § 1 0 C I ) as w e l l as for the course o f the redaction h i s t o r y as such (see § 1 0 C I I ) .

B. C O M M E N T A R Y O N T H E A P P R O A C H A N D M E T H O D I . Relationship to L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m The redaction histoncal approach works closely with literary criticism and evaiuates its results. Both exegetical Steps concentrate upon the wntien stage of transmission. Lit­ erary criticism processed partial conclusions on the analytical level. Redaction history now has the specific task of syntheticaüy coordinating those partial conclusions with the aspect of the historical progression. As already accented at the end of §A, the goal is therefore to comprehend the merging of the materials separated by literary criticism; to pinpointthe Signals of processing which were likewlse designated by literary criticism; and to trace the material motives and intentions in this redactional processing. In the latter aspect. redaction history lays the groundwork for determining historical meaning (§ 10) under the particular oerspective of the assimilation and processing of older material. Recaction history is thereby contrasted with the earlier widespnead negative evaluation o' additions and redactional work ("secondary" in the derogatory sense). It utilizes the redactional history of a text and the new Interpretation bound to it precisely because of its notable characteiistics.

"8 See above, § 4 A I (ρ. 470. Redaction history also yields a closc correspondcncc to the procedure of determining the historical setüng. 7 9

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81

Redaction history also comes into play with a literarily homogenous text. Even in this case one must ask in which phase of the writing's developmental history the text's formulation took place. One must ask how ihe text relates to other redactional measures of the same phase. One must ask how it Stands in its relationship to immediate and broader context. And one must ask how its Statements are changed as the wrrting grows into its final f o r m . Moreover, in the case ofthe first written version, one has the task of determining the material relationship to the oral transmission material which >s now writ­ ten down. Tl. Redaction H i s t o r i c a l Processes 1. Processes for the I n i t i a l R e c o r d i n g o f O r a l T r a n s m i s s i o n

80

W e begin, so to speak, w i d i die case o f the oldest recoverable redactional process, the w r i t t e n registry o f material previously transmitted orally. T h e fact that a n oral transmission phase precedes is suggested by fundamental Observa­ t i o n as follows (see § 5 ) : T h e text to be treated is comprised o f a "small u n i t " o r it fonns a sinall u n i t along w i t h the context; the text is presented as a sfring o f such units; o r the text contains such a u n i t w h e n liberated from additions. Tn o r d e r to validate this u n i t , it must stand by itself, f o r m a l l y and materially, and n o t require the s u r r o u n d i n g text as an o r i g i n a l l y planned context necessary to the understanding. A t the same t i m e , these small units are n o t given to u s by themselves. Rather they are encountered o n a larger l i t e r a r y level w i t h i n a w r i t t e n c o n ­ text. h ö r example, they are encountered as n e i g h b o r i n g psalms, w i s d o m say­ ings, legal sayings, ancestral narratives, woe oracles, o r s a l v a ü o n Speeches (e.g. Isa 41:8-13,14 -16,17-20). T h e ereation o f this j u x t a p o s i t i o n / c o m p i l a t i o n , by its strueture and occasionally by its formulations, is a formative act o n the

mit­

ten level w h i c h is fixed for posterity. T h e r e f o r e , it is a subject for die redaction historical approach. I f the first w r i t t e n version p r o d u c t i v e l y shapes older trans­ mission, then the first w r i t t e n version c o u l d also be scen as the last step o f the transmission h i s t o r y . I f so, it n a t u r a l l y leads to die new status as w r i t t e n m a ­ terial. T h a t new status now leads i n t o the field o f redaction history. SO The fact that Fohrer (Fjcegcse, p. 140) does not ascribe the terai "redaction" to this process is, in part, a tenninological problem. We pereeive even compositional literary processes (like those noted below in "a") to fall under and "redaction"

(Exegese,

"redaction." Fohrer

differentiates h c r e between "composition"

p. 139-142). However, when Fohrer eliminates tbe revision of oral

trans­

m i s s i o n that is undertaken with die act o l w r i t i n g (described below in "h") from redaction criticism, it vaise* die

question

in

which methodological

step he then pereeives this process, w h i c h

is by no means a process ol "pure literary ereation" (Exegese, p. 140). For us, "composition" means the entire available context and tbe purpose of tbe

Statements w h i c h

possibly grow out of diat

context. T h i s context, in w h i c h a particular text Stands at die developmental phase of the w r i t i n g ,

may be preliterary or literary. The synthetic approach, transmission history and redaction history, concentrates u p o n the ereation and extent of a composition, o r of an intended text sequence in its respective totality. W i t h regard to the entire « O r k , it concentrates on each o f its developmental stages.

82

a. T h e first w r i t t e n version can be p u r e codification, i n w h i c h the form o f the first w r i t t e n r e n d e r i n g o f the specific section corresponds precisely w i t h the final oral stage. I n this case, one asks the redaction historical question o n l y w i t h regard t o the f u n e t i o n of this text. I f necessarv, one also asks about the i m p l i c i t change ot the text's m e a n i n g w i t h i n die p e r t i n e n t l i t e r a r y context, i n sofar as the text enters i n t o such.*" b . B y contrast, the first w r i t t e n version o f p r e - e x i s t i n g oral transmission can also signify its extensive (or m o r e l i m i t e d ) r e f o r m u l a t i o n and

ravording

by the author o f the w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l . " T h i s r e w o r d i n g is recognizable b y the linguistic characteristics as w e l l as the convergence o f the relevant l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t w i d i the redactional profile (to die degree d i a t the text enters a b t e r a r y c o n t e x t w i t h the first w r i t t e n version). T h e p r o b l e m o f " t r a d i t i o n and redac­ t i o n " dien presents itself, n a m e l y d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g older transmission elements f r o m the p o r t i o n b e l o n g i n g t o the t r a n s c r i b i n g author and d e t e r m i n i n g

the

motives for a d o p t i n g the transmission piece. c. b i diis regard, one should note that when d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g between " t r a ­ d i t i o n and r e d a c t i o n " one should b y no means expect the t r a d i t i o n t o consist o n l y o f transmission pieces w h i c h are clearly defined, detaehable, and w h i c h previously were t r a n s m i t t e d i n d e p e n d e n d y O n e should n o t expect t h a t t r a d i tions are l i m i t e d t o the transmission historical p r e h i s t o r y o f the text as already elucidated. Rather one should consider that an author w h o is reconceptualizi n g by u s i n g older transmission pieces can also articulate the redactional i n t e n t i o n and coneeptions w i t h additional educational elements. T h e s e ele-

81 Examplcs: Individua] legal sayings as in Exod 21:18ff in the growingliterary trame uf the Book of the Covenant and of the Sinai perieopc (before the Pricstlv, Deuteronomic, and finally Pentateucbal material); individual wisdom sayings as in Prov 15 in the frame of tbe book of Proverbs introduced by Prov 1-9 (wisdom as a living person'); individual cultic texts like Pss 46 and 47 in the frame of literary collecdons of psalms and finally of the theologically strucrured Psalter. S2 Contrary tu current upinion, diis process appears to be of greatest significanec for under­ standing the recording of prophetic transmission. W i d i prophetic literature, it is insignificant, from a methodological standpoint, that the author of tbe oral material and die writing redactor may be identical. Compare especially U l i . Steck, Wahrnehmungen Gottes im Alten Testament. T h B /O.Muních, 1982, ρ. 171-186 (particularly pages 179ff on Isa 7:3-9). In addition, seeH.-J. Kraus, Z A W 8 5 (1973): 39 to the woc-sayings of Isa 5:8-24; Barûijesaja-fPorte, ρ. 10f, on Isa 2S:7b-22. Working on Hosea, J. Jeremias bas produced grotmd breaking insights into die processes of the first written version of prophetic speeches. He shows how the older material bas been arraiiged into a planned, stxuctured composition using redactionally available parallel forms, thematíc expositions, catchword connecrions, cross-rererences (backward and iorward), bridge Statements, abbreviations, and. through the written formulation, by concentration upon larger material subjccts in the context under the presupposition diat the reader of the prophetic writing already knows the preceding material. The first written version ineorporates the older material into a form which is only understandable for a reader by Observation on the entire written context because of its cross-refcrcnced words, word plays, and pattems of construetion. Cf. in its entirety, J.Jeremias, Der Prophet Hosea, A T D 24/1, Göttingen, 1983, and also his Hosea studies from 1979 and 1981 mentioned on page 10 ol diat book.

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83

9

ments can have represented m o b i l e , isolatable material known by the author. ' These procedures w i l l be studied f u r t h e r i n the frame o f t r a d i t i o n history'. cl. T h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f a pre-existing oral transmission i n t o a larger w o r k by a revising author presents its redactionallprofile variously. O n d i e one hand, the redactional profile presents itself w h e n i t seleets, orders, and coordinates the o l d U'ansmission as well as when i t reformulates and rewords the o l d trans­ mission (see above, " t r a d i t i o n and redaction"). O n the other hand, w o r k i n g o u t the i n t e n t i o n s o f the redactor should especially rely u p o n d i e p u r e l y redac­ tional components o f the w o r k (i.e. r e f o r m u l a t e d components w i t h o u t basis in transmission pieces).*"' These redactional components appear m o s t l y i n the following: —

F r a m i n g F o r m u l a t i o n s ( i n t r o d u c t i o n and conelusion)

—

C o n n e c t i n g pieces

—

Speeches and prayers (concentration o f central theological points)

Based o n the transmission historical investigation, i f a t e x t under c o n sideration suggests itself as the first r e c o r d i n g o f oral material, then i t is e n t i r e l y sufficient f o r an exegetical exercise ( l i k e an exegesis paper) to pursue t w o questions i n this difficult

field:

1. R e g a r d i n g the t e x t f o r m o f this phase, what c o u l d be attributed to the first written version? O n e should aseertain redactional measures w h i c h eonsolidate, strueture, and adapt a text t o t h e framework of a l i t e r ­ ary e n t i t y . Indeed one should aseertain these measures by extracti n g a earefully deduced oral f o r m o f the text, and by ascertaining agreement w i t h similar measures i n other places i n the same w r i t i n g . M o r e recent secondary literature should p o i n t t o these places. 2. W h a t material intentions are expressed i n these redactional measures of the first written version i n view o f the total o r d e r i n g , aetualization, and acceiituation o f the transmission as n o w shown? A g a i n , parallel

>*î Thus the Yahwist, when forniing the paradise narrative (Gen 2:4b-3:24), used an older paradise story which entered Gen 2:4h-3:24 as a clearly defined transmission piece and therefore belongs to the transmission historical prehistory of Gen 2:4b—3:24. Alongside this older story, he also used knowledge such as the concept ot ereation lying behind 2:7 or the concept of the trec of life, Undouhtedly, hc also leamed these materials through the medium of texts, but hc did not bring tbese texts into his paradise narrative with their original contexts. As a rcsult, they can only bc methodologically pereeivcd on die tradition historical path (cf. Steck, Wahrnehmungen, ρ. 48-51). 84 Examples: Gen 6:5-8 + 8:20-22 and Gen 32:10-13 (Yahwist); 1 Sam 23:14-18 and 26:25a (author of die History of the Ascendancy, cf. R. Rendtorff, "Beobachtungen zur israelitischen Geschichtsschreibung anhand der Geschichte vom Aufstieg Davids," in Probleme biblischer The­ ologie. Festschrift Gerhard v. Rad, 1971, p. 428-439 especially 43 I footnote 17).

84

appearances i n die same w r i t i n g , at the same i n i t i a l l i t e r a r y layer, serve a substantiating f u n c t i o n . 2. Snbseqnent Stages Tnsofar as a text has a further l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y after its first w r i t t e n c o m p i l a t i o n , then one should ask the redaction historical question anew for each o f die text's redactional stages. The directions given for the first written version apply correspondingly to the redac­ tional processes which play a role in the redactional stages. When creating a literary context, a nedacto can simultancously mcorporate written texts alongside oral transmis­ sions. in some circumstances, this new usage nepresents a second redactional stage. A redactor can unite two or more individual texts (or relatedly complexes), which already ex;st in written form, into a larger entity. hese transmission pieces may be combmed either by interweaving the accounts. or by aitaching them to one another in blockst Fi­ nally, the redactional activity can manifest rtself in pre-existing wrrtten texts which may be expanded and revised by the redactor's o w o formulations. This activity may occur in the procedures already noted but may also occur independently ofthe formation of larger" lit­ erary compositions (or relatedly literary works). Ii redaction history is directed toward an extensive text complex o f several literary layers, then it seeks to recognize connections between the redactional work o f each individua! text. From that recognition, it seeks to reconstruct entire redactional layers and to situate these historically ard theoiogically. r

115

T

8b

7

m

39

Tn the redaction historical t r e a n n e n t o f a t e x t s stages w h i c h are subsequent to the first w r i t t e n version, i t is best to differentiate between diose texts w h i c h present themselves analytically (according to § 4 ) as l i t e r a r i l y composite and those w h i c h are l i t e r a r i l y homogenous. 85 Example: The incorporation of die memorial of Isa 6-8* into a more extensive collection ot lsaiah transmission (see Rarüi, Die Je.siijii- Wime in derjosiiizeit, 282 284). 8* For cxamplcs, sce above footnote 29. 8? For cxamplcs, sec above footnote 28. 8* For cxamplcs. sec footnote 30. For die Classification of glosses (small, clarifving additions which, in certain circumstances, may be only a single word), see G. Fohrcr, "Die Glossen im Buche Ezechiel," ZAW6Ì (1951): 33-53. In those places where die redactional work Stands in die context of tbe first written version of an extensive work (especially a narrative), then that which was said in "Id" above, p. 83, applieü. For example, in tbe case of the Deuteronomistic History,

comparc the position and tbe type of redactional formulations injosh 1*; Judg 5:31b; 1 Kgs 8: 14fr, 2 Kits 17:7-23; 22.1 f; 23:24-30, etc.

sv Examples: Isolation of Deuteronomistic redactional layers in the complex of Deuteronomy—2 Kings (cf Kaiser, introduction to the Old Testament, §16): a Deuleionoinistic redactional layer in Arnos ( b y H.VV. Wolff, Joel and Arnos. Henneneia (Philadelphia: 1977 [1969]) or relatedly die Deuteronomistic material in Jeremiah ( b y W Thiel, Die denteronomistische Redaktion von Jeremia 1-25, 1973). Isolation of a redaction of the lsaiah transmission in the time of Josiah (by Barth, Die Jesafa-Worte in der Josiazeit). Isolation of redactional layers which produce a connection be­ tween lsaiah 1-39* and lsaiah 40-62* ( b y O H . Steck, Bereitete Heimkehr, SBS 121, 1985).

C o m m e n t a r y on the Approach and M e t h o d

a. Literarily

85

Composite Texts

L e t us examine the case i n w h i c h a w r i t t e n t e x t (first w r i t t e n version) later reeeives further

additions and changes. I f these additions and

changes do n o t derive f r o m the same l i t e r a r y level, then, i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , one seeks t o determine t h e i r relative sequence. I n order to profile the redaction historical process, the f o l l o w i n g i l h i m i n a t i n g questions are asked for each stage which has been extracted: •

I n w h i c h position is dre change/addition placed i n the text? Does i t exhibit a material f u n c t i o n t o w a r d the pre-existing text w h i c h is structural, a m p l i f y i n g , c o r r e c t i n g , and/or connective?

•

How is the change/addition formulated? Does i t take u p f o r m u l a t i o n s f r o m the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t for reference, m o o r i n g , strengthening, o r reaccentuation? Does i t w o r k w i t h f o r m u l a t i o n s w h i c h are f o u n d i n dre immediate or broader context i n order t o create i n t e n t i o n a l re­ lationships to the pre-existing text and t o direet the reader t o notice these relationships? M a y one understand die change/addition as a conscious, a m p l i f y i n g c o u n t e r - f o r n i u l a t i o n to these f o r m u l a t i o n s f r o m die i m m e d i a t e o r n e i g h b o r i n g context? Concordance w o r k is indispensable for this task. I t should consider characteristic words and w o r d ensembles. T h e goal o f this aspect is again: W h a t new aecent, and in what manner, does this redactional change bring?

Because o f the interdependence o f the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l steps, the m e t h ­ odological approaches o f § § 7 - 1 0 must also be ineluded t o elarify these ques­ tions. T h i s fact is self-evident here as elsewhere. More far-re?.ching are the aspeets wnich pertain to the ordering of these redaction h;storical manifesrations found in the text under consideratien. Düring a student's exe­ gesis, these aspeets should only be traced with support of secondary literature: • Does this ehange/aedition revise only the specific text and, if need be, its immediate context from the same literary level? Does it therefore concern only a specific disruption whose horizon is a limited context? Are there related mamfestations from the same literary level? How does the literary work appear wnen it reeeives these spe­ cific additions? • O r is the change/addition to the text a cornerstone for an expanded reformulated lit­ erary work as a whole? In other w o r a s , is it an element of a comprehenstve redaction of this work? Tbs possibility is suggested, for example: — if the redactional disruption gives the text a prominent position in the macrostructure of the writing (e.g, the addition of Isa 51:1 I = 3 5 : 1 0 ) , or if a bridgmg function between larger sections of the wnting should be observed; — if the redactional disruption makes the text stand out as the bearer of a material concern ofthe redaction which provides significance for other redactional disruptions in the writing;

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— if the text thus produces untntelíigíble trains of thought regarding the text's for­ mulation and its sequence of Statements, but these thoughts point beyond them­ selves and Droduce their function in reference to the total redactional profile of the wnting. An essential cnterion for an assignation of this type, as for ali redactional manifes tations, occurs when the text concerns processes which do not stand aione. Rather, these processes expressiv serve the purpose of accentuating a larger literary entity which is thus being revised. This purpose is similar to superscriptions, structural blocks, and larger coherent, redactional formulations. l'he formulation of concepts or word ensembles can also offer help in recogniz­ ing redactional measures on older text material when it can be demonstrated that they are also characteristic for a writing's redaction. Deuteronomistic formulations in the Deuteronomistic History and in jeremiah present a striking example of this aspect. How­ ever, one must guard against overvaiuation at this point In non-Deuteronomistic prophetic redaction the same line of thought from the same irterary layer may be formu­ lated quite differently because the language is bound to the existing immediate context (for example, cf. Isa i I: I I I 6 to 27:1 2f; and Isa 35 to 62:10-12!). insofar as possible, one should attempt to situate a text's redactional m a n i festation w i t h reference to its p o s i t i o n and f u n c t i o n i n the redaction o f the en­ tire w r i t i n g and the w r i t i n g ' s compositional strueture. Insofar as possible, one should also attempt to ga in m o r e detailed historical determinations about this redactional layer according to § 9 . b. Literarily Homogenous Texts T w o cases should be considered: In an Old Testament literary w o r k which has experienced a multi-layered develop­ ment into Its final form, the procedures of §§4-6 can establish that a text had probably already reeeived its iiteraniy homogenous

form with the prsi written version More recent dis-

ruptions do not appear in the text even though the writing to which it belongs has grown considcrably after its initial phase. If so. the redaction historical approach is not profitable for this particular text in regard to subsequent developmental stages. However. the redaction historical approach does prove helpful by asking whetherthe position and func­ tion of the integrated text have subsequenlly changed with the growth of the wriiing (by restrjeturing, expand>ng, or recreating the context o f t h e writing). Even after its initial insenption, contextual reaccentuations of an lsaiah text like 5:8-10 can thus be traced through ali stages ofthe developing lsaiah book. T h e second case is m o r e i m p o r t a n t . A l i t e r a r i l y homogenous t e x t has no background i n orally t r a n s m i t t e d material before the w r i t i n g o r i g i n a t e d , n o r has the t e x t been incorporated as w r i t t e n material d u r i n g any stage o f the w r i t ­ i n g . Rather, the t e x t has been composed i n its entirety, from the b e g i n n i n g , for some phase o f the c o n t i n u a t i o n o f that w r i t i n g . T h e t e x t is thus a redauional formulation. T h i s p h e n o m e n o n was already m e n t i o n e d i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o § 6 , and i t appears that, u n t i l now, n o t enough consideration has been aceorded to this facet i n O l d Testament research, especially i n die area o f the Prophets, b u t also die Psalms. I n certain circumstances, i f causes one to reexamine the

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l i t e r a r y critical analysis once again. M a n y texts appear to be composites be­ cause one observes t h e m in I s o l a t i o n , and because one does not takc i n t o account a unified redactional text's diversity of perspective over the entire re­ vised w n t i n g . O n e must therefore consider w h e t h e r a l i t e r a r i l y homogenous t e x t i s really a redactional f o r m u l a t i o n . Section "a" spoke of changes/additions which literary criticism uncovereo within a literarily composite t e x t If these changes/additions exhibit a redactional eharacter related to the whole work, rather than just a narrow contextual horizon, then the redactional formulation is differentiated from them. The redactional formulation is difierentiated by the fact that it does not appear as an intrusion into the older text. Rather, the text represents an original, unified text created fortne redaction of the wnting. On a large scale, the redactional formulation funetions in the framework of the entire re­ vised writing like the addition/change funetions in an older text on a small scale. I f one represents the reeeived l i t e r a r y material f r o m an earlier phase o f the w r i t i n g by using an e m p t y box, and the new redactional additions by a shaded box, then the f o l l o w i n g schematic d r a w i n g results:

4

1

2

1 = Redactional addition to older texts 2 = Older texts without redactional intrusion

3

1

3 = Redactional formulations 4 = Supersciiption

W h a t characteristics could suggest a redactional formulation? • Such texts prefer l i t e r a r y seams. TTiey oceupy an explanatory posi­ t i o n i n the total strueture o f the w r i t i n g . T h e y have an explanatory, b r i d g i n g , or coneluding f u n c t i o n i n view o f die entire revised w o r k . N o t infrequently, several o f these texts refer to one another. • As w i t h ali redactional f o r m u l a t i o n s , these texts do n o t stand o n their o w n . T h e y constantly stand i n r e l a t i o n to the l i t e r a r y surroundings w h i c h are b e i n g revised and i n r e l a t i o n to the entire w r i t i n g w h i c h is being struetured. • These texts coineide w i t h redactional accentuations w h i c h the w r i t ­ i n g also demonstrates i n this layer as a w h o l e and i n other redac­ tional places. T h e y do so i n strueture, sequence o f Statements, and subject profile. •

Regarding t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n the entire revised w r i t i n g , these texts serve t o strueture and enrich the w h o l e i n the sense o f preeision, reaccentuation, c o r r e c t i o n , and later expansion.

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T h e r e f o r e , w h a t facilitates the acceptance o f a l i t e r a r i l y homogenous text as a redactional formulation? • The literarily homogenous text appanently represents a "text for the book" according to those characteristics already mentioned. It shows -itself from the outset to be created for a larger literary framework, The text gains its function solely from this framework, Correspondingly. when observed in Isolation, it. is not really understandabie. One comprehends betten however, if one sees it in connection with the entire literary work for which Ί was created. Also, one can see how the text, in the mmd of the redactor, wants to direct its appropriate reader reception. Redactional formulations are directed toward the contmuing reader reception ofthe entire writing. The deter­ mination of a redactional formulation therefore presupooses insighi into the origin and construetion ofthe relevant redaction for the entire wnting. Also, it gains essen­ tial support by demonstratmg corresponding redactional intrusion in other places of the writing. • Redactional formulations are differentiated from new fermulations which are not bound to the transmission of a wnting, because the redactional formulations are cotrelared to the literary entity which they revise. This conscious referencing is expressed in the contextual position in which ii is placed, but especially in the thoughtful ere­ ation of references to the context ofthe wnting (preceding and/or subsequent). The iatter is true even though the redactional formulation (depending on the scope of the amplifying intention) must by no means consist solely of these references. The eharacter of these references :S at first ambiguous. Perceiving them as a liter­ ary cevice can only be aceomplished through foundational concordance w o r k Hence a series of perspectives come into view: — Does the text's formulation point to interrelotionships wilh other formulations in the frame of the same work? W i t h heuristically exposed evidence, the following comes into view: irterally repeated formulations (unintroduced quotes), eharacteristic word ensembles, charactenstic words, allusions, counter-formulations, and references to content. — How do these inrerrelationships operotel Which is the older contributing text? Which is the more recent, receiving and assimilating text? - If the text is to be treated as a redactional cross-reference (i.e. a conscious liter­ ary cross-reference) which serves the reader reception, then tnree alternatives must be eliminated: I-

2.

3.

One must eliminate the possibrity that the reference is only a widely used, tradrtional phrase. For example, the messenger formula in a prophetic wnting is not, by itself, a literary cross-reference in this writing. One must eliminate the possibility that the references are not treating stock language within the scope of small units in the pre-iiterary phase. For example, these appear in various psalms, and inside lsaiah - or Deutero-lsaiah—logia. One must eliminate the possibility that the reference simply draws upon knowledge ofthe older reference without implying that it must presume a iiterary/redactional adoption within ine framework and within the service of a book's cohesion. For example, do the cross-references of Trito-lsaiah demonstrate on oceasion. that Trito-lsaian knows Deutero-lsaiah, or do they mark redactional connections in the framework of a literary continuation?

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— The following can serve as evidence that the reaactiona! eharacter of a cross-refer­ ence operates within the frame of the literary work; 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

The redactional adoption musi be shown to be literarily dependent upon the older (or at least redactionaily contemporary) contributing text within the framework ofthe writing's developmental history. The redactional adoption also implicftly presupposes the contnbutmg text's literary positon and context for the redactor and reader The receiving text elsewhere exhibits characteristics of a redaction t e x t The reference is reconciled with the procedure and the matenai concept as manifested in this redactional laycr elsewhere in the wnting, The reference produces its meaning for the author, and the reader (!), m conneetion with the contexts of the redactional formulation and with the strueture of the revised wnting. Also, it consequently presupposes the continuing reader reception ofthe redactional work as a whole.

One must therefore think literarily and, for the benefit of a redactional formula­ tion, one must continually ask the basic questions: In order to understand lins texl do the redactor and reader presuppose the writing's preceding or subsequent context? And should this text strueture and illummate the entire wnting? — Here, as elsewhere, it is methodologically important to eliminate other options. Constellations of the alternatives (2) and (3), mentioned above, do not lead to redaction texts relating to the entire writing. Rather, they lead to "smaller units," that is to texts without an ongmal relationship to the context. texts which stand alone. texts which are understandable by themselves, and which are selfcontained literary transcription; of texts which were orally transmitted. I t is self-evident that when d e t e r m i n i n g redactional f o r m u l a t i o n one may o n l y gain suffieient c e r t a i n t y by means o f a redaction historical investigation o f the entire l i t e r a r y w o r k . T h i s l i t e r a r y w o r k must also have gained a clear picture o f the redactional process, strueture, Organization, and subject profile o f the redactional phase for diat w r i t i n g i n whose c o m p o s i t i o n diese re­ dactional f o r m u l a t i o n s have t h e i r setting. A c c o r d i n g t o § 9 , m o r e detailed h i s ­ torical d e t e r m i n a t i o n m u s t also come i n t o plav at this p o i n t r e g a r d i n g the redactional layer f r o m w h i c h this f o r m u l a t i o n derives. A l s o , redactional f o r ­ m u l a t i o n s can be intluenced by o t h e r elements, apart from t h e i r internal ref­ erences to the b o o k (traditions according to § 8 , k n o w l e d g e o f f o r m u l a t i o n s f r o m other w r i t i n g s , influence of n e i g h b o r i n g canonical books, etc.).

I I I . S u m m a r y o f die Redaction H i s t o r i c a l Procedure T h e redaction historical approach investigates the i n t e r n a l ( l i t e r a r y c r i t i ­ cism) and the external (context) processes w h i c h may be observed from the text's development d u r i n g the w r i t t e n transmission. T h e t i m e p e r i o d eovered by the investigation Stretches from the first w r i t t e n version o f orally t r a n s m i t ­ ted material u n t i l the last productive change o f a text and/or its context at the

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conclusion o f O l d Testament w r i t i n g s . W h e n t r e a t i n g the realm o f the first w r i t t e n version, the redaction historical approach begins w i t h the results o f §5 (transmission units and, i f necessary, the j o i n i n g o f these oral units). T h e ap­ proach turns to the productive process o f tbe r e c o r d i n g o f these transmission u n i t s i n relationship t o f o r m u l a t i o n and/or O r g a n i z a t i o n . W h e n t r e a t i n g the r e m a i n i n g stages, the redaction historical approach begins w i t h the results o f § 4 ( l i t e r a r i l y homogenous o r l i t e r a r i l y composite text). Redaction historical investigation can be guided by the f o l l o w i n g ques­ tions: For the first written version: a. D i d § 5 determine that the text had already essentially been f o r m u ­ lated i n oral tradition? I f so, t h e n one does n o t expect a significant p o r t i o n to be redactionally f o r m u l a t e d , o r redactional f o r m u l a t i o n s are m i n i m a l . T h e redactional p o r t i o n may t h e n consist o f the c o d i f i cation, and after that, the c o l l e c t i o n and o r d e r i n g o f the m a t e r i a l i f this had n o t already occurred in oral t r a d i t i o n (catchword connect i o n , transitional f o r m u l a t i o n s , superscriptions, and subscriptions). b. D i d §5 determine that the text's f o r m u l a t i o n c o u l d , i n practical terms, h a r d l y be gieaned exclusively f r o m oral tradition? I f so, t h e n the text essentially results f r o m and for the first w r i t t e n version ( h o m o g e n e i t y over against the redactional profile o f the entire l i t e r a r y context). Tt is then necessary to determine m o r e precisely the signifi­ cant redactional p o r t i o n i n the f o r m u l a t i o n , c o l l e c t i o n , and o r d e r ­ i n g i n l i g h t o f the pre-existing material. For the remaining stages: c. D i d § 4 determine that the text was a literarily composite text? I f so, t h e n one must evaluate t w o possibilities: aa. Does the text indicate t h a t w r i t t e n materials o f diverse o r i g i n have been redactionally u n i t e d i n t o a single e n t i t y (e.g. the c o m p i l a t i o n o f sources) and then j o i n e d (or c o m p a r e d ) using redac­ tional transitions, etc.? bb. Does the foundationaJ t e x t e.xist i n a w r i t t e n f o r m w h i c h has been expanded by p a r t i c u l a r f o r m u l a t i o n s p r e c e d i n g the text, w i t h i n i t , o r c o n c l u d i n g it? D o diese f o r m u l a t i o n s concern i n d i v i d u a l i z e đ glosses and additions w h i c h are solely focussed o n die n a r r o w h o r i z o n o f die i m m e d i a t e context? O r are the additions pa r t o f a redactional c o n t i n u a t i o n ot the entire w r i t i n g (concurrence w i t h other redactional f o r m u l a t i o n s , a n d w i t h the c o n ­ struetion and the macrostrueture o f the same layer)? I n either case, for each developmental stage, o n e should h i g h l i g h t die type of compilation leading to the current text i n its e n t i r e t y (revising and [!] revised). I f the processes are redactional, then they should be

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placed i n relationship to parallel manitestations and t o the c o m p o s i ­ t i o n o f the redactional layer (setting o f the t e x t i n the w h o l e ) . d. Does § 4 determine that the t e x t is literarily homogenous} f f so, then one should again examine t w o possibilities: aa. Is die text a c o m p o n e n t o f an older w r i t t e n transmission whose f o r m u l a t i o n was not changed even to the final f o r m o f the w r i t ­ ing? I f necessary, this w r i t t e n transmission c o u l d have had oral t r a d i t i o n background as described i n (a) and ( b ) . I f i t was part o f an older w r i t t e n transmission, then redaction h i s t o r y should de­ t e r m i n e the o r i g i n a l l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t o f this text along w i t h the t e x t s setting and f u n c t i o n in that context. T h e same is t r u e for all other contexts i n w h i c h the text is used i n the course o f t i m e , and the indirect changes w h i c h the text de facto experienced as a result o f the change o f context. D u r i n g these c o n t e x t changes, the text becomes revised. bb. Is die text o f a type w h i c h has been w r i t t e n just for its l i t e r a r y context, for the purpose o f e o n t i n u i n g , o r i e n t i n g , o r s t r u e t u r i n g the w o r k b e i n g formed? I f so, redaction h i s t o r y should deter­ m i n e the entire redactional level i n w h i c h this c o n t r i b u t i o n is admitted t o a redaction o f the w r i t i n g . Further, redaction his­ t o r y should determine the redactional attributes w h i c h characterize this redaction text. I t shoidd also specifically determine the eompositional and material f u n c t i o n o f this type o f text for the w h o l e . I n this case, the text belongs to the revising c o m ­ ponent o f a w r i t i n g . I f there are m o r e recent, productive devel­ opmental phases o f the entire w r i t i n g , then n a t u r a l l y the revis­ i n g text of an earlier phase itself becomes part o f that w h i c h the m o r e recent stage revises. T h e l i t e r a r y h o r i z o n in w h i c h a unified t e x t was first f o r m u l a t e d is most pivotal for the redaction historical investigation. A redaction historical investigation constontiy has to ask: 1. D o redactional processes manifest themselves by the formulations and/or the t h o u g h t f u l composition o f the context ( i m m e d i a t e and entire)? 2. F r o m diese processes, w h a t belongs t o the same literary layer, that is to the same redaction o f the work (eorrelation w i t h §4)? 3. W h a t eharacteriz.es this redaction regarding the way it works and its material traits} 4. T o w h a t degree do the redactional processes signify a change o f the whole, even o f the work's revised text material? 5. I f different redactional processes follow u p o n one another (in the text and/or its context), w h i c h changes show diis progression as such?

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C. R E S U L T S I . I n s i g h t i n t o the Changes o f a T e x t i n W r i t t e n T r a d i t i o n T h a t w h i c h was said f o r transmission h i s t o r y i n § 5 C I also applies to redaction history. I I . Redaction H i s t o r y as A c t u a l i z i n g Procedure That w h i c h was said for transmission h i s t o r y i n § 5 C I I also applies t o redaction history. I I I . Redaction H i s t o r y as die H i s t o r y o f Israels F a i t h T h a t w h i c h was said for transmission h i s t o r y i n §5 C I I I also applies t o redaction h i s t o r y

D. L I T E R A T U R E I. I N T R O D U C T I O N , F O U N D A T I O N , A N D OVERVIEW J. Barton. "Redaction Criticism."' A B D , Vol. 5, p. 644-647. G. Fohrer. Exegese, § 9B. Κ. Koch. The Growth of Biblical Tradition. p. 57-67. II. EXPANSION A N D CRI'IICAL ALTERNATIVES Η . Birkeland. Z u m hebräischen Traditionswesen (see § 5 D I I ) . Chr. Dohnien. Rezeptionsforschung und Glaubensgeschichte. T T h Z 96 (1987): 123 134. M . Fisbbane. Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. Oxford, 1985. I I . W H e m b e r g . Die Nachgeschichte aittcstanienthchcr Texte innerhalb des A k e n Testaments. In: Werden und Wesen des A k e n Testaments. B Z A W 66. Berlin, 1936. p. 110-121. (also in: H e m b e r g , Beitrage zur Traditionsgesehichie und Theologie des Alten Testaments. Göttingen, 1962. p. 69-80). Chr. Levin. Die Verheißung des neuen Bundes in ihrem thcologiegeschichtlichen Zusammenhang ausgelegt. F R L A N T 137. Göttingen, 1985. S. Mowinckel. Prophecv and Tradition (see § 5 D I I ) . G. v. Rad. O l d Testament Theology. Vol. 2, p. 33-49. W Richter. Exegese, p. 165-173. O.H.Steck. "Prophetische Prophetenauslegung." I n : H.F. Geißer. et al, eds. Wahrheit der Schrift—Wahrheit der Auslegung. Zürich, 1993. ρ. 198-244. R. Wonneberger. Redaktion. Studien zur Textfortschreibung i m Alten lestament. F R L A N T 156. Göttingen, 1991. Works Dcdicated to die Discussion of Intertextuality U . Broich and M . Pfister, eds. lntertextualität. Formen, Funktionen. Anglistische Fallstudien. T ü b i n g e n , 1985.

Literature

93

Κ. Nielsen, "lntertextuality as Biblical Scholarship." ScandJOT 2 (1990): 89-95. D . N . Fewell, ed. Reading Between Texts: lntertextuality and the Hebrew Bible. Louisville, 1992. bor the "Canonical Approach," see: J. Barr. Holy Scripture: Canon, Audiority, Criticism. Oxford, 1983. B.S. Childs. Old Testament Theolog)- in a Canonical Context. Minneapolis, 1989. . Biblical Theology of the Old and New Testaments. Minneapolis, 1993. G. T. Sheppard. "Canonieal Criticism." A B D , Vol. 1, 861-866. Cornpare also tbe contributions t o J S O Τ 16 (1980).

Ul. ILLUSTRATIVE EXECUTION H . Barth. Die Jesaja-Worte in der Josiazeit. Israel und Assur als Thema einer pro­ duktiven Neuinterpretation der Jesajaüberüeferung. W M A N T 48. NeukirchcnVluyn, 1977. T. Collins. The Alande of Elijah. The Redaction Criticism of the Frophetieal Hooks. BiSe20. Sheffield, 1993. E L . Hossfeld and E. Zenger. Die Psalmen. Psalm 1-50. N E B . YVürzhurg, 1993. De Vries, S.J. Front OKI Revelation to New: Α Tradition-IIistorical and RedactionCritical Study of Temporal Transitions in Prophetic Prediction. Grand Rapids, 1995. J. Jeremias. »Ich bin wie ein Löwe für Efraini . . .<•· (Hos. 5,14). L i : 11. Merklein and I i . Zenger, eds. «-Ich will euer Gott werden«. SBS 100. p. 75-95. Stuttgart, 1981. . Hosea 4-7. Beobachtungen zur Koniposition des Buches Hosea. I n : A.H.J. Gunneweg and O. Kaiser, eds. Textgemäß. Festschrift E. W ü r t h w e i n . p. 47-58. Göttingen, 1979. R.G. Kratz. Kyros i m Deuterojesaja-Buche. FAT 1. T ü b i n g e n , 1991. J.D. Nogalski. Literary Precursors to the Book of che Twelve. B Z A W 217. Berlin: 1993. Redactional Processes in die Book of die Twelve. B Z A W 218. Berlin: 1993, M . Noth. The Deuteronomistic History. Sheffield, 1981. . The Chroniclers History. Sheffield, 1987. I . W. Provan. He/.ekiah and the Book of Kings. B Z A W 172. Berlin—New York, 1988. O.H. Steck. Bereitete Heimkehr. SBS 121. Stuttgart, 1985. M . A . Sweeney. Isaiah 1-4 and the Post-Exilic Understanding of die Isaianic Tradition. B Z A W Í 71. Berlin-New York, 1988. G . H . Wilson. The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter. Chico, CA, 1985. IV. HISTORY OF RESEARCH K . Koch. The Growtb of Biblical Tradition, p. 64-67.

Form Critical Approach

Α.

I H K TASK

T. T h e O v e r a r e h i n g Q u e s t i o n of the Presuppositions of a Text or Its Stages A n y o n e w h o has investigated an O l d Testament text, several verses in l e n g t h , according to § § 4 - 6 w i l l have gained a reasoned p i c t u r e o f its develop­ mental history. Either, one w i l l be able to c o n f i r m this by the interdependency of the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l approaches i n the procedural steps of § § 7 - 9 , o r one must revise the p i c t u r e . T h i s p i c t u r e can certainly take different f o n n s . T h e text can manifest itself as literarily homogenous, w i d i or w i t h o u t earlier stages in oral transmission. I f so, one or t w o developmental stages stand o u t i n par­ ticular. However, the text can also consolidate several developmental stages, namely, w h e n the text is l i t e r a r i l y composite and thus reeeives f o r m u l a t i o n s f r o m several authors at various times. I n any case, the investigation o f § § 4 - 6 demonstrated that the text components can be isolatcd f r o m one another ac­ c o r d i n g to the developmental stages. As a r u l e , diese may be isolated i n f o r m u ­ lations w i t h i n die text. T h e p r e l i t e r a r y oral stage constitutes a significant exception, O n the one hand, w i t h narratives, one can o n l y aseertain the subject matter and o u t l i n e , n o t the precise expression. O n the o d i e r hand, p r o p h e t i c logia constitute an exception where the oral f o r m has been C o n d e n s e d and changed i n t o die existing w r i t t e n version for the purpose o f f u r t h e r trans­ mission. T h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l steps o f § § 7 - 9 n o w treat each o f a text s develop­ mental stages w h i c h have been separated. D e p e n d i n g u p o n the conclusions ascertained i n § § 4 - 6 , these steps each b e g i n w i t h the oral transmission stage, then move across stages o f l i t e r a r y g r o w t h to the existing final f o r m w i t h its own linguistic eharacter. *

*

*

96

W h a t is the material basis t o r the approaches of§§7-9 for each o f the text's developmental stages? N o one works on a t e x t entirely in a vaeuum. This is true for die one w h o drafts a narrative, and especially for the one w h o l o r m u l a t e s a legal saying, a c u l t i c song, a w i s d o m saying, or a p r o p h e t i c l o g i o n . I t is also t r u e for the one w h o appends s o m e t h i n g to a f o r m u l a t i o n , for the one w h o later conjoins t w o different older formulations, or the one w h o inserts a redactional f o r m u l a t i o n i n t o an existing text. O n e selects the means of expression w h i c h one's language provides. One draws u p o n textual patterns w h i c h already exist i n one's l i n g u i s ­ tic w o r l d (e.g. legal saying, prayer, h y m n ) . A n y o n e w i s h i n g t o f o r m u late some­ t h i n g comparablc ( § 7 ) works w i t h catchwords o r w o r d associations f r o m intellectually pre-fashionea linguisticfields w h i c h are familiär t o the author and to the author's addressees (§8). Last b u t not least, the author's f o r m u l a t i o n addresses elements from the concrete-historical world i n w h i c h the author lives ( § 9 ) . A l i o f these elements are existing, supra-individualistic materials w h i c h are significant for tbe one w h o formulates. A text contains presuppositions w h i c h an author shares along w i t h conscious or unconscious knowledge and c u l t u r e . O n e must clarify these f o r m u l a t i o n s and simultaneously i l h i m i n a t e the d y n a m i c path to f o r m u l a t i o n i n order to determine w h a t one formulates, w h y i t was f o r m u l a t e d i n precisely this manner, w h a t the author means and intends w i t h these f o r m u ­ lations. O n l y i n this manner can one b r i n g t o l i g h t those places where an author creatively adapts these materials (e.g. deviations from text patterns, o r a breach o f l i n g u i s t i c fields). T h i s i n s i g h t is indispensable for d e t e r m i n i n g the profile o f the f o r m u l a t i o n antl the specific i n t e n t i o n o f its Statements. ]

W i t h §7 we encounter once again a field o l closely related methods w h i c h ali treat the presuppositions o f a text, or each o f the text's ascertained stages, i n its o w n respeetive w o r l d . F o r m c r i t i c i s m ( § 7 ) determines die setting o f a text in its existing linguistic w o r l d . T r a d i t i o n criticism (§8) determines the setting o f a text i n its intcllectually pre-fashimied world. T h e historical s e t t i n g ( § 9 ) deter­ mines the setting o f the conerete historical w o r l d . 11. S t a r t i n g P o i n t I n f o r m criticism, the text is divided i n t o each o f its developmental stages. Fach is then investigated r e g a r d i n g its linguistic shape i n o r d e r t o recognize the clues for meaning w h i c h manifest themselves f r o m the l i n g u i s t i c shape. T h e r e f o r e , one must k n o w how this text's l i n g u i s t i c shape č a m e t o be. T h e au­ thor, as w i t h the author's addressees, shared a pre-existing linguistic world. F r o m t h a t w o r l d , already available patterns and possibilities are adopted i n order t o communicate what the author wants to say. A n d sometimes the author d e v i ates ft'oni t h e m as w e l l . One may differentiate various levels r e g a r d i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h the l i n g u i s t i c shape o f the author's Statement exhibits t o the existing linguistic w o r l d . Progressing f r o m the specific t o the w h o l e , these

T h e Task

97

levels inelude: the tona/ level w h i c h observes the sound o f the statement; the •word level i n w h i c h the individual words o f the text should be investigated; the sentence level treats the i n d i v i d u a l sentences, and finallv the text level treats the text as a w h o l e w i d i its sentences and words. T h e n o r m a l elements c o n s t r u e t i n g the language, such as the lexically imderstandable vocabulary o r tbe syntactical rules, are all considered part o f the existing l i n g u i s t i c p a t t e r n and possibilities for the level of sound, words, and sentences. Further, stylistic devices like a l l i t e r a t i o n , assonance, metaphorical speech. o r parallelismus memborum are also considered part o f the linguistic p a t t e r n . T h e fixed speech patterns are o f particular signifieanee for the text level. T h e y provide the linguistic c o n t o u r t o the t e x t as a w h o l e . Exegesis calls these t e x t types genres. W e also k n o w genres o f this t y p e i n o u r o w n l i n g u i s ü c w o r l d : official b i r t h announcements, w e d d i n g announcements, obituaries, job applications, prescriptions, recipes, nlenus, memos, etc." T o a large degree the l i n g u i s t i c utterances d u r i n g the t i m e p e r i o d o f O l d Testament transmissions were f o r m u l a t e d neither freely nor caprieiously. Rather, they were f o r m u l a t e d i n c o n n c c t i o n w i t h existing, fixed text patterns. 0

Ehe seleetion o l die linguistic pattern and die possibilities for i o r m u l a t i n g a text i n a n t i q u i t y were likewise neither accidental n o r arbitrary. T h e y depend u p o n w h i c h perspective the author wants t o use to State and t o c o m m u n i c a t e die facts (statement's outiook). T h e y depend u p o n the i n t e n t i o n s w h i c h the au­ t h o r associates w i t h this l i n g u i s t i c utterance (statement's intention). T h e r e f o r e , one must pay a t t e n t i o n t o the life process i n whose f r a m e w o r k the l i n g u i s t i c utterance takes place (life setting. Sitz im Leben). O n e example f r o m o u r l i n ­ guistic w o r l d w i l l illustrate. Someone w h o wants to c o m m u n i c a t e tbe death and funeral o f a relative publicly, w i l l compose an o b i t u a r y according to a pat­ t e r n o f f o r m u l a t i o n w h i c h is fixed even d o w n t o the vocabulary and sentence c o n s t r u e t i o n . T h e same death is also r e p o r t e d i n other text patterns w h e n different types o f convcntional procedures treat the event and change the cor­ responding perspective and i n t e n t i o n . These inelude: the official, medical c o n firmation of the cause o f death, the death certificate, the personal, tactful, s y m patbetic note w h i c h gently notifies a relative, and the eulogy, etc. I n addition to the f o r m , each o f diese vary i n sentence f o r m u l a t i o n and vocabulary. T h e v also follow diverse patterns. T h u s , i n view o f the stated facts, there exists a certain coiTelation between the specific linguistic shape o f a text and the specific o u t ­ i o o k and i n t e n t i o n o f the statement." Someone speaking today k n o w s w h i c h 1

Ό Comparc numerous examples in Lohfmk, The Bible: Nov.' 1 Gel lt.' Α Form-Criticism Hamlbook. "1 Richter {Exegese, p. 32,-11-43) presupposes that the aspeets of form and content can be dif­ ferent for a linguistic utterance. The fact that the substance of diis utterance cannot be properly appreciated without determining their form also corresponds to our understanding {Exegese, p. 38,421,114,119). 1 lowever, profound differences exist in rwo respects. T h e first concerns the

98

§7

FORM CRITICAL

APPROACH

l i n g u i s t i c f o r m m u s t be u t i l i z e d in o r d e r t o State s o m e t h i n g f r o m a c e r t a i n p e r ­ spective and i n t e n t i o n . One's listeners p a r t i c i p a t e i n the same l i n g u i s t i c w o r l d and can therefore r e c o g n i z e the i n t e n t i o n s o f the S p e a k e r b y the f o r m o f

the

S t a t e m e n t . As readers o f an O l d T e s t a m e n t text, we m u s t also i n q u i r e i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n about the c o r r e l a t i o n . T h e

author's o u d o o k and

intention

must

be deduced f r o m the l i n g u i s t i c shape. H o w e v e r , since the l i n g u i s t i c w o r l d o f ancient Israel is no l o n g e r i n t i m a t e l y f a m i l i ä r t o us, t h i s d e d u e t i o n can

only

occur i n the process offbrm critical reconstruetion. In s u m m a t i o n : W h o e v e r w o r k s f o r m c r i t i c a l l y o n the O l d Testament, m u s t observe t h e conerete H e b r e w ( o r A r a m a i c ) l i n g u i s ü c shape i n w h i c h a t e x t b r i n g s a specific c o n d i t i o n i n t o view. O n e m u s t deduce the i n t e n t i o n s w h i c h are expressed by this f o r m . O n e m u s t consider, o f course, d i a t o u r i n s i g h t i n t o the m a r k e r s and

die

rules o f d i i s s t r u e t u r e and i n t o the use o f d i e H e b r e w (or A r a m a i c ) language is

determination oflhe caneepts form and conlcnt. For Richter, the fonnalized expression of the lin­ guisüc utterance (including the formalizcd State of its Contents) Stands over against everything related to die contents, together with the substance (Exegese, p. 32.411"). This mantial, however, underslands forin as the linguistic utterance in its existing, conloured shape, without regulated formalization. This understanding ineludes fashioned contents (cf. below. p. l ü l f ) . The second difference concerns \bttfiinction of the dist/netion of form and content for the beginning and the execu­ tion of the method. Richter applies the exegetical process as a whole in such a manner that in a first part (literary' criticism to redaction criticism) every beginning point should be excluded by content to resist arbitrary encries. For Richter, the exclusive siariing' point should be exaeted from die fortnalized expression of the linguistic utterance in order to dclimit die investigation of the content discerningly and in a controlled manner (Tliis investigation follows in a second part). By contrast, from the beginning, this mantial takes into consideration the insoluble counection between form ;uid content in respect co form criticism (and dicreby for every transmission stage of a text, to tbe degree that they are subject to form critical investigation). As prcviously demonstrated above (in foomote 32 for literary criticism and footnote 63 for transmission history), one should also ask whedier Richters starting point, based solely on the fonnalized expression instead of a more comprehensive historical starting point, does not lead to faulty conclusions and faulty judgmeuts. And one should also ask whedier one's starting point does not demand more from die structural analysis than that analysis is able to perform for determining the contents ot a historical Statement. W hen Λ linguistic utterance arises, material intention and lin­ guistic sbape stand in conjunetion from the beginning. Exegetical analvsis may not tear this con­ ncction apart and split them up into a mediodological sequenec. I f one disregards the impression of the local content and the thematic direction of die linguistic utterance, and if one concentrates solely on die phenomena which can be fonnalized, dien what is a structural analysis, or a determi­ nation of form? W h a t is a form critical w-ork in diat case? One must vigorously contest die idea, which Richter staunchly aeeepts. that the starting point of the content must inevitably succumh to the danger of inappropriate entries. Topical analysis of form criticism and especially of tradition historical work (see §8) demonstrates the presupposirion that controllable, verifiable determinations of the Statement's contents are possible from the beginning. In some circumstances. results of die structural linguistic science can bc arranged according to a historically applied form critical method. This may be done to the degree that die results are proven sound in the historical realm of Ancient Israel and of the dead language of Biblical Hebrew. However, by no means. may the impiieations o f diese results deuacl from tbe comprehensive historical starting point of form criti­ cism which corresponds to the historical subject.

T h e Task

99

l i m i t e d . E v e n the o r i g i n a l p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f H e b r e w remains u n k n o w n t o us. T h e

findings

f r o m the spoken level (tone, r h y t h m , m e t e r ) are

therefore

:

t o a large degree u n c e r t a i n . - F u r t h e r , research i n t o the l i n g u i s t i c p a t t e r n and its significance is s t i l l i n its b e g i n n i n g s . T h i s l i m i t e d k n o w l e d g e is t r u c f o r w o r k s i n the area of H e b r e w syntax (e.g. tenses) and style (e.g. d i f f e r e n t narra­ tive styles). I f , i n the f u t u r e , these lead t o significant, c o n v i n e i n g conclusions, t h e n certainly f o r m c r i t i c i s m w o u l d gain new possibilities for inquiry. W i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k o f this b o o k , we l i m i t f o r m c r i t i c i s m t o i n v e s t i g a t i n g those l i n g u i s ­ tic c h a r a c t e r í s t i c s and those means of f o r m a t i o n whose s t r u c t u r a l markers can c u r r e n t l y aseertain m e a n i n g w i d i sufficient elarity by the eonsistent context.'" T r a d i t i o n a l l y , this d e t e r m i n a t i o n occurs especially w i t h die question o f d i e l i n ­ g u i s t i c p a t t e r n on the t e x t level (genres). H o w e v e r , today, the f o l l o w i n g

are

also progressively g a i n i n g i n i m p o r t a n c e for g o o d reason: the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the l i n g u i s t i c shape o f i n d i v i d u a l sentence, tbe sentence o r d e r o f the text, and the ascertainment

o t the m e a n i n g o f this syntactical and s t y l i s t i c

finding."

4

O n e can encounter the form's t y p i c a l c o n s t r u e t i o n elements w i t h this l i n g u i s -

92 Comparc also Koch, Fermgescbkbte, 2 W (5th edition, 281t; this posdude is not in the English translation). 93 In recent years, attempts to subject Old Testament texts to a painstaking hnguisric inves­ tigation have grown dramatically. It has not ahvays been dear, however, that the investigation should treat a linguistic world in its historical eharacter and in tbe Service of ascerlaining die iniended accents o f a Statement. l"he linguisüc investigation Stands in close eonnection widi odier approaches of liisloricai-crilical methodology, T h e formulation υ ί an Old lestament text is a process of life which has a subject orienled intention. One must consider diis fact over against die ohjective scientific appearance of lavish. linguistically fbrmalized structural plans for texts. L i n ­ guistic manifeslarions are important for exegesis when they illuminatc the process by contributing to our cuiTcnt State of knowledge about the subject intentions o f Hebrew linguistic phenomena. Examples of intensive linguistic investigations of Old Testament text in die German-speaking world are especially the works of VV. Richter and bis followcrs which appear in Eos-Verlag of St, Ottilien. In the French-.speaking world examples inelude the works of P. Aufbot treating wisdoin texts and psalin texts. For the English-speakiug world cornpare die overview by R . C . Culley, "Fxploring New Directious." In methodological introdnetions (see $2H) corresponding sections are found in Fohrer, Exegese, §6 (G. Wanke); Koch, Formgescbkhte, 298-342 (5th ed. 271-324; not in English translation), and Schweizer, Biblische Texte verstehen. 94 In distinetion to Fohrer (Exegese, §6) and Kaiser (Exegetical Method, section 4), we also treat die investigation of the linguistic shape of a text, not in a separate section, but under tbe larger concept of form criticism together widi the question of form. Tliis investigation is nec­ essary prior to and coneurrent widi die determination of genre. In practical terms, the seman­ tic analysis (cornpare in particular, Wanke, in Fohrer, Exegese, 76-78: and Koch, Formgeschicbte, 316-330, 5th ed. 298-312; not in English translation) should, for the tnost parr, already have taken place during the first preliminary translation (sec above p. 6 and 11) to the degree that it be­ longs to the work of form criticism. This semantic analysis should be attributed to the analy­ sis ot the text's linguistic shape under a methodologically tbeoretical perspective. To the degree diat additional contents crystalize around a concept in the framework of a more comprehensive conceptual complex, the semantic analysis crosses over into the tradition historical work (see below, p, 126).

100

§7

FORM CRITICAL APPROACH

1 5

tic finding. ' T h i s finding can, however. also treat the text's f o r m a l markers w h i c h are independent o f the genre. O n occasion, these markers can he i n c o i p o r a t e d preciselv for the l i n g u i s t i c deviation o f the genre." I n f o r m u l a t i o n s not influenced by genres (e.g. additions, redaction texts) d i e f o r m o f the sen­ tence and the sentence o r d e r represent the most i m p o r t a n t l i n g u i s ü c ciues for the desired m e a n i n g , along w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l l i n g u i s t i c fields ascertained i n § 8 and t h e i r use i n the text. 6

I I I . Determination I n exegetical practice, f o r m c r i t i c i s m p r i m a r i l y elaborates the p a r t i c u l a r linguistic shape for a specific text (no m a t t e r w h a t size), o r if necessary, for each stage o f its g r o w t h that has been ascertained. I n so d o i n g , f o r m c r i t i c i s m pursues t w o main tasks: 1.

I n each case, t o n n c r i t i c i s m comprehends the l i n g u i s t i c shape o f the t e x t inside the individuell sentence and for the sentence progression. I t also h i g h l i g h t s the material aspeets w h i c h are indicated by the syntactical and stylistic f o r m i n the individual text and die t e x t as a whole.

2.

W h e n they present themselves i n d i e text, f o r m c r i t i c i s m determines (for parts and/or for the entirety) w h e n the text level adopts and utilizes genres. A l s o f o r m c r i t i c i s m determines the life s e t t i n g t o w h i c h t h e y b e l o n g . C e r t a i n l y , for this task i t must rely u p o n o t h e r independent examples o f the genre.

F o r m c r i t i c i s m aiins t o w a r d a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y p e r t i n e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the c o n s t r u e t i o n and i n t e n t i o n o f the encountered t e x t t o the degree that the eharacter o f the linguistic f o r m u l a t i o n can be recognized. T h i s a i m even ineludes the ehoice o f the genre under whose perspective the expressed c o n ­ tents should be seen and for whose purpose they were f o r m u l a t e d . F o r m critical w o r k does n o t just c o n s t i t u t e the investigation o f the l i n ­ guistic shape o f an individual t e x t and the parallel examples w h i c h appear d u r i n g the investigation. A l t h o u g h clearly beyond expectations for b e g i n n i n g students, die task o f f o r m criticism also ineludes, i n principle, research i n t o the H e b r e w (or A r a m a i c ) linguistic world as a whole and Illumination o f d i e h i s t o r y o f text patterns (genre history). I n this case, w o r k on individual texts is n o t the goal b u t is the means and the material of the investigation.

95 Examples: the sentence type "command" in an admonition or the stylistic device of parollelismus membonim in the wisdom saying. 96 Examples: In Isa 7:4-9, the element in 7:9b, which is pereeived as a condirioned threat, sirpcrsedcs the genre "salvation oracle to the king." Also it accentuates the corrcspondencc be­ tween behavior and circumstances by die. use of die paranomasia ta 'ànimfi/tê'âmēnû.

T h e Task

101

I V Tenninology 1. " F o r m " and " G e n r e " T h e t e r m " t o n n " is used i n the discipline i n different ways. Occasionally i t is used s y n o n y m o u s l y w i t h "genre," but more frequently its is differentiated ft'om genre i n various ways." I n this w o r k b o o k , " f o r m " is u n d e r s t o o d as an interchangeable t e r m for " l i n g u i s t i c shape." I t is thus n o t s o m e t h i n g w h i c h can be investigated apart f r o m the expressed content. F o r m and content cannot be separared w i t h i n a linguistic utterance. However, the content is c o n stitutive to a linguistic pattern by various conerete features. W h e n the levels o f l i n g u i s t i c utterance arc more elcmentary and simpler, then i t is easier to gen­ eralice their contents. T o n a l forms, stylistic figures, or sentence types are v e r y general i n terms o f content because o f their broad usage. B y contrast, f o r m u las or genres (and especially n o t the assigned text as a w h o l e ) cannot be separated f r o m conerete contents by t h e i r f o r m . T h e t e r m "fonu" thereby designates the existing linguistic shape of a text. I t also designates the genre(s) ineorporated i n t o the text w i t h their characteristic and d e t e r m i n i n g f o r m markers. I t also designates l i n g u i s t i c threads o r art f o r m s (parallelisrnus rnenibonim, a m o n g odiers) w h i c h are n o t determined by the genre. These acquired facts about the use and deviation o f given linguistic patterns are expressions o f meaning. 97

B

2. " F o r m u l a " T h e t e r m " f o r m u l a " should be differentiated f r o m "genre." A formula is a short, fixed w o r d association."" 0

3. F o r m C r i t i c i s m and G e n r e H i s t o r y ' " " F o r m c r i t i c i s m " and "genre h i s t o r y " are also used w i t h a certain p r o m i s c u i t y ( i n connection w i t h the corresponding use o f f o r m and genre). However,

V 7

Comparc-, tor example, C . Kulu, RGG', vol. 2, col. 996 (."Form"/ "Gattung"). W Comparc, for example, H.-J. Hermisson, Studien zur israelitischen Spruchueisheit, 1968, ρ. 138, footnote 1; Criiseinann, Studien, ρ. 13f, footnote 1; Richter, Exegese 33,74,126f,131ff; M a r k e « in Fohrer, Exegese, p. 86 f; and Kaiser. Exegetical Method, p. 20-22. Examples; "With a strong hand and with an outstretched arm" {beyād häziiqa übizröa' nélûyà) for die powerful actions of Y H W H (e.g. Deut 4:34; 2 Kgs 17:36; Jer 21:5): and "I am YHVVH (your god)" ('anì ybvb) for the self-prcsentation ot'YHVVH (e.g. Éxod 20:2; Lev 18:2; Ps50:7). ' Richter, Exegese, 99-] 03 (taken up by Kaiser, Exegetical Method. p. 17; modified by Wanke in I'ohrcr, Exegese, p. 73), wams to diffcrentiare further between "formula" and "lixed expression" (with tbe larter hmited to a specific literary work). 100 Translators note: As evident from the following paragraph and footnote, English usage does not adequately disringuish between the German terms Formgeschichtc and Fonnkrttik. T h e former literally means "form history" and the latter "form criticism." In English, however, com­ mon usage has long cstablishcd "form criticism" as the standard translation for "Formgeschichte," 9 9

102

§7

"form

FORM CRITICAL

criticism,""

31

the

APPROACH

conceptual u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h a l f o f the

mediod,

s h o u l d relate to the m e t h o d as a w h o l e , w h i l e "genre h i s t o r y " should r e m a i n die name used for die h i s t o r y o f a specific g e n r e .

B. C O M M E N T A R Y

ON

THE

i o :

APPROACH A N D

METHOD

I . C o n s t i t u e n t Questions Ehe f o r m critical investigation o f a t e x t can be subdivided i n t o f o u r c o n ­ s t i t u e n t questions: 1.

W h a t f o r m markers does die text sliow, and h o w does one designate the text's l i n g u i s t i c shape, i n p a r t and i n w h o l e (the question ofthe

linguistic

shape)} 2.

Is the text shaped, i n w h o l e or i n part, under the influence o f a genre (de­ termination ofthe

genre)}

m

3.

i n this particular instance, h o w does the genre i m p r i n t fit i n t o the h i s t o r y

4.

To w h i c h externa! life S i t u a t i o n d o e s the g e n r e b e l o n g , and w h i c h o f t h a t

o f that genre (genre history question)} setting's requirements and regularities appertain to the genre? A n d h o w is the o r i g i n o f the text related to this life Situation (question ofthe life setting)}

which inakes it impossible to distinguish Fortngeschkbte from Fnrmkritik in anything other than an arbitrstry manner. Thtis, for purposcs of the immediate discussion the German terms "Fortnge­ schkbte'' and "Formkritik" will be used when necessary to enable distinetions. Normally, however, the English term "form criticism" will be used as the standard translation of Formgeschichte, Similarly, the term "Gattung" is distinet from the German word "Form". Where necessary, the trans­ lation uses the English (i.e. Frcnch) term "genre" for "Gattung" in order to distinguish it from "Form." 101 "Formgescbicble" and "Gaituug.'gestblatte" bave a special meaning in connection with tbe terms "Fonnkritik," "Gattungskritik," and "Forni^eschicblc" for Richter, Exegese, p. 120-125, 149-151 (see die discussion in the 2nd-7th German edition of this workbook, p. 97f.. and the addenduni in the 8th edition. p. 74 76). Marken, in Fohrer, Exegese, p. 86f. does awaywith the term "Formgeschichte" and designates the various steps with the terms "Formkritik," "Formenkritik," "Gattungskritik," "Formengeschkbte," and "Ganungsgeschichte.'' 102 One should note that Koch, Gnrti'tb of Biblical Tradition, 38,53,57,77, pereeives "Formgescbichle" as tbe summary term for all exegetical methods, in contrast to the term distinetions used bere. SO! The Separation ofthe two aspeets (linguistic shape and genre imprint) into two indepen­ dent constitutive questions, as we bave done herc. inakes allowancc for the fact that the formation of a text should not be uuderstood solely as formation by existing genres and their related asso­ ciations (see discussions above, p. 96 and 991). T h e distinetion between a text's gerne imprint and its genre-dependent linguistic shape is correedy accented in the newer discussions of method, first by Richter (Exegese, p. 33.74,126f,13 lff) and then also in the methodologies of Schreiner (Ein­ leitung), Fohrcr (Exegese), and Koch (Formgeschicbte, 3rd ed. (German only)). In attempting a more detailed development they contrast with the widespread trend of reducing form criticism to die genre question.

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Π . C o n c e r n i n g the Q u e s t i o n o f the L i n g u i s t i c Shape A n y o n e w h o has followed the guides o f this manual to this p o i n t has a l ­ ready gained foundational linguistic observations for the text as a w h o l e . T h e y have emerged f r o m die H e b r e w text, by w o r k i n g f r o m the procedural step o f §1 Β I I 2 i n reference to the description o f die l i n g u i s t i c manifestations and in reference to the possible material aspect thereby expressed. T h e observational questions f r o m that section are also the essential g u i d i n g questions f o r the first constitutive question o f the f o r m critical investigation undertaken here (see above pages 8-14). However, the procedure here i n § 7 is distinguished f r o m the c o r r e s p o n d i n g Observation phase in §1 in t w o ways. First, the question o f the l i n g u i s t i c shape is no l o n g e r directed t o w a r d the entire text, as was tbe case i n § 1 . Radier, i t is directed t o w a r d each o f the text's developmental stages as ascertained i n § § 4 - 6 . T h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n has the effect o f r e e x a m i n a t i o n , c o n f i r n i a t i o n , a n d / o r c o r r e c d o n r e g a r d i n g the text's ascertained path o f development. Sec­ ond, that w h i c h was observed in §1 w i l l n o w be m e t h o d i c a l l y reexamined and explained f o r the texts o f the i n d i v i d u a l developmental stages. I t w i l l be re­ examined w i t h the aid o f ( g r a m m a t i c a i , syntactical, and stylistic) secondary l i t e r a t u r e o n the H e b r e w (see remarks i n § 2 D ; § 7 D ) , as w e l l as lexica and c o n cordances (see remarks in § 2 C , E ) . D u r i n g this reexamination and explanation o f the l i n g u i s t i c observations o n a given text's developmental elements, f o u r approaches í m p a c t i i i g the linguistic sbape come t o the f o r e g r o u n d for each de­ velopmental stage. 1) T h e investigation begins by delimiting the established text. Is die text a completely independent whole? Is i t a self-enclosed whole w i t h a m e a n i n g f u l b e g i n n i n g and end? I f necessary, what c o n t i n u a t i o n does i t presuppose (previous and subsequent)? ,(M

R e g a r d i n g the l i n g u i s t i c shape, a small w r i t t e n u n i t , w h i c h can stand b y itself, should be differentiated from a redactional f o r m u l a t i o n . I n p r i n c i p l e , even i f not true in exegetical practice, the siže o f the text plays n o role here (as is true elsewhere i n f o n u c r i t i c i s m ) . F o r m c r i t i c i s m n o t o n l y treats small u n i t s , b u t also fundamentally treats collections and large l i t e r a r y complexes. 2) Thereafter, the question o f the strueture and the structural components is fundamental. '04 Examples: Psalms frequcntly stand cntírely on their own (but comparc Pss 42/43 and note the possibility of redactional psalms). 13y contrast, a given text from the Succession History can be relatively self-enclosed (e.g. 2 Sam 11:2-12:25; 20:1-22), but at the same time an episode in a larger nanarive whole.

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APPROACH

T h e s e c o m p o n e n t s are r e c o g n i z a b l e , above all, i n the f o l l o w i n g : s c e n i c or

hmctional

sections,

characteristic introduetory

or

concluding

f o r m u l a s , c o n n e c t i n g o r d i v i d i n g m a r k i n g s o f a l i n g u i s t i c n a t u r e (e.g. the change o f s u b j e c t ) , the s e q u e n c e o f the s e n t e n c e s , the types o f s e n t e n c e s (e.g. c o m m a n d , n o m i n a l s e n t e n c e ) , s t y l i s t i c d e v i c e s (such as r e p e t i t i o n ) , and the w o r d s w h i c h b i n d the s e n t e n c e s to one a n o t h e r 11

( s u c h as "because," " t h e r e f o r e " ) . ^ T o classify the text o n e s h o u l d f u r t h e r n o t e the f o l l o w i n g : W h i c h s t r u c t u r a l c o m p o n e n t s are o f e q u a l w e i g h t , a n d w h i c h a r e c o o r d i n a t e d with or subsumed under other components? T h e individual structural c o m p o n e n t s a r e f u r t h e r categoriz.ed as i n d e p e n d e n t S t a t e m e n t s ( m a i n clauses, coordinate clauses, and even parallel sentences) and s u b o r d i n a t e S t a t e m e n t s ( d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e , r e l a t i v e c l a u s e , Infinitive c o n s t r u c tions). W i t h

a d d i t i o n s a n d r e d a c t i o n a l f o r m u l a t i o n s , one m u s t a s k

the distinetive q u e s t i o n : H o w a r e t h e y r e l a t e d to the e x i s t i n g l i t e r a r y context? I t is r e c o m m e n d e d that one s h o u l d w r i t e the text i n H e b r e w to g r a p h i c a l l y i l l u s t r a t e diese c l a r i f i c a t i o n s o f the Classification r e g a r d i n g the n i a c r o - s t r u e t u r e and m i c r o - s t r u e t u r e . Also, even correspondences between individual sentence c o m p o n e n t s should be e m p h a s i z e d (for e x a m p l e by u s i n g c o l o r e d p e n s ) .

?) O n the text l e v e l , the s p e c i f i c linguistic

shaping

devices

have no exclusive

s t r u e t u r i n g function (and in part they have ahsolutely n o s t r u e t u r i n g i u n c t i o n ) . C l a r i t y c o n c e r n i n g the use and tbe m e a n i n g o f d i e s e d e v i c e s c a n n o t be f u n d a m e n t a l l y attained w i t h o u t d e l i b e r a t i o n o n a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f t e x t s .

106

How­

ever, these d e v i c e s c a n p e r h a p s e x h i b i t i m p o r t a n t m a t e r i a l a c c e n t s w h i c h m u s t be e v a l u a t e d i n tbe d e t a i l e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (see § 1 0 ) . Relatedly, yet i n d e p e n d e n t o l d i e q u e s t i o n o f the s t r u e t u r e , o n e s h o u l d also o b s e r v e die s e n t e n c e t y p e s u t i l i z e d ( e s p e c i a l l y n o m i n a l a n d verbal sentences), f o r m u l a s , n o u n a n d v e r b classes ( l i k e a b s t r a c t / c o n c r e t e ; stative v e r b s / a c t i o n v e r b s ) , s t y l i s t i c d e v i c e s ( e s p e c i a l l y d i e u s e o f m e t a p h o r i c a l s p e e c h , a l l i t e r a t i o n , a s s o n a n e e , p a r o n o m a s i a , a n d parallelismus memborum), a n d the m a n n e r o f p r e s e n t a t i o n ( r e p o r t , a r g u m e n t a t i o n ,

105 Kxample: Isa 10:5-19. The following are especially important for determining the con­ struetion and constrnctural components: the nii)tivational conjimetion "dierelore" (ìākēn in 10:16); the change from YHW11 speech (10:5-7,12b) to an incorporaled quote of the Assyrtan (10: 8-11,1}{) which is twice used within 10:5-15 to thematieize varying aspect.s of the sin: and tbe stylistic device of the cross-refercncc from 10:15 to 10:5. 106 In the practical completton of one's work, the exegete should freely make use of already existing insights from the discipline by drawing upon dicrionarics. grammars. stylistic studies. Old Testament introduetions, etc.

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I n s t r u c t i o n , etc.; scenic dualism, i n t e r t w i n i n g eharacter). O n e should also determine their f u n c t i o n i n the entire text. " 1

7

4) Finally, one m u s t ask about the reference point of tbe author concerning the subject/facts and the audience. I n a l i n g u i s t i c investigation, the perspective c o n ­ cerns w h a t is f o m i u l a t e d , and what is n o t formulated? W h y , for w h o m , and for w h a t purpose was i t f o r m u l a t e d precisely i n this m a n n e r and n o t i n another way? T h u s : F l o w do the expressed c o n d i t i o n s specifically present die p e r c e p t i o n , experience, and t h i n k i n g at the t i m e o f the statement's formation? O n w h a t specifically does the statement's author place major emphasis (e.g p r a y i n g , cursing, teaching)? W h a t does the author leave out? W h a t could also be o f interest b y itself, i n association w i t h the statement? " For the author's purpose, w h a t is the relationship o f the hearer/reader t o the statement or t o the c o n d i t i o n s expressed (perhaps different i n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y f r o m p o p u l ä r narratives or i n Statements o f praise from lists)? W h a t does the author wish to teli the reader/hearer (purpose o f the statement)? " 1

8

IU

S u m m a r y o f the Procedural Steps T h e investigation o f d i e linguistic shaping may thus be s u m m a r i z e d acc o r d m g to I I 1-4 i n the f o l l o w i n g procedural steps. These steps reexamine and clarify the l i n g u i s t i c observations o f §1 f o r each developmental stage o f the text: T h e question o f the delimitation o f the established text C o n t r o l l i n g the results o f § § 4 - 6 . T h e question o f die construetion and the construetional components o f the established text, again C o n t r o l l i n g the results o f § § 4 - 6 .

i"" Examples: The use ot alliteration and assonance to draw out the conclnsive judgment on the mis'deeds of Jerusalem and Judah m Isa 5:7b (mt'spùt/miśpukfèiiāqâ/íê'ūqà); use of the nominal sentence to express the existing divine protection for Zion in Ps 46 (46:2,6a,8, etc.). In lieht of nar­ ratives, cornpare the famous stylistic comparison between Homer and Gen 22 by E . Auerbach, Mimesis, Ί 9 7 1 , p. 5-27 (especially 9ff) and the analysis of Gen 28:10-22 by Fohrer, Exegese, ρ. 185-195 (with §6). 108 This approach is particularly suited to recognize the special aspect from which a text speaks: What is said in Ps 6, or a related coinplaint song, concerning the underlying afflicuon, and whatis not said? Whatis said in Isa 7:1 -17 concerning die decisive political Situation of Ahaz, and what is not said? 109 Since Richter (Exegese, 75-78,128-137,183) rejects ποη-formalized contents as a starting point, the perspectives named here do not come into plav, for him, in the framework of the methodological steps seeking the form and genre. Relatedly, when determining the genre, those perspectives which are associated with the (ποη-fonnalized!) genre topic also do not come into plav. By contrast, cornpare footnote 91.

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3. T h e question o f the linguistic sbaping devices (stylistic, syntactical) used i n the text's sentences and sentence order. 4. T h e question of the linguistic indices o f die author s perspective o n die text's subject/facts and its addressees. I I I . D e t e r m i n i n g the G e n r e 1. T h e Process o f D e t e r m i n i n g the G e n r e I t is n i u c h m o r e difficult today to determine a text's genre than i t was i n die p e r i o d o f classical f o r m c r i t i c i s m because O l d Testament texts can no longer be secn simply as the r c c o r d o f small, oral speech units. W h a t we have before us are vvritten texts w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k o f m o r e o r less expansive l i t e r a r y w o r k s . T h u s , one should p r i m a r i l y have to ask die question o f the •isritten-literary (!) genres i n ancient Israel w h i c h has scarcely been considered to this p o i n t . B y no means arc all O l d Testament texts s i m p l y the codification o f oral transmission m a t e r i a l . Even i n those places i n w h i c h this is the case, one m u s t account for modifieation d u r i n g the process o f r e c o r d i n g . I n other words, die Jump i n t o the w o r l d o f Irving , oral c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n ancient Israel via f o r m c r i t i c i s m is h a r d l y possible any longer. As w i t h § 5 , o n l y cautious deductions c o n c e r n i n g the influence o f preliterary spoken genres reveal t h e m ­ selves o n occasion. D e t e r m i n i n g the genre i n this c o n v e n t i o n a l sense is then best employed today i n those texts w h i c h l i t e r a r y criticism and redaction c r i t i ­ cism nevertheless do suggest that the text is a small u n i t whose o r i g i n lies i n oral transmission. A b o v e all, one c o u l d consider cultic texts, w i s d o m texts, legal texts, p r o p h e t i c logia ( b u t b e y o n d t h e i r r e c o r d i n g i n w r i t t e n f o r m ) , and the s t r u e t u r i n g o f independent narratives. N a t u r a l l y , one should by no means exclude die influence o f oral genre patterns on texts w h i c h were first f o r m u ­ lated on the l i t e r a r y level. T h i s influence may occur i n the r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t r a n s m i t t e d material w h i c h has been shaped by oral genres o r i t may occur i n tbe secondary literary usage o f genres for redactional passages w i t h a c o r r e ­ spondingly large distance from tbe genre's p r i m a r y oral usage. S t i l l , the m o d i ­ fieation w h i c h results must be considered constantly. -

I n a students exegetical practice, one should concentrate o n those l i m i tations named for d e t e r m i n i n g genre. Above all, one should concen­ trate on die field o f the small u n i t o f oral o r i g i n revealed by § 5 . I n ad­ d i t i o n , one should concentrate o n the secondary use o f oral genres i n literarily formulated texts. T h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n is suggested because tbe discipline Still scarcely offers p r e p a r a t o r y w o r k s for the question o f l i t e r a r y genres (exceptions inelude annals, lists). T h e r e f o r e i t is r e c o m m e n d e d that one ask about the genre f o r each developmental stage o f the text separately. T h e ancient o r i e n t a l realm represents an i m p o r t a n t field, w h i c h has been too l i t t l e investigated. I t represents an i m p o r t a n t field for die r e e o g n i t i o n o f genres and o f stereotypieal life

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situations w h i c h lead to genres. I n certain circumstances. the ancient o r i e n t a l realm allows deduetive suppositions c o n c e r n i n g c o r r e s p o n d i n g realities i n A n c i e n t Israel. O n l y by comparing other texts can one d e t e r m i n e whether or n o t a text, or text complex, follows the linguistic shaping o f an existing text pattern for a specific life process (and i f so, i n what manner). A genre presents itself when several texts, literarily independent o f one another, possess a c o m m o n f o u n darion i n respect to s t r u c t u r a l elements, topics (specific words, contents, and eonstellations typical for this g e n r e " ) , and f o r m markers. 110

1

How should one proceed in detail w h e n d e t e r m i n i n g the g e n r e o f a given text?" 2

T h e perspective and purpose o f a statement became recogniz.able w i t h i n the framework o f the question o f the l i n g u i s t i c shape in l i g h t o f conerete circumstances (e.g. prayer, legal saying, c u l t i c rationale, his­ torical narrative). T h i s perspective and purpose indicate i n w h i c h O l d Testament text realm one should seek correspondingly shaped texts f o r precedence. ( O n e works p r i m a r i l y w i t h an E n g l i s h bible, b u t c o n t r o l s these observations by using the Biblia Hebraica.) F r o m there, w i t h the help o f a H e b r e w concordance, one can i d e n t i f y and examine other texts w h i c h inelude the same words as the text under investigation and w h i c h are significant for the strueture and for the statement's i n t e n t i o n (as, for example, w i t h the use o f "because" [ya'an] o r "therefore" [lākēn] i n the j u d g m c n t propbecv, o r w i t h the use o f " h o w l o n g ? " ['ad tnätay] o r " h e a r / answer" ['r/h] w i t h the c o m p l a i n t psalm). I f c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y shaped, l i t e r a r i l y independent texts are found i n this manner, t h e n one may more precisely determine the markers ofthe underlytng genre b y comparative O b s e r v a t i o n . Simultaneously one may also determine the individual deviation o f the various examples. B y d o i n g so, this process, i n some cases, provides i m p o r t a n t specifications and corrections r e g a r d i n g the l i n g u i s t i c shape o f die established d e l i m i t a t i o n , Π0 T h e concurring formation of texts can rest upon a literary dependence which imitates the model at hand. T h e dependence can also be traced back to the hand of a single author who shapes the unity (comparc Marken, in Fohrer, Exegese, ρ. 92, footnote 97, for the framing pieces of the book of Jndgcs). I I ' Fxampie, a buriaí song: code word 'êk. contrast between then and now, landatorv pre­ sentation of the dc.ui. and others. T h e genre ropic of many psalm genres is especially ahiuidant (cf. for example, the complaint song of the individual in H . Gunkel and J . Begrich, Einleitung in die Psalmen, 1933, ρ. lS4ff). 12 For die practical completion of the work. the exegete should herc also make use of the currently available insights of the discipline (see above, foomote 106). The exegete should take up the genre detenninations mentioned in Old "lestament introduetions or in commentaries and cxamine them critically (cf. also Marken, in Fohrer, Exegese, p. 94f; Kaiser, Exegetical Method, p. 25f). Comparc the literature suggestions below in D I I . 1

108

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strueture analysis, and d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the d o m i n a n t perspective. However, i f one finds that the text's characteristics, w h i c h were observed d u r i n g the investigation, are l i m i t e d to this text, then as a r u l e , i t is n o t possible to speak o f a specific available genre shaping the text. I t may also be proven, however, that the text under investigation is just one c o m p o n e n t o f a genre."'-' I n order to understand m o r e quickly, i t is r e c o m m e n d e d that one f o l l o w the t e r m i n o l o g y established by the discipline f o r the name o f die genre. 2. Variations and Dcviations i n Genres T h e shaping o f l i n g u i s t i c utterances according t o e x i s t i n g t e x t patterns does n o t simply signify d i e i r schematie d u p l i c a t i o n because o f the d y n a m i c nature o f the language. F r o m the outset, one should therefore naturally expect differences a m o n g individual examples o f a genre and the d i v i s i o n o f a genre i n t o genre categories. However, stronger dcviations and r e f o r m u l a t i o n s o f the genre m u s t be understood as one o f the f o l l o w i n g : T h e y may be understood

as

4

i n d i c a t i n g a change in the genre d u r i n g its h i s t o r y . " T h e change may •also be understood as a clue t o particular contents w h i c h arise f r o m die possibilities o f the t e x t - t y p e . A n d / o r the change m u s t be seen as the expressed p e c u l i a r i t y o f the author(s). I n the last mstance, the dcviations freqtienth/ provide clues to the specific i n ­ t e n t i o n o f the statement for the encountered passage."

5

3. (Konsolidation and M i x t u r e o f Genres A l i n g u i s t i c u n i t is frequently shaped according to a single genre. Howei^er, one must also take i n t o account diat, w i t h i n a text, a genre can appear i n die f r a m e w o r k o f another genre, e w e r i n g a larger text. T h e t o r m e r w o u l d thus be cal led a "component genre" and the latter w o u l d be called the "framinggenre" ( K . K o c h ) . '

1 6

F u r t h e r , one frequendy encounters die c o n s o l i d a t i o n or m i x t u r e o l genres. T h e age o f diese linguistic entities has n o t yet been decided f r o m this fact. T h e hypothesis that a genre t y p e bas developed from a simple t y p e o f the genre to a c o m p l e x t y p e o f the genre is p r o b l e m a t i c . S t i l l , one must, as a r u l e , see the m i x t u r e o f genres w i t h i n one text as the sign o f secondary usage, to the degree that diey do not arise f r o m Uic same lite setting (see below, section V 1).

1

I ·' Example: With regard to its genre. Gen 39 is only a component part of the genre of the novella, which exists in the Joseph narrative as a whole. 1'4 See below, section IV. 115 Example: Isa 7:4—9 (see above, footnote 96). 116 Koch, Gmi'tb of Biblical Tradition, ρ. 18-20. The work by Ε Stolz, Psalmen im nachkultischen Raum, Zürich, 19S3, is instruetive for the question of mixed geures in die psalms.

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TV' T h e Q u e s t i o n o f die Genre H i s t o r y 1. S t a r t i n g P o i n t A genre is seldom distinguished i n the individual examples by d u p l i c a t i o n o f die l i n g u i s t i c shape. M o r e often changes and deviations appear. Reasons for tbese differences can be f o u n d i n conscious deviation o f the markcrs t y p i c a l for the genre when adopting the gerne. T h e y can also p o i n t to developments and changes to the genre i n the course o f the l o n g h i s t o r y o f its use. T h e start­ i n g p o i n t for the question o f genre h i s t o r y appears especially i n the latter phenomenon. E v e r y genre has a h i s t o r y for the p e r i o d i t was i n use. T o t h a t degree, an existing genre sample, for a text's specific transmission stage, can be characteristicaJly differentiated f r o m other expressions o f this genre, b o t h forw a r d and backward i n time. 117

2. M a t e r i a l for C o m p a r i s o n Within the Oid Testament and the environment of Ancient Israel, the manifestations of the genre m question oifer the material for investigabng genre history, Genre historical manifestat'ons ensue from the Observation of those changes which result from the development of genre elements, and not simply from the one time modifićation of an author using the genre. (This statement is true unless those modifications themselves effectively change the genre.) Genre hstoncal investigations. as a rule, ariše in the form ol a monograpb, ' They are possible oniy in a very limited form within the framework of an exegesis paper on a specific t e x t |!

S u m m a r y o f the Steps T h e question whether a text, i n w h o l e o r i n part, is shaped under the i n ­ fluence o f a genre, may dius be summarized i n die f o l l o w i n g steps: 1. S t a r t i n g p o i n t w i t h the text O n e should proceed f r o m insights i n t o the linguistic sbape i n ref­ erence t o the text's construetion and eonstructural elements. I n so d o i n g , one should pay special a t t e n t i o n to the syiitactieal f o r m o f the c o n t e n t o f the statement. O n oceasion, the c o n t o u r o f these findings indicates use o f a genre p a t t e r n . T h e facts, l i n g u i s t i c a l l y conceived under a specific perspective and i n t e n t i o n , indicate i n w h i c h arena a presumed genre. pattern belongs (e.g. legal regnlations, life w i s d o m , p r o p h e t i c speech, song prayer, etc.) 2. Search for genre parallels I f a genre pattern impacts the shape o f the text, then the devices o f l i n g u i s t i c shaping, w h i c h are themselves fixed c o m p o n e n t ele-

Π7 Cornpare above Β I I I 2, p-. 108. and below Β V 3, ρ. 112. l t Cornpare, for example, Criisemann, Studien, ρ. 210-284, for the individual song of rhanksgiving. R

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ments, ensue f r o m literarily independent examples of texts uitb corre­ sponding text patterns. These devices arc made k n o w n i n association w i t h typical words, contents, and conceptualixations. 'Fhey are, i n p r i n c i p l e , located by concordance w o r k i n w h i c h the O l d 'lestament is searched for linguistic manifestarions c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n f o r m and content. I n pracriee, one w i l l have to r e l y p r i m a r i l y o n the c o m p i l a t i o n o f genres i n secondary l i t e r a t u r e for the presumed arena o f usage (see b e l o w D I I ) . C u l t , c u l t poetry, w i s d o m , law, royal c o u r t , death rituals, and p r o p h e t i c activity p r i ­ m a r i l y come i n t o play. O n e should note that formulas, idioms, etc. are n o t genres (for these, cornpare § 8 ) . 3. Expression o f the gerne i n the text I f a t e x t p a t t e r n influences the t e x t or i f c o m p o n e n t and f r a m i n g genres appear togedier, then one must m o r e elosely iiwestigate the conerete expression ot the genre i n the t e x t r t i band. Various considerations are i m p o r t a n t i n d o i n g so: — Is the expression o f the genre i n the t e x t practically idenrical w i t h other examples? — I f not, f r o m whence does the deviation arise? Does i t stem f r o m the internal change over the course o f the genre's history? O r does the change stem f r o m the adaptation o f the genre under­ taken by the author? — H o w is the genre's strueture related to d i e l i n g u i s t i c a l l y marked strueture ot the text? D o b o t h Serie die same purpose? O r must one revise the text's linguistic analysis o f tbe strueture based on the influence o f the genre? O r does the audior deviate from the strueture o f the genre? 4. Consequences o f the genre finding W h a t does the finding o f 3) mcan f o r the material perspective, the purpose, and the line o f thought? W h a t does i t mean f o r the life setring and die c o m m u n i c a ü o n s e t t i n g o f the text? is it possible to deduce the o r i g i n a l use o f the text i n the oral arena? W h a t mate­ rial accents does the genre influence c o n t r i b u t e t o die level o f the w r i t t e n r e c o r d o f the text? F o r the author and the reader, w h a t does the genre c o n t r i b u t e t o a text originally coneeived as a w r i t t e n text w i t h i n a literary context? V. R e g a r d i n g the Q u e s t i o n o f the L i f e S e t t i n g 1. C l a r i f i c a t i o n o f the T e r m As a rule, f o r m critical investigation, as praeticed i n O l d Testament exege­ sis, treats those genres w h i c h allow a specific linguistic pattern to be associated w i t h specific socio-cultural conditions and realities (life setting). O n e may only

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speak o f this arrangement i f die genre is so r o o t e d i n a life process that r e p e t i d o n o f the genre itself rccalls the p r o c e s s . ' " A genre s occasional e m p l o y m c n t in another realm by no means signifies a new life s e t t i n g /

2 0

The expressed life process designated by the life setting is related to a specific topic to which other life processes can certalniy be related, In this case very different genres also concentrate on this topic. These genres look upon this topic from different perspectives. Thus, fixed linguistic utterances are bound to one and the same topic, that of a milrtary campaign, but they belong to the following genres: oracular inquiry, oracular response, sayings for punfication ntuals, vows, Orders, call to battle, Instructions to the herald, victory song, lists of booty; royal thanksgivmg song, campaign report, stela inscription, These genres represent different processes relating to the military campaign but see one and the same event from characteristic perspectives. F o r m criricism is also a socio-literary means o f inspection when considering the aspect o f the life setting. O n e should n o t confuse f o r m c r i r i c i s m w i t h a timeless m o r p h o l o g y w h i c h p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l y deseribes an aesthetie w o r l d o f forms. By way of limitation, however, one must add that the rootmg of genres in a specific life setting does not rnean that it is always possible to decuce the cultural and institutional framework from the text's linguistic shape as fashioned by the genre. Fer one reason, genres can leave the life setting from which they arose (see below, V.3.). For another reason, several genres reflect their life setting so imprecisefy that entering the sociocultural conditions and realities to which they belong is not possible from the fnguistic shape ol texts formed ;n that setting, A t any rate, one m u s t observe that d e d u c i n g oral genres o f speech, and t h e i r r o o t i n g i n conerete areas, w i l l always r e m a i n an inferred conelusion for the O l d Testament. T h i s statement is t r u e because we o n l y have examples i n w r i t t e n f o r m w h i c h represent a secondary usage. Such an i n f e r r e d conelusion is not self-evident. I t must be suggested by a positive text f i n d i n g a c c o r d i n g to § 5 , i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h socio-historieal correspondences w h i c h can be deduced for Israel directly o r i n d i r e c t l y f r o m ancient oriental sources. 2. M e t h o d o l o g i c a l E n t r y I f the given text exhibits genre influence, d i e n one must explain the arena of life to w h i c h the genre belongs f r o m die outset. O n e m u s t explain this o r i g i n apart from the nsage i n the text. M e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y , the r e l a t i o n s h i p

11* Examples: The dirge is rooted in the funeral procession (2 Sam 1:17-27). Or the liturgy of tcinple admission is rooted in the process of the pilgrims' entry into the Jerusalem temple (Es 15). '20 Example: The use of animal and plant fahles in Ezek 17 and 19 (for detail*, see W. Zimmerh, Ezvkiel I, Hermeneia, Philadelphia, 1979, see locations).

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between the life setting and the applicable genre(s) must be i l l u m i n a t e d f r o m t w o directions: a) Proceeding f r o m the genre (text examples): I n order to reeognize the life setting, one m u s t ask the f o l l o w i n g ques­ tions i n l i g h t o f the genre markers as w e l l as the c o n t e x t i n w h i c h the genre appears: " W h o is d i e Speaker? W h o are the listeners? W h a t m o o d dominates ,:i

the Situation? W h a t effect is s o u g h t ? " F r o m the perspective o f the one speaking, does die statement presuppose the exercise o f a specific t u n c t i o n , o r a specific " c o n i p e tence"? - Can the interests and concerns o f specific persons or groups o f persons be seen? 1

D o die style and type o f presentation (e.g. a folk-tale or t h e o l o g i cally reflective narrative style) allow deductions c o n c e r n i n g the sociocnltural roors? T b w h i c h ordercd life processes i n Israel do the genre's strueture, f o r m markers, perspective, and contents p o i n t ? ;,!)

b) Proceeding f r o m the socio-cultural conditions and realities: H e r e i t is necessary t o obtain k n o w l e d g e c o n c e r n i n g the israelite and ancient oriental h i s t o r y (economic, social, cultic, and religious), t o the degree that their acquisitum is possible at this p o i n t . T h e y e o m prise the material f r o m w h i c h the life s e t t i n g can be coneeived and delineated. 1 : 4

3. Relationship between G e n r e and L i f e Setting in rhe simplest case this relationship is an immediaie one. The genre is used >n the framework of its life setting, In the Old Testament writings, this case is possibly presumed m written literary genres. It can be deduced with oral genres if the text can be traced Pack into oral transmission. However; the relationship between genre and life setting in the Oid Testament offen presents itself more complexiy, which creates special probiems for form criticism: Gunkel, Reden und Aufsätze. p. 33. I'2 Cornpare Kaiser, ExegeticalMetbod, p. 27. 123 Example: Individual song of thanksgivmg: the introduetory tada formula (Isa 12:1) or the naming of the thanksgiving offering in the course of the psalm (Ps 116:17) point to the process of presenting the tâdà. The bi-polarity of the speech can be recognized in two directions (Ps 30:2-4,7-13/5f ). On the one hand, in the process of the todd, the one praying transfere the of­ fering to YTfVVH with direct address to Y H W H . On the other hand, the one praying reports ahm» YHVVTTs deed to those partieipating in the sacrificial meal; cornpare Crüsemarm. Studien, p. 2S2-284. IM For literature, see above, §2 K , L .

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a. A genre can be used outside of iis /ife setting. Either, it can be used ad hoc in another arena without becoming strongly rooíed in that arena, o r it can become an integrated component of another arena and thereby enter a new liíe setting. This ncw setting can be grounded in the change orthe wíthering away ofthe original life setting. In the Old Testamentthese secondary usages ofgenres can already appear in the oral transmission. Forexample, such secondary usage can be seen in prophetic logia which are influenced by non-prophetic genres, o r in psalms which are impacted by wisdom genres. Above all, however, the influence of oral genres upon the written levei consistently represents a secondary usage. b. Ifa genre makes a transition from the realm in which it derived into another realm, then certain changes in the genre appear which stand out in every genres history (e.g. its topic, eonsolidation with other genres or genre C l e m e n t s T h e s e changes can be noted especially in the numerous cases of ad hoc adoption. In the end, these changes mean that one can n o longer speak without qualificaton about one and the same genre, As a result the following may be noted: 2i

IÎĠ

1

1. The current understanding that a Single genre can traverse severe! life setungs is problematic. 2. Even though widely presupposed in current understanding, defining the term life setting soieiy as the place of use for genres of very diverse background is unsatisfactory. It fails to take into account that a new arena (life setting) produces Substantive changes when it adopts a genre, as shown above. The term life setting must therefore be understood more nairowiy. It must be determined as a formulatively effective arena only forthose genres which are rooted ;n that arena and which are consistently used there. Genres which are rooted in another life arena, but which appear in the shaping arena, will then be assimilated (in altered form) into that arena and its genres, as a result of its shaping power. c. It a genre is taken from the arena from which it derived into another arena, its origi­ nal characterist'cs are not entireiy lost, in spite of the act that the life setting is no ionger present and that the genre has changed. The v e r y fact that the genre nas been seiected is apparently grounded in the specific intention and purpose of the new Statement. The new Statement was art-culated by bomowing f r o m a foreign genre. As a result it is imperative that one observe a genres markers and goai, even when a genre which is used for a different function than its original life setting. This is necessary f

5

i - Exaniples: Use of the wisdom genre fable (see above, footnote 120) or the Instruction to the herald in prophetic pronouncements (Isa 40:9-11; Jer 46:14; etc. Compare Crüscmann, Stu­ dien, p. 5 3 f.) 12(5 Kxamplcs: T h e prophetic dirge (Arnos 5:2; Isa 1:2ff; 14:41>-21; for further exaniples and indication of the ehnrneter see 11. Jahnow, Das hebräische Leichmlied rm Rahmen der Volkerdichtimg, 1923, 162ft'.);saga tradirions as a component of the Yahwistic wirk. The last instance concerns the transition into the setting in literatnre («erring in the book). "But a question then immediately arises: What is the Sitz im Lehen of this literature itself, that is. for what public or semipublic reading of it, and where and by whoin?" (Kaiser, HxegeticalMethod. p. 26). I ' " Exaniples: T h e eonsolidation of herald Instruction with the imperative hymn in Isa 48: 20; Jcr 31:7; or the eonsolidation of the dirge with the judgment prophecy in Isa 1:21-26. In both cases there is a corresponding change in the genre topic.

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APPROACH

ifone wants to perceive the intent and perspective of the new statement which was formed using that. genre. The Situation changes only in those cases where a genre is brought over solely t o reproduce certain contents, or conceptualizalions, which are associated with rt. ' 2S

1 9

S u m m a r y o f the Steps I f the text under i n v e s t i g a t i o n is influenced b y a genre, then one m u s t raise die question o f the genre's life setting i n relationship t o this text. T h e f o l ­ l o w i n g steps may be summarized: 1. D e d u c i n g die genre's stereotypical situations The genre p a t t e r n was ascertained f r o m the text under i n v e s t i ­ g a t i o n and additional parallels i n the f r a m e w o r k o f die second c o m p o n e n t question (Β Π Ι and I V ) . O n e must i n q u i r e i n t o the stereotypical

Situation

w h i c h this p a t t e r n requires and i n w h i c h i t

belongs. I n d o i n g so, one m u s t eombine i n q u i r y i n t o the text i n ­ dices w i t h aseertaining c o r r e s p o n d i n g historical realities (accord­ i n g to V 2). I n practice, one must essentially examine f o r m critical secondary literature t o see w h a t i t offers. 2. Ulustrating this Situation from O l d Testament (and ancient o r i e n t a l ) sources I f one bas ascertained a life s e t t i n g for the genre p a t t e r n , then one should acquire tbe most grapbic

picture

possible,

i n g , c o n c e r n i n g the processes w i t h i n this

h i s t o r i c a l l y speak­

framework,

especiallv

the l i n g u i s t i c processes. I n d i i s manner, one can i l h i s t r 3 t e h o w the l i n g u i s t i c p a t t e r n funetions for d i i s genre w i d i i n this

frame­

w o r k . O n e can i d e n t i f y die speaker, the listeners, tbe actions and processes w h i c h shape the frame. O n e can i d e n t i f y the i n t e n t i o n o f this fashioned l i n g u i s t i c act, and the subject's accents and per­ spectives w h i c h arc seleeted and h i g h l i g h t e d . 3. R e l a t i o n s h i p between the Situation f r o m w h i c h d i e text arises and the Situation o f the genre A f t e r this i n q u i r y , one returns t o the text under investigation

and t o

die iinpact o f its genre. O n e considers how- the o r i g i n o f this text relates t o d i e S i t u a t i o n w h i c h gave rise t o the genre (Ufe setting). For this task, one should examine the possibilities o f V 3 f o r the text. W h e n there is an i m m e d i a t e relationship between genre and life setting, one s h o u l d strive t o deduce c o n c r e t e l y v i s i b l e i m p l i eations for its o r i g i n a l usage, a c c o r d i n g t o " 2 " . I n all o t h e r cases.

l-S See Fohrer, Introâmwn, ρ. 28f,333. 129 Examples: T h e use of a natural onomastic list in the theophanic material of Job 38ff where God is encountered at the end ot the Job dialogues.

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115

m e a n i n g w h e n there is secondary usage, one m u s t ask w h a t the original life setting contributes materially to the genre's new usage. F o r example, a d o p t i n g a w i s d o m genre i n Isa 1:2f and a priestly genre i n Isa l i l ü - 1 7 can show that i t is now die p r o p h e t w h o claims die a u t h o r i t y and the f u n c t i o n o f die w i s d o m I n s t r u c t i o n and the priestly I n s t r u c t i o n . H e does so by critically distancing h i m s e l f from the original Speakers o f these teaching utterances. V I . A r e a o f Usage F o r m criticism is n o t l i m i t e d to a specific text or to a specific transmission stage. Rather, f o r m c r i t i c i s m is m e a n i n g f u l i n several aspeets simultaneously. F o r m criticism is m e a n i n g f u l i n oral as w e l l as w r i t t e n transmission stages, for a text ( c o m p o n e n t genre) w i t h i n a larger section o f t e x t ( f r a m i n g genre), and for an independent text. I t is m e a n i n g f u l for a small u n i t as well as a more comprehensive text complex (such as tbe Yahwistic w o r k o r the D e u t e r o n o ­ mistic H i s t o r y ) .

C. R E S U L T S I . Result o f the Q u e s t i o n o f the L i n g u i s t i c Shaping and the D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f G e n r e P r c s e n t i n g the results o f these t w o c o m p o n e n t questions can proceed together because they c o n c u r r i n g l y investigate the revision o f an existing l i n ­ guistic p a t t e r n and the possibilities i n a text. I n a d d i t i o n , d e t e r m i n i n g die genre m o r e precisely continues the question o f die l i n g u i s t i c shaping for the text level. 1) I n l i g h t o f a m u l t i t u d e o f possibilities, c l a r i f y i n g rlie devices o f the lin­ guistic shape ( b y f o r m and content) provides t h o r o u g h l y i m p o r t a n t clues for die special (!) statement profile for this (!) t e x t i n w h o l e and i n part. I t also provides indicators o f the desired material meaning (cornpare examples above i n A Π and Β V I ) . 2) Analysis o f the l i n g u i s t i c shaping and o f the genre provides the rele­ vant divisimi of the l i n g u i s t i c utterance i n t o its s t r u c t u r a l components and t h e i r material relationship t o one another. 3) A text's u n i i o n n i t y , fonnally and according t o genre, is an indicator of its unity and can signify its o r i g i n a l independence. T h i s independenec is espe­ cially i m p o r t a n t for the area o f oral transmission. 4) Further, the u n i f o r m i t y allows die p e r t i n e n t delimitation over against the context, and thus Ieads t o the identification o f the units o f meaning w h i c h are foundational for i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

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5) T h e Statements purpose and perspective can be perceived more precisely by r e c o g n i z i n g the l i n g u i s t i c shaping, and then by r e c o g n i z i n g the shaping o f the genre. ' ' 1

1

I L Results o f the Question o f the G e n r e H i s t o r y T h e results o f the question o f genre h i s t o r y for die exegesis o f a specific text lie i n the f o l l o w i n g : 1.

O n l y w i t h such an investigation can one speeify, w i t h historical precision, the genre as i t existed for the text's author.

2.

T h e i n t e n t i o n and purpose f o r the existing use o f the genre can be sketched and profiled by d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between that w h i c h existed i n the genre h i s t o r y and ad hoc changes.

3.

Such an investigation makes deduetions possible r e g a r d i n g the h i s t o r i c a l Classification o f the individual text, o r its different transinission stages." 1

I I I . Results o f the Question o f the L i f e Setting 1.

T h o s e l i n g u i s t i c utterances u t i l i z i n g a genre w i t h i n the life setting f r o m w h i c h that genre stems, p r o v i d e important rfnes for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the text. I t provides clues regarding the text's intention and the limit i n respect to a specific audience and Speaker, as well as i n respect to die directions o f specific social and c u l t u r a l stages o f devclopment.

2.

T h e m e a n i n g o f f o r m c r i t i c i s m for the exploration of historical processes i n A n c i e n t Israel rests o n the relationship berween genre and life setting. T h e genre allows a d e d u e t i o n c o n c e r n i n g h i s t o r i c a l and c o m m u n a l r c l a tionships. G e n r e h i s t o r y reflects changes i n these relationships. However, i t is not m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y permissible to convey genre h i s t o r y d i r e c t l y o n t o the historical level o f progress. Genres can still c o n t i m i e to exist i n a k i n d o f inactive State l o n g after the disappearance o f t h e i r life setting. --' 13

130 It is perrinent to djfferentiate between xhefimetion of the genre for a linguistic utterance and the author's intention when fashioning that utterance. However, "the results of genre criticism" inay not just "provide importani clues for the iiitemion of a Speaker or the author of a wriltcn piece." Radier, deternüning die genre (or relatedly. its concrete usage in a given text) and pereeiving its autlior's intention stand in an hidvssoltẁle interrelationship. Deternuning die intention of a linguistic utterance without deduetions and orientation froin form critical conclusions (or against these conclusions) cannot be perfornied in a manner which is methodologically verifiable. It must therefore remain out of consideration. See H.W. Hoffmann, 7AW 82 (1970): 345f; and H.W. Hoffmann in Fohrcr, Exegese, p. 157-160, whc-rc, on p. 160, the above-cited quote appears (emphasis ours). '-'I Compare above. Β III 3 (p. 108). 13- Compare Kocli, The Gnwib ofBiblual Tradition, p. 34-36.

Literature

117

D. L I T E R A T U R E I. I N T R O D U C T I O N , FOUNDATION, A N D OVERVIEW J. Barten. "Form Criticism." A B D , Vol. 2, p. 838-841. K . - H . Bernhardt. Die gattungsgeschichtliche Forschung am Alten Testament als ex­ egetische Methode. Aufsätze und Vorträge zur Theologie und Religionswissen­ schaft. H . 8. Berlin, 1959. G. Fohrer. Exegese. § 6 (G. Wanke) und § 7 ( L . Marken). I I . Gunkel. Die Grundprobleine der israelitischen Literaturgeschichte. I n : Gunkel. Reden und Aufsätze. Göttingen, 1913. p. 29-38. . Die israelitische Literatur. Leipzig, 1925 (Darmstadt, 1963). A. Jolles. Einfache Formen. Halle, 1930 ( T ü b i n g e n , 1968). O. Kaiser. Exegetical Method. p. 28-4.3. K . Koch. The G r o w ü r of Biblical Tradition, p. 3-38. G. Lohfink. The Bible: Νοτν I Get It!: Α Form Criticism Handbook. New York, 1979. F. Stolz. Das Alte Testament. Studienbücher Theologie. Altes Testament. Gütersloh, 1974. p. 43-9.3. G. M . Tucker. Form Criticism of the O l d Testament. Guides to Biblical Scholarship. Old Testament Series. J.C. Rylaarsdam, ed. Philadelphia, 1971. 4

I I . E X P A N S I O N A N D C R I T I C A L .ALTERNATIVES D. Greenwood. Rhetorical Criticism and Formgeschichte: Some Methodological Considcrations. J B L 89 (1970): 418-426. J. Muilenburg. Form Criticism and Beyond. J B L 88 (1969): 1-18. Also in: RR. Iluuse, ed. Beyond Form Criticism: Essays in Old lestament Literary Criticism. VVinona Lake, 1992. p. 49-69. J.FI. Hayes, ed. O l d Testament Form Criticism. San Antonio, 1974. W. Richter. Exegese, p. 72-152. H . Schweizer. Form und Inhalt. B N 3 (1977): 35-47. _ . Biblische Texte verstehen, ρ. 401t.52ff. A I . Weiss. Die Methode der »Total-Interpretation«. VT.S 22 (1972): 88-112. Cornpare also die following eategories. For individual genres, cornpare the summaries of: O. Eißfeldt. The Old Testament: A n Introduction. §§ 2-16: p. 9-127 comprehensively (also the Supplements, p. 722-739). G. Fohrer. Introduction to the O l d 'lestament. §§ 7-14, 38-41, 47, 53: 51-100, 256-278, 311-317, 347-358 (also the Supplements, 518-519, 524, 526-527). O. Kaiser. Introduction to the Old Testament. Oxford, 1984. §§ 5, 6, 25, 28, 29,34. K . Koch. Fortiigesehiehte. p. 271-275 (Bibliography not in English edition). A. Ohler. Studying the Old Testament from Tradition to Canon. Edinburgh, 1985. W H . Schmidt. Old Testament Introduction. §§ 5. 9, 13, 25, 27. J. Schreiner. Einführung, p. 194-231. (Forms and genres in the Old Testament) See also: I . Lande, Formelhafte Wendungen der Umgangssprache im Alten Testa­ ment, Leiden 1949.

118

§7

FORM CRITICAL APPROACH

Dedicated to Semantks: B. Kedar. Biblische Semantik. Eine Einführung. Stuttgart, 1 *>81. Dedicated to Strlistics: L . Alonso-Sehökel. A Manual o f Hebrew Poerics. Rome, 1988. W. Bühlmann and K. Scherer. Stilfiguren der Bibel. Ein kleines Nachschlagewerk. M i t einem Anhang von O. Rickenbacher: Einige Beispiele stilsrischer Analyse alttestamentlicher Texte. Fribourg, 1973. E. König. Stilistik. Rhetorik, Poetik in Bezug auf die biblische Literatur kompara­ tivisch dargestellt. Leipzig, 1900. W.G.E. Watson. Classical Hebrew Poetry. JSOT.S 26. Sheffield, 1984. Compare also the literature mentioned in § 2 Ό ; § 3 D 1 (Hebrew Poetry). m

On the Discussion ot Linguistics and Exegesis : W. Dressler. Einführung in die Textlinguistik. T ü b i n g e n , 1972. E. Gülich and W Raible. Linguistische Textmodelle. Munich, 1977. X. Léon-Dufour. Exegese im Methodenkouflikt. Munich, 1973 (Frencb, 1971), K . Koch. Formgeschichte, p. 289-342 (not in English translation). . Reichen die fornigesebichtlicben Methoden für die Gegenwartsaufgaben der Bibelwissenschaft zu? T h L Z 98 (1973): col. 801-814. Κ. Koch and others. Arnos. Untersucht mit den Methoden einer strukturalen Form­ geschichte. 3 parte. A O A T 30. Kevelaer—Neulrirchen-Vluyn, 1976. Especially part l , p . 1-89. W. Richter. Exegese, especially p. 21 ff, 27ff. For the Current Stale ofthe Discussion: R.C. Culley. Exploring New Directions. Tn: The Hebrew Bible and I ß Modern Inter­ preters. Chico, CA, 1985. p. 167-200. R. Knierun. Criticism of Literary Features. I n The Hebrew Bible and Its .Modern Interpreters, Chico, CA, 1985. p. 123-165, H.-P. Müller. "Formgeschichte/Formenkritik, I . Altes Testament/' T R E X I (1983); 271-285. H . D . Preuß. Linguistik—Literaturwissenschaft—Altes Testament. (See above, footnote 9). See §1CV.

III. EXEMPLARY EXECUTTON J. Begrich. Die priesterliche "Ibra. In: Werden und Wesen des Alten Testaments. B Z A W 66. p. 63-88. Berlin, 1936. Also in: Begrich. Gesanunelte Studien /.tun Alten Testament. T h B 21. Munich, 1964. p. 232-260. M J . Buss. Form Criticism. In To Lach Its Own Meaning: A n Tntroductiun to Biblical Criticisms and Their Application. Louisville, 1993. ρ. 69-85.

>*ί An evaluative summary of W Richters tnethod is found in the 8th--llth German edirion of this work'book, ]). 74-76.

Literature

119

F. Crüsemann. Studien zur Formgeschichte von Hymnus und Danklied in Israel. W M A N T 32. Neulorehen-Vluyn 1969. W. G r o ß . Lying Prophet and Disobedient Man of C-îod in 1 King 13; Kole Analysis. Semeia 15 (1979): 97-135. The volumes o f the commentary series: The Forms of the Old Testament Literature, which have appeared since 1981. R. Knierim und G. Tucker, eds. Grand Rapids.

Pv H I S T O R Y O F RESEARCH .). Barton. "Form Criticism." A B U , Vol. 2. p. 838-841. I I . F . Hahn. Old Testament in Mixlern Research. Cbapter 4: Forin Criricism and the Old lestament, p. 119-156. Philadelphia, 1954. VV Klatt. Hermann Gunkel. Z u seiner Theologie der Religionswissenschaft und zur Entstehung der formgeschichtlichen Methode. F R L A N T 100. Göttingen, 1969. H.-J. Kraus. Geschichte der historisch-kritischen Erforschung des Alten Testaments. Neukirchen-ATuyn, -'1982 (see the index under »Formgeschichte«, » G a t t u n g « , »Gammgsforschung«).

1

Tradition Historical Approach

A. T H E T A S K L S t a r ü n g Point The avenues in § § 4 - 6 have already investigated a text's pre-íexí. This investigation asked about the previous stages of the t e x t under investigation, in the sense of fixed tex­ tual components from which the text was forrned o v e time untii it reached its final form. Thus in typical pattern an ora; transmission piece served as pre-text for the first written version. VVntten text versions, logether with their literary contexts, then served as pre-texts for additions and redactional expansions in the t e x t Form criticism and tra­ dition history also treat phenomena which are presupposed in the text and t o which the text refers. However form criticism and tradition history do not inquire alongthe 'ines of § § 4 - 6 which sought phenomena which had been integrated into a t e x t in the course o f its transmission and. relatedly, could be isolated analytically as fixed textual components. r

Instead, form criticism and tradition history have another starting point regarding a text's presuppositions. They share a common underlying insight, namely that the State­ ments of Old Testament texts are not solely the expression o f an isolated author Rather, even when they are first constituted at the beginning of their development Statements were forrned under influences and with shaping devices which provided the author the prerequisites of possible linguistic utterances. From §7, the treatment concentrates upon the pre-text of the "worid" in which an author and the author's addressees live. It is a lin­ guistic (§7), intellectuai (§8), and concretely historical (§9) world in which a formulation and its original understanding were taken as self-evident, One could speak ofthe auru of unrealized rezonance in the formulation about which the exegete must later inquire and de­ termine if he/she wants t o participate m the original understanding of a text, As we saw in §7, form criticism treats the linguistic pattern and possibilities presumed in the linguistic realm and the socio-curtural world. Form criticism thus investigated how a statement is shaped iinguistkaliy, and what may be gleaned from that knowledge which impacts the perception ofthe statement's reference and purpose. In other words, o n e asKS about the presupposed linguistic worfd. its conerete matnx, and how this statement transcends that linguistic world,

§8

122

TRADITTONAL HISTORICAL APPROACH

T r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y proceeds f r o m the perspective that an author lives c o n c u r r e n t l y i n an intellcctital w o r l d o f facts w h i c h are presupposed and

fixed.

T r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y asks the äegree to which die contents o f the author's Statements are detennined by pre-existing elements f r o m the author's intelJectual w o r l d , the degree to w h i c h the Statements can o n l y be understood f r o m t h e i r backg r o u n d , or die degree to w h i c h the author has deviated f r o m that i n t e l l e c tual w o r l d . T h e assertion that one must take aecount o f die influence o f facts f r o m the existing intellectual w o r l d when t r y i n g t o eomprehend the f o r m u l a t i o n and the o r i g i n a l understanding o f O l d Testament texts is n o t s i m p l y a postulate. A n overview o f the assertions o l the O l d ' l è s t a m e n t itself lorces one to this c o n c l u s i o i i . I t is shown by certain coiwurrences scattered across the O l d Testament o r w h i c h are characteristically b u n d l e d together. T h e s e coneurrences do not stem from transmission historical or literary dependency of texts. T h e r e one again encounters the same thought struetures (such as the correspondence between deed and c o n d i t i o n ) , the same fixed images (such as the c o m p a r i s o n o f h u m a n life w i t h grass), the same fixed thernes (such as Jerusalem as a c i t y w h i c h the waters o f chaos and the nations o f chaos cannot conquer), and the sarne thematte ensembles. Last b u t n o t least, one encounters die saine word ense?nhles w h i c h appear to b e l o n g to a fixed technical language. T h e s e ensembles were f o r m e d i n particular i n s t i t u t i o n s and scholastic circles such as w i s d o m , c u l t poetry, priesthood, legal concenis, the r o y a l c o u r t , and over t i m e , also p r o ­ phetic rradents. These nianivcstatiuns always a p p e a r i n f o n m i l a t i o n s o r they direet those f o r m u l a t i o n s and may be labeled by die s u m m a r y t e r m "fixed Con­ tents." I t is chosen because, in part, these nianifestarions lie behind the f o r m u ­ l a t i o n s ( t h o u g h t pattern, religious convictions). A l s o this r e r m was chosen be­ cause, i n part, die manitestations are n o t fixed i n f o r m u l a t i o n s ( k n o w l e d g e , material), and because, i n part, they appear i n v a r y i n g f o r m u l a t i o n s

even

t h o u g h w i t h similar words (compare the v a r y i n g f o r m u l a t i o n s i n assertions c o n c e m i n g the mastery over the p r i m o r d i a l sea).

These nianifestarions

are

thus p r i m a r i l y encountered i n lixed words, i n vocabularies, and f o r m u l a t e d struetures

114

i n die t r a d i t i o n arena o f i n s t i t u l i o n a l language (scholastic and

specialty). T r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y treats these influences w h i c h offer m o r e precise m e a n i n g to die f o r m u l a t i o n o f an O l d Testament text and t o the o r i g i n a l understandability o f d i a t f o r m u l a t i o n .

)5-t Here in §8. genre is no ionger considered amung die consistent linguistic Clements. Existing, fixed contents were not just transmitted in conneeuon to a single genre. Rüther, these contents could enter very difierent genres. Λ relatively strong association between genre and ex­ isting, fixed contents only appears when the association appears with the genre as the topic of that genre. Tradition history concenis intellectual influences on the formulation which can be shown in die text even without genre influence.

The

Task

123

Existing, fixed contents from a specific intellectual worid influence the assertions of an author living in that world. This influence, investigated by the tradition historical ap­ proach, is not just an ancient phenomenon. Today, for example. two commentators might look back over t h e economic development of Western Furope in the last ciecades. If one commentator speaks of "market fluctualions" while the other speaks of the "captalistic world rocked by crises,"the difference is not explainec by reference to individual. spontaneously different impressions. Rathen the difference can only be explamed by reliance upon the very different, effectively fixed, intellectual world o' each of the commentators. O n e example ofthe constrtutive affiliation of a single expression with an identifable in­ tellectual world, can be found in the expression "advertistng costs," By itself, tne expres­ sion has a clear meaning (costs associated with advertising). This meaning, however; does not by any means ineorporate tne intonation ofthe word which is ccrtainly mtended but not stated. This meaning is provided by the fact that the expression is a set, fixed term from the intellectual world of fiscal matters and can only be usea and under­ stood in dynamic relationship to this intellectual world. Another example: H o w should one understand the following sentence? "Saui's claim of founding a national State is ele­ vated by the Davidic conception of a territorial state."VV'hat does "elevated" mean? Does ft mean "raised.""dignified" or"cxhilarated?"The meaning of t h e word may only be deduced by the one who knows the precise usage in the fixed, intellectual world of Hegel. Numerous other examples could oe readily brought forth t o illustrate the problem we also face with Old Testament texts. r

11. D e t e r m i n a t i o n For each developmental stage, the t r a d i t i o n historical approach inqnires i n t o the particular import on a text by its contents (intellectual-, theological-, or religio-historical). T h e t r a d i t i o n historical approach thereby determines the t h o u g h t patterns, contents, concepts, or conceptual complexes w h i c h are presupposed by die text, incorporated i n t o die text, or revised by the author. T h e t r a d i t i o n historical approach does n o t concentrate o n a theme as i t w o u l d appear today (such as the image. o f m o t h e r in the O l d Testament). Rather, die t r a d i t i o n historical approach concentrates on very specific criteria found in the text. These criteria indicate the fixed contents o f a statement and thereby indicate its involveinent i n an existing intellectual w o r l d . T h e y register these contents f r o m the perspective o f die author, and thereby evoke h o w the addressee w o u l d have associated the contents. I n the execution ot exegetical studies, the t r a d i t i o n historical approach direets its attention entirely t o the intellectual range o f the f o r m u l a t i o n o f a specific text. I t does so i n order to i l l u m i n a t e the material profile o f die t e x t s i n t e n t i o n in conneetion w i t h the traditional (and i f necessary w i t h the transcendenec or i n f r i n g e m e n t o f the traditional). Parallel t o die i n q u i r y i n t o a specific text, yet transcending d i a t task, the t r a d i t i o n historical approach also concentrates u p o n the context itself (both the intellectual context and the context i n the history of theology). T h e t r a d i t i o n his-

124

§8

TRADITIONAL HISTORICAL APPROACH

torical approach concentrates especially u p o n the h i s t o r y o f various concepts and how they are b r o u g h t t o g c t h e r i n the framework o f a larger, e o n t o u r e d c o n c e p t i o n . " ' For the most part, these t r a d i t i o n historical investigations are available as speciaiized studies, as was the case w i t h studies o f genre history. O n e should consult diese studies tor t r a d i t i o n historical clarifications c o n ­ c e r n i n g findings i n die text. T h e t r a d i t i o n historical approachs i n q u i r y i n t o the text's t r a d i t i o n a l c o n ­ tents m u s t be distinguished f r o m the question o f the h i s t o r y o f the t e x t itself (transmission h i s t o r y and redaction h i s t o r y ) and f r o m the l i n g u i s t i c shape o f the text ( f o r m c r i t i c i s m ) . I t must also be distinguished from the h i s t o r y o f a text's reception w h i c h o r i g i n ä r e s w i t h the Statements o f a text. I I I . Terminology The term "tracfticn historical approach" is anything but uniformly understood in exegetical literature as a result of the ambigurty of the expression s first word. Frequently, "tradition" is understood as traditio (the process o f transmission), and related to the transmission process of a tex.L. It is then used synonymously with transmission history, or with transmission history and redaction history combined. '' The nomenclature used by us. in agreement w t h other exegetes, '' defines the tradition historical approach from traaitum (that which has been transmitted: tradition ' as transmitted contents). The nomenclature relates to the appearance of fixed contents in texts, and it relates to the history of these contents and concepts. Lacking an adequate term, the nomenclature only attempts to stabilize terminology in order to improve tne possibility of cioser agree­ ment 3

5

13

1 '5 For examples of this type of investigation, see below under Ό III. Consult recent investi­ gations such as, J. Day, God's Conflict ir-itb the Dragon and tbe Sea (Cambridge, 1985); C . Kloos, 17/11 T/V Combat with the Sea (Amsterdam Leiden, 1986); J . Jeremias, Das Königtum Gotici in den Psalmen (Gottingen, 1087). 1

><> Cornpare above, p. 641. By contrast, K. Bach (in Probleme biblischer Theologie. Festschrift Vi. v. Rad, 1971, p. 19f, etc.), even uses the German equivalent ot "transmission history"' for that which wc designatc as "the tradition historical approach"! For a discussion of the confusing ter­ minology, cornpare the Synopsis of R. Knierini, "Criticism of Literary Features, Form. Tradition, and Redaction," in: D.A. Knight and G M . Tucker, The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Inter­ preters, p. 146ff. '<>" Conipare. for example, Fohrer, introduclimi, p. 29f.31; Fohrc.r, livegese, p. 27 (Hoflfmann), ρ. 1 19 (Wanke): F. Stolz, Das Alte Testament, Studienbücher Theologie, 1974, p. 114f Koch, Was ist Tormgeschichte. p. 71,326ff (neidier passage appears in the English edition), rrcats the tradition historical inanilestations under die term "special linguistic phenomena which require semantic mediods for dieir Illumination." For further discussion of the problem, see below, foomote 163. ISS "Tradition" in this broad sense designates the entirety of tbe fixed contents into which the tradition historical approach inquires. This delinition also forms tbe basis of our designation of the method as tradition historical. With this independent term, "tradition" is convenuonally bound to a narrower meaning. "Tradition'" is then svnonymous with conccptual complex or the context of the concept.

C o m m e n t a r y on the A p p r o a e h and M e t h o d

Β. C O M M E N T A R Y OK

125

T H E APPROACH A N D M E T H O D

1. D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n f r o m die Transmission H i s t o r i c a l Approaeh The Lerminological ambiguity ofihe terms "transmission history" and "tradition his­ tory" proeeeds vanously with the mixmg of contents to the point that both aspects can be treated with the same t e r m . ' ^he tradition historical approaeh proeeeds from its constitutive finding that fixed contents constantly reappear in various texts without implying literary dependence is provable or is even probable. Fixea contents reappear without implying xhat this appearatKe is connected wiln tne adoption of a specific transmission piece. From this slarting point, it that tne tradition historical approaeh should not simply be identified with the transmission historical approaeh. Those preexisting elements, toward which the approaeh is directed, are by no means taken up into the text as a fixed transmission piece." ?a

O I I O W S

!i

Π . Areas o f T r a d i t i o n H i s t o r i c a l I n q u i r y T h e fixed contents, about w h i c h the t r a d i t i o n historical approaeh ì n q u i r e s , are n o t all o f the same t y p e . O n e must therefore differentiate the f o l l o w i n g areas o f t r a d i t i o n historical i n q u i r y : 1.

A n Israelite author, as w e l l as the audtor's addressees, lives i n an i n t c l lectual w o r l d and is shaped by i t . I f one relates that intellectual w o r l d to the cntire c u l t u r a l realm o f A n c i e n t Israel (and o f the A n e i e n t Near East) as a whole, then, in t r a d i t i o n historical lespects, one must consider a particular world vira' together ivith its specific thoughtputterns.'* I n this context, the p r o b l e m o f a particular " H e b r e w t h o u g h t " picsents itself. 2

143

J . " Compare, for example, E . Zengcr in: Schreiner, Einßbnmg, p. 1351; W. Zimmerli, "Alttesramenrliclie Traditionsgeschichre und Theologie," in: Probleme biblischer Theologie. Fest­ schrift G. v. Rad, 1971, p. 6.52-647; Rast, Tradition and liistors (see above, §5 U 1), especially ρ. 59ff along with p. 1 ff. '4 > Compare the detailed methodological discussion by Steck, "Theological Streams of Tra­ dition,'' in Tradition and 'Theolog)' in ihr Old Testament, p. 183-191; and Steck, Scböpfimgsbericht, p. 26ff,272ff. 141 Exaniples: Λ tradition historical investigation of Jer 7:1-15 must ask about the coneepr of the imparted protection in the Jerusalem remple which is presupposed in 7:4,10. By contrast, transmission historv asks about the previous stages of the current Denteronomistic version of the text in Jer 7:1-15 itselt. In Judg 4, the tradition historical question treats the coneept of die exclusive activity of Y1IW1I in the aft.miment of victory (4:14f), while the transmission historical approaeh tn(]iiires into the oral prehistory of the oldcst litcrarily homogenous version of the text of Judgcs 4. In both cases, the tradition historical approaeh concenis die coneepts which have ti3turally obtained linguistic shape in specific, concrete texts (and are still ascertainable onlv in diese texts). However, these coneepts have not entcred as one of these concrete texts in Jer 7 or Judg 4. (

142 Examples; the coneept of a cause and effect relationship (cf. Koch, Vergeltungsdogma). 1*J -See especially, Koch, Formgeschichte, p. 333-336 (bibliography, but not available in the linglish tninslation).

126

2.

§8

TRADITIONAL HISTORICAL APPROACH

Fixed contents o f the k i n d presented b e l o w are also situated i n a particular intellectual w o r l d inside A n c i e n t Israel (and the ancient Orient): i n specific geographica! realins, w i d i specific social groups, at specific locations, i n stitutions, and even w i d i a specific circle o f persons. Even here, one should p r i m a r i l y lake characteristic t h o u g h t patterns i n t o consideration. These patterns reflect religious and theological convictioiis w h i c h determine the p e r c e p t i o n o f reality and the experiential and intellectual processing o f r e a l i t y . m

3.

Further, die reservoir o i knowledge andawareness belongs t o the fixed c o n ­ tents w h i c h stand at the author's disposal as a c o m p o n e n t o f the author's education. T h i s reservoir is k n o w n t o the author f r o m i n d i v i d u a l t r a d i ­ t i o n pieecs, and these m i g h t even occur to the author, b u t they are n o t i n ­ tegrated i n t o the author's statement as a t r a d i t i o n p i e c e . N a t u r a l l y , this reservoir ineludes m o r e extensive material w h i c h die author k n o w s and considers w h e n f o r m u l a t i n g a text. As a r u l e , the vocabulary and die strue­ t u r e o f f o r m u l a t i o n o f these b a c k g r o u n d contents are seldom fixed. F o r tliis reason, they are freely shaped w h e n they are adopted i n t o a text. T h i s free shaping makes the contents m o r e difficult to pereeive m e t h o d o l o g i ­ cally. Ehe constancy o f the f o r m u l a t i o n is greater w i t h fixed images and comparisons, idioms, and linguistic Conventions. These elements must also be considered h e r e . 145

Ι4Λ

4.

W i t h i n a particular intellectual w o r l d , terms can attract a special mean­ i n g w h i c h greatly surpasses the lexically pereeived m e a n i n g . H e r e , as already m e n t i o n e d , sebo/astie language and speciaiized language, w i d i t h e i r characteristic words and w o r d associations w h i c h w e r e shaped b y A n c i e n t Israel, play an i m p o r t a n t role. A b o v e all, o n e should m e n t i o n die royal court, the m i i i t a r y , legal concerns, priesthood, temple poetry, w i s d o m , the D e u t e r o n o m i c / D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c s c h o o r s language, a n d a d e v e l o p i n g p r o phetie language. A t times, even a single characteristic t e r m may desire t o MT

'** Examples: the conviction that seeing (Jod leads to death (Gen 32:31; Exod 33:20; Judg 6:23, etc.) or diat the world is dividcd into an arena of the elean and the unclean (cf. Num 19:ll-13;Hag2:ll-13). > See above, p. 82 + footnote 83, and examples from Gen 2:4b-3:24. Further. see Steck, Schöpfungsbericht, p. 28f, and passages concerning Gen 1:1-2:4a (e.g. the Statements about the re­ alities before the ereation in Gen 1:2. Stbapfimgphricbt, 228ff). " A Store of knowledge, awareness, and materials is then methodologically observable if one inquires into die statement's contents. Then one can sec whether those contents reflect training and education or whether they concern knowledge which the author gained from experience. This is especially significant widi materials when literarily independent parallel texts can be found which suggest die employment of a broader circulation of common contents, in spite of a differ­ ent formulation and usage. W Examples: g'r, rebuke (cf, Gen 3": 10: ,1er 29:27 with the references in Ps 104:7 and Isa 17:13 which stand in die framework of a larger conceptual context); mithseh/miihāseh, " rehige" (cf. Ps 104:18; Job 24;8; with Ps 46:2; 61:4). I4

, 4

C o m i n e n t a r y o n the Approaeh and M e t h o d

127

H l i

evoke associations i n this i n t e l l e c t u a l w o r l d . T h e r c f o r e , analysis o f a t e r m can frequently not be l i m i t e d t o its semantic explanation in the c o n ­ text o f its various occurrences w h i c h results f r o m reference to lexicon and coneordance. A n explanation must be expanded by an "investigation o f the theological, material context i n w h i c h a t e r m is anehored (vocabulary r ä n g e ! ) , as w e l l as an investigation o f the t e r m s home and its o r i g i n " . Recent theological dictionaries provide i m p o r t a n t suggestions at this p o i n t . " As the g r o n n d breaking investigations o f O. K e e l have d e m o n strated, ensembles ofStrands frmn andmt orientalpictorialsymbols somerimes ofTer absolutely essential aids l'or i l l u m i n a t i n g the intellectual w o r k l w h i c h shapes a text. 1 4 0

15

5.

1

1

2

Finally, fixed contents also appear as tbemes '' and coneepts. '' These themes and coneepts, however. should be those w h i c h A n c i e n t Israel itself formed, not those w h i c h were s i m p l y taken f r o m the exegete's o w n w o r l d and attaches to texts. U n l i k e the images mentioned i n " 3 , " they are not exclusively niaterial k n o w l e d g e . Rather, these themes and coneepts are compact processes o f refleetion w h i c h i n t e r p r e t reality. The vocabulary and the strueture o f f o r m u l a t i o n are also considerably m o r e fixed. T h e y differentjate themselves from the conceptually loaded terms treated under " 4 , " w h i c h are themselves o f t e n components o f themes and coneepts. T h e y differentiate themselves naturally by the seope o f the t h o u g h t patterns and convictions discussed i n " 1 " and " 2 " by greater thematic i n clusivity, stronger mental adaptation, and c o r r e s p o n d i n g , fixed l i n g u i s t i c entities. T h e m e s and coneepts then are distinguished by a thematic p o i n t o f crystallization, by a fixed subject o f Statements, and by the extent o f their shaping i n respect to vocabulary and strueture o f f o r m u l a t i o n . These characteristics appear even w h e n the l i n g u i s t i c version continues to fhictuate w i t h i n a certain frame. Coneepts transcend themes by t h e i r theologically refleetive elaboration, and b y t h o u g h t f u l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . T h e y also transcend themes by c o n f i r m i n g a specific i n e l i n a t i o n o f the stare-

Ηβ Exaniples: Y T J W H is nârâ' (Ps 47:i; 76:8, etc.) as an abhreviation of Y H W H ' s victorious activity aceording to Jerusalem cultic theology: or mahàšàbiib as an indieation of \visdom influenec upon die formulation of die Yahwistic prologue to the flood story. HV Steck, "Das Problem theologischer Strörmuigen," E v T h 28 (1968): 447, footnote 4. 150 See above, §2 Μ. '5' Exaniples: die ihcnic of die exodus from Kgypt: compare. for example, Deut 6:12: Judg 2: 12; l's 136:10 15. which use the fonnulauon of "bringing out" (yāsā'in h i f il) of Israel, with Judg 6:13; Hos 12:14; Ps 81:11, etc., which use the formulation of "bringing up" ('Müh in hif'il) of Israel. Also compare Hos 12:10; Isa 10:24-26: 5 l:'>r; 52:1 lf. The thetne of the "day of Y I I W H " (cf. Arnos 5:18-20; Isa 2:10+12-17; 13:2-22). T h e theme of "return" in prophecy (cf. Hos 5:4; 14:2ff; Arnos 4:6-12; Jer 3:1-4:4; Isa 10:20-23). 152 Exaniples; the coneept of die batrle against the nations (cf. Pss 48:2-9; 76:2-7; Isa 17: 12-14); the Jerusalem coneept of lang (cf. Pss 2; 72); die Deuteronomistic prophetic Statement (cf. 2 Kgs 17:13-17; Jer 7 25f; Neil 9:26^30). :

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1

m e n t and by a specific profile o f l i n g u i s ü c w o r d i n g . " T h e question o f the concepts is an especially i m p o r t a n t area for t r a d i t i o n historical w o r k w h e n presupposed b y a text, taken u p i n t o a text, o r m o d i f i e d b y a text. T h i s question w i l l be expressly treated below i n section I V I I I . R e c o g n i z i n g Fixed Contents H o w can one recognize whether, and i n w h a t fashion, fixed contents are presupposed, assimilated, o r modified i n a text? Here one must consider f r o m the b e g i n n i n g that iixed contents do n o t manifest themselves i n any text i n a manner i n w h i c h they are completely unveiled and explicated. I t is m u c h m o r e characteristic for die phenomenon treated by die t r a d i t i o n historical approach that die i n t e l l e c t u a l and conceptual background o f a text is taken i n t o view. T h u s the t r a d i t i o n historical approach treats the elements o f a shaped, i n t e l ­ lectual w o r l d w h i c h are n o t f o r m u l a t e d i n the text, b u t w h i c h , w i t h o u t d o u b t , were considered, intended, and understood a l o n g w i t h die text. T h e y are also inevitably indicated by explicit text elements. T h u s , fixed contents stand i n the text like the t i p o f an iceberg. 1) T h e best presuppositions for r e c o g n i z i n g a text's fixed contents exist where ( i n a hermeneutical cirele!) the intellectual w o r l d o f A n c i e n t Israel (and o f the A n c i e n t N e a r East), o r the various expressions o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l w o r l d , have already been p r e l i m i n a r i l y reconstrueted and are k n o w n . These inelude arenas like w i s d o m and the Jerusalem cult theology. "' 1

<ġjM W h e n investigating a text, the exegete should note threads w h i c h recall t\ fixed contents, w h i c h m u s t dierefore have parallels i n o d i e r texts. They JrfíÊg p r o v i d e the basis of a corresponding foreknoivledge, i n the sense o f i n f o r •£L«p, m a t i o n obtained by Bible knowJedge ( l i k e the language o f die O l d Vmm Testament—psalmic, w i s d o m , legal, D e u t e r o n o m i c / D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c ) . O n l y i f one can demonstratc these parallels i n at least one other l i t e r a r i l y i n ­ dependent text, can one speak at ali about a fixed content. O n e m u s t dilferentiate sharply between these parallels and an author's literary reference to another O l d Testament t e x t w h i c h the author k n o w s . C r i -

I Tt is questionable whether one can reveal "the transmission interesi of a specific tradent cirele" only by the. concepts or their contexts (as Hubcr bclicvcs, in Fohrer, Exegese, ρ. 111,115). The extensive transmission of die theine "'the day of Y H W H " (see Hubcr, p. 109) is not eonceiv­ able without tbe interest of prophetic circles in this theme. See section V below, "The Tradition Historical Approach as Historical Process."' 15* Along with theological dictionaries for catebwords, cornpare the bibliographic references to monographs, especially those mentioned in Old Testament introduetions and surveys. Further, text books and monographs on Old Testament theology and on the history of Israelite religion (see above §2 N ) prove valuable. A n orientational overview may be gleaned from my sketch, "Theological Sircams of Tradition." See also the chart in Steck, Arbeitsbliitter, 6 (see above, §2 F ) .

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teria for the latter case are: (1) T h e agreement exists o n l y i n these t w o places. (2) T h e author also demonstrates k n o w l e d g e and use o f this w r i t i n g i n o t h e r places. (3) T h e reference is n o t an expression o f a m o r e broadly disseminated coneept, b u t is a singular Statement. I f these l i t e r a r y references are direeted t o w a r d references i n the same book, then they eould indieate the eharacter o f a redactional c o n t i n u a t i o n . 2) Concordana' n-ork is the foundational means for t r a d i t i o n h i s t o r i c a l analysis i n a text. T h i s is t r u e for b o t h the investigation o f a text i n an exegetical exercise and for the expansive task o f a t t a i n i n g a synthetic image o f Israel s intellectual w o r l d and its h i s t o r y o f theology. Likewise, coneordance w o r k also serves t o evaluate the h y p o t h e t i c a l discussions o f this expansive task. T o the degree that the fixed contents' vocabulary and the strueture o f the f o r m u l a t i o n r e m a i n constant, one may therefore diseover additioiial references for the presumed fixed contents by using a coneordance for a specific text. O n e Starts o n a seleeted w o r d (or f o r m u l a t i o n ) contained i n the t e x t w h i c h is notable o r interesting because o f its c o n e e p t . '

:i

The more specalized question of the recognition and history of coneepts will be treated in more detail subsequently, in section IV. 3) Finally, m a n y texts already suggest that they refer t o fixed contents by quotations o r by the exp l i c i t response o f the bearers perceptions,^'-

I V T h e Coneept H i s t o r y Approaeh T h e question o f the coneepts and the h i s t o r y o f coneepts is an especially i m p o r t a n t area o f the t r a d i t i o n historical approaeh. I t can be separated t e r m i n o l o g i c a l l y as the coneept h i s t o r y approaeh and i t can be seen as a special segment o f the t r a d i t i o n historical question. 1. R e c o g n i z i n g a Coneept A coneept is distinguished by fixed vocabulary, charactenstic formulation strueture, specific conceptual contour and a typscal train of thought (matenal logic). These coneepts may be subdivided into various conceptual Clements and agam into individual conceptual

1 5 5

Example: By using the coneordance in Isa 52:12, the notable formulation (y.O bèhippāzân, "(to go forth) in a fearhil hurry," can also be found in Exod 12:11 and Deut 16;?. This leads to the rhemc of the "exodus from Egypr" which Stands in the background of Isa 52:11 f. 156 Ituber draws attention to tbis phenomenon, in Fohrer, Exegese, ρ. 113f. Furdier ex­ aniples: Mic 3:9-12 (verse 11);,1er 7:4,10.

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factors. One should observe that some situations require a certain breadth of Variation in respecito the vocabulary and the consistency of formulation. '' Several concepts form a conceptuai complex or conceptuai context, when present in a thematically centralized com­ posite and a reflective relationship. Ifthis conceptuai complex perceivesthe experiential world from a self-enclosed perspective, then it can be quaiified as a concephon. For example, in the Old Testament, these conceptions are offered byjerusalemite cuit the­ ology, Israelite wisdom. and also the intellectual framing entity of the Deuteronorrvstic view of history with af of its implications exphcated elsewhere (e.g. Deuteronomy). 5

2. Perspecth'es on the Q u e s t i o n Uli

a. Does a text rcly u p o n pre-existing concepts?

T h i s approach tans o u t via \'arious i n d h i d u a l questions. T h e comparison w i t h o d i e r texts using a concordance is unavoidable. 1

•

8

Does the text indicate a vocabulary (e.g. a vocabulary r a n g e ' or w o r d ensembles) w h i c h is encountered i n o t h e r l i t e r a r i l v independent texts? • Is a fixed strueture of formulation thereby maintained? (For example, one should consider active or passive \'erbs, transitive o r intransitive verbs, a statement's characteristic contents as subject o r objeet.) 1W

•

D o characteristic conceptuai contents recur w h i c h on oceasion fali i n t o invariable elements and factors? • A r e diese bound to one another i n a stable construetion, and do they agree i n typical, equivalent material logic, o r i n a demonstrable train of thought? •

W i d i d i e same strueture o f f o r m u l a t i o n , the same conceptuai c o n ­ tents, and the same t r a i n o f t h o u g h t , are there also variations of formulation for the concept u s i n g related types o f w o r d s ? ' 60

157 Example: T h e texts mentioned ahove in toomote 152 concerning the concept of tbe battle ot nations, wherc the attacking powers arc cited as mfläkim in Ps 48:5, as 'àbîri buyil in Ps 76:6; and as iimmi/lš\mtmtm

Itb/'anši-

in Isa 17:12. Likewise, there arc differences in tbe

formulation of the activity o f Y H W H and in the subsequent reaction ol the attackers. Kloos (see footnote 135), 75ff,191ff, 198ff, provides an example of die breadth of this Variation for a concept's formulation with respecl to the forma tions for the ehaos balile. 1>8 This phrase does not mean the linguistic scientific tenu of the semantic ränge (cf. Koch, Fotmgescbicbtc, p. 321t) o r the word's setting ( c f Koch, Fornrgescbicbte, p. 327t—neither of the.se ictcrenccs appears in the English translation). R.ithe.r, it means the stock ot words and word asso­ ciations w h i c h arc typical fora concept. 1>9 Example: in the themadc unit o f Alic 3:9-12, circulating around Zion/Jerusalem, die formulation that Y H W H is in the midst (biqereb) of tbe inhabitants of Zion (3:11) points to the concept' of the proteetive presenec of Y H W H . on Zion (cf. the corresponding formulation and the context in Ps 46:6; Jer 14:9; and Zeph 3:15,17). 160 Thus the power opposing Y H W H in the ehaos battle can be callcd die primordial sca, the sea, water, billows, Leviarhan, riibiib, and tunriin. Also Y l 1W1 l's mastery and victory appears in different, but related action verbs.

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A l s o , for the most part coneordance w o r k already leads to these references be­ cause they m a i n t a i n characteristic terms. T h e varied f o r m u l a t i o n s raise questions: D o the variations stein from the breadth o f die t r a d i t i o n itself ? D o they reflect historical changes i n the coneept? O r should they be a t t r i b u t e d t o the autlior because they agree w i t h die audior's particularity. 8WÍ

b . W h a t is the larger association o f the coneept?

I f a p r e - e x i s t i n g coneept is mediated, then one must also ask t o w h i c h larger conceptual association (conceptual complex) i t belongs, and w h e t l i e r i t is actually a c o m p o n e n t o f a conception. D o the comparisons o f the parallels indicate that the consistent c o n ­ eept is also b o u n d t o a constant concepttuil contexti D o material relationships and overlaps demonstrate that this c o n ­ stant conceptual context represents a mMerially self-enclosed concep­ tual association or, o n oceasion, a conception? H o w does one determine the center, the thematic crystalliz&tion point, or the ć o r e o f this conceptual association? Is this conceptual association distinguished by characteristic t e r m i ­ n o l o g ) ' (principa! tenns) w h i c h are concentxated i n it? Is this conceptual association typically characteriz.ed by the extent of its contents, t r a i n o f t h o u g h t , t h o u g h t strueture, o r the special per­ spective on the experiential world? ẁv»

c. W h e r e is this conceptual association n a t u r a l l y situated?

The formation of coneepts into conceptua; associations presupposes substantiai processes of reflecton. These refiection processes ans Condensed into a more c r less stereotypical terminology, but one which has its own charactenstic stamp. Forttos reason, the setting of these conceptua! associations can only be sought in Sites of exp.'ict educot'on. As a rule. these are attached to long siandmg insuiulions. One should mention the Jerusalem cult, the rova! court, or wisdom education. These Sites are also tied to charac­ teristic functions which are representea by bearers of that funetion (e.g. wisdom teacher, royal offices, temple singers) and by characteristic genres.

d. W h i c h indices p o i n t t o the presence o f an intellectual w o r l d i n the text? The presence of an intellectual world to which a text is conceptually related is primanly recognizable from the text's formulations when compared with independent parallel formulations (cf. "a" and " D " ) . Even examples from the present time snow that one must consider an intellectual world if genres are used which belong to this sculpted world (cf. "c"). VVith the genre "tax return," the intellectual world of fiscal matters is also present. Relatedîy, charactenstic terms from this world appear, like the exampie of'advertising costs" which vvc used above. These terms appear when treating various related

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genres (tax return, tax laws, tax guide. tax assessment). The same is true forihe Old Tes­ tament. The entire intellectual world of Jerusalem cult theology Stands behind every Jerusalemite cultic genns (hymns. genres concernmg the plight of the king and the individual), even when that world is only formuiated in parts. This intellectual world is visible in the topics of these genres by their charaaeristic formulations ( Y H W H as king. refuge, protection, deliverer trom the waters of chaos, etc.). However, the oresence of a recognizable intellectual world can also be glven by a minimal number of charactenstic formulations when a representative of this intellectual world speaks or acts. in our modern example, the term "advertising costs" is also clearly defined, even without a supporting context or a characteristic genre, when it is used by a fìnancial offìcerwho nspresents competency in fiscal matters. Related!/, in Ancient Israel, one would have understood the appearance of repräsentatives of sculpted worlds (such as lawyers. wisdom teachers, temple singers, priests, etc.) as self-evident embodiments of the world they represent. When Isaiah or jeremiah speaks to the priests, or when Micah speaks to the Jerusalemites, the respective intellectual world must be seen as the background of their speech. It must be seen as a contemporary world for the Speaker and for the hearers, even when expressly formulated indices an?, not extensively present in the text. Thus, the tradition historical approaeh essentially mquires into what a Statement presumes, intends, and insinuates.

e, W h e r e necessary, h o w does a t e x t transcend its given i n t e l l e c t u a l world? T h e distinet deviations w h i c h an author adopts in existing coneepts d e m o n strates that t r a d i t i o n is by n o means always taken up homogeneously. T h e s e deviations include the author's use o f coneepts, and the author's deparrure f r o m the t r a i n o f t h o u g h t , t h o u g h t strueture, and extent o f the conceptual association. These transcendencies are ofgreat significanee for determining the intention o f the text. T h e y may not, however, lead to the erroneous conclusion that au author could be totally divorced f r o m h i s / h e r o w n intellectual w o r l d and that only these new Statements are characteristic o f the author.

3. D i m e n s i o n o f the Coneept L I i s t o r y A p p r o a e h It has already become clear that coneept historical werk is completed in various degrees and dimensions. It can relate to an inêvidual conception, along with its pertment conceptual complex. It can also relate to the stock of traditional coneepts in a specific text Finally. coneept historical work can relate synthetieally to the Progression of tbeofogicoi slreams and the coneepts characteristic forthose streams. As already noted. comprehensive mquiries into the coneepts, conceptual complexes, and theological streams which transcend the specific text must remam specialized treatments. As a rule, the exegesis of a specific text can only investigate the assirmlation of a coneept in that specific t e x t Nevertheless, the methodologica! framework of the entire approaeh is presented below in abbi'eviated fashion:

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a. investigating Individual Concepts Investigating the history of individual concepts and their respective conceptuai com­ plex is fundamental. This investigation transcends the specific text. One may speak of a concepts history when the same concept is found in literary utterances within tne Diblical realm in multipie instances from different time periods, but when no immediate literary dependeney is present. However; dynamic. historical transmission must be taken into ac­ count asthe means ofmediahon (tradent, location). During this transmission. individual concepts, or individua! parts of a conceptuai complex, can change completely witnin the framework of their homogenous world (e.g. the notion of chaos within Jerusaiemae cult theology as a c'ragon oras"sea"). Even the language ofthe tradition is not stereotypical, uniform repetiüon. Rather; it is the expression of a livíng. intellectual process. 16

b. Investigating a Specific Text The concept historical question can be directed meaningfully toward a specific text under the following condition: It must be based upon the background of investigations which transcend the specific text, and then it must evaluate the material these Investiga­ tions provide. Their purpose is the more precise ordering of the fixed concepts and the conceptuai associations (traditions) appearing in the text. whclher explicit or implicit, and their deviations. c. Theological Streams The synthesis of concept historical work exists by üluminating the theological streams and the intellectual realms of biblical times. This synthesis is comparable to re­ search into the history of theology: These intellect.ua! realms are generali)' charneterized by a fixed conceptuai complex which crystalliz.es the gciding coneeption of other theo­ logical Statements and genres. Also these realms may connect other conceptuai com­ plexes charactensticaily. The resulting entity can be calied the störe of concepts, and the realm of their transmission can be cailed the areno oftradiUon. Even if the research into the Illumination of these tradition arenas and theological streams Stands in the beginning stages, it still conlribules a great deai. It shows that the various theological streams are not only related to special carriergroups, but that they are also related to specific geographi­ ca! realms in characteristic fashion (Northern Kingdom: covenant. people of God: the city of Jerusalem: cosmic coneeptionsjudean countryside). !i,;

7

λ . T h e T r a d i t i o n H i s t o r i c a l A p p r o a c h as H i s t o r i c a l Process Tradition historical w o r k does n o t i n q u i r e i n t o characteristically shaped thoughts and their h i s t o r y by an abstraction o f historio-social c o n d i t i o n s .

161 Example: The history of the Deuteronomistic statement about prophets, or relatedly, the entire Deutcronomis-tic view of history (for both, see Steck, Israel und das gewaltsame Geschick der Propheten, especially p. 79f,193-195,278f, and 184-189,3120. 16- Cornpare my discussion above in fooüiote 154,

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T h u s , i t does n o t present a process c o n c e r n i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t o f ideas d i vorced f r o m the course o f history. M o r e precisely, i t provides the disclosure o f those processes w h i c h enable the real historical mediation o f fixed c o n ­ tents. " T h e t r a d i t i o n historical approach thus asks the f o l l o w i n g : 1

1

W h o are those responsible for t r a n s m i t t i n g these thoughts? W h a t interest do they have i n these thoughts? W h a t is the historical setting o f the carriers? W h a t experiential aspeets o f the w o r l d are characteristic f o r them? T h e e r i t e r i o n o f the real historical m e d i a t i o n generally proteets against too hastily r e c o v e r i n g c o n d i t i o n s between die texts o f A n c i e n t Israel and the h i s t o r y o f r e l i g i o n . T h e question o f the influence o f the history ofreligion o n A n c i e n t Israels texts (essentially influence from die A n c i e n t N e a r Eastern env i r o n m e n t ) is an i m p o r t a n t part o f t r a d i t i o n historical w o r k . H o w e v e r , this w o r k m u s t be p e r f o r m e d strictly a c c o r d i n g t o tbe m e t h o d o l o g i c a l v i e w p o i n t s w h i c h are valid for this question. V I . T h e T r a d i t i o n H i s t o r i c a l A p p r o a c h and the H i s t o r y o f M o t i f s T h e t e r m "history o f motifs" appears i n O l d Testament research w i t h "the t r a d i t i o n historical approach," either used i n association or s y n o n y m o u s l y w i t h it. T h e h i s t o r y o f motifs strives f o r the h i s t o r y o f the smallest t h e m a t i c b u i l d i n g block i n the text. O n e s h o u l d consider the f o l l o w i n g t o understand the validity and value o l investigations o f tbe h i s t o r y ot m o t i i s . 1 6 4

1) T h e h i s t o r y o f motifs is n o t r e c o m m e n d e d as an independent method. I t always runs the danger o f c o r r e l a t i n g adopted themes w i t h diverse elements and w i d i historically unrelated elements. I n addition, i t tends to transcend the constitutive c o n t e x t by i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y isolating m o t i f s . " ' As t r a d i t i o n his-

16i As already addressed above, p. 130f, this statement is especially true in view of concepts and conceptuai complexes. The perspectives on tbe concept historical analysis mentioned diere naturally presuppose conditions in the historical realm. It must be possible that the intellectual contents and thought movements were transmitted in that type offixed and eonsistent form. One must consider, trom a broader perspective, whedier tbe socio-cultural conditions presumed by die con­ cept historical phenomena were first present in the framew ork of a courtly/stately culrure w hirh divides labor. One must also consider whether Sites arosc in which the contents and language of concepts were consistemly shaped and transmitted. Ιο prior times, die stote of these lashioncd concepts would have been considerably smaller. but one could especially imagine phrases from ritual proceedings and juridieal enlities. lt>4 Kor example, cornpare. Führer, Exegese, ρ. 27 (Hoffmann), ρ. 102ÉF (Huber), ρ. 199ff. 1*5 This tendency is demonstrated by Fluber, in Fohrer. Exegese, p. 106f, when he uses die designation of Y H W H as rock (sur) in Ps 2S:1; 31:3 as a motif. He then divorces the constitutive conrext of rhis conceptuai element trom Jerusalem cult theology (cf. Steck, Friedcnsvorstellungen, p. 37. footnote 87). r

r

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t o r i c a l w o r k denionstrates, these smallest o f d i e m a t i c b u i l d i n g blocks v e r y frequendy represent fixed coneepts o r conceptual elements w h i c h stand in inseparable r e l a t i o n s h i p to larger conceptual contexts. They are t r a n s m i t t e d w i t h i n diis framework, and they receive characteristically f o r m u l a t e d nieaning and c o n t u u r w i t h i n this association. W o r k o n the h i s t o r y o f motifs fails at the unavoidable task of s h o w i n g that the dynamic nature o f a m o r i f w h i c h appears in different places, is historically mediated. Also, it fails at the task o f m a k i n g that m o r i f understandable. Recourse to consistent struetures o f consciousness is a designarion o f the p r o b l e m , b u t n o t a Solution. 2) The materini basis o f the h i s t o r y of motifs approaeh lies i n the fact that specific conceptual elements can appear as such in new associations and c o n ­ texts. However, diis Isolation o f individual coneepts must be raised as a p r o b ­ l e m . O n e must ask t o w h a t degree its genuine conceptual c o n t e x t should still be considered w i t h the specific coneept. F r o m that p o i n t , die m o t i f s expression is used for f u r t h e r nianifestarions, such as m e a n i n g f u l numbers o r spec i f y i n g narrative topics (e.g. seleetion o f the m a n w h o is g o o d for n o t h i n g as far as one can teli). Precisely i n this last case, i t is often difficult to distinguish between motifs o f a genre and freely r o a m i n g motils."" 5

M l . Steps o f the T r a d i t i o n H i s t o r i c a l Investigation o f a T e x t Conjìmtatwi

oftbe Appivach:

T h e t r a d i t i o n historical approaeh puts f o r w a r d that w h i c h is prcm?rted Iry a text based u p o n the text's intellectual surroundings. T h e t r a d i t i o n historical a p ­ proaeh proeeeds to die degree that die presupposed uuiterial is n o t a p r e l i t erary o r l i t e r a r y developmental stage o f die t e x t itself ( § § 4 - 6 ) , o r to the degree that l i t e r a r y reference o r genre influence (§7) does n o t exist. Rather, the t r a d i ­ t i o n historical approaeh is direeted t o w a r d elements oftbe intellectual world in w h i c h the author, and listener, o f each developmental stage o f the text move seli-evidently. These elements represent that w h i c h is l i n g u i s t i c a l l y indicated but n o t expressly f o r m u l a t e d . I t represents that w h i c h is d i o u g h t , m t c n d e d , o r necessarily associated along w i t h these elements. T h e manner i n w h i c h a n author uses these elements (whether used consistently o r i n topically deviated fashion) is fundamental to a relevant historical understanding o f the text's for­ mulation. However, the indkators o f these elements from the intellectual w o r l d ap­ pear i n a text's linguistic shape i n various degrecs and direetness. These indicators must be demonstrated by m u l t i p l e , l i t e r a r i l y independent, oceurrences i n the O l d Testament ( o r the A n c i e n t N e a r East). T h i s r e c o g n i r i o n has i m p l i c a t i o n s for the execution o f d i e specific steps. Simplified for practical reasons, the f o l l o w i n g stand i n die f o r e g r o u n d : lf>6 Cf. Koch. Tbe Grvxth ofBihliūtl'iraStmn,

ρ. 56f.

U6

§8

TRADĪTTONAL HISTORICAL APPROACH

Guiding Questions: 1. Thought Putterns Does die intended logic o i a scntence, paragraph, o r text d e m o n strate that a t h o u g h t pattern w h i c h is n o t expressiv f o r m u l a t e d Steetü'

shapes the Statement?

For example: A consequence results from every deed. Deed and effect stand i n (precise) r e l a t i o n s h i p to one another. Especially for the beginner, the necessary means o f help is found i n the secondary literature. 2. Fundamental Convictions D o the text's words demonstrate specific r e l i g i o u s , theological convictions i n association w i t h die logic o l die i m m e d i a t e c o n text? D o these fundamental convictions lie beneath the Statement inexplicably? For example: b l o o d as the setting o f life, seeing G o d is fatal, childlessness as shame. 'Ehe necessary means o f help is here theological dictionaries under the catch words and their synonyms, Aßt

A l l f u r t h e r steps m u s t be executed w i t h coneordance work and theological dictionaries for the Old Testament because they are concerned w i d i fixed l i n g u i s t i c worlds i n die f o r m u l a t i o n o f the text. T h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t is always the existing f o r m u l a t i o n i n the text itself. A l o n g w i t h the f o r m u ­ lations i n the context o f the text, die f o r m u l a t i o n p o i n t s to specific (!), parricular t r a d i t i o n backgrounds about w h i c h one should i n q u i r e . B y no means should the t r a d i t i o n historical approaeh project the entire r ä n g e o f meaning for the words i n t o the f o r m u l a t i o n at hand! 5. Images, Phrases, etc. A r e fixed images, comparisons, phrases, formulas, l i n g u i s t i c and Conventions adopted i n d i e formulation? F r o m w h i c h arena o f use do they s t e m ? W h a t do they signify? W h a t do they intend? 4. Pregnant Meaning for Individua! Words D o individual words o r w o r d associations i n the text have a p r e g ­ nant m e a n i n g w h i c h m o r e precisely narrows die lexical breadth o f m e a n i n g i n regard to the material context, Speaker, listener, o r life Situation to w h i c h the text relates? 5. Word Ensembles as Reference to Traditional Coneepts and Conceptual Contexts W h a t does an investigation o f parallel exaniples p r o v i d e for d i e w o r d ensembles i n the sentence, paragraph, and the text? I f these o n l y appear i n f o r m u l a t i o n s o f the same author o r i f they can be established as literary references o n the author's part, then fur­ ther t r a d i t i o n influence o n this f o r m u l a t i o n cannot be established direedy.

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137

I n other cases, the parallel should be investigated m o r e preeisely i n the sense o f the questions i n I V 2, because they p r o v i d e reason t o believe that one encounters elements o f traditional concepts, c o n ­ ceptuai contexts, and even eonceptions. T h e contents, scope, and logic o f these elements resonates even t h o u g h n o t expressiv stated. Even i n d i v i d u a l characteristic terms can be i n t e n d e d , and have impact, as associations o f a m o r e comprehensive intellectual ere­ ation. H e r e a series o f subsidiary questions present diemselves: a. O r i g i n o f the w o r d ensemble: E r o m whence does this w o r d ensemble derive? Tn w h i c h t r a d i ­ tional text arena o f the O l d Testament (or ancient o r i e n t a l e u l ture and religious history) does the concordance show examples w h i c h are l i t e r a r i l y independent, unehanged, and f u l l y aceumulated? Is one p o i n t e d to fixed l i n g u i s t i c fields o f A n c i e n t I s ­ rael (court, priesthood, legal entities, cult poetry, w i s d o m , D e u t e r o n o m i c / D e u t e r o n o m i s t i e t r a d i t i o n , p r o p h e t i c language)? A l r e a d y the artieles i n theological dictionaries are sometimes arranged accordingly. b. Shape o f the concept i n the t r a d i t i o n H o w does the concept noted by the w o r d ensemble appear i n the tradition? Does the parallel statement offer necessary expansions w h i c h resonate i n the t e x t under investigation? Is one directed to a larger conceptuai context w h i c h Stands behind the t e x t f o r m u l a t i o n under investigation? H o w does diis concep­ tuai context appear? T o w h a t does i t belong? W h a t does i t accomplisb? W h a t is the setting o f the eoncept n o t e d i n the text? e. C o n t e n t and i n t e n t i o n ot the concept W h a t does this concept i n t e n d t o signify i n its t r a d i t i o n a l framework? W h a t does i t presuppose by way o f experienee, thought, and the h i s t o r y o f religion? W h a t view o f the experiential w o r l d does i t release? W h a t does i t exelude? W h a t logic, t r a i n o f t h o u g h t , and insight does it intend? d. C o n c e p t h i s t o r y W h a t can one say about historical changes inside the intellec­ tual world?

Ehe means o f help i o r answering the subsidiary questions o f " a " - " d " may be gained f r o m the literature references i n footnote 154.

6. Tbe Use ofthe Traditional in the Text under Investigation W i t h diese findings o f traditional influences u p o n the text under investigation, one must finally r e t u r n to this text itself and its use o f the traditional.

§8

TRADITIONAL HISTORICAL APPROACH

a. W i t h t h o u g h t patterns, basic convictions, images, phrases, etc.: I n l i g h t o f positive findings for steps " l " - " 3 , " one should n o w ask w h a t the t r a d i t i o n background, n o w m o r e clearly under­ stood, aceomplishes for the content, perspective, and i n t e n t i o n o f the f o r m u l a t i o n at hand. W h a t should one i n c o r p o r a t e for the historical u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the statement because i t was manifestly associated and b o u n d t o that f o r m u l a t i o n by the a u t í i o r and the addressee? O n e should also expressiv i n q u i r e whether the author's o w n accents are addcd to the existing f o r ­ m u l a t i o n by adapting the t r a d i t i o n by means of linguistieally o r materially shaping d i e statement, or even by u s i n g an ingenious language and conceptualization. W h a t should diese accents i n ­ dicate? Agreements w i t h the audior's profile i n o t í i e r places and differences i n die language and the flow o f thoughts s t e m m i n g from the t r a d i t i o n can p r o v i d e clues for the f u n c t i o n o f its f o r ­ mulation. T

b . W i t h the influence o f fixed l i n g u i s t i c fields: T h i s approach is m o r e i m p o r t a n t w h e n one reeeives positive findings

for steps " 4 " and " 5 " because they p o i n t t o the i n f l u ­

ence o f fixed l i n g u i s t i c fields. I n d i i s case, the entire text o f a developmental stage should be compared w i d i the mediated, traditiona] l i n g u i s t i c field, o r even w i t h various, infiuential l i n ­ guistic fields. As a resuh, various possibilities are eonceivable and should be probed:

a. The text conforming to tradition The author's expression comcides entirefy with tradition. This conformity is shown by the identical, corresponding, or related formulations, as weil as by agreements in the extent ofthe content and the train of thought. The confoimity is present even when the author only siiently presupposes individua! conceptuai references Inat are essential for the material logic, or when the author addresses these references oniy in abbreviated fashion, A tradition historical comparison of Ps 48 with Ps 4 6 or of Prov 7 with Prov 9 would lead to this result. The author of the text at hand is thus seen simultaneously as a representative of the tradition, such as the Jerusalemite cult theology or theological wisdom. Confimiation is also provided when the statement's seiected genre comes from the same arena according to §7. In this case, the tradition represents the intellectual framework during a specific historical phase. it also represents the background of the text at hand. For the author and hearer, the tradition establishes its plausibility. One should then pnmarily determine which detail and accentthe author particuiariy emphasizes, by the express formulation, from that which is possible for the tradition.

C o m m e n t a r y on the Approaeh and M e t h o d

139

ß. The text continuing tradition Tne author's expnession operates within the framework of tradition by drawing upon that tradition. Perhaps the tradition historical investigation indicates that the author even belongs to the same, or closely related tradition arena (wisdom /temple). However, the author may continue that tradition independently (for example, the Job dialogues or Qohelet contmues the wisdom tradition). O r the author may limit the tradition reflexively by another tradition arena (for example, post-exilic prayers limited by wisdom influence in the Psalms). Here one must distinguish that which is guided by tradition from that which transcends the tra­ dition in concrete texts. γ, The text changing tradition The author uses tradition when formulating, but no longer simply emanates from this tradition arena. Rather. the author changes traditional coneepts or conceptual contexts by deviating from accents or formula­ tions, or by changing the train of thought even to the point of reversing that tradition. This case appears especially in the statements of pro­ phetic transmission which take up legal, cultic, and wisdom tradition, but transform this tradition into a new pnophetically topical statement. Here one must determine, as precisely as possible, why, on the one hand, tra­ ditional matenal is taken up in the Service of new material statements. One must determine why traditional material is seleeted, thereby stimulating certain associations which, addrtionally, must be made audible to us as accompanying intellectual overtones, On the other hand, one must determine where the accents are rearranged, w h e r e they deviate, and where they aro transfigured in comparison to the tradition. This determination must be made for the ind>vidual statement as weli as for the entire text. For their part, even the transfonnations may draw from tra­ dition, like prophetic tradition. For example: The prophetic adaptation of the coneept of the heavenly court assembly of Yf-IWH, Why does the coneept appear in I Kgs 22:19-22 and Isa 6 as an event, but scarcely appears in Isa 40:1-1 I , and does not appear in Isa 42:1—1?Why are the acting pārticipants called špirit in I Kgs 22, seraphim in Isa 6. and voices in Isa 40?

The goal of this step w h e n investigating an specific text is n o t to t r a č e t r a d i t i o n historical ancestors as an end i n itself. Rather, one seeks to u n derstand the text i n its peculiarity. H e r e one seeks t o understand the t e x t i n the t r a d i t i o n historical approaeh i n l i g h t o f the t r a d i t i o n i n e o r porated i n t o the t e x t and u t i l i z e d by i t . T h i s o r i e n t a t i o n o f the ap­ proaeh u p o n the specific text is n o t designed to pay homage t o ideals o f o r i g i n a l i t y , b u t i n order t o makc clear the special features and p e c u l i ­ arity o f this text! T h e t r a d i t i o n historical approaeh gradually makes possible a glance i n t o the intellectual processes w h i c h lie at the r o o t o f this text's f o r m u -

140

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TRADITIONAL HISTORICAL APPROACH

l a t i o n i f the texts p r o v i d e the possibility o f p r o m i n e n t data for i n s i g h t i n t o the profile and i n t e n t i o n o f the text! A l i ot this proves that the t r a d i t i o n historical approach provides the m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r e l i m i n a r y w o r k for d e t e r m i n i n g the contents and profile o f the S t a t e m e n t s o f the assigned text, as i t w i l l be u n d e r t a k e n i n the i n t e r p r e t a ­ tion

(§10).

C. R E S U L T S I . C o m p r e h e n d m g the Text's Profile A l i n g u i s t i c utterance can n o t be sufficiently u n d e r s t o o d b y itself. I t m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d in conjunetion w i t h the historical Situation i n w h i c h i t is m a d e .

167

I t must be understood in the framework o f its socio-cultural conditions and re­ alities.

k,B

Last b u t n o t least, the l i n g u i s t i c utterance must be observed f r o m the

b a c k g r o u n d o f tbe theological streant and ofthe

intellectual realm i n w h i c h i t

Stands and operates. T h i s o r d e r i n g according to specific concepts, theological coneeptions, and a fixed t h o u g h t w o r l d is unavoidable i f the profile o f a t e x t is t o become clear. T h i s o r d e r i n g is unavoidable i f one is t o c o m p r e h e n d h o w to conceive a l i n g u i s t i c utterance, o r from w h i c h fixed perspective one should perceive the contents. I t is unavoidable i f one is to c o m p r e h e n d d i e lines a l o n g w h i c h the linguistic utterance argues, and i n w h i c h frame o f t h o u g h t i t was u n ­ d e r s t o o d b y its hearers and readers. T h i s o r d e r i n g is also valid (and h o w ! ) i n diose places where t r a d i t i o n a l elements have been changed and where i t can be d e t e r m i n e d where a linguistic utterance transcends its t r a d i t i o n a l r o o t s i n t o a speciaiized statement. T h e o u t e r m o s t tip o f this deviation t h e n appears i f a t e x t critically takes u p a t r a d i t i o n a l concept and reverses i t .

1 6 9

T h e understand­

i n g o f this t y p e o f text is unalterably b o u n d t o the fact that its polemieal p o i n t , and the critical d e l i m i t a t i o n w h i c h i t aceomplishes, are n o t e d i n the course o f the t r a d i t i o n historical investigation. I I . Insight into Connections T r a d i t i o n historical w o r k i n the comprehensive sense attenipts t o i l l u m i nate d i e theological streams and the intellectual realms o f die b i b b c a l

time.

T h u s , i t aims t o w a r d a history of theology for Ancient Israel and early Judaism.

Ά? See below, §9. 168 Sce above, §7 Β V (ρ. 110ff) and %Ί C ΠΤ (p. 116). iw Example: Deviation of the concept of die battle of the nations in Isa 29:1-7 (in 29:l-5ba Y H W I 1 artacks against Jerusalem while leading the nations).

Literature

141

W h e r e this research already has reached productive results i n some areas, i n ­ formative connections have been f o u n d between texts and t e x t groups w h i c h had previously appcared unrelated. O r , these results have p r o v i d e d s u p p o r t i n g arguments for the presupposition o f these connections w h i c h had been presupposed for other reasons. O n the one hand, this r e c o g n i t i o n o f larger connections is advantageous to understanding the specific text. O n the o t h e r hand, i t is the s t a r t i n g p o i n t for a c q u i r i n g the c o n n e c t i o n between the O l d Testament and the N e w Testament, thereby p r e p a r i n g a bibhcal theology i n a historically relevant manner.

D. L I T E R A T U R E I. INTRODUCTION, FOUNDATION, A N D OVERVIEW G. Fohrcr. Exegese, § 8 (F. Huber). O . H . Steck. Israel und das gewaltsame Geschick der Propheten. W M A N T 23. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1967. p. 18f (additional literature), and 107, footnote 4. . Theological Streams of Tradition, in: Tradition and Theology i n the Old Tes­ tament. D A . Knight, ed. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977. p. 183-214, especially 183-191.) II. EXPANSION A N D CRITICAL ALTERNATIVES G. Fohrcr. Tradition und Interpretation im Alten Testament. Z A W 73 (1961): 1-30 (also in: Fohrer, Studien zur alttestamendichen Theologie und Geschichte 11949-1966). B Z A W 115. Berlin, 1969. p. 54-83. H . Gese. Essavs on Biblical Theology. Minneapolis, 1981. O. Keel. 'The Symbolism of the Biblical World: Ancient Near Eastern Iconography and die Book of Psalms. New York, 1985. . Wirktnäehtige Siegeszeichen int Alten lestament. O B O 5. Freiburg (Swjt/.erland)—Göttingen, 1974. D.A. Knight. Rediscovering the Traditions o f Israel. SBL Dissertation Series 9. M i s sonla, 1973. K . Koch. The G r o w t h of Biblical Tradition, p. 70f; Fonngeschichte. p. .326-342 (not in English translation). H.P. Nasuti. Tradition History and die Psalms o f Asaph. SBL Dissertation Series 88. Atlanta, 1988. G. Pfeifer. Denkfonnenanlyse als exegetische Methode. Z A W 88 (1976): 56-71. VV Richter. Exegese, p. 75f (footnote 11), 136f,153 -155,178,182f (concerning »Motiv« and »Stoff«). Tradition and Theology in the Old Testament. D.A. Knight, ed. Philadelphia 1977. G. Wanke, Die Zionstheologie der Korachiten in ihrem traditionsgeschichtlichen Zusammenhang. B Z A W 97. Berlin 1966. See especially p. 39f, 64ff, 109ff. For literature on linguistic science and exegesis, see § 7 D I I .

142

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ΙΠ. E X E M P L A R Y E X E C U T I O N M . E . Biddle. T h e Figure of Lady Jerusalem: Identification, Deificarion, and Personifieation of Cities in die Ancient Near Rast." In: The Biblical Canon in Comparative Perspective. K . L . Younger, Jr., W.W. Hallo, B F . Batto, eds. Lewiston, N Y , 1991. p. 173-194. K. Koch. Gibt es ein Vergeltungsdogma i m Alten Testament. Z T h K 52 (1955): 1-42. Also in: U m das Prinzip der Vergeltung in Religion und Recht des Alten Testa­ ments, K. Koch, ed. p. 130-180. Darmstadt, 1972. (the question of a particular world view [cause am! effeet eonneeetion]). I I . - . M . Lutz. Jahwe, Jerusalem und die Völker. VVMANΤ 27. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1968. p. 47-51,155-177. (Tradition historical investigation of a specific text [Isa 17:12-14]). G. v. Rad. Wisdom in Israel. Nashville. 1972. W H . Schmidt. Königtum Gottes in Ugarit und Israel. B 2 A W 80. Berlin, Μ 966. (Rebgio-historical .investigation) _ . The Faith of the O l d Testament: Α History. Philadelphia, 1983. O H . Steck. Israel und das gewaltsame Geschick der Propheten. (Tradition historical investigation of a coneept and its association with other coneepts [Deuteronomistic view of history]). . Das Problem theologischer Strömungen in nachexilischer Zeit. E v T h 28 (1968): 445-458, especially 445-448. _. Friedensvorstellungen im alten Jerusalem. Psalmen-Jesaja-Deuterojesaja. ThSt(B) 111. Zürich, 1972. (Tradition historical investigation of a conception I Jerusalemitc Cult theology]). . Der Schöpfungsbericht der Priestersehrift. F R L A N T 115. G ö t t i n g e n , 1981. (Question of the knowlcdge and cducational condition) H . W. W o l l t Hoseas geistige Heimat. T h L Z 81 (1956): 83-94. Also in: Wolff, Gesam­ melte Studien zum Alten Testament. T b B 22. Munich, -T973. p. 232-250. . Arnos' geistige Heimat. W M A N T 18. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1964. 2

Determining the Historical Setting

Α. T H E T A S K O l d 'Testament texts c o n f r o n t us today as a c o l l e c t i o n o f the faith trans­ mission o f A n c i e n t Israel. T h i s c o l l e c t i o n belongs to the u n i t y o f h o l y scripture w h i c h becomes current again i n each generation. I n t h e i r o r i g i n , however, O l d Testament texts were ali r o o t e d in a partimlar historical Situation. T h e y are p r o m n l g a t e d i n a specific t i m e , i n a specific geographica! realm. T h e y have authors o f various social stations and various intcllectual-theological shaping. T h e y speak to specific addressees, each w i t h their o w n particular experiential h o r i z o n and w o r l d view. T h e y presuppose particular p o l i t i c a l and social re­ alities, incisive social changes, and formative historical events. U n d e r s t a n d i n g these texts is impossible w i t h o u t a historical view o f the c o n d i t i o n s and c o m ­ ponents w h i c h these texts inelude. T h e procedure o f the historical setting therefore has the task o f c o m p r e h e n d i n g ™ the given text's roots i n a specific historical setting, for every stage o f its development.' ' 7

B. C O M M E N T A R Y O N T H E A P P R O A C H A N D M E T H O D I . D a t i n g a Text D a r i n g a given text, o r the layer i n w h i c h i t appears, is fundamental f o r the procedural step o f the historical setting. W h i c h observations allow one to determine the text's time o f origin? 1 7 0

More than with any other procedural step, exegetical work must draw upon available re­ search results (above all in the areas of "Old Testament Introduction" and the "History of Israel") and the corresponding literature (see above. §2 G, J - L ) . 7

I ' This statement results from the fact that the historical setting is very closely associated with the literary critical, transmission historical, and redaction historical approaches. See above, foornotes- 32, 6 >, and 7 ). l

l

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§9

DETERMIN1NG T U E HISTORICAL

Several reference p o i n t s deserve m e n t i o n h e r e :

1. T h e p r e s u p p o s i t í o n , f r o m the past,

SETTLNG

17:

o r m e n t í o n , o f c o n t e m p o r a r y evenLs o r events

175

2. Social, c o n s t i t u t i o n a l , o r c u l t u r a l reaJities w h i c h boundaries.

mark historical

174

7

3. D a r i n g a specific t e x t ' ' o r the e n t i r e t e x t c o m p l e x t o w h i c h i t belongs.

170

( O f course, this m u s t be c r i t i c a l l y examined.)

4. T h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n o r t r e a t m e n t o f other, datable texts f r o m Old

Testament.

the

177

17

5. T h e Classification o f the h i s t o r y o f a g e n r e , " a coneept, o r a t h e o ­ l7

logical s t r e a m . '

J

6. T h e relative r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the o t h e r t r a n s m i s s i o n o r r e d a c t i o n a l 18

layers f r o m the same t e x t c o m p l e x . "

TT T h e C o n t e m p o r a r y H i s t o r y and Social E n v i r o n m e n t o f a T e x t

O n c e the given t e x t has been m o r e o r less precisely dated, t h e n one m u s t m o r e precisely d e t e r m i n e d i e c o n t e m p o r a r y h i s t o r i c a l and the social realities i n the e n v i r o n m e n t o f its o r i g i n .

I"- Compare also the references from Fohrer, Exegese, p. 147fi. >"·* Exaniples: Lainentations looks back on the destruetion o f Jerusalem in the 6t h Century B.u.E. (cf. l:3f,7; 2:5ff; 4:20-22; 5:18, etc.), and Stands relativcly elose to those events. Mjc 7:8-20 presnpposes, among other things, that the wall of Jerusalem lies in ruins (termimis ad quem: the reconstruedon of the M-all by Nchcmiah). In addition, compare footnote 25 above on the book of Isaiah. Evaluating the corresponding reference points requires one to consider the phenomenon of vaticininm ex eventu dīfferently. Exaniples: Λ text refers to die contemporary kingdoiii in die coiuitry (cf. Isa 8:211). Α text presupposes die doiuestication of the camcl. iron fitted chartots, place natiics and their changes, designations ol peoples and counlries, etc. Exaniples: Isa 14:28-32; Ezek 20. )"6 Exaniples: the superscriptions of many prophetic books (e.g. Isa 1:1; Arnos 1:1). O f course, these can only be evaluated for anthentic words o f the prophet. 7

l " Examples: T h e books of Chronicles use Gen-Kings as a sourec. Isa 2:2-4 presupposes Deutcro-Isaiah. Confusing tradition historical dcpendcncc with literary or transmission historical de[)endence can only lead to talse conclusions at this point. , 7 K

Example: A saga style which is shorter (e.g. G e n 32:23-33) or more extensive (e.g. Gen 24). I lowever, ohserve die liiiiiuuon discussed above in $7 Β I I I 3 (p. 108). I"" Example; The posilion of Deut 30:1-10 inside die history ol die Deuteronomistic model of history (for this, see ΟΤΙ. Steck, Israel und dm gewaltsame Geschick der Propheten, 1967, p. 140t. 185f). ISO Example; T h e relative relationship of die various literary layers in Isa 10:5—27a to onc another (10:5-15,16-19,20-23,24-26,27a). For discussion, see H . Barth, Die Jemja-Worte in der Josiateit, 1977, ρ. 17ff.

C o m m e n t a r y on the A p p r o a c h and M e t h o d

145

T h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n occurs first i n cross section: F r o m w h i c h political Situation i n the A n c i e n t N e a r Eastern realm does one proceed (e.g. the N e w Assyrian K i n g d o m as h e g e m o n y ) ? W h a t special relationships exist i n Israel (e.g. Judah is still independent w h i l e the N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m has been dissolved i n t o Assyrian provinees)? W h a t were the m o m e n t o u s c o n t e m p o r a r y events? B y w h i c h social Orders, tensions, o r upheavals was the socio-historical Situation o f Israel characterized at that t i m e ? " 1

T h i s type o f cross-sectional investigation very q u i c k l y requires protracted sectioning t h r o u g h political h i s t o r y and, as far as possible, t h r o u g h the social history o f A n c i e n t Israel and the A n c i e n t O r i e n t . T h e particular realities o f a specific historical setting can only be imderstandable f r o m die larger perspec­ tive o f the previous and subsequent development. Human expenences from this time should also be explored from a synthetic over­ view of the realities of the intellectual world of the text which were amassed in §8, and from the text's external world in §9. These experiences may result from this synthesis, from the correspondence of the text's historical world (events, social conditionings, tra­ dition historical guidan.ce, making oneself aware of this worid. and mastenng this world), and from the text itself In conjunction with this synthesis, one should also ask which Prob­ lems existed then which were unavoidably manifested by the contemporary experience. I I I . I d e n t i f y i n g the External Realities M e n t i o n e d i n the T e x t W i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k o f this procedural step, die clarification of geo­ graphica! and historical r/uestions, as well as other realities, ensues i n the service o f die historical view o f the realities o f o r i g i n and o f a texts assertions. These realities were self-evident t o author and addressee i n their time, b u t must be re-identified today. By realities, as the m e a n i n g o f the w o r d indicates, one means conerete, visually experienced elements and conditions: for example, a m o u n t a i n , a people, w a n derings o f a people, b u i l d i n g s , elothes, animal and plant life, etc. C l a r i f y i n g these realities, however, cannot disregard their connection with specific inner pro­ cess or religious manifestations oflife. A l s o , one must delve i n t o other areas to the degree t h a t they are contained i n the t e r m "realities" i n its genuine m e a n i n g . T h e r e a l i t y " c u l t stone" is perhaps associated w i t h the practice o f ineubation. 'Si Concerning the legiumate demanti for an inlensificauon of social history inve-stigations, one must not overlook the degree to which we can generally reconstruet the social history of An­ cient Israel and the Ancient Near East from the transmitted texts (and archaeological findings). The relatively small number, to this point, of socio-historical works does not simply indicate a blindness to the problem. See above §2 K . L for literature on the social history of Israel and the Ancient Near East. G . Theißen, "Die sozialgeschichriicbe Auswertung religiöser Überlieferung, Í Û H V T O N F 17 (1975): 284-299, provides an important contribution to the mediodological problem of socio-historical evaiuationof religious transmission.

146

§9

D E T E R M I N 1NG

T H E HISTORICAL SETTING

T h e r e a l i t y " t h r o n e " is associated w i t h certain r e l i g i o u s coneepts o f power. E v e n here, one must again w o r k w i t h cross-sections and p r o t r a c t e d sections.

182

A special problem presents itself w h e n the presenicuion of historical processes makes the author's own recent past or, especially; times from the more distant past, the. subject of an assertion in the text, rather than when an author addresses undisputable realities which are kn own to all, These processes must also be identified in this procedural Step. Determming what actuaily happened. compared with those presentations, is an unavoidable presupposition, which enables one to recognize which attitudina) perspective the text provides (e.g. selective accentuation in the processes of the succession of David in the Succession History) oreven the deviating Interpretation of events which the text provides (e.g. danger to Abraham in Gerar as the danger to a prophet, Gen 20). O n occasion, o n e may even recognize Interpretation which is based thoroughly on real historical experience from the interim period. In the framework of exegesis, one must naturally note the faeiiitating funetion of this historical identifìcation. The goal of exe­ gesis is to State how the author has interpreted these events. Determining what actuaily happened has an .ndependent funetion in the framework of the discipline "history of Israel." EV. D e t e r m i n i n g A u t h o r and Addressee Determining the author of a text aims less at identifying that person by name, which as a aile is seldom possible. Rather, it aims more toward srtuating the author in a specific religio-inceilectual and social setting, Old Testament literature is largely anonymous literature, and in addition. in those places where names are mentioned, one offen deals with pseudepigraphic manifestations (for example in numerous psalmic superscriptions or in Proverbs). Even in those places where we do encounter the name of an author or an authoria! group. the persons remain essentiaily :n the dark (e.g. in the case of Arnos, or even more with Micah, the Korahites, etc.). They retreat almost completely behind their statements. W e are thus lefl with scattered. individual references in the t e x t " ' ' And we are left with form oiticaf and tradition historical deduetions, not only from the specific text but a;so from the literary layer as a whole to which it belongs. What can one recognize about the social position and funetion of the author based on tne life setting of the individual units. o r of the work as a whole, and, as necessary, based o n the style ? To which theological direction and stream does the author belong' * 184

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li*- Once again, compare specifically die reference in foouiote 170. 1S3 Example: Isaiah. Cf. 7:3; 8:2f.l6: 28:7b-22. '34 Compare for example die corresponding inquiry into Lev 1-7 and Deut 4:1-8 in Kaiser,

ExegeticttlMethod, ρ. 27-29. 185 Compare the references in Kaiser, Exegetical Method, ρ. 16-18. Uto Examples: the Deuteronomistir origin of a secondary literary layer in Arnos (especially 2:4f) and in Jeremiah(e.g. 11:1-14; 19:2h-9; 44:2-6).

C o m m e n t a r y on the Approach and M e t h o d

147

W h e n determining the addressee, exegesis is also left with deductions from the text, except in a few exceptions in prophetic literature (e.g. 2 Kgs I ; Arnos 7; 10-17; Isa 7; jer 28). Again. one must especially evaluate the results o f t h e life setting. 187

Recognizing the addressee provides essential clues for the particular problem, perspec­ tive, and purpose of a statement. If conerete reference points for identifying the ad­ dressee are lacking. then one can at least attempt to reconstruet imaginatively the experientiai and expectational horizon of an addressee for the historical setting ofthe text,

VI C o n c e r n i n g Materialistic H i s t o r i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of O l d Testament Texts T h e e m p l o y m e n t o f biblical text material has b r o u g h t the p r o b l e m o f materialistic historical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t o die current t o p i c a l discussion (for example, t h r o u g h tbe particular manner i n w h i c h the text is processed and i n ­ terpreted as c u r r e n t l y seen i n tbe works o f E r n s t B l o c h and Stefan H e y m ) . J u d g m e n t about this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a l s t a r t i n g p o i n t depends essentially u p o n its d e f i n i t i o n . I f , by materialistic historical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n one means that the religious transmissions o f A n c i e n t Israel must be explained strictly in tbe sociohistorical context o f its o r i g i n , and i f one means tbat the theological and social p o s i t i o n o f an author influenees the tendency o f the c o n t e n t o f the author's Statements, then h i s t o r i c a l critical exegesis o f tbe O l d 'lestament can t h o r o u g h l y adopt this p o s i t i o n . Indeed, historical c r i t i c i s m has always performed diis task w i t h various degrees o f clarity and decisiveness. *''' Elowever, one must deeline materialistic historical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i f i t wants t o perceive O l d Tes­ tament texts from t h e i r socio-historical setting as the fundamentally " d e f i n i n g moment(s) o f final a u t h o r i t y " * f o r pereeiving the f o r m a t i o n o f thoughts and i f i t wants to determine the manner i n w h i c h the interests and setting o f h u m a n speech are b o u n d to the r u l i n g categories of explanation. " l 8 S

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187 Example: the participant in the sacrificial meal as one of the addressees in an individual song of thanlesgiving (see above in footnote 123 and the literature mentioned diere). 188 Cf. W. Dietrich, Wort und Wahrheit, Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1976, especially p. 27ff where, on p. 35f, the references to the works of Bloch and Heyin appear. i s Cornpare die questions concerning die life setting (above p. 1 lOff), the real historical mediation of texts and traditions (problem of the tradent, see above 1 >if), and the historical set­ ting. Further, comparc approaches analyzing tendencics such as A. Weiser, "Die Legitimation des Königs David," VT 16 (1966): 32S-.354, in light of the History of David's Ascendancy. Discussion of die agreement and difference between the David transmission and Heym's The King David Report (New York, 1973) is sadly lacking in Dietrieh's remarks about Heym's nove) (Wort und Wahrheit, p. 29). 190 This fonnuladon from Friedrich Engels (qtiotcd by Dietrich, Wort und Wahrheit, p. 29). In this context, comparc the attempts which are exegeticailv and hermeneutieally probieinatic because ofthe primary theological intentions of reverse parronizarion. With the help of a y

l y l

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§9

DETERMINING

EHE HISTORICAL S E T T I N G

V I . O v e r v i e w o f the A p p r o a c h to the H i s t o r i c a l Setting W h e n d e t e r m i n i n g a t e x t s historical setting, one m u s t clarify the f o l ­ l o w i n g ehief problems: 1. Dating the text i n all its developmental stages leading up t o the final form 2. T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y historical environment o f these datings i n crosssectional and protracted f o r m 3. T h e realities m e n t i o n e d in die individual developmental stages o f the text 4. D e l i m i t i n g the author and addressee (in c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h § § 6 , 7 , 8 ) o f the developmental stage o f the text Various fields f r o m the w o r l d o f the text's historical o r i g i n come i n t o view according t o the finding o f the text f o r m u l a t i o n : 1. T h e historical e n v i r o n m e n t o f the texts o r i g i n i n respect to na­ tional, political (foreign and domestic), and m i l i t a r y processes 2. T o the degree that one is able, ascertaining the historical shape o f the historical inflvtences (intellectual, religious, theological, pietistic) o f the text (correlation w i t h § § 7 , 8 ) 3. C u l t u r a l backgrounds manifested in the text (every day w o r l d , morals, needs, e l o t h i n g , n o u r i s h i n e n t , l i v i n g quarters, l i v e l i h o o d , daily r o u t i n e , ete.) 4. T h e socio-historical e n v i r o n m e n t o f text f o r m u l a t i o n s , a u t h o r and addressee (settlement history, social groups, classes, economic rela­ tionships, household, trade) 5. Geographica!, climatic, botanical, zoological manifestations i n the text 6. Relevant archaeologieal and epigraphic i n f o r m a t i o n for understand­ i n g the t e x t (e.g. l l o u s e types, t e m p l e lay-out, gates, c u l t Utensils, settlement history, deductions c o n c e r n i n g socio-historical elements) See above, §2 I - M , for helps i n c l a r i f y i n g details o f tbe text i n the sense o f the historical setting.

method uf materialis-ue exegesis they attempt to subjugate biblical texts to socio-revolufionary purposes. The freely undeniable social dimension of the biblical text is thereby caused damage if biblical water is simply conducted over ideological mills. Cornpare the bibliographic references above in §1 C V. M . Clévenoi, So keimen -wir die Bibel nicht, Munich, -'1980. For metbod and ex­ amples, cornpare the considerations in W Schottroff and W. Stegemann, eds., God ofthe Londy, Part One: Old Testament. New York, 1984. Also Schottroff and Stegemann, Traditionen der Be­ freiung, vol 1. .· Methodische Zugänge, Mimich, 1980. Cornpare also R. Albertz, A History of Israelite Religion, l.otiisville. 1994; N . K . GotTwald. The Hebrew Bible, Philadelphia, 1985; idem, The Hebrew Bible in Its Social World and in Ours, Atlanta, 1994; VV.TCnieggemann,Λ Social Reading ofthe Old Tes­ tament, Minneapolis, 1994.

Literature

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C. R E S U L T S T h e historical setting places a text i n t o the effcctivc arena o f historical powers, social povvers and the forniative experiences i n w h i c h the text was fashioned, and therefore can o n l y be appropriately i n t e r p r e t e d historically. Ehe ltistorical perception o f the text's author, addressee, and developmental realm is the key to understanding the particular c o n t o u r o f its statement, b u t also its l i m i t s . W h i l e critical exegesis connects the text back t o its original his­ t o r i c a l setting, i t thereby protects against t o o q u i c k l y extending the pres­ ent i n t o completely differenr historical situations. Tt shows the necessity o f a hermeneutically grounded m e d i a t i o n i n the present. T

D. L I T E R A T U R E G. Führer. Exegese, § 9C. Ο. Kaiser. Exegetieal Method, ρ. 35—36. For additional literature, see § 2 I - M .

Part Three

Purpose

Interpretation as Determination of the Text's Historical Meaning

A. T H E T A S K T h e goal o f all exegetical p r o c e d u r e s , the historical exposition o f the text, is accomplished a n d presented i n a particular phase, that o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , f o l l o w i n g the individua! methodological procedures o f the investigation. T h e task o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n is to determine, i n a scientjfically documentable f o r m , w h i c h historical intention and meaning of the statement should be n o t e d i n the text's concrete f o r m within the historical realm of otigin a n d i n the v a r i ­ ous stadia o f its O l d Testament development. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n as the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the text's historical m e a n i n g seeks to acquire a n d to present the extent t o w h i c h the text's shape carries the m e a n i n g o f the statement's eontour i n the text's genuine historical e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e f o l l o w i n g are all perceived as factors o f a d y n a m i c a r t i c u l a t i o n o f m e a n i n g i n the historical S i t u a t i o n t o w h i c h they b e l o n g : historical a n d social realities, i n t e l l e c t u a l predispositions, processed experience, effective impulses, the author's conceptual purpose, a n d the character o f the addressee. T h e y a l l o w o n e to see the a r t i c u l a t i o n o f mean­ i n g i n a concrete text and a historical life process. T h e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n is directed t o w a r d the t e x t i n the h i s t o r i c a l course o f its p r o d u c t i v e f o r m a t i o n . F o r this reason, the I n t e r p r e t a t i o n is p r i n c i p a l l y undertaken separately for each of the text's ascertained stages ofgrowth. As necessary, o n e should attach a n Interpretation of the text's Old Testament development as a movement of m e a n i n g , together w i t h rationale, to the deter-

154

m i n a t i o n o f historical m e a n i n g for each o f the individual text stages. T h i s I n ­ t e r p r e t a t i o n is attached i n order t o envision exegetically the text's p r o d u c t i v e transmission inside the O l d Testament. Reflections can lead one t o conelude h o w the text's perceived historical meaning should be presented in light oj οur present time. T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n leads one t o a t t e m p t an appropriate E n g l i s h transl a t i o n o f the text based o n the exegesis. A series of limitatons is presupposed when deTermining this task: 1. "Interpretation" is used here in place of the procedura! step which is offen called "indivicluaì exegesis" ' - and/or"contextua; exegesis." In order to avoid false associations, w e will refrain from these common des gnatlons. Above a;l, one should be wamed emphaticaliy against the misunderstanding that this procedural step is solely interesied in retrievingthe explanatlon of undecided detaiis in the text. Explaining details in the text is already unavoidable in lange measure, if not compietely; in the framework of the preceding methodoiogical procedures. Geographica! and historical explanations, as well as the explanafon of other realities must result m tne framework of the histori­ cal setting (§9).' ' Analysis of terms, '" as well as other tradition historical and history of religions determinations based on individual statements, are achieved within the framework of tradition history (§8),' 1 7

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2. The Interpretation seeks to determine historically the particular c o n t o u r of mean­ ing for the text. the material intention, which the text as text had in its time. The goal is thus not simply to determine the subjective intentions o\ the statements author, no matter how essential these are for the Interpretation. ' " The Interpretation should first be direeted toward the authonal intentions which effectively shaped the text in light o f specific addressees within a historical Situation. The Interpretation should trače the concrete shape o f the text back to these intentions and thus perceive the text shape as a purposeful utterance of hfe. From that point. however the Interpreta­ tion must observe that the t e x t mediates and actuaily attains a statement's content in a specific Situation. This content proeeeds beyond the originally intended historical horizon of the author (m contrast to that Isaiah's opinion, his arnouncemems of iudgment against Judah first come to fruition in 587 B . C . L . ) . Also, the c o n t e n t signifies more, or something other, than the author had intended (e.g. the evaluation of the ancient Elijah transmission first as an explanatlon of events in the subsequent period; 1 1

"2 Compare the dirertions of Fohrer (Exegese, p. 151 fT Hoffmann) and Kaiser (Exegetical Metbod, p. 3Off) respectfully who apply a particular procedural acciou for this aspect. i«; See above, p, 1431". ' See above, p. 126. See above, ρ. 1251Ϊ. l'"> Hoffmann, in Fohrer, Exegese, 152,155ff, exclusively addresses "comprehensive exegesis" concerning the autliorial intention or, in the case of a text's development, the audiorial intentions. Still, one should note the critique of this subjeefive tenn of intention in the theoretical discussion. Cf. Gadamcr, Thitb and Method, 243ff; Pannenberg, Theolog)' and the Philosoph}' of Science, especially 2081T. 1

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or the secondary association ofthe "servant songs" to Israel). "Meaning" is thus a category of purpose for Interpretation which transcends authorial intention. Meaning also takes into account that a text can mean more than the author intended with given statements. even for the hearers in the original setting, but especially in the subsequent time (e.g. Jonah 3f:The meaning ofthe announcement of judgmcnt against Nineveh is different at the end than the original intention ofthe statement of Y H W H and Jonah). In this manner; experientia! constellations plav an essential role, even though they are different than those which the author included. Alongside and beyond the determination of a statement's contents. Interpretation seeks those experiential constellations which the author intended. It also attempts to understand a text's historical meaning beyond the subjective purpose of the author and beyond the subjective reception of the author's listener If it does so. then it inquires (histoncally!) into the appropnateness and the iiluminating power which a statement possesses objectively m light ofthe contemponary realities and the statement's experiential reality, This inquiry is especially appropriate for the reference and for the protection of the statements about God regarding the pertinent experiential reality. Such determinations constitute the theological ćore of historical interpretation, and pertain to importance, evaluation. and critique." Micah took a critical position over against the jerusalemites' assertions about God (3:1 If), which were considered orthodox in Jerusaiemite cult tradition, W i t h reference to the depth ofthe given experiential reality ofthe time, Micah's critical position appears just as effectlvely grounded as the manner in which the productive Isaian transmission transcends the lsaiah words in light ofthe experi­ ential reality of the Josianic period.'" By the same token, however, one can recognize the one-sidedness of Qohelet's statements about God by these same interpretive perspectives. w

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l 7 Ü n e can only point to essential, sciendfically theoretical considerations for the differentiation between "subjective intention" and ''meaning.'' T h e text opens these considerations for (later) understanding. Cf. H.R. Jauß, Literaturgeschichte als Provokation, Suhrkamp edition 418,

-1970: VV. Iser, Die Appelktruktttr der Texte. Unbestimmtheit ab Wirkungsbedingimg literarischer Prosa, Konstanzer Universitätsreden 28, 1971. Comparc in English: H.R. Jauß, Towards an Aesihetic of Reception, Minneapolis, 1982; VV. Iser, Tbe Act of Reading: A 'Tbeory ofAestbetie Response, New York, 1980; VV. Pannenberg, Tbeolngy and tbe Philosophy of Science, London, 1976, especially, p. 195ff,206ff. " In addition to the broadly oudined scientific theory ot Pannenberg, cornpare also Diet­ rich, Wort und Wahrheit, p. 21ft,whose critical evaluation of Old Testament texts by referring to the "center of the Old Testament" depends, however, upon whether onc considers such an inter­ nal center of the Old Testament as given and dcterminablc. We doubt this. Wanke, in Fohrer, Exegese, p. 161 ff, seeks a path oriented toward linguistic science for a methodically deteiminable interpretation of die text's statements about God. 8

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w

Cornpare die investigation of Bardi, mentioned above, p. 93.

To uudertake die possibility ol Interpretation, importance, evaluation, and critique bv conffoiiting the text's statement with die ex]>eriential reality of the tarne does not at all mean that the text's statement was itselt merely the articulation of widcly accessible experience. It does not mean that the text s statement simply camc into existence on tbe basis ofthe processing of diese ex­ pericnces. Here one must rather maintain contingent factors. For example, these factors arc presented in Old Testament prophecy as the declaration of the Word of Y H W H (cf. Steck, KuD 15 [1969]: 281, footnote 1). Dcutcro-lsaiah's break through of pronounceinents ot salvation ran

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I N T E R P R E T A T I O N AS D E T E R M I N A T I O N

3. In. so doing. one conceives exegetical Interpretation as observing the articulation of the theological depth of meaning for the experiential realrty m the historical realm. If so, then onetakes up the text's claim in order lo make meaning accessible. The more that one Claims that the text does not wanl to be histcncally limited and transitory, but is instead extended to future times anci actuaily mcluoes our present time, then the less that the exegetical-historical discipline, as such, is capable of articuiatmg the demanding

character ofthe

text for todoy, relevantly and concrete!)', and the less it is ca­

pable of legitimately expressing the relevance of the texts for the present Here, responsible, demonstrable theological discourse is essentiaily directed t o the work of the other theologica* disciplines.^ By using one's imagmation t o take up the text as a component ofthe modern w o r l d , ' " however the exegete can and should confront the historically processed theological Interpretation ofthe text as a historiographical process for one's own life and our contemporary world. When considering this Inter­ pretation, references are charactenzed, differences ascerta ned, and possible Impulses are specified for the contemporary experience of seif, worid. and God. ;

4. Interpretation seeks to perceive the material intention ofthe text as the intention of the author: From that intention Interpretation seeks to deduce meaning from the experiential realrty of the text's forrnative time. Determining the. goa! of Interpretation should not mislead one to reduce its goal to the formulation of very general theo­ logical sentences (oreven to the formulations of scope) which apparently consohdate the contents and direction of a text. The meaning ofthe text is given in a specific his­ torical Situation in the concrete strueture of the text's Statement It thereby has concrete historical and linguistic shape from which it cannot be divorced exegetically. The Interpretation should thus sketch the train of thought and the shape ofthe entire text's statements. It should also sketch all ofthe texts c o m p o n e n t s as a concrete linguistic-intellectual process which illuminates meaning.

B. R E L A T I O N S H I P T O T H E M E T H O D O L O G I C A L

APPROACHES

70

As already m e n t i o n e d , ' those metbodologicalSteps presented i n § § 3 - 9 are partial questions for historical understanding. T h e y are directed t o w a r d pardirectly counter to contemporary experience. Prophetic judgment Speeches do not simply diagnose the impending crisis of the time. Isaiah was not just a better polirician. From these examples, it is eprite clear, even with the power and appropriateness of statements, that one cannot contest that they remain partialiy in the experiential world of dieir rime.

-Ol Compare Lehmann, Der hermeneutisebe Horizont; Pannenberg, Theology and the Pkilosophy of Science, p. 371 ff-, and §1A above. Tins does not exclude that the exegete must be exposed to the text's demanding character in die contemporary world even if the exegete cannot coinprehensivcly process the text within the framework of historical-exegerical investigations, Recently, P. Smhlmacher (Schriftamlcgmig; "Zum Thema: Biblische Theologie des Neuen Testaments," in K. Ilaacker, etc., Biblische Theologie heute, B T h S t 1, 1977, p. 25-60, there p. 31 f.) and F. Hahn ("Problems of Historical Criticism"; Die neutestamendiche Wissenschaft," in W. Lohff/F. Hahn, eds., Wissentschaftliche Theologie im Uberblick, 1974, 20-38, there pages 28ff; and "Exegese, T h e ­ ologie und Kirche," ZTbK 74 (1977): 25 37, correctly mention this point. Compare also Dietrich,

IVort und Wahrheit, p. 11,21 ff; Barth/Schramm, Selbsterfahntng, esp. p. 47f.,67ff,10!ff. -'02 See above, §1 Β II 1 (p. 6f j. I i » See above. §1 C I (p. 14).

Relationship to die M e d i o d o l o g i c a l Approaches

157

t i c u l a r aspeets o f the t e x t and are n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n preparat ion for the inter­ 1

pretation. ^

The

procedures are i n m a n y respects i n t e r d e p e n d e n t and

often

c o n t i n u o u s . T e x t c r i r i c i s m established the o r i g i n a l H e b r e w text. L i t e r a r y c r i t i ­ c i s m , transmission h i s t o r y , and redaction c r i t i c i s m i l l u m i n a t e d the develop­ m e n t o f the t e x t a n d / o r they o u t l i n e d the text's f o r m a t i v e arenas w i t h respeet t o i n f l u e n t i a l c o n t e x t s . A l s o , they made visible die process o f the text's trans­ m i s s i o n to the p o i n t o f its c u r r e n t v e r s i o n . Finally, f o r m c r i t i c i s m , t r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y , and the h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g have exposed the c o m p o n e n t s o f the t e x t i n the text's o w n w o r l d i n various aspeets, w h e t h e r a r t i c u l a t e d o r unexpressed. T h e s e c o m p o n e n t s inelude h i s t o r i c a l , social, and l i n g u i s t i c elements, the his­ t o r y o f ideas, and the h i s t o r y o f theology. T h e y also established those places w h e r e die text transcends die p r e - e x i s t i n g m a t e r i a l . I f all o f d i i s has been aec o m p l i s h e d , t h e n the Interpretation n o w addresses the t e x t in its entirety i n each o f its p r o d u c t i v e f o r m a t i v e arenas w h i c h are manifested i n the text's mediated development. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n n o w determines the text's m e a n i n g as text. I t determines h o w m e a n i n g is expressed i n each p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l Situation w h e n a d o p t i n g and t r a n s e e n d i n g p r e - e x i s t i n g e l e m e n t s .

205

For a demonstra-

t i o n , cornpare m y exposition o f G e n 2-3 ( b e l o w , p. 202).

-M Establishing that the procedures of § § 3 - 9 function as preparation for the interpretation (§10) has validity on the level of tbeorctically defined cmnprehcnsicm of exegetical work. Anorhcr level is the cmicrele flo~
-05 One should energetically guard against the vvidely held misimderstanding that, with r e ­ speet to the intention of the Statements and the meaning of the text, only those text elements come into view in which the texts author says something "new" by transeending linguistic, form critical, and tradition historical pretexts. Those Strands in which the audior integrates the.se pretexts mto a Statement, whedier verbalized or unexpressed, also belong to die statements intention and meaning. The newness and particulariiy are provided from die combination of traditional Cle­ ments with elements transeending tradition in die particular Situation of the composition.

158

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C. C O M M E N T A R Y O N T H E E X E C U T I O N I . I n t e r p r e t i n g the T e x t in Its O w n Formative Arena 1. W h a t Is the Subject of the Interpretation? I n p r i n c i p l e . one should undertake die i n t e r p r e t a t i o n for each devel­ opmental phase w h i c h is recorded as a change i n the text. T h e i n t e r ­ pretation should also treat the c u r r e n t state o f the text as a w h o l e . T h e subject o f the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is thus the entire state ofthe text for each ofthe steps of its development, as analy tically mediated by die l i t e r a r y critical and transmission historical approach. By no means is i t l i m i t e d to o n l y those t e x t elements w h i c h last entered the transmission process. Rather, i t is m o r e i m ­ p o r t a n t to show h o w the new elements change the c u r r e n t text i n its entirety, and how they shift its meaning. " 20

I n praetiee presenting the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is of course coneentrated, i n breaddi and fullness. o n formative arenas w h i c h are materially p r o f i l e d and extend across the text. T h e other stages are arranged and subordinated i n the presentation. T h e s e stages can eidier be deduced o n l y vaguely (e.g. a pre-Israelite site legend o f M a m r e i n G e n 18) or they o n l y slightly m o d i f y the m e a n i n g o f die entire (!) text by smaller addi­ tions (e.g. Isa 7:8b). These stages can be coordinated and subordinated i n such a way that specific i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a l elements already explieated need not be unnecessarily repeated for the m o r e recent developmental stages. T h i s decision can be made o n die basis o f findings already processed f r o m the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the t e x t devel­ opment. 2. W h i c h F r a m i n g C o n d i t i o n s C o n i p r i s e die Process o f Interpretation? a. F r o m the b e g i n n i n g and t h r o u g h o u t the process, i t is fundamentally i m p o r t a n t that die exegete transplant onesclf i n t o the historical Situ­ ation ofthe origin i n w h i c h the text was forrned, and i n w h i c h the text However, simply repeating tradirion in a hisrorically changed Situation can achieve that which is new and particular. Exegesis is die perception ol* meaning of a liiiguistically compressed, eomprehensively historical lile process. By no means can i i be reduced to die elaboration of innovations in intellectual history! J06 Thus tbe interpretation of Gen 22 can by no means be limited to tbe corresponding transmission stage of the theologically interpretive elements of 22:! a, 12b which entered the nar­ rative last. These elements certainly want to show the existing narrative as a whole in a new light (a test of obedience before the divine promissory gift of the son). Likewise, one cannot interpret Gen 28:1 Off only with respect to this growth the transmission stage which added the promises of 28:13 15. It is the growth of a fully reeeived transmission which should now- be secn anew in its entirety. Also, one should obscrvc this aspect vigorously in prophetic transmission with its nu­ merous later additions.

C o m n i e n t a r y o n die E x e c u t i o n

159

was directed to concrete addressees as an expression o f m e a n i n g w i t h specific intentions. Ehe exegete should thus construct a historical perspective of the realhies ofthe origin as one already attempted to do imaginatively p r i o r t o the methodological procedures ( § 1 B ) . N o w , however, this perspective should be explained, c o r rected, and made m o r e precise by scientific d e t e r m i n a t i o n s f r o m the investigation o f die historical setring (§9). T h e author (or authorial circle), the circle o f addressees, place, time, and concrete Situation shall then be disclosed to the exegete aeeording to the measure o f scientific clarity. D r a w i n g u p o n die results o f die investigation o f die intellectual p r e c o n d i t i o n i n g s ( f o r m criticism and t r a d i t i o n history, § § 7 and 8) clarilies h o w b o d i author and addressee are directed by these t r a d i t i o n a l pre-existing elements. D r a w i n g u p o n these re­ sults also clarifies h o w t h e i r historical w o r l d , w i t h its demands, was t h e n experienced. T h i s historical perspective can thereby expose those necessities o f the concrete experiential w o r l d b y w h i c h the f o r m a t i o n and declaration o f the text wants to be encountered. b. W i t h i n this framework o f historical perspective, the exegete n o w takes a position with the statement of the text itself. O n e attempts to sketch the statement as a l i v i n g process o f the expression o f meaning i n die historical realm i n w h i c h i t belongs under strict observance o f its particular text f o r m . In distinetion to the text itself and its original audience, the Interpretation can of course not be limited to the simple repetitíon of the text. Rather, it reaches the point of expressiv including the scientifìcally grounded modalities of meaning that were unquestionably self-evident with the origin of tne text, but which were no longer self-evident to all who came laten In addition to the perspectival actualizaiion of the realities of origin, this includes especially the endeavor of making more preose the form, contents, and in­ tention of the text's expression of meaning. It thereby makes known the current historical understanding in the elaborated presentation of that which was connoted. intended, or even presupposed as self-evident in the given vocabulary of the text. It also enables materiaily proper understanding, One should particulaHy observe the historical appropnateness of the word associations in the vocabulary selected for the English version of the Interpretation, 3. H o w Does diis I n t e r p r e t a t i o n Process Proceed i n D e t a i l l o r the Single Formative T e x t A r e n a (or for the Respective Text Arenas)?

:<17

a. F o l l o w i n g a historical I l l u s t r a t i o n o f the realities o f o r i g i n , one should next present findings c o n c e r n i n g the major divisions, contour, and purposive direction ofthe entire text and its individual parts. 7

2<> In the presentation, the Interpretation can hegin aeeording to the didactic principlc by the whole to the paus and then proeeeding again to the whole. It can begin w i t h a

m o v i n g from

160

T h i s presentation should correspond to the framework as i t was processed i n form criticism (§7). Knowledge of the genre and/or its genre elements provides the conerete movement of thought for the text. As necessary, rt ineludes (!) the author's conerete transcendence of the genre, This knowledge shows the appropnate crrangement of the text' , the functional value (e.g. introduction, turning point. elimax. statement of purpose). and the context of the organizational pieces within the framework ofthe entire text. One should anfange the descriptive interpretation, not by verses or even by sentences, but by the organizational pieces peculiar to this text which nun alongside the line of thought of the text with its components/''-'' Knowledge of~ the genre and/or the author's transcendence cs

ofthat genre simultaneously manifests the type and purposive direction of the emire text

(narrative, legal saying, teaching, annals, cult song, communa! prayer of iamentation, wis­ dom saying, prophetic pronouncement of juegment, etc.), and its organizational parts (narrative introduction, establishment o f t h e legal case. lament, Dresentation of guift). Thus rt manifests the particular perspective of the expressed conditions as well as the effect which the text intends to elicit from the hearer or reader beyond the simple re­ ception of its contents. If no genre influence is present, then the analysis of the linguistically demonstrated macrostrueture and micOstructure of the text (§7) exposes the Organization, intention, and perspective (cornpare also §8). b. Thereafter, the interpretation ofthe individual organizational parts i n the text are each processed and presented. I n d o i n g so, one should pay a t t e n t i o n t o the f o l l o w i n g : a. D e s c r i b i n g the eharacter, sectional f u n e d o n , and p a r t i a l purpose o f diis organizational section as a part o f the w h o l e .

conccntratcd suhstantiation of the realities of origin and a presentation of the total eontour, purposive direction, and organizing sections of the text. Next one can add the interpretive processes for each individual organizational picee, and then return to the perspective of the entirety by an interpretation of tbe entire text layer. 21» Some cases indicate that the author of die text at hand concrctcly transcended the genre(s). In those cases dien one no longer simply identifies the anangement of the text with the parts of the employed genre(s). Also, the subject of the statement, the purposive direction, and the organizational sections of the text can change in respeet to the genre. Example: In the paragraph of Tsa 7: >—9, die threat of 7:9b offers an essential transcendence of die genre shaping 7:4 9a which forms the elimax of the statement. At the same time, this threat is of greatest siguilieance for arranging the section and decisively changes the rcsutrjng purpose of the genre which shapes 7:4-9 in die current text. Cf. O . H . Steck, Εν Tb 33 (1973): 77-90, there ρ. 82 (also = Wahrnehmungen, ρ. 176f). 209 Kaiser, Exegetical Method, p. 37ff, describes the process and presentation of the interpre­ tation of the whole differendy. We do not aeeept the possibilities of clioice apparently opened by the interpretation any morc than wc adopt the theologically excessive demand to be an attorney of the present age in conffontation with the text.

C o m m e n t a r y on the E x e c u t i o n

161

β. D e s c r i b i n g the content of the statement present i n this part o f the text aecording to the i n t e n t i o n o f the author. T h i s c o n t e n t is described as a purposive b ü n d l e o f that w h i c h is stated explicitly as well as that w h i c h was also intended and heard. Eor this purpose, one must evaluate the f o l l o w i n g : 1. T h e linguistic strueture. I t provides the v i e w o f the expressed c o n d i t i o n s (e.g. circumstances, action, t i m e ) and die i n t e n d e d reeept i o n o f the hearer (e.g. to reeeive that w h i c h is c o m m u n i c a t e d , o r to consider s o m e t h i n g on the basis o f questions and references) aecording to the results o f f o r m criticism (§7). 2. T h e explicit. content aecording to the f o r m u l a t i o n o f the text. T h e text's unequivocal meaning, t o the degree that i t can still be determ i n e d today, is p r o v i d e d p r i m a r i l y f r o m several elements: f r o m the c o n t e x t at hand, f r o m die lexical meaninir o f the words and their delineation and deepening by the i m m e d i a t e context, by revealing the t r a d i t i o n historical p r e c o n d i t i o n i n g of the f o r m u l a ­ tions (or their transcendence, see t r a d i t i o n history, § 8 ) . T h e texts unequivocal meaning may also be p r o v i d e d by observing its char­ acter based on die topics o f the genre (or their transcendence, see f o r m criticism, § 7 ) , and by d r a w i n g u p o n parallel statements f r o m the same author and/or the original context as i d e n t i h e d i n trans­ mission h i s t o r y (§4), l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m ( § 3 ) , and the historical set­ ting ( § 9 ) . As necessary, unequivocal m e a n i n g is also p r o v i d e d b y stylistic figures {parallelismitsmemborum) o r images, comparisons, and metaphors offered i n the text. Finally, m e a n i n g is provided by c o n t r a s t i n g statements w h i c h w o u l d also be h i s t o r i c a l l y coneeivable o r expected i n this context b u t w h i c h are n o t offered. 3. T h e aspect directed by subject and audience f r o m w h i c h the au­ t h o r offers the expressed content, aecording t o die conclusions o f f o r m criticism ( § 7 ) , t r a d i t i o n criticism ( § 8 ) , and the historical set­ t i n g (§9). c. A f t e r i n t e r p r e t i n g the i n d i v i d u a l organizational pieces, one should include an Interpretation ofthe entire text as a purposeful, meaningful u n i t y w i t h i n the fraine o f a historical life process. I n d o i n g so, one should pay particular attention t o the f o l l o w i n g : α. Progression, contour, deliberated context, w e i g h t o f the material movement w h i c h the author consummates w h e n presenting the text and w h i c h the addressees allow to be consuminated. β. A dynamic view o f the entire text as a life process on the part o f die author.

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— W h a t occurrences and experiences does the author presuppose? 7

W h a t necessities c o m p e l the a u t h o r to f o r m the text? W h a t t r a ­ d i t i o n historical presuppositions

are thereby activated and h o w

are they reaccented? F o r w h a t reasons are these presuppositions transcended by correction? — W h a t is new i n the statement f r o m the perspective o f its Situation and f r o m the perspective o f the hearer? — W h a t does die author w a n t to accomplish i n the historical setting o f die author's hearers/readers? W h a t boundaries and decisions does die author address i n the f r a m e w o r k o f the historical possi­ bilities o f that time? — W h a t is singular and w h a t is c o m m o n for this text i n l i g h t o f other statements f r o m the same author or authorial cirele? — W h a t experiential r e a l i t y from the author's t i m e does the author w a n t t o clarify and influence? W h a t i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e experiences, intervenrjons, and perspectives o f reality o f t h a t t i m e does the author assoeiate w i t h statements about G o d i n particular? W h a t attitude does the author p r o v i d e r e g a r d i n g h u m a n i t y , Israel, o r specific groups and persons from that t i m e and w o r l d ? γ . A d y n a m i c attitude about die text on the part o f its hearers, i f the text offers starting points for such. — W h a t I n t e r v e n t i o n does the t e x t undertake i n the w o r l d o f the hearer? W h a t effect d i d the t e x t actually have o n them? — D o e s the actual effect differ t r o m the Speakers i n t e n t i o n ? W h a t are the experiential reasons for this deviation? δ . T h e historical meaning ofthe text beyond die mediated i n t e n t i o n o f the author and the reception o f the hearers. D o the contents o f the t e x t signify even m o r e t h a n the author " o b jectively" intended i n l i g h t o f the experiential r e a l i t y o f that time? One can provide an answer to the question if one situates the text in the wider con­ text o f t h e author's time and experiential reality beyond the conerete horizon o f t h e Situation and beyond the horizon of understanding of the author Also, one can provide an answer if one as<s what the text in this expanded framework contnbutes to the back­ ground of the experiential reality which er.ables one to understand experiential reality more appnopriately, more comprehensively. or deeper. Thus, based on corresponding expressions from the background o f 9th Century prophecy, the statements of Arnos which were publicly critical of society have the quafity of an entirely new type of criti­ cal perception of Israe; in its social world ofthe monarchial period. They even have this new perspective o r Judah even though Arnos, in his time, intentionally addressed the Northern Kingdom and not Judah. Determining meaning and authorial intention occur separately if the contents ofthe text subsequently encountera different experiential hori­ zon which the author never had in mind. When the original authorial intention is tran­ scended, o r even contradicted, a text's meaning can become visible pnecisely during the f

C o m m e n t a r y o n the E x e c u t i o n

163

text's productive transmission. The tradents of the exodus tradition have, for this trans­ mission, inferred a meaning for the experiential reality of Israel by the saving God. This meaning reached far beyond the partial experience of the Moses group both chronologically and spatially. This meaning cxplained the entire expenence of the pcop>e to that point their qualified rts future. Since the exilic period, the intention of the royal psaimsto qualify the power of the Davidides no longer had any experientially illuminating significance. Rather, it had t o live on as the deepening of meaning for Persian power or as a proleptic meaning for a future, messianic time in the f u t u r e . Shifts between punctiliar material intention and the meaning of a text can thus appear especially dunng the Old testament development of a text in the experiential framework of more recent tmes. :o

I L I n t e r p r e t i n g the T e x t i n Tts O l d Testament D e v e l o p m e n t Suppose l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , n-ansmission

history, and redaction h i s t o r y

have demonstrated that the text has undergone a development. O r suppose they have demonstrated that, over the course o f t i m e , the text was i n c o r p o rated i n t o a broader context. L i either ( o r b o t h ) case(s), one m u s t discuss and i n t e r p r e t the path o f the entire text's productive transmission w i t h i n die O l d Testament alongside the i n d i v i d u a l developmental stages. H e r c , the task is t o determine the material m o v e m e n t w h i c h is ex­ pressed i n the text's transmission process w i t h i n the O l d Testament. Instead o f a superfhious s u m m a t i o n o f the contents o f the i n d i v i d u a l trans­ mission stages w h i c h have already been treated, one should consider their c o n n e c t i o n , w h i c h now becomes the object o f the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

•

W h a t remains constant d u r i n g this development? W h a t is changed? A n d w h a t shows the older State o f die text i n a new light?

A t this p o i n t , these are the elementary leading questions o f this procedural step, n a m e l y the I n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h i l l u m i n a t e s the material, theological result o f d i e synthetic transmission h i s t o r y and especially the r e s u l t o f the. r e d a c t i o n h i s t o r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A g a i n , one should o b s e r v e a series o f as-

pects f o r the effort:

21" For die changes in die movement o! meaning in Psalms transmission, compare, e.g. J. Beeker, Wege der Psahnenexegcse, 1975. For die changes in the transmission of the exodns event,

see P. Weiinar/li. Zenger, Exodus, Geschichten und Geschichte der Befieiung Israels, 1975, especially p. llff,139ff,167ff. G. von Rad often noted this very significant fact. He noted that this view was connected to the wider transmission of texts inside the Old Testament, texts which "could always have fresh meaning extracted from them." (OldTestament Theology, vol. 2, p. 45). Compare Part Three of Old Testament Theology, vol. 2 (p. 319ff), as well as the work, "Offene Fragen im Umkreis einer The­ ologie des Alten Testaments" (1963), printed in G . von Rad, Gesammelte Studien zum Alten Tes­

tament 11, 1973, p. 289ff.

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1. T h e task is presented i n a dual perspective: I t the text has experienced productive growtb, then one must untierstand this process as the material change o f its content, w h e r e b y one m u s t also consider the new contexts. Example: The text of I Kgs 18:21 ff has grown as an individual narrative, which then be­ comes a component of the Elijah cyde of I Kgs 17-19, and later becomes part of the deuteronomistic presentation of the monarcnial period, as weil as part of the priestly configured history of Gen i to 2 Kgs 25 from the post-exilic period. Suppose the text nas not experienced a development but has been incorporated into changing vansmissior. contexts as it is conveyed over time, If so. then one must determine the function changes within this context. W i t h their respective intentions as the subject. one makes this determination to the degree that one can recognize these intentions and to the degree that they provide a coherent material profile. 2. Above all, the synthetic insights of transmission history and redaction history, along with the literary critical and transmission historical analyses, offer the essential p epo. üD'on to which this procedure should be affixed. If the emphasis rests upon the transmission process, rts means and motifs, r

r

then it rests upon the matenal movement ofthe changing content of the text which corresponds to this transmission process. 3. One should inquire into this matenal movement interpretively with analogous means as with the Interpretation ofthe individual text arenas, Thus, rt should inquire into the following: changes in the histoncal environment as the text is conveyed (time, place, persons responsible for transmission, Situation, experiential horizon, theo­ logical conditionings) form critical expansion of the text or incorporation of the text as one genre element into a more comprehensive framing genre with new contours, turning pomts, and purpose the contents of newly incorporated formulations and of the entire text within this changed framework the reason for abbreviating the text from eariier stages. etc. Already the matenal movement inside the transmission o f individua! Old Testament texts can be an example of the changes, or the deepening (or leveling) of the Israelite understanding o f Y H W H over the course of history m the face o f changing experiential horizons. The material movement in the transmission of an individual text then participates m the ebb and flow ofthe eharacter of Israel's perception o f Y H W H as it has

C o m m e n t a r y o n the E x e c u t i o n

165

Deen comprehensively deiermmed in the history of Israels religion and in Old Testa­ ment theology. The msights of these two areas of work conversely demand the capacity of recognizing the movement of meaning from individual texts, 4. In particulat; one must observe what meaning is designated in the text's transmission process. Thus, to what degree do the contents of the text change beyond the Intention of the first author and its meaning? To what degree does the content expose new. or even contrary, aspects? To what degree does the content operate as the αχρίκαϋοη and deepening ofebonged e.vpenentid reality? Suppose one thereby sees the respective meaning o f the t e x t already acquired in the individual transmission stages. Suppose one also notes the changes o f the Israelite experiential w o r l d w h i c h are designated i n the transmission events o f the text. I f so. then a movement of meaning becomes visible whose flow, p r o ­ file, and tendency one should observe. T h i s m o v e m e n t o f m e a n i n g i n the c h a n g i n g contents does not, by any means, necessarily progress c o n t i n u o u s l y or even automarically. T h e movement o f m e a n i n g makes clear paradigmatically h o w the pereeption o f m e a n i n g i n Israel at t h a t t i m e was shaped b y the productive r e l a t i o n s h i p between the experiential w o r l d and the transmis­ sion. I n some cases, this shaping happened i n different theological streams w i t h different results. T h e experiential w o r l d is clarified by the transmission and the m e a n i n g o f the transmission is transformed in l i g h t o f changed experience. For Israel, this Transformation is expressed i n the fact t h a t G o d is n o t a rigid p r i n c i p l e and n o t the extrapolation o l fundamental values of this w o r l d , but the " L i v i n g G o d " . God's " b e i n g " is " i n b e c o m i n g " as one can recognize from the connection to historically experienced changes. 211

An example is the movement of meaning in the transmission history of I Kgs I 8:2 Iff. Elijah hunself successfully sought to reclaim the territory of Carmei f o r Y H W H against Baal. The first transmitters ofthe Elijah transmission had shown the meaning by the termination ofthe events and the return of the rain. They also confrmed .hat the land of Israel and rts fertility belongecl only t o the one God, Y H W H . In this substance of the transmission, later transmitters saw legitimation forjehu's extermination ofthe Baal devotees. They perceived the meanmg of this grave process from their own experiential world so that the meaning of the transmission extended to topical political events. This pereeption was quite different from Hosea's (1:4) recollection of the kmgdom of his experiential world. Fmally, in the Deuteronomistic History, the transmission achieves meaning in light ofthe catastrophe experienced by Israel. It achieves meaning as a trans­ mission related tc the people and all foundations of their well-being. Eiiiah was one of those who warned Israel, but who was not heard (2 Kgs 17:13). The fact that Y H W H was the exclusive God in the land of Israel has now been confinmed against Israel and it r

E.JüngcI, Tht Doctrine of the Trinity: Codi Being Is in Btammg, Grand Rapids, 1976.

166

expialns the end of its kingdom. Thus. the transmission of I Kgs I 8:21 ff participated in the constitutive meaning and the changing actualization of the first commandment in Israel':-, history of faith.

D. C O N S I D E R I N G T H E T E X T ' S H I S T O R I C A L M E A N I N G I N L I G H T OF T H E PRESENT I n c o n c l u d i n g the process o f historical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , one should a t t e m p t t o estahlish crisp, precise considcrations r e g a r d i n g h o w the results o f the de­ t e r m i n a t i o n o f historical m e a n i n g can be presented i n o u r t i m e . T i n s a t t e m p t is p e r f o r m e d t o introduce tbe result o i the i n t e r p r e t i v e process into a theologi­ cal procedure w h i c h is responsible t o the h i s t o r i c transmission, demonstrably refleetive for die sake o f o u r time, and no less i m p o r t a n d y , for the exegete and o u r w o r l d i n order to adopt the c o m p e l l i n g eharacter o f the t e x t w h i c h is n o t historically l i m i t e d . T h e i m a g i n i n g s about the text as a c o m p o n e n t o f today's w o r l d that were acquired before e n t e r i n g the exegesis-' * are diereby taken u p . T h e s e i m a g i n i n g s are then taken f u r t h e r according to die text's unequivocal historical meaning, at least as approximated. 1

O n e bas thus gained die f o l l o w i n g essential insight: T h e text does n o t just represent an arsenal o f sentences r e q u i r i n g explanation. Rather, i n its r e a l i zation, i t also represents a process o f l i l e w h i c h wants to open the processes o f life. Accordingly. one must look to the c o r r e s p o n d i n g realities o f today: at the text's experiential foundations; at its h i s t o r i c a l , social, i n t e l l e c t u a l , and theo­ logical eonditionings; at the shape o f its statement; and at its contents. W h e r e have changes entered the historical realities or the experiential w o r l d ? W h e r e is the theological f o u n d a t i o n changed b y the N e w Testament i n contrast t o the historical profile so that i t necessary to shape the t e x t statements f u r t h e r i n o r d e r t o assimilate them as a process o f life today? O n the other hand, i n spite o f its historical c o n d i t i o n i n g , where does the text reveal deficits in o u r experience o f the w o r l d and seif, i n establishing value», or i n ways o f acting? W h e r e could the historical m e a n i n g p r o v i d e impulses for the present experience o f self, w o r l d , and God? A n d where can these impulses be conveyed f u r t h e r i n die w o r k o f a theolog} related to the present t i m e ? 7

: u

-'i: Sce above, §1 Β 11 1 (ρ. 6f). See examples pertaining to how one acquires the stages of understanding and thought movement« during Old Testament transmission by ineJuding the transmissions for mialifying this finding in view of our present time; In light of a specific text (Gen .'2:23-3 i), see H J . Hermisson, "Jakobs Kampf am jabbok." ZTbK 71 (1974): 239-261. For the history of Old Testament concepts,

see H . H . Schinid, "šutom. -'Frieden« im Alten Orient und im Alten Testament" 1971: J.Jeremias, Die Reue Gottes, 1975. O.H. Steck, "Zwanzig Thesen als alttestamentlicher Beitrag zum Thema: Die jüdisch-christliche Lehre von der Schöpfung in Beziehung zu Wissenschaft und Technik,"* KuD 2 3 (1977); 277-299. For an Old Testament tradition, see G . v. Rad. Wisdom in Israel, 1972. From the

A c q u i s i t i o n and Presentation of die I n t e r p r e t a t i o n

167

Ε. S U G G E S T I O N F O R P R O C E E D I N G W I T H T H E ACQUISITION A N D PRESENTATIONOF T H E INTERPRETATION

T h e f o l l o w i n g Suggestion is offered t o s t i m u l a t e the central task o f § 1 0 , namely h o w one p r o e e e d s concretely, and h o w this procedure can be recorded i n the written presentation o f an exegesis paper. I . T h e progression o f the w o r k begins by hinging

to rnind die I m m i n g

conditions based u p o n the results o f the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l procedures: 1. T h e basis is the o r i g i n a l text a e c o r d i n g t o text criticism ( § 3 ) . 2. W h a t are the text's developmental stages w h i c h stand i n succession for I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , transinission history, redac­ tion history, aecording to § § 4 - 6 ) ? C o m p a r e § 1 0 C I L 3. W h a t are the historical realities of origin (expressed, i n t e l l e c t u a l , author, addressee) for each developmental stage o f the text (his­ torical setting aecording t o § 9 by r e s o r t i n g to f o r m criticism [§7] and t r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y [§8])? C o m p a r e § 1 0 C I 2. Within the framework of the written presentation ofthe Interpretation it is not necessary to reformulate " I " ano "3". The results of §§3-9 have already been introduced to the reader in the framework of the preceding presentation of the procedural steps. By contrast when presenting the Interpretation of "2," it is recommended that one provide a bríef summation ofthe literary critical, trans­ mission historical, and redaction historical procedures aecording to §§4-6. T o this presentation one adds the particular process o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h is n o w presented i n its e n t i r e t y i n w r i t t e n f o r m . T h e sequence o f the acquisition and presentation is suggested as follows: I I . Interprcting each developmental stage o f the text. Here the ideal case is presented in which the various developmental stages are presented with the current extent of the text and the state­ ments tangible profile. Compare, however; the practical remarks in §10 CM, 1. T h e first developmental stage: a. Briefly restate its extent and the realities o f its o r i g i n . (See above, 1 " 1 " and "3".)

perspective of a contemporary problem, see O.H.. Steck, World und Environment. Bíblical E n counter Serics, Nashville, 1980.

168

&**2

b. B r i e t l y restate its overall strueture,

^líā

points, and purpose ( f o r m c r i t i c i s m according t o § 7 ) . Cornpare § 1 0 C 13a. c, I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the first organizational c o m p o n e n t . C o r n ­ pare § 1 0 C Ī 3 h. aa. translation

organizational t u r n i n g

bb. eharacter, f u n c t i o n o f the part, the partial purpose o f tbe organizational c o m p o n e n t cc. Designation o f the contents o f the organizational c o m p o ­ nent linguistic strueture — &f^-

expressed circumstances

— aspeets directed by the subject and addressees d. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the r e m a i n i n g organizational components i n the same manner as c.. e. Comprehensive i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the text o f the first develop­ mental stage. Cf. § 1 0 C I 3c. " 2 , " " 3 , " " 4 , " etc. as necessary: I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the text for the r e m a i n i n g stages analogous to'T." I I I . Interpreting §10 C I L

the text i n its O l d Testament development. Cornpare

IV. Pointed considcrations o f the text's historical m e a n i n g in view of our present time. Cornpare § 1 0 D . These considerations are n o t o b l i g a t o r y for an exegesis w i t h i n die academic discipline o f the O l d Testament.

ν

«ήΚ,

•

j | f .„1

V Translation of the whole text Cornpare § 1 0 F. T h i s translation should be definitively f o r m u l a t e d i n line w i t h the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I t should not, however, be presented i n this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Rather, i t should preeede the w r i t t e n w o r k as a whole. Developmental stages and O r g a n i z a t i o n can be t y p o g r a p h i cally demonstrated.

F. T R A N S L A T I O N O F T F I E wġjt.

Β

Ί

TEXT

O n l y alter c o n c l u d i n g all exegetical procedures can the p r e l i m i n a r y translation. undertaken at the b e g i n n i n g o f the exegesis, be b r o u g h t i n t o an appropriate version based u p o n insights achieved since that point. l u

-Ή Comparc, Kaiser, Exegetical Method, 37f. In disrinetion to Fohrer, Exegese, 180, and vis, Kaiser airangcs the final translation act between die individual exegesis and the Interpretation of

169

Literature

Even for today's reader to receive the creative impulse o f the historical ele­ ments, the translation cannot be a moderniz.ing, actualizing rranslation w h i c h transcends the hermencuticaJ task. Rather, today i t must be just as readable as faithful to the w o r d i n g . A n d i t must be as precise as historically possible. T h e seleetion o f the E n g l i s h words is undertaken aecording to those words w h i c h , by their associations, lead the reader to the shape and contents o f the state­ m e n t i n the historically mediated sense.

Ci. L I T E R A T U R E G. Fohrer. Exegese, § 10(11. W. Ilonmann) and § 11 (C. Wanke). Ο. Kaiser. F.xegetical Method, ρ. 36-41. \ \ : Richter. Exegese, ρ. 174-190. Literature about the bermeneutical problem: R. Bultmann. Das Problem der Hermeneutik. Z T h K 47 (1950); 47-69 (also in: Bult­ mann, Glauben und Verstehen, vol. 2. T ü b i n g e n , '1968, p. 21 1-235. G. Ebeling. "Hermeneutik," R G G ' ĪIT, col. 242-262. H . -G. Gadamer. Truth and Method. New York, '1991. W Joest. Fundamentaltheologie. Theologische Grundlagen- und Mediodenprobleme. Theologische Wissenschaft, Vol. 11. Stuttgart—Berlin—Köln—Mainz 1981, p. 59-72.174-212. E. Krcntz. The Historical-Critica! Method. Guides to Biblieal Seholarship. Philadel­ phia, 1975. B. C. Lategan. "Ilcrmencutics." A B D , Vol. 3, p. 149-154. K. Lehmann. Der hermeneutische Horizont der historisch-kritischen Exegese, in: Schreiner. Einführung, p. 40-80. W. Pannenberg. Theology and the Philosoph}' of Science. London, 1976. 2

Literature especially concerned with bermeneutia of the Ohl Testament: J. Goldingay. Models for Interpretation o f Seripture. Grand Rapids, 1995. A . H J . Gunneweg. Understanding the Old Testament. O T L . Philadelphia, 1978. H . Seebass. Biblische Hermeneutik. Urban-Taschenbücher 199. Stuttgart—Berlin— Köln—Mainz, 1974. L . Schmidt. A r t . Hermeneutik I I . Altes Testament. T R E X V (1986). p. 137-143 (bibiliography). F. Wat.son. Text, Chureh, and World: Biblieal Interpretation in Theological Perspec­ tive. Grand Rapids, 1994. C. Wesiermann, ed. Probleme alttestamentliehcr Hermeneutik. Aufsatze zum Verste­ hen des Alten Testaments. T h B 11. .Munich Ί 9 6 8 .

the whole. However, even the Interpretation of the whole can still provide important insights for conveying the text in English.

Part Four

Illustration

§11

The Exegetical Process Using Gen 28:10-22 as Example

T h i s section w i l l illustrate, u s i n g G e n 28:10—22 as an example, h o w the process o f exegetical w o r k can proceed w i t h a text u s i n g this w o r k b o o k . T h u s , die process o f exegetical w o r k is presented, n o t the additional act o f the presen­ tation based on this w o r k . A n exegetical treatment o f this text is n o t attempted i n l i g h t o f ali o f its difficult problems i n c u r r e n t research. N e i t h e r is an o r i g i ­ nal c o n t r i b u d o n attempted for the exegetical discussion o f this text. Rather, this section attempts m o r e simply to illustrate the course and the i n t e r c o n neetedness o f exegetical procedures. F o r reasons o f space, even this task can­ not take place i n breadrh and completeness. T h e attempted purpose appears to us to be achievcd i f the reader can see the representative I l l u s t r a t i o n o f diis b o o k for several procedural steps.

A. F I R S T P R O V T S I O N A L T R A N S L A T I O N O F THE HEBREW

TEXT

A l r e a d y die basic attitude w i t h w h i c h one approaches die w o r k is i m p o r ­ tant. O n e m u s t treat a w e l l k n o w n text, perhaps one w h i c h has been familiär since children's w o r s h i p Services and elementary school. A p p r o p r i a t e l y , this attitude appears i n die expectatioii d i a t the t e x t continues to deserve atten­ t i o n and every consideration. O n e expects t h a t the text possibly shows mean­ i n g w h i c h one still does n o t k n o w , and that i t exposes a biblical impulse t o r

174

§11

T U E E X E G E T I C A L P R O C E S S U S I N G G E N 28:10-22

2 1 5

e x p l a i n i n g o u r life i n o u r w o r l d . T h i s a n t i e i p a t o r y Submission t o the t e x t begins w i t h the first penetration i n t o its genuine linguistic w o r l d . T h u s one begins w i t h the initial, yct entirely preliminary translation of tbe text with tbe help of dictionary and grammar. O n e becomes accustomed to u n k n o w n words and grammaticai manifestations w i t h the effect t h a t one is able to use the H e b r e w text i n all subsequent procedures w i t h o u t difficulty. O n e thus has the text at one's disposal. A l l demonstrable exegetical observations and decisions can only be established by c o n t i n u a l l y reading and c o n s i d e r i n g die text in die original language.'"'

B. O B S E R V A T I O N S I . C o n c e p t o f the Text as C o m p o n e n t o f Today's W o r l d Perhaps die f o l l o w i n g impressions and eonsequences, a m o n g otliers, pre­ sent themselves under the d i r e c t i o n o f the above m e n t i o n e d d e t e r m i n a t i o n s and questions.

217

The narrative is all too well known. In some circumstances it is known 'rom memories of religious traming and pictures ofthe sleeping Jacob and tne heavenly ladder There is no evident reference to the life of one's current experiential world. Therefore, this cleariy iegendary story is materially neutral, although perhaps aesthetically pleasing. Upon doser examination there is much which is foreign (staircase to heaven with angeb'rnessenger: a pillow of stone covered with oil; a place as the gate of heaven; givmg of a tithe), which, like Jacob and Bethel, is taken to be Iegendary colonng and thus, is of no interest upon closer inspection. The main point of the story, that God appears to jacoo with promises for him. is told with incomprehensible details (Goa at the top ofthe staircase to heaven; location of the gate of heaven: why the erection of a stone?), Well intentioned, engaged Bible readers will see dynamic contact to their experience in that they will see Jacob as an example o how guidance and the protection of life is not at the disposal of humanity, but promised by God. But what about contradicto-'y expericnces? f

These and other impressions and eonsequences ( i n some cases they m a y be expanded i n conversation w i t h others) r e m a i n , for now, collected and p r e served f o r action at the conelusion o f the exegesis. T h i s action takes i n t o c o n sideration the text's historical m e a n i n g in l i g h t o f the present time. T h e i m ­ pressions and eonsequences are collected and preserved for f u r t h e r theological

215 Cornpare above §1 A, p. 3 f. "*'<> Comparc above, §1 13 I (p. 5, cf. Sff). 217 Comparc above, §1 Β II 1 (p. 6f).

Observations

175

w o r k o n the t e x t f o l l o w i n g the exegesis, and for i n c o r p o r a t i n g the text i n a sermon, lecture, o r C h r i s t i a n lifestyle today. These observations are i m p o r t a n t for the exegetical w o r k to the degree that here one becornes eognizant o f p r e suppositions about the character, meaning, and valne o f the text. A l s o , i n att e m p t i n g t o perceive the t e x t i n its historical self-understanding, these presuppositions must be kept i n check. Subsequently, one attempts a historical perspective f r o m the text i n its historical r e a l m . -

18

W e recognize this perspective i n the f o l l o w i n g broader

realm because i t is recent and especially i m p o r t a n t for exegetical direcrions.

Π . Coneept o f the T e x t as a C o m p o n c n t o f Its H i s t o r i c a l W o r l d

T h e person responsible for the exegesis should be s t r o n g l y encouraged to dedicate sufficient t i m e to this imaginative traversal o f the text before any m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y directed, scientific investigation, w i t h o u t d r a w i n g u p o n commentarics, essays, o r monographs. O n e should o n l y r e l y u p o n the text o f the I l e b r e w Bible, a reference w o r k such as a bible dictionary, and as necessary a coneordance. A l s o , one should again r e t u r n to this i m a g i n a t i v e traversal o f the text alongside one's scientific procedural treatment o f the text. T h e exegete should employ his/her c u i T e n t knowledge about the O l d Testament (or q u i c k l y expand t h a t k n o w l e d g e c o n c e r n i n g specific topics). T h e exegete should then l o o k , l o o k , and look again. O n e should make one's o w n observations and thus achieve a d y n a m i c overall p i c t u r e o f the historical u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the text! T h e density and content o f scientiiic-exegetical questioning, and accordingly the density and contents o f the results, essentially depend u p o n this i m a g i n a ­ tive action. I t is thus o f m i n o r i m p o r t a n c e h o w defensible this image rcmains w h e n tested b y scientific procedures. T h i s p i c t u r e w i l l t u r n o u t d i f f e r e n t l y for a b e g i n n e r t h a n for one m o r e experienced i n exegetical exercise. A l s o educatjonal l i m i t s and competence w i l l have an effect. T h e image of the text created f r o m one's o w n observations (rather than merely a r r a n g i n g the secondary o p i n i o n s one has read, critically) w i l l benefit the understanding and the life o f the text. F o l l o w i n g the first historical impressions o f the text, one begins w i t h precise l i n g u i s t i c observations o f the I l e b r e w text (aecording to §1 Β I I 2). These observations prepare the l i n g u i s t i c ajialysis i n conneetjon w i t h the f o r m critical approaches. T h e y have been o m i t t e d here f o r reasons o f space and o f the H e b r e w p r i n r i n g , b u t compare Fohrer, Exegese, 1 8 6 - 1 9 5 . 1. However, a seleetum of' additional aspeets of imaginatitm o f the basis o f l i n ­ guistic observations are m e n t i o n e d below:

218 See above, §1 B U 2 ( p . 8ff).

176

•

•

•

•

•

The text is not compiete by itself: The reason why Jacob is in Bethel on a trip from Beersheba to Haran (Gen 2.8:10: where are these places?) is no more stated than whether Jacob would be protected and return safeiy (28:20f; cf 28:15). The text is thus part of a larger narrative context. Where is this larger narrative context! What does Gen 28 presuppose as the context? In the preceding, it does not presuppose 28:1-9 (Jacob goes to Paddan-Aram to seek a bride mstead of Haran), but presupposes 27:4 1-45 (to Haran in 27:43. fleeing from Esau). Afterward, it apparently presupposes the departure (29:1) on the lourney, staying in Haran with Laban, the return trip (29-34), and especially Gen 35 where Jacob is again in Bethel with dea<- reference to our text (appearance of God. protection on the journey, resoluticn of the vow in 35:1,3,7,14). Also, fiight from Esau mentioned in verscs 35:1,7 shows that the contextual connection of 28:1 Off with 27:4 Iff is correct. even though 28:1 Off does not explicitly mention the fiight from Esau. Even the excluded paragraph of 28:1-9 apparently continues in Gen 35, since 35:9 again mentions Paddan-Aram (support.ee by the corresponding promise between 28:3f and 35:1 I). Thus, the text is only a sliče from a larger narrative con­ text. Gen 27:4! 45 precedes and following Gen 29-34, individual (but not all) statements in Gen 35 refer back to Gen 28:1 Off, N o w return to the text again. The question o f t h e dominating subject which the Organization determines has to be asked. Apparently: the dominating matenal assertion is the appearance of God in the dream (28:12-15) and the reactions of Jacob to that appearance in the morning (28:! 6-22). Confirmation is achieved in the fact that Gen 35:1.3,7,14 recapftulate this subject as the center of Gen 28. Gen 28:10-1 I are the introduction which establish the narrative context (journey Situation) and expound the Situation o f t h e dream revelation (cvening, Jacob sponds the night, sleeps), The t w o parts of the dominating subjeets (28:12- 15+ 16-22) can be subdividcd again. One should pay attention to the explicitly changing references between the members. Within the appearance of God in the dream, 28:1 2 expounds the scene of revelation, while in 28:13-15 the appearance of God oceurs as divine speech. The reactions of Jacob are staggered. After awaking, jacob draws severai conclusions from the dream revelation: I) 28:16, without Jacob knowmg it, Y H W H was here, Verse 16 refecs back to 28:1 3. 2) In parallel fashion, 28:17 establishes Jacobs fear because the house of God and the gate of heaven are here, The last element appar­ ently refers back to 28:12. 3) in 28:18, Jacob erects the stone that was under his head as a p:Har (massēbāhwhat is that?), which relates to 28:1 I aßb. 4) In 28:19 he names the place Bethel, meaning house of God, which relates to 28:17 and 28:1 I a (note the reference word mdqöro/place). 5) In a final reaction in 28:20-22, Jacob makes a vow for protection (28:20f related to 28:15) on the journey, related to 28:10. In so doing. the vow itself also indicates ercss references: the pillar which had been erected (28:18), the house of God (28:17,19[?]), Goes giving (perhaps 28:20). W e may capture this insight about the text's Organization and internal references in chart : r?

a p

' ] O f course, these insights into the construetion of the narrative have, in whole or in part, fact does not mean that they cannot be recognized independcmly by careful Observation of the text. Comparc W. Richter. "Das Gelübde als theolo-

already been recognized in the research. This

Observations

10 Jacob on the jou'ney with the intention of returning (cf. 27:44f) 11 I le comes to a place. I I He spends the night in the open air, with a sione as ci prffow 12 He sees a staircose to heaven with messengers ot God 13-15 YHWH speaks to him and promises, among other thlngs, protection on the way and return 16 YHWH is in this place 17 Here is the house of God, trte gote of heaven -— — -—

/ ^

177

. 18 He erects the stone he had used υπ der his heod as a prlar

...

\;- 19 He names the p>ace Bethel (^ouse of God) Λ, 20 22 Vow concerning the journey -—τ Air.ong other thlngs concerns divine proteaion and return - - - -V — The pillar shall be the house cf God • Giving ofthe Tithe

In spite of the fact that the text presupposes a larger narrative context, the text is a unit by itself within that larger context. It is held together by a symmetrica! const.ru.ction of corresponding narrative elements. The symmetrica! axis lies between verses 15 and 16. The construction of (he unit can be described more specifically. In the upper portion of the symmetry, one finds all the threads of Jacobs Situation before ;he onset of the revelatory dream (28:1 Of) and the revelatory dream itself (28:1 2 - I 5). In the lower portion, one finds that the narrative threads from above are taken up, in reverse orden in the form of Jacobs reactions to the revelatory dream. Indeea, they are taken up with respect to the dream itself (28:l6f) and Jacobs concrete Situation (28; 18—22). The two-fold division of the units which has been observed is thereby conftrmed again: the introductory exposition of Jacobs Situation (28: lOf) + the revelatory dream (28:12-15) and Jacobs reaction t o his Situation (28:16-22). The central material movement ofthe unit is thus God's qualiying and changing entry into a certain life Situation of Jacob which results in specific reactions of Jacob. Various Strands of this entry can thus be observed: the site of the event. the journey. Jacob after the return (land for him and his descendants, innumerable descendants who expand spatially in every direetion. and the hoiizon of a positive relationship l o all persons in the inhabitable earth). One must ask the unavoidable question: Where. when. why, and from whom did such an artfuüy and thoughtfully shaped text ariše? The considerations which matenalize here, depend entirely upon the degree of Oid Testament knowledge which one al­ ready possesses. Anyone with a basic knowledge of Genesis knows that the text takes piace in the patriarchal period, that it concerns Jacob, and that he represents a semi-nomadic group of people in Palestine who own herds. They also stand at the begmning of a sedentary and agriculture lifestyle. It is less likely that the text, as it lies before us, should be situated in the last third o f t h e second millenium, or that the text is the f

gjsche Rahmung der Jakobsüberiieferungcn," BZ N F 11 (1967): 21-52; F.. Otto, "Jakob in Bediel," ZAWWi (1976): 165-190, especially 1721Ϊ.

178 narrative material of this Jacob group. The artistic construetion of the text is just as perplexing as the promises of 28:1 3 -14 which proeeed well beyond the experien­ tial and expectational horizon of the patnarchal groups. reciseiy because of these promises one might think, at the earliest. ofthe end of the pre-state period, or the bitter experiences of the time of Sauf In Saul's time, these hopes had perspective and rationale, O r one could think of the eary monarchial period, where the promises became reality, o r even later in the time of Josiah, o r t h e exilic period, or even the post-exilic period where such promises strengthen the expectations. In any case, it was no longer Jacob and his patnarchal group who forrned the hoiizon ofthe text. Rathen it w a s Israel as a people whose existence, whether supposed or expressed, is grounded here in a divine promise to Jacob, the father of the twelve tribes. But, in these times would one have expressed these thoughts in the conerete form of Gen 28? At that point ('), wou'd one expect that the narrator would simultaneously want to explain ihe meaning of the name Bethel? Is the protection of Jacob on his journey still a problem? Are the notable conerete circumstances of the appearance of God in this place (staircase t o heaven for the messengers o i G o d , gate of heaven, stone pillar anointed with oil, and even the house of Gocl) still important in these later times? Since Ine time of Josiah and his concentraton ofthe cult in Jerusalem, Bethel as the nouse of God or pillars as cult objeets were out ofthe question! Why, analogously to the sketehier scene of Gen 12:1 4a, is a solemn promise to Jacob, as in 28:! 3 - i 5, not suftlcient for the experi­ ential horizon and theological desire of these later times p

?

Such considerations are achieved through affiiiated knowledge from history and from the theological history of Israel, The exegete should become keenly attentive to peculiar threocfe which the text contains In spite of Its symmetrica!, artistic inclusiveness. These threads become visible when one returns again t o the text and peacefully conceptualizes, considers. and associates 'ts details. For instance: The text apparent y has t w o assertiona! interests. O n the one hand, it is concerned with Jacob, his trip, and with his (as well as his descendants) more distant future. O n the other hand, it is concerned with the manner and provisions with which Bethel w a s recognized and named as the place of the presence of God. Were both asser­ tiona! interests bound together from the beginning? It is also peculiar how the interesi in Bethel is presented in the text. A t the stony place where Jacob spends the night, he sees inπ dream what this place really (!) con­ tains which he did not previousiy know. Α staircase t o heaven is placed on the earth here. It is thus the place where God in heaven Visits with the earth through messen­ gers. It is thus the gate of heaven. Somewhat hesitantly one can also bring the "house of God" into the picture. The place is the lower entrance t o the dweliing of God. it reaches from the earth into the heavens where God lives. Perhaps one thinks of the tower of Babel which provokes one to seek more Information, which perhaps furnishes corresponding analogies (consurt e.g., Reallsxikon derAssyríoíogie. o r t h e Anđm ß'bfe Dictionary, vol. I , under Babel, vol. I , p. 561 f. for holy ftowse, hoiy gate, the tower of Etemenanki [ » c o m e r s t o n e « of heaven and earth] which has Steps). However; how does one account for the fact that in 28:' 3, God vishts w i t h Jacob without messengers as mediators How does one account for the fact that the stone erectec as a piilar has no evident association with the picture in 28:12,17 (at any rate. /Dfi, vol. .3, 816, s h o w s temple pillars)? How does one account for the !

7

Observations

179

;

híghly unusual statement in 28:22 that this stone pillar sha l become a house of God (!) even though Bethel is already the house. of God before the erection of the pillar (28:17)? It $ no less unusual that Jacob is afraid after (I) the extremeiy gencrous promise is communicated to him. Anyone who recogmzes oracular language. or consults the coneordance under "fear" will see that the assertion of fear precedes the oracle (cf LXX to 28:13, one cannot recognize this in BUS, only in the i'-replaceable BHK). it is really puzzling that the text as a whole thinks of a place which is not known for its solitary, complete stones, and which necessrtates spendmg the night in the open. and yet aecording to 28:19, the place is already a city (7r)l Anyone who looks longer at the text comes upon acidiiional conspieuous elements. Many of the threads find no correspondence in reference to the narrative: the messengers of God in 28:12 but not 28; I 3; the erection of the pillow-stone as pillar (28:1 1,18) also in 28:22, but witnout tne anomting ofthe stone (28:18, see however the reference in Gen 31:13 the anomting and the vovv in Gen 28. also Gen 35:14 [addition of drink offering]). Also noteworthy is the change in the designation for G o d : Y H W H in 28:13,16 (cf. 28:21) but Elohim in 28:12,17,20.22 (cf. Beth-El in 28:19). Finally. if there is a difference in the t e x t between the appearance of Y H W H and the appearance of the messengers, h o w does one reconcile that in 28:12 Jacobs dream is associated with the appearance ofthe messengers while Jacobs awaking in 28:16 is associated with t h e appearance ofYHWH? Must one thus correct the sym­ metrica! Schema and relate the first three words of 28:1 6 (and then Jacob awoke from his sieep) to 28:12 (in addition t o 28:17) and relate the remainmg statements of 28:16 to 28:13-15? Or, because ofthe disruption in the flow which then appears, does the symmetrica! Schema only belong to the current text in its final form? Also the context demonstrates unusual elements. Jacob names Bethel in 28:19, but again in 35:7 when he builds the altar after his return with reference to Gen 28. and fnally for the third time in 35; 15, apparently in the framework ofthe other contextua! Ime in which tak.es Jacob to Paddan-Aram (28:1-9: 35:9ff, especially verses 10.13.15 where God speaks ('rnr, dbr). Combmed, These peculiar threads make one wonder w h e t h e r everything Stands in the t e x t because of a unifying intentional shaping. The self-critical exegete should ask by way of fofow-up whether these threads are only peculiar because of the his­ torical distance of our modern demands for a text's log>c and consistency. A t any rate, t h e t e x t contains problems which require clarification. One can no longcr answer so simply t h e questions

about the realities of ongm. or questions about t h e

intention, meaning, and effect of the text, as it w a s first attempted when fasonated by the discovery of the symmetrica! construction. 2. T h e beginner m i g h t cease the observations at this p o i n t and a t t e m p t t o clarify t h e m by e n t e r i n g i n t o the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l procedures and by f i n d i n g i n s i g h t in secondary l i t e r a t u r e . T h e advanced student can a t t e m p t even m o r e observations o n die text based u p o n k n o w l e d g e about the transmission h i s t o r y o f the patriarchal stories (individual narratives, sagas about the establishment o f the cult, sagas about a place, patriarchal cycles, a d o p t i o n i n t o classic pentateuchal sources). A n advanced student can f u r t h e r investigate the l i t e r a r y c r i tical and transmission historical p o s s i b i l i ü e s f r o m die text. W i t h o u t secondary

180

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T H E E X E G E T I C A L P R O C E S S E S I N G G E N 28:10-2 2

l i t e r a t u r e , the exegete can b r i n g together observations w h i c h make the threads o f the text at hand understandable based o n its history οf development. Examples includc: Gen 28:1 3 16 (akvays without the first three words, demonstrated in the following with asterisks) speaks of Y H W H and ceates tensions over against its environment: Y H W H rather than Elohim;YHWH instead of the messengers; interesi in Jacob rather than the interest in Bethel; prcmissory speech; the vow as a reaction of the addressee following the admlsslon of a promise is quite singular (as an overvlew of the patriarchal narratives in Genesis shows). There are indeed problems: the reiationship between 28:1 5 and 28:20 (aoes 28:15 presuppose 28:20 or the other way around?): further, the problem of fear foilowmg the promissory speech. One can offer the supposition that 28:1 3-* 16 entered the text later: Anyone for whom Gen 28; 14 recalis Gen I 2:3 as a characteristic image oftheYahwist will want to delve the question more precisely, because one must examine whether 28:13-* 16 constitutes an expansion ofthe text by theYahwistic pentateuchal source ( j ) . Orientation concerning the contents and method of J are required. If one Is already somcwhat familiär with the classic explanations regarclmg source analysis ofthe Pentateuch,- one should attempt to progress a little further. The tarv gible style of the Pnestly Writing :s not found in the text The observable alternation of the designation for God, between Y H W H and Elohim, prempts one to examine whether the text represents a conflation of theYahwistic and Elohistic pentateuchal sources. A coherent J section was already found (28:13-i 6*). What eise belongs with it? Gen 28:2 I b again has Y H W H , but the formulation is puzzling, In J, Y H W H has been honoreo since Gen 4- H o w then can J a'low Jacob to say that only if he returns safeiy will Y H W H become Jacobs God? Slnce the Y H W H cntenon is otherwise lacking, further assignations are difficult, N o w for the countcr-.nquiry: What belongs to E? Gen 28; 12 offers Elohim, likewise 28: i 7. Gen 28:12 presupposes Jacobs sleeping, a ong with the dream. Thus, 28:1 I (and the first three words o f 28:16) belongs to E, and 28:18 refers το the sleep. Likewise, 28:20-22 (exduding 28:2 I b) are Elohistic because ofthe designation for God. Gen 28:1 9 remains, It is more difficult. but because of Beth-E/, the assignation to Ε is more likely. Finally, if 28:10 belongs with 28:20 22, as the text observations indicate, then it is Elohistic. However, 28: i 0 presupposes Gen 27:4 i - 4 5 which in tum belongs to Gen 27:1 ff (a Yahwistic text as demonstrated by the designation of Y H W H ) . This is suspicious. W i t h Gen 28:20-22. Ε presupposes a journey account, but 28:10 is Yahwistic. Has the E-version of the journey account been "broken off" by the meiding of the sources? Gen 28:1 I is also diffcult. Because of the dream in 28:12. as already noted. it belongs to E, but 28:16 belongs to j (Jacob awoke from sleep; this place) relates to 28:1 I . Is 28:1 I then "mixed" from both sources? One cannot however, achieve a division. Further, if J condudes with 28:16. then the place of this promis­ sory speech wouid not even be identified in this source, even thoug'n it is expressly 0

:

:?0 Sce A. de Pury, "Yahwist ("J") Source, in ABD, vol. 6, p. 1012-1020; A.W. Jenks, "Elohist," in ABD, vol. 2, p. 478-482; and.l. Milgrom, -Pnestly ("Ρ") Source," in ABD, vol. 5, p. 454-461.

Observations

181

mentioned here (28:1 I ?, I 6) in distinction to the J source of Gen 12: i - 3 (which is not sttuated). By way of summary: In this attempted explanation, J operates fragmentarily. Is it likely that two sourres have been combmed into a single text when balanced by the manipulations one would then have to accept? Anyone who has doubt and yet has not sought help in the research may want to consider another way. As a model, one may consider older transmission taken up into a single source. For the moment, set aside 28:13-* 16 in the search for an older transmission, It seems to be a coherent ínsertíon. presumably of Yahwistic origin. The remaining text is also not without problems, above all as observed in 28:19b where the place is a city which was previously named L U Z . Insight from BHH, 23 i (for English. cf.ABD. vol, 1,71 I; vol. 4, 420). shows that, prior to J, Bethel and the nearby city, Luz, were separated spatialiy and by name. Does 28:19b, which identifies the city; belong then to a text after J? A glance in the concordance under Luz provides the following: Josh 16:2 and 18:13 also separate Bethel and Luz. Judg 1:23 is like Gen 28:19. In the Jacob story, Gen 48:3 clearly relates to the context to which Gen 28; I Off does not belong (28: lff + 35:9ff), as well as 35:6 which. also belongs in this other context (cf. the land of Canaan as in 48:3). The statement in 35:7, which does belong with Gen 28:1 Off, speaks neither of a city, nor of Luz. Thus, perhaps 28:19b also enters the text. later It remains to be considered why, according to 28:1 7, the place of the appearance of God is the house of God, white in 28:22 the pillar will become a house of God only after Jacobs return. Did 28:12+17 and 28:22 originally exclude one another? If yes, which is older? In context of 28:1 1 + 18, the ereetion of the piliow-stone as a pillar in the morning would De entirely unmotivated without the appearance of God, By contrast, one can understand the vow as an expansion to the text, which attaches to 28:18 while the older text ends with 28:1 7- 9a. The vow arises in a journey setting. and perhaps shifts the evertt so that the place will become a house of God oniy after the return. Does 28:20-22 then first enter when the event is situated in the ''light from Esau? Do these verses, like the fiight journey in 28:10, thus belong to the more extensive Jacob narrative cycle? If so, then there was originally a Jacob story which ineluded 28:1 i -12, the beginning of 28:16, and 28:17-19a. It told how Jacob diseovered in a dream that the place where he spent the night was d holy plate, the house of God, and the gate of heaven, Yet he had not known it previously. It was ihus a story which let Jacob diseover the quality of the cult ste of Bethel and a story which traced the pillar there back to him. Attempting an expianation based upon these observations, one thus suggests In broad strokes three presumed developmental stages for the text: :

1. The individual narrative of Jacobs diseovery of the cult site of Bethel. 2. The incorporation of this story into the Jacob cycle which provides the journey setting and the vow, 3. The expansion ofYHWH's pnomissory speech togetherwith the limited reaction of jacob, Anyone possessing foreknowledge about the history of religion, or who is informed regarding the archaeological data of Bethel, will not stop with the presumed indi­ vidual narrative about Jacob. According to both archaeology and the Old Testament, Bethel (íe>7 beitin) is a pre-Israelite setting. The religious concepnions in the individual

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narrative are not original components ofthe patriarchal religion. They are ancient oriental. Aecording to the place name, the divinity is El, which raises a question, Does a Canaanite narrative lie Dehind the Jacob narrative in which the cult site of Bethel was estabhshed by Canaanite worshippers even before the Jacob group? T h i s is enough of the a t t e m p t o f a historical perspective based u p o n aspects o f individual I m a g i n a t i o n ! I t should be restated for encouragement that these aspeets, and others, are completed aecording to the measure o f O l d Tes­ t a m e n t foreknovvledgc, and by the patienec o l persistent observations and i l l u s t r a t i o n s . T h e y are c o m p l e t e d by w o r k i n g o n the t e x t w i t h the help o f a reference w o r k and a coneordance. They make i t possible for the exegete to enter purposefully i n t o the scientific, exegetical, m e t h o d o l o g i c a l proce­ dures. Instead o f C o n s u l t i n g secondary l i t e r a t u r e w i t h o u t one's o w n o p i n i o n , the exegete n o w approaches it w i t h one's o w n o p i n i o n s , impressions, and observations. T h e exegete also critically examines the exegete's o w n , as well as other, interpretations i n o r d e r to understand the text historically. I n so d o i n g , however, the exegete c o n t i n u a l l y gives way, i n the course o f the w o r k , to imaginative phases o f historical o u t l o o k based o n n e w l y e m e r g i n g exegetical problems and insights.

C. M E T H O D O L O G I C A L L Y D I R E C T E D P R O C E D L J R E S Between the previously operative Observation pliase and the phase ofthe method­ ologically directed wesligation, the following prelimnary oaicns are suggested: 1. After one has achieved one's own observations on the grven section of the text, it is necessary to attam an. initial overview and an initial expianation of the wider terrain, which will subsequently be treated methodologically. This informative orientation results most readily by gaining insight from introduetory sections of commentaries or reference works. The guidmg question of this orientation is: In which literary, historical, and theological context does the given text stand? The question of the literary context seeks Information about the context in which the text Stands, about the content and development ofthe book in which the text is found, and, as necessary, about the layers of development of this boofc. The question about the historical context seeks onentation about the text's time of Development. Finaliy, the question of the theological context strives for knowledge about the theological conditioning and character of the author or the literary context In our particular case it is recommended that one seek insight from the introduction to the Genesis commentary of H. Gunkel [HKI I) or G. v. Rad (071) or in the paragraphs on the pentateuch in an introduction to the Old Testament (or in AßD). 2. Assembbng secondary 'literaturo also belongs to the preparation. For this purpose, we referto the bibliographical helps mentioned in §2 A. For Gen 28:10-22, in addition to commentaries on Genesis, one should especially consuit more recent investigations of the text such as Fohren Exegese, 180-220; A. de Pury, Promesse d'Mne et legende cultueile dans »e cycle de Jacob: Genese

28 et /es traditions patriarchdes,

MI. 1975; E. Otto, "Jakob in

M e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y D i r e c t e d Procedures

183

Bethel," ZAW 88 (1976): 165-190, In the broader realm of new movements In pentateuchal literary analysis, one should consult works like H.H. Schmid, Der sogenannte iohwist

1976, and R. RendtoiiT, The Problem of the Process of Transmission in the Pentateuch

'(see §4011). Receritly, Rendtorff, "JaKob in Bethel." ZAW 94 (1982): 5 I I 523: and very thoroughly, E. Blum, Die Komposition derVätergeschichie,VVMANT 57, Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1984, 7-35, have treated this text from the perspective o these new movements. The most recent contributions are: J. Van Seters, Prohgue to History:TheYahwisi as His­ torien in Genesis, Louisviüe, I 992, 288-307: and S. McEvenue, "A Return to Sources in Gen 28:10-22?" ZAW ; 06 (1994): 375-389, 3, The fact that one now gathers secondary literature, by no means implies that one begins the various sections of the methodologically directed work with a review of that literature. The theses of this literature would too strongly predispose one's own judgment and hmder the development of one's own view. Rather, i l is emphatically recommended that one proeeed as follows: First, with the help of the methodological In­ structions, the exegete attempts to produce the necessary clarifications. In a broader step, one then consuits literature on the respective methodological question, Finally, in a third step, one forms a reasoned judgment in light ofthe literature. f

I . Text C r i t i c i s m According to the procedures which are given. above in § 3 . " ' the process is evident and not difficult to perform in the case of our text. After confirming the condition of the transmitted text in ßHK, which only offers variants in non-Hebrew versions, examina­ tion and decisions are easy. In light ofthe criteria mentioned, there is no cause to deviate from the MT Anyone using the BHS edition of Genesis, can certainly not create any greater picture of tne text transmission, and has nothing ιο decide text critically. The editor has decided for the exegete and not made known a Single variant! Instead, anyone who has a lot of time can decode the marginal notes ofthe masora which BHS offers in abundance, The exegete may want to discover the exegetical results for himself/herseif! I I . T h e Q u e s t i o n of* the Text's D e v e l o p m e n t T h e exegete is already d r i v e n to the question of the text's development i n the imaginative phase by one's o w n observations and attempts at clarifica3

tion p r i o r to e n t e r i n g the exegetical w o r k . " T h e l i t e r a r y critical, transmission h i s t o r i c a l , and redaction h i s t o r i c a l investigation b e l o n g to the question o f d i e text's d e v e l o p m e n t . " ' N o w i t is time, w i t h the aid o f m e t h o d o l o g i c a l I n ­ s t r u c t i o n i n this area, t o aequire a scientifìcally g r o u n d e d j u d g m e n t , w h i c h is demonstrable and achievable.

221 See above, page 41 ff. 222 See above, §11 Β Π (ρ. 175ff). 221 Comparc above. § 1 C II (p. 15) and §4 Λ I (ρ. 47ff).

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T U E E X E G E T I C A L PROCESS U S I N G G E N 28:10-22

1. L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m in connection with ine above mentioned commentaries on approach and method, * one should begin with the question ofîhe literary integrity, and one should proceed through the text with the given series ol criteria. It appears that Gen 28:1 Off offers an übundance cf indicators of literary d-sunity: 27

a. b. c. d. e. f.

g.

h.

Doublets (e.g. 28:16/17: recognition of the holiness of the place; 28; 12/13: two appearances; 28:15/20Í: piomise/condftion of vow). Double or multiple transmission η Genesis (e.g. the naming of Bethel in 28:19; 35:7; and 35:15), Secondary parenthetical statements (e.g. 28:2 I b; equating Y H W H and Elohim; See "g" below). Tensions in vocabulary (e.g. the end of 28:I 4: posibon; 28:2 Î b: position and context ofthe statement). Differences in manner of speech and style (28:15: protection on principal; 28:20: protection on the way now, Gen 28:22b, 2ms address). Differences of historical background (possibly: anointed pillar in 28:18 over against the religious qualilication of the site differentiated in 28:13,17, but one must exam­ ine the contextual possibility religio-historically, based on bible dictionaries, encyclopedias, and concordances. etc.;YHWH speaks in 28:13, which is contrasted with God's appearance in 28; 12,17, etc.). Elements specific to iayers or sourees (such as J's use o f Y H W H in 28:13,16; Elohim in 28:12,17,20,22 In the patriarchal time for Ρ [which is excluded here styüstically] or E; the dream in 28:12 for E; Haran in 28:10 according to the context of 27:4 I ff for J; 28:14 for J according to 12:3, etc.). Tensions of content (e.g. Bethel is the house of God according to 28: Î 7f; but ac­ cording to 28:22 the pillar will become the house of God after the return).

These indicators can be evalaated in the sense of literary disunity. They can also be presurnably substantiated at this point, first by the names of God. according to the usual pentateuchai hypothesis as portions of J anc E. This attempt was made already in the phase of historical outiook- Insight gleaned (Tom secondary literature shows that this kind of division of the text by J and Ε is hlghly debated today; According to the //m;íoíions attached to §4 above,' it is actually doubtfu! whether aeeepting the conflation of t w o source texts in the present text provides a completely satisfâctory substantiation (cornpare especially limitations"c" and " f " ) . Above all, the his­ torical outlook phase already demonstrated the fragmentary eharacter of the presumed J-version and the difficulty of coordinating the individual verses literary critically. If one is iTioved atall into the field of classical pentateuchai analysis (see also the advance ofRendtorff in light of Gen 28, In Tbe Problem vi Transmission, 57IT.68ff, 108ff, 140ff, and ZAW 94 [ 1982]: 5 I I 523; and Blum), then one must choose between a JE connection in Gen 28 or aeeeptance of a iiterariiy disunified base text which has been expanded by 28:13aß-15 ,?s

26

See above, p. 5 3ff. ^ See above, ρ. 180ff. Ì26 See above, p. 55ff.

M e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y D i r e c t e d Procedures

185

(Rendtorff, Blum) or by further addrtlons (Fohrer, Exegese, 182-185). This decision depends upon: I) which image one makes on the basls of methodological preconceptions about the literary development ofthe Pentateuch, 2) how, using traditionai pentateuchal source theory, one decides about the state, flow, and profile of J and/or E, wrth respect to the text of Gen 28: or 3) upon the transmission historical investigation vvhicn one must first undertake aecording to the limftations of c) and f) in §4 Β II 2 (p. 55ff.). Because ofthe confusion which dominates current research regaraing point"!," one must abandon a really lustifìed literary categorization in the framework of an indi­ vidual study of Gen 28:1 Off. Since tne recent investigations of Rendtorff and Blum establish a literary model ofthe Pentateuch without the traditional source writings, we will execute the Illustration in that which follows under the working hypothesis of clas­ sic Pentateuchal anaiysis, without clainvng a decision. A d d i t i o n for the A m e r i c a n / E n g l i s h E d i t i o n It should be emphasized once again that § I I does not intend to present a new thesis about the origin of Gen 28:10-22. Rather § I I intends to illustrate an exegetical technique with fluid possibikties. A new thesis about. this text would have to consider tocay's more well known difficuties before one could find the classic Pentateuchal sources,Yahwist and Elohist, in this t e x t The reason is clear since the explanatory model executed ,rt §1 I shows that J has been reeeived only fragmentarily, while Ε dominates, which is an exception t o the rule (see below, ρ. 186). Α new investigation of the text might come to a simpler result without presuming the classic sources of the Pentateuch. I am indebted t o my assistant, K, Schmid. for the comments which he provided: ( I ) The beginning of the text's development consists of an independent individua: narrative: 28:1 If, 16 (the first. three words). 17 19a. (2) This individual narrative was then adopted into the Jacob Cycie by 28:20-21 a,22a (28:21 b,22b are more recent expansions to the Jacob Cycle). (3) Later, in connection to a larger literary work (presentation ofthe ancest al period or the primal history + the ancestral penod, or lai"ger still?), a theological accentuation in the sense of Gen I 2:1-3; I 3:14-17 was undertaken by Gen 28:1 3 - 15,16 (the remaining words). r

2

2. A n t i c i p a t i n g the Transmission Historical A p p r o a e h - ' a. The Material The literary critical investigation has not yet decided whether Gen 28:13 * I 6 (henceforth called the J version) is pari of a Yahwistic version along with 28:1 1-12, the beginning of 16, 17 22 (henceforth prelimmarily called version A), For this reason, the transmission historical question should be addressed as necessary to both possibly literarily independent versions. One must also consider the prophetic reference in Hos I 2:5,7, as insight from secondary literature or coneordance work on Bethel or Jacob indicates. If Hos 12:5,7 ;s also literarüy independent of the Genesis account. then one finds three written references to the same event which are literarüy independent of one another They must go back to a common older transmission. 227 Secibovc, § 4 ( p . 55f).

§11

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The next element is a comparison. All three references inelude the appearance of God t o Jacob in Bethel white on a journey that necessitates a return. It is noteworthy, however, that God does not appear ;n version A. and says nothing, According t o tne proceedings in 28:12,17f. Jacob niakes a vow, and only there does it speak of protection on tne journey. In J, by contrast, the protection of Jacob whiie traveling is the subject of God's promissory speech. Is that an older thread? Everything depends upon Hos I 2:5.7. if one glances at the t e x t commentaries, and secondary literature regarding the Jacob transmis­ sion in Hosea?® shows a text critically problematic passage. In Hos 12:5, if one decides with many for the Solution, 'immö, then Hosea knows a version of the transmission in which God speaks with Jacob in Bethel, as with J. Indeed, the content would agree with J in the assurance that Jacob will surely return with the help of his God (I 2:7)1

/Λ Observations a?ui Initial

Decisions-

9

The question of h o w one should evakiate this agreement of J and Hos over against A depends on whether Hos 17:5,7 stems from Hosea (Northern Kingdom), and whether it is independent o i the J formulation. o r relatedly, independent from the current form of Gen 28:1 Off. An excursus into Hosea and the development ofthe book of Hosea is necessary for clarilication. if one decides for Hoseanic origin. then J and Hosea oller ein o/der thread of transmission with the promise of a return during the appearance of God. This thread is missmg in A. or relatedly. it appears in the vow. What did this transmission thread b o k like prior to the written versions? Again, individual comparison is necessary. All versions, induding the vow in A, have " r e t u r n " (šûb), but they differentiate the goal. J hds" n this land" (28:15, cf 28:13). A has T o the house of my fathe<""(28:2l).j and Λ also share promises of assistance and protection (28:15,20), whereby I is formulated more basically ("wherever you go"). Is this formulation also an older thread? In deciding, t w o Problems come together: 1. Is J formulated on the basis of A? Is it thus. as supposed, an expansion, apart from the promise of the return? If one seeks parallel references t o the individual promissory elements in 28:13-15 with the help of concordance wor*. and then arranges these liter­ ary critically and redaction critically according to the source profile, then one discovers extensive J images with the expansive horizon, To this search, one adds simuitaneously tne literat agreements η the formulations of 28:20· 22. unoer expansion (fand instead of father's house) and generalization ("wherever you go"; reason in 28:1 5b). This Observa­ tion can suggest the decision that there was n o t an independent J version. Rather, J presupposes A and eniarges it with I 3-* 16. However, one must add the limtation that J also found a divine speech in A, which has now been subsumed in I 3 * I 6, and at any rate. A contained a promise of return. O r w a s there still more? 2. Is J dependent upon A? If so, then the promise of assistance and protection for the return is only given in the reference of 28:20 (A). The problem now is: Did ] adopt this promise from version A in 28:20 or did version A already contain this promise in the :

--8 Cornpare. e.g. J . Jeremias. Der Prophet Hosea, A T D , Göttingen, 1983, p. 148,154; Blum, Die Komposition der Vätergeschichte, p. 18,161 ff; H.D. Neef, Die Heilstraditionen Is­ raels in der Verkündigung des Propheten Hosea, B Z A W 169, Berlin, 1987. See above, §4 (p. 55f).

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187

divine speech which is now subsumed under 28:13 15? That means: Can the divine speech in version A have contained both the promise of retum, assistance, and protec­ tion which is present in the appearance of God as weil as the formulation ofthe vow? Here literary criticism and transmission history must incorporate form criticism as a check/''" What eise do the formulations of the vow presuppose? The result (cf. Otto, "jakob in Bethel." 170ff, with literature): By genre, Gen 28:20-21 a,22 is a thoroughgoing vow formulation. However, in parallel instances (e.g, Judg 11:1 Sam 1: 2 Sam i 5 ) , this genre does not presuppose a promise that was taken up in the vow. Thus, version A cannot have contained the divine promise together with the v o w in 2 8 : 2 0 - 2 2 . The possibility of both is excluded! If J only expanded A, then J wouid have taken the parallel promise from 2 8 : 2 0 - 2 2 . and arnved at a thread (divine speech with promise) by üterary means which is also independently attested in Hosea. That scenario Is highly unlikely! T h e explanatory attempts e m p l o y e d thus far m u s t be c o r r e c t c d t o the degree that one agrees w i t h die expressed understanding o f H o s 12:5-7. Since J and Hosea, independently reflect a p r o m i s s o r y divine speech t o Jacob in Bethel, i t must be an o l d e r thread w h i c h A expunged i n favor o f the secondary f o r m u l a t i o n o f a vow. That means:) does n o t depend o n the A version. Rather, J processes an older Transmission independently, even i l one can o n l y recognize this transmission as J h i n g b e h i n d 28:10,13—*16 i n the present t e x t . A e c o r d i n g t o Hosea, the older transmission contains die p r o m i s e o f r e t u r n and (because o f the independence o f A and J ) i t also contains the promise o f assistance and p r o ­ t e c t i o n . However, this promise was n o t expanded and generalized as w i t h J, b u t was related explicitly t o the j o u r n e y as s t i l l present i n As secondary version o f the vow. 3. R e t u r n to the L i t e r a r y C r i t i c a l A p p r o a e h O n the basis of the transmission historical work. the reiationship of both versions in Gen 28:1 Off can now be deaded. Expectations that J only expanded an older version rnust be corrected. Both versions are iiterarily independent of one another: The idenîificarjon of these versions, as expounded at the conclusion of " I " . depends upon preiiminary decisions. If one uses the classic pentateuchal analysss as the basis, which admittedly is not an easy task today, then one must certify the condition, the course (the pillar shall become the house of God in 2 8 : 2 2 [E] which antieipates 35:7 [E]), and the profile of J and E. That certification determmes that version A belongs to the Elohistic source, and that version J belongs t o theYahwistic source which is here incorporated fragmentarily into the text of Gen 28. The accusation that the assignation ol 28:1 3 and 2 8 ; * 16 to J was produced formally and preüminarily, based solely on the enterion of the divine name, can be rejected by additional data in the text. One can be ofthe opinion that. on the one hand, the appearance o f Y H W H speaking m 28; 12-17 excludes the conceptualization of the heavenly ladder with messengers on the other

- Ό See above, §4, p, 55f.

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hand. Either Y H W H encounters Jacob directly or the encounter results indirectly through God's messengers at the gate of heaven. However then the thesis of Blum (ρ. I I) becomes doubtful, namely that 28:12+13 are formulated as the content of the dream and form a indivisible climax (heavenly Hadder, messenger YHWH's presence. and the same chiastically in 28:i6f). Furthc; the numinous quality ofthe location was discovered by Jacob. That discovery was reported twice, in 28; 16 and 28; I 7. Once it was a surprising discovery of Jacob, the second t m e it was a frightening discovery. Is that a climax (Rendtorff Blum)? it is much more likely a doublet. This conc!us:on can be strengthened by incorporating investigations from tne sec­ ondary literature for the written sources. In so doing. one asks to what degree the ver­ sions in Gen 28 agree with the tendencies of the sources stykstically (cf. Fohren Exegese, 186ff). form criticaliy (note the orade style of 28; I 3- 15), regarding the tradition histori­ cal background, and in respect to the means of processmg a transmission and particular tendencies (j expands and generali7.es considerably in 28: i 3-151). Also, research results concerning the status ofthe historical Identification of the sources should be considered. 4. Transmission H i s t o r i c a l Analysis Ehe w o r k has established, however, using v a c i l l a t i n g l i t e r a r y criticaJ p r e mises, that one should proceed from three l i t e r a r ü y independent witnesses to the transmission: version J, version E , Hosea 1 2 . ' " T h e f o l l o w i n g decisions have been necessary: •

T h e older transmission also offered a divine speech w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k o f an appearance o f G o d . E's e l i m i n a t i o n of the appearance i n lavor o f the f o r m u l a t i o n o f a v o w is secondary.

•

T h i s divine speech is n o t identical w i t h 28:13-15 where one encounters J's o w n f o r m u l a t i o n (compare, e.g. O t t o , "Jakob i n B e t h e l , " 178). T h e prel i t e r a r y c o n t e n t o f the transmission o n l y included the promise o f a r e t u r n ( J , E , Hosea) and the promise o f assistance and p r o t e c t i o n ( J + E ) .

Ehe subscquent transmission historical questions should at least be sketched. T h e chief problem is: W h a t d i d the p r e - l i t e r a r y transmission o f the d i v i n e speech look like? The j fragment and Hosea offer no further evidence beyond the journey setting and Bethel as the place ofthe event. One should note that ali three literarily independent examples (Hosea, j , and also Ε) situate the event in a journey setting for Jacob. This thread must belong to the pnefterary stage. From ths Observation one deduces that the preiiterary transmission, "Jacob in Bethel" was not an isolated narrative when rt entered the wntfen examples. Rather. it was part of a larger narrative enuty, a Station in the presenta­ tion of Jacobs joumey: Even this larger entity must be ascertained more closely, psMnclpally ' J 1 One should of course include Gen 35 in die transmission historical analysis. Compare, de Purv. Promesse divine, 528fif; Otto, "Jakob in Bethel," p. 179ff; Blum, Die Komposition der Väterefschiebte, p. 7 ff, 3 5 ff. We cannot treat this problem for reasons of spare.

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189

by companng the jacoD transmission appertaining to the sources (j. E, R Hosea) as a whole as well as the analyt'c and synthetic determination of their pre-literary transmis­ sion, In practical terms, one would meorporate a crrtical consideration o f t h e existing research results. One would move toward a pre-literary Jacob-Esau-Laban cycle to which the pre-Israelite transmission of Gen 28 belonged prior to the transcription in sources, or its adoption in a prophetic speech (cornpare Noth, PentateuchalTraditions. 79ff;de Pury; Otto, "Jakob in Bethel," 182ff: but also the first major section of Blum, Die KomposiVon der Vätergeszhichte). The divine speech, wrth its promises regarding the Situation, is apparently connected witn this transmission layer and its setting in Jacobs journey.' ' Is the oldest transmission stage thus attained? Has this Jacob-Bethel transmission behind Gen 28 thus always been a component of this cycle (so de Pury;though a glance through the literature shows most rescarehers dilTer)?The fact that the text then has two goals (the justfication ofthe holiness and the naming of Bethel as well as the protection of Jacob on his journey) is puzzling, Nevertheless, the answer to this question essentially depends upon whether one can detect the shape of an even older individual story which was independent pnor to the ineorporation into the cycle. Since j and Hosea offer no additional evidence, one can only concentrate upon the Ε version in the transmission his­ torical shape for this eariier story. Only a comprehension ofthe form critical approach can take us further at this essential point It must provide Information as to whether the contour ofthe genre of an individual narrative is víslbíe. 3

:íi

5. A n t i c i p a t i n g the F o r m C r i t i c a l Q u e s t i o n r e g a r d i n g the P r e - l i t e r a r y Shape o f the Transmission o f G e n 28:1 Off The subject ofthe inquiry is the transmission historical form of Gen 28 within the cycle, as ascertainec to this point the Situation of Jacobs jouTey + 28:1 1 1 2 + the divine promise + 28:17-19a. Whether the journey setting and the promise related to it belong to an older isoiated narrative is questionable since they presuppose the cyc'e. If one does not simply inferthe answer from secondary literature, the question re­ garding

the shaping

genre

of the individual

narrative

can

be purposefully placed by

observmg the shape of the designated contents in some circumstances. Thus, one fmds: naaative, patriareha: hero, material center In a location which was diseovered by the patriarch as a place of divine presence: indicators ofthe presence (28:12+17); cultic fixtures (pillar); therefore the. naming (28:19a). Bible knowledge or concordance work (looking under holy places m Old "testament narrative books) leads to parallel references. Basic knowledge of the Old Testament md'cates that these elements concern etiologically shaped sagas about cult establishment. Cornpare Gunkel, Einleitung, §2; Fohrer, introduc­ tion. § I2,6;W.H. Schmidt. 7he Faith ofthe

Old Testament,

ρ. 22T, etc. M

If one determines the genre at this point by the helps p r w d e d above in § 7 7 which cannot be done here for reasons of space. then a comparison with other place name etiologies and cult diseovery sagas from the early period of Israel shows the following: In the cycle form of Gen 28, the genre of an individua! saga is mdeed foundational. Its focal 2i2 T h e Inversion ot the promise into a vow in 28:20-22 is first situated in die transmission stage before F. or in Ε itself. Cornpare Ottos discussion. 253 Comparc §7 above. 2 Η See above, ρ. 106ff.

190

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points unfold in the appearance of God t o the founder ofthe cuit at a supposedly pro­ fane iocation (28: i I-Í 2), and the founder's reaction and establishment ofthe cuit (28: 17-18), and the logica! naming ofthe hoiy iocation (28:19a). Thus, we encounter here an older individua! narrative associated with Jacob. 6. R e t u r n t o the Transmission H i s t o r i c a l Analysis T h e f o r m critical e x p l o r a t i o n has p r o v i d e d evidence that tlie cycle adopted an oldcr individual rratrative w h i c h t o l d h o w Jacob unexpectedly expe­ rienced the appearance o f G o d (28:12) i n Bethel (28:11), h o w he recognized the q u a l i t y o f the site (28:17), ereeted the p i l l a r (28:18), and nameti the I o ­ cation the "house o f G o d " / B e t h e l because o f the appearance (28:19). T h e relationships t o a jourrvey setting, and perhaps the divine speech associated w i t h the journey setting as w e l l , probably d i d n o t b e l o n g t o this individual nar­ rative.'' 5

Has the tronsmtsikm

historical statüng point of Gen 28:1 Off now been reached?

The exegete would perhaps answerthe question affirrriatively. However, if one recalis the presuppositions from the histonca! overview, and if one resolved the question in the procedura! step of the historical setting (§9), then the exegete knows that Bethel was a pre-lsraelite sanetuary and already existed in the patriarchal period. If one addressed tradition history (§8) t o this individual narrative, tnen on the basis of the his­ tory of religion, one is compelled t o conciude that 28:1 1-12, 28:17-18, and no less so the name Beth-el (= house of El) contain pre-lsraelite coneepts from the ancient oriental Canaanite realm. The only (proto-)lsraelite element in the individuai narrative appears in the form of Jacob and perhaps the manner of reference to Elohim instead of Fl. These observations suggest the conelusion that the origin of the individual narrative was initiolly the Concicnite cuit etioiogy for the Canaanite sanetuary of Bethel. This narrative may be the transmission historical beginning. However, observations from the history of religion in the framework of §8 allow one to consider, along with many researehers. - whether there is yet or, older coneept associated with Bethel at work in the transmission. Tension between statements about the pillar and 28:1 2+ 17, as well as 28:22, imply the divmity of the place was not thought to dwell in heaven. like the Canaanite deity, but in the pillar of Bethel. Gen 28:22 then contained an older reference adopted secondanly into the vow. 2

5

7. T h e Transmission H i s t o r i c a l Synthesis O u t l i n i n g the w o r k f o r the individual transmission stages, aecording t o the Instructions i n § 5 and the corresponding procedural step i n the h i s t o r i ­ cal setting, provides the f o l l o w i n g : : 1 ?

2W For the question of the transmission historical relationship to Gen 35. see the literature mentioned above in toomote 231. Cf. VAlaag: "Der Hieros Logos V O D Bcth-El" (1951), in Maag, Kninu; Kukurkontakt und Religion, Göttingen, 1980. ρ. 29-37; V Maag. "Syrien-Palästina," in Kulturgeschichte des Alten Ori­ ents. H . Schmökei, ed, Stuttgart, 1961, p. 448-605 (especially 563ff); H . Donner, "Zu Gen 28,22." 7AW 74 (1962): 68-70; W.H. Schmidt, Faitb ofthe Old 'íesumient, ρ. 24. -'}" See above, p. 69ff.

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191

a. The oldest traces ofthe transmission o f G e n 28:1 Off possibly p o i n t i n t o the pre-Canaanite megalitbic culture o f Palestine ( V Maag). These traces teli about die d i v i n i t y w h i c h was w o r s h i p p e d i n B e d i e l at that time. I t was ineorporated i n the p i l l a r w h i c h was ereeted by an apparently giant person (cornpare G e n 6 : 1 - 4 , etc.). O n e should inelude I n f o r m a t i o n about the pre-Canaanite i n h a b i tants o f Palestine and t h e i r m e g a l i t h i c c u l t u r e (catchwords: pillars, d o l m e n , "giants," inhabitants o f Palestine). b. T h e narrative attains its first tangible transmission form w h e n the sanetuary of Bethel beeaine cult site ofthe Canaanites, w h o w o r s h i p p e d F.l o f heaven there. T h e y saw i n Bethel the place o f the association w i t h his messengers for his w o r k o n earth. They saw Bethel as the house o f E l and the gate o f heaven. N a r r a t i v e thrcads associated w i t h the place f r o m die pre-Canaanite p e r i o d became integrated. O n e should inelude I n f o r m a t i o n about the Canaanite set­ t l e m e n t o f Palestine and about die conceptualizations o f Canaanite r e l i g i o n . c. W i t h its strides i n t o the land west o f die Jordan (cornpare the historical analysis o f die Jacob transmission i n the secondary l i t e r a t u r e ) , die protoIsraelite Jacob group also adapted die sanetuary o f B e t h e l . ' ' T h e y i d e n t i l i e d E l , w h o was w o r s h i p p e d there, w i t h t h e i r o w n ancestral g o d . T h e y ineorporated die c o n s t i t u t i n g patriarch o f their g r o u p as the one w h o established the cult. I n this sense they t o o k over the Canaanite cult etiology as the isolated narrative o f Jacob. As a check, one should examine analogous transmission historical p r o ­ cesses elsewhere i n the Jacob and patnarchal transmissions. 3

d. A c c o r d i n g to the examined analysis, the next transmission stage is the further development until the point of adoption ir/toj, E. and Hosen. First, one must determine the shape, position, and function of the individual narrative in the Jacob-Esau-Laban Cycle, which itself reeeived various influences over the course of time,' This determination is necessary especially since, according to the normal analysis of the Pentateuch, this cycle first entered into complete association with the patriarchal transmissions. With those patriarchal transmissions it also entered into complete association with the transmissions directed to Israel from the patriarchal period to the conquest. In a different form, rt was then taken up by J and later E. W i t h considerable certainty, it was during this process that the journey setting čame into the narrative, and perhaps also the journey promise in the divine speech, The focal point changes from Bethel to Jacob. and indeed progressively to Jacob as a member of the mcreasingly narrated salvific history of Israel. It is still another problem whetnerthe replacement ofthe divine speech by the vow was aecomplished in this Strand ofthe transmission process or by E. It is only possible to make this very difficult area more precise, o r t o reach one's own responsible and considered conclusions, by means of tedious and extensive invesligations of the entire jacob transmission, the transmission history of the Pentateuch, and 39

24D

238 The historical interpretation of the transmission historical relationship to Gen 55 allows one to make these perceprions more precise. See Otto. - · * ' Cornpare the extensive iiivcstigations of de Pury and Otto about this problem. -'*> Sce above, footnote 132.

192

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the history of Israel. A s a rule, the exegete must rely entirely upon the results of sec­ ondary literature, and make a reasoned choice when possible. From the most recent literature, one would place de Pury, O t t o and McEvenue on one side and B'um, Rendtorff, and Van Seters on the other side. 8. T h e Redaction H i s t o r i c a l A p p r o a c h I f one directs the synthetic perspective o f the development o f the trans­ mission o n t o the realm o f w r i t t e n conveyance, t h e n one asks the redaction historical q u e s ü o n ( § 6 ) .

241

A c c o r d i n g t o the l i t e r a r y critical results already as­

certained, one should treat the f o l l o w i n g (under the w o r k i n g hypothesis o f classic Pentateuchal Sources). O n the one hand, one should treat the adoption o f the Jacob-Bethel transmission w i t h i n the Jacob cycle o r even w i t h i n the larger c o n t e x t o f the patriarchal p e r i o d to the conquest in J and E. O n the other hand, one should achieve redaction historical aspeets for G e n 28 f r o m the subsequent redactional layers o f die l i t e r a r y development o f the Pentateuch (JE, JE

J , r

, J E P ) , and also situate the additions o f 28:19b and 2 8 : 2 l b .

The task appears extensive, but it is considerably reduced in practical terms since this expanded problem would have to take up explanations ;n ihe secondary literature. However, widely accepted explanations do not exist. Already with the transmission realm between ihe individual narrative and the written source. the exegete of the text entered largely uncertaln terrain. In the redaction historical realm everything related to Ε is widely debated. The normal dating (H.H. Schmid,'Van Seters) and existence (Rendtorff. Blum) of J has been called into question. Moreover virtually nothing Is known about the material profile and the treatment of the subsequent redactional stages. The adoption into Ε can only be distinguished with difficulty from the state of the ex­ isting transmission available to E. And the research produces very different attempts regarding the flow ofthe context, the profile ofthe context. and especially the assignation of the vow in 28:20-22. ' As a resuit, the adoption into j should be particularly investigated. If one adheres to this written source in the usuai manner in spite of the cur­ rent discussion,'' ' then one shows that J indicatcs a framing function in his nairative text of the jacob-Bethei scene. ' ' Above ali, the existing divine premise to jacob yields Infor­ mation- about the great promissory orade of 28:13 15 in light of rts strueture. Namely; ali of the essential promises to this point in J's presentation of the patriarchal period are here concentrated on jacob, the father ofthe twelve tribes, the father of Israel. Ffere the in­ teresi :n the sanetuary of Bethel has been completely displaced by a continumg interest: presentingYHWH's designation of Israel. J makes this designation using promissory oracles in the patriarchal story; Ali of these promissory oraeles pregress toward 28:13-' 5 as : u

1

3 1 1

241 Sec above, pp. 7 5 ff. 242 Regarding the Jacob story in F., cornpare the discussions in the recent works of de Pury, Ptvmesse divine, p. 51W, and Otto, "Jakob in Bethel,'' ρ. 182ff. 245 Cornpare Old Testament introduetioas. Rendtorff arrives at different determinations for the promises of 28:13-15 on the basis of his new methodological thrust. Likewise, Blum does tbe same. 244 Cornpare Otto, "Jakob in Bediel." ρ. I82i"f.

M e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y D i r e c t e d Procedures

193

the climax ofthe patriarchal promises ;n j : the promise of land for Jacob and his descen­ dants (cf. 12:1; I 3; I 5);the promise of mcrease (cf. 12:2; I 3:1 6);the promise ofthe means of blessmg for all nations (cf. I 2:3). The fragmentary condition of J in 28:1 Off only allows one to offer supposrtons about the complete form of the transmission Dased upon 28:13-* 16 and 28:10/'^ The Yehowistic (JE) redaction would have been an important redaction critical process which decisively shaped the existing form of Gen 28:10-22. In this case. it essentiaily transmitted the Ε version (because it was more concrete?). From j , theYahwistic redaction only included the following: 28:10 as the introduction because ofthe j context which served as tne fou.ndation;the promissory speech which was missing in E; and in 28:16. The fact that these sections were incorporated organically without a violent technique appears to be a process which was historically possible. ^ M

2

7

T h e illustrative text o f G e n 28:10-22 at this p o i n t requires that one be satisfied w i t h suggestions, and causes one to give way to excerpted use of the leading questions developed i n § 6 . T h e reason: one m u s t have clarity regardi n g the larger literary context and especially regarding the p r e - l i t e r a r y and the literary h i s t o r y o f development of the Pentateuch. l n the concrete case o f a w o r k on this text, one m u s t make a p r e l i m i n a r y decision between various models. Ι Π . T h e Question o f the Presuppositions o f the Stages o f G e n 28:10-22 248

Tn §1 i t w-as d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t this related area o f questions included three fields o f investigation: f o r m c r i t i c i s m ( § 7), t r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y ( § 8 ) , and the historical setting (§9). Because these procedures presuppose considerably detailed study, the exegete must already f o r m one's o w n observations and i m pressions i n the imaginative phase at the b e g i n n i n g o f one's w o r k , even t h o u g h less extensively than w i t h the l i n g u i s t i c observations o f the text. T h e s e ques­ tions must be asked for each o f the text's developmental stages w h i c h have been ascertained, t o the degree that they are visible i n the text. W e must here l i m i t ourselves to an illustrative problem for each approaeh w h i c h can demonstrate the procedure.

245 One must here excludc the particular problem which the unusual portion of 28:14a presents for transmission history and redaction history. 246 De Pury, Promesst divine, p. 87-344,5 lVff, offers a diorough investigation oi the outline of the Yahwistic transmission. -+7 The Observation of die synmieuical conespondence of dre narrative elements is apparently important for the growtli of die transmission of Gen 28, as already demonstrated iu the historical overview (see the ehart above, p. 177). This principle of symmetrical shaping, which organically ineorporates the changes to the transmission in our case, appears to have been widely praedced in Ancient Israel. For example, it is used in Gen 1 and Isa 1:21-26, texts which are liter­ arüy and transmission historically unítìed, 24» See above, §1 C (ρ. 14f;'ef. 95 ff. 121).

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1. T h e F o r m C r i t i c a l Approaeh I f one looks back at the development o f G e n 28:1 Off, t h e n the individual story may have already had a fixed l i n g u i s t i c shape t h a t w o u l d also have rem a i n e d fixed i n the subsequent stages. Elements f r o m the h i s t o r y o f r e l i g i o n and t r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y b e l o n g i n g to this early phase suggest as m u c h . I f so, i n ­ vestigation o f the linguistic shape o f the individual transmission stages, the first c o m p o n e n t question o f f o r m criticism ( § 7 ) , must already begin i n the realm o f oral transmission. : 4 9

2i0

T h e determination of the gcnre for each o f those transmission stages w h i c h were added d u r i n g the w o r k was already indicated above for the C a ­ naanite narrative and for the i n d i v i d u a l Jacob n a r r a t i v e . T h e f o r m critical investigation o f the subsequent transmission stages should note that the o r i g i ­ nal d o m i n a n t genre, "etiological saga o f the f o u n d i n g o f a c u i t , " is o n l y just a c o m p o n e n t genre i n the c o n t i n u i n g transmission. T h i s ehange corresponds to a displacement i n the life setting. Because i t entered the Jacob cycle, the i n ­ dependent c u i t narrative became p a r t o f a larger narrative e n t i t y w h i c h now forms the framing genre. A c c o r d i n g l y , the life s e t t i n g is n o l o n g e r a circle o f worshippers and the cuit i n Bethel. Rather, i n g r o w i n g measure, the l i i e setting is Israel w h i c h reaffirms itself f r o m its o w n h i s t o r y and w i t h i n this h i s ­ t o r y by the transmission o f the patriarch Jacob i n Bethel. Correspondingly, the transmission o f Jacob i n B e t h e l , w h i c h is thus i n c o r p o r a t e d and evidenced, could be expanded bv additional c o m p o n e n t genres. J does so by the oracle o f 2 8 : 1 3 - 1 . V while Ε does so t h r o u g h the vow (28:20,2la,22). 2,1

,J

This vow can serve as an example of form critica! investigation. Transmission history demonstrated that this passage joined the older transmission form and changed it. It is thus an expansion text which presupposed the preceding narrative of Jacob in Bethel. in spite of this insight into the limits, the text materiaily represents a self-enclosed process, which for its part, demands, however, that fulfiilment of the vow also be narraled t i the tontinuation. This recognition conlirms the transmission historical fmding that the passage belongs with the narrative contexts beyond the isolated story.^ One can clearly recognize three parts regarding the question of the süuetute αικί (he structurai components: an introduction which the subsequent process qualifies as a vow (28;20a); a direct speech which the formulation of the vow offers literally in two parts. The first part is a conditional clause with an imperfect verb introduced with 'im. It names the condrtions for redemption (28:20b.2la), The second part is a vow promise (28:21) introduced with wehöyüh atthe beginning of 28:21b. 253

249 See above, p. 102ff. Extensive invcsrieations of the linguistic shape of Gen 28:10-22 are fonnd in Fohrer, Exegese, ρ. 1 Soff. 250 See above, p. 106ff. 251 See above, p. 188f. 252 Regarding the genre, see H . - M . Dion, "The Patriarchal Traditions and die Literary form of the »Oracle of Salvaüon«," CBQ 29 (1967): 198-206; de Pury, Prvmesse divim; 209ff. 253 See above, p. 189, footnote 232, and p. 190f. 2H See above, p. 190f.

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A certain perspective on the subject is thereby given. The subject is Jacobs future founding of the sanctuary and practice of tithing. It does not concentrate on the details of the preparation. nor on the immediate circumstances. Rather. it is an important promise associated with a stipulation. The significance of this stipulation underscorcs tne journey of Jacob as the primary Interest ofthe person speaking. Even this journey, however is not seen comprehensively in all possible aspeets (trave! route, encounters and adventures on the journey). Rather, the journey is seen from the perspective ofthe time m sojourn which conceals dangers within It. Therefore. the time of sojourn should be a time of the safekeeping of life and of return: protection, sustenance, clothing. Is a genre. present? In this instance, the procedure is simple. The formulation ofthe introduction of 28:20a shows that one should inquire about vows. Genre parallels are not dfficult to find using the concordance under ndr/nēder (e.g. judg 11:30 3 I ; I Sam 1:11; 2 Sam I5:7f), They confirm that the observed compositional elements compnse ele­ ments o f t h e genre "vow," The stylistic feature of the etymological figure in the in­ troduction is firmly attached to this genre. The genre thus has its lifè setting (cornpare ref­ erence works under "vow") at hoíy (I Sam I) or at profane (2 Sam 15) locations in the mouth of individuals who are m a threatening or dangerous Situation. In 28:20 22, the genre is thus used consistently with rts life setting. It is also demonstratecî that the vow itseh' belongs with a setting of the exposition of a threatening Situation. Thus, jacob's threatening journey must also have been narrated with the images of 28:20- 22, On the other hand, as already evaluated with the approach to the development of Gen 28, it cannot already have had an oracular promise for the same Situation. " An investigation of the genre history in 28:20-22 could also bring insight into the age of the transmission historical change. 255

7

0

2. T h e T r a d i t i o n H i s t o r i c a l Approach The question of the intellectual world of Gen 28:1 Off mvolves a seines of aspeets, as developed m §8 above. "' One should ask about the following for each of the text's developmental stages. One should ask about participation in the particular world view with its thought pattern, and, as necessary. where the text. currently deviates and tran­ scends that world view. One should ask about the religious and theological convictions; about the processed store of knowledge, awareness, and material; about tne mpact of terms; and finally about fixed themes and concepts w h c h are adopted. A transmission like Gen 28 which has such a long history of growth certainly also refleets considerable changes in the intellectual world. 2

7

Even an initial sweeping overview makes such changes in world virw and re­ ligious convictions quite apparent w i t h perspectives f r o m the h i s t o r y o f r e l i g i o n and theology. These perspectives inelude: a comprehensively simple h o r i z o n o f the d i v i n i t y i n the h o l y stone o f Bethel; then B e t h e l as the l o c a t i o n o f a

255 Richter demonstraled tliis in his investigation mentioned in footnote 219. 256 See above, p. Iii5ff. 25" See above, p. Ii55ff.

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divine p a l a č e related t o a G o d o f heaven and earth; God's d w e l l i n g i n heaven and the m e d i a t i o n o f God's w o r k o n earth whose b a c k g r o u n d presupposes a comprehensive perspective on the w o r l d as well as an arehiteetural standard o f diverse t e m p l e and p a l a č e c o n s t r u e t i o n . Further, the perspectives inelude die m o r e l i m i t e d relationship o f this perspective to the Jacob g r o u p . T h e y inelude the tribes o f Israel whose experience o f G o d is simultaneously c h a n g i n g and deepening i n the realm o f historical experience as t y p i f i e d for Israel by the ancestral r e l i g i o n (signiheance o f G o d i n Bethel for the g r o u p and the t r a v e l i n g p r o t e c t i o n for Jacob). Finally, these perspectives inelude the universal h i s t o r i ­ cal perspective w h i c h the divine assertions o f J c o m p e l . O n e can recognize these changes i n a n u m b e r o f fixed contents i n G e n 28, t o the degree t h a t one inquires i n t o die co-existing viewpoints, processes, convictions, and c o n c e p t u alizations, and to the degree that one situates these contents i n Israel m a t e rially, chronologically, and geographically.

258

A specific example: "House of God" in 28; 17 may illustrate the procedure in several outlines of investigations with respect to the history o the term and the concept. A glance in lexica (HAU THAT, T D O T ) provides a wide speetrum of meaning f o r boyil Nevertheless, the text reference is limited to a place and to the associate with God. By referringto parallels, one limits this speetrum to dwellings. a temple o r a palače (ifthe divlnrty is presented as a royal god). Parallels also show that these dwellings can l;e entirely ;n heaven (Ps 36:9). They do not have to be visible as a building, but stil! may be, as even Gen 28:1 Off presupposes, since Jacob mternalized the. holiness of Bethel by diseovering this quality in the place. f

Bethel thus means house, dwelling, temple, or even palače of god. Which is meant more specifically? What cid Canaanite narrators conceptualize who brought this term into the text? And what did they intend as self-evident? O n e should proceed from the constellations of the text and inquire into them purposefully. It speaks of the "house" of Elohim. Elohim is not very suggestive as the abundance of examples in the concordance demonstrates, but in the context, according to 28:19, the place is named Beth-el, that is house ofthe God El! If one searehes the concordance for parallels to this v i e w under Bethel, then o n e is driven to the more striking reference to "El-Beth-El" in 35:7, which means the god Ei from Bethel! What concepts are associated with the god Ei as the god of a Palestinian sanetuary? Consulting Old Testament parallels with the help of the concordance under 'ēi leads to El as the Canaanite god. By investi­ gating the history o f religion ones attains clear precision about the place, dwelling. lordship, court, worship, and the relationship to the locai Elim of the god El which were apparently intended as seif-evident in the Canaanite cult etioiogy of Bethel/" Even !imi-

25S Fohrer, Exegese, ρ. 199ff, treats the "the iixed Syndrome of significance" in more detail. The Ε version has: fear in the face of the nearness of the divine (28:17), and the ereetion of die pillar (28:18). T h e J version has the self-presentation o f Y H W H f l am Y H W H " in 28:13a), the different promises and the naming of the location in 28:19. One should also i n v e s t í g a t e the "gate of the temple" (28:17) and "all die tribes of die eardi" (28:14) instead of "all nations." W Cornpare, for example, T H A T and T D O T under 'el; Wörterbuch der Mythologie (see above, ρ. 32); Maag. "Syrien-Palästina," (see fooüiote 236), p. 563ff,570ff; H . Gese, Die Religionen

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tations become dear. Nothing is adopted for the development of the cuit etlology of Bethel from the complicated pantheon of Ugarit or from the problem of the relation­ ship to Baal. Perhaps the El religion still had a simpler form here. In any case. it concerns a religiosity which coalesces with the sedentary. socio-historicaliy different Canaanite culture: Bethel as sanetuary ofthe neighboring urban culture ofthe Canaanite city Luz. What conceptualizations are associated with the house of El? Again, one must proceed with the realities presumed in the text. The house Is not simply rem ove d into the heavens, but the house is at the cuit site of Bethel (28:19). On the other hand, El is not on the earth, he is 'nstead m the heavens (28; i 2). He acts on the earth through messengers who enter earth from the heavens at the site of Bethel by a giant ladder, and then return, The sanetuary of Bethel is thus the earthly exit of a building conceptualized as extraordinarily high, which reaches into the heavens. The house of El is in this extension of the entire earth and heaven. 'Thus one conceptualizes that Bethel Stands at that spot on the earth where the house of El towers high into the heavens. Bethel Stands at the prominent point where the work o f El on the earth through his messengers begins. From whence does this coneept come? How is it contoured? How is it shaped for the Canaanite cuit etlology? The exegete achieves a precise answer by incorporating corresponding texts and meanings (ineluding pictorial representations) in the presentation of Canaanite reli­ gion together with its ancient oriental infiuences (especially those from Mesopotamia). This precision is attamed by informing one's seif from dictionaries and reference works in the fields of the history of religion and Old Testament theology, looking under El, bayit, and temple. If the exegete is familiär with the essay from C. Houtman, "What Did Jacob See in His Dream?" (VT 27 [ 1977]; 337-35 I), then the necessity of re-examining the tra­ dition historical and the religio-historical background of the text's assertions about the strueture becomes clear.

3. D e t e r m i n i n g the H i s t o r i c a l Setting I f t r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y treats the intellectual w o r l d o f the t e x t i n its history, then the historical setting (§9) treats the text's historical w o r l d by its realities, its social conditions and the experiences o f persons i n i t . T h e historical set­ t i n g treats these experiences to the degree that one can observe and master the c o r r e l a t i o n to the historical w o r l d w i t h its events, social c o n d i t i o n i n g , t r a d i t i o n historical guidelines, and to the degree that the texts themselves t e n tatively allow one to d e t e r m i n e . T h e question m u s t be asked for each o f the ascertained text stages separately. However, historically broad questions are demanded i n some c i r c u m s t a n c e s . ° Examples o f the sequence o f the procedure are suggested briefly. :6

In the historically broad perspective one should perhaps treat the following: Where is Bethel (ancient site)? What are the archaeological realities and conclusions about Bethel? What does one know about the history ofthe sanetuary of Bethel? To which po-

Altsvriens (see above, p. 32); F. Stolz, Strukturen und Figuren im Kult von Jerusalem, BZAW 118, Berlin, 1970, esp. p. 149ff; Schmidt, Fatrh oftbe Ohl Testament, p, 138ff. Regarding Bethel in particular, see O. Kißfeldt, "Der Gott Bethel," in Kleine Schriften, vol. 1, 1962, p. 206-233, 26« See above, p. 144ff.

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iitical territory die it belong over the course of the history o f Israel? What larger politica! processes could be important for the honzon of the transmission process? (This question is of significance in light ofthe long extensive development of the text which reaches into the post-exilic period.) What processes are associated with the place (pre-lsraelite. conquest, jeroboam I. Arnos, josiah)? What socio-historical changes can o n e note f o r the sanctuary's cirele of worshippers? What (everexpanding) g'"oup of persons re ates itself to Jacob over the course of time? What is the history of the Institution of the v o w and the tithe, as well as the cuttic object of the pillar (appearance. worship, customs. function)? Relatedly. is it plausible after the time of josiah that Bethel would have been a cultic center with a pillar (cf. the Ρ version of Gen 35)? Examples for specific clarification:the path from Beersheba t o Haran via Bethel (Situation ofthe place, old routes); clarification of suliām (iadcler, steps, rarnp); is the stonc pillar as something to lay under a person's head histori­ cal understandable as a custom? ;

A n example for the historical setting o f a specific transmission stage: W e take the J version contained i n 28:10,1 3-* 16. First, one should collect Information about the time, setting, and author ofthe given transmission stage, which in this case is J. As a rule, this Information can be gathered from reference works and Old Testament introduetions, which can then be deepened by Con­ sulting the corresponding presentations of the time period In text books or monographs about the history of Israel. This consultation is performeo in order to attain tne most dynamic perspective possible of the time. If o n e places J in the Davidic-Solomonic period, as w a s c o m m o n eaníer, then the pertinent historical transmission realm is the foriunate formation cif the kingdom from the tribal terrrtories which o c c u r r e d almost overnight. Characteristics of this historical arena induded: the formation of the territorial state threatening the federation oflsrael;the enormous social and cultural historical upheavals; mastering the problems of this new entity by connection with the transmission, which lead to unrest and rebellicn even in the time of David: the expanded geographica! hori­ zon which was observable at that point; the phenomenon of ruling non-lsraelfte areas and people withm one «ingdom, In addition, the older transmissions, which were on!y oriented toward the lane of Israel, offered no extensive clarification for this Situation. This entire evervt could be experienced as inconceivably fortunate. From the rela­ tionship of the leadmg traditions to that point, one would have experienced the unforeseen reality before one's eyes, but aiso the tension and imtation of that which is new. Questions of the identity of Israel, in the face of the new elements, vjere certamly not lust theoretical. They were problems unavoldably necessitated by the experience of the time. If one sees the Yahwistic accents in 28:13-15 from this dynamic background, then one can gain intentions related to that time and a profile of the goa.ls o f j toward the hearer/reader Experiencing the present as being a large (meaning powerful) people as the descendants of Jacob ·η one's own Sand is not. s o m e unintelligibie, profane-political effect. Rathen it is the redemption of a promise to the ancestors denving from the trust worthy God, Y H W H , This promise was given particularly to Jacob, the progenitor of the people o f t h e twelve tribes. Israel had its identity f r o m this promise. The generalized promise m 28:1 5b leads mto the present and, for Israel, quaüfied the time between jacob and the great kingdom before them as the eminent confirmalion of the power of

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Y H W H in history. The new perspective of other nations inside and outside the kmgdom is expiained in the promise as the mediation of blessing. Also, the new perspective is g' ven as a value for understanding their history and for orienting political action. W h e n expanded and justifiec m more detail, these suggested profiles demonstrate the funetion of determining the historical setting. Still, they belong already to the. Interpretation. ;

D. I N T E R P R E T I N G T H E HISTORICALLY D E T E R M I N E D M E A N I N G O F G E N 28:10-22 I N I T S V A R I O U S S T A G E S OF G R O W T H O f course. the complete explication ofthe content presupposes that ali the pro­ cedures are also carried out, in contrast to the necessarily illustrative sketehes m the preceding. This expectation and reasons o f space. necessitate that we contmue this type of work for §10 only in areas which illustrate its usage: its procedure, its functional conneetion to the events from the individual methodological procedures, and the direetions of its inquiry/ As presented, tne Interpretation should primarily be performed by taking up the impressions from the imaginative phase for each transmission stage sepa­ rater/."" Next. one should extend the Interpretation to the entire Old testament development. Then, one should add considerations regarding the meaning crthe text in light of our present time. Finally, the entire exegetical work climaxes in an aopropnate English translation of tihe text. W e must be satisfied with catchwords. W e will note the sections ofthe workbook in parentheses whose approaches provide the acquisition of those results reached. 6

I . T h e I n d i v i d u a l Transmission Stages T h e formative Canaanite transmission stage belongs to the area o f Canaan­ ite settlers i n M i d d l e Palestine ( c i t y o f Luz.), perhaps i n the m i d d l e o f the second m i l l e n i u m ( § § 7 , 8 , 9 ) . T h e y adopt the existing stone sanetuary at Bethel for the (ehief) god, E l . T h e y establish this process by t a k i n g u p o l d e r narrative threads c o n c e r n i n g this sanetuary. T h e y establish the place name Bethel i n a cultic etiology. For the worshippers, this narrative clarified the quality and the e q u i p m e n t o f the sanetuary ( § 7 ) as the p r e e m i n e n t place w h i c h E l ehose as the place o f his w o r k i n the earthly realm ( § 8 ) . T h e event fundamentally valid a t i n g the quality o f Bethel was narrated as the initial event, as the discovery o f the holiness o f the place and as the f o u n d i n g o f the cuit. T h e Strands o f E l , w h i c h were universal and concretely significant for the circle o f worshippers, expanded the pre-Canaanite coneept o f G o d o n the stone o f Bethel, T h e s e threads artieulate the highest quality* o f the presence o f EJ, like other E l sanctuaries i n Palestine, each for their respeetive r e g i o n . T h e y thereby artieulate

2(>l See above., p. 158ff. 2Λ2 See above, p. 175ff.

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the c u l t i c accessibility o f the highest divine guarantor o f ali e n d u r i n g areas o f life, perhaps the essential agrarian areas o f life, at the h o l y place ( § 8 ) . T h e Canaanite cultic etiology was (also) taken over by

Jacob group w h o

adapted the Bethel sanetuary ( § 5 ) . T h i s adaptation happened, however, i n a changed experiential e n v i r o n m e n t . A previously S e m i n o m a d i c g r o u p n o w became a sedentary g r o u p w h o i d e n t i f i e d t h e i r leading aneestral god w i t h the Canaanite E l o f that place. B y i n t r o d u c i n g t h e i r ancestor Jacob as the diseoverer and founder o f tbe cult, they strengthened themselves and l e g i t i m a t e d their claims ( § 9 ) . T h e experience o f G o d i n Bethel changed. E l o f Bethel was c o n r ī r m e d as the leading g o d o f the Jacob g r o u p , t o w h o m they owed t h e i r eonquest. T h e universal i m p l i e a t i o n s o f 28:12 c o u l d be Condensed, and i n some cases reduced, i n t o die g r o u p ( § 8 ) . T h e i n e o r p o r a t i o n o f die i n d i v i d u a l Jacob story i n t o a Jacob cycle c o u l d p r o v i d e c o n f i r m a t i o n o f this change i n the experience o f g o d at Bediel ( § § 4 , 5,7). I t c o u l d p r o v i d e c o n f i r m a t i o n as to h o w large the Israelite cirele o f w o r shippers m i g h t have been w h o increasingly traced themselves to Jacob. T h e holiness o f the place Bethel and the p o w e r o f the g o d b e i n g w o r s h i p p e d ( Y H W H ) is no l o n g e r established by the quality o f the place itself m e n t i o n e d i n 28:12,17. Rather, the hobness is p r o v i d e d by the promise f r o m G o d o f p r o ­ t e c t i o n ( § § 4 , 5 , 7 ) w h i c h Jacob reeeived at this place. By this time, the scene is n o w a m e a n i n g f u l deepening o f the experience t h a t all descendants o f Jacob owe t b c i r existence and t h e i r c o n d i t i o n t o the fulfiUment o f this promise t o Jacob. T h e experience o i the aceompanjment and the leading of their o w n god reaching i n t o the present t i m e had proven G o t i t o be an effectively s y m p a thetic g o d i n Bethel ( § § 8 , 9 ) . Even i n diese contingencies, this G o d had been proven by die gift o f experienced realities i n t h e i r o w n life conditions. W e must skip over historical backgrounds and reflections o f the e x p e r i ­ ence o f G o d i n die various shapes o f the Jacob cycle, i n c l u d i n g the i n e o r p o ­ r a t i o n i n t o the salvation h i s t o r y presentation for all Israel, and for E . S t i l l , we w i l l čast a glance at the Yahwist. As 28:13-* 16 demonstrates, die transmission here attains considerably m o r e and new accentuation f r o m the background o f the realities o f the historical l o c a t i o n ( § 9 ) . bistead o f G o d m a k i n g h i m s e l f k n o w n at die u n k n o w n place, r e s u l t i n g i n the holiness o f Bediel, Bethel is n o w just the place where the l o n g recognized Y H W H appears. I n the patriarchal p e r i o d , Y H W H here concentrates promises for Israel on Jacob, the father o f the twelve tribes o f Israel. I t is essential for Israel, i n reference to its o w n experiential reality, that Y H W H unexpectedly appeared to Jacob (28:16). A b o v e all, i t is essential to k n o w what Y H W H promises, w i t h qualifications and stipulations, for the present experience o f Israel i n the eircle o f nations, 26

expanded and made problematic by the new Situation o f the m o n a r e h y . '

26} See above, p. 192ff.

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T h e Interpretation o f the redactional stages o f transmission ( § 6 ) must again be by-passed.

:M

I I . T h e O l d Testament D e v e l o p m e n t A n overvievv o f the O l d Testament development shows that the o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g o f the transmission (establishing a c u l t i c site i n one's o w n r e g i o n as the h o l y place bestowing god's presence) does n o t continue. T h e experience of the presence from the cuit site o f Bethel is shifted to the historical c o n d i t i o n o f Israel by the a d o p t i o n o f the proto-Israelite and the Tsraelite transmission. T h r o u g h a l t e r n a t i n g and i n t e r n a l l y c h a n g i n g horizons, G e n 28 deepens the c u r r e n t experiential w o r l d o f Israel as the place o f divine closeness. I t deepens the event o f divine g i f t and leadership f r o m the small radius o f the Jacob g r o u p to Israel and its land i n the circle o f ali nations. Even i n times o f d e p r i v a t i o n , the entire state o f the promise i n G e n 28 established expectations and legitimated hopes i n J E . This expectarion and l c g i t i m a t i o n occurred, for example, i n the t i m e o f Josiah and since the t i m e o f the exile, i n complete contrast to the opposite experience w h i c h existed. T h e m e a n i n g was no l o n g e r mastered inside the narrative o f G e n 28 alone, b u t by its inclusion i n t o the great historical w o r k s w i t h the d e u t e r o n o m i s t i c and priestly accents that reached f r o m the creation t o the exile. L i ali o f these transmission stages, the empbasis providing meaning to the text lies i n the promises (or for a t i m e i n a tangential li ne, the v o w ) . F r o m these promises, later Israel has i n f e r r e d meaning for establishing its identity, for itself and for Y H W H i n the experiential realm o f Israel. ΓΠ. C o n s i d e r i n g the Text's M o v e m e n t o f M e a n i n g i n L i g h t o f O u r Present T i m e A l s o here just a tew remarks. T h a t w h i c h i n m a n y respeets appears o b r u š e and s t r ä n g e to the m o d e m reader. does n o t prove t o be s i m p l y as naive i n the historical i l l u m i n a t i o n o f the o r i g i n and transmission o f the text i n the O l d T e s t a m e n t . Rather, i t should be perceived as the a r t i c u l a t i o n o f m e a n i n g for an experiential w o r l d . T h e claim o f the statement, the particular existence, the particular area o f life, even the polirical d i m e n s i o n o f life and the historical C o m m u n i t y life o f the people should n o t be perceived as s o m e t h i n g w h i c h is unquestionably aecepted. I t should be perceived as the gift o f the benevolently g i v i n g G o d vvorking i n the present. T h r o u g h the story one gleans the amazing feature f r o m the miraele, w h i c h is n o t even surrendered i n times o f d e p r i v a ­ t i o n . G o d turns to the earth, a l l o w s h i m s e l f to be f o u n d , and actively sustains :w

264 However, see "The Old Testament Development" in the following section. 265 See above, §11 131 (p. 174f).

202

§11

T H E E X E G E T I C A L P R O C E S S U S I N G G E N 28:10-22

existence. Today, the thoughdessly self-serving aceeptance o f life and the given w o r l d appear i n die m i r r o r o f this text. L i k e w i s c , the text illuminates h o w the f i i g h t i n t o Surrogate areas w h i c h replace the holy, n o w as b e t ö r e , requires places o f assurance and encounter. T h e text shows h o w G e n 28 i n its transmis­ s i o n path protects one from p e r c e i v i n g g o d as the e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f w o r l d l y values. T h e transmission tendency o f displacing the Canaanite direads o f the narrative i n favor o f the historical experiential realni o f G o d , requires no one t o adopt these historically c o n d i t i o n e d elements no m a t t e r h o w pervasive and p o w e r f u l their assertions m i g h t be as images. Rather, i t teaches one to see die dcptb of meaning of Gen 28. F o r the C h r i s t i a n , this d e p t h is s h o w n i n C h r i s t . G e n 28 w o u l d teaeh the C h r i s t i a n to w i d e r s t a n d C h r i s t as the h o l y place o f God's t u r n i n g to the w o r l d ; to understand C h r i s t as a person, as a guarantee o f the p r o m i s e o f God's aceompaniment and sustenance o f life; to understand C h r i s t as die release o f m e a n i n g for c o n q u e r i n g c o n t r a d i c t o r y experiences i n the sin, suffering, and death o f the individual, and tbe w o r l d w i d e threat against h u m a n i t y ; t o understand C h r i s t as the guide on a path w h i c h does n o t end in ideals w h i c h are realized i n an earthly n a t i o n , b u t w h i c h lead to G o d over ali the dangerous padis o f h u m a n existence. "Jesus speaks to N a t h a n i e l : ' T r u l y , t r u l y , I say t o y o u , y o u w i l l see the heavens opened and the angels o f G o d asc e n d i n g and descending o n die son o f A l a n . ' " ( J o h n 1:51)

APPENDIX: LITERATURE 1LLUSTRAT1NG EHE EXEGETICAL T R E A T M E N T OF A T E X T H . W . Wölff. Der große Jesrccltag (Hosea 2, 1-3). Methodologische E r w ä g u n g e n zur Auslegung einer alttestamentlichen Perikope. E v T h 12 (1952/53): 78-104 (also in: Wolff, Gesammelte Studien zum Alten Testament. T h B 22. Munich, -1973. p. 151-181. K . Koch. The G r o w t h of die Biblical Tradition. Part 11: Sclcctcd Examples, p. 111-220. O . l l . Steck. Die Paradieserzählung. Eine Auslegung von Genesis 2,4b-3,24. BSt 60. Neukirchen-Muyn 1970 (=Steck, Wahrnehmungen Gottes, p. 9-116). E. Zenger. Ein Beispiel exegetischer Methoden aus dem Alten Testament (Ri 9). I n : Schreiner. Einführung, p. 97-148. G. Fohrer. Exegese. § 12 (Gen 28:10201-22).