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Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology . ---,...
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Lewis R. Binford Oeparlmenl 01 Anthropology University 01 New Mexico Albuquerque, !'Jew Mexico
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Srudles in Arche%gy
ACADEMIC PRESS New York
San Francisco London
A compleu lLrI 01 t¡des in Ihh urlelsppea,s al tite end of Ihis volllme.
A 5ubsidiary of Harcourt Brace [ovanovích, Publishers
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Thla book ,. dedlcated lo
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ALBERT C. SPAUIDING ProJ...,,' oJ Aothropolog¡¡ Unlve""t]I o/ California, Santa Barbara
1978. aY ACADEMIC PaESS, INe.
ALL JJOHTS II.E$I!JI.VED.
NO PAll.T O.. TtUS PUBLlCATION MAY BE REPRODUCEO Ok TUNSNITTb 11'1 Al'iY ~M OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC oa WBOIANICAL, lNCLlJDINO PHOTOCOPY. II.EC01l0INO. 011. ANY INPOI:WATION 5TOII.AGIl AND IU!T1lIEVAL '"TEM, WITlIOUT P!IlNIISION IN WIIUTINO PROM TUI! PUIlLlsnER.
ACADBMIC PR.ESS. lHC.
111F1ftIII A,-.Ncw YIlfl."'" York 1001»
Unlt,d K intdDm &lido,. Pflbtlslt. by
ACADEMIC PRESS. 'Ne. (LONOON) LTD.
14/21 o.al ~Ofod. u.doft NWI 1DX
Libnry of Congress Call1OSinlln Publication Datl
8inford, t.ewa Roberll, Dale
•
Nunamiul cthnoarchacology. (Studies in archeology seried 8ibliography: p.
Indudes tndex. l. fskimos--Aluka--Economiecondilionl. 2. Eskimos - Aliukll- -Food. 3. Eskimos- -Alaska- -Anlíquilies. 4 Aluka--Antiquities. 5. Animal remains (Archaeolo~) - -Alukl. l. Tltle. ¡':99.nIJ56 )01.5'2'09798 77-7712R I~DN O 12-100040--0
'1UH1l!.D
IN
mil UNrrl!O STATI!S o. AMElUCA
-.
Contents
Acknowledgmente. xl Abbrevlatlons. xiii Introductlon
1
1
The Economlc Anatomy of 5heep and Carlbou. 15 Meal Utl/lty. 15 Comporlsons between 'he AnImal., 18 Constroctfon of a Mear Utlllty l"dex íor Ariotomfcal Port. o/ Coribou and Sheep, 19 Bone Marrow and the Constructlon o/ o Marrow Inda. 23 Bone Grease and the Corutructfon of GrelJle Utilfty Indlces. 32 Cultural Bla. veDU. ObJectltle Food Prriference•• 38
2
Some General ConslderaUona: Butcherlng. Kili Slte•• and Recordlns Procedun•• 41 Butcherlng Procedure, 48 Recorded Cose, o/ InltJal Fleld Butcherlng, 51 Cach'ng ond Secondary Ffeld Butcherlng. 55 Butchering Varlablllty, 59 Summary o/ Butcherlng Data, 60
Meosurlng Dlsmemberment, 64
I vil I
..,......-( vIII/
Cante_
Colculatlng the Number o/ Indivlduals from Done Counu. 69 Measurlng General Utlllty In Reall.tlc Terma. 72
Contents
6
Sex and Age Doto. 85
Summer Resldentlol Locallon. 01 'he Recent Pa.t, 320 Modellng the Summcr Re.identlol Sfte•• 327 Summary. 342
Summol'Y. 87
Meat Star.ge. 91
7
Dry Storage. 91 Butcherlng Procedure Jollowed for Drylng Carlbou Meot. 94
Sorne Emplrlcol Material Relatlve fa Dry Mear Stores, 111 Evo/uotfng the Ut/llty of Mode/. ond Indlce.. 111 ProceSl/ng Debrl. from Drylng Actlv/llee, 114 Frozen Storage. 123
8
Consumer DC!!mand. 135 Food Shorlng ond the Dfstrlbutlon 01 Anatomlcal Pom fa Consumere:. 139
5
Wlnler, 425 Wlnter Resldentlol Locatlons. 428 Modeling Faunol Contents o} Wlnter Stora. 435 Consumer Demand and MNls RepreMnted In o Re.ldentlol Fauno' AasembJoge. 447
food Prece••lng and Con.umptlon. 135
Consumptlon and Food Process'ng, 144 Partem, o/ ProceNfng Bones Jor Marrow. 152 Manufacture o/ BORe Greax. 157 Manufacture 0180ne Jufce ond Reloted Marrow-Proceu'ng In Summer Sltes. Summary. 165
Fan. 345 Contemporary Foil Huntlng Strotegy, 346 Consumptlon ond Storoge In Fall Re.ldentfal tocatlon•• 369 Late Foil Sheep Huntlng ond the Use o} Sheep In Foil Resldentlal SUes, 406 Summary, 416
Dry/ng Rocks. 97 Constroctlon o/ the Drying Utfllty l"deJe, 101
4
Summer. 255 ConllumptJon in the Contcmporary Villogc and In the Po.t. 257 Summer Huntlng and Logl.tics. 265
Looklng 01 the Emplrlcal World. 75
3
9
163
Sprlns. 169
Conclusl6ns, 451
Part 1: The Meanlnflful Anolysl. 01 Auemb'oge Contenta, 452 Part 1(: Toword 'he Meanlngful Anolyal. of Pattemlng In Aseemblage Characterlstlc•• Locatlon. and Re.ponslvenen to General Sy.tem Chonge, 482
References. 499
Index.503
Early Sprlng Mordtorlng and Encounter Huntfng. 169 Mld.prlng or Mlgradon Huntlng, 171 Lole Sprlng Hunllng. 178 Sprlng Con.umptfon In the Contemporary Villoge ond In the Post, 191 Mobl1lty. Sprlng Drylng Actlvllle•••nd Re/oled Logistfc•• 223
Glimp.es Into the Poat-Summer Storage under Moblle Condlllo,.. When Meat Waa Drled lar Humon Con.sump"on. 235 The Sprlng SV.tem. 245
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Acknowledgments
There are no adequate words te express rny gratitude to the people of Anaktuvuk Pass, Alaska, for thetr patience and kind attention to educating me in the ways of Nunamiut subsístence and survíval. Through-
out my entire experience amoog the Nunamiut, Johnny Rulland was my constant companion and friendo Tohim 1owea very specíal thanks. He will alwajs occupy an equally spedal place in my memory. Many of the peo-
ple of Anaktuvuk Pass weJcomed me into their hornes, on their trtps, and in their camps; they were "informante." and they helped with the logistics for my research teams. The following people contributed time, guidance, information, encoumgement, and cornpanionship to me and rny crew membcrs: Bob Ahgcok, jack Ahgook, Noah Ahgook, Rhoda
Ahgook, Danny Hugo. Ellen Hugo, Martina Hugc. Zacharias Hugo, Arctic john. Elyjah Kakinya, Anna Morry, Billy Mcrry, Susan Morry. David Mekiana, Rachel Mekíana. justice Mekiana, Raymond Paneack, Robert Pa-
neack, Roosevelt Paneack, Siman Paneack, Suzie Paneack, jarre Rulland, Lazerus Rulland, Ruth Rulland, and Louisa Stein. 1owe a special
debt to Cyrus Mekiana, who permitted me to see the diary of his father (Horner Mekiana),
and the récords of his father's sto-c. My crew members were dedicated and chccrful, In-queuüy worklng undcr Vl'ry dlí-
ficult conditions and certainly enjoying very
few personal cornforts. Many of the resulta reported stem dlrectly from the hard work of the following persons: Charles Amsden, Clinton Binford, Martha Binford, Cathy Carneron, Don Campbell, T. Weber Oretzer, Patty Marchiando, Milo McLoud, BiII Morgen. Iohn Or-
fali, Caroline Reeves. [ean-Phllippe Rígaud, Mike Rotonda. Peggy Schneider, jack Snyder, Robín Torrence, Dan Witter, Allison witter, and Richard Wortman. Yetother persons contributed to the success of our fieldwork in Alaska. Paul Shannahan, our bush pilot, was elways cheerful at the prospect of aplane full of bones, dogs, Eskimos, students, or almost anything. He kept U9 in food and f1ew U5 out of sorne of the most improbable places one could Imagine. Jim Crowder, a former trader te the Nunamiut, gave me access to his trading records, provided many hours of fascinating conversation about the old days, and put up with very dirty anthropologists and students al his hotel in Fairbanks. William E. Woodcock, A. L. Miller, and Arnold Weichert flew their small plane aH the way from Miles City, Montana, to take the excellent aeriaI photographs that served as the basis for most of the regional maps of the research area. They suffcred bad weather, (1I1-
tUl\.' ShOl'k, and il flighl inhl ¡\ tXIX (¿lny~m
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[ xII J nene of us will ever forget. 1 truly epprecíate their help, talent, and expertise. john Qack) Campbell convlnced me that Anaktuvuk was the place to work and Ihat 1 could in fact accompUsh my reseerch goals there. He visited my camps severa! times and was always a welcome source oí information and fun. My friend [ohn E. Pfeiffer made the long trek from Pennsylvania lo Anaktuvuk Pass and shared caribou meat and long hours of conversation. He helped me to see the goals of my work more c1early in the midst oí trying lo
get planes in to feed the crewe, making certain that bone bags did not get IOSI, and keeping crew rnembers from gettlng sick after they fell into an iey river. Here in Albuquerque severa! students have
contributed significantly lo the analysis and organization oE the data presented. [ack B. Rertram, Robert Hitchcock, Richard Taylor, and Robert Vierra have helped me a great deal. To them 1 am most gratefu1. The ílluetretícne were prepared by Alen Osbome and Emily Abbink, and Figures 3.5,
AclmouN'edgmentll
3.8, and 6.18 were rendered by [ene Gulko. The typing was done by Lisa Edelhoff. These people made a substantial eontribution, and became nearmembers of the family during the preparation of this book. 1 am particularly grateful lo the following persona for the use of their photographs: Wendell Dswalt (Figure 5.34), Robert Rausch (Figure 2.1), and John M. Campbell (Figure 5.1). Without the support of the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropologieal Research (grant No. 2376), the National Scienee Poundañen. end the Doris Duke Oral History Foundation, this work could not have been aeeomplished. Lita Osmundson of the Wenner-Gren Foundation was encoureging and supportive ot the early phases of the work, particularly that done in 1969. Major financing for the 1971 and 1972 work carne from the National Science Foundation. Funds for my work in 1970 and during the winter of 1971 carne from the Doria Duke Foundation. To these agendes simple expresetcns 01 gratitude are inadequate.
Abbreviations
The fcllowíng are the abbreviations most commonly used in thís volume. ANATOMICAL PARTS
ANT 5K
MANO AT
AX CERV mOR
LUM
PElV SAC
R 5T
se H
PH
OH RC
PRC
OC CARP
MC PMC
OMC F PF OF T
PT
Antier 5kull Mandible Atlas Axi. Cefvícal vertebrae Thoracíc vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae Pelvis Sacrum Rib. Stemum Scapula Humeros Proximal humeros Distal humeros Radío-cubitus Proximal radio-cubitus Distal radio-cubítus Carpals Metacarpal Proximal metacarpal Distal metacarpal Femur Proximal femur Distal fe-mur Tibia Proximal tibia
OT TAR AST
CAL MT
PMT OMT PHAl1 PHAl2
PHAl3
Distal tibia Tarsals Astragalus Calcaneus Metatarsal Proximal metatarsal Distal metatarsal Plrst phalange Second phalange Third phalange
INDEXES FOR MODELlNG GUI General utility index IGUI Inverse general utility index MGUI Modified general utility index IMGUI Inverse modified general utility index CMGUI Conservative modífied general utility lndex ICMGUI lnverse conversative modified general utility index MUI Meat utility index MI Marrow (utility) index GI Crease (utility) index WG¡ WhHe-grease (utility) index IWGI Inverse whtte-grease (utillry} Index [ xlIII
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Introduction
Befcre 1 delve inlo the details of my work aOlong the Nunnmiut, Iwant.t€Jlo'iel.feAh.-tIw
ideas thjlt prompk>d.,J;bestudy. These are very basic ideas, indeed-they focus on the ques-
tion of precisely what archaeologists do. Archaeologists attcmpt lo make systcmatic obscrvanons on the remains of past human bchavior: Ihat is, thev investtgatc the archaeological record. The archacological record, howcver, is contcmporary, and any obscrvations thal 1, as ,10 nrchaeologist, make through the excavatlon of an archaeological
site are contemporary observations. My interest is in (he past but rny observations are on
the present. Tu pursue my interests 1 mus! accompllsh two quite separare kinds uf acts: (o) I mus!
variabilíty in pnttemed configurations. l ha ve sorne evídcnce for dynamics, changos that occurred in the pasto I know that somcthing happened. that sorne dynarnics were upt.'ratíve, but 1 do not know why thc changos occurred: neither do I know anything about the charactcr nf the rhanges. 1'0 makco statcmcnt abouI the charactcr uf changos I must first QSSigll ml'atlillg to the conternporary fects oí thc archacological record. Supposc 1 observe that a meta' hlUI is prl'sent in a particular archaeologlcal sttc. Exarnining additional sttes. I may note that metal tools are present in some but not all of 'he sites. Accurate dating tells me that all the sites without metal tools Me older than the sitos with metal tools. I may nsscrt Ih.11 this pattem
prnjl'('( my HlIlh'll1l'"rMY obscrvatlons .1l'(U-
n-ñccts lllt..' cvcuts of thc iuvcntiun uf 11H.'1.11·
ron-ly illtu t111' p.rst and (/1) I mustassígu meaning lo my observations. 1 accomplish the first through methods of dating. J may then examme these proicctod and ternporally arrangcd obscrvuñons for forms of pattcming. Jf I find
lurgy. If I also discovcr 1l1l't.11 louls ;\1 .1(chaeologlcal sltes in adjacent regions .11 time periods increasingly more recent as a function of their distencc from the reglen initially obscrvcd. I may asscrt thet th¡s paucrn rcflccts
11 I
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.... IncroductJon
[2]
the spread DE metallurgy to other places. The definition DE such pattems in no way tells me why they existo My assertions are descriptions of the world as known and do not provide enswers to the question oí why the world is the way it appears. Let's take anotherexample. tf 1 (a) observe a series of smaU, molded objects in the form of a human Iemale, (b) assert that each object is a mother goddess, (e) project into the past a series oí archaeological assernblages, sorne DE which yield mother goddesses, (d) recognize a
Thus. the archacologíst might vlcw a recovered artifact and make judgments as to the skill of the maker, his artistic sense, and the degree that he seemed to share certain artlstic vetues of the archaeologist's culture. The meaning archaeological remains carried becarne a statement on the character and quality of the maker. If artifacls were crude by the archaeologist's standards then the makers were crude. If artífacts were "beauñfu!" then the makers were advanced and had "ad·
patterned distribution both temporally and
Gradually, this paradigm for giving mean~ ing to the contemporary faels gave Wé1Y to other arguments. It was rt'aStmed that il person's overalJ intelligenn' or capacity for "humanness" is not necessarily directly transiatablc into accomplishments, and that many intdligent m,-'" can produce crude pmducls. Fi\cturs ulht'r than thust' inlrinsic Iu thl' <1rtifact's maker condition his behavior, 50 we can not legitimately use the human producls recovered archaeologically as a statement on the "quality" of the produeers; rather Ihe products are to be seen as a stalement on Ihe "culture" of the makers. For instanee, accord~ ing to a commonly ciled statement, cultures are "hislorically crealed designs for living, explicit and implicit, raliona\' irrational. and non·ralional, which exisl al any given thne as potential guides for the behavior of man IKroeber and Kluekhohn 1952:971." 8uilt into this definition of cullure are lhe rules for its own explanation. Culture is said to be historically c!"ealed. Thus iI is not surprising Ihat, viewing human prnducts as rdlectiuns \,f the culture carried by the makers, we can hope to cnnvert ctJntt'mporary ubservatinns intu statemt'nts about past culture, We can compare the contemporary facts uncovert>d as a result of excavation wilh other, similarly re· covered remains, t'valuate the differences and similftritit'~, ..nd arran~l' Ihem laxnnomic<1l1y tu expn'ss Iht, de~rt'e h) which they indicalt' shared culture. When a tempur<11 asscssmt'nl can be made, we can trace, through our as· sessments of similarilies and differences, the history ol cultural developmt>nl.
spatially, and (e) ask the
qu~slion.
mother goddesses invenled and
"Why were incr~asingly
distributed over wider geographical areas?" I have already restricted rny thinking lo a particular context involving religion, cults, ritual behavior, and the like. 1 may then seck lo understand Ihe distribution and lhe cuntext of appearance of these Iittle fernale effigies in terms of arguments about the role of religion in human life, the symbolic importance of females and fertility, and so on. But suppose 1 had a time machine and was able to determine that thl? objects are not mother goddesses but toys, or perhaps magieal devices used to divine the sex of children before birth. Under these ascriptions of "meaning" I would be directed to pursue very different lines oí thought in seeking an explanation for tht.' cffigies' appearance and geographical sprcad. If 1 am to make aceurale statements abauI the past or even to engage in relevanl forms of thought I must have a relatively aecurate understanding of the context in which Iht' Ifacts of the archaeological record carne into b€.'ing. The-reJevant put to a let 01slatic facts of the contemporary ardteological record can--onJy be Ihe conditions that brought,the obwrved lads into existenc:e. Much of the history uf archacological work has becn characterized by ehanging vicws as lo Ihe conditiuns produdn,; archacological faels. Far many years--and even today in many places-the dynamic standing behlnd an archaeological fact was Ihought lo be simply Ihe maker of Ihe arlUact.
.
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venced" aesthetíc senses.
IntroductJon
This vicw propOSl'Sthat culture, the ideas or "idcational guides for living" hcld in thc minds of men, is simply projected into theír products. The products can thus be víewed as accurate reflections of mental templetes, so culture in turn can be seen as a model of past dynamics nurmally discussed in the context of artifact production. Few would disagree Ihal planning Is characteristic of acts of fabrication and that fabrication plana are guíded by sorne ideas regarding the desired outcornes. This "fabrication model" comes ínto question whl'n Wl'ask whether it is relevant to al! facts and palterns observable in the arch<1eological (t'curd. 15 it <1n adt'tluatt' <1nd accuratl' dynamic mnde! that aCl'ounts for Ihc frct.luency variabilily in an archacological <1ssemblage? Do makers arrivc uo a site and procccd to fabricatl' an <1ssembl.l~t.' of h)(}ls rt'lillivl' tu ,1 mt'nlal tcmplale of what iln ilppropriatc "as· semblage" should look Jike? Is il reasonable lo expect Ihal men carry in their heads fabrication plans for what archaeological siles should look like after they leave? An uneasiness wilh Ihe basic model linking Ihe dynamic past to the static facls 3f Ihe contemporary archal;>ologieal record leads me to question the relevance of this linking model. Under the "Iraditionalisl" paradigm, the composition of an assemblage is measured by rclalive frequt.'ncit.'s of recognized dasses of artifacts. Redundaney is accepled as "patlern· iog" and hence a manifestation of the "cul_ tural norms" of behavior transmitted and shared among Ihe peopll;> represented. The aS~l'mblagt.· is t'l)uated wilh lhe comll1unily. The expectation is that if we are dealing with the (t'milins uf idcnlkill ur rclill,-'d gruups uf pt.'oplc Ihe cnmposition of Ihe assemblages should be similar since they share a common body of culture. 1 challenged this paradigm: Thl' b..·hilvil'rill m, ...lt·1 n..("~ni"_l'S that bl..havit'r i~ llw tlyn,lInk~I,1 ,1\I,ll'l,lti"ll. 1"'1'1'1\, draw IIp..tn ól n'J'l'rltlin.' tll rullur,¡l t>.\lk~T<'UIlJ ,lile! ~']lp"ril'nn' ttl mt'l'l o.:hant;io¡; ur v,lri,lt>ll' nll1ditiun~ io lhcir covimomt'nt, bolh social ami physical. OUr ~llpedatioos, then, are for variabilily in tht' ard'laeologicóll r{'("oro lo rene-cl a vari...ty uf dilfl'rt'nl kinds uf cuping silualions. Aclivilies
131 wíll v.uy wilh In... r"'lilUI,u '\llólrtiv" .,itu,\ti ...n l,llhl' group ant.l thl' charnctcr l.f t,lsks bdnJ: f'l'rl,unw..l. \V,, would Ih.'rdutl'~'llp~'(1 vólri,\bilíly in Ihl' "r(h,l""ln~k,d record lo rcñect Ihl'St.' diffr-rent sítoóltion!'. Aut'mblag...s may therefore be expected lo t,dlibil vari.abilily coecomuaat wilh the variou, "slrurlurol\ pu!l<.'~" (G\',lrin,; 1%2) uf n rummunil)' Ihruu¡th 111' .annual adaplivl' cyet v. In ólddition, manv ,'1:O;:O;l'mbl,l~l'S may be expectod lo vary directly wilh ·lhl· dl'J;n.'''' !t. whirt1 the community may be parliliont'd inlt. sp('dfir kinds 01 task groupings for p('rforming work al differe nt loceuons. In shurt, assl'mbl'l~t' variability may be expecll'd ltll'Khibit ,'r rdll'("t a v,m ..'ly uf sl'¡;m.'nls l'{ cornmunily lir..- an<.\ (,lnm'l .1lways b.,.' t'llJ"I·t'll-...l In l']lhilo¡t ~imil.uilil'si\s;¡ dm.·..l r..·r¡"O....ion "r Ilw<"tllltinuilil's amun,: lhl' pl'r!i\,nS pl'rrtlr\11ill~ lllt' ,1..1s. Símil,mhl'S nlolY 1'llu"l1y rdll...·1nmtinui\i.'s in th\' ...h,1r,Kh'r 01 lhl' ilct~ p"rfllrnll'd. Dillt'n'nn's n1ólY ,lris.' whl'n thl' ,.rg.lni/.,lliun uf ,lclivitil'S VMi..'" h'mpor,llly and1tlr sp,lli"ny, r...~u'lil1'; in ,1 v.Hid\' ,,1 '\~""n\t>li\~l' 1)'J'<'" ,hM,I\"l"ristÍf ,,1 thl' hIt· uf ,1¡;IVI'n nJlnmunily IlIinl<.'hl 1':172:1321.
At the time 1 wrote the foregoing statement there was no direct empirical support for lhe argument. It represented a plausible view of archa{!ological formalion processes, but there were no empirieal studies lo demonstrate Iha! what was plausible was indeed realistic. In>dd~"onlng th. eMI'OR'fé"r'l>1 ~gehetwoon-~ ~.na-mics' ... nd 1'1'('5ent stalie-data, 1 was issuing anothcr chal· lenge lo the lhen prl'vailing view of Ihe past. Under the fabricalion model characlerislics uf the archaeological record were linked directly to differing mental lemplales, which in turn were labulatl'd ilnd summ.lriud as a "Imil lis!" uf t'nullleralt'd cullurl'. I wa!' sUAA,-'sting not only that tht' archaeolu~icill (t'cord deriV\.'~ (rom <.1lt .ld,'pl.lliun but "Isu IIIflI ada,'MlillllS hllVe all the profX'rties uf a system in which vari· ous componenls are rcsponsive lo une another in their ongoing opcration. The basic elemcnls or componen!s uf !he system are unils of (.rganintiun rathl'r th<1n discrete elt'· mt'nts as vit'weJ by us in Iht' cont'-'mpmary world. On(> cannut undcrstand the workings of an automobile through a strategy Ihat enumera tes alllhe screws, nuts, springs, and other parts. Cne must firsl develop some way
-- -~ 141
lntrodudlon
uf fl'cogni:r.ing baslc functlonnl componvnts. such as cnrburetore, distributurs, and voltage
regulators, and then seek lo understand how these units articulate with one another and ínterect under differing conditions externa! lo
the system lo which they are responsive. Ways of developing a realistic appreciation for
the characteristícs of a system of adeptation must be sought, since the model of a" automobile or other handy rnechanícal systcm is apt lo mislead us if wc attcmpt to use it lo apprcciate the organizational propertics of a flexible behavioral system. 5uch flexibility can ~ thought uf ",5 dcriving frum rcspunsiVl' mndific.ltillnS thruugh thl' uSt,' uf .,ltl'rníllivl..' stratq~ics and vari"bk' means to ¡lCcomplish similar ends.
"'w-..
U"""",-,~-,,io)'lohl'mab(~.
,~.", rast
dynilmics wc miW"t 4'U1hdpatt· _mueD, varíaboility in thc .,JlI:haculugical r..· coro that is dir~clJy reIerahle not lo differences -btttween sY~J~{Jl.s, but to difft'ri"g 51oft'so[/J-siNgle 5.'1$/cm. We might also imagine Ihat systt.'ms diHering in overall or~ani7..ali()n could Wl'1\ share very simililr stri'l!l'~ies uf ,ld.lplillitm. 5i1l'S I1MI .ll'IU,llly n'pn'st'nl .1Il.... IIl~tIUS silU;llitllMI st.lks mighl be groupl'd, under Ihl..' lfi'ldilional mcthods of analysis, as similar systems, 5uch argumenls are plausible. but as with the basic challenge to the fabrication model ilself there was no empirical dl'monstration supporting them. While such "processual" Vil'WS of thl' nature of the link....gl' betWl'l..'n slalic ardl,ll'ohlgi· cal facls ilnd past dynamics Wl'n.' being developed, argued, and made available in the -Iiterature, I was cngagcd in rl'search and controversy primarily with Franc;ois Bordes re~arding the appropriate meaning lo be givl'n to certain archaeological facts rl.'garding Moustl'rian material from buth EUropl' and Ihe.' Ne.'ar East (sec 8inford 1')72; Binford and 8inford 1966, 1969). Thes<.' ar~uments weTl' nol relalt.'d lo the character of pron..'sses responsible for culture changl" l'volulion, and Ihe Hke; they were a din'ct confrontalion rl'garding the assumed Iinkage betwe..'n contcmporary archaeological facts and past
dynnmlcs. wc diffl'rl'd (In thc chamcter of thc dynamlcs believcd responsible for obscrvcd ercbaeologicel faet! and therefore on the meanings Ihat could be rationatly assigned lo them. In a more basíc sense, we were arguing abouI the relevance of concepts and in mm the operational deflnitions associated with thcse
concepts. Definitions are basic tools used to give meaning lo what we see. Thcy providc thc links betwecn conccpts, our íools Ior thinking about the world. and observable properties of Ihe world. JI is Ihe operalion of translaling perccptinns inlo cognitiw units th.11 prnvidl's thl' nw.lnin~ for Sl'nsory l'xpt'ricnces. The conccpls are Ihe conwntiuns thal give the "paradigmatic" character to any field of endeavor. If we question Ihe utility either of concepts nr of thl' ddinitinns assnciatl'd with them, we are queslioning the basic ¡'culture" of ascience, At this poiot we are nolquestion· iog a Ihcury abuuI Ihe way Ihe world wurks, since such theories are always phrased in terms uf understandings ab
151
Introductlon
planations offcrcd in answcr tu thc qucsnon of why the world is thc way it appears to be, The rnethods uf hypothesis testing, deductíve reasoning. and so on that characterize an epíslemology based on scíentifíc rnethods in no way address themselves directly to the problem oí knowing what the world is Hke: they are part of a procedure Ior evaluating Prcpositions as to why it ís the way it appears. when wc do questton our conventions for knowing wc are qucstioning quite directly our view of the world, the meanings we give to experience. This questioning produces whal Kuhn (l1.J64) has callt'd il crisis pailld-.1 perind tiuring whi\:h 11h' CllIlVl'lltinns for kn(lwin~ arl' unn'rtain ant1 no one knnws how to give meaning lo what he sees. During such a period, therefurc, Ihere is no agreemenl on probll'm, pron'durt', or nims tlf ,1 scit.'nct.'. In such Iim~'s of crisis this (tlnniel "v\'r lh\" ,lims \,f sdl'nn' will b.. Cl,m\,' ,lCult'. W('"nd thllSl' whl' SO.H\,' our .,llilud\,' will hop.. lo m.1kl' nl'W di!i(ovt'rh'~; ,md wc Sh,,11 hop.: Il' 1:>1' hdpl'd in this by .1 nl' ..... ly l'n'rkd ';"¡"Illilk sy...l'·IIl. -1 huso WI' ...h'll1 1,110.\, 1111' ",n',.h'sl ;nkn'~( '" Ilw 1.,'~iI\~lIg '·"I',·rim,·nl. W.' sh"lI 1I.,ilI1 "s ,1 ~lh'll'S"', ("r ,1 lI,lS op,·.wd IIp 'Il'W ... i~I,I'" mil' ,\ ...." rl" of Ill'W l'):,~wril-lln', And Wl' Sh,lll h,lil il \,'v\'n i1lh\"~I' nt'w ellpt!fit'nn's should furnish us with nt'w "rgu· mt.'nls againsl OUT (lwn m(lsl n.'ceol thl'l'rit's. BUl Ihe nl'wly risinf; slrurtun." Ih.' buldnt'ss 01 which wt' IIJ· mirl', ís Sl't'll t>y Ih., con"'I'nlilln¡¡lisl ,lS iI m.>num,'nl In 111\' h'ldl roll.,psl' uf scit'nn'. In th.' I'YI"" "f Ihl' f""\'.'"lillll,,hsl nlll' prindplc "nly .-an hdp u~ 11' Sdl'1:1 ,1 sy ... h'nl ,1'" ti1\' fh"~I'11 on.' Irolll ,Im"tl); ,111 olhl'r p"ssit>ll' s)'sh'nl';. il is lhl' prindplt' nf sd.'rlin~ lhl' simpl.'st syslt'm-tll" sim,,¡.'M s!/slm, "f im,,/¡'-¡I ","illitl,m. whi."h ,,1 "'lIrs,' ml'"ns in pr,lrliú' lhl' ··r!.lssk"l"· sysl."" 1,1 Ih.· .I'lY Jl'upp\'r Iq~q: l'tO---liJ I
During times when Ihe paradigm has be..'n lllll'stionl'd, wht'n Ilw ddinilional conVt.'n· tions fur givin~ nll'ilning lo e.'xperit.'nCl' .1fl' unth'r i\U,Kk, lhl'r", is gre.11 confusion. Some s"'l'k 111 t'valual", "n4,.'W" (nnn'pts and ddi· nitions through Ihe melhods o( normal sl."Íl'nc,,'-lh,,' USI..' <.f de.'ductive reasoning, hypolhl'sis Il'stin!;. .md tht' Iikl'. These mt.'thods d() nol wmk. They wcre designed as methods for l'valualing ideas about the way
the world works. Undvr crisis condiuons wc must evaluntc our rules for knowiug. not Proposals for understanding whal is known. To my knowledge there are no procederes that are clear-cut when a paradígrn Is questioned. At such times we can only attempt to demonstrate that the world is different from the picture we would obt ain had the conventlons previously assumed becn npplicd lo given expericnces. We must oncmpt to ínvcnt ncw convcntions more 'lpprtlpri.l!l' In out exponence and seck lo dimin<1le ambiguities Ihal might plague the use of these new convenlinns. This is ,1 prllblem (lf dl'vl'1nping nt.'w ennn'pls and .1ssocinll'J "opl'r.llitllMI
I,in¡:; Ih\' S<'T\',11l1 ,111<1 ;nlt'rpT\'tl'r nf IMlur.·. 1',111 undl'r~I,'lll1 SI' tlllldl ,md ~, lllurh I'tll\' 01-. tw h,,~ "['!'>I'n'I'" in I,Kl ,'r in llll'\l~hl ,,1 1110' , .. lit"" .. 1 n,llurt'; b.'\"I'n.1 lhis lw twitlwr ~1lt'\\'S,IIl\"lhil1~ 1""',111 ,1.. 'Illvlhill~ . ",;, mu ...l k,ld n""1 lo 1111' p,lflkulM~ IIwm ...·lv.·~. "nti Ih('ir >;c'ri.'o; "ml I'rl!l'r; \\'h.l1' ml'n I'n Ilwir si.k mu..l fptú' Ih,·ln .....I..." ... for ,1 whill' 1" 1,lv11wlrti"ln'n... by ,mIl b.:~ill 1" I,llllili.lrill' Ih.'m'I·ln'.; wilh I,lds
.1.. 'l11ll
The s..'arch fur cerlain, relevant l'xpl'rienn' is Ihe coneern of Ihis book. I am nol dirt.'clly
fl-~I
-~
-(61
InUvdUdlort
invclved in hypothesis testing. 1 am no! Involved in a direct way wíth the problem of explanations. I am concerned with sharing a series of concrete experiences sought in the hope of uncovering sorne of (he Iinks between an ongoing living syslem and the stattc archaeologlcnl products n'sultin~ from thc dynamics \lf tho situntion. On the other hand, Ihis is not a blind nppcal for ernpiricisrn. Nor is u a contradlction uf my earlier arguments in favor of the use of logico-deductive strategies in the important task of seeking verification for OUT ideas as to how the world-works. Here, however, we face Ihe s,ri'ious problem of what the world is like. In(seeking experienee, Ihe problem of re!evance...i!.nd relevant experience is crucial. The paths that led me to decide in favor of the E'xperiences rE'ported here l,I~'''' in \I'rm~ lIt v,lri,lliIIIlS in hum.m ,Illivlli.'s Tht'factllr!l dt'lt'rmining Iht, rilngl' and rurm llf hum.ln acti... itil"s conducll'd by .1ny gmur ill a !iinglt, k'C·.11iun (11'11' site) may \'ary in terms of a large number vf possible "causes" in variou~ (ombinations. Tht' Inoadt'r amcmg Ihese may OC> st"i\S(Inally rl'gulated pht'nomt'n,l, l.'nvironmt'nlal conJilions, l'lhni<: compusili"o ,,1 tht' ~rtlUp, Sil\' .lnd !itrudul'l' 01 tlw ~rtlUp r"l.;.1r.II.·...s .. I.·lhni.· .,ffili,lli..n. ()lhl'r dl·lt'm,illin~V.1ri.lbll'S mi!;hl bt' Ihe pitrli,ular silu.llilll1 oí lh.' ~nlUV with rl's¡:ll'd lu fllud. shdtl'r, supply tlf tll"ls un hómd, l'le In shurl, 11'1\' unils ..f .....HI".1ti..n" Ilf i1s~'mblilW' .....,i,lliilily ,1fl' ~1'p,lr: 24 t l.
.
~
Thls "nssumcd" view lIUl'StiUOI'd t1ll' rclevanee of the previously discussed Iabrtcation model and Ihe linked additive or enumerative víew of en edaptation. We were suggesting that the dynamlrs out of which the properties of an asscmblagc were derived were diU.,Tt.'Ot from thc dynamics lradition
171
JnUodudJon
tool frcqucncn-s vnrlcd with activity dífferences. Clearty whnt was needed was sorne way of identifying activities, sorne concepts with Iinked definitions that would permit me to eecogníze a past activiry from emplrical propertíes of si tes, assernblagea, or the tools Iht'lllSl,lvl'S. I firsl thought that dctaücd studh-s of Wt'.U p.lllt·rns \1l1 11U' hlt,ls llli).;hl pcnuit lhl' idcntifícation of func:tion. lIuwever, resulta of lithíc studies overwhelmingly demonstrated that wear-pattern analysis yíelded ambiguous results. A variety of acñvíties could generare similar wear patterns, and. conversely, similar activities could generate different Wl'ar pattt'rns. f became discouraged with this avenue of research and turned to the problem of developing tt'chniques thitt could be used for isol.1Hng activity art.'as. 1 hupl'd that if we could sce such areas then we might be able to develop concepts and definitions sufficient to identify adivitil's. 1 h()p~d to be ¡¡bll' t<' give ml.'aning f(l ar("hat'(,ltl~ical facts in terms \Jf p'1St bt'havior. In 1967 1 bcgan to devt'iop anothcr line oí argunll'nL Activities are invt'stmt'nts of labor in modifyiog resources for use. If 1could relate pattl'rns uf lonl associóllion,
variables. 1 W.1S abtc 1\1 m.l}..l' llw summary statements: A.
8.
f~,I1~'win~
The number of animals represented in any une occupation zone is relatively srnall. lt is thcrcfore rcasoneblc to suggcst thnt the occupatlons el1 Combe Crt·1I.1l werv (If rel.ltiv\'ly Shllfl duratlon, and that gTtlUp sizcs. although variable, were generally srnall. There are- clear differences in the relative frequencles of anatomical parts of various animal specíes. 1.
2.
Buuidsa"d horscs Ml' fl'presl'ntt'd by ilnalogous anatomical parts c1nd are c1early differentiatcd from rl'ind€-'er and deer ir. the parts presl'nt. a. Bovids MI' primarily representcd by m.1ndibular Eragments, lower tel?lh, fragments t1f t11l' tibia, ft:'mur, hume rus, .1I11t rildill-Cubilus. Ribs, Vl'rll'br,ll', pelvis pelrts, skult fr
--
__~L-
~~cA<_ ~jRf' ¡m",i;z"c"",, ?' ,
b>,rH.L. -
.tfd;.w >
!t ~! fy,.. .• ~'''-
...... 181
InlrHuctlon
considered in a grouping sepárate from bovids and horses.
a. There is much greater variabllity betwccn díffcrent occupa~
uons in thc anatomical pnrts of dccr
b.
AIJ previously published patterns of varlation in anatomical parts are represented among the deer a nd retndcer rernains from the uccupations uf Combe Gel'nil!. Frl'l\lll'nl'il'S ana!()gous In thusc nutcd un kili sih'!> (Dibbll' ano Lorrilin 19M; Kl'hm..' 1%7; Whill' )1J54)
aTe Tl'pn'scnh..d. Simil.uly. frequendes analogous to Iwo recognizcd pallt'rns domA mcoled hIT sl'mipcrm;lIll'nl st'ttlemcnls 00 Ihe Plains of North Amenca (Wood 1%2) are also rcprescnted. and lhere are other patterns of vilriatiun nul previuw.;ly doeumcnted.
c.
There are marked and contrasting pat· terns of variability in the anatomieal parts represented from a single spccies rl·(UVl'rt.'d fmm diffcrent lllTUp,lliun,ll 'lln...·S in <-'umbl' Grl'nil!. () 1111're.· .Ir...' 110 bOlle.' s.unplcs f rom Combe Crenal in which all lhe anatomical parts of any animal are represented in expected proportional frequencies based on their frequency in the skeleton of the animal. E. Then..' an.' c\ear cnrrd,ltiuns crosscu tting IhL' rt'cn~ni7:t'd tYPl'S uf élssl'mhl.1gl's bl·twl'l'n suml' IHol typl'S and thL' puunds IIf ml'al f('pn'Sl'llll'll by n'r(ilill ~. In addition, Ihere are correla· tinos crossculting the recogni7-l'd tYPl'S uf .1ssl'mbJages bl'tween sume loull' and the lotal amount of m....at rcprl'scnlcd rl'I;Mdless of spcdes.
There are correlattons crosscutting recognized types of assembleges between sorne tool types and particular parts of certain species. C. Thcre ls no demonstrable dircctlonal dl.1ngl' in thc pnttcrus (I( vMi.1litlll illll(ln~ anatornlcol parts Irom thc- but10m lo 111l' top uf 1I1l' dcpcsit. H. There are sorne correlations between faunal components and the four types of Mousterten assemblage recognized by Bordes. F.
Dcsplte this new knowledge, the faels did nol spl'ak fllr tlll'lllscJves; 1 h,lO nu W.lY uf reHably giving me,lning tu whal I had seen, of rl'l'lting my UbSl..'rviltions hl thl..' dynilmics uf Iht.' p.1S! fmm whkh Ihl'y dl'rivl'd. I w;,\s frus· lraled. Thcre st.'eml'd to be nu u(l'lmbiguous way uf oemonstraling the inadequaey of the fabrication model of dynamics as an l'xplana. hun for Ihl' fad5 of assemblagl' Clllnpusitil..ln. One uf the findín~s that tomt.'rv;ed durin~ the Combe Crenal sludy Wm!mtty,,~. 0<11'1 inh'rprdl'd Ih"'Sl' diffl'tl..'m'I'S as thl' C\'sult uf iluslr,llu· pithednL' hunting and lool·using b....hdvior: Th,' di .... ll'I"·.•r..m "· "r 1.,iI.. w.l~ I'r"b"blv du,' 1" Ilwlr 11'<' .1""i¡.;n.ll"am.! whirs in hl1nlUl¡';.'111,,1,"·lh., r.!\'t·r¡¡. <-·.lud.11.1",1 ,.ltwr""'r!l·br.w m.1y,1tSC' h,....~, ~1i ...lrp..·'lrt·ll o..,.-.lU~" "r Ih,· p",it'nli.ll .....Iu,· ,,1 th"ir hudí.·.. ,1" pro,
191
lnlroduclfon r.'(til~'s
end thvir peoccsses as levers and poinls. nnd libi.l..· wuuld be the heevicst clubs to uSt" uubi,Jt' thc cavcrn. thM i~ prcbably wny these bones are the leasl cummon. Humeei are the commonest uf Ihr- Inn", b<.1l''''~; prtlb.lbly bccacsc thl'y wuuld be the Ill""l n,nV"lli"nt .-Iul>.. '"r tfu- wtlnwn-f"ll ,111,1 rbtl,tr"n h • u.... ,jI h,m1\' 11 ).nl 1'1<;7:1\<;1. fl'm~'ril
In 1Yb8, Dexter Perkins and Patricia Daly
reported on the fauna from a "Neolíthic" village excavated in Turkey. They investigated the relative frequencies of anatomicaJ parts recovered for severa! species. Thcy observed thal.
Wlll'n.l ... hlllllin~ !"Irlv kill.,.i.1 wiM n-:. lh.'y .1pp,lr· ~'nlly bu!rhl'n"i il .Ul lh~' S~l\ll ,1llJ USI-d Ihe anim.1l's
f."
uwn hidl' ólS ;¡ l"Onl,1im'r carryin,:; Ihl' me.11 hume. TIll'Y ~'v¡dl'nlly slrlrp~'J the.' f••n·'luarlers .1nd hinJ'luarlers (lf meal and lhrew lhe It'g bf.lIlt's ,1WólY. Th~'Y app.1fl'illly Idt lh~' f~·t'l allachl'd In Ihe hidl'. po.'rh.lrS be.·I·ólUSI.' lh.· m.,Jl' ,',Ill"'l'nil'nl handl..·s fnr ,ira~ing Ih., m".11 filll'd hid~' IP,'rkins and Daly
r,:'l'l
1'1óH:W4j
R. E. Chaplin diseussed the low frequeney uf sheep urfwr-1l'g hum's compMed lo Ihe frt'qUl'Ill"Y \lf luwer-ll')'; b\llll'S il( il S.lXlln si(e 1H"lrI.tllldoll. IIp Clmdudl'd Ih.ll Ihis disl'rt.,p· an ....y resulted from Ihe "export" of !he mea! joints from Ihe site and was therefore indick tive of trade (Chaplin 1%9:233-244). White (1954) suggested that low frequencies of the upper·leg bones at lhe site studied from thL' Plains WilS Ihl' rl'sull of thdr deshuctiun bcyund recognitíon durinv; the abori~in.11 llltlnuf,1l'lurl' uf blllll' ~rCilSl' (Whik 1954:256). U ndl'rrt.'rrl'sl'lll.ltÍlm uf llll' ~11ll'S \lf thl'lllWl..'r Il'g .\1 living sih's W,lS.l resull uf the.'ir h.lVillg been ",bandOl1cd 011 Ihe kili site (White 1954:256). The lólfll'r suggestiun WólS burne out by Ihl' highl'r frequl'ncies uf low~r limbs nn demonslraled kili sítes (Dibble ilnd lnrrain 1%8:100; KL'!lUl' 1%7:1(7).
In these examples tbe same phenornena-chigh frequencles of lower Iimbs end low frequencies of upper limbs-are tnterpreted as indicative of (IJ) use of the upper Iimbs as clubs away from the sit e" (h) nbandonment ()f upper Hrnbs ,11 kili sitos -and Introducuun uf lower limbs into livin~ Sitl'S. k) rvmovol of upP"r limbs from thc living slte through tr,lt.!L' in meat. (d) destruction uf upper Iimbs at living sites through the manufacture of bone grease, and (e) abandonment of lower limbs at kili sites and the removal of rneat bones to living sites. The only Interprctanon thal appears lo bl' borne.' out thruu¡;h cornpclr'llivl' study uf doéU'ñiCntcd cases is the le1sl ont.', which is directly oppositt., tu the intl'rprl'l'ltinn plaeed un the samL' phclHlmcna by l'l'rkins ,1nd [),lly (1').
The complcxilitc's uf the problem can be furIher dl'm\lllstrall'd by ,1 summ.uy uf the suggl'stil11lS nHl'fl'l\ in ti,.... litl·r.lturl· tll ,K\Ullnl for observed fn'l)ul'ncy p'ltIL'rning: A.
Suggl'Slions offl'rl'd (o aecount for di(· fering proportional frequeneies ob· served al.1 singlt' sile betwl'en an.1tomieal parts of a single spl'eics: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Rernoval ur dl'struction uf sorne parts
~l- boe-, e-/";j
",1/,)",. ah..~ I¡~):
.
.u-r¡d·u - ~~ ~•• r/~.~ ~/-~~
--1101
ltl'roducllon
n. Dlrl!d l'átlnR:u( ~()H bone PAI'ts {Bra¡n 1%9:15-16; 1954,171)
b.
Whilc
Destrucbon of bone parts as a result of rnarrow extractton (Brain 1969:15; Kehoe 1967:72; whüe 1954:258)
c.
Destruction uf bone parts as a result uf poundingof boncs fue the extractton of bone greese (Kehoe 1967:72; whtte 1953b,162)
6.
Tbe differential destruction uf bone parts on sües of consurnpnon by domesticated dogs (Braio 1969:15; Dibble and Lorrain 1968:93; Guilday n.d.:7; White 1954,256)
7.
The differential destruction oí anatomical parts on kili siles oc abandoned living siles by carrioo feeders (Sfaio 1969; Kitching 1963:22-23; Vllnrhil's 1969:20)
B. Suggestions oUered lo aceouot for dif(('rcoces noled bt-twt>en spect('s in thl! pn)porthmal frl'c.1Uf'ncit.'s ()f nnato01kal parts represcnted within a single depusit: 1. The differential degree of butchering of different spedes at kili sites as i\ fuction of thcir siu and porl.bilily (Whilc 1953b,160. 1954,255) 2.
3,
Diffl'rt.'nccs betwt.'cn duml'slicated élnd wild fl)rms. resultin~ in dl)m~sti,,'tl'd fUt'm~ bl.'lnJ; butt.'h. ('H'd .11Ih(' sih' ti' nlllsllll1plitln ,Hui wiltl f'lrlnS bdnJ; huld't'n'd ,11 kili sih.'~ (Pt'rkins and D.11y IY('JH; 104; White 1954:172) Oifferential destruction of parts from different species asa fundion of differences in the size and strength of analogous anatomical
p.,[s (WhHc 1954,256) 4.
Differential food preferences for analogous anatomical parts from di(ferent species (White 1952:337)
e,
Sugg~stitlns Ufll'r'~J [ü account (ur dilIercnccs notcd bctwccn proportionol frequendes of anatorrucal parts from a single specíes recovered from differenl archaeological sttes:
Functional differences between the sites, notably kili sitt.'s versus vilI... gc sltes (Clark and Haynos IY70; Dibble and Lorrain 1968:102; Kehoe 1967:72; White 1952:337) 2, Ethnic differences In Inod prcferences and butchering practice betwecn the social groups rcpresented at different sites (Dibble and lorrain 1968:102; Kehoe 1967:72; White 1954:254; Wood
1.
1962,203)
Most if not aH of these suggestions have sorne basis in ethnographically known behavior, Many are specifically documenled as affeding the diffl'rentiaJ introduction or de· struction uf ¡¡natornical parts at archaeolugical sih.'s. What is dearly lacking frum out curri.-'nl understanding is a speci[ir knowledge of the particulnr dfecls lhat mighl be t.'xpectl,d In rt.'sult frvm any of Ihe adivilit.'s ml'ntiont.'tl. The pkture is furlher complicaled by the rescarch of C. K, Brain (1969), Largely sl~mu laled by the work of Dart, Brain investigated the rernains of goa~ found in recently aban· doned Hottentol vi lages, In a situation where thc animal" h.1d becn slaughlt.'red in Ihe vil· lage ílnd nu meat traded, ht.' (nund lhal Iht'rl' WM still., marked discrepólncy in tht.' fn'qut-'n· dt'S uf anntomklll part~ rt.'cuvt.'rl'd, In ,tn éll· lt'lnpl 11l.•wl'l1U 11 fllr t11l' missin,.; p.lrh, Ur"in nll\t11Il'It.'t pn'limin.lry sluliil's uf tllI' s)wdlk Vomvily uf Ihe dirrl.'rt.'nl btllll'S .1l1d tht., dif· fereotial fusioo time of articulator ends of long bones, He demonstrated that the survival of idenlifiable bones varied directly wilh the spe· cific gravity of the part and inversely with the fusion time of the articulalor eod, 00 the basis uf these findings, he suggesled that musl if nut aU the discrepandes observcd by Dart in thl.' Makapansgat fauna could be understood soleIy as a funchon of the differential durability of
dL,~
9--....¡... ,,1.-, '-jN'
,\._d.,L.-.."
f'
.... Introd'uctlon
111/
hOlw" !'Uhjl\i.'lptl tu llp~lrut:tlvl' l'I•.,tllr,ll ."~l'n.
étMhuny durlng lile coursc \)1 hls l':\p!llll.,UUll uf tllt.' animal. LiUk' qucstion t'llUltt t'dsl Ih,11 chellcngc to thosc who scc behavíoral or culany patteming derived Irom thc f.lun.11 retural signiñcance in dífferentíal bone Irequenmains reñected use. des, Braín's conclustons are supported by the In spite of these obvlous advantages, 1 still observcd dífferentíal frequancíes of anetomicould not see how to dernonstrate that the cal parts observcd in prc-Pleistocene fauna ectivitíes uf use wcre inapprupri.1tc to a IabnIrom North Amcncn. Voorhles (1969) has re. catión modc for tbc Iormatiun proccsses uf ported in detall un the Irequcncies uf parts uf lile archecologfcal record. Such a situalion animals preserved in an early Plíocene deposít had frequently bcen poínted out by my critica. in Nebraska. The antmals represented in lhis It had been asserted that activitics are also dcpusit Hved in North América long before cuhural-that ls, the fabricanon mcdcl tlf man was present, so human behavior and dynamics applies equnlly to actívitles of use as cultural practices could nct poesíbly ha ve con. it does to the aClivity uf tool production. To tributed to Ihe observed discrepandes in this assertion Ihere is no appeal except lo the anatomical parl frequencies, Voorhies con. empirical world, Do people behave lhis way? c1uded Ihal the activity of carrion feeders, Do pl?ople condue} their ongoing aclivities in differenliaJ sorting by natural agents, i\nd the terms of invarianl mental templates as lo the differential breakdown of parts as a function appropriate stratt'gies regardless of Ihe setting of their slrength aH contributed to the ob. in which lhey find themselvcs? Do membt'r$ served frequencies. nf a given cultural unit, ('qual particip.1nts in a C1early lhis is a provocativC' set of findings tradition, fabricate lools fur use in thl'ir aClivi· and one Ihat is of ~reilt impnrtanCt.' to Ihc tit'S in tl'rms of il shart'd ¡til'.,l 1\:-\ tll Wh.lt tlwir ilTdl.lt.'oIugist. t h.lVe f(Jlluwt.'d up un thest.' asst'mbl.1ge ShlJuld lo0" likt' in Il'rms of thl' sugges\ions and my findings regarding prorelative frequencies of looIsor olher eh.'ments? cesSt's uf natural attrili<'n have becn publishcd Are the fl'SUlts uf ,1ctuillly cnpinJ; wilh the dSl'whl'rt.' (Binford and Bcrtram 1(77), wnrld isomorphk with tht.' tr.1ditiun.1Iiy In Spitl' uf Ihe .1mbiguities and the c1ear lack passed on ide.ls .1S to rnt.'ans fur eoping? Art., uf olny reli<1bk' procedufl's for giving meaning the cultural meolns indl.'pendl'nl of tht' probo lo faunaJ f...cts, l rcasoned that rescarch in this lems presented lu a group for sotuti{m? area might provide the needed context for To obtain answers lo such questions about evalualin~ the mndl'ls of pasl dynamics and the way tht.' world is, (lne mu!'.t invt.'sli~iI}t'lhe Iht'T\'fllrt.' tht, ¡';l'nt'ral rdt.'vanct.' of thl' conct.'pl rt.'!l.'vanl wtlrld. Wh.1t is rt'll'vilnl hert.'? Wuuld nf cultun' tu fo1l..,ts uf ¡lsst'mbl.,gt, cllmposition, sCl'king nddiliunal t·mpirk.ll t'xp<.'rit.'nt."t.' Tht, UbVitlUS ildv.1nt.1);t.' uf n'st.'.1rch with thrnuJ;h tht.' t'llCilv,llillO .1nti subst'l\Ul'nl faul1.1 i:-\ Ih." lhl'n' is rm tltlt':-\liul1 nbuut Iht, ilnillysis uf .lddiliulla! il(chiwuln,;it"11 f.ll'ls irn,lt'v.llU'I' uf lllt' 1,Ihri,',lliuIl Ulmh'l wilh n0. vitl.' lht' fl'lt'V.H11 ('lillwril'nn'? TI1I' .1n"WI'r I:·,nllll llw dlM,h'lt-r ,lIhl hlrllhll prul",rlil's 1'1 lIHI:-\1 llt' nu, Tlh' rd,'v,lnl 1"Ilt'r;"11I"" io, IIIU' tlw bollt,.'.;, M;1l1 did llullllolkl' Ilw bOI1t.'s; Iht'ir wht.'rl' Wl' t.,,111 dirt'dly t·xpt.'ril'I1(·t· Ilw dl.lT.\(·. f()rm is nul a pruduct of
rru-
~ -~-
1121
dynamics of Iheir envlronment. and the charncter of the adaptive lnterection betwecn persona and their environmcnl. 1Iis necessary to expertence directly the proccss of adaptetion and in turn the archaeological products of this process. Relevance ís achieved when we can examine variability in tbe archecologtcal products and huid culture a ccnstant. In this sttuatíon, we could direcüy evaluate the utility of the fabrication rnodel of behavior as the assumed link between the dynamics oí behevlor and the static facts remainíng for us to nbservc. Such cxperience can never be oblaincd fmm empírical work with archaeological r{'maios. We mus! Iherefore proceed alaog the research path forged quite eloqucntly by OUT sisler discipline J;l'(llngy in ils .1dnption Hf the proposi· li(ln uf unHllrmil.lrí.ll\i~lIl. Is Ihl' fOrllltlliun (If archaeological remains as a by-product of adaplive bchavior a process Ihat is operative in the contemporary world? Can wt' dirl'clly experience this process relative to a dom.1in of facts that are observable in the archaeologkal remaios from the past? If S0, we may experiencl' this crucial Iinkage of bl'hilvioral dynamics and statics. If we find our assumption$ abou! Ihe nature of thi$ linkage to be inadetluatc, we are perfeclly juslified in rl'jecting the5l' assumplions, $ince their general adequacy must be demonstrable if they are to bl' USl'd univl'rsally lo ~iVl' ml'aning to tlll' .lrLh,wolll~il·,,1 n'furd.
My nmt'!usion was thitl litro fmnlfltftm ~ Ct'SSl'S (lf archaf'ol()gi€:al,~&~re'~ fommon to both eonrellipOf,,'j iLild f el d d. Many of Ihe animal species prcscnl in as· semblage$ are still exli'lInt, and lhe processes of t'xploitation and use operative in Ihe pasl are still opc.'r¡¡livc.' luday. Thl' sludy (If f.1un.1 nffl·r ....1nulhl'r .llivill\l41gl': Sinn' Wc.' ran assuml' thólll"lr1i('r pupula(jII/lS tl!'ot'd ,llllllltlls prim,uily ,IS fHlld Wt' 1',111 l'V,llu.lh' 1ht' IOlld 111 ilit Y 01 V,l riutl s ,ltl.llolllil·,11 p"rls by sludying represl'nlalivt.,s llf I11Ulll'rn species. This would permit Ihe objeclive assignmenl of "ulility" values to anatomicai
--,....ln,rodudlon
PMI!', thcreby provtdtng a meaningful n-Icrence dirnension for our tnxonomy uf bonos. Such an assignmenl uf utility seemed Irnpossible to work oul for stcne tocls. How could we develop a procedure for giving utility values lo stone 10015 relative to different potentia1 uses? Using fauna we could not ouly employ a culture-free laxonomy for tabulanng relatlve frequencies of fauna! elernents in difIerent sites, but we could develop a refcrencc dimensión of food valué tor the taxonorny. We could display pattcms of assemblagc variability agaiost scales of resource ulility ¡¡S a basis fur l'valuating the degrt'e to which the patlerning reflectcd consistent slralegics rclaUve lo the use of the animals. Palterning in faunal frequencies mighl then be reasonably vicwed .15 r('sultin~ from variable slratl'~il'S in llll' ll~l' IIf ftllld StlllRl'S. Although Ihl' advantages evident in work· ing with fauna were exciting, it WílS recognized Ihal following up these advilntagcs in whalever detail would not direclly solve Ihe problem ofrelevance. What was ncedt.'d was a set of concrete descriplions uf the dynamics of behaviur resulting in sttltic pallt.'rning in !he archaeological rt.'cord. The 51atic pattt.'rning had then lo be relaled to the bchavioral dynamics so th.'1 we might ('valuatl' whethl'r differenccs in culture werc or werc not'A)aníf('st in Ihe patterning. II was dcemed dl·'sir.1b!l' to Sl'l'k an 0pP(lrlunity lo t1bSl'rVl' slIl'h dyn.111lÍl"s wilh rt'!'ollt'l"f 111 t1w ~I'lwsis 01 f.HlIMI .\ssl'11lb1,lgl'S. If Wt'l'll1dd l'Iudd.lll' !Iw mlllh'ls uf dynamics standing bchind faunal v,uí· ability Wl' might Ihen use such underslilndíng as a rl'f('rcnce dimcnsion fm evaluating vari· ability in stone tools. To achieve these ends I chtlSe lo conducl elhmlRraphic work amunR thl' Nunamiul E!Okimu (lf Ihl' ü'nlr¡¡I Bmtlks I~.llt~l· in Al.lska. Thc.'Sl' pl'Urolt'MI' hUllll'ts, Tl'porh'd lt11lt' nVt'r HO% dl'Ill'lldt'l1l fur Ilwir Sllbsi!'oll'lll"l' UIl .1 Sill};h' !'II'I'('iI's, 1~'ItI...:ill'" "I/""h/ll~ 1'1' l.tl'il'lllt. II IheTl' W.1S any placl'in Ihe world whl'rl" l'(IUld learo about the problems presenled by a strong dependence on hunted f()od, how
lntrodudlon
113 J
Ihl'SI' probloms .Ul' sulved. and how su eh solutlons nrv rnonifcst arcbaoologtcnlly in fauna! rcmalns. it would be with thc Nunarnlut. My aims al thl' time uf initialing ñeldwork werc simple: to Iearn as much as possible about 0111 aspects of the procurement, proceseinA, ond consumptton strategíes of thc Nunnmiut Eskimo and in turn relate these bchavior-, dircctly In thctr fauna! conseqUl·nCt's. I hopcd toaccomplish th¡s for most j( not all uf tbe Iocations usod by thc Esktmo throughout a full seasunal cycle of Ihcir subsisll'nCl'-sctlh'ml'nl rllund. TIll' Nunilmiut arl' inland Eskimo, currl'ntly localizt'd in a Sl'dl'nlary community al Anaktuvuk Pass, al Ihe drainage divide of the 8r(loks RanJ;e. (Sl'e Figure 1.1 for tht' location uf I\n.,ktuvuk '\1SS ,lnd íls rl'lóltionship hl lhl'
csribou migration routcs.) lhe contcmporery cornmuníty is composcd llf two amalgam.lll'd bands. the Tulugakmiut ano tbe KiJlikmiut, plus two ettached families uf thc Ulumiut, a local band that brokc up in 1942. During the month of August 1969, thl' vilIege of Anaktuvuk was cornposcd uf 126 permnnent restdents and 4 vistnng Eskirnos. The population was scgmcntcd inlo 21 houscholds, 17 oí which werc composcd uf nuclear familics (a husband and wife and their (lffspring only). Two houscholds werl' (tlmposed oí exlended íamilil's-Ihc nuclear family plus a widowed parl'nt uf thl' husbilnd. lhl' rcmaining 2 households were comp(lsl'd of unmarried adults wilh their offspring in one case and adult unmarril'd bruthl'rs in the olhl'r. Thl' Nunanliul h.1\I1' bl'l'n studil'd rn'·
c
Po..,
e"..
..... c:T'
,
c.a.
I..V,
,
c
"" . .
o... 10\. . ..,
..
""co ....
~.,..
O~ toJO.TIo(
Ivl ...." OHOW.... q
VIlIllJ r •• . ... ~ "of11111llJ '.~ ...,,~ "'~"."'.' L.J .'"' . Figu~ 1.1.
1971.)
6TVOV Ac.c
o ...
c......,.. o 6e
o
...
.0
...,
.(
.......... IiC,. ... D'6Ttl.'.UT'ON
Hit .......
..
,",o 'so
lItO
loo
14"
nv
eT
...
'00 .., .....
Map nI North Alaska shpwing location (Jf res('.lrch .lrt'a. (Data nn rari!:ltlu mnVl'ml'nt frllm Ih'mming
--
-~ ( 141 viously and a considerable líterature covcrtng vartous aspccts uf thelr society and pattems of adaptntion is availablc (Binford 1975, 1976; Binford and Chasko 1976; Campbcll 1968, 1970; Gubser 1965; Ingsted 1951; PospisiI1964; Rausch 1951). Other researchers have summarized vericus aspects of Nunamiut Iife or conducted short-term lnterviews with sorne oí the more femous "old meo" al Anaktuvuk (Burch 1972; Soleckí 1950; Spencer1959; these are [ust a few).
,... 'narodudlon
This book reporta thc results of the study of thc econcmic anatomy of shecp and caribou, and my expertcnccs wHh HU' Nunamiut Es· kimo. Throughont I have descnbed lh\.'íaunal materials collected from the sítes oí known behavíoral contexts among the Nunarniut. These assemblages have then been referred to anatorrucal ecales of valué developed through the study of animals. as a means to the evalúation of tbe Eskimos' behavior and thelr adaptive strategies.
1 The Economic Anatomy of Sheep and Caribou
Tho Nuuamiut 'fifc-stylc i~ dcpendent prirnarily on caribou .10.:1 secondarily 00 sheep. In order to study the archaeological remains of these animals, 1 had to have a rneasure of the utility of the various parts. What follows ts al' account of the butchering and analysis uf representative animals and the l.'stablishing, uf ulility índices for varíous en.uomicol parts. MF.AT UTlLlTY (Ihe DI.lr.butlon of UlIable M'INde M••• en the Skeletal Al'atomy of Cartbou end Sheep) The firsl stop Is to cxplain how 1deterrnined the relative distribution of muscle to bone in the analomy of sheep and caribou. The anatornical data presented on live body propmlions wcrc obtainl,d throu~h the study of tllll' l·.Hil'll,lll .md Iwo dOllwslil' ~hl'l'P' Tlw l-,uil:'ll.lll, ,1 prinll' (appn1ximatl'ly :l- tu 5Yt'
souud .1lld wcighcd 243.S lb (hve wl'ight). Thc sbeep--,a sü-month-old fcmalc in pllor heaíth and suffering from puor nutntion and a 6-month-old lamb in good health and showlng good nutrition-c-were butchered un Novernbcr 21, 1973 nnd studied under ideal conditions in Albuquvrque. Thc sheep were butchcred pnmarily wilh stonc tools. Two diffvrcnt procvdnn-s W('rl' uscd for di~m('rntx'ril1h' Tlu- lamb W.1
N.IV"'"
( 151
--fe.."k~
[16 J
J. T1Ieo Economlc A_10m)' o/ Slteep fIfId Corlbou
~ each Ieg bone was cleaned it was (sawe,d--fn half al both ends jusi below the
Cleaning consisted only uf thc removnl of the
'arttéuJatur end. The marrow was removed, bagged, and stored in a Ireezer Ior later weighiog on a more eccurate balance. Thl!'F1nd s ' M b o t b ' h e 9 f ' .. ! &ti! , Le ea in-..he::Naapdertball~..,....,.. that is. thc entire head was disrnembered for removed of the brain. exposure oí the fal behind the eyes and the Iat and cartilage of the nose. A bludgeon,
eres nnd bratn in each case. Thus, data collccted at the time uf sheep butchering were (a) weíght oí each a natcmtcal part or unit oí dismemberment and (/7) weíght of each bone after alJ meat and tendón had been removed from it. To obtaín completely clean and degreased bones, we boiled them for 7 hours in an an-
in this case a section of deer antier, was used.
TA.8LE 1. I
Gro . . . nd Dry Bon
5h,-,,1' An.ltllmic.ll parl
Ihy t>.,,,w w"i~hl Carib.. u
Sht't'p
----
T
MI!Gt
("",
117 [
Utlll"
'Kl m.. nlh~
4H rTIonlhs
(, m.. nths
ume uf the marrow cavlties. Sorne of the data obtained nre summarized in Tablcs 1.1 and
12. For the caríbou the butchering operation was the same, with ene exception: The cleaning of the mea! from the bones was not per·
forrned so no "cleancd weights" were obtained. Dry bone weights were cbtained through boiling in antifurmin, as was done for Ihl.· Shl·l'p. II should bl" stressed that al! threl' animills Wl'R' butdll'rl'd slightly diffl'rl'nHy with rl·· g.ud to tt'Jlltl'r1oin rl'tnoval. For thl' t.Id femalc Shl'l'P thl' tl'ndl'rloin (pmclicillly nothing but
317.52 40K.24 27:'. lb 725.71. n..17.27 3152':1 1,141UIII \..'"IUIIJ '.107.2':1 h,411'4 ..12
9)ltO!' 1,1':1,l.M7 40K.24 I.OfolHf>4 1,7,,,",,20 1471.29 1./'2.1,55 I,'N,"i,K-I t,H5':l7b 11,7,17.44
1,3':17.10 l,77K.ll l't.ltl,20 2, \12.211 2,7K'J.flll 1,':140,(11I J,175.211 .1.f>!'t7,40 .1,1,2IUIII 2 1.I,1H.h1
1,5240 <,12.112 S3,(1II 7J.4t1 ':IIMl
2HH.~
1;12.34 121,'IlI lM.47 1'J4.H'I
205,3,5 31'1,KO .173114 52.75 1,'J27.24
55l'1}l()
1;4-17l'1 5H4.Kf> 324.':12 1:\5.tll:l 1Iw:,,41 1.'>"I6.ll:'\
2,3WQI I,MI31 ':I1Il.54 37'¡.22 1-17.111 5,4':l'l.M
90 m.. nlh!'
--4H m.>nlhs
/l.
..
. ""
294.K2 1(,7.60 H7.'JI1 1)7.411
Welght. for BOl1ele.. P.". and S.-mm." Welght. lor 5heep .nd C.rlbou (gram_1
461U16 171U15
~547
214,15 Il(,.tll 71.04 I,JI4.27
~.5(l
75, tu '15.10
45.311 J2.1O lf'2U 17':/.1>11
NS5U 5150 :VUtl 341l.htl
2'1,5(1
--------.
6 m.. nlh"
A.
L\lJl~S
Rmrl.,; I"'","r
'1I'l';.7~
lihi.l 1 t"rs"l~ Mt'!,.I.lrMl I·h,\l.,n¡.;'''' Tol.11
2~2
,,t,
1·IO.hl 55."S IAl>4711
n AII wt'ighl in gr,1nlS (453/> ~rn = I 11» Gr"~s skull w,'ighl indud.,~ br.lin. " Gr .. ss m.mdit>I.' wl'it;hl inflllJl'~ Itln~u" ~ Gross tuml'M wl'it;hl indutll" kl
.
~
1 ·17,1211 ,1'1""11. 1'1''-1''1
"'.7'1 2.222.64
~.:\.I227
7.' 17
l. ';.l:'.lMI 7.'>4.11 147.5H 7,775.90
~ih.'H.
51.~1l
1f>.::W 1':17,143
121 e.1 II-IINI ';'I.·N .JS.4U J3Vl'l
:'ll~ '1(1 2,'2,111 17l 11 54.UO ó52.1I
.md wi.,.ll'il''''
I k.lrl IIr.>lI1 l.in'r Vise,'r"
BllloJ Skin Tt'Il,h'rloms r<,,¡¡I~
fI
_.. -
'Xl mllnlhs
4li nwnlhs
t>l">M.!it1
1,IKItI.'Il'I 2,Osn.H2
R,,""','S,~ I'rlrl~~
T.lllI\U.·
.1:~!111,11 1O.'.lJU 174.':ICl ló·UII 1\1(,.22 S4.11U 6112,1.1
(· ••rih"lI
Shl'l.·P
HkdlO
2U7.1I11 357,00 2.14.(k1 hH.211 1,107,(.1 • ;107.tk)
Il'lmll~,;
St;.lpula HUllwrus R,lJio-cuhilu!' Mt'I'-lCarpal I'h.ll"nfW!' Tol.11
the f<1CI thnt rhe tondrrloin W,\~ nut n·l1ltlvt·d .1S ,1 St.·p.U,llt.' unil fnllH tI\(' I,\mb. This ,lllinltll was butchen'd the Naviljo WilY-.," ax WilS used in (huppin~ down .1long thl' Vt.'rll'br.ll·. r .. rls ot thl' Irilnsvl'rsl' prut:l·SSl'S llf Iht.'!Ulllbilr verll'brae Werl' Ihl.'rl'iort' iltlilchl'd lo Ihl' Il'n·
TABlE 1.2
A. A.nal .•~rI('hm M.lndiblt" 1\1l.lS-.lltiS C.'rVil".11 v.·rld.....w Tlwracic vl'rle!:>ra.· Lumbolr verlt·bral:· l''''vi. + ~.\num KiI's SI<'rnum [',,1.11
tendón) was not removed as a separare mcat rnass, yet the arumal Wi1S butchcred according to the basic Eskirno proccdure. As .1 rcsult both thc gross wctgbt ó111d thc propcrtton of dry bone lo gross weight are inñatcd Ior the thor ncíe vertebree of the 9O·month·old shcep. The caribou was butchered so Ihat the tenderloin was removed as an Independent muscle mass, so the weights reccrded are for the thoradc vertebral' only and are Independent of the tcnderloin. Complicating the picture is
nformin solution (sce Creen 1934: 1-3). The bonos wore thcu wctghed, ylclding "I'!-I Am(' wt'iSlrts, Subscqucntly wc measured thc vol-
(",lrjhllu
6 m,>nlh!'
Skull~
d< tc,j
AI'II! ~l..rd"lI
l' I T,'''/ II'X 11 f.:'·U' 1,'''': 1..1.,1 Ion' Wt'i);hl ltd.,1 in ptlullds
221.,1lI1 :l/.2,AA lllU4 '/0.;2 317.52 7.MOI':l2 1,0&\.64 4.4':ltJ.M
17Il,<1(1 bIlI.J.40 12,Jtl1.2f1 2.5'145'1 7,41':1.04
14,243.(14
24,130,27
".(1144.32 V·2M ....1 2.'I2':l-'1(1 :!\KKr"lU 57.11\
11,7.17,44 3,
1,.115.-14 .117,~2
....,.,
(,n2~
3¡'UQ 12.11ó4.74 ~\.IM.1,42
6,1%,(1(1 11l,5·Hl.tt-I 2,G-Il.21l f>(I.714.611 2'.17'1.111' 10.,"1.12 \"."'>1 ti:! Iltl,·llr. h'; 24.1.-111
" Wl'ights for kidnc)'s are indudcd in gross wt'ighlsfur lumbar vl'rlt'!:>rae given in T,lble 1.1. " Thl'St' '·.lJ\lI:~ Jo n~.t indudl: wd~hls fUr h,"~Ul' .lnd brain~ sinn' lh.·y W"n' II1Cludl"\ in ~rnss wt-i~hls .. f mandit'ol..• .lnd skull in Tilt>!<.· 1,1. rhi~ villu.' induJl'~ thl'li~ll'd w.·j~hl ¡',rl..' ndl·rl,,,ns ~inn'lh.· sh.·.·r W"rt' t>ulch· t'n'd wilh \n., t,·nd.'rloin n\,1 n·muv.·..l ~l·rilr.ll.·ly .
",.
OJV'7' -
-
J. cM4
.lekve . {~rj;.,·4JZ
T'
1181
l. TIw fconomlc AlIl1tomy o/ SlIeep ond Corlbou
derJoin and this in turn was attached to the ribs when removed. Therefore, weíghts for the ribs of the é-month-cld lamb are inflated with respect to both the 9O-month-old sheep and the caribou. weígbts for the thoracic ver-
difference between sheep and caribou. In fect. the data indicate that the 9O-month-old sheep differs more from the é-month-old sheep than from the caribou. However, this suggestion is not statistically demonstrable. In part B of Table 1.3 sorne meaningful dlfferences appear. Compared lo the sheep. íhe caribou is heavier in the rear quertcrs and lighh...r in thc axial skeleton. Also, the poorly nourished sheep has a heavier axial skeleton and üghtcr leg muscles than the youngerbut nutrttionally sound animal. This finding is in agreement with Eskimo opinions that caribou in poor nutritional condition have essentially uscless front quarters, that the bone marrow bt!comes "runny" and nnncompact, ilnd that thl' nrgans art' Il'asl affl'ctl'd by pour nulrition. The Eskimo also bclieve thal Il1l' necks of caribl.lu strongly reflect nutritional state and are the least useful parts ol .,0 underfed animal. I rcalize thal the Sitmple size is quite smal!. I had originally planned lo study thl'
tebrae of the lamb are comparable to those for
the caribou, but the weights for lumbar vertebrae are deflated with respect to both the 9O-monlh·old sheep and the caribou. COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE ANIMALS The data collected are from two different species oí ungulate. Of Ihe three animals, two wer(' in good nutritinnal cunditiun and un('thl' IJO-munlh-okl shel.'p-WilS no\. Al! Ihe animills were uf diffcrenl ages ..nti were butchered slightly differently, as discussed. AII these faetoes could contribute lo dif~ fereoces between Ihe ..nimals' measured anatomical proportions. In this section I shall l'Valu.lle thl' significanc" of thL'Sl' filclnrs. T'lble 1.3 summarizes thl' gross .lllalllmic.ll data ror the three animaJs studied. The comparison is striking in that there is very HUle
TABLE 1.3
Cemp.r.t1Y. Body Proportlon. 'or Sh.ep .nd C.r1bou 5h...,1'
Cllio.. 1t YlI
f> Illtlnlhs
nwnll1~
4M nltlnlh~
kimo my plans were quite unrealistic. The Nunamiut considered the "objective" dlsmemberrnent of animals and my weighing of parts something approaching a sacrilege. Alter the butchering of the caribou reported here 1 never attempted to butcher another animal killed by the Eskirno. Killing animals rnyself was out of the question, bccause te kili an animalnnd not share it wilh one's compenions was viewed as an act of extreme antisocial behavior by tuc Eskirno. My comings and goings were common knowlcdge to the Eskimo and 1could not bave killcd eithercaribou or sheep wilhoul my companions It.'arning of il-and, insofar as my work was dependent tlO E~kinw (oop('rJti\m, I n)uld n(lt risk Ihl' los5 of th.11 (.'oop,'r.lliull. My ,,'.-ulier l'xperience wilh "nmlwlled" butchering taughl m\.' that the meat rcsulting from sueh extreme dismembermeot w.,s in the Eskimo eyes lit cnly for dog food. I! is bt.'t"ilUSl' uf th"Sl' f¡('ld jud~ml'nts, and my illtlbility lo nlllvinn' illÍllrmanl~ th.lt .lninMls cnuld rl'ilsOIlc1bly be studil'd .1S well as eaten, that I havl' ooly one caribou and lwo domestic sheep to us~ as approximations of the economic an.ltomy of sheep and caribou in general. I first judged this to be a major short· coming of this study. However, 1 proceeded to use the data, and lhe results were such th.lt 1 no longt.'r consider Ihe sample size of Ihe anaIt1mi('ally studil'd .lnimals tu bt,> a con· Iribulllr in .111)' m,ljllr w,'y lo bias in my results.
W"iKhl (Km) Pl'I'(,·nloilb'(· W,'ight (Km) P"rt:C'nl,IK"' WdKhl (Km) 1'I.'I'(,'nl'lKI.' A. Grurrallmaflll7lifa/
(Qkgc"'~
Blnod Ski., Or¡';,llls Dry bone Mt'al + (,11
l.tlClH.ó4 4,4·IlI.M X.7S4.-lM 1.54'1.75
10.001.7"" 2~.AA5.30
TI'lal
R.
4'
17..1 33.H
2,5'14.5\1 7.4:l l l lH 14,X75.54
5.' ló./o
5.93H.7'J 43,430.44 110.44S.óS
5,4 :W.J 100.11
'>1(.2
n,2:N.MI
·lh,n
I'I,M
22.n
1lI.""".:l2 155.'iJ,'n
IlItUl
4'1,7.11.0'>
22.1 :lU l(llUl
11,737.44
25.2
J.'J'I2.11h 4.445.2"
11I11.1
2U,174~
J.2tKl.22 16,mS.66
IIl,M 32~
44.905.05
•. 0
~.f>
Jt,.33~.5X
.\..1.1 7.3 31.2 HJO.O
38.6 '19.'
f>.J%.llCl IK.'l40.K4
M/I;l'ff I11111IPmic111 ~.'{II1f'"~
A...¡.ll p,lrls l-r,,,,l Il'~ Rl'.lr Il'); 1',,1,11
1,.mW.32 2,h2M54 2,92'1,40 11.1>42.21,
~
~2 ..1 22.1.
119 J
Construdlon o/ a Meat VII"" Index /or Analomh:IlI' Pom o/ CllIrlhGU ond Sh~
CONSTRUCTlON Of A MEAT UTILlTY INDEX fOR ANATOMICAL PARTS Of CARIBOU AND SHEEP In nntl'r to evaluatt' thl' eontt.'xts of dedsion manifesl in faunal frequencies preserved 00 archaeological sites, a reference di· mcnsion ur sland.1fJ fur comparisoo is necesS.1TY. Civl'n Ih\' d¡.lta .1V.lil
son that a person faeed wlth a maximizing choice would select the part of the animal that provided the greatest proportion of usnble meat compared to nonusable bone. 1 am nol it'~ that we should always expect humans o ave in this Iasbion. I only suggcst that if each part is evaluated with respect (11) the proportion uf thc total animal represented by the part and (b) the proportion I)f the gross weíght of the part represented by usable ment and fat. wc would have an objective refcrcnrc dimension against which tu view manifcsl decisión making. 1constructcd such an indl'x in the following rnanner. First, I calculat('d lhe gross wl'ight of (',ll"h .lnó'lhmliG'l1 p.lrt Jisll'ti in T.lb'" 1.1 .1S ,1 pl·rcl'ol.lgt' tlf 11'1\' hlt,tI ~ro!'lS wl'i~hl ~Il tlll' animal in qucsti\lI1l'xdusiVl' of thl' wl'ighl fur skin, blood, and organs. That is, fhe total is only for bone and fat plus connective tissue for the parts listed in Table 1.1. Such weights were f~Jund to be 11,642.26 gm, 20, 174.7H gm, ilnd 4Q,731.0S gm for Ih\' {,.l1lonth-old Shl'l'P, the YO-month-old Shl'l'P, .lnd thl' cMibuu. rl'· speclively. The gross weight of each part was divided by the appropriate constant, yielding the percentage of the total meat and booe each part represents. These values are given in columns 1, 2, and 3 of Table 1.4. The totals for these colurnns add to 100.0% when the values are multiplied by the numbl'r \lf parls in el singll' ;lnimal. Ftlr inslan(l', a v.llm' ~i\'l'n f(lr.1 fO
"J
~0t.
-
o
- CUA·>ta.
r 1201
1. The Economlc A_lo..., o/ SlIeep ond ClJrihou
Constructlon 01 a M~at Vtlllty'nrkx lor Anatom'cal Pan. 01 Carlbou and Sheep
[ 211
TABLE "4 The Con •• fucllon al • MC'at Utllll, Index for Sheep and C.rt.bou (A)
(H)
Cross WE'iShl 01 "..rl Oross weighl 01 animiSl _.- -
J():I - dry bone ':Y~~ Cross wl'i~hl
Sht·,·p
Analomical par. (ranium Mandibll'
With tengue Wilhout tengue
Atlas-axis Cervical vertebrar-
Thllracic vertebeec lumbar venebeae [,('Ivis + sacrum Ribo; Stemum St:.lpul.l
fl munths
':111 monln"
(1)
(2)
----
411 m,onU"
( ',.ril.. ,,,
(3)
(')
(5)
(ó)
ó7
2HO
.52
.ó9
.l~ !.S5
5.'11
3.57
.78
...
260 2.02
1.54
,.,,,
5.39
1.26 4.24 S.60
9.79
K.71 4.31 8.04
n.ee
'HN
7.41 7.2'1
7.7'1
'1.21
4.7H
4.tH 2.Iw I.ñl .66
DI 1.10
Mel.lcarpal + carpals
.74 8.46
2.42
un .47
7.30 2.47 .14
..,
" Indudl'" "tti'III,lh'lll'h,I¡.m~~'·'.
Ihc Iwo vnlucs ju~l discusscd. Por cx.uuplc the MUI uf the skulI ol the é-montb-old sheep is the product of the valúes gtven in colurnns 1 and 4 of Table 1.4. Meat utility index valúes for all animals and parts are shown in colurnns
7, 8, and 9 of Table 1.4. S~ 991@8 ere l'i"htl~ Irt' In 'eatb? . al,.30 lo 8.95 for the 9O-mnnlh~old sheep and.33 lo 10,64 for the 6·rnonth~old sheep, the index values were standardized on a scale from 1 lo 100. This was accornplished by dividing the MUI lor each part ol a given animal by the largest MUI value realized lor that animal. For instance, aH the valucs in column 7 were divided by 10.64, and aH the values in column8 were divided by8.95. This
4H
91J months
'.(,4
2.33 6.23 5.47
3.'10 '.311
Ha 3.:l4 1.114 .75 1074 3."" 1.51
"
"
.
.81 .'10
" .'"" H'
.'1'>
111""11. ..
'111 mtll1th"
1l'llllt"1Iil!o
h I1ltlllth"
'1\1111<'l1lh..
4!'1 1ll'lIlths
(1)
(M)
(')
(lO)
(11)
(12)
3.IH
Ul7
13.3
35.5
1H.1
2.71
5,OH
3.21
""
rr
HU
.R.l
""
.H7
IMM 55"
25.5 71 17.7 52.3
1:'1.5
5n.H 1'1.7 17.7 52.7 111.3 3n.9 72.2 'I'I.H 11,1(10 42n 27.0 IJI
311 1101 101 3711 47.2 33.2 4'1.3 ."1 h "".5 44.7 2M.Y 14.7
4.' 73.(, lM.1 7.1 3.1
701.9 21.3 5.0 3..1
100.0
.84
."so HI
."
"
.~I
.~I
..."", .72 .'!4
""
.114
.~I
7'1
.73
.In
.63
.62
.72
rr
""
.,"
h nU'l1lh,
1.41
.H"
.(,3 .71
--------
-._--
(, mtmlhs
lMil.. ru
Shl"'l'
l,m¡'t111
Sill"'P
-----
2.72
Humerus R"di"-4:ubilus
Fernur Tibia + tarsals Mt'latarsal Foo!"
Sh.,.,1'
C"riN,n
-,--~
(M,·,lllIlililvimll'x)
--
~
(D) Slandardi",,, ml'oll IIlilily intl""
(O
AxH
sz
6"62
lió
rr '~1
opcration yil'lds 111(.' V41IUl'S Ior em-h p.ut uf each animal as summarized incolurnns 10, 11, and 12 of Table 1.4. These valúes. the síandardized meat utilityíndices, are shown in Figure 1.1. Severa! points are clear. First. the dcnved indlces are sensitive to (a) differences in butchering proeerfurt'-a'nd (/1) dlfferenees-bet~~· As predicted in the discussion of how the sheep were butchered, vaJu~s for the Ihorade vertebral' of the old animal were inflated relative fo values for the caribou and Ihe 6-month-old shl't'p. Similarly, thc younger sheep exhibits inflalt'd v.1lul'Sfm ribs and deflated values for lumbar vertebral'. Age differcnces may well be the source uf dif-
v«
L"
Il~
1.(14 .1 H2
1.5H
."
01.72 7.'"
21lJ
DO
4MH 3.43
H74
(,.4n
!'.tN
19.7 H21
!'I.(~I
".:n
1l)1l0
H.'I5 .1.Hl
"7 ·1111 2.'1':1 1.52 54 HU.1
,,"
lll.lo-l
4 °,1 2.11.1 IA4 .47 7.H3 1.«1
.7ó ..13
2.U 1.17 41 I>.1ll
1.'11 ,45
"
.
''''
!.lb
1M
44.1
7Ul
42." 26."
fl'fl'n(.'t'S bctwcen t111' two slwup wlth rcspcct to skutl. rnandiblc. and pelvis; all other values appt!'ar consistent. Sínce the data surnmarized in Table 1.4 are variable for sheep, r fclt it desirable to approximatc a single Indvx. Thc proccdure adopted W.1S simple. Thc mean vnlue of thc indcx for the 6~ and cü-montb-old animals was uscd except in the case uf the thorildc vertebrae, where the valut.' uf lhl' younger animal was adopted, ilnd lhe lumbMvertebrae, where the value fm the older .1nimaJ was adopted. For buth par(s Ihl.'difh'rl'nCl'S ClJuld b1.! Clmfjdt.'ntly rdatl'd lu diffl.'n'nü's in tht.' bUlcht.·ring of the twn "n¡m.1Is, .1nd thl' v.llul's adopted reflt.'ct anim.lls butcht'red in a fashion comparable to
.,
52 25.5 11.2 1.7
thc nu-tbod uscd tor tho l'.uibou. T,lbk' 1.5 summarizes the índices to be uscd in future cornparative studies for sheep and caribou. The values reported for sheep are the means cr adopted valucs rescalcd tu al-lOO distribution. Differences bctwcen t1ll' shcvp and caribou are c1early shown in lhl.· CllOtrasts betwl't.'n pelvis, ribs, and sternum Vl'rsus thl.· fl'mur. Caribou are heilvy in the Ihigh, whl.·rl·as shl'ep are more equally pmporlJonca bt'twl'en fmnt and rear quarters and have mmt' uS.lble ml'at (o bUlle in lhe ch<.'st and pL'lvis ¿¡ft·.l. In gl'l1l.'ral, thl' p<1rts uf grl'i'ltesl utility .Hl' fl'mur, sll.'rnum, rib~, pdvis, ilnd thor.ldc vl'rll'br.1t.'. Difft?rences betw('t'n species lit' in lhe fl'[ativl.'
J. T1tc &onomk A...Iom., o/ Slteep and Carlhou
~':J
---------------- ---- ---_
r 122J
c0u1' ):'_jJtñ..I-¡:>uuI. :'/ Az !...,.,\.
=ee
ft1eeÁ(. -
t.egend
TABLE 1.5
Sum.mary of Mut Utlllt)! Indlcea 101 Sheep and e.ribou
S"l(.l~_f""
SOOU.II_'''lI
•
Anillunli""r
--
¡
•
1"."-
Skull Mdndiblt' With tengue Without ton¡.:;ut'
•,
§ ~ -
Atlas-axis Cervical vertebrae Thorncic wrwbrac Lumbar v,'rh'l'r.w P,'lvl'; + S<\frum
i
:
• 1:•
Kihs Sh'rnunI
;¡.
Scaputa Humeros
Radlo-cubitus
,~ ~
~
Figure 1.1.
~
~
§
~ :: >
, ~
•
.,
~
<
~
,
~
>
CJrp.lls Ml"I,lc.lrpals Fi-mur Ti¡-'i.l + TiJrs,lls MI'tólt.Jn:..al Foot'
~
Slandardi/Td ml'lll utilily indin's In' tWtl Sh"I'P and 11m' canbou.
•
000
'" ~
FII"~ 1.2. Rt-lationship be~ tW('l't'l An.11 utility indinos ftlf sh.·,·p i1nd c.uibou.
In"''''
§ §
~
~
~
.,• " o
•
~
•
o
• ••
ro
r--,
.0
•
•
1
~-
'" SHEEP MEAT UTIlITY IHDf.Il
T--- T
00
25.11 (12.86)1'
18.1 (9.05)
43.36 14.12 llU,5
31.1
55.32 46.47 :lH,KH IU..JO I()(LOO
11.4 10.1 37.0 47.2
:'1.1.2 4'1.3 5l.fo
~)..52
f,hS
44.Nc} 2!l.24 14.01 4.74 4.74 "nI.24 20.76 fo.:\7 6.37
«.7 21tc} 14.7 5.2 5.2 100.0 25.5 11.2 11.2 1.7
3.]7
ulldt'rV.llu"lh'l\ A V.llu,'s in f'liln'nlh¡'s¡'s are "n-ehstic" valúes {\Ir tht'Sl' parts. Includes .ulicul,lll'tl phalanJ;I'S.
• • • ••
!/- -r------,-----T
o
•
C.Uit>tIU
caseof thr- mt'lac;]rr.lllhl'Cólrp,lI:o¡wl'l'l·jnc1udt'd wbcn the wl'ighl r>l1',lSlIrl'nlt'nts wr-n- I.lkl'n: hUWI'V¡'r the 1.1I"sills wvn' illd"'!"11 wilh lt"'lil-lil, I'"so;.il-Iyft"lullingin.l minur
•
..
<
+
Sht't·p
.. Villul'S hove bven assignt:d tothe tarsals and carpals idl'ntiuJ tn those Ior the metacaepal and metetarsel. In the
-.
_. ,__ o,
""
(231
Bone MCHTOUl _"d die CoMtructron o/ • MamJUl Indo:
tARI'OU
~-
...
utility of these parts. The utility oí the frool Jeg and the lower rcar leg are nearly identicaJ as is the head and nt.'ck area. A lint.'ar rt=greSsion was ealculated for l'valuating the rt.'lationship between the índices f(lr the twospedes, and they were found lo be corre1ated at the (r = .86) leve!. The fonnula forthis relationship isy = 5.0 + ,69tíX", wherey is the index value forearibou andx is the index v.llul' for sht.·t.'p.This rl'lalionship is iIlustraled in Figurt.' 1.2. These.observationsand those presented in the previous section indieate that there are
diUs 2 iR' P ti h: iR_ These differences might, lo a knowledgeable
hunter, IllIf "jq "72íl~1Jt . , . 8 Ir '2 s and'MooeH' EJlMUb ' p¡·I.I~ .... ~ u '_ica l However. ~imil.lri·
fiN"'.
ties bctwcen thc two ungulares suggest that these data may profitably serve as modele Ior unstudied ungulares within the general stee range of 50 lo 250 lb, anticipating sorne vanability between proportions of ches! to thigh.
Evaluatlon of the Meat Utlltty Index Al this [uncturc I am unnblc lo evnluatc tbis indcx agalnst discreto bchavioral data, since during thc course uf my ñcldwork I obscrved no single episode in which sclcctlon of anatornical parts was unambiguously conducted with respect to con sideral ion s of meat yield only. Thercíore the evaluatton of this index must be delayed until the problern of multidimensional decision-making is consid-
ered. BONE MARROW ANO THE CONSTRUCTION A MARROW INOEX
or
It is clear thal meat is not the only cdiblc material in a" animal. Bono rnnrrow is importan! tu many díffcrcnt gruups of people. Por this rcnson it is nl.'cl.'ssary lo cvaluatc the anatomy fur its marrow supply. Although in
the prevtous discussion I did not consider nutntionnl propcrtics uf mcat. suchan I'V.lIU.l· tion seems pertinent to the diseussion uf marrow. The fat content of marrow is Pilrlicularly importan!. Marmw should be compact and pink, not viscous and red. Eskimos nonnally make a dislinction betwet.'n what they eonsider the best marrow and Ihat of les5 valut." eood marrow Iiterally "melts in y(Jur mouth" where
.-m/tTM ._1>'-l.~-...-f
r (24(
1. rile Economlc: Ancrtom, o/ Sheep onll Carlbou
lowest melting point, approaching nn Di! in its
properties. For very different rcasons than mine, Meng, west. and Irving (1%9) conducted an assay of oleic acid conccntrattons in the bOI1(' marrow (If caribou (mm thc Annktuvuk rcgion. Sino..' this dSS.1Y wus most provocañve and useful, I encouraged a gradúate student in chemtstry, Robert Grange, to undertake a similar assay (oc thc bonc marrow recovered from OUT é-month-old shcep. Thc resulte of Grange's analysís. together with data on caribou taken from lrving (J972: 149), are summarized in Table 1.6. Also lislt.>d arc the ml'asutt.'d marrow cavity vnluml's (lit b(lth shcl'p and caribou. Oleic acid conn'ntr.1tions
for parts of caribou not studied by Irving were obtained by Crange 00 samples shippcd lo Albuquerque spcriflcally Ior rhis purposc. Clcarly, Ihl' fntty acid composition of bone marrow is v..arlabh-. The ,.;n',llt·sl coruvntr.rtion uf low-mclting-point Iats is found in lile Iowcr extremities. This is what the Eskimos refer te as whitt' fat and it is considered thc most dcsirabl e nutrition a lIy and for certain spccia1 purpuses. euch .15 the watcrprooflng of skin boots and the treatment of bowstrings lo ensure flcxibility. The quality of the marrow varit's bt'twel'n Ih(.'fronl anti n'ar Jt.'g uf the sheep. As s,'t'n in Table 1.6 the valu(.'S .1feconsisll'nlly hi¡.;h(.·r fur
TABU 1.6 Mauaw.C.vI., Volamea and Olele Ac:ld Proponlona In Bone Mauow o. Sheep and Carlbou Pt'rl'l'nl,l~"
Analomicai part
,,1 {.Illy ,ldds rt'Prt'sl'11lnl ~y nlt-k 'ldd
6-monln-old snl't'p
Millurecaribou~
33.0 37.11
24.5 34.0
A Axial ~kdrf¡m Mandibll' 1'('lvb
11 ¡"'/llljl/llfla S
7,'1.0 7711
nll
S.·l'lllld I'h.11.1n~l·
'N.II
44.0 53.0 54.U 11.11
33.0 4(U) 4N.O 4N.H tJ7.0 TlO
32.0
M.un,w·I·,l\'lly V,.llOlll,· (n11) 9O-monln·1IId shel'p
5.2 2.'
Malurc (
11,O
n,O
L'
5.0 ~~ll
42.11 52.11
11:'.2 11:'.2 14.11
M.eI
14.11
71UI
'.1
·un
.. ,
:lH.lI'· Jt>.t1 Jt>.1I 21 Cl 21.0
2.0
4.\1
7~,O
1.11
2"
42.0 51.0
24.2 24.2
.52 (J !'iVI
46,{I
2:\.'1 2:\'1
M,eI
73.(1
C. R,'ll' qU/lrtl'T Proximal 'emur Dislal femur P'mimallibia [)i~lar libj¡, Cllcant'Us I'nl\inl.ll rlWI,ll,lrs..1 lli'1.111111'I"I,.,...,1
~
"7,0
M,O
""" 7.1.0
." 'Ir,
1'lr~ll'll.Il.III~I'
71.11 71,(1 7/, ti 7·111
s.., "mi
7.10
7711
~Il
7', ti
'"
p!l"l.",!,,"
Dala '(Ir ca,iblJu arl' taken from
.
~
Irvin~ (1'172).
12
M.O :lO 'illl
',1 n ·1,11 .'11
7 ,<.e-&¡.- f""c,{.¡,"'';, r"'c,f.?""""..<1
e:J!J, J . - rtu~t:.
80ne MolTOW and the Corl3truetlon 010 Mo"",", IndeJr
the mctapodlals and phalanges of the front leg but the uppcr-Hmb bones are considerably lower than their anelogues in the rear leg. The mean value uf the front lcg of sheep is R2.5% uf Ih,11 Ior thc b.wk I('~. Thcse Iacts would be likely to condition the differential U5t! of Limb bones dependíng on the desíred use of the marrow (a) as a Iood (Ir (b) as a source of low-melting-pomt fnts for speciel use. In .order"¡Q.'Qnfl~d,an- Index.of utility for exploitlng boncs-for merrow, both vcleme-per part ilnd quality pt.'r part rnust be--considcred. Al (¡rst Ilhou¡.;ht this mi);ht bea rather simple pfll(.lut't rdali'lnship. However, informant t.'valuations uf marrow showed that they wcre apparently giving greater weight to quality thao to quantity. In addition, experienee with the Eskimo It..,d mI..' to believe that their dc~ dsion m.,kin); rt·¡.;arding: ..h,'ndonment OT rc~ It.'nlion of parLs for Ihe l'xlr,Ktion of mMruw was fl'laled lo Iht'ir experienn' wilh Ihe l'ase of extraelion. Quality was rnllnitored by the percentage of oleic acid and quantity was viewed (rom the perspeetive of retuTOper unit of work investcd in ~btaioing the marrow. Fortunatc1y, rny field erew had eonducted actualm,urow-CTtlrkin,; ('Xperiml'nts so WL' Wl'rl' abll' to evalute the work needed per unit uf marrow rduTO from different anatornical parts. I was not p(.·rSlllla!ly present at the timl' Ilf th(' marrow-cracking l'xperimcnts and am tht·fl·fort' reporting obsl'rvations made by Dan Wit!t'r, a ml'mb(.·r of my fidd erew, durinJ.; th\' summl'r uf 1972. lJuring thl' courSl' of four s(.'par..')tc m.lrfl1w-nneking sl'ssillllS tillll'-and-motilm dat.l Wt'rt..' collec!l.·d. Each partidpañ'tWaS timed from the point at which deaning of the bones was initiillcd until the last percussion blow was t'xt'cut(.·d. Thcrt'Íore, the data prest'ntl'd rl'Íl'r l'xclusivt'ly to the acls of modifyin,.; thl' bone for m.ufOW cxtraction .'00..1 do nol nt'n'ssMily n·ft'r 111 tinw sr,'nl t'ilhl'r ('xtr,,("ting Uf I'.llin,~ th,· m.1mlW ils\·lf. 11.11,1 on lhl' m,lIldihll-. pl'lvis. SI.lpI11.I, ,md ph,ll.mg('s ,¡r,' ~ In'llI UlY Illl!t'S 1111 ~\·lIl'r.11 "xpcrit'nn' with the Eskimos. Fur instanee. data on thl' milndiblt,s W('f(' Ilhtililwd ('arly in thl' ft'-
125J search when I was interested in patterns of breakage observed archaeologically. Al that time demonstrations werc given to me by Simón Paneack nnd his SIJn Rooscvclt. O.11a un rh.ll.mg,·s wcrv obtaincd by nu- in Iht'lit'!l! with hunters during the spring of 11:171. Dala on the pelvis and sea pula were obtained from Elyjah Kakinya al the time of intervíews tegarding marrow-bone preferences. AH longbone data were obtained by WiUcr in the course of his experiments. Dota on merrowcavity volumes were obtaint'd from a single skelclon of 11 mature caribuu bull.lIlalyzcd in Albuquerque, (Sce Tilblc 1.7.) Several faets an: of interest here. First, the processing lime does not vary a great deal regardless of the size of the anatomical part and its yieldbin marruw. "EHiciency" is thus J;rcatly V.lrJiI \e and primarily a funetillll (lf lhl' size (lf thl' bone or nlarf\lW cavity of tht· bone. A linear regrt.·s~i()n was calculated in ordl'r to summarize any rclationship between processing time and size of marrow cavity for caribou. These two variables were found lo be correlated, the relationship yielding a correlation coefficient of r = 81.0. Thh; rl'I"tiunship is d(.'!Kribt,,J by lh(.' slrili~ht·lindt\rmlll¡l,1I = 7.4ll + .0235x, wherex is thc volume uf lhl' marrow eavity in milliliters andy is thl' processing lime in minutes. Given this describcd relatíonship, we may now predict the pW("t.'ssingtiml's fm thl' various sheep bones. T.1bl(' 1.H summolr1ZeS the data un marrow-yieldin~ sh(.'t·p bont.'S useful in lhe construdion uf .1 marrow indcx. The construclion of thl' indl')( was ilcenmplished by squaring the gft'ase valut' and dividing by 100. This opcration had thl' eHect of comprcssing or lowering the sealc of vanability, which originally ranged from 78.0 through 26.0. As modifit·d. th(.' seille rilnS;l's from 60.8 through 6.76. Additiunally. the tmnsftlrm.1lion had tht' l'ffl'f1 of (-lt'prt's~in~ 11lt' rt'1.ltiv(· v.1111t·~ IIf pMh yil'lding very luw oll'k ,Kili "lS~ílYs, This W.IS dl·sir.lill!' sinn' ji W.1S twlil.'Vl·d Ih,11 (111' h-vd 01 hum,m rt'\'II~l1j tion of grease villue was mueh les!> diseriminating thiln tlw dWlllir,ll ¡l!'O~.l)'; .1 Tl'W";-
-r 1261
J. The Economle A_tomv
o/ Slteep ond CDrtbou
1271
BoneoM_fTOUI ond the Constnlctlon o/_ MllrtouIlndex
TABLE 1.7 SlUIImary of Edr.ctlve Efflclenc:y M•••ur •• for Cartbou 80". Murow
Anoll\lmical part" Pomur Tibia Metatarsal llunwrus
M('an processing time
Covüy volume
UfifÍt'ncy
Observattons
(min)
(mI)
(ml/min w\lrk)
•• s
7.60 9.20
sz
...
bAH 6.95
"'" n
'iRñ
2
Mdacilrpal Firsl rha.\ionge
2 3 3 5 2 2
Mandible
1'1'lvis Scapula ~ Ob!l('rvatjon~on
. '"
H..'¡tI
1{,ItJip·¡;ut>ilus
Seoond phalange
TABLE 1.9
O.rlntlon 01 '''no.. Indlc•• for She.p .nd C.rlbou
v.m 7. 111 !l.40 7.20 7.10
4
AnclN S"ull M.mdihlt, AII"s A..is C.'rvk.ll vl'rl,'br,w Thoracjc v.:rll'br.w Lumbar vcrtebrae 1'<'lvis Ribs
1.52 74 67
•,
7.411
A'loll"",il,lt IMrC
.23
2 11
Ihe proc"!;!ling ní the calcaneus were nevcr made.
nilion threshold was operating, with low va l~ ves gcncratly bl'inr; lumped .l!i "poor" nnd highl'r vnlucs scah-d. The value for efficiency was transformed by using the value of its squarc root. The value was so modified because we suspected thnt there was (a) a bias in informan! evaluations in favor of grease qua lity and (b) a recognilion threshold below which recovery was not consldered worth the effort end aboye which a complicated scaling employing evaluañcns of both quentity and quality wes operativo. Thc rnarrow Index wes thercfcre constructcd by multiplying the square of the grease valué divided by 100 by tht.' square root of thc efficícncy measure. The rcsulting valul's are given in columns 5 and 6 of Tabll' 1,9. Tu converl this array lo a standard scale fmm 110 100 (Ihe conventional scalc fur rcporling bone frequencies from archaeological siles), Ihe values in columnsS and 6 were nonnalized by dividing all values by the highesl values in lhe array, in this case 87.20 for sheep, and 129.49 fur caribou. As in thl' caSl' uf lhl' cumpM
TAB~
Stcmum S".lpttl.l I'r",illl,ll httn ... ru-,
1.8
Elltlm.tl'd E.'r.cthl. Elfldf'nrl.1I 10f 5heep Bone M.no.. If = 7.40
+ .0235 (.xl
I'n'dicl\'d Cavity votume
I\l'latomical par! Mandiblt> Pelvis Scapul.l Ilum\'rus Radill-("utrilus Mt'lilrarpal r\'mur I'nlJ(Ímallibia Oislallibia Calcanl'us M\'lal~rlloll
Firsl phal.,"~{' St'('llnd I'h.lIóIl'lW·
pmC~!'img
(mI)
time (min)
Effidl'ncy (mllmin)
(11
(2)
(:1)
5.2 2.0
l.. "',2 J4U 0.1 24.2 2.1.'J 23.'" 12 9,.'; 2.11 I,n
Squore uf gn:asl' value divided by
Marrow ind.',,·
100
Slandardill'd marrow indell
---------
4 40 4lltl 2.50 .56
'"
a.ro
Square mol uf I.'flidl;'ncy~
••
752 7.41l 7.44 7.H5
.17 .25 2.44
7,73
1.111
7.~
l.(1f,
7'47 7% 7.% 7.41 7,(,2 7,4.'; 742
1.01 3(XI 1011 16
124 2. .1.1
Canbou
Sheep
Clribt,u
Sh"\'r
Cuib"lf
Shl't·p
Cni"""
(11
(21
(3)
141
(.';)
lól
(7)
,O,
(I,(J)
(1 O)
1,0
In
1.11 5,74 1.0
I.Il
\.(1
.03
1.1'"
IOHCJ
(,,25
CJ.(n
7.44
.ee
13,6'4
11.560
8.35
1O.F
05
.01
ltlJI'"
10.24
1.<;¡,
2(1)01 2,0)01 2 l~l 20\1
m
IH~'J
5.44 24.%
1M,4:'
21 (~I
17,M ::!i.lH 40.%
;\.';.'M
:l(',(,'J
\tI )01;
',1 85,61
.61
Ili~l.llllllllll'flI~
I.'ito
I'n"illl,ll 1,,,1,,, 'lll"hl~ Distal radfo-cubuus Carpals I'ruximal mela ..;)r!',l] lJisl.:a1 metacarpa! I'w"im¡tl Iemur Distal Iemnr Proximal tihi.l l)ist,lllihia T,lrs.ils
1\.1 '34 1.03
1.03 1.74 1.74 1,73 1.73
1,1l3 1.1l3 2.46 2.41l 2.60 260
16
:',lIH
44.!N 53.29 60" 19.36
2H.09 29.16 50.41
4'HXl 53,31 17.64 26.01 21.16
44.8'"
f>lJ.l5
"
..
....
t.2.lífi 33.6/1 50.44 87.20
14,29
r~,
7'lH7 H(,.146
43,3'" 63."'M SIl.70 ¡20.30
Aslr.,~,IIt1s
C,ll,',lneus I'm:om,'ll metatarsal Pisl.ll ml'lat,u..,11 !'lrsl 1'1l,l1.lll~" St'Co'lul ph.IL¡n~l' I"hir,l ph,ll;lll~"
---
Sh.'"p
.43 1.11
1.11
""
.63 2A3
2.43 .71
"
5041 50.41 57.71l 57.7t.
43.56 43.56
20.11l
53.2'1
('O.IW
511.25
M.1l 29.45 21.91)
~',2CJ
55.95
27.44 105,85 129.4':1 1H.'XI 2M.NI
-----\035
LO
In
lO lO 9.57 10 lO (,.23 2)01112 .11.21
l.O
\~t
In
hH.':It\
1.0
7.85 lO lO 640 2'4 f-'1 2/'l,1.1
·1,110·1 M,JI
lO
lO
62.'J3 71,R5 J/l.f12 560(15 .';7144 lIJO.O
6U>H 67,OH
33.51 49,41 43.714 '42 'JO
lO 1.11 23.11 f>4.11l 7352
21.19 81.74 100UI
13.n
:"O,()()
2~,11
22. )5
10
1.0
l.O
I.CI
" V,Jlu,...t'lltl'r\'tl ill tlU'f;lrib,'u culumn ar\'lhl.'experl\'J v,llul.'s ublaine,J by soJ\'ing th\' samt!" c,¡uali"n uscd ftUnblaining Ihl' .~ht",p v,llu\'s. • V,llul'S in Ih\~' ,'\llumns ,nI,' abstllult' in lhallhc difFl'rl'nCCS bt'lwl,"l'n shl'l'p and raribou are pwpor!i,.n.llltllhl' pilr!S in 'lu"slitln amI lh.' Jiff\'r\'nn"S in btody si:tl'. , BI,mk valut"S lor r"rls wilh nu m.11T1Iw,
cdcU- ~~1'a-¡ r 1, The Economle Anolom, of SMep and Carlbou
1281
mea! distribution, minor diffcrcnccs botwccn the caribou nnd sht,(,p MI.' sccn in thc valucs summnrized in Feble 1.9. Fur thc axial skeleIon and front quartcrs the valúes aro nenrly identical. In shecp the distal tibia yields the highest value whereas in the caribou the massive metatarsal is the most valuable marrowyiclding bonc. A linear rcgrcssíon wns celculated for the relationships betwcen sheep and caríbou and the two were found lo be correlated (r "".97) al ao astonishing level. This rclationship is described by the formula y = - .543 + 1.0lx, where y is the value of the marrow index for shccp and x is Ih(' comparabll' v.1Iut.'fOf caribotl. This n·I.lli(lnship is ¡!lus-
lratcd in Figure 1.3. Here again, there are minor differences in the proportions of Ihe animals, particularly in the front to rear quarter proportions. Howl'ver, thl' ovcmlJ distribution of milrrow is Vl'ry símil .. r, ~uR:E;l'sting once morl' th .. 1 thl'S!..' sludk's ('an be utilizt..'
Evaluatlng the Manow lndex
~1j\r,l¡!,t'
1 was able lo collcct only une body of rclevant data thnt was (a) uncomplicatcd by múltiple-use ccnsidemtions and (b) not an ertificia 1situation in which self-conscious decisions were beíng made in terms of my expressed interests and undcr my qucstiomng. The situation was roughly the only une of its klnd cbserved among the Nunnmiut Jurin~ my 3 years uf w(lrk thcre. Coincident with intensive hunting of caribou during the spring of 1972, sornt.' distant relatives of the (t.'sidenl Nunamiut vbilt.'d Anaktuvuk. The visitors, whol·allll' from the Arelic coasl <1f Poinl Barrow, hild "hitchl'd" a ode on a charterccl plane thal was returning from Poinl Barrow Ihrough the Anaktuvuk area to BeUles, Alilsk.
..
,
•
•
• • ~
f18\1~ 1.3. 'M..lion~hip bt,Iw('('n malTOW indict'S for sheep and caribou.
I !•
'" • ••
• •• •• ••
50
z,
v
o
•••
•
••
,
2.
•• SHEEP
MARROW
.
INDE:X
Bone MarFOUl and the Comt,.ud'on al a MtJrrouI'ndex
••
..
,
,ln',1 (in' n,]Jclr~) .IS wholc .lnimals and prnfl·......t'ti fur ... ltlr,l¡..;t' in thv vill,llíl' or .it tlu- in' n'IIMs, obout .7!i milc north of the villagl' pro· pl'r [sec- Fi¡!,url' 5,2), I was obscrving three of thc villagl' worncn proccssíng thc animals at thc kl' n·IIM 1(11",1til1l1 whcna SOla Ubey arrivcd
and infonucd thc womcn that thc rclativcs from thc (tl.1st wuuld lovc tu tasto akutuk, This is ,1 dish prcparcd Irorn bonc rnarrow. It is sonu-tinu-s mixed with dm-d nn-at. or with bl'rril's Whl'll t1ll'Y .Ul· in SI',lSOfl. Thl' hoy's arrivcll coincidl'd with the Ill'ilf completíon of Ihl' pTIll"l'ssingof thl·I.1'1 ,lnimill. Thl' w(1ml'n h,ld rrol"l's~l'd six anim.lls whill' I walchl'd, four fUf dryin¡..; on tht' viJl.I¡';l' r.1d.s. The p.ub sl'll'c1l'J for trclllspMt into lhe villagt.' werl' pill'd togt'thl'r, ROIll's from thl'se six caribou and frum vlhl'rs that had bl'l'n butchl'fl'd t'arhtT Ih,ll Illorning tlr 1111' nighl L·wfurt, Wt're SI·,llll'T{'d .lTound tln tlw gn11111d. Thl' WtllllL'n tlisl"u",sl'd thl'¡lkulllk proposilit1l1 and lh'l'it.lt'd th.!! it l"tluld be donl' and would Ix, fun fur Ihl' visitors. They walked around and recognized that Ihe "fresh" bones were all in one arca just slightly removcd from whcre they had bt.-l'nworking. 1 then made a tabulation of the bonl's thl'y ((lIlsidl'red to bl' frl'sh. I of c()urse alrl'.ldy hild .1 Iclbulillion on lhl' parts thl'Y had disl".lrdl'd tlllrin~ Iht'ír II\Vn bull'hl-'ring .1nd pnlt'l'ssin~, At .1l"lIUt thb time sl'vl'r.lI h'l'11ol¡!,t' lloys .lrrivt·a ttl hdp pcll"k tllL' nlt'"t dl'stim'd for dryin~ inltl tllL' vill.1ge. As tht'Y loadetl ur, Ihl' wonlt'n l'tllll'cted bOnL's for marrow tu ust' in aku/uk preparation and addt?d them lo the pile to be packed 10 fhe villagl' by thl' boys. The woml'n scattered out ag.lin ,lnd l'OlIecled bonl'S for a second pile. Whill' cullccting, they proct?sseJ off sume fcet and unwantl'd parts fmm the parli.1lly artiruI.ltt'd disl".lrds fmn1 pron's~in~ for dryin~. Tahll' 1.1{) lists btllll'S wnsidt.'H'd fresh by lhewlllm'n ilnd, in turn, thl' Donl's Ilwy st.'lt'ch'd lo Ir.msporl 1\1 Ih!' vill.lgt, for lll.lrrow (or "k,¡/"k
Sl'vI'r,iI I,hh .lll' 01 inll"-I'..I in Ihis hmlv tlf 11.11.1. First, Ilwn' i....1 llIlTd.llitlll hdwl'l'n IlIl' Illolrft\W lndl'x and Ihl.' pl.'rl't?ntage uf lhe parts present sl'1('Ctl'd for milrrow processing. A
129 J
linear rl'~Tl'~silln was c.1kul.lh'd Ior dl'Scrihil1~ this rl'i.llitlllShip and H W.1S tound !tI lu- 01 ,1 sl'milogilrithmic formo Th,11 is. thc bt'sl I1m',H fit betwcen the two variables wns approachcd when lht., log,,, of thc mnrruw indcx \V.1S plottcd against thc pcrcentagc of thc hll.11 sch-ctcd for proccssing. Thc rclationship W.1S found In be high. as indicetcd by .1 correlation rocñicíent of .82 (r = .82). This rclnnonsbip ís describcd by thc cquation y = -':;.21 + 41.YH (Iogrt..r ), Whl'Tl' l' IS IIH' pl'rn'nt,l~l' sl'll'dl'd anó X is lhe m.liTOw indl'X lor caribou. I first thou~ht Ihat mp,l llf thl' vt1rianc(' in this rl'lationship ,1roo.;(' fT\l1l1 diffl'rt'nt ulilily valucs betwl'l'n pro.\imal .1nd dist.lll'nds. illthough Ihe sl'!l'ction bl'ing lI11ll1lhJrl'd W.1S in terms of compk'll' bonl's. This is nul alw,1Ys the case during l'tlOditions of normal m<1rrtlw nmsumplion, rarlicularly in hllllling l·ilmps or hUl1lin~ sl.mds whl'n' within-bllllt' sdt'ctíon is cnmmoll. For instant"t', ¡':skirnos Wl'T{' frcquently observed to hutcher lhrough Ihe shaft of the tibia and consume lhe marruw from the distal eod, leaving the proxim,ll end attached lo the femur to be transportl'd ilway from the hunting sland for proCl'ssing or con· sumption in Il'rms uf meat yield. In urder 10 l'Valllille thl' l'ffl'ds o( this 1.Kk ot ((lmp.1r.1hlL' d,'I.1 lwt\\'l'l'll 1111.' indl" .llld tllL' Si101ph' bl'ing I'V,lllJ.lh'd, I c.lkul.llt'd ,1 SI't"tJ11d rq.;rt'ssion u~¡ng ollly lhl' olTtkul.1lor l'nt!lll .1 given bUlll' wilh tht' hi~lH'st ulility IlU',lsurt' plottl'd "~ilinst tht., pl'rcl'nlil~t' of lhl' !lllal bunes presenl th.lt Wl'r\.' sclecled for pnx·css· ing, I WilS initi'1l1y surpriscd lo find that this did not impruvl' thl' ctlfrdalion, A corrl'lillion codficient of .82 WilS obtained with the rdationship summarized by lhe equation y = -5.2 + 41.98 (Io~",x), wry simil<1r to the n,I.,tionship seen l'arlier. lh\' grarh of OH' two rdationships is shown in ngurl' 1.4. It bl'· C(lml'Sc1t'<1r from thl' plots Ihal il was n\lt tlw diffl'rt'nn' bt'lWI't'l\ tllt' indl'''t v.liUt's ftlr tht' IWtl t'ntl .. of tllt, hum'" Ih,II W,I" d¡..,I"rt'I1~: IIIt' l"\'I,lliPllship ¡'ullllt' J"l'ru \·,Ilu\..... I·llt 111 . . 1,111I1·. IhllSl' lltllll':-; 1,ld,ing lI\,lrr\IW lt11llpldt'!Y .lr(' aJligned on Ihl"' y axis ncar tllL' /.l'fO inlerú'pl, whereas the phalanges, being potenti'11
r [301
n.eEeonomlc Ancrlom, of Slteep end Ccrrtbou
J. TABLE 1.10
'00
Controlled O.t. on Ihe Seledlon o, Bon•• lor U.e In M.kln. All:u'uk~
Sones selected
80"('5 o1Ivailable
fOl
fur use
i\n,llllmÍf.ll p.nl
AI1'h'r Skull Mamhbk' Atlas Axis Cervical vl'rl.. brill'
Thorack vertebral,' Lumbar vl'rll'hr,ll' I'dvis Ribs Sternum
Scapula
Proximal humerus" Distal humeros Prul(imal radlo-cubltus" I)lslOlIradio-cubltus Clrpals· ['wximoll metacarpal
Distal mctacarpal-
cor,
%
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
I!\J
11
11 11
11
J.n 30
11 .1C1.0 JlUl
11
4.0
40.11
11 O
1I 1I 1I
40
«io
4.0 11 11 11
41H) 11 11 11
11
11
O 1.0 9.0 9.0 9,0 IHI
O 10.0 900 911,0 90.0 '11"1.0
b.n
h/W 30,11
3.0 3.0 10.0
O O 11 11 11 11 O O
O 5.0 5.0 75
,
75
20 2.0 7.5 7.5
11
O 1I
526
55.5 55.5
52.6
In) ti.)
7,U
7110
,
7u 7.(1 7.t1 :Ul lO 1.0
1Un ]t1,U 70,0
.!i 7.0 7."
J(1.tI
1I
73.7 73.7 O
:1(1.0
O O
O O
ltl.n
O
~U
....... 75.0
7~.U
95.0 950 71
7I 7.1 /l1l1.1I
lino 1I 1I
"
I-"IIT (lis.:ussiull uf MNI v_llm'S, ....·1·l'h,ll'h'r 2.
• I'Mls wilh lI,.,llimurn L1hhly wilhill I"."'h 1>"11(· ,Ir
sources of marrow but not selected for processing, are aligned far to the right on the x axis as are the values for the metacarpal. The lalh.'r bon(' is consistcntly selccted against dur· in~ ~prin~ b~'("ausl' of thl' Nunamiut l'valua-
1><111<'
~n'\lI'.
tion of the nutrition of the animals. They daim that when í1nimals are poorly nourisht.'d the marrow of the front le~ is most afft.'ctt.'<.i, particularly thc milrmw (I( th(, extrcmitit,s. The biOlS Olgaínsl ph.1IOln~t.'S iS.1 consish-nt rr,lClit'('
00
.,' '
ec -l
,.'
,~,.",.
o
••u • ••" 2~ J
,.,.'-
,.-..-
• .TL.~
...." ,-" [tu.",'
"
'9'- ~ .--------.---O~
LOG IO
7'19
AslraKollus
,.
~
•• •
00
tll.3
21.1 21.1 7ll.9 7ll.9 100.0 100.0 5.3 S..,
•
'"
(1
7!l.' .''..'
1
O
11 11 11 11 O 11 O
(",III.llll'UlI"
'.5 9.5 .5
)1((11.
11
10.0 10.0 10.0 7.0
I'rollimill met.llólr.;.,ll Disla! ml'talarsal· Firsl rhalangl'~ S('cllnd phillange Third phóll.ln~('
I'l'Kl'nlagl' uf bones availablt' a("lually aelected
MNI
30.0 100,0 100.0 100.0 100.0 711.0
PrOllimal femur Oistal femu,a Proxi.mal tibia Distal libiah Tarsals
~
use from
rol. I
1311
Bone N'lIrIVUI aruI file Con.trudlon o/ GMonvu IndeJc
Figurr 1....
MAAAOW
UTlLlTY
INDEX
RL'lalilll1shipbctween percentege of paets
selected Ior marrow processing and the log,. marrow il'ldl"x
among the Nunamiut at the present time. Not once did I observe these bones proccssed (or marrow while I lived among the Nunamiut. They always daimed that the marrow simply was not worth the work. However, older in(ormants were always quick lo point out that in thl' rOlsl whl'n (ood was shllrl th(' "oldlinll'rs" diJ pwn'ss th~'Sl' btJlll's. Hert.' Wl' pick up ol cultuml fOlel-a bias or (onv('ntional ('v(lluOltion common today against the use (lf phalangcs as sources of marrow, in spil(' of tht.'ir value. Nunamiuf bl'hOlvim in this (·xampll' is dcarly rational and vt'ry rq;ul;lr wilh rt'~;lrll lo Ihl' 1ó1r~l'r lllarrow-yí"ltlil\~ bl1lwS hui 111l' sl'.lI~' uf nlolrrow ulílily is p.utilillllt.'d C.ltt.'~mil'Ollly agOlinst phOll<mgl's by thl' pt.'ople, yiclding a behavioml (urve IhOlt has a threshold al the low end of the scalt.,. This dislribulion c.lnnot be approximalt.'d by .1 log-I{lg transformatiun sincc th(' log of "-l'ro b nol'1 meaning:ful (('al num1xor. If 1111' pl'lvis hall I....~·n prt'sl'nl in lhl' p.ln·nl
population we would hnve notcd that the Nunamiut also ncver pron'ss this pnrt Ior marrow; they similarly Ignore the scapula and mandible. As in the case cf the phalanges, older informants insist that during past food shortages these parts were utilized. Sorne old men are quite wilJing to dcmonstratc the rernoval of edible marrow and grease from the
mandible: howcvcr. thcy are qutck to add that "peoplc jusl don't do this anymorc." Thc mandiblc. pelvis. and scapula binsos would appl·.lf rational in tcrms lIt" tlw s~·.llt', sinn' 1Ilt.' rnarrow Índices .1ft.' Vt'ry low .uu! rcpn-scnt tluZl'W valúes on the .r axis bctwccn log .75 and .85. This means that thc "real" rclaticnship bctwccn thc cxarnple of sclcction being evnluated and thc marrow lndices is sumrnarízcd by an cquation approximnted olS.ll= -70.0 + 81.3 (Iogl'.:c). The ditfcrcncc bctwcen this equation and those sumrnarized staustically is "caused" by the zcro valúes (a problcm that will be continually appeariog throughout this analysis). Drawn over the plot in Figure 1.4 is the calculated rclationshíp (A), the inferred rclationship when Zl'CO vnlucs are ignorcd (B), and tbc Nunamiut bchavioml distribution showing a thresholding phcnomcnon (e).
Conc:luslon. on the Usefulness of the Marrow Index A v~'ry !'tf(ln~ n'liltillnship was Íllund IwIWl'(.'n ti1\' m.lTrtJw indin's .1S dl'vl'1opl'lt ¡'mm pure anOltomical inwstigo1tilln and thl' aclual sdection <,f btmcs for marrow proccssing: in ol controlled beh¡wioral situ
1321
J.
then quanttty becomes increasingly importanto Suggestions from infonnants that phalanges were processed in the past during times cf Iood scarcity are provocativo. in that the degrcc to which phnlangos nrc processcd for marrow may be used as él mcaeure of the subsistence security enjoyed by él group al the time oí observation. BONE GREASE AND THE CONSTRUCTION Of GREASE UTllITY INDICES 8011(' grea~
is the term used for tht.· fat and grease contained In the bcne Hssue it:;l'If. To obtaín this material one must botl the bones end recover the greese and Iat rcndered from the boiltng water. The·NllntlmiU1--trr-ake:n~m,tiI:K'tjonJ;~:tw ....'en
.......~l1e~.ase~'8Rd
,~.w .h4.~wea~.
Yellow grease is obtaincd from the mandíble, vertebrae, and ribs. Rib grcasc is nol considered very desirable and is rendered "unly when thing5 are bad ur when ~~s nCl'dl'd lo makl' Iight"-lhc Nunamiut makl' a kind uf candil' from Ihe yelluw grea5l', Whilc, Uf rich, grcase is rí'nderl'd from thl' articulalml'nds nf Ilm~ b(lnl'S .lnd this is dlllW a.....1 lllolllt'r of I,:our.. .l· jll .... 'I..riur lu I1lllvill}; n·~idl·llli.ll <'.lInp..... YL'IJnw and whill' grL'asL' bones are nol storL'd logl'ther. Informanls commentl'd that the only bones never processed for grease wcre Ihe skull, antlers, and scapula. IntelViews with older women with respect lo which bones Ihey saved for rendering white grease , r.evealed Ihree generalizations: (a) Crease is bcuer at ends of legs and 81.'ts yellower toward the"'backbone; (b) more greasc isoblainl'li frum bones that break up easily iolo small bone chunks; and (c) sorne bunes art.' "O"malllhat ji lakes more time to break Ihem up than they are worth. It '15 clear Ihat Ihen' are threL' diml'nsions involved in the evaluation of Ihe utility uf .1 bone fm greasL': Ca) Llualily (lf grL'ase rendt..'rL'd. (/,) bom' dl'nsity, and (c) SiZl'uf p-ul. In ordl'r lo obltlin an objeclivl' t..·valualion uf llw ulilily
n.e Eeonomk Anatom)' o/ SM~P /IIndC.arlho ..
oí different parts of the caribou for rendering bone grease, we extracted samples of tissue from the cencellous zone of all boncs and a quantitativc an.llysis was perforrucd by Robcrt Orango. who had also analyzcd bone-merrow samples. Grenge's analysis was reported in terms of the percentage of oleic ecid in the total Iats making up the sample. As mentioned earher, Ihis ts the fat with the lowest melting point and Is believed lo be the agcnt contributing to the Eskimo diffcrcnñation bctwecn yellow and white grcosc. Thc results of Grange's analysis nre surnmarizcd in Table 1.11. The table also gives thc bone density and the mcnsured volume (lf cech part. These data providc accumte mcasurvs for each part on the thrce dimensions of utlllty previously mentioncd. To construct a scalc nI uhlity (Uf cach bonc part, il was nt.'Cl.'SS<1rY lo cxpcnmcnt wuh thc relationships bctween Ihe three dimt.'llsillllS. It was my Imprcssion thnt grcasc qualíty W.1S Ihe most important of the thrt'l', but its impor. lance was modified by bone density, sincc parts with good qualily grl'asL' Ihat ((luId nol be readily pulveriud would not yit.'ld thl' grcase. I <'lIso thoughl Ihal larger par!s wilh rl'lativl'ly l'ljual valUl' and dl'nsity wOllld N' pTl'fl'rTl"t Thl'Tl'fUfl', I rt.'astllwd 111,111111' n'I.Ilillllships LWlwt't'n Illt, Ilin'l' dilll('~~SIIII\S would be besl .lpproxim.1ted by Ihl.· squ.lrt.· uf the grease value, divided by Ihe bone density, with the resull multiplied by thc VOIUffit.'. In order to obl.lin sorne comp.lr.,bilily in sealc, greasc value and volume wen.' mulliplied by a constant of .01. The data and derived values logelher with the proposed grt.'ase indl'x are summariZl'd in T.lblc 1.11. Severa) poinls <'Irl' worthy of comml'nt regarding Tilble 1.11. First, Ihc Eskimo gl'nL'r.llizatioo Ihat fhe tlU.llity of grt.'ilse is greah·.... t in parts farlher from the backbune is dl'mon· strated in the grease valul..'s summilrizl'd in column 1. Sl'cond, I havl' l"llllslrudl,d lhe index of grease values for Iht.' l'nliR' animal allhough informants arL' emphalir (ha( yt.'1low- and whitt··grl'asl'-yit.'1djn~ p.ulo.; ;trl' tn'all'd indt..·pendenlly. SUl"h .1 (',Ih'gori/.,IIíOIl
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1341
l. The Economlc Anolo"" o/ Shf!qJ Gnd Carfbou
is certainly justifled in that aH values for parts of the axial skeleton yield grcase valúes of less than 40% oleic acid, whereas all parts of the appendicular skeleton, except the seapula, yíeld values greater than 40% oleic acid. 1t will be recalled that informants identified the seapula as a part never processed for white grease. Certainly in treating Nunamiut material this single scale must be partitioned into two independent scales. The degree lo which this partitioning is practiced by other groups of people in different times and places is un-
known, but given the anatornical basis of the distinction such a separation seerns likely to occur elsewhere. Therefore, in the analysis of the material to follow 1 will use a white-grease scale and a yellow-grease scale. Parts of the axial skeletcn will be treated as yeltow-grease parts and a value of 1 wiU be entered for parts of the appendicular skeleton. Similarly, the white-grease scale will ínclude al! parts of the appendicular skeleton and a value of 1 will be entered for axial parts. These two scales are summarized in Table 1.12.
TABLE 1.12 Gr•••• lndle•• lor Whlte Gr•••••nd V.llo.. Gr •••• In Sh.ep and C.,lbou White gll.'a5e
Anatumical rarl Anlll'r Skull M,1Iltliblt, i\tl,IS i\_ls Cl'rvicdl vl'rld'r,ll' Thoracic wrlt'bfae Lumbar verlebrae Pelvis Ribs Sternum Scapula Pnlllimal huml'rus Dislal huml.'rus I'tullim,tl r,ltlit,·cubittls Dist,ll riltliu-n,l>ilus Carpals Prollimal melaCatpal Distal ml'lilcarpal I'rOllin1ol1ll'mur Dislal fl'ffiUr PWlIimallibia Distal tibia Tarsals Aslr.l~i11us
Calcam'us l'rt>llil1MIIllt'I.lt.lrs,ll Di~l.d ml"l.ll,\r~.ll
Fir~t
rha1.1"K"S So.'Ctlnó phal.m~l"<; Third rh;llan);l'S
Yellow gn-.lSl'
Shl"t'P
Caribuu
Sht'l'P
ClribulI
(1)
(2)
(:\)
(4)
1.(1
:\.1.'11
42 7"
2(l.7~
·',1 HI
27,.1.1
1.11
I.ll 1.0 111 1.(1
43.2'1
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
28.34 42.54 100.00 26.84 31.89
3.tl5
7,0'1 75.40 27.M ~7 ..<;¡f, :\2,7ll 36.47 16.71 42,47 2ó.':l0 101.1.00
l.O 1.0 1.0 I.tI 1.11 1.0
44,1" 5'1.ó7 41.00 5064 100,00 25.63 M.tl6 I.n 1.11
1.0 1.11 I.U 1.11
1.0 1.0 1.11 I,n 1.11
6'1.37
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
I.lJ 1.0 1.11
I.U 1.11
St..t.7 ':l.:lN ~2.'>4
1!'I,n 22.WI 13.24 :\15l,l 2:\.óIl 101.).00 Stl.40 26,M 23.59 24.:lN :W.:lN
26.05 29.87 :\2.47 40,% 17.1-1K
1.n
J
I,n
33.27 24.77
1.0
~.tl2
n~
1,n 1.0
I.n
Ff"
sne, The relationships between the whitegrease índices of the two animals are displayed in Figure 1.5. The behavioral relevance of the index must be evaluated in this case by only two bodies of unambiguous data. During the course of gathering the data on summer consumption I asked a cooperating woman to save bones exactly as she wou1d if p1anning the rnanufacture of white bone grease. A similar request was made of two Eskimo women during the course of gathering a 2-week consumption record in April 1971. The women regulatly placed on the meat storngc platforrn bones selected from those that had been lntroduced to the residence for consumption. At the end oí the record period 1 then inventoried those seleeted and, in the case of the summer 1971 tl'Cord, quickly dispOSl'd of thl' offl'nsivl' pill'. Table 1.13 sumn1c1rizl's tht.·sl.· daté!, giving Iht' qUi1ntity uf l'a(h part intrlll.1lIl,.'t'd hl tht· n'lIj· dence during each period of n.·cmd and Ihe quantity that .1ppt·i1rl'd in Ihe sl'1ecl('d pil(' fm grl.·..se manufacture.
100
5
al
90
CE «C\J
BO
g...i
o LJJ U
70
O
60
~~
50
X
•
w(/) W «...J
•
.....
40
~¡:
w
20
:r: 3:
10
t:
i
• • •
LJJ al 30
LO
un
1.0
The greese índices for sheep and caribou were cornpared in order to evalúate the diíferences between animals of different species, The distríbution is linear and posttive, with a correlation coefficient of .96. The relationship is summarlzed by the equation y = 1.203 (± .0685) x + 1.286, where y is the whitegrcasc index for caribou nnd x is the whitegrease-index for shcep. ¡JI' I 'b•• we must concludc there is' ) 1"1' fU lFt'Rcebe t we9n 1(w..IWlt 1 'U. d 'n l~ 11 ,. 1 'b .i , (~" JI 'r eh 1 "'7tH ') d )I'PR"ta'il 'r in eh d'" ' . CS, However, as shown by the compansons between the values of the unstandardlzed index (eo1umn 5, Table 1.11), Ihl're is a large difference in thl' two .1nimals in the quantity of grease available. This dif~ f('u'nn' is nut b(·]j(·ved tv bl' a lIimp1l' Iim'ar fUllctiun of body size. On Ihe cllntTilry, the lluantity of grl'asl' rcndcrable fmm bones l'lppl'ars lit incn.'¡lSt' lu);.uilhmicé!lIy wilh body
I,n
XLl:\ 15.711 1.1.':\..1
12.~7
Evaluatlng the Grea.e Indlces
1.0 I,n
111 111 l.n I.n
1351
Done Greue and die Constructlon 01 GreoH Utllltv lndlcu
•
01
.' ' I !
O
I
1
.-- -.- -IV 4:V ~v "tu av 60
I
70
BO 90 100
WHITE GREASE INDEX (SHEEP) TABLE 1.12, COL. 1
Ln Fi~ure
1.5.
I(d,\ti.on~hip
b.'lwt'l'n whill'-I;U';lSl' indinos fur Shl'IT ,lOd c,lribt,u
a.y/".u;~,:]' - ~f,""w41
--
t1Mf('¿"h~
136)
í,
1M Econamla: ANito..., o/ Sh«p G,w C."bou
TABLE 1.13
T
Bon~ Greas~
(1M elle ConslrUctlon o/ Gl'ease Ulllltv1nd1ca
ce
1371
•
•
80n... Selected lor Ih. Manuf.ch,,¡r o, Whltl' 80n. Gre••• 1"11I' ·.I~' AUI:,,·.I 1-1, ¡"'1
Number intrl,lJun'J
Numbl" saved
Al'nl '. IH, 1'171
PNCl'nt"~l'
savt',l
Number introduced
Number saved
""
l'l'rn'nl,l~l'
•
savcd
o
Analomical part
(ll
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(ó)
so
so
~
2.0 20 30 7.tI 7.0 111.11
Scapula Proximal hcmerus Distal bumerus
Proximal radio-cubituw Distal radiu-cubitus Carpal.. Proximal metacarpal Distal metacarpal Proximal remur Distal femur Prn"imal tibia Disl.lltibi.l Tarsalx
50
J.O
4.11
4.(1
4" M.O
30
24.t1
JI.n
O O 11 75.0 1000 75,11 375 4.'>.H
10.0 2.0 2.0
40
O O O 3,D
M.O 11.1)
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11.0
14.11 40
lU
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u
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:n.1
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11 11 500
2.0
30
IOnu
30
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541 n
10
27.3
4.0
vn
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e.u
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IJ IJ
4.11 2.11 20
4.0
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11
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M.'
e.o
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25.11
APRIL
i.
.
considcrcd too small and th ...· work is omsidered too great for the yield. If thcsc parts are climtnatcd frorn the cornpnríson. that rclationship between percentagc parts sclccted goes up lo astonishing valúes of .95 and .91 for the june and April sarnples respectiveiy. Tbus, in this set of data we observe a phcnomenon similar lo that ObSCTVl'd in thl' data on marrow-bone selectlon-c-smal! parts. particularly phalangcs, are Ignorcd by thc conn-mporilry Nunamiut. lt is my cpmion that Ihl' degree to which low·value parts as measurcd by Ihl' scal ...·s pn'sl'nh.·d here Il'nd lu c111s!t'r is a nll'asurl' (Ir 11U' subsish'llCl' sl'ulrily l'njoYl'd by thl' J.:rtlUp. Thesl' par!.o.; Ml' bl'in~ lrl'illl'd
"calcgorically" in lhe bchilvioral dal.1 prt.'scnled and no di((erenct.'s amon); Ihl'm are bt.'in~ rl'cugnized. Wherl'il~ parls consid ...·rl'd
~
t.
fi3
ti;
~
ec 1971
... ,• ,..
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ee
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Figull" Lé. Rt'lationsnip between two SoHl1pl,'s {lf rones savod fllr bone gn',lsl' pn";t'<;<;ing
•
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311 4.11 4.U 12.{1
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O 4.0
30
4.tI 411
A!lbflllghllwl~'t-.·S
a
SO
42.M
bejween. ,flle~parts '~onsumed,-.duriJ\g,:,the sprill'R-period M1d.thosec()n...med-~ sltm~, there is a strong corrclation bctween the percentages of each part present that was saved for bone grease manufacture. Figure 1,6 displavs the relationship between rhe percentages for the two records.R ís clcar that the percentage uf parts saved I(J parts prescnt is a slrungly linear relationshtp. Figures 1.7 and 1.8 display thc pcrccntages for both sets of data with respcct to Ihe whitc-grl'ilse indexo Therl' ilrl' tour conspkuuusly low villul'S in hoth silmplt, pllpul'llions-thn't' villut's for Ih1.' ph'-lliln~I'S ilnd ont.' fur tht., carpals, ThL'sC parts are simply nut procl'sscd by th ..., contt.'mporary Nunilmiut for hum' gmls(' in~' uf tht'ir lluillily. Th,'y aH'
1:t-
5.U 5.11
57.1
11
Calcenccs Pnudm31 mL'lalilrsal l>lst,ll nwtatarsal fir,,\ phillilllKL' Socond phalilogl' Tnird pnill'-In~('
'"
11 100.0 3..1.3
4.0 3.0
O
Astr'l~.\lus
11 20
•
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k"'"lillllship bl'lwl'l'n lit.' Au~usl .,;r'·"~"·['t'IW ~,Ulll'k .md tll\' whilt·'.,;rt·.,St' ill,lt".
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TASLE 1.12 COL.2 (WH1TE GREASE lfaX) Figurt' 1.8, Rd,lll\>tl~llll' b.:lwL"'ll 11", Arril ~n"l~"[""l1t' So1tllf'I,' ,lnt! lh,' ",hil"'r.rt'.l~l· 1".11"
wf€ ¡ i1~. - ,;/il." ,>;w[t-f
f'f:'/.;; ;~ ~"t'tk
f"""l..b *) ~ l..k-k .f..kk - ¡-v..v...:
K'hda<.8'"'~
,
T 138)
J, 11Ie&onomlc A-tomy o/ Sheep ami CClrlbou
approprtate to elther ~n.·m;e pron'ssinJ; Uf marrow exrraction are sclectcd in nearly perfect proportions lo theie measured and anatomically based differcnces. In short. ... Nunamiu1_.eu~.,~11 i!l Icclse a .. undegtatldiQg;g .he se'ert;09 e' p , f rr fr~e- 'í1le~)~' fOQfjdgrpd appmpdate .0 1.... #r _T s paftitioning uf the--cmalnmy into categories of "uscful" and "uselcss" is a luxury of food abundance and high subsístence secunty. 1condudc thnt the grl.'asc index is .1 uSl.'ful analyticill tuo.l fur "pr,,'dkti~" bl·· h.wiur and "'vólluating (he m.lnncr of óllhUUlnical conceptualization charactcTislic .foIl the NunamiuL l'
i
CULTURAL BIAS VERSUS OBJECTIVE FOOD PREFERENCES
1 mentioned earller that I sought lo develop reference dimensinns tha! could bl' u~cd to
('vatuah" the rcsults of human behavinr as manifest in n.'¡alivl' frl'~lucnd\-'s uf fnunal re· milins. Th g an?'n=iQ'! eh ',.·'iwi ....' un sb'i:8oP aA d ca ti b e dewnp'trpted I~.(',~Q in fact ju~tJ(y~al.N..aIu~;;..1o !"
dil~t,¡¡¡¡¡jlOll
11O'JO""" ¡\LJ••sl.t!u<e
diffrrent--,-djmeDsiQns-mcal, marmw, and grl'ilSC, Som\-' R'adl'rs may objl'ct, arguin¡.; that Wl' do nol kmlw whl'lht'r men adually bl'haVl' dinll'nsionally in th1'51' ll'rms, or whdhl'r thl,'y aU' l'Vl'n knowl...'d";l'abll' of Ihl' diffl'rl'lln'~ Ih.11 h,Wl\ bl't'n dl.ll'Unll'l1tl'd. Otlwrs m.1Y ~.lY thal thl' r('alily 'lf anattlmkill diffl'rl'n(l's N'•twl't'n parts may wl'lll'l(' dishlrtl'd .llld nlolskl'd by (ultur.lI f.ll-Iurs dllrin~ .h:tU.1I dl.'t+,iI1ll111.1king. Thl' last proposition may be true in suml' cases. H"wever, we would never be able to recognize culturally biased behavior without l'xpeclations fOf behavior that was not culturaUy bialOed. Such ellpedations fUf unbiilsed behavior are provided by tht:' measured differenlia1 valul's of anahlmica} parts along lOt'veral dimt'O!lions. Civl..'n Ihl'SC dimensiunal scalcs wt' are in a position ttl evaluate the degree to which there may be patternl'd \'tiasin thl..' 'Klu'-11 bl,h.lvior llf pl"r~ons.
Tbe rcador may at thls pufnt agrt't' Ih.l( such a reference dimenslon may be useful, but he (Ir she may be skeptical as lo the degree to which actual human bch .. víor approaches such en informcd and maximízlng formo Wc havc seen. in a few highly controlled and dimcnsionally homogeneous examples of human dedsion-maklng, that at least in Ihl'Sl' sclccted cases behavicr appenrs informed and maxirnizing. However. we must now look into the subjcct uf food prcícrcnccs. A cornmnn idl'a Sl't forlh n 11"" m"sl ~l'nl'S. Wl' C\mr!u.h', lhl'rdon'. th"t l1alut,,1 ""II'.:Iiul1 has I;¡bl.'ll,d .hllt'n'nt-l\llilhty fno.Js wilh .lilkrl'lll pillillilb.IUil'lI' Ihat pill.,Ii1bilily is lht' Illt,,"holllblll by whio:h olf,imillso:hotl:'\l-Iht'irr......ls So..,s to m,n;irni/I' ltw nt'l "y,lh,,'" 1"'1 \inll' 01 wh'IllllI'Y ,',,111' 11>"'1
.
-¡...t~ )~-: ,'"
CU'f~J 8~~
lIe).W' ObJec.Jve Food Prf:/erencn
/
Such .111 urgumcnt al least sccms congrucnt with much humen cxpcricnce, pecple tcnd to like what is gcnerally availablc and nutritious. Howevcr, milny pcoplc likc thi(lgs that are seemingly netther abundant-ncrhutritious. 1''W89".e'lI'r.iMe:ii Tep,,,' ........potential variable in my l'est'arch, ,~~ NunaMitlt. Clcarly the WilY tu control Ior jhis variable was to interview persona and elicit thelr food preferences, lo ask the informants which piccos of Ihl' caribou thcy likcd mcst. This "ppears lo hl' a slr.lightforward, un\-°om· plk,'ll'll slfillt'gy. 'rhe bikirnu rt.,.llily turnt't! out lu bl' ntlt so straightfurward and uncom· plicilted, 1 could not make thcm understand what I ml..'ant by "likl' besl" or "your personal prcference," or "if you had unlimited parts of the caribou bd"re you-which part would you eat firsl?" Such modes of questioning elicited puzz!t'd slares and Ooods of questiuns. "Do YOII mt'éln in Ihe wintl'f, Of summl'r?" "Do YOll mt'nrl dllrin~ migrnti~lt1 hunt· in~ nr whcn Wl'
'9
o,·~..
c-.c '
{N'.
j./
l."
e¿·' " ,,' \
.¡
(
---.' ~~
_.
JI,'''/ ...¿., (39)
If having índíviduallzed Iood prefercnrcs is not something rcmmon to all men-e-an exprcssion uf human naturc-c-manlfcst in secmingly irriltional vanability, but is instcad .1 cultural phenomenon varying in its very existence, thcn it is somethlng to explain, not an explantory variable. It bccomcs .1 condition that must be speciflcd .1IlHlIl~ Ol,lIly othcrs subsumed undcr thc phrasc "cthcr things being equal" in any explanatory argument. lt is nut a crucial variable in terrns uf which gt'nefc1lt'xplanilliolls may bl' phrilsed. Upun rdte~tiun Iht'sl.' imprt.'ssiuns do oul appear surprising. If (ulturt' is Ihe expedil'nl assignment of meilning lo experience, thl..'n dearly there is nothing inht:'rt.'nt in an idiom of expression such as pl·rs(m.ll pr('fcrenc~s thilt will alw<1Ys l'xpress personill identíty, sorne· thing many believe to be expressed by all meno In sorne systems, this idiom of expression and st'lf-c(lnception m.1Y be dcvduped, in othl'rs dHrl'tl'nt idioms m,ly bt' l'mpluYl'd. lf the Eskimo du nllt unLit'rst.1nd Wh.11 is meant by pl'rsonal prcfcrences how e.ln one col1ect data on this allt'ged important variable? I simply had to change my striltt'gy and ilttempt lo elicit information on the filctors Ihe Nunamiut wilntl'd infonnation on bdurl' Iht'y CllUld ilnswcr",y lJlll'stiuns. In shllrt, Il'tt,'~.Hl tu SUrvl'Y tlll' d1ilfJdl'r l,f llll' nllltin~l'llól'S thJt the infurtlhlllts Ilt'l'Jt.·d spl'ófil'd bdorl' Ihey could .1IlSWl'r my qUl'stillns. Whtll f\,I· luws is il ~t'nl'rill stJ(eml'nt uf son1l' of Ihe filctors thl' infunn.ln!s nl'l'dt'd lo know hl'Í(lre !hl'y c\luld .1nSWl'r my qlll'sti¡ms.
Nunamlut Cholces o, Meat·Yleldlng Parte The faetors that". Nunamíu-t .evalwtes -in expressiAHq-fw~fl'~
(9[
('¡lri~u
.pafts..are
dymtlNr~NL.w~\I-MY,,wiJh-,seft${)J\.
Quite directly, the Nunamiut want tu know tht' size, fatness, and nutritionaI st.lle of the animal. These variabl....s changc with the seélSon. Bulls are generally prl.'fl'rrcd (ur meat, sinn.' thcy are larger and have mOfe fal. Cows and calves are preferred for thl'ir skin~, ('spl'ci.llly when rítw malt'ri.11 fur dl.,thin~ is snll~ht. Simil,lfly,
-
j
•
•
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E
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~
lO
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. ...• .. " .• ••~
~
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.¡:S2,..;,..;.,..;,..; ....
:J>~~!:::!-e~
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o
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o
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o
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o
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II l.
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'0
.i. lO
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r-
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~~-------- -~--
-
......
.....
(421
1. The Economk Anetom, of Sheep ond Ccrrlbou
cultural bias ilmong the Eskimo: it ls rathcr due to a lack of quelltetive Informntion un
proportíons of lat versus lean meet on the enetomlcnl parte evrduated by thu meat ulility Index. Th¡s demonstratcd relanonshlp woufd 1t.',ld ux tu (-'xpl'\'l lh'll f,lun.,1 frt''llll'l1dt's shuukll,:orrl'l,lh' wüh Ihl'lll'Vt'II'PI'll illlli,'('s 01 the cconomic anatomy uf caribou. since lt would appear that maxirnizing evaluattons domínate Eskimo decision rnaking.
Al the time uf the Intervlews I was.~DOI
tng,wüb.reapuctto,oompw.w-bones., Howevcr, all informants except one emphettcally in~ slstcd un evnluatlng Ihe proximal and dist.lI cnds (\f th..-' libia indcpcndvntly. Thcv wr-nnot insish'nl wlth rvgurd tn .lny otlu-r htll1t', bur in rvtrospwt I Ihinlo. lhl'Y wHuld IM\ll' índepcndently evnluated proximal ami distal ends of several bones. Nevertheless, the parte Iisted in Table 1.15are those for which evalua-
tions were obtained. Nunamlut Choice. of Sones for Marrow In attempting to obli\in ao informilnl
r.1nk~
ing oC marrow bOlles J hal! much Icss lroublc
wilh regard to both lhe comfor! uf Ihe iofor· manis and lheir demands for qualifying in· formation. They needed lo know only whether they were choasing bones during the spring or the fall. Jf 1 had been very astute I would have {'licited evalualions indcpcn~ dcntly under a fati and a spring assumption, however, at the time 1was still trying tn oblain lile prefer~nces. 1 stipulated that bon~s were from a caribou in good nutrilional condition and thal lhe time of year was fall.
At the time of interviewing, the qualitative essay of oleíc acid content had nut bCl.-'n pl..'rforml..'d and I was Un,lW,1fC uf thc ·'rl';)I" dif~ fcrcnccs in quality in marrnw al diff""f\'nl ends of lhe bones. Therefoft', I simply acccpll'd their distinction and did not follow up the matter to indude bones other than lhe tibia. With regard lo lhe tibia, typical commcnts were that the distal end was the best but the proximal end was not so good, Their volun· tary observations.,re intercsting in light uf the oleic acid studies, which show""d th,lt lht.' proximal end had oniy 54% low-melting~ point fal whereas lhe distal end had 71%, a difference of 17%. A diffl'rt.·nce grcaler thnn
T~-.---~I
thts Is indicatcd bctwecn the proximal and distal cnds of the radio-cubitua, 48% versus 67%. This 1" a diffcrence of 19 percentage potnts. yvt mi Informnnts insisted on mnking th,,, di~lin('lilln, In n'Il"IlSpl't-I, 1 am surprlscd by l!lis ,lTld (',111 "','j' no gOlltl n',lstHlS Ior Hu-ir bl'!\,IVitlr cxccpt pcrhaps .1 destre lo reduce tnterview cornpllcations. The fact that three informants did not recognize the pelvis, scapula, and calcaneus as rnarrow-bcarlng bones is indicativo of thc state of subsistence well-being among the contempor
1431 bccause (1f ambiguitics in thc intcrvicwing. and difficulties thnt informants exprcssed in equatíng phalanges to the other bones. Both old men, fur instencc. acknowledgcd the ph'11<111~t'S ilS n'.1rrn~ yil'ldin¡.!. ,md n'pllrlt'd lh,tl IIH's(' bom-s wvrc sYSklll,llÍl",llIy brokeu
by thcir í.rthcrs tor motmw during üu- pvriod of low canbou abundence: however, they added thet this was done when the Ieet were ~t{'n in a "pickll'd fonn." Both agrccd th"t pickling fcct W,1S u more cornmon Iortu uf consumptíon even then. The younger persons acknowledgcd the phalangt.'s as yielding marrow but argucd th,lt when thl'y Wl'rc processed for marrow it was for obtaining oí! fur waterproofing shoes. The older roen also spoke of this practice, but neither group .....as comfortable scWing phalanges along with the other marrow ones. The expressed choices of marrow bones are displayed in Figure 1.10 plott('d against tht' anatomically based marrow indc",. Once a~il.in
o
TABLE 1,15
0
Helad.,. Manow PNferencea o, Anatomk:al Pan. •• Rank.d by Eaklmo Inferna.nta
AI"I.l!<'lI1i(,lI p.nt
S.l'.
lJ.A.
Oislallibia Proximal tit>ia Mt'tatarsal Mt'lacarpal Radio-cubitus Ft'mur Iiurnl'rus Pdvis
1 5 2 3
3 3' 1 2
rhalangt"S~
Mandit>l ...
Sc,lr u 1a Calcant'us
,• 7
•
·· ·
•, , 7
J" 1
• 2 3 5 6 7
,
EH. 1 5 2 3
,• 7
,
EX
Total
S(u~
1
7
5 2 3
22
•
,, 7
, •
'(1
•
14 21
"", ",,
" Inftlrm1tnl did ""1 .tislint;uish b!:IWl'l'" disl.11 .ltld pmlia. ~ Infllrm,ml did m'l l'Vatua!l' !!lis p.nt. but kJ1\:w tn,lt il WilS " m1tTmw-yi('ldin,; par!. , Intnrmant \iid ""1 aeknowlt>d¡::'t· l'xisll'nn' ,,1 m.urnw in ¡ni!! p.ut. " Ehmin,\t\'d frllm ranking t>t-c,ltlSl.' uf ,lmbi~ullil's in int\,rvit'wint;.
(N)
,, ,, ,, 5
I
• , I
M'·.lIl V.llUl'
l.,
•••
1.8 2.8
42 ~.K
6.' tUI
," ,
• •u • •u • ••
S • •
'1,
'--'Me
. '" .-. ,
:j
•
0'
..,
"'" beFi8u~ 1.10. Rdationship twel'n infunn"ols' food prdt'rt.>nees and Ihl' m,uTUW indl'll.
-~
• ,
••~
x_x ti
•• •
P'ELV
o o,,,
·CAL
eMAN
• 'o o
'o
20
'" "" '"
MARROW INOEll
60
ro
80
'" ""
-1441
J. The Economlc Ancrtomv
there 18 a strlklng relatlonshlp between th~ choices made and the anatomically evaluated values of the bones. Much of the variance in this relationship derives frcm having independent values for the opposíng ends of the bones on the marrow index bul no such ditferentiated information for the informan! choice data. As in the case of the relaticnship between anatomically based seales of vnlue for meat we find that the Nurmmiut choiccs oí merrow bcncs are excccdingly realistlc and certalnly besed un a phcnomenal undcrstanding of tht.' anatomy uf the canbou. In both cases meat and milrr
.
~
o/ Sfw!ep tmd C"rlbou
statence secunty Ihan abandoning sorne parte because of the labor and consequent starving. Or, if the labor costs of procuremcnt are Vl'ry high-that ts, if thcre are tremendous labor Invcstments in procurcmenl in the forro uf both search and pursuit time (see Emlen 1973: 153-185 for a discussion of these distinctions}-then labor investments in transport and processing time are insignificant rclativc lo initial prrcurernent costs. Under such ronditions W\" might cxpcct littlc bchavioral conccm wilh th\.' rdalivt.' val u...' uf difft'(l'nt ilnatomical parts asexpr\.'ssI..'dby our anatumically based scales and in the choiees iIIuslrated by the Eskimo informants. The foregoing suggcstions can be rephrased as follows:
1. Under condilions of game scarcity when s('arch and pursuit time would Il(.'ct'ssarUybe high, we would expect milximizing to take the form of maximum utilization of available food regardless of labor costs in Iransport and proeessing, 2, Under conditions of game abundance Of incrf'ased subsisten ce security, wilh aecompanying dct:reases in search and pursuit time, we wuuld expect maximizinl1j to shifl increasingly to labor C'onsiderations with an incrcasing conver,gence bdw('('n utili7.ation fretlucndes" ilnti .1natomical sc.11(.·s uf utility as prL'sl'nll'd. Thl' propusition st't forlh in Ihl.'st'slatl'nwnts milY ur m.1Y not bt' .l univl'rsal lilW (lf bt,h.wi(ltilll'C(lIlomy. 1,"USPl'ct th.1til is, but !l'1 us t'tlllsitlt'r ih rolt' in ,lrdl.U'tllll.~it'.11 Ihin"ill.~. 1;lIr &lit' nUll1u't'I, Wt' ,',m- tl~'1mltlr".I",t·fl.. is univell5aÜy,<,t~~ Huw mi~h( W\.' USt' Ihis knowledge to incref'st' our c.bility tu give meaning lo static and contt'mporilry ar· chaeological facts? 1 believe we migh! use this knowledgC'a~ the justification standing b('hind an illstnwu'lIl (or nll'Osurl'/tl('"I, If thl.' propnsition i~ trut', wt.' might be able to use th(., dt.'grl't.'S ut wnvergence betwecn observed facl~ uf anatnmical part frequencies and anatomieally based scales of value as a direct m('asurf' of a variable
Cultural Blos ve,...,", ObJec:Uve Food Prqerencu
that we míght cal! suteístcnce S('t1lrity or the 5('curify state of the adaptive systcm being ob-
servcd. As an cxample, constder the thermomctcr. This is an instrument for measuríng a variable, dcsigneted temperature. We walk with confldence to the thermometer, read the scalc, and assert that iI ís 78°F. We have glven mcaning tu an observation uf the position uf a column of mercury against a graduated numerícal scale on a glass tube. Wh n t (In earth on- tlu- "intuitivv" rd,ltitll1:--hips .Il1HIll}; thl'Sl' Ihin~s? Nothtng \'('ry ubvious: our conñdcncc dt.'rivL's from uur knowk'J¡;..., of the "Iaws" uf the cxpansion uf Iiquids and gases under variable cunditiuns uf iI h('ated cnvironment. Kaplan (1964) states that "whether we can measure something d('p('nds, not on that thing,
1451 but en how we have ccnceptualtzod it, on our knowledge of It, above al1 On the skill and ingenuity which wc can brtng lo bcar un the proccss of measurement which our enquiry can put to use lp. 1671." Thus, if theoriginaleconom.ic~is ccrreet, we may operationah~nn' in~trom«nt for measuring lbe subNstenre security state of the systeJn,undef,llbse~1UOIl, As will be argued later, this Is an importan¡ volri.lbh' for undl'rsl.lOding vanability 01' human sysh'ms uf .1daptation both ~e(l~r.lphkillly .md ll'",· potally. Suggestions of Ihis typl.' art.' build· ing blocks in what 1 refer to as middk-rallgt' Iheory, Ihe tools whereby we give mcaning lo our observations on the archat.'ological record.
2 Sorne General Considerations: Butchering, Kili Sites, and Recording Procedures
Butchcriug (Ir disllH'rilb""rrJwnl has frcqucntly bccn trcated .1S the dynamic t.'xpressino of a set of cultural rules. The Nunamiut butrher animals one way and the Navajo do it another. If we treat butchering technique or dismembcrment strategy as an independent variable-e-that Is, free lo vary independently of ,lIly1hinv. hui ideatlonal plu-nonu-na Uf what llli~hl 1...· tcruu-d Ir.l
dinu-nsions: mcat. m.urow. ,111d ~rl"lsl'. 1.1Ssigned cach bonc Uf part uf él bOI1l.' a value un an interval seale from 1 to 100. vee may view these scales as analytically relevan! to human behavior in the following manner. Jf we assume that man is eontinually making choices as lo which parts will N' used for certain purpoSl,.'s, rncat consumption Ior ínstancc. a purcly Ill.tXiIUi¡;in~slr,I(l'~y would l'nsun'lllolt his first choice wuuld be the fcmur. sccond
choice the stemum, third choice thc ribs, and so un. In reality man is rarely Iaccd with such a context of decisión maklng. Originally the animal is complete ond thc W,l:rS in which if is dismcmbcred m"y condition llu- dq;n'~' to which ccrtain boncs arcliukcd tll othcrs in thc dccision-making pn}(l'ss. Jf thc normal pattern of butchering is to WnlOV(' the metatar5<,15, tarsals, and phalangcs as ,1 unit, lcaving the tibia and fcmur articutated. then selcction for lht' Iemur would mercase thc sclccüon Ior the tibia lar bcyond 1I11' probabilith-s illdic.lt~'d by its objccñvc valuc. Man rorcly tn-ots thc
1471
·.~._,--
[481
2. Some Ge_rol CO/dI;k".tJoM: Butcherlng. Kili SlIn. _nd Recordlng Procedure.
animal as a population uf totnlly independent parts. Instead, decisions lo kcep or dlscard parts are ccnditíoned by the character of thc dismemberment unirs, sets of bones if you will. Howevcr, we may retum to our original qucstion. What determines or conditions lllt.' way men dlsmcmbcr animals? Is this nn indepcndcnt variable-e-n purcly cultural bi.'S---tlr is It conditioncd by situanonal and cconomic conditions? Kecping this qucslion in mind, Id us explore the butchering procedure of thc Nunamiul Eskimo.
BUTCHERING PROCEDURE Nunamiul butchcring is not 01 singlt' 01(:1 but a series uf acts beglnning whcn 11w animal is killed and continuing .,t various junctures untll Ihe animal is totally consumed or dlscarded. Nunamiut butchering can as a result be discussed in terms of two categories: NUriAI or primary field butcheríng. and :.:at~he" or secondary~~ieW btjlt"hering. I 5h.,1I discuss Ihe two junctures al which bUlchcnng
pened upon caribou while trnvehng. The gcneral pnttern is for the hunter to take a dog tcam out to thc vicinity where hunting is nnticipated. He then ~ 001 thc teem and procecds on foot to vanees advnntagcous honting positions (see Figure 2.2). This is done primarily to cnsurc that thc activitics uf thc dogs do not ~~. the caribou. Thus IIH' huntcr does not, al thc time of the ¡niti"l ñeld butchcring, have immediately available a rncans for transporting thc mcat. Tlu- butchercd animal is usually cached un thc tundra to be picked up la ter. When snowmobiles are used the hunter follows a different procedure. Although snowmobiles are much noisier than dog tcems. thcy are silcnt when pnrkcd. l lunters use 1111'lH lo go dirl'(lly tu hunting stands. This dirt.,l'! availability of transportation near the kili sito is une oí the reascns that the snowrnobile is rcplacing the dog team. where transportation-ceither snowrnobile or dog sled-is available, the slaughtered animal may be loaded on the sled or dr,'~ged unbulchered back lo th e villagc, bul unly if Ihe hunler has dccidl'ti to abandon hunting f(lf thl' day. Ouriog Ihe caribuu migrations, wht'n ilnim,11s
1491
Butcherfng Procedure
~
h.~
~~~~.- j~-" • •~'{Figu~ 2.1.
1l11' n'ffitlVal uf the tendcrluin ffllm
il
~ ... .
." ! ; : .
sprin~-killl'd cilribuu
.
-
.-,.
l-PJ~I' .. riKUI\' 2.2.
I).,~~ '1,1\...~I"\It ,'1 ,1 IHllltil1~ ~1,Hl\L
Fill:u~ 2. .1.
!I 11"'.11,,1\lit' "11 lln' hl1l.lr" in ,.,11
[501
2. Some Ge"~' Coru'derotloru: 8utche-l"In•• Kili S'w. ClndRecord'", Procedure.
~~ Fisuf"C' 2.'.
A
m.','. '.ldw .1Il IIU' lllndr,l in 1.111.
problem becomes more acute, so that animals may be butchered Into smaJler anatomical umts and more parts considered of marginal value may be abandoned al the cache sitc.
Duriog late spring, summer, and early fall, human porters or pack dogs (sec Figure 2.5) are tbe only means uf transporting meat into the village. Animals must be butchercd into unils of rclntively srn,,1l sizc, and t1wn' is a grcatcr tcndoncy In nb.mdon perts ll( l1lolrgin.ll
utihty. During these Sl'¡¡SOnS, the huntcr is invariably on foot, and when he lea ves the
village for a day's hunting he goes without pack dogs, since they are difficult to control while he is hunting. If he is successful in hunting he may pack a fE'w choice parts of the animal or animals killed when he retums to the vmage. Latl'r hl' gOl'S back to Ihe l'e1Chl'S wilh pack dllgS (Ir members of his fall1ily lu • hdf him bring the meat back. I a hunter plcms to be gone on an overnight trip, he will generally take pack dogs with him, est..blish a hunting camp, and Ic;tve the dogs thcre while he gOl.'S out on {(lot in Sl'arch of gamc. If he is successfulnnd is n long way from Ihe villilge he will Iry to bring back as much usable meat as possible in lhe dog packs. lf he has not had to abandon large quantities of meal because of pack space Umilatians he will not consider it worlhwhill..' to me,ke e' rdurn trip, and simply ;:¡b,1O"hlll thos",
parts of thc killcd animal consídcrcd of rnnrgincll utility. The sequencl' of butchering. initial and sccondary, may well etso characterize the acticns of the hunter operating out of él hunting campo 5ince he is on Ioot he may succeed in making a kili. If the kili is in a location where he can expect to bring in his dogs, he will initially butcher the animal, select a few choice picces, and return lo his hunting camp with thcm. He may consume these pieces in the hunting campo Latcr he will rcturn tu thc rnched onimal with thc pack dogs .Il1J IH."J thcm lor il retum lo the village. Secondary butchering m;ty t.,kl' place "1 thn! time dl'pl'miing un tludcgrce uf initia! butchcring. I have stresscd thc fnct that two separare butcherlng epísodes may characterize the treatment of en animal before it is introduced into the village. This is impurlanl because of the condition of the body afh.'r "'XPUSUfl' tu freeaing tempera tu res wbile it is cachcd. Differcnt butchering methods nn' thcreforc uscd for initial and sccondery butchering during seasons charecterized by frl.'i'7.in~ temperaturcs. During al! S\'ilsonS uf Ilu- Yl'.H 1111,.' huntcr gcnerally initially huldll"rs ''''/llr,' 1111,.' body of the animal is Irozcn. A sharp cutting instrument is the butchering tool and dlsmembering is accomplíshed bycutting #¡etweell the articulator ends of bones, thereby lellving the bones inlae!. During seasons charac· lerized by freezing temperatures, an animal cached overnight will bt.' frozen, so secondary fidd butchl'ring musl bt", i1l"l"umplishl'ti 11I1 ,1 fmZf'1I ¡" ••Iy. A knife or smell1 sharp butchering instrumenl is ineffkienl and ¡¡n ax or a S.lW is used. Before thcse tool5 were available axcs madI.' of Alaskan jadc wt.'rl.' used. Only if the ax is I.'xtn'ml'1y sh.up is it possibll.' to ('ut Ihrough Ihl' joints. So 11ll' Nunilmiut USl' ti1\' ax as 01 rEludf3jcon and break thl' Iimb blmes in midsha or ¡Usi abt>vc fhe distal end, dt.'pl'nding on Ihe bone. They Ihcn Iwist Ihl' limb .,nd either chop Ihe frozen meat loose or cul it loose with a knife. This breaking, twislinK, and choppinglcuttinK procedure is also uSl'd to disml.'mbl'r Vt-'rl\'br.l(' emd ribs.
R~<:ordf!d CO.f!" o/l,.wol
•!·t· ;~
'. c··...
1511
Fleld BCd<:herlng
\
.', ~......, .v,
.. ~ Fig"'~
2.5.
_\ I
A pack dog being loadcd Ior sumrner transpon.
RECORDED CASES OF 1NIT1AL FIELD BUTCHERING Thl' cases thill follow Wl'rt.' !'c1cdl..'d from my fl'cords tu iIIuslrate bulchl'ring variabilily elnd the conditions Ihat favor variability.
September 1969: Elght Carlbou Co",. and Y"'o Calves In Septl'mb~r 1%9 the villilge was short of meat anó sent three hunlcrs \)ut in él chartered plane in search of caribou. AlI animals killed werc lo bt.' l'llually distributl'd among the vill.ll;\'rs, In blltchl'ring, the hllntt'rs had to con· sidl.'r Illl' fap.lCity of Ihl' ple'.1l' clnd Ihe timl'
involved, since any animals killl'd had lo be transporled back lo the ville'ge iOlml'diatelx in tlw pl.lIll', ,md 111(' r,,'nl 1111 111(' pl.111l' \\,,\S l~\' tlw hour. Although this particulclr Silu.llivn is unique in that a chartered plane was involvl·d. "imil.u situations might arisl' undcr morl.' trildititlnal hunting conditions. iluntl'rs art.' frl'l1uently pressl.'d for time bCCclUSt.' of ,'ppnl,lching nightfall or changing weillhl'r nmditions. Similarly, when meat suppli\'5 MI.:' Inw hunters far fmm basl' Célmp using dog sll'ds il~ transporl may butcher and remove the kili immediately lo avuid a n..t urn trip. Ten anim;tls--8 CtlWS and 2 calVl's-had lx'en shut, out (If il smill\ hl'rd of 12. Thl' Iha'c
---------------.r
7
·
......
,
1521
2.
Som~
Genero' Cons'drrotJo"": Sulcherl,.., Km SUn, ond Record'", Procedurea
men dragged tbe animals together and pro("~d"d 1" ildd buleh", 111,,11I ,.ipidly. 'l'hey flrst cut thc hende (lff .,11 the l"OWS, lIslng a kmfe tocut between the occipitnlcondylcs and
tbe atlas vertebra. For 6 of the cows they then cut between the carpals and the distal cnd of the radio-cubltus to remove the metacnrpals, and between the tarsals and the distal end of
the tibia lo remove the lower rear lcgs. Alter making a cut from jusI ~Iow the poinr of the slernum lo the anus up "nd around the ¡eh sirle, the hunters removed Ihe abdominal con· tents. They Ihl'n cut the (()ws in h.,If, sl'vl'ring thl' bilCkhonl' jusi bdnw lh", L\st lhoracil' V\'Ttl'bra. Nonc of thl' .mim.lls Wl'rt..' skilllWll. Tlw c.llvcs werc simply gutted and relurnl'd com~ plete with heads and metapodials. The huntNS Idt al the sitc eight unskinned cows' hC.lds hl',ltiS wilh arliculall'ti anlll'r~. six Idt ,lnd six right .uticulalcd lowl'r front Icgs unskinned, ,lnd six Idl and six ri~hl ólrlil"ulah.'d IOWl'r n'ar Il'gS unskinm·d. In addilion were Ihe sepolrah.' piles of abdlll1linal contenls from Ihe animals.
the centcr of the stcmum, Ihen pullmg tbc lIíí Unl legs. Nl'ld, he mado a cut afong the ventral surface nf thl' ncck down thc animal ncrosa thc ccntcr of the slernum, thcn arching up illong thc base of the ribs and across the abdomen (offset to one side so that most of the bclly skin W.1S removed as il unit) nnd down to intersect thc convorging cuts from the Tl'¡Ulcgs al the anus. He began working the skin off one side of the animal ,1t ,1 time, starling al lhe rearo The hunter removed the abdominal contcnls by making il circul,u cul
skln t1üWI\
October 9, 1969: Nlne Bulla During Ihe ht:'ighl of Ihe fall caribuu migratillO a single hunter killl'd ninl' bulb oul uf a I"rger herd that passed IU'.lrhis hunling stand during ¡ille ilftl'rnoon. Thl' hunh.'r ilb.lI1tJ\JIWd further huntíngami bc.'g'lnthl' lilSkufbutdwring. The dead anim,lls were e1uslen'd in " small Mea su the hunter dragF;ed lhem togt'llwr
October 5. 1969: One urge. Mature 8ull Cm' (lf Ihe hunters first rt'mllvl'd Ihe hC.'ul1s of Ü:lober 9. The body was leH on lhe skin while thl' legs were f(·movl·d. Culs were madt' into lhe .ll"d.lblllllln frofllll1l' Yc.'nlr.11 sidt' .111\1 lll\' n',lr Il'gS Wl'f(' f(·111t1vt.·...1. Cu(s Wl'f(' 111.1dt· frtlm 111(' Vt'nlral surfaCl' uf tht' animal, f('sulting in IIw n'l11uY.II (lf thl' t'l1lin.' fW111 Il'¡'; I'Omplt'll' wilh ,111.1dwd sl".lpul,l. '1'111' Iq;s Wl'n' st.1c.·l..l'd !tI 11111' ...id.' .ln.! .1 nll W.l·; 111.1.1.· .lnwll 1111' 1"Il}',lh 01 lht.' Vt·rll'br.ll flllUlI1l1 un l'itlll'r !'oidl' uf tlll' dtlrs.ll vl'rh'hr.d spim·. Nt'xl, ., lr.ll1svl'r~t' nll was made jusi aboye Ihe tail, and lhe tender¡oins with aUached back sinew were remowd. A crescenl-shilped cul ~madl' .llong the b.1St· of the rib cagl' and up arounJ thl·Il'f1 side uf the <1bdomen lo Ihe anus; the abduminal orJ;ilns, t.'xcepl for thl' kidneys, Wl'rl' Iht'l1 pulled from thl' CilVity. l1ie'"kilTheys Wl'rt' Il,ft
Recorded Coses 0//"11I(11 Fleld 8ulchering
attached tu Ihe socrum-lurnber area. Thc carthcu rollod 011 thl'!elt slde Mtl a cut W<1S madc down tlu' arca of ,111.,....hml·nt be~ twecn thc ribs nnd thc stcmum. A sccond cut was made bctwccn thc sccond and thtrd rib from the stcmum to Ihe vertcbrae. The slab uf ribs (third through last] was then yanked up abruptly, cracking thc heads of the ribs at their point of articulation with the vertebrac. The knife was then quiály TUn along Ihe cracked heads fo cul imy adhering mea! or carlilage and the slab of ribs WilS piled on the legs. Next lhl' heart, lun h ..., ¡1l1l! br(lnchi.11 lubes were rl'lnOVl'd .1~ .1 uníl. TIll' briskl't W.1S rl'moved by l'lIt1ing "[lIn~ 111(" ~·.lrlil,\ginlllls col1nl'dion~ to the othl'r hall uf tl1('ríb cage. lhe Idl SI.lbof ribs Wil5 Iht.·n removed as in lhe eilrlier descriptio!l. Nexl Ihe sacrum was cut from the I.lstlumb.lr v~'rlt'br.l .H1d I1w S.llTltlll wilh lhl'
C.1SS W.1S
October ]8, 1969: One Young Cow The animal bulchl.'red W<1S .1 young cow with relativdy small anllers; its skin was desired forclolhing. The butchcr tumed lhe cow on its back ilnd mtldl'.l cut fmm lhe típ of Ihe distal l'nd uf the m.lndiblc down the ventral side of tht' nt.'á, sll'rnum, ilnd abdoml'n, tu the <1nus. Thl'n ht' made circular culs around
1531 both front lcgs [ust above thc hoovcs, and Mlllther cut alcng thc dorsal surfnce ul thc leH íront Il~g, cnablíng hirn lo work thc ski n 1005t' up to lhc trunk. He milde .1 circular cut around thc lcft rcar Il'g just .tbove thc hoof. thcn anothcr cut along thc ventral surfoce of thc lcg to the anus. Again, he worked the skin off the leg down to thc trunk. Ncxt he workcd the skin off the Idl sidl' of the ilnimal up to Ihe neck. At this point. he skinned the head and face, carefully working around Ihe ('yes, moulh, and antlers. He T('moved one élntll'r lo fildJit.ltl' skinning, lhl'n worked thl' ~kin off tflt' ri~ht sidl', piling it tn Ol1l' side. By (ullinR along Iht.,crokh ilnd sl'Vl'rin~ thl' .1lt,Khrnent~ within Ihe ilcl.'tabulum, he rl'mll\'ed Ihl.' righl rear quarler; by culting the scapula loose fmm Ihe body, hl' removed lhe right fronl quartl·r. TIll' culs Wt'rt' m.lde frlltn 11lt' Vl'1lIr.l1 :O;Urf,ll"l' inl{Jtl1l'ilrea betwel'll thl' ribs ¡1Ilt! lill' Sl:.lpul.1. Whilt·tht' animal W.1S Iyin~ (l11 ils Idt sidl', the huntl'r cul duwn Ihe Il'ngth of the bilckbom.' illong Ihe dorsal verlebr.1] Spil1l'S and pulled lhe tl'nderloil1 élnd back sinew loose frmn Ihl' ribs ilnLf v....rtebr
[541
2. Some Genero' Co",'drrgtlOnll: 8utcherfng. Kili Sltu, and Ruonf'''9
from fronl lo back, and a second cut trom the stemum to the vertebrae between the second and third ribs. He pulled the rib section abruptly up, cracking the heads of the ribs al their attachment with the vertebrae. Grabbing the slab of ribs al the rear, he pulled it up and forward as he ran his knife along the cracked heads. Ireeing the rib slab Irom the vertebrae. The ribs were then piled lo ene sirle. With his hands the hunterlifted thc heart and lungs out of the thoracic cavity. then freed them by a fcw short cuts. Then he placed hls knife inside the thoradc cavity al the poiot of th(' sll'roum and Tan iI fllung Ihe att.,chments bt.'lwt:'cn Ihe slcrnum ¡md Ihe right rib stab. He bent lhe slernum, oc brisket, down and, holding it at the rear, pul1ed it up and forward whilt;' running his knife along the broken cartiJage, thus removing lhe- brisket. Using the one rem.1ining antier i1S a h.mdhold, he twish.'d the h..-.,d countcrdockwisc. He m"d..' il cut duwn to the bone just behind the second rib, and removed the complete head, the cervical vertebral', and the firsl lwo thoradc vertebral' with atlached arliculated ribs as a unit. Running his knife along the base of the remaining rigbt slab of ribs and back to the crolch, he freed the diaphragm and the abdominal musc!es completely. This compleled the field butchering, and lhe followíng parts were loaded on fhe sled (see Figure 2.6) fur transpurt bilCk tu the vlllnge; aH four leA"complete; the head, neck, ilnd tirst two thur.lCk v..'rt,,'bra..' wilh atlach..'d
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figuft :Z.fi. Fit'ld-buld\t'r~'J loading on il sll"d.
(ilrilll.JU
par!s
rt'ady
fllT
~urn
ribs: the spinc complete from the sexond thoradc vertebra down wilh attached sacrum and pelvis as well as the attached nbs of the right sirle; the brisket. the rib slab from the left stde: the skin; the liver, the bearf and the sheet of abdominal muscles. Leí! at the site were these parls: a left antier, the stomach and smnll intestines, the lungs, and the hoof of the left rear foot. which WitS shot off during killing.
October 7, 1969: One Calf This calf W.11O butch..'rl'd ilcolrllíng lo Ihl' pmcedurc describl'd in Ih... prl'ü'ding St.'l'tion, with Ihe foilowing exceplions: The animal was skinned from the rear quarters forw,1rd and both slabs of ribs were removed fnlm Hu' verlebrae as ín the case of the bul! nf Oct~lb..'r 5 previously described. Th.., S,l(TUm and pl'lvic uni! were sl'par.1ll'd fwm Ihl' I.lsllumbilf Vl'r· tebra as in the case of th.., butchering of the bull. Of inteTesl was the fact that the hunler was accompanied by a woman. While the hunter was butchering thl' anímill, she stripped aH the meat from th,,'ldt fl.".lr quarter with .,n ulu (an Eskimo woman's knife) and rracked the femur, tibia, and metatilrsal for marrow. She did this by holding th..' b.~)IWS in her ldt hand and striking the bon ..' ,with a sharp hltlw just bdow thl' ilrtkul.llor l'nd with th.., handlt.'llf.1 knifl'. Sh.., th..'n ~r.,hbed Ihl' tlrlkul.llnr l'nd ,lnli lwiskd .•md ít l·.lIlW fn'l' wilh a typiCi.d sriml fr,lclufl' úlmmunly 1l0ll'lt by studl'nls (l an:ha"'lllngicótlbUIll'. This llwlhlld of brt'aking fn'LJu..' ntly TI.-'sulls ín Ilw rrnduction of 1\ few small bone chips from Ihl' impact area. The shaft of the bone norm.llly r..' mains int.1C! but has spiral fral-Iure!i al both ..'nds. In Ihis case Ihl' woman uscd tht.' knitl' Huil' .lOd.1 sharpened wil10w stick to dig Ihe lnarrnw frum Ihe cavily in the articulator ..'nd. Only tht,' stkk was uSl'd Íllr pushin~ thl' m;)rrow froll1 the Sl'ctilms uf hom.' sl,.,ft. AII tlll' disllH'llllwn'd p,uh .llld Ihl' s"'in Wl'rl' lrilnsptlrh'd hoh"l. h' 1Ill' vill,I¡';I' bv sl\,\1. Rl.-'maining at Ihe sill' Wl're Ih..' brokl"ll' hlll1t'S of the left rear quarter and lhe artkulill,,'d ¡eft rear fool.
Cachfng ond Secondary Ffe/d Butderlng
CACHING ANO SECONOARV FIELD BUTCHERING
In April 1971 I went te Anaktuvuk to obsl!rve.tltehunting of earibou during the spring migr~li~ in the hope of -dócüHí~'aif ferences between .spring~and'~H...tnmting strittrgies. 1 arrived on April 3. Twc days before I arrived a large storm had deposited sorne 4 ft'l'l of ncw snow nn thc North Slopc and in the Brooks Range. The Eskimo predlction that this new snow would delay the c.uíbou in Ihl-'ir spring migration was cnnfirrlll-'d, ilnd l WilS forced lo Idurn to my univl'rsHy dUlit's prior lo the caribou migration. This was a disappointment, but the unusual situation provided me with the chance to ubsl'rve the Nunamiut during a minor crisis. No amount of ethnographic planning ((lUid havc antidpilll'd Wllill happened. A Elu l'p.dl'lllk h.1d rrl'vl'ntcd the huntl'rs from rl'gulilrly going uut in search fur game Ihe prt;'vivus week. There was a shortage of meal in Ihe village, for two reasons~ First, the meat remaining from the slores accumulated during th~ previous faH rJ'Iigration and a period of winter hunting amund Christmastime had been almost lotally used up; sorne families wert.' completdy out of meat. Second, the stllfm had been accompanied by very high winds, rl'su1ting in an llllllSU,1\ .1crumulalinn (If lOlH'W un t1ll' hmdr.l. SlllT1.., f.lmilies Wl'rl' un.lhlt' hl ¡ocalt' Ihl'Ír me"t c"dws bl'caust' uf tlll' drifls. I .1t·l.'Ump.mil'o sl'v ..'r.11 tlf thl' huntl'rs un Sl',Ul'hl'S Íllr ml'at c.1Ch..,s, ;lno observ,,'d tht' n'\·uv..'ry uf 111t'ilI (mm lhesl' c.lches. These expl.-'rit·nc('s gave me firslhand knowledgt, of huw Ih..' caches were used and uf the schedule follllwl'd in Ilrt'níng t1wm and rctuming the ml'.ll Itl tlll' Vill.1gl-'. This information enablt'o me lu queslion the Nunamiut ahout caching in an informl'd W.ly. I alsu leclmed lhal up to thal pointl had sufferl-'d from ¡¡ ~ivt.:. perspective .1S to tlll' naturt.' of (he winter l'nvinmml'nt. Recovl"rlng Meat from Cache8 durlng Wlnter
Al tht, tíme of the fan and winler 1%9 field observations 1 had att~mpted lo determine
[551 when the meat cached on the tundra would be returned to the village. The Nunamiut said that they brought in the meat whenever they needed it, Observations made in April 1971 confirmed this enswer, and l leamed that several diffcrent sets of conditions surround the recovery of meat from the caches. A description of these conditions follows. On the morning of April 12, 1'~7L .1 huntcr was observed laylng out Ilw dog h.1Tlll'sses and hitching his dogs to his sled. Upon leaving trie vul.lge we he,ldl'd dirl'clly up Anak· tuvuk Valley ¡¡nd jnto Anaktiqtauk Valley (sl'e Figures 5.2 and 6.15), cro!"osing the low flats near the mouth of Ihe Anaktiqt.1Uk River, where most of the remaining meat caches were located. We proceeded up the valley lo the point at which lhe river branches into north and south forks. Therl' he cheáed Ihree oí his traps ami foulld the fr07.:en budy of a large red fox in one. He rt.'covered the fux .1nd placed ir on the front of the sled. He had not brought any meat with which to bait the trap, so we headed south across the valley in se.uch of a cache of moose meat left there around December 14, 1970. On the slope to fhe south of a .....ilIow stand (point 7 on Figure 6.15), he localE'd the ends of moose antlers ,1bove the snow. Tied to theseantlers were small strips of patterned blue r1oth. The hunter comment,,'d Ihill Ihis W.l!; hisc,lt'hl.', Ih.1I hl' rl'll1l'lllhl'Tl'dif~ locatlon by a I.lr~t.· roo.:k still visibl.., ilbo\'t' thl' snnw somp 40 ft'l'l lo th.., l'<1"1. Hl' .llso ~'Clm mented Ihnt hl' b<1d tom up <111\1 uSl'd .1S .1 mo1rk..'r the c10th (Over of his wift."s last wint..'r park<1 "drcss." "No llOe cisc in lh..' villag..' mo1rked theircaclll'5 ""ith my wifl"s dn'ss!" H..' began digging aw.1Y the 1005e sno\\' .1rtJund the antlers with a snow scoop. orc.lsionally kneeling down and scoopjng snow with his handsand arms. Under the n'ceot sno"" WilS a very hard layer of comp.lcted windblown snow. The hUnlt'r wt'nt lo thl.-' sled and rl'tllTlled wilh his al(. Hl' bl'~an choppjn~ this h,lrd bul n(JO-ict'd ;-;IHlW a\\',!\' lrl'lll tlw (,ldw in dnmks th.lt bn1l..l' .1\\'.\)' wilh t',I~h hlo\\' fmm Ihe ax. He continucd until h..' (lluld pull the head of Ihe moas€' out by its an!lers. The ~ad been chopped off at Ihe time of the
j
1561
2. Some General COM'cWratJom: Bu'c/lmntl. Kili Sita. ond Rec:on!'ng PtwrduIY.
kili and cooked ovcr a (irl.!' kindlcd by his
huntingcompanions whi~~\ busy skinnmg and butchenng t ~. nder the head the skin of the se w visible. He then began slipping the -po nted end of his snow probe under the snow and alcng the skin, breaking up large chunks of the rornpacted snow end eventuatly excavating the mound of meat covered by the ski". NeM the edges of the ski n he encountered iced snow, which
WilS
Vl'ry hard and had adhl'rl'd lo thl.!'
mnosc skin. Ag.lin usil1~ his ax, hl' rhoppl'd around Ihe edges, (inally freeing one edge. The two of us pulled Ihe stiff ff(lZt.'11 .c;kin back, revcaling Ihe butchered p.1tls of lhe moost'. He took out one rear quarter and re-covered Ihe cache with the skin, pladog the head on topo He also kicked snow back over Ihe cache. We returned lo his trap, which hl' b.,ited with part of 11n' ml'al. Till' n'lllolimll'r 11( tlw lllHIl!OC Illl'at w ..!' ¡aslll'd un lup uf 11lt.' (Olil. hudy m'.u the fronl uf Ihe slt.,d. Wl' thl'n prtll.'I'l'dl't.J .. snort dislance up thl' north furk of th ... Anaklillt'luk, Wht'rl' Wl'sighll,d fiVl'cilribou high on IhC' sides uf Ihl' muunt,lins. Thl' cMibou Wl'rl' nwving sluwly, in a nurthl'rly din'dion. The hunler commenled thal he could not ..pproach the caribou directly, since we would be etlm:ing and they would run along the sides o 1 e Olountain leaving us far behind. We would hilve lo go quickly along Ihe valley floor, getling in (ront of thl'm, and Ihl'n wc would have lo move inlo a small valley, dimb the mountain, and lay in wait for them. We followed Ihis plan but not long after we were in po~ition Ihe cMibou turncd up a small draw high on lhe mountllin imd pruc:ecded directly up 'he mountain, presumably to gel inlo the valley on Iheother side. The hunterc:onduded Ihnt we had no chance of gl'tting Ihl'm at this point and Wl' wenl bac:k duwn lhe valll·Y. We stopped al a large stand of tall, matuTe willows and the hunter began chopping firewood. We loaded the sled with a respeclable pile of willow brllnches and we moved off in the direction of the village, returnin,:; ilftl'r the sun had set. I asked thl' huntl'r why hl' did nut In.,d Ihl' 1l11'.1! frlllllllh' ll1uosl'l·.lcht·.llt-t'xplaillt'tllh.11
thcre werc pnrts uf threc cartbou quarll.'rs :-;till en his roof and he had the partial renr quarter from the moose. He had meat but they hnd burned all the flrewood the previous night. He leugbed, saytng that a hunter never comes back empty-handed. "lf he Is unsuccessful in finding game he can always brtng back ñn-wood, thet is something onc always neods." On the moming uf April 11, 1911, Johnny Rulland, an unmarricd huntcr, inforrncd me Ihat he was guinH uut tu a ml'at l",ll"hl' .lm' ,lsked if I w;lIlll,d Iu F;0 .. luIlA' Ill' dl'.Hly h.1d anticipated that J would go, since he had a large Sll'd and ,1 12·dog lea m already hit(·hed. I qUickly galhered my camera and noll'buok and c1imbed onlo his sled. He slraddll'd thl' sled, pulled back on Ihe dog traces, whistled, and Ihe team moved out al a swift pace along lhe snow lrailleadin,:; (lul (lf Ihe Vill.1Al' ~llinF; Iltlrlll. It was .1 l"uht ll.IY (.lpproxim.ltt'ly -·.12"1') ami 11ll' wind W¡lS (mm t1ll' l1orlh. Tlw wind on our fílCl'S W¡lS biling, so Wt' ~lth h,ll! pulll'd Ihe wulf ruffs uf our p,nkílS forw.nd tn makl' a kind uf lunnl'1 nut in frlmt uf ulIr f.l(l'S. Thl' dtlgs knew thl' Ir.lil ilnd both uf liS s,ll ()Il the Sll'd, mun' (nnn'rned with kl.'l'pinF; 1111..' wind off our faces than with where Ihe dogs were going. As we approached the Jow (hills) just south of Surnmit Lake, Johnny Rushed back his parka ruff and called lo the learl dog, who responded immediately by taking lhe Wl'st branch of a furk in thl' Sll,d Irait Wl' tJwn proct.'eded the fl'maining 4 mill's along th l· west side of Ihe valley without additional commands to the dogs. As we apPrtlached Ihe mouth of Kongumuvuk Wl' saw il sm,lll irl' /akc fornlt'd In a sw,lll' (sel' Figure 7.2b), In summer Ihis is a low wet arca or smalJ ice field. But in winl('r the nearby springs continue lo fCl,d undl'r Ihl' l'arly faU in', which aets as a dam. Water flows over lhe icl', and gr,ldu.llly layers of ice arl' built up, forming an t'xknsivt.' ice lake. This particular lake W.lS uf clear aquamarine ice with a large ice blister ncar lhe north sidl'. Such blislers Me commun; as ic:l' cxpands il sumt'timl's cr.1ck.<;, ftlrdn~ up nmienl blisll'rs ur Iim'ar rid~l's. soml'linws ,1S mUl"h i1S 12 tu I~ fl'('l,'lbuvt· Ihl' Íl'l'll·Vt'). Tht, wind h'nds lo "nWlllh .u,,1 rtlnnd Iht'sl' ¡'li.."
Cachlng and Secondary Flrl'¡ Butehertng
tcrs, glóll,illg thc surfucc su thnt the in' arcund thern is vcry slíck nnd difficult tu walk en. As
the dogs approached the area 01 slick ice they slowed considerably and began lo walk rapidly wlth their legs spread far aparto Because of our weight and that of the sled we began toslip sídeways and to travel somewhat faster than the dogs. lohnny urged the doga on and as thcy increascd their pace the sled straightcncd out. On a SIOPl' directly north of Ihl' ice lnkc Johnny brought thc dogs to íl Slllp. A short disl,mn' uf' 1111..' SI~lpl'. lIno.lllllt·rs of " bull Glribou wt.'rt' visiblt' abovt.'lhe snow. This was a norlh -south orienlt'd kílme. so the snow accumul,ltion along Ihe sides was reliltively sJighl. Bccause the winds that blow through the valley are fmm eilher the sourh or the north, snow accumulates "Iong southem or nllrlhl'rn l'nds of projeelions clnd easlern and wl'slt'rn slt1~ll's .ln' rl'laliv('ly snoWfrt·l·. In S(l'lH't·xpo."l'd pl.h'l·s II\\' lundr'll1l11SS 11l.1Y 1",-, visib1l' 'lltlltlugh ,11 lnwt'r !lll'alions acnlnlO!.'tions 01 from 6 inchl..·s to 3 fel'! tire (~Immlln. SOlTIt' sm,lll WillllWS Wl'rl' dusll'rl'd ne.,r lhe b.1Sl· of 1111..' sh1pe. We anl-h~lfl'd lhe dog te.un ílnd wóllkl'O down lhl' s'oPt..'!~I gatht.'r firt'w~)()d fur tea. Wt.'brolle off two large bundles of d('óld willow branches and trudged back up lhe slope. We were off the sled Iraíl and Ihe texture and lhe quality of the snow varied con· siderably. In places we broke through the nust un the SIll.1W and sólnk down 1<1 our waists, ,md in otht.'r pl,lees Wl' hardly madl' a dent in Iht.' surface. We threw our loads of firC'wood down at a point aboul halfway be· tWt'l'n fhe dugs and Iht' l'XPOSl,d caribl1u antll·r~. Johnny sat down In the snow I'l.1ld began making bundles of twigs broken from lhe smnlll'sl end5 uf lhe willow brilnches. He plan'd thl'Sl' bundlt,s, abou( 10 ind1l..'S lung, (ln thl' surfílcl' (Jf Ihe snnw in three lines of two bundles l'ach. He then m,lde similar bundll's from Ihe slighlly larger ends of the twigs ,lnd laid them at righl angles to lhe first layer. He brokt' thl' I'''lrw..r parts uf thl' brc1nches ¡nto sl'gm~'nls 'lboul 1M inl"hes long .lnd pilcd thesC' bmnchl'S un individually íl' right angles lo thl' st'l'llfld I.lyt·r uf bund Il·!'. TIll'n 111' brokl' u P Iht· n'sl III Ilw fin'wood .lI1d pilt'd il lo Ilnl' side.
(571 Touchlng a match tu the smalh-st twigs nt thc bottom of the pite, he startcd the fíre, then stuck a fairly Ierge wiJJow branch into the snow al an ecute angle te the fire. Afler packing a coffee can with-chunks of hard-packed snow, he suspended it by its wire handle from the stíck over the fíre. He then moved off loward the sled to gel his ,1;'(. When Johnny rcturned 1 asked when- he had kílled the caribou that was cachcd up the slope. Hl' pointl'd duwn to tlll' ke I,lkl" s.lyin~ "1ll.lyhl' just 'llHlll' W,lY down fnllll thl' hir. kt' blister." Bis worJs bruughl b,lCk to me ,11l11lt' dragging around of ,lnimills killed during the faH hunl of 1969-activities that h"d ,lt Ihe time appeared random and whimsical bul now became significan!. 1 began lo ask more queslions, as we sal arnund our fire and watehed it melt out a small mund hole and t;;r,ldu.llly sink down inlo tlw snow .1Ild ,lway Inlll1 our "!l·.lpol." In ¡l1'lSWl'r In lny tfllt'sliolls Johnny si'Lid that hl' drc1f,gl'd thl' (!l'ad (Mibou up on Ihl' ~iJl' uf lhe k.l111l' b.,·....ausl· he knl'w thíll thl' i....e I,lh fornwd in lhat Spl11 and if h~' h¡,d caChl'd thl' caribou Whl'fl' hl' híld killl'd it he wlluld have bl't'n unabll' In fl'....OVI'T it frolll undl'r lhl' ice in winter. He abo said that thl' hunters always knew where ice lakes form, and where the big drifls generally forOl. "Good hunters work a Iiltll' more in fall. eat better in wintt.'r." "Make cache where snow will not (OVl'r l:oUib~lU hl'rns." I '\lIl'st¡~'nt.'d Johony Ihmugh two pob ~ll k,l, will ,lOin terruplion (or gelting !llore fir('w~llld. The fol.1Wing principies emerged {rom this discussion: 1. Animals kllled in low places where the hunter would ha ve to drag them a long dist.lOce to an appropriate c:aching spot oUe thl' OOl'S f,l'lll·r.lliy rl'lllrOl'd to thl' vilJage
(58(
2. Some General Cons,choroatoru: 8Uk'herlng. Kili $11". lUIdRecordlng
4. Cows are generally cached with bulls when possible since bulls' antlers are larger .10d will stick up highcr Ih.1" cows'
I'rocedu~.
from previous years' hunts will not confuse the hunter when he is searching for bts mcat GIL:ht'.
ag,tlers.
5. In early winter cows that are not cached with bulls are retumed lo the village 6.
7.
8.
9.
prefercntially lo cnsurc tbcir bcin b uscd bcfore thl'Y are covcrod by snow. Caches oí unbutchercd anlmals must be placed on more exposed kames and oriented east-west (in the main valley) so that if él drift fonns around the caribou body the antlers will be lo the side of thc maio body oí Ihe drift. Positioning an unbutchered animal so that lhe antlE'rs stkk straight up is sometimcs difficult. Unbutchered animals killed aftcr theTe is sorne snow on Ihe ground aTe soml.'timcs propped upon their front legs with snow so lhat their heads are quite high, and less likely to be covered by snow. Unbutchered animals are more often used as dog foad during winter, since butchering the frozen body into Ihl' pcuts preferred by Ihe Nunamiut is difficult. Such animals ilre gl'nerally brnughl intu lhl' arca adjacent lo the d(lg Yelrd and butchercd with
After our conversation we moved up the slope and Johnny began to dig away thc snow around thc nntlcrs. As in thc previou....ly di...cussed case, hard cornpactcd snow W.1S encountcred and the ax was used in chopping it out. The same general procedure was followed in unccvering this cache as described in the previous episode. exrept that the ax handle was uscd Instead uf the snow probl,.·. The cached animal was a largc bul! that h.ld becn field butchered into 10 parts coñtaining bcmes: (a) all four legs complt>tc, (1') Iht., heild sevl'rl'd from Ihe neck bt.'twt.'en the uCdpital condyles and the atlas vertebra, (c) th\.' complete neck plus the fírst two thoradc vertebral' wilh aHached short ribs on both sirles, (/1) the complele spine below the second thofacic ver· lebra together with the sacrum and pelvis, (r) both right and leH slabs of ribs, and ([) the briskt.·t. Individual parts not containing bOlWS were the tenderJoins attached at the basl', the skin, the liver, thl' h\.'arl, ilnd Ihe abdomin.ll muscles. Johnny began using his ilX to chop off the lower p.lrts of tht., legs. lie choppt.'d ,thmugh Ihe rCilr legs just aboye the disl.l! arlk;ul.llor end of thl' libia, and through the front Il'gs jusi above thl' distill articulator end of lilL' r.ldiocubitus. Hc stoppcd lo explilin Ih.11 Ihis was not generally done if only une c.lribuu WilS lo be loaded on the sled. However, sincc 1 was along he would have to pack the mcat in a small place near the fmnt (lf the sled and the relatively useless lower legs would take up too much space. He then used the ax to chop Ihe vertebrae into three smaU segments. Cuts were made just bclow thl' last thoradc Vertebra, and just abovc the S.lcrum. He packed the sled, pladng the legs on the floor of the sIed, then arTimging the parts of the verle!:tr.lc at right .lngll's to thl' leg !:tunl's. ThL' hl'.lfl, livl'r,
ButcMrfng Varlabllltv
foot. made it more flexible by pulling it back .llld Iorth first .llt'"}; une l'd~L' and thcn ,1lon~ anothcr. Hv shpped une edge uf the ski n in under Ihe Irozen legs and then retumed to packlng the sled. He placcd the neck secticn at
159( and the brisket free, abandoning thclo wcr tib scction, ncck, .md thor.Kic vcrtcbr.u-. Tlw head was also abandoned. Thc hunter hall complained that this was [ust hisluck-he had cached the animal on a SIOpl', yet in spite of his
right anglos lo thc vcrtcbrne: then he tatd thc Iorethought hls mcat W.1S Irozcn to thc kndL'rhlin with thc two rib slnbs un top oppotundra. sitc .1nO pnrallcl to thc ncck sectlon. Drawing the skin over the pile of meat, he tucked it in around Ihe edges. He then Iashed the entire BUTCHERING VARIABILlTY pile to the sled with rope. Abandoned at the site were the lower legs. tho heed, and thc lhe foregn¡'~'C!M('S are only a ft'W l"f Ihe slomilch cOlllents (removed at the liml' of ¡ni- obscrved inddcncesofbulchering. They \Vere tial butchering). After loading the sled we left selected becauSl' they iIluslrale the range of the cache localion .1nd rrlurnl'd tu fhe viJlagc. variability, whkh fal1s into two main l".ltl'gO. The dogs wen' {¡rsl returnt·d tu Ihe d(lg yard ries: idillsy"crafir and (01ltillXl'lIt. Idiosynn'ltic clnd Ihe Illeat W.1S then unloaded and distribvariations in butchcring appear to vary con· uted. Three qU.lTtl'rs were placed (In the roof sistently among thl' men doing the butrhering of Johnny's cabin and one was t,lken inside Ihe regardless of thl' condHilll1 und('r which the cabin to thaw. The pelvis was taken inside as act is performed. Most commonly this lakes were the Iwo rib slabs. One section of lumbar place during (a) skinAi~g'-the anim,ll m.1Y be v(.'rtebrae was pl.leed \\'ith the legs on the mol. skinned from thl' reilr fOr\\'ilrd with .lltl'rnatThe hetlrt. liwr, tL'ndl'r!oins (cut into four ing olttl'ntinn to l'i\ch sidl', llr f¡r~t I1I1L' siLiL' pil'ces), neck (cut into Iwo pieces with the ax), and then the othl'r may be (ompll'tl'ly ~kinnl'd; and ilbdolTlinal muscJes were piled beside the (~~M--somt.'mt.'n rt.'m\lVL' bllth fnmt lllluse to be fl'd lo the dogs latl'r thM eVt.'ning. "flnd rL'arllu.uk'rs ffilm (lne s,idl' bdorL' .1t1arkOn April 12, 1971, 1 was on a snowmobile ing th(., opposite side, whcrt."ls othl'rs fírsl f\.'trir wilh unt.' of tllt.'huntt.'rs lu check his IfolpS. mOVL' rt'ar quartl'rs and lhen frontl,luartt.'rs; We t'ncounlerl'd .lnothl'f hunlcr trying lo dig .lnd h'~4M!'liIk re Ii¡(HUI-some men Tl'mOVl' IhL' uut his meat cache very c10se to the sll'd trail. neck pril1r to removing thL' lL'gs, and othL'rs ThL' célche had been madI' during Ihe faH miC<Jnsistl'ntly remove the Il'gs first. MllsI ¡dipgmli\'ll in SL'plembt.'r 1970 when Ihl' herds h.ld syncr.ltic variabilily rc1.1IL'S lo wlITk st'Llul'11Ct.' p.lssed Ihrough Ihe valley prior to sustilincd
.....
.,
--~-------r--------------
1601
2. So""", Gen....ral COnllldera'lom: Butch....rlng. Kili Sltu. cmd Ruordlng Prouduru
whether Uf not ment is neede..d; (d) nnticipatcd work time-c-that ¡S, what the hunter judges he can accomphsh prior lo darkness, snowfnll, arrival of hunting companions, and so Iorth (exempliñed by the late afternoon butchering of nine bu 115 on October 9, 1969); nnd (1') Intended use of the animal-for cxample, whether the skin is desired for clothing oc other use or whether the animal is killed for
food Of as bait Ior traps. These factors determine the character of anatomical parts abandoned al butchering and cache locations and how extensively Ihe animal is dismembered. SUMMARV Of OurCHERING DATA Several points are worlh emphasizing. Butchering ma)' resu1t in different degrees of disnul'mbeAlletlt but.in no case i!t tnc arnma.t di9J'M'mbeA:?d-EtllLll'leh!!ly. The anim.ll is divided inlo seis of anatomical parts, not into diserete parts. The Nunamiut partition the animal into eight basic s-ets, except when there is a time faclor or the animal is frozen. These eight seis are as follows:
1. Antlers, skull, and mandlble 2. Atlas, axis, and cervical verlebrae 3. Thorade vertebrae and the firsl two ribs on both sides 4. Lumbar vertebrae, sanum, and pl'lvh; 5. Stt'rnum and costal ribs 6. Rib slabs (10 ribs each) 7. Front legs 8. ReilT Iegs Decisj¡ms fur additional partitioning are madl' indl'pendl'ntly for suocomponl'nls of each of lhese seis. Most eommonly these det'¡sions ,Ut" (al wh{'th('r hl sl'parale Ilw lumb.lr verh.'brOll' fmm thl' s.lcrum and pl'lvis .ls .1 st'nmd subunit, (IJ) wlwlhl'r to sl'par;lll' tht· fmnt I{'gs into subunilS, and (e) whL'thcr lo separate the rear legs into subunits. This strategy of treating the anatomy of the animal in sets will have Ihe effeel of distorting any uniform relationship between the frequency with which a given peul is selccled fur
consumption or transport and the utility index. Parts uf Iess utility may be [oincd lo p.HIS of grcater utility wtthln cach set. Por lnstance. if transporl is easy and park space abundant. an entire leg may be removed frum thc kili, thus parts of greetly different ulility are being treated equally al that [uncture of sclcction. On the other hand, if lransport is dífflcult and pack space is limited, subunits of the leg having the greatest utility will be selected for transporto
Types of 8utcherlng Sltes rhe t.'fft.'l:t uf lht.· linkin~ uf p.lrls .lI1d its rd'ltiol1ship lolri1nspmt is wt'1Id.'l1llll1slr.lh·d in dnt.l culleded .1Inung t1l1..' Nlllt.lllliut Iwm multiple~kill butchering locations compared to single-kill loealions. I noted -thr.ar,'general types..,of",-kilt ,.aital>: (a) sites with pit'eebutehered animals, (b) sites with heads and antlers only, and (c) sites with the head, antlers, and lower Il'g parts primarily and necks sometimes present. Piece-butchered animals are represented in the field by nearly complete although sometimes dismembcred skelctonsi only certain selected parts uf the animal have been removed. The context uf such ki1lsand the eonditions undef which the differenl types may occur were observ~ld first on luly 17, 1969. The following account is laken fmm my juurnal: luhnny
IRullamll.lnJ I w,·n.· pll'kin¡.; up nu. 1"
S~mory o/ Butch....rlng
161 J
Dato
~,lW him ""lIlill¡'; ,kr".... In.' 1<1I1o.lr,\. As lit' ,lpl'r""dll'd 1 ,",.uld ~",. he 11,1.1.1 skilHw•.I·tlul rt'.lr I,'¡; .lans.. his sllPlIl.kr. ,1 hi~ ~rin un his r.11"1', .lnd .1 llver lI\ his Idl h,lI1,t. As he ,"IIll,' uuo the ".!lnl' .'v,'rro,w ~,\lht'r",1 .'nlllMd. Ior we h.1.1 "\ll had fr"sll nu-at fo' s"m.'linl,'_ II sl,\Tkd lo rain ~I wc s.ll amund tirin"in~ wlll1t- wv n-Lrted the tl,'lails IIf fmJing Ih,' c'artbou, ho"w Johnny sh"l It, and ils nulrili"nal .~t.lll'_ It cuntinued lo ra!n. Nevertheless. aücr a &ood rnea! uf canbou wv walkcd 01111.' pack in the mcst he hadleít in lhe fi"¡d. W,' arMv,'d ,lllhc k.illto St't'a pil,'uf bt,dy rarts ({Iv,'r.'d with 1110' skin. Jllhnny une\lv.'r.'d Ih.· ml'al lo .t:'VI.'Jllhr pclTt~ pil"d ¡h,·r.·. Tnr head hild bt-,'n cul frum Ih., n...." b"lwl't'n lh .. ,'ecil'il.ll wndyl.,s .mJ 1Ill' alla .. v,'rlt'hr.l. TIll' ViSeN,\ h.ld b".'n remuvl·d ,mil 1'1...·.·tllo ''".' ~id,·. llw Iw.1. rin'-"h" . •11\,1 sl'hw w,'rt· .11l.,ni.III.,lt-oI. im 11I.ril1~ IIw I'd\'i~. Tlw I.·¡.;~ h,ld 1..·"", 1'1,,11.1>1<1 \1,",' l'il,·,1 ,'1' 1110' \.ll'.,,~ ... 1..•... 1 h.IJ b.'o'n I'I.lt",·J VIIl\'p "1 Ih., lurnb,lr rt·giun. 8,'lh In'lIl It'gs Wl'rt' futly ilrtkulah.-d from Ihe seapula down. Th", {lnto rt'm,linin~ r~',lr 1"Kwas ,lrtirulalt'd frllm Ihl' (('mur thrtlu~h In,· tM"'ll~, th\' IW\l low.'r n'ar 1t'F:'>-m"I,ll,n~,11 wiln ,'rtinll,lled fno!-hall b",'n !"ss,'d aSldl'
t1w It·rr.If.· and
.-"fI.·,·
n,.,
What 1 caH pi('ce·blltchm'd IdUs are animals fwm which th<> hunter had removed sorne chuice' parts, as Johnny had on his initié'll re~ turn locamp. Thesc kills, however, had never been n·visill.!d for furtht'r butchering and p.ll"king. Cvnditions undl.'r whieh Ihis mi~ht uccur art.' ilI11strall'd by an incidenl Ih.1t took place in September 1970. Johnny had gone out hunling for moose and did not return the
same night. Thc next rnoming it bcgen lo snow and we assumcd that it would bea short slorm and thal thl.' snow wuuld evaporatc. Late Ihat aftemoon [ohnny returned in thc snow with thc news th.1t he had gotten a moose. He brought in tht, heart and one shoulder. Snow continucd thc ftlllowing day and by this time approximatcly 6 inches had accumulated. We kept dclaying our packíng trip to recover the moose meat in anticipation of the snow stopping. ft snowed continuously for 9 days, and we had tu abandon our camp because our f(lüd and fuel supply was dwindlin¡:; and Wl.' wt'rl.' not prepilTl'd for surh il storm, p.utkul.uly ~ivl'n tlw rildic.ll dfllp in thl' Il'llllll'r.lltlrt·. Wl' lH'Vl'r did rdurn ¡ti n" nlVt.'rlhl.·llll'.lt c.lt"h,,'d in tlll' til'ld ,llllh·l1hlll.,\, kilI. There are of course many o!her contingendes that may result in pieee-butchered animals remaining unrl'c()verl-'d in the field. Table 2.1 pre5t.'nts thl.' comp.1Tative dala on kill-type frequencies for single- and multiple-kill cache hXeltions for animals taken at time'S other than during the height (lf earibou migration. The differential removal of parts from multiple kills and single kills, particularly with regard to piect>·butchered versus head.and-Iegs sites, iIlustrates thl' choiees made as to whether lo return to el kili and the relevance of the amount of ml'at CelChl'd there. At sites where sevt'ral animals (Sl'l' Figure 2.7) wert.' killed, unly 8.1% (lf llw .mim.lls kílll.'d were ab.lndont.'d .1S pit.'Cl·-buICht·rl·d eachl.'s, whereas 32.9% of the "nimals killed at single-animal sites were abandonl'd. On the
tn.·
TA8L.E 2.1 Pan. 01 Animal. Abandoned 1.. the FleJd nr.u. Type 01 Kili l"trl~
,¡b,llllt"""ti"
Kili. ,'h'hury
l'il·••··blllt'lH·r... 1 ".U,·.IS"
Single Multiple Tolal
19 (32.9%) 6 ( 8.1%)
8 (13.4%) 32 (43.2%)
2'
4()
.. 1'\'rCl'lll.l~t><;
,,1
1.. 1.11 numbt.'r 1'(
"ills i..
1It',¡,I,ll1tll"w...
I\·~s
t'.I\h ,·.ll"l'I'ry arl' giv.'n
11t'.ld 'lllly
],,1,,1
31 (53.6%)
SIl
)6 (48 6%) h7
132
in polrl'rllht,s,'s
74
1621
Figure 2.1.
2. Somr
A mullirlv -kill
cnn~ml CO",.,,d,ro'Io...:
hutfh~'rin~ 11'l:.lli\>n,
other hand, if a retum packing trip was rnade lower legs were removed from the kili-cache location of single kills, whereas al multiple kills lower legs were more commonly abandoned. This difference is acrounted for by Inforrnant comments that lower logs wcrc mUfl' commonly ilb:HltIUnl'd Whl'll thl'fe w.l~ ,1 bulk Of weight prublt!m in transporting meat back to lhe village. Where a numberof animals have been killed al a single location. fhe
bulk-weight problem ¡nereases with fhe number killed. Tha' Ihis is true is well demonstraled by Figure 2.8. which iIluslrales fhe relationship between Ihe numbt'f of animals processed al a single Jocatiun and thc percentage uf thc total numbcr of élnimills in lhe sil", c1ass represented by lower legs. Thl'se data pl'rmit rhe generalization thM the more meat obtilined the greater the effort expended in its recovcry. élnd as the amuunf uf nll'ilt ilV,"lilahlc increélscs the dedsions ,15 to whélt parts i'lrl' llf greatt'r utility beCOIlU.' mon,' discrimin'"lling.
The Effect. o, Butcherlng Practlces on Proportlon. o, Parte o, the Same Bone lhus far J have discussed variations that butchering proccdure may bring about in the rdillivt' fH'llul'ndl's uf lliffl'rl'nt huntOs, In l'arJil'r disl'U.'iSillllS tlf hutdwrin¡.; I IUlIt°d th.l1 in SOlllt' insl'\lH'l'S ,lllim"ls ...... t'f(· (luldH'rt'd
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through the shaffs uf bones. Such a proccdure results in dlfferentiaJ partitioning of parta of the same bone and it can be expected lo condition the relative frequencíes of parts of the same bone. During seasons of Ircezlng tempernturc tbc ex is used consistcntly in secoodary flcld butchering and occasionally in primary field butchering. lis use en frozen bodíes almost never resulte in abone tbat is chopped through: rather, the bono is simply brokcu. Thc ax is m'vcr. in lllY ('xpl'ril'l1l'l', uSl'd to chop through artlculations. It Is always used to break through the shafts of long bones. or in the case of vertebrae, lo hnck thrcugh thc bones themselves without rcgerd lo articulation. It is a common mísconception ,llllong archaeologists that Iarge cleavers or axlike t001s are commonly used in butchering. Sorne of the w orld's finest ñeld butchers nave shown me that such a tool would rarely be used, and if it w ere used it w ould be handled as a bludgcon. Por instancc, 1 havo sr-en thc nl'.U l"umpll'tl' bUldwring u( il (rllZt'1l l".lrib\H1 accomplished with the Ill......er front h.'g of thl.' animal and a very small piece of broken glass. The leg was used as a bludgeon for breaking through fhe shafts of long bones and dislocating articulations. The tiny piece of glass was usro lo cut the tissue around the break6 and
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1631
SllrnmlllY o/ BUlrh"rlng Dolo
TABLE 2.2
Bone Break••e P.ttern. on Kili Sil.... (btl Slluon) Numbt'r of kili!
Tyl't,
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3
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Thr- J,lTKl' mi¡;r,ltion huntinf; IIlCilli(,ns. Wbt'ft'thl" ax is rarely used, are no! includcd in Ihis 1,IUy, Kills indudl'd are is¡}lólll'd, indivhJual kills Irom t'ólrly sprin~ (prior 1\1mi¡;r.llillnl. ..... hr-n n-nux-returcs ilrl;' slilllairly low.
díslocatíons. This is not a difflcult task for a skllled hunter. Ouring the course of observation and docu mcnta tion of kili-bu tchcring end/or cache IOl'tllipns, I k-<.'pt..t"'('Qrdl'l U{..thl',SI;Jh,ll¡( -dis."tr· ticuliltiunand thc.breaking.ofbones. Table 2.2 summarizes this information by season of kili {or aH Iocations ...... here breakage was nol judged to be the result of consumption of marrow by the hunters. lnspection of Ihe data iIIustrates that there is a major JiHcrcncl' in ho...... heads and Iegs are trl'afl'd. This difft.'rence arisl's bt.-c,1use heilds oUt.' .llmosl ,ll...... ays renwved al thl.' lime uf thl' kili. If the animal is c,lched, Ihe bUlchering uf legs is usually cilTricd oul ......hen the cache is l.'xplt)itl·d hlr ml'al to be transporll'd to the vill.l~l" T/w fl'Slllt is that Il'W' ,1fl' mOfl' CUIllmonly dl(lPPl'd lhrllu~h lur ,l1,inMls killl'd in f,ll!. This is l'lJuillly trul' for wintl'r. Althuugh small. the sumnwr silmple iIIustrates the ror· relation bctwt.'en bune breakélge and season. lhe spring dala rl'ported here distort the picturt' som('what sincl.' during rnigration hunting but\.:'hering is generally done- immediately afll'r kills and Ihe ml'at is transporled lo the Vill,I'~I' 'I'r ,lr.vi.,,; nr 1'1.1n'llwnl in pl'rma(msr (il'''' ~ttlr.\~" 1'I'll,1r~. As .1 H'SUI! nw.ll nll1Sllllll·d dllrilll~ <;1I111lllt'l'l'vidl'Ilt'I'S Vt'I'Y f(·...... lq¡
bones that were already broken when brought into the village. we.have.seen ,th.1t,butchering ;5 inreality a lólsk ..P.f. .OiS1l\J.'Qlbcrmcnt. Thrllu~h it the anahm,y uf a l.ugl' .lnimal is p.Hliti
(641
2. Some Genero' Con.I.nr'&O..: Butche'rlng. IWI SIte., (Jnd Reconllng Proc,dures
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berment. Por instance. certain parts may be transpcrtcd as "riders" relativo to other parts, to which thcy are nttnchcd. The arnount of meat to be transported or the number uf animals kiJIed may condttion decisions as to whether parts are abandoned or removed lo nncther location for use. Other Iactors have been mentioned that m.1Y correlate wilh seasonel conditions or with othee situational variables affecting the decisicns a butcher makes relative both to the degree cf dismemberment and to the dtspositicn of dismembered units. Sinee it cannot be generally argued that butchering destroys bones, variable frequendes of bones on different sites must relate lo the dedsions made by the butcher. If archaeologists are to give mcaning lo obscrvcd pattcms (Jf nssociation betwccn diffcrcnt anatomicnl parts in variable Irequencics thcy must seek to undersland the eriteria in tenns of which parls <\re differenlially transporled and al10caled lo differenl uses. In addition, Ihey musl Sl'l'k lo reco¡:;ni7.l' inform;ltion reil'· v,lnl lu Liiff('Tl'nl disml'mbt'rnll'1l1 p.lltl'rnS iUld degrees of dismemberrncnt. 1Iis lo Ihl'Sl' lilSks Ihal I now lum my attenlinn. MEASURING DISMEMBERMENT As has bel'n said, but(hl'rin~ is íllnwsl t.'Xc1usivl'1y iI dism('mtl('rin~ .1l'liYily. l.illJ¡, brl'akil~l' uf hmll's is ¡nvolved ilnd 11ll'rt.· is praetic.llly no dl'slruclion of parts. Buldu'ring generally involves Ihe disorganizalion of the analomy into varioussetS¡ rarely doe-sbutcheriog result in the eomplele disorganization oí Ihe analorny into discrele or individual bones. For inslanee, I have ciled a number of cases where Ihe parls n'moved fmm Ihl' killbutehering localion as wcll as lhe.' parts ,')handoned lhere were all anatomical segml'nts, nut discrete bones, Articulated bones are, howf'ver, rarely observed in arehaeological siles. I su~~esl Ihat tht.· set.lut.'nce uf eYl'nls bl'ginning wilh Ihl' killing of an animal and eontinuing Ihrough its final USf' and disposal is an entropy s('quence.
The closer one is lo the initial activities relative lo a living animal (sueh ai"i at kili sitos], thc greater the degree of anatomical organizauon observed. Conversely, thehmgcr the lime thnt parte of animals are subjected lo extended decision-making sequenees, the lcss anatomical organization observed. Given these suspected relationships betwecn logistics. dl'layed usage, and anatomice! organization, I developed methods for measuring the degree of dismemberment characteristic of a faunal essernblage. Origioally I attempled lo develop en unambiguous procedure for measuring dismemberment relative to the anatomy of an animal. After sorne experimentation, I concluded thal sepárate mea sures for thc fronl legs, rear legi"i, and axial skeleton would be more usvful. Bccausv I wdntl'd to dcvvlop .1 mensure that was mcanlngful .1Il0 relatlvc to the actual eomposilion of ao assemblagl:' rather than lo the "living" analomy uf an animal, 1 nceded to dewlop methods for l'Stimating thl' maximurn number of arliculiltiuns th'll nlUld tll'l'Ur in .my giVl'll f.Wll.11 assf'mblagc. I would then be ablt:' to l'Ump¡Ul' the numher obsclVf'd to the maximum possible, This procedure was judged desirable sinee ¡ wanled to mCilsure dismcmb
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complete from the scapula through the foot would be tabulan..·d as a down artículaticn. A scapuln nrticulate..-d lo a humerus and the proximal radki-cubitus would be an up articulation. en short. the oricnting rcferoncc is the complete foot. If it is prcscnt, onc nccds only tu specify the bone segrncnt ebove whích disarticulation occurrcd tu know the entire sequcncc of boncs prescnt. A notation reading "proximal tibia down" means that all bones including the proximal tibia down the Ieg through the phalangcs are presento For up articulations une rnust spedfy both the bones at the beginning and those at the end of the articulated segment. such as "distal radiocubitus IIp through tlu- scapulo." If the articulntiou is of thc down form tabulate it to the right oí the diagonal llne in the tabul.llillf1 millrix (T.lblt, 2.J). For insf¡HlCl', el U'.lr Iq~ pn:~l'lll (nlm 11w dist.ll fl'lnur dowll wlIulJ b,,'t.lhul,lfl'd Iu Ih\..' right of lhl' diagonal al the intersection of Ihe distal femur row with Ihe proximal tibia column. (See x in Table 2.3). An up articulation is tabulated to the left of Ihe diagonal tine in the box appropriate lo the bones Ihal actually o{'cur at both ends of the articulation. For instance, an up articulation complele bclwcl'n the dislal mC'I.1c.1rp.11 and the distal radio-cubitus is tabulaled in the distal metacarpal row where it intersecls the distal radio-cubitus column. (See Xl in Table 2.4.) Using this procl'dure (lne tabulates the freqUl'ncies of alltht.' articulntions obseTVl'd on ., sill'. These t.lbulations are then ClmvertC'd to MNI (mínimum numbl'rofindividuals) valu{'s Cm ('.1('h l'nlry in th\.' millrix. (In this ,.1se this mt'ans dividing ('111 taBy enlry sums by 2.) The ""'xt proCl'durl' is tn multiply the MNls fur 1Ill'dOWIl.Htkulatillfls by th\.' dllwn vatul's appropri.lh.' to t'.lrh colllmn. hlr instancl', a compld'" frllnl !l'~-or a down ilTliculalioll froll1 thl' !tl';¡Plll,,-is ¡.;iven .1 v.lIUl' of 1), ami tlll' dist.ll r,lditH'llbitlls dtlWl1 is ~iVl'l1 il v,llul' "f~. Thl.'Sl,' v••lut's .lfl' l'lltl'rl'd in thl' culumn at thl'l,'l1d (lf thl' diagonally partitiunl'd columns. lhe sum of this column is the sum of the down articulations.
For up articulations. two steps are involved. First, the up value for rows at the extreme leít of the tableare read for a givcn upentry. Next, the up value at thc top of thc cclumn is read and subtracted frorn the mw valuc. rile remainder is then multiphed by th l ' MNI valuv in the column-row boxand Iístcd. The sum of all up valúes ls then added to the sum oí the down articulations, yielding tbe tol.ll observed articulatíon value for the assemblage. Calculation of the maximum possible articulation value for the nssemblege is somewhat complicated and unfortunately less straightforward. In the examples (Tables 2.3 and 2.4) thin~s are relatively simple in that the (lbscrvcd MNls ere súlh'd down thc It,¡,: SIl th.ll the maximum articulattons possfblc will be exclusively down valúes. However, this is nut .1Iw.1YS thl' (OSl' .1Ild I wilJ pruvidc..' l'X
ColculaUng the Number ollndllllduals Irom Bone Counts ~
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blagcs tI! bones discussed, for thc purpose of díscovering whether there are pattemcd rclationships bctwecn the dismernberrnent statc of founal elcrncnts present on sltes and Ih...' g""lwr,11 functlon and position of si tes in a logisticul sl'qul'nce.
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listed. As in example 1 the listed up and clown MNIs are multiplied by the appropriate up and down column and row values from Table 2.4; tfu- valúes arelisted and summed, yicldin~ thl' rnaximum cxpcctcd valúes for cach
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Finally, only une MNI is leí! spanning the
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Largl'ly ilS a result of thl..' work of Theodore E. Whill' (llJ52), fn'quency inforlTlrcnl numbers of e1emt.'nts in identification units ul';ed by faunal analysts. For inslilnce, thcre are cight first phalangt.'s and unly une axis vcrtt-bra in the 'lIlatnmy uf Ihe caribou. If Wt' Ircatt'd frequeo· rit.'S.11 l".1(l' valul' Iht.'fl'sulls would bt' mislt'ad· ing, so il is dcsirable lo fl'late frequt'ncies lo the basic rt'Íerencc unit, the anatomy of a complele animal. This is accomplishcd by di· viding tht' numbt.'r of elemenls counled in a given idenlification unit by the number of elt'ments referable lo the same unit in a living animal. For t'xample we would divide the eount uf first phaJanges by 8 (the number in a living animal) and accepl the atlas vertebra count at face value since there is unly one in an ,1nimal. Thl' rt'sult wOllld be an .1ccuralt' mea·
[691
sure of the Irequencíes of the two classes relative to the anatomy of the animal expressed in "animal" units (MNls). Many invcstigators havc eleboratcd thi-, simple technique far beyond the baste idea. Most investigators have been interested in estimating the number of animals that contributed parts to a glven assernblage. Ir this is of interest then ene of the first steps Is to distinguish between lefts and rights for paired clements. Fur instancc. if one observes 12 proximal tibiac from thelcft sitie and 19 from thc right sidc, then quite obviously ti minimum uf "l9 anirnnls contributcd lo thc asscmblage. DOl' can ~o oven lurther by distinguishing boncs frum animals of difh,rt'llt age. If one observes 12 right and 9 left prox· imal tibiae from adults and 9 right and 12 left proximal tibiac from young anírnnls then obviously thcre are 12 anlmals reprcsented in cach count. Procedures such as thcse havc becn outlined in sorne detall by Chaplin (lY71: 70-75). Regardless of the dl'tails employcd by diHerent investigators in estimating minimum numbers of individuals, almosl ,,11 invcstigators use the convention of labulating bone counts in minimal units of une individuíll. For instann', if one observl's 1 rib and 1 ,ni s Vt'fll'br,l in ,10 ilsSl'mbl,lge, bolh w(luld I.w labu[¡¡ted ílS rcprl'senting a singlt' individllill in spite of the fact that unly 1 out of 26 ribs W,lS observed. The argument is that one animill had to have bcen killed far the archaeologist to find even 1 ribt Sueh procedurcs have bet.'n widely used to estimate the pounds of ml',lt represenled by a faunill assl·mblilge.
I n "lhis..&tudy.Jhe-pr.t,lJ:ct.i,Ulc,..tW"~¡,;akt.M.l.li.n~ MN~s.·-djfft.'fs ..f.rom.....1:te -'Rlethodsj~mmJJf) use in a numbe.r-Uf~ The procedurt.'s in
common use make ccrtain assumptions that Me at odds with my experience. Using Ir,l· ditionaJ procedures it is assumed that men( is uscd in units of animals, hence the standard tabulatiun of onc animal f(lf any bones recovercd from aoy idenlification dass, as in the single ob example. This assumption is further indicated by the concern with estimaling "how milny ílnim"ls sl.lnd behind" thl' faunal
1701
2. Some (;enil'tD' Conslderotlou: Batcherln,. Kili Sita• • mI Ril'c:ordlng Procedure.
t . n. "l'•...
pect a bias in rights or lefts. This 5.1mC typc of bias is chnracteristic of meet distributions or sharing done during bctchertng. In neithcr of Ihl'!'t' cases doce the blm. Imhcate that .,11 thl' m\'.1t (mm thc nnimals rcprvscnted by sidt,· bi.\St'd counts evcr cntercd thv sil~,-.ll1 assumption madc by thosc who calculate MNls in terms of side. In answer to those wbo would segrega te parts by age or attempt lo croasidentify bune elements te glven individuals calcuJalt'd bydividi"g tlll'obsl'rol'li btme ceunt fora (see Chaplin 1971: 70-75), their MNls will 0.' XiVt'" iIIl'tltifirnfioll Iwili'y/Jlt' mllllll('7 ll!"mu'" ¡/1 grl'atly dislllrtl'ti, jud~il1h fmm my ~'x~l('rj file a"atomy III a complete animal fortllQt unit. For ence. For insl;mce parts from animals varying instance, the MNJ for the proximi\1 femur is in age are differentially selected for USE'. The dNermined by dividing the ellunl by 2 (the younger the animal, the less use is gcnl'rally numN'r in the animal). Similarly Iht.! MNI fm madt, uf the total.1natomy. In lurn lhe mure cervical vertebrae (exclusive vf the atlas and discriminating d...'Cisiuns ilre thOSl' lo trilns· the axis) is obtained by divíding the obscrvcd port, place in storage, or otherwise US(' parts count by 4 (the number in the animal). The fmm small or "poor" animals. Our inlerl'st is result is that aU MNls are undistorted converM in the actual use made of animals as food, nol sions (lf the actual count of bones into .1nimal in making poorestimates for what could have becn a kili populalion while ignvring the real· unHs. Such conversions may result in fractiunal values, depending on tht, number of ity n( Ihe asscmblagc lx'fore us. Thl' laUl'r bones in the identification unit. For instanct', if rl'ality is what tht' rcmaind...'r of this buok is al! we observed one first phalange in an asst.'rnM abour. Clearly, 1am writing thesc procedural sug M blage .he MNI would b< .125 (1 divided by 8). ~hnr ~ object to this procedure,silteit"'it gestions from fhl' perspectivl' of l'xpl'ri\'nccs not yet shared wilh thc reader. Let me try ignores differences·jn'side (rights and lefts) anc:Un agE', However, 1 have found that hunt· to iIIustrate the reality situation soTl}cwhal more clt.'arly. The Nunarniut make a b.i.ilsl'd ers make no such discrimination. Body size use oí the heads uf calves and cows, lo ·lh(" and "utritional stale condition the differcntial neat exdusion l)f bulls' heads. On tht' othuse oC parts or segments of the anatomy, nol Ihe entire animal.l have observed many silua M et hand IhcfC' ís i\ biased sell'clinn of hl'avy meat-yielding parts fmm largl' bulls. Let us tions wh(-'re bias in side may I:rt.'ep into an imagiOl' a situ.'tion where parts are tr,lI1S M asscmblage, but this is inddt.'nt.11 and any • estima tes of meat available baSt.'d on data from ported from a kili butchering location to a Jocation of consumplion. lntroduced are 9 the nurnbers of righls or lefts will always be calves' heads, 5 cows' heads and 1 bull's hl'ild; in"ated. For example, J héwe noted how sorne 22 femora are selected (mm large bulls, h ff\)m hunlers It'nd lo butcherone sideand th{'n turn the animal ()Verand butchl'r lhe ~lppositl' siol', C~lWS, and zem fmm c.1Ivt's. Us,ing pr()(('durt's This tcndcncy normally varies wilh (ht.' h.tnUM advocatl'd by ehaplin (1971) illlJ uthers w~' edness of Ihc butcher. If a hunter is pil'cC wuuld recognize 15 individu.1ls baSl'd lm Il1l' butchering an animal he almosl always puts tu hl'.lds and an MNI of 11 m.1Il's,3 femilll's, ilnd une side fUf later Imnspllrt Ihl' f¡rst rear quar7.er\l calves based nn the femom. The hlt.ll tcr rl'movl'd. If hl' i~ ri~hl-h.'ndl'll Ihi" wi/l MNls rl'Cugni"."bl(' (1.1king agt' ilnd ,,~')¡ inlt) ill'l"~lunl) would l'\(, ti \'.lIVt's (Iw,\lts), !i nlWs, almosl .,IWi1YS bt' .1 ri~ht n'ilf ~Iu'lfl~'r. Ir ill1 asscmblélgl' is characterizl'd by RlM1Y pi\,(t'(ht.'ads), ilnt1 1I bu lis (fl'n1of¡l) fur.l l<1t.lI uf 20 bUlchercd introductions fmm kiUs Wl' C.111l'X¡"dividuo/s. Using my ml'lhod~, Wl' wuuld n.'c-
assemblage. lA ..".. 1\Ot normally transported, S ared, storcd, cookcd, or otherwise treated-l ..... he'ul. h... its. As we hcve seen, butchcring is a dlsrrwmbcrmont stretcgy, nnd lhc resulting sl'gmt'nts of tlw anatorny MI.' whn¡ nre trensportcd. proo-sscd. and cooked. Thus it sccms only rensonablc lo tabulatc bone counts in such a W.1Y that segmental units are not obscured by the tabulation procedure. Therefcre, "11 MNls will be
.
~
CalculCltlng the Number CI/lndh.lduClI. from Sone Coun'"
oguize an MNI of 15 for hcads and 14 for the femora-c-an accurnte statemcnt of the actual segmenta Introduced to the location. The Ionncr proccdurc would disturllhe cherectcr uf tlw ,lss('mhl.1~l' nnd prcscnt a pum estimato of Ilw number uf .mim,lls actuully killcd. And if U1W wvrc to convcrt thc 20 indivlduals 1.1buM latcd by conventional mcthcds into pounds of rneat. with the lnference that this arnount of rneat had actunlly been present in the location for USl', thc csttmato would be totally wmng ,11ld 11(1 (tlIlSiSil'1l1 1l11'.lTling ((luId h~' given to eompilrisons drawn. Finally, 1 must ¡u5tify the use of fraclional MNls. since MNls.lwalmost universally tilbu· latl'd in minimóll units of ., single individual. lmaginl' .1 situiltiun whcrc there ¡1ft.' thrcc houses in il single community. These houses are spaced approximately 80 meters (m) apart and the distribution of arch.leological scatter does nol ovcrlap. The rl'.1lityis that occupants of thl'se huuses Wl'fe sharing meat; that is, animals killed sOIllt.'where e1st' were introduced ¡nltl thl' conullunity by lhe huntl'rs. The animals had OCl'n cut up and distribulcd to consumers in units smatlt'r than the identificatinn units used by faunal analysts. For instance, faunal analysls use a single identifica· tion unit for ribs, uf which there are 26 in the anahlmy of a c.1fibou. As we have seen, tbe mosl comlnun butchl'ring unit!'O are two rib Sl,lbs uf 11 ribs each and a unit of 4 ribs remaining attached to the upper thoracic ver· tl'br.1l'. If the hunll'r distributl'd ont' rib slilb ('ach tu thl' UCCUPMltS uf two hUUSl'S i'lnd fhe upper thoracic vertebrae to the occupants of the third house, archaeologists would find ribs fmm a single individual at three locations. If thl' archaeologists W{'f{' n.,ivl' (as well they nli.,;ht be) lo tht, f'le! that .11llhrl'\' h~)USl'S wcre ~I(cllpied simuh.lnl'\IUsly, thl'Y might tabula!t.' tht., assembl.1gl's from thl' thrcl' hnusl's inde· pcndenlly. T!\l' result, using wnvention.,1 methods, wuuld lwa tabulation nf threl' indiVillll,ll" h.1Sl'lt on ribs wlwn in fact llOly Ont' indivitlu.ll W.1S pTl',,~'nL Thís dislorlion wouJd (lbSl'lITl' Ih l, int\'rr\'l,'lionship lwlwl'l'n th~' housl's and Hwould obscure sume intercs!ing
1711
information indicntive of the simultaneous 0(cupation of the three houses. Por these reasons fractional MNls will be consistcntly tabulnted in Ihi~ study. Sorne m.,y object thal my procodun-s i~nun.' wrtaín Iacts. Thvy ~I(): Hui I Ix-ltcvc that dlffcrcnces betwccn thc MNI counts obtaíncd using my methods and those obtaincd using methods that weight the MNI in terms of side distinctions may well carry mcaning, particulady reg.uding thv dcgrce of 1l11',1! sharing going IIfI in tlw Itl~"lli\)n wht'Tl' t'll' ".llnpl~· W.1S ubtaineu. I have thl' infurnloltion to inwstig.lle this possibility but hav(' not as yet followed up this line of rescarch. Those who insist tln weighting MNll'stim.,tcs in tcrms uf ól";l', Sl'X, ur individuill idl'ntificiltions misunderstilnd the chí\racter of hunter-gath{'rer economics. Such weightings distort the .,ctual paUcms uf decision making that sl.1nd behind él giVl'n assemblage of p.uts. This dOl's not mean that such inform.1tion C
1721 ág~
2. Sorne GeM'rP'l Co,..,deratlo,..: BUlcherlng, K'" Slte•• arad Rrcord'", Procedure.
oí Ihe ",,,11\\"11\ MNI observed ln the
Ihe actual by-wdght proportions uf rm-at.
faunal assemblage. If 1 observe 22 halfmandibles I would enter an MNI el 11 for mandibles (there are two halvcs in the body) in my tally. U no other bone category exceeds this MNI then all other categones would be expressed as percentages (lf thls valué. Fnr example, if I observe 17 distal tibiae 1 would enter en MNI of 8.5 individual s in my tally; converting the MNls to percentages tbe mandlble would equal 100% and Ihe distal tibia wnuld be n.3% (8.5111). Using this convcntion W(' can compare tlu- n-latlvc fn'(jUl'ndl's
merrow, and grease in the appendicular skelcton of these two forme. Meat-cmuscle and tendon-c-accounted for 94.04% of th e gruss weight minus the dry bone weíght in cartbou and for 96.74% in sheep. Marrow accountcd for4.78% in ceribou and only 2.29% in shccp. Grease (bone grease only: grease contalned in the meat was nct induded) represented 1.20% in caribou and unly .97% in shccp. Although I have not carried out thcse studies on othcr animals, the contrasta bctwcen shccp ilI11J cnnbcu in thcse prnportillns ;lPIll',lr In rdl\'\'1 ,1 general condition related to body size. My expertence with the bones of bison and cther large mammaJs has led me to suspect thet the grease-marrow prcportions Increase with body síze rather strikingly al the expense of the rnuscle-tendon component of the total useble wcight. Thc recognition uf these ditferences betwccn species becomcs irnportant in the evaluation of hunting slr¡:¡tegies (to be discussed later in this book) and the character of target species during diffcrenl seilsons of Ihe year. Using these propurfions we may obtain ,1 general ulilily index by multiplyjng thl' unweighted índices thus far developed by thl'se proportions, summing the rl'sull, and ~t.ln dardizing to a scale from 1 to 100. The reslIh is a weighted compound index of general utility that monitors quite dosc1y the adual propor· tinns nf the diffl'rt.'nt us.lblc fuud cufnponents of Ihe animal. Thl' dl'rivation (.)f Ihis gt.'n\'ral utility intil'x (CU1) is Sll01 fnolrizl'd in T.lbh· 2.lí. As we miv;hl L'xPl'CI, Ihl' diffl'n'n("\,s pn'viollsly nult'd Llt'twl'\'n ~ht·t·p ,md r,ujhtlU l"llJllinul' lo bl'l'\fidl'nt in (lit' ~l'nl'r.ll utilily ilhh'x; lhe chest arl'il v( the ~hl'ep lhllllin¡l(l.'S thl' utilily scale bUI the rear quarlers are more important in the caribou. Simil.uly the dif· ferenccs noted in the marrow distribution are also manifesl in this scale as can be seen in the comparison of the lower rear values. Dl'SpitC Ihesc diffl'rences lhe corrl'lation oc'twl'l'n Il1l' indiCt~s for shl'ep and cilribou is Vl.'ry hi!;h (r = .88) and is a positive linear reJafionship described by an equation that is very duse lo
uf different bones on a standard scale from 1 to 100 regardless of diflerences in the slze uf the populations compared. MEA5URING GENERAL UTILlTY IN REALI5nc TERM5
T........amiut meke use -e.f; aA..~ocHd' lfl6MMcalstraWg)t. Most of the food consumed over an entire year is obtained during the spring and faH caribou migrations. The localiaos where animals are killed are never the primary locations where they are consumed. Thus, Nunamiu! dedsion making al killsites is generally made in terms of transport con~ sideralions rather than in lernts of different potentiep, 1 was able lo estimate with considerable accuracy
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174/
2. Sorne
G~n~",' Co ... ld~ro"otll: Butcllf!!rlng, Kili SUu.
betng a perfect scale. A perfect scaled relattonship would have an intercept value of zero with a slope value of 1. In thiscomparison the intercept value is 2.589 and the slope value is 1.018 (y = 2.589 + 1.01&), where Vis the index valúe for shccp and x is thc indcx valuc Ior caribou. AJthough accurate, this index is impractical as no anelytical tocl. As I heve previously potntcd out, when an animal is burchered it is not rcndered into unils equal in nurnber lo the anatomical parte bclng comparativcly considered in thc standard list. lnstcad tbe anatomy is dlvided into sets rhat normally contain more thnn él single bone elt.'ml'nt. Thl' scts are what Ihe hunter dt.'Cides lo Iransport or abandono Similarly, Ihe variabilily in the characterof the butchered seis, as was demonstrated by the relationship between the number of animals killed and the frequency wilh which metapodials were abandoned, is stfOngly related to the way the man in the ficld anlicipales the transp~Jrt situatiun. For ¡n!ltance, if thl' butdll'r h"s killl'd unly une animal and hl' is c!USl' to c.1mp he may simply remove the legs as units and Iransport the complete leg into campo A part such as the ml'tatcuS
.
~
.
IJnd Rl!Cotdlng
PrtK.(ldurr~
This reesorung. applled to the data, resulted in a modilied gf'llerallltility índex or MGUI (Table 2.7).
The rules were applied lo aH parts of the appendicular skeletcn except the humeros. A
lABLE 2.7 Modlfl.cI G.n.nl UtllUy Inde. lor C.rtbou .nd Sheep
Anoltumic.ll parl Anlll'r Skul1~
M.1ndible Wilh longue Wilhoul lon¡;lIt' Atlas Axi~
Cl'rvi<'al vl'rll'bral' Thllr,lfir vl'rh'''r,lI' I.uml',lr v,·rkbr.w I'l'l\·is
C.lribou
SIl,',·p
"'
(2)
102
2S 74 112.H7)
302"
4.1.(,(1
13.KY
TU,:'
'.79 '."N
HIN! IH.foM
~:'.71
."".:1.'
~".".'l
~h ~'I
.'12.lI'>
:1/1
~7H'J
ti !.
Ribs
4'J,77
Stt'rnum
lH.13
5c'lpllla l'n.,illl,1) hut11l'rus DL~till humcrus PrOl(im,ll radiu-o;-ubitus Di~l<¡[ radiu-eubilus Cup,lls l'ru~il11,ll n'd,l(,lrp,ll Dist,ll ml'lil(,Up"l
4:1.47
I'rl1ximallemur Distal It'mur Proximal tibia Dist.lltibia Tarsals Astr'l"alus Caleanl'us
Proximal mf'talarsal Distal mf'latarsal Phillangl'S
103
17.4Y (K.741
4:1.47
:lb52
'10
"'1
J(XUJO 9052
4.'U)(¡ :\7.21'l 3t'1'J
2".64 22,23
24,)(j
15.~3
13.·0 10 11
12.IH lO.5I1
2tU1"
H,45
IlXI.UO 100.00 64.73
Htl,')tI
47.09
37.7tl
31.M 31.M 31,M 29'J3 23.Y3 13n
81l.58 51.':1':1 23.11t1 2J.l1tI
2.1.111I 15.77 1211 11.22
" Rl'alislic values for Ihl' skull (valul" in pan:nlhl'St!s) are on the order of one-half lhe ml';tsur('d valu('s. sinee so much of Ihe measurl'd wf'ighl is (artildgl' .. nd nol us,lbll' ml'al .
175/
l.oo'dng at the Emplrlcal World
decisión tu transport exclusívely the scapula is rarely made, so I chose to raise the value of the humerus to that uf the scapula.
LOOKING AT THE EMPIRICAL WORLD 1 have discusscd two different approaches lo analys¡s. Onc mensures the degree oí dlsmcmbcrmcnt charoctcrlstic of an asscmblagc, nnd IJ1l' othcr anncipatcs thc nnatomical parte prefcrcntially sclccted Irom il population of complete anirnals undcr criteria uf general or multipurpose utility for the different anatomical parts. A large budy of L'mpirical material is av;¡i1able far evaluating the utility of the scales proposed. Over the entire span of my lieldwork with Ihe Nunamiut Eskimo (19691973) I wllected inventory data on killbutchering locations. During Ihis time a minimum of 277 individual caribou were reeordt.'d .11 111 separal+.' kill-blllchering ltl(.llitllls. Sl'V('nty-twll (lf tht.'st.' 1(IC.1Iiolls wt.'rt.' single-.lnilll.d kilI ur butclwring si!l's; the re· maining 39 were locati~ns of multiple-animal kili or butehering activities (see Figure 2.7). The lar~esl such locations wcre t\\'o spring ll1j~r,lli{\n hllnlin~ Sitl'S, wh\.'rl' il minimum of 5H animals wt.'re invt.'ntoried al one (Anaktiqlauk) and 53
timing of breakup end spring caribcu migration is very tight. For instance, in 1971 caríbou began moving through the passes in substantial numbers on May 19, and much hunting was done on the nlneteenth and the twentieth. Howcvcr. (In thc !l\'\.'nIV-S('ftlIH1 thc ice un the river bogan to break up and by thc twenty-third river crossing .11 the normal location was impossible. Bctwcen the twentythird and tbc twcnty-sixth acccss to thc Anavik hunting sih- bccamc incrcasingly difficult. AII mNI cochcd .11 Anavik aftcr thc twenty-sixth was lost lo thc villagers. Dunng Ihese5daysofhuntingin llJ7J (M.1Y Iv to May 23), 77 bull canbou .11\<.1 23 cows wcrc killcd north oí tht., river. In 1972, by contrast, caribou began moving through the passcs in substantial numbers (Jn May 17. Hunting was conducted, largcly norlh oí Ihe river, at Anaktiqtauk, bctween May 17 and May 23. On the twenty-fourth the river ice began breaking up but passage norlh Wm:i not impnssibll' unlil lh\.' tWt.'nly-l'ighth. Th\.' villa~\.'rs wt.'rt.' ablt., hl p.Kk inh\ tl1l'Vill.1gl' th .....1nimills thL'y h.ld killed north o( th+.' riwr prior to breakup. Forboth 1971 and 1972 hunt· íng aHer breakup was restricted to locations south of the An.1.kluvuk RiVt.'r. Tht.' diffl'rt.'llc(' bt.,twt.'t.'n 4 .1nd 7 d.ws (lf hUlllill~ .llHl p.Kl..ing ís well illuslratcd in Ihe all.1tomic.ll p.ut túquencies observed (Tilblt, 2,9) on Ihl' Anavik
2.9 and 52) !".lblt, 2.H Slllllnl"rizes Ihe dala fmm the
disp"rsl,.'d kill·bllh:ht.'rin~ locillions. Figure 2. IDprl's\.'nls tht.'s\.' data in graphic f()rm. 5ev· eral inlert.'sting facts emerge fmm these comparisons. Fall kills are normally cached near Ihe killlocation, and meat is Iransported to the residential 10cati(Jn as it is m'eded over the t.'ntin.' wintt.'r and t.'ilrly sprin~. Spring kills, on Ih\.' olherhand, must be Iransporled immedialely lo Ihe village for either freezing in Ihe ice eellars or drying on the village drying raeks. This prcssurt.' lo Ir.lnSp(lrl in spring ís inlcnsificd by the (;¡et thar much spring hunting occurs north of the Anakluvuk River (see Figure 5.2). Meat must be transporled lo rhe villaJ;L'bflart· the ice lll1lht.' r¡ver breaks up. Tht.'
~"""",)3.-" ~. ;.,',.": '-.~ .:.:::-~,-_.;..,-
.;;" .~:: ' Figu~
2.9.
llw
b\ltrlwrin~ ,1f,',1
,11 An,l\'il
[761
2. Some General Co ....derotlo..: Butcherlns. K'" SIw, 11II4 ReeonIlng Proteduru
-~
TABLE 2.8
wtntor
---Anatomical parl
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
(3)
(')
(5)
(6)
(7)
(')
(9)
(10)
66.6 101U1 ."(1.11
'O
10ll.0
277.0
100.tl
H7.5 M7.5 37.5 :175
2370
tl55 611.7 40 n l'l.fo
AII;¡~
A.. is
(I'rviC.ll vertebree Thorac« vertebrae lumbar vertcbrae
lUl.O
liS.O 58.0
:\hA 1'4 234 211'1
125.0 ]O<J,O 97.5 35.0 15.0 33.11 18.0 21,{)
100.0 87.2 7t1,ll 21UI
25.0
1000
IU)
¡Y,O 14.0 1.1.11
76.0
12.n
se.o
en
52,0
1.11
sr
70 7.11 30
2tI.n 26.4
12.n
4H,0
l.U
IU
)1)
\".11 5.11
ae.o
1,0
;wn
r.o
60 60
24.0 24.0 24.0
1.0 I.tl
11.3 1l.3 K.3 ".3
3.1l 2.0 3' 5,0
37.5 2511 475 62.5
K3
2.5
31.)
H5
222
zs.o
LO lO
K;l
2.0
te.v
O O
U U
1.0
25.0 125
47,n
24tl 2211 2211 2(,.11
42.0 45.5 41.5 4ó,5
15,1 ló.4 [4.\} 11.7
aun
~.1I
1'1,4
14.4 16./! 14.4 14.4
Ribs
18.0 18.0 14.5
Stemum
13.0
S<ar U1il Pruximal humerus Di!ol;ll hunwru<; I'nnüm.ll r.ldiu·fUt>.lus I)I!oI.ll r,llh,'·nJbillls Carrals
14.5 14.5 14,5 ló.1I 22.5 27.0 29.5 .125
IIUI
11,'J
2ltí 2.1.(, 2(,,0
11.5 11.5
rz.u
4f•.1I 46.0 41'0,0 411 (J
m.s
8..
J.5
14 u
4.n 40 45 4.5 045 11
IJ.5 1.1.5 22.0 25.0 25.5 25.S 25.0 25.5 35.2 35.2 35.2
lIlH
4,0
l/dI
U
Sacrum
Pelvis
Pmximal metacarpal Oisl.ll nWlol(·;lrr.11 I'rlllllln,111.·mur Di!ol.llkl11l1r l'n.,,m1011Iibi,1 Oisl"llibi" Tarsa!s Astragalm;
Calea ncu s Proximal metatarsal lJislól1 metatarsal fíT!<1 rh.11,ln¡.w Secund rh.llóln/1:l· Third ph,ll,lIlgl' Oismrml>t·rml'"lIt rlllul!; frnnl leg
Rl'ilr 1('8
u.e 10,4
u.e 11.6 11.1. 12.11
mM
17,b 20,0 2<1' 2004 20.0 2004 21U 2K 1 2K,1
.926 .713
WinI.,
-
100
Antier Skull Mandibll'
S\lmm.r
-"
r..l.11
Summer
Sprin);
.,. ,, ., ,,
,
Invenlarle. o, Analomlc •• P.rt. Remalnl... on DI.pe,.ed e.rlbou KIII.Buh:herlng Locatlon. (by Se••on) Fall
[771
LooIr'n, a' Me Emplrlcal World
tI.O
e.s e.u 5.5 5.5 1-.5 7,~
1,11
r.n
11.3 11..1 .1.1..1 .1.1.3 37.5 37.5
~H
20.0
1.11
;!70 U U K:\
"
34.0 34.0
1.S 1.5 IS 1.S 2.5 2.5 .5.5 5.5 .5.5
12.5 12.5 12,5 12.5 2n,1I 2(1.H 4.'UI 45 M 45.H
11.5 ,S 14.5 9.5
34.0
34.0 3K.tJ
9,5
~.(}
11,11
44.0
11.11 11.11
44.0
44.0
~W
.(;24
.""7 .n4
O O 11 l.l\ 2.11 20 2.0
z.n U U
J.II J.O 3.0 3.0 '.0
'O 3.0 4,11
4.11 4,11
U
11 11 12.5 25.U 25.0
I~)_S
II1.n
107.11 ~.1I
7.l~
Zh ,'J
99.2
35J~
25.0
111.5
Atl,2
zsn
11':U1 27.11 JCI.U 41 '> 56S 69.5
4'~,Q
U U
;l7,5 37,5 37.5 37.5 375 37.5 37,5 5Hn 51.1.11 .5Hn
.613
.64
71.0 71.0
7M.O
snu 11'>,3 II5J t 15,;1
-o
) I /
Z
• •
!
"
-
¡_._ Sprint
.-./._._',
¡ ---..\
.-
~ i
-'-.-'_._'-'_.,
'._/
/ / / - - - FClIt
c-:>
._/
~
-~~
~~t~ !~~~~ ~u ~~!~~~ ~~~~1~~!í'~ c~Jc~V~J~r.~~I&.&v~u~~~o~cO. ~~l Figure 2.10.
Cumparauve percentages fm parts tf'mn)
"7 W,H 15,7
2n.3 25,(J 25.6 25.6 2H 1 2KH 41,1> 41,1> 41./'
sik (1\17/ spring killlol'iltion) aud thc Anaktiqtauk site (lf:'n spring killlocation). The reble shows that more anetomical parts were abendcned at Anavik than at Anaktíqtauk. There is also a dífference in the frequency with which nccks-cconsidered of Iittle utility particularly in spring-c-were abandoncd. Figure 2.11 illustmtcs thc dlffcrcnces bctween spring sites (packing and recovery cerned out in a fcw days) and the fall sites (meat rnched in thc ñcld and rcturned to the village over a 6-month period). Fall sites have fewcr frunt legs. and fewL'r lower Jegs and phalang:'-'s rcmaining unrL'l"l!vercd. This finding rdlt'cls th,' diffen'nCL' in nutritional slalC'uf :'ipring Vl'r:'iUS f,ll1l',lribou .111d lh1..' differt.'nn' in labur demands f()r packing. Spring caribtlu are
gcrwrally in pOllr nutrítional condítion. whercas faH caribou are prime. Eskimos note that necks and front quarters of spring cartbou are of Iittle use, but in fall these parta are f.lt
and useful. Of greater interest. howevcr, are the cornpariscns between the asscmblagcs whcn vlcwvd against thc
MCUI.
Figures 2.12
through 2.17 illustratc thc rcletionships be•. tween thc kill-butchering data and thv indexo Thcrc is indecd a strong relationship bctwecn the frequencies of parts and the MCUl for al1 assemblages wilh lhe possiblc cxceplion of tht' data from summcr disper~l'd kills. This rl'latiunship is uniform in lh.lt il is curvilineM llnd nt'galivt'. Th"l i~, annlomk,ll rilrl~ uf hi~h genl'ral ulilily .1H.' rl'pre~t.'nled lly IllW In'·
(781
'00
2. Some Gefteral Co...,....,JoI'MI: Bufchering, KJII Slla. and R«Ofd'ng Proeeoduru
r-,
~\
'0
TABLE 2.9
._ \."
'.rt.
i1 1 I
Inv.ntorie. o, An.'ornlcal Remalnln, .t Sprint KIII·8utcherlng Slt•• A.nnlk (1971) .nd An.kUqt.ak (1972)
o,
00
An.wik
,~~.
An.,kli'lliluk
,
1
•
I
Anatomical part Anllt'T
Skull Mand'bll' Atlas A,i!l C,'rvic.l! vt'rld,r;ll' TllI'rolt'k vertcbrac Lumbar vertebrae 5acrum Pdvi<ó
Ribs Stcmuen ~arul .. l'wximal humr-rus Distal humerus I'rllximal ra.litl-,u!litus Dist,,! r.ldill-fllhilus CIfI'.lIs l'wxim.lllllt'l.lf.Up.ll \)i~t.ll ""'I.w.lrpal l'rtlxim.llll'mur P'
'· .."in1.1IIi1'¡" llisl.1Ilil>i.l Tarsals
Aslr,l¡;alus Ealcaneus Proximal nwl.ll.uS.ll Disl.ll nwl,l!.lr...d l-'irsl ph.ll.,n~.'S S""lll"l'h.ll,lIlfi"" 1hir,' 1'11ol1,1Il);""
MNI
%
MNI
')h
(1)
(2)
(3)
(')
5:\.0 44 .o 3~.O
40.0 44.11 410 211,0 24.0
SAn
1{1(1,(l
46.0 27.0
75.4
Ib.U
7'13 4b.5 27,5
1(.1(1
15.0
:N2
15.11
.17.7
11r)
45.2
12.0 9. 10.0 9 .o 70 7.5 6.5 8.0
¡<,I,I}
35.S
22.5
42.4
14,0 15.0
180
ISO
26.4
"'3 33.9 211.3
129 1l.2 13.7
31.1
a.u
24.:; 2'J 7
~,.O
25.n
411
:'l1.~
~.4 ~4
Jó5 :lfI5
eav
:11.~
4.11
v.u
Ifl."
:1,~
1.111 lB 17.3
245 2"
~n
22.0
:1".6
2:\.0
3.'\.6
)",(>
415 4.1.1
~2.6
2.1 ..l/,.h .11, ,1
h~.4
.le.."
h7.1
fl",l/
1'15 14,7 145 15.0 175
"
.\1.2 112 :1.1.1
"
¡,n
"
14 j. 2~.:1
2:UI 2~.t1
:W I 11,U
57,2 .';7.2 "7,;0
I'n>l111,.~
M·l~
77'
"~"
I
,
\
,
/--;
I
VI/\
\-..-/ ,....... "
.... AnO"11l
1
I
I
I
->
,.' ,,
I
.-.
,
;'; 20
•
•
• FOil kllll
il_/
>
e
~~i ~3~~~ ~U~ ~~~~~~ rr~~~~~1 c~~~~~l~~~~~~~a~~~'8~~~o~c~&!~ Figure 2.11.
15.2
02.'1
'1
>
1J.7
I1rluu/''''''1I ",'u'~
RNr I.'g
V
I
1\
I1 \
12.0
3f,.7 4f>.2
In,'1
, l,
.
11.7 211." 155 17.2 15.2
1~5
v.u
I
. 4.
2<;,H 25,M
16.5
\jO
1
--
100.11 H3.0 73.5
, ,, , ,,
I 1
~
~w'"
~8g
-... -..
ree
~
!"
~
w
g"
ro
Z;z
~~
~
~
(1) .:. CD "-.J('I.i !lO
; ~i
l",.mp.lf.lliv.",p,'rn'nt.l¡;"S Ior p.lrts rt'm.linin¡.; al Auavik and An.lkli'II.IUk kil1·bukh,·rin¡; ..,It's.
40
"ro
~ ,.
100 ...... T
~
~I
~~
'o
!5 S ea " ...... :;;~.. "I~ 0
\
-:"':¡¡:N!lO
\
"
ea!;!",
-:-r-:~ C::' ': Dl
.
ua OlICe -, e Af1:lV" I'ft(..L~iCe ... _ . _ 011
-i
~,
R
~
~
55'}
Zi--~' f5 ~!z i I ~ e ,. ::1 •
\
• •1OUl..
~
~
~
!lO
~
ro
~
~
w
Figu", 2.12. .1,'\.
Rd.lIillnship bo.'lwl'l'n data trom f.lll sill'S ,lnd 11ll' 111,,,filit...1 ¡':l'lll'f,II11lifil\' in-
Tlfle-":::eetllV ellT
40
..
OIiPfIClllt;nv-.l! en LUII ,ce:'_ . " _
so
~
§
e lCI
MODIFIED GENERAL UTlllTY INDEX TABLE 2.7 COL.I li1l-b\lI,lwfi!1~
•
"'~
- ••.,e
~!lO&O
ro
~90
IDO
MODIFIED GENERAL UTIL1TY INOEX TABLE 2,7 COL. I Figu", 2.13.
Rd.ltiuTlship l""lwl"'u ,1.'1,1 Irom winter
lill-b\lt(hnil1~ ..itc-s .1lld 1110' ,,,,.,lili,,d ¡':'·lwr.lll1tilill" 111
dI"
1791
1801
2. Some lknerol Cou'derotloM: 8utellerfng, Kili Sita. and R«o""nB Procedure.
.-
ee
~
*-..u
It: ., ~~~ .. ti ~
~:T_ .'MAl
.
~
ll!Ii DIII, eUM
....~ .W....
.. .
10
\."
il ¡
.-
~
ePb.V
~TllIIlII
MlC eDH • .-
ell'M
100 • iUoIT
!:lt : \""'~, ~l;¡B.. ; .. ~~~!lO ~-.o
.~w
bMj.~
10
n¡ .. ~~
~ !>
\
en
••n..,,,,_
-
."t
~
~,
~ I
40
\
IJI.'
JO
..
te
10
10
30
40
10
10
10
10
10
10
100
MODlFlED GENERAL UTIL1TV INDEX TABLE 2.7 COl. I
"z~
..
C@ w
I
~
~
I
"15'" ~r" ~
i.:.,¡ ~
1" 30
10
o
¡r
·~l
...... T -
- -"
i~
CMP • •Dlle
•.-.- ""'" • .. '" . " \
~,
~
II
~,
lIIIC.~.': LI.
te Tpj:r
203040
~! I'T
"
"
'"
ro
.
llOaClfO
1010100
\
lIIe\l1l1lMCI
~;~
~
''''
MOOIFIED GENERAL UT1LlTY INDEX TABLE 2.7 COL. I
"¡gu!'\' l.l". R"I.11illllship !.... W",'1l ,1,11" trom .;pril1~ ki1l-bul(h,'rin¡; sil('s and Ihc mll(lili,''¡ g.'n.'ral UliJily in-
d.,,,.
.~~II'M~..cllI-
I . .- , -".¡ ..
'~
¡.. "","-:=: ",""
:&~
T::Yi
.-
''''
L !!8 :..
,
10
e1M
Figun!' 2.15. Rl'I.llionship between d.11,1 frolll the Anilktitlliluk kill-btllch"rin¡; 11lC',ltillns and the mudili,',l f;"Ill'rOllutility ¡nd"lo:.
El-eSll:
\
ffi..J ~ '0 IU'I'
!:lB 5i_
•
MOOIFIED GENERAL UTILlTY INDEX TABLE 2.7 COl. I
Figure' 2.14. Rdationship between d.ll" fmm Ihe An.1Vik kill-bulchl'rin¡; locauons nnd the motiifi"t! ).;,·nl'r.ll utihly iI1lJ,·~.
...
'euM
'\
llIlCe
COY
o
o
"
liT
C
. lO
"
o
\
\
:~
~
Et..TM~ *"1 ,.".
"~l*C
~
quencies, whereas parts of low utility are represented by high frcquencics. Thc shapcs of the curves differ Ior sorne of tho asscmblages. Por instancc, the curve uf Figure 2.12 (dispcrscd f.lIlldlls) isa low curve rising grndually as ti". valúes dccrc.rsc. thcn rising very stecply at the luw vnluc cnd to nccommodate the frequency of head parts. On the other hand, Figure 2.14 (mass kill-butchering data from the site of Anavik 1971) exhlbits a higher curve, with a gentil' and syrnrnetrlcal rlse of frequency as the index valúe decreases. Figure 2.15 and Figure 2.16 are similar in that the curves nrclow bul symmctricol. Thus, wc sce that .111 kili osscmblogcs (cxccpt thc summcr dala shown in Figure 2. 17) reflect dccisions by the Eskimo thnt were made in terms of the same knowledge uf caribou anatomy. They were dcleting parts from the ktll-butchering Iocation in termsof their knowledgc of caribou anatomy npplicd tu considerntions of general or multipurpose uulity. I lowcver. 1I11' .1Sscmblagcs diffcr in tcnus uf thc wcighting that the hunters gavl:' lo this sc,lle. Prcsumably, thesc differences Ciln be accollnled for in lerms of "other considcrations'" or contingencics that influenccd thl' dl'l:ision milking. Figure 2.18 is i1 sl'ries of curVl'S related in .1 rl:'glllilr mannl'r In thl' MGUI. Thl' rllrvc..'S range fmm t1w Ilhlximizíng of 'lu.ll1líly lo tht, Ilhlxímíl',ing 01 \I",dily. t'ttrV,':-; d 11//11.. n'pn':-;l'nl slr.llt.'gil's Ih.11 sl'l,'d lur 1.lrg,' tlll.mlitil's of pilrts of bolh high .1nd motil'ri1te vallle i1nd abandon pmts of lhl' lowcsl utilily al rapidly acrelerating rates. Curves markl:'dxollrmcl TepreSl'nt strategies that select for high frcqucndes of parts of thl' very highcsl value and abandon partsof modera le and low valuc. The sigmoid Uf mixc..·d bulk-gollrmd stmll'gies me those Wlll'rl' largl' qllilnlitil's of pmts of high and modc..'r.ltely high v
m.lI'" ..
\
\."'IY
"te;~II,
"'"\ ~ " '"
.. " ..
).T
'
ro
'" ..
,
,
ro
''''
MOD1FlED GENERAL UTILlTY INDEX TABLE 27 COL. 1
ngUR' l.17. R,·I,lti'lI1..hil' bt'lw""ll tI,'I,1 In'lIl "11I11m..r kill-hutchl'ring sitl'S .lnd lh.' Inlldili",t g"lll'r,ll ulilily mdcx,
1811
l.ooldng 01 11J~ Ernp'rlccJl World
.
reo
"
_'" ro
Z '0
.
"~"
so
eo re 10
ec ro
40
ec ec ro
80
90 100
MOD1FIED GENERAL UTILlTY lNOEX Figure 2.18. A "Iamily" uf rel,'lio'hnir" rt'l,lhv",.. ,1 sin¡;I., scalar body (lf knllwl,'d~l'.
requiring equal knowledge and undcrstanding of thc actual differvnces bctween anatomlcal parta in tcrms uf thcir ovcrnll utillty. Given such .1 vicw, Wl'C,Hl.lpprl'\'i.ltl' IIH' di(ft'fl'l1l't'S atnong curves cannot be rcfcrablc to differl.'nces in the knowlcdge tha! persons making decisions bring to the situation, since
thl' "CUitUfl'" ur knowledge thilt thl' i.lClors bring to concrete situatiuns. A good contrast and il demonstration of this point is provided by thl.' tW() I.lrge spring kill-butchering luca!ions, Ani.lvik and An.lktiqtauk. As 1 have said. migration hunting bt.·gan at Anavikon May 19,1971 and al Anak· tiqtaukon MilY 17, 1972. During thehuntingal An.wik Ihe riwr bl'g.tn bn'.lking IIp on M.1Y 22.•lml by M.1Y 23. p.1SS.1gl' .ll'mss thl' rivl'r .11 111l' IUlrll1.11 ltll'.llitll1 W,lS illll'tlS~iblt', l)11 11w ulhl'r hanó, in 1':172, hunting Clmlinlll'd .11 AnakliqlélUk fmm M.1Y 17 thmugh M,lY 23. i.lnd not until May 24 ditf thl' rivl'r kt, bl'¡.;in brt.'aking up. , ,. -" ~ l In 1971 the hrst fcw days of m¡grahon hunt:. _." _ J '1: ,•• ~
.,'
[ 821
r,
Sorne Genero' COM'dendlolUl: 8utclterlng, KJII Sita. ond Record'"g Proeeduro
ing were slow and mostly herds 01 cows passed tbe Anavlk locatíon. The brcakup of the ice tock the hunters by surprtse and much meat had to be abandoned. Hunting was interrupted in order to transpon what had been killed before thc rwcr crossing bccnmc ímposslblc. In 1972, the early duys (lf huntmg wcre
succcssful in that herd sizcs passing Anaktlqtauk wcrc smaller but contnined greatcr numbers of bulls in good condition. The hunters h.ld killL'd what Ihl'Y nl'('tkd by May 20 ilnd tr.,"sport W.1S It.'isurl'ly .llld t,'ssl'nti,llly l"t11llplt.·tcd prior In thl' thundt.'r-Iikl' sounds uf tht., river ice breaking up. As Figure 2.14 shows. Ihe curve for Anavik is high .lnd <1cceleratcs r.1pidly with decrcases in utilily valut.· bl'low a \'.ltUt.' uf 50. The curve fur Anaktit.ltauk (Figure 2,15) is low with steep acce!t.'ration .,fter a utility valuc tlf aoout 35. Selt.'ction uf parts ftlr tr.lnsport ..t Anavik was much m{m' liis· crimin,lting
.
~
neck, and the atlas and axis vertebras were assimilated to the cervical vertebrae, which was abandoned in frequencies anticipatcd by the utility Index. In the graph for dispersed spring kills (Fi~ ure 2.16) the pilltl'rn is almost idcntical to th.u observed for /\ naktiqtauk-c-a lowor frcqucncy of uppcr pnrts of the front leg and Ihc atlas and axis asstmüated lo tho cervical vcrtcbrac. Tbc only miliar diífercncc is probably a íunction of pn'scrvalion; /\naktilll,luk W,lS obSl'rV(,d only Wl.'l'ks .1{(l'r Illl' htlnlin~ illllt blltdll'ritl~ ,Illd the soft and spongy antlers of thl.' bulls werl' visible and counted, The dispersed kills from spring wt!re ub~rved a lungl'r time ilfter the hunting;md bUlcheringepisodl's thal rcsultcd in th(' remains, snffieliml's as much as 3 Yl'iUS lall.'r, Frequ!!ntly only trilccs uf Ih!! antil'rs rt.,. mained. In such CilSl.'S they Wl'rt.' nnl nJUnkd bl'("ilUSl' Ihey hild in f.1l"1 dis,lppl'an'd. 1'h(' gmph ftlr wintl'r-killl'd .ltlim.1Is t'xhibils sorne vc1Tié1ll(C; h(}wl..'vt.·r, onJy une PMt, Ihe skull. dearly falls uut!lidl' fhl' dU!ltcred dislribution. This is tNe on aH other graphs, and it is at least partially a function of insufficient anatomical detail used in calculating the meat and in turn the utility indices. Ther(' is a great deill of cartiJage in Ihl' skull, which (ontributl..'s to the diffcrences bctwl'l'n Ihe frcshJ,lr bUlehered wt!ight and Ihe dry wcighl, Addititll1ally, the usablt.· or edible pilrts uf the skull are difficult to gC'1 to; considerable pro('essin~ lillll' is required lo obtain a given amoun! of uSclblc milterial compared, for instance, to that re· quired tu obtain usable m.lterial fmm the femur. In the calculations prcsentl..'d this low utilily material was elluilted dirl'clly lo the diffcrcnces bctwl'~n frl..'sh ólnd dry wl'ighls for a pilrt Iike the femur. The utilily indices fllr the skull may wellbe inflated on Ihe orderof 50%, If such a corrl'ctiun is mildl' in fhe ulility value fur lhe skull (see cín::led points, Fir;ures 2.122.17) the skull (he" fallH allmg the tn..-nd Hnc fur aH samples except fhe fan dala and the sprin~ diMpcr!ll'd killli.lte1. I bdil'VC th.lt tlw hir;hl.'r fn·lJlll'nc.:yuf skulls .1tf.ll1 kill-bulflwring ¡tN.',ItillnS is rl'<1lislic and ml',lninr;ful; htIW('vl'r, (hl' apparent ovcrrepresenl.llion uf skulls in Ihe
Looklng al
~
Emplrlcal Worid
data for spring dispersed sites is probably a resull of detcrioratfon uf antlcrs on sites exposcd to wcatbcring for severa! y('ilrs. I am confidcnt that had I becn able tu record the kill-butclu-ring data on the dispcrscd kills illll1wdi.ltl'ly alter thc '· ...cut, .1S was thc case at /\11.wi" aud Anaküqt.iuk. .uttlcrs would havo becn Ilw 111(1st cornmon partabandoncd at the kill-c-such .1 corrortion is iudic.itcd 011 t/lt.' gr<tph for thc spring disporsod data (figl1rl' 2, Ih). Civl'n Ilws¡' unn'rt.linlil's, 111(' 1'.111 d.ll,l n'l.lliVt'ltl s"ull .. is tlw lIn!y 1lIl,lll1hi¡.',UtllIS {'.lSl· indi("'llivc uf ,1 bi.1Sl'd ,lb,mdonml'llt of skuJls al kill-bull"her;n~ lncillions. This is under..tandable in Icrms tlr lhl' roll' of skulls .15 eal'he m.uker!'>,llld .1S sUppt1rts f¡lr slrings .1l1d píl'H'S of doth lls('d fo fri~hh'n rav('ns .1W<1Y from 1111' cilchl'. Thus, hl·.llhi in l"ilhl.T!' arl' not simply .11tl·rn,ltivl' pkn's {lf storl'd food; thl'y are use" fuI ..lr\'lllur.11 nlT1lptllll'nl.'i {lf .1 tl'mpor,uy f.ldlily. /\s 11Ill¡.', .Is IISIl.lhl(, 11ll'.lt rl·tHilÍns ,11 Ihe l'¡ld,,· t111' he.1ds will bl' us('d .1S mMkl'rs. Only ilfl(;'r lhl' (,KhL'S ,ul' exh.1Usted will ;, dl'cision bl' m.lde tOilb.1.nd¡ln fhe heads or returo them to thl' vill.lge as food fJ1r L,¡ther dogs or hu· manso The hl'ad is thus invariably the lasl itl'm removcd fronl iI (",1(hl.', Thl'refllrc, thl'ir ratl' Ilf inlrtldudilll1 inltl lhl' vill.1j!,l' .15 fOtld will Llt' wry slow during ,1nd immediJIe/y ,lftl.'r 111l' f,lll hUllt .llld will incrl.·.1Sl.' ¡lSIhl.· winkr w(',lrS tlll, filMlly showing a rt'illlivl.' dl.'CTl.'aSl' in bit' ",inlt'r and t'"rly spring, sin(I-' by thl'n lhl.' rl'nMining ul1l'xh"usk'd l"aehl'S are almost .1Iw.1YS InCilliul1!'> Whl'rl.' the largest numbcr of <1nim.1Is killl'd thl' pn'vllluS faJl wl.'re c.lch,'d. During this hme dedsions are generally Jg<1insl n'C(lVt.'rin¡.', hl.'.lds sinn' unexploilt.'d caches rt.·Ill,l;n. Only if ml.'.ll !'>upplil'sarl' vl'ry low-ht'forc thl' migriltion hl'rds appl'ilr-will hl',lds !:leTl.'Covl'r,'d fllrm l'xhaustl'd (,Jehes in sprillg. In shorl, lhl'ir USl' ilS l"ompol1l'nls of ,1 f.h'iIHy hi.ISI'S .1~.linst IIll'ir ust.· ils fllOd durlng mosl lIf thl' wlntl.'r. Wl.' thl'rl.'fort.' scc il r;rt',lll'r fn'lllll'l1I"y of h"ilds .1b'lnd(lnl.·d at l'¡ll'hl' 1"l.1tinns Ih,1I1 Wt' wmlld illllidpilll' ir Ih¡,y Wt'rt' I'llll.ll!y .lV.lil,lbll' ,1S .1 food SllUrn' rl'l.ltiv¡· Itl IIthl'r p.lrl". Th,ll this nmllilion huid s is illdk.1l('lf by lhc vcry low curVl'
1831 shown for the fall data if ene ignores thc frequency uf antlcrs and skulls. Hcre wc see the cffcct uf a wry lcisurcly recowry of meat from roughly thc Octobcr 15 through May 20. Re·
covcry of mcat from .tbc caches rwver proseut ... a bulk nr trunsport problem simv thc Nun.múut !'>l'11.'(1 Irom thc cache \\'h.11
i~
nccdcd ond what rcmains (.111 be rccovcrcd later. Wl.' note ,1 Vl'ry high r,lll' of n-muv.rl Ior parts uf minor ulility il~ indi(,lh'lI b¡. 11ll' \'l'ry ~('l1llt' (urv¡' (i~lltlrin~, ¡lf ¡'llllrS\·. tlw 111'.1\0 Nu Slll\ltllh l'UI'Vl'l'olll hl' lilh'd In tht'Sl' d.ll.l .IS is the CilSl' wilh illl othef S.llllpk·!'> I..·xu·pl thl' summer dispersed d,lt.l, For lhe filll rnateri.1J we really hilve IWIl Pt1pUiíllions, une (If fOlld pilTts, and une of clrlif.lctUill (OmpOlll'nts uf a facilily (hl.'.lds). Thus filr I h,1\'t' .wllidt'd dis(us..in~ Ihl,.' sumrnl'r displ.·rsl'd kills. CIt.'.Hly thl'Sl' delt,l dtl lltll dislrihllh' fl·I.1tivl' ltl 1111' Ilwdifit'd lllility illlil'X .1S dll 11ll'tlllwr s,ltllplt's. T,lbll' 2,H shtlW'i Ih.ll, uf all displ'rsl'd kill-bllll'l1l'rin~ ur (.ll'he ¡ocatiuns, lhe sU l1l rner sampll' is lhl' smillll.'st, wilh a luta! uf only 8 individual... reprcsent('d, whereas the f<111 totéll is 125. Ihe winter lutal is 25, and the spring tolal ¡s 12 (with 19 a more probable l'stim.lle). It mi~hl bt.· t'xpt'dil'nl simply lo dismiss Ihe l.lCk of fil f(lr Ihe SUmml'r datil ,1S sll'mnling from poor sampling. i\1thnugh Ihis mo\'l' mighl hl' ddl'nsible un sIalislka1 grtlunds, it is unrl',llistic, p,¡rlicularly sinn' tlw d.lt.1 (rtlm llw sm,ll1 s,lml~I(' ¡lf displ.'rsed Sprillg kills tils tlle t1islrihuti(ln 11; utilily valut's a¡mllst pl·rfl.'l"tly. There ilrl' cert.lin f,lCls lhal mah' thl' summer dala unique. First, summer hunling is gt.'nNally l'x"t'dili.." hllnlin~. rWIl IIr mon' men lec1ve Ihe rl'sidl'ntiilllo(.llion, move inlu the mount'lins, l·st.lblish.l hunting ('amp, and then procel.'d lo COH'r lhe surTtlundin~ il'rri· tury in seilrl'h nI g.lme. Thl' f<111 hunting is illl rnigrc1tiun huntil'~ l"{llldllell'd tn'lll llll' n'!'>i" dcnti,ll vllli'lgl" 1'l1t., !'>prlng hunting, .1lthuugh Rl·nt.·mlly cnnduCll'd in IWI! ph'lSl'f;, mi,.;r.,tion huntin~ .1Ild slr,lg~lt'r hunling, Is .11~11 nl1l" ¡lul'll'd frum!ln' n·~itl¡·llti.ll Vill,'gl'. In winlt'f, Olllst hUlllin~ is dO/w lusl bl'lor_' Chri~lnl,l'i tlr before thl' period of perpl'lll,,1 d.ukl1l'ss.
1841
2. Sorne
~nlt",1 Cotul,dltnltlo...:
Transport is ('ilSY and slcds are .ilwnys uscd. Meo may go out on expedltions: howevcr, once successful they have no real packing or transport problem since they C<10 elways return lo the locatícn leter lo recover the ffOZCO mear in a leisurely manner. as if the kili were sirnply another wlntcr cache. Since slcds are in use tbuy rnn always carry with un-m sufficient fuod for their cxpcdüion in e,lSt' thvy are unsuccessful in hunting. In fact. in winter they never remain in the field aftcr thetr stores or reserve rations are exhausted. whereas in summer this is done regularly. Summer hunting rañons mus! be packed in by tbe hunter or by lhe pack dogs, and there art.' .llternative foods available in the fidd in summerground squirrels, fish. birds' eggs, and even sorne plant foods. Thus in all thc data considen'd except thal for the surnmer, rl'llloval of p.uls (mm kill-bulcherin~locillillns is prim.uily il mncern for relurning p<1rls tu a sin~le rcsidl'ntial locatiun (or sloragc or consump· tion. Only in the summer data do w(' 5l'e a dual conccrn-the maintcnance of hunting l'xpeliitinns induding p.lt·k dogs, .ll\d thl' rl'turll .lf mt.'at ltl lhe residenli,ll localion (ur eilher slorage orconsumplion. In addition. in summer we witness the rnost extreme transport problem-only human Of dog porters are availabh.' for movin~ the meat bctwl'l..'n the kili Incatinn and the residl..'ntial localiun. Finally, th l' sratia] dislribution of lhe dala rt'IMiVt' to 1111' rl'sidl'nli.llltil'.llion b vl'ry diffl'H'lll. T,lbk 2.10 lisis Ihe t.!islanl'l's (mm llw l'ullll'mpl1rMY vill,lge fur alt lht, disperst.'d kill-buldlt'ring IncatiOIlS summarized in Table 2.8, The locafions tabulated in Ihe summersarnpIe are more than twÍ('t:'as far from the vill.lgC than thl' fólll .lnd winl('r locatiuns .ll\d thrl'e and unl'-half limes (arther lhan 111(' ~pring displ'rsed kili locations. A vl'ry diffl'rent trans.port problcm is presentcd by ~Umml'r kills and lhey are generally made in the con· text uf a very different organization of hunling hl'hilvior-expedilion hunting wnductl'd out of a hunting campo In the Itltler sifu<1lion, decisions are in lerms of threl' bilSic tlpliuns: whillltl abandon, whéll tlll'.ll in tlU' fil'ld, .lnd
ButckrlJtB. XIII SIte•. (lnd R~onIlnfl Procedurw.
disl.Jnn'
SI,md.uJ d.·\·j,JIi,m
\'ill,'~I'
,.lm".111
m.u-row. Th¡.., "b:'l'rv.lliutl olooc is indi~',ltive uf vcry diffcrcnt bchavíor-c-rnore consumplion at tbe killlocation in surnrner. In the case of thl' rndio-cubltus two of the tour recorded (50%) were broken Ior marrow on the summer sltes. Th¡s is a Iar greatcr frequency of m.urtlw-cr,lfkt'tl bt11WS than wos obsvrvcd in
(111011")
anv oüu-r )..ill-l'lltdll'rin~contcxt. Th.tt sorne-
TABLE 2.10
m.lance. 01 KIII·Butchertng Slle. from Conlemporary VIII_se
Number
,,'
SI',lS"l1 slh.,,~ ---_._--".. F,II! Winll'r
Spríng Sumrm-r
MI'an Irom
[851
Sex ond A~ Dora
(lI\ill·.~J
12' 2S 12
h.1 0.4 3.6
U
"
12,9
1,(,
"o
" Sill.'s listed are tbose inveruoned In Tabl.' 2.M
what to carry home, AI1 the otht:'r huntin~ situations prl'scnt unly two uptillns: Wh,lt to ,lbandun and Wh.lt tu t'ilrry IWIlll'. Vi.. win~ Ihe summer d.lta in this li~ht Wl' nute ~tlml' interesting fat'ls. First Wl' nule thal parls uf th,' rear leg fmm the proximal libia down M(' all pTl'sent in mughly equal frl'quencies. Sl'cond. all pi,rl!! uf the .l)(ial skl'll'lun plus llll' fl'mur arto' distributl'd in a Vl'ry gl'nt),' curvilinl'M fashion relalivc to the ulility indt:'x, Third, parts of lhe front leg are all underrl'pn..'sented and from fhe distal radio-cubitus dhwn me prescnl in l'qual frt.'tluencit's similar tu the silu.ltion fur the lower rc.u k'g. Finally Wt' nofl' thilt fhe alias and ilxis are assimilall'd lo lhe n'rvil',ll vt'rh'hr.I". ,IS Wl' I\tl!t'd f"r .111111" t.tllt'r insl.llll'l'S wherl' thl'rl' W.1S 11U m.ljl1r "Iiml' crulll'h" tl'lativl' lu thl' buldll'rin~ .ltl.t lr,lnsporling uf meat. Thl' parls (lf lht' axial skl'll'tlln were probably treall'd discrelely, as lhey Wl're in the otht:'r data; howC'ver, lhe rear Il'~ .1nJ lhe fwnt Ic~ Sl'l'm tu lw Ireaft't1 in.tl'pl'ndl'lIlly lif one anolht.'r rl'lativl' to Ihl'ir ulility v¡llul'~. Simil;uly the pMts of the !llwl'r fmnt .lnd rt'." legs are lrealt'd as sl'ls Tilther than ilS disert'I" e1t'ments fur choice. According to my notes on lhese sites, fourof the six tibiae rl'corded were bmkt.'n .11 the kili site for m
Ih¡"ll~ ht'sidt's simpll' butrhcriug .111d rcnu-val 01 svlcctcd parts W,lS g(lin~ on .11 thcsc Itlt'.Iñons is also supportcd by the dísmcmberment valúes (see Tnbk- 2.8) where 0111 other kilibutchcnng snmplcs show dismcmbcrmcnt raños fllr the front le& bvtween .89 and .93 and the suml1lt.'r s.lmplc h'15 a véllue of (1IlIy.61. Similarly, hlr Ihe rt'.lT leg all other s.lmples t'xhihit valul's bclwl'en .62 and ,77 .lnd the summt:'r dal.l yil'ld a value of .48. Creater disml'mbl'rmt'nl .1nd more l'vitil'nc(' for on-theSP,,( n'llsumpli~lIl .Ut' char.Klt'ristic of 1111' sunllllt.'r data. SUlllml'r hunlin~ is encounll'r hunting. Aninlolls killt'd Ml' rart.'ly aggregaled "nd they Mt' f"w. Thl' Illlmbt.'r of i\nimalsactu.llly killed durir,~ ~ltnllnt'r i~ far bl'low llll' nlllllbt.'r t,lken in f,ll! .md spring; in"wintl'r thl' hunters
dimensional corrclation botwccn thc surnmcr kili data and the utilíty indíccs. Summer hunting camps are discussed further in Cbapter 6. SEX AND AGE DATA An aspoct tlr Iouu.il m"h'rials fU'qUl'Il!Iv
is Ilw ,Iht' ,llld St" distribution 111 animals huntcd bv m.m. Threc octu.d rccords were kept cf
TABLE 2.11
Anlm.1e Kllled lo, Mul (by Su)"' F,II1 I%IJ
M"les h'Il1,ll,'~
1'01.11
S"rlf1~
lIJ71
Sprill~
1972
['01,11
Il'>Om·l)
~(76.1J)
W(H1)
33':1 (7) 71
1>2 (~7.1J)
24 (ni)
23 (IK,'l}
Ill'/ (:!h.1¡ .."
2.:!2
., NlIml'l'r, in ",II1.'nlh!''1''
1:!2
104
.Irt'111<'
f'l·r{'o·"t.l~l'S
ot tl1l'
"'l"l~
¡liT ",I
\
[86)
2. Some Generol Cons'dervtkml: Butderf"B. ,,11ISita••nd Record'"" Procedurn
Age was a matter that the hunters could nut glve Infcrrnation on, since they did not makc note uf nn anlmal's age bcyond di~linguishing whcther an animal was a calf ur a maturc animal. Calves are consídercd unty as sourccs of skins for clotblng in late surnmer and early fall. Al that time, they are killed selectively Ior clothing but are not normally butchered for Iood. Gcncrally unly the hend is takcu: iI is considered tender and something uf a Ire'al. The pack dogs are commonly Ied at the kili on the carcass of calves. A fetus is considered af almost no utility. Dogs may occasion"lIy be lurnt.'d louse on a felus; huwevt.'r, my ubs,'rvati'lIls shuw Ihal ,'v ..'n dugs gt'lll'r,}lIy unly nlOsumt.' viS"·t.'f;l ,lnd I..'avl' Ihl' Gln·,l.';S t'ss"llli,}lIy undislurbed. Table 2.13 summilrizes tht.' data from the kill·butchering locations in terms of the Eskimo's id('as oí ..ge-mature animals, calves. and fetuses. The frequencies of anatomical parts from feluses are '101 indud..d
In winlcr 'he bU1l5 are considered to be in their poorest nutrttional statc whereas cows are consldered nutritionally bctter. Durtng sumrner therc ls cssentiatly a kill-as-sightcd condition; the bias In favor of bulls occurs because the Nunamiut are searching arcas commonly considercd lo be "bull rangc." Nevcrtheless, they are taking animals in roughly the frequencics with which thcy encountcr them. Thc dala from the dispcrsed spring kills Me in my opinion deceivlng. They Tened a bias agaiost cows, bul during straggler hunting bull5 are commonly r('turoed lo Ihe villa~(' cnmpll'h.' ilnd unbulchercd. Table 2.10 shows Ihal IIw aVNi.lgc distann.' oí Ihl' dis)"ll'rSl'll spring kills fmm the villólge is nnly 3.11 miles. Slragglcrs killed Ihis c10se to Ihe vill.lge are frequently returned to the village as complete animals. The high frequency of cows in the spring data renects this biased removal of complele bu 115 from the neld.
TABIL 2.12
"nlm.l. Recorded .1 KIII.Blltcherinl Loutlon. (by Se.. )~
Mólll'!l h'm.llt'!l
FOIl!
Winll'r
Sprin,;
H9 (71.2) Jfi (211.11)
14 (!'(dl) I1 (44.11)
.1 (2~.(I)
12'
!""Idl ~ NUm~·~ in
2'
p.afl'nlht"'t'!1 an' tillO
~'t.·fl""'Ilt,I~t'!l
lJ (7.'>.0) 12
Anavik (spring) llJ71
An,lktiqli'ouk (sprinK> 19n
Sumnlt'r
41 (n.4) 12 (22.M
44 (75.lJ) 14 (24.1)
!i «(;~:~) .1 (.125)
"
SIl
•
uf thl' lul.als I'l'l.:on.il'd fur ~'.ldl !Il'oISlln ur sill'.
TABU 2.13
5-•• 0 • •1 Age V.ri.bllby .1 Kili SlIu .. T.bal.ted by E.ldmo Ale
~
C.le.orlu~
1:0111
Winkr
Sl>ri"~
An.lVik (sprint;>
An.lkli.¡t'"lk
Cat··W'ry
('irrin~l
Sumllwr
Malu", animals Calvl"S F,'lust"!i
125 (100)
25 (1011)
12 (80)
53 (79)
SIl (7.1)
H (7.1)
14(211
21 (27)
J (27)
.1
(20)
Numh...rs in pan'nlhl'!lt"!l an' pl'ro.·,'nl,lgl'SI,f 1l.1.11 S1'asunall,r sil" kili f;ll1ing in l'aeh dl;l' call'g.. ry
SUrrtmCIrY
in thc Irequendes sumrnanzed in Tables 2.8 and 2.9. Clcnrly. only ,'uring spring and summ e-r MI..' Immaturc ammals killed and therefore prcscnt al kili sltcs. In addition, the Irequency uf immnturc animals. both fetuses nnd calves. ap· pe.us to be a simple Iunction of the number of fcmales killed during thosc scasons. Thts is perfcctly undcrstnndnblc in tcrms {lf fctuscs. but as Iar as calves are concemed this is not so obvious. The normal melhod of taklng calves is to kili cows as a source of food while hunting. Onc(' the molhl'r is d<,'ild th(., calf may be appfIl,u'h("t ;md kilh'd by slittin,:; its Ihroat thl'H'hy s,lvin~ .llnmuniliun amI rn',"('fvin~ thl' skin ;nlm:t {ur use as cluthing. SUMMARV Whilt hilS bL'l'n describl'd is prubably viewl'd as a grcat d....11 (If vari
[87) game-density area-c-one une hunting expedltion l¡1sting 4 hours and S min a lotal (lf 75 anirnals werc sightcd in ::w scparatc ~ruups J was at a 105:0 tu fl'(·(~ni7.t.' ,1ny variatlons in the butchering procedurv. Each eptsodc obscrved was ídcntical tn the othcrs wüh nnly one difference. If an animal W,lS killcd in the momtng and thc buntcr did not Intcnd to n-tum tu thc filmr immodíatcly thc anirual wos cvtsccratcd and sometime-s roastcd in thc fícld: otherwise it was returned to camp uncooked and uneviscerated. In no case was the animal bUlchercd anywhl'rt.' but in thl' cilmp sinn' buICh('ring tilkt'li plan' ilf"'r ((loking. Tht' dt,ósillns of whkh pnrls lo .lb.lOdon ur how In cut thl' animal up nt.'ver (.·ame ur. Th" ilninMI was always introduced {'ssentially whole ilnd butchering was done Ih(' sarne W,lY each tiOlI'. A distribution of parts accompanied the butchering and if any l'va/ualitlO uf parts occurred it was in IL'rrns (lf which pt.'rsons f('Ct.'ived which parls, nCVI..'r in krms tlf whkh parts lo transport and whkh lo Olbandon .1S in the case of lhe Nunilmiut. SimiJarly, I am perfeclly satisfied wilh the single generalized description of Navajo butchering previously presentl,d (Binford .1nd Bertram 1977). I have observed nurnl'WUS epiSOdl'S and in each caSl' the n·dund.1n<.'y W.l~ vl'ry high. HUWt'Vl'r, no ((lmmtlO bllt<"hl'rin~ prun'durl' is shar",t by lino !Kun~ llushnWt1, the Alyawara AU'ilralians, <1I1d thl' Nav'ljo; cach gruup ftlllowpd illi own prun'durt,. In turn, the variants ch.uaclt.'rislic (lf each Wl'rt.' nnt all observl'd among lh{' Nunamiul. Nt'VI'rlhdt.'ss. thc v.uiability in pron'dufl' WilS low am,mg rhe Navajo and Ihe Alyaw."'lrOl, ilS W.1S sl'(.'mingly lh ..' CilS<" .1mong Ihl' !Kung Rushmt.'n; anwn); tlH' NUI1.lUÚul. \I.lri.lbiJily is high .1nd dl'arly l'llllditilllH'd by ,1 Ilumb,'r of fólcturli. Are thl' Nunamiut Illli'lue? No. Judging !rom the ethnographic Htl'r,llure tln bulfhering as w{'lI as archaeologically doCuml'nlCd variability in kili-si te composition, tht., butt·h· eríog procedure oí thl' biso n hunlers of the Crcat Plains of Nurth Amerk,l appears Vi1riabl.. and diffkult lo Ch,uilclerizl'. This suggestl'd vnri
1881
2. SDme Generol Co_lderaUD": 841kllerlng, KJII Slte., ond Recordl". Proeedure.
the confusión evidenced in the llterature. Por instance, a distinction between "light butchering" and "heevy butchering" was introduced by Clark Wissler in his c1assic monograph, "Material Culture 01 the Blackfoot Indians" (1910)_ When using these terms Wissler mede it clear that he was speaking of the situaban where bison were killed and butchered Ior transporl back to a camp undried. In former times, when hunting on houes. jIwas necealo prepare Ihe cercees fOI pi'lddng. If the cllmp was nearby. the procedure was about as staeed ebove (the animal's being cul up as il wlluld be if il Wl'rt' in cilmp whlJil'). Thl'frf'Sh !>kin waslaid on Ihe h(.rse'sbllrk. lh ... ht"ll! pil'Cl' lnw.ud hi~ ht'ad. A strip (lf tlw hidr w.1s slil'r"d lhn>u¡.;hundt'f lfw lt'n<1onsnf 11'11' Il't'·'ll1,.rll·r" su Ihl'Y (¡luId bt' hun¡.; n~ul', back·fat, de. Wl'fCmildl' up iott, !:Iuodl.'s and p/au'd (ln Ihe hots(>. Tht' tólill'od "f Ih.' skin Wi'lS Ih.'n lurncd UPUVl't thl' p;'trl l,j nI",lt. This mdhud W.15 spuh·o uf ,1S "hl"lVy bUI(h.'rin~" Silry
"Light bUlchl'ring" was tht' term applil'd tll.' ml'lhod mueh u'lCd when Ihe killin~ W.1S faf ftllm (amp Uf whl'" SI'Vl'rill anim.lls Wl'rt..' 11'bl,' transpuftl'd by "01' ••t tw" hnrws. In this .'as.', I~", I"ins wt'n' clllllUI .. f \h,' tlu.ltlns. Tht'n Ih.'s.' W.'f., tktt in pairs i'lS b..-lm.', T"t' h.lt'l·I,lf W,lS r'·!I1.ovl'.1 in 1""" pi"lt's, .unl I¡,.d "".'" lo' I.,y .1"f"S~ tI", hots.... '1"111" I"io~ ""itl> lllt' l .. ¡... ·y... 111<' mt','llrtllll \l1l' l,l,.,s" ribs, 11'11' ht'oHt, 1111' l
Cump.lring Wissll'r's list u( p.uls Wl.' can approximate the analomical parts containing bones Ihi'lt would be introduced into a si te under condilions of both líght and heavy butchering. WUh heavy butchenng, parts relurned to the living site would be 26 ribs, the compll'te sternum, both humen, both radiocubiU, most if nol all of the carpals, both temora, bolh tibiae, and most if nut .111 of the
.
-
tarsals. The hyoid might a1so be retumed. Remaining at a kill site would be the skull with horas, sometimes the mandible, all the vertebrae, the pelvis, and the metapodials with attached phalanges. For light-butchered arumnls the hyoid and the stemum pla tes together with short ribs might be the only bones introduced; all others would remain al the kili location. Here we see descriptive distinctions, variability thet is related to the dlstance the animals had to be transported and the number of animals killed at once-factors also important in conditioning variability among the Nunamiut. Further complications arise in the Plains Iiteraturl', Kl'htll' (1%7: 70-73) lIsl'd Wis!'>lt'f's distinctions bt'twecn Iight ilnd heavy bukht.'r· ing. However, his site was the locafiull uf a bison drive, which is a seasonal activity much different from the context of butchering described by Wisslt:'r. In all caSl'S wherc the ethnographic Iiterature is adequatc, it is ell'ar on the point thal on urives wht.'n.'lar~e nUnlhers of animals wer~ taken, the animals wt.'re processed ne~i1I iII for Ihe productiun of dried meato 'erk, ne grease, and m.1rrow grl'ase, In short, t e animals wt.'Ce gt.'nerally prun'ssed fUf stofilge. Thus, slIch IOG1lions rl'pn'Sl'nt still ~rl';llL'r v.1ri
Surnmary
Navajo, and probably the !Kung Bushmen .appear highly stylized and behaviorally standardized. On the other hand the Nunamiut and the Plalns bíson hunters appear highly variable in theír butcheríng behavicr, with procedurcs accomrnodated to a large number of contingencies. In addttion, each case considered (ígnoríng the variability for a moment) appears lo heve sorne characteristics that distinguish H from all other cases regardless of the behavioeal variability involved. Here we face concretely the problem with whích 1 introduced this book. Wha! meaníng do we give to tht, facts? Sorne anthropologists mightcondude that the Navajo, Alyawara, and !Kung h.ld ri~id pl'rSollality typl'~, Wh.'Tl'i1!' tillo' NUllallliul and tht.' Plains Indians wer~ cmpiricists with uutgoing personalities. Others might say thal the facts proved that such behavior was culturally determined since afler aH each case was different and we aIread y knew they were representative of different culturl.'s. Tht.'y might alsu point uut tho11 the Nunamiu! and Plains Indians are more alike than either is to the Navajo, !Kung, or Alyaw•1fa, After all the !Kung and Alyawara are cuntiol.'ots away, Wherl.'a5 the Plains 'ndians ilnd Ih.' Eskimo .'rt' dusl'r tu om' anothl'r and proh.lbly sharl' mllrl' ((UT1mnn cultun.' hi~lory! '1'111' N.IV.ljo m¡~ht bt.' t.'xp.'cll'tf to bl' diHt'rl'nt fnnll Ilwir Nurlh AnlL'riL'.ln n'll1panions, since they h.1d bet.'o heilvily "accuHuratt.'d" as pasturalists! Still uther anlhropologists, using the same facts, mighl confidl"ntly assert that the facts pruve the validity of their own particular ideas, But why must the explanation for within-sy~tem variability bt.' indl'pendent of Ihl' t'Xrl,lll'lIitltl (or llt'lw.'l'n-syslt'm volri"bility? Might Ihe S.JnW dl'll'rmimmts be upt.'rative in both situations? Even at the descriptive level observers lact'd with variability sought from their infonnanls the conditioning facts ut Iheir behavior-the cootingencies in terms uf which they chose allemative behavioral strategies. Might nol there be such conditioning lacts relevant lo systems as a whulc? And, given great st.,bility in such con~
1891 dítíontng facts, observers and partidpants may well not be aware of altemative condilions or strategies and therefore behave in apparently "rigíd" ways. For instance, among the Navajo the distence of the kili from the site of consumplion is essentlally a constant, since the animals arecorralled adjacent lo the campo What about numbers of animals killed al a given time? lo the cases oí the !Kung, Alyawara, and Navajo this does not appl'ar .1S a realístíc variable. The Navajo do nol kili opportunistically but instead schedule their killing of domestic sheep to mee! irnmediate consumption needs. Similarly, both Ihe Alyawara,.and !Kung hunt animals to meet imml'diatl' consumptitlll .m'l'ds. Tlwy ~ nothing by killing.l ¡iUgl' IlUmbl'r llf .min~ Consislenf with this condilion is the hunting strategy of both the !Kung and Alyawara. A single kili is generally sufficient to termínate the hunting activities. Both groups hunt in situations where large game aggregales are rare and huntlng lechniques MI.' such that él kili ensures that other nearby animals will escape . On thEt-other·.haoo, Ihc,Nunamiut..and•.the Plains lnd~vfJ.....km&-!tlfla.-~. They hunt tu mcet anlicip.ltl'.-l nl.'t.'ds, sturing meal f(lr thl' futur.'. Thl'ir hllntin~ str.ltt.·~it's o1Tl' dt'si~lwd to .'nSllrl' lh.' killin~ uf 1.lr~.' numbl'rs of ,1ninl.1ls.lt unn.. .111d tllt'y 1,1 k.' .Id· vantge oí Ihe frt.'llul'nt aggfl'g
\ 1901
2. Som,e CHllerol ComJderutlons: Butc:herlng. Kili S,lelJ. ond Reconllng Proceduru
pected occurrences or conditions in spcdfled rl.e.~ ""d undl" ~pl'dfl.d condUlu", 1" Ih" observable worJd. The degree lo which su eh "hypotheses" are confirmed is a factor of evaluation regarding the utility oí the ideas or theortes built. Can we make general statements that might provide sorne basis for evaluatíng the variability in archacologlcal rcmains that could derive (mm dlffcrenccs in butchcring and thc closely related problem of transport of butchered anatornical parta? Wh,lt I have discussed thus far Me particular cvents and sorne uf thc fnctors thnt ilrrl'ar tu condition bchnvior in diffcrcnt sltuations. Wl' have seen that in the main butchering does not result in the destruction of analomical parts beyond recognítion. Butchering as such thus cannot be expected to condition the dtfferentiaJ presence 01' absence of anatomical parts. What really conditions such vanebilíty ere decisilltlS as to whether to use en animal at the location of kili, lo carry it away to nnother location, and so on. Butcheríng procedure appcnrs lo be ,1 dependen! phCnOlnl'nOn, cundihonl'd by logistical I.."(msidl'riltions. Tht'st' Itl~istk.l1 consit1l'Tations arl' 11", nll1lt'xl:-; uf dt'(ÍsitlllS .,bout Whl'thl'T to USl' sllf1wlhin~, .lb.llIdoll it, liT l',lrry it to i.lIlotl1l'r lor,ltion for tlSt', Wt.· m.. y expt'Ct thal hum.ll1 adapt.ltillllS art' pllll'nti'llly variablt.' in tht't.'h.ua("kr Ilf Iht'ir logislical organization, and Ihis is sumt'lhing wt.' would likt' hl mllnitor. AS.1 mOVl' in Ihis difl'C'tion I hilVt.' SU~t'Sll't1 il pnKt'durl' f{lr l'vahl.ltin,.; Ilw tlt'¡.;n'l' of disml'mllt'rllll'nt dMri.1t'lt'rislit' of .1 f.HlIMI ,Is~ sl'mhla¡';t', I ~ SH,mus-h-d IhaJ,Jlw.d~·~n'1.· uf .lni1h'ntft·'~~llkm..~Jj.M:ly .....,la..,f'(•• I.IlftI.ü"'"th., dl'~rt'" uf lo~islÍt'.II.',d('no;iull: 1111' Jongl.'r the dt.'l."ision chain invulvin~ the Ust.' uf ano.tumical parls; Ihe less anatomical organi~ zation Jikely to remain. As we consider more dala accumulaled among the Nunamiut Es~ kimo we will have fhe opporlunity to evaluah:.· the value of Ihe tólbulaling proct.·dure as welJ as the relt:>vancc of dismemocrmenl lo Itlgis· tieso In addition, 1 have developed the modjfied general utility index, taking into considl.'ratinn
the likely sets uf bones resulting from butchcr-
¡"g pr{X'l'dul'cs M1J In Iurn íhc l1iodHk·d
\'011·
ues resulting from low-value bones Tidin~ with hlgh-value bones. The usefulness and reality of this Index has been evnluated against a large body of observaticnal dala frnm Nunamiut kill-butchering locations. We have seen that the composition of a kill-butchertng location is gcncrnlly anticipatcd by thc modlfied general utility index. Thc Iocations VMY among themselves in terms of the form of the relationship. which, as has been suggested. is conditloned by n varicty of potcntial ronIingcnck-s (c.g. tronsport diíñculties, rinw limltntions un I.lbur .u-tivitics, allli locauon uf the kili site relative lo resldentíal or.eeesumer locations). In ~ddition, we have...s.0~I.~_, a hint"),. that under different hunting striifégies. the contexts of decisión making oonditioning the content of kili sites may vary, We have seen that for most of the Nunamiut cases only une declsion was made-c-what to removc Irom thc location-c-resulting in a population of abandoned parts and by inference a population inlmducl'd intoanothl.'rhll'atiun. On thl'otl1l'r 1lc111d, Iht.· dal.1 from the sumnll'r kills clluplt'd wilh sum\' knuwll'd~l' uf hunlin,.; :-;lr.1tl'~ks 1ll.1kt' il hiJ;hly Iikt'ly th.11 ilt ¡1'.lSI IWIl .Hui prub.1bly thn'l' dt't'isions WL'fl' invtlh'\'tL in nlllditioning IIw t'h.1r.1dl..·r uf tlw p.lhs abandom'd-whill (o rl'mUVl' lo the n'sitlential location, what lo rcmove to ,1 hunting \'amp, and whilt tt1 fl'f.·d dOAs and mt'n whilt' .1t IhL' kiIJ síle, Untlt'r cuntiitiuns slll'h .15 Ihesl' 11l\' frl'IJllt'nl'Íl's of p'Uls .lb.lll\IOIWtl .1ft' I1tll simply monitofl'd by.1 sin¡.;I\'dinlt'nsion sud. ilSlh.· !nodifit.·d ~t'nl'rilllltilily inIJ,'x. TIl\' fn'· tllH'nd\'s fl'nl.lilli,,~ .In' 11", fl'sitlll,lls Imm .11 11'.H,1 Iwu dilh'n'''l wl'il)ltlillJ~ 1.1 lhi:--. ur ullH'1" snl!l.'s (lf USl' criteria Tt·prt.·Sl.'ntin.,; .lt Il'Olst tWH and probably three different typt.'s of use dl.'dsions, Under Ihe lalter sets of circumstances kill-bulchering locations Jook very difft'rl'nl in terros of cont""nl. As we lakt' up more bt,haviurally contmllt.'d populalions of bones wc will f¡nd int'reilsing complexity and vari.lbilily depending on the structure of dL'C'ision m.lking standing behind fhe static assemblage rc· maining for our nbsl'rvi1tiun,
3 Meat Storage
In Ch •• ptl'r 21 disl'USst'd .IHlil'cSof il gCIll'r.l1 1l,1IUfl'. I disnl.o;sl'd 111l' ¡';t'lll'r.l1 utilily of vOlri· tUIS '11l.1tl'mj\...1p.uls .md tlw Tl'I.1Il·t1 prohlelTIs tll Ir.llls.'urt ,llltf t'COlHJlllY il1 thl' l'll/lll'xl llf ,1 In~isl¡t,:.d SYStl'lll. In this ChOlplt'T I Ollittrl'~!>.''il 111l1fl' sp\'I.:ifil' prohlt'lll {\fc1Hlkl'~llll' sl'lt'ditlll uf parls for sloragc givt'!l cNt.1in l'b'lfOlcteristics of the lechnitlUes'UStId;n'-prHetWAg tn8t\ Stor.1gl' rdl'rs to the prot:ctlurt.' whcn.:by I,ml' IItilify is g,'im'd from fl'SUllfCl'S. Storolgc l"lIll'nds tlll' I'I'Th,d uf lilll\' in wh;l'h t'(lIlSUlllp· Hon is possihll' lx'YI'ml 1Ill' pl'riud uf timL' lillring whidlllH' n'StlUh·1' is ,WIlt.llly .Iv.,il.lhlt, Ihnlu,:1t dift'd l'n1t'llll.'1lU'1l1. Wht'n rOllds ,In' ,.hullt.l.lllllur unly.1 slHlrl pl'riud 01 timl' slurage is L'ssenlial. Tuday the Nunamiut employ two methods of m-eat preservaríon, freezing and drying, each eoupled with 'SeVt'ral-'5torBge· stra.t~l'!,
DRYSTORAGE
General Con.lderatlons Whl'n thl' Nunamiut select parts of animals fllr me.ll, m.1rfllW, UT grt'ast', thl'ir SL'!l'ctüm is
dirt'ctly rd.llt.'d to anatomk'11 f,lt'IS, Thl' sl'lt'r· linn uf pi.Hls fur drying, IHlwl'\'l'r, ;s rl'l.lh'd fll t1w ¡lCt'Ummlltlatiun {lf ,Ul'110mk.ll l.wts hl l'IllldititlllS "ll'l'l1wd ttptim,d hlr pn'~\·rv ••littll. M.1ximum drying ~wlt'nti.lI is rl',lliJl'd wltt'n surf.KL· Olrl'i1 is ~Tl·.1tl'st pl'r llllit w\'ight. TWII fOlclllrs .HI..' invo!vl'd: (.,) \lut~idt' tl'I111'cr.Hun· and (b) humidily. AII {lrg.1nisms rl'sponsibIL' fur tp0ilagl' rt'tluin' ":l'ft.lin nitir.11 ilmuun(s uf moistufl' ,1nd a givl'n It'mpl'r.1tun' r.lngl' ftlr sun·t·...sful n·pnlt.lul'tillll, Pn'sl'rv.1til.lll thruugh drying is m.l\h, pussibll' by thl' fl'lh ...·til.l/l uf Ilw llluislttrl.' h(,low tl11' poinl ,11 wlli. h "¡'tilll'l! nopnldul·litlll pi tl,'nllllpllsl'r.. 1,1"'·" l' .In', Wht'rl' tltt' tl'rnp"'T.IIUH' is 1ll'IilTllllll Itlr reproductioo, moisturc ll,usl h...' draslic.lIly reduced lo ensure against spoilagt'. Where the temperature is below optimum then the amount of dehydration can be much Il'ss, As a due tú lhe tt'mper.1ture-moisture fl'latiunships Ihi1tmust be mainti1ined fm ~ucn'ss fuI preserv.ltion. 1obtained rl.'production r.11l.'s for Bl1óllus "'yclJides al vilrying temper,)lures (Figure 3,1), The figure shows two thrt'shulds. une at approxim.1tl'ly 16°C (6O"F), bl'luw whic.:h
1911
[92J
""
••
2~
1\\
1
,
1 O
¡ figure :U. Relationship between Tale of cell divlsion
for Bacillus mVroidrs and temperature. (D~ta ("1m Encydo· ptdia 8ritl"rnilll, 19!t4 ed., s.v. "BACfERIOLQGY. ")
eee
~
j
1• 2
1/
too1
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~
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100
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."
,~
winter and summer. Such is the case for the Nunamiut. Studying the Nunamiut provides us with the opportunity for evaluating variable meat storage strategies in variable temperature settings. The Nunamiut live in an environment that can only be described as severe. According to my temperature rccords for the year 11}71, l111'rt' wcre 22J consecutivo d.\\'s-ól I}h (If 11ll' year-during which thc tcmperaturc ncver rose aboye Ireezing (September 21} to May 10). During this period frcezíng of meat would be ~_ro(t'ssi"g meat for dryillg. \ t,_pn the other hand, the higher the tempera-. the Iogical storage strategy. There were only , ture the longer the growing seascn, and the ' 22consecutíve days duri~ which the temperature did 1101 drop below fferzillg Uuly 6 tu [uly \ leas need there ls for food storage. The pro28); that is. Ihe mcasured growing scason was cessíng time 10r successful storage of meat only 22 days. or6.02% uf the Yl·ar. During the increascs with incrcascs in tcmpernture a_nd growing scason tberc were onlv 11 consecuthe bulk requircd for sto res should dccrease.ilf tive days during which the d.líl)' high temper. these suggestions are accurate we may an1TCiature exceeded 15°C (nOOf) (luly 1810 July 28), " pare sorne fairly regular gcogrnphic patteming The hlghcst tcmpcraturc recordcd during Ihis in st(lf¡\~l' and in thc rclatcd proccssing period was 2",C (84°F). Thl' m('an d,li~y high stratcglcs fur drying ment. There wül be an temperature was 19.9°C (h9.5~F) and the meo1l1 empirkilllhreshold such thilt in enviwnmendaily low temper.lture was 6.5°C (44,rf). tal sl'ttings warmer Ihan the threshold meat There are thus 142 days of lhl' year during will nol Ix, storl:'d .md drying fl)r storilge will which meat prescrvation must be ensured not bl' pracliCl·d. Bl'Iow lhis Ihreshold, as the through a drying stralegy. growing SI'.lS()n bt'comes sh(ITter, the security During the year of record (1971), theTe were gained wi\l ()ulweigh the costs in processing 56 days between the last consecutiw day on time and we may anticipate sorne minimal which the tempernturc did not rise a!:'otlVe storag,l' (~( mt'cl1 through a drying strategy with ffl,t'7in~ ílnd thl' firsl ftlnSl'nltiV(' d.\\' (lIl hi~h pn'ú':-:sing (tl:-:ls. In nt1rtlwrn ilfl',1S, lhe which it did nut dip 1:'o('IIIW fn'l'/in~ (M.I\' 10 111 f('liolll(t' tln :-:lorl's would ilKH',lSt' in prtlpt1rJllly 6). f)urin~ Ihi'i Iwriod ¡lit' d,'iJy tlw.m .. 1¡I'll lo rt'dUtliol1'i in Illl' j~rllwill'~ St'.ISOIl, .uld h'mlto l',hibil .\ sll'.1tlv p.llll'rn ¡Ir II'n'I'I· ...lllIn· Ibt' dl\,illg ,,11111',11 H'lluld (l1'\\'llU' illd't',,~ill~ly imporl.lIll. II0wl'Vl'r, .1Jong thi~ grcldil'nt wt.' inere.1st.' wilh httll' V.Uicllll·C. On llll' o!lll'r hand, between the last cons('(ulivl' di'lY on may anticipate a regular decrease in process· which the temperature did nol dip below ing time as tempera tu res fall below 15°C (60"'F) freezing and the first consecutive day on and in tum an increase in the probability that which it never exceeded freezing (August 28 meat will be dried with bones included. to Septemher 29), the variance was high. Thus far I have discussed drying in a very There was a temperature plalt'.lu whcrc the general contexl, ignoring seasonal variation in means hovered around fTl'l'zin~ but thl' tl'm· tt:'lllpl'ralure nnd conc('ntratin~ on wint... r peraturl' varit.'d grc
1\
s
[931
DI}'Stol1lgt!
3. Me..' Storuge
"
....0
.
,"
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"
.....
,.
TE..... P~IIt ....T UIll...
rl.'proow.:tinn is gn'atly rl'tardl'd. If Iht' Icmlperature drops lo between 5 and O°C(41_32°f) cell division stops and the time required foc a single cell division approaches infinity. Al the
other end of the spectrum is the second threshold, approaching the body temperature of most warm-blooded forms. Here again the time rcquin.·d foc (ell division approaches infinity. Al lemperatun.'s imml'dialt'ly hdow this thrl.'shold, however, tht' highest rates oí ceH division occur. Therefore decomposition mi~.,~ n(' expected lo be very capid in environments charactl'rized by tcmpl'ralun's Ol'tWt.'t'n 15 .lnd 37'C (tíO and 95°P). Iklw'l'l'n 15 and (,°C (60 ólnd 43 UF) decompl'sitilJO is dt'-
~ .
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....
....
)
... ...... _..
ad'
."w,d c;.
Dc."1C.lt.1E.6
layed aod dl'Crl';1ses wilh furtlll'r Tl'dudion in temperature. This evidence suggests Ihat where temperalures are belween 15 and 37'C (60 and 95 desiccation would have to be nearly complete to ensure even limUed preservation of meat. Where temperatures are between 15 and 5"C (60 and 41°f) the degrC'<' o( dl'sicc.lti~lO n('l'ded would dl'C'r~'asc with rcdw..-lions in tl'mpl'rature. Where temperaturesare below 5°C (41°F) desiccation could be minimal, and below freezing (given sustained temperatures) no desiccation would bt' rl't.)uirl'd sinel' frl'l'zing would he the bl'SI prl'St.'rv.lliull tl'l·hnilllll·. We may therefore anticipa te Sl)lne fnirly QF),
I
1941
.J. Neo' SlkIragc!
thc scheduling uf caribou movement. In the spring the movement of the caribou Ihrough the Anaktuvuk area tends lo be tightly schedulcd and regular. normallyocrurring betwecn May 15 and May 23. In Iall the hcrds mi1Y p'HIS through the arca anywhcre between Septcmber 15and Octobcr 20. Ml'al obuuucd during the spring migration must be dricd fUT storage since the temperature is rising almos! daily after the May 15-May 23 period of availability. Mea! obtained duriog lhe fan migration is usually frozco for slorage, sinCl~ Ihe fan migration occurs in ncar coincídence with Ihe bcginning uf suslaincd frcc;úng h..'mperatures. Simph.' pulrt'f.lclion is nut lhl'(mly lhn.'at tn succcssful drying of meal. Ouring ,he early summer months. lhe Nunamiut are more (00cerned ¡¡bout flies and m<J9F,0ls the," they are about putrefaction. Accor ing tu my record s, the firsl uf the blue mes were obscrved on Ju ne 11, 1971, and 00 June 9, 1972. Thesc pt.'sts n'main ClS Ihrcats lo drit.'d meal until Ihe first severe killing frosts, which normally occur in mid lo late August. The behaviur uf Ihe flies conditions to sorne degret.' lhe methuds of preparing meat fordrying. Fliesalmosl always lay Iheir eggs in "folds" in the meal-that is, in moisl areas or in areas wilh high grease and fat content since such areas remain more moist. Fur this rcason certain parls. must no· tably Ihe skull wilh its many small openings, are "tver dried successfully by the Nunamiut. Given the relatively low tcmpcrilture sct· ting of Nunamiut drying cnvironmL'nts il is nol surprisíng lo find that they"practtr"e, as do olher Eskimo and far norlhem groups, what h.lS -bl...·n dl'St:ribl-d a~ '''hfllf~' (Wl'nl· wurlh IlJ56:56I). This ml,thlld l'Untrasls with Itlt.' pmduction uf ~ and wilh snlllkl' dryingo A guod dt.'S<'ription uf thl' gl'lll'ral t.'h;tr¡Kleristics uf half.drying is givt.'n by Wt.'ntworlh (1956): "11l1' inil'1l1illn i~ tu h.lllt' Ih~o Illt'.ll dry un 1111' tlulsi"t o. bul ton t1w iosi.h· ji slill A·I.lins l""nsidt·r.d:.I,· m.. io;IUH·o Wht'n' Iht· sun ~lrikl'S il, .1Stlrt ur ¡;lolTt· is r'lrIrll'll whirh is .lir ti~hl. 1111' tllllsilll' "skin" prtllt· ... s it Ihwu¡;h
.
~
11ll' Inl,"lh~ ul hnt wl'alhl'r ..nd Illt' hiJJr-dry ml o.lt iK highly appdiling lpp. 561-5621.
This methcd ís characterized by (a) reduclion or elimination of fclds or apcrtures in thc mcet, (h) chmtnntion cf "fnt" mcat or lndcpendent trcatmcnt uf Iat mea! and lean lllt'.ll in the dryjn~ procesa, and (e) variable concern with increasíng the surface arca per unit wetght depending on antidpaled temperature conditions and length of stcrage desired. The Nunamiut have dcveloped a rather spt.'Cialized method of butchering lo achieve thl'SC endso
Butcherlng Procedure Followed lor Drylng C.rlbou Meat The following account is takl'n fmm my jouroa!. lullf 10, 1972. I had bI.'1.'n lo the in' n-Jl.u (Sl'l' h¡;. 5.20) lo pack in mt'at rt,r Iht· t·amp. Un Ihl' way b.l,k 1 Iward a shol b.lrk up ~ tht· r,unr, 1 imm,..li,II,·ly thuu¡;hl-.-{m'¡J mm/. 1P.1Ck.t'll t.,ll"k.1 fr<>:/.,'n A'M'IUolrlo"r Whl'n I caml' b.lck inlo Cilmp Jilnt' IY(lungl s.liJ "Jllhnny gt'l '(-m-m.1Yb..>Ihl'1.'1.'o"l Wl'nt din..'(:t1y to thl' It'Ol aod t;ol anulht'r bark framt>and w¡llkl-o up tht, hill whef'(' 1evuld Jl'(' the crt"w ,,11 Jl:.lt·k Ih,oskin 11"1'111 umhor 1111" Ir""t Il'g, nmnl'l°tl'd his It'K l~t wilh Ihl' shornum l-ul..mll pnlCt'l'ded lo wurk Ih(' skin "ff tht, ~huoldl'r, purtin¡.; wilh tlnl' hand and "rum-hin¡.:'o th,· skin Hff wilh his fisl. Wht'n il w;ls,lhtml h.llfw'ly,.ffln,·sn'luld,·r h,' pul his ftlllt ,.n Iht· ~hollld"r ,lntl pullt·J tnl' sk'n "n t1,'wn Ihl' Vl'rlt'bral an.'a. Ht'lht'" mllVt...J l
1951
OJ)'Storage half off the body-tht' right sid.' remalned unskinn!'d and the detached skin 01 Ihl' left sidc was attached Ilong Ih(' vertcbrac. H~' then flippcd the cllribou ever un il~ ,kinnl·d 1"11 sidl' ,tod lunl,wl'd tht, !lamt' procc,lun' in skionio¡; Iht Ori~ht sldc. Afll'r thc skin was J .. wn .. 11 1111' lq~s an,II,,¡r1 "f Ih(' ,·htOst-r1.mk.IH',1 Ill' " rnlll,.llht·,·,I~,'ut 111,· ..kiu int",l SlIhll11'llIL lwld iI with bulh h.lnds.•Ind pI.K,·,1 his ('1111 un Ihc shuulJl'r uf the animal. With one big pull ni' npped the skin off from the m-rk dowe alung thl' IItOrll'brill'!h nbout the mlddje of Iht, bt1t.ly, Ile thl'n ~\lt a II(,'W h,lndhtlld furtht>r duwn Ihe skin ilod mtlll..skin uff lht" bt1t.ly, tl.. wn lU.l Sl1l.111 ,1ll.Khnlt'nt al 1111' ,mus. Takin¡; his knifl'I\I' frl't.'li tht' skin hum this rl'nlolining ,1tt,ll"h" ml'nt ,md dra¡;¡;l'll lhl' skin lo nOt' Mdl'. Kt'llIrninl~ lo. Ilw .lI1illl.lllW lIl,ld., o;UTI' llw sllllUlthOr W,lS llisltM.°'ltcd by twi~tin¡; llll' lt'H 11"111I1 It'¡;. Th,,'n hl' milde ,1 <:ÍH-ular rul around lhl' "UlSl1ho nlar¡;in \,1 111(' scilpulil; h.., rt',Kh\od (lVt'r, pulltod 1111' lt'g up. and rul duwn bI.·twl'i·n tht· hum,'rus-scapula and lhoralt. freeing tht' fmnl quartt'r. He tosSt.-d Ih!!! onto the nt'arby skin. Iil' tht·o bI.'¡;an iln "unnrlh...d tllt" prort'durl"makin¡; .1 ,·in·ul,n fui .1h.1tI1 4 in,h.. ~ aw.1Y fmm tlw dHUI.lT .·ut~ m,Idl·t.. n'muII"lh,' ~h ..uld,·r. 'I'his fr"I'd lh!' muscl~' sht'ath thal had attachl'd Illt' shuuldl'r tu Ihl' btltly_ Thl' mus.:!,· Sht'¡llh WilS w"rk!'(1 J"wn uf( tht'
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!!hould('r to the arelt uf lhl' stcrnum. thcn alung the stt>mum and rib rage tu the base uf thl' sternurn, where il was separlllt>d from the sh~1 of ñssue lhal lndudt>s Ihe dlaphregm. This nssce i~allarht'll tulhl' bawof Ih.· stl'rnum ,lnd rt.lV(°T!\ Iht' ,lbdonll'n. Al thil. ptlinl Iht' tl~1t.'r,lliun was ,lh.lntloOl,d ¡lIId 1111' 1.lr¡;.0 "t.d1v ~IU'.-l" wilh 1Is dr,-ul.u o',lmlh"I...," w,¡,. 1,-1' h,ul¡.:in¡.: lr.1S(· uf 1111' sll°r1ll1m, ht Ow.'111 lhr<>\ll~h 111<' "',ll'hr.l~lll .UlIl i1btllHll1lMI Shl·.1th, I'""pl,,rin~ tlw visn·r,lll.I\'ity. 111' shiftl.J Ihe knift>in his hand ilnJ push..-J Ihl' slum.ll:h Silck dtlwn with his wrist whill' rutting lhl' shl'iJlh tlf lissue alont; thl' base (lf th ...sl"rnum al Ihl' diaphril);m lin(,'. Rolling Ihe animal slighlly, hl' bt.·gan puning "lit th.' ronl...nls (lf Iht' abduminal rallity log ....hef wlth inl\'stim's. 111' madt· IW,I quick t·uls .llnn¡; thl' b,1M' t,r Ihl' rib~ .lod up loward Ih~' Itullt>.lr v.'rtt·bnlt', .11 tlll' saml' liml' puUing 1m Ihl' bI.'Uy sh(',·!. This fn't.-d Ih.· bt'lIy sht'''' Imm thl' 'lnimall·ltC(,'pl fur an atta(hml'nl,11 Ihl' (rulrh. Thl' laltl'r WilS'1ukkly SI'v"rI'd ,lnd Jnhnny hdJ up the In't.'d bdly Shl't.'1 ltl bt.' pht.ltl~r,lpllt'J lFigul'1.' 3021. Reluming lo Ihl ObUI(hl'rillg hl' cut a!l,oK Ihe distal ends of lhe ribs, sevt'ring tht· aHóldll'nI.·nls bt'twl.'t'n Ihe ribs ilnd Ih(' wstal ribs tlf thl' sll·rnum. Thl'n wilh ¡I llUi(k moli,lo 11<.' fuI .t"wn 1;'l'Iwl'lon 1111' S1'1-onJ ,lnd Ihin! rit>s t" 111(' vl·rld'r.ll ....Iunm. 111' mOllt-d Illlhl' rl'arul thlo aolm,ll .• mJ holding tl1l' dlSI.II ends tlr Ih(" riblo; hl' pul1l'd back whil~· his fuol W.1S plao'd on Iht' v("rt¡obr.ll'.bn·.lking Ihl' rib ~1.lb lrum Ihl' vertt'brat'. lIl' tht'n q"..d\' iI sm.1Il rul bl·lwe.'n Ihe fourth ,lnd fiflh ribs. pr~
.s.
1961 ~r.u.lt"r
b....wl·t'n ttw abdomlnal r,w¡ty ,llld IIw c.wily .md m¡'Vt'CI his knlf e allln~ lts margin from the llllaehment wtth the stemum down lo .1 point al whirh il anacfws lo the ventral surfacc nf Ihe lumbar u'Rion ju:";1 pm;!t'rinr tu the kidneys. HI' thcn medo ' w0 pomllld l'ul~ alHn¡; tlll' n'nlrum~ of tlll' luml..u Vl'rlt·bree, frl'einga substantial sheath uf mear togclhl" with the kidnt·y!>-all arteched lo the mernbrane mennoned earlier. Th eo with a stroke up the llpposite slde, he cut between the dis! al ends of Ihe opposite rib elige "nd Ihe sll'rnum, fn'l.'inK a unU thil¡ flmsisll'll t.f Inl' sll'rnllm wilh .111.1Chl't.! 'w;lTl, abt.lnmin••1 ......111 nll'lTlb,,\llt" .Itld kidnt,y~ lt~\'lhl'r wilh.1 dl.ublt· mu~dl' m,I"S trtllll tlw venlr,,1 !lidc l.f Ihl' lumb.u rl'gitln. Th,· lilth'r w.,s r,·moved as a single V-shaped meat unil for drying ilnd the sternum unU WilS Ihen complete lsee Figure 3.31. ptacíng the mea! unit Irom the lumbar region and the sternum with att.,ched element on the pilt', he attacked the right rib slab in the Silme manner as describt'd tor lhe removill 01 the left side. Finally. hecut uff th,' ""ck !lt.·lwt't'n the lilst cervicill vertl'bril and th,' first thor.,cic
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,
-
M"I SIOrate
vertebra. lI,wing cnmpll'tl'.1 tl1l' l;>uldwrill~. 1'1' dragged thl'lungs and inlt'slim'!litl unv sitit' ".,,1 1'1""1',1 the stomach un top of them. He-cut the Sltlmilrk opvn. letting the contents sptll out over tl1l' entirc m.l...... 11., rommented that this was dunl' bccausc the sll'IlI,n h t"t.n!l·nl... wnulJ thy f.l~1 IIVl'r tlw "orlu-r ... tul!" ,m.t other caribou would nut smcll it and shy .1\V,IY lrt>lll 1111' area. "My f.,ther always do ·...m that way."
Resulting from this manner of butchering were the folluwing elements: 1. Skull wilh .1ttéldll'd anl!t.·rs .1ntl IJl.lnd,iblt..'-tonguc rClnuwd 2. 'Neck 1rom atlas vertebra thmugh the lasl éervical vertebra 3. Vertebral column, the attached and ar~ ticulated first two ribs, plus the pelvis and sacro m 4. Two rib slabs, 11 ribs each 5. Onc sternum with attached costal rihs, heart, kidneys, é1nd abdominal memo brane 6. Two complelc fmnt quartcrs 7. Two complete rear quarlers 8, Two tenderloins 9. Two musclt..'sfmm Iht..· vl'nlral surfilet· of th(-tc.rUl,tlilr vt..·rlt.',br'lt..· 10. On'e,J>elly sheet 11. One IiVer, __ 12. One i-ongt.te
This kili h.H.1 bl'l'n vl'ry nt..·.lr our t·.lmp .lnd thc skulI ilnd Ol'ck wefl' pilrkl'd inlo l'mnp for dog food. Normally dogs would he fed 011 these parts at the kill-butchcring location, but we had 10 willingstudents to pack the ml'at to camp and thl' do~s Wl're nut lIsl'd, Llll'r il drying rad wascol1slrul'lt..'d .11111 t111' ll''';~ Wl'rl' boned. The procedure (or boning tht.' r('ing) .lS.l fully .lrlil..'ul.ltt..·d Tl..'.lr ~Ill.,rtt..·r, Tlll'
1971
D'1'Storagc'
Iront quartcr Is proccsscd in much thc same marmer. A cut isma de at the distal dorsal edge of the radio-cubitus to free une muscle. which is pulled up. A sccond cut is made at the proximal attarhmcnt uf the cubitus, with a 1i11t..·.1r cut madc .1long thc inside of tht..· humcrus. Thc meat is rolled back up tu the point of attachment of the humeros with the srapuln. At thís juncture thc humeros is severed from íts atlachment with the sea pula ilnd tlw bont.·\i nll'ill is al1nwl'd lo rt..'m.lin alI.ldwd 111 lhe rn.lT~¡lls uf !ht..· sl"ilpuló'l. Thus, fronl quartt..·rs Me nOrnlally disposcd of as articulated units up through the humrrus but the scapula goes with the mra! onlo thr drying rack. The procedure drscribed is modified, particularlv in terms of Ihe butcher's estimale of Ihe nuíritional stat(' of Ihe animal. If the animal is Vt..'ry poor it may bl' considcred "in suranc(''' me.ll at Iht..' Uml' of butchcring and thc fulltlwill~ mudifications in butchl'ring are fre~ quently m.1dl.': (11) Alter lhe rt.·mt.waluf tht..' first rib 51ab ami thl' c1eaning of Ihe chcst cavity. Ihe mg.1l1s may be remuved as unils-heart, liVl'r.•1nd kitllH.·ys--.1ntl trtl' s1l'rnulll h1f;l'llwr with one Sitil' of ribs Idt att.Khetl lulhl' wrtt.'brat..'. Thus. the rathcr intl'l't'sting bulchl'ring of the sternum described earlier is omitted and lhe cnlire unit (gt..'ner
a long-tcrm storagc potcntial bccause uf its probable early infestation by fijes. Second, the procedure in which meat is p!'~!~_ E\;1~ from the humcrus but left attachcd to the scapula sprt·.lds~,t.ev('r('d musclcs of the shouldcr so that ~Lis'.ln.' no! produccd. This piecc is always\l!ung with the scapula in .1 horizontal position ñanging down with the mear atlached over a pole aboye, spreadtng the otherwise folded shoulder meat, Finally, the ~fl'illC'st prncl'ssing atmost tllways is CllO~ dul'll.'d on mt'.ll fmOl llw h,lm (lr fl',U t¡u.lftt·r; thl..' meat i!lo sometimes remowd ur cut intu three pieces, or it may be rolted out into a wide. thin piece. Processing then consists of a specialized melhod of butchering whereby the meaHo~ bone ratio is decretlsed for the stemum and ribs far below that indicated in the animills butchercd as control cases and used in this study fur the basic data on tht., cnlllomk ilnatomy of bllth sht.'cp i1nd \'aribou. I have alrcady demonslraled Ihe markt.od dft.,\'t uf variable butchcring on tht' "valut..'" of different parts of the anatomy in the discussion of Ihe 1.....0 butrhl'rt.·d Shl'~'r (S~'l' pp, 17-IA), I had ttu- llpp~Jrtunity lo wt..·igh rib~ ,mtl slernum fmm two bull caribou uf apprllximately the same wei~ht and ag(', one bulch('red for drying and the otht..·r bUlchercd fm immedi.1te nlOsumplilm. Ml'al*hl·dry~b(,"l· pTUportions fm tht.· animal hulcht.'rl'd fllr drying wcre 68,7% meat and Icndon for Ihe ribs. and 81.2% for the slemum; for lhe animal butchered for immcdiilte consumption the figurl's ..... C'Tl' 71.9% ml'ilt and tt.·ndon ftlr Ihl' ribs ;lIld 94.3% fm tl1\' s""rnum. This rl'duction ensures that many more slt..'rnums will bt' dried with bone than would be expected from an evaluation based on butchering procedures dcsigned fur immediate u~e of the par!.
Drylng Rack. ''------------
-
Tm"-re are two typt..·s uf drying f.1Cility uSl·d by thc Nunamiut today: fFhipcod Pi: le :: tI. gt..·Ill'r,ll1y uscu in spring .1I1d ~llmnll'r .1nd-.... S4.'\tn~1'it.'Y1'tm'm' (sunll'tinll's with .1 r.1ilin~) llst..'d t..'Xc111Sivl'1y in t111' Pt'rtlMIll'llt \'ill.l~l·.
1981
3. MHI Slof"CIge
The trípod-pole rack may take one of two
1991
Df)lSIorcrgC'.'
for bone grease processing in late winter and early spring. Also stored on the platforms ,U~ traps and extra caribou skins Ior wintcr use
forms, depending upon the amount of mea! to be dried: (a) a linear arrangement with thrce IripuJs und polos strctchcd betwoon 111('111 in ,1 mugh llnc .md (11) ti complcx ncsting or tripods with intercunnecting pujes. Figure 3.4 illustrates the ñrst type of rack and Figure 3.5 illustmtes tbe secundo The storage platfonn type uf rack is shown in Figures 3.6 and 3.7. This facility generally
(fi~1Irt'1,6)
Since Ihe platfonns are alrnost cxclusivcly found in fairly permanent residential 10(<1tions, the arca around them is frequcntly cluttcred with processing rcrnatns. Animals introduced into the village in a ñeld-butchcrcd state are generelty processed Ior drying adjacent to the rack. Remalns írom this processing are scattered to the sides and under such racks. Dunng late faU and winter thc byproducts of processtng will frequently be placed un the stomgo plntform for Iutun- l'X· ploitation uf marmw and Ior furthcr procossíng uf articulator ends into bone grease. Anirnala trapped during the winter are gcnerally
serves more storage functions (han does the tripod-pole type of rack. The platform is specifically desígned for the storage oí frozen meat, which is simply piled up on Ihl' platformo DfY meot may be hung around tht, edges Uf un a spcclal railin~, as shown in Figure 3.7. Thc platform is .,15u used to store the articulator ends of bones that are destined
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A nestvd spring dryll1g mck.
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rccovcrcd írozcn and most nrc rctumcd to the village ftlr thawing prior tú skinning. The skinned bodies of foxes, wolverines, and WOIVl'San.' occasionally sct;:~ tht!8e storage plalfunlls ur nn hllU~t' \ruuy.' a~ insufi'lnce
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a~"¡nst llll'.lt Shurt.l~l·S in~rin~. Thl'Sl' .1nilllolls .In' 111\1'1' tlsl'll ,1S hlllllolll fOlldi{l l'xtn'nW t'nll'r.;t'lll il'~ hlll.lrt' h,,'qllt'nlly,ll'd (o do~s in "I'rill,~ \\"h~1! ,1111'.11 ',Itll'l'~~ .m·'-:,:111U·1. ,SIll.11l
p.\l:ks ur [,Ullt..nL'S 01 lro/.l'n pl.lrlllig.ll\ 41tHJ
Flllure 3.7.
A rl,llfl.rm .lryi"~ rack.
parts oí Sht.·l·P (}r n100se .m.' .11Sl.l (ornmllllly fuund 00 thcse winter slor.lge platfurms. 5heep horns and large c"ribou ilntlers, raw materials used in tool manufacture, are also commonly pli\ccd (lO the pl.1Iforms. Whl'O thl' Nunamiul ~(l off on shllrt Sllmlllt.'r ("i\lllpill~ Irips (lr mUVl' tlllhl'jr su ll1ml'r t',llll ps, th,'v lI~' thl'sl' pl.llfl1rllls .1S "¡ .. \tht' pl,llIorms" IlIr .1 \'.nit'lv lIt '~l',lI' indullinl', \l11.tS. dt.lhin¡·" r,l\\' IIl.1kn.t1s, willlt.'rsll'd:'4, orl'\'l'lI ;",IY,I~.. ,ln lb,'
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11001 contemporary village it is common lo find dogs staked out under these platforms. 5uch dogsare speciñcalíy trained as guard dogsnnd are rarely used for transport, either as pack dcgs or as sled team members. They are vicious and sound an alarm quickly if wild animals. untethered dogs. cr unknown persone come near the storngc facilities. From an archaeclogicel pcrspective, thc winter meat racks are very different from the surnmer racks. I have ncver seco the tripod rack uscd as él gt'ncral storilgl' Iacility, <11though I have seen wet boots and, very rarely, flsh dried on tripod racks. Otherwtse. the surnmer racks are aImost excluslvely used for drying caribou meato Processing debris is ra~ near 5uch a rack since mast meal is processed 2111 at once during spring at a separate location. On the other hand, in fal! and winter meat is frequently introduced unprocessed and then moved after processing lo a rack. Dogs are never staked near a summer rack since the racks are low and a staked dog would have easy access to the dry meat. Animals other than caribou-sheep or mooSt>, for example-
such as belly sheets, tenderloins, borwd shoulders and hams, and meat strips Irom thc ventral surf-ª~ the lumbar vcrtcbrae. are generatly (drae~ across horizontal peles. Small meat parts, such as drled hearts and the lumbar strips mentioned may be tied in pnirs. generaily with thin willow binding, and hung in saddlebag fashion across the pOII'S. The particular mcthod of butchering thl' shoulder-Ieaving the scapule attached-callows this part to be draped across thc polo. as docs thc mtcresting butchcring of thc stcrnumo Rib slabs and sections of the vertebrae are, however, almost ..Iways suspendl'd fwm tlll..' "vertical" tripod poles or from ends of hori· wntal roles. It will be rec..lled that during thl..' butchering of rib slabs a slit made by lhe bUlcher between the fourth and fifth rib served as a handhold during the removal of the rib slnb. This slil is used forsuspending the rib slabs from the drying rack. Commonly the slab is pushed over the end of a horizontal pole or hung over a branch stub (see Figure 3.8) on the vertical poles. When the slab is forced over the end of a horizontal polI.' thl' mnrgins of Ihe rib lx.mes are cunlllHlllly crushed, resulting in CteSt.'ent·sh.,(-lt.'d "notches" in the ribs between which tht! .,slit was cut. Altematively, the sJabs may 'be bound togetherin pnirs with willow strips and
Dried meat is placed on the drying racks in a fairly standard fashion. Parts lacking lx.mcs,
ttculated as is common in butchering for drying and has an analogous "hole." (See Figure 3.11) These two holcs serve ns thc rncans of suspending the unitson the drying rack. lf thc neck is allowed to remain at~ te the vertebral' then the articul.lte~ gvnvrally suspended from the pelvis ovcr the .'pcx of ene of the vertical peles. This is mosl cornmon when the dried torso is oí a poor-quality animal and it is put on the rack as insurancc. This mcons thnt frcqucntlv an articulotcd nb slab and sternum h.m~ down low !tI thv ground. Alternatively, the spine may be cut in Figure 3.9. Saddl\'b,l¡; suspt.'osinn ni parts hum dry. two parts with ene hnlf suspended frcm thc ;n~ rac-k pOll'o; articulated ribs and the other half suspended from the pelvis. 80th are gl'nl..'rally suspendl..'d from the ends of horizontal pules or hung over /-,,---- --o -.--..... '~n{'" .1cross horizontal poles in<,.saddleb~) the upper ends of Ihe upright poles uf the fasj:ili;~- (see Figure 3.9). ,"--..-...-,hipod. It will be recalled that the vertebral' are generally butchered ¡nto a single unit beginoiog with the first thoracic vertebra and end- CONSTRUCTION Of THE DRVING UTlLlTV INDEX ing with the pelvis. Thl' praclice of leaving the first two ribs attached to the vertt.'brae and As we havc secn, the optimum conditinns ilrticul.ltcd with
1~~ FiRU~ 3.10. UppN Ihor,lt"ir Vt'rh·I>r.lo' ~1I~P"'lllt'tt I>y
Ilt.I.·I"f111... lh·I""',lrli,.tl.lh'd ril>...
Placement o, Meat on the Drylng Rack Figurr 3.8. plllt.'!l.
Ribs !uJsrl,-nded 1'0
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3. Meal SIIo,...e
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Drawing of a drying rack showing pL1ct'mt'nt uf Vl'rtt'bral'.
proportion ef meat is reduced relativt' to dry bone weight in any given anatomícal parf. The Nunamiut also take ioto consideration the fact that tht> marrow putrefi('S vcry quickly and servt'S as .m ¡nt{'Tnal fesl.-'rvoir uf pnll'nti.lI spoilagt.". The ínelusion of un a dryin~ rack is Cllnsídl..'rt.'
emes
0'
-r
regarding the development (lf this index (Table 3.1). Columo 1 in Table 3.1 presents the weight (in grams) of marrow and brain in ~'l.ch anatornical part. Colurnn 2 expresS('s th(' da'la frum l'ulumn I as p\.'rl.·l'nlag~s uf unl'-lhird 1111.' sum of lhf"weight uf th(' brain and thE.' marmw wcighl from thl' gn'ah.'st rnamlw·yiddin,; bu~. Fur purpus...'s uf drying th ..., bmin ,lnd marrow are fuoctionally equivalent in Ih.ll both dt.'Cay qUickly. Cleflrly the weight of the brain is much gn'.'tt.'r Ihilo Ihe wl'ighl uf marruw in any (lne marmw bc.ml'. Sinn' 1 wish tu express both marmw and brain on a single scale, 1 have compressed the difference be· tween th(' two sets of weight data by using a standard value of one-third the sum of the brain and lhe marrow from thE' largest bone. Using fhis convention, the brain is alwilYs e)(pressed .15 having a value of 100%. Column 4 pn'sl'nts thl' pl'rn'nl.1~l.' (lf 1111.' gruss wl..'ight uf ""iKh p.ut (minus Ihl' skil1) ,IS summarizC'd inTablC'I.1 that isn'prt.'sC'nh'd by thl' dry wl'ight of Ihl' indulf\.'d bOllt.'. Thl'rl.'-
C~lU.ructJ~n
o/ M~ Drylng UtI"t)llndex
foro. a hlJ;h valuc lndicate-s that tlwre i!l IIttle meat un th~ part rclntivc to thc amount uf bone and accordingly a hígh surfncc atea tu ment weight ratio. A part with a high value would dry wl'11 without processing beyond the Iield-butchertng pr ' . that is, high values indica te hig dryability. The next stcp 1, oWfrle thcse data with thc information in column 2 n-gardlng thc merrow .1Od brain contcnt. High vetees in column 2 indicate lvw dryability, so we subtraer thc values of column 2 Irorn lOO tu obtain .1 scah- comparobk-to Ih<1l of column 4 nnd wc place tho vulues in column 3. High valúes in both column 3 and column 4 indicare high dryability of the part after field butchering and no further processing. Column 5 presenta the value obtained by multiplying eolumn 4 by column 3 dívided by 100 in order lo expresa the value 00 a percentage scale. Column 6 presents the gross dry¡IIg ¡IIdl'X obtained by dividing the values of column 5A by 35.76, the hlghest value exclusive of the antier and third phalange, and Ihe values of column 58 by 37.67. I havechosen to ignore the values of the antier and third phillang~since these parts are f'ssenl¡.,lIy uselcss as stored fnod. The gross drying index is to be viewed as a dryllbilily 5cale; it indicates the probability of sueeessful dryin¡;;. not whetherone would want lo dry the
p.ul. Here we can use the mear utility indl'x developl'd in Chilplt.'r 1 (Tablt.' 1.5). This iodex tl'lls liS whidl pilrts h.1Vl.' tl1l.' gn'ale$1 ulilily a~ sourees uf Illl'ill. Since drying is a h..'Chnique designl'd cxclusivc1y for storage of rneat-it cannot bl' uSt.'c.l for sturagl..' uf marmw and grl'asl.'-rht.' 1tll"llulility ind ...'x can bt.' uSl'd lo delcrmim.' the rdatiVl' d",'sirability uf a part fur drying. Column 8 of Table 3.1 presents the values resultlng from multiplying the meat utility indcx (coTurnn 7) by the dryability index (column 6). The values in column 8 tell us the Jikelihood uf a part's being selectE'd for storage by drying wilhout furlher processing after fil'ld bUh:hl'ring. High valUl'S indicate that tlll'fl' is soml' iltfV;¡ntilgl' lo sfor.lgt.', sinn' th~ part hólsrt'SPl'ct.lbll' valul's un the meat index, ilnd IIMI thl.'r\.' b i1 guud pmbilbility uf SUlTl'SS·
11031 lul drylng Wlthl.lut fllrthl'r pm(l'sslng slt\l'll marrow valúes are low and mcat surfnce to bone proportions are favorable. The data in column 9 summarize the other side of the ccin. These are the valúes obtained by subtractin8 the values of column 8 from the meat index (column 7). High valúes here inform us that the part is highly desirable as a sourcc of m...-at and is lht.'n'fllr\.' ti...'sir,lhll' in storagc but it has .1 Vt.'ry low dryability or probability of suecessful drying without sorne processlng to increase the surfacc an-a relative tu thl' llu"lntily uf rm-ot. To summnrize, the desirability uf a p.1T1 for storage Is monitored by the rneat utüity ind e,x, which tells us which parts have the greatest amounts of usable meat. When storage by drying is the procedure there Me always two basicccnsiderations: (a) jf the part is desirable, whether suceessful stcrage is enhanced by processing the part so as to reduce the ratio of meat weight to surface area: and (b) whether the part is likely to dry wcll without process· ing. In short, decisions as to what parts to place on a meat rack with bones incIuded always stem from a process;IIg decisiotlwhether to remove or modify the bonE's or whether to place the part in storage as it was initially butchered. In this sectiun 1 am prim.lrily cunú'rned wilh l'valu
7
_..... 11041
3. Meo'S.orase TABLE 3.1
I
[1051
C..-lnldlon 01 Ihe Dry.lng Uf"''' Iftdu
Development o, Dr,tnt Indle•• for C.rlbou .nd Sheep
Anatumical parl Antier Skull MandiblE.'
AH,,!! Axis CE.'rvical vertebeae Tht>riICk vertebeee
Lumbar vertebrae Pelvis Ribs Slt'rnunl &',ll'ul" "noxloMI hnmerus Distal humerus Pftlxim.ll radio-cnbltus Pisl.l' r.1\lh,·,ul'lilus C,lTl'dls I'T\lXim.ll melacarpal
Dísral metacarpa] Proximal Iemur Distal fémur rroxima! Hbta !.>isl,lIlil>i.l l'.n"'lls Aslr.l);ollus l",llúlIIt·US
• I'n.ltim,llllld.ll.lrS.ll
LJisl,d nll'l.llotTs,ll Firsl phalimgl' Second phalange Third phalange
Wl'ight uf marrow and brain
I'l·h:l·nlage of one-thtrd of brajn and targt"S1
(gm)
marrow bone
tnvcrse uf col. 2 (lOO·value in col. 2)
gross wdghl represented by dry bone
Caribou
Sheep
Caribou
Sheep
Caribuu
5hl'ep
Caribou
Sheep
(lA)
(18)
(2A)
(28)
(3M
(38)
(4A)
(48)
u
1I 158.19
u
1I 100.00
HlO.lJ
IIJO.O
IlXI.O 32.9
I(kI,U 31.4
361.82
'.7
o o o
O O '.411 O
4.10
o O O 1I
o
30.02 28.44
2.21 O 11 1.511 15.11 15.17 11.116
2H,44
IUIfl
o .1.':15
.141.112
1I
u
l6.60 16.60 41.lJ:l 41.08 SO,SIl
19.12 19.12 lR.f19
5t1.~.
1I1.lIlJ
'.40 6.40
1I
u
u
u
10,411 -11I,2" 411,211 3.16 3.16 O
100.0
tI.32 O
6.91 O
o
o
n
O O O 6,89 O 11 2.117 21,ttl 21.111 211.69 2U,/1'1 11 12,07 12.07 29,!18 29.1l8
O
o 3.73 O 1I
2.5.1 255M 25,58 UI.65
11-1,/15 11
Jf,,7f1
10.79 10.79 32.24 32.24 31.85
.1/1.7"
;\1.H'i
u u
1I
"",22
'\47 7,51 7.51
-1,71 2'1..11 29."
12."10 12.M
L'itl
2.3(1 2.30
2.M 2.'"
1.511
o
o
O
Gros!! dl}'in¡;
I'l·rcl·nl.l~l· of
o
o
93.68 100.0
93.09 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 96.27 100.0
100.0
100.0 IIXI.O 100.0 93.11 100.0 1011.0 '17.1.1 7ltl'l 78.19 79.31 7'J.31 1tI0,(J
M7,93 87.93 70.12 70.12 11.1.22 (,;\.22 IlNI,tl UNUI
"';,2" 7elh" 7t1.b':I 97.7 97.7 100.0
1U.0 23.2 1t1.S
v.e
'17.47
12,14 12.U 20.2 31.2 1!l.1I 4..1
74.72
1ll.5
74.n
10,5 17,2 17.2 21'1.4 2M.4 2R.4
«nu
81.35 Hl.,l" 100.0
M9.21 H9.21 67.76 117.76 (,M. 15 (oH 15 Im,l!
nnn "11.711
1-11.'" 1'11.34 97.34 97.34 100.0
,., '.8
14.4
H.2 8.2
2",'1 2HII 21-1"
2" "
.1"7
21'1.9
,... 36.'
36."
,1" 7 ,3H.7 "'.7 "'.7
Col. 58 37.67
Raw dry¡n~ utñny Index Col. 7 x col. 6
MUlfl'Om TablEo 1.5
Raw pnlres,ing Ior drying ind~ll Col. 7 - col. 6
5nt.'i;'p
Canbou
Sheep
Caribou
Sheep
Caribou
Sheep
Caribou
Sheep
(.'iA)
(SS)
(tiA)
(to8)
(7AI
(7ft)
(M)
(!lB)
(IIA)
(98)
1IInO
100.0
u
o
o
o
u
O 34.58
18.1
25.71
O
11.4 10.1
14.12 18.65 18.65 55.32 46.47
O O 4.88 15.79
O 111.1 8.42 3,55
O 25.71 9,24
10.64 HD7 20.27 24.26 40.71 55.22 2235 Hl.21 ':1.117 9,07 8.211 11.21-1 4.25 4.25 4.25 11.42 11.42 1-1,,"" ",Sto 51111
5.36
8.01 36.95 26.20 14.62 40.59 44.711 ""'7 J.I.Nt 1'1.11 19.17 ';,112 ",112 .47 .47 .7 66.82 &6.82 12.2 12.2 .4' 4.
12.11 12.0 18.81 31.2
13.03 31.9 21.5 12.5 16,4 23,S 18.86 20.11
II!.II
'1,3
4.17 tI.2t1 11.20 l:lM
14.57
O 2(,.20 1\4.81 46.97 27.40 35.77 33,56 52.60 87.25 52.57 I 1.N>
12.1U 12.10 22,1.1 22.1.1
22.93 .'lA. 14 :IH 14
"
""
Col. 5A 35.76
Caribou
9.31 23.2 16.8
22." 22,M 3".7 .1'1.7 .1'1. 7
'44
Col. 4 x col. 3 100
14,0 3\.':1 21.5 12.5 1M 23,5 1':1.6 20JI tl..1 1('.2 11'0.2 27,2 27,2 31'.1 311.1
-,
index
..,
11M
21:1.4 24.97 24.97
"U 33.98
22.'1.1
51.07 33.18 43.63 62.38 50.07 55.22 24.b':I 22.75 32.12 32.12 91,75 ~.75
''''
2.M
33.98 5.55 5.55
'1,10
IS.~.l
2~.45
-un
1~.51
2~,4~
9(120 90.20 14.60 14.60 41.23 41.2'
"1.7 .1'1,1
'7" 47.2 33.2 49.2 51.6 "'".5 44.7 2!1.9 211.9 14.7 14.7 '2 '.2
100.0 100.0 2B 25.<; 11.2 IU
.\ldl1
.1-I.h7 34.h7 37.ó7 37.67 37.67
10.1
5.2
6':l.M2 MI.82 7.43 7.43
21-1.'1 21'1," 27 ','l 211,H 211.4) 35.76 35.76 35,76
!l4.68
:.7,1.1 57.13 100.0 100,0
'12,(14
'12.04 100.0 100.0
11.2 11.2 11.2 1.7 1.7 1.7
"...,"
1:11.30
ioon
90.52 44,11':1 211.24 28.24 14.10 14.10
4.n 4n 4.n 78.24 78.24 21176 211.7f. 1'0.17 ft 17 ft..17 b.31 to.:l7 3.37 3.37 3.37
2.9!l
6.55 4.14 10.14 16.89 11.14 25.86 45.02 34.tl5 5.21 tl.to2
6.62 5.111 5.111
'63 '63 3.63 7.43 7.43 tl.4'l ".4'1
ft:l'l ft__1'1 tl ..l'1
b,3" ft.:l'l 1.7 1.7 1.7
,... <;,IIH
26.86 30.31 22.06 23.32 6.58 .11.55 .1'1.1'l 22.211
22.211 '.IIY '1.11'1
1.57 1.57 1.57 92,57 92.57 1'1,111 1'l.U1
"1 ,f,II! 4,111
' ... 5.KM
"1 4.ttl
3.37 3,31 3.37
O O O
2.116
...•• .4'
u
O
e
NoTJ:: Blanks indicate that pnrts have /JO illd'1't'wlt-llt valúes.
ativc lo proccssing or dircct placcmcnt uf parts into dry mcat stomgc lo be mude relativo to a complete animal. Such decisions are almost aIWaY~:r a populalioo of pa.', p.e. viousl . cu ed t the kill·butehering localion.
A set uf decisions havo thcrcforc alrendy bcvn made as to what to kccp nnd what to abandon, modifying the population of bones availablt' for choice or processing away fmm th(' pro~ portions characteristic of a living animal. We
have seen sorne uf thc effects of such dedslons in Chuptcr 2, in dlscussions uf butchertngaud kill-sitc data. Tht' fact thal Ihe Nunamiut rarely process for drying dirt'ctly al tht' kili is not, however, a sufficit'nl basis for expecting all peoples to
behavc similarly. In fact. therc are reportcd cases nmong tho Nunamiut wherc mcat W.1S proccssed for drying .11 kills and thc dricd meat was subst'qut'nlly Iransporlt'd to Ihe villagt'. Such cases hav€' been documt'ntt'd for otht'r groups of people, so we may anticipate
1106)
3. He.' Storose
that the logisticel setting of processing for drying will alfeel the relative frequencies of bones remaining from such activities. In arder to model or anticípate the structure of faunaJ assemblages remaining from activities related to drylng. we mus! combine the iníormation summanzed by tlll' indices uf Tebk- J.I with intonnation un thc populetlon uf purts llpnll which segregating declsions are mndc. and processing and logistical strategies. These arguments are developed in rabie 3.2. Column 1 of Table 3.2 displays the values for ana fornica! parts expected in a population trensported from a kili site, the population most commonly servtng as the pool Irom which drying decisions ere made among the Nunamiut. Column 2 gives the values for a complete, unmodified animal. These data were chosen as the rnostllkely sttlrting points for anticipating populations of anatomtcal parts resulting from decisions as to which parts lo procC'ss ilnd which lo aeeept unpro(eSSe'd fur dry ml'at sturl'S. Column 3 presents the standardized values for the gross drying index and Ihe gross values of lhe proeessing ¡nde): developed in T..ble 3.1, with some imporlanl ch..ngt's. The vail..ll'S pn'viuusly dl'Vl'l0Pl'd havl' bl'I'n íldjusll'd fm PWl'l'ssing pl'culiaritil's uf Ilw Nun,llHiut re· garding Ihe llppl'r fronllq~. As will bl' n'l'ilJ1l'd frum lhl' dh",:ussiun of bUldlt'rjl1~ fm drying, llw Inl'."}t is stripPl'd fnllll thl' hUl1Il'n:s, (1lt'11 Pl'l'll'li b.ll'k frum Ihe' scapul.l bul left att;)ched tu the milrgins ()f thl' S('.lpula bl.Hil'. This pro· cessed unit is lhen placed on Ihe drying r.lck, iprocessed 101 dry;,rg but inc1uding the scaputa. In all other cases processing for drying results in the deletion of the bones from the parl lo be pl.1ced on the drying rack. This procedure ¡nnales Ihe frequency of scapulas oceurring on drying racks and denatl's their frl'quency at processing locations. B~caus~ of this practice, I have pn's~nted two sl'ls (lf v.llues fm Ihl' Rcnpuln Rnd huml.·ruII In Tilhh' :\.2. Thl' '4l'lln p"tl.'nlhl'ses tl'prl.'sl'nls .1l1lustl'd v,lhu's Ih.\1 rl'Vl'rSl' llll' v.1lul'S (mm t11l' ¡.;rtlss illllil'l's I'ur thl' humerusand scapula f(Jt both drying ano proce-ssing. This adjuslment has Ihe dfl.'cl of
correcting for the particular practice of the Nunamiut. The second set of valu es resulte from simply taking the data from the gross indíces at faee value and might well be expected to monitor behavior of groups not having; the Nunamiut mcthod of prnc('ssin~ Iht' UPpl'( front Il'~. In nddition lo ti", {url'guing l'urrl'dions 1111.' gruss processing Indcx h.1S been modlñed tu eccount for the assimilation of parts of lower utility to parts oí hlgher utility during proceseing. Por example, lo process the rear leg the meal is stripped off, generally beginning at the ten don attachment to Ihe calcaneus, so that the entire rear leg is boned out al once and all bones are abandoned al the processing location. This means that the probability of delenon for the melatarsal is equal to that for the femur. For this reeson, on both the fronl and rear legs, all bones lower down the lcg uf lesser velue are aastmüated to the bone with thl' highl'.'lt pr(lce~sing vnlUl' .1rn.lVl.' t1ll'm. Givl.'n tht.,sl' modificalions Wt.' mny rdl'r to ti", values of mlumns 3 and 5 as lhe practiCll! dryillg
alldIlrocessing it,dices, In columns 6 Ihrough 8 are develuped the argumenls as lo the likely cllmposition uf f;tUn.ll ilsS('m~l.l~('S (a) rl'lnajnjn~ .11 prtl\'t'SSing I"ll'illions ((olumns 4 .11111 ti), .1I\(1 {/I) n.'· milining aH,,'r dl'll'líll11S dlll' lo pft)n·ssil~·~.f{lr dryill"; fnr íl pnpul,llion uf (Ulupll'll' .lllilllolls (culumn") ¡lnd (~lr.1 pUpUI.llioll.1Ifl"1lIy llltldi· fit.'d by Iro1nsport dedsiuns (columns 7 and l,I). Wl' 1llo1Y vil'w l't1ll1mns 7 "nd H .1S I1lUniltlr, iog the candidates fur placemenl on Ihe drying racks since columns 7 and 8 inform us as to what would be availabJe after processing, bul there is no cerlainty that further dedsions mighl nut be made. In the case of column 7 Ihere is sorne likelihood Ihat the inde): might well monitor parts actual1y placed on meal racks in environments where temperatufl's are rdíllivl'ly low and humidity nt)t l'xcl.'ssivl', ..infl' Ihl' n1't.1nounml'nl uf r.,rl!! nI Ihl' kili· ~lIll'hl'ril1~ 1(!(".llilll1 l'Iimillilh's Ihe p.lrls "f Illw('sl ~l'lll'r,11 ulilily, .Hul tlll' Prul'l'ssing dt'· letl's thuse parts highly dl'sirabl(' fUf sh1r,lge but requiring removal of the bunes lo incrl,.·nsl·
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a.
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-!~1!
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z.5~..
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~n .i~_~~H d~Ii!.2 ijO. ."" E~.~~1 ~!"~'_'D."'!~ ::¡ 'D _ il .~ !I! .z '" ::J::J 5 - 6..~ 'i E _ -;¡§ _ ~ _ § _ - ~.Jt § - .; ~-c=""~E~~E~~S • • W3~H3H3~3t"'~,3 e j . ~~ ~ i i ,.c !l :3 ~ .:l Ji: iS e'" .. e·~ e ~ e ,:!l .., v ~o~ e'!: 2 ~ <~~«u~~~~~~~o_=_~au~o~o~o~ :J
o(
11071
.
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i
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i
Ph.:lI,},,~Mo
AstrJ.f:alu$ Cakaneus ProXimal :ne!alars.al Distal me:aI3rs.ll
Tarsal~
Proximal me!acarpal Distal mt'~aurpal Pmximalremur Distal fernur Proximal !1i:>:J. Distal tlto!a
Carral~
Sternum Scapula Proximal humer-as Distal hume rus (Scapulal (ProXImal humerusl (Distal humerusl Proxim&l redro-cubtrus Distal radro-cubrtu s
Ri'"
Antler 5kuU Mandible Atl.s Axis Cervical vertebrae Thoraoc vertebrae Lumbar verret-rae Pelvis
Anatorrucal par!
CakaTlt'us P!'tJl\ir:',¡,J ::1t':,¡.:arsal Distal -netatarsal PhalMl:::es
AstrJga1u~
Stemum Scapula Proximal humeras Distal humeros (Scapulal (Proximal humeros) (Distal humerus) Proximal radio-cubuus Distal radrc-cubrrus Carpab ProxiJr.a( m'l!~carpal Distal m'l!!.acarpal Proximal remur Distal i..mur Proximal libIa Distal ::Iba Tarsals
Ri'"
Antier SkuU Mandil-le Añas Axis Cenical vertebrae Thcraoc vertebrae Lumbar vanebree Pelvis
Anatomlcal part
O O 129 2.96 2.12 11.35 24.85 13.11
O O
l.01 6.53 10.88 8.52 8.31
2.19 17.13 27.35 20.30 19.91 56.17 68.24 1.02 7.97 12.n 9.44 9.26 26.12 31.73 24.98 36.13 46.51) 43.90 26.30 26.30 22.09 33.57 26.30 22.09 16.11 13.45 9.39 7.37 635 7.43 7.43 4.80 3.;0 2.35 2.35 2.35 2.22 1.18 4.66
S-l.:i6 U.50 }.I.63 28.92 20.19 15.85 13.66 15.97 15.97 10.32 7.52 5.05 5.05 ;05 4.77 3S2 10.02
72.19
78.99 100.00 94.41 56.56 56.56 47.50
O 1'" 1.86 162 1.62 162 1-57 1.)6 '.03
O
369
.n
16.68 16.65 18.61 13-22 15.75 1-1.87 14.87 1-&03 18.98 14.81 14.03 11.83 10.47 8;0
16.30
(211
(20)
(19)
53.n
8.07 8.29 19.64 19.13 18.44 15.24 O 9.83 23.26 22.44 18.86 27.97 23.26 19.55 14.11 11.81 8.44 6.29 '.84 6.21 6.21 4.12 300 202 2.02 2.02 1.92 1.53 4.49
11.80
1.02 7.16
(t41
(l3)
O O 6.47 14.'1l 10.66 17.63 27.99 20.63 47.17 100.00 56.88 7.-19 9.52 9.52 12.22 7..19 7.49 8.06 8.05 '.63 5.21 5.21 1.31 1.31 1.14 1.14 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.1] 1.13 1.37
Col. 7 col. 10
Standanhzed col 12
50.95 45.09 36.61 28.94 24.50 O O 1.32 S.OI 6" 0.98 6." 6_76 5.85 1735
6()..I2
)6.69 )6.05 iD.M 71.&3 71.71 80.<0 100.00 67.&3 64.03 64.03 60.42 81.73 63.04
'.08 '.08 5.21 5.65 2931
s.os
98.98 83.24 18.86 87.01 85. .38 47.02 37.96 52.96 39.95 46.92 24.55 34.21 34.21 38.42 43.&5 34.21 38.42 44.40 47.06 51.12 53.14 54.16 O O 2.(.3 3.93
,05 28.12 ~6.86
(23)
Col. 8 col. 19
¡PI
(01.21 23.22
~7.50
38.35 53.51 40.36 47.40 24.80 34.56 34.56 38.82 44.09 34.56 .38.81 44.86 49.57 51.bS 53.69 54.72 O O 2.66 3.97 5.13 ).13 5.13 5.26 5.71 2961
1.75 .92 .90 9.05
"
01
(17)
Col. 7 x col. 1
.99 99
99 95 18 6' 23 .22 .18 .15
7.40 6.98 6.33 5.60 3.75 :33 1.93 O O 1.07 1.16
13.65
46.21 100.00 52.67 7.41 9.39 8.87
17.70
O O 3_10 5.34 3.29 15.80 27.00
(2b)
Col. 25 23.!2
.03 2.23 6.21 3.27 3.19 32.15 49.52 27.89 6096 81.74 100.00 40.60 40.60 28.66 51.83 40.60 28.66 15.24 10.62 5.15 3.19 234 26.39 26.39 lt.(M 5.82 2.62 2.62 2.62 2.34 \.49 2.27
(18)
Standardized col. 17
3.88
1.18
1.01 6.53 10.16 7.28 7.49 12.63 10.41 12.54 1.94 O 3.52 13.15 12.69 11.97 15.81 13.15 12.41 10.36 9.17 163 6,18 5.24 O O 1.45 1.59 1.39 139 139 1.35
(27)
Col. 21 col. 25
--
100.00 83.17 78.49 65.53 58.00 ".26 39.09 33.14 O O 9.17 10.06 829 8.29 8.29 8.53 1.46 25.54
6.39 41.30 64.26 46.0' 47.38 79.89 65.84 79.32 ;0.22 O 22.26
(28)
Col. 27 15.81
Second residuals from col. 25
ModelS,
7.85 17.16 23.01 28.15 11.43 11.43 8.01 14.59 11.43 8.01 4.29 2.99 1.45 .90 66 7.43 7.43 3.11 1.64 .14 .14 .14 66 42 .64
23
" "
1.62 1.47 1.30 .81 .54 .45 O O .25
l.n
2.\8 206 3.17
Ln
1.24 .88 3.67 6.27 4.11 10.73 23.22 1lB
.n
O O
(251
(24) 100.00 84.10 79.67 87.91 86.26
Col 21 x (Ol}(col. 3)
d~'abili!y
ModelB Parts chcsen by cri~ri.. of genehlll.ltility
13.94
Parts cbosen from residual popu l.tiDn by criteria of
52.98 54.31 55.64 55.64 6.21 6.21 636 '.36 6.37 6.37 6.37 638 6.38 32.69
52.98
100.00 91.21 85.53 82.46 84.68 56.67 Us.¡ 5866 32.61 O 15.31 53.51 51.62 51.62 65.80 53.51 53.51
(l6)
Col. 8 col. 12
Col. 23 98.98
100.00 83.16 69.90 50.45 42.22 JO.17 24.28 20.88 22.20 22.20 14.73 10.73 1.22 1.22 1.22 6.86 5.47 16.05
3.65 25.60 42.19 28.85 29.64 70.22 68.39 65.93 5-'.49 O 35.15
(ls)
Standardiaed col. 14
Parts remaining oi.S residuats in candtdate population
Parts remiUning as resíduals in candidalf' populayion CoL 7 col. 17
1.05 1.28
).1)'
Col. 19 -+6.50
.38
..
67
"""
100.00 i3.n 6.57 8.35 1.00 12.11 6.57 5.51 432 3.61 208 1.28 1.10 2.63 2.63 1.49 1.08
O O 6.05 13.99 9.96 16.47 26.15 19.28 oW.07 93..12 5J.14 100 8.89 8.89 11.42 1.00 1.00 1.53 7.53 '.20 4.87 4.87 122 1.22 1.07 1.01 1.06 1.06 1.06
(12)
CoL 8 x col 3
CoL 8 x (.OtJ(col. II
1.37 .98 5.71 11.49 '06 20.59 46.23 34.08 3.04 3.86 3.24 '.60 3.04 2.55 2.01 1.67 .96 .59 51 122 1.22 .69 .;0 .34 .34 .34 31 .25 18
44.54
(11)
(t0)
.83
Standardized ce; 10
Col. 7 x col. 3
Parts cbosen by enten. of dryabiüty
Model A
JABLE 3.2-1cont'"_d)
11101 lhe probabllity oí auccessful drying. What is left, parte already judged useful bUI not considered in need of labor investments to ensure storage succese, are likely to be jusi those perta placed on the meat rack, with Included bones in favorable drying environments. On the other hand, column 8 has not been cullcd (Uf parts oí IittJe utHity as stored food. Coturno 8 has unly bccn proccssed for pnrts uf rnaxirnurn utiJity wilh high valúes as storable parís. lt is unlikely that the índices of column 8 would ever monitor an actual population of dry stored meat. Al least ene "culllng" decisión is
nt.'eded heteo Given the candidate populalions, the lmly two cantexls uf positive selectioo would be to select fOf dryability (columo 3) Of lo sl'1l.'cl fUf general utiJity, Model A in Table 3.2 iIIuslrales what happens when the cnteria of dryability (column 3) isexercised in partitioning Ihe orig~ ¡nal candidate populations {('olurnns 7 and S). Under this model colurnns 11 and 13 iIIustrate the parts that would be chosen fm plaecmenl (ln the drying racks. Thl' majnr diffl.'rl.'ncl.'S betwl.'cn Ihe two situations an' highl'r frl'quencies of parts of Ihe neck and fronlleg for the candidate population processed at a kili sile (columo 8). On the other hand. the culled populalion would have higher fn'quencies of slernums. The big diffl'renee is in the charac· Il'r of the f(.'sidual population-thl.' parls rcm"inin~ unSt'lt'ch'd nfh'r Ihl' p.'lrls w('n' (-htl. St'l1 hlr pl,It"l'l1Wlll onllw dryillH r,I(·I..:-. For Ilw prl'viuusly culled pupulaliun l'ulumn 15 summnri7.cs Ihe pMts remalning unsell.'l'll.'d. .These parts are dominated by the front leg, upper thorax. and neek coupled with Ihe parts (lf lhl.' hl.'ad. Wc miHhl Vil'W Ihl.'Sl' parls as ti "swing" pOpul.ltion in Ihal thl.'y arl.' uf sufficient utility "(Jf fo be cuUed but of insufficicnt utiJily lo warranllhc Itlbor uf processing. Wl' may anlidpatc fhal thcse parts will frt.'llul.'ntly serve as the source of food in hunting camps. stands. and along logistical mules, since they are valuable t-nough not to wasle or throw away. bul not valuable l'nough to warrant heavy labur investmenl in Iheir sloragl'. They may wl'll on (lCC.lsion Sl.'rvl.' as t1w mah'rial fur
3. M••' StonJlIf'
insurance caches, In short, this Is the populn• tion of anatomkal parta that we may expcct to be used early and expediently in a varicty of contexts in a sequence from procurement Ihrough a penod of consumption Irom stored resourees. In striking contrnst to thc swing population remaining from the prcviously cullcd population are thc valucs indicated for Ilw residual populatiun at a klll-processing locauon [rolumn 16). Here we note a high proportion of front leg elements. as well as thorax and ncck components. as in the otht'r east'; hOWl'Vt'r, Ihe pupulatiun is domln.lted by thl' ht·ad. mandible, and upper neck, It is unlikely thal this pnpulillion wuuld bl.' used directly with(Jut rulling. As mentioned previously, Ihe second erite· rion of selection thal we might envision as reasonClble is the general utility of the pclrtS. The readcr will rccall that Ihe mndified gen· eral ulility lndex (or MCUI) is simply the general utility index modlfil'd to lakc intu cunsidcratiun assimilation resulting fwm disml'mberml'nt str.lll'sies. Modl'1 8 summarin's the parls that would be selected using Ihe MCUI, and the residuals remainlng from the candidale populations after such a selectlon. Thls strategy has Ihe interesling effect of pamifioning the swing populatinn. As noll'd in ('()ltlmn 18, much highcr frequencil's uf fmnt Il'g and th(lr.n: wuulti ht" s('lt'('h'd lh.ln .ulumn 11 indi,'.llt's. SimiloHly, lur llw t·.lnllhl.lh' PUllIll,llill1l (column 8) el greall'r uliJizaliun of lhe popultltion il! indkall'd by Ihe sl'1cclitln licen in mlumn 20. Differenct>sbl'lween Ihe twoare. asin the earlier eompari!OllO, more m'ck and uppl'r thurax pclrt~ mupll'd wilh f((lnt Il'~ pólrtsin th" pupulatiun SI.'ll'etl'.J al thl' kill-buh:hl'rin~ I(X',llion (column 20). The stl'rnum domin.ltl.'S the parls scll'clt'd allhl' st'paratl' pmH'ssin~ IUt·.llion fm Ihl' pn'viou~ly culll.'d p(lpUI.,tiun. Another inten'sting featun' is rt>veall.'d in Ihis mode!. Comparison of column 2 wilh column 9 shows that the population selecled at the kill-bulchering 10cation under thl.'gl.'nl.'ral utility criteria 15 ('sSt'1I1ially id("IIÍfol to the tlti~ill.11 c.lndiJ.lll.' pOpUltlti\ln lI( lhl' prl'viuusly nJlkd
Euoluollng 111.Ullllly o/
"'0«'. and 'nd,,....
or transpurtcd pcpulnuon. Thís should nut be eurprístng, slnce in both cases the same deosions were lnvotved. Only, in the column 8 pupulation the processing decision was made first, and in the column 7 population the transport or utility culling was done ñrst. Largo dlffercnccs continúe to cxist in the residual populations: howevcr, the rcsldunls Irom bcth dccislons n-main togctlu-r as ti single populatiun .11 thc ktll-butchcring loennon (column 24) and are spatially independent in the culled and transported population (columns 22 and 15). Columns 25-28 illustratc whal would hap· p.o.·n tv a residual pupulatiun In terms of the gl'nl'r.ll ulilily critl'ri."! parlitioOl'd .lgain in tl'rms of Ihe dry.lbility critl'ria. We note that the pupulation is nearly identlcal to the segregalion suggested in columo 11; however, Ihe residuals from such a third·stage segregation remaln dislinctive and different from the rt'siduals of the column 11 selection (sel' column 15). Thl' fotl'going opl'raljon was included simply to dl.'mnnslrah.' that if .1 mOVl'llCcursin onl' in~tancl' and nnl in anothl'r during a process uf Sl'lectiun and cuning uf parts Ihe "chosen" assemblages may well converge if the same sets of positive dt>dsions are made. Howl'ver, Ihe residual populatiuns will re· main distinctivl.' sinn' noe always remalos a sum of sl'ver.ll tl'siJuals wht'n'.ls thl' othl'r is pnrlitiunl'd am()n~ tWtl ur mUft' 1l'C.llinns. WI' nuw I1<1V("1 sl'rit's uf il10tl(,1s ,'(II1sislt'nl wilh thc genl.'r.ll 10gislíc¡1l situatitm uf Ihe Nunamiul. Thl.·l.'v.'llulttiun tlf th", b¡ll'lk¡ndicl's Ihrough these mudels will be carried out using empirical material eollected among the Nuntlmiul, SO ME EMPIRICAL MATERIAL RELATIVE TO DRY MEAT STORES
Table 3.3 summari:les the anatomical parl frequencies observed (ln the combined resi· dential meat racks in Anaktuvuk vlllage durlng spring of 1969,1971, and 19n. (Sl'e nlso Figurl' 3.12.) Sl'veral poinls should bt.' rncn-
11111 tioned relattve lo the bchavior surroundtng the use and placement of meat on these racks. Firat, there is a notable ronsumptionprocessing sequence. For ínstance. meat may be packed ínto the village in ñeld-butchered units and placed directly on the meat racks. pnrtlcularly if tbc wcathcr is ('(101. Later. after the labor "crunch" uf migmtion hunttng. somc p.\tts will tw n-moved Irom the r.u-ks .1I1t1 processed Ior drying at the pcrmancnt drying rack. Of the parls on the racks, those parts judged to have a high spollagc potential wiIJ be consumcd first. The Nunamiut havc undergonl' sorne strategy changes durin); thl' pl>riod uf recurd. In 1969 must meólt was stored hlr summer cunsumption in dl.'l'p subtl'rr.lnean ice cdl.lrs. In late summer of 1969 two uf Ihese el'llólts f100ded and much meat was 10sI. 5ince then there has been an increasing return lo drying, Ihe "Iraditiona'" method of me.ll storage. par· ticularly (or summer dog food. This trend ls reflected in the ¡ncrease in MNls acruss the rl'cord (Table 3.3). In 1969 almost .111 thl.' dril'd meat was destined for food for the Jo~s dur· Ingsummer,ln 1971 and 1972dog populatiuns were smaIler and increasing proportlons of the dry meat was destined for human con· sumption. EVALUATING THE UTlLlTY OF MODELS AND IN DICES
Civen the facls as summ.lti;wd-naml.'ly Ihat animals are culled at kill-butchering localions and generally lnlroduced into the villilge at Ihl' lel' el'Unrs ur al lhl' n'sitil'nn's. lhat further eulling t.lkl.'s pl.lel' tlt IIll'se puinls ni introduction and the resulting populatillO is placed on the drying racks. and thal furthl'r pnlCl'ssing may take place afh'r parts Ml' pruvisionally placed on the drying racks-we would expect Ihal only the m()de1s develuped in Table 3.2 thal started with a previously culled populatlon (column 1) would be likely lo anticipale Ihe empirieal f"rls of the parts invenloril'd (lO Ihe meal r.lcks.
TABLE 3.3
EoaIaatlns the Utlllty o/ Model.
Inventorl.. o, A...tomlcal P.rt. on Sprint Drylng Rae.... In Ando.u,,'" Vlllale [une 17, 1%9
JUlle 10, 1971
T(ll.,l
May 2&. 19n
Anatllmical p.:trt ) Antier 2 Skull 3 Mandible Atlas 5 Axis 6 Cl·rvk.ll ~'t- rtd:'r.lt' I h"I.II j, \'.'rlo·hr.1I.' l.ull1b.u \'l'rll·hr.ll' Pelvis + sacrum tu Ribs 11 Stemum 12 s..';lf'ul" J) Humerus
•
,r
•
" " 17
R".li"·(lI~lus
%
MNI
%
MNI
(1)
Il/
(3)
(')
20 '.0 2.0 O O 1,0 211
16.0 25.0 16.0 O O IUJ
O O O
O O O
en
14.8
'.0 4.11
l/di
:2U,n
14.8 14.H 7'¡,1l
ñ,n
4t\.U Hll.Il
111,0 12.'; 8.tI 11,0
I~.II
~.'i5
71),.1
100,0
1"1,0 27.U
I/kUI
M,(J
ze.o
%.J
tlH.1I
114.." [(1.5 <1.0
ól'I.!> 3K.H 33.]
6.0
414,0
e.o
4H.1l
15 l'.up,,'s
2,0
loO
1.5
z.n
s.s
Md.I,·.lrp.ll ft'n1ur IK Tibia is 'rarsats 20 Mt't,lt"rs.lls ¡¡ Phal.m¡;es
16,0
"
Da)'s elaps~d since t'nd nf hunlin,; WI'a!twr
4,11
32 n
4,0
5,5 lU
'.0 20 1.5 12
32.0
B
J2.'~
16.0 12.0 9.0
25
%
(5J
1')
(7)
1')
2.0 '.0 '.0 5.0 5.0
'2 12,5 12.5 15.6 15.6
411 80 6.0 '0
~,1I
I~,f,
Ill.tl
9.4 1·1.1 14.1 1'>7
22.n
1'".7
"".,
H.n
10'1,2
"'2.5
43.11 4<1.(l
ni
wn"
ó.15
22.0 20.tI 32,0 28.0
2""n 1<1,5 I.'iU 14.0 14.0
vn
6.2
rz.s
9.0
';';.5
K7,4
eav
:ló.tl
5(,.'"
4"." 43.7 U7 17.1
30.0 17.5 17,,; 1711
47.2 27.5 275 2".7 17.3
,..
u.o
U
/>.11
'.2
"
21.2
"
5.11 10.5
r.u-ks Ior IlJll ) .md Ilw iudcx valucs [nnu T.lhh' 3.2 (column ~). Thc rclationslup Is linear and rcmarkably tight. In thc 1%9 data thrce parls are undcrrcprescntcd on the rncat racks: cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, and the stcmum, in contrast, in thc IY71 data (Figufl.' 3.14) unly thc ccrvlc.rl vcrtebrae nre undcr-cprcsentcd. TIl\,.-, undcrrcpresentañon ni thcse l
1011.11 "17.6
ez.o
\0.'1
cies uf anatomical parts observed on the meat
ó7.7
"'H2 "
3.5 1.5 1.5
va
20 2.5
2J
%
MNI
parts can be cxplntncd. Most cervical vertebroc introduccd in spring ,lfl' used as dog food. and as I ha ve menrioned necks from the nutrítionally poor spring animal! are not constdered dcstrnble candidates for storage. The
...,.,
<''-111,1
á
~N
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!f:";
Flgul'tl' 3.12.
C..mptlrilliw pt'rCt'ntolgt'"for parts invt!ntoril'
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"CANDIOATE" POPULATIC:fll MOOEL TABLE 3.2 COL. 9
•
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"CAN01OATE" PClPULATlON toOOEL TABLE 3.2 COL. 9 F1sure 3,14. R"''''ionship bo.'lwt'l'n d.ll,l 1r\lm the 1971 dryinR racb .1nJ a candltlalt' rllrul.ltit.n model. Anatomk-al r.1rls MI' i,it'nlifi,'J by number (St'l' Table J.3)
11>5
11
(".'1
1113)
'ndlca
Since the cnvlronment at Anaktuvuk Pass is certaínly not one that presenta a harsh drying environment and since mcst of the dried meat is dcsttncd tordog fuod where minor putrefactton is not consídered damaging te its use, we may antícipate thal the most likely model would simply be the residuals from processing (Table 3.2 column 9). Figure 3.13 illustrates the relationship betwecn the actual frequen-
-MNI
D'I'U'
\I! ..
~.
~-
~
J
figure 3.13. R"'.lli.m~llip bt'IWl'i.'" tl.ll,llrull> 1111' lW>9 Jrying ra(ks ,lnd a elInJiJ.ltt' pupul.'líon mlldt'l. Anatom1(,11 rarl~ "r,' ;Ill'nlifit'd by numb..r (Sl'l' Tabll' 3.3).
underrcpresl'ntation of thorade vertebral." and sternums in 1%9 may wcU rdll,ct the time the obSt.'rv.ltions wt.'rl' mad\"'-2.1 dilYS .lfh.'r huntin,.; h.HI sluppl't.l. SIIIlll' l·,\n~ul11plilm Iltlt.l .,1n'.ldy on'urn'tl, .1I1l1 sinn' lhl'~t' IWll p.lrls .Ht' l"llllsit.lt'fl'd dlllin' Ull'Y .ln' .1pl tu lw l1l'ldl'd fmm t1lL' POPUI¡llitlll l'.uly. Altl'mpls lu fil Illl' 11172 d
.,,,..1
11141
s ¡!
3.
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;
.
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SCorage
terrns of a high deletion rate for consumpnon uf the parts sclectcd Irom the candídatc pupulntion by thc nitl'ria uf ovcrall ulility. AIthough thc cthuographíc datn are nut suíücíent lo provtde an unambtguous basis for understanding the dtfferences between 1972 and thc other years of record, the information avaílable is consistent with the model that bcst ñts the data. Givcn thc mther rcmarknble fits dcmon-
strable bctwccn thc modcls dcvolopcd and the data obscrved. I can only concludc that
11lT~;
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e
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ro
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RESIOUALS FROM IJTlUTY SELEtTED CANJlDATE POPU.ATION MOOEL-TABLE 3.2 COL22
f'iKUn! 3.15. I{t'l'l'il'n~h¡p bl'lWI't'lI d,'l.llf\lIl1 llw 1'l?2 lhying racks and 11 nllldd Ior l'xplnil,,,l ,-,llllli,I,I!I' pnpulation.
,In
kimu wcrc opumistlc th a , strogglcr huutlng would be cqually rowordtng. Orw inform.lIll sumllwd up Ihe SitU.lliol1 .1s f"lIuws: "W" ~tll
mcssl'd up IMI yeM. su this year wc are m.lk· ing SUTe the cell
thl' índices and modols Me uscful for tlw be-
bnvioral analysis of faunal material. Additionnlly. thc rnthcr nght fits bctwcen d,lf,' and model mensure the sktlled and cxtn-mcly rntionnl dccision m.lkin~ of thc Nunanuut t-skimo. Th¡s is Cl'rt.linly consistont wilh .111 I'Mlier evaluanons 11f thcir dcclslon making.
PROCESSING DEBRIS FROM DRVING ACTIVITIES Thus (.u 1havo exclusively trcatcd thc soleetion uf parts for dTy¡n~. Ubviuusly therc arv by-producís of Ilu- St'lt'Lliun prol'l'Ss o\S wl'll ,l!'> by-pwdul'ls uf tlw prlll·l's."óin¡.;. I Sh.ll1 dl'''ónil>t, here unly thust.' aSSl'mhlil~t.'S dirl'clly ••\Ssocialed wilh drying racks wilhin the conlth"lporary village, delaying the disrussiun of the largl' processing arca adjac('nl to thl' ice cell.lfs until "fter I ¡'ave Irpaled lhe SUbjl'cl of fruzt.'n stor¡¡ge. Table 3.4 summolTizt.'sthl' invl'nlorit'S uf an.ltumical par!s dh;(oudl'd by Ihl' EskilllH un and ,1fuund lhe drying TóKks. TIll'st.' inVl'nturit.'s wt.'rc madl' un thl' s.lme d.1YS lh.ll thl' inventories of parts un the drying racks Wt'Te m"de, C1c.1Tly, Ihl'ir .Ut.' m.ljur difft.'rence:-;Ot'twt.'cn the pupuliltions ubst.'rvt.'d fur tlll' J years of record. What do thest' differenn's mean in terms uf .1divilil'S .lnd strall'¡.;il'S? Tlw difft'rt'lh't'S ,Ht' n'I,lh'd 111 lI1,llllr dif· fl'rl'lln's l1l'twet'll Ihl, !n'qut.'llt.)' wilh whkh anim.lls werl' introduced dirt.'ctly into Ihe vil1,1ge and Iht.' frt.'qul'n(y wilh whkh animals were introduct.'d inln tht.' proct.'ssin¡.; ilrt.''-lllulside tht..' in' cellar!> and unly subst.'lJut.'ntly tl"
11151
Prvcaslng Debrl. from Dry'''9 Aetlu"'u TABLE 3.4 Sprtllg Invelltorlu o, Anatomlcal Parh '" Vlllage Proc:e ..l"g Aren June 17, 1969
JU"1l! 10, 1971
M.lY 26, 1972
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
(11
(21
131
(41
151
"1
500
A~is
u
37.5 37,5 37.5 O O O
20 2.0 20
AII.l~
3.0 30 3.0 11
Anatcmical part Anlll'r Skull Mandibh-
""
Cl'rVk,11 \'I'rtt'hr,'ll'
lhoracic vertebrac
11
l.ul11b.u vertebrae l'l'Ivis + ~,I(ru11l \{ibs Scapllla
" "
1'..n1<'rll~
IU}
Radto-cubitu,
3.0 4.0 4.0 5.0 1.0 2.0 :'15
11
Stcrnum
S.O
C.upals
Ml'lacarpal Fermrr fi!"oi"
Tolr",1Is Mt·.,'I"rs.11 1'11.11.11').:0':'0
.
4.'\
" "" " O
62.5 llNUl 37.5 50.0
sao f>2.5 J2,5 2.'\0 43.7 "'.2
moved (as already siected populations of an"tomical parts) lo the village for drying. Thl..'se changt.'s can be dirl..'ctly rel.ltl'd to the followillg three faclors: 1. Chall8t'S 01 'he Mf'llwd /JI Transport. During the period of record the number of snow· mobilt.'s in use increased, and the power of the nl'wer Vl'hidl.'s was considt.'rably gn'ater. The more powerful snowmobiles began to be used for tran~port .ltter the ~now disappt..'élTt.'d; tht..'y ("(luId h" rlln difl'l'tly ,11T1'SS thl' (llI11ir,l ~ur fal:e. Also, olS thl' oVl'r,lll USt.' (lf snowlllnbilcs increased, there was
O O O
O O 11 11 11 .5
25 20 1.5 10 2.0 4O 4.0 4.0 4.0
25.0 25,0
5l1.0 O
4 4 4
O
"
u u
O O
11 11
O 11 11
"o
"o "" " ""s z
5(10
O
125 t>2!' 50.0 37.5 25.0 50.0 100.0 HXUI HXI.O llXUI
" 1
5
"
10 10 7 13 13 13
lO
25,(J
O
.11 :! 375 62.5 62.5 43.7 fl1.2
H2 Hl.2 IllCJ.O
More culling activities were therefore localized within the vill"ge than previously. When pack d(lgs were mmt:' commonly uSt.'d for transport, culling aclivity tuok plact.' doSt.'r to Ihe kili location, at places dist.lnt fmm tht.' viIlage. 2. CllangEs-Úl Uu.-$ize",.of."FrouJI. SlOrllge FRdIWes. In August 1969a faultuccurred in the ice deposit within which the !'h1t'.lge cellars were located. Meltwater drained into one of the storage cdlars, filling it with \v.lltor Ih.1t I.llt'r ffll/.t'. Rt.'ri\ir I\f lht' \'I'\I.lr rru\'l'd impp!,>sible .1Ild no ncw (dl.lr \V.lS (ollslrudt.'lt t(l replace ir. The total storage spa(c avail"ble to the present communily was rl'duced by one fourth. As él result, the users (lf these facilitil's were placed under greater ptessure to make
11161
j.
N_. SWtagf'
maxlmlzlng declslone as to üie par!!! chosen
AJI these condltions would lead us tu expect
for storage in the cellars. Such a change in conditlons could modify the character of parts abandoned in processlng arcas or selected for
HUle processlng of etthcr complete or Iicldbutchered enímnls within the village adjaccnt to the drying racks. Most parts introduced lur drying would have been previously culled al l'ithl.'r the fleld-butchering locations ur thc proccssing arca adjacent lo the ice cellars. Most processing at the rneet racks would therdore be secondary processlng of a popu~ lation uf parte nlrcady culled and selected for drying. Such delayed pwcesslng is common and reprl'sent~ an accommvd.,tion lo hl"WY labor demanda during the hunting periodo For instance-, if the m,,'n are huntinK successrully, animals are bein~ introduced al a fairly rapid rateo Women may be engaged in procl'ssing aclivitics in cooperating teams at the ice c('lIar location. They wiII set parls aside for transport into the village and placl"mf'nt un the drying r.1l"ks. If IIw wt'illlwr is nl4l' unly minim.11 prtK'l'ssin~ fm dryin~ m.,y lw dUllt' al lhis (illlt.'. TIll' ~'iHIs St'!t'dt,d .Ir" tlwn Ir,lIlspurh'd tu the village and pl.ll.:,,·d on tht.' mt.'.ll racks, As the lempo of hunting slows down and the women are no longer needed al the ice cellars, they may then begin removing partially dried parls frum Ihe racks and processing them (or drying un a lunger-tcrm basis~nilmelyreducing lhe bulk*lo*surface ratiu of chuicl' ,,~nts. This aclivity is cunducted in Ihe saml' irrea whl'rl' animals inlrndun'd dirt.'l't1y inhl thl' residt.'nliallot.-.ltiun fmm kill·bulcht'ring llll"i\lions are processed. Parts inlrnduced fm consumption f10m l'ither fresh ur stored resef'lt.'s are Jik('ly lo bt.' pruCt.'!Isl·d in lht' S.lme an'a. A P()PUI.llivn uf btlOl'S fl,\'OVNl'd from sUl'h ,m i1rl'a ;10 likl'ly to bt' ti ('IlIII/'lIS;/¡' uf prm.'l'!IsinH Olclivilil's cunducled on subpopuJations of dif* fering composition and purp()St.' (l'.g" cun* sumption versus dryinK)' The population is likdy lo induol' animals inlmdun'd .lnd pmn'ssl'd Ihl'n' bul subsl'qut'nlly n'nHwl,d in part lu Ihl' ic(' el,lIar!>. It wiIJ .llsu indudl' pm* l't'SSl'd btlnl's (Iha! ¡s, bonl's slrippt'd uf mt'jll furl'ithl'rconsumpliun nr dryin¡.;) h'mpur,Hily (·.U'1ll'1I un flr ,lrotlllll tlH' IUt'.ll r.1('ks. It i.. lrnlll this pnpul'ltiun uf bont's Ih,ll fn'sh IIm's ,ln' commonly selecIl'd fur snack!>uf bunl' marrow or as bones to be lransported to Ihe hunting
dry storage. 3. TM SubsislelWt Stg'·.aldhe,,'-ÚNfU1IMniJy. Hunting success during tbe cnrly phasc of migration hunting condttlons, how animals kiJIrd during the later pheses of hunting are treeted. If hunting success is mtnirnal during the maln migration phasc uf spring hunting, ~tragglcrs killt.·d are Iikt.'1y lo ix- Irilnsp(lrh.·d dlrectly lo the ice cellars ()f pruccsscd for fro· zen storage. On Ihe oth....r hand, if early hunt¡ng is successful and storage facilities are JargeJy filled.(Stragglers iIIl'd are apl to be inlcaduced dir~'l e viJIagc arca wh...re tht·y are processed for drying andlor immediate consumption.
th.fLa"
Sinn' .,11 Ihn't' f.h'lurs .1fl' knuwn 1'1 h.IVl' V.Uil'd i1('rnss thl' yc'óus .. f I\'l"lml indk
The 1969 Data rack d(Jgs were the predominant means of transport during Ihe spring of 1%9. Al! (our ice cell.u~ wcre in good r('pair .1nd WC'fl' uSl'd (Uf storage in the spring. Unfnrlunaldy, my knowll"dge of Ihe spring hunt is mínimal, since 1%9 was Ihe first year of my Iield rc* sl'arch and I rl'i'lchcd Anilkluvuk aftt.'r spring huntin~ .1ctivilil'S had I('rminilll'd. Thl' Eskimo rl'purtl'd thal hunting hild bt.'l'n gm)o .1no thal Ihey had bt!t.'nablt.' to pack cilribuu tilken nurth of the river prior to the breakup of the ice. There was therefore no real Iransport pmbIt'm. Thl'St' drcumstances wnuld Il'"d lo (a) ('(dlin,.; "t'ar Ihl' killlun,tiuns ami ('1) thl' inlrn* dudion uf must uf thl' animals ¡ntu the pro* cessin~ an'.l nl'ar the in' l"t'JI.1rs bt'l·.lUSt.' uf .1mplt, sh.ra~(' an'a. "t'{·auSt.' inh-nst' hllnlin~ .lfh'r mi~r;llillll W.1S minim.l!. musl anim,lls Wl'rl' inlruoul"t,d ¡nltl lht.' vill.lgl' frum lhl' north, anothl'r reason for lht.'m to bl' pro~ cessed primarily al Ihe ice cellars.
Prou••
'"J D~btl. /rom Drylng Adlolth'.
, 1171
stands for cunsumptlun by huntera. Síncl' my
tlun (T.bloJ.5, column 4) were multlplicd by
observations were made early in the spring, lmrnedtetely eñcr hunling had stopped, most of the remalns in the residential processing aree should rcflect processíng related lo drying ncuvlucs. In order to rnodcl ur nnticipntc the nnetomlcal part trequencies occurring in the residenttol processlng locatíons. I employed tbe folIllwinK rensontng: Most uf thc parte processed nJUlú be cxpcctcd lo Il.lvl' bccn prcviously sclccted fUI" drying. Wl' know that the Esktmo dry Wh.l1 is l'ssenlially a candhJale pupulation or lhe rl'siduals from il transported populalion culled fur proct'ssing as dl'monstratt'd in Table 3.2 and Figurl' 3.13. It is rt.'.lsonable to expect the bunes in thl' village pruccssing areas to be such a pupuliltion subsequently processedthat is, processl'd "secondarily" as described. ThIlS, ,l 1',lndid,lh' pllplll,llion (T.lhh' :l.2, n'l1l111ll7J would L1(' Illultiplil'd hy 111l' prul'l'ss¡tl~ imll'x (T.lhll' :1.2, l'ollllllll 4). IloWl'Vl'''. I h.IVl· I1l'Vl'r obSl'rvl'd .1 NUll,lllliut prOl'ess pMb uf the axial skt'lelon fur drying-that ¡s, strip the meat frum the bum's. The processing index adequately describes it silüalion where freshly killed animals are being culll'd fur drying since there is always a chokt' "1 Ih.lt juncturc either to prun'ss Ihe p.ul or tu consume it. As we wiJI Sl'e laler, Ihl' parts Ilf th(, ilxial skt'ieton wilh hi~h prUdl sl'ledilllls WIlU Id be 1l1.h.!..· in t,'fms (It Ihl' inverse uf Ihl' drying indexo Thl'rl'forc, Ihe villues resulling fmm the foregoing calculil*
the drying indexo The result was then subtracted from the original valucs (Tablc 3.5. column 6). This se! of valúes. standardized. was then taken as an approxtmntíon for the frcqucncies observcd in thc vtllegc proccssing arces (T.lblt.' 3.5, colunm 7). The fit betwcen tbe modcl and the observcd valúes Is iIIustrated in Figure 3.16. Cteerty thc model anticipetes the relatlvc Irequenctos Ior most anatomlcal parta prcscnt in t1w 11J69 sample. Anuclpated very ntcoly art.' v.llul's fur Ihl' sc,'PUI'l, humerus, radio*t"ubitus, fl'mur, tibia, and all parts of lhe axial skl'leton except lhe head. Alllhese parts evidence él rather tight curviJinl'ar relationship in terms o( the index values from Table 3.5, column 7. Not antici* pated well are the phillanges, met.K,1rp.lls, carpals, metatarsals, tí1rsí1ls, anller, skull. i'lnd m,1lldibh', TI1\' n',llil'r slwuld n'~'llgnil"l' Ihis gruup t)f p.lrls ,IS idl'nlk.llllIllI\l' 01 II\(' 11l\lfl' nmunon lypl'S or J..ill-hull"lll'rill¡'; sil!' ,lsso{"i,ltions, .1011 head illld ItIWt'r ll'gs kill-sile .1ssul"Í* ations. Clearly what Me rl'presentcd here are parts abandoned al lht' procl'ssing location from animals introducl'd as complete animals and bUlchered al the residl'nce. The pilrts abandoned from such butchering episudes are "~stlCiated with the parts abandon('d as .1 n'sult of secondary prol'l'ssing (If p"rls plaCl'd (111 lhe drying r.lcks. In short, we know hl'h.willr* illly Ih.lt thl' residl'nti,ll ,Ul'" W,IS ,1 t"(lmI1(I~it(' assemblage uf debris fmm lhl' butchl'ring uf animals intmduc('d lo Ihl' tl'sidl'nti.ll hl(',llion unbulchl'fl'd, ólnd fnlJ11 tht, pn'l'l'ssin~ fllr dry* jn~ uf an illrl'ady Sl'!l'dl'd pllplllillion 01 pMIs lu bl' dril,d. "ht.' .Ul.llysi:> l'
The 1971 and 1972 Data Simpll' inspl'ctilln of T,l~lt,:\.4 dl'monstr.ll1'S Ih;11 lhl' pMls rt.'nlolinin¡.; in rl'sidl'lIli,ll prtlf('SS* ing MI',IS for 1"#71 ,lrld 1972 MI' qllill' dith'n'nl fmm Ihl' l~hY d,1(,'. Gil/l'n Ih"l slllr.lgl' "p.1l"l' was shurl during thl..'se yeMs, and Ih,ll Irans* port by snowrnobile was more fe.,sible Ihan in
( 1181
3. Mrol S,orngor
TABLE 3.5 D.".lop......
o"
Model
'0' Anatomlcal Parta In Vlllag_ Proc...lng Are •• CSp""g 1969)"
T.lbll'
Al1ilhlmicill
part
Anlll" Skull M.lmhl>I,'
Atl.l"
""i'i l 't'r',k.1I vertebrar-
col. 7
(1)
(2)
(3)
(')
n
o
1,02
o
111,11I tI.42 :\.~."
4,<;2 4.2J 1,77
~Uñ
2Al
7.16
12.6..1 '/,44
'127 25.:'15 30.62 24.50 35.83 46.23
2fl.Mñ
1.1,4.1
Stcmum
15.15 lUJ) 1U>6 321} 1".77
Scapula
n.lB
22.7H
:'13.57
21'1.30 22.10
Lumbar vertebrae
Pelvis Ribs
I'rClllimill humerus
39.49
39.41}
nistal humcrus
.19.49
"n,,,I11l.11 r.l\lio-,'ul>ilus
39.49
:W.41J .W.4
Olstill radio-cubirus Clrp.lb I'n'l(inl.ll nll'I.ll".lIp<11 Di..l.ll rru,'I.lc.lTpal I'fII"imill (t'mur Distal ft"mur
Pwximallibia Distal libia r,uSolls ASIr;l~"lu.'i
Cilk....nl'us ,'rlll<Ímal ffi,'lal¡us,,1 1);"1••1 ml'l.l\,u",ll I'h.Il;'"~l'S ~
1'1
311.31 22.06 23.32 '.511 31.55
lh\.r.ldc veeeebeae
cot 2 x col 3
~'r;"
).2,
3".49 31lA':! :N.4'J 3':1.4':1
9257 92.57 '12.57 '12.57 1J257 1J257 1J257 1J257 1,12.<;7 M.II.1
'P..'i7
11257 1}257 "2,,'>7 hh.ll.1
HIJO
1h.12 1.1.41'1 9.4(1
7.314 6.35 7.43 7.43 4.81 .1.50 2.J6
2.36 2.](. 2.2.1 1.71, 4.67
(.."\,1. ...
DI" (')
n
.1.2 ".1 17
x
CuL'" col~ (6)
o
n
..12
-"o
.24
.IlJ
"
:'1.40 4.1>3
.77 1.71 .'7
2.70 4.Hl 1.52 6.Y2
,
..
10.38
tu
2.40 1.52 5.37 1.27 1.20
..'"
l:'11.
ñ
~ (71
u
.m
21 2.h.1
''
.1411 .<;.44 l.hl
2 ~ll 211,M 31.59 22.11 JIJJ\l
u
u
1.55
IldlR
fd7
h
IJ.IR 7.72
WIUKl
<¡,,,"
..,...
(,O.7H <;11.7ó :lt,,27
2.JO
2S.115 62.04 112.64 4.1.SlI
R.7.1 6.37 5.32 3.71 2.'11
t.m
'.50 '.88
.20 1.13
6.88 4.45
1.13
.1.24
.
5.75 5.75
.%
'711
1I1o~H
2.IM 2.IM 2.tH
.31
IR7 I.R7 Ul7
20.17 2(1.:'7
2.l16 I./'l.l .l.fltl
'"
.23
..11 .31
".,
3.:'C.l
3.lH
IW.JO
2'1 1'1
211..17
[,77
['I,2H
.2.1
l.
.
2,'H,
15.2" )2.24
1'1, prun'Ssin¡; in.I.'x; DI. t1'1'ill); illd.'" (T"bl,' J.2, ..,,[umn .1).
1969, we may anticipate that (a) more com· plete animals Wf're introduced to the residentiallocati(lns and (b) more selections of parts to be placed on the drying racks were made from thesf' residentiaJly butl'hered animals. The residcntial locations are therefore butchering and pnll'l'ssing lucatinns fmm whkh pilrts Wl'rl' J.dl'!ed fur plan'!Ill'nl un thl' dryin,.;
... _n_.. _ fi~ . hN z"'g . . ~~"" ,
T.lbl"
:\.2, rol. 4
1\191
Proceulng De",.,. from DI)/IIIfI AC'''''tle.
raeks directly and also for consumplion. In modeling this situation we bt:-gin with the complete anatomy of the caribou. We isolate one component {lf Ihe parts remaining on Ihe localion by the modificd pmcessing index (Table3.4, column 4). Parts abandoned during nmmal bUlchl'ring .1l-tivilil.·s arl' l1lunitnfl'd by multiplying lhl' rl·sit.!u.l1s hum il l"umpll'll'
I
/
ifl"'on..
IUTl:tCltl1IlO
.... o::a'il ~ ~
f2§:! ~~
.~
//
~ o:IM~
-,~/
lkI
IIt./.ClIIIP
,¡;'.:
.o ~_ \
~ ~ i'
ro ro
¡-
1
I¡
_ - . . AT llIt: IIUIOlliICt
ro
••
~·Irsc
1/ =.=~.
/ /~ /JII<:
PIIlOCU.".. POlI OIIY""
1/
er
ID
","y
o..-t....
et:RV
UM
•
ro ro
.. .. . .. . ..
ntOII
ro
INDEX MODEL TABLE 3.5 COL. 7
FigUn.' 3.16. Rl'I,'Ii<'I\~hipbctwecn d,",l frt>m thc IlJó'l pn .......~~in¡.: ,lrl'il~ .'nd modcled \',lltl.·~
~rrin¡.:
anim.1!, minus Ihe modifil'd procl'ssing ¡ndl'x, by thl' c.lndidatl' populatMlO index (Tabh.' 3.2, column 9) and sublr.1Cting the rl'sult frum !he residual pOpul.1tion. This calculation gives us whal would be lefl after a sel~tion fur drying was madI..' indl'pl'ndent of tht, processing ae· livilil'~. Thl' sum uf thl' ¡alter Ci't1culation and thl' slricl pfllcessing indl'x (Table 3.5, column 2), stemdardil.ed, shuuld antidpélle lhe felunal n'm.lins Il(Turrin~ .11 lhl' residl'ntiallllcillions. This a~Sllllll'S, {)f l'\lllrSl', Ih.l1 no pn'viuusly sl'I"l·tl'd p,lrts Wl'rl' introduCl'd frum th~ ic~ n ..llar Prtl('l'ssing arl'tl and lh\'n sl'ctmdarily processl'd as in 1969. Such ,ln assumpliun is alm\lSI cl'rtainly nol ius'í(j~d and residuals from the fit betwl~l'n the model values as Teasoned earlier and the actual data should inform us of the degree of secondary processing conducted at Ihe location. Table 3.6 summarizes the developmenl of Ihe mode!' Figure 3.17 iIIustrates the nt between Ihe index values as modl'lcd in Table 3.6, column 5, and Ihl' O1elu.11 dntn hum thl'1972 rl'sidl'nti.11 pmn'ssin~ .lr",lS. TIlt' fi! is vl'ry ";11111..1 .1nl..1 uf Ihl' illllkip.,ll,d l'urvililll'ar formo Thn'l' parls
are secn to ncrur un the sitos in lcss Irequcncy thnn is anñcipatcd by the modclc-thc Icrnur, Ihe antle-rs, and Ih..' ntlas'axis. The low frequcncy of antle-rs is undcrstandable, since rh¡s is a spring essemblage; ccrtainly biascd in favor of bulls, and bulls are just beginning tu develop antlers al this time. Por all practica! purposes the arttlers Me not prvscnt as candidates for archeeologícal observauon. The alias ond axis togcthcr with tbc 11Ccl.. parts nncornmonly nrticulotcd .1no are 110t trl·.lll'd as indepcndent unils otrhcr in dl'(:isinns for dryin~ or in dog ft'l't1in~, which is thc musl common use of nccks dunng th¡s scnson. Only thc fémur appears as a meaningful residual, and thís is understandable in terms of a consumption or storage bias in favor of the heavy ham from nutritionally good animals-must uf Ihl' animals introdueed directly to the residcntial area are stragglers killed after lhe main migralinn, and such stragglcrs are movt eummunly bu lis who are. in fnct. thc amrnals in a bcttcr state of nutrition. Tho low valuc for tbc fernur is
(120)
3. f1fHt Storage
..
TABLE 3.6
D.v.lapment o,. MIIJ4ellor Anatomlcal P.rtsln Vlllase Proce..ln! Ar••• ISpl1ng. 1971 .nd 1972)
¡\11~lt>lllic~1
+
Cnl. J
Tabk' J2, (1'1. fl
Cnl. I x (,lndid.l!" rnedol"
Col. 1 -
¡-ul.2
5('1"
(1)
(2)
(:l)
(4)
1J7.!«J 77.10 M.56 7ñ.n 7'UO
97&1
'JIUI]
H62
MUS
70.71 78.54
par!
HXUX) 91.21 91.91 96.45
Antll'T Skull Mandible Alias Axis l.'rvi(al vt'1ll'br,lt' Thuracsc vertebree Lumbar vcrtebrae t'ctvrs
I~(,l
7.114
411.10 46.15 41.30 511,42
77,Y4
7f>,~
9H2 M.45 77.22
Stemum Scolpul,¡ Pmxirnal humerus Dist.l! humeras
bU.51
f,t1.51 till,,';1 tll,151 1'01151 tll,1.SJ
I'Ttlxim."l1 Toll!Íll-fUt.'lus DI~t ...1 r;¡l!il'-cubilus C.ura /!! I'n"üm.ll ml·t.lcarp.ll l)i~l.ll ml',;u:,.,rp.11 I'Wll.hnoll f"nlUr Distalfemur PrOJlinhlllibia Dist.ll tibi.l
('/l .."l
7.4:'1 7.4:'\ 7.4:'\ 7.4:'1 7,41
T.1r~,1s
Aslr.. ~.,hl'
7.4.'
('.,Ir."l'·U"
7.H 7.41 7.4.1
l'ro'~¡m.,1 md.'I"rs.,1 Di..,...1 ml"l"I,n.....1 1'11.11,'I1~I·S
14.11 25.02 19.1l8
lJ4.M
"'.'"
Ribs
2.211
:J,:J,,'J1
40
77f>1.'
70.76 77 ~H
~~
JO
:l:U).j
4hA7
4fd.,¡1
2:1.!')4 36.M 1721>
JIU,~
.~xn
47.67
47 MU
2H.lJ2
N,IMI
J2t¡
:UIl 1<1 21\
1'12.1 4JlJ3 b5 .."K
44.lJS "5.7(,
Jl51J .1'1.41 42.K7 411.21
JI.OH
71 :!H
7H40 tl2,.](, K7.7I)
7'I,I::!
~IIIS
21.15 2f>.t~
H2.S'J K7.'J'\ "1115'1
IDI 1.I'l 1.1'" 77
S2,:!1l
'10.34 'J),,'J
n.N
"'K.HI
tj<}(l
,....
':Il'l.1I1
""'N ""l,SI
'"
(d17 7.lIó 7,111>
'1'11,.'
,,."11
7,nh
'''',h1
707 7,10;
"""N.7Z ....
'1""1
:lll,~
%,,''7
Inn /ln %.K4
~,
2M HJ
f..24
"".23
"'1.'J4
"".44
'r,72
'N,~I
'1'-1 "2
• 1:", candidalt-' mtldd, ~'l' "I'.thk· 3.2, clllumn 4 • 51'1, stricl processing indell. (Tolblt· 3.5. wltlll1n 2).
that much of thl' meal inlrodul:ed fr¡)m the field into the village proc('ssing loc.ltiuns re· sulting hom straggler hunting would haw been subsequently transported for storage in (he ice cellars instead of being pmcess('d fnr drying; stores in th(' cl'llaTS wert,' considered 1l1W.
Thl'se conditi(lOS indi('all' Ihill Ihl' n'mains
.
~
in the proo..'ssing arl'as fur 1971 WllUld be suml' compound of the mudcls used for thc 1969 ilnd 1972 dala. We may also l'xpecl il third condition not laken into accounl ín eilher uf thl.'se models to cumplicate the piclure-naml'ly, the processing of p.uts at lht., n'sidenti.lllllC.lli(Jos with thl' n'mov.,1 uf parls lo fwzl'n stor· .lgt'. As iln initi.11 "fir~l .lrrrnxim.1liun" 1Ill'
1":.
n=
_(JJ;;J.
:'lAó
.:'17 .17 ..17
..
7{1,eH
...
.....
(O,)
------
~~
..
(J
M.42 2foln 21.1(1 17.M 12.30
'/'I,n.
,,
_o,
~~
li'
':13.42
"" 56.07
Col. 4
11211
Proceulrtg De""". /rom Dryt"B Ac:t,,,ftlq
C"""'¡HC / /
z¡::
,
ra "
'"
o
_¿
~e
•
o
/ o.. ....
AfIT.
/ /
"o • ., "
"
.. .. .. '" .... .. ..
~IJ/m:~ eo
INDEX MODEL TABLE 36 COL. 5
fip;u",
~.1',
Rt'l.ltitmship bt·lw\'.·n dat., fn'm tht'l',1n valucs.
sprill~ rr"q'ssil1~ .>r,·",s ¡'lIld m.. d,'I,'d
mean valúes for the models dcveloped in T.,ble 3.5, column 7, andlablc 3,6, eolumn 5, wcrc plottcd against thc MNls frum the 1971 pruCl.-. ssmg afl'iI~. Thl' rcsutt is illustrated in Figure 3,18. As in Iht' I96Y analysis, !h(~rt.' appear lo be two dus!l'rs of p.uls n'l.1tivt, hl Iht, eomp(lsitt, nltldd for htllh tl1(' /1:164 ,'l1d Iht, II/n d.1101. Fallin¡.; in .1 curvililH'oH dislribuliuTl ¡1ft· thUSt· p.Hls lh.ll Wl' .11lIkip.llt· .1S rdóllt'J lo dryin¡; aclivilil's ilnd procl'ssing-Ihe huml'rus, mdi(l-l'ubilus. fl'lllur, nll't¡lCarp.11s, sl.:.'pul." .-md all parts (lf Ihl.' .1xi.ll skdehm except the hcad. On lheother hand, all pdrts of the lowl"r n'ar Il'~ ilnd h{'ad
frequencies. This Is conststont with our knowledge that much meat was transported from the vülage processing ateas to the ice cellars Ior storege. The debris in the village processing ateas for 1971. are the remains fmm lhl' butchcring uf complete rmd flcldbutchcred animals not primanly rclated tu drying mcat-c-instcad the rematns are Irom processing for frozen storage or immediate consumption, a condition I have not modeled. Despite this complication the models and the various índices that have becn combincd tu gene-ate thc modcls p..-rmit us 11> understand thc frcqucncy pnncrrúng in dircct behavioral terms, and this undcrstanding is consistcnt wilh thc known condlttons. Tbe 1969 data rcflect a situiltion in which parts were delcted from anothcr proccssíng location and transported to the vtllage for drying. Subsequently parte wcre proccssed in the rcsidcntial arces lo íncreasc thc probabllíucs of drying succcss. Fcw animals wcrc introduced into such Iocatíons dtrcctly Irom kili sttes for butcheting. Beceuse of thc Insuffl-
- ,
...
~
;:: !!l
'"
/
,
-'
m:i ~-'
;;
I
¡t"00SIl:
,
so
'o
'i/
....n l
o
/
110
I '0
c""~. I / ,~
" ", •
I I
I
10
~~ "
o. ¡g
,
/
/
i .. " ~8
-:r.':-'- e.'1
/o"
,
.. .. '" .. .. /
~"
~
~
" MEAN " VALUES FOR MOOELS ~
~
TABLE 35 OOL. 7. TABLE 3.6 COL. 5 Figu", ).18. Itdati,onshir bdwl'l'n Jal,' rr,.m tIlo' /<171 prl'n,..,ill~ .ln·,IS ,>lI.! lH"l¡"I",1 .... tu,·,
sl'ri'l~
11221
3. M_, Storcrge
Fro.~J'l
Stora,ge
11231
cient number uf canbou obtntncd durlug mi-
terrns uf tbc mudified general utility index: thc
ploccmcnt. Thus, thc attríbutcs of thc sito
t!Tarit:'·n-a!J<·tmrm....-of-: t~-c¡tJftlilic8 uf kill-
gfation hunting in 1971, muro inl~n'~ 'Img'
re.illoal~ w~re pl,c~d un Ihu drylng rack,. TI," analysis of the processing area shows that the
~1'UdLJro nrl'
bUkhorlng oH.,: lltu .nll1\.I" P,lIlltLJIMly
gler hunting was conducted west and south uf the village. Since the village is between the hunting eneas and the ice cellars, mure animals were mtroduced into the village processIng areas for butchering and selected parts were removed to the ice cellers (OT storage. In additíon. parte had been previously introduced for drying from the migration hunting processlng location al the ice cellare and then subsequently processed. as was the case in 1969.
For 1972 wc see a very diffcrent picturc. Parls introduced inlo the villagc (rom the ice eellar processing location had nol unly befOn sl'lectl'd (or dryinE; bul had .llso j;,l'l'n rrocessed fOf drying prior to introduclion jolo Ihe village. Almost aHthe animals introducl.'d into lhe residential processing locations were processed there fordrying, with only a very selcctive deletion of parts for placement in fron'n storage or for consumption. This is consistenl with what we know of the spring hunting aclivities in 1972. Hunting was good during migration and the hunters had ample time lo transport their kiUs to the vitlage ice ce1lars. Processing for slorage was much more leisurely and lhe cellars were essenlially filled from lhe migriltion phast' nf hunting activitil'S. Slraggler hunling was less inlcnse and animals killed w{'re soml'thing uf., bonus. Thl'se wen' introduCl'd intu Ihl' n.·sidenliall()t'ali~JOs essentially complete since Ihe snownwbile was in regular use. Butchcring was largt'ly fur "rying sil1ce the ice cel1ars were filled and me<1t fm consumption was not in short suprly. rh~· "11,...ly~i~ uf Ihl' rron'ssin,~ art'ilS is nllHp.llibll· wilh llll' analysis llf t1ll'drying rilcks hlr the years in question. For both 1969 and 1971 we found Ihat the parts occurring on drying racks were fitted to a candidale population whereas for 1972 a very different model was appropriate to the data. We saw a populalion of field-bulchered animals with parts of high processing values deleted and the residuals nr the candidate population further eulled in
animals were largely field butchered at the residentiatlocations and processed fur drying at the same locetion. This would havc Idt a candldate population for placement en tbe drying racks. However, this eandidale population was culled in terms of general uültty concerns, presumably for resldential consumption. This ñt between the two sources of information strengthens the conclusions drawn from the processing debns thnt parls processed in the village were 110' removed fnr incorporation in fhe frozen stores population in 1972. Th("w ilssl'mblil~l'S pftlvid(' an l,bi~'rll('sstll1 for Ihe arehaeologist. They al! come frorn spring residential processing ¡ocations. They are all primarily the debris from processing related to drying meat f(lr summl.'r usc. They are al1 different in composition. In short, the locations were funetionaUy idenlical in lerms of the site struelure of Anaktuvuk village-in fael. Ihe samples were eollecled from identical locations for a1l3 year!. Thus, in lerms of the organization of space and the regular use of a particular unit of space, Ihere was no ehange ()ver lhe period uf observation. Yet, the elfeh¿lt.'(Jlugical eontenls wcrc varia bit.· from Y('ar tu year. As we havc seen, Wl' can undl'rsland the (lbserwd variabilily in tcrms uf lugislicill
1111".,1 porti.lly lndcpundenl o!
attributes oí slte content. . C~· __ ··_-.~
~~~~~(iE'.
Preezing '¡s·al&opzactked.by lA&·NUftiHmut
as a means of meat preserveuon durifts"Stlmmero Meat is placed in deep ice cellars excavated into buried ice domes. These cellars are localed approximately three-quarters of a mlle north of thc vtllagc ncar Summit Lakc (sce Figure 5.2). The av ...-roge dcpth of the thrt.·e edlilr~ in eurrent u~e is 15.4 feet from the entrance lo the ice fl"'1(lf. The cellars ilre bottlelIt hl'lI-sh.lpl'l', wid\' .llllw holhltll ,1Ild nilrrow at the surface. They were construeted in 1956 as parl of a solulion to lhe overexploitation of local sheep herds ,,!ler the establishment of Ihe sedl'nlc1rY cummul1ity of Anaktuvuk in 1950. During thl' early yetlrs of Ihe sdllemenl the Nunamiut attempted to follow the normal pattern of summer hunting eoupled with min¡mal dependence on dried meat. However, they overexploited Ihe I;)eal herds of sheep between 1951 and 1956, so summer subsistence became more and more difficult. To compt.·nsale for the shortage of shl'ep, lhe Nunamiut built Ihe (ellitrs, illlowing the slor~tin,; in
those from late mígratíon or postrntgrntion hunting, were introduced into the arca as complete animals and butcbered on the spot by cooperating family members. Mucb oí the processing was consdously for drying, howevet, in contrast to the kill-butchenng sltes where animals are II0t speciñcatly processed for drying. Prior lo the introduction of mear from the spring kills the families spend sorne time cleantng abandoncd rneat and bonos from the prl'vious yeo1r out uf 111(' cdl,us. This 1ll.,leri,,1 is disearded in lhe low Ml',15 ilrtlund the cellars. Womcn enga~e in lhis wl\rk ,'s lhe men hq~in hUlllin~ .11 tlw mi~r"tit\l' hlllltill~ stands. For inst"nce, Ihe dl','''-uul w.,s con· ducted on May 17, 1972, the same day that migration hunting began al Anaktiqtauk. Tilble3.7, column 4, summarizl's thc anatomjcal parts abandoncd in the meat cellars from the previous summer. This "bandonmcnt amounts to processing dl'bris since the mcat stacked in the eellars is norm<,Uy frozcn together. Persons removing meat from the cel¡ars use axes and sticks for prying up parts frozen together and for processing off parts jud~ed oot essentiallo the anticipated ml·als. h is Ihis dcbris remainin~ from within-cdlar proeessing th"l isclcancd out and disposed of around the ccllars. Thl' archal.·olof;ist inVl'stigillinf; lh is Illl:,1tinll would reC(lVer the rl'majns from on-lhl'-Spol processing of parts for slllra~(' .md the remains from processing lhat took plael.' .....hen parts were removed hum stora¡:tl·. Thl're \\'uuld L'li.' StlllH' ...lilh'n'llfl·s in Ih,' s~••\Ii,,1 di ..· lriblllitlll llf pMIs hum 11ll' 1\\'1\ l·¡lmpUlh'llt~. Processing fur sturagl' gl.'ner.llly l.\kes pl,h:c un the more level arCilS whereas bones removed during the cleaning out are dumped in low areas around the cellars. The latler bon~ sembT~es tend to occur in coneentrated '~ \loads,:" whereas the remains fmm processll1g IOr storage tend to be scatfered. Unfortunately I have a sample of the ice eelli\r proCl's~in~ art'a only for 1971, Ihe Yl'ar
11241
3. MH'
S~o"...
fro.lll'n
. .. roe
TABLE3.7
laventorlo 01 Faunal RlI!mal... Sunoundlng Ice
e.u.... (1971)
..
w
I'rt>Ct'i'I..~ing
arca
..fterspringhunling MNI Anatomkal parl
(1)
%
(2)
Antier Skull Mandible Atlas-axis Cervical vertebrae Thllr.ll·k vertebrae Lumbar vertcbrae l'l'Ivís Ribs Sternum
2.(1 10.0
'.88 41.(,6
en 14.0
25.011 5Il.33
21.0
87.50
5capuJ.l PrUll,imal humeros
7.0
Distal hum\'l1Js l'wxim.ll r.1Ji\I-<:ubilus oist.ll r.IJiu-o::ubitull
Carp.lls Proximal metacarpal Distal metacarpal Proximal femur Distal'emur Proximal tibia Dislaltibia Tarsals Astragalus Cakancus imal mclatarsal lJi ..t,11 nwlal,lTS
rrn..
I'hal.lIl~t·s
JO
12~
1.(1
4.44 4.44 2.22 11 29.1b 95.80
1.(1
.s O
23.0 23.0
nn HUI
vo Y.O YO 24.0 24.0
2>0 12.0
b.O b.O ".(1
6.U 6.11 '1.0
9S.HO
E.uly spring rjean-cut
MNI (3)
O lO O 2.0 2.0 2.11 11 11 1.11 O O O .5
541" 47.""
n.u
nSIJ 37.51)
IJ.tJ 13.U
37,50
15.0
1.0
LO LO 1.0 b.O 7.0 7.0 7.11 Y.O
100.00 100.00 91.66 SO.(lO 25.00 25,00 2.'i.OO 25.(11) 25(11)
mil
.17.~1
21.1I
lhal Ihl' Nunamiut Wl·rt.' furt.'l'tl Iel fl,lIuw slrah·'~y diffl'renl (han IhuSl' fur Ihl' ulher Yl'¡US (If rt.'wrd, Analysis uf Iht' dry IOt'al s(urt.'s ,1S wl'II"S I~f lhl' villa¡';l' rrlln'ssil1~ ilrl'.IS Icd me In condude that parls inlroducl'd inlu thl' village for drying from thl' icl' cl'lIar proccssing lociltion had alrcady becn processl'd for drying. The mndd uf "sccondary pron'ssin,:;" (T.1blt' :'tS. t:nlumn 7) d('wlup,'d for Ih" I%YviII'l¡.;t, prun'ssjn~ olrt'''S slHluld Ih"rt·!'nrt'
11251
Sloro~
%
(4) O 4.7 O Y.4 Y.4 y..
11 11 4.7 O O O 2.4 4.7 52.3 61.9 61.9 71.4
4.7 4.7 4.7 28.6 33.3 333
33.3
4>, 47.1.
[(un
Total assernbtage
MNI (5)
2.0 11.0
6.0 Ib.O 23.0
% (b)
7,14 39.29 21.43
57.14 82.14
~I)
17.f16
111
;l,!'7
r.u
3.57 5.36
1.5 11 7.0 23.0 23.5 14.11 21,0
22.11 220 24.0 25.0
250 23.0
11 25.00
82.14 ln'l)
7.'\.(111 711,57 78.51 S5.71 8~,29 S9.2~
ll'.n 2M.U
I(IIU!
no no
15.U
llt,· rt'll'vilnllull1l' IIJn in' n'lI;lr ,m',!. Wl' know thilt ill 1l'
''"tI
\
~
I
~N ro
I
\
f38
1 ..
\
c;;~
u ... ~ Iri
.0
,
10
W U W
11
jI~
/
,-
,,st¡ \
er
40
•
~~
o~":PMAL ~,
.
50
,-
••
"o •
..
~,
•
.---
•
/'
Olol~lilT SC"fM
/
/'
.. ..
.~,
.LUlII
" " se ec MEAN VALUES
~
~
.
proccssing arcas fur dril'li 1l11',ll F".... p.lr.llillll. In order to understand this sítuanon we musl consíder the characteeistks oE rncat placed in Irczcn storege. As far Mi t coufd determine,
mcalpiaced ín 'he in' cl'lIars ís givl'1I nu prtl{"f'5sill~ spl'ri{ic lo frfni/lgasa slorage-tfclItli¡/ut'. Any part
/
I
o.w
~m j~
.. ::11 1
~
FOR MOllELS TABLE 3.6 COL7, TABLE 3.6 COL 6 Figul'l!' 3,19. Retarlonship between data from the ice r.·II.u rtlln· ....;n¡: oHt'.l and l1lo'!l'll·d \',ll!ll'S.
se.m
112.14 M.21t 46.43 46.43 4".43 5:1.57 .<;7.11
18.0 13.0
I
,.'ftI:.."
-;t'f.rN
pntcd in thc k\' ccllor prnet'ssin,:; aren. the model npplicd tu thc 11/71 viltage arcas W,1S used. Figure 3,19 íllustrates'lhe fit between the mean índex value for the models developed in Table 3,6, column 5 and Ti\ble 3.5. columo 7, The result is a neilrly perfect fit for aH parts except the skull. mandible, atlas/axis. and cervical verlebrae-the ht..'"d .1nd the neck. These are. of cuurse, pMt5 mllst ctlmmonly aban· \hmed at pril1lMY butt..'hl'ring lucatiuns in srrin~, Their inflalt..'d preSt'nn' .1t this lucation is 11111 stlrprisin~ sinn' ":lITllpl,'1t.' .1nimills ilrt' rrun'~sed IlL-'rl" pc1rtil'ulilrly fur fwzcn stur.1gl'. Tht, "sllrprisin~" f.ll't is Ih.ll lhe nmtids d"v,'lulll'd (lIr ,II1lkip,IIing tlal.1 frum Ilrt'l"I'ssing ftlrdrying nt su wl'll wilh Ilw d.ll,llrum (l1l' i(l' l'dl,lr 11It'.llion. silll't' musl uf lit..' 'll'tivity ll",n' is rt'!,l!t'd lo fro/,,'n st(lr.l¡.;e! I ~t'l' no dUl' tu this bl'h.wiur in Ihl' pwü'ssing Ltl'bri~ l'X(l'pt possillly lIw innilll,tI fn'!Jul'nóes 'lf hl'M! and nl'rk, and Ihl'Sl' in themsl'lvl's give no dirccl dUl' lo Ihl' ilctivity of frcl'zing. They poinl only lo primnry hut(hl'rin~ activilil·s. whidl .1'> Wt' II.IVI' ,>",'11 nhlY .lIsll dl.lr.Ktl'rizt,
can be frozen. Includtng marrow and tengue, although liver and brain are not gencrally caten after storage for an extended period of time, Table 3.8 summarizes the parts invcntcncd in two oí the three functional ice cellars for botb 1971 and 1972. Once ice C--e1t.l-f \í¡-¡,snevM_ inventoried bl'C,1USl' of a'mi:i.Yn4~I_st.lndin& ') bctwecn the investlgetor and om.;-of Ihc Iamüics storlng mcot thcre. Tbc dntn tabulntcd in Tablc 3.8 oUt' rvprcsoutonvc uf 111l' k,' n'IIM populatíon, although bascd en only twothirds of the 101.11 meat so stored. The earlier discussíon of klll-butcheríng 10-
cations dcalt with thc remnins of animnls as iniliillly modiflcd ilway Irom thctr onginal anetoruical statc. Wl' S,lW that IIU' pattcrn uf transport and abandonrncnt nf p.uts al killbutchcring locations was rnonltored by the' anatomically based scales of value for ditfvrent anatomical parts, In considering as'>emblages oí stored parts. we are facing il di{ferent set of conditions, The population of anatomical parts introduced from kill-butchering lucations has alreildy been modified away frorn the anc1lomicill form of Ihe ilnimal. This modi· ficd populiltion is introdu..:ed into a st\lrage (¡l("ali(ln ilnd may tht'l1 be pnX't'ssed furthl'r ilS l'ltl'mplifil'(1 by Ihl' ,m.lt\lmi,..lI p.uls disposl'd uf (Iutsidc thl' ice n'lIcU. S(,ml' segml'nl uf the rcmaining population is lhl'n stored, dedsions arl' mildl' ,lS lo Whill In rl'mnVl' fmm ~Ior.l~l· f"r llSt'••lntl "ptn\' r.1TIs .\rl' .lh.lIILtonl'd in stor.lgl-', Ll't us now l'x.ltnitw Ilw nMll'ri,lI in sttlr.l~l' rl'1alivl' lo t111' Ill'W p.lrlS n'nwv,'Ll from tlll' kill·butchcring ItK"litll1~. Figun' 3,20 iIlustrall's thl' rd.lli(lnship Pl'h-vl'l'n tlll' itWl'rs,' values frorn the Anavik kili sitl' (Tilble 2.9) ¡md tht, modifil'd gt'nl'ral utility indl'x, Figure 3.21 iIIuslratl's tht rt'i.ltionship bdwl'l'n d.'la frlltn Ih"IIJ71 ÍL'l'n'lIcHs.lIld Iht, IIUllllllt·tI ~1't1· O
11261
3.
M~G'
Stol1lge
11271
FrozenStorage
TABl.E.3.1
........... 01 Aa.to.IaII P. . . . b
Sl'plt'm~'r
JIIIll' 11I. f'J71
%
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
l~)
(6)
Atla~-"Jlis
11
5.3 5.3 5.3 28.9
Cervical vertcbrae Thoractc vertebral"
12
n.e
Lumbar vertebral'
+ sacrum
Ribs Stemum Sc.lpula Proxim a1 humerus
Distal humeros Proximal riltlin'fubilu!l f)i~I,11
redlo-cubltus C,up.lls I'rmlÍm.ll metncarpal Distal metacarpal I'T"'lim.ll femur 1,'rIlur
l'r.'>¡illlolllihi,1 Id'i,1 r.-m·;'ll"
lll~t.ll
A:llr"~iOlul
L.lk"'1\'UlI I'r.ninl.ll m.'I,ll,u..."
Oisl.1I m"t...liOr.<.l1 Fir.;t ph ...l...... ~'" ~.·<"<, ... ,l ph.ll.ln~.' l'hird ph.ll ...l1g.· ~
'" '"
36 3R 21 33 33 33
:n :n 33 2M 2M .111
1M 1M 1M
'",.'"'" ,. 211 211 ~I
74.7
74,7 74.7 100.0 4~_f>
Mf"M
"'.M "fdl
"'M
"".H
1i1,J1
7.1.ó 73"
I 1 1
6
•
2.5 2.5 2.5 15.n 22.5
1.11
s.o
6.
37.11
e.n
3TH 43.0 J7n IV)
7,1)
n.U
3(1 32
75.tI fIO.(I
2.0
ro
'0
32
IID.U
"
94.4
5.0 3.0 (1
31U IHO 11
LO 3.11 3.0
JlUI
11 27 27 27
zs
zs 24
""
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MOO1FIED GENERAL UTlLlTY INOEX TABLE 27 COL I
Figu", 3.20. KI'l.lliunship bl'lw"l'n ;Iw,'r:
Figure 3.21. Rt'lali,mship bt'IwI'I'n .1,11,1 Irom Ir", ¡'I71 in' ccuars and the mtldlfin\ g"ll,'r,ll utilitv in.k,
cont ..xts of dcctsícn making. In thc storuge süuatkm thcre is a strongcr bias in favor of parts uf l11odl'rall' utility than is thv case .11 thl' "'iII-bllldH'fill~ Itlt'.ltion. W.' non- 111on' ,lislrimin,llilln IIf "fil\l'-I~r,lilWlt'· r-v.rlu.ition II! .1Il
using the samc body of knowícdgc-c-In tb¡s case. the relative valúes of anatomícal parts as potcnnnl Iood. A11I,1I11'r i 1It1,,{r .llil In of th is pt,i n I i" provitll'd hv ,1 fllmp.lri!'ótlll IIf Hu- 1"72 inVl'fSt' d,ll,llnllu tlw spnug migration hllnlín~ ~ill' .11 All.lt..li'ltauk and the trequcnctcs cf parts storcd in the ice ccllars as uf [une 2, 1972. Both bcdtes of datn are disptaycd againsl thc rnodifn-d ¡..;eneral utility index as in thl' previous comp.uison (5<'1" Figures 3.22 and 3.23). Wc notl' that Ihl're i5 il sli);hl rt'lJt'r:>a1 in Iht, l'har.lcll'r uf lill' twu graphs. Thl..' lowl'r, mon' dis('rimÍlhllill); graph is lhe Maragt' graph, ami the slt'l..'pl'r, more bulk-orienled graph is thl' inverS\.' uf Ihe kili-si te graph. In shorl. the two nudes in l(l);i~lics appl'.1T lo slan.f in ,1 rl'vl'rsl' sl'lJu('nn' tu unl' íllltlt!ll'r as n'~,lnis .h'¡..;n'I'!'ó IIf .lis.-rilllin.llion whl..'n comp.ul'd 1\1 {Ill' 1971 li.1ta. This situalion is c11'ared !i{,n1l'Wh.lt hv wmparing the storagl' fn'qul'ncil's {ti thl' ¡'nvl'rse frequencies fmm Ihe kili sites fur the appropriate years. Thesc relatiunships are displayed in Figures 3.24 and 3.25. and hl'f!.! we gel an
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eral utility iodl'X. B\)lh sds of d;llil .1n' hi¡..;hly wrrl'l.lted in il curVilinl'¡U f.lshion wHh 1111' indexo but the slupe ilnd Ihe l'Urw of Ihl' tW{J S('ls oí data are different. The parts remuVI.'d from Ihe kill-butchering locatinn exhibit a gentle curve; Ihe parts ston~'d in Ihe ice cell.lr exhibit a sleeper curve.
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WI' 1".ln inll'rprel Ihl'Sl' rl'sulls lu nwan I1Mt. .1llhllUgh in btllh casl'S Ihl' b'l.sk knowll'dgl', Ihe Eskimu undl'rstanding llf rt.'lalivl..' u lilily of parts, is the same, '!ley are lt1l'igllli"S tJlr sm!t' di//er,."tly ill filetwadif[f'wlt sitllalitllls. Prl'SUIllably, Ihis is done in terros of "olher considt.>ralions" or contingencies that arise in Ihe Iwo
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INVERSE OF ANAVIK KILL SITE-DATA TABLE 2.9 COL 2 stor.,~l'
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TABLE 2.9 COL" Figurt' 3.25. Rl'I'llinnship bl'twl','n 1\'" 11,172 in- ,\'11M slnril¡;l' .i,llil ,lnd thl' inVt'rSl' 01 thl' An.'!"i,!l.1tl\.. l.ill· ..il\' d.!l,l.
FrolU'n Sto~ inlL'rt.·stin~ shock. Thcsc graphs are quite difícrcut in (mm and composítion. Tbc 1971 ~r¡)ph is posinvcly curvllincar in formo That is, oí coursc. thc form we noted for both the storagc pcrccntagcs and thc Inverso kill-síte ~wrn'nta~l's whcn thcy wcrr- indepcndentlv pllllh'd ,1g.tillSI tlu- mudifir-d gl'lwr.ll utilily index. Tbc first rnajor point to be made is this: W/II'" l/h'Yare"Ioltnl axa¡',st"nc anotñer they are "Iso distribult,¡f in Q vuruílinear laslljoll. Most rl,.. dcrs would, I Ienr, hove cxpcctcd them to be rclntcd in a linear las/'juIJ since they werc both related to a "third variable" in an analogous Iashion. That is, they were both the rcsult Ilf pl'rSO!lS l'rnployin¡.; thc saine k"awll'I~-':(', Ilw l-skimo's nndcrstondlng uf relativo ulility uf different anntonucal parts. fcr rnaking choiees as lo what to abandon and what to k("E'p. The reason that thcy are rclall'd to one .1nother in a eurvilinear fashion is simply thal the twü curves are not idenlical. One is steep and thl.' other is llf a f1atter forOl, despite the fal'l Ih.11 bolh .1ft' n)rrt'!,ltl'd lu lhe modifil'd gl'nCrilt ulilily in¡j('x ill a high and regular Il'VI'I. This ubscrvalion ha~ eoormous implications fur lhe .1nalysis uf archaeulogical dilta. Pr.lctíúll1y .111 thl' aoalytical leehniques commUllly ,'mpl(ly,'d by .lrch.lt'olu¡.;ists l'illll'r ,\Ssuml' linear distributiuns fur thl.' data (filClur analysis) ur eVillu.lte degrel.'s of relationship against a lin{'arexpectalion (most nlrrdatiunal sludil'S). If thl' silu,llion l'xempIified by Ihl' Iranspllrtl'd and Slllrl'tl ;¡n;¡tomical parts frUln 1971-(hal ¡s, il sl'qUl'nCl' uf dl'cisinns rl'liltivl' !tI Ihl' s.lnll' I,.'{lnsidl'r.llilll\S uf valul.'-mighllx' commtlnly antidp
11291 removed írom thc kilts for thc two succcsslvc ycers? In the 1972 data (Figure 3.25) two distributions are indicated, ene that is positivcly linear (unbínsed) and une that is positivcly curvillncar. with arcoleratíon ni th¡- hi~h valuc l'mi of II\\,.' Sl·'lll'--.1 gournu-t ¡.;r,lph. Ihlth distributions are dífferent Irorn thc 1971 data whcrc a single distributinn curvilint.·arly postuve wilh accclemtíon al the luw cnd uf tbe scate is indicalcd-a bulk-oncnted graph. In 19n parts that are hnearty corrclated are thc phalanges. proximal and distal rnetacarpals, carpals. proximal and distal mctatarsals, tersals. lumbar vcrtcbrac, ribs. proximal and d¡st.11 ribinc, and proximal and distal (I'mora. l'arts that appc
7
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ríver. The hunters were under no great stress in retuming meat lo the village for storage-ethere wns no transpurt sqUCCZl..·. Conceptoally, the Nunamiut al Anaktiqtauk treatcd the popuJation of available meat differently than they had treated the meat the previous year al Anavik. In 19n they wcrc more discriminating in what they kllled. illlowín~ more "sktnny" animals hl p'1SSunlnuchcd .1Ild sr-ckjog animals [udged to be nulriliunally sound. This strategy had been fol1owed during the early days oí hunting the year before al Anavik, bul when the sounds of the dver cracking were noled almost anything that carne Ihraugh the pass was killed in an al· tempt lo oblain sufficient meato The second majar differenee in behavior i5 the manner in which lhe animals, once killed, were treated. There was i\ much gre..ter attempt to relum to the village most of the usable meat hom animals judged nUlritionally sound. Wl' C
(131)
the kili site. In 1972, allhough fronl legs were removed from the kili snes at a bout the 90-95% level, thcy were Introduced into frozen storage only at the 60-65% levcl (scc Figures 3.22 and .3.23). C1early many front legs were beíng excluded from frozen storage al the processing locations or at points uf entry into the village. Here we witness an inh'rt'stin~ phcnonu-nou in ti1\' shinill~ and ccnttngency-besed dilterences in cognitíon among the Eskimo.ln lY71, unce the ment was introduced Into the village il was viewed as potential food and very ¡Hile discrimination was molde as to quality or differential usage of parts. In 1972, when Ihe animals available were considered by al! to be sufficient for meeting summer food demands, the animals were viewed not just as "food" but as different kinds of food lo be treated differently, In Ihe 1972 data we see concrete evidence of a cngnitive shifl lo a different view of caribou anatomy. Gi\len pll.'nty uf fmllt, ti1\' Eskimu c1a5sify the nl.'ck and fronl lluilrll'rs as dug food and the rearquarters and trunk as human food. This way of thinking ..bouI íntcnded usage is tempered only by Ihe nulrition ot the animal. The upper leg of a bull earibou in fine heallh and nutritillllally sound, with sorne t'lt accumulaliun, is considl'r(.'d fit for human ((10sumption, bUI in spring such animals ar¡'Tjlrt..', so front quarters att.' genl'fally thought of' as d
cogntnve distinction betwoen human and dog food al the stornge processing location. when-as in 11J71, when food was short, such dlscnminanon was not madc and 0111 food was placed in maximum security stcrage in rough proportíons lo its frequency of introduction mto thc vtllegc. Tht'Sl' romparisons providc us wlth sorne ill~ighl into Ioctors thal condiuon how humans behave in different situations. We note differences in behavtor under dlfferenl contingency situations such as the transport difficulties in 1971 and the lack of such diffiC1Jlties in 1972. Jn Ihe contrasts between the parts chosen for íce slorage for each year we note a different type of contingency, a judgment about the future food security of the group. In 5hort, the differences in bt>havior related to placl.'ment of parts in storage was related to
dlfft'rillg ways afviewing the potflltia/useof idenfimi 'larts wllell t}¡e jlldgmel/tsaf food st'curify wae diffm'!lI, Thl'Sl' d..\ta, although tht.,y du not provide a direct c1ue to the identification of slored foods from archaeological remains, do give us sorne importanl clucs to Ih[' character of factors that condition differenl deósion-making stratcgil.'s. In luoking bJd; nVl.-'r thl' datJ prl'~"ntl'd .1nd thl' modl'1s devcloped, sevetill f,1ctS Sl't'm e1ear:
l. T1H'n' j!'i.\t1i!'itinl'livl' or . . ign,lluu· qualily Il} lhl' gr.'ph of fn'qul'lll'il'S of .lnalomic'11 P,Hts slorl'J tlS drit'd meat. 2. No such dislinctive sign.. ture characterizes the frequendes of parts placed in frozen storage. 3. There are distinctive and variable signature curves characteristic of locations where meat was processed for drying. Variabilily at such locations derives at k'ast from (a) Ihe characlerof the populatinn of parts introdueed to the loc
lytical or modeling techníques developed here to aid in the idelltificntilltl of arrhaeological asscmblagcs dertvlng hum dricd meat populations and from the by-products of proct.'ssing meat for drying. No such cleer-cut identífication is apperent for frozen meat stores. In enrlicr, more general consideratious uf dryin~ nnd mcat slorilgl', I pointed out UMt storagc is a means uf g.1ining timl' utility Irom food resources. 1 suggested that rhere are sorne regular environmental conditions and regular geographic patterning to be expected, both in tile degr~ to which storage is in fact practiced .lnd in thc character of the prvcessing required for successful storage. Having explored a number of the processes involved in bringing a population of anatomical parts to a dry slorc~d condition I shall now offf.'r sorne expectations for the static archat'ological record. The longer the dl.'lay betw(,l'n procurement and consumption, the grl'élll'r thl' prob.lhility uf tcmporally and spatially indep,'ndl'nt "els of processing. that is, thp grL'ater the dependence is on stored meal, thl.' grealer the lih'Iihood of intersitl., vilriability arising from independent acts of proccssing at differl.'nt places along a Jogistical-
'._'-
11321
relauve usefulncss uf p.lrts-most parts wcre ported to still nnothvr localion for inuucdiate transported frcm kills tu points of consump- ronsumption. Generally parts chosen for drytiun rt.'R.u..11l'ss of ulilily V.l!tIt'N. Onn' inlruducvd into él consumptlon 1,u.:'lliul1 all p.lrls wcrv dlstributcd nnd consumpñon sl.lrh.'d
immediately. There was no apparent independent processing oí parts for grease versus marrow or meato Botling was the strategy for
preparing both meat and grease contained in bolles for simuííanecus omsumptíon, We sec no independent processing of parts for grease. Similarly, marrow cónsumption is coinciden!
with meat consumption and processing is gent'rally simultaneous.
nI\' l:>I,ilillg pnlol...'SS is Slf.li¡;hlltlfW,ud: dlllllks ul I1\l';lI and b"nl' .1rt' pld wht.·n av"i1abk>. Tht.· mt.'.,l will Ult'n b,' bl'ilt.'l.i fllrllvt!ran hllurunlilwdl dllnt.'an,l r.1W manllW may th,'n bl' .lt.........J lu "nrich Ih" ¡.!;r.lVY. Th,· mt.','1 is Ilwn 1.',II1'n, the bum's It,s!ll.'d asid", and th,' ~nlvy ,lrunk din.'dly ¡mm th" t"llt.kinR yt'sS4.'llp. 2ftl. WIlt'n Ilw m,·"l fllr hillon~ Itlrkl! m""1I h" .. 11"('11 rt'll1uVnl tmm It1l'm Ilw1,lrg"r !;Iil..uf nw.,l ..till,ldlll'rín¡.; l'out hlusm.1ll r"rl'oílltmgar"nll aw,'yand 1'1.1\",...1in ,\11 irt.n I't't. Tht.' btlnt's ar,' lh"n s,'p,u,llt.'l.l .11 tlwir articul••ti"n..amitht.' astr.l¡';;llusand t.·akan"us unlyoUt.· plan'd in th" pot whlll,·. Th,·llln¡.;b\m"s .u" lh"n (,lrt'lull)' br"I..,'n inln fr,l¡.;nWlIls ,llItI llll' lIl,lrrtlW 1.. (o,. II1l1V,·t1 .111.1 ..1'1 .1..i,h·. ltll' I.... ,nt· Ir.I¡';l1wnl.. IlwII ,In' 1'1,1"",1 ínllit' pulwithtl1l'''llwr m.·.II.m,1 w,,"·r,.1 sh'w ís mad,'. TI",m¡¡rrnw ísa,hkd wht.'n (uuldng h,lS bl't.'n clImplt.·It.'d fr. 281
The simultan{'(lus pwcessing uf meat. marrow. and grease-yielding parts rcsults in an archaeologically undiffcrl.'ntiated assnciation 6l'twl'l'n .111 pmts uf thl' aniltnmy inlwduCL·d. Compare this situation with the conditiuns outlined for the Nunamiut where an evaluation of parts is made and some are abandoned at thl' ki1l·butchl'rin~ IOc.ltiun. This ab;1ndon~ ml'l\t is fn."'¡Ul'nlly assul'iatl,d with 1Ilt' biasl-'d cunsumplinn uf m.Hruw .1t m'arby hunlin); slands. St'h'l'h'd parls ilrl'II1l'1l lriln~porlt'd lo .1nulhl'r IOc.ltiun, wherL' pilrls i\rl' Sl'll'ctl'd spl'dfir.llly hlr dryinp; and thl'n pron'sst.'d. Marrow.yidding bom's are sdl'ckd hl'rt.' and may be processcd on Ihe spot andlor trans-
.
~
in~ arv then transported ,1~,lin !tI 11w Itlt·tl~
uf thc drylug recks. l-mm such locnttons p.trts ,1rt' dclotcd fur consumption of nwat. Thc dcbns from such a sequence would rarely if ever result in the undifferentiated association of parts indícated for the Bushman. Given such contrasts we may generalize: The use and consumption of stored meat has the effcct of reducing dlstrlbutíonnl VMlance of anatómica! parts among consumptiun lot.·ations within a p;iven communily. The gre.lter the depl'ndl'nCl' un slorl-'s tlw more simililr the pilltl'rllS uf consump!ion illllong diffcrl'nl consumpliun unils wilhin the COIllmunily wiJI be. This expectiltiun dl-'rives from the fael that when inputs lo Ihc system are few but large as in Ihe case of the Nunamiut, each cunsumer uni! is participating in hornt)logous lugistical, sturage, "nti consumptiun Sl'quences. Evaluations as to utility of parts arl! made .1long Ihl'Sl' Sl'llul·nl'l's. On tl1l' olher hilnd, whl'n inputs arL' small fl'W dl'cisinns ilrt.' mildc along an l'xtl'IH.it.'d Sl't.¡Ul'nL'l' rl'latl'd l'ithl!r to logistics, presl'rvaliun potential, or eonsumption prioritil's. lmill'tIlt, "tlfllllmÉCal Ilflrl~ arl' ¡li!ft'rl'll/;',,,.lI di~1 rillllf¡'d tm¡o"s t'l'"~lfmt'r
I",ils. In short. difh'n'nlial distributinns OCt'l1r at Ihe lucations (lf pron'ssing ilnd difft.'n:'\\i.t1
consumption in Ihe Nunamiut case, whl'rcas among a group Iike the !Kung diffcrl-'ntiation of parts among consumption units oeeurs by virtue of .1 distributiun uf parts to pt.'rsons, diffcrcntially evaluatl!d in terms of kinship. status, or othl'r !'Oci.l! idioms. The lilUN phl'noml'non is wdl iIIustrall-'d by Yl'Ill'n's (1'J77, pp_ 286-290) descriptions uf !Kung Bushman meat distributions: In ,'.uly I)l...·l·mh..'r 1%7. lllt' IKun~ ,·.II11p ,.tll.. l.... ,1 sl1lo1l1 w,lh'rh..I,·, ínrlll,k,l lIílll' nud,',H l,m,ily uníl.. "nd Olll' unm,uril'd m.,It'... Ilunn~ lhi.. I"'rind. llw sinl~ll' n ... h', ,,~.Ill, WUIIl1,ll'tl oHI ."Iult l"lIMIt' "u.tu wilh ,1 I'I'íSl>lIl...1 .urlllV whih' hlllllill¡'; "I,"1\'. (ln lllt' ¡..Ih.win¡.; d,IY hl,lr 2) -t¡;'IU .•lfrnml',1t1í,·d by hi.. lw.. "I,I,'rbn'lllt'l");, N!,lislw ,1IId 1t"Il>.l, Il·.U'''' (.m.l', 1,,1.1' up lh,·kuduIr.lt.·..s.,nd fínJín¡.; t1... aninl
I.. -ruws and Ihcn disp,lh:h il with ,1 club. Uuring tbe Ir""kin~ "lum,1 folll'r!s " lort"isl' ,'n,1 "¡';,lU Shll,lls .1 h.m·l.. hu r,·.t,..-lllt' ""'.111"1.,1. AIII ...l..ill..ih', 1111' lhr,"· hrollwrs buldwr tlu- kudu ",11.1 Ilw,.llrt1lll .,III"ur I,·~s.
SUIllt' "f 11U' l"'lt'k .111<.1 M.m,· Irom tfu- pdvit- h'gion, is cutintc bíhcng and hungina tree todry.Themenroast 6 ribs, the 4 carmen bcnes lmetapodíals], the llver, tortctse and hare at the kili, and eat all but the hare and about half of the ltver. Musl of the bíllnng, along with the rumen ts hung in a In'" end the remainder or the ku ..tu is distributed .. n thc spot am"ng Ih~·lhr~'l.' rnen. 1;,1("h manbas¡....'lIy ,·.lrrit.'S hts uwn sharo back tu Debe, with a ft.·w minur ild,uslmt.>nts ItI t'vt'n the carrying 10.I..ls. Up.,n rt'lu rn h, f)"b\',1 S"f!lfld ..li..tributi,'n, am1
t1wn.1 Ihird "'11' 1,1k,'" pl.ln'.On lh.., t"Ullwing d.1Y lh" thr""l>rlllh"rs, .1t.'f"rnp,lIli,'d byI"~ash(' ,lndd,lIl1 ,'gaín ..l·t ..ul l"r 111l' kili. Alnnt; lh... W"y 111l'Y Sl't.' lrt.·sh warlh..g 1r.1ft·S, /"ll;ash"and dilm scp¡¡ratt.' loful\nw and takt.· n.. p,ut in c¡¡rryint; lhl.' r...m.,¡nin¡; mt.·ilt bilCk 111 (.lmr. Tht., bitlong .md th... stumach ar... divíded ilmong lh"brntlll'rs amitlll'll ..·arri,·d bat.·k; tWt. mon.' tllund!l uf di~lributí ..n tlt"ClIr, I\y tht., r"lInwin¡l; t1.,y, alllht.· ml'.'l has bt.'t'n ('unsumt.·tltYdl,'n 1tf77:2Kf>I.
un, Thcsc data provide a truly provocativo contrast. In thc Nunamiut mSl' nnntormcal p.1rls an- differentl.rlly l'V.lIU.llL't.! ,md this ~l·.ll,' uf cvnluation is mal'J'I'd 01110 Jiflt'mll 1,1tIO'!> 11I/1/ times evafuated in terrns uf tmnsport considerations, anticipated differentiais in storability, and so on. On the other hand, the !Kung most certainly have sorne similar understanding of the differential utility of anatomical parts but thís Is mapped OJIto persone díffcrenñally evaluated in sueh terms as kinship association. The result of this contrast for patterning in the archill'ological rl'cord wl>uld be (al gn'.ltl'r inlL'rsill' variólbility .1mong thl' Nunamiut with litlll' inlr.lsitl' variolbilily .1S regards cunsumptiun, and (1') among the !Kung Httle intl.'rsite variability arising from faetors othl.'r than the availability of game and relatively high intrasite v.lriability in anat(lmi~ cal pilrts assuciatl'd with diffl'rent consumption units.
4 Food Processing and Consumption
In carlicr Ch,lpll'rs' cxplorcd Iwo rnajor sourccs uf variability documenh-d for the Nunnmiut-c-strategies for gaining sp,ICe utüity (logistics) and strategies for gaining time utility (storagc). Hen' I introduce a thlrd gross dirncnsíon: stratcgíos (Uf g.,inin~ consumer utility from rcsourccs-c-in ShOT!, food prepara¡i,ln .md nlllslIlllpl;llll.
CONSUMER OEMAND
Hcrc 1 am intcrestcd in hnw much food is ncedcd-c-in numbcrs uf nnlrnaís and what they represen! in terms of food íor how many peoplc over whnt period of lime. (For the recent dietary hlstory o( the Nunarniut, see Binfurd and Chesko 1'176.) Scvcrel approactu-s wcrc token to obtatn thc infonuation. Onc involvcd a progrilm of intcrvícwhtg expenenccd huntcrs and chciting from them estimatcs uf thc nurnber uf caribou they would hove to kill during f.1I1
ruigrotion to last thoir t,\mil\' .md lhl~S unti! the spnng caribou migrotinn (exclusive of irnported foods). Thís period normally approaches 7 months. Fabl e 4. 1 summarizcs the responses of the four huntcrs intorvicwcd and thcir f.lmily nnd dog-tcam sizcs. Tu l'slim.lIl' thc d.uly consumption 01' cnribou mcat, I flrst h.id lo dl'tl'rlllilW llw n-l.uive consumptton 111' nW.11 hy dll};s ,1Ild humana. This wos ,lCcllrnplislwd hy s'llving.1 s\'l uf SiI11UIt.I1ll'IlIlS \''Iu,lIiIII1S 1\11' Ilu- combinauons uf d'1t.1 pn-scutcd in Tobk- 4.1. Ih\, resulte Me summartzcd in Table 4.2. These daily consumpñon figures are probably not absolutely accurate. My Eskimu infurmanis gave their estimatcs in reelistic terms: that ls, in terms 01' their .1ctU'11 Sfllrflgl' needs. This, of coursc, presuppOSt's" knowledge uf thc total Nunamlut subslstencc stratcgy, which includcs wintcr hunuug .1nJ mvat trom sources othcr than cnribuu. larn conñdent that the figures givcn arv accuratc for thc numbcr of raribou nt'edl'lf ¡ti st(mISl' lo 1.1!'1 thc tomily
11351
11361
... foocl P70cenln, and Co,....mptlon TABLE4.1
e-tbcMI NMtMd to s-t.1n. F••II, .-el lb Dop .... s... lliluw_ (1!Ii1l_W;'¡; F... ¡;, ~ Family romposition Li ve weight
Caribou
F,lmily Persons Doge 1
s
2
5 1 h
, 3
esnmetr'
needed
,
30 11
hMlI
rs
34
7~~
11
21
S''''
9
(lb)
3114
" Based on 222 lb a!> mean wl'ighll.f caribou.
and dogs until spring caribou migration. To gaín sorne additional apprectation for the total pattern of subsistence. wc can look at 1\"'0 sepárate hunling rccords. The first is a day-by-duy record of hunting teken from the diary of Homer Mektana. a Hterate head of a Nunamiul íanuly, fUT thc
ycar 1949-1950. Al that time there were 74 Esktmos and 84 dogs in the Nunamiut community. There W.1S httle dcpendcnce un imported or purchased food: the average family consumed only 150 "can-pounds" per yeM (see Binford and Chasko 1976). Table 4.3 summarizes the hunting record ter this Y~ilr in pounds uf rneat, using 222 lb as the mean live weight fcr caribou, 120 lb for sheep. 600 lb for bear, and 800 lb for moose. This year of record was rclativcly unique in that the Arctic cartbcu herd wíntered at thc l'tigl' of thc fnrest and WilS cffcctivcly pn-sent for continuous explcitation over the entirc wlnter. This did not happen again until lhe winter of 1%8-1969, Por this reason the monthly inputs to the community mus! be seen as exceptional: however, the proportional inputs in tcrrns of unlrnols .1S wcll .1S thc total inputs may be uscd tu cvaluatc thc consumption demanda of the gruup. Inputs not llsted in Teble 4.3 include approximntely 1050 con-pounds uf food purchesed through .1
TABLE 4.2
0.. . . . . . . . . 01 Dal-.,
eon-...p'. 01 e-tboIl bp Doga -.d
(4) v.'llul'~ for Etluillilm Equaliol'lsn (1) lb, +
l~)""
f
9v '"
'"
PI 7. I I'~I (4) 10\ i 111/ TOlills MI'¡ms
'=
1 ,me! 2 I ami 3 1 ,lIld 4
6ó()(]
ln4
') ,lIul1
7'~IH
2 ,11111 4 \,11111 ·1
Vollues uf.l givl'n ml'al'l vollul' vl.lf (lb)
,1/ (lb)
pillr~
H...._
2Hdl 24X.8 24(1.1, ~·III '1
5!'4.3 "./o~
\
1.lh .1 ~"~,
1
',h! '1 ~"1
.r;'N4 14431 (N '" 6.0) 240.6
'1
2237.2 (N '" 40) 559.3
AVerilge daily consumplion"
~
= 240.6 '" 1.131 Ibldo1Y wnsumplion by a singl,' dug
21~.t'
...
LI".o
212.8
i~;::
..
2.fí2!11tl1d.lY c(msumptlnn by a
sin~lc
hum,lo
...., .. m...'" cl'nluml'd by a ,ln~l(' d"K .IVI" a 1·mtlnlh P"r1I>tJ (In pt'undll IiVI' wt!lght),
x .. ml;!AI cllnsumt'\i by a singll' hum/," lIVt.'T 01 1-mllnlh fX'riud (in p"uml, Uve wl'ighl) ,. To obhlin the aVt'Tagt' daily cumumpI¡,,1'I in pounds Iivt' wt'lght the m('An valul'S uf bulh x and y Me dlvided by 212.8 (numbt'r ni days in 7 "'(mlhs).
.
~
11371
COMllmer D4I!mGfld TABLE 4.3
......... Re-... ....
~
N_.... &Id_. 1949-1950 (..
~
1... _ ....1) l'erCl'I'IIAgi'
Month M,lY [une julr
Sheep
Bear
15,762 2,81:16
.
O O
600
4,1UW
2,760 %O
3.""
11,'IKS
U:W
122
2,040
"'~ "'~ "'~
,
Au~usl
Scpternbor Odl.h.'r Nuvl'Illbt.'r December [anuary February March April Y.·"rly 1.. 1,\1
Yt,,¡rly
Caríbou
~wrn'nl'\~I'
M_
O O O
(J
Fish
O O ~1
u.nu 2.'1.14
2.-"'1
~,
['I,tNI\
11>,'/1, 5,n2 10.99
O
O
O
O
O
O
360 O
O
O
O
100,344 /155
/I,MIl
7,21)(1
1.'
e.r
O
tradcr. nud 45 lb of bcmes collocted primarily during thc month of Augusl. This ml'
O ,,~
.""
2.46 5,1\3 f,.15 11.'I.J
94
O
120
11'15
2,~Hfl 7.~14
240 240
5,m
"'~
11í,362 1>,840
12,654 10,212 14,430 2.442
IM,MM
IIf yt'arly total
36
ROO O O O O
!.2t'"
Tol,,1
n
O
5)192 12,894 10,452 14.790 2,442
332
117,306
O
1\'11 12.M 2011
21
figure to caribuu wc find that in thc llJ41/-1':150 rccurd caribou accountcd fur 84.7% uf all Ihl' food Oowing intu Ihe vill.,gc. Corrt.'c1ing lhe daily consumption figure by this proportion we obtain a valul' uf 2.50 lb .1Vl'ragc d.aily consumption ofcaribou by lhc.' Nunolmiutduring the year 1949-1950. The second hunting record .1V.lilabl... covers a 6-month periad during Ihe summer ilnd faH of 1969 Uune 12 through NOVl'mtx'r 30). A d.1y~by·day Tl'cprl1 WilS kl'pt by Chilr1l's Amslh'n ,1l1d Ilwsdf dllrin~~ t\ur lirsl St',ISI\n of lil'ldwork. .ltllnn~ Illl' NU1Mll1illl. Fur t"tllH','nit'lln', I h,\Vl' stllllmoll"i/l'd 11.1' 11l1l11lh1V 11'1,'\"
in '!'.Ible 4.4. Several points are uf ¡nteresl in companng the two records. Firsl, Iht.' conlribulion mildc.' to the diet by caribou reliltivt.' to other animal sources does not differ gn,.,tly-the percentages were 85% in 1950
11381
4. Food Procr,,'ng and Consump"on
U--_.. .
TABLE4.4
.....,... ..-.. ...... N_.", bkl_
TABLE 4.5
Two·W.k eo-..ptbl ter re- N_."t Hota.ho'" ("""'11911)"
IM9l C....... I... -Ioh~
1'.",,1 ~ll1rn'
[um-
lul)'
AU¡';lIs1
ISO
148
O
Sl'pll'mb'-'T
October
Novembcr
Tul.ll
62,260 O
3,300 800
71,798 4,8011
'72
2.033
S.8 2.46
I,OlIO O 6.072 7.45
2,OlIO O
2.4 1.0
¡'t'n:l'nl.l¡';l'
ConSUrnl'r group Cartbou MIIUS('
Fish Shel'r Bear Total monthly input P('T'('nl,l~e
O
O
{I
253
3"
33<>
{I
O O 497
8SO 1.3116
O
"'3
..,
"
200
170
5,940 4,OIX)
74 800 O 10,814 13.27
tuvuk Pass .15 was the case in 1950-1951. Other things in Anaktuvuk were different as well. The population of the village had swollen lo 126 persoos distríbuted into 21 households having an average yearly consumption of 1233.9 can-pounds of imported foods per famíly. A total (lf 25,911.9 can-pounds of food was purcbased from outsldv sourccs during 196':1-1970. Thc bost l'slimc1lt.-' is that purchascd
foud amtlullll,d hl 14,93% uf thl' tot,1I fllod consumed in 11Jb9-1970compared to tht'.89°/o cQnsumed during 1949-1950. The tOlal natural plant foods gathered remained essentially the samc. Sixty pounds were recorded as introduced during August 1969, C1early the 1969 record is nut as cumplck as Ih.lt iw.lilablt' fllr 1950-1951; hHwcwr. I h.lVl' iltlt'lllptt'd In t'Stimale tht, lo!.,1 rt'!t'vant input fur lht' cunsumption period belween September 1969 and May 1970, This was done simply by olCc~pting the percentage input figures from the low success monlhs of the 1949-1950 Tl'cord fur lalt.' winll'r .1nd sprin~ ilS thl' lll'sl t'S· timah.rs for supplem\.'nlilry inpuls lo th\.' viltage duriog the winter and early spring period of 1970. The mean percentage input for these months (October, December, February, and Aprll) is 4.60%. 1 am lacking data for December through mid-May. or 5.5 months. Multiplying 4.60 by 5.5 gives an estimate of 25.3% as the amount of additional hunted fOlll1 introtiuced jnto the Vill.l~l' belween lhl' l'nd tlf our record i1nd thl' sprins; mi~ratinn of I,Hibll\l in [lJ711. Jf Wl' .ll'l"t'pllllll'-Ihllf 01' Ihl'
.
~
"
O O 62.309
76.47
11391
Food Sharlrtg ami ,he DI.trlbutlon 01 Analomlce" Para to Co"'"",e-,..
T"t.ll consnmed (lb)
f\h',1I111..ilv rOIl~umph,,,.
Perscn deys
(lb)
183
4.44
se
3'"
238
]J17
881
81,481
input during September and a/l the input for October and November as sustaining the population during that period as well as contrlbuting to stores tor use during the period prior to the spring caribou rrugration, we have a figure o( 73,788 lb of animal food, live weigbt. If this representa 74.7% of thc total, a figurl.' besed on thc cstimote for Suppll'nwnl.lI food obtained durill~ months lacking a record, we ubtain an estimutl' uf Y8,77Y.1 lo f(lr tillo' total hunted animal food available for thl' 8 months between mid-September and midMay, Adding to this 66,6% of the yearly consumption oí imported foods. or 17,257.3 'im· pounds, we obtain an estima te of 116,036.4Jb ,wililable fur consumption during an R-monlh period (243.3 days). An "Vl.'ra~l' of J 12pt'rStlOS lived in the villagl' (suml' of thl.' n'sidellt teenagers were away at boarding schoul), yieJding 27,249.5 consumer days for humans. There were 71 dogs in the village during this period, for 17,274.3 dog consumer days. Dividing tht' dug d.1YS by 2.324 Wt' obl.1in 742Y.8 l'lJuivalent hum,ln nlllsllmplion d,lYS rt'rn'· sented by the dogs. Adding Ihe two we obtain 34,679.3 consumer days to be accommodated by the total food ínputs. Dividíng the latter by the consumer days we obtain an estima te oí 3.35 lb available for consumption by Ihe aver· age persono Thís estimate is higher than the previous estima tes, and il must be kl'pt in minti that mure undocumcnt\.'d nsslllllplillns and "estimatl's" Clllltribull'd to ils fin,ll fllrm. Dile .lddililllMI S\,un'l' of intortll.1tiorl is
Adults [over 20 Yl'ars) 81354 Subaduhs (11-19 Yt'ars) 211.h8 446.04 Childrl'll (1-10 years} 147130 Total Mean valué 1471.3.;- 477
477 3.08
Tht-, n'u'fll ¡" It.r ,1 le.m pcrlod dUrin~ wbtrh tittle Imporn-d f.... d W,l" .\Y,lil.lbl,· llt üro l"t,11 [¡""t u'Il~\lmt'II unly 12~." lb was ¡ml',.rll,.l ur PUTI'h,I"l'tt 1""l.I TI", n-m.iiuder w.h I'olrilluu ""<'t'pl fur 61.0 lb uf m'IC'~e m""t and '/.3 lb nf ptarrni~all, Sil lO!'lb% nI thv t,,\,,1 was carfbuu meat. yielding a mean value oí 2.66 lb of cartbou meal consumcd daílv l'l'r person.
available regarding Nunamiut consumption. During a 2-week period in April1971 1actually weighed al! the food consumed by four fnmilíes of Eskimos. This included fuod served tu visltors. who wcrv also tabulated as consunu-rs in thc housoholds whcu prcscnt. T,lblt., 4.~ Slltllm.lfi/.l'S 1I'lJ.'sl' della. AH our suurces of infurmation are inlernallv consistent. Ignoring the 1969 estimate for moment we obt.1ined values of 2.63 lb. 2.50 lb, and 2.66 lb daily consumption uf caribou meat by the average Nunamiut Eskimo. The 1969 l'stim.l!t.', corrt'cled for lh<-' cuntributiun of olhl'r foods, is 2.4:1 lb. A v.llul' of 2.(,() 1/:1 c.tribou, liVl' weight. is probably the bl'st estimate of average Nunamiut daily human consumptitm. This amounls to approximalely 86.5% of the total nmsumption under conditiuns of subsistence pri(lr to .lbllllt IY5B. Olhl'r hunlcd fouos Olel"tluntt't! hlr ,l\'luul JJ.2% llf tht.' hltill dil'l ilnt! natural plant food probably amounted tu ¡ess than .3% 00 a yearly basis. Given these figures we are in a posifion to estima te the consumer demand far caribou if we know the number of people and dogs and the durabon of theiroccupation at a gi\'en site. Converst'ly, ~i\len sorne archaeolo~cal ('vidt.'IKl'.1S hl!/ll' numbcr uf (,lribou prl.'sl.'llt(JI) a sill' Wt' lllny t'stim.llt' thl' ll11mbt'r of pl'rsons .md/ur dtJ~s th"t nlltld bt' SlISI,lilWd by llw
a
food represented. lf we know the number of persons and the number uf dogs, the duratiun of the occupatíon. and the number of canbou reprcscnted ar the location arclhll'tllogic,llly. Wt' can cvaluatc the rcliobilltv uf minimum numbcrs uf individuals .l~ c:lkul,lll'd l'nlm f.1UI1.,1 rcmnins Ior l'~IiI1l.1tin~ ~ll'I1Hl~r,lphk and duratiunal facls .lbout tlw UCCup.ltions.
fOOO SHARING ANO THE D1STRIBUTION Of ANATOMICAL PARTS TO CONSUMERS Thus far 1 hav\.' discussed tllt' dl'milnd placed on rE'sources by the Nun,lmiut, givl'n their particular adaptation. Turning now to thE' important question uf how part!' uf ani· m,lls are used, we cnme facl' to face wilh a gl'nt'raliJ.ati(lIl pfl'villusly SU~Hl'St\.'d wlwl1 discussin~ sf\lr.lgl'; thl' (il.1f.K!l'r o( IIw ptlpll' lation availabll' for use conditions thc ,letu.11 pattern of use. Jf this is the case. certainly any regular panern of meat sharing will condition the character of Ihe population of parts available for use among persons pMticipating in such a distribution. In very prilctic.ll tcnnS, if animals are dismembt'red and ptlrl.c; .1Tl." di~ tribuh.'d .1mon~ a v.uidy nI' Cllll~Ullll'rS, th\.' p(lpulnti(ll1 lIf ptuls .lV¡lilablt, lo ,my llnt' l'tlll,,(lml'r is Iikl'ly lo L1l' diflt'n'l1t Ib.m thOSt' ,lv,li[·
11401 nble lo others parñcipating in tho sharing. This
could affcct thc manncr uf «se i'lmun¡;; dlffcrcnt ccnsumcrs. I have nct considcrcd this possíbillty thus íet, We have seco that in genl'ml thc Nunamiut subsistcncc ls Ch.u'l(,tenzed by two short periods of massive load inputs annually, one in May and ene in October. This means that much of the food obtained durtng either period is eonsigned lo stcrage. Food obtained by producers al these times is 1101 gentraIty shared outside the baste family unit. Thus, the population of animal fuods av.1Hable fOf use is nut mudifil..'d by SOci.ll cunsid...' rations; eVl'ryune is cxpl'ch.·d lu obtaio sufficient food for his own needs. 1do not wish lo suggest that the Nunamiut do not share meal. Of course they do. However, sharing is organized differently than among pcoples where inputs are sm.ll1 ilt any one lime but mor!! continuous throu~huUI .1 year as, for instance, among the !Kung Bushmen (Yellen 1977). 1 have already presl'nlcd diltil r<'lative tu the !Kung 8ushmt'n when discussing slorage and its efft.'ct on the differential ilssociation of illliltornical parls al diffl"rí'nt locations. 1 notl?d that in thc !Kung <,xilmple anatomicaJ parts were almost et'rtilinly ev.lluiltl'd in tl'rms uf ,1 seall' uf ulility. bul Ihl'Sl' l'V.llu.lh.'d diffl'r"'l1l''''S Wl'Tl' nltllt...· rl'li'ttive tu wl1(1 ,""ould rl.'Ct.'ive whkh parls in a general distribution or sharing of meat within the !Kung campo Among the Nunamiut. how· ever. sharing of nwat from stores is done not in terms of ¡nitial evaluations of pcrsons relative to a kinship idiom, but in terms of perc~ived needs for meato For example, during late summer in llJ71 some dried mt.'at 5toft'sof one family were cilched on ml'al Télcks up Ciant Crt.'ek. ThcSl' weTl' systematically raided by both bcars and wulverines owr a 3-day periodo When the d.lmaf;l' was diS('tlVl'red and l'Villuilted, thl' Nunamiu! ('onc!udl'd Ihat this f.uuily was sun' 111 l'xhilllSI ils nwal long bdore Ihe antidpall'd arrival of tlll' ran l-aribuu migr.ltiun. Thl' news tlf Ihis dis.lstl'r was disseminatl'd Ihruugh the vilJa~e and il be('ame the topic of convt'rsalion among thl' ~'st hunh'rs. Wilhin .1 Wl'l'k uf Ihl' n·r(.r!l'li
4. Food Proce..tng and COfUlumptlO,.
disastcr the head of the family had bcen visitcd by nll but onc of tbe exccptknml huntcrs in thc village. Each uf thesc nwn was related to the head of the disadvantaged Iamily bul by very dlffcrent peths and dcgrecs of kinship. Nevertheless, each had simply told the head of the Iamlly where his own meat was stored or at least where sorne of it was stored. This aet then entitled the head of the family to exploit at will the stores of the other men as he needed meat and in terms of the same considerations of storability as might be l'mployed by thl' owner uf the slores. In ntlh'r wurds, thl' heild uf the rneatll'ss f.lmily W.1S ~ivt'n equal rights hl stmes eonsidered the property of other famiJies, There was no alloC'ation of parts differcntially to the disadvantaged family. In .1nolhl'r situilti\m, rt.'('ordl'd durin~ Ilw win!l'r uf 1'J70-1'J71, a f.lmily had nUlnl'rous frozen meat caches destroyed by bears just prior to the bears' gojng into hibcmation. The pattl'rn in fall.lnd winter is for each family lo have numeTOUS small ca('hes of meat r('pn'senting meat from 1 to about 18 earibou dispersed over the tundra in the area of migratiun hunting. After thl' disC'uvery of the viulated ml'at cacht,s, tlw wmd uf thl' disilsll'r spn'ild llukkly ami disl"llssiuns fulluw,,'d, as in' ,Ill' prl'vious caSl'. In this caSl' all assumed that t'he head of the disadvanlaged family w(lufd increase his wi"ter hunling aclivities. However, the other hunters acknowlt.·dged lhat thl.'Y would take additionill animal s during Ihe winter if lhe opportunities presented themselves. Since alllhe f.lmily's meat caches wt.'re not destroyed by the lx'MS no immediate sharing Skp5 Wl'Tl' t.lkl'n. Nl'vl'rlhl'll'ss.•111 tlw huntl'rs be~.,n mllOitnring thl' huntini su('c('ss uf the disildvilnlilgt'd family. Thl'y .11su killed .lnimals Ihl'y ent:t1untl'Tl'd durin~ thl' l'ourst.' of ntlrmal wintt.'r tr.1ppin~ .l(tivitÍ\'~, .,.llt tht,y Tt'porh'd lo Ihe hl'ild H( lh(' di~.ltl v<Jn!aSl'd family that thl'y had killl'd ur (adlt' uf (.lribou at sUl'h-and-slIt:h .t pIM·l'. This .1Ct .1mountl'd to a gift lo tht.' disadvanl.1gt'd f.1111jly of no less than a compll'll' (,Mibou. Still latl'r in the yt'ar, when foud stOtl'S bl'canw di-
Food Sharlng cmd the DI.strlbuUo,. o/ Anatomlcal Parb lo COlUumnw
minished and hunting succcss was also reduo-d. the huntcrs would n-por! lo lllt' hcad uf thc disadvantagcd family whcre (1I1l' of their mcat caches was Iocatcd. Again, what this omounted (o was il gift tu thc family uf all the meet in tha! cache-e-no less than a complete caribou or a complete store from a single caribou. The Nunamiut also shere food when engaging in communal or cooperative endeavors. In the pnst this type of shartng took place during célribou drives or surrounds where a relatively IMgl' uUlllbl'r of pl'rsons cuopermaining stores were inadequale to last the village until the anticipillt-'d fal! migration (lf cilribou. Tllt, Nun.unlul s!l'ppnl up Ih"'¡r huntin~ .md hrt\u~hl in SOtnt.' !rt'sh llwat, m.linly t'rUlll moose and beMS, but it was clt.'.u thal game densities were so low that increased hunting aclivirit's in the immedjate area could not compl'nsatl' fur Iht' quantity of meat lost and net'dcd. At this time uf year the caribou were dispersed on the northern tundra (summer feeding area). The transportation problems prl'scnled by a snowless tundra. where Sll'ds cuuld nlll bl' t'asily uSl'd, madt, .11\lI1g-distan('e l'xpt'(iilion tu thl' northern lundra él vcry risky and potl'nti.1I1y inadl'quall' strafegy ~iven the displ'rsl'd n'1IuTl' uf t1w g.tml'. Alnltlsl all tht.' ramilil's had SOfil' eash in(tlllll' fnlln rr.lfl prtlducl~ (SUd1 ,1S tll,lsk milllUf.Kturl') as wdl ¡lS ~Ollll' monl'y rmm thl' t.'arIjer sumTlll'r elnploymenl nI Ilw nll'n .1S firl' fighll'rs. In.1 villagl' meeting hdd fOfdiscussing Ihe pwblt.'m, it was suggesll'd that Ihe Vill
11411
pilot to ñy sevcrnl huntcrs ovcr the northem tundra in scurch of g.uuc. Civcn .urplanc (,llvl'r.lgl' they wcrc ccrtain uf locattng garue in the vast area. Once thc caribou wcre located a landing could be negottated on a Iakc ur sond bar and the hunters could pursue the game, rnake their kills, and begin transporting the meat back to the village immediately. The shuttle by plane could be continued until the charter money was exhaustcd. lf considerable meat still remained on the tundra then a party could be senl out on foot with t.>nou~h pack dogs lo rCCOVl'r the known qu.lntily (li ml'.lt fmm a known plan'. Thl' Vill'1gl'rs .1gn'l'd un this strategy ;tnd the arrangt'menls Wt'rl' made for a respecled bush pilot lo arrivt' .1t Anaktuvuk on Septembcr 18, 1%9. Two men ile· Ct.lmpanil'd thl' pillll on the first st'arch and only 3 cuws Wl'Tl' killt'd soml' 60 milt,s nnrlh IIf lhl' vill.lse. Thl'Sl' Wt'rl' rt'lurm'd and dbtribuled equally among the 21 households. The following day three meo a(cOmpanil'd the pilo! .lbout 70111ilt'S north .1Ild\...illt.-ti I{lout llf.1 gwup of 12 cuws and calvl's (.1 nurSt'ry hl'rd). Lcaving the huntl'rs at the kili site, the pilol r('IUrned the meat, and afterward picked up the hunters and began the sl'arch ag.lin. A mixl'd hcrd (lf ab(lul 50 tlninl.lls was IOCi1tt'd, Ihl' lélnding was 1ll.1d.." and thl' hunlers .lpproached. They cach picked out a large bull and on the first volley 4 bu lis fell (Ihe pilot was hunting with the three men). The men wntinued firing until the animals Wl're out uf range, but they were not successful. The four bulls were returned to the village late lh.lt evening. On Ihe following day, sl'wral W(lml'n butchered the 14 animals t.lkt'n. Thl'Y thl'n bt.'gan tll l1ivide Iht.' ml'ill, usin~ llld boards and pit.'ces of ('orrug.lll'd nll't.11.1S milrkl'rS hlr the 21 pill's uf ml'at (Figurl' 4.1). Rib C,l~l'S Wl're dislribull'd firs!..l CIlmpll'lt' h.11f rih (.l~l' gtling \lIll'.lCh pih'. Nl'\l, írtlnl.lIld n"lr l}u,lr· Il'rs Wt.'rl' pli1ú,tf \1Il t1ll' pill':'. tll1t' lor t'.h.:h housl'iwltl, k.lVin~ Sl'Vl'1\ l',Kh hl bl' lurlhl'r divided. Thl'Sl' Wl'Tl' thl'U cut inlo p.lrls using saws and hatchets so that e<1ch houschold rt'('l'iVl'd .ln íldditiOllo1lollt,-third (lf .1 rin sl.lb,
11421
4. 10M
.;::1,-.
- : - ~.' r~" r:.1~·:'-~'·~~·
... ~
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"'tI""j .,,11 COl'llllü,",Utm
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j••. . .11
~ . ,::,jL"-: ..' :;-' 'lJl'fi~' ...
",
~ r:-¡j;[f$ic.... - "_:-:r""~¿~~~ 'IlA;.'. .;. ~; ,~--A~ ~.'.. .... " 4 ,:.....,... .r:
•
FllUr'IP 4.1.
-
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....
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..,: ~_..
-
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-'
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Wllmendlstributlngm{'ill intoequ
rear and (ront quarter. The vertebral columns were cut in thirds so eaeh household received Iwu sections of vertebral' and so 1m. Th l' biKk fat anti orgims Wl'rt,.' cul into 21 unils. Fil1<111y. lhl' skins, cul in hillf during lil'ld blltdwring, Wl'rl! cut inlo equal unils. Each f.lmily teceiwd half a ski" .1nd ao additinn.1J unt.·-lhird of IhE' Tl'maininA st.'Vl'n hnlVt's. Thl'Sl' skin p"'fs Wl'tl.' plaCl'd UVl'T lh(' piles of llH.-'.ll, illld children were disp.llcht.·d lo l'ilch housl'h(lld so a represenlative <:Guld come and pick up his meal before sorne untethered dog got jnto the piles (Figure 4.2). In this situation each household receivcd a ne.1r1y identic;tl complt'ml'nt of anatomical parts, unlike tht., distribution proeedure among Ihe !Kung. Thus (clr, I hilVt.' tiiSl"US!'t.'d unly sitll
-
~
FI8U~
4.2.
Compll'ted meat distribulil>T1.
number of the caribou utilized by average Nunamiut households dUring the year. As we will scc lah'r, fhis differenel? in distributioll paltl'rn bl'twl'l'll l"aribuu .1111i ulllt'r SPl'(.·it.'S is (If Ctlnsit.!l'rahll' illlpnrlilnt"l' in l'llllditi'lllill~ conlrasts in the relative analomical parts prl'senl in Nu"amiul T('sid('nlial Sitl'S. BUlrhl'ring by thl' NUllilllliut is wnt.lilillllt't1 in simil..u WilYS fur bulh l"ilTib(lu dnd Shl'I'P. Therc ,1fl'difft.'rcnt ways "fbutchl'ring cilribllll dl'p(?nding upon their ¡ntended treatml'nt, that is, whether Ihcy will be dried Of fru~cn, cached or immediately consumed. Síri'lil' shccp i1Tl'always imml'diatt.'ly dislribulcd and consumed Ihere is only ooe gl'nl'ralizl'd butcheriog proccdure associated with sheep. Tht.' f(lllnwing paS!l.lgl' is iI lh'scriplinn of .1 buldll'rin~ l'rh.mll' nhsl'rwd in IIw f,l11 of 1971. I w.,lIw..t In,m I.ur ""'II->""'II\'U" ,'.llllp 1" th/ viII.,,.;,· Thl' trip Wil~ UT1\'Yl·ol/ul. t.lking ilb\'ul I hUUT ,lnJ 20 ",inutl.'S. A~ I Crl\.'lS<.oJ ttwsIl'l'am.111IwYill'1A'" [n"liúoJ a sizablt- Kn'up standinlli oulside R.P. 's hl'uSt.'. Soml' I,f Ihl' kiJs ml'! mI' ill thl' ..Ino.un, .ls"in); .lL....,1I1 .H1V ~"nw [ n,i)lhl h,1V" '0,'<'11 un Ilw w.,lk. II"M Ilwm I h,hl ,,""11 III'thill): I'\u'l'l r,l\"'II~ .111.1111\"11 ,ls""d \\'1>.It W,IS .. "in~ un "1 R.I':!< h"IIS", In ..· "d"'d wI'nis th,.y t"ltI nll' Iw h.1\i ~"IlI·n.1 !
food
Sita""" onlf '11' DI.,"bu'lon 01 An'Jomlca' Partl lo COMUIII,I'I
Kollutuk , I!t' IM..t Idl his sl''It illlll\' y.lli.,y .111.1 w,l[kloJ K"i1utuk Ikk wtu-n- Iu- 1",,1 ,II.,.h· •• Sllffl's!u¡;h Ih.· skin fmm the ;mus lo the base uf the !ilus .1ml l"l.'Itlw th .., calf,ln,-'II~ ,lftlUllll thl' hl'"u (lf Ihl' nwlillilrs.11. Th.· ml·t ......up.ll hilli bl'l-n rt'mnvI'd with 11'11' C.1rp.11§ Mlarhl'lh;. R.!'., usin¡;a pl'nknil.·, cUllhrough thl' skin. 111' thl'n pirkl'f Ihl' t,lT.o;.,lls .Illlt IIM.k ,\ 'lukk rlll ,.I,,"~ 1111' insi.k ot' IIIt' ti~hl n',u I.·~ .Inwn lo' '111' ..rtlt.-l1. 11,· ¡.;r.lblll'd tlw 1II'I"'r tI.ll' IIf ,,10.11I ,11 tilo' ...·....·<\·d ¡,'1l\1 ,IHl.! wilh ,IllI' Ilui.·" 'lluti.m slrirp'·d tlw ski" oInwll Ilw 1">,, Thi .. I'pl'rilli"n W,l~ lht'n n·pl·o.'~,Hl h"lelil1~ ,,"1 tlw ..Io.itl .m.1 punrhing .....ilh his fisl l>o.·lw,'.'n tl1<' mu ....·I.· .1Il.llh,' ..kili.•]uirkly wl>rkin¡; lh., ski n "tt "i1,.I'>ll~"wrj~ht ..id.· 111' Intl",.tiarhr••¡.;,,' 110' "id ,1", ..,11I'" Ihin~ .,I"ll}~ tI... 1,,11 ""lo', 11., Ih.·u n",n'tl ti, 11 ... Inllll t.·;;... m"Io.lIl~ ,1Il,11"¡;,,u~ .·(11... ,I"n~ IIIt' in.. ,,1 lllO' tn'nll"g~,U1.I,,'ril'l'i"~ ti", s"in Lh,wn h' ti", !,,,¡,,I wl ... rt· IIIt' I.-gb'-"''''l'''' "Mt ultlll' ¡,,,..ly 111.\1'''. lit' Illl'lI II1,1d.· .1 Y·sh'I.,.,..l rul ¡Irrus" Ih.' sl.'mu", juining lt1l' cuis fT(>m Ih" two le¡;s. Thl'n ht> mi1de- a quirk rul jnining the bil!'l,.,f the Y with 'he ilbt10minill fuI; ht, m.l.jl· ,mnll1l'r rul. ir .. n1 111\' V ,tin'l"tly up Ihl' v.·nlt.lt ..id., 01 Ih., sl,'rnum .mll lll'l"k, ill' In.. k thl' ,'ttp'~ ni l!l,' s"m ,11",,); Ih.-l.bl tlll .md hq;,lll pullill": wil" ,111\' h.md ,,,,.1 1'lIshin¡; b<'lw""n i'kill ,m.l IllUsd.· wilh hi .. lill~,·r~ .lIl,t lisl. Wnrl"¡n~ IlIl Ihl' ri~hl !11111,· 1<'11 ~id,·. 110' g'" ur ,lnll pl.ln'.1 ni .. foot un Ih.· <;kin 1;...,1"..... Ihl' p,·lvi ...lmi ~r.1bbloJ Ihl' IWI' Tl'ilT Il'¡"'S,
h' 'lit'
¡.'.·,
"l\'
11431
liftil1); up wilh.l 'tUi, k ]<"rk ,lIld fr"l'in); thl' <;\.i.,. whkh w.... ,,1111 .11l.lrt1l"¡ ,11"1l¡; tlu- Yl'rll'hr,u' IIp lu ,lb"ut In\' l·d~.· 1,1 111<' «b r.l);.'. 11" tbcn rollcd Ih,· .mim.11 ovvr "" its siJ.', Hl' t""k h"ld nflnl' '"ldloJ -b.uk skin .11"n~ the t·dg.' uf th" ríbcege and pulit-J IIp .1n.1luw.ud IIIt' neck. trecreg thr- skin Irom Ihe r~'milind,'r ,,1 th.· vertebrac. Thl' skin was then s-Illu"th.·'¡ out Flat and thl·l>o..,jy W,IS Iying on thc ~kin. lit.' tt'ok the r.'nknif¡o and , sl.,oding 1llthe rear of Ihl' an¡ mal, madt- Iw,' lJui..k curs into the rmlch .1imed .1t tho anícutauon 01 the femur w,th thl' pelvis. SliII st,m.iin~, ht· Ih,'n pl.K .i his 1"01 ill Hw l"wkh .md PUill'lt ,m.l twi......d l·.l,·h I ~. ,1i<;I,....llin~ Ih,· lattcr ¡n¡nt. Upon onnpletion uf thi-, "'''\"l- he n"PI',·J Inl' ilnlm ...1 un jl~ Id! ..¡,II' .111.1 pull,'d th.· r\~hl rl'M I"g upqllidd)', rl'rnuving it 1l~ II unlt byI,hl.·, \\IIII"'lIt );dtm¡: ul'. ,,,. h,IIt.I,'.! th.' 1.'11 honl "luolrl"r h' ni!< p,un¡;l-r hrulh"r .lIul T\·.lfllO'.1 MW~S, n"l'pl1l¡'; tilo' ,mim.,! "Vl'r .. 1> it" ldl ~i,h- fht'll h., f\'I"',lh'd II\!" 1..." • 111.., TI'Il11,,,il'~ IIIt' ,,¡Iwr (w111 tlu,lrkr. SI,lIldm¡; "l'. IoL·II"PI'I-d II".I,,~I\" oy,'r un ils y.'nlr,,1 surt,h'l' ,uul m.lo.,ullhl·lirsllh"r.ll"k ....·rll·[>r.'. I k !>Iip~....d 111, hn¡;"rs inh' Illl' l.ltlt·r rul, f'ullin~ up Ih....e1¡.:.' t,1 11,.. kll.kr· It,in, !ll' lllil.leolsm,lil ,ul in'" 11",..h",llh ,oflI11d"rlyill~ ..i"I·w ,1mll'''llW'' titl~l-r.. IhnHo~h Ih.· h.,I.·. 1'\1111"1\ 111' ~h.'trh' ,111.1 b.ll·Io.W.,td. 11<' "'11\"1·.·.1 .·.\,·h "'nol,'rl."" .... ,1 sill~lt- llllls.-lt·. lit- 1o.lInk.1 "IW 1" tll" wil.· .m.t 1".'"" Ih,· "11"" 1" ,. \""""1\ 1,,,\· ,,, ,nld 1" 110,- 1"1,,,,1 m.·.,1 "11 Iht· I"w wlil"w~. Slill ~I,""htl~, l"'II"I'I'I',II!'" ."1Il11,1l \lVl'r.,n il!> b,ld ...1O,twllh Ih..' l.'t¡.:,·r hlll1lilt~ l.mt ..· 11I.,.it' a cut wilh Sl1ml' fllr.:.. l'l'Iwl"'n Ih., <"I'st.ll ril>s.lmlll1\' distal rib elltis bl'ginnill~althl' di'1rhr.1gm and ""t..'lIdin¡.: up 101 In.' frt'llt 1,111", ..I,·rrtllm, l!l' tht'n h..'1. tnl' sm.1I1l'r knifl' and In'I,.1 thl' ribs frIJOl Ih.' n ...I.11.., pllll· in¡.:1..,,·1. 1110' sh"tlluon il"Ith .•'I.I.lh·d n"l.ll~ ~""I1Il.llh·· "usly "ToII"Io.I";; 11,.. "1'1"'''11.' ,nli,-¡ol.'III'ns wlllo 11,..1"'1 sid.· ullh..• rib f.l~l'. Oll<' 'Iuklo. rUII ,,1 1110' ..nMill.."I.' W,ls.lll In.,! WolSIWl·dl·.llnfn-I·lhl· .."'mom fwm 1'" ],·11 rib ilrticul.ltiun. Thl' Sh-tou!l1 W,lS pl.lt'l'd "n In,· ,J"in b...sidl' Ihl' b,M.ly. R.l'. lI'wn rl·nnwl·.l Ih.· lun¡;" .mJ hcilrl ,,'gl'ln"T wilh th.· 'lH.ldwd ui.ll'hr,l»111 rhi.. w.1S
11441
4, Food Procf'..lng _nd Con_.""p"on
placed un the skin and his wlfe remove-d lh\' h...ul fmm thc mas, of lungs and dié'lphrilgm. pladng it ne ar thc door lo her house. Tbe lungs and diaphragm were given lo il small buy, wno waa told lo bury thcm. The
boy 1('(11111' wllrk"n,,. wilh th~·lun¡:;fi. di.lrhril~m,.,nd., ""UI'" '",111 in whi,'¡' ttu- I,llkr wr-n' 1" 1..., burn-d. Thl'~" r.Hls ,1ft' fl'll ...itl.",·d lo 1...· 1'''11'llli.l1 <¡"lIft','S lIt ,ti '·.I..... I,'r I;t,..th hunlolllS .InJ ¡JO!;S ,1nJ arv rq;ul,'r1y buri l il introdurcd inlo thl' vill"'¡;l'. R.P. thcn fll'PPI'd tlh' t;."dy
f"",
"tlilsldt ~jlk.llllt I'I,K,'\1 hi ... in ... id,'!l,.., 1",..., .-.I,",ly "I'.lin"'l ti", \'t'rlt'l>r,ll' .1nd f.1I1 hi, lní ..• bdw""11 11lt' ....,'('Imd .1n.1 third ribs ,10WIl lo 1111' Vl'rh'hr.ll'. I!l' tl1l'n gr,lbbt'd thl' dist.II,'nd tlw ri" ...I.lb ,1Il~ wilh Ilw "'l'rll'brilC. l"hl' pI'nknifc W,lS uso.'J ttl In'l' 111\' rib sl.lb (lhird Ihrough Iwdflh ribs) fwm 11'11' v<·rld'r.ll'. rhis ~diun W.1"pliln-d on lup uf 11'11' pik 111 fn' n l .1m l rl'ar 'lUilrlers. Ihe same proceduf(' waslollowcd in rt'mlWin~ 11'1 ... Idl rib Slilb, Thc par'.. rl.'m,lininR inc!ulh'\l lhlO compll'le b;'I(kb\m(' wilh illlilch ...d lirsl and Sl!cond ribs as well olS Ih .. soll'rum olnd plOlvis. Using 11'11' hunling knif .., R.P made Iwo cuts anleril.r In 11'1 .. second rib, freeing Ihe /li'ek complt'tl' with atlili'l,lnd fixis lngt'lh,'r wilh 111t' fir..1 Iw" lnnrilric vI'rtd:.rill' "nd 11'11' first ,md !"t'r"n,t ribs. NI'xl ni' m,ldl' ,1 I'\lt l'l.'Iwl't'n Illt' 1""1 Ih"r..... i,· vl'rkhr•••1I1d llw Iirsl Illmh.lt vl·rlt'br,'. rid.I, ing IWI' rMls, 1~1l' «,mpll'110 lhuroll"ir sl.'clinl1 minu~ Itw firsl olnd slO((lTld verl...brile, ilnd Ihe compllOll' lumh.u vI'rlt'brile sl'flinn atlilchlOd ttl 11'11' ¡x'lvis ,md s,lcrum, wilh kidnl'y" ,11l""lwd, RUldwrin~ W.1"n"w nlll1pll'lI'. 1'11<' hnl\' H'll"in'd h,r this ,'nhrt· j'1I"nhm' W,I~ Ih.H minutl's.
1>,,,"
or
R.I'. muvl'd ,lW.1Y frum lhl' bllll"hl'fillg sill' and dl,.lnl'd his km\'l'S ,lI1d WiPl'd his h.l1lds .. n il n".,fby pil'rl' l.f spring ,'iltlN'U skin, Hl' thl'n .1pptl"Kh"11 lhl' pill' l.f nw,ll. 'h' h,lIldl'd ,1rl'M Ilu.ulo'r t.. his Y"11I1J.:I'r hr.,tlll'f ilnd IlIh..l him Iv (ilke it lo nis m.. lhl'r's bn'lhl'r, 111' g,lVl' , anolhl" renr "Iuarler lo his falher. On.. ffllnl qUilrler IInd Ih ...lhl'fficic verlebral' were hand...d In IIn unrl'lall'd wnm,ln wílh many childrt'n; no comment W.l~ mad .... rhl' nth,,'f fr,,"1 'lu,lrkr W,1S hiln..l l'd 111 1111' wif" ,,1 his ,'M.'r l:or...l tll'r. Th,' ~'Ivis .md ,lllol\'h,',l It"llb,lr vI'rh'· br.ll' W"'n' ¡.:ivl'n 10,1 sm,lll~irl with insl"ld¡l'l1~ l.. t"lwil h, lh,' h"\1Sl' 1,1 an unrl'lilk..l bul 1.ltI .11,,1 tI'.. ,w.'It'd ml'ffiM of the community, Om' rit>slab WilS ~iv,'n t,.. 1",1", ...." ,,1 hi.. "'''II'''r'.. Il,l1l ..,~ .. '" 1'1,,' ,h ..lo·, "ut.pn \\',1" ""'" '·"'11""'1<' !tI'. l'd,lIFlnl lo'II'!.-' TI", 1...,,,1 '''',I~ 101,,,,,,1,,,, I"m, 11".1"",,1. ,... .1 11", ",., 11,..IlIt',,1 " .. l 11" n"i<'.t 11 1 h,' 11,1<1 ,:1\"'1' 11,..li""r 1" 1".. "","" ",1"·,, 1,,· ',111'" ,,,1.. "''''1' Ih"", 11,.. ,,,,It
"ti,'
bunt"8 remaining in lhe hunte r's l't'Sidenli,ll e,'mp were
of milrglnal utility-lhc skull, hums, molndiblt'. atlas and axis. and the orher cervical vencbrae together with the lirsl and second rlbs and the first t""'l' tnorack vcrtebrae.
lile parts l\'Ill.lining n-pn-scnt on ilssodil' tion that in othcr contcxts wc have come lo associate wilh a kill-butchering location from whkh thc high-utihty parts had bccn nmovcd . This CitSt' il1ustratl's a hilSic f.lel uf hUlllt'rgathert'r subsistcncl', WhellIJulIft'li illl111ts lo 1//l' Cllmm UIIUI¡ an' 5",al/. fI/I'11 are like111 lo !H.'/es:> /hall
or at best cqual 'tl t/lt' ("(IIisumt'r lit"mm/ll for IIImt. Recogllized diffm'lIces ill tlle ViI/lle or IItifit.'l of dilferent allatomica1 partsaremapped II1ltO ClmSllmerswho are a/so t"Vall1n1t'fl diff('r('IItíally ¡" terms tlf some ki"shíp ¡diom. Thus, parts are not distrib~ uted among pott'ntial usages, but among different users. Sueh a strategy tends to mitigilte against difEerential uS<'Ige and we can expl'ct a ~I'nl'r.1lizl'd l"
CONSUMPTION AND fOOD PROCESSING Tuday the ways ml'at is Sl'rVl'd h.1W b<.'l'n modified considerably from t.'-olflier limes. The n'éldy .lVaililbility (lf vcgl'lilhll' lIib, frying P,)!lS, .lnd rt'dpl'S illlrllliul"l'lt nn 1111' b,ld,.s 01 l1l.lny p,ld.,.I~;I't1 1'lllltlS h,l~ 111'll1l.~ht .11>0111 dl.ln~l' in ,Idll,11 l·tlokill1\ lIldhlltl ... llId 1111',11 l'IlIuposilioll. J It'Wt'VI'r, Ih ..' b.l~i.- 1"lltt'rl1" 01 pn'I'.Hill~ nll',11 lur l'llnStllllplitlll ,In' 1,lrgl'ly lllllh.ull~l'd IIlIm 1·."li"l" d,IY~.
Conaump.lon ond Food Procf!88lng
Thc pe-son prC'pnring rneat íor consumpñon divides thc anatorny of the caribou into twc components: (a) thnt which is strtpped of meat in prcperauon for consumption, and (b) th.tt whk-h is boiled with hllllt'S includcd. In the {¡r.... 1 1"ltl'gOry ,lfl' pl.ll'l'd ,111 bonos of thc
lcgs exccpt thc scapula and phalanges. In the second category are placcd all parts of thc axial skch-ton exclusive uf Ihe skull and includlng IIw sCilpula illld ph,ll,m~es. The Legs Normally l'ither a complele k'g or a leg minus Ihe mdí'lpoditlls .1nd phalanges is inlroduced into a residential location from kili siles, ml'élI cachl's, or (rozen stor.lge. If the meal is frozl'n. ít is brought into the house as many as S days and al least 1 day prior to its consumption. Frozen quarters are placed on a rack or in alarge container to thaw, During 111(' Ihawillg pl'rivd som,--' meal may bt.' con~uml'd mw. Typi ..·.ll1y. ti pl'rSlln passl'S thl' th¡1Wing ¡ocoltion, lilk,--,s out i1 knife ilntl shaves off lhin curls of partially frozen meat, popping them directly into his or her moulh. This p.lttem is best considl'rl'd .1.<;n,1Ckin~ stmll'lW .1nd mrdy l'l'sults in .1pprel"Í,lblt- t'tlllsull1plion prior lo meal prcparations, When the meéll hélS th.1Wl'd, the woman of the house will renluve it fmm the thawing rack, place it ht.'sidl' a cuttin¡:; tx,lard, and begin l'uttin~ ml"lt from Ihl' Il'g with lht.' IIJII (Ir "Wl)m.,n's knifl'," Thl' me.,t ¡seu t intostrips or chunks dcpending on whether the meat is destined for a stew or far frying under contemporary conditions, In th(' past, practically all rl'~idL'ntitll prl'pan'd meat was dl'slinl'd for illdu~iull in .1 SII'W, Olll"l' élll the nlt'ullll1' hUIllI'rtIS, r,ltiÍlI·nlhilus. ,md 1I1t'1,'''',lrl',11 (if ¡'n·...I·IIt) .Il'1' pl,u....l in ,\ lI"'ITow·bune blld..d . h'l'!. il .lll.ldll't1 lu Ihl'
11451 quart('rs, are removed first and placed to one side: these are rarely placed in the marrowbcne bucket. Instead, thcy are either placed outside the door for use as dog food, or placed t\11 tfu- IWMby mc.it r.ld.. "in s!tlr.1¡';1'" if the tl"l1\~ll'r.llllrl' is cold. Thus, .1t this juncture a baste SL'grl'g.llinn is madc in which anntomical parta are dividt'd into (a) 011.'.11 and scapula. (lJ) rnarrow bnrws. ilntl (l) fl'l'!, If ti SII'W is to bl' prt.'p.lfl'd Ihl' scapllla will bL'btlikd 'llong wilh Ihl' nw.11. The Stl'W is nmmaIly scrvl..'d in .1 l'lI"gep.1n-in 1111' p.1St. a woodl'n buwl w.1.J' uSl'd-and ,111 pt.'rstll1seating remtwe meal slrips di5Crdely fmm the pan, One end uf the ml..'at strip is hdd by the teelh and chunks are cut uff with a quick slice of the knift.' c!osC' hl tht.' lips, Thl' builcd scapula normally rcmains in lhe pan until near the end of the meal, when it may be removed and gnawed upon direetly or Iicked and adhering meat sliccd from Ihe bone, During IIR' mcal pl'r~ons may dip inlo Ih l, brnlh uf lhe stl'w wilh alildll..' llr t1lt'Y n1.1Y ~illlrly llip Ihl'ir fingers and hands in .md lkk oH lllt' juin.' ,1l1d grcase, If the stew is considl'red a "~I~()d fat lmc" no mMrtlW IDclY bt.. con."1ln11'd wilh il. flllwl'vt.'r. if lhl' sll..'w is sOll1dhin~ kss Ih.II\ "1,lt" llr if more persons than anticipalt'd cUe pr~sl'nt, the raw, disarticulilled bones from lhe marrow-bone buch'! may be pkked up by diffel1.'nt consuml..'rs. pl.leed un tt1p of a slove Uf on mcks surruunding llll' Iw,u!h .•1nd warmed, Occasion.llly. thl'y milY even be plaecd into the stcwpan and warmt'd in the juice of the stew, After the bont's are warmed Ihey are cracked individually by different consumcrs who consuml' Ihe marrow dirt'ctly. l"'Ugl' splinlt'rs fmm 111l' bOlll' n,Kkillt; .)rl' normally rl'COVl'rl'tl by tllt' flmStlllll'r ,md pL1.Cl>d in li!tle pill's lIr nn l'dgl'S of p.lllS .1nd bowls. Articulator l'ntis MI' .1lways plc1Cl'd around Ihe l'i1ling Mt'.l in "prtlnlim'nt" pl,lCl'S oro IIlOft' etlmnHlI1ly, Itl<;<;l'd inlll Ih.., lIl.1rrowblllll' hUl'kd .t1It'r 1lI.lrruw is 1'1'11"111111'11. M,urllw l~lllt'N ,1ft' r,ul'lv I'h'I",It\'tI lllr t'tlll~tlmpli,," ¡'Y 1111' Wtlllll'U. 1"111' p,llh'nl ¡tl..1 dl',""nil"'l! i~ CllInl11lJn in It'rllls ¡Ir 1'\'i'rvtl,IV l'UllSUlIlptillll, Ilowt'\'I'I', .11 h',I~b, .1I\i1 \\"1 11' 11
• r. /,
lo
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(1461 specíal guests are present. the women may prepare and serve marrow bones. Instead of leaving the raw dlsarticulated marrow bones in the nearby bucket. the women will place them in the stew just prior lo serving. There the bones are warmed for a short time. They
are removed from the stew and placed en a separa te tray or in a bowl and placed befare the guests. Those taking part in the meal pick up the marrow bones, lick the juice and grease from them, and nibble on thc small adhering fragments of meato They may dip the bones back into the stew to gel more grease and falo
After this, the bone is cracked by lhe consurner and essentially trealed in el rnanner identical lo tha! described for "casual" marrow consumption. Soml' grcasl' Of sll'w usulllly rl'lllilins in lhe pan after the meal has been complte'ted. This is normally placed in il cunlaint.'r in .1 nlrnl..'r (Jf Ihe house for snacking the following day, or for inclusion in a new stew to be prepared the next day> The woman of the house normally c1eans up the eating area, picking up thc IiUle piles of milrrow bone splinters ilnd tossing them inlo a container near the entry door. The marrow·bone bueket is generally set outside the enlry door where temperatures are low. The woman may segrega te unconsumed bones frcm discarded itrticulator ends. The latter are general1y movt'd to the meat stur.lge r,lck nutside .lnd addl'd tn an ilccumul.,ting pill' uf articulalur ends. Tlw uncunsullled n",rrow bones are placed in the bucket nem the enlry. o One thing that strikes a visitor to a traditional Nunamiut winter house is lhe number of containers in Ihe house-some hold marrow bones, sorne hald thawing meat, sorne hold remains of previous stews, sorne huid marrow-bone splinters, sorne hald arliClIl.lhlr cnds, and all thl'Sl' nmtililll'rs .lfl· sl"'1l1il1~ly undifrl'f\'nti,lh'd (rlllll 1111' "slpp hUI'kl'ts"' I'IIIlI,lining tll'ilU' ,mI! fl'I'I'S .111I1 bu,'kl'ls of .lslll's frum thl' Iw.ll'lhs. AII Ihl'Sl' containers are sl.>emingly wailing eithl..'r to be dumped or to be emptied of their contents. Outside every winter house are dump
4. Food
Proceu,"" ond COlUumpllo"
ereas. These are surprisingly dífferentiated. Unne, feces, and ashes are generally dumpcd in one place. Marrow-bone splinters. accumulated from consurnption inside the house. are generally dumped discretely. General garbage, slivers of skin removed during meat processing, chunks of cartilage, fragments of antier díscarded during tool manufacture, bones boiled in stews, remains oí heads. and so forth are generally durnped in still another location. This segrcgatíon of dumping arcas arounda winter housc is not without utility. Old Esktmos, recalling earJier times, will tdl of families running low on food at the end uf lhe winter and being reduced to recovering bones and frozen animal parts from their dumps, processi'lg them a80ill anrl living on such food until hUl1ling SlIO':l.'~~"~ Wl.'re .1I:hil'wd Uf Ihey starved: "Old-timers had a hard lile and you nl.'ver really knew if sumelhing might hapPl.'n to yourcaches, or if lhe caribou would be late. If the woman was a good one, we might have to boil marrow bone splinlers for Ihe Jiule bit of grease and fat, you never had to worry that she had mixed them with ashes, urine, and slops." The discrete dumps around an Eskimo winler hause are in faet emergency caches of usable but truly marginal foods. This situalion provides an interesting subjeet for gossip. ülder women will frequ"Mtly 5pl.'ak disparagingly of youngl.'r woml.'n or dau~hll..'rs·in-lilw by saying that thl'Y MI' so stupid Ih.ll Il1l'Y dump urinl.' ilnd mMmw splintl'rs logelhl.'r. More dev.lstating is the comment that "boiled bunes:' or lhe bVOl'S of the axial skeleton, are dumped wilh marrow splinlers or ashes. One of the common complaints about men who had taken Indian wives was tha! they were vain and stupiJ since India n women did nol think ahcad or know how difficult Iife might be and they did Ilul Sl.·~fl'~.lll' Illl'ir winl~'r dumps! The Feet and MelllllJodlal1l
Normally the WOnll'nproCl..'SS (ed (or.l 11ll.'a! after they have saved a number of them over an extended period oí time. Feet are prepared
CVNumpUon and Food Proc:eu'",
primarily forakutuk or marrow cakes. We have already seen that the bones of the lower leg from the carpals or tarsals down are removed and are not made regularly available for marrow consumption during deily meals. Tbese bones-c-the complete artículated lower legare stored on the nearby meat rack dunng wínter occupation. Over the winter a considerable pile of lower-leg bones may accurnulate. Such piles are allowed te accurnulate until rising temperatures in spring make the processing of bones outside the house a congenial task. ("Rising temperatura in spring" mcilns anylhing from (f' F to 200 F.) On such a "warm" spring day the woman of the house may take from two to four large bull caribou hides from lhe outside hide rack and place lhl.'m IHl 1111' ~now inllll' .....ork ilrl'il outside Ihe house. The lower legs will be placed on one of the hides. The woman will sil on a hirle folded over several times to make a kind of pillow, In front o( her will be stiJI anolher hide placed as a work area with lhe hair side down. She will begin disarticulating the metapodials from the íeet, pladng them in separate piles, If the feet are largely unskinned and they are still frozen she will make no altempt to ski n them, coneenlrating her efforts instead on the metapodials. If rhe woman judges the early spring supplies of {ood to be adequate she may wel1 1055 the fcet to the dogs or set them ",side to be gr.ldually intro<.1ucl.'d into the dog y.lrds. On tlll' othcr h.mo, if sl11.' is 110t confident of foad during this pl!rioJ, she may return the completely disarticulated feet to the meat rack for processing when lemperatures are aboye freezing. However, if a move is antidpated, the feel may be plaeed ¡nsirle the house to thaw. In any evenl, the metapodials will be processed for marrow by the woman as the first step in makin~ akutuk. This is one of the spedéll caSl'S wlwn' a relativdy unique nll'lhpd n( cr,h"kin~ nl,lrClIW !-ltlnl's is wit· III'S"I"1. 'l"h" Wlllll.ltl 1'1.11'1''' in frllllt llf Iwr, un llll' i...l rihtlll s"in, ,1 I,lrgl' n.lt .ltlvil rtll'k, whkh is norm.llly used inside thl' housc next to Ihe hearth or is taken out from behind the stove when needed. In conjunction with the anvil
[147J she may use a small ax (or a large butcher knife) and a maul (normally one of the nearby lower legs of a bull caribou). She places a metapodial in front of her, with the distal end resting on the anvil. She then places eíther the smal1 ex or the butchering knife across the median of theproximal end of the metapodial. Using the maul, she strikes a blow lo the ax or the butcher knife. If she is successful, the metapodíal is split lengthwise. 5he removes the marrow and places it in a nearby bowl. The distal end is then seated near the edge of the anvil and any long segments of the shank are chipped back from the artieulator end, which is placed in a separate pile or in a bucket to be returned to the meat rack, where it is added to the pile of accumulating artieulator ends from daiJywnsumpliun. AII thl'long I(m~itudill.llly cracked fragments of metapodial Sh.lft are allowed to accumulate in apile on the skin near the anvil. Alter all the metapodials have been proeessed, the distal articulator enrls are returned to the meat storage rack as mentioned and the shaft splinlers and distinctive longitudinally split shaft fragments are picked up in the skin and dumped in a single place, normally near or in the house dump for marrow splinters. The bowl or bowls of marrow are retumed lo the house where they are allowed to warm up lo room temperature. The marrow is Ihen whipped and stirred with the hand until it is welI aerated and becoml's r.lther frothy and "light" in appcclTance. (This is sometimes (t.'fened to as Eskimo ice eream.) The woman oí the house may then recover from the meat rack the few remaining unused and generally not very desirable cuts of dried meat that were placed on the racks Ihe previous faHand have remained frozen during the ""inter. She wiJI slrip smalJ slivers of dried meat from these euts (nnrmillly necks .lnd Sl'gml'nts of vt'rtl'hrad. Tht"'" ..livl'rs (lf dril-d ml-,H ,lrl' drnrr'·<.1 inl" 1111' bowl111 p,lrli,llIv whil'PI'd 'l~l/ltlt "1"111' IIk/lt/l4 is whip~lt'd .I~,lin tor S\ltlW Im1l' .U\d Ihen placed in the entryway, whieh is usually rooler than the house preper. After about 1 hour the bowl is recovered and small cakes are
11481 molded from the contents. These Me placed in the entryway near the door, where still cooler
temperatures prevail, and the cakes congeal. These cakes will be used as trail food by the men of the house during spring hunting and
will be kept as long as possible as a fat supplement for "poor" caribou anticipated from spríng huntíng. Processing the feet (Uf consumptlcn tnkes the form oí skinning, and then the remova! of the ungual phalanges oí vestigial and primary
toes. When the fool is removed (mm the metapodial a cut is commonly made from the dorsal surface between the carpals (or tarsals) and the proximal end of the metapodial. A similar cut is marle from the dorSitI surCare between the distal articulator end oí Ihe metapodial and the proximal end oí the first phalange. ln the case of metatarsals, the tarsals induding the calcaneus are then gr.lbbed and pulled back, ventrally exposing the articu· lalion with the proximal end of the metatarsal. Shorl culs are made, freeing the tarsals from Ihe proximal end of the metatarsal. The proximal end of the metatarsal is held in one hand, Ihe group of tars.'lls is hdd in Ihe olhl'r, .111J puJled "part. The tars.lls .1S a ¡.;roup ¡lrl' strippl.'d off the metatarsal, aH atti1ched to Ihe large tendon bundle that runs up the ventral channt>1of the metatarsal. GeneraUy, wíth the s.lml.' pllllin~ m,ltion this bllndll' i~ stripPl'd dUWIl fhl' llWI,lt,lrs,lI tu 111l' disl.lIl'nd. Tlll'l1 ,1 ~'ril';O; (lí ~Iwrt nlls IIl,lt (rl'l' 1Ill' nWI,ll,1r~.11 ('\'lllpll'll'lv (n11l1 tlw bundh' MI' m,ul\'. Tlw hUl1\lI\' ilH··ludl'!i ,111 t1w lolr!i.lls .11l.ldll',1 hy 11U' ".'l1llun bUlllllt, Itl .1I11hl' ph.d.lllgl'N indlllling thc vestigal melapodials and vestigal phalanges. The same strategy is employed for the melacarpaI. except the pulling apart is execuled from lhe distal end with the final disarIkulalion bl'ing made bctwcen Ihe proximal ml'tac<1rpal and the carpals. This assnciation bctween phalanges, tarsals, and carpals is nurmally 1111..' way fl'l't as such are shlfl'd. If lht, wnm.ln fCl'ls thal thc amount uf material available for grease processing is insufficient,
4. '004
Prouu''''' 01141 COftIUlhpllo..
the tarsals and carpals will be cut from the phalaoges, set aside, and added to the accumulating pile of articulator ends from marrow bones for later bone grease processing. Jf not, the carpals and tarsals will be proccssed Ior consumption along with the phalangos. Even a flner discrimination may be made in that the tarsals may be set aside fUT grl'a~ processing and thc carpals cookcd along with the feet. The cleaned feet are boiled into a stew nnd served in the way 1 have described for stew that induded scapula. The manner of consumption is as follows: A boiled foot is removed from the serving bowl. The vesligial phalangcs and metapodials are stripped back and the fat ,1nd ·'¡el1y·' Me sucked ilnd nibbled from underneath Ihese parls. If boiling has been extensive the vestigials are generally removed completely and eventually discarded in fhe bone dish as articulated vestigial phalanges-with the ungual phalanges missing. Next, the toes of the foot are pulled apart, yielding two parts each with articulaled first and second phalanges. The Iicking, suck~ ing, and nibbling is continul'd wilh thl'!'e p.uts. G,'nl'rally, l'afh is dispmil'd of .1S a unit-articulated first and second phalanges disarticulated from one another. If food is in short supply, or if marrow tX~hes from tt1l' Il'A:'l .1Tl' nnl .wail.ll1ll' .11 th" nH'.ll, l'unsullll'rs m,lY brl'ak t11l' plMliln~l's fur IlhlrTtlw. Tnd.1Y lhis is .1n:lI111plishl'll by pl.ldn~ llw .lrlkul.1h'd tirsl .111\1 !it'l·llnd ph.lllIll.~l'S \In .111 ,Illvil ~hllw .lI1tl ~Iri~ill'~ t1WIH .1Ir,III~Vt·r~c' bluw wilh (hl' b.ll'k 01 .1 "'nill' bl.ldt' in 1I11' middle of each shaft. Thís resuhs in breaks in the middle of each phalange. ThE'SE' are picked up and separated midshaft. The units recovered are (a) proximal first phalange, (b) articulated distal firsl phalange and proximal S('('· ond phalangt', and (c) di~tal sl,c,md phalangl'. Theseare sucked and the maTTOW lickl'd uut of the small cavitics. Oncto' finished they .1r(' hlsscd in tht' 1.ll.IOl' dish (or SUbsl'~IUl'nt dumping by the wnman of thl' huusl'. Arti<..-ul.1Iilms remaining from such a meal are (a) vestigial
Comumptlon ond Food Ptocesalng
rnetnpodials and vestigial phalanges and (b) distal first phalange and proximal second phalange. Stnce thls is a "maximizing" meel-c-that ls, only pn-pared whcn storcs are low-the remains fWIlI such menls are rorcly mixed with lltlwr anntomioal parts. Thc rcsuhing dump is ..lrnost .1Iw.1YS discreto resulting in a pile uf alrnost ncthing but phalangcs. The Axial Skeleton The Mandfble (Mfnus the Tongue)
The neck, thoracic vertebrae, ribs, lumbar vertl'br.le, pelvis, and scapula arE' boiled in stl'WS.1lllllg with the Illl'at removed at the time of stripping. Preparntion of these parts is identical to that describcd for stew except the bones are boilE'd in the stew. Consumption of these parts is similar to thal described fm the scapula. During meals prepared frum "women's bones" (the bc.mes of the ilxi
[1491 with the ascending ramus. This blow severa the ascending ramus from the body of the mandible. The next blow is directed laterally and down in thc diastemn between the first premolar and thc incisors. This blow rcsults in the rcmovnl of the distal cnd of lhe m.urdiblc. Rcmaining is the row of tccth. This "dcntary" is struck laterally just below thc row uf tccth, resulting in the rcmovnl of the mundibulnr margin from IhE' tooth T\lW. Thc marrow is exposed and then picked up and consurncd. Of course there are altemative ways uf cracking the mandible, The consumer may (a) remove the ramus and then direcllv crack off Ihe margin, (b) remove the distal pnd .i,ll skelcton-is the way it is scheduled in its availability for consumption. It is rarely inlroduced into a residential sile as a di serete element. Most commonly it is introduced as the "container" uf the hlllgue, ur .1S p.1rt of ,1 skull. During w¡um w('.lthcr, the tongue is unl' uf the first parts of freshly killt.'d animals ItI he eonsumed, frellul'ntly in cllnjunction wilh Ihl' briskel. Durillg sprin~ Illigr.ltion hUllting IMgl' numbcrs uf n1<1ndibk's, l'ilCh cot1tolíníng.1 choice tonguE', may be relurnt'd tu lhe residen-
., Food Proceulns arld COMUIJ'Iptlon
1150J tial location. The woman of the house may remove the tongues from these mandlbles and ser the mandibles asirle for use in a mandible-brisket stew. Many half-mandibles may be used in such a stew al times when freshly killed animals are available. This means that meat is abundant and él lurge number of more desirable marrow bones are also available. Under these conditicns the mandiblcs out' rnrcly brukcn fur marrow. In fill..'t, thcrv is an Eskimo sayiug descriptivo uf extreme pessirnism. or indicative (l( bnd times to come: "The wolf moves when he hears the Eskimo breaking mandibles for marrow." f" "'.l/l'x'lt'rictl('(', 1!1(' trl/mber /JI '''/1/(('" ltIaIJdib1l's is a fair ",('asure al the !ood security al lhe grol/p in 'I"fstiQ",lf I1UlIIY arebrokell, IlltlllittlcQllimaf {ood ;$ "'gIl/ar1." I1t'"i/ab/t (JIld tlJ(' 'Irtl,t1(' art' lltitizillg "'(lrsc1s
(lf Pt''Y fimited Idi'i'..,.
P.rt. Recelvlng Specl.1 Tre.tment Anatomical parts introduced from fresh or frozen sources that reccive special preparation are the head and fee-t. The heí'td is one of the few parls of Ihe caribou Ihat is nol considered most desirable whe-n it comes from a mature bull. In faet, caHheads are considered almost a delicacy, heads of young cows are considered good, and heads of mature bulls are generally considered tough and not very desirable. This means that on most residt'ntiallocations thert! will be a deceptive bias, if one is using antlers or teeth as indicative of age and sex composition. The reason lor such a bias is e1ear for aPltlers and maxillary teeth. Mandibles, however, will also be deceiving since as 1 have indicated the majority of tongues art! inlroduced with no attached mandible. On the other hand, heads introduced for consump· tion rarely if ever have the mandible removed prior to introduction. Thus, atl heads introduced for consumptlon will inelude mandiblt!s, whereil8 few of Ihl' animals servlng ilS stlurn.'!t uf ml'ilt will h.1Vl' mmuiibll'S illt.,d1l'd. This bi.1S is wl'll iIIus(mll'd by d,llil Ctlllt'dl'li fmm a Eskimo wintl'r fl'sidt.'ncl', oCl'upit.'d fur approximately 6 months (October through
.
~
April). Of 65 antier bases, either free or at-
tached to skulls, 59 were cow or yearling antlers (90.8%). On the otber hand, informanis assured me that they had hunled selectivety for mature bulls. Contemporary hunting census data on fall and winter skills show il bias of 72% in favor of mature bull caribou! Another piece of evidence relaling to the character of heads and skull parts that might be found arachaeologically is that cows and calvos are cxplicitly huntcd for clothiug skins from late August through late Septembcr. When an animal ls skinned for clothing a slightly different method of cutting around the head is practiced. For instance, in the manufacture of a parka the skin of the head is used as the hood of the parka; this mt.'ans Ihal one must preserve Ihe skull and f.ld.ll conhlur uf the skin. In order tn t.'nsurt.' this tht.' (ml/I'rs mllsl "lo' rt'lIWl't'd bt.'ÍIITl' sl..innin¡.;, t'Xt't'P( in ti\(' l'
[ 1511
CONumpllon and Food Proce,,'ns
ture, and so on. The skin is normally severed from the head by making endreling cuts around the neck at the base oí the skuU. If the head is lo be used as food it is normally introduced intc Q reeidentiaí site uIIski'mtd and wit11 attac1lcd al1lh'rs. Processing of the head for consumption, if boiling is intended, consista of (a) skinning and (b) removel (sometimes) of the antlers. If roasting is intended the antlers ilft' not normally removed and skiuning may be delaycd until .uter thc hcad has bcen roasted. Normal processing of a head for boiling consists of mo1king a series al cuts-first a Irilnsverse cut betwt.'en the antlcrs, then a longitudinal cut from the rear edge of the skin up belween the antlt.'rs, a cut down between thc eyes lo Ihe- nos ...', ,md fin.lt1y a cut ilround Ihl' IlOS(' In th(' 1i~'1s. E.1Ch fl.lp of skin is thl'n ttdlly pullt'J 1.1lf I film Ilw Itl~'1t1( 11ll' skull dtlwll unl1t.'rl1I,,'lh Ilw Illo\ndihlt, .md rl'l11tlVl'd (omplt,tely. This proCl'durc frc'lucntly results in cul marks on the bone between the ant1ers (bul none of any consequence around the antlers), and a 10ngitudinaJ cut mark along Ihe median of the skull between the orbits. Next, the mandible complele with tongue is removed by cutting the mandible free at the condyles. Finally, the eyes are removed and discarded. The size of the pot in which the head is to be boiled determines whether the ilntlers are removed. If the boiling pot is large the antlers are lelt attached to the skulI; they serve as handles foe stirring the head around in the pot and for removing and handling the head once it is cooked. If the pot is small the antier may be removed. Today, heads are commonly sawed or chopped in hall prior to boiling. This procedure exposes the brain, the f..t of the nose, and Ihe fat behind Ihe orbits, making consumption of the cooked head quile easy. In ;\dditiun, the l'Xposurc uf cranial cavities during boiling reslllts in a much stronger brnth. During consumption, there is fn.'tlllt'nlly furlht.'r ¡'n,.lk.'~t' uf IIU' uppt.'r pill.llt.' .1nll nUSl' .lW.1Y fmm (hl' cr.llliulll pmpl'r. If thl' h...' ad is to bt' milsled, Ihe antlers are never removed. They serve as handles for
turning the head and rernovtng it from the roasting fire. The head is uever split prior to roasting, and is broken only later during consumption. Regardless of method of preparation, heads are normally disposed of in women's bone dumps. Thev are never disposcd of in dumps with marrow-bone splinters or with
ashes. Generalizing about the treatment oí heads. wc Illi~ht t'XPl'('l that during scosons whcn thcre iS.l hunting bias in íovor III f...'nlolll'S .1ll11 calves (late summer) we would sec a bias in heads introduced into residential locaticns. In addltion, we might expect (a) low Irequendes of antlers relative to Ihe number ()f heads and (b) high frequendes of antier bases with endrcling cut marks. On the other h..nd, we witncss high frequencies of heads of young anim.lls 'llld Cl)WS on sites dllring oth ...'r St'asons tlf tlU' Yl't1T. This n'fkcts unly tht· bi,lS in f.lVl1r of ft.'m.lle illlll yuun~ .1llim,lls !'or t'xploitation as sources of heads for consumption. Such bias may not reflecl anything about the hunting bias, only a sex and age bias in the consumption of heads. When this is the case we would expect higher relative proportions oí antlers to heads, and when cut marks are present they will be longitudinally oriented between the ant1ers rather than of the encirdiog formo
Rlb. Ribs are on(' of th(' few parts thal m.1Y be roasled, boiled, dried, or (rilrelyl soaked aftl'r drying and then boBed. The majar differences of archaeologícal relevance nott'd in the patteros of rib consumption are (a) contrasts in treatment of fresh versus dried ribs, and (b) contrasls in treatmenl of boiled ribs versus either roasted or dried ribs. Fresh ribs ;lre normally rnastcd or bllill'd. When ribs are roaslcd, Ihe slab is partitiunt'd ¡nto threl? rib unHs, which art.' Iht'n hun~ owr thl' fin' (lr plan'd (In ..Ion...'s illtm,.; Iht' t'd¡.;l's01 t111' firt.'. Thc ril"ts rt.'nhlin unbrtlkt'n wilh lhis Iype of treatml'nl. ConsUmplitln consisls of gnawing the meat {rom the bones. Roasting is
(1521 most eommon in hunting cemps. smnds, and in trall campa. Once gnawvd. IIw rih!' 111
broken and sucked al the ends uf the break for the juice and small amounts of "blcod marrow" contained ínsíde. The normal pattern for breakíng is to rest the rib on the ground or on a woodcn anvil and then hit thc rib rcpcatcdly down its entire length, breaking it in small tabular units ranging from 1 to 2 inchcs in length. Thesc tablets are then pulled npart and sucked al the ends. This procedurc is rnost cornmon when roasted ríbs are being nmsumed. however, it may be performcd in resi~ dential camps where boiling in stt.'w is the more ccmmon method of preparation. Tlle sllcking o[ rib tablrts j~ O"/',, pradiced w1lm frish m('at is 1Je¡ng t01'Sumea, Dried mcat ig never trealed in this manner and even frozen ribg Clre rarely caten in thi5 Wred desirabJe. In lield camps frozen ribs will somelimes be broken in half so they may be accommodated to smal1 containers; howcver, even Ihere this is rare and frozen ribs are more eommonly roasted and caten unbroken, In residential camps large enough containers are usually available so frozen ribs are very rarely broken, as mentioned be[ore. Because uf theseconsistent practices among the Nunamiut 1 will systematically report ,IS a ratio the number of rib fragments in reialion to Ihe numbcr of proximal arliculator ends (numbt.·r of rib frilp;mt'ntslnumber uf rib articulalur ends). C1early, if unly compll.'lt.' ribs are prt.'scnt on a sitt.', the number of fr
4. Food Procuslng
,,"JI COflllump"o"
the amount of fresh meat bcíng ronsumed, .1l1lt low raños should refh-ct l'llTlSlllHplion from dricd or írozcn storcs. PATTERNS Of PROCESSING BONES fOR MARROW
1 have observed regular dlfferences in tbe pattcms uf bone-mnrrow consumption and disposal of parts in (a) the fleld context and (b) the residential contcxt. The term freid (l1IIII':r' needs clariflcation hcre: I refer to hunting stands, hunting camps occupied by male hunling parties, butehcring 10ci1tions, overnight camps occupied by malt.' parlies, and other special·purpnsc localiuns occupied primarily by maJe groups. Occasional1y tlt hunting sland5, butchering 10l'.ltions, and fish cilmps !emales may be prcs(.'nt as adjuncl labor fur lhe bulchering, hunting, or fishing activities. When the location is nol ., campthat is, whcn there is no lent or slecpjng facility-the normal division of labor is missing and both females and males prl'parl' thl'ir own food. Occasioníllly labor may be pO(Jled in f(lod pn'parc1tion; lh.ll is, sl'Vt'r,ll ~1('rSOllS lllolY 1'1\' simtllt,lI\t'tlUsly ('n~.tW'11 in 1'I11 1\,t·r.l' tivc paralld activilies. Wht'n such coopt.'r'ltivc prt.'paration uccurs it is primarily with r.t.'s~l·(t lo meat or Ihe roasling of a head, and is m'ver charaeleristic of preparation of bone marrow. In the field a person st.'!eds a marrow-yielding bone from the population introduced into the loeation from nearby kili or caeht.'lucalions or from stores at the home residcnlitll lucalion. He normaIly rnoves to the edge uf a heilfth where a fire has beeo kindll'd imd begins the processing of the bonc. Pron'ssing cnnsists uf placing the bone or arliculaled h'g st.'ction, if unskinned, along the margins uf Ihe fire where the hair is singt.'d and the bone is warml'd. Rarely is thc unskinnt'tl bont.' pl
Poltems
01 Procasl", Bona Jor Itfonow
the fronl leg and (mm the distal tibia or tarsals down on thc rcnr Il.'g. If ,1 numbcr of pt'rsons are around the
hearth, the procedure is lo remove the foot or articulated phalanges Irom a metapodial before placing the metapodial alongside the Eire since the hair between the toes and the hooves tend to produce more smcll when hcated than the short hair of the lower leg. If this removal is executed the artículated phalanges are gen· erally tossed in back of the person away from 1 the hcarth area. I have never observed a re~, moval of phalanges foliowed by their disposal ¡ in the fire. Once the bone is considered warmed, it is skinned and the scraping away of minor tendon aod muscle from the bone is inítiated, This cleaning of the marrow bone may bt' extensive and is general1y more so 11 wht'n the bone to be broken is completely disarhculated from adjacent bones, Depending on the bone, the periosteum is scraped fmm the shaft of the bone, if the intended method of breakage is through the central area of the shaft. This is the most common pracedure in fit'ld situations ~hen bonesare broken for marrow while 'lrticulaled to other compont.'nts su eh liS thc t,lrs
The most common tools used in brcaking marrow bllnes in t1wfidd are (n) the handle of the hunting knife .lnd (b) the articulated met.lcarpal and toot of the caribou. The ¡atter tool is used in very quick and expedienl processing gt.>nerally of metapodials when (a) olhl'relemcnts rem'lin aHached to the marrow bone and (b) only the center shaft is cIeaned of periosteum, This method of breakage results in articulated feet-phalanges only and an articulated proximal nwtapodial and tarsals or carpals with oceasionally the distal radiocubitus or tibia also attached, [n ficld situations , have neVl'r observed Ihe boncs of the upper leg cr
11531 neck directly below thc articulatcr end. This may be accomphshcd in thrvc ways: (a) by dírecting a blow down en the bonc using a percussíon tool while the bone is hand-held, (b) by striking Ihe bone across a hand-held arwil, or(c} by striking the bone down onto the edge of c1 stntionary anvil rock. In order to gnin sorne apprccintion for patteros of breakage and characteristic rernains of processing bones for merrow, a number uf marrow-crackmg experiments were conducted among the Nunamiut. Unfortunately, I was not present whcn ene of the majar experiments was conducted; therefore I indude the following excerpts from Dan Witter's report on that experiment: 1 h"d thl.' opportunity 1" inll'r\'i~'w two NUn.lmiul Esklmos, Jt.hnny Rull"nd olnd hb sistl'r j,mt'. un th... su"icc:t of marmw ,·r.Kkillg, Th,'y pftlVid d iI ~h'mt'nstration of milrr~IW <:t"cking on tl11' bt,m s from two fronl It'gll IInd lIix rey "Mdllll~' (utlLn¡; .W.'",\' .11lll'nd"1l ,111.1 llmnt,..tivt' ti~~II~'lr'lll1 ti1\' ¡... nt', il1dudin~ th,ll t.n lile arliClllahlr ends. Th,- sh.mk .. f the bt,.n.' \o\'ols Ih,'n scraped down removing m.. st uf the periostcum, This llCraping techniquc tl'nd:'l tI' 1.'aVl.' arca~ uf hnt' ~tria· tíons, which un fragm,'ntl'd Ixme nluld ,'asily Ix mistaken for .....e..r. Similarly the clt',ming of articular t'nd~ l"a\les cut marks. whkh \ am SUTe aft' rn""t oltt'n inteTprt'ted as butchl'ring culs. Th.- functinn ni Ihe melicultlus cl..aning and scTaping 01 thf' b...ne~ ""'as lo rmvit:!e N'Ilt'T et'nl rol d urin¡l; the cr.ld'ing prt",:t''l<' The cral'king was folrdy d"nl' u~inga" anvil un tn...¡':TuunJ, It was gl.'nerally aCítlmplished by ht,lding Ih!;' lltln"s in on,' holnd just lIbov.· tht' gwund lo .llx'ut wolist high and hitting Itu'm with .1 "'h"mm,'r" much in ti", Slyll.· asstlCiah'd with f1inlw,'rkin¡.: Th"lr,lgmt'nts Il,'w ,,11 in varinus dirl.'(Ijllns, bUI 1""sI 01 1111' .I\"llris 1.1Ildl.·d ímm.-di.ltely btoftlt.· th.· po.'!'Sl'" ..rcll.'klng Ihl.' bt'n.'S. Thl' d.'btia induded impcll.'l dlirs t'r lin)' bu",' chips with lIharp c",nchuid.ll fradu!X's tu Il'!ls than 1 mm in !lino 111,,1 aft· prudun·1.1 ill th., .nI.'.l ", po.,rt·ussilln ¡mpold. Tllt'SI' imr.lCt (hips 'lf~'l'nlb,lbly llni'lllI'lv tlislindin' "r marrtlw (fílckin~ .11Id n'ul,1 ht" II~~',I lt. dt'h'rnmw
[154 J
4. Food Proceulng and ConsumpUon
,........ •
••
41
~
:;,. ... ",
..
'f..
-
". F1sure 4.3.
Jane Rultand c1eaning rones for mllrrow
cr
rl,Kt'~
no a fI••ot Whl'r\' m.urtlw n,lrkin~ n.ni orrurn'.l rv.'n jI lhe uther mure llbviuus dl'bris hlld bl'en c1e.lnt'd
"P
Johnny Rulland's dl'rnonstr'l",k Ih., !>I.nl's " .. d"...' 11. 11". ,lft""ld,.t \'11.1 .. ,1' pussibl.,. failutl' did nol nllrmally n'sull in his fl,lkin.: off ur tnrnllling ,llktilinn.,1 n.mp,lflll,lIll' Inlln ,1 "1,,11/0: brl'ak." In St'ml' caSt's, h-ng limghkl' pjl'Cl'S ni sh.mlo:. wete Idl altached lo Ihe articular t'ndo¡. p.1TliculiHly Hw proximill libiil i1ml Ihl' pTlIl,im,ll ml·t,lr.. (liill~ Thl'~' bilyollet bn.·i1ks louk Vl'ry murh lik,· r,'knl;,l! h,..I.. if Ihl' artkulilr en..:! is ;m.lginni 11' bl' iI h,mdil'. Wht'n Jilnl' Ymlng g,1Vl' her cit'ml'nslrillil>n, sht' W.\~ asked lo simulale Inl' pmc{'ssin~ o! m..,rrtlw h.'nl'
under base-camp condtuons. The demonslralion induded the uliaRl' 1,1both stones ami II,ng bonesas tools 1M crl\fkin~ rnarrew bono. The "lnnt' shr- us,'tI W.1S long and narruw and W,lS beld ,1S a bmon. This slon" eoutd eilher bt! swung down on the bolle as a slriking 1001 or held out asa hand-held anviI wilh the marrow bone swung clown nn it Instcad. Jant· atso de-nonstretcd the USl' nf a bono t" crill'k othcr bom-s. SI,.. IISt'll bcnh ,1 humeru a and ,1 kmur f"r this purpus.'. 111 llll' case of the humerus the distal end uf the shank was held while the head (proximal end) was the Pt'n:usliiCln or working end. The femur was beld at the pruJlimal end with the distal condyles used as the percuvsion area. Allhough each bone was used to break only two orher marrow bones, the banenng uf the impad 'Ht',U of these bone tools was considerobte and di!Otindivl·. The use of a boncaSil hilmmer wilsl"lilimt·d luhavl'lht' advantagt's of providing beUl'r cnntml and ICl drivl' fewer, sharp impacl chips inln Ihl.' ffiólrrow. Sinn' );1111' hilll bt'l'n ,lskt'li lo l>n'.lk m.lrn>w l>t"lO' tn., way she would in a permilnenl Cilmp. sfw slilll't1lh.ll she was doing ht.'r m,urow cracking wilh lhe ¡nlentil'n of saving Ihe artkular ends for liI";-rru!nri1.iltinn into bone ml'al fnr bniling iln<1 rl'nd"ring oH borw gn·.lS'·. FOf Ihat reason she WilS dl'liberalt'ly Irying lo gel a shorl break lln Ihe arlÍ(ular l'nds. IInd ir lhl" bt,n.' clid breilk wiln .1 b..lyunl'l bn'.lk, sht, wl'uld chip Iht· l'ounl' back l'oulh lo hl'lp l,blain m,u".w, ,md tu u'm"",· .l~ much of Ihl' cllmp.lcl bllnl' ,.f lht, shllFt Il~ po!'sil'olt,. Tht, brl",king nf grt't.·n bUlW Il'l1d!< ". prmlu... · ,.,,", Iwid,ll fr.lclun·" Ih.lt eiln h.lVl' .1 knllp¡....·d ;'IPP'·i1r.lll,·t'. Th,' Irimming uf cumpael btme 111 remU"I' l;'Ir¡o;e pil't't's ni shank and Ihe t'XCl'SS compilel btllll' from t'h .. d;;~¡rl-d cancellous articular end fTequently prodUCl'd a rt.'· loueh.',j ilppt'ilrilnn' t1l\ thl' (tll11p.1d frilgnlt'nl~ n', mov.·tI. Thu" st,m,· sh.lnk fr,lgnll'l1ls "fin n'st'ln"I,' fl·tuurht'd ht,nt' "niv.'s "T !,,,inh 1,1 ,·hi...·ls .It'¡"·'hllll¡'; on wnl'lher lht.' fragOll'nl is a sealt,'nt.' triangJto. an isoscorlt'$trianglt'. ora rt.'clangle. Similady, Ihearlicular ornd may appear as thoughl il had been flaked and nolouclled as a tool. The collt'ction of debris produced by Jane and lohnny lendt'd lo yield fl"('uT1'l'nl mllfpho]owesnf bl.th fril¡;r:m.'nl~ .. n(1 .ulicul,lf t·nd~. Tltis formal P,lllt'r1ling W,l~ tllt· n'sull ,,1 slrilingl',ll h Iv,,,, ,,1 m,IU"'" [,"11\'11' " similar pl.,n· .ultl in.1 simil.u w;'Ir ami Ih"l"orn'<;f'olltlin¡; s'rUt·turt· .lIu1 str.·ss nWl'h.llIÍt's dl,lr.lflt'rbli, 01 l'.lch bonl' ,lnd Pf\>t:t'ssing stralt'gy [1shoulJ Ix, d"M frllm Ih.· summ.uy pn'sl'nh'd Ih.ll nunrilndllm mnrl,hlll"gir.ll r.llh'rning in frilrlurt·t! b.,'IIt' i.; n,,1 nt·n's.;,.ri]y Ihl' pn.tiut"'nf inl.·ntiollollh.Kturin¡; wilh ,\I1,·Yt' lo ¡'n'...·rv.·d ..htll1\" or st~nd,lrdilt'd rllorl'hu\<.¡;y. Ad,lil""l.llly, my t''1I't'nI;'ncl' serveli lo cilulillll ilgilinsl lhe us.· 01 a ¡mon il"-
"at~ms oJ
[1551
Procr5slng 8onr. Jor Marro..,
sumptions as tu the signifjcance of weer. striarions, scratc-h mnrks and cut m.ul" nn bone. Simil.uly, the oPSt·rv.llilll1 o{ SVSl"Ill.llit".ll1y produced Ctlnchoidill fracture "rt'lllul'h': I1l.lY bt.'im'i,h'nl;'lll\l maCTOW l'XlrilC· !ion. Whal isbeing SUggl'SIt'd is that the recent work of Sadek-Kooros (lm, on formal category recognítíon in pOpulillillns of mountain Shl'I'P bones from Jaguar CWt' mtlsl rr"{l,lbly h.is r!'f"n'nn' tt. marrow extraetiou .md 1",1 t."I.l tn n\;lrrow t'xtrJction r.lthl'r lh,ln to t(lol production.
Evcry fragment produced in the demonstrations witnessed by Dan Witter was recovCH.'d and studil.'d for c1ues to the relationships bl.'lwcen Ihe ch."acter of the remains and the ml'ans of cracking. One of the first observa· tions made was that in no case did any Eskimo employ the widely publicized "crack and twist" mcthod. Yct
TABLE4.6 N• •t.r 01 Spl
eh. . R.eordecI In
_..,.,....
EIIperi__..
Fragmente per articulator end (mean) An.lllllllic.ll part Humeru!!
Radlo-cubttus Metacerpal Femur Tibia Metatarsal Long bones Mt'tapodials
N
Splilll.'r!\
5 5 5 4 4 4
10:t 0.7 14S t 4.9 17.5 4.2 1.S 4.1 2.5 1.8
± 1.7
Chips
8.0.1 07 12.2
± 0.2 6.7 ± 3.2 ± 2.3 12,S:t 2.3
3.45 1.66
1"1.11
± 1.4 17.3:t 2.9 ± 0.9 4.fI ± U'
'.2 16.6 19.7
e.e 16.5 7.4
ble of producing spiral fractures, bul Ihat th~y were equally capable of Ihe crack i'lnd t..... isl method so widely cited as unilluC tll bvne cracking done by humans. Another observation of importance is the rather regular relationship between the bone broken and Ihe number of splinters and chips produced as a producl of brcakagc. Tablc 4.6 summarizes the dala obtilined from the marrow·cracking experiments regarding the number of splinters and chips produced when different bones were broken. The difference between splinters and chips is primarily a si7.e difference, but an important distinction is th
1156 J
f. Food Proc:e.I,." _ti COM,."pflon
production of akutuk. a carlbou ski n ís placed on the floor and the cracking takes place aboye
ende. For thís reason, it is proposed that for
this skin. In such situations the small impact chips are removed lo a dump elong with the splinters. This difference in essocletion and distribution between impact chips and spllntcrs is pctentially informative of activity locaticns and contexts uf marrow consumption. Finally, the small impart chips are rare or absent frorn essemblagea in which bones are broken as a function of dog gnawing although splinters and small pieces of cancellous bone may be cornmon. In most cases the splinters are indistinguishable from those produced in the cracking of marrow bones. As we have seen, one of the problems associatcd with a number af processing situations is the destruction of articulator ends, Using the data just discussed, we can estimate the number of bone splinters and chips expected on asile given the observed number of articulator ends. If we observe more splinters and chips than we estimare, then we hitve reason to suspect that (a) sorne articulator ends were destroyed beyond recognition or (b) sorne articulator ends were removed from the site after the bones had been broken for marrow. On the other hand, where we observe few splinters and chips we may expect that articulator ends were introduced into Ihe location after processing for marrow somewhere else, or that chips were removed. (Normal1y the last would mean simply that we hitó O(lt found the dump.) In order to put such a method of estimation irtto operation several faclors must be taken into account. For instance, one may note complete cylindeTS of long-bone shaft in an assemblage. There are several reasons for the occurrence of these cylinders. When bone is hard and in good condifioo (meaning in f.11l for the Nunamiut situation), the articulator ends may be broken off near the neck, resulting in very few splinters and a reduced number of chips. Once this breakage is achieved, a slender tool, a marrow pusher, may be used lo push the marrow out of the cylinder. Such a procE'dure reduces the number of shaft frag-
every cyUnder encountered in an essemblage that two articulator ende be subtracted Irom the number being used for estimating numbers of chips and splinters. Cylínders may be produced through dog gnawing and through the ectíon of soil acids. Dogs tend to attack the soft articulator ends of abone. gradually "eroding" them away and producing a charactenstic scocped out appearance to the soft internal area of the articulator end. If this process is continued the complete articulator end may be removed. If the same process iscarried out on both ends of abone the result m",y be a cylinder. In actual situations this is ulllikrlyl'XCl'Pt ¡" tlll' caSt' o[tlll' [mll"r on adult animals (see bone densities in Binford and Bertram 1977:1(9) since this is the only bone with reJatively low bone densities for both articulator ends in adult caribou. More commonly the dog or gnawing agent dcslroys one articulator end and the ulhl'r more dense articulator remains identifiable and articulated with a shaft, complete except for the opposite articulator end. 5ince in the laUer case counting the articulator end that remains attached to an unbroken shaft would inflate the expected number of splinters '9.,nd chips, olle articulator e/td is subtractrd [rm" (he total[or cach nrticulator-shaft unit presl'nt in the assemblage. In the case of cylinders produced by dug gnawing this proc~dun.' would have the eHect of reductng the expected number of splinters and chips since no articulator ends represenlative of the cylinder have a chance of being counted-they have been consumed. It is therefore suggested that in assemblages with a large number of shahsand cylindE'rs we may well underestimate the numbers ~If splinters and chips. This eHect will be parlially offset, however, since such a siluation derivl'S from the actions of dogs and they tend lo produce very few chips ,lnd somewhallargl'r splinters during the course of their gnawing activities. When shaft and cylindl'rs are present one should examine the bones for evi· dence of dog or other ,lnimill breakage. In
ments relative to the number of articulator
11571
fIfonufocturlng o/ Bone Greose
calculating the expected numbers of splinters and chips the following prccedures should be followed:
x = lA - (2 E + Gll 11I) whcrc
x = cxpccted numbcr A
= number uf articulator ends uf rcl-
evant par! observed E = number of cylinders observed G = number of ends plus shaft ohserved y = expected number of splinters andl or chips for appropriate articulatur end Given thl' prcceding approach several differenl procedures may be foJlowcd. One may calculate values fur each part represented in the assemblage and add them up for a total. I havl' fuund th.lt in general this does not inl"rl'ilSe thl' accuracy of the l'stimille since, .1S can be noted in Table 4.6. the standard deviations are large for most of the nonmetapodial long bones. I suggest that one simply estimate the number of long-bone splinters and chips and the number of metapodial splinters and chips using lhe mean valucs Wven at the bottom of Table 4.6 for these categorics. Using this prucl'dure olle need unly sum the number of articulator ends for brok('lI long bones and metapodials, enlering eaeh as separate values of y in the formula. Although such a procedure is relatively easy, the independent counting of observed numbeTS of long-bone splinters and metapodial splinters is required, and this is not so easy. For many smalJ chips and segments of longbum.' shaft it is freLJuently difficult to distingubh bctwccn mcl.1pudial and nunmctapodial long~bonl' shaft fragments. I have adoptl'd a convention in dealing with this probll'm. AH fragments of broken bone shaft that h
dure reduces the number of expected Iragments of metapodial lo a mean of 3.6 fragments (induding both splínters and chips) rather than the actual value oí 7.4 fragments per articulator end. Similarly. it resulta in an ovcrestimate for thc numbcr (If long-bono Imgmcnts proportional to thc uumb...·r of rnctapodial cnds prescnt. In practice this iS.1 useful procedure and elíminates the high leve! ol identification skill otherwise needcd in thc observation of long-bone fragments. One final note of caution-rarely can we expect an archaeclogist not apprised of the potential information te be obtained from bolle chip distributions to go lo the trouble uf collecting these tiny fragments systematici\lIy. If shaft fra~mcnts haVl' bl'l'n L"(llll'Ctl'd al .111 tht'y will almost cerlainly be the l
Throughout this discussion I hilVl' men· lioned the accumulation of ilrticul,llor ends and the periodic addition lo this piJe of distal melapodials and sometimes lilrsals ilnd carpals. Such elements were saved until the Vl'ry cnd of an occupalion; Ih.l1 is, procl'ssing is ddaycd until just prior lo .1b.lnJoning.l winlt.'r si!e. AH the stored ilrticulatur t.·nds from the area on and around Ihe winter meat r.lck Wl're generally collected in .1 caribou skin .1nd moved fo the work .1rt'il outsidl' thl' wintcr housc. Several days prior to this .lCt large quantities of firewood hílve bl'cn .1ccumulatt.'d at the winler location. The woman sat un a
1158 )
t. food Procealng ilIIId COMumpdofl
folded skin el! wal descrtbed for the cracking of metapodíals, wíth a large hide placed in front of her as a working surface. 00 this hide was placed the anvil stone. In the old days a stone maul was used for pulverizing the articulator ends, or altemetively a kaotah or a long tabular stone (see Figures 4.4 and 4,5), normally available in residential locations fcr cracking rnarrow bones. Today a commercíal metal hammer or the butt end of a shorthandled ex is used to crush the bones. The procedure is to place an articulator end on the anvil and hold it with ene h..m d while deliverjog a series of Iight blows aimed al crushing the Duter surface of the articulatar eod. This has the eHect of "seating" the bone on the anvil 50 that heavy blows may be delivered wilhout (t.'
bone grease. Tbe prccedure js to bring the kettle to a boíl, dump a quantity of pulverized bone into lhe kettle (the amounl depends on the size o¡ the kettle), and bring thecontents to a slow bcil again. As the grease begins to rise to the surface, handfuls of snow are added to the top of the kettte. The snow quickly cools the surface water and the grease begins to solidify. A ladle is used to scoop the solidified grease off the surface of the water. Then the contents of the pot are stirred vigorously with a stick and allowed to come to a slow boíl again, et which time the addlng of snow and the scooping of grease from the surface are repeated. Today two kettles are used. Once lhe contents of one kettle are considered processed and exhausted of grease the hut water is poured off into anothcr kellle, which contains a new supply of pulverized bone. This kettlc is placed on thc lire and the process is started again. The first kettle is then emplied, genl..'rally to one sideof the fire. More water is added and it is placed near the fire to warm up while the contents of the second kettle are being precessed. This activity is continued until all the pulverized bone is processed. 5uch aclivily may go on continuously for from 1 to 3 days in early spring. This is a labor-intensive activity, requiring great amounts of firewood, " ..tience, and labor, Prior to the avaílability of metal kettles,
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Manufodurfnll o/ Bone Greo.Ie
wooden buckets and a stone boiling techruque were used. Only once was this method demonstrated to me, and I was overwhelmed by the sheer activity levels that had to be maintained lo precess lerge quantities of bone successfully. Added labor consisted of (a) collecting the large quantity of stones needed for the operetion, (b) collecting íncreased amounts of firewood needed to reheat the cooled and wet stones, (e) attending the pot continuously, and (d) manipulating the stones into the pot, out of the pot, into .1 pile besídc the fire for drying, thcn examining thern for breakage, pladng them back into the fire, and finally returning them to lhe poI. AH this was accomplished while watching the grease level on top, pladng snow in the poto and scooping off the grease. The dcmonstmtion (lmSiSfed llf processing a single S-gallon ketlle of pulverized bone for greasc. A total of 6().~ lb of stones was colIccted from a nearby slrc.lmbed fur use in the operation. There were 32 stones, averaging 1.81 lb each. Three back loads of firewood'had been collected from a neatby willow stand for use in lhe operalion. The demonstration requircd 1 hour .1nd 51 min, excluding thc time requirl'd tu cul lhe fin'wuod. Two women were eng.lged in almost continuous activity. The yield from al! this investment in bone grease was one small cake weighing 7 oz. The archaeological remains of such an operation are unmistakable. There is a large pile of pulverized bone approaching the appearance of bum' rnt.'.l!. This is ~cn('r.1IJy a dump lo une sidl' uf ,1 stlhsl.lIlli.ll Ill'.ulh cOllli1inill~ l,u).;t' tlll,llllilil's 1'1' .lsh. II ,1 Sllll1t'·huilin~ '''Ir.lll'~y h.1S bccn elllploYl'..J, lht.'rl' .m: 1.1rgc qUíllltiticS of fired rock, generally separated into at least lwo piles. Onc piJ\? i~ compused uf cracked and broken pieres culled during processing. and the other consists of unbroken stones placed dosf' to the hearth wherf' they were drying al rhe end of Ihe operation. I had the opporlunity to observe a Illcation whcrc a winter's aecumulation of articulator ends had becn processcd for bone grease. Piled around the hearth were 983 fired rocks and fragments weighing a total of 1533.5 lb.
11591 An archaeologist is not likely lo overlook such a teature. 1 was eble to obtain two inventorles of bones being stored for bone grease processing. The first inventory was obtained in April 1971 and represented a winter's accurnulanon of a single family of nine persons. These bones were stored in a caribou ski n "package" underneath the winter meat rack. The woman of the house anticipated processing these bones in late April. l was nct present for this actívity but on my return in May I was informed that the processing bad taken place and was shown the loceticn whcrc the proccsstng occurred. The second inventory of bones was ob· tained from a summer camp located near an ice field. The wornen of the cClrnp were storing articulator ('nds of .1nimals killl'd in late spring and early summer in lhe kt.' fidd. A m.ljllr processing was not anticipalcd since the wornan of lhe housc was duing this as a tn..'at for a relative from the cuasI-in shorl. íl fl·..... meals supplemented by bone grl'aSt' were ano ticipated. Table 4.7 summarizes the inven· tories obtained. These inventories differ from the inventories reported in Chapter L Table 1.13 in that thcy wcrl' not solicitt.'d by ml'-I did not ask the WOOlen to sl'll'd fmm a plJpul.ltion of bones those "best" lor proct'ssing bt.me grease. In addition, in both cases previously rt>ported I knew the compositi()n of the original popu/ation uf bones from which selections wt>re made, In the two cases reported here I know the frequency of bones sclected, but I do not know the composition of t11l' pOpul.ltion fmll1 whkh sl'll'l'lillll W.1S m.ldt'. Fi~IlTt, 4.tl iIIuslr.lh's llll' flllllp.uisllll bl'h..,\'\'nllll' winh'r .Jccumul.ltillll Tl.'portl'd hl'rl' rr.lblt' 4.7, l'Il\ullln 1) and the frequencies of parts saVt.'d for bone gt'ei\se pTl)cessing reporll'd ft'r thl.' n'cord (lf June 22-August 14.1971 (T.lblc l.l3, column 3). Althougn bolh samples are exclusively leg bones, thc simiJarity between the two as· semblages is nnl impressive. yet both reprc· sent selections of parls for exactly the same activity-processing uf bone grcase. Figure 4.7 ilIustrates lhe relationship between the white-grease index (Table 1,12) and the frequency of bone occurring in lhe winter as-
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Figure 4.7. Rellltionship bt'tWf'('T'l wintt'r bone grt'llSt' Cllchl' .1T'ld whilt.'-grl'ilse indt.'x. s('nll"ol.l~I' storl'd fm bone grl'aSe proCt.'ssing (Till"oll' 4.7, l"UIUlll/l 1). Cleilrly the relariunship betwt:"t'n thc tW() vilriabll'S is not very strong. It will be rl"caUl'd lhat when we evaluated the whitl"-grcase index we found a strong COUl'spondt'nce between lhe index and the selecrions made for grease processing. What is different aooul Ihis assemblage? Why ¡s .,
strong relationship not clpp.1rl.'nt? In my opinion the seeming lnck of relationshtp bctwcen tbe grease index and the Irequencíes of parta actually cached, under normal condttíons. by Eskimo women, stems from a lack of knowledge regardíng thecomposition oí the populatkm frorn which selections for sh1r.lgl' wcrv made. We are íaced with a modeling problcm. As a Iirst approximation, H is suggested tbnt the MGUI (Teble 2.7) is thc bcst estimator uf the population ofbones likely lo be intrcduced into a residential site from either fresh or Irozen stores. It is such a populanon out of which bones are npt to be selected for storage for the manufacture oí bone grease. The slmplest model of a cached populatíon of bones for grease manufacture is the MGUI multiplied by the white-grease Index (divided by 100). Both index valúes are given in Table 4,7, cclumns 3 and 4, together wtth the valúes resulting from the multiplication uf the two indices (column 5), Figures 4.8 and 4.9 illustrate the relationship betwccn the frequencícs observed in thc two borre grcase caches and thl' rnodel developed to anticipa te the Irequencles. In both cases a clear relatíonship is indicated, curvilinear in form and of a bulk strategy typethat is, bones of modera le value are being SilVl'd íllmost as C0I1111HII\ly ,1" blllll'S llf high Víllul'. Despitc th(, general Ch.1r.1Clt'r 01' the rd.lli(HlShip indkall'd lh,' filll('lwl'l'll d,lla .11ld Illlltll'! is f.lr fmm ~lt'rfl'd. Unl' uf 1111' .1ssumptiolls of 1111' mlldl'! ¡lS developed was that se1loctions wen· m.1dl' independently tor proximal and distal l'nds of the same bone. If in faet selection had bel"n made in terms oí complete bones lhen we could expect a very fuzzy fit. In order to evaluate this possibility mean values were ealculated for proximal and distal ends of the same bone for both th ... dala and the indices uSl'd in the mndl'l. Thesl.' (.llculations are givell in columns 6, 7, ill1l1 8 of T.lblt, 4.7. Column 9 of Table 4.7 is the stand.1rdizcd values for column 8 and is the index model (Uf bones seleeted from an alre-ady cul1ed popu!ation (the MGUI) for use as sourees of bone grease when the selections were made in terms (lf ellmrlete lxmcs r.llhcr th<1l1 .u-
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ticulator ends of broken bones. Figures 4.10 and 4.11 Hlustrate the relaticnships between the whole-bone modcl for selected parts and the percentage of MNls actually observed in the two samples. Now we observe that the fit is nearly perfect for the samples. This provides another demonstration that the analytical tools are useful and generally accurate for anticipating highly informed decislon making on thc part of thc Eskirno. In addition. identical evaluative criteria applled to populations consñtuted in dífferent ways will result in very different forms of assemblage composition. I hnd notcd this bcforc. but in this case I find that wc mus! know nol only thc contcnt uf a population but its state of organízatíon as well. Selections made from a population of broken bones are likely to be different than selections in terma of identieal critería made from a populatíon of complete bones.
MANUFACTURE OF BONE JUlCE AND RELATED MARROW-PROCESSING IN SUMMER SITES During late summer the Nunamiut nor~ mally make a concerted eHort to obtain fresh mea! as a eeJief from lhe monolonous con~ sumption of dried meat from rdatively lean spring cMibou. Animals tl'nd lo bt.'dispt.'rscd ducing lhe summer and hunting efforts are conCl'ntr.1h'd in two IOCéltions: tht' high mtlunt.lins wht'n' 1>.111 sht'l'P ilnd l:ugt.' bul! caribou are hunted, and the northero tundra whl'rc young anim,lls are hunled foc cJothing malt.'rials and mt.',lt. It is not uncommon for families tu be widcly dispersed during lale summer and mobility to bc relatively high. Hunling is vélriably succcssful ilnd almosl always animills are killed individually and relatively infrequently. This means that inputs of freshly killed animals are sporadic and few. Given such conditions in conjunction with warm lemperatures, which make successful slorage of marrow almost impossible, there js a more direc! and immediale processing of animills f(lf cnnsumplion. In é1ddition, thcrc is
Summ~r Sl~s
11631
an effort made to maximize the fat and grease recoverable from freshly killcd animals sincc this is the element most lacking in dricd meat from spring-killed caribou. Under these conditions the processing of parts by women in residential camps is somewhat dífferent than it is in fall and spring or during winter when consumption is primarily from stores. The following is a description of the activities of two womcn living in .1 surnmcr e,unp near Anaktuvuk River during the summer of 1972. On August lB, two hunters had gonc oul hunting in thc mountains at thc hl',ld uf KOl1gumuvuk Pass. Thcy had bccn succcssful in killing two Dall sheep and ene large bull caribou. On the moming of the nineteenth the hunters returned te the mounlains to complete the packingin of meat killed the previous day. The Dall sheep had been butchered in the field. After returning to camp, the packers rested and had tea; then a meat dislribution was conducted in which sorne parts from tbe lwo sheep were distributcd to other f.lmilies in the camp and sorne parts wcre sl't é1sidl' for transport to the main village at Anakluvuk Pass for distribution there. 1 was nut presl.'nt for this distribution and have no record of its character. Of interest here is the Irealment of the célribou. It WilS introLiurt'd inhllhe c.lmp ,1S fil'ld-butcllerl'd p.1C(S .lnd only Ilw IW.hl. mandible, atlas and axis verll'br.1C plus Ihl' two mctilcarp.lls with .1tt.ldlt'd ph.ll.1n~l's h.ld bl'l'n ¡lb,lOdOlll'd al Ihl' kill-bull'hl'rin~ ltll',ltion. As the dogs wcre unpilcked. the fiddbutchcred parts wcrt.' hung difl'Ctly on thl' camp drying rack. The shl>ep ml',,1 W,lS n)Osidcrcd a de!icilcy. and thcn' was pll'nty fnr the campo so Ihl' wnmen dl'cidcd lo proú'ss the caribou pélrts fOf Slllr.1gt.' .1nd fnr immediate use of parls considt.'fed in d.lngcr of spoilage. Meat from the ¡egs was stripped off the bones in fhe manner previously described for drying meato When the stripping af meat was completed. one woman went into the house and returned with two large caribou skins. She folded one up as a seat and strctched the olher on tht., ground as ., dcop
[164 J
4. Food Proeeulng _4 Con.umpc'on
doth in front of her. In addition, she had a Icaotflh for cracking marrow rones and a small
pan. 5he placed her working area directly beside the drying rack wbere the leg bones had been previously stripped. Seating herself, she began the task of dísartículating the leg bonos. and cleaning thcm Ior rnerrow cracking. As thc bonos were crackcd the woman tossed the Iarge splinters around the work area; the chips and smal1slivers of tendón and meat removed in the process of cleaning the rones began accumuJating (In the canbou skin. Marrow recovered durtng the cracking W.1S placed in the small pan. and the artículator ends were stacked beside the pan. Aíter all the bones had been cracked and the pan oí marrow retumed lo the house, the two women discussed al sorne length whether lo 5tore the articulator ends íor future bone grease proeessing or to use them immediately in Ihe production of bone ¡uice. One uf the woml'1l noil'd thal she had fount.i a ~Illall dump uf wi!low underm'alh whkh thl..'n.' W.1S a deep aceumulation of moss and superficial permafrost. 5he cOllfided thar she had already accumulated some articulator ends in that place. The second woman then said "tab whal you want" and the first woman selected both proximal humeri, both proximal femora, bolh dist.ll fl'mora, and both pmximallihüw, leaving the rt'maindl'r fur bunl' jUicl', Al this ¡unl.."tun' Ihl' seclllld woman rt'turnt.'d fmm Ihl' hOUSl' wilh an anvil wck .1nd il smilll .u... 5lw plaeed the anvil on Ihe ski n and beg.ln pul. verizing the remaining articulator ends (two distal metalarsals, two distal radio-eubiti, .'1:11 carpals, two proximal radio·cubiti, Iwo distal tibiae, and two distal humeri plus al1 tarsals including lhe astralagus and caIcaneus). The softer bones were attackcd with more vigor •md thl.'y wt'rl' pulveriZt.'d bl'yond rec()gnilí<Jn. The distal tibiae, distal hume';, aslralagus, and caJcaneus were struck several limes and cracked but they remained unpulverized. The complete contl'nts of the skin, pulverized bones and impael chips fmm the marrowcracking philsc, as well as small scraps of meal and lendon, were then dumped into a poI.
.
~
Water was added and the pot was placed behind the stove in the summer ten lo I had to leave the camp at this juncture but was informed that later the two slabs of roasted sheep ribs were eonsumed at the evening meal and that these were broken up and added to the pot, which was boilcd thc followlng moming togcthcr with the marrow recovercd thc previous day. The broth was drunk in con[unction with the consumption of dried caribou meat during the efternoon by family and vtsitors who had nrrived lo hcar thc detalls oí thc mountain hunt. After complction uf the pot of bone juico, thl.' bony contcnts were dumped in the dog yard. This rneans that the impact chips were distributed independently of the long-bone splinters. The latter remained scattered in the work area whereas the Impact chips were in the dog yard. Jt shnuld be p
11651
Summary
TABLEt.8 .......1Dry of
IdentlRlob" . . . Ele_m" • Pot u.d ... Col... 9, 1969)
,..... "'' _&.0-
ldentifiable part
Quantily
Ir,lgml·llls 01 riv 11111',11'1 ,!Ji".; Slllolll Ir.lf,IlW!1IS of (,1Ilrl'llolls hssu,' A!'-lr,ll,l¡';U~ fra¡.;ml'nts Sllloll1 l,ll'ul,lr
Calcancus Iragmenfs
(compll'tl') t..1rl',lh kOllll'ldl')
T.1t!'-ab
l'r<.xim.ll 111\'I,lp",li,11 fra¡';llll'nt-. Di.;l,ll nu-tacarpal (Ctlmplcl~') Di..;l,ll libia (cllmpll.'ll')
cífic proeessing
I have diseusst'd Ihe general conditions of demand placed upon resources by the Nunamiut, givcn thcir particular adaptation. I h.1VI.' iIIustratt.'d Stlllll'lhin¡.; uf tht.' intt.'r.'l:Ctiun bt.'twel'n the bulk and pt.'riodicity uí inputs tu
"
'IJ I.J
13 6
ljlhul!i (al 1l',1!>12 bones) (alll'M,t 2 bon ...~)
7
v
" I 2
the system end how this may condition the degree to which differentially evaluilll.,d anatomical parts may bl' mappcd onlo pt'r· S(lOS vcrsus the dq;rl'l' Iu whkh Ihl.'Y Ml' .1S· signl'd h) diHt.,rt.'nl USl'S wHh ,111 Ihl.' ,llll'nd,llll Spt.'d.lliziltions in Prt.'p.u'ltitll'l: ,1Ildpnl{'l",... ing, Additionally, I havc discussl.'d soml..'lhin¡.; 1)1 the characteristics of selecting, caching, .1nd modifying bones that may accompany different modes of preparing them for consumption. 1llave not, as was the (ase in the chaplt.'rs dealing with selection uf parts for transp
[ 166J pack dogs for transporUng gear from the summer camp back lo the main village al Anaktuvuk. The women began work around nine in the eveníog and worked until around half-past ten when the male retumed to the processing location. Duriog his absence the women had constructed a drying rack, butchered the three ceribou, and prepared for dryíng a1l six of the rear legs by stripping the meat from the bcnes. They had stripped the meat from four of the six front legs in the rhararteristic manner, lcaving tht' meat attachcd lo the margins of the scapula. When the man arrived he was anxious lo return lo the village so he began placing the processed meat on the rack and encouraged the women lo help him. When this was cornpleted a discussion arose as lo whether lo process the remaining two front legs. The man urged the women to c
... Food Proc~"'J'lg IInd COrUlumptlon
proxtmately 13 lb are needed dally by the family. Consulting Table 1.2, we find that the femur with attached tibia and tarsals weighs (unskinned) about 15.2 lb. This means that one upper rear leg meets (with a little to spare) the daily consumption needs of the family. In terms of marrow eonsumption two marrowyielding borres, the femur and the tibia. are induded in this package. Cleerly. preparation of the needed meal then makes available only a limited amount of marrow. From these booes. only four nrticulntor cnds result from marrow consumption. One can appreciate that the woman of the house is not goíng to process bones forbone grease on a daily basis. We may also anticípate that daily consumption wil1 not always come from a rear leg. 00 sorne days ribs, briskets. sections of thoradc vertebrae, and so on will be prepared and such parts contribute no articuletor ends as potential sources of bone grease. We may gl'lll'r
Summary
term accommoaated to describe tbe relatícnshlp between consumption and other actívities related to food procurernent, processing, and storage.1 arn suggesting that realized patterns of consumpticn are strongly dependenton the activítics of procurement. processing. and storege. We have seen Ihat there ís much contingenl variability in all these phases of
[ 1671 subslstence behavíor. we may therefore expect that fauna! essernblages remaining from consumption will be highly variable, and understandabJe unly in terms 01 these other activities rather than a general set of criterta or scale of evaluation in terms of which consumption decisicns are made.
5 Spring
In the spring the caribou herds move from theír wintering grounds in the forest lo their calving grllunds 00 the tundra slopes north of the Brooks Range. The migrating herds follow rr-rt.un tllltit'ip.ltl'd roun-s. TIH' Nunamiut acklwwll'd¡.;l' 111011 (rom yvar lo Yl'M thl' numl1l,'r
oí cnribou p'lssing through thcir arca varíes, ilS does the exact time thc herds appear. Nevertheless, the placernent oí Nunamiut hunting camps end their overal! hunting strategy are
predicated on the assumption of a regular pattem to the mlgratlcn.
EARLV SPRING MONITORING AND ENCOUNTER HUNTING During early spring (early ApriJ through early May) men travel widely attempting to find moving caríbou. They have a twofold purpose: (a) to gather Information as to the number of animels and the probable timing of moverncnt so fhey may plan their íntercept
strategy (Figure 5.1) and (b) to harvest sorne ceribou eerly since they are cornmcnly short of rneat in spring. These hunters Iollow ,111 encounter strategy: that ts. they cover wíde an-as. gcrwrally south of the Vill.1J.;l' llt'.lf thc Iorcst-tundra bound.try. in Sl',lfd1 uf ~,lml.'. Prcdictlons ,IS to wherc ~,1I111' mi~ht be anvague and highly rentativc during thís period. At best statements concerning caribou are such as this: "Somettmes show up a Httle eerly in the Hunt Fork aree." For monítoring and encounter hunting phases of strategy there are basically two types of sites: (a) overnight camps and stopping places, and (b) kili sites frequently associated with hearths and sorne refuse from food consumpticn. The ovemight camp locations are in pinces that offer optimatC01ldl1iollS for prtll'¡diIfS for l/u' mefz's needs Qlld comicrt. They are normally a day's sled trip apart along a commonly used route through the mountains. The same tocatíons may be used repeatedly during different seasons and foc different purposcs. During 11691
... 1170/
,
5. Sprfnll
'\' ,
,...... 1... . 1 1
....
\
'.'.Jf'-1";"\ ~
. "iJ, •
,
.,
#
J .~
~.'t. ,
·:,·~f·.. ·~· . Figure 5.1.
Jessil' AhglMlk h,"king fur spring cilrib...u,
winter they are used by Irapping pacties (Iargely mOlde up of men), sometimes for a single night but not uncommonly for up to a munth. Thcy ilrc uscd .15 simpll' ovcrnight <:amps by paches traveling over extended dis~ lances and they are used as stopping points where travelers can prepare a quick meat. Such locations arealmost always (a) in oc near a good stand of willows for firewood, (b) near a source of reliable water in summer aod ice or overnow spring water in winter, and (e) protected to sorne degree from high winds. Since thcse (riteria are also used in the selection o( locations for winter aod summer Tl'sidl'ntial camps, the hunting camps are frcquently 10cafed at the sites of abandoned residential camps. Abandoned camps offer additional incentives to their subsequent use as stopping .lnd camping places. First, there frequently is
usable shelter, particularly in an ab.. nd~'ned winter campo Second. caches are commonly made at such locations so that emergency tool needs may bt..' met tlll..'rl' and uther mw m.ltl'rials of use may be scavenged from such a location. Third, thereare almost always usable facilities such as sfakes for tying dogs, racks (or storag,," and for drying gear, hearths, and well-dried firewood in the deteriorating structures. The best locations combine th(' precedlng fcatures with (ti) access tu a prominent overlook from which iI large area may be scanned for game and (b) él "change of pan'" factor, such as a changc in gr"de as ,lt the top of a pass, or a markcd change in slope such that walking or sledding increases or decreases with ease, or a river crossing where sear must be unloaded and reloaded after crossing.
Mlf&prfng oc MIgrTltlon HjjnUng
Parties going out on mcnitoring-encounter hunting expeditions norrnally travel supplied with food since hunting suco...ss is prcblcmatic. Supphes consist of dríed mcat, akutuk cakes. nnd/or rnarrow bonos. A carnp is established and then thc mcn rangc out in scarch uf gnnw If they sight gamc. they approacb it whcrc th,,-'y cncountcr il. lf rhcy are !iUI,:(l'SSfui. tnc Initial ñeld butchering takes place where the animal was dropped. The hunters usually make a Iíre at the kiU-butchering site and consume bone marrow and possíbly sorne meat during the butcheríng. If the dogs are in need of Iood the hunters will Ieed them on the spol rather than transport their Iood to campo Al thls juncture sorne variability enters. depending on whether the hunters decide lo rcturn lo thc vil1a~l'-!ht' rcsidcntial 10(.1lion-m lo contiuuc hunting and monltonng. If the hunters decide ro strtkc camp and return to the village, and if the kili is farther Irom the village than their camp ís, they may load the field-butchered meat and transport it directJy to their hunting camp instead of consuming meat al the kili site. While striking camp and rep.1Cking s!el1s they normally eat marrow ano some mea!. The resuli is th
1171 J these are the parts considered least desirable on the thin oc poor animals prevalent in spring. Men may also roa sl heads and eat bcne marrow in tlw hunting camps. Sincc marrow is also Ircqncntly po(\r (the Eskimos consider poor marrow gt'lll'r.llly inedibh-l. marrow consumplion is Irom parts with hi~h marruw value but very luw mcat valúe: llw consumption oí thcse pMls tilles not cut into the meat available for distnbution. Given freezing temperetures, a common marrow target in early spring hunting camps ís the distal end of the tibia. This is conditíoned by the fact that butcheríng by ax or bludgeon is common. resu!ting in breakage through shafts. This high-value part may be consumed together wilh the metatarsal and there is no nccd lo consume oc proCl'SS the mcat to gatn ill'Cl'SS tu tln- p<1T1.
MIDSPRING OR MIGRATION HUNTING While the men concentra le their monitoring and encounter hunting activHies to the soulh of the contemporary village, younger m{'nand Ihl' women of thl' vill,lgl.'lllonitor thl' rlm!l' uf expected cow migriltion. Thl' milin aggregilteJ rnigration of caribou in spring is largl'ly restricted lo the movement of COW5 and yearling bulls to the calving atea (see Figure 1.1). The Eskimo anlicipate that this movement wiIJ takl' place i1long ,1 mule lh.lt brinW- Ihl' .lni~ mals into thl' An,lkluyuk Vallcy IIMIII (1/ tl't' villQge, This area is also the sccne o( musl {an caribou hunling; therefore, lhe ml'at Slort's remaining in the ficld as c.lches (mm thl' pn.'· vious fall are in the same area as the aotiejpated major spring migration of aggregaled é'nimals. This reliltionship ensures that the antidpated route o( Ihe main cow-Yl'ílTling migration will be well monitored, Even jf me,lt stOf(.'S are ncarly l'xhau:-tl'd thl'fl' will bc ~ome visiting uf cachl' c1Tl.',lS sincl' p'lrts judged 111 marginal ufility in December may wdl be targets for relrieval in ApriL The migration mute is alClng Ihe An,lktiqfauk Vall('y fnlm thl' ht'
[172J
caribou enter acrosa Ihe passes from the valleys to the south. The herds then move west lhrough this valley, generaUy foUowing the north side until they come lo a small plateauIike break in the mountains. This break leads ayer a low pass into the Anavik VaIley, which in turn opens into the main Anaktuvuk Valley. Al the mouth af Anavik the herds come out through a very narrow V-shaped valley (Figures 5.2 and 5.3). From here they follow the east side of the Anaktuvuk Valley north past Tulugak Lake and on to the north slope at the front of the Brooks Renge. An altemative but rarely taken course is along the west side oí the Anaktuvuk Val1ey lo the front of the cange. Although the most common route is through the Anavik velley, there are always sorne herds that follow the Anaktíqtauk down to its ccnfluence with the Anaktuvuk VaJlcy. Occasionally the main migration will proceed along thls altérnate route. If this heppens the caribou commonly cross to the west side of the Anaktuvuk and proceed along the west síde lo the north slope. During this phase of spring caríbou mcvement, a classic íntercept strategy ís followed by the hunters. There are two locations, one at the mouth of the V-shaped Anavik Valley, and the otheron the north side of the Anaktiq' tauk near its opening into the main Anakluvuk Pass, that are Ih{' primary mi~rilti()n hUlllin~ sitl'S. TIll' sih' .It AIl.lvik is 7.7 mill's, ,lIld IIw Allolklil¡I.IUk ¡tk',lliol1 is6.:l111ih's, Irtlln the conlcmporary village. Unce the monitors signal lhat the herds are moving into Ihe .upper Anaktiqtauk the hunters begin a shuttle between the village and the large hunting sites at Anavik and/or Anaktiqtauk, Herds range from around 100 up to 1000 anim.,ls. Intervi'lls belw~n herds vary. Sornetimes 20 minute el.,pscs bctwl.>t.'n hl'rds; s\)metimes as much as a day goes by befare another herd is sighted. For the 3 years of my record the movement through these passes was extremely regular. The first herds moved out of Anavik or Anaktiqtauk on May 20,1970; May 19, 1971; and May 17, 1972.
5. $prlll.
Hunting stands such as those at Anavik and Anaktiqtauk are without a doubt the most extensive and archaeclogícally visible sites in the Brooks Range (see Figure 2.9). They have been used for years and perhaps centuries as key locations in an Intercept strategy. The slze of lotal scatter as measured at the Ana... ik síte was 640 m east-west and 370 m north-south. At Anaktiqtauk, the scatter from a single spring hunting episode was 250 m east-wesr and 200 m north-south. The oyeran visible remains inc1uding debris from earlier years covered a largerarea. These sitesare intemally differentiated into three gross types of location and activity: (a) observation potnts and shooling stands, (b) butchering arees, and (e) central food consumption, resting, and conversatíon arcas. Thc observatkm points and shooling stands are chnracterized by low stone walls that serve as windbreaks and as cover for the observers and hunters (Figure 5.4). FrequentIy there is a small hearth, which is kindled for warmth when caribou movement is slow. There is Vt'ry little dcbrís from consumption ercund such features: however. there may be considerable industrial debris. While they wait for the caribou the men tend to work 00 items they are manufacturing. Today these are generally wooden molcls over which masksare shaped. Masks are an ¡mportilnt item of cumml'rci.,1 lfildt· and hl'nn' innlfllt' 1IIti.1Y. I h.l\'t' ~t't'" oll1l'r ih'ms llt'in¡.; nloldt'
L.«.CNO O' ~,.
1.
a.
3 ...
a
"' .... Ot-iuw1',~ o .. ",,-_ - 2. W''''o ·5 R::, vo·) lII:, o·lII
o· ...
1P;'
•.
e ee ee
Y
T
e
a, ... M
Co 8.
~ ..
o
·~ 6 ......
,.." c ........
la
PIllOCC~"'''''' ~, ... 10'(,. .... ~,,.~
0-....
0:; . .
9
~ ....... q
~, ..
í
~
..&
«-:
~~ ./
H
k+-i-~0,
rt'. Ir ;
huI! nMn'r~ Itlr dlildn'll, 1'1l11dU'~ Itlr
fljnt and sll'cl firl'nlo1king kits, snuw goggles-and I have also secn the men rer,liriog snowmobile parts. Aoimals killed from such locations are dragged to a butchering location once the herd has passed. This location is normally hidden from the route of the cilribou but it may bt.. visiblc to lhc itnimals afler thl'y hilVt' pasSl'd. I-Il'rl' .,11 butchl'riT1~ and temporary caching takes place. Also hidden from the view uf approaching animals is an area adjacent to the butchering area where Ihere are several promineot hearths, a dense scatterofbroken bones, SQme makeshift facilities such as skin windbreaks
~- ~-
r
c ..
:¡"",,,,.6ft. lit T "' ....... 6,.. c. ZA 60..0 6'''11.6 ,:!- H,,,, K...."''' V\I....
11.
,., ...I'\ C
..
'---' ~ ,.<."~
,/ ....... -.vv..::!~_ .. ~p.:::~~v-~~ Vl • • • •
C~-~\ ..!:" r-~ r ".........;". ." . ,·'1 er,.....,. (_/'
\
.J"
,-----
'JI..\ ) A \')
~\
CIll C .....
"il
M .... O~
AN"K'T'UVUIC. .0"....... 0:;
' ....
F'A,06. AL.A61C..... M, .. o:;o
o FiRU~
5.2.
M.lpof An.lkluvuk ]'ilssarl'.l showinlol sitl' Il".ltiuns.
•
') )
)
I..~lf,.,~#
(
11741
5. Sprin.
Figure 5.5. A skln windbreak al the hearth arca uf the Anavik hunting stand.
F1sure 5.3.
The moulh of Anavlk Valley.
pladog the phalanges that in thl.' P.lst Wl'R' used in a kind of gambling gaml? Hen? men resting from watching for animals. men who have finished butehering and are making preparations for packing meat, and new Clr· rivals from the village alJcongrega te to talk of the hunt, to eat, lo gel warm
women who are butchering or she may simply rem..in in Ihl' rouvorsation ,lfl'.l if thin~l'i nre slow _ When ., herd is rnoving past the arca, butchering and convetsañon may stop, as most men will be at shooting positions and most women will be watching the hunt. After the herd has passed the hunters drag 'he anirnals to the butchering area, frequently nided by thetr wivcs. If caribou movement is deemcd slow, the mnn may pack the fieldbutchered meat into the village. After he lea ves, the woman will galher sections of abandoned front and reclr quarters from the butchering arca and shc will télke Ihem into the convt.'rsnlion nrea. There she will disarticu· late these elements further and break them for marrow, normally testing the part considered mosl likcly lo be good-the radio-cubitus for the fronl leg and the tibia or the metatarsal (or Ihe rear leg, depending on how the rear quar· ter was originally butchered. If the "best" bone turns out to be poor Ihe others are generally abandoned around the processing area articulatt'd and unbroken. lf Ihe marrow is iud~ed ~(lod, bones of the same le~ of less('f
v,'rS,\liUll .ln',l ,mli ,\bSllrh .lllth,' I,Hl'sl IH'\\'~. T1Wll tllt' lll.lll ~llt'S otilo his l,lVprik ~lw\llill~ stmui. TIll' wi(,' may pilch in atlli Iwlp ollH'r
,.;,'m'r.llly nlll~Ulllt·Ill,lI'J'IIW ••111111\11'1\ l"lltnill¡': inlo llw ,In',l lrlllll Ilw Vil1,l~l' or shonling
". (Figure 5.5), numerous small caches uf 10011s. utensils used in making tPiI and beme juice. aod items used in games. Today severo1l decks
of cards are almost always in such areas,
n"un" ~.... ~I,lIld
1\ .. h,,"· withll>rt·.,1. ..1",1"',1111; .1
t"U11'''t\
n~
11751
MI,uprlng or MlgraUon HjjnUng
\',Ihll' Ill,lV hl' h'sh'd. Whih'
stands will consume sorne of the tested marrow that the women are piling up. Normally, by the time the rnale partner retums the woman has accumulatcd a smal! pile of good marrow bones (frequently lacking distal artículator ends because the latter were discarded al the conversation area during the testing process). These tested marrow bones are returned lo the village on the next packing trip for use in meals prepared thcre. Sucf marrow bones are not currently sto red and are normally consumcd in thc vtllagc by thc tinte migration hunting is overo Mcat from vtllage stores is never introduced to such a stte. Considerable food consumption occurs on these sites but meat is always from freshly killed animals. The hunters cat marrow. as well as roasted meat (primarily mcat stnps from arcar quarter If " number of mcn .m.' present). In small groups the men will cook tongues and occasionally thoracíc vertebrae. Because the tongue cannot be dried it ís thcrefore preferentlally ronsumed at hunting stands and ,.1Inps ,1S wcll .\S in spring n'sidl..'nti.t1 úunps. Liver and kidneys are also consídered inappropriate or impossible to dry so these are also eaten as quickly as possible; however, they are less often consumed in hunting stands. lnevttably spring hunting stands have severa! hcads of fall-killed caribou complete with atticulated antlers. These are drngged to thc sue from nearby fall caches and are uscd fora vari-
• •"''i
h'sl¡n~ 11", WOllWr\
"II'''n'
~.l,.
..'.111.1 ht·.lrlh
1·.111 .It.tl,·, .. 11 ..,-,1 .1" .• t... 1. ,"t-' .1 11111Irlt1~
TABLE5.2 A.c1U-Y Fact.: F _ I A-._bJ.gH ., ti.
5. Spring
11761 TABLE5.1 ......torIM 01"-lo_leal
Arl'ol A (1970-1971)
Anavik llJ71
MNI
%
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(')
(')
•.s o
11.1 O
l.,
33.U
UI
'.0
44.4 11
22,2 77.7
o
Cranium
M.mdibll' Alias
5.0 IJ
H.1.)
Axis
u u
Cervical vertebral' Thuracic vcrtebrae Lumbar vertebrae 1'¡'lvb + saaulll Ribo,
.
n.23
r.o
5
u
o
n
u
u
o
1M JI,O
15 .511
1I1,Ó
o
"'
11
1»
UJ
In."
Scapula Proximal humeros
Lll 5
1fdi
o
'.3 '.1 25.11
o
5
['ruximill r.ulill-fuhitu!'l
1.5
Distoll radlu-cubitus (""rp,lls I'rtl~il1loll 1l11'1.¡r,'TI'.11 11,..I.iI""'I,,,,II'I',.1
4.0 35
.... ~,1
4u
hh h
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hh
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l'ly of purposes. They are arranged ovcr hearths for suspending meat during roasting (scc Figure 5.6), and they are sometimos uscd as supports for ski n windscn-ens (Figuro 55). Stlml' n1clY serve ns rnw material for making snarc anchors. which MI.' occasionally set around temporarily cached meato Thl' fall •1Olk'rs an° almost always in Ihe cunvers
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plex. r never observcd thern in the butchering area although they may be present arcund hearths in the observntíon stands. (Sce Tnblcs 5.1 il1ll15.2 fllr.l SUlllllhlry uf the d.ll.l obt.uucd at thc Iwo m.ljor spring iun-rccpt locations. Thc Anavik samplc is well wntrollcti in 11M! il refers to the spring activities of a singlt.' Yt.'ar. We visited the ¡lfI.'aprit,r !olhe nnsl't uf hunlin~ activitil's, colh'f'!l'd hUIll's,
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E>;pt'l'II'.1 nlUl1t (se.· Ch.lpl.'r 4. p. 1">4-IS5). • Corn'.:t.·.1 v.,lut· (~.,. (·h.,pl'·' 4. P 1<;<;) N,,{ !,l!>ul.'h·.! ~ IIMt . .1,,1,01111<'1.1, .111'.tI. I'Ml . 1''''~lIll.tllIl<'l.ll.orl'.tI. IllU . .11'1.01 r.odl"" Ubllll'. I'J{( . 1'"""".,1 ,.,,10,,·, IIb,IIl'. r 111 . •It,!,ol 1>""".1'1'" 11M l. ,11'1.,1 " ... I.I!.",.,1
[ 1781
5. Sprfng
cleaned the aree. Any bones occurring al OUT next visit had therefore been deposited be· tween the two observatíon dates). Today the large mtercept sites are visited by hunters operating out of the permanent village al Anaktuvuk. The vtllage was built in its prcsent location partly bt..·C.1USt.' of thc pwx· imity of both spring and (.,11 interccpt IOCiltions. The village is also ideally situatcd for early spring encounter hunting and summer hunting. In the past, when the Nunamiut were mobile, the intercept sites served as focal points around which annual moves were planned. If winter houses were located far from spring ¡otercept locations, a residential move would be made priur lo thc anticipaled date of large herd movement. The residential spring hunting eamps were established in the general area of the intercept loeabon but IttVrr nn thl' sitc itst.'If. 5nulh of Ihe An;¡vik inll'rn'pl sitl' j...,1 IM~l" willow-covered alluvial fan appruximalely 260 m long and 85 m wide. rhe fan is 700 n1 from the main hunting stand at its c1asest poinl and 1112 m away at its most distant point. lt is covered with the remains of camps, both residential and logístical (occupied by male work groups). Thc arca is very complex in tl'rms of land use. Anavik is also a late summer ¡nlcrcept location and may be used in fall by male hunting parties so the camps in the fan are not exc1usively spring hunting camps. I was able to document the archaeological remains of a hunting camp in this fan that was established by hunters using the Anavik intercept site. rhe camp was occupied by a party of • four men for approximately 1 week in the spnng of 1950. The hunters' spring residential camp WilS at another favonte intercept spot, Tulugak Lake, but the families had decided to summer in the mounlains (near the presenl village of Anaktuvuk) ralher Ihan on Ihe tundra slope lo Ihe norlh. Given Ihe anUdpated locatiao of the summer camp, taking spring animals .1t Anavik would result in a ft'ductinn uf packing distance of about 10 miles. So, instl'ad uf upcr.lling out uf .1 rl'sidential camp as is the usual procedure, Ihese
.
~
hunters established Iheir hunting camp in the willows south of the Anavik intercept location. From thís male-only hunting camp, migration spring huntíng was ccnducted. Table 5.3 presenta the bone inventory from this location (dcsignated Anavik A·B-C). The men of this camp dld not h,lVl' pack dugs wilh tlu-m. They antlctpated caching the mear Ior ínter movernent into the summer ramp after hunting had been completed and they hed estabIished the summer rampo They díd not bring Iood with them either, stnce the cemp was established after the migri'ltion began and they were assured of food from Iheir huntingactivitieso
LATE SPRING HUNTING Aftl'r the main herds uf c~'ws .1nd y('01rlin~s havl' p.1SSl'd huntin.,; SItIWS '1Ol1 t.lkl'S tlw (Imll of what 1 call dispt'rst'd illlt'm'Pt IlIwtil/:':. Uull caribou do nol normally migrate with the cows. They come through the mountains a httle later, more dispersed, moving slowly, feeding along the way, and in relatively small groups. Early in this phase of caribou move· menl, bull herds averilgl' ilbuut 60 aninlills. Llter, smaller groups are more CUnlmun, and finally large bulls come through th'~,<,area singly or in pairs. By June 10 all the migrating animals have passed through the areí'l. The main migrati<m hunting is ttmninated by Ihe completion of the migralion, or by the breakup of the ice on the river, whkh prewnts Ihe men living in residenlial camps on the south or west side of the river Irom getting lo Ihe ¡ntercept ¡oration. The hunlers then bl'gin dispersed inlercept hunting. The stratt.'gy is for pairs of hunting partners to hunt fram stands they consider "theirs." Such teams of hunlers may have from 4 to 12 slands scattered 00 knolls, on eskers, along Ihe boulder talus of morainic deposits, and in rhe talus alung the base of the mountaiM. Th(' dl'rlsily uf such stand s is highl'st alt\O~ rommonlv used caribuu mUll's, bul givl'n Ihl' slllilll group sizes and the dispersed pattern of late sprinF;
Lote $prfng Huntlng
caribou movement, theprcdictability of caribou alonga given route at a given time is relatively low. In addition to these personal hunting stands. there is at present ene hunting stand that is cmploycd in ,1 corporate manner. The Maak sito is locatcd J 5 miles southwcst of (he prcsent villagc of Anuktuvuk. Activitics bcre nn- complcx nnd are charactcnzcd by a changíng use of rhe locnticn from the early phases of disperscd Intercept hunting te the late phases. Early-Ih,ll is, nñcr the cessetion uf the main migr'ltilln hunting-the Eskimo anticipale bulls in their largest groupings (roughly May 20 to May 30). There are two major routes that the bull hcrds use soulh uf the river, which is g\.'nerally impassable at this time. One ruule leads them outofGi¡mt Creek and arcsslightly south, Ihen Cn>sses an ice field south 01 the villa~l' ,1I1d nmlinut's tlp illon~ tht.' mor,linC' C1ll1H'l1tr.lll'd .lrllund tl1l' moulh llf Conl,KI Crt.'l'k (sel' Figurt.' 5.2). -rhl.' hl'rJs cross Clmtact Creek and procced north, along the west sirle of Anaktuvuk Valley. Herds following the other route come fmm the sou th, generally up the west side of the Jol'ln River valley. This mute also Icads the animals onto the moraine at Ilw IlHlulh llf Conl,lCl Crl'l'k. 8ulh wutcs convl'rgl' nl',lr thl'sl' mnr.1int.'s, jusi southWl'st of thl' presL'nt village. C10sc to this convergence, on a norlh-south oriented moraine covercd with large glacial boulders, is the Mask sitl.'. From about May 20 through June 10 this site is wntinuously occupied by men and 1xJYs, excl'p! fnr the warml'sl hours of the day when cari1xlu are no! expl'c1ed to be moving. Every eVl'ning, thwugh the night, and into t1ll't.',uly morning hllurs the sitl' is occupied. It commands a good Vil'W of Iht' valley and game approaching the village from the east or soulh can be munitored. Men come and. go bctween the Mask sile and the village. Any animals sighted fmm lhe village, in Meas nol visible to the hunll'rs on the Mask site, are reported to llw hunh'rs. Intefl'slL'd p\.'rsons in the villa~l' illways "IWW Wh.ll 11w nwn un lhl' Sitl' arl' duing .\Ild whell ganll' is sighl...d. Given thl' slow movC'nlC'nt of animals at leasl an hour
11791 usually passes between the sighting of game and the commencemcnt of hunting. Hunters in tbe village are alerted and a hunting strategy. frequently cooperatíve, is devcloped. For example, if a sizable herd is noted its pattem uf movement is monitored. If (he huntcrs iud~l' 111,11 il will l11t1Vl' into tl1l' moraincs, they will try to intcrccpt it in .1 rotunda-hke basm among the moraines. This rotunda is él circular Mea, spproxtmetely 1 mile in díameter. As many huntcrs as can be mustered gather. thcn deploy at six points around the rotunda. rhe hunters communicate about herd movement and give signals to begin firing by means of a series of calls, musl of which mímic the ri.wen. Wh\.'n the herd is judged lo be completl'1y insid\.' thE.' rotund,l, the leam nearest the animal s will signal that it is about to begin firing. Sl'veral animals are almofOt always killl'd in thl' iníli.ll '-'OUl'Y. T1w Iwrd "spt1llks," .md bl'~ins h, rUl1 .1way fflllll th ... source of na', but it willlx'llld by fia'lwm one of the positionslln the opposite side of the rotunda. Again the herd tu ros and runs in another direcHon; again it meels the fire of ane of the other posit1ons. rhe herd is bounced back and forth within the rotunda until the hllntl'rsslnp firing. In llJ721 watdwd a Iwrd llf 64 animals hllnll'r.l in this 111<1IHwr. SiXt\'-lll1l' were killed. Twu were allowed lo escape b\.'· cause they were identified as cows, anó the last simply gol away. AUlhe killing took ¡ess than 30 mino Afler such a hunl, dead ordying animals are scattered all over lhe rotunda. The hunlers move oul, butchering Ihe ,lnimals where they fell. If snow cover is sufficient fm sleds, or if the tundra is wel enl)ugh fm snowmobiles lo be uSl'd, compll't\.' aninMIs will be loaded and lr.lnspurlcd to thc villagl' ice cellars for butchering, I.ugely by women. If conditions are such thal pack dogs musl be used-no snow cov('t and dry tundr.lfield butchering is done at Ihe kili localion. Meat is brought back to the M.1Sk sile to be Iranspurll'll tu th l' vil1i1~l'l,ltl'r. MiHf(\W bUlWS (lr hmgul's m,lY bt' rookl'd ami l'.lll'n amund the m.1I1Y l1l'o\flhson thl' sill' whill' (1", hunlL'rs engage in a jovial conversation regarding the
1180 I
I
5. Sprin9 TABLE5.3
11811
Lote Sprlng Hunllnfl
Inventorle. o( Alaatomlcal P.rt. at Sprint Huntln. Sfand. Dispersed --1l,l5() An.1Vik A·IJ·C
1'171 M,'sk sitl'
W.'h.·, Nn. 2
Rig.Uld Nn. I
----_.- - - -
-_._._~-
MNI Anollt.mit-,ll p.1ft Anlll'r Skull Molndibk
Allols-.nis Cervical vertebrar-
Thoracic vcrtcbree Lumbar vertebrae Pelvis + S<1fTU m Ribs
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hunt just ñnished. Becausc this sitc is Su dose to thc villngc, cxpcrionced hunters nevcr take f(lod to Ihis !O(illion ffnm Vill.l/-;l' stort's.1f Ihcy ~t'l hun~ry al th~ Sitl' .lnd thl'fl' arl' no rt'(l'nlly
killt'd .lnim.lis, tht.·y will rt'turn tu tlll' viIIi1J;l' lo l',lt. Similiuly, during thc pi'lcking uf mt· .. t, sillero tht.' kill-butchl'ring lucations an' displ'rsed .lnd nol .1ggregatcd nt'ar Ihe hunting
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stand as in thc case of Anavik and Anaktiqtauk, dogs arl' rarl'ly prl'sl'nt un tht' hunlin~ sl.md itst.'lf. Tlh.·y ilfl' m'Vt'r fl'd lhl'fl'l'l\w¡'l in very rare inslann's whl'n animi'lls Mt· killl,ti very nl'ar tht, stand. Do¡.;~ m,lY bl.· fl.'ti ill Ihl.' kills; howl'ver, in Ihis Cllnlext men rilrcly eilt .11 thl' kills. Bl'CilUSe the.' s¡le is Vl'ry c10se to the villil~l'
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and hunting ls llsuillly slow, there are alweys ytllln~ rm-n ,lIltf tXlY~ on thc stte with the nltll· ... tlll'h' \'\pl'rit'lIl"l'd hUlllt'rs. If sln.lB ~roup ... \'l" sitl~lt' .lnim,lls followin~ l.'r<1tic rnuks ,1fl' siHhlt'l-i. lh~ nll'll l'ncoumgt' th~ YOUllt-; nll'n ,lIld boys lo t-;o i'lftl'r them. It is in this conll'xt th.ll thl' yuung men get mueh expl'ri~nee ilmi I mi~hl .ldd mueh eritidsm
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and I~. t sing. Th e expericnced nu-n nrv aftcr íat th~ YllUn~l'r rru-n. t"l~t'r tor l'''pl'ri~lll"l'. ,u~ ,Üh' .. 1111.1' ,mil1l"ls.•llh! sl1\101 WIll'nl'Vl'r th~)' gel Iht' dl,lI1(l'. lt .1 YtlUIl~ hunlt'r kills.l vl'ry "skinny" bul! Of il (u\'\.' or even a ealf, hl' m.,y b.,. l'mbilrril ..s~d to rt.'lurn his "prize" lo fhe Vi1lil~~, sillee h~ ean l'Xpl'ct much feasing. The prl'sl'nc~ uf Yllung ml'n
nnirnals. but
11821 and boys un (he M.1Sk site is in marked contrast lo the situatíon al migratíon sitcs such as Anavik and Anaktiqtauk, which are occupied almost excluslvely by experienced huntcrs. Given the sJow pace of hunting al the Mask site. there is much manufacturing of craft items, playing of cards, and talking. Industrial refuse frum mask making and tool rcpairing is dense on this site. Similarly, there are cards and "bone dice" on the site. The old men compare the site lo a "men's housc." where
much educatíon of the young takes place through the tclling of stories and the relaxed association of the expenenced men and the youog, inexperienced boys. Gradually, as the expcrienced men note (he decreasing frequency of sizablc bull herds and increasing frequency of stragglers in singles or groups of twoor three. they will visit the Mask site less and less. Instead thf'Ybegin takíng up positions in the small hunting stands displ.'rsed all UVl..'r tht, valk'y. Th(· youngt.'r ml.'n, however, continue to go to the Mask site, hoping Iv be Ihere when the rare bull herd comes so that they might hunt "Iike men" in Ihe ilbsence of the older huntl.'rs. The uninfonned visitor to the Mask sitc in e..rly June may be somewhat puzzlcd by the bt-h.wior of these young meno Fur instance, it may be announced thallherl.' arccaribou moving along the east side of the valley. The youog men will continue playing cards, secmingly ignuring the announcement. If such no aoouuncemenl h.'ld been madI.' the wet.,k bdort', th(,y WllUld havl.' bt.'l.'n running .11 full spl.'l.'d • ,KrtlSS th(, vall('y tu inll'rel.'pt Ih(' animnls. It is nut Ihat Ihl.'Y ar(' mon' inlt'resl(,d in «mis Ihnn in earibnu-Ihl.'y knuw Ih('rl.' an' hunlin.,; st.'lnds of lhl' ('Xpl'rit.'nn-d hunll'rs on IIw l'nsl side uf Ihl' vi\lIl'Y. 1( Ihl'Y ~;IVl' rllr.o;uil nnd fuult'd Ihl.' nppurlunily of .1n l'xpt.'ril'm·l.'d hunter, they would be teaS('d, chnstised, and on occasion {'ven publidy i1bu~ by the oldcr meno Al this time of y('ar thcir chanccs resl with Ihl' improbnbll' situatiun uf Glribou coming intu the rotunda wht.'n no t.'xperit!llced men are present. Thus the C;1rd games go on and the talk isan endless fantasy gameof what Ihey would do jf the caribou camt.'.
5. Spring
Durlng this last phuse of spring hunting. thc Mask site bccomes somethtng of " young men's camp, Since hunting is very slow and they are not participating in the stmggler hunting with the experienced men they tend to stay for long periods of time at the Mask site. During their stay rhcy are apilo introduce food from the villngc into the si te. Nnrmally this food consists of GlIlS of sardines. crackers, and marrow bones picked up Irom the proeessing arcas outside their parents' houses. The bcnes transported lo the Mask site by the young men are apt to be of only minor valué, sínce the women ol the house pi le the bones destined for household use in little caches under or on thc mcat racks. Thc young mcn must seek their bonos among the scattered fresh parts, leaving these stacked signs of household planning alone. Meanwhile, the experienced men are out in Ihe small personal stands walchins; fnr nnti taking the uceasiol\al slragglt'rs. Nurm.llly, the hunters leave the villnge fur tht'ir5tanJs in the late aftemoon, taking menl, lea, and other food because their chanees of a kili Me slight. Thcy generally occupy thl' small hunting stands al! night and returo to the villag" when thf' sun crests in thl' early moming. Such st.mds almosl always have a small netp,. nn'a whcrc unt' man Sll't.'pS .15 tht.'otht.'r watt.'hllS. fur caribou, a hearth arca (or several, depending on coukíng techniques), and a windbreak of stones ur its e«u¡valent in the form (lf large nílfuTi'lJ mcks (st.,(' Figun's 5.7 and 5.S). AniIllills hunted fru1llsurh IOl' distance away and Ihe hunters inlt.'nd tu hunt furlher il is field butchcred and cnched. Normally Ihl'Y will retum to the hunling !'I.lnd with mo1rTUW bones, tongues, and occasionillly tlthl'r pmls to be consumed in the stand. Men occupying such stands never go into the fil'ld with dll~S. In Ihc event of ,1 sucn'ssful killlhl'y will ~o tu
11831
Lote Spring Hun"ng
Fi8U~
5.8.
The h\'arlh al thr- R·B ~rril1~ huntill~
Fi8U~ 5.7. Th..· hearth ,1n,1 sh'pin~ arca al thc R-B sprin¡; hllnling SlilllJ
stand.
the village and then return to rhe kili with dogs Ior packing. Under these conditions dogs are alwnys fed in the fidd, cither at thC' hunting sland Uf nt lhe kili, dept.'nding (lO Ihe lncnlion of the cache. Craft activity is somcwhat less common at these slands Ihan at lhe larger corporate locations, bec'!.use there are only two men lo monitor the environment. At the large siles the moniloring is shared among the men and many are free at any one time. Tablt, 5.3 summilrizes the bum' inventorit's (roro Ihe Mask site nnd from a number of disperscd or personal late spring hunting stands. Tal:>le 5.4 gives additional information on thc~(' sill'S. (Sl'C Figure 5.2 for locatjons.) St.'vl'r¡lI poinls of intl'rt.'st l'mergc from Ihl.' dal., on llw displ'rscd hunling stands. Skul1s i\nd iu\lll'rs li.'.;h'd ("r thlo'Sl' sitl's, l'xn'pl (or Ilw sl.,nd li\hl'lt'd Hi~,lUd N(l. 1, ml' frmnfall-killl'd l'nrihuu .lIll1 had bt'\'n dr,'g~l'd in Íllr uSt.' as Sllsp\'l1siul1 IHloks OVl'r ht'ilTlhs al the sifl'. fi.,;url' ~.H illustr.ll\'s Ihis, shtlwin~ IIw Iw.lTlh arei1 .lt tht, stand I.lhclt'd R·B. Unly al lhe sill.' labdcd Rigaud No. 1 was a head roasted by Illl.'occllpants. In Ihis caSt' Ihe skull and antier bases were heavily charrl'd i\nd partially calcinl'd bl'(';lUSl' thl'y h.1d bl'C'n tosf;cd jnlo the fire aftcr the head was eaten. Unly at siles labclcd Weber No. 2, Rigaud No. 1, Rigaud No. 3, i1ndR-B had ~uccc!lf;ful killsbeen made. Al! ullwrs n'pTl.'s('nl food introducl.'d rrom vil-
lage stores. 1 heve combined the four sitcs from which kills were madc into a single assl'mblagl' rt'presentin~ frl'!'h marrow-yil'ldin~ bllOl'S, hlgl'lht'r wilh ml'al illld pl'rh.lps tnarrow bones introducl'd fmm villngl' sluTI.'s. These data are summarized graphically in Figure 5.9. Data (rom the majn spring interccpt locations are summi1rizl'd jn Figurl' 5.10. Comparison among the three types uf hunting stand as rcprescnted by thlo' conversationwork ,UC
.1'
TABLE 5.4
11851
Lak Sprlng Huntln"
Anc:mary Facta: Faunal A..emblagea al Lete Sprtng Hunllng Sund. TABLE 5.4-(contlnued) Anavik A-B-C Allrlbules
Observed
Mask site
Expected
Observed
Combmed dala hum pl'rsllna! slanJ~
EJo:pcoctm
Observed
Anavik A-B-C
R, Arlr.-14/l/ll'r ('wl;; Long bone Mt'larudlal Tulal
c.
Rif>s Rib fragments Rib heed s T"tal
p, RIllil'S Shaft srlinll'rs ArliculilloT {'nlh«
116 52
260
216
2~1
3JJ
25
24
44
'"
"'"
2"
'6('
23
44 377
14' 1
o y
7 lO
r.
.,. 14"
o 17 6
Observed
"
"
tso
12.07
12U
14,'14
.13
LO
.126
:n.3% 4.tl'JI.
o o :rt.:'I'J\. ~1.tl'X,
33.3%
2<; "'ll, hó,h'Y"
u 11.11% 32.11%
o
1"..
160%
IOtI.O% 210% 23% O
o Illtlll% 41111% 2<;.0% 2<;0% HlIUl% 'lIIIl'X,
6
Tarsats lo DT
11.
2«'
f)r~lrll'm¡'l'r"'ml
, ti
s
z
1
,
ti
ti ti t2 ti t2
11 I
11
11
3
ti
5 1
154
100.tl'%. 4.5% 140% 110% 11 11
11 O
:lJll'r"
:W.I'I%
o
ti
-.
." ." '""" ". •,.
100.0
100.0
..
IIlANO
A.'
-------.:;:=-...
.Y1
J() n
50.0
3f>.oI
.
11(
.;:;:
~
' EIIV
PH"
se
'" ""
~,
""
j
,¿.t.NAVIII "TltC0l2J -'"
PELV
fo4A<;1( 51H l
AlII'
IAflLF!i~.
COI 41
''Me oec
---:;'''.
""s-r
PHISONAL STA'fOS / ! 'A81E ~ 3, COL 20)
'" '" '" '"'CARP M' ""'"nr ". AS' P.' '.T
_I_T'OT_
f'lI.Ir
<,..
'" '",., ,., '"
x<~::"x
_;-,;:ox
o---~~~f:~~ COL 21 .
,1!"-:JJ.._-'_.... ..• . _1-_ .. 11) In \0
~(l
'
!lO (,O
~Jt.-- . .
-, ",' _noTA.... :
CAe
,~,
.. ~tl". ,,"
"? _
11\1(" 1
CQlI
'HA!. ,
,z
o
10 ZO 30 40
eo ~O
10 80 90 100
'--_----'-."----'--------'-
-o 110 '10 100 .,.
LATE SPRING HUNTtNG STANDS
1
7 11
c'~
"er "... "M •sser
C.[AV
PHAl
3
7 ItI ti
.545 85.7
MANO
o
z
7 11
LO
PotAI
t
4
,
14,<;
100% lt.,U"""
!.10'~
o
ti ti
,
.J:\J A1ó
III
o
,
11
8 Corrccted values (see Chapter 4, p. 155-156). • I'Re, prulIimal radio-cubhus: DII. distal bumerus: PT, proximal tibia; DMT. dlst.ll md,llMs.1t; I'MT, proximal metal.us.1!; DT, disl.ll li!;>i.l.
ro <;J
1.0
'ObSt'I'Vt,(1
Expected
Observed
ti
Percentage up
8 52
D.N!
hum pt'TSllnal stand!>
mIJj'"
Frunt
44
ti ti 27.<,l'lI.
¡{I'oU 111'
DMT 11' lars.1ls PMT lo tarsals PMT lo DT
2e"
2ó
Arllnrl'llllulS h
I'runl duwn Pront \Ir ('RC lu OH Rl'M down I'T duwn 1'1"'1
..
20
Expected
ti ti ti
Rt'.u
131 19
o o
G, Plsm""'¡'l'r",nrll'l/luj'S Frnnl up Frnnl down Total Irunt Rear up I("M down Rt',1r lolil!
o
,Y'
20 3
Rib beads Rib luta! f. Burned "'mI' Mandiblr Tru.'ra(l( vertebrae Rib becds Rib Iragrnents Proximal tibia Distal tibia T,us.l1s ASIT.lgalus Catccneus Proximal metatarsal Distal ml'lal.us.,1 l'h,I!,III':"!> l..,ng-hulW splinll'rs Ml'l.lp,'di.11 splintl'r!l
7'
2
27'
Comblned d,lla
sne
ElI(pe(II·1.1
.... nbutes
A. SIII/!I sl.imll'N Smooth splintera Channcjed splinlE'nl Tulal sp!inlt'Ts Cylinders Sh.lfls
Mask
Pigure 5.9. Cumparativc percentagcs fnr parts rem.linin¡; .11 1,111' spring hunting stands.
DATA FROM SPRING HUHTING STANOS (TABLE ~.ll Figu~ ;.10. Compar,lli\'" l",rn'''I,lg''~ f"T pMh n-. maimng at the mail'r sprint; bu nfing ~t'\nd!'
~
11861 tion there. This menns that al Anavik and
An.lktiqt.1Uk rcsldu..1parts Irom Ihl' butrhering arca are introduccd into thl' ronvcrsutlon aren and therc they Me furthcr processcd fUT marrow, resulting in the introduction into the erea oí parts of low marrow utiJity such as phalanges. On the other hand, al the Mask site and al the dispersed stands parts of minimnl utilily ,1ft! pnw.'l'ssl'd oí( .11 Ih.., kili IOG1tions or in the víllage, and unly prime marrow bones are introduced into the hunting stands. The considerable contrast ~twecn the Mask silt.' ilnd the othcrs with n.·gilfl1 lo lhe frequlmcy llf front It.'$pc1rls is prob.lbly rc!all'd to lhe lote-phase i1ctlvities uf Che YOllog men,
who introduce from residentiaI aTeas marrow bOlles thal were not seleeted by the women of
the house for household use. As mentioned earlier the eontrasts between the three types of spring hUrlting st;mds are striking. There are hi~h frl'(lllt.'ndes of phillanges at Anavik and Arl'"lktiqtauk where the butchering location is imml'di.lll'ly adjaeent to the conversation area; low frequencies of phalanges at Mask and at the dispersed stand s; high frequencies of radio·cubiti at the Mask site where s('('ond-rclte hunters are common cnnsumcrs; high frequt'ncit's (lf tht, tibia-thc primt> marrow 1>l.me-at the Mask site and at the dispersed stands compared to low frequt'ncit's ólt Anavik ami An.lktit¡l'lUk; high frequencies of ribs and sternums at the displ'rsl'ti Sllll1ds, n·prl's(·nlin¡.; 1lll'.11 ¡nlmduced by hunters fmm residential arl'i\s. AH sites exhibit relatively high frC'quencies of mandibles. iIIustrating the quick eonsumprion of Ihis part, whieh eannot be dried. Al! sites are low on the vertebrae, and the heavy, meat-yielding parts sueh as the humeros and the femur are gent>ral1y abscnt. This rerlt.'ets the prim<1TY eonsumplilm tlf marrow (Jn .. 11 sites and Ihl' biliS toward thl' inlrotiuclion of high qualily parts intu Ihe vill.lge. In an attempt to mode! or anticipatl' Ihe frequencies on the hunting stands two faets seem important. At Anavik and Anaktiqli\uk field observations indicate that most marrow is consumed from parts rceovert>d fronl the
5. Sprln.
nearby butchcring aren, not frorn parts stacked fur tmnsport lo tlll' Vill.l~'" Un Ilw othcr hand. .It 11ll' Mask site nninl.1ls kilh-d .mgcncrnlly fcw and scancrcd. and fil'ld butchcring is conducted sorne dislanee from the stand. The hunter retums to the hunling stand with the meat for the village if he elects to continué hunting. Selection of parts from frL'shly killcd anlmals et such locations is 1"((1111 the parts already sclected for retum tu the village. This mean!! that al Anavik and Anak~ tiqtauk marr()w boncs are selected {rmll a kili· butcllajtl:o: pop/lJalioll I'{ I,.I/Il'S, whl'rl'élS at tht' Mask sitl' marrow bunl's are ~l'!t· ...tt'd fnlln thl' populati<m rl'11lOtH.'d from a kill·butehl'ring location. Prt.'Sumably this would also be trut.' for the short-term eamp of Anavik A~B·C. On the other hand, bones introduccd intu tht.' dispersed stands are eommonly transported there by Ihe hunters from the rl.'sidenlial location. Thcsc .Ul' almost Cl'rtainly Sl'll'ctl·d
{rom the morral{' btl1u'S QlIIfilafJ/c lor cm/sumptiol1
at tI/" residence. Thus, in anticipilting thl' frl'· quencies at Anavik and Anakliqtauk the besl model would be the jniJ('~{' (lf the modificd gel¡eral utility index (MGUl) multiplied by the marrnw index (MI) and standardizl'd pn .1 se,llt' frum 1 to 100 (Tabll' 5.5, colu",n 10). In uther wmds, Wl' antk'ipatl' that ,nMml\\, bones are sl?lectt,'d for consumption "'nl thl' hunting sland fmm thl' popul,ltinn Idl behind after parts wC're dell,tl!d fmm thc buh.'hl'ring 1¡lcation in h'rms (lf Ihl' MCUI. Fi~un' 5.11 displays the actual rL'1atiunship bl'twt,'t'n frl!· quencics obSl'rvt.'<J at the Anavik stand and the model for the population as dt,'vdoped in 1able 5.5, eolumn 10. The only bunes that do not faJl nicl'ly nn tne ralher tight correJatinn indicalt.'d are the prox· ¡mal tibia and the phalangl's. Far more of theSt.' part!'lo are Tl'prt!sl'ntl't.1 un thl' !'loitl' th.ln WilS anticipéltl.'d. Phnlangt,'s iUt.· "riding" wilh mt.'lapodials. Compldl' tibi.l, nol just dist.d tibia (the must vaJuable p.ut). are being selecred. This makt>s sense, sinee what is desired is the marrow contained inside abone. Selection is generally for complete btmes, which are Ihen brokcn fur marrow t.'xlr.lCtion.
lo" Sprlng HUfltlng
Wl' m.1Y antidpatc that whcn sclection for 011 musl (11' tlu- variancc indicotcd in a comparison bctwccn btll1l' írequenctes ,lnd marrow-rcletcd indices will artse from the dlfference between the marrow values for the two ends of a single bone. In tbe case of the eomparison dlsplayed in Figure 5.11, thc rmly exception to this rule is thc case nI t11L' proximal aud disl.ll rodio-cubitus. Tlw valúes for the two ends uf this bone are direclly corrclated to the different marrow villut.!s for the two cllds. 1sUAAesl that this simatilln derives fHlm the filcl th<1t this is Iht' bone most eommonly tl'sled by butchers as a c1ue tu Ihl' nulrition ..1Sl,ltl' of spring·kiJIt.'d animals. Over and over again I have seen a buteher approaeh a spring·killed .lnimal and, even before skinning the animal. seize the front leg, cut the skin midway down the shaft of the radi~l·eubitus, and with a bludgeon (gencrally thl' lowl'r Il'g .md f,x)t uf anolher c"ribou) brl'íl\.. this bone midway down the shaft and l'xaminl' the marrow. If it is lirm and solid, bulchl'ring then proeeeds. If it is 50ft and TUnny Ihe animal may be abandoned in favor of another judged to ~(' in better nutritional condilion. Only Jalt.'r, if thc butchcr judges thl'rl' is fmnt leg. AH further dismemberment of animals judged w(,rthy uf butehering is ac· eomplishcd by the disartkulation of parts at the ¡oints and results in complete bones rather Ihill1 broken lmes. It is dl'ar th.lt Ihl' motil'l {)fthe marl"llw~bone cHmposititln .1t thl' sitt.'s of Anavik and Alli1kliqtauk is predktivl' of the bones prl'sellt. Al the Mask ~itt.', the situation is diHerent. There, btmes intmdueed for eonsumption caml' frum a population removed from kili· butchering locatíons. Bones for eonsumption wert.' se1l'ch.'d fmm illransient population desrnarrow i .. ~(\il1~
11871 tined f{)f thc villagc. Thc ccmposition uf th e, populoüon .lffl·ds 111{' chotees th.ll mílY be IUildt.'. In addiüon. 111{' condition of tlu- pnpll· lation also affccts thc choices that may be
made.f am suggesting that a hunter transporting meat te the village. for instance articulated upper rear legs. does not effectively have the choice of selccñng tht, fvrnur for consumption ¡ll tlll' hunling stand. JI such .1 dWlcl' wvn' made it would imply that tbc ment \\1,15 either destined for eonsumption i\t the hunling stand or lhat thL' ml'.lt was prnet'ssed uff the bunes in ordL'r to obt,lin the femur as il marrow source. 80th are highly unlikdy, givl'n (o) Ihal littlc meat eonsumption takes place in this site, locatcd so very ncar the viJIage, and (17) Ihal other marrow sourees are available. I am suggesting Ihat Ihere is anaccessibility variable operating whcn selections are m"de fmm a population in tr..nsit bctw ...·t.·n butehl'ring olnd residential deslin.ltions. For Ihis rc<1son 1have developed a Iimitcd-acet'ss model for marrow exploitalion: The greatt>r tht> value of tlle meat on a given part the less aceessible il is for seleetion as a souree of marrow given liUle or no meat eonsumption. In developing the model I h"Vl' uSt.'d thL' ínVl'rse of lhe me.lt utility indt.'x (Ti1bk' .5.5. wlumn 5) Illultiplil'd by the marrow index (TableS.5, column 3) asa Hrst approxim.1fion (T,lblt' 5..5.. wlunln 6). which appt.'ar~ in st,lIldartiizl'd fmm in nll· umn 7 uf Tabl~ 5.5. Sinel' lhis ¡ndex is an L'xlrcmL' form givl'n Ihe low v.llul' f~lr tht' femur on the meat utility index, I ha ve taken the mean of the marrow index and Ihe foregoing appcoximation as Ihe most likeJy fonn of a utilitv index for marrow when ,leccss is a prob· lem (Table S.S., eolumn 8). Figure 5.12 iIIusIrates the lit between this Iimitcd~aeee., model for marrow utility multiplied by Ihe MCUI (T,lbk' 5.5, Clllumn 13) taken .1S thl' best prediclur uf the cumposition of p.lrls inlrodueed to the Mask site fmm th(' disperseti kill·butehering loeations. The fit is nearly perfeel for aH parts, l'xeept for the femur and the proximal tibi.,. 80th these parts are of prime coneern in i\ Iimiled access model of behavior. The fael thitt wt.'
11881
5. Sprlng
1189 J
LcJk Sprlnfl Hu"'lng
TABLE 5.5
Develop....nt 01 Model. lor Mano. UN at Sprtng HlIntlng Stand.IMGUI )(KI - M(:UI
\01. ,1
1iiiJI
(1)
(2)
(JI
('1
(51
(.)
(7)
(.,
O O .33 O U U U U .• 2 O U
',U2
IlltUIO
O
'J2.2Q 86.99
o
'12.15 112.15 M.IIS
o o
1189 9.7'1 97'1 .15.71 45.53 32(J5 47.11';1
4\1.n M.1:\ 43.47 43.47 36.52
2.... 22.23 15.53 12.IM 11I,50
Carpals rrt.xinloll nwt.w'lrl',,1 nisl.\1 md"fMr'll I'rtl,im.llll·mur
lIlCUl(1
Dlstalfcmur
un.m
PWll.imal libi" Di"l,\ltil>i,l T.us.lls
f14.73 47.IN 31.M
Aslr.l~lIhl.~
:1l.M
C.,k.lllt'US
3J.ñtl 29.93 23.93
Second phalange Thinl phalange
13.n 13.72
1.1.72
55.05 foH.óS 52.fl5 51175 36.24 57.11 57.11 M.13 74.11 m,57 M5.l4
"'72 ~1,411
(1 (1
35,(,3 53.45 6':1,(\4 6':1 04 "'f.l\4 70.79 76.07 86.28 86.28 f16.211
5.74
U U
o 7.H5 U O
...
2lJ.69 ZIl.D 43.64
e.u 1>39 61.foH tl7.t," 1.1.51 4lJ.41
43.'78 "2.~1
K7..1 K7.3 tl7..3 81.74 100.00 30.00 22.15 O
..1 M.KI ".02 J'I',(}4
4.1.70 411.83 31Ul4 44.'N 11.22 24.41 19.17 M('.3ll 7('.20
ze.zn 7"20 M.MI
100.00
9.o
~
x
81.90
4,71.1
,,.
SU.HO
:UN
-\.•1Il
5';.:111
354 21.11 20.14 37.22
2ln 121>11 4j,"1
71.1 71.1 R5.3 R5,3 lXl.S ':I4.H o,l4." (UI)
(1.0) 74.5 74.5 MI.65 1I1."S MI.M
6:t~1
57.H2 '"'H,47 1>.1.5'1 tU3
65.11 /.5.¡'¡"¡
'9
55 36.7:\ n,'14 HII.27 HO 27 MUB 1H.7J
"U
98.3 98.3
11
YKJ
obtain a dual distribution with those parts most likcly lo be affected by a llmtted-nccoss strategy shcws that the model is corree! but the weighling Is inappropriate lo the actual behavior. A more appropriate weighting might well be lhe square of lhe inverse values
uf th e• mcat utility indcx. Such a mude! illustrates the avoidancc of marrow bones, which require Ihe removal of valuebie mcnt prior lo their use as sources of marrow. Anavik A-S-C. unlike the olher sites bl'ing discussed, was a camp where hunters main-
Col. 1 x
710'/1
...,1.1l
(:,,[ 12 -IU.22
(11)
(12)
(13)
lo(
~
DI'I" ~
(14)
(15)
.jO,M
,nl~
1.b2
6_~5
S.:lO
.7.
1.89
.11
.02
I
b,ll
7.SK
5..12
14,45
2.<12
7,2...
.741
.01
4,MO
;.77 31.46 11J.1I 41,93
2.25
5.5<,1 21Ui9 23.17 28.32 35.80 24.9] 19.32 IH.1I1 42.12
5.1'1 26.73 25.51 42,77 M.MO 64.50 "3.71. 6':1.:4 ltl'14 24'1t1 4026 1\542 !'l.1.7X M3.7M 1\].711 81.73 100,00 31,60 31.60 ll.foO
tmm
29.49 29.49 2':1.4':1
(lO)
c.:..1. 1
5.51
7.!.hl 11.,17
32.61 6'f.21 ~'. 71.2M 71.2" 7J.2M 72.511
7/, (17
Q
I
,
56.:""
..... , . .
(,,1. '7
C,,1."
3..1.21 3121 :n~1
~ MGUI, rnudifit'll Io:I'nt'r;lllltilily imll'x (l".lblt'2.7, w'lInm 1);IMGUI, ill~l'r"" u" ...lifil,,1 Io:I'n""'1 ulilily inJt'x; MI, marrow inJl'x [Feble 1.9, column 8); Mur, mt'al ulilily index (rabie 1.4. nolumn 12). • DPD, drying and pft\(',·..~ing .1l'bri~ [Tabh- 3.7, culumn 2).
~
(9)
MUI
1'.14
Proximal ml'to1t,us.l1
~
(MI/"
Anlll"
01s1011 metatarsal Firsl phalange
Col.
---D!L..l..
MI
Skull Mandible Atlas Axis Cl'rvic.ll vertcbrae Thuracjc vl"It.'br.lt' Lumbar vcrtcbme 1'.,11,'11'1
rtoll.imal humerus Distal humeros Pwximill radto-cubltus Distal radío-cubitus
Clll. 2 x
1'1.1. :l
'1/l,'I'1
Analomical parl
Rib'M Sternum Sl:.lpul.l
C u I. I )(
--:¡;¡-:¡-¡-
MCUI
(,-,,1.
+
Ctll.;\ +
--,-
/(111 -
I
5.1>3 2tl.11 20,'}3 :n.52 211.73 20.0H 15.2ll 14.2S tl7,tlZ IL)fUllI 5734 !lM,54 5'i'l4 55 '14 55'14 4':150 48.43
un.oo
6.13 O
34.02 25.12 11
".
22,30 23."6 42.51
"'''' 71,Ni 71.'J.1 71/JI (1
U 21,(13 65.27 7'1,2.1 7'12.1 7':1,13 7tl 06
1>372
.
5'1.65 51,M "1,0" 44,(N 65.tJ1 50.'14
rm.m
117,M7 tl7 H7 M7,M7 !!l.63 96.49 27.53 20.31
n
1162 1J.32 11.39 14.40 IO.n2 7.77 7.'" 1".94 24.98 26,0(¡ 40.22 2(.,<;2 2".52 26.52 24.46 23.93 4.33 '.33 4.31
taíned thernselves in the ñeld while migration hunling at Anavík. Wc knuw that they were cachlng the animals they killcd at the butchcring locatlon en the Anavik hunting slte. This mcans Ihal they could have sclected parte to rcfurn to their c.'Imp for thcir own use from both potcntial populations of parts-those destined to be abandoned at the kili and those destined to be transported at a later date. We
ea.n ".79 100.00 65.94 "S.'14 f>S"'" bO.62 59,SO 10.77 10.77 10.77
"
'fA2
7,21 12.47 23.M9 15.60 11,29 11.61 27.61 flO.06 30.51 lOtUlO 5'1.35 5lJ..15 5':1.35 49.19 511." 3.03 l.ó5 O
511 19.3lJ 17.63 13,1\2 4222 35.4k 1Z W, 39(1':1 Z".OO
se v 4li,h
H,15 4-1, 15 44 1<; 58.0S 46.35 7.IH 7.1n 7,81
also know that the men were cxperienced hunters. Since this was n camp and nol a hunting stand we may anticipa le somcwhat greater consumption of mea! along with the normal Iield íood of bcne rnerrcw. It would seern unlikcly. jf bones were bcing sclccted exclusi\lely as sourccs uf marrow, that the hunters would take them from the temporary caches; plenty of bones for marrow would
(190)
5. Spring ~,.
I ,~
;:¡O ti N
...
~ 10
",¡:j ~ Zu
1=Z lO
50
:K:
40
~'"m
/
N'.
~
;
I
-
;..-c oye OT."
-TM
/""C:""."'T
•
/ /
. " ..." ,.... .. ..- " " " " ., " s:~
/
~
,,~
/
/ ",,~
~
o
~
.,
,~
MODEL FOR MARROW BONE SElECTION TABLE 5.5 eoLiO
Figult 5.11. Rl'lalionship Ix'lwt'en An¡wik hunting stand d.,la ilnd modelt-d value!.
"
"" ~
..• 'u
!::u . "", U) tri
"' .,
"' :1 ~~
!el
40
..
1! "
......""
.... "
. :i
-
.'t'-
~,
u
. ,-"
'1'
!lO ID
70
lo (he camp exclusivcly as sourccs uf mnrrow. On the other hand, the hunters would almost certainly introduce mea! for their own rnaintenance and marrow bones introduccd as components of these parts would aIso be present. For this we would use the MGUI multiplied by the marrow index (Table 5.5, column 9). When we combine these two potential situaticns (by adding column 9 and column 10 of Table 5.5 and dividíng by 2) we ~l't an approximation {l'ablc 5.5, column 1) Ior thc mnrrow bonos in él citmp whcre the two contexts of introduction are operativo. Plgurc 5.13 iIlustrates the fit between the model and the data from Anavik A~B~C. We note a curvilinear relationship with considerable variance. Much of the variance is understandable in terms of sample size. De~ spite this problem the model developed does anticipate the data and is consistent with the behavioral context of the site. Modeling or anticipating the frequencil's of marrow-yielding bones in the personalizL't.:l dispersed hunting stands is more difficult. First, the structure of thc populatiun from
~'"
~~., 10 10 100
MOOEL FOR MARROW eONE SELECTION TABLE 5.5.COL. 13
Figure 5.12. Relationship betwt'en Mask sile data and modelt'd valu('s.
...
DIIIT· •
"'" ~ ~
'u
'>el" "11/
I
....
butchering locations. Thercforc, wt' may an· ticipate that the ¡nverse of the MGUI multi· plil'd by Ihe rnam)w indcx (Tablt.·5..5. enlumo 10) may wt.'1I reprt.'sl..·nl the bont.'s inlrmjucL'd
.
~
~
•
/
-'"
.. .. .. -
Dr . . . . . . .
/
"o "oS
IlMO.':1SJ,.. ~
~~
¡:u Z
-
~:ri
...Jw
/
~
,., "" " "' MOCEL FllR MARROW BONE SELECTlON ~
~
. ¿ %'" 50
10
~
;,
70
&:4
~
,UT
CAL .QF
Rl'I.llil.nship t...·lw,"'n Anolvi" A-ll-( !'oll.,
d.ll.l .mllm... "'I.'d v.,lu.'S.
[191[
tibia, which as in othcr ccmpansons Is overrepresented. As previously discussed, this situation arises from the selcction of complete bones rather than brokcn enes for marrow. On the other hand, there are no bones of the front leg present at these stands, despite the moderate values indicated by the indexo As we have seen, a bias against front legs is charactcristic uf chotees for human consumption during spring. As prcviously SI.11t.'d, this is relatcd tu the nutrition.tl statc of thc nnim.ils in spring and is in no way monitorcd by our índices. It would appear that when a hunter is leaving the village he biases his selection of parts in favor of the rear leg, and within that population then selects parts in a gourmet fashion relative to his knowledge of marrow value. The index values therefore predict rather nicely the observed frequencies in the dispersed stands. I have prescnled some rather provocative data on anatomical part frequencies observed at several types of spring hunting stands and camps. The major consumpti<JIl bias in such lucalions is in favor of bOlle marmw, and thl' al'tu.ll p,lUl'rn ()f nmsumptilm is condititHwd by the eharilclL'r uf tlll' pOpUI.ltit.JIl uf bont's available. I have demunstrated thill much of the patterned differences between the bone frequencies at the sites can be understuod in Il'rms uf lhe Sc!l'<'tioll (lf m.lrft,lW btlOl'S, which is accumplishl'd thrtlll~h Ihe applkall{lO (lf thl' s.lml' bm.ly uf knowlt'd~l' .1l1ll sd llf l'v.thloltivl' critl'ria III difft.'rin); populilliuns of ht:lOl'S ¡lV.lil· able lo tht, consuml'TS. I haVl' nol .1ddrt.'sSl'd myst'lf lu tht.' unl1t.-'rstílndin~ (lf Ilw fl'l.ltivl' frt.'llul'ndl's of nlt.'.\I~yidding pMls un thl'SI' sih.'s, since SU('Cl'SS in such iln l'nde.lVur de~ pends on a more extended discussion of meat ronsumption in spring residential locations. Such an extended discussion follows.
Pille
10.
o
o
~
~~
CIJIO
""
10 ZO 3040501010"10100
MODEl FOR MARROW eONE SElECTION TABlE 5.5, COL. 15
'" I:i~un'
• lAR
•
TABLE SS OOL. 1I Fl~ure ~.IJ.
"
lO
40
~
~
~
I
~
..,; ~ Z",
~~
/
~
hnve bt>en availablc as ..bandoncd pilrls <11 tht.'
",'"
I
""
,~
lSz
OM~
~o "
I
••
~
't'''' ., m~
I
I
..
~
which bonos werc sclectcd is undear. At the dispersed stands, most uf the anatómica! parts consumcd were introduccd from the residential eamp. Many more prcvious dccisions stand behind such a population's deletions at the kili site, resulting in a biesed introduction into the processing location or the residential location, deletions from this introduced popu~ lation in pmccssing for storagc and in placing parts in slorag<', dch-tirms duc to ('(\nsump~ non. ami so un, Anticipating thc cornposition of the population from which the hunters chose parts tu takc with thcm inlo the dispersed locations is a much more tenuous business than for the previous comparisons. 1 have chosen touse thc actual bolle frequencies observed outside the ice cellars-the parts processed off during the course of preparing parts for storage-as the best estimate for the population from which parts were chosen for use as food in the dispersed stands. Figure 5.14 iIIuslrates the relationship bctween the combined data fmm the personalized late spring hunting stands and the index values given in Tabll' 5.5, ("(Jlumn 15. St.'vl'r.l1 pl,ints art.'dl'ilr'in Ihis an.1Iysis. Rl'.1r !t.'g p.uls Sl,'all' as ¡¡m'ar functi(Jns of thl' index valucs with Ihe exceplion of Ihe proximal
I
,
"'
Sprlng COlUlumptlon In th~ ContemponlJ]l' V"lage ond in th~ Past
S.14.
!'o1.lIld .1.'1.' ,1Ild
Kt·l.lli.lIlsl11I.I....,tw.'t'll 1"'''';'111,11 hunl¡n~
lllu,ld¡',1 v.,lm's.
SPRING CONSUMPTlON IN THE CONTEMPORARV VlllAGE AND IN THE PAST Consumption is a ('(lOlinuolls pnw,"l'sS .1nd is highly rL'sponsivl' lo t111' íll·tivilil·Suf hunting,
11921 processíng, and storage. Spring consuroptton has to be examined against the background 11f processlng for dry Uf Irnzcn storagc Ihaf Is taktng place in thc villagc. Food for consump· tion is drawn from rt'sidunJ populaticns of parts--parts culIed out of oc remaíníng from such processíng. We can assume an original populatíon of animals previously culled of anatomical parts of marginal utility. BUI we also havc evtdence that whole anirnals-c-field butchercd-c-are introduced into the village (mm kili locations. This meilns thal al Il'ilst tW(l forms of a residual populiltion Wl'TC cwail· "bit.' in the village from which consumption dccisions muld be made. We may rcasonably
ask whether there is a relationship between the number of anatomically complete animals introduct'd and the pattern of consumption. Under whilt conditinns dot.'s the hunter dcddl' to field butcher an animal and under what cunditions dOt's he dl.'ddt· lo introduce it inlo Iht' villagt' unbutcht'rl'd? My experience with Ihe Nunamiut gavt.· mt' the imprl"ssion that the introduction of complete v(>rsus cuUed animals was relaled lo the ratio of consumer demand to the number of animals kiIJed. For instance, 1 had noted that bear and sheep kiJIed durin~ sumrnl.'r wt.'re commnnly intrllduccd into lht, villa~l' as complclt' or nl'arly complete .loimals. lo su eh situatilms, fl'W i\nimals had been killl'd al uncl' ''lnd lhe tr.lnsporl problem was thus Iimill'd to p.1Ckingunly une ur lwo animals. Only rarely were such animals culled extensively befure being introduced into the village. The obser{,ation is however complicated by lhe facl that these aoimals were destined not for storage but for immediate but<:heringand distribution to a large number of consumers. 1 decided to monitor the conditions sur· rounding Ihe inlroduction of complete animals when (a) large numbers wcre bcing killed during a short period of time and (b) lhere was no dislribu Iion of parls lo tl'l.1tives. Durin~ the spring of 19711.1ttempted lo oblain él compll'te pieture of lhe spring hunling activities by recording the number of animals killed, their treatment in the field, and Ihe contt'xt in
5. Sprlng
which the decisión was rnade to transport complete animals Vl"TSUS selected anatomical pnrts frum a kill-butchcring location. I had anncipatcd that lOl'l'rl' 1//a".II a"i"m/~ Tl'l'rl' /'l'ill.'>: killed during a vcry short paiad nf time and lile labor force ;ralOlved ín the killin~ and butcheríng toas small reíatiue to the potentiaflabor force ami/able al the rcsidential íocation complete animals would be introduced ínto the resídential location il' proportitm to cot/sumt'r dl'malld lorfood dllri"g thl' pt'riod tlf hll1ltillg. Such a strategywould ouly slightly incrl'ast.· thl' trilnspurt time t'XPl'lllil'd by the hunlers but would ~reatly rt'dUCl' thl'ir proc('ssing time, thl'Tl'by frt'eíng tht.'m for more hunting. The labor available in lhe residential location would then be engaged in processing inlroduced .lnim.lls for storage, preparin~ and sdl'rling pmts for consumption, and loading procl'~sed meal inlo the ice (ellars. Such a str.ltegy would m.lke availélbll' in thl' villaHt' a pllpul.ltion uf m.uginal p.uts for l'unsumption durill~ tht.· hunting ~wriod, Ihereby redudng lhe dl'mand on choiet· parls destined for storage. For instance, the normal rhythm of activity at the migration hunting locations betrays.m adjustment llf the diflerent labor demands to lht' i\ctual beh.lViur llf the c.uibou. Tht.'Tl· MI.' lIsual1y inll'rv.lls (lf tilllt.' bt.'twl'l·n llw pi.1Ss;ng of the last animals llf une herd and the arri~óll of the first animals of the fullowing hl'rd. Whill' a herd is passinR, hllntin~ is ~()in~ llll and practically all pt.·rsllns presl'nl are aCtiVt'ly engaged in hunting. Once a ht.>rd has passl'd, the kills are dragged oul of fhe migration póllh lo a butchering localilln and bulchered. lf there is enough timl' betWl'l'n herds, 1'11 Ih(' animals killed may bE.' field hulcht.'red. Fre· quently, however, anolher herd may bt.> sighted before the hUnll"rs finish bUI<:hering. rhe sighting of another herd gencrally brings an end lo butchering aclivilies aod Ihe huntt.'rs resume their positinns in the firin); stilnJs. such an alll'rJ'l
nw
Sprlng Consumptlon In !he Contemporal')' VJllage and In !he Par
transport al the end of the hunting day and beforc nlghtfall. He may thcn rnake a tcmpor.uy cache uf thc butchercd and partially butchered animels, load hts slcd, nnd rcturn to thc villagc. He will almost always lllad one compll'tely ,,,,,butchered animal and lilI out the sled 11,Uh áismemoered parís o[ already butdtered caribou, making only one return trip to the village. There he is met by a willing labor party
tbattakcs ovvr thc tnsk of unloading. pladng in Slur.lgl·, .ln\l prt'paring parts fm nlOsumplilll1. If llli¡.;r'llion l"lllllinut's, un succel·ding days thl' hunter rt·duCt.·s his hunting activities tl'l.llivt· to his eslimate of the amuunt uf additioni11 meat needed and increases the time spent butchering and transporting the temporarily cached animals into the village. This paUl'rn ml'te anim.1Is inlrudllced durin,; Ihl' l"lrly day~ tlr hunting are .llmosl illways l"ilTril'd inlllll'll' vilIa~l' pT(ll'l'~S ing (ln'as ahl'r Ilw bUh.:hl'red p.lrls are pl.lced in fruzl'n Shlri'lgt.'. Thls unbllkhert'li .lnim.ll is thl'l'l l"llt up ilI 111l' rl'sidt'nn' .lnd ~d('ction is madl' fur imnll'Ji
1193J
they go to await the arrival of a slcd loaded with rneat from the kili site. My rccords show that H9cartbou wcrc killl'd al the Anavik IUl...ntion. and 33 wcrc killcd at disperscd Iocations dunng the spring huntíng of 1971. The inventory of bones at Anavik yields a figure of 53 individual caribou represented at the butchering location-or 59.6% uf the animnls known to havc bcen killcd. Of thc 33 anirnals killed nt díspcrsed locatums. Mw ere cal'hed un thl' tundra .15 cOn1plell' individu.lls and nol rl'hlrnl'd lo tlle vill.lge; Iht.'rdnrl', 2S caribou werl' both kilbi .lnd proct.'SSt'd .lt dispersed localions. The invenlury indieates that only 12 individuals or 48.0% of those known to have bet'n killt.'d and processed art.' represenled by bones remaining at Ihe kili· butchering loc.'ltions. On Ihe tlthl'r l1anl1, if we assume th.'lt lhe 8 cached anim.lb art' likely III be abandnned, thl'n 20 lIT 60.6% tlt the 33 animals killed OIt dispt'rse\l IllC.1tilll1S .Ul' represt'nled archal'tl/ogic.llly. UOlkr thl' assumpIion uf the uitimate .lbOlndonmt'nt of lhe 8 cached animals, we then nlltt' that 59.4% of rhe animals known to have ~en killed at Anavik are repr<'sentl'd arch
[1941
5. Sp""B TABLE 5.6
Anlm.l. Arc:M.olo.lcall~VI,lbl, "nUI Anlm.l. Known Kllled .t 1971 Sprint Huntlng Slte.~ Cltq~"ry
Animolls killl'J Animals archaeologically Invl'n· tened
Dispersed
Anavik
kills
silt'
1.1 (27.05) Mil m.'1!'i) 20 (27.40) 53 (n.no)
TIll.11
122 7J
• Numbe~ In parenthesefl are percentages uf tbe totet in eech call'gory
I
on }une 20. Three of thes(' are inventoried kills inc1udrd in the displ'rs('d-kill data of rabie 2.8. This mean!' that prior lo MélY 26 <111 dis· persed kills were accounted for, with none being removed lo the village as complete ani· mals. During this perlod all complet"· .1nimals inlroduced carne from Ihe Anavik kili site. The difference between the numbt.-r uf ilni· mals represented by butchering dt;>bris at Anavik and the number known lo have been killed there is 36 Of 40.4%, suggesting that at most that numbercould have been introduced to the village unbutchered. As previously shown, prior to May 26all dispersed kills were accounted for, with none bl'ing rl'movl'd lo the village as complete animals. On the nlher hand, afh'r May 26, no addilinnill animal!' Wl'n.' killed at Anavik and an additional22 animal s were killed in the area southwesf of the village between May 26 and June 19. These were alJ dispersed kills. Of these animals, only 9 are represented by field-butchered remains, leaving 13 or 59% introduced inlo the village as complete anime,ls. This fi~uTt., is lo bt' (()m~ pared lo the maximum uf 40.4% inlruduccd from Anavik unbutchered prior lo May 26. So, between May 19and June 20 a maximum of49 animals were introduced into t111' ViIJ,'gl' unbutchered or at least anatomically complete. If J am corred in surmising thal the number of unbutchered animals introduced during the period of intense hunting is related to consumer demando I should be able lo demun-
strate such a relationship with thesc data. Hunting activtties at Anavik lasted from the nineteenth through the twenty-sixth of May, a total of 8 days. In 1971 there were 138 persons and 54 dogs resident in Anaktuvuk village. represcnting 1104 human nnd 432 du,; ronsumer days. Using th,,' daily consumption figure obtained for the 196tJ data (2.43 lb Pvt person per day) and the general figure for dog consumption of 1.131 lb Pe" dog per day. we may calcuIate the number of caribou needed to leed the village during the period of hunting from the Anavik location: Jl04 x 2.43 432 x 1.131
2682.72 488.59
3171.31 lb nl'cd('d for K di'lYs 3171.31
222 (average weight (lf caribou) = 14.28 caribou nc,,'dl'd Thl' ca!culi'l!i(Jnsindicall'lhal15 carib(lU h.1d to haw been introduced unbutchered hum Anavik-but the record shows that 36 Wl're probably intTClduced! Here we face the real world. Thereare other conditions that would cause the hunters to transport unbutchered animals in c~sid('r able numbers. In 1971 hunting slarl....d at An.wik nn May 19. On M.,y 22 tlle thundl'r uf rrackin~ ict, could bl' h..·.ud all over Anaktuvuk Vall,,'y. In Spitl' tlf Ihl' ~mwing CTiU:ks in Ihe ice. passage across lhe river at the normal crossing place confinued through May 22. Neverlheless. the hunters knew lhe signs and they began to alternate hunting with transporting meat rather than following Ihe normal piUtern of butchNing and hunling a!'> pr,,·viously describl'd. By midday un May 2:l1h", ice at thl' norm.11 crossing was broh'n tlp .1Ild passage was impossible. In order to rei'lch Anavik the hunlers had to move east along the south sidcof the Anakliqtauk V.,11cy untillh",y reached a poin! whl're the ice was not yet broken. cross Ihe river, and then Iravd Wl'St again along fhe norlh side of thl..' riVl'r to Anavik. With each midday period (lf waTmth the river ice broke furlher and further up-
Sprlns Couumptlon In rhe Co"temporary Vlllage and In the Post
strcam, so each day the trip lo reach Anavik increased at least twice the distance of the daily brcakup on the river. By the moming of May 26 the breakup had proceeded to the puint that to make the 7-mile trip between the ViJI.1gl' and Anavik al least 21 miles hnd to be covcred, and thc rote al which thc ice was dísintegrating was eccelerating. For ell practical purposes the hunting locatlon was isolated or inaccessible lo the hunters by midday of May 25. This untimely breakup ínterrupted normal buntlng activities as early as the alternoon of May 22. Investments of labor in butchering were delayed in favor of investmcnts in transport throughout the period betWl'en thl' afternoon of May 22 and midday of May 25 whl'n acel'SS lo Anilvik was l'ffl'ctivdy cut off. Throughout this 3·day peri(ld. the timt' rl"lluirl'd (lIT i\ trip N.'tw,,',,'n thl' villilgt, and Anavik increased sleadily. It is my opinlon lhat (lne of Ihe conscqUl'ncesof this untimdy "pinch" (m laborwas to inflale by somt· 2.5 times lhe numbl'r ()f anatomically complete animals jntroduced into the village aboye the normal condition for spring hunting. Unfortunately. J cannot substantiate this opinion since the only complete hunting data for the village are those that are being reported, for the spring hunt of 1971. AlI this discussion is slmply by way of imprt.'ssing lhe rl'ader th.11 thl' l.'wnls reportcd. as wilh mosl pe1rticular evenls, are in sorne W.1YS unitlut.'. The mosl Ctlmplete informatiun I have regarding the character of animal food inputs and the p
11951
ing the spring of 1971 was obtained from two sources: (a) dog feedtng between May 15 and June20and (b) human consumption from May 26 Ihrough [une 9. These data are- not como plete for the entirc vtllage. We monitored consumption at thrcc fnrmly d(l~ yards, representing 35.4% oí all thc d'lg~ in the villagc, and fur thre'e Eskimo fnrnilies, reprcsenting 19.4% of the total human population in the village. Table5.7 presents the summary starístics on bones introduced into the three dog yards and the three houses. Even within this short record there is a temporal trend. Early in Ihe record, when intercept hunting was being conductcd at Anavik, dogs were fed mure often in the field and parts introduced into the dug yards tl'nded lo bt' pclrts laáing bOOl'S. This WclS alsu trul' fUf Ih,,' l'arJy phasl' of tlll' human rl'nlrd. whl'n'liVt'r, btml'd hilms, .1nd heart were mure commun meals. Once hunting shiftcd to thc M,'Sk site, and later to the displ'rsl'd st.1nds, huntl'rs incrcasingly intruduccd the anlmals killcd dirl'ctly into the village. In manycases the animals were complete caribou bu lIs, considered in better nutrition than the animals introduced earlier. Marrow consumption increased in the monitored houses. as did consumption oí tongues com~ plete with mandible, roasted heads, and "fat brisket." Even more m<1Tkl'd was thc increi'lse (lf heads .1S dog foud. Thl' nurm"l l(t~islic.,1 paltern was for huntl'Ts to transporl thl' ¡,dlls frum dispcrsed cnmunter hunting kili s 11) lhe processing areas inside the village. Here they were processed, sorne parts going to the ice celIars, sorne parts going to the drying racks; heads were given to the dogs and still other parts were destined for human meals. The inform.1ti(1Il just pn'sl'nft..'d is inpul data-that is, ,1 lilbul,ltion (lf 11ll' .,dU,ll ~II1l'S inlrudul'l'd inhl n'sidl.·nti.ll hK.1tiol1s .11111 dl'~ yards. For a number of reasons I d(l not hi'lve spring output data or actual bonc counts fmm around housesand remaining in dogYi'lrds fur the contemporary village. 1 found it nt'arly impossiblc to mlll.'ct such dilta undl'r cont"'mporary conditions. First, ilS the wint,,'r ~now melts the village becoml's a very unpleasant mess of mud, debris, and l'X(Temenl, Cl'ncr-
11961
5. Spring TABU5.7
Sprint Cona_pUon RKorda Jor Three Famll, DoI V.rd. (May 15 lo June 20. 19711_00 Nunamlut Famlllea (M.y 26 to JUIIM 9. 1971)
Observed nmsumptilln re.. . . srd _.------
Humees
Ougs
Anatomical part
Antier Skull Mandibl('
% (2)
'.0 16.0
56.25 1011.00
2.5
1,"i.f'A1
"'NI (3)
11I.5 4.5 '.5 4.0
"
625 '1.37 4331
2.1ltl 2(1(1
l\"lr.l~.lrll"
Cillcilllt'US l'r1llo:im.ll nll'l.llarsal Distal m(·lill.,flO,ll l'h.llolnf:l·s
''''
8.50
,
(J
3.5 3.5 -111 4.0 4.tI l.O 3.0 9.5
"'NI (7)
5.34 411.11
34.44
"
2".11I 27..'\0 27.12 15.66 24.31 12.61 ".46 38.12 16.35 IlUl5
ZIl.1U 27.3
<:.'rvk.ll v¡'rkbrill' Thoracjc vertebree Lumbar vertebrae Pl'lvis Ribs Slt'rnum S<:apul" I'ruximal hum..rus Di~l.ll hu m('rUll I'wxi"lal ',Hli¡l-cubitus Dislil\ r.ldi(H"ubitus Carpals P,oxinl.J{ metacarpal Distal melacarpal PWllimal ¡emur Distal femur I'n11llim.,r libia Distilllibiil I.lrs.lls
6.'J3
(')
"
'1.1.75 "5."11 28.12 SlJ.37 25.0 15,1lO'J 46.87 2M 12 114.15
1.5
"'NI
(5)
"
Illll.lNl
l."
"'NI
ltNUlC1
rs,u
1.75 7.5 45 :lO
Col. 5 + ctll.b
1&.36 29.10 4.55
In.U
2.5
5625 53.12 (J
3.12 2U17 2Ul7 2'> 110 25.11(1 25.lltl IM.7~
114.75 59.37
% (4)
13.JO
"
1,'>
atn
¡",I
14 J.32
18.66 17.6 13.30 12.:1 63.3
tUS 17.27 7.27 4.54 12.n 13.Hl fUM
lO
"
4,75 .5(1 .5(1
'"
,,
~J
3' 3.5
2' 2' 25 2,5 2.5 .1.U .15 .5
......... ......... ... ,
2"'.111 2"'.7U
46.6
3..1.3 3.1.3
;\1 ..1
:n,:"\ :n.) 40 O 40.6
....
o ••
Cul. :1 .lS7
CuL 1 .55
10 7..'>
J\lI¡~
All.l~
Estimatt' uf 1<11.,1 villaJ;t' consureption -----
--
"'NI (11
n,"
5.4~
1.1'11 2,73 12.60 16.36 15.45
O
."
6.36
'.36
7,27 7,27 7.27 5.45 5.45 17.27
--
"
~.\12
7.4t1 7.04 !'i.34 4." 25.40 2.67 2.(,7 2.67 1tI.7U
1tI.7U 2.07 2,67 2.67 18.71 JlUl 1).37 13.37 1:\..17 1.1.17
1)..17 Ih.tN 1I1.7Z 2.67
44.115
H.12
12.51 13.43 15.27 1'1.03 18.12 18.71 19.03 1<J.73 1'1.73 20,M 241./14 211.64 21.49 2417 19.Y4
0_"
SI.mJ.lr.IiI'.·t1
,'ul.7
% (8)
71.13 IlIIU)U
"".17
101.14 nU.74 35.07 54A4 28.24 21.1lJ
H5.37 36.62 24.30 111.111 211.112 30.ttll 34.211 42.62 40.58 41.'J 43.lM· 44.18 44.1H ·lh]';l
and laking them away-induding the specíal drums I had set aside with the consent of the family in questíon. Spring dog yards are generally winter dog yerds as well. Until very recently it was the practice in the víllage for fanulk-s to movc into tcnts during summer. Sornetimcs th¡s meant sctttng up a tent only a short distance from the wínter house. Familles normally did nol move their dogs into summer yards until after it was judged that all the Iarnihes who were going to set up summer tcnts hnd done so. Such moves were normally not rnade until after hunting had stopped
AHT
o 10 2Q ~ ,-----
.0 i50 60 70 80 90 100
"
MAND AT THIlo
LUO
o ST
P(lV
se
'T
"'"
"
40.22
PflC
PA' DO' CARP PM' D"'
~p
PF
PO'
00' PF
...
PO, DOT
"AL
"10
TOTAL SPRING VILLAGE CONSUMPTION TABLE 5.1 COL. 8 Fisure S.U. durin~ spring.
Parls consumed in Anllkluvuk village
A
A
0003 COff'U""TIOIII
A A A_ -A /A A A A
AST
PMT OMT F'IlAl
CAL
100
~_-~A
CAL
AST
ea 90
A A A A
TAO
TAO
Ihl'S(' oH drums. I trit,..i sl'lIin~ up sr~'d.lI drums fm !'rrin~ tlispuS;JI bul lhi.o; ,llCt.·I1lI'( gt'ncrally faill'd. sincl.' tht.' hituJing uf drunls tv the dump is .. rooper..live achvity and ht.'(Ivily inf1uenced by kinship. Every time there are "good hauling conditions" and sorne free time young men will make the rounds. loading up drums from houses of kinsmen and fricnds
-
DT
PT
60 70
~
PT
DF
~
A
DF
DT
aUy tht.' villa~t.' is frt.'t.' of most snow by lht, fif· I~'~'nlh lu lWl'nlidh of M.1Y .md tht.' WIIllwn and young peopll' bt.'gin c1l'.lning up, which today cunsists of loitding large oil drums with btmes and miscellaneous debris and hauling Ihe drums to a dump (established in 1964) for disposal. Debris from household consumplinn during hunting is direcUy disposed of in
"
MAND AT AX
PELV
o se
10 20 30 40
A"
CERV THIlo LUO
AX
CERV
O,
4M.13
meant that it was impossible to obtain a spring dog yard sample since the yards were also winter yards. Figure 5.15 ilIustratcs thc character uf the combined consurnption data. The graph is domlnated primnnly by thc mandiblc nnd secondnrily by thc stcmurn. Leg parts are moderate in prcsence and appear as; a rather smooth curve with the most common bono the metatarsal. Figure 5.16 compares the contributíonsofhuman versus dog consumption to the overall pattern illustrated in the cornbíned data. With the exception o! the ribs. stemum. nnd parls uf thc rcnr leg Irom thc tibia through the tarsals, dtl~ consumption .1ppt.'ars lllt.' antithcsis of thc human consumpnon. D~I~S are eating whal humansarc not l'atinS' This pettern leads me to suspect that we have a single population of parts dífferentiallv segregated forconsumption ,lnHlOgtiliAS .1nd hum"ns. If 1 3m corred, we should bt.' ablc lu nw\1d lh~
o
4{o22
54.1J 44.M
11971
Sprfng Comumptlon In fh.r ConJ.rmpo,.", VJIIG!II!! Gnd In fh.r PuC
•
HU"''''' CON'U ..'TIOII
ll_ll¿ _A A-
MNfs FOR VIlLAGE cet-.lSlJ.1PTICt.l DURING PERtOO OF SPRING CARI BOU AVAILABII..IT'f 1971 (TABLE 5.7)
Flguf'P 5.16. CompoUi'l'iv<' pl'rCl.'nti'lges fur spring vil, l.lgl" consumplil>n by doró'ó ,lnd humi'ln~.
11981 total consumption populanon and then understand the dog and human pattern as a rcsult of a partihonlng crih-na npplíed In lh,,' population. 1 have alrc,,"dy suggcstcd that ronsumption Is a pattern of U~ that is accornmodated lo the other acttvíties of spring, particuJarly the processing oi parta for storage and the actual selectíon of parts for placement in storage. Consumption should take the fono of sorne pattern of use for the residuals or thc by-products from processing and deletion of parts for storage. Additionally, I have argued that consumption is essentially the use of a residual population butalso a residual populatian remaining from the within-village processing of animals introduced as anatomically complete. These animals would under nanna! conclitions have been primarily processed in the viJIage adjacent to the meat raeks. r.uts would have been removed for placement on the drying racks and other parts would h¡wt, been processed for drying. Sorne parts milY well have becn set aside for introduclinn inlo the ice ceHaes depending upon how nlany animals were introduced relative to the consumer demands of the family carrying out the processing. Thl' SHu.lliun suggestt'd is C'umpliGlt('d bt.•• cause there ¡m.' Iw\) stvrage uptions, nnd bt..cause the data under consideration are froro 1971 when straggler hunting was being conducted to supplement the meat previously placed in frozen storage.1I will be recalled that insufficient stores were aecumulated prior lo the breakup of the river ice so slorage space was available in the ice ceHars during the late ~pring hunting. Behaviorally the situation may be pictured as follows: A complete animnl is introduced and butchered. Choices are mnde for human consumptiun al the rl'si(f('nn'. Fmm lhl' parts thal n'm.lin chokl'S nre nli1d(, for pilrt~ tu hI.' inlruducl'd ¡nto 11ll' kl' cellars. The residual or remaining population of parls is Ih('n pnrlition('d nmong Ih(' dogs and Ihe drying rack (keep in mind Ihal mustof lhe meat dried is destined for use as dog food laler). Wf.' can also visuaJize each animal as being partitioned inlo two populalions, one
5. Sprln,
Intended for humans and segregated intu immedlate and delayed consumption components. What remalns. the sccond population, is partlüoncd lnto parte for immedinte aud delayed consumption by dogs. Wc can evcn look al Ihe situation as a series of steps in which a segment is deleted for storage in the ice cellars, and from what remains a btased deletion is made for human use; from wha! remains here a further deletion Is made for storage on the meat racks; and what finally remains is selectively fed to dogs. 1am suggesttng that modeling the situation in order to anticípale Ihe parls allocaled lo storage. both dry and frozen, and the p.lrls consumed by dogs and humans is nof necessarily easy. even if we know in a vague behavíorai way what is happening. And wc do ntl' know Ihl' proporljuns (If thl' inlrndu((~d meat ailocated lo differl'nt uses. 15Ihe populalion l'tlu.llly divided .lrnong alh.'rnativ('s by t'ach scgregilling ael. or an' diffl'n'nl pmpllrtions uf the total all(ICatt'd l() differcnt USl'S? AII the ¡ndices devcloped Ihis far are l't.lually weighled; Ihat is, it is assumed Ihal eaeh decísion modeled by a given index is a lotal segregation of the p(lpulatinn bdng divided. In rt'ality w(' may anlidral(' many CilSt.'S wh('n' such an assumplion would bt' unwarranll'd. The data al hand renecl one sueh situarivn. Again. we do nol know in what relatlve proporlions parls are allocated for immediale eonsumption by dogs and humans; neitherdo we know what proportions eharaclerize the segregations for storage. These proportions may be estimated through complicated multipie curve fitting slrategii's; however. our anaIylical problem is simply one of rt.'mgnition of what is probably going on. Withoul such initial n'Cognition, modl'l building as a m'n'ssaT)' preJ"l't.]uisil(' to (UNl' fittin,; wnuld hI.' iIllP(ISsibl('. To gain soml' P(·rspl'ctivt.' on Ihl' all.-.lysis, W(' might assuml' Ihilt compldt..' ,lnim.lls .1f\' inll'tlduel'd inlu Ihl' sit(,. Thl' first at.."t is bukhering and Ihe same general crileria of ulility are used in segregating Ihe butchered animals as might be employed al any kill-butehering
Sprln9 Consumprlon In th~ Cont~mporory Vllla~ and In Ihe PUf
locatícn: The animal is culled of parts of marginal utility ami the marginal parts Me Ied to tlw dll~S. Thls menns thnt thc- p'lrl!" f\'d «1 dogs would be t'ssellti.1lly ldcntlcal tu thosc normnlly abandoncd al kill-butchcring locations. To anticípate such parls we simply use the Inverse valúes of the MGUI-the IMGUI (Taa ble 5.8, column 1). Figure 5,17 Illustrates the relationship between the dog feeding record {Table 5.7, column 2) and the IMGUI valúes. Une can readily see that there is a basic structural relationship between the population of parls fed tu the dogs and the IMGUI valúes. For mosl parls of the analomy there is a steep sigmoid relationship between the index values and the frequencíes of parts fed lo dogs. Appearlng as a separate but eorrelated linear distribution are all the parts of the front leg (')leept tht..' scapul.l and the radio-cubitus plus Ihe meli1larsal. These are underreprcsenlcd in the dog ft..'t.'ding rl'coN relalive to Ihe parts of Ihl' axial skeletun plus Iht..' scapula and femur. Still .lnotht:"r cluster of parts are strongly underrepresentl'd-Ihe mandible and the radio-cubitus. This patterning tells us that we are nol far from anticif':"tíng Ihe situation represented by the dog feeding: record, but some diffl'n'nn'~ ('xist bt.'IW('l'n Ihl' modcl and the realíty. WIll'n lwo di~lribulions appcilr as in Figure 5.17 we may anticípate Ihat similar eulling strategies have been used on two different populations or Ihat Ihere is a weighling problem in lhe model. In order lo evaJuale Ihe Iikelihood of Ihe latterpossibililya veryconservative slrategy is suggested, in which parls are deleted during Ihe butchering phase in lerms of Ihe square rool of tht.' IMGUI. Clt.'arly such a slralegy is consislenl with thl' sigmoid distribution indiM cntl'd Íllr thl' pMls of th(, ílxialskell'lon. Tnble S.K. (ulumn 2. ,;iVl'S th(, Sl¡u'ln' mot v'1Iut.'s for Ilw MGUI. lt will be n'l".lll\'d thal tlll' diffcrence bt.'lween the general ulilily index (CUI) ílnd Ihe mudified gt..'nl'fíll utiJity indl'x (MCUI) is a scri('s uf modificíltiuns Iu oleenmmodate the realily Ihat decisions we-re madI? with respect to seis of bones rather than in terms of discrele bont.'s as they had been
11991
evaluated anatornícally. Considcring this ef M íeci. it was reasoned that a further modification, in terms of th(' nssimilation of low-utility parts tu pnrts uf hígh uttlity. was callcd for in any conservativo modiflcation uf the indexo The most likely place for cuts lo be made would be between the humerus and radiocubitus or the radio-cubitus and metacarpal of the front leg and the fémur-tibia articulation or the tibia-metatarsal articulation of the rear leg, In order to obtain a ccnservative assimilation estima te, the square root values (Teble 5.8, column 2) were simply modified upward by aceepting a value obtainl'd by multiplying the upper or higher villue bone by 2 and adding Ihe value for Ihe lower bone. This value was then divided by 3. In this manner all bonesof lower value were adju!'ted upward as a funclion of lhl'ir wl'ighted Oll'ans. This ad¡uslment .1Od the rt.'suhing s4..".11l', the cUllSl'rv.l· tive MGUI Uf CMGUI. afe summarizl'd in Tablt.' 5.8, column 3. Figure 5.18 ilIUSlratt..'s Ihl' relalionship bt.'tWt't..'n the invt.'rSl' uf thl' I.lt('r index values (rabie 5.8, column 4) and the frequendcs of bones fed to dogs. Whal we see is Ihat the separale distribution for the parts of the front leg exclusive of the r.ldio·cubilus has dis'lppeared and all anatomic.,1 polrts app('ar in a singlt.' curvt.'d distribution l.'xdusive uf Iht.' mandible and radio-cubitus. C1early Ihe cooservative model approaches more accuralely the pattern of dog feeding. The deviant behavior of Ihe mandible should be understand· able lo Ihe reader since we have seen a consis· lenl panern of it "misbehaving" as a part strongly biased toward human consumption during periods of immediately available fresh meal. We expeet it to appear overrepresented in Ihe dala fr(lm human cunsumption. Althis poinl thl' dt..'viant bt,'h.lVim llf th(' rMlilll"ubitus i~ mI( dl'ar. Ck.uly, polrts Ih.lt Illi~hlllllwrwist' b,' .lb.mdoned on kill-butl"ht..'ring 10Ciltions arl' bl'ing us('d as dog food wh('n a "shllrt lllgistic.ll !'ysIcm" may bl' aCl:umplish(·d. In this l'.lSl' str.l~ glcr hunting nl'ar Ihe village makes it ft..'ilsiblt.' ín terms of transport to introduce complete animals. The first culJing from butchering
[2001
5. 5"""9
[2011
Sprtns COftI:urnpUon In Me Corrtemporarp Villa.. _d In Ihe P.,
TABLE 5.8
Development o. Model_ Ior Conaamer UIM of An.tomkal Parta In the Contempoury VIII• • Candidate pupulahon lnverse of column 3 (ICMGUI)
Square roul
Anatomical parl Antier
Proximal metatarsal Distal metatarsal Phalanges
.
~
«e
cellars
Col 6
Col. 6 squared
Col. 11 93.02
Col. 3)( col. 9
Col. 10
%AS
66.14
Col ti x 1'1·
Cot. 12 20.78
(1)
(')
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(')
(9)
(lO)
(11)
(12)
(13)
1.09
10.9 29.8 37.3
(89.1)
26.49 41.37
40.05 62.54
3.91
!fUI I
5.68
31.3 31.3
68.7 68.7
31.3
59.7
40.J 32.6 43.4 JO.' 29.5 19,9
47.32 45.55 51.89 53.20 55.86 66.15 100.00 MI.9foI ").114 J7.f,S 37.59 31.UI 29.51 26.53 23.62 21.40
27)3 8,71 12.70 n.42 83,A3 63.37 tI(ll7 :w 21 100,00 75,(>5 77 2M 77.14 M.lm "'68 54.42 48.-46 44.1)8 4.28
100.00
O O ,,,,,,
3.13 3.13 5.97 6.74 5.66 6.92 7.05 8.01 6.59 6.59 6.114 5.16 4.11
67.4 56.6
""
3.49 3.24 10.0
70.5 80.1 65.9 65.9 M.07 59.91 59.91 53.01 41.01 47.01 100.0
mo
rmu
3.94
/tus
'1.1.5
".1..1',
!O.Ilf,
'1.1.'
~.I),1
5.63 5.63
tll.I 81.1 81.1
"'.04 69,04
7079 76.85 87.17
5,63 5.47 4.89
3.70
72.3 72.3 52.1
70'
100.0
YO.S
62.7
80,1.3 97.9 97.9 57.4 46.4 61.8 43.8
91.58 ':16.45
76.68
94,29 94.95 100.0 98.12 75.8J 72.25 flO.81 N.50
42.0
':IJ 42
9ñ.K6
K7.27
2M3 41'.'" 52.3 51.111 57,11 57.11 66,85 15..&8 75.48 O O '1,2"
ñK.45 77.22 NI.51 NI51 611.51 6O.S1 60.51 6O,Sl 60.51 7.43 14:'1 7-11 7.H 7.4:\ 7.43 7.43 7.43 7.43 33.97
111.97
%.H5
~.J(,
59.62 36.M Jft,fol 36.61 36.61 36.61 36,61 36.61 .55
M.m
341 3"'.7 J!'I.93 4(1.1)1) 40.09 46.93 5199 52,':N',
o O h,'>
h."
',14.&4 7J,14 6'J.M
77.94
'/,25
UI.'"
2t>..,2
18.'" 18.9 27.7 27.7 47.9
26.1J2 26.92 39.46 39.46
68.23
• Por IMGUI, see 'reble 5.5. column 2. b For processing lndex, see Table 3.2, column 5.
these animals ís fed to the dogs; the same barts would have been abandoned at the killutchering location if there had been transport pressure. Here we have a situation in
remo ...al to
100 1'1
373
Catcaneus
index (PI)"
Col. 4 70.2
86.99 92.15 92.15 64.95 35.05 68.65 52,65 50.75 3ft.24 57.11 57.11 M.IJ 14.11 78.51 85.34 88.72 90..&2
Proximal metacarpal Distal metacarpal Pn-llimil¡ femur ni"',ll (,'mllr 1'Ill,illhlllll'¡,l D¡sl,lIhbi,. T,lrs.,ls Aslragallls
I't"maining aflE't
100 col. 3
Mandible Atlas AlIis C..,rvica! vertebree T1wracic vertebree Lumbar venebree Pt'lvis
Carpeta
Inverse
prccessmg index
Conserveuve MGUI
2.'J5
['r"xin",,1 hume ru~ lJis!dl humt.'ru!I rn.'llimal radto-cubitua Distal radio-cubétus
lnverse ol
proccsstng
Modt'l for ¡nilial consumption from candldate pcpulañcn
otMGUI
92.20
Stcmum Sc"I"Ul.l
medet fcr pans
IMGUI~
5kuIJ
Rib~
Square 01
which the same crítería for decision making are being used with a similar resulting pattern of association between anatomical parts but for different purposes depending on thc
-
I
Mn.llf> 62.74 b2.74 62.74 62.74 62.74 62.74 62,74 7,"9
!l2.71
88.'H
8.),1,l6
9(}.15
93.02
100.00 96.28 57.50 52.21 65,29 63.21 9:'1.Ml
89.56 53.49 4fI57 fíO,74
SII.50
.
71>'1
55
7.h'l 71,'J 7"':1 7.61J 7.f>9 7.69
~
..
.ss .55
.55 55
31),35
3'J.35 )1).35 39.35 39.35 39.35 39.35 .59 .S'J 'j'J
30.13 34.J2 35.19 36.95 43.74 66.14 40.:\3 42,2) 24.lKI 24.ltfo 20."2 19.56 17.55 15.62 14.21
.59 59
.5'
!i'/ .59
."
.59
.4<J .4<J .36
.59
55
.59
7.'"
.55
.59
35.22
11.54
12.41
"placement" of the activity relative to a consumer population. The difference betwcen this situation and une of normal cullíng at a kill-butchertng location Is the relative conservatism of the decisión making. When the pupulatíun being processed Is immediately at
.40
.32 5.71
""
~,
(,'1
NI
.'.ee"
un '.64 15.05 17.42 13.17 l"'.M 7.11 2n.1H IS,n Ib.lltl lfo.m
13.30 12.61 11.31 10.07 9.16
sv
" ."
.1m .NI
so so
.54
54
.48 '.63
.48 6.15
.,. ) H'l
.1 '2 2.H'J 2.HIJ 2.89 2.59 2.31 29.60
hand therc is a more conservativo pnttem of culling. Wc milY propost.' th.lt this is not unique and that the greater the spatiol stparatio1l between tñe animals ~ing pnxcssed and t1ft.' antidpated consumer populatilln the less ccms(rtJQtivr the culling dccisi(ltIS wilf be. We may also antici-
1202\
.. IN:
.,T e ..-:c.
~
~
":'/ lo"'" K O
00
1
r.:'..J
1
NLve
/~ I
,-
r
."
• n./.crr
...-
Ilf' ~-,.
10
,....
10
...- en 10
40
50
.!¡
I
T_..1,." /1M
00
•
8
/
00
...
.J
/
~~.....
§I
¡;¡
~
00
~l*T _
1'llCt-
1"0
10
«l
100
INVERSE (MGUI) llIB.E 58 COl. I Figure 5.17.
ATee
1"
U O
00
f
00
f
..
"'"o
iil
~
Relationship betweee dog ft.>eding rec-
ord and tho inv{'l'Wmodilied general utilily indcx (MGU!).
,
.. "~r
00
/ TAIt
201
11;1
/ 0
I
.CM"
TH~"H
/
e •
'::T!~:"
.IT
o.w
o
eDll<: • ",,<:
/ 30
e"Me
o-
e / /...,. elt
10
/
......
LV•• e
§ :~,~
.... I /~ aDIIC
.o
..
... "
~......
I I
5.5_
40
&O
lO
10
lO
.0
100
INVERSE CONSERVATIVE IMGUll TA8LE 5.8 COL 5 Flguft 5.18. Relationship between dog feedil"lg record and the tnverse consl'ryalive m"dified gl'I"I(',...1 utilily
pete that thl' grcatl!r tht' ('("'SUm(', dvmand, the
pieis simply tI,D' aPlaloXllus dt'ásimls /1fa.y lit, made
mQr~
lar differrntends in different settings. At least in
something of an antithesis. The greater the consumer demand 'he higher probability uf extended logistical systcms and far~rangíng hunting parties. Under such conclitioos the transport problem becomes critical; the consumer situation dicta tes a very conservative culling strategy bul the transport situiltion dictatl's a more radical cuJliog str.1tegy. Thc solution lo such a dilemma i5 increased diversification in the use made of parts of low util~ Uy by the hunting parties thcmselves, so such parts can be bt)th consumed and eliminated fmm thc bulk thal musl be transportL'd. I will follow up on Ihese ideas in Chapter 6. We have seen a situation in which parts commonly abandoned at kili siles are systematically used as dog food. Clearly the problem of use or function is not being solved neatly lhrough a srudy of anatomical part frequencics, in spite of the fact that such frequencies may be successfully modeled in terms of decision making. Theconclusiotl from'/lis exam-
this case there is no static associational pattern that carries typological or categorical information for the archaeologist. The staties potentially teH us 50mething about the state of two systems variables, (a) consumer d~tnand andJor (b) logistical extension-the degree of transport problem between the location of culliog and thc I(l(.ltiun (If the targct eonsumers. They do not idcntify the ('onsumen, ir any; nor does the pattern tell us about the nverall funetío" of the location where the n'mains be<:ame part of the archaeological record. Turning now to the questiun of human consumptíon, wc may with sumc cunfidcnl'l:! as· sume thnt human consumptivn rcprest.·nls a segregation strategy relative to a population of parts monitored by the MGUI (Table 5.8, cojo umo 3). Df prime concero during spring is the placement of parts in storage, the accumuJation of sufficient quantities of relatively high '1uality food to last the summer. The best estimator for the parts likely to have been placed in frozen storage is the processíng
nmservative the eulling decisions will be. C1early these two propositions appear as
.
~
.
12031
Sprint Cotllumptlon In tite ConternpoNt)' VI'IGte onilfIn lJte Put
index (Table 3.2, column 4). These are the parts of high quality but low probability of successful storege through drying. In line with the conservative character of decisions made when meat is immediately al hend, and particularly sínce meat for atores was short in 1971, 1 assume that the square root of the processing índex is rnost likely to anticípate the parts selected for frozen storage. This means that the square of the inverse proceseing index ís the best estimator for the parts not selected for frozen storage. This index is given in Table 5.8, column 9. The estima te of the pans rcmainlng at the village location after dog fceding and aíter removal of parte to frozen storage is given by multiplying the CMGUI by the square oí the inverse processing Index (Table 5.8, column 3 X column 9). The resulting valúes are summarized in Table 5.8, column 11. These represent the candidate population from which parta for eonsumption might be selected. The best estimator for the pnrts hkcly tu be chosen is ngain the processing lndex since these tire parts of high utility but low probability of successful drying on 11 long~term basis. Table 5.8, column 13, summarizes the values resulling from multiplying the candidate population (Table 5.8, column 11) by the processing index (Table 3.2, column 5), These values are then taken as the most Iikely model for parts eonsumed during the course 01 inUial drying of a population of parf5 dcstined for storage, given a fret.·zing altt."rnative. Figure 5.19 Hlustrates the fit between the mudel just developed and the actual record of human consumptiun during spring 01 1971. Certainly, Ihere is not a stilggering (it between thl' mudd and !ht.,data. NCVl'rlheless, we may ask whL'thcr tht.' model helps us to understand data. 1 think the answer must be yeso First, it must be recalled that dried meat stores in the contemporary village are primarily for dog food. There is only a Jow and mini mal correlation between the model indices and the parts {lf the hody exclusive of the radio-cubitus, stt.'rnum, rear leg, and mandible. This low mínimal correlalion certainly reflects a minor
..
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_
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e;;;iM.-¡
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to
/
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70
1C.e .... 10
10
100
INVERSE CONSERVATlVE (MGUII TABLE 5.8 COL. 5 Fj8u~ 5.19. Relalionship between human ronsumption data and modeled values.
contribution to the spring consumption pattem almos! eertainly obtained in the context uf the decisions indicated in the mode!. The mandible, stemum, and rear leg with the probable addition 01 the radio-cubitus almost certainly represent the parts contriburing most to the diet and, importantly, parts ob~ tained from populations olher lhan that modcled.1 have illrcady noled ti" undcrrcprt.'sentation of thestemum in lhe parts placcd in frozen storage. Here we see it overrcprcsented. Similarly I have previously noted a consistent patlem of unique variability for the milndible. I havc pointcd out that Iht." tungut.' is not storabll.' as dried mt:'at, and the stt.'rnum is eonsidered too latty to be successfully dried; these parts have qualitative properties not monitored by the anatomical indices used here. They appear as the most common parts in the spring diel, followed c10sely by the femur, the part with absolutely the greafest value in meat per unit weight. Thc high frt.·· quency 01 the tibia, tarsals, and melatarsals is
12041
5. SJWfn,
simplya reflection uf .he patrern descrtbed in Chapter 4; parts selected for meat are commonly conservatively selected in that all the riders are introduced along with the target element. The riders are then used as sources of bone marrow along with the meat-based meals. Clearly one source for both the tengue with attached mandible and supplementary marrow Ior human consumption is the population of perte reserved Ior dog food and immedietely availableon the residentiallocañon. The picture obtained of the human cansumption strategy is ao interesting accommodation to (a) use of parts oat considered easily stored (the tongue and sternum), (b) use of parts
considered lo have unly shorHerrn storage potcntial (the parts linearly currelatl'd in the mudel), and (e) use uf parts Ica~t lR'nsitivc to nutritional variations among those of low to moderate marrow value. Consumption during the period of fresh meat availability in spring appears as a com· plicC\ted and biased seleetion of parts for human use; for dug!l we oote ao unbi..sed t'xpl'dicnt use of imml'lli
.
~
We note Immcdiatcly that th e enowmobihmay well lníluence the present behevlor. Similarly, the optíon of freezing meat for summer storage is something new to the Nunamiut and is certain to affect their processlng strategíes and possibly their consumer behavior. Final1y, the systematic use of the Anavik locatíon may well be a kind of locational1y stable strategy partially dependen¡ on the exístence and Iocenon of the sedentary village. In the mure mobile days uf the past. hunting may well have been less aggrcgated or localized than it is today. As a c(lOtm! on some of the differences between the eontemporary situation and the past in terms of both consumer behavior and overal! organization of spring activíties, 1 colle<:ted dala from the last years of the Nunamiuls' traditionally mobi1c way of Iife. Until 1950 these people were migratory hunters and their mobility paUerns were related to sorne of the scheduling 1 have characterized for contemporary spring hunting. The normal pattem of !lpring mobility was lo abandon the winter residcntial camp arnund the first uf Mi1Y and muvl.'lu a spring ~ill' while sled transporl was still feasible. Thl' spring residential site would be established near an anticipated lucation of spring interé~pt hunting. This residential camp served as the logistic hub for all spring hunting acrivities. Afler spring hunting was completed, gl'nerally coincident with the timing of setting up tents in the eontemporary village, the spring camp would be abandoned and a move made into a summer campo Such moves were commonly made between the tenth and twentieth of June. Several related moves may have befn made at this time-aítcr the abandtmml'nt uf Ihe spriog Sitl' él shurt-ll'rm residl'nlial c.lmp near a íishing spot may have been set up, aod ..round June 26 another move may ha ve beeo made to an early summer camp, generally to the north of the Brooks Range near él loearion whl're whitefish C(luld bl' lakl'n. I hnvt' becn abll' (tI ducuml'nt lhl' Olll\ll.'S i1nd camps occupied by five familil's for the years 1948-1949 and 1950, thl' pcriod of Ingstl'd's
Sprlng Coru:wnptlon In lile Contemponny VJlloge ond' In lile Pu'
(1951) visir re the Nunamiut. In the spriog of 1949 most of the Iamílles of the Tulugakmiut band had been camped near the forest in the víctnlty of Hunt Fork and at Publatuk. After stopping in several transient camps, fiveof the families arríved at Tulugak Lake arcund the first of May to establish a spring resídentíal camp. This eamp was occupled through June 15, 1949. Hunting was conducted al Anavik and along the eskera just scuth of the Ieke. There werc no ice cellars and all meat stored for SUmmer consumption was drted. 1should point out lhat storing meat in ice cel1ars is feasible today oniy because lhe Nunamiut are able to obtain, in trade, fats and grease from the outside to supplement the very lean meat from spriog caribou, A steady diet of lean meal produces diarrhea and extreme weakm'ss as wdl ilS dizzy spells. In Ihe past, spring hunting was much less extensive. The Nunamiut took only as many caribou for dry¡ng as could be supplemented by availabIe stored fal and grease. Their storage was not a substitute for sumJ1l('r hunting, which was v...ry important in. the past. Thc spriog sile of 1949 (Tulugak Site 2A) waS occupied by the fjve families, representing 36 people (see Figur... 5.20). This was the entire camp group of the Tulugakmiut band of Nunamiut. The heads of the families were Elyjah Kakinya, Simon P..neack, Jesse Ahgook, Frank Rulland, and John Morey. These men were aJl strongly tied in lerms of kinship. Elyjah was married to Frank Rul· land's sister, and Simon was married to Elyjah's adopted daughter. Joho Morey was married to Simon's daughter, and Jesse Ahgook was related to both Siman and Elyjah. Ahgook's wife's mother wa$ lhe daughter of the brolhcr (lf both Simon and Elyjah's grl'atgrandfathers (brothers). Ahgook had only recently joined the Tulugak group. He had previously lived with the Ulu-Lake camp group, which disbanded during the war (1943). John Morry had m.uril'd Simon's daughfer against lhl' wishl'S uf Simon. After the marriage }ohn and his wife had (¡ved on the Killik Riv...r: Ihey only reeently joined the Tulugakmiut. AI~
12051
though Simon and his relatives tolerated Iohn there was Jittle cooperatíon at this time and John was al a disadvantage slnce he was unfamiliar with the country. Rumor has it that John was very unsuccessful with hunting during his early resldence wíth Elyjah's band and life was very hard. Sorne members of the Killik group c1aim that Simon would not share meat with John during this periodo The slte was gridded and surveyed in 1969. With lhe belp of Johnny Rulland, who hed Iived there at the age of 18, all surtace features were recorded. Following the initial mapping, sod was removed from each tent ring and its immediate area in order lo obtain more detailed information on the faunal remains inside the tents. Next, él. dry t'XpOSl'rlMea where John Morry's t... nl and dog y.ud!" hí\d bl'l'n located was surface wUl'dl'd fur artifacts; ..1111..1 faunal remaios wer... collected by units 3 m square. Finally, 2 years lat...r the wellpreserved dog yard of the Rulland family was excavated, and record s were kept on the specific 10cation of eaeh bone. The Rulland resid...nce itsdf was ('xcavatt.'d (lVl'r a 2·Yl'olr pcriod, so we h
tII~
S",."., Co_umpUon 'n UN Contemporory Vlllaae ond In ~
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TABLES.' Inventorie. o, An.t:ollllkal PaÑ from Selcctecl Are.. o, TulvS.k uke (2A) Slte (Sprlng 1949)
~--
Dos consumption
Humilln ccnsumption
.................-
1207)
p.,
J
Rulland
Mony
Total consumpuon
Rulland
Mony
Morry
--Analomiral parl
Antll'r Skull Manttibl", AII.lII Mi!!
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,ry c.. .. :ho
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Figure 5.20.
- - - ---_.........
K.& .
.... iii"'"iiio_¡;¡
A.e..... Awtoo..tc....
Map uf TulugAk Lake al'\'/l showing a number IIf archa\'nlllskal !Iilt'S.
12061
.
~
~_.
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
(3)
2.0 .5 '.5
36.'
2.0 2.0 6.0 O O 1.0 2.' 1.0 1.0 . 7.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 '.0 '.0 tO O O '.5 25 1.5 '.5 '.5 '.5 '.5 '.5 '.0 .5
.s .s
'.1 HUI '.1 '.1
Cervical vertebrae• Thoracic vt'rk-brae Lumbar vertebrae
1.0 3
,
18.2 16.9
Pdvis
'.0
36'
Ribs Sll.'rnum Scapula I'ro",ima! humcrus Distal humerus Pn.lXimal radto-cubíms Distal radio-cubitus. Carpabl 1'n.I",im..1 ml'lacarpal Disldl mctacarpal I'ru",itl\,llll>lllUr Distal Iernur Proximal libia Distal tibia Tarsals Aslragalu8 Clk"IWWI l'r.l~jm,ll ml'I.II.Irs.-.1 !Jislal nwlalal'llal I'halange!l
5
56
'.1
'.7 '.0 O
85.4
5.0 3.5 1.5
so.s
.s
.5 O 1.0 tO
l.' 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.5 4.5 5.5 .3
n.7 O '.1
63.' 24.0
'.1 O IH.2 IH.2 27.2
63.' 54.' 54.' 6,.'\.6
KUI 1011.0
5.5
Rulland
--MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
(')
(5)
(6)
(7)
,e.e
2(,."
50 5.'
"0.0
16.0
31.2 34.4 111(1.0
O
50 5.0 2.3 1.' 2.5
4.5 5.5 6.5 10 1.0 1.0 .5 1.3 3.0 .1 O 2.5 O
O 13.3
34.' 13.3 13.3
, ••• 100.0 20.0 13.3 13.3
53.3 53.3 13.3 O O 33.3
33.3 20.0
60.0 60.0 60.0 60.0 6110
8(1.0
••
432 and 219 human consumptíon days represented by the Rulland and Morry samples respectívely. During the TuJugak Lake occupatíon, the only storage method betng precticed was the drying of meat. At that time the Nunamiul did nol have the option of freezing meet. These data therefore glve us the opportunity ro evalunte whether and to what degree the optton of freezfng spring-kílled caribou
..•, •
O
O .5 2.0 3.0 '.0 1.2 .5 .5 .5 1.0 1.0 1.5 10 1.5 1.0
1.5 1.0
••
31.2 31.2 14.7
•••
15.5 28.1 5.2 O O 31 12.5 18.1 25.0 7.5 3.1 3.! 3.1 6.3 6.3
••• '.3
••• ".3 ••• 6.3 '.5
l.,
t 2.0
.s .5 1.0
o
O
.s
1.0 .5 1.0 10 .5 .5 .1
'"
(8)
6~.2
tl4.ó Itltl.tl
ISA i5.4 15.4
7.7 20.0 46.2 16
MNI
'"
MNI
(.)
(10)
z.u
;\4. I
f>.5
t..tI 20.5 65 '.5 33 1.7 3.3 6.' 1.3 '.7
2'13 UXJ,O
75
flIUI
12.5 2.0 lO 2. 31 13 .0 .6 7.5 '.0 1.0 2.5
llXUI
".. •.o, O
O n.! n.! 30.' 77 7.7
15.4 O O
7.7 15.4
7.7 15.4 15.4
7.7 7.7
l.,
2.' '.0 '.5 2.7 10 5 ).5 20
)1.7 2b.S ie.i
'3 lid
31.7
6.3
22.' 19.5
2.' 12.2 39.0 41.5 13.2
••• 2.'
7.3
.. , ••
5.0 '.0 '.5 4.54 6.0 6.5
.7
(11)
"l.' 6.0
'"
(12)
52.U
1"0
••
16.0 24.8 10.4 32.0
•••
60.0
32.0
'0 20.0 440 48.0 12.0
.5
'.0
r.c
HU 20ll 20.0 16.0
2'
2.5
21.9 24.4 19.5 21.9 21.1J
2.u 5.5 50 5.5
5.5
44.0
2'1.3 :\1.1 3.'
S.U
4t1.tI 52.0
4'1.5 b
44.0 40.0
44.0
..
conditions the pattern of ccnsumption during the period of hunting. Figure 5.21 iIIustrates the com~arison between the 1949 reeidenñel sites. everal f.let" are clear. The two samples from 1949 are more alike than either ís to the 1971 data (see Figure 5.16). Additional1y. there is a bias in the 1949 data for marrow-yielding parts of the rear leg; the radio·cubitus, a marrow-yieldtng bone
.. TABLE 5.10
Sprlng COJUump"on In the Contemponuy VIlJage ...d In the P..,
[2091
Anclll." Facb: F.un.1 A... mbl.ges 'rom Tulu••k uk. Slt. 2A (Sp"'nl 1949)
o Frank Rulland
John Morry AllribUll'S A. S/"'ft splillltrS
Channeled splinters Tolal splinll'u Cylindl'r!o Shafls
8. Ar¡iClllllhJ, nrds· Long bone
Metapodlal Total
n....~'rvl,d 104 31 131
F.x,....'CI¡·ll
n"'Sl.'r\lI,\j
110.4 28.2
142
138.6
'68
26
"
MANO Al
EIi.I',·f!l'd
" ,sr
CERII THOR
138.0 26.6 164.6
LUM
PELII
se
PH
32 21
32 17
53
4'
42 21 b3
CARP
40 lb 56
'MC DMC
"er
"
DT
Rib IraglT\l"nts Rib head Total
TO'
57
'1 13
AST
CAe
13
'MT DMT PHAL I
a
D. Rlllil.l$ Shaft 'phnh.'rs Artkulator ends Rib fragments
Rib heads E. Brmll'll /lilllt
3
2."7
282
lOO
2.94
4.69
1.0
"8
1.0
n
n
ti
ti
I ti ti
ti
Rear up PMT lo tarsals
OMT lo OT G. Dismtltlbt-'mm' Illl/lItS Front up Front dilwn Totallronl ~ar up
Rt!ar down Total rear
H. Dismtmbermtnt 'alios Fronl
Re."
Figure- S.ZI, Comparative pe~ntagl's for ccesempIMm d.11.\ 'mlT1 lhl' 1'1411 ]\lhn Murry anli Fr;mk Rulland ¡dlt·s.
up
-.
I ti
I
" 3 O
11
3 O
O 11
,
O
"8
5
27
4 O 4
J 5
.27 .18
.11
1.00
1.00
4 ti
4 ~I
8 38
.75
Figun'll in "(,Jlpt'cll'd" culumn an' l"t1'WCII-d v<1lu¡·s. I'RC, proximal raditl-cubilus; ORe di!>I.,1 r.ldill-Cubitus; PMT, proximal ml'tat.lI'Sil/; OMT, distal metatarsal; OT, dilital tibia. t
[2081
COMPARISON OF SPRING CQNSUMPTION FOR TWO FAMILIES (MAY 6 -JULY 1,1949)
Arli(Il/QIj¡lfI.<~
Pront dnwn f'mnlup C.up"I.'1 111 PRe I'M<: 1(1 DRe Rea, down
Pl'rcl'nla~
--,
DN
'.C ORC
C. RIPs
r.
I0203040~60T09090100
ANT
..
Irom th" Iront Il'~; "no Ihe stcrnum. On the othcr hand, therc ls less bias indtcatcd fur Ihe femur and mandible in the 1949 data, The marrow-bone bi.1S is understandable in lerms of the dietary changes that took place as the IHe-style changed over time. As imported vegelable oils and lard became available, the use of bone marrow decreased. In 1949 no altcrnntivc sources of grease were available, so the use of tmrrow was conscquently grearer. As interesting as the differences are, the overaU struetural similarity between the graphs is provocative since it has been argued that human consumption in the contemporary village is a compound produet of biased selection of parts from several different stages of processing and storing anatomical parts. Givcn that no freezing altl'rnative was avail· abk' to the familit.'S at Tulugak Lakc in 1949, the modeI used in anticipating the overaJl
pattern of consumption in the 1971 data is certaínly inappropriate. I have argued that complete animals introduced Imo the t'Untl'mpor.try villi\~l' proccssing areas were major scurccs of Iood for dogs during the period of spring hunting. Such an argument anticipated the dog feedíng, but did not anticípate the human consumption record. Parts that would have been prime targets for dry storage after processmg, such as the fémur, had instead been consumed. A bias was also noted in the high frequencles of stemums, which showed complementary low frequencíes in frozen storage. Finally, the mandible appeared as probably supplcmented in the human diet írom sources other than the population avaílable íor fecding the dogs, that is, thc local processlng dcbris. The spedñc rnodel used is clcarly inapproprintc to the 1949 data, whcre no dclction of pnrts for frozen storagc could have occurrcd. There is an additional and equally lmportant dlfference. The 1949 data are output data; the 1971 data are input data. That is. the 1949 data are truly archneologicnl in th a t they n'prcsent Irequencies of anatomical parts in their "final rcstlng place" and in a statc pult.·ntially modificd by proCl'SSt'S that opcratcd aftcr the solection nr constitutíon uf n populntion uf parts for consumption by both dogs and humane. Had I becn ablc to obtain output ínfurmation for 1971, it would have looked difft.'rcnt than the input data reported. For instancl'. the cooperating informants kept information for me on parts selected as dog food at fceding times. I am certain that the women of the houses deaned up around the residenee and sometimes tossed to the dogs boncs that n'mained from human meals. This information is not contained in my records sioce such casual feeding by members of the houschold was not monitored. In the case of the data from the dog yards of the 1949 period a much more serious problem exists. Dogs tend to destroy bones. The output assemblages of the 1941oJ period haY(' tht'rl'Ítm.' becn modificd away frum tht'ir origin.1J mmposition as introduced by the Eskimo by (he
....
. 5.
12101
¡:".
action of the dogs during subsequent feeding. Sinee the parts actuaIly red to dogs and not the
processes of attrition are of interest here, we must concern ourselves with the problem of reconstructing, from the parta remaining, the composition of the assemblage prior to the
operation ot an attritional agent. Previous research (Bínford and Bertram
'1 :
l. "
!1': 1
:1: i
"-
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1977) has shown that bones are destroyed by agents of attrition in a manner directly related to the density of the bones being attacked. Bone density varíes in a regular manner with maturatioo in an animal, and growth is not an allometrk pattern. Sorne bones change al faster overaU rates than others. and many change al changing retes relative to one another during the growth process. This means that the survíval frequencies of bones remaining after the operation of an attritional agent are él direct funcrion of the age structure of the animal population from whích the bones were deríved, and the frequencíes of the bones subjeeted to thc destructive proccss, Unfortunately. my earlier fl.,'search does not control for variable maturational changes in bone densities for caribou. At this point only éln adult caribou has been studied anatomi~ cally in lerms af bone densilies (see Binford and Berlram 1977). We cannot correct forvariable attrition thal might arise from there being él heterogeneous age strocture represented in Ihe caribou from which bones were selected lor feeding dogs. Neverthelcs!>, since it is knawn Ihat only adult animals in terms af the Eskima eriteria for meal sourees are generally taken in spring we may suspect thal age variabilily will be al a minimum as a source of variability in bone survival. Table 5.11 summarizes the measured hone den sities for a1l the analomica! parts of an adult male caribou of approximalely 3.5 years of age together with their corresponding survival percenlages as determined in previous research (Binford and Bertram 1977. p. 137). The perct"tagt suroival valut> is simply the percentage of the original numbcr of anatomical parl8that would bt' ,,'xp,,·ch.'d tu survivl' attack by ";IMwin.,; du.,;s fur i1 pOpUI.llion l',u'll1'1iv1'!y
oí adult caríbou. In order te estimate the number of parte originally present from those remaining after action by an agent of attrition, one simply divides the observed MNIs by the survival percentage (Table 5.11. column 2), yielding an estímate uf the MNls originally present before the attritional agent destroyed the bones. The íníerred original MNls tegether with the reconstructed percentages for the two 1949 dog yard samples are given in Table 5.11. Figure 5.22 compares the observed and inferred population slructure for one of the dog yard samples. lt is clear that the two populations are different. As an initial step in evalualing the degree lo which the recenstructcd assemblege ís a reliable approxirnetion of the population of bones prior to the Ieedíng actíon of dcgs, Figures 5.23 and 5.24 compare the reconstructed populations and the actual input dog feedlng record from the contemporary village in 1971. lt is clear that the fit is not very close. This could stern from an inaccurate reconstruclion andlor a real difference ~tween thc patferns of dog feeding at the two points in time. Given the strong and redundantly ae(urate results from earlier studies on patterns uf sutvivorship forbones acted upon by dogs (see Binford and Bertram 1977), I will procl?ed under Ihe assumption that the patterns o'f'¡.I.'C'ding wcre different in 1949. In fad, we know that they must have been different. First, we know that all meat introdueed was slored fur summer use through drying. This waS oot the case in 1971. Second, we know that transport methods were much less effective and more labor intensive in 1949 given the absence af snowmobiles. Thís condition would lead us to suspect more culting of parts along the logistícal networks of the 1949 spring system. Third, we have noled that one of the strategies fol· lowed in the conlemporary village was to select parts for feeding dogs from the parts culled from animals kiUed close to the village and introduced as complete animals. We may anticípate much less of this behavior in 1949 bt'cau'IC uf the lilCk ()f ,,'aNY tr.1n:-p~lr( m"',lns. I.ollkin.,; bill'k uv~'r Ih~' dat,l rrutn tl'W nlll-
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COMPAR!SON OF OBSERVEO 8 RECONSTRUCTED DOG FEEDlNG DATA figure 5.22. Comparalive perct'nlagt.'5 fllr llbserved and rL'
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temporary era we see modifications had te be made in the general utility index to eccommodate the phenomenon of "riding" or assimilation of parts of low utility lo parta of high utility. Under very conservative fleld culling strategtes, such as that modeled by the square root of the MGUJ. WI:" had to makc nccommodeñons lo thi~ same phenomenon. My cxperiences with the Nunamiut leed me to suspect that the baeíc oríentatíon toward the situation of culling in the fíeld has shtñed somewhat in recent years. Many old men commented that the actlons of the young men et sites Iike Anavik were diíferent than their own and what they héld been laughl by their fathers. One man summed up the siluation as a basic difference between thinking of what one wants lo carry home and Ihinking about what one can carry home. Most old meo stressed Ihat in the pasl one worried about what parts had to be abandoned whereas today young men worry only about which parts they want lo retum to the village. One informant su mmarized the differences In altitude as lollows:
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VILLAGE 006 fEEOlNG 1971
TABLE S7 COL 2
TABL[ 5.7 COL 2
rt'Olrtl
I
...... "G."/ e
/eOl'
VlLL!l.GE OOG FE(DING 1971
Fisure 5.%3. Relalionship tM.'lween rt>ronshurlf'd Mony dog yard and Ihe- lY71 village dog feeding
I
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Rt'lafioMhip betwet'n Iht' !'Y("Oflstructt'd Rulland 1949 dog rard and tht' 1971 villitge dog feeding n,.·rnrd. Figure 5.24.
Sprfn, C_umpUon Jn tIIe Contemponr'1' Vllloge _d Jn lhe Pul
"Old-timers always try to take everythmg home, young men always thlnk about what parta they should take home-snowmobiles and guns have made them lazy." Translating
this ccmment into the indíces developed we might suspect that contemporary decisions are made in terms (lf positíve crttena and the dcgrec to which parte of low utility are intrcduced is a functíon of the fransporf or labor "crunch" associeted wíth the particulars of the lcgisncal decíston. In the past. logislical decisions were made negettvely in terms of which parts should be abandoned given the im pos· sibílity of carrying aH of them. Such a culling strategy is believed to be antidpated best as sorne function of fhe inverse of the unmodifjed general utility index (Table 5.12, column 2). Columns 2-7 of TabIe 5.12 present the de· velopment of various culling indices from the basic facts of fhe general utility indexo Another clue to fhe slructure of the sysfem represented by the 1949 assemblages rests with the dislribution of leg banes indicated in Figure 5.21. In oue comparisons of the spring hunting sfands we found that marrow-bone assemblages domin-ated by fhe metatarsal were cufled from either complete animals or from assemblages abandoned at kili siles. Populations of marrow bones selected from previously cullcd populations tend to be dominilh.·d by Ihe distal libia. This means that thc SOllrm¡: fur marrow bones consumed in the 1949 spring sifes were populations of largely unculled leg bones. I know from informants that the source of marrow bones used in spring residential locations was the processjng area where parts were stripped for drying. Informants stress that in fhe past processing for drying WélS conducted somewhat dif(l.'rl'ntly than it is today. They say that parts Wt'rl' rt.'moved from Iht.' kill-bufchering locatillns .111d Iho~' ¡udgco nul in nt.'cd uf proccss· ing for drying would be introduced directly into the residentiallocation far placemenf on the drying racks. Those parts judged in nel!d of processing would beremoved lo sorne place away from the kill.butchering locations so as not to impede further hunting, This spedal
12131
processing erea was generally between the kili location and the residential location. It was said that Ihis procedure minimized the attractiveness of drying recks tu fijes and reduced the srnell in thc spring residential location. Onee processíng had bcen completcd, stripped meat wae carricd into thc vtllage and placcd on the mear racks. Thcrc wcrc options al this juncture relative to whether marrow bones would be processed for marrow and/or bone grease. In the past, before it was possible to obtain grease and oíls through trade, boncs removed during processing parts for drying were processed for marrow and Ihe articulator ends were processed for bone grease. This was never a massíve processing activity as mighf take place at the end of a wint...r occupatíon, since many spring.killed animals had poor rnarrow and liUle good grease. The activ· ify was therefore highly selective in spring. This selectivity was conditioned by the knowledge that marrow aod bone grease could oot be stored for very long with the increasing lemperatures al spring and early summer. Any such secondary processing for marrow or grease was normally conducted. ,1t the special procl'ssing locatilm so .15 hl rt.'duc.:l' Ihe "garbage" around the meat racks. In Chapler 3 a processing index based on objectiv[> measures of ml.'ólt-Io-dry·bone pruporlions was devt.'!opt'd. 5uch valut's Wl.'re given lo all parts uf the anatomy. I havc n['ver actually seen, or had reported to me, the processing of olny p.rts other than those uf the legs. That is, no Nunamiut has ever admitled thal meat was stripped from the parts of the axial skeleton beyund the spedal butchering techniques previously described. This rncans that a realistic processing index i5 onte' that appUes only to tht., appendicul<1r Skl·It.·ton. Thls re.,li~tic mudlflc<1tion in lt'll' prot"l'ssillJ; indc)! is given in T.:lble 5.12. (ulumn 10, tn· gt.·ther with inv[>rsc valul..'s for this walisric index and squares and cubes (colurnns 11-13) for the inverse values. The lalter are useful in anticipating the parts that would be unpro· cessed and therefore available for consumption .,"d/or storage as dry meat arter procl'ssing
...7
2
--------
[214 )
5.S_
•
SprfnS Co",umptlon In the ContemponlrJl VI'....... cm4 In ....e P••
(215J
TABLE 5.12 TABLE 5.J2-(conUn~ed)
Development DI Nodel. for Kuman and 001 Conaumptlon (19.9)' Gt'neral utility Index .
Anatomkal p.1rt Antlt'r Skull Mamtible Allo1l1 Axis Ccrvkal veet...brae Thcrecic vertebral' Lumbar venebree reolvis Ribs Sl... rnum Scapute Pr\lximal bumerus Di'l!,l! humerus !'I'l,~ill1,lI r,'lli,¡'¡'lIhil11'l Ili'lI,,1 r.tlh"·tu¡'itll~
(·,Ir".,l..
¡'rtl,im.\1 nll'I,lt',uP,ll Ui~loIl m..t.-o\'arv-,I rrll~imal h,'mur Distill femur Proximal libia Distal tibi" Tarsals Astragalu5 Calcaneus PI'lIl(;mal meotalar.ull Distal ml'lalarsal Firsl pnalange Secoed phallmf;eo Third phalange
--
Inverse general ulilily tadex
Square of inverse GUI
Col. 2
Col. 21
GUI
ICUI
iiirW
liiO
Col. 4 97.95
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
1.(13 6.74 13.tt~
9.79 9.79 35.71 45.53 32.05 47.89
".77 "".13 43.47 JlI.23 2'!.!iM 1".77 17 M2 .<¡51 K.24 M.IO 9102
reo.m 27.57 29.46 11.20 11.23 )2,40 15.03 16.24 3.52 302 Ul5
9fl.97 91.26 Mb.11 W.21 YQ.21 M.29 54.47 67.1j5 ~2.11
50.23 35.87 Stl,53 ~.77
100.0 92.20 "'7.111 YI.15
fol4.W M,\.l~1
h7~~1
10M, '1'.
5.5.04
"'.". 52.65 5(115 3ft.24 57.12 70.50
tI~.IM
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O 72.43 70.54 lSlf.dO
".77 S7.fíO 84."'7 M3.7" '.16.48
96.'" 9H.15
85.02 75.70
411.11(1 M,27
~l.15
"'.96
71.1~
"1.7" "1.17
100.0
83.fl6 1'3.06 42.19 30.28 47.14 27.72 25.7b 13.14 32,6) 49.70 SlI.M 7t1.n
111.42 M1,2.1 '14A9
97.95 83.28 74.15 tll.36 81.36 41.33 2'1.66 46.17 27.15 25.23 12.87 31.96
"oI~.47
"012.71 '/2.12 1.70
O
7J.IB
"''''
M'I.2tt M.2n M:1.JI .03
O
71.27 89.72 89.69 88.51 85.85 tW.6J
52.46 49.76 78.85 78.80 76.74 72.20 70.15
97.'"
~3.118
97.98 99.17
94.05
96.33
"oII.I~ H~.%
&1.1'15
O O 53.56
SO.81 !IO.50
80.45 78.35 73.71 71.62 95.113 96.02 \18.35
Cebe uf inverse GUI Col.
2~
Col. 6
1000
%:94
16)
(7)
96.94 76.UO hJ.K5 73.39 73.31,l 26.57 1ft.1ft
31.37 13.68 12.67 4.61 18.07 33. '.16 .14.1( 1
100.0 78.40 t15.!I7 75.71 75.71 27.41 16.67 32.36 14.32 13.07 4.76 18.M 35.U3
:lIun
(GUI)"
(GUI)'
rol. 4
100 col. (,
1'1
19)
- -100 -
2.05 16.72 25.115 UI.M 111,64
5Kb7 70.J..I, 58.K3 72.85 74.77 87,1) 68.n4
306 24.00 .:16,15 26."'1 26.61 73.43 K3.1W
5J.32
87.33 95.39 81.93 66.1)4
~(l,4
"'í.IJ7
47
;1t17:'l
~7.2·'
N.7t1
.I.'·h. 10.72 15.MIl
7M.lf,
Ih.H'/
42,35 ·1·1.'"", 1,'i.M 22,74 24.23
'911.."017
11"00
1011.011
IfKI,11O 62.60 . . .0 2",98 30,05 32.'8 38.65 41.24 m.20
O O 37.40 35.10 7O.U2 ft9.95 67,22 flU5 5It7" 8'J.KCJ 91.21 94.54
O O lH.58 36.21 72.23 72.16 69.34 63,29 NLlíl 92.n3 94.09 'J7.52
47.54 5<1.24 21.15 21.20 2326 27.HO 2'!.M5 n"2 5,% 3.67
~
Man..Jibll' AII"" Axi!l Cl'rvical Vl'rll'br,l(' Thurack vertebrae Lumbar vertebral' Pelvis Ri.. Sl... rnum Scapula I'rtlxirnal humt'rus Disl.lllulllwrus I'TU\im.l! r.ldill-n~hi'u~ 111'I.ll t, hl¡"llIl'illl!o C.lrp.lls l'ruxinl.llnWI,KoIrp;ll Disldl metacarpal Proxin'al fémur Dislill Iemur Proximal tibia Distallibiil
Tarsals Aslragalus
Calcaneus Pnlximal mptatar~1 Oi!'lUlJ mt'latarsal I'halanges
'79
drying Inde •
PI
Col. 11'
Col. 11'
(10)
(11)
(121
(JJ)
100.00 100,00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100-1)0 100,00 77.22 60.51 toll.!H
100.00 100,00 100.00 100.00 100,00
O O O O O O O O O
O O 22.78
Invl:'r!Ol'
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100,00 59.62 36.51
100.00 ](10.00
100.00 100.00 100,0(1 100.00 100,00 100.00
llXJ.OO
h(l,~1
:\fo.~1
3h.51
22.15
:1"41 :1".4" 39.49 92.49 92.4'.1 92.49 92.49 92.49 92.49 92.49 92.49 0,12.49
I,U....I hO.51 NI,51 60.51 7.51 7,51 7.51 7.51 7.51 7.51 7.51 7.51 7.51
100.00 l00.no 46.03 22.15 22.15 22 I~
3f,.."1
".03
33.97
22.15 22.15 22.15 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 04 .04 3.92
39.49 :N4~
:\1,1.4" .1'IA"
3h.~1
3ft.51 36.51
.56 .56 .56 .56 .56 .56 .56
.,. .56
11.53
01
Col.
}4'
Col. 14"
(l4J
(1S1
(16)
100.00 100,00 93.39 85.49 81,l.47 7748 62.43 75.2645.52
100.00 10000 67,21 73.0tJ RO,OH
100.00 10000
O
(,(1.0)
4b.~1
38.97 56.64 lR.Cltl
24,33 42,63 7.69
O 5.00
22.37 8329
f,9.J7
88.n
71U~
MM.4) M7 "11 117..'>11 tI"oI.74 ':11.'>14 ,,1.'14
d3.50 83.50 85.60 85.60 857tJ
85.70 85,70 RS.80 "5.80
96.30
81,45 b2.48 71fo2
7M, rv
O 1.12 5777 14 MI.14 lí~,
i'h ....h
101. '1'1
7h.~1
'72.27 ' .'1'1
Mll ~, tW.5.1 d4.5J 69,72 &9.72 73,27 73.27 73.44 73,44 73.44 73.101 7HI 92,74
n.n
nn 5R.22 58.22 (12.72 62.72
6294 62.9.1 62.~
113.1& toJ.lf, 8"'.31
Tab/(' 5./2 C¡)/lt/ll""~ mI P/lJ!:'os 2J6-Z/7
sr,
suming that the f1rst priority deletíon (ro~ .a kili síte would be in terms of the realisñc processing inde);, Il·.lVillg nt t~t.' kili sit... (r~. quendcs ilS ilnticipatt.'d by tht.· Inversc uf thlS
Invl"!'k velues uf
100 col. 10
5.4[,
~ GUI general Ulilíly ¡ndel! (T"b{p Vi, column 10); PI, r~"ing indt.'x (T"b1e 3.2. Clllumn 5); DI, .irrin,; indt"X; surviva! ~rCl'nl.,gt" (Tahle 5.11, column 21; MI, marruw Index (Tahleo 1.9).
had taken place. Table 5.12. column 17 presenes the most likely model fcr parte abandoncd al a traditiunal spring kill-butcht.'ring 1""C.ltion. This eslimatt.' was obtainl'd by as-
Skull
86.12
~"oI
77.2" 75.77
Antier
".63
r¡~'51l
117.112
Rt>alislic Anillomical par!
.'i7."!'I M4,~
Inverse valut'5 of realistic procl'S'lIing index
I
value (Feble 5.12. cclcmn 11). What remains would then be culled in terms of the cube of the tnverse general utiJity Index, givin~ us index valúes for parta most Iikely lo be a andoned at the kili (Tilble5.12, column 17). This proccdure inlruducl's inlo thc processing loca. lion f."ssl'ntially compIt.'It.' ¡('gs, .1 condition th.lt
must cheracterize a population from which Iater selecncne of marrow bcnes would y/cid a metalarsal-dominaled graph as observed. A model for the frequency of parts containing bonos actually introduced into thl' rcsid..-ntial location is providt.,d by T.lbfl'5.12, ((Jlurnn lq. I ¡:SOl assuming that it is {rom su eh .1 popuJ.ltion
s._
[2161 TABLE 5.12-(eont,nwd)
Parts remaining at kili
1
TABlE 5. 12-4onllnued)
Parts remamíng in dog yards
Parts on dryinft rack~ ---.-------- ----- - - - - - - - - - - - -C.d. 111 ('nI 1" x cur, 20 ('l'!. 20)( CIII. 22 C.. I. 1M - ('01, 24 (",d II )( (·ul. II lIS.24 rol. Ih :'lf>J() SI' 25.29 mi. 211 <J4.!t1 col. 1 cnl. 17 . _ .'0-"
Anatomical parl Anllf"T Skull Mandible Alias Altis Ct'rvical vl"f1t'brae Tborace vertebral" Lumbar \/t'rlt'brat' P('lv;s Kibs
Stemum Scapula r'ronmat humerus Distal humerus Proxlmal radio·cubitus Distal radio-cubitus Carp.1':" l'nlllimiJl meld('arpal Dbl.d ml·l.lr')Tp.,1 Proximal temer Di!l.ll femur I·rtlldm.llhbill Dist.11 tiri.) TaTS<)ls Astragalus
-
111)
(18)
(19)
100.0 78.4 65.87 75.71
O
O 22.68 35.84 25'"
75.71 27.41 16,67
32.36 1432
13.07 4.76 14.39 21.211 21."0 35.98
34." 52.65 4M.2.1 47.2lJ
O O 2.M'I 2.71 5.42 5.41 5.20
Calcaneus Prmimal metatarsa! Distal metatar!'ial FiTlll phalanse SKund rhalangl" Third phillange
Parls mtroduced inlo villa~('
__
'.75 4.55 31.46 JI.46 JI.46
21.60 34.13 24.29 24.29 72.59 83.33 67.M 85.(,8 86.93 95.24 62.HJ Jll31 31UI 24.53 25.1:17 7." 12.2M 13.22 7.51 7.51 4fo2 4,1'1I1 2(1'1 2.10 2.31 2.76 2% 2.51 251 251
25.50 76.22
87.49 71.02 89.96 91.27 100.00 65.97 41.27 40.64 25.75 27.16 14.15 12.Ml,l IJ.KH
~
(21)
O
O
122)
21.60
59.'"
27.80
76.58
15.9fJ 25.2\1
1S.Ul 17.40 33.76
41.82
'J.71
47.93
8.70 12.49 7.09 13.26 5.40 O .09
20.27 28.83
6.59 O 1.01> 36.30 27.1R 26.76 16.43 17.33
5"" 9.S4 m.27
4.3'
4.M5
a.sv
~UJ4
3.111 1.31 1.32 1.45 1.74 1.86
2.111 2.2U 2.43
after lt'f'dinK
(20)
7.88 7.88
4.37
93.00 55.84 1'1.42 18.15 O 2.92 1110.00 74.H7 73.72 45.26 47.74 15.43
19,(,() 4.62
t4.9M 7.01> 8.14
1...
(23)
63.19 100.00 38.39 34.40 49.38 28.0.3 52.43
21.35 O
.'"
77.'"
1H.27 51,123 27.92 32.19
....
26.2H
3.5-.1
2M.2l,l 12.04 12.lJ4 '.IIt> 11:.211 3.ft!
3.4'1
13.94 13."11
1."
•. 56
3" 3.99 '.79
1.HI .H7
.. ."
l.'"
.54
4.67 3.44 '.M3
1." 1."
.56 .42
1.""
2.f>..l
234 234
5.12 6.45
2.13 2.93 2.21
(¡,4S
.03
21>3
2.34
6.45
.21
1.111 .tl3
2.90 3.11
2'"
of parts that chotees were actually rnade for Ieedlng both dogs aod humans at the 1949 residential locations. Sincc sprtng is ,1 time of relative food abundance, I belíeve that consumption follows a strategy of. making maximum use of parts that are (a) avallable but
.
Parts fed to d(lf:!1
.74
(24)
(25)
O O 6.33
O O
9.11
6.1.1.9 311.83 "'.01> 38.81 79.09 86.93
9.67 7.31 41.23 ""%
1.79
41.21 R398 92.30 100.00 21:1.17 12.M 12.69 8."" 9.01> 2.40 VII 313 3.33 J.J3 1.113 l'ltl
.78
.82
94.18 26.53 12.13 11.lJ5 IUD
8.54 2.26 2.74 2,l15 3.14 3.14 1.'3
.'"
.
1.02 1.10
17 . 17 . 17
"
.91 1.08
1.17
.18 .18 ./8
not particularly desirable as parts worth spending much time in processing orin taking up spare in the storagc facilities or (b) valuable parts that do nol háve high drying potential without expensive labor expenditure for pro· eessing.
Marrow 00""
Processmg location
Initi¡d human
sele
afeer Tem<wal of
afllrT ¡nilial
\'nn~umptitln
1\1'''111'"
nl.lITUW l'ol..I1t'N
l'Im'iUllIl'li'\I1
---~-
{'uf
Anatomícal parl
•.72
1217)
Sprlnll Co...umptlon In Me Contem~ Vlllo. . and In UN P""
Antier Skull
Mandibh." AtI.lS Axis
Ct'rvical venebree Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar vertebral' Pelvis Ribs
Stemum Scapula I'm_im¡ll humcrus Dcstal humerus rrmcimal radio·cubituf Dist.ll riJdio-cubitus Carp.1ls "!'t>leimal ml'l.lc.lTpal Oistal melacarpal Prt)l(imal femur Distill Iemur Pn,xln",1 tibia Disl.:d tibia
Tersats Alitragalus
Cetcaneus Proximal metatarsal Dislal met.atarsal fiTllI ph"J"n~t' St,,-..'mi .'haran~(' Third phalange
24 )( l·n!. 21'0 ('111. HI x PI 32.10 MI
(26)
O O .57 .34 .39 11.26 20.65
9.15 19.92 6.18
32.10 f,S3 517 5.09
3.45 3." .%
(27)
O O 1.77 1.01> 1.21 35.08
64.33 28.50 .2.01> 19.25 100.00 211.14 16.16 15.86 10.75 11.34
O O O O O O O O O O O 1.45
11.n
.37
11.18 1723 26,11 25.23 24.3h 26.4<) 30.95 45.74 40.5J 85.lJlJ 1lO,83 SO.83 80.83 75..67 92.57 19.83 19.83
37
19.H3
2.99
1.16
lfa1
1.25 3.14 3.14
3."lJ 9.'8
1.7.\ 1.7'1
5.3t1 5.5!!
'" .ss
243
78
(28)
9.78
2.4J
2""
l02 1.111
3,18 3.43
.12 12 12
.37
The indices that identify such parts are (a) the inverse values of the drying Index, which ídentifylarts of little valúe and/or Hule potential for rying, aod (b) the processing index, which identifies parts of relativeJy hígh value but Hule or moderate potential for successful
Parts rt'maining on drying rack
-,,- .._. eul JO l".I. 24 et.ez ml.2ti
Cnl. 2M
Cul. 1II -
92.57
col. 28
(29)
IJO)
(31)
(32)
O O O O O O O O O O O
O O O O O O O O O O O 34.f,J
O O
O O O O O O O O O O O 1.57 12.66
21.33
12.07
28.31 22.26
18.61 2fl.21 27.26
21>.32 28.62 33.43 4lJ.41 4:\.7M lJ2.tlll 8'.32 87.32 87.32 81.74 100.00 21.42 21.42 21.42
27.n
13.38 14.2t> 15.1J
IJ.m
45.tl7 45.94 36.12 2171 2:\.14
z.l'iS 21.10
61.62 46.10 52.1)4
l()(Wtl
fl50ti
10M I'IJl5 19.05 19.05 27.43
1174 11.74 11.74 16.90
O 46.20 41,,20 41>.2f1
zs.ro 114.4~
O
enl .12 &1.75 (33)
5.76
O O 713
8.77
10.86
27.57 42.41
3414 52.52
29.66 59.17 80.75 62.08
"'73 73.27 100.00
20.00
24.n
.'"
........
4."5
'90
UO
804
7b./iH
".62
850 5.76 6.07 1.1>1
1.514
1""
1.7t1
2.11
O 11 11
O O
11
O O O O O
74.'17 74.117
.(J~
74 '17
.n~
0'
11 11 O
O O O O
,. ,..
.,..
drying unprocessed. The Inverse of the drying index should anticípate thc strategy of dOJ; feeding, whereas the processing index should anticipate the strategy of human consumption in the spring residentiallocation. This reason· ing is developed in the modt'1 by O1ultiplyins:;
.-n_lIIIIII-.
_ """l
(218)
S. Sprf,..
the estímate of the parts actually introduced intc the víllege (rabie 5.12, column 19) by the cube of the irwerse drying index (Table 5.12, column 16), yielding index values for the parta selected as dog food (Table 5.12, cclumn 21). In arder to antícipate the parts consumed by humane, we subtract the estima te of parts fed
lo dogs from the original population íntroduced, yielding an estirnate of parts remaining after dog feedlng (Table 5,12, columo 23). This population is then multiplied by the raw processing index (Table 3.2, column 5), yielding an estímate of the parts preferentially consumed by humans in the spring Jocation (ra-
bie 5.12, column 27). Figures 5.25 and 5.26 illustrate the fit between the borre Irequencies frcm the resldenunllocenons un Ihe 1949sHe and the Indices developed to expleln what the composition of the populatlons remaining from human consumption should be. We note Imrnediately that practically aU marrow-yielding bones bear IHtle if any relatiunship to the índex developed. I anticip.'tl'd this condition in that it is known that Ihe selection of bones for marrow generally lakes place from the bones removed in the course of processing parts for drying and therefore in~ troduced from the processing location. 1 have not built such a step into the model for resi· dential consumption. Table 5.12, column 29, provides us with index values that anticipate the p
.~
Having now accounted for the marrow bones in the consumption record, wc may retum te a eonsideration of the meat-yielding bones (Figures 5.25 and 5.26). For both samples, there is a strong curvilinear fit for most oí the parts with the model velues-c-however, there are exceptions in both samples. Fcr both samples there is a strong bias in favor of the mandible. This situation appears to be normal, given what we have prevíously seen of spring consumption and the biased eonsumpríen of tongues during periods of abundanl fresh meat. In the Morry population we note a posítíve bias in favor of the scepula. but the thoracic vertebrae are underrepresented. On the other hand, the Rulland sample exhíbits only A minar end largcly lnflisnifk"nl p\lIlilive bias in favor of the sea pula and the pelvis is underrepresented; the thoracie vertebrae faU in Une with the modeled expectations. This situatíon ís fascinating and ean be taken as normal in the foJlowing sense: Ar:. we saw in Chapter 3, therc are Iwo ways nf h.1n~ing sections of vertebrae on the drying rack. In one, the tirst two ribs remajo articulaled both lo Ihemselves and lo the vertebrat>; the re· maioder are removed from the verlebral col· umn and dried as pairt.>d rib slabs. The Ihorade vertebrae logelher wilh Ihe lumbar vertebrae and pelvis, iE remainiog auaehed, can fnen be suspended from the poles of the drying' raek by slipping the hulc of the pelvis uver the poles. Whelher this melhod is employed is generally a function of the degree of butchering that preceded the placetylenl of parts on Ihe rack. For instanee, ifanimals are butehered nearby so Ihat the entire vertebral column is placed on the rack as a unil, incJuding the neck, it is almost always hung by the pelvis. On the other hand, if the parts have been butchered into smaller unils, generally assodated with paeking meat from sorne distance away, neeks are likely to have been abandont>d and lumbar vertebrae separatl'CJ fmm the pelvis. Under the latter condifiun! bolh the pl'lvis imd thurade verlt.'brólc will be associatC'd wilh Ihe convenient holes used in
SprinA' Con.umptlon In the Contemporar)' Villa. . ond 'n lit« Put
i
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I
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10 MM.
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la • • •:
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100
MOOEL FOR HUMAN MEAT CONSUMPTION
TABLE 512COL 27
TASLE 5.12COl. 27
F1sure 5.25. Relatillnship between Ihe Mony 1949 residential consumptlon data and modejed valúes.
~
o
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Rl.'I'llilln!lhip bt·hVl'l.'1I milrTtlW htlOl'S Ion
Ih", Murry J94'J h.'~idl·nt¡.ll sill' and modded values.
:
...J;¡; . .
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e
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MOOEL FOR MARROW 80NE CONSUMPTION TABLE 5.12 COL. 29 FlfI;uno 5.21.
Fipft' 5.26. Relationship between the Ruüand 194\1 residennal data and modeled valúes.
... ,.... ·'IIIT /
, ~ 1-
.. " .... ;""
-," IOto.a4DIIO
MOOEL FOfl HUMAN MEAT CONSVMP'fION
.. ...
"
~~ 11 .1'iW,.
o~~ 10
n.
...
ID r-
j :¡N ..
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l••.,....
[219)
.... 40
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MOOEL FOR MARROW BONE CONSUMF'TlON TABLE 512 COL 29
F1suft'5.28. Rt'I.1HI'llshlr l....·hn·'·l\ nl.'TrL\1\' 1"''1II'S .>11 the RulLlnd 1940,1 n'lIidl'nli,,1 sil,' .,n.l m,.d.'I.'d V.lltl\·...
...-.----------5,5_
12201
t
suspending the parta from the mea t rack. These parts must be viewed as al least temporary tools and willalways be utilized as food alter or together with the parts attached to them. In short, they are not avatlable as food while they serve their suspending function on the meat rack. Allother ettached perts mustbe used first or in conjunction with them. Under normal circumstances we may expect elther the pelvis or the thorecic vertebrae to be underrepresented in record s from the early phases oí consumption frorn dried stores. The íact that it is the thoracic vertebrae in the Morry sample suggests that the hunter in that family had been less successful in killing &<1mc close lo the camp, whereas the Rulland Iamlly hunters had killed game near the camp and/or had sufficient labor to introduce parte that were minimally dissected-c-complete vertebral rolumns with attached necks. The high frequenc:y of scapulas in the Morry sample as upposed to the Rulland sample sUMests that tht.'r,,' wasa grc.ltl'r USl' uf p.lrl~ frum tht.'swing pupulatitln l'arly in thl' Y"'.lr, whil"h ml'ans that the Morry family was short uf mcoat relativc tu rhe Rulland family-a condition reported lo have been the case in the 1949 campo Such a view is supported by the greaterconsumption of manuw relalive to meat-yielding parts by the Morey family-marrow is a resource in great abundante during hunting but one that cannot be suceessfully stored. FinaJly. the lower values for the skulI in the Morry sample also support the view that their kills were distant from the camp and probelbly mainly stragglers. I believe this analysis to be an ""eeurate approximation of the actual conditions in the 1949 campo 11 also elucidates the behavior of the Eskimo in their contemporary setting. For instance, we noted a biased consumption of the sternum in the contemporary village, yet there is no known faet thal mitiga tes againsl its successful storage in Ihe ice cellars. Is this simply .1n irratiunal bias in f.wor uf "luick consumplion of Ihe brisket? Given rhe 1949 data we seea vt'ry rational strategr involved in lhe prcfl.'r,,'ntióll nmsumpliun u lhe bri~kl't
,
~
,
when theonly storage technique available was the drying of meat (Table5.12, column 27). We may well be witnessing in this situation one of the basíc processes of cultural chenge. Given the previous state of the system when only drying was available there was a rational basis for the early consumption of the brisket. lt is a relatively high-meal-value part with impressive processlng time needed to render it storable. The etretegy employed was to consume this part early in the sequence thereby gaining maximum use of the mear by eliminating the need for processing and the uncertainty of Its future utility due to low drying potential. Given the change in technology characterizing the contrast between the contemporary village aod the earlier mobile períod. there ls no longer a rational basis for the early preíerentia! consumption of brtsket. Nevertheless, the Nunamiut continué to consume the beisket preferentially during spring hunting and into the early phases of summer. Cultural meaning has been givcn to the ..d uf spring brb.k,,'1 consumpliull. Ct:"rtainly such bchavior is cummon enough, and probably within the realm of experience for most persons. For instance, when I was a youog hoy hogs were kUled and butchered in November. This was a rational strategy given the temperature requirefllents of meatcuringand preservation. 1participated in these acts and tend to associate fresh ham with November. my birthday, and Thanksgiv· ¡ng. Today, given modero butchering technology and year-round refrigeralion, il is no longer necessary to schedule heg butchering in November, yet t never think to look for fresh ham except in November. I have given cu1tlml1 meaning to this aet of consumption. I suspect that this is whal is gaiog on in the contemporary Nunamiut rommunity relalive to the brisket. The dog consumption data in Figures 5.29 and 5.30 ilJustrate the relationship between lhe rccunstructed ft..'t.'\fing fl'wrd (Of dugs in the 1949 camp (Table 5.11) and the model anticipating such data developed in Table 5.12, ('ulumn 21. Tht.'rt.' are Iwu distributinns in
Sprlng C_ _ptlon In Ute Contemporory
~
t!
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...
....
I
/
.. §'" .. . ~'".....
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~
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/
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..
r:'1t ,.
~
I
110 110 lQ
110 .el
"•
100
MOOEL FOIl OOG FEEDlNG TABLE 512 COL 21
i
,
lliIIITlI'T/..
~1'IIl-T
IOIt
"
I
':'
1,,, I
'E
I'MC
•
I
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o
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10
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10
VIIIIII~ Gnd
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101040
10M",
tolO
100
MOOEL FOR OOG FEEDING TABLE 512 COL. 21
FiSUr'e 5.29. ReJationship between recunslrucled Morry 1949 dog feeding and modl'lt'd valut's.
Figure 5.30. Relationship b!,otWI,"l'" ff'Ctln5tructl'd Rul· l
both samples. In both cases the separate distributions are positi* and fairly closely related to the index values of the model. My experience with modeling assemblages has Ied. me to suspect thal there is a weighting problem in the model or tha. another souree not built into Ihe model is contributing to the assemblage. In this case I am almost certain that the dual distributions alise from the latter situation. Dog feeding was probably supplemenled by some parts remaining fram human consumption. I have seen this happen often amoog the Nunamiut and jt is more common in spring and summer when tht' Nunamiut altempt to reduce the amouot of refuse around residenlial areas. In the Morry sample the S<'apula is underrepresented in the dog feediog record, which ís consistent with its being overrepresented in the human record, The Morry family w<,s using the highl'st v..lue part of the swing populalion for ils own food in· stead uf giving it to the dogs as the more 5ecure Rullilnd family did. Inflatcd frequcncit's uf mandibll'S and radio-cubiti are com-
mon to both Rulland and Morry dog yard samples. These are also consistently overrepresented in the human record. It is Iikely that sorne of the parts io the dog yards were introduced from human feeding refuse, but it ís aIso Iikely that the sarne bias that conditioned their excessive human use also conditioned their overabundance in the dog fct'ding records. In the Morry record there are more atlas and axis vertebrae than expccted and in the Rulland sample there are more pelvis parts than expected. The atlas and axis are lowvalue parts general1y abandoned at kills or used aJong a logistics route when meal supplies are serure. Finding them overabundant in the Morry s.1mple is consistent with the other indications that the Morry family was not very secure during the spring of 1949. These parts could have been culled from kills or prefcrentially culll'd fnnn inlrl,du('\'d p.lrb to supplemt'nt the dogs' die!. Thc ()Vl'r.lbundance of pelvis parts in the Rulland sample is probably rc1.1ted to ft..'C'CIing dogs parls n'm,.,in· ing from hum.lo cunsumplion. II wiJl bl' fl'-
.anz...
_ 5. Spring
1222J
calledthat the pelviswas underrepresented in Ihe Rulland reaídentíal record. Allln all ¡ am lmpressed with the flt between the data and the modela Ior the two consumptlon records but 1am also ímpressed wlth the fU between the dug ,1110 human rccords Ior the l.llnili,,·~ Involved. There remains one methodological point lo be made: Converting observed MNls into reconstructed MNIs by dividing the observed vaíues by the survival percentages has the effect of tncreastng the variance for low count items in the assemblage. This effecl is releted lo the probability of destruction of low count items {see Blnford and Bertram 1977). lf one can use the above method lo identity a likely model situatian, then much better fits are ob· tained by multiplying madel values by the survival percentages to modify the mode!. This proeedure was followed as a demonstration of the effeet of low eount parts in distorting a reconstructed population. Figures 5.31 and 5.32 il1ustrate the fit between theobserved frequencies in the dog yard samples (Table 5.9, eolumns 5-8) and the model fur this as-
.,. ~
...
~~ ~
thesedistributions to thoseofFigures 5.29 and 5.30 reveals thnt many pnrts "ppl'Jrillg .1S cornponenta of two distributions in the plnts uf iuljustloJ observations are l'UJl.1PSl.'t! into .1 single distributícn in the plot of adjusted model valúes. This arises from the effects of small count items in the observed population where a difference of one artieulator end can increase the reconstructed value by as much as 50%. No such sampling effect is inherent in adjusting the valúes oí the model. For this reason the EH between data and model is c1eaner, as in Figures 5.31 and 5,32, and does not confound real differences between the model and the data wHh sampling effects. In looking back over the consumption information, 1 see several important facts. The modeHng of dog consumption both in the contemporary village and in the earlier spring residential locations was suecessfuI. as was the modeling of human consumption in the 1949 camps. However, success was certainly notoverwhelming fur the human record in the
",.
.
1Uo140r
e
~S :..
.. 10
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.
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/
."
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,
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~S §~
semblage adjusted in terms of survival per-
cenlage. (Table5.12. column 23). Comparlng
.euII
TIIDII
lO
10
40
10
«1
10
ID
10
IDO
MOOEl RlR 1W111l REMAIN1NG AFTER
OOG FEEDING- TAIll.E 512 COL 23
Fi8u~
.5.31. Rellltionship ~Iweol!'n Morry 1941J dog survival-correcleod model .
f~ing and
.
~
.
figure 5.32. Rellllionship bt.>fwl"t>n Rullo1nd 194" dog ft"tding o1nd survival·co~ted modeol.
Mobllltv. Sprlng Drylng Ael""Uu, and Related 1.og1.Uee
contemporary village. Even in those cases where success is claimed, all the parta were not anticipated edequately by the modeI. Most uf thl' cxrcptions rould be understood in terms of nnalomiral propcrtlcs not evaluated by the Indh-es. Thc mandlble and the parta used to suspend meat sections on dryingracks are examples. No such good reason could be found for the aberrant behavícr of the radiocubitus. In aH samples relative to the models this bone behaved exceptíonally. 5uch redundant devlence must be meaningfuJ. But wlthout the models such devíance would never be observed or even recognízed. Herein Hes one of the valúes of having a reference dimension egeinst which to compare archaeologícal materials. More to the point, however, is the character of the models that accommodated the data on consumption. AH were characterized as secondary to priority selections of parts to be placed in storage. Consumption appears in these samples as integrated and accommodative to a basic strategy of getting the most high·quality meat into storage. We see no evidence for gourmet consumption or l'xtr
12231 Although we have seen sorne lnteresting
dlfferen.e. betweee 1949 and the 1970s, we have not really had the opportunity to view informnticn that bcars more directly un how varinble moblllty affects sprint; ~lr.1tt·~it·~ .1I1I.t in turn the faunal remains. I turn nuw lu d discussíon of such information.
MOBILITY. SPRlNG DRYING ACTIVITIES. AND RELATED LOGISTICS In 19721 had the opportunity to observe the activitiea of two tamilies who had decided to rnove into sumrner camps that year lnstead of staying in the village, where visitors were said to be annoyingly frequent. During 1972 spring hunting Bílly Mony. the head of one of these families, had killed 11caribou approximately 5 miles from the present village. He anticipated establishing his summer camp about 7 miles from the village near the main crossing over the Anaktuvuk River (see Figure 5.2). The kili of 11 caribou was about 2 mile~ fmm tht." anticipated location of the summ~r (.l",p. Thl' hunter was alone at the time of Ihl' kili
[224)
5. Sprlng
instead of skins. A supply of firewood was cut near the camp and piled on the windward side of the tent. The firewood cutting was done by the two women while the hunter cu t poles and constructed a large drying rack. That afternoon, the hunter begen transportIng the cached rneat from the kíll-butchertng
location to a spot epproximately 75 yards north of the campo Here the ñeld-butchered caribou were unloaded in an area protected Irom the wind, and thewomen began process-
ing the meat for drying. They stripped the meat from the bones and plled it on the caribou skms. Upon eompletion oí the transport operation, these parte had been abandoned al the kill-butchering location: 10 heads complete with mandibJe and antlers {of tbese. 1 head had the atlas and axis attached), 3 complete necks, 3 lower front legs complete from the distal radio-cubitua down, and 2 lower rear lege comple-te from the tarsals down. The hunter joined the wornen at the proceseíng location. Processíng contínued all afternoon. but when the hunter arrived the women interrupted their work to prepare a smal1 fire for roasting the only cow's head introduced into the processing location, When the hl'ild WilS ready the family sat around the fire and ate choice parts from it-primarily the hOse and the fat ¡rom behind the eyes. The marrow from one right tibia and the met.,tarsal of the 5c1me leg were also caten al fhi!'i timl'. The tibia was disarticulatl'd (mm the ml't.,lars,,1 í1boVl' thl.:' tarsal!4 nnd de.lm.'d, waTllll'd hy IIU' fin', nnd !$plil fHr n"lrrow. TIll' IlWlillilr!ol"I, !'IliII atlachcd lo the lars.lls, was deancd, warmcd, and split. The proximal end remaining attached to the tarsaIs was discarded. My informants commented that only the marrow from the rear leg was eaten beca use the anima15 were in very pror nutritional condition and even the rear leg marrow was so poor Ihat Httle was eaten. After the rest and snack, the hunter began transportíng the processed meat to tite drying rack, He kindled él smaJl fire under thl' drying rack "to drive offblue flies" and the processcd
meat was arranged on the rack. This task was notcompleted beforedark. 5ince the temperature was low the family prepared a meal inside the tent that evening. During the day the hunter had killed two r.tarmigan and these were cooked. one was argely consumed. In addlnon, the rrwat from a partially stripped femur of a "fat" animal was roasted in strips over the fire and consumed. The bone marrow from the fémur, tibia, and metatarsal of the rear leg from which the meat had bren stripped was consumed around the fire inside the tent. An additional distal tibia was eaten for marrow. After the marrow was eaten, the bones were casually discarded near the fire. The next morning the second ptarmigan and sorne cooked meat strips from the prevíous evening were eaten as the family members moved around prepanng for work un the remaining unprocessed antmals. That day the task of meat processing was completed. An inventory uf bone on the meat racks ís given in Table 5,13, culumn 7. Similarly. the bcnes remaining at the processing location are summarized in columo 5. (See also Table 5.14.) On May 20, the hunter scanned lhe atea north of the camp but located no addítional gi.lme, On both the nincteenth ílnd the tWentieth the sun was out and the family' hearth were one left distal tibia articuiated with the tarsals and proximal metatarsal, one left distal metatarsal articulated to the foot, one patella, one left distal femur, one left proximal femur, one distal humeros of ptarmigan, one distal femur uf ptannigan, five complete but disarticulated costal ribs. four semiartkulated costal ribs with attached djstal rib ends, one sternum plate, five ml'tatarsal splinters, ílnd nine long bone splintt.'rs,
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part oC the preparations for breaking camp the hunter set up a fake tent consisting oC a single pele stuck into the snow and draped with an old wom canvas plus parts oE three caribcu skíns. This was placed eest DE the meat rack and near the outsíde hearth. It was explaíned thet "iCbear think Eskimo stay here he won't steal meat."The hunteradded that ii materials fora Cake tent were not handy a scerecrow-líke figure simulating aman might be made from wom-out winter dothes and erected neer the
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the faunal assemblage. The final assemblage
rneatfed to dogs was essentiatly the same, and
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(d) the amount of Ipring.killed meal intro-
by the party while processing meat Ior drying together with parts abandoned on the drying rack al a much later time. The parts ínlroduced joto the spring residential lccation certainly ended up as contributors to a faunal assemblage that included, minimally, parts of dry rneat, parts from animals inlroduced as complete individuals, and antmala Introduced
duced from frozen stores was essentially the same. lt is clear that eaeh of these sttueticns may well be expected to vary somewhal independently, therefore introducing a potential for marked variation in the relative frequencíes of anatornical parts present on seasonaUy and residenlially simílar locations. I wiU explore this reellty later in more detall in the summer chapter (6). There are two important points regarding populations of bones that represen! the erchaeologtcal remalns of dried meat consumption. Pirst, such a population is normaJly al lellsl a tertiary population-that ís, al Jeast three deciaícn junctures aw.y from the anatomy of the animal. Usuelly there is a deletion at the kill-butcheríng location and a biased population is Inrroduced into the consumption-processtng location. Dccisions are then made as to which parts of this already biased populalion will be dried. FinaUy, some parts from the dried meat population are seleded for f\lOd and some may be abandoned al the drying location (see Chapler 6 for more on this subject). Second. il is true that sornctimes we might antidpate drying at Ihe killbutchering location. Sueh a situatio~ is wel1 documented for the Caribou Eskimo'(figure 5.34). AII the animals al the site shown were dried prior to transport away from the kili· butchering hK:ation. Such situations are reported for the Nunamiut, allhough I did not observe an example.lnformantsreported that this was rare in their experience exeept duriog midsummt'r hunting on the nat tundra. Thl'!'lt' 11;11.1 pnlVhtt' NClI1W inh'n'Nlill~ in"i~hl'" Inltl IIH' "prlux 1I1111'llllul1 tll .1l111111l1!t I1l1d llU' pl'tll'l'SNIIl~ .md USl' uf drit'tl me.H, Figure 5.35 iIIustrales thl' rl'laliunshíp beIween the frequency of parls abandoned al the kili site (Table 5.13, eolumn 2) and the IMGUI (Table 5.5, column 2). Comparing this to the kill-sile dala presented in Chapter 2, we find that Ihis is one of the mosl extreme examples of a bulk-oriented slralegy. AH parts up through an index value of 59 were cumpletely
as partially processed parts from kili sítes. This
rompou'Jd assemblage was modified by dog consumption and parts deleted by persone lenvlog the residential location. Similarly. the parts introduced into the summer camp were combined with mear removed from the spnng residentiallocation and meal obtained during the summer. Finally, parts removed from the drying rack by passing hunters were most certainly introduced lnto a variety of hunting camps. Jn sorne of these camps such meat constituted the exclusive archaeologícel remeíns, bul in othercamps where hunting was successful the parts were combined with kili· bulchering assemblages or hunting camp populations derived largely from immedialely killed animals. This case iIIustrates a poinl madc sume years ago (Binford and Binford 19(6) regarding archaeological assemblages: Associational patterning observed among arehaeological as· semblages from separate loeations is mosl probably lhe result of redundancy in the manner in which vanous polelffially ilfJq;endetll componenls combine at given locations. Archaeological site assemblages may be ex· pected to be c<,mpou"ds of a numbl'r uf pul('n~ li."ly inl!t'pt'n,1\'nl St'ls uf inh·rrt'l.lh·d m;)II·· rll1ls. ·I·ht·rl·ll,ll'rf'ln "pprl't'I¡III'IIIIM hv Inl.I~~ill~ Ingu Nillliltionin whkh wl'luund IIwt ~lInllnl'r residl'ntial camps lended tu rcscmbll' une another in terms of frequencies of anatomical parts presento Such a situation could arise only if (a) the dry meat caches from spring hunting were essentiillly the same numerically, (b) the numbcrof animals killcd and introduced as fresh meat was essentially the sarne, (e) the proportion of the introduced
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F1SUft 5,35.
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removed from the kili sile. Parts with higher values exhibit a very steep positiv~ distribution with increasing values of the fMGUI. Wc would have very little difficulty in identifying this assemblage as one of parts cummonly abandoned at a kili site. Figure 5.36 ilIustrates the relalionship between the parts removed trom the kiH site and transporled directly lo Ihe contemporary village for either storage or consumption (Table 5.13, eolumn 4) and the lMGUI (Table 5.5, coJumn 2) . The distribution is best summarizt'd as uf;ln inVl'r.leIaiAmnid furm. RI't".1U tlMI WI' .1n' u.•in,.; tht' "wr~ uf tht' MGUI. Thl' tlhsl'rvl,d tli~lr¡' butiul1 meal1H lh.ll tl!l 111l' l1t1nulility uf p.lrl!l gues up thcir frequl'ney in thc POpulolliun removed from Ihe kili site goes down. As in Ihe case of the kili data, this is an extreme distribution antidpated earlier as one of the possible forms in a family of curves reflecting variable strategies that make use of the same degree of knowledge regarding canbou anatomy. The "jerky" distribution rl'flects de-
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in this situation (Table 5.13, column 6) and the raw processing index gíven in Table 3.2, column4. lt is dear that the fit is fair, with the excepthm of the overabundancc uf p.lrl¡;; llf thc Iront leg in the processing location relanve to our model expectations. lt wiIJbe recalled that tbe marrow-bone consumplion pattern exhibited by both the Morry and RulJand samples from the 1949 spring resídential eamps fits a model of marrow bones deleted from a processing localion with the striking exception uf the radio-cubítus. Figure 5.38 iIlustrates the relationship between the actual frequencies of parts obscrved in the processing erea leít by Billy Morry (Table 5.13.
INVERSE MOOIFIEO GENERAL UTlLITY INDEX TABLE 5.5 COL.2
Flp", 5.36. R~'liltI(lnllh¡p ~tw~'('n pMtll tt'muv«l fnlm Billy Mony's kili .it~ and thl' Inwl'Sl.' modlfied gl'"Cro1lutllily ind"K.
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Moh""". SprlnB Dry'n, Act'uUJu. and RelaJed Log,.tb
There is a strong linear relationship between the actual dllt8 observed in 8 proC'eslling for drying locatlon culled for marrow bones and the frequencíes of bones observed in the residential locatíon. Significantly, when this distribution is eompared to that of Figure 5.27 wc note that at Ieast (he distal mdio-cubítus is pulled into the linear pattern, el faet notseen in the plot shown in Figure 5.27, where the processing index was used. This suggests that, at least with regard to the treatment of the front Ieg, the behavior seen in the data on the spring-dríed meat cache being discussed was more Iike the behavicr standing behind the assemblages noted in the 1949 residential campo Some differences are also notable. In the distribution shown in Figure 5.27, the carpals and metacarpals are vastly underreprescnted in the residenlial data, indicating that Ihese parts had probably bcen abandoned at the kili sHes in the 1949 situation, whl'reas Billy Morry had transported them lo thc processing location. It was shown earlier that these parts are more IIkely lo be abandoned on kili sHes if there is a transport problem (Table 2.1). In the ease-of the data before us, BiIly Morry transported the fteld-butehered parts a very short distance to the processing camp, and even then used a snowmobiJe, something certainly not available in 1949. Figure 5.39 ilIustratt's lhe relationship betw\.',.'n th\., fn'\lu\.'nól!s(,f ptlrls observ\.',j un the drying rack un June 1 and the candidate population model developed in Table 3.2, colurnn 9. It will be recalled that this model assumes an animal at the kili site with parts abandoned as a function of IMCUl, an assumption justified in lhis case. Parts removed from the kili site are Ihen assumed to have been partitioned in tcrms of the processing indexo Parts selected under the latter erileria are removed from consideration as eandidates for placement on the drylng raeks. We have seen that ~hi, as8umption also is justified (see Figure 5.37). Finally, the model assumes that part! are placed on the meat rack in proportion to the frequencies of parts remaining in the inCroduced population after the processing deJetion.
Severel facts are interesting regarding this fit (Figure 5.39). Th. generol accurocy uf the model Is clearly indicated by the high variance linear relationship shown. The model used omitted a step we know to have taken place in the real-lite situation befare us, narnely the deletion of sorne parts Irom thc killbutchering location in terms of general utilíty criteria before the chosen assemblage was introduced lo the processing location. We may add thís step in the model, but it will not greatly reduce the variance. The reason for this is simple. The proportion of the total populatíon removed for use in the permanent village was small relatíve to the number of parts introdueed into the processing location. Using the techniques thus Iar ernployed in model building, we would have to assumc that the total (hosen populalion al the kili site wasselected in tl'rmsof general utility erilena. We know Ih.lI thisis nut lhccilsl!, b\.'c.. u~conly three animals are ¡nvolved in the latler decisicn. So in urder to model the !ituaUon accurately we would have to wl!'ight the indl!')r; se.les in terms of their proportional effect wlth
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"CANOIOATE" POPULATION MODEL TABLE 3.2 COL. 9
Fipft 5.39. Rtolationship betw~n Billy Mony'sdrying rack dala ilnd a candidale populaoon mude!.
[2321
5, Sprtn.
respect to the total population. We could do
discriminating criteria
Ihi§ h@r@,llfte@w@know whM happ@ft@d, bul
aval1able al a procmlng
In a reahetic erchaeologlcal sltuation we would not know what happened. The anly recourse would be a curve-fitting strategy similar to that employed in the study of bone decay prevíously published (Binford and Bertram 1977). In many cases 30 investigator may choose lo proceed with curve-fitting; however, in the considerations befare us 1 am concerned with simple modeling using graphic techniques fhat are easily employed by any Investígator. The high variance suggests that there are Inaccuraciee in the model but the general fit also tells us that we are in the corred behavioral ball park. Al leas! al thís stage of demonstrating a proredure the ball park orientation is more than we usually have and would allow us to know something of the general placemenl of an assemblage in a behavioral ehain. Figure 5.40 iIlustrarcs the rclationship bl'tween the bones in the drying camp rt!sulting from consumption during the period of pro· eessing Ihe animals for drying (Table 5.13, calumn 10) and the model previously conslructed for bones selected in terms of highly
cclumn 15). This is the same model employed to anticipate Ihe marrow bones removed from the contemporary village and introduced into the spring dlspersed hunting stands by experienced hunters (see Figure 5.14). lt is interesting thal we cbtain nearly an identical distribution ior these data as was obtained for marrow bones in the dispersed hunting stands-namely, an exclusive bias in favor of parte from the rear leg with no front leg parts represented In the semple. The rear tcg perts are dlstríbuted in proportion lo their Index model valúes. In this situation we meet with the second example (see p. 189) of a faunal population that ís very similar te 'another elreedy seen and both lit an identical model in the same ways, yet Ihe functions of the sites producing these remains are different! We have (a) a set of dispersed late spring hunting stand s oceupied cxclusively by males and (b) a shorHerm camp oceupicd by a famUy engaged in processing meat for drying. Situationally the two assemblages are alike in that the eonsumer demand was very low relative lo the number of sources for marrow. There were many bones available and only a few needed. The behavioral and demand contexts were similar but the locatioo :u~d compo· sition of consumer units were differ.mt. This situation lits the generalization already ad· vaneed regarding consumption refuse-that it refleets the activities eonducted eoincidently with the aet of consumption. From this exampie I may suggest Ihat the partero of parts eonsumed may not necessarily reflt'Ct the enmpusltiun uf Iht., con!lumcr grnup ur the
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filure 5.40. Iklalion5hip bt.·lw~'t'n m..rrtlw-bon. (l.n,umption al BlIIy Morry's dryinll;c.lnlp oll'1d modeled 11..
1.... ('5.
.
~
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from a population lo~allon
(Table 5.5,
MobJlltv. Sprfng Drytn. Aer,.,tIu...ti R."wdl.otlWb
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thet are compounds llf multiple and putl'n-
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FAEllUENCY OF PARlS a-¡ MEAT RACK (TABlE 513 COL. 81 X MEAT IlIlJEX(1)\8LE 1.5) Fisure S.41. R.loltionship ~lween parts removed fMm Billy Morry'5 drying rack and transported lo lhe !IUmml'r ~'amp and 1nt.1odt.'1l·~1 v,llul'!I.
The fit is fair,·confirming that the criterion employed when removing parts ior eonsump· tion from a slored population of dried meat was in faet the meat utility indexo The high values for Ihe humerus, radio-cubitus. and carpals are understandable as ridt.'r values, since these parts Were not proeessed off but were placed on the drying rack artieulated to the seapula, whieh is what was being selected. This example has provided an interesting view of family-Ievel subsistenee during Ihe period of spring hunting and processing. In addilion, Wt..' h;¡Vl' gaim'd C'onfidencl' In the mudds d(·vl..'lopcd fur idt'ntifying the behavioral situations indicatt'd by a body of faunal remains. We have al50 learned some. thing of the limitatioos of the teehnique employed, as in the CaBt' uf the lit and model uled in anticipating the frequencles of part!' aetually plaeed on thl' drying rack. We have seen how sites of different (unetion may exhibil similar faunal assemblages and we have gained sorne insight into the properties, from a behavioral perspective, of site assemblages
AdditionaJ data relating lo compound assemblages were obtalned Irom ene locañon (Site64) occupied during the spring of 1951 by four Iamilies engaged in spring migration hunting (see Figure 5.2). The families had camped during the winter northeast of the Anaktuvuk River in Ihe upper Anaktiqtauk Valley, and they Iater moved to a locetíon al Kongumuvuk. At the serne time otber famiUes were camped at the locetíon uf the present viIJage of Anaktuvuk. Spring carlbou migration was late that year end the river began lo break up prior te the major movement of carfbou herds through the pesses. Antíclpating the probJem of hunting and packing with the river in full flow, the four familíes moved lo temporary hunting eamps on the east side of the river near the location of the 1912spring hunting camp at Anaktiqtauk. The four ftlmilies, rcalizing tht.' difficully l)f p"'ll,'king meat din.·ctly lo the anticipated summt.'r Ci'llnp south of the river, decided to proeess tht.' animals killed for drying at the kiIJ-butehering location. One family was (o stay al thís locatíon lo guard the summerstores and the other three were to move lo summer locations after Ihe spring hunt. Later, all would retum to paek the dríed meat into the summer eamp. This site is therefore a eombination killbutehering, drying-processing ¡ocabon; it is also a hunting camp in which family consumption was taking place during Ihe hunling and drying aetivities. Thus, several popula. tions of bones representlng independtnt ded~ion-makinRsituations were associated "t i1 singl4! luraliun. Hl!f(' whó'lt Wl'rL' inde.'pendl!nt sites in tht.' drying epi sude dl'!Kribt.od fur the 11 earibou were all assodated spatially in one site. 1 (ould obtain no iníormation from informants regarding abandonment of dried metlt-all nNrced thllt "all the dry meal Wi'll paeke.'d aw,lY fwm Ihl' ~ite." Table.' 5.15 pre.'· senls the anatomical part frequendes recovered from this site. Figure 5.42 iIIustrates the relationship between the totallnventory reeovered from Site 64 and a eonstTucted population 01 parts ob-
..
(234) TABU: 5.15 INT
MANO
«AV THOO
Combmed
~~V
sitt'l'~
Sile 64
"se
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Anatomical parl COIII"IIf:DDATA~
PIrIIC llMC PF
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DF
..
~ TA"
SummcrStoI\1rrl! ""'rMoblle CondItIona'" Meo' ..... Drledfor HUInfIfI eon.umptlon
CoW".......
lTaIL. 1.1'1----' : _
Antler Skull Mantiihlt·
At1i'tl Axb
AST
CA'
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PHAL
Figure 5.42. Compereuve pt..'rCl'nt.1gl's; Sitl' M data and summed dala (mm Rilly Murry's sill's.
tained by adding the frequencies from the severallocations where similar actlvities were conducted by the BiII Morry family (sum of colurnns 1, 5, and 10 of Table 5.13). The basic form of the graphs are the same-high frequencies of head and neck paTts. low frequencies of torso parts and scapulas, and high frequencies of al1limb parts. The differences between the two graphs are al least parlial1y understandable: (a) Differences in antier (requencies Tefled high frequencles of COW8 in the combined sample; al 5ite 64 bulls were domlnant and thelr soft antlers wcre not pre· served. (In spring the cows still have their antlers but the antIers of bulls are just comiog io as 50ft, velvet-covered growths.) (b) Lower frequendes of front and rear leg parts in the combined sample reflect less processing of front legs at the combined drying location, and rear quarters removed from the killbutchering location for use in the spring resi· dential camp, which was separélte for the Billy Morry site but part of Site 64 itself. This com· panson dl'monstrates that archéll'ological as· semblages may be compounds of polentially independently occurring seis of associaled e/emenfs,
.
~
.
Cervical venebrae Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae Pelvis + sacrum Ribs Sternum &apula Proximal humerus Distal humerus Proximal radio·cubitus Distal radlo-cubitus
Cerpale Proximal metacarp.ll Distal metacarpal Proximal femur Distal femur Proximal tibia Distal tibia TaNlo11!'1 Pnlximal ffiI.·lalar!la1 Distal metalilrsal l'halan~'5
MNI
%
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
, 27
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" 17 5.5 2 O 1 I 11.5 17.5 20.0
.
20.' 43
45 43 3'J 3'J 39 41
. 3'l
41
17.7
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•
38.8 ".4 ".4
5
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7.5
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Flguft 5.43.
4.5
modeled vetees.
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1000 63.'
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Rt'lalionship between Site 64 data and
.
GLIMPSES INTO THE PAST-SUMMER STORAGE UNDER MOBILE CONDITIONS WHEN MEAT WAS DRIED FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION
63.6
63.' 63.6 !Ib.3
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1I5
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9.~
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InventOl'y o, Anatomkal Parta from Slte 64 and Comblned Fl'equend.. from Thl'e. of BlIIy Mol'I\i". S'I••
"AT A'
CARP
-
• Table 5.13, columns 1. 5, and 9.
depending on local eonfillgendes 01mobility. This assemblage may be rathereasily modeled.lt is a situatíon where complete animals were originally present and the parts deleted were a dried meat population. This situation is modeled by adding the ¡ndex values for Table 3.2, columns 4 and 23. Figure 5.43 iIIustrates the fil between this model and the obselVed frequencies on Site 64.
Clearly. contemporary decisions regarding storage of meat for summer consumption are cunditioncd by (a) thc opUon of freezing meal in ice cellars, (b) lack af contemporary mobllity. and (e) a much hlgher population of dogs than was the case in earlier mobile days. To learo something about past practices 1 asked the Nunamiut to teH me what they knew about the series of large stone meal caches associated with earlier spring hunting drives and pounds (see Figure 5.20). My informants said that these facilities were last used by the Nunamiut prior to 1906, when most hunting was still conducted with bow and arruw or with guns that were "nut vcry gund." At lllilt Iillll' ~pring intl'rccpl hunling was normally conducted where the spring herds carne out of the mountains onto the flat northern tundra. Such hunts were conducted
(235)
in cenjunction with the use of the pounds, whích were usually located on the north síde of stands of east-west oriented willows and with the dnve lines, which forced the cnnbou to move close to ambush hunting stands occupied by hunters. Al least three drive Jines are visible today along the east margin ol the Anaktuvuk VaJley. in the vicinity of Tulugak Leke. A well-constructed stcne-rtnged pcund on the ncrth side of Tulugak Creek ís also visible. Figure 5.44 shows the "soldier rocks" lining drtve No. 2 (see Figure 5.20) that directed the animals up the slde of a mountaln and past a number of ambush locations. A smaJl excavaüon was made inside the large caribou surround (see Figures 5.20 and 5.45) providing a small but informative sample of the anatomícal parts abandoned al the kili site where mass processing for drying was conducted in pre-gun hunting days. This sample is summarized in Table 5.16. column 1. Modeling this assemblage beco mes an interesting tesk, slnce as we have seen differences probably existed between the character of kill-butchering sites of the eerlier mobile period and thnt of conternporary sites, judging from the 1949 data. Informants were generally conststent in their descriptions of the old-timers' use of surrounds and drives. AH agreed that the activity was coopcrative. They also agreed that the use of thcse facilities was not casual but planned, which means that thc cooperating persunl wuuld estabJiah resident1alcamps very c10se lo thesc facilities prior to the antlcipaled mOVl'menl of caribou. There was thus a very short logistical system and a large labor force c10se at hand. One of the older men (Simon Paneack) described the use of a surround as follows: Everybody works togt>lher when Ihey drive in the Big Surround. Hunters, womt'n. and even young men push thE' caribou along into thE' willows al th(' stre
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Distlll radiO-<:ubitu$
Sapula Proximal humerus Distal humerus Proximal radio-
S~mum
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Cervical vertebr..
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(1)
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18.2 100.0 9.1
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1.0 1.0 2.0 7.0 210 210 4.0 5.0 23.0 36.0 36.0 410 41.0 20.3 19.0 19.0 1.5 1.5
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21.9 21.9
21.9
24
O O 3.6 2.4 :!.C U li.O 56.0 56.0 9.7 12.1 56.0 87.8 87.8 100.0 100.0 49.5 46.3 46.3 3.6 3.6 3.6 2.4 2.4 2.4
(4)
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Long Rape
".
Big Surround kiU sile
1.5 2.5 20 20 5.3 '.2 3.0
1.5
12.0 7.5 7.5 3.0 2.5
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(5)
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44.1 35.0 25.0
16.6 16.6
33.3 62.5 15.8 8.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 62.5 62.5 25.0 20.8 12.5 11.5 20.8
37.5
O O 4.1 8.3 8.3 8.3
(6)
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Slte 1
~toril~ caims
s
5.5 5.0
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 O 60
O O O O O O 8.0 10.0 11.0 O 1.0 11.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 O
(7)
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100.0 100.0 100.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 O 3.1 6.2 62 6.2 '.2 O 37.5 34.3 31.2
100.0
O O O O O O SO.O 62.5 68.7 O 6.2 68.7
(8)
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Sit1! 37
1.0 1.0 1.0 O O 1.0 3.0 3.0 5.0 05 O 5.0 4.5 '.0 5.0 '.5 2.6 2.5 2.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 .5 O 1.0 .7 8
(9)
20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 10.0 O 20.0 14.0 16.0
20.0
20.. O O 20.0 60.0 60.0 100.0 10.0 O 100.0 ".0 80.0 loo.O ".0 52.0 5<1.0 SO.O
20.0
20.0
(10)
%
Si~41
MNI
Tulugak Lake group
5tone
O O O O O O O 1.5 O O .5 .5 .3
.5
30 3.0 4.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 1.5 1.5 1.5
O
O O O O O
{Il)
M:o.n
O O O O O O 75.0 75.0 100.0 25.0 25.0 100.0 37.5 37.5 37.5 11.5 O O O O O O O 37.5 O O 12.5 12.5 7.5
(12)
%
Sit1!10
....nto.... o, Aluitomlc:.1 Pan.. from Ihe 81. 5unoand lUId Seqral Stone C.lm Stono. Fac.IlItte.
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Kongumuvuk siteA
i
!"
!!l
(238)
5. Sprlng
f11~f'" nl!Af lhll §ul'fllund bUII\lIVilf jl1~idl' bt't'lIUM' Wl' w.. nt lo keep ji c~lIn likc al An.wik lit rdcl'l'nl:1' lothe
buming of bones remaming from butchering-c grner.l1y done during the summert. Never do lhey carry lhe meat home betoee il is stripped because al! Ihe mesa frorn cutting 'em up would bring the blue fijes lo the meet ro"lcks-they always do lni, job somewhere in
betwcen Ihe Big Surround and wlwl'\' lhey campo
Everybody ts working now, wnmen slTipping mea! frOffi the bolle!!, men and boYHMrying parts thal don'f have lo be stripped lo the mear racks at the camp. and rnu!lllIf the time ji'.'; ¡he man's job tu pul the mea! on Inl' r.lck~ in ju.'!! Ih\' ri~hl pl ...n'~. <:!1I.~ri",,;
W.11'I al! lll,' mt',ll Colrri,·,l "W.,y fr"m 1111'
Ilitl, SUrr.,'I/IH.I1
Rtp/y: No, like tOO.. y 1'11 big kili, Iike ó'l1 An ..vik pecpje cany Iway what lhey want 111 useo-they always teeve some parls like IhE' heed and bottom of the leos lm"tapodials and feoel] ¡nd nobody I¡kes nn:ks much in spMng. Qllts!ioll: Do IhE' womeon do oth~r Ihlngs wheon! Iheoy strip off the meat? RLp/y: SometimE's, milybe a family WMls lo make sorne bone grease or 53ve soml' marruw-maybe Ihey do Ihat thE'resothey won', nave l{lmov(' an the oones IIftl'r they strip Ihe me..l. QI/('sl;oll: Old you pver hunl allh~' Bl/; SUrTound? Rt7'I.Y: NtI, I WllS ton mueh a bólby. My f,lthl'r shc>wed mp the Olg Surround finl in 1'J06 when we camp...d Mar there in summer. Aft~'r Ihat Ihe old m"n showed il lo me many limes and they t(lld me stones of hunting Ihere in Ihe old day' befort;" Ihpy had gun~. Sorne good sluries loo.
QU,"'/i,m: S¡nn' y,'ll nl'v~'r hlll1lt,.III1I'o' in llw 1.ld way huw Iln YIlU knnw Wh,lt """pl,' ,lid t1",r\'? Rrply: (LaughJ Soml,timl's I hunt....! In thl' 1,1d wily-many time_bul ntlt there. We \'VI'n hUnllod in the old way durin,.; Ihl' w.. r (1')45) al Chant.lll't l.1kl·-Clydl' .1lmulll dl\·d frum fallin~ ¡ll tlw /,Ik". Al! m,'n likl' mi', Il'S!4', itnd Elyj.lh knl'w 1/lt'St.' lhln~s. Old MAyIElyjah's wjfplcut 'em up in., suTrtlund nn Ihe Killik jusi Iike Ihe Big Surl'O\lnd al Tulugak. You go look around, you'lI 6nd the place where the old·timer!l cut 'em up, jusi downslream from Ihe Big Surround npar when1' Elyjah had his Ipnl during S<:hoolteacher summer [summpr llf 1~81.
This description suggests that thc selection of parts for removal from the kili site was made :hrectly in terms of drying consideratilm5, un~ ike the situation today where there is ,1 major
problem 01 trsnsport between Ih. kili §il. and the residential camp and there Is an alterna tive method of storage. Ireezing the ice cellers. If this suggestion is correct, the remains on the kili site should be modeled as an original population of complete anímals with parts removed in terms of the processing index (Table 3.2, column 4). What remained (Table 3.2, column 8) was then culled in terms of general utility criteria (Table 3.2, column 9) resultiog in an additional removal from the kili site of a population as modcled by column 2 of Tnble 5.17. This populatton is then subtracted from thv rcsiduals (column 3 uf Tablc 5.17) illll! the result is standerdized (column4 otTable 5. L7). The last set of index values should anticipate the frequencies of parts abandoned on a kili süe from which parte were deleted with an ¡nitial and prime concem for drying. A similar but slightly different model was developed in conjunction with the analysí5 of the 1949 residential data {Table 5.12, ('oJumn 17). Figure 5.46 ilIustrates the fit between the model de· veloped here and the frequencies of parts recovered (Table 5.16, column 2) from a Iimited excavation íoside the Big Surround cttTulugak Creek.
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The lit is essentíally perfeet except for parts expected to diverge from the model. We have consistently seen that consumption in spring exhibits a bias in favor of mandibles. We see that mandibles are underrepresented. Interestingly, we have seen that the consumption data from 1949 showed a strong excess of radio-cubiti. On that basis we projected that there was sorne difference between the behavior al the kili sites in 1949 and that seen for the contemporary village. These dala confirm that major differences exlst betwecn the past and the present in declsions thc nssociated logistícs of spring kili sites. We note that the radio-cubitus is vastly underrepresented on the kill site iIlustraled here. We may infer that in 1949 the basic behevlcr al spring kills was more akin to the behavior for the perlad prior to 1906 than to the panern of contemporary exploitiltion. This is illustrated in Figure 5.47. whcre the surround data are displayed ilgainst Ihe kill-site mudel de~ veloped for the 1949 data. This is tolally coosistent with everything we know about the two situations. In 1949 and at the time of the
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Big Surround, drying was the only available storage strategy in spring. The data for the two periods come from the same place and presumably the behavior of caribou has not changed in tennsof theircharacteristic pattem of movementpastTulugak Lake.ln both cases we are deallng with a residential eamp very close to the locarion of killing spring caribou. As a minar demonstralion of dífferences thatwe may anticípate between kHlsites when different logisties as eonditioned by mobility are coupled with different decisíons. the data from thc Big Surround and thc Anavik kili site are displayed comparatively in Figure 5.48. Assodated with the drive and surrounds at Tulugak Leke are a number of large rack eairns (see Figures 5.49 and 5.50) used in the past as insuranee storage against unsuccessful summer hunting oragainst the possibility uf a later than usual" faH caribou migration. Thcse caches represent a set of dedsions or segregations made on a population of already dried or
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(241 J
partially dried meet from the spring killing of caribou at the drives and pounds. The populanon of dried meat was segregated into two populations: one (o be transported wíth the family or group of essociated families during their summer movernent on the northem tundra, where físhing and summer hunting of caribou could be most profitably undertaken, and a second population. lergely composed of heavy parts and parts [rum poor animals, to be plnccd in the large stonc cairns wherc it would be safc from bears, foxes, end wolvcs. Thc criterion used in ~l'~rt.,~.ltin~ thc dricd In,'al into the two populatkms W,lS primarily portabilily, since processing decisicns had already differentiated low- from high-quahty meat.
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The most penable stores-e-dried. boneless meat strips, ribs. sternums, nnd sorne uf the vertebrae-c-were trensported. The rack caims are impressive archaeologf-
cal feeturee. They are sometímes relatively large structures constructed with a rorbeling principie to fonn a dome. Entrance is through the top or epex of the dome, which is seaJed with a large flat stone "doce." Around the
sídes are commonly located deadlall traps made Irorn the large stones out oí which the stone caims themselves are mede. The floors of these structures are frequcntly of leveled
boulders--the caims were generally constructed in boulder beds-with good air circu-
Jation from the bottom. Meat was placed In these cairos in a radial fashion. For instance, Iront quarters would hnve bccn stacked with the scapula to the wall and phalanges in the center, radiaUy around the structure. Between stacked layers of meat were leyers of wiUow and spruce wood thruugh whích air could circulate. Near the drives at Tulugak are over 60 such rock cairns. Five of the Tulugak caims were completely excavated and an additional cairo was excavated at Kongumuvuk (see Figure 7.26). Most of the cairns observed had Mn opened, and at least partially expluited; many were empty. Sorne had been used in recent times forotherpurposes. The cairnsexcavated are probably as dose to reflecting the condi~ tions of primary archaeological context as will be documented in the Anakluvuk region. The three large eaims (Long Rope and TuJugak Site 1 and Site 37) are mostcertainly Ihe insuranee slores of extended households. The small caches (Tulugak Site 41 and Site 10, and Kon~ gumuvuk Site A) might represent partial stores, n..'sulting from mini mal SUCCl'SS at this location, supplemented by caches located in other places. They might also represcnt Jate stores (Tulugak Site lO and Kongumuvuk 5ite A), pli1ced in the caim during the summer. Perhaps a situalion arose that made it necessary for a graup already encamped for the summer fo move to another campo Meat would be removed (rom the meat racks and
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the most porteble parts packed to the new campo The rest of the mcat woufd be cachcd in a cairn as insurance. In such a situation, it would be likely that the parts had airead y been heavily processed (Tulugak Sife 10)-for example, most lowerlegelements would have been removed from frónt quarters-and that mueh had already been consumed. In no case can we say with confidence that no deletions had been made from the original stored popu~ latíon for purposes of consumption. Figures 5.51 and 5.52 iIlustrate the variability in the proportions of anatomicaJ parts present. The overall pattem is dear; there is a bias in favor of front leg parts coupled with varytng biased frequencles of pelvtses and lumbar and thoracic vertebrae. 5trikingly absent are the sternum, thc nbs, parts of the hcad nnd neck, and parta of the rear leg-c-the parts that have modérate values on the meat utility index as well as moderately low values on the proceseIng indexo Tbese are the parts that have sufficient meat to make their abandonment an extravagant act yet their proeessing for drying a very laborious ael relative to parts 5uch as the femur. Segments of this swing population show up rarely as sources of meat for both human and dog consumption in lhe Morry 1949 sample. In Ihis situatian we see still another use made of these parts{ ¡nsuranee storage of unprocessed parts. Labor is not expended on their processing, and still they are not wasfed. They are stored in special ways in case lhey should be needed at a later date. lf it tums out thal they are not needed then their wasle in the form uf abandonment in the cairns is not an extravagant act. On Ihe other hand, if things du nut go well during fhe summer Ihe swing population is still available (ur cxploitation and milY serve lo suslilin a group. Table 5.17 provides the data uscd in the developmenl of a mude! for thl's\.' popula. lions. Wc begin with a populalion uf cumplete animals; these are then culled in t('rms of general utility. The selected population is then partitioned into those parts to be processed for drying (Table 3.2, colum" 6) and the residuals are the candidate population (TablE" 3.2, col~
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tween the first derivative ef the swing population (Table 5.17, column 8) and the data from the Tulugak Lake cairn at Site 41 (Table 5.16). Thl' fit is fair. Parts f.1I1in~ below the IinL'-thc mandible and neck-shlluld by nuw be farniliar to the reader. Overrepresented are the pelvis and radio-cubitos. This may well ¡ndicate a slighUy different method of butehering. The index values for meat are calculated in terms ef the assumption that lhe sacrum is butchered off as a unir with the pelvis. On Ihe oIder sites a diffl'renl patlem emeorges. The sacrum tends to cuvary with the lumbar ver~ k'brae and th" pl'lvi!' ,'ppl'ars .1S hukht'n'd rather consistently int\) twu halVl'!i. lf lhl' inl'lt')( vahll'!i h,'1l1l'lt'\'1l l·,lkul.ltl'd un tlw ~.l~i~ of this pattl'rn uf assuciatiun then the pdvis would have a high value in the index seale devt'loped herc í\nd would nut ólppl'ar as .1" exception to the fit of the line. Figures 5..54 and 5.55 illustrate the lit between Ihe second dl'rivative of the swing population and lhe dat,1 from the Long Rope caim and the Tutugak Site 37 caim. The lit is bcst fur thl' cairn at Sit\.,37. Thl' almust pcrfl'Ct
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linear relationship between the model and the data is impressive. As in the earlier case the head (including mandible) and neck are underrepresented, which we should expect in a stored population of parts. The identicaJ pattem is seen in the fit for the Long Rope data, but the variance is greater and the distríbution is curvilinear. Thc storage caims observed ranged from totally empty to completely unexploited (as appears te be the case with Tulugak 5ite 41). This means that an extended graded series of variability may be expected, running to the fourth or fifth derivative of the original population pleced in the caím, solely as a function of how extensively the stored population had bcen exploited. Figure 5.56 íIIustrates the relationship between the frequencies of parts tinally abandoned on Billy Morry's dried meat rack (Table 5.13 column 14) and the frequencíes of bones observed in the Kongumuvuk caim at 5ite A (Table 5.16, coJumn 14). It is e1ear that the majar difference between the two abandoned populations is in the frequency of neck parts. In Kongumuvuk there were two atlas and ~ne axis vertebral' and no cervical vertebral'. This is strange, since as we have seen these parts are nonnal1y assimilated to the skull and the cervical vertebral'. These two parts have only one special use of which J am familiar-they are ronsistently used lo baH deadfall traps. Two such deadfalJs were lo· cated adjilcent 11)the Kongumuvuk cairn. Duriog Iht., CUUfSC uf c)(cavati(," and <'lfter the total contenls of the cairo had bt'en uncovered, my Eskimo assistant rommented: "The fellow takes up bait fo set deadfalls and when he gets there they're so messed up from the last time he gets lazy and doesn't fix them-just throws the bait in storage." These cases provide still more insight into the potential sources of variability in assemblagl' composilion. Tht' pusitioning of labor fun:t.' and cunsumers relative tu the sourct."S uf procuremt.'nt condUiuns the charader uf the activitiL's that may be conducted in une place versus the locatíonal separation of activities characteristic of a logistical strategy. Extreme
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contrasts are províded by the data from BiUy Morry's dried meat cache and the data from Site 64. Aside from the simple mechanical mixing of activtty components that dlffering degrees of mobility may occasion, both the data from 1949 residentiallocations and those from the pre-1906 surround iIlustrate that the very organization of activltics may be shifted, given differing labor force size and distance between points of procurement and consumption. Thus mobility itself must be viewed as a strategy option that may condition other strategies related to processing, consumrtion, and storege. Finally, in the cases o the storage caims, we see a still different strategy accomodation to mobility: insuranee caches in case mobility does not payoff. THE SPRING SYSTEM
1 have now developed and modeled all the data ccllected on spring use of caribou.ln each case I heve presented all available infonnation and a demonstratíon oí a modeling technique. I have been concemed with the properties of cases. To be sure 1have pointed out relationships between cases and explored sorne pro· vocative material demonstrating that we may anticipate data from locations not yet observed with a modeling strategy. I haw nut yet considered the uwrall systt.·m, and the facts of patteroin,; that may characteri7.I..' the sequences of dl'cisions, moves, and alloca· tions of parts to different uses. For the contemporary village 1 have the mostcomplete data collected at Anaktuvuk for the period of spring hunting. During 19n I attempted to keep sufficient records on .111 the animals killed during thespring, continuously monitoring aH the locations used durinR the spring hunting Ft'riud. A tutal of 122 có'lribüu were killed that year. l hilVt.' d~scribt.>d ó'Ind inventoried all thc locations whcn.' anatomical parts were abandoncd, plact.·d in stor.1gt.', or consumed. The locations induded th... Anavik kill-butchering site (Table 2.9), the hunting
[246J
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stands at Anavik (rabie 5.1), the Mask site (Table 5.3), the díspersed hunting stands (Tabit' 5.3), the proceselng 3r(';1 outside the ice cellars (Table 3.7), and the processing areas edjacent to the meat racks in the village (Table 3.4). The parts were placed in storage both dry (Table 3.3) and frczen (Table 3.7). Finally, there are the estimales of consurnption for the entire village (Table 5.7) during the perlad of ínventory. Table 5.18 recapítulates all these data together with the data from the dispersed kili siles not previously reported. II will be recalled thet 8 of the 122 caribou killed were cached north of the river prior to May 26 and never recovered. The actual number of caribou being accounted for is thus 114. Table 5.18. column lO, summarizes the discrepancíes between the expected number of caribou and the number eccounted forin the sum of all locations inventoried. It is notable that the discrepancies are not great, particularly when one is attempting lo he? track of the bones from so many animals. Theonly really disturblng value is for the proximal tibia. where bones from 14.3 lo many individuala are indicatcd. J do not know why there is a discrepancy unless the error is ene of counting likely to have been made at the processlng arca beside the ice cellars. Thcre is also the possibility of sorne double accounting between the consumption record and the processing area, jf the informants stripped the meat (rom parts rl'ported as consumed and then abandoned the bones in the processing afea. There is aJso a minar possibility of such a situation arising between • parts inventoried in the dispersed hunting stands and Ihe rrocessing areas, depcnding on the timing o the observations. AH in aH, hnwever, I Am eomfurtable wlth tlll.'lleeuunt· ing, given my knowl\.odgc uf Ihe ubsc.'rvational pmblems associah.'d with attempting such iln inventory. I may, 1 think, state wilh confidenee that 1 have monilored the spring system with some accuracy. Viewing the spring syslem jn terms of decision-making junctures, loo of 5uch decisions, and Ihe dispo5ition o( resulting associa-
tions of bones. we may begin to understand something of the behavioral basis for the static arcbneologícel f"els rcmaining for us to seo. In the conlemporary system we must begin with a live and anatomically complete animal, free in the environment. Once such an animal Is killed the fírst stage of decision making, which may well affect the manifesl character of subsequent decisions, is already beginning to work. The hunter makes decisions as lo whether to butcher or whether to atternpt a transporl of the animal unbutchered to another location. He evaluetes the situation in terms of his meens of transporl, avallable work time, need for meat in the village, and probable allocation of meat from the anímaJ-slorage, consumplion, and so on-and decides the general degree ot dísmembennent Ihal will charecteríze his butchering stralegy if he decides lo butcher in the field. Next he evaluales Iransporl and demands on hís labor to decide whether to transport the kili orlo cache it for roture transport. If the decisión is to transpon, the next question ís oneof dcstination-c-wherc hl movc the animal or parte. In the spring there are generally two destinations, the processing area outslde the ice cellars and the residential proccssing are"s adjilecnt lo thc family,drying -", racks. The decisions men tiuned so far are logistical decisions. Related lo these is anolher dimension of decision mailing, which may inleract to condition the characler of Ihe logistical dedsions. 1 will refer lo Ihis as a maintenance dimension. At each of the logístical ¡unetures the hunter mayconsider whether toeal partof the food availablc or dday his meallo anolher conlext. Ht.·rc is another IURbitical cun!'ideratíon, the loglstics uf immL'diall,.' mainll,.'llollleC wrsus thl,.' Jogistics uf dt.'laycod mflintl,.'n.l11l"C. Does the hunterconsume foad from the killon the spot? Or does he transportselteted parls to a loeation that is independent of but paralleJ lo ¡ocations he might realistically ronsider as destinations for piITts for delnyed consumpliun or shared consumption? Crosscutting both the logistical considerations and the
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malntenance considerations ís a body of knowledge regarding the anatomy of the animal. It is this knowledge that is used inroaluati,,~ thc relative utility uf pílrls for differential
spite of this vast potential for variation, there is a pattem and structure to the pathways along which events are actually distrlbuted. In addition, thcrc is a stratcgy standing bchind
consíderations in loglsticnl and maintenance
the use 01 the knowledge 01 analomy, which
decisions-c-whlch parts lo carry borne. which parts lo eat al the kili, and perhaps which parts tu abandono I will not attempt to demonstrate the potentia! cornplexitics of a maze uf pathwilYs nlong which perts may dífferentially move givcn variable conditioning factors affecting each dimensíon and decision-making conlexl. The rl'.lder can, 1think, appreciatc that such ti view of the dynamics standing ~hind él SftltiC .. ~ sociation uf bunc. ta polt.'ntially c"xtn.·Mt.'ly comptex and therefore what we may find ('
provldes us with a pattem of behavior that is systematic and understandable. It is of course the reality of the pathways with dífferences and variability in the orgaruzed use of the anatomical knowtcdge that we seek tu understand and through our understanding provide a behavioral window to the paet. Figure 5.57 ilIustrates in a simpllñed rnanner the bask structure of the contemporary spring lo~istical syst...m rt.'lative to the disposi. tion of nnntomical parts of catibou kill...d, The dark arrows indicate the basic f10w of anatom~ kal parts along a logistical routing for storage
12491
1M Sprfng S,.tem
or delayed consumption. It is essentially a unidirectional pattern, concerned with getting the parts from the location of procurement to thc location of stomge. Thl'light arrows wprcsent directíons of flow for the short-term or maíntcnance logistics-consumption that is coincident with the baste logistics for storage strategy. This pattem is clearly reticulate and al least two-dlrectionef parts go down the logistic,,1stages of behavlor, and parta go back out and "up" such stages as in the cese of parts removed from the viJIage processing ateas into the díspersed hunting stands during the late phase5 of sprin,; hunting. We have secn that consumer demand may be thought of as a con5tilnl-food is needl'd ewry day. Therefore, the quantity of material relating lo ongoing rnaintenance should vary wilh the duration of the activities engaged in at any given location. Similarly, the quality of material servíng maintenance functions should vary with the duration of activities and the degree lo which they are exclusive or supplementary intakes of food. In the spring case we have seen that none of the hunting stands were US4..'d or oceupil'd individual!> over any extended period of time. Similarly they Were all, insofar as consumption occurred wilhin them, purely supplemmtflry. The'Y were nol the exclusive locativns of consumption by thc occupants during their use. Looking back over data relative tn hunling stands and camp5 we nU(l' th,,' all f.,lun,,1 cuntl'nts ...·sS\.·ntially monitor consumption since none of these 10cafions were isomorphic with Ihe logistical or
by
processing locations such as kili sites and processing stations. We may view these data on hunting stands as a scquence of consumcr bchavior corresponding lo a IOf.istil'ill Sl'· quence. The first location, Anavik, is immediately adjacenl loa major hunting site and as we noted parts consumed at that location were gleaned from the processing refuse of field butchering. Thc ncxt location is th e Mask site. which is logtstically íntcrmodiate between kill-butchering locattons end the village processing áreas. Parte removed from killbutchering locations pass lhrough this loca~ lion and as we notí'd consumptiull is bt.·st understood ,1S a sclcction nf pMts fmm a previously culled population furthcr limitcd by acees5 lo certain parts. Thl're was unly minimal food suppOtt for this location outo! village stores. Nexl are the dispersed hunting stands, where somewhat greater amouots of food were consumed from village sources. Finally, we have consumption in the village ilself. Viewing this sequence as one of consumption that parallelsa logistical sequence we may reasonably ask whether there is a pattero of consumption rclatl'd to thl' positioning uf tht.' sites in the sequenn>. In Table S.}I) Sl'VCn anatomical parts are lisled. Ol these the metacarpal and radio-cubitus, two esscntially marrow.yielding bonl's, wcrt.· not highly valued as marruw suurcC's during spring. The metatarsal and distal tibia iltt.' b~Jth dcsirablt:' pilrts that dnminatc thl.' pupulatioll st.'l...· dcd fOf marruw depl'nding on Whl'thl'r st.'!l.·ctions are made from parts abandoned on kili siles 01'
YABUS.19 Comparatlft C_.umer &.1.. throllgh a 1.ot11ltlcal Srquenu dllrln. Sprlng Hllnlln. M'Uf
Sitt' 6v.......cllt..
U.E Figu", 5.51.
f)i,,~r.,m uf runlt'mr11f,lrY spnn¡,; sysl.'m uf huntin~ h,¡;i!iIK-!i.
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{250J
from parts transported away from kili sites. Also listed are the three meat-yielding parts that have shcwn the greatest evidence for consumer bias: the mendíble, the sternum, and the Iernur. Quite dearly there are interesting trends in these data. Parts earliest to decline through the sequence are the metacerpal and the radio-cubitus. The metatarsal domina tes durIng the earliest phase Di the sequence and exhibits a gradual reductíon as the vUlage is approached. The distal tibia domina les the two intermediate locations between the Anavik hunting stand and the village. AII the primarily meat-yielding parts are Jowest al the beginning of the sequence and ¡ncrease 10ward the eod. This documents a bias in field statioo consumption in favor of marrow over meat for snacking. If we sum all the marrow parts and the meat parts and ca1culate a marrow-dominant index-that is, the percentage of the total MNl percentages of the diagnostic bones represented primarily by marrow bones (Table 5.20), Wl.' mity monitur a trend. There is a elear trend through the sequence in the direction of increasing dominance of the consumer assemblage by meat-yielding parts. Su(h a trend makl'5 ~nSl' in a numb\.'r uf ways. First, parts lhat yield onIy marrow have a low general utility. Their consumption decreases the ambiguities of transport decisions sincl.' by eating theS!..' parts un\.' d(H,'s "ul dt.·crease Ihe amount of high-utilily m.lterial moving through the logistical pipeline and "One eliminates 5uch parts from the population of potentially movable material. As previously TABLE 5.20
Pera....... o, DI....oetk Bon•• Reprnented by M.no..VI.&dlnl Pan. loor. Sprtng Log ..tkal ~\lenu rl'rct'nl"¡';~'
Site
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mentioned, the degree to which such a sequence is realized will depend on the dura non of the logistical procedure. If hunting is slow and hunters must be in the field for long periods of time we can expect a lees dear bias in favor of marrow bones. Earlter, when discussing butcheríng and kili sttes, I suggested that degrees of dismemberment mighl also be clues to the character uf a logistical sequence. The more extended the logistics the greater the intersite variance in the degreeof anatornical disorganization manifest by parls remainlng archaeologlcally on sites associated with the sequence. Table 5.21 summarizes the data un the dismemberment values for the spring assemblages tabulated for this informa non. What is dear is Ihal in assemblages from those sites that are exclusively logistical in chara<:ter the dismember· menl rali05 are very high, indicaling that essentiaJJy all the bones present were maximally articulated analomically. At primarily maintenanCe locations whcre cnnsumpti"n uccurred thcre is grcatcr variancl.'; nt.'wrthdt,sS, the values are generally low, showing that the anatomy has been disarticulated to a greater degree than at essentially logistical1ocanons. Of equal interest is the ¡n<:rease in the percentagl.'uf thl' arliculatilllls ob!\Crvcdthat i\r~ "up" in character. When the sites arearranged m
(251 J
fhe Sprln, S,.tem
behavioral etrategies on the part of the Eskimo. We have seen in case after case that the anatomícaJ parts remaining al a given location are the products of previous strategy decisions and of immediate decisions regarding use, transport, and storage of food materials. We have not scen that, of all the types of expecred asscmblages. a relatively long-term consumption assemblage will carry more information regarding the total system than any other. Por centemporary village consumption and for the 1949 period required the mostcomplicated models. Even then, in most cases the models were inadequete to anticipate all the veriability in the assemblage. This condition arises because consumption that is parallel to a logistical system and/or a sloring operation is secondary to these activities. That is, con-
sumption represents an accommodation to the basic aim of pIadng the greatestamount of highesf vaIue food in stcrage for future use. mis same slrategy is evídence along a logJstical sequence where consumption is secondary to the basic aim of returning to the ccnsurner location the greatest amount of highest value food. In both cases-c-ene that seeks to gain time utility from resources and one that seeks to gain space utility from resources--ongoing consumption is secondary to these aims. Thus we see a ñnely tuned use and consumption of perta that are of low to modérate utility and parts requiring extensive investments of processíng labor to ensure their successful transport or storage. In earlíer chapters 1 asked whether there were sorne reliableclues that the archaeologist
TABLE 5.21 D ...... mbarm.n. M...ure.
for Sprint A-.cmbl••• Dlsmemberment ratios Fronl
A.
l'rjmlltil.lIl,~i$linllltlt'ltlitl"s
AI\ilvik kili llile An.akli"lt.auk ~m !ile Di'p.!~ed km (spring) BilIy Morry'! killllile Bi1Iy Murry'! prnl....' !l!lng i'Ioile Billy Morry's drying rack Total N Mean
B. Primarily mailltmtllla Anilvik hunting !tand Anilktiqt.auk hunting stand Mask !ite Dillptmed hunlin[l:: stands Billy Morry's drying (amp An.wik hunling camp A-8·C Frank Rulland's 1949 !pring midftlce Juhn Mnrry', 1949 !pring rt"!idence Total N Mt·...n
.
.85 8'
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100
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.94
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4.03
1.00 1.07
5.0 .81
60 .18
.10
30
.11
.23
.54
.86
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.30
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1,00 1.00 100
.27
.18
.75 2.11 7.0
2.73
5,29
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.11
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5. Sprtnfl
[2521
mlght monitor in arder to recognize whether
p~.t peoplu were .lorinS meat n5 opposed lo simply meeting daily consumer demanda through regular and l'ssl'ntially continuous hunting. A 5ystem of adaptarían is just that. a system. It involves an integration of behavioral options and reasoned use of variable strategies. Because of the íntegreuon, clues are almost everywhere. The integration oí which 1 speak is an organization of consumers, labor torces, resources, and knowledge. We have seen Ihat amoog the Nunamiut we heve been rather successful in modelingactual assemblages 01 faunal parís that passed through a number of culliog, transport, proeessing, and divisionaJ 01 allocatíve decisions. The models were developed under the as· sumption that "perfect" decisions were made at each juncture-that is, that deósions were rational and isomorphic wilh the anatomical realities of the parts being segregated and differentially allocated to differing roles in the system. In the Nunamiut case thisassumption is certainly justified at an almost uncanny level. Why do these Eskimo have and use 5uch a fanlastic knowledge and understanding of anatomical facts? The answer arpears simple and almost trivial in its presentation. Such criticallmowledge must accompa"y any system af adaptaliOt, that practices a" extended logisticol stralegy, and depends on a storage stratesy for animal foods. The success or failure 01 such strategies is dtprndent on rational and rralistic decision makil1g regarding the USt' to be made differl'1lt parts and tlle lim;"g 01 tllis 1ISt? We may immediately suspect tha! systems of adaptation where storage and logistical ex~ tension are not integral parts of the overall syslem of adaptation wiJIexhibit much greater varianee and deviation from the anatomical reference dimensionl drveloped in Chapler 1 for evaluating the eharacter of dlfferential use decisions. Regarding dry storage, we have seen that there are certain anatomical fads that preeondition the relative utility of partsfor successful drying and other facts that precondilion the desirability of parts for slorage bur mitigate
ot
against success in the absence of Iebor investmenl5lhrouSh proce••iog. These facts ensure that, given storage with a drying technique, there will be sorne ilssuci.,tiun.ll conscqucnccs that are relatively unambiguous. For instance, the consumption assemblage at the 1949 residential Jocations exhlblted a dual populatlon of parte. There were marrow bones that had been selected from a population of essentially complete legs found with a series of anatomical parts of the axial skeletcn that were desirable as food items but difficult to proeess for drylng. Absenl were all the most desirable parts of the animal and all thl' parls whose properties tended to ensure succcss(ul drying. AH these parts must have been present in the populations from which the parts observed were selected. Jt is difficult to imagine a sjtua~ tion where essentiaUy complete legs anoavailable forchoosing marrow bones and the femur is absent! To my way of thinking these assemblages betray the practice of dry storage as accurately as if we had recovered a preserved meat rack with aH the dried meat still present. This is what is meant by a system-the components are integrated and fit with one another. The form of one implies the form uf olhers not in evidence. This characteristic was graphically iI1usrrated by the model developed for antidpating the 1949 tesidential data. In order to accommodate the facts of the assembJage it was implied that essentially complete legs had been removed from the kill-butehering localion. After such it priority removal othE"r pilrts were removed. Such a situation implied a form of faunal associatilm at the kili site that had not been SCl'n in any case previously d¡~u,St.'d. Later. in the data from the BigSurround, we nbscrwd iln ilssociation of parts similar to that antkipilted in modeling the 1949 residentia' data. Compo· nents of the system are integrated and carry information about the system as a whole. If dry storage is an inlegral and important partof the successful adaptation of a group of reople they will practice it from an informed and rational perspective. Given such performance we will be able to ¡denNiy such behavior if we
(253)
The Sprfng S... tem
have a knowledge of rhe same facts that they
u.ed in theír
the playing out of a set of strategíes of posl-
of th@
tioning. The more re1ponslve lhe .lrftlegles
economic anatomy of the animáls being exploited, Relationships characteristíc of a system of adaptation do not stop with the anatomically correct use of parts and how they are used in association wlth cther parts as in the 1949 residential example. The mobility or settlement system of such a group is also integrated through their knowledge and ís organized to the degree to which they can anticipa te future labor-consumer sttuatlons. We have seen that the logislics of the contemporary village esscntially ¡nvolve a pattero of land use and therefore occupation that radiates out from thE" permanent village. We have aIso seen that in the past the Nunamiut were much more mobile. Not surprlsingly there was a signifieant difference between the pattern of faunaI part 8ssociation characteristic of the data from the mobile perlad Versus that from the con· temporary sites. NevE"rtheless, the basic strategies have not changed appreciably. In both cases the Nunamiut were attE"mpting to procure relativery large quantities of meat in spring for storage and subsequent use during the summer months. In both cases they were drying meato In both cases they were using the same finely tuned knowledge of caribou anatomy and behavior. Why did the as· semblages lcok different? When the archaeologist speaks of the settlement pattero he speaks uf a statie sel of relational faets betwl'en locations. In reality sueh a pallern derives from the seull'ment system, which is Ihe behavioral dynamic responsible (or pro· duelng the stlltic patteming preserved for U9 to seco The moreorganized and responsive lo IOCDI t"vironmelltal dynamics lile seltlement system is, lhr 1t'S redufldancy in behavior and lhert{CJre lhe Irss obvious the pattrming remaining for the 'Ir· chaeologisl lo observe. Holding thE" level of organization and responsivenE"ss constant, the moredynamicand changing lhelocal environmtnl the les..;; redulldancy in rrspouse alld he/Ice llre¡t"Ss palteming remnilli"8 ¡lit US lo observt'. We may lhink of the settlement system as
the more information standing behind the decisions made. Thls mcens thnt p
d~i.ion mftking-r~(t.
(254J
,. S.....
phasize that understandíng and assigning meaning to observed archaeological facts will only be successful when archaeologists know and understand the factors that prompt differing behavioral responses in the people behind
the erchaeological remains observed. This type oí understanding is dynamic. Simple know ledge oí static Iacts is inau Hicient. This is well demonstrated by the faet that in Chapter
11 outlined rather exhaustively the facts o! the economíc anatomy of both caribou and sheep. These static facts alene are inadequate to per-
mil the prediction of faunal patteming on archaeological sites. We must have a deeper
terma of which these facts are employed and we must Jearn what conditions their use. 1
worked hard. lo gain such an understanding among the Nunamiul, and to my mind have been fairly succeseful,l seek to use this understanding, aided analytically by the statíc facts of Chapler 1, lo move in the direction of theory building regarding the relationships between statics and dynamics but more important the factors that condition and select for differing dynamic processes and organízations. I have more faets to share with the reader regarding the Nunamiut system of adaptation before we may make further moves in this direction.
6 Summer
understanding of the behavioral contexts in
-,
Once the last stragglers of spring have passed, the tempo of actívíties slows among the villagers (Figure 6.1). Little interest is shown in goiog out to look around for caribou and talk shifts to fishing, despite the fact that very little fishing ís done and then mostly by young men and boya. My journal records en average of 2.3 fishiog expeditions conducted by adults between June 8 and July 1. These are summarized data for 3 years. Three such expeditions were the most that oeeurred in a single year. The timing of these fishing expeditions ís interesting. Por the 3 years of record the ice melted on the lakes completely by june 25 (1969), June 26 (1971), and [une 29(1972). In all years, an expedítion was made to one or more lakes known to yield lake trout, after the margins of the Iake ice had melted but before the maio ~h('l·t nf lake ice had become mUen. This was bt.'tWl.·l'n June H.1ndJune 13 for thc yenr5 observed. Expeditions during this period accounted for four of the seven recorded during
early summer. Infonnants agreed that this was a regular pattern, indicating that it was the best time to catch lake trout; they were hungry and feeding from under the ice into the mouths of fast-flowíng spring streams. Fishing was cerned out from the ice Iíoe using jígs and was almost always the setting for at least ene fishennan getting a very cold dip as he tried to get near a choice spot on the margins of the rotting ice. And one year 1 myself was able to províde my companions with comlc relíef in this regard. The timing of fishing activityappears crucial since the necessary eoodition oí sorne melting but not too much generatly comes about a week 01 more before the tundra is awash Ircm the surface melting and atl the streams are swollen to. lonent of water. Once the flocd of spring runoff hits the lakes, nshing of aU kinds slows down until after the tundra ha~ dril'd, n(ter June 25 accurding tu my rt..'wrds. No fishing expeditions were recorded between June 13 and June 29 duriog my work with the 12551
~
rr
7 CONumptlon In che Contemponrl)' VIllage omlln che""t
6. Summer
12571
{2561 hunting and watching for slTagglers seerns to be an attempt to prolong the sodally positive aspects of spring hunting. Old men commcnt that the hunters are reluctant to come in from their dispersed stands, for after the last straggters have passed all one has lo look forward to are mosquitoes, and decreasing quality in the meals. Perhaps by now the reader has gained sorne appreciation for the very pragmatíc outlook of the Eskimo. They are continuously p\anning in terrns of future conditions. Summer is very Irustrating for individuals who hke to think themselves competen! to "outsmart" the uncertainties oí their environment. Figure 6.1. Women sunning outeide a wlnter house It is hard to describe the mosquitoes. They durinR sumrner. begtn to appear in mid-June, and by the warm days of luly a walk, the mundane act oí defecation, and the otherwise joyful act of making Nunamiut. After the latter date. three were love are aH intruded 00 by swarms of recorded: on June 29, June 30, and july 2 of 3 mosquitoes, which attack the smallest patch of consecutive years. Thcse expeditions were exposed skin. Gne Eskimo saying sta tes that less speciHe in their methods. Sorne went out the coId drives the mighty bear into hibernafor grayUng to both streamS and lakes and al tion aod the apparent tack al food drives the leasl two went out for a combination of gray· caribou to the forest; ooly man salves the liog, lake trout, and whltcflsh. In nlllilte June problems oí cold, seeming laek of food. and expedHions nets were used in conjunction the other difficulties assodaled wílh their with hooks and lineo tundra world. This makes it even more deOn no occasian was clricd meal carried by pressing that the only thing that, drives the those fishing. Informant' explained that the Eskimo into hibernation and to despair is the walk was not too long aod anybody (culd lowly mosquito. Eskimos said that the catch sorne físh this time af year. There are a mosquitoes made my skin black. Mosquitoes number of traditionally used 6sh camps were so thick at times that I could nol sec. My where 5uth expeditions (enter their adivities. tent was moved during the night by tht 1 have mapped several 5uch sites aod in aU mosquitoes trying to fly out through the roof! cases the only faunal remains are faU caribau The most offensive places duriog summer antle!s or antlers with attaehed skulls. which are those tha.t are at other times the most were used around the hearths for suspending eomfortable. Camping within a willow stand fish during eooking. In none of these sites ¡s. during most perlods oí the year, desirable were fish bones noted, sinee most of the fish is sioce there is ready firewood, proleetion from returned to the residentiallocation íor distri~ the wind, and, generally, water from springs. bution and the dogs are normally fed fish as But in Ihe summer, the mosquitoes are denswell as the bones h"Om human consumption. est in the willows. After the mosquitoes The only evidence of fish was their scales. appear the Eskimo move their camps out ol Summer is a strange time of year for the the willows and onto exposed and windswept Nunamiut. During the spring hunting, they locations, because Ihe wind hinders !he are active and involved. There is much laughmosquitoes in their search for blood. Winds ter and storytelling regarding the hunt, and through the passes of the Srocks Range are many sman personal events are shared. The
.
~
l'
truly impressive. They are so strong that the personally isotating effect Is similar to the sensation of riding a motoreycle; there are things goiog on all around you but you are nevertheless ísolated by the never-endíng sound of the wind. Summer is an isolated, depressing, and Iethargie season. Prior to the availability of outside goods the Eskimo were even more uncomfortable during summer. Surnmee clothing ccnsísted of worn-out winter c1othing, whích was normally filled wtth hales or small tears through which the mosquitoes could easily find their target. lf the hales and tears were repaired, one was ínevltably too warm. The single ítem most desired by the Nunamiut during the early history of outside trade was c1oth. With cloth they could make good summer dothing that offered protection from the mosquitoes but was light enough to be eomfortable. Summer is wet time. Almost everywhere one goes there are standing pools of water and rivers and streams to cross, and short summer showers are always posslble. Durlng winter the Arclic mountains are dry plaees. With outside tempc-rarttres many degrees below zero, everything is frozen, dry, and generally even-surfaced. During summer everything is wet and rough~surfaced, so that walking is diffieult. Despite the warmth of summer, the water of rivers and streams is never warm. The warmest [ recorded along shaHow lake marginswas 36°F.In the fast-moving streams. the water temperature is only slightly above freezing. Walking aeross the tundra in the direction of a river becomesa grin-and-bear-it kind of anticipation. You must lake off aHyour c1othes, including foot gear, and carry thcm aboye your head to keep them dry. The river beds are almost always boulder beds. The current is frcquently so swift that when you put your foot down the current washesout the racks beneath your footing. At the same time the cold is so intense that your muscles cramp and movemenl becomes sheer pain. Vou must make it to the other side, so you move on with each step an uncertainty. {fyou make it to the other side without taking an unwanted swim
in the river, you must force your legs lo move in the task 01 gathering firewocd to warm yourseU while drying off and putting on dothes. In summer, travel ís líterally paintul. The Eskimo say that even your body works against you in summer. In winter if a persan begíns to perspire from exertion he or she takes off sorne clothes to ensure that they stay dry. In summer things are not 50 easy. Wearing watertight footgear is generelty a necessíty, but feet perspíre and as soon as ene stops they begin to feel as though they were encased in soggy ice. Travelers drytng out bocts whíle eltemately roasting and then freezing their feet by placing them near the fíre and then withdrawing them are common sights "long travel routes in the summer. For the Eskimo, summer is "bad time." Not only is travel difficult and living generally uncomfortable given the mosquitoes, but tood is commonly dried meat from animals in relatively poor nutritional condilion. As the season wears on this meat becomes less and less attraetive. It inevitably becomes al least partially infcsted by fiies. 1t gets incn'asingly deSlCcated, and fhl.'n it is k'ached from thl' summer rains. Today, very little summer hunting is carried out and that tends lo be in late summer. When the older men and women begin complaining about the lack of fresh meat, the normal response is to purchase bacon, canned meat, and vegetable oils for fryjng. a mode of cooking new to the Nunamiut. In the past, however, summer hunting was a most impOrtant activity and crucial to the Nunamiut subsistenee seeurity. Prior to 1956, the year the ice cellars were eonstructed, all summer storeS were dried meato From around thc Icnth to the twentieth ofJuly, summerhuntingincreased in intensity until the faU migration ol caribou. CONSUMPTION IN THE CONTEMPORARY VlllAGE AND IN THE PAST
Throughout the discussion oi spring be~ havior I stressed that consumption was an
6. Summer
[258]
activity conditíoned by the logistical facts of the momento 1 noted that consumption was frequentl~ 01 residual parta, or those parts of minor uti ity as storeble foods. Even the parta
the simple decision of whether to keep sornething or abandoo it. Data relatíve to the consumption pattero in the contemporary village come from severa!
that tended to domínate or commonly appear as exceptions to the constructed modeIs were parts whose storage properties were not being monitored by the anatomital indices-the mandíble and the stemum, for example. In those few locations along a 10!isticaI pathway where consumption occurre , it was essentially secondary to logistical considerations. We have seen that marrow consumption atthe Anavík site was essentially the use of parts gleaned from those abandoned at the kiJlbutchering location. Similarly, the use of marrow bones at the Mask site was slrongly conditioned by an eccess problem; bones were selected in terms of their marrow value only when such a selection did not impinge on the storage value oí the part as a source of meato With summer behavíor the system may be expected to shift direction, in that the removal from storage of parts Ior consumption becomes a primaz selective concern. Consumption demands Om;f1att the cbcíces made and. as we will see in the discussions of midsummer and late summer hunting camps, logisti· cal decisions are frequently made in terms of consumption problems. Another difference in the overall picture of consume: behavlor that distinguishes summer from the Jogistically dominated spring system is that the removal of harts from storage is accompanied by very Htt e processing or culling of parts. If a high~ utility segment of the anatomy was placed in storage articulated with parts of low utility, the laller are only infrequently culled at the stora~e Jocation. Instead they are introduced ioto t e C
what was available in storage Ior use. Seccnd, data were ccllected as to what parts remained in frozen storage on Augusl 9, 1969. Third, I have a consumplion record for dog feeding by one family between [une 24 and August 7, 1971, and a three-family midsummer record on what remained in dog-feedíng areas after the dogs had been fed. As the reader will quíckly recognize. the data are from 1969, 1971, and 1972 and they are mixed. For summer 1 am unable to state with certainty the relationships between the 1969, 1971, and 1972 observations. However, gíven the pattero of redundanclr seen along similar consumption samples rom different years, 1feel a fairly accurate picture of midsummer consumption can be gained Irorn compounding these data. As previously descríbed, we have an eccurate pícture of mear stored for midsurnmer consumpUon (see Table 5.18). Table 6.1 reca~itulates the data on meat stored in the vi lage for the year 1971, In addition, an esti· mate of meal remaining in storaRe" of Au· gust 10 is given. (In August 1969 one ot the icl! cenars filled with meltwater, and when aecesl could be obtained a record was made of the parts in the cellar at the time of filling,) In Table 6.1 these data have been ínflatcd so that the actual MNls were treated as 25% of the total, since there were (our cellars in use at the time. The counts presented are estimates for the village made from the data from the single cellar. Figure 6.2 iIIustrates the relationship be~ lwccn what had b4.'t..'O dcll'h.'d from stort.'Sbetwcl'n miu-May and Augusl 10. anu what rl'mained in sttlra);\.'on tlle l'l'lcr L!illl'. Clt'arly there was a strong bias againsl necks imd (cet in the choice of parts removed fmm storage. Aloo, the general lack of culling behavior while removing parts from stores is ilIustrated in the relatively high and parallellines describ-
.~
I
[259]
Co,.umpClon In &heContcmporctr)' Vlllage and In the P_t
TABU 6.1 laventorl•• o, Anatomlcal P.IU 80tb Av.Uabl. and Conallmed In th. ConHmpor.ry Vma.. betw... .I11M 12 and Au...... JO. 1971-
sources. First, we have an accurate record of
Cunsumption
Parls no!
U!II;'\{
by Augusl Dried
An.atomic.al p.art Antier Skull M.andible Atlas
Pelvis
Ri'"
Stemum
Scapula Proximal humerus Distal humeras Proxim.al radio-cubítus
.
Di~tal raditl'Cllhitu~
Carpals Pnlxlmal ml'taCi\rra¡ Distal metacarpa! Proltlma¡ femur Distal femur Proximal tibia Di,tal tibia Tar!lolls ASlraKl1lu!'l Cak.an",us Proltimal metat.arsal Díslal metatarsal First phalangl' 5l'Cllnd phalan¡.;t' Thinl ph,llnnKc
" s..,. 'r.,"lt,
J
~.IIí.
1969
Total 1971
June 12AUgU5t 10
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
(3)
(')
(5)
(.)
(7)
(')
(9)
(10)
O
O O O
3.0 3.0 3.0
S.l 52 52
30 3.0 30
3.5 3.5 3.5
3.0 3.0 5.0
11.5 11.5 19.2
14.8 14,8 loUl 74.1 55.5
16.5 16.5 18.0
28.6 28.6 31.4
20.5 20,5
90.9 90.9
o o
22
94.' 94.' 94.'
74.4
44.~
K2.H
100.0 55.5 86.8
51.0 40.l} 49.6 29.0 41.5 41.5 41,S 41.5 415
943
57.6 32.0
7t1.4 431í 154 61.4 40.9 136
L2
54.4 54.4 54.'
24.2 24.2 2h.0 87,9 82,8 86.9 100,0
20.0 20,0 16.8
O '.0 '.0
Axi~
Frozen 1971
,·sUm.,!,'
MNI
o
Cervical vertebral' Thllradc vertcbrae Lumbar vertebrae
1971
10.
4.0 20.0 15.0 19.0 27.0 26.0 18.5 10.5 10.5
9.0 9.0 1.5 1.5
1.5 '.0 .0 '5 35 25 2.5 25 20 2.0 25 2.5 25
"'..
100.0
96.3 68.5 38.9 38.9 33.3 3.1.3 5.5 5.5 5.5 14.8 14.8 12.9 12.9
50.0 500 50.0 50.0
....
...... 86,8
SOO SOO 42.4 42.4 57.6 57.6 57.6 56.•
22.0
8fi."
13.6
73.
".4
....
73.' 58.0 68.5 60.5 605 59.0
R.~
9.25 10.0 16.8
460 46.0
32.• 32.8
44.0 JO.3 J03
76.4 76.4 52.6 52.6
Y.J
~l,)
~2.11
44,0
69.7 69.7
601
54.5
71.5
60.9
57.0 57.0 51.0
54.S
ns
90 JO 8.5 .5 a5 •. 5
51.5 43.9 43.9 61.6 61.6 61.1
94.• 94.• 94.•
54.5
81.0
13.5
~,O
100.0 100.0 100.0 98.3
9.3 9.3 9.3 7.' 7.' 9.3 9.3
68.5
9.6 34
32.8
51.9 51.9 72 .• 72.• 72.2 71.0 tl7.4 67,4 67,4
54' 54.' 38.7 387 J/O
'.0 5.0 3.5 35 3,5 15
JS >5 3.5 22.0 22.0 22.11
386 386 38.6 386 3f!tI
O O O
o O
o o 11
75.6 91.7 53.6 76.7 76.7 7t1.7 16.7 7t1.7 75.;\
421)4 45.4 7t1.4 22.7 22.7 15.9 159
!'iJ I
l!'i,~
HU
114 J
1!'i,9 15.9 15.9 15.9 100,0 lm.O
51.11 5J.lJ 40.5 40.5
"'' .3
•. 3 •. 3
74.8 74.8 15.3 15.3
ltlll.ll
H,l
l'D
411,7~ ~2,4
~9Jt
25,6 52,6 52.6
47.3 '117.2 97.2
541
100,0
""U 943
l'l,tUnlllS I .md ).
ing the parts of both fronl and rear legs removed. The anly deletion activity seems to be the systematic removal of feet from the quarters as they are taken out of storage. Thisis not
so much a culling slralegy as it is an insuranCl'caching strategy. When J discussed general patterns of foad consumption and processing 1stressed that in the normal course of prepar-
[2601
6. Summer
o
10 20 30 40
so 60
of mínimal cuJling and maxímum riding of parts of low utilitr with parts of high utility. Both these condihons are whae we anticípate when pares are removed Irom stomge for use. TabIe 6,2 develops a model for the use of parts from storage. The conservettve MGUI-
-. _. .---- .--_a
" "
<,
"A~O
AA CEAV
THOIl
,~~~V
.""
ST
se
"
o. 'RO OXC
..
CA" 'Me !>oe
'"" TAR O.
:
AST CAL 'MT OMT PHAl 1
¡
-
~.
_.-~
·• -
"""TI 1.. '1'OUR
. / o.
• •
·.-
AU'. 10
-
-
I
FilJun' 6,1. Analomical parts 01 trozen ml'ltt consumed betore August 10 versus tbose parts, availabll' fnr use after Augusl 10, 1969.
ing food forconsumption the feet are removed
and placed in a small cache or storage area for possible fulure use. At the ice cellars this is what ís beingdone, since removal of the (eel to Ihe village would take them out of reliabJe storage. This paTtia! processing, normaJly associated with preparation of parts for con~ sumption, has been shifted to the ice storage facility in the rontemporary village. Freezing is a much more reHable method of preservaliao than drying wouJd be. the ooly alternative available at the houses. The graph of parts n'moved from stmaSl' hólS aH thl' tl'1llalt, indicators of th~ general utility indt,x but shows a very conservative use of the knowledge that stands behind the ind~x--- that the indices developed to aid in anticipatiog logisticaJ deci~ sions will be inadequate for anlicipating the more conservative decisions made in choosing parts for consumption from stored or immediately avaiJable popuJations of meal. For this reason we must make increasing use of the conservative utility index developed in Tabl€:' 5.8.
·
~
.
The conservative index is weighted in terma
70 80 90 100
•
AHT
CMGUI-is muJtiplied by the parts ectuelly in storage in the ice cellars for the year 1971. The resu1t is standardized on a scale from 1 lo 100 (Table 6.2, colurnn 3). The result is tben taken as a reasonable model for the consumer behavior during the summer. Figure 6.3 iIIustrates the fit between the mudel (Teble 6.2, column 3) and tbe estimates uf summer consurnptlon from storage glvcn in Tnblc A.I, column lO. [t is dear that the model anticlpates elmost perfectly the frequency oí parts removed from storage when we can estirnate the character of the population from whtch the deletions were made. The 1971 data seem to be a good estimator of the parts that were in storage in 1969. The pattem of summer consumption is quite dífferent from that noted during the
.
oo.
z
~ o-
!l
§:
.-..
.LlIIll
..
.
r¡J
~
DT.
,0ftC 011 .T
?O
-., ... ....~
" w .. ~~ :>
~.
" ,/ tM; ':C.II!....nv
.. 8 .. ~ C'!
'., W1J):":
10
....
/
I
.-, 1
I
. . .. .. . .. . . . ,..
10 MANO :
/
............ Ct:llV ~
'0
SUMMER eONSlNPTION ESTlMATE FROM FROZEN STORES-TABLE 6.1 eOLIo
figure 6.3. Relalionship b\-lwet'n data Ifllm 5ummer C
12611
CoMurnptlon In U1e Contempol'Q'Y Vlllo". lUId In Me P. .,
such as the mandible, neck, and sternum during penods of immediately avaílable Iresh meat is dearly evident. As in the sprteg situation, the total popula· tion of parl! censumed ls partitioned between humans and dogs.
spring, when fresh meat was directly available and parte were being placed in storage. Figure 6.4 illustrates the contraste between the estimate of total consumption during the spring season and the total consumption from frozen storage during summer. The quick use of parts
TABLE 6.2
DI ....lopment o, Model. lo, Samm.' Con.ampllon from FroAn Sto,... Col. I )(
Anatumkal parl Antier 5kull Mandible AUM
"""
Cervtcal vertebral' Thoradc vertebeae .Lumbar V('l1ebrae Pelvis
"''' Sternum Scapula Proxim..1 humerus Distal humerus Proltimal radio-cubitus Distal radio-cubitu5 C.up"ls Proxhnal metacupal Distal metacarpal Prollimal femur Di!lot.,1 femur Proltima' tibia Distal tibia Tarsal!l AIllraR.llu5 L.J1canl'U5 PrOlcimal metatnsal Distal metalarsal First phalange ~e(lnd phalange Third phalange • ~ hble 5.8, rolumn J. • See Tabll' 6.1, enlumo 3
Irozen
Conse""ative MCUI8
storcs
Col. 2 57.tiO
PI
(2)
(3)
10.9 29.8
.33
57
.8' 1.12
1.55 1.94
5,16
8." 8 ..
37.3 31.3 31.3
5.16
59.7
10.75
67.4
3666
56'
JO.79
m.2
59.
37.64 40.b1 25.63 32.95 32.95 32,05 29.95
59.'
29.95
53.\ 47.0
26,1" 19.93
1\3.5
""
65.9 65.9 04.\
47.0 100.0 100.0
1<,1<,1)
72.3
57f,{l 57.(,U 53.86 52.92 «.20 44.20 44.20 3UlO
723
JUlO
52.1
15.79 15'79 15.19
93.5 93.5 81.1
81.1
111.1
52.1 52.1
lIU,(, 63.58 53.45 65.35
1\3 SO 44.49 57.20 57.20 55.M 5\.9'J SI.9'J 4~ .•"7 )4.61.1 34.60 100,0
lfIO.O 93.51 91.lf7 76.7. 76.74 7h.74 5.1'.21 55.21 27.41 27-41 27.41
(262)
6. S .._ . o
so
10 20 30 40 50 60 10 80
lOO
ANT SK ",NO
AT
"tERV
-
'HOR LU"
PEL"
•
sr
se
PH
OH PRe
,
-
" , ",,-,
-
ORe
e"'p pue
-,, ,, ,,
CHe p, o, p,
OT
lA' AST
-,... -'
CAL
PUT
~¡ll
,,
,,,
-
COMPARISON OF SPRING (TABLE 5 7 COL 8) 6 SUMMER (TABLE 6 I COL I 01
TOTAL CONSUW7TION RECOROS Flpre 6.4. Comp.u..tive perrent.ges Iur 5pring ..nd summer vi11agE' consumplion récords.
Consumptlon Recorde The Clyde Hugo family, which had nine dogs. was monitored between Iune 24 and August 7, 1971, as to parts fed lo dogs. During this time the dogs were red 16 times, an avera8e of 2.9 days between Ieedings. Al one feediog they received only blood soup; al one feeding they received ooly boneless, stripped
meat; and al three feediogs they received dried meat containing bones. Of the remainiog 11 feediogs, 9 were either rresh meat or meat from stores that had been thawed prior lo feeding. Only on two occasions were the dogs fed meat from frozen stores. Except for two smaU fish, al) food was caribou meat dur· ing the perlod of record. In retrospect, I regret havíng monitored this particular family, since the best hunter during the 1971 spring hunt-
.
~
.
íng was the married son of the head of thís house. He had been so successful that the family made a point o( advertising their wealth of stored meat and they distributed much of it, even to the anthropologists. "~ood Ieeding" of their dogs was a point of pnde and 1am quite sure that this record is not typical of the average Nunamiut family. Nevertheless, it does represent one end uf the range of variabiJity. Table 6.3 summarizes the data on anatomicaJ parts fed to dogs by this family during the 46 days of record. In addition to these data I have inforrnation on the contents of the family meat racks prior to and after the period monitored (rabie 6.4). In a~dition to providin~ infonnation about the feedmg of dogs, the ata provide us with a smalJ case study oE the htstory of a stored population thrcugh a sequence of consumpñon. The reader should by now feel comfortable with the idea that a population of parts may proceed through a series of transformañons in contento Thus íer, thís point has only been directl" evidenced in terms of the rapid and relatíve y short logisticalsystem of spring. The summer data will give us the opportunity to document an analogous series of transformations for the consumption sequence characteristic of continued use of perts from a stored pOhulation. The ~ata 0':' dogSeedtng reported ere are our fírst ghmpse of this situation. Figure 6.5 illustrates the transformation in the content of the Clyde Hugo (CH.) family dríed meat rack! between [une 10 and August 10, 1971. What ñrst strikes the eye about this sequen/::e is the bulk of material deleted from the drying racks between the tenth and the twen~.fourth. o.fJune. AHthe leg parts except 1.5 o the ongmal 5.5 scapulas, 2 thoracic vertebrae, and 3 pelvises were deleted. No cervical or thoradc vertebrae and no ribs were dE'Jeted. This contrast of parts preferentially removed vers~s those not touched provides a c1ue to the Cflteria being used in choosing parts from the meat rack. The femur and the upper front leg are h¡gh~meat-value parts that have a low probability of drying welt whereas
eorwumpllo" In the Conte''''poftIIy VI'Jooge tmd 'n the
p_,
12631
TABIi 6.3 Record o, Parh Fed lo DOf. between "une 24 ..d Au.-t 7. 1971IClyde H...o F.mlly) F~ding
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
o o o
o o o
o o o
o
o
O O O 30 3.0 5.5 6.0
O O O
'.0 '.0 5.0 '.0 5.0 5.0 L6 2.0 3.5 O O
80.0 111.0 100.0 800 100.0 100.0 32.0 40.0 71)0 O O O O O 10.0 10.0 20.0 20.0 O 10.0 20.0 20_0 20.0 40.0 40.0 300 30.0 30.0
O O O
o o
n
O
se.o SO.O 91.6 100.0
o
o
.5 O O O O O O
'.3 O O O O O O O
o
o
O
O O O O O O O O O O O
o
.
---
%
MNJ
Anlll·'
Skull Mandible Atlas Axis C~rvical vereebeae Thoracic vertebree Lumbar vertebral' Pl'Ivis Ribs SI..rnum Scapula Prolr.imal humeru s Oísloll humerus Proximal radjo-cubitus Distal radio-cubítus Carpals Proltimal mellllcarpa] Distal mcl;lColrpal Pn"dm.ll femur Distal temur Proximal tibia Distal tibia Tarsals Astragales Carcaneus Proximal metatarsal Dbt,'¡ m..tal.usill First phalange Second phalange Third phalange
Total
Fmzen
f""h
Dried Analumical parl
record (9 dogs)
o O O O O O O O O
o
o
O O .5 .5 1.0 lO O .5 lO lO lO 2.0 2.0 l5 l5 l5
the ribs are a high-meat-value part with an excE'lIent probability oí successful drying. Initial choices of parts from the meat rack appear as a compromise selection that antic~ates a consumption sequence. At the time o selecting parts for placement on the meat rack the Eskimo afe mindful of the fact that consumption from such stores is a long-term process. Processing for dry storage is therefore a com-
o
•
O O O SO.O 33.3 100.0
3.,
M.O
30 2.0 6.0 .5
o lO O O O O O O O 10 lO 25 2.0 1.0 lO 1.0 .5 O 5 .5 .5
.,
u
o
o
28,6 28.6 57.1 64.3 100,0 78,6 tl2.1 1-4.:\ 357 II
o
2,0
50 O O O O O 5 .5 2.0 2.0 25 2.5 20 2.0 20 25 20 2.0 20 2.0
O
o O O O O Ifl,6 lfl.f1 22.7 313 16.6 16.6 166
8.3 O
'.3 '.3 '.3
n n
'.0 .0 '0 9 .o 14.0 11.0 11.5
16.6
o
%
o O O O 3' 3.' lU 14,)
17.11 17.8 143 143 14,3 17,H
lO 14,3 14,3
14.3
promise set of decisions based on thE' quantities oí meat needed in terms of short-term storage versus the quantities of meat nceded in long-term storage. The readE'r may well have been puzzled when I noted in Chapter 3 that ~arts with the highest probability of success ul drying werE' not the parts that exc1u· sively appeared on the drying racks. In shorl, the dtying ¡ndex did not predict IhE' parts
[264J
6. Su.....er
o
TABLE6.4
Parts on meal rack
June 24
-----MNI
Anatomicel part
(1)
AntIer Skull Mandible Axis Cervical vertebral'
Thoradc verteerae Lumbar vertebrae Pl"lvis
O O
O O 1.0 6.0 6.0
O O 9.09
11.0
ro..
9.0 O
Sremum Scapula
5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 2.0 20 2.0 2.(1
Proximal humerus Otslal humerus Proximal radio-<::ubitus
Distal radlc-cubltus Carpals Proximal metacarpal
Distal ITlelacarpal Pnlximallt'mur Di~till h.'mur Prollimallibia Distal libia
2.0 2.11 20 1.0 1.0
Tarsal,
12)
O O
,
Atla"l
%
Astraglllu5 Calcaneus Prmdmal metatarsal Distal metatarsal
,
Phalanges
1.0
l.O
O
o
n.n n.n 100.00 81.81
O 51UJ(} ,';0.011
SO.OO
SOllO
so.oo 18.18 18.18 18.18 lK.1M IItlH
lH.HI 18.18 9.09 9.09 9.09
O O 9.09
MNI (3)
O O O O O 1.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 9.0 O 1.5
, O O O O O O O
O O O O O O
,, O
occurring on the drying racks. Instead, these parts were predicled by Table 3.2, rolumn 7, ur a candidate populalinn of parts rem.1ining from a transported pupulatilln with parts de11'Ied in It'rm~ of Ihe processing indexo The processing index is uf course a scale of meat v.1lul'conditiunl,,'d by Iht, tlry.lbilily uf t11l' po'lrl. TtU' candidah.' POPUlilliul1 l'Ollt.lins parls (hal are not Iikely to dry wcll, aIthough the bulk of
.
~
.
% (')
O O O O O 12.5
.........
.....
100.00
O
26.66 O O O O O O O O O
,,
O O O O O O
Pan!! fed to dogs June 24Augu!l17
MNI (5)
O O O O O O 3.0 30 5.5 6.0 O .5 O O O O O O O O O O
, O O O O O O
% (')
O O O O O O SO.O SO.O
91.66 100.00
O 6.3
Parls on meal rack AuguSIIO
MNI (1)
O O O O O 1.0 3.0 5.0 2.5 3.0 O 1.0
% (')
O
O
O O O O
o O O O O O O
, O O O O
such parts were, in the conlemporary vi1lage, placed in frozen slorage. In the CH. data we obtain a glimpse of lhe slratcgy bchind not selccting aUlhl' parls (ur dryability at lhe time of initial placcml'nt on the drying racks. Consumption is a graded series ólnd m.1Y makc use of pMts wilh high ml',ll ....llu\· hUllow slurage pot\'ntial l'arly in tiuch a Sl'(lllt'nn'. This is exacUy what we Sl't! in lhe CII. data, where
\
LUN PELV N ST
r.
.- - .
OH PNC
~~p
CAL
SO.O 60.0 O 20.0
.w.',l.TI
CERV TNON
20.0 60.0 100.0
O O O O O O
,
60 10 fIO 90 100
.".....
PMC
O
O, O O O O O O O
"'o ro
AT AX
O O O O O
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
~
10 20 30
AHT
Se....nce of Deletlon. 110m dM CJ,de Hugo FamU,'. DI)!Meat Rack (Sum ...r 1971) Parrs on mea! rack [une 10
12651
Summer Huntln. and Logt.tla
eMC PF
OF PT
OT
••• •••
• ~ -'
.....140
.">-
1
.lUIIlIO,I.TI
~.
"N AST
PNT
•• •
OMT PHAL..
TRANSFORMATlONS IN eH MEAT RACK SUMMER 1971 (TA8LE 6.4 ) FiIUl'e 6.S, Cumparativt' pt.'fCt'nIIlBl'. flOr th ... Imn.furmalionsln the coment ot the C.lf. m"lIl rack durlng thC' aummer ot 1971.
the parts placed on the drying racks are being initially utilized in terms of eriteria approximeted by Ihl' prun'ssing indexo That is, consumption bias Iavors those parts with high meat valué but low storage potential early in the consumption sequence. Table 6.5 de~ velops the models for the consumption or use sequence ilIustrated by the CH. dala. Figures 6.6-6.8 ilIustrate the relationship between the modeled index values and the actual data from the CH. racks. The fits beIwcen data and anatomically based indices are very c10se aod lend supporl lo the view that Ihe modeling of the decision-makingcriteria is dose to being accurate. These data. although inll'resting, provide unly une aspecl uf Ihe wmplL'xitics cvidl'nccd by this dog-fceding recurd. Tablc 6.3 shows that during Ih€.' periud of fL'C'UTd Ihl'r\' wcrc thrce sources uf foud for Ihl' dll~s: drh'd ml',lt, fn'shly killl'd anim,lls, ilnJ p.HIS fWIll frCll".t'n stura~t" FiRurl'6.9 iIIustrates thl' {unlmsts in lhe fretluencies uf parls
fed to dogs from the differenl sources. Of particular interest in Ihis comparison are the data from the freshly killed animals. There is a strong bias in favor of necks, as in the spring data, where fresh meat was generally available. On the other hand. there is an absence of skulls and mnndlbles, parts that nlmost typify dog feeding during spring. Simllarly, lhlm' ts a marked absence of marginal parts uf the front leg, parts also common in dog feeding duriog spring (see Table 5.7). Why such a conlrast? Given what we have learned thus far regarding the sensltive patterning in the use of anatcmical parts, there may well be differences in the summer systern that dislinguish or modífy the probabilities of parts being available in the village for feeding. lo the case of the contempcrary data these would have to be differeoces in the logistical syetems of summer, since wc are dealing with Iresh meato We shal! explore Ihis aspect of summer stratcgy befene gcing un with data from summer resídentiel camps, stnce su mmer 15 characterized by staggered inpul! of fresh meat from encounter hunting. SUMMER HUNTlNG AND LOGISTICS Summer begins wilh .1 period of rclativc quiet, from }une through the first weeks in July. Then activities begin to pick up and contioue to build up until the tan caribou migration. Prior to the availability of frozeo storage.•111 meat for summer use was dried. Dcspile the fact that the Nunamiut live in a very favorable environmcnl far succl'ssful drying, they wn· sider 2 months the optimallenglh of time for eating from dried stnres. The meat has to be kept free of mes, and it has lo be protccted from ravens and ulhl'T sc.1Vcoging birds. The summl'r rains ll'nd hl k'ach lhe mt~.ll, rl'mh'riog it less palatilble. The ml'at finally b\'cume!l dcsiccatcd, vl'ry l(lU~h, and difficult 11) l',11 wilhnul inOl'.1St·J prot't·ssin,.; .1ntl usin~ iI in (,lmjunt"!iun wilh ulhl'r, It'SS dl'skc.1h.'tl (Utltls. By ch\.' \.'nd uf Junl', lhe vilhlgl'rs ;llmos! .,IW.1YS
(2661
6. Sunwter lASLE 6.5 DeveJopment of Mode. Indke.
Tabl~
6.4 rol. 2
Analomical par!
(')
Anlll"
O
5kull M.andible
O O O O '.lW
Ada'! Allí!!
Cervical vertcbrae
n.12 n.12
Thoradc \lerl('brae Lumbar vertebree Pelvi!l Ribs
100.00
Sternum
xapula Proximal humerus Distal humerus Proxtmal radio-cubitus
Distal radkr-cubitus Carpals PNllimal metacarpal Distal melacarpal PrOllimal Iemur Distal lemur Proldmaltibia Distal libia Tar.wls ASlragalus Calcaneus Pnnlimal melalars¡l! DISt.ll ml·till... r~al l'h"I,IU';t'N
81.81 O 5U.()n 511.00 511.00 51100 511.00 18.18 HIl8 HI.18 18.IH 18.UI 18.18 18.18 9.119
,.os
'Of
Sequence of Drled Mut U. . . t the CI,de HulO lSummer 19711~
~
HoUM
Col. 1 -
Col. 3
Col. J)(
Col. 5
col. 2
76.00
MUI'
51.52
Col. 3 col. 5
Col. 7 31.30
(2)
(3)
(')
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
O O O Vi)
O O O O O
6.45
O O O O O
8.48 64.35 73.12
23.tll 17.15 25.19 5.81
48.\'1
76.00
98.43 100.00
O
O
O
12.31 21.31 21.3) 21.31
37.69 28.69 28.69
49.59 37.75
21.31 7.75 7.75 7.75 18.18
28.69 10.43 10.43 10.43 O O
18.18
18.18 1H.18 Y.I19
""
55.57 74.81
2869
O
O
O O O
O O O O
O O O O
113
11.07
O O O O 3.32
)U.37 24.27
59,95 47.12
18.54 31.30
48.~2
94.17 100.00
26.29
51.52 O
O
24.48 O
43.03 21.17 21.17 21.17
15.52 17.78 17.78 17.78
10.91 1.35
21.17
lln
1.35
13.72
1.35 O O O
2.62 2.62 O O O O O O O
17.78 7.81 7.81 7.HI O
37.75 37.75 37.75 13.72
(1
O
n
(1
O
o
z.ez
(1
O Il
11
(1
(1
(1
40
~1t
"1
o:
"
59.23
~
~
~
o
o.:
. ..
r.:T CAl" 10
56110 56.110 56.80 24.95 24.95 24.95 O
O O O Il Il
• AJl figurt'S are peecentages. Columns -4, 6. and 8 are stand,rdízed valúes. t Proct'5sing tedex (rabie 3.2, column S). < Me,! utility indell (rabie 1.5).
;~ ,.
5:
20
~6 <-
."
:>.
..
• ~
,oo
~
.l'ILV
~
,1
.,
eCl!ltv
• ..~;-";;o~~ .......... ..~ _ . . . . . . . . .0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
MODEL DF RESIDUAL PARTS AFTER TWO REMOVALS FROM AN ORIGINAL popu. LATION - TABLE 6.5 COL 8
Fisurr 6.6. Rl'Ialionship between d.llla Ieom the [une 24 mventory 01 the CH. mear rack and modeled values.
fl8urr 6.8, Relationship between doll. trom lhe Augual 10 inY~nlory of the CH. meat rack. lmd modeted values.
lOO
••
~8 "1 ~..:;
!'[LV.
10
SO
10 20 lO "O Ml 60 10 80 90 100
-
MANO
- -- -,'-
'.UM MItAT
--,
CEAV THO'
,
al
PELV
1ri t! '"
ST
-
se
"' ......
"'"• .,""
§g ~: "
40 1
..
~'"
lO lile::
f~ ,
'H '" ~P ...., ,MC , " ,/
_
_ _ _ 11
0-110 MUT
OH
..
O.C PF
le N
CAIt'
.. . .. .. .. .. .~.
"'K
oo " " " MODEL OF BIASED SELECTKlN IN TERMS
OF MEAT INDEX-TABLE 6.5 COL 6 Flgurr 6.7, Rl'1alilln~h;p ""twl'l'n dala fmm CH. dt.g fceding n'€onJ and modeled valucs.
summ~r
.'"
,o
AA
O
a perlad of male expedittons, generally of four to slx men who move into the high mountains and establish hunting camps from which they may opera te for as long as 2 weeks: and the late phese. a perlad of family mobilitv and mixed malc-fcmalc groups cstabhshing hunting camps Irorn which hunting ls conducted for meat but especially for hides lo be used
...
MEAT STORES TABLE6.5 COL.4
"'.,. begtn to speek of their destre for fresh meat and lo eomplain ebout the tasteless dried meato After the Nunamiut became sedentary at Anaktuvuk, their summer strategies feH into thrcc phases: the carly phasc, a pcnod of short hunting trips madc by une or at most two males into the mountains; the middle phase,
.It
.TtIOlII
oo
il!~ .. 1 l!! "
" " '" " MOOEL OF INITlAl. USE FROM DRY
O 49.58 56.80
,w'
,nv.
..... CUy
. 5'" '"
O O
~
:¡;'
~
., ~ .. ..... ..
~~ " !!¡g
~~
O
O
11
tIO
O
Il Il
'1.11"
~m
15 ..
O 11 Il
11
Ml
e-
(1
11.1'"
G~
(1
O
•
1
O O
O
O O
10
O
O
O
o
10.6 100.00 83.\19 782t
':1
O
O
':UN O Il
':lO'J
O
22.17 10.91 10.91 10.91
O O O
O
O
u
. .,.
::E
12671
,oo
.. 155 .... "':
Col. 1 x PI'
n u
Summer HtmtJlI'lJfId 1.DlI.. , b
OT t. .
'lton" 1701111
AST
,
'MT OMT
"-
CAL
PHAL
,,
-,,
,~
Fisurr 6.9, Cllmp.lrat;vl' Pl'rCl'nt.lgl's uf parls ll',j 1.. dogsfrum dilll'renl sourCl'!l (Junl' 24-AuKUSI 7),
12681
6. 5_""6
in the manufacture of wínter clothing. Before the establishment of a permanent village, the sarne strategies were practiced, but the first two were compressed in time. The Nunamiut did not maintain the large early summer camps aslong, and the occupants bmke up intu famtly units that moved through thL' nnn by l.\uly july.
Early Pbua: Short·Term Encounter Huntlng Campa 1eollected data on ooly one location used in the early phase of summer hunting. This site was extensively used between 1951 and 1955 (prior lo the construction of the ice cellars). In a high, rotunda-shaped valley al the west end of Kongumuvuk Pass is a hunling camp (see Figure 5.2) exclusively used in ('arly summer by all-maJe hunting parties. The casi end of this valley is drained by a small strcam and along a short segmenl of Ihis stream is a low stand of scrub willows. In this stand of willows is the campo Archaeologically Ihere are a number of small tent rings, on the average 2.4 m long and 1.7 m wide, representing the shclters of individual hunters. Similarly, thereart.' thedt.'Caying remains oC small bent-willow frames (Figure 6.10) from which the huntl'rs had suspcndl'd mosquitn netlin~. Sl'vl'n hl'clrlhs Wl're
Figu~
l·.uly
6.10.
BEont-willow fram(' al Ihll," K"T1gumuvuk mllunl;¡;n hunlin~ l".1nlp
summt:'r hlgh
.
~
counted. Pour were adjacent to tent rings and had been surface fires; small quantitíes of calcined bone remained within them. Three hearths, substantial with large rock üníngs, wcre located away from the tent circles and near the strenm. Alf'O comrnon wvre flM:kill scattered to thc west of the tent orvo. My informanls explatned that these wcre the remains of tcmporary meat caches where mcat had been placed and covered wíth rocks as insuranee against untethered dogs. They said that hunting parties went to this location when it was really hot, because "when it is really hot and there is no wind Ihe caribou move high up into valleys to Ceed; when il cools down they go back down." Men coming to this loeation would normally bring a piece of canvas for a tent or a mosquito nel, shells, powder, reloading tools, sometimes a lower caribou leg to eat for marrow, skinning knives, lea and sugar, a sleeping bag, and pack dogs. My informants commentcd that Ihis kind of camp was not a "happy camp," sincl.' the men were under pressure lo get food and always the mosquitoes were bad. "There was not much silting around here." This was strictly a location from which encounter hunting was conduded. Thl' men would go out sinU1y and stay out alJ day looking for cariboy, returning lu camp unly whcn thl'Y w(,.'rl' tirl'd" Any animals killl'd w(luld bl' fil'1d bull'hl'rl'd nnd sunlt'tinll's cnchl'l1. Thl' hunll'r WHuld fl'luro lu the camp wilh suml' ml'at from his kili for both humans and dogs. Whl.'n lhl' hunters decided to return to the village they would take the dog" move around to the caches, and pack Ihe meat into the campo When a1l the meat was in, decisions were made as to how many pading trips were necessary and how to procesa the meat fur packing. In the event that few animals had been kllled the hunters wuuld l'ndeavor tu carry as much as possible in as few trips as p<'ssibll'. HeridAWl.'rl' Al'nl'rally abandoned at the caches, alth()u~h sorne heads were almosl always introduCl,d for dog food. The informants stressed that the brisket, ribs, pelvis, and thoradc vertebrae were never abandonl,d. In the CVl'nt of a parking prubll'm
S _ _r Hunllft. _d LosI.Ilc.
they would abandon the neck or Ieed it lo the dogs, strip the meat from the front quarters, and abandon the bones. If the packing problem was acute they would even strip the meat Irom the reer legs. nUMn); th r- l'OUU'" uf occupatlon of thiRo camp meo both ronsted and boilcd meat. The perts rcportcd os roested were the ribs, meat stnpped from Iront or rear quarters, and sornetimes the brisket. Parts that were boiJed included the mandible with tengue, the pelvis, and the lumbar vertebrae. The assemblage from this site ís interesting in a number of ways. lt is the first compound assemblage discussed that was not controlled by adivity area. This site was collected early in the research under considerable time pressure and bones were gathered from the entire site rather than mapped, as is common at mosl sites. This is Ihe first collection from a field camp presented in which dog consumption, humanconsumption, and possibly processing for packing were combined. The site represents a consumption setting of immediately available Cresh meat, but in contrasl lo spring conditions the caribou, particularly large bul1s, are in fair lo good nutrilional condítion while hunling is gl'nerally not very good. Tablcs 6.6 and 6.7 surnmarize Ihe basic Cads regarding the f,'nunal assemblage rccovered fmm Ihe site. The observed fn'quendl's pre· Sl'nt ill.'onfused picture rl'lative lo olher caSl'S presl'nted. Fur instancc, the rear leg aspect of the graph (Figurl' 6.11) is similar to the combined data from the dispersed spring hunting stands (Figure 5.9) as are the skull-mandible proportions. On the other hand, Ihe alias and axis as well as cervical vertebral' match most closely the graphs Cor dog Ceeding in Ihe vil~ lage during spring oC 1971 (Figure 5.16). These comparisons make some sen se In view of what w(' know abuul Ihe sit(,.,. We know it was a logistical c.lmp nccupied by males and we also know they had pack dogs and fed them on the site. Thus, the two ends of the graph can be explained. It ls the middle of the graph that is new to our experience. Specifically, the frequt'ncics for the entire front leg are much
12691 higher than anything prevíously encountered on a hunting locaticn. The reader will recall that the dala from the summer kill-butchering locations did not correspond well lo the basic expectations tllat anticipated fW) wt'lI the killll,lt.l from "pring. In carlier discusalons of hunting were ~mll' (¡Kts oí behevior overlocked? My convtcnon Is Ihal the differences in the subsístence securtty aspects oC hunting were ignored. For Instance, J prevíously noted that when there was an increase in the number of animals killed al a given location there was a corresponding increase in the probability of abandonment uf parts of low utility (Figure 2.8). I also noted that during periods of high animal availabilily caches of single animals tended tu be abandoned more frequently than multiple-kill caches (Table 2.1). 80th demonstrations were made with data pMmarily from spring- and fall-kiJIed animals, and it is during spring and fan that the most meat is available. During summer, animals are dispersed and hunting successes are apt to be minimal. Al the same lime demand for fresh meat is increasing. Under these condilions we might expect thilt hunters will rarely killlarge numbers of animals al once, and Iha! tht,y will m.. k(,.' cVl'ry eHort to return as much of any animal killed as possible lo the camp ur villagl'. Therl'forl' Ihl.' lack uf fil bctwl'cn Ihe dala fmm summl'r kills and the indices uSl,d in nnlidpaling fn't)uendes of parts on spring and {.lJ1 sites may simply renect a modification in stratl'gy. A very conservative strategy may be employed in the seleclion of parts for removal from a kili site. I have jusi modeled such a situation and found it applicable to the removal of parts from stor~ age.ln the early discussions of kiU-butehering loealions, I assumed a single general strategy. In summer, however, although Ihe demand is high, animals are rarl'ly taken in large numbers. This menns thal bulk transpurt probl('ms are at a minimum. Under such conditions we might anticipate that the hunters would expend greater eHort in relurning the maximum amount oC usable material from any animal kiJIed. Such a situation is essentinlly whal W.1S
"
7 (270J
6. SUIllllH!f'
the CMGUI. Comparing this figure with Figure 2,17 we note that the distribufion is linear with the conservatíve index and curvilinear with the modified indexo The phalanges eppear within the cluster of points with the conservatíve index bUIthey are an outlíer with the modified or normal indexo We contlnue to
envisloned when the CMGUI was developed in Chapter 5 {Table 5.8, column 4). If summer behavior at kill-butchertng locatíons was in faet more conservanve, we might antícipate a better fit between the CMGUl and the data from summer kili sites. Figure 6.12 illuserates the ti! between the summer kill-site data and
TABLE6.7
Complrie 8roke n bcnes
"Ni Anatomlcal parl
(1)
AntIer Skull MandibJe
2.0 2.0 4.5
Atlas
20
% (2)
Sternum
Scapula
15
Proximal humerus
O
O
""-
Thoracic.' \/'l!nebrae Lumbar vertebeae Pelvts
R;. .
4.'
n.7
15 .5 .5
ürpals
.5
11.1 11.1 lI.1 22.0 11.1 11.1
Proximal metecarpal Distal ml'!iJCupal Prollimai temur
Di!tal fl'mur Prollimallibi.. Distal libia Tarsals
2.0 2.0
20
Pn.ldmal mt'lalarllill Disl,,1 "wl.llarsal Fint ph.lange Second phalange
Third phalange
~
.5 .5 1.0 5
'5
....slr.s-Iul Cakaneus
.
1./1
.
lO .5 .4 .25
12
l'¡
22.0 4.4 O
Proximal radíc-cubitus Distal r.Hliu-l'lIhilus
Distal humerua
"Ni
55.5
n7
.5 0.5 25 2,5
2.11 2.0 2.11
22.0 11.1
n.7 44.0 44.0 44.0
M.' 11.1
•••5.5 2.'
Tolóll
bolleS
44.0 440 100.0 44.0 44.0 22.0
20 10 .2 2.5 10 2 O
Cervical vrrlemae
long
1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 l.tI
"NI
l') 2.0 2.0 '5 '.0 2.0 1.0 .2 2.5 10 .2 O '.5 5 4.0
'O 111
Observed 228 J8
Shaft fra ml'nts Arliculalor en s Rib hl'ads Rib total
fO.O 40,0
'lO.O
11'
7t1,0 10.0 80.0 60.0 60.0
>5
Stw
lO
f,(J.(J
O
2.5 .5 10 2.0 5.0 '.0 '.0 '.0 4.0 15 .4 .25
50,0 10.0 ZO.O 400 100.0 60.0 600 60.0 8(1.0 31H1
.12
2.4
a.u
50
H. DiJlIII'IUbc'rmnlf ralios Frunt
Re" Percentillgl' up
-.
,." """
8(LB)
.....-
-
I
_ -...
OT TAS A'T
~.
_
:.....;...;;.¿a- --.
CAL
POT
'OT
PHAL I 2
32
12.O'J
• "/ '
CAS.
'Oc
12.36
.19
10
9 34
12.8
,
"SUfe 6.11. CompullUve pett'-'ntage. fur the tulal as!Wmblagl' .nd for bnlkt'n btlJl\'S found on Ihe knn. gumuvuk l'arly 5Urtlmer high tT1tluntain hunting campo
28.1
...
""'o, . @ .
Articuld/ÍI."'s~
G. Dismrmbc'rmm/l'lllurs Front up Front down Rl'ar up Ro.·,1r down
se
,. •
Calcmed rlb fragm"nts Bone splinters
Fronl down Frunl up DMC 1(, I'RC ORe lo Plf Rear down Rear up rMT tn M' I'MT lo lJT
.""'"...,
74
2M
l. Burnedbtmt
r
st
'98
D. Rd/ÍI"
'4.;0
~~v
30(22)
Rib fragml'ntB Rib heads Total
(5)
20.0
~
bpe'Cted
20(12) 10(1(1)
C. Ribs
600 "'.0 20.0 4.0 50.0
AT
A'
S
Smooth hagments ChanneJed fragrnt'nts Tvlal fragml'nts Cylinder!; Shafts
%
100
50 MAND
.... Shaft SPIi'lltrs
B, Arlicll/dlllr m.is LlIog bone Ml'lapoJiill Total
Hlgh Mountaln Hunda, Camp
ea 90
10 20 SO <40 50 60 70
"T
tEllV
AUríbules
TABLE 6.6
InlIlIntorln o, faunal Remaln. &om the Kongumuwk Early Summer
o
Anc:llluy F-e..: FaW1aJ AeNmbl. . . bm th. KonsumllVt.lk E.rt" Summer Hlgh Nountala Huntlnl Cunp
O
5 1 O
¡¡;
::1co ro iCJ fí8 10
,. ..
2
2
"
O 10
o
~N
29
o 19 O
.793 .526 100.0
0~
¡¡jlZl ¡!
(1)
~ i5
• OMC. distal metacatpal; PRe, proximal radivcubitus; ORe, distal radio-('ubilull; PJl, proximal hUml'rus; PMT, proximal ffit'latarsal; PT, proximal tibia; DT, distal libia.
,, ..
ti
o o
,, ¡'MAL
10
~U..
"
40
.
-
~Il'
eCfltll
..o
-IIIC -,
10
0ltC
,.~,
eTl,.
:T'
--~
'e"~LV
, ,el, ;~~
\ 1'tlC. -, \ 1F~·,"1
• _
100.0
,
~. . . . .
~V
....
M)1'O
10"100
CONSE_TlVE MOOI"EOGENERAL UTIUTY INOEX- TABLE 5.8 COL. 3 Figure 6.12. JWlalionship bt.'twE't'n dala (rom the summerdispersed kili sill'sand lile conSt'rv.lliv(' modifil'lÍ gl"neral Ulility indt'~ .
1272/
,. S• ......,.
observe a biased underreprescntation of the front leg and an overrepresentatíon of the rear leg from the tibia down. This distribution may be understood in lerms of transportation. During summer, dogs or human carriers are the exclusive means of transport. Duriog other seasons aleda or snowmobiles are used. The average load packed 00 a dog rarelyexceeds30lb. This welght must be divided evenly between the two dog packs-one pack on each sirle of the dog (see Figure 6.13). The requlrement Ihat essentially equalloads be in each pack means lhat any units larger Ihan about 15 lb cannot be loaded anta a dogo Quick examination of the data from TabJe 1.1 shows Ihat the total weight of a single rear leg {or a medium-sized
Fi!Sl.Ife 6.13.
cartbou is in CXCl'SS uf 17 lb skinncd: thc total weight of a front leg is just over 121b. Further reference to Table 1.1 shows thet by culling all parts of the lower rear leg (that Is, from the proximal tibia down) we are left with the femur alone, whích weighs 12 lb. In actuality, such culling is nct done. The procedure ís to cut the tendon that attaches to the calcaneus and to strip the muscles off rhe libia, Ieaving them attached to the mea! mass of the femur. The seme is done for the minor muscles attaching af the tarsals on the dorsal surface. Thus the meat of the tibia is saved but the bones of the lower leg are removed. The resulf is a femur "package" weighing around 14.5 Ib-perfect for filling a single dog pack. Culling pares of the front leg is much less
Hunting parly wilh p...ck d(lgs moviflg anoss summer tundra .
.
~
S.....mer Hun",." and 1ot1,"a common, since thc totallcg can be lcaded inlo a single dog pack with a Iittle space left Ior lucking in small parte such as a rib slab or a section of vertebrae. The fewer the dogs, the more Iikely the hunlers are lo cuU parts from the front leg to acccmmodate ríbs, stemums, tongues, and other choice parts in the same pack as the upper front leg. No such option is really present when packing the rear leg, hence culling is standardized and if done is alrnost alweys the rcmoval as a single unit of all bones of the lower leg from the proximal libia clown. Culling the front leg is contingent on the number of carriers relative to the amount of meat to be packecl. If thecarriersare few, draSlic culling of the front leg may be done, whereas under condition5 of more pack space, less and less radical culling will be done. This is exactly the situation observed in the frequencies of bones remaining on summer kin sites. AH boncs (lf lhe lower rear leg are present in equal numbers and more remain at the kili sites (han our model anticipates. On the other hand, Ihe bones of the front leg exhibit frt>quendcs t1lat are correlated with Ihe index among Iht>mselves but atl are less com· mon Ihan the model antícipates (Figure 6.11). Why are fewer parls of the fronl leg abandoned at summer kills than our utility indices would anticipate? The anSWl'r lo this questioo is relatively simple. Loading a carrier, either human ,Ir du,;, ha óJ ~L'llut'nec in which Ihe Inr);t'st parl!t uf high ulility are lo.,dL'd lir'l, and tht' smnllcr pnrts are tuckcd in and around thl·luóld tu bóllancc il and tu fill it uul. Recalling Ihe discussion on butchering and the lisl of elements into which the caribau is most commonly butchered, we cao see that the legs are the largest butchering units as well as thoSE' having the highest ulility. 5ince packing meat from a kili is always a situation in which one seeks lo relurn the maximum amouot of food of the greatest ulility possible, Ihere is always a loading bias. The legs are Joaded first, and lhen the smallcr parts are tucked in until it is judged that the load is getting too big for the carrier. This stralegy ensures that large part5
12731 fgiven the body si:r.l' rang!.' bcing Jist"Ul'l~'d) uf modera te to hígh uttlity will enjuy a biased removal from kili sites. Large parte of low lo moderate utility (soch as the head) will be biased agaínst and modérate to small parl8 will be variable but scaled in their frequency depending on their judged utility in the context of the transport reality Ie.g., ample pack space versus limited pack apare). Such bias will increase with the difficuhy uf transpcrt and will be relieved under better transport conditions. We have seen such generallack of bias in the kill-site data from seasons when the sled may be readily used. In other words, when transport is easy the question is how many riders can be tolerated. When transport i5 difficult the strategy is one of culling riders lu accommodate the reality of the transport situation. Thc selection of parls to be transportcd by human or dog carriers is an activity of culling riders from the IUóld. This means Ihal culling fm Iransport at an accumulation point, such as a hunting camp, i, likely to be some function of the inverse of Ihe CUI, the raw values prior to the modifications made to accommodah.' 'he phenumcnon uf riding (Table 5.12, columns 2-7). Table 6.8 develops culling models fur various populations. Modeling a Jikely situalion for ¡JO accumulation point 5uch as the Kongumuvuk high mouolain hunting camp is ae· eomplished by multiplying the CMCUJ by Ihe cubc of thL' invcrsl.' CUT (T.,bll.' Il.H, cnlumnlt 8-10). In all mmJL'ls (Tabll' 6.H) I havt' ptL'scnted ahernative siluatiuns in which iI is assumcd that the atlasand a'll:is vt'rtcbral.' Wl.'rl' or were not riding with the cervical vertebrae. This alternative wa5 presented in Ihe realization of another behavioral option Ihat is rommanly exercised underconditions of transport difficulties. Returnin~ to the dala from the summer kili sites (Figure 6.2) w" n(lle th.lt the atlas and axis are underr('pr('scntt..>U at the kili relative to the mode! of values fur the differE'nt parls. In faet wc nole that the atlas and a'll:is are represented in frcquencics idenlical tu thoSE' of the olhercervical vertebrae. In this case rhe atlas and axis are riding with IhE' cervical ver·
12741
6. Summel"
12751
Summer Hun"ns ond Loe••tle-
TABLE 6.8
Development of V.rlou. Clllatn, Modele for A. ..mblete. Remalnln. at Intenaed.a•• (Huntlng C.mp) l.ou.lon.... CMGUlx
Anatomical part Antier Skull Mandible
(1)
(lA)
Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae lumbar vertebrae Pelvis Ribs Slemum 5l:apula I'",~imal huml'ru!I \)islal huml'r\l" )'ftUdllloll raüio-rubitus Disll'll radio-cubitus
25.36 28.24 25.99 25.99 25.19
18.16
41.31
(411.86)
...rr
ti
ti
o
1.1N.11'1
(,~.2H
(23.76)
47.51
A"lr.I~"lu~
!W.7M
l',ll,',llIt'US
~IUIH
(54:1.4) (51'1.4) (54:1.4)
(45.20) (45.20)
2258 48.40 50.91 49.09 49.1l9
8.1.1 8,13
3.81 12.2M
25.44
22.lIH 2J.lIM
45.75 47.142 7:Un 71.117 (74.35)
15.11 13.27 12.82 8.42 14.18 21.60 1IU\1 18.113
(35.K8)
('ol4.~l
5l4.~
(tU.514) ('ol4514)
5l4.1to2 5ñ2.1 45.7(, 43.42 48.26
(.1'ol.141) (J'ol.KH 13'1.141)
(K2.4'ol) (1424'11 (142.4'1)
70.16
M.H2
"''''
100.00
(11.%)
2,~.~"
(22.~)
24.81 22.116 11.14
1101
(7)
(8)
(22.'''')
C\ll.
5A
'olIl.:II1
72.10
8.10 15.23
9.15 7.41
7.41
J~.ló
MUS (!'W.20)
51."5 (47.74)
43.77
3~.30
31.21
3r1l(11
15.144 12.73 13.51 9.71 H.21
92.22
71.6.
54.52
(7751)
(7151l 14.38 57.18 43.96
(9)
(lO)
(11)
(27.04) (27.04)
5J/j 36.17 48.31 39.12 39.12
(11.22)
(25.62) 17.05 22,M1 22.M5 21.95 18.94 14.50 12.11
(8.52) (17.W) (17.\19) (17.Y9)
• ~ values in parentheses are values under altemative "riding" assumptions. 6
sr, survjval
~UO
(HA)
(12)
,n 59.85
35.21 48.22 31.21 24.38
54.65 36.17
34.32
24.04
8.17
16.10 42.77 HII.41 flt,l.48 K).ó3 (,7.21
1127
2'1.%
57.%
(59.23) 51.27 43.35 (J
(J
O
Cul.11
25.33 33.84 (100.00) (lt1O.IM) 36.17 2803 3!1.28 25.33
51.64 40.02
6.SO 3.05
tü.4Y
(%.Il) ('Ul.ll) (%.11)
(SA)
6.85
f,n4
(49.7S)
Col. 2 )( Sr"
9.78 7.58 10.35
n.Jo
(J
CtI\. 8 - col. 8A 27.04
Col. 8
6.85
"72
O (40.32) ",1.74 (77.51)
18.9i
1.02
r¡'I.2M
100.(10 (22.11'1)
CIlI. 5 -
3.43 25.05 35.43 (100.00) (HXl.OO) SO.81 46.49 SO." 44.74 43.22 28.:19 47.KI
4.26 3UJ6 43.94 33.99 33.Y9
(J
34.61 23.92 25.~1
(6)
(J
o
-.
MGUlx (IGUW
57.65 63.17 55.48 53.60 35.20
'01 o
ti
29.66
6300
(14.16) 10.41
o (35.08)
(29.66)
15.32
n ..
(lb 93)
(29.66)
13.79
7".13
o
(5A)
un (93.66) (93.M)
23.96
CI.1. 5
1.43 10.51
37.94 20.53 19.08 7.149
)4.311 %.18 37.47 3fl.74 ti (44.57)
(5)
15.01
3607 3J1l6
93.97 89.15
("Al
3J.1JO 2129
35.(,)
IOll.00 97.17 92.91
53.2'1 51.78 49.51
(')
9.91 9.21
hlU''I 7'1.51 77.52 (7ñ.n7)
o
(JA)
16.36 11.24 HUI
75.83 74.1'15
:W.H'I
5(LOS
I'ruidnloll metatarsal Oh.'.1 metltllrwl Phalanges
4R.71
MCUII( (lGUI)'
en!. 3 4".26
10.9
hl.4n
32.45 42.:17
Prolr,inl,,1 tibia Oistaltibia
(93.06) (9J.(16)
23.36 24.57 2369 23.6'1
1'I.7ft 4U..1'i
10.53 21.50 32.75
40.41
(')
4727
19.18
'tI.37
(lA)
J/j.3O 50.07 35.99 34.OS
26.68
¡'rtlllimal mencarp..1 Dist,ll nl\'I.K,lrp.,1 "1II1Iin",1 !l'mur Oi!'iilallemur
(49.59) (49.59)
20.41
Ci'lrpals
(2)
20.45 47.59 52.99
10.9
Atlas Axis
CMGUI )( (IGUW
Ctll.l 53.29
(IGUI)t
YABLE 6.8--{contfnued)
17.4'1
29.13
I.n
22.79 3'1.15 SO. 16 13.14'1 3.01
56.32
21.79 10.45
37.04 17.7"
4K.t>7
34.1U
SII.~
34.1'ol
~.12
47.llM (41.4'1) 35.Ql
3to.43 (23.00) 2/U)fí 25.45 ti O 28.19 SN.83
111.92
='IJ.:\t> (J
O (31.S1)
(94.'nI)
(M.5:n
('14.'IR)
((",.53) (66.53)
('14.98)
53.05 41.44
1141 23.03
O (44.98) 90.02
100.00 76.56 61.11
H% (59.56) (46.53)
6105
29.51
l3'\.'H) (.:M.IN)
(3'ol.tWl
47.10 4J2t> (J (J
(13.37)
(22.72) 100.011 "UI'I (W.~K'
7t1.04
43.110
53.62
29.1S
(5'1414) 7lfJ
47.00
16.73
28.44
(J4.'N)
Tllbl,·6.8 Cmlliulll'S (l1l PIl.\(t"S 276-177
percentage rrílble 5.11, Mumn 2).
r CMCUt, Tablfo 5.8, column 3; MGUI, Table 2.7, column 1; ICUI, Table 5.12. caluron 3; (IGUI)', rabie 5.12, column 5; (IGUl)s. Tabll'S.12, column 7.
tebrae and are not being treated separately. This is a strategy consístent with the conservative modelofbehaviorwhen food is scarce and fresh meat desirable. Smce the model constructed for the use of anetomical parls in camps and locations to which meat removed from kills is transponed is dcpendl'nt un an ilssumption of Ihe atlas and .lxis nut riding, it
.
~
.
beca me necessary lo build the models two ways, one under the assumption of riding and the other under the assumption of Independent treatrnent at the kili sttes. As une can readily see this makes a majcr difference, since in any model of culling the atlas and axis are dominant c()ncern~; thl'y are luw.ulilily parts. If they are present in inflah'd freguen-
cíes by virtue of having been introduced under dectslons reletive to the lower parts of the neck, they will be over abundant and tend to domínate assemblages that are the result of culling. This is easily seen by a comparison of the alternattve models for culling gíven in Tablc 6.8, columns 1-10. In the Kongumuvuk high hunting camp, the culling SU&Kl'Sll'd dllCS not resulI in wasle since both humans and dogs consume from
the cull while in the huntingcamp. lnformants who actually used the site suggested that all parts not specifically consumed by humans were fed to the dogsand even "garbage" from human rneals was thrown to the dogs. For alJ practical purposes the dogs had access lo al! the anatomical parts that were finally abandoned on the location. As we have seen previously, the actiun uf dogs is likdy to havt' modified the population of parls rcmaining
12761
6. Su...,.
12771
Summer Huntlng and LogI.lJu
JABLE 6.8-(eonU...4)
Parts rematning afler dog let>ding
Cul.ll - col. HA 5'156
CI,I 4 )( 51'
(13)
(14)
55.11
J5.1\2 4f,,:n 31.42 24.55 12.54 8.15 17.45 16.83 4.58 .71 1.3.74 7.76 2f1.7H 31.7f1 3340 22,31 21t73
(I4A)
Parls jruroduced lo residenliallucalions from cuñíng camps
lor varicus culling modela
x
Col. 17
CIII, 7)(
Col. 19
Ct¡J.9
M.oo
51"
MT
SI'
Col. 21 59.41
Col. 10 x
51"
SI"·
Col. 23 64.00
CMGUI Col. 1
MGUI Col. 5
CMGUI Col. 3
MGUI Ctll.!!
(16)
(17)
(181
(l9)
(20)
(21)
(221
(23)
(24)
(25)
(2b)
(21)
(2111
11
11
5~,7f>
22.l:Itl
34.H2
111.54
fIlI.57
3224
21.75 16.99
31.46
64.00 "'00
2M '17 50]7 10000 76.12 29.37 25.41 36.61 57.31 16.20 3.ss 40.34 19.34
2"'.7b
)r,l.lJ8
45.04 7JI}\} 42,15 32.92 32.17 23.58 42.32 49.92 13.87 2.44 :'\tI.87 23.01 65.49 60.53 53.17 '9.89 31.93 24.81 11 O (22.71) 100.00 (MI75) (5'115)
18.74 JO.'" 64.00 "'.00 13.38 9.81 17.61 20.77 5.76 1.01 16.18 Y.57 27.26 25,19 22.13 12.45 13.29 10.32
2'1.28 48.11 100.00 78.13 20.91 15.33 27.52 32.45 '.00 158 25.28 14.95 42.59
Col. 14 46.33
Col. 14A ~
(15)
17.;l1
Col.
f,
x
Antll'T ~"'1l11
HU.%
M,llllhi'lll' Atlas
(100.I)()) (78.12)
Axi~
Cervical vertebral' Thoradc vertebral' lumbar vertebrae J'l'Ivis Ribs
22.51 38.67 49.55
un
2.'J7
-Stcrnum
.1to.~
&·,lpul.1 I'rIIltilll.ll hUml'TUS
Dist,11 humerus
Pruximal radar-cubitus De.tal eado-cubttus C.upals I'rultima! metacarpo! l1io;t,JI metacarpal I'rllldm.lIlt'mur Disl,)1 Iomvr Pmllimal tibia l1isl,llli!;oi,l T.',,",lls A~lr,l~,IIII~ ( ·,II.,lIll'U~
l'r"'"Il,,1 ml"l,'I,,,<;.11 1110;1,11 V... I,!I,"~.,1 l'h"I'"~I'''
29.36
1754 57.25 57.40 fll,16 (38.62) 47.11 42.13 11
no.oo (59.94) (4fdl))
2.'1.~H
11 11 ( Hl.52) 4(,.31 (31.34) (1U.52) (.11l0;2) 4077 27.2·1
o (22.44)
",.n (/ílJ.:\4) (~.75)
(5H 70;) n.2U 41'PJ4 2fUN
IIUMI
for us to observe away from the character of the population that was in íact archeeologlcally deposited at the location. For this reeson the model values for such a population glven in Teble 6.8 have been modified by multiplying the population modele by the survival percentages previously developed in Table 5.11 colurnn 2. Figure 6.14 iIIustrates the fit between the bune frequcncics observed at the Kun-
.
~
67.78 52.99 27.07 17.59 )7,66 3(,.33 9.89 1.53 2\i1,(;f,
11>75 57.110 6/1,55
n09 48.15 /ílO1 558f1 11
o 2211 9'193 (b7.M) (ó5.tt71 (M.K7) K7."'" ~'". 7'1 :'U4.tt5
77.21J (UXUXI) (78.13) 20,92 13.60 29.11
28.re 7.&4 1.1tJ
21."2 IV'5 44.fltI '2.99
55.n 37.22 47.93 43. UI 11 11 1755 77.2f1 (52.2M) (5H"2) ("11."21 bK.1l2 45.44 :lC1ll3
23.31 20.18 29.06 45.49 12.t16 317 32.01 15.35 43.29 33.84 30.10 17.76 16.19 12.65
11
o (14.93) 6h.IXI (36.52) ()55h)
(:l5.Sh) 3"1.b5 21,"11 Y.MI
2119 35.32 JO 58 44.03 68.92 19.48 4.1:10
18.80
16.27 2.1.43
36.68 10.37 2.55
48.5
25.112
23.26 b5.5lJ 51.27 45.61 26.91 24.53 lY,17
12.311 3UI 27,30 24,27 14.32 11M 1O.2Q
11
11
o
o
(22.62) HItJ.OIJ (56,33) (5J,IQI) (.';:ltltt)
M,01 .12..,," 14.Mb
(I2,(19) 5122 (29.45)
n
(2M....
(2K,b7) .11.'RI 17.J.1 7."11
gumuvuk high hunting camp and the model, which assumes a conservative removaJ of parts from the kill site, a subsequent culling al the hunting camp in lerms of the cube of the IGUt. with the resulting populalion then modified by the aUritional action of dogs (Table 6.8, column 15). The ñt between model and data ís fairly good. and the must devtant parts indicated in the distribution are understandable in terms of Iwo Sl'ts of conditiuns: (ti) Iht.' bias
43.% 25.04 19.56 19.11 14.01 25.14 29.66 tI.24 1.45 2J.tN 13.67
54.54
~.91
42.66 37.92 22.37 20.41 15.93 11 O (18.89) 83.1(, (46,112) (44.1':1) (44.7<1)
35.% 31.59 17.76 18,91 14,74 11 O (13.49) 5'1.41 (:1t..Il'1) p."'. 14) (.1.... 14)
4'1,~7
43.lMI
n.:vt
(9.45) 41.61 (25.28) (24.h21 (24.1021 JI112
27.1l.'t 1DI<¡
22.~'J
:\M.ho
ItdlH
12.l1t1
2(1.1.1
(~.I~J
O O
....
39.36 34.58 19.45 20.76 1tl.13 11 O (14.76)
ss.os (39.5) (3M.47) (JM.47) 47.llto 25.12 1.1,22
against transporting the head consistently seen in all kili data and (b) sorne consumptíon by humans of the choice parts-in this case femur and upper front leg-but in Inverse proportions, showing that consumption of high-utility parts in the hunting camp Is in reverse proportions to the value of the parts as food. The high frequency of the lumbar vert('br.1(' almost c('rtainly rdlects the ft'cding of this 1(IW-utility p.1rt to Ihc dogs.
11 4,44 9.0(, 5.31 5.31 34.51 46.99 29.92 50.02 57.34 69.57 44.4 33.15 31.62 17.54 18.60 (12.21) b.60 7.12 1lI11.00 100,00 (69,74) 45.99 (3f1.7) 30.7 (:\tI7)
te.m 211.52 2,5tJ
11 !.JI
l3H 1M 166
2D.64 3174 16.iU 34.62 :16."5 55.71 2929 21!17 !t1.U:'!
7tll 6.91
(I.:m 1,11 1.(,0
unm 100.lKI (52,77) 23.17 (8.b7)
(14.1'>7) (".h71 7,"7 "',7'1
''''
h.44
I.H'I
1273 7.61 761 43.34 56]6 3829 59.29 ti1.29 762'1 S:H2
4.74 238 238 2593 37.95 2170 411'14 4;\.27 flltll:l
43H2 4U,'ll'll
2l'1.24 23.3fl
24.28 25.61 (111<J)
io.so
"54
2.47 2,2'1 ItMIIMJ
1U.27 ItItUMI HKUKI (76,57) 59,64 (41.29) (41 2"1) (41 2~) 2'" 54 2" 4" .1'"
Mlddle Phase: Long-Term EncounterSheep and Carlbou Huntlng Camps. By mid-luly the Eskimo have stepped up their hunting actlvities and expedltícns como posed of from th ree lo seven men move ou I to find both Dall shcep and caribou. Such (')(Pl'· ditions are plauncd in odvancc and are ccntcred around high mounlnin S.llt licks wh('rt.' th('rl' is., good chann' ¡Ir l'nc(lunlt.'rin~ l\lrib(lU
~~,J7
9.91
\01)
1t~J.lltl
(56.21) 3f1.114 (I:U.7)
(nl>7}
(1.1 "7) Itl'l"
'14' UlI
(278J
6. Summcr
. .... ~
o
~~
~g
.. .. "'"• "
/
:
/.DN ••e I
/
... ,.:;¡.::c
/
/
. "u* c-:... .. "'~ .. ." §~ .. ... " ! • . • .- .. . ... . . .. .. .. .. to
/
"''''
/
/
/
/
::1
~
.6OMC
~uS
,
/
W
eD_T
/
/
.1"11....
CUy
.~
• TIIOII
re
MODEL FOR SURVIVING SONES OF
CULLED POPULATION -TA8LE 6.8 COL 15 Figu~ 6.14. Relollicmllhip between data from the Kongumuvuk early ,umme, high muuntain hunling camp and a culling model.
and where sheep are apilo be localized during surnmer months. Today, sheep hunting is almosl exclusively an activity of midsummer through fall. In Ihe past sheep played various roles in Ihe subsistence strategy of Ihe inland Eskimo. Prior to the use of Ihe gun, shccp wcre taken primarily with snaresat two typesol locations:
Table 6.9 surnmarizes the data available on sheep hunting. Complete yearly game counts are available for 1971 and 1950; we have a 6-month record for 1969, a 4-month record for 1951, and a 2-month record for 1959. The 1950 record indicates a drop in sheep taken during August, which was when the caribou migration took place that year. Similarly, the September drop in 1951 also eoincidcd with the Can caribou migration that yeM, as did the October drop for both 1969 and 1971. It seems clear that sheer hunting is primarily conñned to the last hal uf thc year. July Ihrough December, with most actívtty [ust before and etter Ihe caribou rnigration . The obvicus contrast between the leve! of exploitalion exhibited by the 1950-1951 counts and that shown by the 1969-1971 counts is the result uf a change in subsistence strategy. During the early years of the scttlement at Anaktuvuk Pass (1950-1956) the Nunamiut practiced a direct procurement strategy dur· ing Ihe sumrner months, hunting sheep, bear, and caribou. This strategy resulted in the near absence of local sheep by 1955. The situation was so critical that in 1956 deep storage cellars were dug into the permafrost for the storage through summer of caribou meal oblained
Numbl'r u( ..lwl.'l' kitll'll
ten where they tend to aggregate duriog Ihe
~
of the mountains, and the sheep were looked upon as a "change" and as a rieh supplement to a dried meat diet. As far as 1can determine, the critical subsistence role tbat sheep played between 1950 and 1956 is unique in recent Nunamiut history and is directly related to decreased mobility at that time. Todey. there are at Ic.1st three highmountain salt licks that are commonly monttored by hunters during midsummcr. One is loceted near the headwatera ,)f the Anaktiqtauk (Figure 6.15) and there Me Iwo
TABLE 6.9
1950
noon warmth of the summer days. Snares
,
during the spring migration. Since 1956 surnmer hunting has decreased and sheep have become a dehcacy rather than a subsistence necessíty, which was the role they played between 1950 and 1955. The modern strategy is akin te the pre-1950 strategy, which was charactenzed by a movement out on the elope north of the Brccks Range during summer, and fishing was a major part of the strategy coupled with the hunting of caribou. Sheep were taken during those years by specífic sheep-hunting parties based in camps north
G__ Count. lo, Sheep
(a) ni roalt licks durio,:; summ('r and early fall, .1nd (/1) in high muunl.1in CíWl'~ iln\1 wc:kshl'l-
were also set on trails leading Iu salt Iicks in fall. before the snow becomes hard and crusted. Sorne sheep were laken with bow and arrow, particularly at licks, bul infor· manIs agree that snares were Ihe musl com· moo means of taking sheep prior to the use of thc gun. Alter th~ aduptiun uf Ihe gun. sheep continued to be a late summer and early faH targets. The role of sheep hunting in the overall Nunamiut subsistence is well iIIustrated in garne counts obtained during the course of the fieldwork.
(279(
Summer Huntlng tJml LogI.Uc.
January Fl'bruary Moo"h April M.y
Junto July J\u¡.:u~t
Seplt'mbt.'r Oclllber NDvr-mbt'r Drecr-mber ~
2 ti ti ti ti ti 23
J~l
---
1959
-
-
-
-
-
--
• • , ,.
II 17
, 1
21 22
-
-
-
1%9
7
-
-
-
ti ti I
4
1971
ti ti ti ti ti ti 1
TOPOGR .... PH...,..
,
1. A"' .... o<.T!JVVI(,. V'~l..""'~1L
Z TuL.uc.....K. L"",E. ~
•1
+ ~
tl
1
Dashes indicale no dal;, for Ihal particular mDnth.
..
~C.""L..E ......
•
" •
10 3
P .... ~tJ,
OF"
7 F¡gu~
6.1S.
6M ....\Nlt.J
L .... K..1t.
AwA,K,T1Q,......uK.
L ..... I(.E
AL.AP.... 104 M"l; E~NIE. P.....CIob M ........o~ WILL.OW
6T.... "'D
Tnpogrilphical map of Anakluvuk Pass.
..
AI..."A"oK,.,o.
MIl..e.e.
~
a
l(Ol..L.UTUI(. 9 t(OL.L.U,.VIC.. 10 ~1TE. -\1
LIc.\(...
Oe6.
~T"'t.lO
11 ~I"E. ·3~1!5 lt. ~1'TL s z:r I~ ~",,"'T 1.1C.1<14 ~ ....L." L'c.1(,.
~
:::). ......, .
.. Z€lo
a {l
12801
6. Surnmer
such licks in the high mounlains north and
west of the current village. One of these is located aloog the steep slopes oí Tiglukpuk Creek, to thewest of the large rotunda-shaped valley in which the Kongumuvuk high hunting camp is Jocated. This salt tick is al approx imate)¡; the 3(X)()-foot elevation near the Iront of the rocks Range (Site 2b). The second Iíck, 5ite 21, is located al the head of Tiglukpuk Creek al an elevation of approxirnately 4800 feet (Figure 6.16). Around both these salt lícks 4
is a complex uf Iour functionally releted sites used during the midsummer hunting of both
sheep and caribou.
Sheep Km Slte. -Uck. AI1!'G Proper Mast sheep are killed on oc near the tick, which for Site 21 and Site 26 is a steep slope
---....
I ! --~ - / IlHCHOR ROe AiOOR ROe~~
~ ~
~
0(\
ROCI<S SCATTEREO FFlOM ANCHOR PlLES
INSITU OUTCROPS OF
ot-SAl.T-BEARlNG OEPOSIT
east of the stream where there is a powdery, slippery deposit of fine, tabularschist. The salt Is Iícked from exposed segments of this in situ deposit. Over the year! the pawing and licking of the animals eroded this deposít into an artificial talus of the loase tabular rock. Trails, deep and visible. come down steep slopes to this deposit from several directicns above the lick. The axis of the lick is roughly at right angles to the axis of the stream. On the licks are two types of man-made facilities. On thl' uppcr lick, Sitv 21, nre the remains of six rock snare anchors constructed on the more level segmenta of exposed in situ salt-bearing deposit. In eddition, there are numerous large Iimestone blocks in the talus, which are the remains of earlier anchors that carne clown as the deposits were worked by the sheep. Figure 6.16 shows the general features of the tick and the placement of the rock anchors. A rock anchor looks like apile of rocks about 90 by 60 cm. in plan. At the center is a long tabular rock, weighted down at both ends, to which thc snare line is attached. Informants agreed that the rock anchors were the work of old-timers and dated to the period prior to the use of the gun. No other remains were present on the Iiek proper. The second tick, Site 26. has essentially the same character except there are'·no rack an· chors. (See Figure 6.17.) Instead there is one in situ antier anchor and the parched remains of seven other large bull earibou antll'rs in the talus deposil. Informants cxplainl'd that al this site the salt-bearing deposit is not so crumbly and antier wedges can be driven into the fissures much in the manner of mountain dimbers' pitons. "These make better anchors----sheep not get away SO good." Figure 6.18 shows sheep snares anehored by antlers.
lick and out of vlew of the tick. Here butchering takes place. The butchering locations at both licks are almost ldentically situated. 80th are on raised grave! bars on the east síde of the stream and are downstream from and out of sight of the lick. Both butchering locations are poorly prescrved, because they are washed by meltwater and are unstable deposits.
~:*\~~ '. ..... .~ .:':-:. ~, .., '.. 1.,.~
....~."_.'-~.,.....~,~...~ ....., ":"1~~_·A..M. Flsure 6.11.
5.11t Ikk 5ill' 26.
•
etllllTO'lll 'IIlT1:ln'Al
,n
"'1"IrOK.1."'U' l'UfI.lMlI "'&"0.
.-:nll.
Figuft 6.16.
1Ol&'''-O,COlIITOIM (11""''1'(01
M.lp nf sah tick Sil., 21.
.
~
.
The butchering site at Site 21 ts a lerge area, approximately 70 m long and 35 m wide. Only four features remaíned on the site: three dugout stone meat caches and a small hearth area heavily washed. The mear caches had been constructed with boulders from the streambed. Even in mid-july, when 1 visited the site, there were remnants of deep winter snowdrifts along the toe of thc slope. When the caches were built, the meat was placed directly on thc snow or frozcn ground dependfng on the se..son aud thc bouldcrs wcrc píled on top. forming a mound of rocks about 1.3 m high and 2.4 m by 1.9 m around. When the hunter returned to recover his meat he would remove oocks foom the center. leaving a doughnut-shaped ring of stones around a central depression. AH three of the caches had this form. The hearth was in a shellered area behind the rack outcrop (see Figure b.1Y). A Jargc boulder h..d becn uSL'd in place as a back reflector fur the (¡re and two addilion.lllargt.' stream bouldcrs had lx'l'n CMril'd Í(I thc sput
)
/
-----
"
"///) /
/
/
/
/
\ \
\
/ -",,1,·
Á ~
---
Fleld.Butcheerfng Locat'ons
Sheep that are shot on the lick or 00 the trails directly above it are never butchered on the tick prupt.'r. Tht.'ir bodics an.' dragged down to the more It.'vel strcambed and then to a level barlike acea about 200 feet north of Ihe
1281 J
Summu HunUn9 "nd l.otll.Ue.
~,~,,~ Figure 6.18.
Dr.1Wi"~
of shwp Snilrl'S in plilC\!.
./,' 2::...~;:f~~;....-~-~. ,/....
)
/
<"
-./
[2821
6. Su""er
~
"tC."T~
1
NO.11
~-
<3'
O.lf.llVf.TIOIII
"":;~T~
IT.toIll>JlO. ' \
---------
~.
MEA OF L1CK SlrE NO. 21
8 ASSOCIATED SllES
0101010'10110 , I , , , , .Tf:~
Figu~
6.19.
Map of sal! Iick Sitt' 21 and assooated
snes. and evenly spaced lo endose a small circle with three spaces 10-20 cm wide between the boulders. No artificial depression had beeo made. The fire had been kindled directly on the terrace sunace. Remaining within the hearth were calcined remaíos as tabulated in Table 6.10, columo 3. This sile is rar above the elevation where willows grow and if wood is not packed into the location, bone must be used as fue!. In this case bone had brl'n uscd.
Informants explained that men might have a meal and warrn themselvcs al the h,,¡ulh bco-
.
~
fore startíng back lo a hunting eamp nr residential base with the meat previously cached at the butchering site. Only ene area of the eite had not been heavily washed in recent yeers and the bones recovered from that relatively small area are tabulated ín Table 6.10, column 2. A single skinning knife, identified by an informant as of the type obtained from a trader active in the early 195Os, was the only artifact recovered. Observotlon S'unfÚ The third type of associated location is the observation stand where hunters conceal themselves while watching for sheep approaching the lick. Figure6.19 ShOW5 the locations of three such stands. The stand un the east síde of the stream (No. 3) is used when the prevailing winds are from the south or downstream. It is located on a large. rugged rock outcrop marked by a numberof pillar-like rock formations. Between these natural pillars had becn erected a lcw, erc-shapcd stone windbn-ak 40 ,'111 hfgh illld h.:" m Illll~, sli.,;hlly behind a large natural boulder. The area behind the windbreak has been cleared uf loose rock, resulting in a small depression 4 m long and 2.3 m wide at its greatest width. Behind this windbreak hunters wait, watching the lick. They generally bringa young búUcaribou skin, which they place on the ground hair up. On this they rest while waiting. lf sheep are sighted the hunters move back from the stand into a small draw lo the rear, down the draw te the toe of the talus and into ñríng position near the tick Figure 6.19. In an observauon stand this clase to the lick fires are never kindled. Hunters generally bríng sorne unfinished artifact or tool lo work on in the stand lo relieve Ihe boredom of wailing. As a result most of lhese stands yield some flinlchips, unfinished tools eached in the rocks of the windbreak, or debris fram manuf"cture. In addition, there are a few bones, meat or marrow bones carried by the hunter fmm a base camp to theobservation stands, lhe cumbined data (mm .111 three observation stands associated with Site 21 are summarizcd in Table 6.10, eolurnn 7. I"for-
SlnrJmer
Hcm""" ond LogI.tla
[2831 TABLE 6.10
In".ntorle. of Anatomlul 'arta from Locatton. A8eoclated _Ith 1M Sheep Llck al Sil. 21 B\lkherlng area
Anatomical part Horn coree Maxilla Mandible
Atlas Axis Cervical vertebral.' ThoriIClc vertebral.'
Lumbar venebeee Pelvis
Rib> Sternum Scapula Proximal humerus Oísl.11 hun\l.'ru!l \'nl"imill r;ltlill-ruhihl!l
%
MNI
MNl
%
MNI
%
(')
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
l')
(7)
1.0 3.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 O O O O O O O
16.00
O O O O O O O O O .5 O O 2.0 20 20
O O 10 O O O O
O 33.3 O O O
Il
50.00 3333 6ó6ó 33.33 16.00
O O O O O O O O
3:l:\.'\ J1JJ
5.0 5.0
83.33 83.33
'.0 O O 1.0 2.0 3.0
100.00
Proximal fémur Distal temur Proximal libia Distal tibia Tar.lals
Ashagalus
2.5
41.66
3.0 3.0
3.0
SO 00 5000 50.00
5.0 5.0 5.0
83.33 83.33 83.33
l)bd.\1 rtllllu-nllJltu~
Proximal metolcarpal Distal melacilrpill
c.lcaneus Proximal metatarsal Dislill meeetarsel Fint phalange
Seccnd phalange Third phalange ~
ObRrvatinn .tand.·
Total for butchering area
MNI
2.0 2.11
<':ilrr¡¡l~
He.rth
I.U O
O O
O O H,.66 33.33
1.0 1.0 1.0
SO 00
1.0 1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0 1.5 O O O
1.0
1&.60
3.0
5000
>0
33.33 6ó6ó 33.33 1&.66 O
4.0 2.0
r.o
O O O .5 O O 2.0 20 4.11
O
O
O 8.33
O
O
O
O 33.33 :n.33
O
MM
11
.lU
~UlU
5.0 5.0 6.0
83.33 83.33
i.o
100.00 16.00
1.0
16.66
20 3.0 4.0
33.33
SO 00
4.0 4.0
6ó." 58.33 6ó.6ó 6ó.6ó
45
75.00
5.0
83.33 83.33 83.33
35
SO SO
5 (.5) (.s)
"
O O O O O 3.0 3.0 1.5 2.0 20 30 3.0 O O O
O
O O
O 8.33 O 8.33 833 11 11 11 II O O O O 10lJ.O 100.0
....... SO.II
uno
«o.o O
O O
Al! entries are sheep b\mt's except those in parentheses.
mants agreed that the caribou bones in the slands were carried to the hunting ¡ocallon fmm a base campo The sheep rones in the stands were dted as marrow bones fram frl'shly killcd shecp carricd to the hunting stand from the hunting camp ar butchering arca. Thesc bont.'shad probably been stripped
of meat, either for consumption in the hunting camp or for packing back to a residentiallocation. The partially processed marrow bones were then earried by the hunler into the hunt· ing stand and eate-n whilc he was waiting (tJC sheep to appear, lhat this was Ihe case is borne out by the comparison of articulator
6. Su_er
I284J ends lo long-bone splinters al the butchering locatíon and the observation stands. At the butcherlng locatlon lhct~ at. only 1.35 Illng· bone splínters for every articulator end, whereas the ratio al the observation stand is 15.5 shaft splinters per articulator end. Infcrmants noted that the sheep ribs present were probably carried lo the observation stand after they had been roasted in the hunting campo Observation stands No. 1 and No. 2 are used when the prevailing wind is from the north. Both are on the west side of Tiglukpuk Creek, 100 and 160 m respectively from the lick. By Eskimo standards al1 thesc stands are dosc lo the tick. However, 311 are considerably higher than the lick by abaut 200 lo 300 feet. It is difficult to convey the extremely rugged terrain and the very steep-sided valley in which this complex of sites is located. All the stands are almost identieal, each located near large natural boulders on exposed rock surfaces. Before going on to the discussion of the fourth type of associated location, the hunting camp, I want to takl' the oppurtunily lu inv('litigate the behavior of the Eskimo re!alive to the treatment of sheep versus caribou. Thus far, all the models constructed havc beeo fur the anatomy of the earibou. Do the Eskimo hunters make accommodative ehanJ!:es in their bchavior relativl' tl..1 thc mcm¡urcd differene!.'s in anatomy bdwt..'cn 1,:<1rith.lu .1nd sheep, or do they simply treat Shl'CPas if they were ¡ittte caribou? Table 6.11 summ
.
~
.
suggested that extra effort ts expended to return sheep horns to resldentiallocations since lh~ mal~tlall~ hlghly J~,lt.J fllt makillg IUlll<. Figures 6.22 and 6.23 lllustrate Ihe lit between the data on sheep from the butchering area and the hearth area and the IMGUI for both sheep and caribou.Jnteresttngly, the lack of lit to the model based on caribou analomy becomes more exaggerated, and the ñt to the same model besed on sheep anatomy is enhanced. Appearing underrepresented at the kill-butehering locaticn are the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, scapula, skull, hcrns, and axis vertebra, Not ele." at this timt.' is the underreprcscntation of Ihe Ihoradc and lum~ bar vertcbrae together with the scapula. Sorne insighl may be gained from the records of sheep parts returned to the village from two sheep hunting expeditions. CASE 1: jULY 28, 1%9. Raymond Paneack returned to the village of Anaktuvuk after a S.day sheep hu"t alone. He had hunted up the An.lkliqlauk Vallt,y in tht!'vicinity uf Ernic Pass (shown in Figure 6.15). He had taken three pack dogs with him on his hunting trip. Meat returned to Ihe villagc was inventoried when the dogs were unloaded. Raymund had killed three sheep. Parts retumed .,re listed in Tablt.' 6.12. Th!.' two missing ste,ulls, the mctacarpals, and all phillangcs had bl'l'n rt,~. moved and abandoned at the butcht.'riog locations. The two missing oecks had becn fed to his dogs in an overnight camp near the tick. Raymond had cooked aod eateo onl' rib slab and the meat from une front quarter while in his hunting campo An additional front quarter had been split between two of his dogs, In tlthtition, hl' h"d ,,'ah'o lhl' mnrrow fmm tht., ml.ttlMrstll~ (Ií <111 bul nm' Tl'<1r Il''';in his hunt· jng ctlmp. He commented that the hurns had been returned for his father to "make things."
CASE2:juu' 17, 1m. JackAhgookandtwo teenage boys left their summer camp near the erossing place over the Anakluvuk River (sce Figure 1.26) for a hunting trip up the Kongumuvuk Valley. They brought no pack dogs
SUmmrr HunUng and LogI.tlca
camping gcor They passed my camp abcut ten o'clock in the mornlng goinR up the Kon-
(2851
Uf
not systematically invvstigatcd. On thv other
gUI\111vuk Pass, Aboul elgh! thal eveníng Ihey
hand, the hunting rnmr il~~(l,ii1I,'d with ~it\! 211. located 3 miles downstream Irom the lick
carne beck through my camp paeking meat. They had killed two sheep in the high mountains sauth of the summer hunting camp on upper Akmoglik Creek. One hunter packed one rear leg minus the phalanges and two rib slabs. Another packed a rear leg minus the phalanges, two rib slabs. and two tongues. The third had a rear leg with attached phalanges and a brisket. About nine c'clock the same eventng jack passed my eamp agatn with three pack dogs on his way back up Kongumuvuk Valley. About seven the following morning Jaek returned with aH clogs loaded. He explained that he had been tired and had slept at the hunting camp at Akmoglik before returning with the dogs to his summer campo He had al1 the other parts af the twa sheep with the exceptian of Ihe bones from the earpals clown on three fronl quarters. Also missing was one skull, one neek, and one luwl'r fmnl Il'g fmm th!.' huml'rus duwn. These he had fcd to his dogs at the hunting campo He had eaterf'one rib slab Ihe previous night. AII parts returned to the summer residential eamp are given in Table 6.12. Figure 6.24 iIIustrates the fit between these data and the mudel for parls intruduccd frum hunting camps (Table 6.11, column 28). The hurns are overrepresented in the sample, eomplementing their underrepresentation on the kili site. The ribs and cervical vertebrae are underrepresented. something not anticipated in the kili data. The overall fit of data to the model is fairly good.
Huntlng Camps Thl' final tnll,.' of tlSSOCi.lt!.'d localion is th!.' hunting c<1mp where lhe expedition hunters sleep, eat, and process malerial for transport back to the residentiallocatlon, In the case of Site 26, this location is approximalely 1 mile downslream from the tick, on a relatively flat terrace west of the stream. The site is at a low elevation and is overgrown with low willows. Because of tht., dense vegetation, the site was
on the highest segment of rolling terrace deposit along the stream (designated Sitc 27 in Figure 6.15). This site has been known and used "as long as the old men know of thelr ancestors." The last occupatíon, prior to my visit, was by a ñve-man hunting party in early August 1955. Tbe party camped there for 19 days while hunting sheep and caribou. They are reported lo have been successful, taking about 10 adult caribou (all bu lis), 3 íawns for thelr skins, and 5 Dall she!.'p. In addiliun lo Ihe five men there were 13 pack dogs in th!' campo The features assodated with this vccupalíon are dearIy defined and were easily idt>ntified by an informant who had been a member of the 1955 hunting party. These features are discussed in the folIowing paragraphs. DOG WEIGHTS. There were 13 dog weíghts, made from piles of stone from the streambed. Thl' stone piles Wl'rl' simil.lT lo thl' sn.lTl' ao· chors previously describcd, but som..,whal less massive in construction. This site is lo~ cated aboye Ihe elevation whcre willows grow. At lower elevations willow rools and stcms are almost always used to tether dogs. HiJ;h in the mountains no sueh conv!.'ni!.'nl natur..1 anchor is available so rock anchurs art.' con· structed. Tethering the dogs in such a eamp is insurance against tht> dogs getting iolo eached meato SKIN WEIGHTS. Cirdes of small stones are a common feature on late summer and falIlocalions of a variety of types. Skins takcn at that tim,,'uf y,,'ilr..rt.' frl'llul'ntly dt.''Ilim·d fm USt' .HI dothing. Such choicl' skins arl:' pl.lfl·d \10 lhe ground, hair side down, and weighted awund the edges with medium~sized stoncs to prevent their blowlng away and curllng ./ITound the edges as they dry. In this manner they are dried and therefore reduced in weighl prior to being rolled inlo huge bundles fur p.lcking baek lo a residentiallocalion. Hidcs ¡ntended for dothing m
>r
...'"..
~
91.78
Thirdp~ge
74.4
62.29 81.53 81.53 81.53 85.11 88.80 92.73 9273 9273
19.62 0&8.51
Proximal melacarpal Distal mel.carpal ProlÓmal femur Distal femur PToximdl tibia Distal tit-ia Tan.als Astr.g.lIlwCalcaneus PrOlÚmal metatarsaJ Distal met:a~1 First ph.1l1ngll" Second phalange Third phallngll"
Ca<pa~
ProxinYl humprus Distal humeru~ ProlÓmal RdJo-cubitus Distal radio-cubitus
...93 81.37 81.37 79.74 77.81 76.71 87.51 88.'" 89.89
46.17
.08 16.58 35.04 3S.32 61.02 59." 85.74 8208 80.90 .80 .73
Seap""
O
,"bo
66" 68.97 53.78 53.78 8.91 15.31 22.81 .63
(11)
....
11JO
7)~
Slemum
SkuJl Mandible Atla. AxU Cervical vertebrae Thoradc vereebeae Lumbar vereebrae Pelvis
Hom
Anatomical part
8asÍC índices
6.14
'271
55.'7 55.47 9.19 15.79 23.53 .•5 O .ll! 17.10 36.1' 36.43 .293 61.53 88.43 "65 83.52 .91 .75 47.62 4634 83.92 83.92 82.24 80.25 79.12 9032 9097
n.13
7.49 3.52 3.10 (12.84) 22.58 (l8.1) (18.1) (18.1) 13.62 10.36 7.42 (7.42) (7.42)
....
17.82 14.51 12.37
1~73
13.59 14.82 2" O .83 13.86 18.92
11.26
1.03 '.97 '.09 12.80(37.36) 12.80(37.36)
100.0 68.22
42.9 42_' 42.'
57.8 SO.l
66-'
(131
MGUI x (IGUI)'
•. 80 '.80 '.80 3.97 3.... 2.86 2.86 2.86
........ 16.4
8.90 890 7.21
VH
3." 3.18
63_. 58.8 34.1 ....3 42.8 38.2 89.8 898 83.'
".1
(12)
Col.
.....
Cebe of IGUf
(Col.
n
O
.....
10.00 9.51 •. 67 6.11 5.73 '.93
18.69 '58 55.51 63.31 67.91 76.49 80.77 87.47 90.82 92.50 19.62
6.24
'.03
61.74
6.82
68.2 62.' 90.3 100.0 95.1 667
l."
45.12
34.07
h4AftOÜfDW _ V-.. ..,... _ _ crI to .....e.
• S- TabM 2.6. colurnn 9.
91.78
67.21 75.70 "'.94 86.57 89.89 91.55 19.42 19.42 48.01 62.30 80.69 80.69 80.69 ...23 87.89 91.78
62n
34.94
O
.....
53.51 61.10 18.50
....
...........
31.4 47.6 56.3
37.4
37.4
,..
69.7 11.5 11.5 18.17
....
465 51.8 58.'
.n.t
l.' O 5.5 37.6 37.6
.2<
7... -1 boI.tl boI.II 28.9 35.9
95.90 96.51
91.98 91.54 95.67
93.36 92.73
76.59 93.36
19.42 77.29
2O.n
34.94 1O.SO 10.69 84.82 84.19 9500 93.63 93.21
'.48
O
53.51 61.10 18.50
.....
ss.se 83.80 91.53 91.97 93.14 92.49 96.67 ".90 97.51
(80.16) (80.16) (80.16) 60.32 45.88 1286 (32861 (3286)
100.00
13.73 (56.86)
1~59
".26 34.18 4004 33.11
1&"
3.67 61.38 83.19 74.09
O
65.63 1258
60."
44.15 4026 56.69 56.69 49.86
'.56
(HA)
Col. 13 22.58
Col. 15
(7.42)
(7.42) 19.86
4l.22 31.22 24.18 (24.18) (24.)81
n41
56.92 (SO.08) (5«>.08)
(29.42)
T.I1k 6.'1 Ci.lllhnllt5 on Ptlg~ 288-289
34_83 42'7 (42.47) (42.47)
(Sl106)
(86.20)
1265 '.58 7.42
(9.03)
17.47 (15.06) (15.06)
27.86 22.97 238 1.95
(15.1)6)
38.n
3.35 28.58 27.01 .00.00 100.00 1.58 2'-92 29.81 1.69 O .23 25.09 43.89 38.91 49.82 4021
(168)
Col. 15 30.69
92.14 89.49 88.10 '38 3.85 60.99 59.89 88.90 88.90 87.79 86.37 85.55 93.45 93.89 9;.(19
n.35
73.45
51.02
3.49 O .92 30.81 50.74
38.11
5.89 SO.'" 47.45 59.30 59.30 2'>.1. 4201 52.38 290 O .40 ...08 71.10 68." 87.52 10.83 6800 ...94 4035 4.18 3.43 (51.69) 100.00 (86.20) (86.20)
(1M)
""i"7.'47
..
67.51 67.51 20.36 29.23
"'
100.0 n.51
(10)
Col. 9 91.95
1.03 8.77 8.29 10.36 (30.69) 10.36(30.69) 5.09 7.34 9.15 .52 O .07 7.10 U'7 1.94 5.29 234 11.88 8.55 7.05 .73 .60
(15)
MGUI x (IGU0 3
44.78 47.70 38." 33.11 24.19 211.115 9.42 8.29 34.37 60." 48.45 48..15 48.45 36.46 27.73 19.86 t9.86
50."
,.69 24.33 10000 10000 30.14 36.38 39.61 7.fA} O 222 37.09
".
(148)
Col.. 13 37.36
58" 81.16 87.16 85.99
59.74
71.94 70.81 90.25 87.66 86.88 '.29 3.77
49.70 49.97
2863 31.33 3.42 O 90 30.18
19.94
78.06 66.13 66.13
93.69 92.94
71.23 11.42 85.70 85.13 95.98 94.60 94.18 20.93 19.62 78.09 77.39 9433 94.33
55.51
18.69 O '.58
61.74
Models for parts culled for use in hunting camps
57.1 57.1
49.9 57.1
45.9 51.7 57.2 61.8 10.2 10.2 16.1 23.• 33.1 33.1 33.1 42.2
41.2
333 333 36.'
••
O
56.8 56.8 25.• 31.8 37.6 '.7
65.'
n3
75.92
97.95
100.00
98.97 81.13 88.35 81.32 81.32
100.0
88.• ".1
11.4 35.9 34.1 43.2 43.2
1.14 3.59 3.41 4.32 4.32
88." 89.26 82.17 82.17
100.00
9097 87.13 88.35 81.32 8L32
88.04 89.26 82.11 82.17 45.12 34.07
(')
(8)
(7)
{Col. 7)1
(.)
(5)
(')
(3)
(2)
(1)
Pl'Oomal metae.rpal Distal metacarpal Proximal femut Distal femur ProxinW tibia Distal tibia Tarsals Astragalus Calcaneus Proximal metatarsal Oist.lll meratanal First ph.tL.nge Serond phaLtnge
Cupals
PtoldnW humerus Di,tal humeros proximal radío-cubitus Distal radio-cubitus
Seap""
Stemum
,"bo
Axi. Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebeae Lumbar vertebrae Pelvis
Mandible Atl..
5kuU
Hom
Anatomic.u part
Col. 7
!iil
lOO -
Squane of IGUI
98.97
Col. 5
88.6
98.97
MGUI
100 -
Square rooe ofMGut
CoL 1
--
(lGUI)4
Inverse GUI
rabie 2.6. 001.9
tnveese CMGUl (ICMGUI)
CMGUI
Conservative MGUI (CMGUI)
Basic indit"e
100 CoL ..
tnverse modjfied general utility index (IMGU!)
----
TABLE 6.11 Development of B..k. Sbeep IDdk .. and Modele
..,....
'"
ee
.
Astragalus Calcaneus Proximal metaearsa¡ Distal metatarsal First phalangl!' Seccod phal.mge Third phalange
Tarsals
Proximal ml!'tacarpal Distal metaearpal Proldmal femur Distal femur Proximal tibia Distal tibia
Ca~ls
Seapula Proximal humeNs Distal humeNs Prcmimal radio-eubitus Distal radio-cubitus
IU'" Stemum
Alia. .<xi. Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae Pelris
Hom SkuU Mandibte
Anatomical pul
Proximal humeras Distal humeros Proximal rac;tio--cubitus Distal radio-eubitus Carpals ProJúmal metacarpal Dist.l metacarpal Proximal femur Distal femur Proximal tibia Distal tibia Ta.rsals Astragalus Cakaneus Proximal metatanal Distal n'letatarsal Fitst phalange Seeond phalange Third phalange
Sapu~
IU'" Slemum
Pelvis
.<xi. Cervical vestebree Thoracc vertebrae Lumbar vertebree
A.tu
Hom Skull Mandible
ANtomical part
TABLE6.1l-(~ntl_d)
39.14 44.90 (38.n) 3O.JO 33.88 3.93 3.45 (24.60) 45.76 59.53 (47.84) !R.53 (47.&1) 59.53(47.84) 49.92 • 286 40.09 (40.09) (40.09)
... n.03
100.00 51.38 51.38 55.07 59.32 61.71 36.07 36.07 3607
... n
....34 .... 52 83.tO 89.67 40.77 49.13 52.31 6." 5."
O
9.SO 80." 76.38 ...57 95.57 46.86 67.71 84.41 0.79
(24)
to.M
'"
2.15 1.75 .80 .80
...
,,... .....
100.00 89.69 31.2t1 18.36 16.06 6.48 5.55 1.06 1.01 .96 77.06 77.... 39.15 15.12
"'.66
2,1.(8
32.90
".Ol
2.9 2.56 5.88 5."
O
(lS)
MGUI rol. 13
86.52
18.41
43.19
Col. 23
1.74 41.17 67.79
.87 "'.55 33.84 3HO 11.41
40.92 61.30
.. 40 85.34 79.83 (79.83) (79.831
95.26
95."
95.26
91.12
......
...00 77." 77.10 76.26 67.46 7.82 .S7
(38.75)
(38.75)
33.29 42.71 (34.76) 36.23 31.90 .S2 .67 39.95(18.04) 35.40 56.14 (40.89) 56.14140.89) 56.14 (40.89) 46.30 39.64 3075
23.17 37.00
24.11
O .Ol
O 1.13
64.59
.58
6.27
~7.J5
100.00 )0.15 ]9.68
(88.16) (88.16) (88.16) 100.00 85.47 83.55 (83.55) (83.55)
76.~2
1.77 1.44 (38.89)
68.'"
(74.94) 7011
.80 .80
.so
9.(1\ 7./2 i.ss 1.56 l.... 79.85 19.... '296 20.23 8.02 8.02 802 3_12 2.53
zo.es
100.00 90.45 37.36 23.81
......
3.36 8.29 8.29 50.25 39.\5 29.73
O '1
(261
MGLl col. IS
O
... 59.26
14.04 14.M
8.07
32.86 31.16 15.61 14.96 9.SS '.SO 4.31 85.87 86.35 59.JO JO.6I 19.06 19.06 19.06 7.88 7.24 2.81 281 281
46.15
48.27 30.62 87.15 100.00 ".23
.
(27)
CMGCI col. 17
89.13 6.5.86 41.00 26.01 26.01 26.01 11.42 10.46 4.15 4.15 4.15
......
S9 1.10 1.23 .29 .29 .29
." "
14.36 •.m 4.37 .39 .67 .77 75.91 77.48 S.86 9.39
14.53
42.59 40.43 21.80 20.81 13.54 6.57 6.JO
2.9 2.37 6.07 607 "07 32.91 14.CIJ 78.67 100.00 89.69 31.20
O
(29)
GUI col. 21
11.41 9.84 19.24 19.24 67.57 57.43 47.72 89.72 100.00 95.02 55.29
O
(28)
CMGUI col. 19
.....
.•2
.42
1.77 '2
1.S9
12.57 1.07 1.07 I.JO
11.90
79....
"'.66
1.12
.....58
100.00 90.45 37.36 18.82 18.63 5.63 6.'"
O 43.60 73.16 16.41 75.62 65.62 87.63 "'67 84.JO 86.67 9O.t8
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 96.15 43.33 90.62 67.46 81.23 77.02 86.76 66.41 76.31
(31)
(JO)
O
lOO WGI
'.09 3.37 8.32 8.32 SO.25 39.15 29.75
.... ,.
,.,....
42.62 46.23 48.JO
39.n
39.41
93.6.5
6." 3.91 (3.91) (3.91)
6.4~
~'11
~57
](181 10.M 5.57
.'"
.72
~67
~39
10.68 9.55 9.72 H2
.07 7.10 10.66
O
10.36 5.0l 1.34 9.15 .52
10.36
1.m S.'" S.28
"'...
83.06 48.0l 76.86 81.25
46.58
"
"'.57 57.89 63.15 61.86
88.83 49.22 71.37 64.16 81.41 47.71 62'"
20.30
100.0 100.0 10110 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
(32)
(IWCO:
SO.18 48.6.5 31.79 75.70 3334 67.38 73.24 82.51
".05
9.32
O
32 . . 49.98
73.46
34.51 "'.29 51.39
83.n
100.0 1000 9.15
uno
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
(33)
{IWGI):1
Inverse white-grl!'olSe indias (iWGI)
Gut col. 23
723 '.04 (4.04) (4.04)
.92
"02 :147 HO 13.85 14.02 5.90 5.90 630
~10
4.61
11.44
5." 92.n 100.00 ".86 74.48 76.42 JO.79 3O.0l 40.21 23.17 2O.n 92.52
.83 13.88 14.97 14.95 11.15
.11 24.60 51.98 49.96 79.77
71.'"
O O
18.9'7
......
61.99 84.23 84.23 75.21 9O.n
O
MoJels for parts introduced lo residential eamp!i fTom hunting camps
76.n 67.87 7.89 .91 49.28 91.67 (95.83) (95.83) (95.83) 100.00 85.86 • 80.31'(80.311 (SO.31)
(71.56)
......
O
54.42 SS.41 58.41 )0.33 39.92 47.66 .31
.88
52.80 52.31 51.66(88.96) 51.66(88.98) 14.73 23.22 31.65 1.25
53.42 54.10 100.00
55.75
...'"
24.57
11.4 24.49 24.26 23.96(41.27) 23.96(41.27) 6.83 10.77 14.68
2210
2284
O
19.93 23.'" 3.15
1~14
11.4 27.83 TI.17 29.16 (90.21) 29.16 (SO.22)
l.m 9'" 9.28 12.61 12.61 11.26 13.58 14.82 284
(23)
(22)
(21)
(ZO)
(19)
(188)
(17)
(ISA)
GlJI x
ucun-
Col. 21 14.9'7
(lGU0 1
(lGUI)I
Cut- x
Col. 19 46.38
CMGUI x
17
49.92
Col. 17 50.22
es,
(IGUI)t
CMGUI x
Models fcr pAfts culled far use in hunting Cilmps
12901
6. Surnmer
ac.,
.... ~~ .. ~ ~ .
..o
~
!IN
'"
CJ ¡$
'O,
'AiIt
-
,.MT
(
/ "t:'*J ¡e. \ /
/
/ \
• 'v
-
l••
••
"O,.,..
...
"OO.
"~~'1.t!".LUlII .0
-
I
I ...... ClltY
~
\ ,
/
/
.iI'T/
&.. "" 'O..
.u \
NCOIIC 11
DT. /
/
'1
...n"
/
ro
.0
"
"•
100
-DIlT CN'"
TAIt".::ItC
W l"l W ~ too ~lli
r.a;:
--
/'
""
I I
""
/
eDIl
I
11I
\ . eAI
\
~C[l\'Y
l . '":;'
figure t.n. Ro?lationship between sheep butchering atea data ..nd model based on sheep anatomy.
PMe:-/
".1
CA":.":"' I"1tC
10
\
10
lO
lO
" 40
l"nY''''c LUfIl eo lO 10 lO
I 1 \
M.'
~
".¡......... • /
~
I
/
I
r!c 10 ... ~,/ ~.JlO.""'/ '" f .. r:LY 10 lO 10
.u
1 1
\
1
\
.er:IlY
-
-
l' _
:e/e.l,
~IO
<10
100
Fi8U~ 6.22. Rtolalionship b!.'lween data from sh......p hutehl'rin¡; ami ht'Mlh an'a5and a modt'! hasl'd tln caribt,u •1 naltlmy.
D'J'"
G::
ttt!
e.u
I
::lE~1IO
IMGUI (CARIBOU MOCEL) TABLE 5.5 COL. 2
.
I T.1t
QCD
O .0
DIIIT.
"f.:~"IlIlT
o
••
e
.. ,,.
./ LU.le I"H , TtIOlt_ • • • OH
.., , 4 1 , 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 . 0
W W_ 10 ~tD
_
elNlC/...
....".. /
~lO
e
"DT
/
' i ¡:JI. ¡!
CAl.. .....,
/
i~1O ~ ca
lI-
.,. '[LV
I~..i e.u Q.8 1'0
.,j
Q.
Horns
Skull
ellt,? .,.,
•. . . ."
O ¡.;..ln
I'tIAL""C
-o
Anatomical part
0::N' . . ,
""
-
DIIft
"
/
ffi.a
.'.
~ 8 10 ID
..
, o/
~.
-OIIC
»
Tul
C,,/_,,:,'_
IMGUI (SHEEP MODEL) TABLE 6.11 COL. 2
Figure 6.20. Relationship between sln...p bulchering area data and model besed on caribou ol"lIllomy.
~
..
'O
IMGUI ICARIBOU MOOEL) TABLE 5.5 COL. 2
s
Number rflumed
I.-L
AT.
~; : ~~ .
IDO
\
~
, . . le lW 40 10 lO 10
lO
lO
..... 100
IMGUI (SHEEP MOOELl TABLE 6.11 COL. 2 F18u~ 6.13. Rt'lalíunship bl'lwl't'n dala hum shet'p hu/chl'rinjt .md hl',ulh "rt',l/i an.l ,1 m..lId h.lSl'\i 1m Shl't.p
.ln.llllmy.
Inwntorlell al AMtemlcal Parts Rebuned lo ~.nttal Locatlone bv T. . Sbeep H.m.n
tA.,. ;"'C
!í!...i .. leS 'O
......
TABLE6.12
o
00'
~
'HAL./.U
!í!g " al
.. .. !1íN
s; I
U,""_
10
.,.
[291J
Summer Hun"ng cmd LogI."e.
Mandible Atlas Altis Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebree Lumbar vertebeae Pelvts Ribs Sternum Scapula Proximal humeras Distill humerus Proximal radio-cubitus Distal redio-rubítus C,lrpalll I'rollim~l mctacllrpn\ Distal metacarpal PrOllimill femur Distal femur Prollóimal tibia Distal libia lanal! Astragalus Caleaneus PrOllim,,1 metatarsal Distal met"larsal PhaLangf'S
Raymond
Jack
Total
Percentage
(1)
(2)
(3)
14)
3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 10
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 O O O 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 .25
4.0 2.0 2.0 20 2.0 20 4.0 SO SO 3.5 5.0 4.0 3.5 35 2.5 2.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 3.5 3.5 3.5 2.5 2.5 .25
lO 1.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0
O
are invariably packed by men; the dogs haul the rneat and camping gear. On this site were ñve such small círcles representing the three Iawns and two of the sheep. The sheep skins had been specifically selected for future manufacture into winter pants by one oE the hunters. MEAT CACHES. One this site one meal cache was identified as used by the 1955 occu· pants. It was somewhat less substantial than
80.0 411.0 40.0 40.0 40,0 40.0 /lOO 100.0 100.0
roo 100.0 80.0
zo.o zo.o
so.o
SOO 20.0 20.0 20.0 100.0 100.0
100.0 100.0 70.0
zo.o ro.O
SO.O SO.O 5.0
those noted at the butchering locatíon and was made as a precaution against the dogs getnng loose and stealing meat: the caches at the butchering location were sturdy enough to discourage grizzly bears and covered the rneat adequateIy to prevent ravens from getting lo it. The cache at the camp consisted of a smaU circ1eof stream boulders weighing between 12 and 20 lb; somewhal smaUer stones were placed in the center to raise the meal off the ground .
12921
I~':.. .... ". .. •
DT. -LIIIl
~~
I
~
"
• •TNOIt
oo..
¡? ~ : ~
e"
.
¡!"
~~::
...., ....
"'. ..... .~
'"
"
'
... ..
NLV '7
.. •
'":c .CM'
'K
""" 10
W
w
....
lID
.070.010100
MQOEL FOIl PARTS INTROOOCEO FROM HUNTING CAMPS-TABLE 6.11 COL2B Fi8U~ 6.24. Relation!ihip betwl't."n d.,la f(lr partll
villul'S.
HEARTHS. There were three hearths identified as having been used by the 1955 occupant!>. The largest and most el(tensiVt" hcarth waS below the surface of the site proper in an erosional cut at the north end jusl beside the location of the 1955 hunters' tent. TIll're was ao extensive concentration of ash and ca1cined bone in the hearth proper. which was al the base of a smalJ bank that served as a reflector. AnlUnd the hearth In thl.' norlh was .... rc>la-
Iivt.'ly dl'nsl' scnUl'r (Ir hunl'. This W.1S Ihl' location uf mU..'i1 covking ,tnd convt'rsaliun during the 1955 occup<\tion . Since this site is aboye the willow line, the major fuel had been bone. The frequencies of parts recovered. from this fe..ture are given in Table 6.13, columns 7 and 8. (See also Table 6.14.) The second hearth associated with the 1955 occupation was just to the west of the hunters' tent and had primarily been a smudge fire, fueled wilh tundra moss to discourage mosquitOE"s. There were no bolles found in association with this feature. The third hearth wascentrally placed on the sile and represents
.
~
6i. Su",,",
the rearrangement of stcnes that had pre~ viously served as tent weights during an earlier occupation. Here also a smudge fire hed been kindled. The hearth was flanked on the north side by three stones and a fourth weighted down a large set of foil caribou antlers. Informants explaíned that it was extremely hot ene night and one member of the hunting party moved his mosquito netting outside the tcnt. He constructed thc smudge flre and used a sct of antlers that had bcen dragged to the loeation from the slopes aboye the site as a support for his mosquito nettíng, and he slept outstde that night. The bones around this fenture were ídentified by informants as remainíng from a previous occupatian duriog which the location had been the site of a tenl. TENT RING. The finallype of feature on the site was the tent rin~ markinK the location of the 1955 hunters' lento This had bcen construeted of two "wom out canvas tents" placed over a frame of bent spruce, sup· plemented by sorne willows gathered at the summer caribau hunting eamp (high Kongu~ muvuk site) on the trip up into the moun~ tains. Along the west side of the tent ring, just outside the tent area, was a conCentra· tion ofbones representing the rema(n:f of meat that had been stored ¡nside the tenl. It was reported to have been covered with amos· quitor nel and Jocated inside the tent so any n()iSt~ nt Iht' cache would be notict'd by thc ol."eupants (lf the..' h.'Ot. Parls nut USt'li durio,; tlle IH.:CUpation wl.'rc abandunl.'d hen.' in favor of choice fresh meat, which was prefert:'ntiaUy returne
Summ~r Hlmtlng
and
Log._,,"
as tent weights, as skin weights, and as heerth stones. This piratíng reduced the organizational properties of the earlier featu res and made them less readily identiñable. The only exceptíons were the dog anchors. There were eíght dearly recognízable dog anchors of stone dustered wcst of the 1955 tent ring; these anchors appeared essentially untcuched by thc 1955 occupnnts. South of the 1955 tent rin~ werc thc n-muins uf a mcnt cache and the pirated and reused tent ring described earlier. The heerth area associated with the previous occupation had been located in the low streambed aren used ín the 1955 occupatíon as thc dog yard. Must of rhe remains in the hearth had bt-en washed away and there was no c1ear way to associate the few remaining pieces of bone with the hearth, since a dog yard was located in the same area. Scattered around the site were small irregular groupings of smatl stones, apparently the rernains of pirated skin drying cirdes. Also scattered were addi tional concentrations of bone debris, apparently fmm still earlier occupations but unassociated with stone fea tu res, probably beeause the original slone features had been piriltl.'d beyond rl.'c(.lgnition. Evidenec of even more ancient IlCeupations was prescnt in the form of small concl'ntrations of pressure f1aking chips and some antier debris from the repaír or manufacture of bone tools. Sud materials most (t.'rtilinly date to the pre-gun era. No attt.'mpt was made to systl'matically inv{'stigalt' thl'St.' t'arlit'r n'mains. T,lhlt' h.13 SUlllm.lri".t'S Il1l.' d.1ta th.1t euuld unambiguously be .1ssuciaft..'
12931
Tabulatíons (Table 6.13) demonstrate major eontrasts between the faunal remains in the dog yard and the parts recovered from the areas of human eonsumption and in the hearths where bone was used as fuel. We may expect the samples Irom the dog yard to be biased by rhe attriticnal action of the dogs, which may well have modified thecharactcr of the population remaining for obscrvation .1way Irom thc composition uf the popul.ttion actually selected for dog food by the occupents. From the urea of human consumption, no known agente of ettntíon have been at work except (or the ííre whcce bone was used as fue!. The main hearth silmple (Tilble 6.13, column 8) provides a fine example of fauna specifically selected for use as fue!. These samples provide an excellent oppor· tunity to examine in sorne dt'tail the stratcgy of meat use in a distant hunting camp-the high mountain base camp occupied by males unly. Figure 6.25 iIIustrates the contrasts in the con· tents of two activity~related samples from the 1955 oecupation. We note immediately that the bones from lhe hearth and conversation acea show toa larj;e measurt.' the inverse of the pattern of frequency observed in tht' tent ilnd cache sample. That is, parts that are common in the hearth-conversation sample tend to be low in the tent-eache sample. In lhe cache sample the most common PolCts art.' the atlas a"d axis vertebr<1c followed by tht, distal tibia and tarsals. In the hc.1rlh s<1mpk' the ,ltl,15 <1nd axis an' ilbsenl and the dist¡ll tihiól ,md l<1Cs.1Is are minim.1l1y rl'prt'St·ntt'c..f; tht' S.lIllplt' is dominated by the me..'tat<1rsil!, fenlur. and humeros. Equally interesting and provoeative is the comparison between the dog yard sample and the tent-cache sample (Figure 6.26). Here we note a faír degree of corresptlOdence between the dominant part~ in the dog yard and In the cache; both are dominated by the atlas and a.xis. The dog yard differs in that the frequencies of pelvises and scapulas are high relative to the cache; in the cache there are high fre· quencies of the distal humerus through the distal radio·cubitus and thp distal tibia
6. $ummer
12941
•
Summer
n"",,,,.
12951
OIId LogI.tla
TABLE 6.13
I_ntorln al Anlitom&eal Parte h ... Van_ ÑU_ 01 !1M Mountall'l Hall... C...p et SI" 27(C....... OftM Tenl rtng and meat cache (previous occupation)
1'55
Previou!
1955 occupaliOI1
occupation mea!
tent ring and meet cache 2
cache 1
Previous occupation dog yatds
Total for
1955 cccuparion
p~ious
dog yards
occupation
Tolal for 1955 occupation
o«upation
eubtotel for
ccls. 5 and 11
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
1')
(')
(lO)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
., .-
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
IVi
10 1.11 1)
41l.1I
O 1)
1) 1)
4.16
1) 1)
O 2.0 1.5
O O
O
1) 1) 3 3
50.0 50.0
1.75
29.2
AntIer
O
O
O
O
~kllll
lJ 1)
lJ O 66.6 66.6 22.2 70.2 44.4
lJ lJ 1)
lJ 1)
O O
1)
Atla, All,is Cervic,¡! vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae lumbar vertebrae
lO 3.1)
lO 3.15 2.0 4.5 .42
St~um
O
100.0 9.33 O
Scapula. Proximal humeros Distal humeros Pro:ll.imal radto-cubltua Distal radio-cubltus Carpals ProJOimal mctacarpal Distal mt'tacarpal Proximal temur Distal femur Proximal tibia Distal tibia
3.0
66.6
O O O O O O O O O O
O O O O O O O O O O
Pelvis Rib5
Tar.lal~
ASlragalus Ca!c.,n{'ull PI'tl)(imal mt'talar...al Di,.l.d ml'ldl.m'.11 l·h.,L,n~l'!l
through the tarsals-parts minimally represented in the dog yard. Why are there such djfferences in faunal part frequencies from differenl areas of the site? What criteria were being employed in putting parte to different uses? What conditioned the overall manner of exploilation? These are all questions we seek to answer.
~
1955 occupatlon hearth and conversatton area
MNI Analomical par!
M,mJIl'll\'
TABLE 6.13-(eD""nwd)
.5 .5 .5 5 15
.s O
1.30 .5 10
.os
O O 100.0 38.46 76.92 6.15
O O O O O O O O O O O
O
1)
O O O
11.11
O
11.11 11.11
O 1)
11.11 3.1.33 11.11 O
O O 1) 1)
O O O O O
O O O O O
1)
O O 11 (1
O
4.1) 4.1) 225 1.61 1.25 100 .23
O .5
O 10 2.0 .5 O O",
O O O .5 3.0 2.66 20 2.' 1.5 1.~
11
12.5 100.0 100.0 56.25 40.25
O
lO .42
5.75 O
O O
12'
15 15 .5 .5 .5
O 25.0 50.0
12.5 O O O O O
O O 2.0
lO 1.5 1.0 .5 5
12'
75.0
'"
SO.O
62' 37.5
O
37.5 O
We know lhat food imports lo the location were from two sources-e-dned meat packed lo the sile from village stores and fresh meat derived from the animals killed. We also know that consumption al the location was in terms of two distinct populalions, humans and dogs, and that al Ieast sorne processing eccommodations were made by the hunters to
,
40.0
.75 .23 .62 .5 O
O 62
2500
1)
O
11)
O
31.25
aun
24.8
40.0 16.80 O O "'.0
",O 20.0 200
O 1.0
.
O .5
O O
20.0 O O SOO 40.0
O O
60.0 40.0
O
20.0 20.0 O 110.0
21) 25
1O(}.0
11.5
2n.O
O
.s .5
.5 .5 .5
O (1
O O
O 750 230
62.0 50.0 O
s O 12.Q 80 30 523 25 8.5
lO O
O 100.0 O
8.0
50.0
.5
O
O O O O
500 500 O 50.0 50.0 50.0
O O O O
43.6
4.68
78.0
20.83 70.8 8.3
3.12
52.0 100.0 8.3
O
O
O
4.0
66.6
O
O
4.2
O O O O O O
O O
.s
O .5 .3 .5 .5 15 .5 O
60 .5
66.'
O
O O
O O
O 100.0 66.6 25.0
4.2 O 4.2 2.' 4.2 4.2
12.5
the problem of packing or transporting to the residential location the meat obtained in the hunting actívíties. In terms of use bias, we may anticípate that if both fresh and dried meat were evaileble al Ihe síte, human consumption would be bíased in favor of fresh meat and the dogs would be fed a blased proporlion of dried meat. Given
4.2 O
.s
O O O O O .5
.s
O
O 8.3
O O O O O 8.3 8.3
16.0
12.0
O 1.11 .5 16.0 12.0
75.0
63 6.84
39.4 42.7
5.25
4.37 10.5 1.65 O
27.3 65.6 10.3 O
3.75
8.5 15 3.0 25 1.0 .5
511 9.4
8.5
18.7 15.6
15 2.0 .5
O O
O O 12.5
20 1.5 20 4.5
lO
O 16.6 16.6 lt1.6
5 15 .5 O
'.3
3.5 3.0 lO
25.0 M.O O
50 4.5 O
1.0 10
O 125 '.4 100,0
6.3 3.1
9.4
12.5 28.1 21.8 111.7 1"7 31.2 2'" O
6.84 '.50 1.23
O O
O O O O .5 .5 15 3.0 2,5 30
lO 2.0 O
O 1..:1 .1,1 HXl.O
75.0 32.8 42.7 23.4 59.4 7.7 O 53.1 O '.4 12.5 3.1 O O O O 3.1 3.1 21.8 18.7 15.6 1K.7 1K.7 12_~
O
whal we heve previously seen abuut teeding strategles we may also anticípate that dogs would receive parls of marginal utility and that humans would consume choice parts. We may also anticipare that humans would be biased in favor of marrow consumption whereas dogs would receive relatively more meat.
~
!ll ....
*
.59
<..
CanC'dlous tissue fragments Long bone splinte's (smal1)
TaBO!, Astragahu PrO'rimal metatarsal Distal metatarsal.
mios
.33 1.0
1
1.0
1.00 10
1
O
1
O O
O
1.0
1
O
1
... .50 1.0
8
O
•
1.0
.25 .35 1.0
•
1 O 5 O
2 1
2 2 2
O
1 O
O
277
• .77
18
10
O
•
100
1.0
3
1.
.33 1.0
O
3.
O O
1.00
2.10
O
1
O O
O
O
.25
1.75
•
1 3
8.43
3.45
.....
ORe, dista radio-
val ues. ~
COJT~
CDfT«!:ed val....e. t
• Figures in -exped1ed" coIumn are
• A11 col\ecbons W~ surf~~ colIeded and no atttmlpt was rnade to recover syMematically O1e small impaet chips trom cradtinS m~lToW bones. Therefore, the ~ number Di shaft splinten ts ceícu lated using the cbserved splinh!rs-3.45 per long-bone ilrticuiator end and 1.66 p« rnriapodial
P~taseup
Rm
flonl
Dis~t
Re..r down
T_
1
Re.,- up
O
O O
O
Flont up Front down
G.~te-lllt5
TUYIstIDDT
PRCto OH Rear down _up PMTIDOT
O
153 43
4 (80.0%)
l(lIXl.O%) 2 (5IJ.O%)
2 (SO.O%) 2(100.0%) 1 (SO.O%) 3(100.0%)
3 O 12 O 15
100
268
2
8
•
7
3
• 17
5(1010%)
O
.50
207
O 24
15
3 7 1 1
•
7 10
28
lO O
2 O
ProxinW frDlur Distal femur Distal tibia
O O
1.00
145
14
•
8
14.91
.....
51.75 14
,.7
Dos yards Expected Observed Expected
153
Cupab
O
.16
12.0
12
••
20
"•
27.60 0.96 37.56
2 (66.6%) l(UX).O%)
O O 3 O 3
1.00
202
1
O
1
20
3.45
3 O
l2 7
3.45 O
""""''''
3(100.0%)
O
.71
22
14
1
...
S
3 O 3
,
1
•5
O
1
12
10.{)9
10
2
~
..
3.45
10
5
1
,
O O
7 11
,
Hearth and conversation atea
eccupancn
-------- ---------
Tenr nng and cache 2
1955
DistaJ humerus Distal ractio-cubitus
F. ArtiOlM,...
H.
Dog yards
Qbsen.-N gxpected Obseeved ExPKted Observed Expected
meat cache
Tent ring and
Previcus occupiltion
Pf'OXiJrW humerus
E. ft",nuD borw
Ribheads Rib wul
ArticuLatOf ends"
Shaft splintffS
D. R.ll'ios
Rib frlogtnmts Rib heads Tor.I
C. Ribs
Tor.I
Metlpodi~
long bone
B. ArtiCJIliuormds'
Shw
..4. Shaft srl¡rdm· Smooth splínters CJ'gnnded splinters Total splinten Cylinders
Attributes
TABLE6.14
ADcUluy F.cu 'or tbe NOURhln Huntln. C...p el Slte 27
.,
r!
!;
1I
;1
.i
6. Summ..,
12981 o
10 20
so 40 ec 60 ro
ANT
'H CE"" ""T"'R
.-
AT
'T
:~
1_
PT
OMT
PMAL
ORle::.O Mu--r
c..OlollPL.CT
LIVINC3t A.NIM"'-~
ÓTO~E.6
~,
PH
~
~,.
'-
P'"-llt."T~
>, / /
PMe
OT TKR A'T
100
-,
:I
12991
sr se
-' •
CAL
:..., PEUI R
-, -,
OF
PMT
ec ec 70 ea 90
011" Lorl.t'c.
LUM
-'
R
Pf
10 20 50 40
ANT
~~
LUM PE1Y
OH PRe ORe CARP p.e OMe
.
111I1TltIfT III1.e
.....0
o
80 90 100
Summer Huntlng
.::
_
<x
-_ll
OF
TKR
-
CAL
-~'"":-.
iÑe;AJlT~
PMT
OMT ""AL
•
I~M""l"'l''''~ Or.l K.ll......
- - ,
OT
KST
'\
~'TE.
~ PT
~
órn:. "'2."
,~
,-
:;"
"
-'
COllVl.....TIQfII AIIU
FISVN6.15. CUmpl1fl1live peru:'nlagl'!l fllt d"l.\ (mm ereas of the mountain hunting camp al Sile 27.
diff~rl'nl
FilUft 6.26. Compolroltiv,. pt.'n:(;'nl"Il'" hu J.lt.l Irom areas ollhe mountain hunting c,1mp al Sue 21.
djff~renl
AC.TIO
Doec:=-
OF
~t> OTHe .... A"TTtI:.lT1o........... Al!ltk.WTb
We aleo know something ebcut the character of the materials remaining al the stte releUve to the dynamics the site represents as a single node in the maíntenance-logtsttcal sys. tem of mldsurnmer. This structure! situation is modeled in Figure 6.27. It should be clear that lo undcrstand Che assemblege as observed we nel'J lo know many {acts that are not dím:tly observable iPl the a¡;5tmblnge Use/f. We need lo know the cheracter nf the populañon of dried rneat parts available in the viIlage and the eriteria used to select parts to be transponed lo the hunting camp from the vtllage. We need te know the critería used to select parts for transpon to the hunting camp from the ki1l-butchering locaüons. We eleo need to know the relative amounts of meat introduced from the village and from freshly killed animals. lf we did know all thcSE' facts, we would know Ihe composition of Ihe popuJation of analomical parts introdueed inlo Ihe
hunting campo Although such knowledge ts essentíal to understanding the cheracter al the anatomical parts remaining on the site, it in no way anticipa tes those parte di~etly slnce other operations involving selecñon, deletion, and segregaüon took place at the campo Durlng thl..' occupetion, parts wcrc sclected for use as dog food ano as human fuod. Judglng from the differences Illustrated in Figure 6.26, the criteria ernployed were dlfferent. We need lo know the character of these criteria and the qunnñties dífferentinlly selected under them. Sorne c1ues lo both these facts are recoverable directly from the assemblages remaining on the síte, gwen that we mar accurately anticipa te the prior condittone as cutlíned in the precedlng paragraph. Additionally, we must be able to anticípate the effects of attritional actíon by dogs and the effects of the buming of bones for fue!. If we could successfully reconstruet Ihe character of the consumptíon assemblages.
)'
61TI(." 2.7 ARc.l1AItOL.OG¡IC......L... Ab6E.t.,¡Ill!IL~E.
Flguft 6.27.
Diolgrolm ol Itlgistlu (or Site 21.
6. Sununer
13001 we rould 0180 onlicipole lhe characteruf the population of parte removed Irorn the site and transponed lo the residential locauon. slnce we have sorne due to the selection criteria in the form of the parts abandoned al the meat caches. This example provides a graphic lllustraticn 01 the dynamics that are implied by a stañc set of archaeological Iacts. 5uch Iacts imply other facts that were generaled in the context of dynamics both befare and after the Iacts in question became par! ol the archaeological record. Considering these ccnditions is what is mean! by viewing arcbaeotogfcal rernains in a systematic contexto Modeling the dynemics in quantitative detail rs required befare we may anticípate the character 01 the facts observed. 5uch rnodeling requires us to make assumptions about human behavior in varying contexts. Successfui rnodeling depends en both Ihe accuracy of these behavioral assumptions and the structure of the dynamics envistoned ter the assernblege in question. We need lo anticípate the eriteria in terms of which men made deci· sions and Ihe number and variable contexts of sueh decisions. If either aspect of the model is incorrect we may be unsuccessfulln anticipating the archaec-Iogically observed facts. A failure at modeling does notinform us as to which is the source of error, assumptions as lo the eharacter ofbehavior, or assumptions as to the strueture of dedsion making. Finally, a sue· eess dacs not ensure that eilher Uf both types of assumptions are correet. We cannot know absolutt.'ly that the facts obserVt.'d ctlUld lmly hnvL' bL'l'n gl'm'ratl'd by thl' l'unditilm,; wt' haVt' ~rt·l·ifil·lt. AIl'tt.'st Wl' may nmduLll' frum 11 KUlTl'K!llhtll thl.' 11~~1l11lpliullN olr\'l'uh·l1li.llly valuable and useful. We would be encouraged to pul them to further use. In my study of the spring system and situational data sueh as drying raeks, kili sites, and ice cellar storage, l had near total eontrol over Ihe struetural faets of the cases. I knew how many decisions had been made as wel1as their spatiat and temporal contexts wilhin the systemo In addition, the spring system was a
...
relatively simple one in that mosl assemblages
had unly single ,ourco' uf Input. Wllh the summer dala and that yet to be presented for faJl end winler we are moving increasingly away from such tight behavioral control. In short we are moving lncreaslngly in the direction of the analytical situation in which the archaeologist finds himself when addressing a recovered body of material: less and less certain íníormetion regarding the dynamics standing behind the facts he observes. Nevertheless, in no case wiIJ 1 be treatíng assemblages that are total unknowns, as is frequently the case for the archaeologist working with data Irom the past. 1 will use this privileged and informed situation lo address questions of recognition or ídentltication for assemblages concelved in a systemic contexto Modeling this assemblage demands that we first adjust the observations for the attritional effects of dog Ieedtng so thal we may view the assemblage as it related to the Iogistical and decision-making context of the occupants. Table 6.13 presente the reconstrucled values for the anatomical parta likely to have been fed lo dogs. These were obtained by dividing the survival percentages (Table 5.11, column 2) into the MNIs observed in the dog yard (rabie 6.13, column 11). Adding the recohlitructed values oblained to Ihose from the tenl and cache sample (Table 6.13, column 5) and Ihe hearth and eonversation area (Table 6.13, col· umo 7), we obtain an estimate of the aelual population of bone abandoned at the hunting camp during the 1955 occupation (Table 6.15, column 4). FiKure 6.28 i1tustrates the reconstructed daln, filled tu .1 mtlltl'l thó'l ¡lssuml'S t!l;lt .1ni111l11M Wt'rt' nl1lt·d ¡\I 1111' kili Mill'M in h'rmll of crHeria estimaled by Ihe MGUI (lable 3.2, column 1). Parts removed from the kili siles and introduced to the hunling camp were Ihen culled in terros of the eube oí the IGUI (Table 5.12, eolumo 1). These model valuesare summarized in Table6.8, column 10. Whatwe note are dual but paralJel dislributions for aD parls except Ihe thorcic and eervical verte-brae, scapula, pelvis, and lumbar verlebrae. In
j
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e
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13011
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6. Summer
[302J
assodated in drled meat populations. we gain sorne c1ue as to the identity of the second souree. In this case we knew it was a dried .el A• • meat population stored in the residentialloca~ I tíon. e- 10 "'TMOlt\ I Having roughly identified the character of C~ I ••e \ the Oyeran populatíon, we turn now to the :80.0 I I problem of identifying the demonstrated dit2! ~ .I'II.V \ I ferential usage to which parts were put once ui 10 \CIIlV. they were introduced into the hunting campo I I ..l . . , Referring to the distribution of parte iIlusal LUMl / ;! 10 \iiL I .,..r trated in Figure 6.25 for the hearth and con1;; 11'/ ,/ eO.t versation area (human consumption) we note Z 10 ....... / / .01 1,,11 that marrow bones dominate the assemblage. R Df''/ ,/ eO+l '''Ir This is something we have leamed to expect in ~ ID:~ ..... _ • ~et~ fA"$DIICO~:IlC hunting stands and have seen to be a phe0Dile Ol"tUo 10 10 ID 40 ee ID 10 ID ID IDO nomenon related inversely to the logistical dtstance away from a kili. Such a dominance CULL MODEL TABLE 6.8 COL. 10 suggests immediately that we are treating a 10'PART REPRESENTED BY O IN logistical location with some maintenance DOG YARD DATA) functions. Comparing this graph to those preFigure 6.28. Rl'Iallonship })clwl'tm rcconlltrucled asviously seen for spring hunting stands, we semblage fmm 1955 occUpalioJ'l of Site 27 and a culling note that it is dominated by the metatarsal, a model. characteristic that in the spring data typified hunting stands directly adjacent to killloca-
"i
'!"
. . . . 1.-
...
earlier discU5sions when we have witnessed a ..n i parallet distribution with a model it has indiI cated that the model was correel in structure bul ¡ocorreel in the relative "power" oC one of I / TIfOlII' its component5. Taking this due from previI I ••,e \ DUS modeling expcrienccs. we use thc square I of the IGUI (Table 5.12, colurno 5) instead oC ::l8 ~ I..n ... the cube oC the same index (see rabie 6.8, ~!!! • ecuy I \ columo 7). Figure 6.29 iIlustrates the fit. What o tD 10 I I Wl' nnw 5l'e is a slight cunvergl'nce into a \ LUII I I single distribution for all parts except the , • .. .. T thoracic, cervical. and lumbar vertebral' plus ~ f! 10 ".,. It / .O.T / OT ..... /TAlle the scapula, pelvis, and ribs; these are aHparts associated with dried meat populations. In l . ", ; ; .0" '10" "l!>'~ ... "",.'IIC addition, the femur and skull appear some- o: 'o~ .., 01lC Lf,lIll". DltC • "" IT ... ¡:.- ..! ....., what inflated in their frequencies, which we 10 10 50 40 &O lO 10 lO .0 100 would expect for a population from two or mUfl' sourCl'!l. Whl'n n modd fur (1m'suurcl' is CULL MODEL-TABLE 6.8 COL. 7 uSl.d thUSl' pólfl!l dt'rivt'd from nnutht'r snurCl' Figure 6.29. Rd.llion!lhlp b..·tw'-'t'n 1't'(t,"~lnu:llod ... behave independently. Givcn an anatornical consistency to the independently varying sembli\ge from 1955 occupation of Site 27 and an alterNparts as is seen, elements most commonly tive culling model.
'"
~
~~
:
~~
..
~
...
..
.'
-"
'"'
.
[303J
Summer Huntlng and LogI.tla
tions where marrow bones were culled from parte abandoned at the kill-butchering locations. We also observed a dominance of metatarsals at loglsttcally intermediate points where access was a probJem-namely, where marrow bones were culled from parts being packed into a residential location for their meat. Selectíon was such that the meat was not disturbed in the pracess of deleting parts for marrow consumption. (See the discussion of the Mask site in Chapter 5.) Since we have good reasons to suspect that this rnountain hunling camp was not Immediately adjacent to the kills, which were certainly dispersed over a considerable arca, we may suspect that the dominan ce of the metatarsal betrays a situation similar to that indicated for the Mask síte, where marrow bones were utilized from parts yielding minimal meat. Figure 6,30 illustrates the Iirnited-access marrow index multiplíed by the model for the population (Table 6.15, column 4). We note immediately that there are two parallel distributions. The upper distribution ¡ndudes the femur, humerus, proximal tibia, and metatarsal. The lower distribution ineludes .,he sea puJa, metacarpal, radio·cubitus, carpals, tarsals, and distal tibia. The phalanges split between the two distributions. As in previous cases the presence of two distributions may be taken as a c1ue to a "power" factor involved in the selection of part~ for human use, The femur was overrepresentcd in the distribution for the total populalion (see Figure 6.28). This bias in the actual population of parls introduced into the location cHuld aceounl for thl'ir parallel bul correlated dislribution. On the other hand, the humerus and proximal tibia are not overrepresented in the introduced population; never· theless, they occur on the inflated line in Figure 6.30. Recalling that bone was used as fuel at this location, we may anticipa te some bias stemming from this use. The criterion for su eh usagl..· is 11ll' amount uf Whitl' gn'ase a p.ut etlntains. Iluilding this nitl'riun ¡ntu uur model is best accomplished by taking the values as developed in Table 6.15, column 6, and
...
.... -
/
/
. . " "" .. " .,," ~ .. ..'" .. - ....--" " . 0'...- " » ~ .. .•, " . ..- ..-"." .... • ". .. .. .. .. . . . ,.. ~
/
~
\
re
I
/
". ....T
/
I
;¡¡
40
¡!
.I'HAL
........CHle
.... IT
/
/
/
/
....e Dile
ee
TABLE 6.15 COL. 6 Fi8U~
6.30. Rdatiun:
adding them to the white·grease index (TabJe 1.12, column 2) and obtaining a mean for the two values. These values are given in Table 6.15, column 8. Figure 6.3] iIlustrates the relationship between the frequency of parts in the hearth area and the previous model biased in terms of the grease indexo What we see is a better distribution in that the proximal tibia and proximal humerus now appear on the lower line as does the dist.ll femur. This h.'aves the proximal femur, metat.usal, and distal humerus overn'presented in the assemblagl" This is undersl.1nd.lble. Wt' mav viL'wtht' distal humerus .ls.lssimilatl'li 11Ith~' pWXil11.11 "nd as we might anticípate when lhe original useage is for marrow. The only exceptional parts remain those that are overrepresented in the enlire population, as indicated in Figure 6.29.
The inflated presence of femur and metatarsal in the total populati{ln probably derives fmm thl..' inlt(lductiun of parts inhllhl'lm:aliun fwm piece.butdll'rl'd anim.lls. Tlhlt ¡s, lhl' population of parts on thc location had thrcc sources rather than the two previously indi-
13041
6. Summ..r
'"
-.,
..-
,~
~
/
ee
\
a> ~
"
~
." \
8 "
/
1....
,/ ."IfT
<:.. ·DtI
"
/'
...... L _
~
...iiI "
. "."
¡'! "
""Al
" "
c..-I'
CV
""
.u
.....
-
\
, O"". /
":.
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1'1
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/
/
.~C
•• T".
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IV
,/
.0
fO
'0
.0
lOO
TA8LE 615 COL.8 Figure 6.31. ~Iati(lnsh¡p between datol from the he.uth area of Sile 27 and a model lur fuel-based selectlon of marrow bum.'''.
ceted. One was, of course, thc dried meet packed te the location from the summcr residcnual sih,', Another wns Ihl' culhng Irom a previously culled population uf animals killed, and the third was parts infroduced specifically for human use from animals cacher makes él success~ fuI kili, (ield butchers Ihe animal, caches the animal, and retums lo camp wilh a few choice parls. Gi",('n Ihe fact Ihal summer high mounlaio hunting is l'ocountcr hunling oor· malJy conducted without dogs accompanying the hunter, any meat returnl'd from distant kills would be carried by the huntcr in much the manner described for Chesummer kili (see Chapter 2, pp. 6O~1. The parts tha! are apt to be returned are well iIIustrated by the bone count!> fmm 16 piccc·bulchercd animó..ls thal rt.'mi'lincd in Iht.' fil.'ld and Wt'rl.' rl'curLll.'d as
.
-
part of the ktll-site survey discussed in Chapter 2. Table 6.15, column 10, summarizes tbe anatomical parts remaining at the unexploited caches, which tells us whích parts were preferentially removed at the time oí caching. These data are Illustrated in Figure 6.32. What we note ís that the femur, metatarsat, and stemum are the perts most commonly removed from piece-butchered anlmais. Both the metatarsel and femur appear overrepresented in the Site 27 sample. l believe that this fact betrays the introduction oí these perts from animals killed and cacbed un the tundra presumably sorne dlstance from the hunling campo 1have not attempled to model the sample of sheep bones from this camp since the snrnple is small, and it is complicated by survival problems in that sorne parts were certainly Ied to the dogs. Attempting to reconstruct the original population when the number oí bones Is su srnnll seems fruttless to me. lnspection of the Irequencies (Tablc 6.1h) suggests it culling model, which as has becn shown npproximales the data for the caribou nlcely.
..
o
10 20 50
~o
JABLE 6.16 ln..ntOly of Anatomleal Pub (Sheep Oatr).t dM: Moanuln M_U", Camp at SI.. 27~
1955 1955 hearth
Anatomical part Hom Skull Mandible Atlas Axis Cervical vertebrae Thorecic vertebral' Lumbar vertebrae Pelvis Ribs Stemum Srapula !'roxlmal humeroll Distal humero, rfl~¡ma' radill'CUQ,itus
Oilltal r,diu-('llbitu" Carpali'i Proximal metaclrpal Distal metacarpal Proximal femur Distal femur J>roximal tibia Di"tal tibia Tar'\llts Astr..galus Cakant'us Proximal mctatarsal Distal metalarsal First phalange St.'('(md phalanf:1l" ThirJ phal"nge
50 80 70 lO 90 100
ANT
. ....0 AT
A.
CER'" T"'"
L"M PEL.V R
ST
se
PH
OH
PRC
~p
PMC OMC
"
13051
S"'mcr Hulln. and U:tgI.crc:.
tent ond
1955 Col. 1 +
Col. 3
001.2
'""""fi)
.rea
,,,h,
MM
MNl
MM
(1)
(2)
(3)
O O O 1.0
o
1.0 1.0 O O O .16 O O O O O U
O O O O O O
1.0 1.0 1.0
.5
5 O O
O O
O O O O O .5 O
O O O
1.0 1.0 1.0 .5 O
.5 O O
.5 O
.5 .16 O .5 O
1.0
1.0
O O O O O O O O O O O
O O O O O O O O 1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
., .5
O O O O
O O
O O
dOS
Col. 5
yards
1T
%
MM
%
MNI
%
(4)
(S)
(6)
(7)
(8)
O O O 100.0 100.0 100.0
O
O
Total 1955
----
n
O
1.0 .5
HX).O 50.0
1.0 .5
50.0
O O O O O O O O
O O O 11 O O O O
1.0 1.0
100.0 100.0 100.(1
50.0
n
o
O 100.0 O O O O O O O O 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
U
O
O
O
1.0
~.O
O
50.0 16.0 O
100.0 O O O O
O
.5
.s O
., .,
.5 O O O O O O O O O
O O
5110 50.0 O
50.0 50.0 O O
l." .5 O
son O
.s
50.0
.16 O
16.0 O !iO.O 11 100.0
5
.s
5O.U
.5 O .5
!(l.(l
.5
50.0
O O .5
O O O O O
1.0 1.0 1.0 lO lO
"
O O O
O O O
100.0
{l
O
500 5110 O O
500 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 O O
" Il
O, ~ Only two sheep bUrles were r«'Overed from thll" previous O«\Ipatlon-a wmpll'lll" dog yarJ and a complt"l("mclacarpal from the hearlh associated with ¡he I("nl rin~.
PT OT
TAA
AST
moJ~iII¡
'rom 0I11l"
CAL
PMT OMT PHAL
F11IIure 6.32. l'l'rn'IlI,I)CI'i'i of parli'i .lb.lt.d"n,·,1 at buldll'rin¡; ll,,·.lli.,"~ (,'r pi,·...,-hllld1l'fI·.1 ,'n,,,,,,I~
kill-
Looking back over the dala thus far inlroduced on lhe treatment of sheep, ir appears th.1t tht' Eskimu art.'aware of Ihe djfferenccs in anatumy ami "'l' making lugisticitl dl.'cisions
relative to this specialized knowledge. The data from the- kiIJs de-arly iIIuslrah.· thal Ihe model5 bast.'d 00 ~hl.'l'P analomy il('commo· dittl' the dal.1 bt'lll'r th.ln thnsl.' bil!\l.'d (In
[3061 caribou anatomy. The differences between the Kongumuvuk hunting camp and 5ite 27 are interestíng in that al the laner locatian meat introduced from stores ís in evidente whereas at the fonner location no such evidence of provisions was recognizable. In both cases the models pointed to facts that were known ethnographically; ene gire was characterized by introduced provisions and the other was nol.
1'1 !
J, ,!
1'1 ,
I •
1I I
• ! ":
· '",
It I 1
I I Ili
,1," .\,
¡ I
l'-
.. J
f :~
·
'
LoDel'Comp. In mid- to late August there is a fairly consistent movement oí large bull caribou out of the mountains anta the tundra to the north where they tend to form increasingly mixed groupings with regard to sex and age. One of tbe loeations where such movements out of the mountains might be anticipated is Anavik, where spring migration hunting iscarried out. Another such location is the westem edge of the large rotunda-shaped upland valJey in which the Kongumuvuk high hunting stand is located. Clustered in both these locations are a series af sites occupied in late August by residential units or "lover camps" composed of unmar~ ried males and females-not uncommonly more femates than males since girls tend to conduct courting behavior in pairs. In sorne camps there may be young married couples who are wife-sharing partners. There is a strong fendency for lover camps to be concentrated close to topographic features where the probability of caribou passing is good. 5uch expeditions would lose sorne of their appeal if the group was contínuously moving or if the men were rangingdaily whileencounter hunt· ing. Hunting frQm such camps is a wait-andwatch strategy, a kind of tenuous intercept strategy. Lover expeditions are commonly welt provisioned with food from village stores so that a lack of immediate hunting success will not conflict with the happiness af the group. Paek dags are generalty taken. Hunting consists of waiting in hunting stands for animals to appear aJong anticipated tuule!'. L~)ver groups normally stay away from the village for 1 to 3
6. SUnmler
weeks and hunting success is variable. Meanwhile, ojder and more experienced hunters continue the more difficult encounter hunting in the high mountains with a particular emphasis on kiUing mountain sheep. Five such lover encamprnents were identified near the Anavik spring location {see Figure 5.2). One camp (Site K) was set up after herds had been reponed moving into the upper Anaktiqtauk. This group expected hunting success and did not carry provisicns. AII otber parties had taken food from Anaktuvuk-primarily frozen meat but sorne dry meat. A feature common to the two sites where frozen provisions were reported was a smalt, moss-covered storage facility for frozen mea', located in each case in a dense stand of witlows. In the shade at the base of thick wiUow growth a thick moss usually grows. and under this moss the ground is permanently frozen. Typically this thíck moss is pulled back and removed lo expose frozen ground. A small bent-wlllow Irame is constructed over the exposed ice and frozen soil, and the moss that was removed and additional mas! from other places are piled up over the willow {rame, resulting in a small, dome-shaped moss structure. The frozen meat for the expedition is plat~d ¡nside the structure. 5uch features were noted on 5i1e O-E and Site ,. Table 6.17 summarizes the anatomical pan frequencies recovered from the five lover camps near Anavik. There are lwo gr08s types of assemblage indicaled, one dominated by the scapula and the other dominated by neck parts. 5uch contrasts are ilIustrated in Figures 6,33 and 6,34, We can exped fha. che basic strategy of part utilization at these sites is similar lo Ihat of other hunting camps. namely an attempt is made lo maximize the value of fhe parts returned to the residentiallocafion. This means that consumption al the hunting camp should be sorne aspecf of a population introduced from a kill-bulehering location that iscuUed so that 10w-value parts are consumed or used and high-valu,,' pilrts are r"'scrv"'d fur transport to the residential location.
13071
Summer HunJlns and I.at''''b TABIZ6.17
Inwftt:orte. DIAn.tcnDIcaI Putll ...... FIve Augun Lovw Huno ... CaIapII Sitp O-E
Anatomlcal part Antlpr Skull
M.'ndifll(' Atlas
...
MNI
...
MNI
...
MNI
...
(1)
(2)
(3)
(')
(')
(6)
(7)
(')
(9)
(lO'
O 18.2 O SIlO .50.0 66.6 16.6 25.4 45.5 3.6
10 3.0 i.s
18.2 27.2
1.5 2.0
no
lUi 100.0
3.0 6.0
100,0
5.0
UXl.O
10.0
90.9
5.0
a3,3
4.0
7.0
63.6 6.4 17.3 36.6 .9
3.0 .2 1.0 3.0 .2
50.0 3.3 16.7
o
2.0
80.0 40.0 O
.4
.0
o
3.3
o
o
4.0
66.6
o
10
33,3
o
4.0 4.0
66.6
1.5
66.6
2.0
1.5 1.5 2.5
25.0 25.0 41.6
i.o
2.0 O
33.3
"
2,0 2.0 O
10.0
O
40.0 .... 0
la O
o o
3.0
1.0
.3 J.3
20.0 6.0 20.0
Pelvis Jij'"
2,S
50.0
2.5
,2
4.0
.2
Stemum
O
St'apula Proximal humerus
'.0
O 100.0 30.0
O 5.5
Third phalange
Sit" K
MM
Cervical vertebree Thoracíc v~rtebrap Lumbar vertebr..e
Serond ph.lange
J
...
D
Proximal radio-cubltus Distal radio-cubitus Carpal! Proximal metlca¡pal Distal metaca.rpal Proximal temur Distal femur Proximal tibia Distal tibia 131sals Astragalus Ctluncus Proximal metalarsal Distal melalarsal First phidangp
Site
MM
Axis
Distal humeras
Slip F-H
Site I
l.' l.' 2S 3,0 1.0
l.'
"
I.S
2,0 I.S
',0 2.0 2.0 2.S
2'
2.0
., •• ••
3.0 4.0
lO 1.4
.7 1.9 4.0
.1
o
O 6.5
.5 2.5
100.0 9.1 45.S
50.0
2.0
36.4
5..5 4.5
60.0 20.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 40.0 30.0 80.0 40.0 40.0 SO.O SO.O 40.0 8.0 8.0 8.0
2.0 2.0 1.0 .5 .5 .5 1.0 5.0 3.0 3.5 3.0 4.0 2.0 .87 .75 .75
36.4
4.0
36.4 16.6 9.1
3.0 6.0 6.0
30.0
1 have eonstructed several altemative models for this type of behavior. Figures 6.35 and 6.36 ilIustrate the fit between data from Site O-E and 5ite I and the model developed in Table 6.8. column 12. The mode1 assumes that there was a kili site from which parts were removed to a hunting camp or accumulation point in lerms of the CMGUI. At th~ accumulatioo point this introduced population was
9.1
9.1
o
o o
16.6
1.5
90.9 54.5 77.7 54.5
7.0 3.S 4.0 5.5
66.6
S.S
36.4 15.2 13.6 13.6
3.5 .4
.2 .2
O 59.1
o
so.o 40.0 36.4 27.2
54.5 54,5
o o
o
13.6
.5
63.6
4.0 2.0 2.0
31.8 36.4 50.0 50.0 31.8 3.6
l8 18
2.5 2.5 1.0
o o o
25.0
o
o
33.3 5(10
O
O
5110
o
o
o O
i.o
.5 .5
O
o o
8.3 66.6 11.3
O 2.5 .5
33.3
.5
416
.5
41.6 .50 16.7 %.5 O, O " O "
" O O O O
o
30.0 40.0 20.0
20.0 10.0 10.0
o O O
SO.O 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 30.0
'.0 10.0
',0
then culled in terms of the square of tCUI. The culled population was then modified through the action of dogs. To correet for this, the basic model was multiplied by the survival percentages. The model also assumes that the atlas and axis were C'ulled at the kili site and were not oding with th(' cervical vertcbtlll!'. In the ('ase of Sile D~E and Sitc-I then.· is a very substantial
l.
13081
o ANT
... x~
,
s.
MANO
AHT
_lt
.n....--"
AT
Al<
CElO'
o ro
10 2030 40 50 60101090 00 MANO AT
Al< CEJl' TltOR
TltOR
,~~V
...,,
~
se ~
!l~.
~ lI~llln:1
-
-
-1
,.~~v
~-.
ST
-
.,
ST
6 --''v'IlT'~
~
D·
11
•• •
OYC
W
""'"er TAS
"'"cr
..
• 'A'
AST
oG
""-, O.,
_. - - .
-
AST
CAe
= "_It
PO"
"'AC ""
"'Ae
Flgu", 6.33. CllmpMatiw' p"f('l'nt'lKl'S (1/ .1nalnmiral parts ilt thret' summer hunling I::amps.
when meat Is frozen. Such behevíor Is indicated in that the proximal tibia te overrepresented but the distal tibia may be slightly underrepresenred. Perts appeering underrepresented in terms oi the model are the atlas and axis vertebrae and the mandible. The underrepresentation of the mandible is not surprising since we have commonly found it overrepresented al kili sites or al residentia! Iocations where it is preferentially introduced
liT! D-I
O"
CAR' P.C
Figure 6.34. l'umpaTiUiVl' f't'Kl'nlagt'!I pans al twu SUmnll" hunling cnmps.
[309)
SumMCTHun',"g OIIdLogI.tb
fit between the model and the data. In the case of Süe O-E (Figure 6.35) the proximal and distal femur and the proximal tibia as well as the scapula and proximal and distal humeros are overrepresented. These parts most certainly represent the parts Introduced into the location from frozen stores when the camp was establíshed. lt wiU be recalled that batchering through the shafts is a common practíce
20 30 "O 50 60 70 80 90 100
-:;.
SK
_
SUftUnel'
¡Ir.matumical
from fresh meat kills. The ebsence of the atlas and axis simply indica les that these parts were
systematically culled al Ihe kili. In Ihe case of Sile I (Figure 6.36) only the scapula and cervical vertebrae are overrepresented; Ihe skull,
".
,~
... " 6
.. N
~.
/ /
"
~~ "
o:¡¡¡
~~
",ID
~t!
~
•
I'ILI/ ""1:
..
•
Iltn
•
"TA"
.UIt"
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"
"
ID
TO
C....
".¡*:"MAl
~w
:1:...1
.
• 1'1IC .IK
. " .. . . " . •" 'PO
CULL MOOEL-TABLE 6.8 COL.12
6.36. Rdationship bt.'lwl,'t'ndollollrum hunting famp I and " .-ull nuldl'l. Flgu~
."
~
"" ec.u.
• • "lIlC OM.
lO
AIT"C
40
•
• • T'"
"
•
'00
."
.cr",
~
. .OC
IT ...
"
CULl MODEL-TABLE 6.8 COL. 12 Fisuft 6.35. R('lalion,hip belwe('n data 'wm hUnling (IImr D-E and a cull mt>dl'l.
~(d
"'" • ~C • • Olle
"
."'DO
.""AL
110 .0
CULl MOOEL-TABLE 6.9 COL. 16
figu ... 6.37, Rel"tionship bt-hveen data from hunting C/lmp f-H and "c:ull model.
I· T •
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... , .." .n·..,.. . . .!~ : .". • •• " . . • '" . .. ... " . " . ~;:
• ••• T
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70
i8 z
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mandible, metacarpal. and radlo-cubitus are underrepresented. The fit te the model is gen· erally good. We know frorn informants that dry meat was introduced into this locatíon from residential stcres. JI would appear that the scapuJa was destined for human use in the event of little hunting success and the cervical vertebrae wu dog fcod. lt is likely that, given hunting success, both parts were used as dog food. The underrepresentanon of the skul1, mendlble, and lower front legs betrays a slightly greeter cullíng of marginal parte al the kili than at Síte O-E. Figures 6,37 and 6.38 ilIustrate the ñt be~ tween data from 5ite F-H and Site J and the model developed in Table 6,8, column 16. This model differs in only ene detall from thal which was found lo fit the two previously discussed sltes. The populetíon introduced from the kili sites was culled more radically, 50 the cube of the ICUI best approximates tbc culling behavior. In other words, lhe use of food froro Ihe inlroduced population was slightly moreconservative in that less use was
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made oí "good" parts. In eddítion. the model used is the alternatíve form, which assumes that the atlas and the axis were rlding wHh the cervical vertebrae on the move from the km site lo the hunting campo Both modiñcations in the model are internally consistent, suggesting a slight increase in conservative behavior in the hunting camp where attempts were betng made to minimize the consumption oí desirable parts of the caríbou. Overrepresented are the cervical vertebree and the scapula as in the case of Site l. At these sttes, as al 5ite 1, dried meat was introduced into the camp from village stores. In addltion, the skull and mandible as weJl as the phalanges are underrepresented, exhibiting a pattern similar to that al 5ite I. In the case oí Bite J the model is identical to that used for Site F-H and the fít is nearly as good: however, no parts are underrepresented although the scapula, bumerus, prox~ imal radio-cubitus, cervical vertebrae, and pelvis are overrepresented. lnformants report that this camp was well provisioncd Irom village stores and that both dry meat and frozcn meat were introduced. As at Sile D·E, whert' Irozen meat was also reported, we note evidencc of butchering through the shalt in that the proximal radio-cubitus is overrepresented but the distal end of this lxme lalls rather nicl"ly on the cluster fit to the model. It is my opinion that the upper front leg was the choice of frozen meat from SI(lreS d\.'~tined for human use and the cervical vertebrae and pelvis were introduced as dog food Irom dry meat stores. The assemblage 'rom 5ite K fits still a third model, which assumes that Ihe MCUI best approximates the removal of parts fmm the kili sitt', whereas in the hunling camp the cube of the IGUI approximall's thc dclctions made for use in thecamp. This mudel isadjustcd for the a,tiun uf dogs by USl' of thl' survival perCf..'ntagl's. It is assuml'd Ihallhe alias and axis were riding with the cervical vertebrae from Ihl' kili sitc. Figure 6.39 iIIustral('¡;; the fit between m()dl'l and d.,ta. Only th\.·"..'rvkal vertebrae are overrepresented and only Ihe mandible is underrepresented. Inlurmants report
that no provislons were originally introduced intc Ihis location from village stores. We must therefore view the overrepresentation 01 the cervical vertebrae as bias in the feedíng of dogs from fresh meat stores, somethtng ncted previously. The patterns erncrging from these hunting campa bear sorne interesting sirrulannes to the overall pattem of parts abandoned at kili sites. Figure 6.40 íüustrates the relatíonships between the IMGUI (a model for a kili site} and the model for hunting camp assembleges removed from such a site (cull model, Teble 6.8, column 9). What we note ie thet the Iemur, proximal tibia, and all parts 01 the axial skeleton (except the head and neck) are positively correlated. 00 the other hand, the head-neck and lcwer legs are negatively correlated: what Is common at kili sites is less common at hunting camps. There is really only a minor difference between the two sítuatíons, and in cases where there is the ultimate conservanve behavior at the kili (the complete animal is removed) a hlUltitlg camp muy look rractly likr a ki/f site itl temu II{ tlu! refativf Qt1atomica{ part frl'ql/l't1cil's. Thc differences would only be ('vi-
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the difficult task of hunUng dispersed game. They may cange many miles from the hunting camp and are u5ually not accompanied by pack dogs. The dogs are taken out only in the event oí successful hunting. If the hunter is very successful and takes several animals in one place, lhe camp may be moved lo the vicinity of lhe kili rather than transporting the animals to the campo This depends on the number of animals taken in one place and 00 lhe availability of firewood and water oear the kilI. 1 was abIe to document two such latesummer huoling camps duriog my stay wilh lhe Nunamiut-5ite 33B and Sil... 17. (See Figure 6.15 fur ~itl'lucati()ns,)
SIt.338 Sile 338 is located on the fronl of the 8rooks Range and is nested in the low hills that characterize the transition area between lhe high mountains and the low, flat tundra that slretches from the mountains lo the Arctic coast. Thesile ¡sclose toa small stream, which drains a substantiallake named Natvakruak. The site was occupied by a single Nunamiut family during Ihe early wt.'t.'ks uf Sl..'ptcmbcr 11J55. Thl' milll' hl'ad uf thl' f.'lmily hild \x'l'n in thl' arca scarching for gólnll', in parlicular fur nur!!· ery herds. He had bl'cn 0pl'r;)ting uut of a base camp al Tulugak Lake. He encountered such a herd feeding up the strearn, killed several animals, cached them, and returned
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quickly to the base camp al Tulugak Lake. Upon hls return the family began packing up and then eatablished a ñeld camp neer the stte of che cached animals. No provisions were removed from the base camp, aince the meat was known to be avallable. A campsite was selected in the bend of the stream nested in a considerable stand of willows. The remains al thts camp included a tent ring and an outside hearth with an assocíeted scatter of small, cracked bone chunks from the manufacture of bone julce. Beyond the hearth was a coUapsed and decaying dry¡ng rack and a dump composed largely of marrow-bone splinters. The hunter who had occupied the location was able to recall the camp activities in some detail. After establishing the camp all persons moved out to the location of the temporary cache where the calves had been killed. The calves were skinned by the women, who took care to perform the skinníng in terms of thelr material needs ior c1othing. Meanwhile, the head of the family and his adopted son proceeded to skin and bUlcher the cows and the one large bull that had also been shot. The hunter fed his dogs on the largely nondis· membered bodies of the calves after the womeo had completed lheir skit:'!ning activitics. A sioKJe large animal was bulthcred into basic units and loaded in the dog pilck~; the son thl..'n took the dogs with thl..' (resh meat back to the base camp at Tulugak lake, where the fresh meat was lo be presented lo camp companions (a large famUy). The son had instructions to I~ave the dogs at the base camp where they could be fed from the hunter's remaining dried meat store5. lt was explained thatit was "better to feed the dogs thereon old dried meat than to have them eal up the fresh mcat everybody needed so much." Two fat cows werc !lelected fmm lhe kili Mea i'lnd skinnl'd !'IU lhat their likin!! ,:(luld bl' u.'icd for duthlng. Aftl'r thl' i1nimnl!'! hólJ ~"l'n ~kinnl'd and eviscefólted, the huntcr carril,d Ihcm one at a time to the campo This was done while lhe women tumed their attention to the remain. ing animals (exclusive of the calves), which
Summe1' HuntlnB flnrl Log'."~
would be processed for drying. The women processcd the animals near the cache arca whlle thc hunter aet about conslructing a drying rack. Proccssed meat was then moved from the processing arca to the meal rack by the hunter. The women selected "good" marrow bones during tbe processing and these were carried from the processing arca to the campsite and piled next to the meat rack. Later the son returned from the base camp at Tulugak accompanied by a single pack dog, which was carrying sorne gear thet the Iamily had forgotten during the rush of their move. The hunter recalled staying in this camp about a week, during which time they "ate good," having tongue, heart, a roasted calf's head, lots of good marrow and some good fat meal. After this 5tay, some of che dried meat was carried back to Ihe base camp by Ihe son, who had becn sent to pick up the pack dogs. Upon his returo «he camp was struck and the family moved about 12 miles to the west in search of more game, taking sorne of the freshly dried meat with them. This move proved unsuccessful so Ihe family returned to this camp, stayed there an additional night, loaded the dried meat that they had Jeft on the drying rack, and relurned to the base camp at Tulugak. Because uf the dense growth of willows 1 WI\S uní'lblc tu ((lllect lxlOes from the cache arca and the prucessing area. However, a r~li· able sample was oblained at the camp ilself. The anatomical part frequendes are sum~ marized in rabie 6.18, column 2.
Slle 17 The location ofSite 17 is truly sp«tacular, in the high mountains at Emie Pass near the headwaters of Crayling Creek, the center branch uf the upper Anaktiqtauk River. The silt' WilS used during late August and early S"p!l'mbl'r ur IY51 by three ml..'n hunling in tlw hl~h l1\uuntalll!i un,1ccump.lOil'd by p.1c.:k dogs. Thc ml'n had ¡ntended to hunt fur ~hcep at a nearby Iick. However, in lat~ summer sheep frequent the Iicks less and les!, and the hunters were unsuccessful. Alternatively,
(3131 they decided to investigare the high mountain glaciers c1ustered among the peaks of Alapah ("mJd") Mountain. It is well known that large bull caribou Irequently Ieed high in Ihe mountains during the mosquito season. "Near the ice" is a good place to look. The climb from the huntmg camp (occupied 2 deys prevlously) lo the mountetns is almost 3000 feet over very rugged terrain. The men made the climband loceted a number of large, fat bull caribou. They killed "quite a Iew" and camped near the kills Ior 2 days, "enjoying the víew." Then they faced lhe demanding task of transporting the meat out of the rnountains without the aid of pack dogs. They were ab!e to pack "all the reaUy good stuff" down from the mountains to the hunting camp at Ernie Pass. There they relaxed for about 4 days, eating "tongue, heart, and good marrow." They de· cided to pack Ihe meat duwn fmm the pass to the low ground in the "big stand of willows" at Ihe east fork of the Anaktiqtauk. Afler they got the meat that far, they would send one man to the camp at the present site of Anaktuvuk viUage for dogs. 1 was able to ¡ocate rhe hunting camp in Ernie Pass and obtain a reliable faunéll collection. The invenlory of remains is summarized in Table 6.18, column 4. This collection was an imporlant one because of the t'xtremc transporl prublcm~ dl'ait with. Inspcction of Tablc 6.18 and Figure 6.42 demonstrates that Site 338 and Site 17 are quite different. 5ite 338 is dominated by the atlas and axis vertebrae plus the proximal metacarpaL Site 17 is dominaled by Ihe distal humerus. We have seen atias-axis graphs for huntingcamps previously. However, we have not encountered assemblages similar lu Ihat of Sile 17. Modeling Sile 338 is simple, since it was reported that at least two complete ao;mals had ~cn intmduCl'd. It was anticip,lll,d Ihil! bl'haviur in this hunting c'llnp wHulJ ",,-. simil.u lu thilt in (llhl'r!l wlwl"o.' ,1 ndlin~ stratcgy fur tlle maintcll.lnCl..' 01 thl' l'alHp m"' cupants was fullowed. Figure 6.43 iJluslratt!s the tit between the data from Site 338 and the IMGUI. Allhough scaltercd, the distribution
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hunting parties have killed animals in much the same situation described for Site 338, only in areas where wood for the construction of meat racks was not immediately available. Under those conditions, if the kili area happened to coincide with an area of earlier fall hunting, the party would gather foil caribou antlers from the previous kili cache sites and would ccnstruct a large Christmas-treeshaped pile of antlers on which the meat from the late summer killed animals would be dríed. The pile under construction shown in Figure 6.46 was built in spring spcctfically to show me how such an antier drying rack mlght look. If this eltemative were emplcyed we would expect a faunal assemblage with a very large number of faH antlers, sorne stiJI attached to skulls. in assocíatíon with the faunal remains from the processing, butchering, and consumption cf late summer killcd animals. Other situations described by informants but undocumented by me are cases where late summcr hunting groups are long
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Reoilt up
DMTtoDT PMT to DT
which are undetrepresented. It ls IIkely that these were removed al the kiJI-butchering 10cation as has been suggested in the discussion of surnmer kili sítes. Certainty the sample of hunting campa is not a complete one. I have been told by lnformanis about siluations where late summer
I
oc
o
f. Arlicuf,,/iol'ls· Front down Cilrpals Front up Carpals to DRC DMe to DRC Rear down
70
." 1.7
"
/
•,
"'.0 16.0
smgle excepuon of lhe bon., uf the libin,
-"TI
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¡. u
21tl.'"
o
.14
oc N
197.6 197.6 13.3
4.0
'.1
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m ..
Expected
O
D. <íos 5haft splinh.'u Articul.llllf l'nlls~ Rlb heads Rib tolal
lO' Sltli' 17
C. Ribs Rib fragments Rib heads Total
1317 J
S.......r HuJttlnB lUId Logt.tla
c.....t
FI8U~ 6.45. Rt.>lationship between data from hunting (1Imp al Sile 17 and a radical culling model.
fisuft' 6.46.
A stack(,d ilnlll'r dryin¡;; r<'lck
................
6. S.. ~er
{3181 distances from their base carnps and a kill is rnade. Not uncommonly under such stressful transpon condítions the animals might be stripped of meat much in the manner described forthe drying of spring-killed animals. Borres removed would be abandoned al the processing location and there would be a radical culliog of parte not easily strípped. lnformanis suggested that the only difference between such a location and ene where the remains were for drying would be nearly complete stripping of all querters so that rear and front quarters would be abandoned in roughly equal proportions relatíve to the parte available. There would thus be a negative bias in the abandonment of parts that in a true drying situation would always be removed to the drying rack-that Is, those parts with a high drying potentíal as monitored by the etríct drying lndex (rabie 3.1, column 6). These parta have high bone-to-meat ratics, renderlng them marginal in a transport stress situation. Sueh asile would tend to have the properties of a processing location Ior drying meat with regard to the legs but would exhibit somethiog of an inverse property with rPgard to parts of the axial skeleton. Unforlunate1y, l have never observed such an assemblage. A mude! for such a situalion might bt.. the slriet processing index (Table 3.2, column 4) plus thc square root of lhe stoet drying index (Table 3.1, columo 6). I am surt.' th.lt thl'rl' iln' llllll'r silualiuns in which dt.'dsilllls wuuld bl' m.1Jl' in Il'rlllS uf still uthl'rcrill'riil. Nevt.'rlhl'll'ss, Wl'hó\vl'sceo !h'lUl' inll'rt'sUn., prt1pl'rtil's llf hUlllin., t'.lmps. T/II'!! 1m' II/UJII.1I1l (1'lIrtll·"',i:",1 I,!! ",''",, [lIml
l,r
clll/ing bthaviv, rt.'laliVt' Iv al! introl/llCt'd popu/Qtion, The cu/fi"S is if'l tenns 01 nfsalivf uti/ity
c,ite,ia. Wr have !leen how various combinalians of culling dedsions may pennit the maiotenance of a f1eld party nnd the Introduetion into the residentiallocation of essentiaJly the same frequencies ofhigh-quality parts that might be introduced in a "shorter" logistical situation. For instance, essentially complete animals may be transported the relatively short distance to a hunting camp and culled
there for the maintenance of the party; when parte are removed to the residential location essentially the same parts would be transported as would have been the case in a situation of culling and abandonment of parts at the kiU-butchering locaticn. Aside from the differences among the camps stemming from minor strategy differences at kili sites and in the carops themselves, the other major sourees of variability for the faunal assemblages were found lo be (a) the character of provisions inlroduced Into the Iocation from residential stores and (b) whether dogs were present. I have presented the avatleble data regarding the summer hunting camps studled. These are ell quite different from the hunting stands doeumented for the spring season. In the hunting camps provision must be made for the total support of the occupants during the use of the locatíon. In the hunting stands, only snacking, primarily of marrow, is characterísnc of the consumer behavíor. This rneans that at the hunting camps there must be sorne relationship between the quantity of meat c<msumed and the number of occupants and the duralion of lht.'ir stay, 15 therc, lherefure, any regular relationship hetween lhe number of animals rcprescntl'd by the faunal rl'maíns and the numberof occupants and·~he length of their use of the hunting camps? Table 6.20 summari1.:t's lhe relevant information for the l1ul'ullll'nh'd hunling l'illllpS. Figurt' 6.47 pluts 1Ill' rdiltilJnship bl.,twl.'t.'n thl' caribtm nl'l'l1l'd to sustain Ihe o(l'upants of thl,.' l·¡lI11PS alltl t1ll' I,.·.uibou n'prl'~('nl('tI in Ihe f.IIl11,t1 oH¡~('lllhl,l¡.;t'~ f tum 1In' !""vl'r,tllllnllit IIlM. Scvcral points are of interest. Firsl, Ihe ratio uf animals observed to animals needed is high at all rhe locations. Even at Site O-E for every animal needed there are 3.64 indicated in the faunal a8semblage. Secando thr rellltionship between anlmala needed and anlmaha observed appean as a positive, accelerating curve, with one exception. Is there some reason for these conditions? The answer must be yes. We can reason the situation as follows. An expedition goiog out in search of game
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% MNI NEEDEO FaR MAINTENANCE AT CAMP TABLE 6.20 FiSII1Y6.47. Rcolaliunship bfotwnon the num~r uf anim,¡¡lsrepreHnted and the knllwn consumer demand at hunting camp•.
establishes a hunting camp and the search begins. If they are not generally successful they wltl move on to another area. This mean! that the animals needed will be few since the occupational duration is low and, of course, the animal, observed will ..Iso be relatively few. If, on the other hand, thc search is successful the hunters are likdy to rcmain al the camp and accumulate kills. He!"\' the duration of the occupation goes up. as does the demand tor meato HowE'ver, suecess in this case is measured in lerms of the quanthy of meat obtained over and aboye the immediate demand, sinee in a hunting eamp the aim is to obtain meat for consumers not presentpersons remaining at the resilil'ntialloealion. Thercfure, Ihe suecess uf such expedilions is measured in terms of Ihe quanthy of meal obtained over and aboye Ihe maintenance demands of Ihe hunting parly. The more successful Ihe hunting parly the higher the ratio between animals needed and animals observed. given sorne culüng stralegy in Ihe hunting campo 5ueh suecess cannol be sus· lained very long since a hunling parly is smal!
and al sorne point hunting must be stcpped to Iransport the accumulaled resources back to the bulk of the consumera. Tbe more the hunting success. the grcater the transport demand on the smalllabor force . This situation generally ensurea that there will be a threshold of success beyond whtch the labor demands on the small labor force become excessive and hunling must be stopped. 5uch an "upper regulator" operaung on labor demands suggests that the upper tail of the curve in Figure 6.47 would approach an upper limito The overall shape of the distribution might welI be some elliptical distribution of points for the relationship between animals needed and animals observed at hunting camps, Hunting camp "Iailures' should al1 be clustered at the low end of the graph, slnce failure would almost certainly resull in a move and Iherefore a truncation of the occupation. On the other hand, it isquiteconceivable for a party to be very successful afler only a short stay in campo This is, of eourse, the situation indicated by the exception. 5ite 17, plotted on Figure 6.47. It is my opinion that if we had a very large sample of hunting camps the result would be a scattered distribution of points forming an elliptical distribution, The lower boundary of Ihis distribution is apt to be fairly wetl defined because of the Jikely 'i'elalionship betwcen lack of suecess and abandonment of the sile. The upper margin will be much less well defined, since the degree of suecess is not necessarily conditioned by the lenglh of stay. Statistically speaking, it is my opioion Ihal all hunling camps that are in faet nud\.'s along a logistical pathway will have a form such thal the ratio of ilnimals observed will be high rclative to Ihe number needed tu suslain Ihe oecupanls.
SUMMER RESIDENTIAL LOCATlONS Of THE RECENT PAST We have seen something of the consumption patterns in the contemporary village during summer. As noted, these patlems are
1321 J
Summer Rul_n'Jo' l.ocotlo... o/die Recen' P..t
considerably effected by the use of frczen storage in the ice cellars and the purchase of food from outside sources. Prior to the estabIishment uf the present village, the Nunamiut were fully mobtle and were dependent on dried mea! sto res during the summer months. I was able lo document many locations that were sumrner occupations during the mobile period of their history, but J investigaled only fcur from an archaeological perspecñve.
Schoolteocher Slte The Schoolteacher site (see Figure 5,20 for location) was occupied by the Tulugakmiut band of Nunamiut from July 1 through August Hl (48 days) in 1948. During this time all residents moved their tenis at leest once, so that for ñve families plus the school tent and the lent of the teacher and his family there were 14 te nI rings on this sile. The site was
AmalgamaUon Slte The Amalgamation stte was occupied by the Killik River and Tulugak Lake local groups (lf the Nunamiut during midsummer IlJ49. (See Figure 5.20 for loeation.) From [uly 1 through july 19 the 36 members of the Tulugakmiut band occupted the stte by themselves. On [uly 19 the 3B members of the KilIik River band joined the Tulugak group and set Iheir tents just upslope frem the Tulugakmiut tents. The combined group remained in this location from [uiy 19 until August 10. The remains on this site represent 2312 human consumer days of oceupation. As in the case of the Schoolteacher site, the faunal remains were collected during the course of mapping and detail plotting oí the tent rings on the sile. Therefore, the bulk of the documented material is from inside the tenis and the area of the tent nngs, an area only about 5 m beyond the tent itself. Only Iwoof Iheidentified dogyards were in areasof low vegelation. These two areas were collected, providing us with a small sample of the fauna1 remains occurring In dog yards. No specific dumps were recognized or recal1ed by the informants. This sUe is described by informants as a "happy-unhappy" site. AIl the pt'ople were happy to have thcir relatives from the Killik River join the camp on Tulugak lake. On Ihe other hand, the walk from the Killik River was so long that the migrants had transported no food stores and arrived amoog the Tulugak people essentially without food. During the perlad of spring migration hunting thl' Tulugak people had nol anticipaled the arrival uf Ihe Killikmiut and had Ihereforc stured only enough food to meel their uwn summcr needs. During the initial days uf the Killikmiura presence in the camp, fuud was fr(,'ely shared in large "happy" meals and al dances. However, it became evident that the stores of the Tulugakmiut would be insufficient if such sharing continued and distanl kinsmen began lo fail lo oUer food to Ihe KHlik River famiUes. Tensions began lo grow and sorne of the mi~
_...
(322J
6. SurMIet
TABLE. 6.21
~"""oIAu...k11I
.,...
........tIaI c....
. . . ._ . . ._
I
SUmmer Raldmtl.'l.oarfron. 01the Recen' Puf
I
TARLE 6.21-....(contlnued)
(323J
o.e.c..w .......... 1.... Sheep bone distributions on I"¡ste<:! sile Total amaJgamation lura rt'Construction
S<:hoolteacher residential
....
MNI Analomical parl Antier
Skull Mandible AtL'l5 AiI(is Cervical vereebree Thoracic vertebrae lumbar vertebral' Pelvis
. '"
Stemum Sc:ilpula ProllÍm;,1 "umeros Dlsl",¡ humeros l'rOllimal ,,,,dio-cubilu5 Distal radio-cubitus Carpals Proldmal ml:llurpal Dls!11 me!ICIIl'P.1 Prollimll 't'mur Distal femur PrPJ:imal tibia OI,t"ltlbia ,TaT5.llll Astragalu5 Cakaneus Proxim/ll mel/ll"saJ Distal me!.tt"'sal Firs! rh"I""gt' 5e
%
131
O O O O O .5 .08
O O O O O
.5 .5 .5 O O .5 .65 O O
.12 5 .07 .25 2.0 .5 .5 O O O O O O O O 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 O O O O
Duralion (lf occupalion 48 days Mean dale of OCC\lp.lbOll luly 24 Human conaumer day, 1680
25.0
3.5 1>5 100.0 25.0 25.0
O O O O O O O O 511.0 SO.O
snn SO.O SO.O O O O O
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
(4)
(5)
(M
(7)
(8)
('1
(10)
(11)
(121
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
1.0 1.0 2.0 O O 1.25
25.0 25.0
15
27.63
1.85 2.69
34.07
1.0 1.0 1.0 O
625 625
1.61
"'.3
2.5 '.0
62.0 100.00 18.0
.5 1.0 1.5 10 O .15 100 .16 .SO 1.00 .15 6.SO O 3.5 2.00 1.50 .70 150 .50 2SO O O 2.5
1.0 1.0 20 10 1.0 20 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.7 1.' 3.0
25.0
24.86
'S"
625 1000 SO.O
MNI
(2)
'.0 6.0
%
Amalgamation
(1)
25,0
Amalgamation reconstructíon
(two f"milies)
Recenstructed amalgamation dog yanb
Amalgama1h;m residenttel area
20.0
20.0 20.0
O O 20.0 25.0
O O
.25 25
13.6 10.0 100.0
15
60.0
1.0 O O O O O O O
40.0
.34
O
5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 12 O O 40 day!! luly 20
2312
O O O O O O O O
dog yards
.72
O 1.5 .5 2.0 1.5 1.0 4 .5
.s
1.5 1.0 1.0
SOO O O 31.2
O 37.0 12.5
so.o 37.0 25.0 10.0
125 12.5 37.0 25.0 25.0
20,0
15
37.0
60.0
.5 .5 1.0 O .5
12.5
40.0 40.0
600 60.0 '.8 O O
.12 O O 40 days luly 20 2312
12.5 25,0
1.35 2.19 O O 3.37 '60 5.43 4.87 3.00 O 2.77 2.94 3.57 3.49 2.12 1.33 1.35 1.47 394 370 3.33 2.27 1.31 1.35 2.70
"'33 O O 62.06 84.71 100.00 89.68 55.25
O 51.01
54.14 65.74 64.27 39.04 24.49 24,86 27.07 12.56 68.14
61.33 41.80 24.13 2Ulf, 4!i.n
O 12.5
3.0 O O
1.66 .66
40 dar. July 20 2312
JO.57 12.15
Akmoglik
....
as umpled
O O 3.87 5.25 5·U 4.87
3.34 25 5.27 (4.44)
4.57 3.49
>12 1.33 1.35 1.47
3.94 3.70 3.33 2.77 2.81 2.35
3.70 (1.5+) 3.16
0711
49.54
O O 71.27 96.68 100.00 89.ñ8 61.51 460 97,05
84.16 64.27 39.04 24.49 24.86"', 27.07 12.56 68.lf (,1.32 51.01 51.74 43.28 68.14 58.19 14.36
(ngeste
residenti.1
ti
O 1.6 1.3 .5 .1' SO 1.0
s
.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 .5
.5 O O O
,
.5 O O O
62.5 O O O 100
81.25 31.25
11.87 31.25 62.50 31.25 31.25
6250 62.50
6'50 6'50
.,,, 625
m
31.25
31.25
O O O
2.16
31.25 31.25
O
O O
.,
2.0 15 20 1.0
75 1.37
2.50
7.69
15.38 23.07 15.38
O
11.54 15.38 2.46
769 15.38 11.54 100.00
O 53.84
30.77 23,07 10.76
23.08 7.<11 38.46
O O 38.46 33.23
3"77 23.08
30.77 15.38 11.54 21.1)1 38.46
40 day! luly 20
33 oJaY' Sl'plember 3
56dilY! September 7
2312
594
"44
'.0 20 1.0 1.0 .5 .5 2.5 2.0 2.5 3.5 15 1.0 15 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0
25.0 SO.O 25.0 25,0
SOO SO.O SO.O 75.0 67.5 47.5 75.0
25.0 25.0 12.5 12..5
62.05 50.0 62.5 37.5 37.5 25.0 37.5 25.0 37.5
Sheep bones at teeteof other
Shl!'ep bonn al hmhc of Killikmjut
Col. 18 38.78
---
--
MNI
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
(17)
(18)
,1'1
(201
(21)
(221
(23)
1")
125}
10.1
26.04
15.64
16.04
41.62
O O
O O 6335 86.38
O O O O O O
O O O O O O SOO SO.O
O O O O O .5 .5
O O O O O
38.711 34.78
O O 24.57 33 SO 38711 34711
83.3
21.42
21.76
1.0 10 2.0 10 1.0 1.0 O O O 1.0 1.0 O 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 .5
SOO
'.6
5 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O .5 .5 .5
---:t4
Sheep
Caribou
gheep bones al tents 01 Iwo Tulugakmitlt
Col. 17 + 001.3
Col. 7
-
24.07 32.85
100.00 89.68 56.11
19.78
22.28
57.45
25.50
26.50 24.93 U.14
bursers
10.50 28.14 26.43
10.50 28.14 26.43
23.78
23.78
68.33 64.29 39.04 24.50 24.85 27.08 12.56 68.15 61.32
16.21
16.71
43.09
15
'.36
10.86
28.00
•.64
10.64 20.28
27.43 52.29
.5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5
24.93 15.14
....
.50
19.28 11.85
25.0
•.n
25.0 2S.0
4.71 4.71
........,
13.35
4.83 4.83 4.83
34.42 12.45 12.45 12.45
.,.,
50.0 1000
SO.O SO.O SO.O O O O SO.O 50.0
O SOO 100.0
SO.O SO.O 25.0 25.0 2.5.0
O
O O
15
75.0 75.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25,0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0
o
Tulugakrntut ,families
l., 1.5 2.5 2.7
•
3.0 1.5 2.0 1.0 O O O O 2.5 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 .5 1.0 5 1.0 O O O
900 300 100.0
SOO 66.6 33.3
O O O O 83.3
666
JlJ 666 33.3 16,6 33.3 16.6 33.3
O O O
famili.t
.,
100,0 100,0 100.0 100.0
O O O O O O O O O O O O O ti
O O ti
O O 100.0 100.0 1000
..
tl
w
~
.!
'"med botu
SOUras
O
O
Dry slo~
100.0
.75
O
3
O
3
O D O
.18
'.66
9 2 11
6 3 9
21 3 24 O
Number
"'O 30.0
87.5 12'
'"
5
100.0
O O 4 O 4
1.0
.'
i84
3 9
•
20.7 4.9 25.6
Expecred
Schcolteacher $i:le Dbserved
O O
~-~
-_._~----"---,.
TABLE 6.22
__ ;:_~'-~~~~
Dry stores
O O O
O O O O O O
O
o
O O
O
.75
4.09
2 8
•
11
5
•
28 11 45 O
Numbt>r
100.0
6 O 6 1
hunling
Dry srcres .nd encoumer
rr.r
1.0
14.6
42
9
O .214
41
, 7
2 O O O
O
o o
2
1 1 4
,
o o
O
.1'
7
5
17.4
28 3 15 18
23
10
>75
18
11
67.S
49.5
37.9 11.6
6>5
69.5 30.5
'"
Dry stores and encou.nler hunting
100.0
.214
....
8 O 8
O
• •
3 2
3 O
O
O
.68
2.61
• 19
7.32
IJ
11 7 18
36 11 41 O
226
3.2-1
65 17 82
28.2 '66.1 11.98
79.3 20.7
237.9
80~8
1'Oumber
Expe
Akmoglik site
ObservN
190 36
65 11 82
601 O
n
529
'"
Expeceed
Ingsted site
Observed Number
O
10
2.-17
5 6 11
17.25 9.96 27.21
hpoct
Amalgamaban site
A.cUa., Faca.: F_ _ "-e.b..... fro. Sala..... ""W-daI ~
-""~''''~~~d±
• DMC. distal metacarpaf PMT, proximal meliltarsal; Dr, distallibi.ol; Pf. proximal bbiil; Df. distal fémur.
• A11 sites weee swfececoüected ead nOoltlempl was made lo systemoltiC
l. food
Percentage up
R.u
H. Dis"'rnlbrrnrc!f ranos Front
Frene down Total Rear up Rear down Total
fronl up
G. Dis",tmbt'rrnMt {lQfues
Rear up PMT to tarsals PMT to DI Tarsals lo D'F PT lo Df
F~I
Rear down
DMC lo carpals
F. Arl'ic'Il14tilm5" Front down FlORt up
L
Rib heads Rib total
5haft ¡;pünters Articulator endS"'
D. ~ti05
C. Ribs Rib fragments Rib he ..ds To'"
MetapodiaJ Total
B. ArtiCtllator mds·~ Long bcne
A. ShtJft sp/ilflrrsSmoolh splinters Channeled spbnters Total splinters eyUnden.
Attributes
,",::,"~"""~--=-",!,W
[326J
6. Su-er
grane (ammes stilJ recall a very hungry summer in this campo Fish, ground squirrels, and
an occasional rack ptarmigan provided the stapie load of the KiIlik River people for much of the time at this campo Mosl caribou meat was from the drled rneat stcres uf the Tulugak
people. Informants sedly recell the lack of hunting success in the mountains, although expedítions were set out regularly. 5uch nttempts al local hunting by the migrants provided another source of sorne bíttemess. since they wanted to hunt very badly and the good hunt-
ers of the
Tulu~akmiut
were not going very
aften since thetr stores of dried meat were judged adequate for their demands. Thls meanl thal the men of fhe Killikmiut were greatly dill.dvantaged.. since they did not know the localterrain and the behavior of the animals in th.. t I(,Train durin¡; summl'r. Jnfor~ manl!l judged thal ntl ",UTC (han thn.'l' caritmu and une Dan ShCl'P wcrc killcd during the occupation of this sUe. Table 6.21. columns 3-10, summarizes the data recovered from the location.
the most out of every serap of food. Almost all families report the regular processing of bones (or bone juíce, the eating of feet, and even the occasional processing o( mandibles for marrow. lntc this atmosphere of greater cooperauce and decreasíng tension arrived several visitors, inc1uding Robert Rausch (1951) and notably Helge Ingsled, who published an lnformatíve monograph (1951) on his experieocce In this camp and in other campa vislted during the fall, winter, and spring uf 19491950. The site ís shown in the photograph facing page 17 in Ingsted's book. Ingsted arrived in early September and camped here in a lenl adjacenl to Simon Paneack's tent until the site was abandoned around September 25, 1949.
Al in the case of the Sehoolteacher ,ite, the faunal remains reported here are exc1usively from the tent rings and the area immediately around the hnbilatiull tenls. N'I dumps ur dug "rl!as arl' inc1uded in lhis sampl.... Thl' cílribou remains are summarized in Table 6.21, col~ umn 14.
Mode"". the Summer Ra'dentlGl S'b!8
Eighteen people occupied this locetícn for a total of 33 days. which yíelds in occupation record of 594 consumer day •. The recovered fauna) material is summarized in Table 6.21, column 12.
MODEUNG THE SUMMER RESIDENTIAL SITES Figures 6.48 and 6.49 show that the two early summer sites are more alike than eíther Is lo the late summer sües. The majar dífferences between the two 'rts of sites, as reported by Informents, are (a) Ihal encounter hunting was being regularly practiced from the Iwo late summer ,ites bul Iittle 5uch hunting was conducted (rom the two early sites; (b) that meat consumed (rom dried stores was selected from an essentially complete or "pris~ linl'" dril'd mcat popu lati,m 00 Ihe early llUmml'r Bites, whereíl~ food oonsumed at the laler sites was selected from a population al. ready biased in content by previous early
Akmogllk SIt. IngBted Slte
On August 10 the amalgamated bands moved (rom the Amalgamation sih! and set up their tenis tu southeast of the original Jocation. (See Figure 5.20 for the new localion.) They buih a "man's house," and the mave marked a reduction in tension and a change in the at~ titudes and behavíor of the Tulugakmiut fam¡Iy heads. loint expeditions to the tundra in the narth and to (he reliable saIt licks and high mountain haunts af bull caribau beca me regu~ lar affain. In short, caoperative hunting expeditions became more eommon and sueeess~ fui hunta increascd. Part uf thi~ inerea~ed cooperation wa!l occalOioned by HU' faet that the stores af the Tulugakmiut were naw largely exhausted and both groups were essentially without foed stores. In(ormants re~ eall the ¡ntense activity of hunting pMtíes op~ erating out of Ihis site (lhe Ingsted site) and the attempl by the women of the camp to get
In 1948, from August 18 until Septcmber 20, three families uf the TulugakTT,liut band eamped adjaeent to a series of smalt ,Iakes on the west side of Anaktuvuk River. (See Figure 5.2.) Thís camp was established after the abandonment of the Sehoolteacher site de~ scribed earlier. While living here Ihe three families lished for lingcod and hunted in the mountains to the west. The oeeupants re· ported that they had brought sorne dried meat from the dWindling stores at the Schoolteacher site but had supplemented these sCores from freshly killed animals that lhe huoters had taken io Che high mouotains. They also reporl hunling sorne nurscry hl'rds for skins on the tundra to the north. This sHe, like the others, was mapped and remains recovered from the tent locations and lhe area immediately adjacent lo rhl' houses. Dog yard5 ilnd dumps are nnl inc1udl'd in lhis sample.
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lummer usage; and (e) that a majar food crisis existed at the-Ingsted sue, where Informants repon the regular deslruction of bones for bone juice. The reader must also keep in mind thal the Nunamiut organize their stores and their patterns of use in terms of two consumer populations: dogsand humans. The data lllustrated in Figures 6.48 and 6.49 monitor only human consumptíon. Therefore, we can expect differencee among the assemblngcs conditioned by the deletions made for use by the dogs. Lel me attempt to make an importanl poinl more c1eerly. In the eerller chaptere on Che eeleceíon and processing of parts for dried storage I discussed the ioitial phase of a pro~ cess. I cautíoned that only under very rare circumstances would rhe archaeologist ever observe a populalian such as that described (or the víllage drying racks. Those data de~ scribcd a populatiun uf ílnatomical parta JURI days afler mlgmliun hunting durinR which time consumption was notfrom tllar popuUrtion, but of fresh meat introduced during the eourse
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[328)
of the hunting and processing actívíties Isee Chapter 5). Once the hunting activity is over, consumptíon shifts to the dried meat populañon itself. The archaeologist could only observe debris from consumption that would correspond to the original popuJation of dried meat if (a) al1 selections for use were purely random through time end/or (b) the occupaticn was of a duration greater than the periad of consumption from dríed meat atores, so that regerdless al any biases that might correlate with the sequence oí use during the period oí storage dependence the cumulative effeet would be to duplicate the originar populatioo al the time the stores were elChausted. We already know that selectioo ol parts for consumption from stored popuJaban, is nat random. We have seen such bias suggested in the data from the dried meat cache of Billy Morry (Chapter 5). We have seen a bias in the sequence of dog feeding documented in Table 6.4. Finally, observations made directly and interviews with informanls confirm sequence bias and are suggestive of the considerations that condilion the bias. The basic storage strategy regarding summer dried meat was explained by an elderly informant as follows: The~ ¡s a Iilll~ mor~
lhan 4 of your monlhs bfiwt'en lOpring and ritU migralion. We try lo put up enough meat lo lasl almos! !hal long. The Eskimo lhinks that ht" wHl nol h.a"e toeal il all. If ~verylhing gQ\>lO we\l w~ should be getring more and mOTe fresh meat ~ginrnng in AugulOl. We have to hunl fur fal, skiM fllr winler, and hunling gl'ts b.,'ller and betler frum early August untillhe canbou come. Wl' St'e mllOSt', bears "re fal, Shl't'p gt' to lhe licks, /InJ big Citribl.,u bu lis likl' Ihe high mounl"ins-we hunl'f'm alJguod Ihat time of year. We only l'al dried meal in JUf\l'and luly if l'verythinggoel \Yell. We eal parllO on rack$ wilh ntl blmes, dogs eal parl!'! wilh blme!l. We Iry Itl bep dl~Ks KIlI>d S(l we flW 'em good sturt-ribs, briskl't. KOIl<1 fmnl Il'gs, and f'l'lv¡s. If t'v~rylhing is bad-no mOU!>l', nu fal b.,'an, shwp ilnd caribou nnl c1uSt'Iu muunlitín!i, w" pl't'lty 500n stilr! eating ribs, briskt'l, and h'l rTonl)egs. Dog5 gellhe baekboneand women Slilr!fet-'dil18 thedogsour bones. Eskimos say when dog!> 8eluurblln~s Its time lo mllve befort' they gl"t !>kinny
Tr.,nslating this striltegy into "rules" for summl'r Clmsumpti~," is mllll'r !limpll', f:url'nW!'i1 in Ihl' min,is nf 11ll' Eskilllu sdl'cling
.
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parts for consumption are three Iactors: (a) the amouot of usable meat, (b) the time required to procesa the meat for consumption, and (c) the quality of the meato For the first two factor! we have fairly relíable anatomical criteria for use in monitoring decisions. Meat without bones is favored and for those dried parts containing bones the meat utiüty lndex should be a reliable monitor of selection bias. However, judging quality presenta a problem. We have no method of judging past quality from the bones afone. We have seen that parts were selected fcr storage in the contemporary village ice cenar! from two populations (see Figure 3.25 and accompanying discussion). Parts of the front legand neck stored were distributed as a "gounnet" graph relalive to the parts actually introduced from the kili site whereas partsof the body and rear leg were distributed linearlyor essenliaIly in terms of the prior decisions of a bulk· oriented form made at the kili site. This same condition characterizes the placement of parts of the front leg on the drying racks when consumptlon for both humans and dogs is anticipated from the dried stores. Processed front legs are fat, whereas unprocessed front legs are skinoy. That is, meat stripped from the humerus and dried attached to/he scapula is generally from an animal con9i.dered in good nutritional condifion. On the other hand, if the front quarter is placed on the rack unprocessed, ji is normally from an animal in poor nutritional condition and more appropriately thought of as dog food. This di!· ference in treatment at the time of processing is indicative of quality differences bul obvi· ously we haye no way of monitoring this if w! see only scapulas or other bones of the front leg. For processing time, the rule is rather sim· pie, If the part contains smooth-surfaced bones. processing time is less than it would be if the part contains irregular-surfaced bones such as verlebrae. Thus processing time js less for leg bone. ribs, and stcrnums, and highest fur vertebral' and pelvist's (dl'pcndinJ; un huw thc animal Wil~ butchl'rt.'d éll thl' timl' "r dry~ ing).
Nodell... die Summer R.J...,hrl Sita
Given this understanding we may anticipate that human consumption from dried stores during the early parl of summer will be primariJy of meat contaíning no bonee. A bias in the opposite direction would exíst for dogs. In late summer humans wiI1 increasiogIy consume ribs, etemum, pelvis. and scapula from nutritionally good enlmels. Dogs will, in tum, receive more vertebrae and parte from the front leg from undernourished animals. We may also expect the number of bones to be very low in early summer residentiallocations and highest in the dog feeding areas. Late summer residential locations will exhibit an increase in bone per consumer day as a func~ tion of both increased consumption of dried meat rontaining bones and increased probabilities of success in encounter hunting activities during late summer. As I have already indicated, given a se· quence bias in the choice of parte utilized from sto res, we can expect the frequencies of parts in faunal remains observed al intervals through the consumption sequence to be vari· abZe and differellt from the frequencies of parts actually in storage before consumption begins.ln fact, differences between the faunaI composition of a site and the composition of the original dried meat population wiI1 ¡ncrease as a function of the rnobility realized during the course of consumption from the stores, In other words, the greaterthe discrepancy bttween Ihe duratian o{ an occupation and the Juration 01 consumpfion lrom stortS, lht grtaler the variance in anafornical parffrequencies obstrvab~ bttween fhe several occupations as wtll as beflOte" any one assembIDgt and Iht original composition o{ fhe Jried meal popul4tion. In the case of the data available, we can see that the Nunamiut, overthe 1948-1949 period, moved their camps three times durihg the history of fhe dried meat population. Meat was processed and dried at the Tulugak 2A site by the Tulugakmiut in 1949 (described in Chapter 5). They theh moved to the Amalga. mation site and from there to the Ingsted site. DurinR illl this.timt.'me..t was bt'ing consumed (mm ~turl'S; howl'ver, only mlnor consumptiun f((lm storc!l charildcri2.cd the occupation
[329)
at Tulugak 2(\. This means that there were al least three decísíon-making junctures duriog the period of consumption from dried meat stores. In the earlier discussions of the faunal remains from the Tulugak 2A site models with sorne credlbility were developed for the population present et that site (Table 5,12). Given the arguments presented at that time it was possíble to estimate the composition 01 the meat racks in that site at the end of Ihe occupation (Table 5.12, column 33). That would bave been the population available to the cccupants of the Amalgamation sih.> for use (summarized in Table 6.23, columo 1). We may suspect thal this population served primarily as the source of dog foad for the occupants of the Amalgamation site. We may also suspect that given the obvious shortage of food occasioned by the appearance of the entire KíIlikmiut band thal a very conservative selectlon of parIJ would have characterized the parls led to the dogs. 1 tried several altemative medel!. tor this situation and found that the estimate of the population available for use (Table 6.23, rol· umn 1) multiplied by the cube of the tCUt and then multiplied by the survival percentages ro counteract the effect of bone destruction by Ihe dogs during feeding approximated the actual frequencies observed in the dog yards on the Amalgamation site. Figure 6.50 iIlustrates the fit between the model and the actual data. Parts underrepresented in the data are the neck and ribs. both parts with high drying potential or parts apt to be culled at hunting camps (in the case of the neck), Parts overrepresented relative to the model are all parts of the rear leg as well as Ihe distal humeros and proximal radio·cubitus from the front leg. These are all elemenls we might anticipa h.' in processing areas for dried meat. If Ihe presence of these parts in the dog yard is the result of the slripping of meat for drying, the implication is that fresh meat was being introduced to the Amalgamation silc and partscullcd in thl' proct.'ssing stflgl' Wt.'W bl'ing fed to the dogs. Thi!'l cannut rt.·01l1y bt' evalualed indl'pl.'ndl'nlly uf thl' d
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Proximal metacarpal Distal metacarpal Proximal femur Distal femur Proximal tibia Distal bbia Tarsals Astragalus Cakaneus Proximal metatarsal Distal metatarsal First pha1&nge Second phalange Third phalange
Urpm
Cervical vertebrae Thoradc vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae Pelvis Ribs Stemwn Scapula Proximal humerus Distal humeros Proxim.d radio-eubitus Distal radio-eubitus
Axis
Ander SkuU Mandibie Atlas
Anatomical part
Stemum Sapula Proximal humerus Distal humerus Proximal radio-eubitus Distal radio-eubitus Carpals Proximal metacarpal Distal metacarpal Proximal temur Distal ',""ur Proximal tibia Distal tibia Tarsals AstragaJus Calcaneus Proximal metatarsal Distal metatarsal First phalange Second phalange Third ph&Langt'
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Anatomical part
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24'
10000 28.00 3535 .51 2311 234I 1.71 26.24 1.47 1.63 26.55 10.71 .42 11.93 .58 1255 .56 O O O O O O O O O O O O O .~ • O O, O O O .46 .06 .46 .06 .46 .06
S026
4.27 5.26 3.04 3.46 3.06 5.46 8.60 3.14 .33
(4)
100.00 36.51 383 28.95 5.93 19.88 17.09 18.95 488 6.74 651 O O O O O O O O O .93 .93 .93
6348
49.65 61.16 3535 40.23 35..58
(5)
"8.6if""
Col. 4
Part5 surviving after dog feeding
O O 244 264 1.96 24.78 43.77 24.84 '''8 86.93 73.22 20.15 5.6 5.44 233 260 .21 .40 .47 O O O O O O O O O O O O
(6)
Col. 1 col. 2
O O O O O O O O O O O
.o
O O 281 3.04 225 28.51 SO.35 28.51 7222 10000 84.23 2318 6.44 625 268 299 .24 .46 .54
(7)
Col. 6 86.93
O 4.44 '.06 5.31 5.31 34.51 46.99 29.92 SO.02 52.34 69.57 34.28 20.06 19.13 10.61 11.25 1.39 3.99 4.31 7.51 7.51 5.24 3.45 2.31 2.31 2.31 1.43 1.54 .1' .1' .1'
(8)
Table 6.8. col. 25 x IPI
Parts on racks after dog teeding
. . . . . .tIaIA.e.......
O 2.33 6J17 2.98 2.98 37.05 56.97 JO.41 62.14 66.32 100.00 40.60 23.75 19.58 8.49 7.50 1.49 1.85 1.14 13.48 13.48 7.11 3.12 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.06 .91 .09 .09 .09
(11)
O 6.44 12.73 1.61 7.61 43.34 56.16 38.29 59.29 61.29 16.29 41.40 26.52 24.80 14.69 15.50 10.40 5.71 6.21 7.51 7.51 5.75 4.41 3.10 3.10 3.10 1.99 2.14 .28 .28 .28
(12)
O 8.44 • 16.69 9.98 9.98 56.81 73.61 50.19 71.72 80.30& 100.00 54.27 34.15 32.51 19.26 20.32 13.63 7.56 8.14 9.84 9.84 7.54 5.86 4.(16 4.06 4.06 2.61 2.81 .'SI .'SI .'SI
(13)
61.(8 21.31 17.09 14.13 6.54 5.99 2.61 1.49 1.38 7.51 7.51 4.22 2.25 1.03 1.03 1.03 .83 .11 .08 .08 .08
43.'0
O 1.89 4.74 2.38 2.38 25.93 37.95 21.70 4UM
(14)
O 3.09 7.76 3.89 3.89 42.45 62.13 35.53 67.19 70.84 100.00 44.71 27.98 23.13 10.71 9.81 9.27 2.44 2.26 12.29 12.29 6.91 3.68 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.36 1.16 .13 .13 .13
(15)
O 6.38 10.60 4.76 5.46 23.07 16.43 18.33 5.52 O 1.12 28.46 19.93 19.01 10.21 10.83 7.67 4.46 4.81 6.28 6.28 4.73 3.11 2.08 2.08 2.08 1.30 1.39 .24 .24 .24
(16)
7.31 7.31 1.31 4.57 4.88 .84 .84 .84
10.92
O 22.41 37.24 16.72 19.18 8U)6 57.73 64.41 19.39 O 3.93 100.00 70.03 66.79 35.81 38.05 26.95 15.67 16.90 22.07 22.07 16.62
(17)
Col. 10 TilIbJe 6.8. col. 'O x Col. 12 Table 6.8. col. 28 x Col. 14 Col. 9 x Col. 16 55.71 [pi 76.29 IPI 61.08 (IDI)' 28.46
1.61 1.96 211 O O O O O O O O O .06 .06 .06
'.07
8.04 34.14 5252 36.73 73.27 10000 7688 2477 8.62 8.50 5.76 11.89 10.49 13.07 3.66 462 302 306 3.43 3.41 1.40 1.56 1.64 O O O O O O O O O .06 .06 .06
O O 35.88 6289 46-52 71.61 66.95 90.97
O O 4.69 8.22 '.06 '.36 &75
O O 7.13
m86
(3)
(2)
TABLE6.23 .. Mode . . . . . ._
Col. 2 Col. 1 x 13.01 5P
(1)
Stage- 2 drying Col. 1 x ~ OGUl)'
Part5 selected as dog toad
De.lep
O 9.94 2UJ6 7.93 9.08 73.47 59.10 55.26 20.39 O 4.18 100.00 70.02 57.74 24.22 21.41 4.61 6.09 5.76 33.43 33.43 19.02 8.36 3.16 3.J6 3.16 2.81 2.43 .34 .34 .34
(19)
O 8.4413.59 6.23 7.15 26.42 17.91 21.39 5.98 O 1.12 31.36 24.m 22.48 12.90 13.61 9.85 5.87 6.33 5.7.1 5.7.1 '4.7.1 3.68 2.5; 2.55 2.55 1.65 1.77 .3:1 .l:J .33
(2'0)
Col. 18 Col. 13 x 23.e (101)1
.05 .05 .05
O 1.3 3.38 1.66 1.66 20.64 31.74 16.94 34.62 36.95 55.71 22.62 13.23 12.91 4.73 4.18 .83 1.03 .97 1.51 1.51 3.96 1.74 .65 .65 65 .5' .51
(10)
Tablt 6.23 Gmtinllts on Pagr 332
O 2.33 4.94 1.86 2.13 17.23 13.86 12.96 4.78 O 1.12 23.45 16.42 13.54 5.68 5.02 1.08 1.43 1.35 7.84 1.84 4.46 1.96 .74 .74 .74 .66 .57 .08 .08 .08
(18)
(101)'
Col. 11 x
O '.38 13.02 7.63 7.63 49.60 61.54 43.00 71.89 75.23 100.00 49.27 28.83 21.49 15.25 16.11 10.62 5.74 6.19 10.79 10.7'9 7.53 4.96 3.32 3.32 3.32 2.06 221 .27 .27 .27
(')
Col. 8 Table 6.8. col. 26 x 69.57 lPl
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hunting expedition, such as a hunting campo For this rcason I think t".1t the bcst cstirnate uf the population introduced Iresh would be antidpated by one of the models fcr populations of parts removed to a residentiallocation from a hunting campo Table 6.g, cclumns 25-28, summarizes sorne' of the likely patterns of fauna! remeins introduced inlo a residenttal locatíon from a hunting eamp. If such populaHons were processed for drying at a residential location, the parta remaining alter processing would be rnonitored by multiplying the population introduced by the inverse realísttc processing indexo Such effects of processing are indicated in Table 6.23, columna 8-15. If the pcpulañon was then placed on drying racks in terms of dryabílity crtteria with an eye to maximizing the availability of fresh meat, Ihe likely weighting would be the cube of the Inverse dryíng index (Table 5.12, column 16). The effects of placing parts in dry storage are índíceted for the various forms oí Introduced population in Table 6.23, eolurnns 16-23. Figure 6.51 illustrates the fit between data from the tent areas on the Amelgnmañon süe ano
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human consumption since we would expect a strong bias thc..>w in íever o( ~ny (resh rneat evailable. .. In the tent areas the scapula is dominant, and there is only a minor eontribution from the ribs. No pelvlses are present. This pettern ís familiar from earlíer discussions of the consumption bies in favor of the swing popuJation, or parts associated with the drying of meat. The swing population is made up of those perts that are fairly productive of meat but unlikely to dry successfully without processing, Nevertheless, they arenot as valuable as many parts, rendering the labor investment in proc::essing unclear al best. In mast oC the preceding cases, we found that this swing population was either consumed early, to
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unpwct'Sscd i1~ inl'lumncl' ur "marginal '(ores, " Sinee this slte was oecupied during early SUmrner when temperatures are rising and when game is mast searce in the area around Anaktuvuk Pass, any fresh meat would have been introduc::ed from .an extended enc:ounter
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uel.
I334J
Model'ng fhe Summe, Ral.,lIltJI Sita
6. Summer
the model for the likely swíng population from whkh fresh meat wae drawn (Table 6.23, column 23). Three tacets oi this distribution are notable: (a) The parts ot the fronl leg as well as the thoracíc vertebrae scale with the model nicely; (b) the cervical and lumbar vertebrae are underrepresented: and (e) overrepresented are the head (antlers, skull, and mandible), tarsals and metatarsals, as wel1 as the ribs and stemum in a minor way. Campariog this distributton to that for the dog yards ís lnstructive. We immediately note that in both distributions the parte overrepresented are essentially reversals oi ene another. Por instance, the femur and tibia are overrepresented in the dog yards and the tarsals and metatarsals are overrepresented in the data from human consumption. This condition re· flects, in myapinion, the absence of a special processing site where parts processed for drying were abandoned as was the case during spring when large numbers ol animals were being processed. In this situalion n'lativeJy lew animals were introduced and they were probably processed lar drying neélt the residence, most Iikely adjacent to the drying racks. Bones remaining from processing are then being differentiated, with high-marrowyielding bones 5uch as the metatarsal being retained in the residentiallocation for human consumptíon. and bones from the upper leg being fed to the dogs perhaps alter processing for marrow or as stripped bones with the adhering meaty material. We saw a similar situation in the case of the village processing areas and dog yards during late spring when straggler hunting to the south oC the village resulted in the introduction of a few relatively compJete animals into the village area. (See Chapter 3, Table 3.6. p. OO.) In both dog and human samples the cervical vertebrae are un· derrepresented. This could result in a biased placement of these relatively low vaJue parts on the drying racks or a biased use of these in the hunting camps, Reviewíng the data from both summer kills and hunting camps, we have consístently noled the overrepresentation of the cervical vertebrae and sometimes
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the atlas and axis in such locations (see diecussions of Slte 27 and all the lover camps). Similarly, in residential data the cervical vertebrae were even underrepresented in the data on sheep introduced to resídential locations (see Figure 6.24). We have consístently found the cervical vertebrae to "mísbehave" in terma of the models. This may be bias on the part of the Eskimo or more likely some bias in the anatomical inlormalion that serves as the basis lar the models. The statistically minded individual may not be very tmpressed with the ñts of these modela te the data for both dogs and humana. One could legutmately ask whether many of the assumptions regarding the differential use of load for dogs versus humans are unjus~ tified, ThU! far 1 have suggested that dog! were receiving lood primarily from a dried meat population, whereas bones remaining on the residential localions were primarily from fresh meat sources, and the bulk of the food came from dried meat (mm which the bones had been previously removed. These assumptions are consistent with what J know of Eskimo behavior, but for the archaeologist faced with an unknown assemblage, what clues would exist that such a partitioning af sources was contributing to the character of the assemblage? ..'. H we looked at the total assemblage, igoor· ing for the moment Ihe differences between dog areas and human areas, what would the assemblage look like? In Table 6.21, column 8, are presented the "reconstructed" values for the assemblage as it was fed to the dogs. That is, the lrequencies observed were divided by Ihe survival percentages to provide an estimate of the population as it was original1y constituted prior to the destructive action of the dogs. Figure 6.52 iIlustrates the fit between the reconstructed total population and a model for parts introduced from a hunting camp to a resídential location, We see that the fit is intemally consistent and the site is clearly a residential site or a recipienl of matl'rial from 31(lgisticalsystem. AH parts o( .he axial skere· ton and the front leg are positively correlated
13351
with the model, except for the slight overrepresentation of the lumbar vertebrae and the underrepresentation of the atlas and axis vertebrae. Appearing as a positively correlated but independent distribution converglng on the fírst are all parts of the rear leg and the ribs. What clue is there in this situation to the use of dry meat? Part of this problem arises because we have a complete population for the faunal remaíns from human consumption but an incomplete population for the faunal remains from the dog yards--the data from only two dog yards. representing approximately 14% of the total dog feeding that occurred on the site, have bccn collected. In addttíon, the two samples are from members of the Tulugakmiut band-the group most secure in terma of food. If we project the reconstructed dog food popu. laUon to a level indicative of the total dog feeding on the site, a situation comparable to the data (rom human consumption, a slightly different picture is obtained. The projection of thc dog feeding data is accomplished by dividing the reconstructed population by .14, the estimate of the percent-
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age of the total dog feedlng actívíty represented by the materials frcm the two family dog yards investigated. The results are given in Table 6.21, columns 17-19. Figure 6.53 illustrates the fit between the projected data plus the observed data from the residential areas displayed egeínst the same model as was used in Figure 6.52. We note irnmediately that the seemingly clear pícture of two distributions in Figure 6.52 ís no longer as cJear cut. In fact, those parta that are clearly overrepresented are the pelvis, and thoracic and lumbar vertebrae.Jn addiñon, the cervical vertebrae, distal humerus, and proximal radio-cubitus also appear overrepresented. The former group ineludes parts that would be abundant in the use of a dried meal population. The overrepre· sentation of the distal humeru9 and proximal radio-cubitus would be anticipilted in process· ¡ng parts for dry meat storage given what we have previously seen about summer kili siles. In addition, the appiUent undl'rrepresentation o( the distal tibia .1Od tht" tarsals also fits with earJier observations of their overabundance on summer kili sites. In shorl. we cuuld
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interpret the evidence as indicative o( the use of dried meat when the data from dog feeding are projected to a sample size comparable with that represented by the data frcm human consumption. Another alternative may be more germene. 1 wiIJ take this up after discussing the Ingsted síte. This discussion should demonstrate the irnportance of structural control ayer archaeological data. Oae "uds lo havesamples 01 equal
comprehensiventsS from differrntiated areas of a s;le before attempting to íníerpret Ihe total assem-
blase. • Turning now to the assemblage from the Schoolteacher síte, we have data from che residential areas cnly and no data on dog feeding. Figure 6.54 illustrates the fit between the data and the modelthat was used in eveluating the data frcm the residential areas of the Amalgamation site. In this case the fit is fairly good and curvilinear for a1l parts except ribs, sternurn, and pelvis, all parts that we may clearly relate to the consumption of parts from dry mpat stores. In addition, the metalarsal and tarsals are overrepresented as was the case with the comparable data from the Amal-
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gamation site. Their presence is mostccrtatnly for the same reasons-bíased marrow consumption from introduced fresh meat sources. As in the case of the Schooiteacher site we have faunal material frorn the residential areas only of the Akmoglik stte, the summer locatíon people moved to after leaving the Schoolteacher síte. The faunal remains al Schoolteecher fit a model of consumption of fresh meat from a few animals íntroduced and processed for drytng. We anticípate that the bulk of the actual meat consumed was of dried parts not contaíníng bones. As summer wears on we may anticipa te twochanges: an tncrease in the euccesses in encounter hunting and an íncrease in the consumption of dried meat parts containing bcnes. Thua. as in the earlier cases we may entictpate rwo major sources of the faunal assemblage: a dried meat source remaining ftom spring-killed animals as modified by earlierconsumption, and a fresh meat source derived from encounter hunting actívitíes o( late summer. I chose lo build el mode! for the dried meat source since inspection of the data (rom Akmoglik shows a dominance of the population by thoracic verlebrae. a parl assodated with dried meat populatíons. Table 6.23, columns 24-27, develops a model (or consumption from dried meat slores in a late summerresidentiallocation. The moél~1 buildhave ing begins with the parts modeled been present on the drying racks after con· sumption at an early summer site (Table 6.23, columns 6-7). This population is then cullcd in terms of lhe cube of the inverse drying indt.'x. That ¡s, consumer preference is given to those parts least Iikely to dry well. The remaíning population is then split lOto two components-one for dogs and one for humans-by assum· ing a selection for humans in lerma of the MGUI. Figure 6.55 illustrates the fit between the data from the Akmoglik site and the model presented in rabie 6.23, colurnn 27. We note that the parts realistically considercd present in a dried meat population scale very nicely with the model except for the cervical vertebrae. On the olher hand, parts of the upper
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I't.'ar leg. lowcr front Icg, and head appear overrepresented to a large degree. Once again the proportions of lower front leg parts are greater than the proportions of lower rear leg parts. This condition was anticipated in the summer kilIsite data where we noled a greater culling of lower rear leg elements related to packing problems arising from the weight differentials between fronl and rear leg. We have here the debris from processing for drying withoul the indications for a split feeding of dogs noted at the Amalgamation site. The high frequency of the head is in all probability a spurious fact relative lo food. The single large bull's head on this sile was associated with a single tent nng, and judging from the antier development it is a late fan head. It was mast certainly introduced to the site for reasons other than as a source 01 tood. It was associated with an area where there were a number of abandoned parts of a smal1 commercially manufactured canoe. We may speculate lhat the head was introduced from an earlier kill-cache location in conjunction with the repair of a boat. Several major branches
of the antlers were partially sawed off, suggesting their use in conjunction with the replacement of parts in the canee. I tum now to the Ingsted site, where we know there was extreme food stress. lnformants report that dried meat stores were essentially exhausted and that great effort was expended in encounter hunting. Additionally, informants recall renderiog bone juiee from bones and consuming of such marginal parta as feet. Normally feet are prepared independently of the preparation 01 bcne juice from long-bone articulator ends and the Hke. Inssted (1951) prcvldea 8 fine deacriptlon uf one of the means of preparing feet . Finally there is knurkle fat. The knuckles are crushed with a .Ion~ hemmee to whirh a willow hanJll' is leshed. Then the rr1ass is boill'd tiUlhe fat mes up. The Eskimos attach gteal importanre lo Ihe boiling nol being too hatd, thf'Yregulate it by Ihrowing snow on il. This fat has a peculiar ddicate taste. Somf'timf'S it is miltf'd wilh blood and th~n becomes a spccial dish called urjutilik Ip. 10..").
Since we know thal most consumption was from fresh meat sources and that thcre was encounter hunting we may anlicipate that parts introduced into the location were variable depending upon transport and precessing problems in the field. The model that appears to accommodate the data best is a compound of a normal candidate population that assumes processing independently of the residentiaJ loc
• (338)
6. Su_er
Table 6.23, columo 33. Figure 6,56 illustrates the fit between the dala from the Ingsted site and the model. The Ingsted sne is the first oí the residential
locations lo have yielded a considerable amount al sheep bone. The relatívely high frequency is consistent with the infonnation available that hunting was extensive and that
the site was occupted during late summer. Modeling this situation is almost certain to be difficult srnce an extended logistical system is
ínvclved. Al leasl kili siles and hunting camps are probably ínvclved prior to the introduction of meat into the residentiallocation. More
important, hcwever, is the likelihood that sheep meat was regularly shared and distrfbuted among a number of households. In addition, the treatment of the meat, once received, is líkely te have verted depending on the particular security of the famiJy receívmg the meat. Table 6.21, columna 20-25, summarizes the data on sheep bone distribution among the tent areas 01 the Tulugakmiut and KiUikmiut families occupying the Ingsted site. Within the
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famiJies of the Tulugakmiut band 1 ha ve presented a further breakdown where the two families who reported to me that they had successfully hunted sheep duríng this occupation are separated from those who eíther reported no sheep hunting euccesses or were uncertaín on the poínt. Two points are clear: (a) TIte vasl majority of sheep bones were recovered from Tulugakmiut tents and (b) the relatíve frequencíes of parts occurring on the sítes al the two families reportíng sheep hunt¡ng euccesses are vastly different from the remains at the other Tulugakmiut family tents. Figure 6.57 iIIustrates the contraste between the two sets of data from within the Tulugakmiut bando lt is clear that the two sets of data are essentiaily mirrorimages. Parts low in frequency at the two successful hunters' tents are high at the other tents. This distribution most certainJy derives from the sharing of meat by element to the unsuccessful famílies. In an earlier descrlption of a Iheep meal dislribution (Chapler 5, p. 142), 1 pointed oul Ihal
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F1SUre 6.58. Relationship between .hl'ep relNlinl hum haUteS of IUCCl'lIful sheep huntt'rI at the Ingsled SÍle and modl'led vlllues.
Flpre 6.59. Relatien.hip bttween .hHp remalna from heuH's ef unsuccessful hunt.", .1 the Ing,~d .Itl' and modeled v.lues.
the successfulhunter primarily retained parts of marginal utility. This is certainly the siroation reflected in the sheep banes among the TuJugakmiut familles. Figure 6.58 illustrates the fit between the data from the two success· fui hunters' tents and a model for radical culling after an earlier culling either at a kitl or at a hunting campo The fit appears relatively good for aH parts except the mandible. homs, ribs, and stemum, which are overrepresented, and the scapula, Ihoracic vertebrae, and lumbar vertebrae, which are underrepresented. That this ¡sa culling strategy isapparent. However. there is a biased retention of two high-value parts, Ih~ ribs and thc sternum. These may 9imply b~ the hunters' indulgence. Camparing the parts occurring in the other Tulugakmiut family areas with the model for parts avaHable after a cull as modeled in Figure 6.58 is instructive. This comparison is illustrated in Figure 6.59. Once again the fit of the data to Ihe model certainly indicates that we are in the correct ban park. However, there is a vast overrepresentation of the scapuJa. proximal
humeros, and distal tibia; relative to these parts the lumbarvertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, pelvis, femur, stemum, and ribs are under· represented yet correlated with the model. 1 believe that the recipients of these underrep· resented high~value parts were Killikmiut families. However, so few bones were recovA ered Irom their tents that this cannot be demonstrated. These were the families suffering most from the lack oí sto res. They were prob· ably treating their food remains differently than the Tulugakmiut families, namely. they were feeding their garbage to the dogs. One Killikmiut woman commented, "We killed two dogs there becausc we did not have enough gilrbagl' to kl~p lhl·m," Unfurtunately, 1 did not collect assemblages fmm the dog yards at this camp since they were in heavily vegetated areas and would have required extensive excavation. Despite the lack oí the data needed to demonstrate different disposal strategies among the Tulugakmiut and Killikmiut families. one set of conditions appean clear from the data .
13401 Th~ bulk dI lh~ ahArinA by lh~ Tulu~Akllllul huntera WaI wlth other"'urugakmlut {ftmllh~•.
However, 1 euspect that what shariog OC~ curred between the Tulugakmiut hunters and the KilIikmiut families was in terms of very choice anatomical patts. This is c1early suggeseed by the dominance, in recipient Tulugakmiut family data, of the scapula although the higher-value ribs, pelvis, and femur are less common. That this would be true is consistent with my experíences with the Eskimo in sharing with me as well as in their discussions of sharing strategles. One of the hunters represented by the "succeseful' hunter data here pUl the situation to me as
follows: "When hunting is not so good and reopIe are hungry, the hunter feeds his close relatives first bUI if others are around-not so close relatives-he gives Ihem not so much but a really good part, then nobody can say he is selfish." These are interesting data in that the sharing is essentially unidirechonal. That is. no reciprocal sharing complica tes the faunal pieture. We shall have the opportunity to examine instances oí reciprocal sharing in the chapterson fall and winter sites (Chapters 7 and 8). One interesting characteristie of these data is the demonstration that similar decisionmakíng strategies may characterize very dif. ferent contexts. Here we see in the camps of the successful hunters a faunal assemblage that our previous expericnce associates with nonresidential hunting camps where culling is responsive to transport problems. In addition, we note the vast differences between sheep •and caribau assemblages from the same residentiallocation. These differences relate to the different sharing treatment of the two species and in this case do not reflect different logisti. cal considl'rations. I would retoro for a moment to the data from the Amalgamation site whert> the same problems eldsled bul were somewhat lcss se· rious because of the presl'oec of dry meat stores. Here the ribs aod rear leg of thc caribou were underrepresenled relative to thc scapula and some vertebral segments. (See Figure 6.53.) One could, given the comparative data
6. Su,",",",
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pret the carlbou data from the Amelgematton site in similar terma, a blased sharing of highutility parts of freshly killed caribou with the Killikmiut familíes who in tum were feeding garbage lo their dogs. Since the dog yard data from the Amagamation sne are from Tulugakmiut Iamilíes, we once again have no way of clearing up the ambiguities. Regarclless of the lack of olear-cut model fitting. the faet that these Iwo sites, Amalgamation and lngsted, present us with more ambiguities than most of the others discussed may well be an Indlcation in itself that food scarcity is a major eontingency that conditions differential usage and in tutn ¡ncreased decision~making chains that we are currently not modeJing. Turning now to the problem of the relationshíp between faunal frequencies and the actual consumer needs of a population, wt> have some interesting material. The striking faels about these cakulations is the diHerencc cxhibitecl by Ihe 5ummer sites when they are compared to both the spring residential sites and the summer hunting camps (Table 6.20). In the case of aH the hunting camps the numbcr of animals observed excecded the number needed. We note a similar bul much less extreme paltern for the spring residential locations. A striking reversal is charaeteristic of the summer residential loeations. S~veral factors eontribute to thesc differences. For the hunting camps we h..d data on dog consumption and such infonnation is generally lacking for the residential locations. We may expect that if 5uch dog feeding data were available from the summer residential locations the number of animals observed would be somewhat higher. On the other hand, the consumer days would be similarly increased so thal thc numberof animals needed would also increase. Nevertheless, based on the limited data available from the Amalgamation site (see Table 6.21) the number of animals ob· servcd would increase lo a grcalcrdcgn.'l' than Ihe number needed, given the bias for fl'cding the parts of lower utility and hence Ihl? parts with included bones to dogs. We may expecl thal the actual values ar
13411
Mode"n, the Summer Raldentlal SJta
rAtiol areíneccurate giv@n Ihf abl@nCf ofdAla
coupl@d wlth iftcr~R!inR fftCounl@r hunllng .nd the tntroductlon of (reah meet wlth thl" associated culling of bony parts. As a result there is an Increase in the bone dcbris relative to the amount of meat consumed when these sítes are compared with early summer sites.
doga. Neverthele••, the general trend •• nd cverall contrast between the sues when compared to the hunting camps most certainly betray real and systematic diíferences. What are these, and how might we account for them? (!O
Compart.on. of E.Jly Summer and Late Summer Slte.
Comparl-on. of Slte. Evldencing Dlfferent Level. of Food Stra..
The ratios of caribou cbserved to caribou needed are lowest at the early summer sites and they are very similar. The exceedingly 10w value is lo be understood in terms of the baste consumption of dried meat, the bulk of which does not contain bones. Mast of the edible malerial on a dried meat rack is actualIy stripped meat from the quarters, the tender-
In 1948 the Schoolteacher site and the Akmoglik site were occupled by the Tulugakmiul in that arder. There were no reporta of food shortages. During the same period of time in 1949 first the Amalgamation site and then the Ingsted site were occupied. Food shortages materialized at the Amalgamation site and are reported lo have been severe at the lngsted site. These conditions are most certainly n·· flected in the ratio summarized in Table 6.24. The ratio moves from .10 lo .23 for the early to late summer occupations in 1948, whereas for 1949 the ratios move from.09 to .18 for identi· caJ IUlOn.1 moves. The lower values almost eertainly reflect something of this food stress.
loin, belly sheets, and the loin (lhe underside uf the lumbar vertebrae). It is this material that humans are primarily eating in Ihe early su mmer camps. None of this results in the aeeumulation of bone debris. In bolh af the late summer sites we may expect In inctelle In the consumption of dried meat containing bones
rABLE6.24
Summ." Infonn.tlan Ior Summ.r R••ld.ntl.1 Loc.tlon......con.um.r Oam.nd .nd Fauno. Aband.ne. Spring residential sites"
(1) Human consumer dilYS (2) Mt';¡1 required' (lb) (3) Caribou needed'" (4) Animltls observed
Summer residlmlla] siles
Rulland
Morry
Schoolteacher
Amalgamatiun
Akmoglik
Ingsltod
(1)
(2)
(3)
('1
(5)
(')
432
292 768 3.5 5.5
1,680 4.418
2.312 6.081
1.562
1,136 5.2 7.5
19.9 2.0
594
27.4 2.5
70 1.6
4.144 10.896 49.1 f>.~
+ 2.It>~
(tUl (5) Ralio: MNI observed MNI nt'eJed
1.4
1.'
.10
09
.23
18
• Data fvr lht' Rulland ilnd MlIrry spring rcsidt'ntlal sllt's an.' llummarizl·J in Ch.'plt,t 5, pp. 2n~-2(ltl ~ Rllw 1 x 2.h3. ~ Row 2JTl2. " Foursheep (estimated welgkl120 ¡bt'ack) obRrved. Toconverllhis meallocaribou unils. WE' dividt' 480 by 222 and arrivc al 2.16 equivalent unils.
l~"
,,-
Comparl.an. 01 Summer Realdentl.1 Sltes and Summer Huntlog Campa There are staggering differenccs between the summer residenlial sites and the summer hunting camps. In all the hunting camps more animals were evidenced archaeologically than were needed to sustain the known populatíons. The ratio ranged from 3.64 lo 25.0. Al the residentíel locatíons, the range was from .09 to .23. Thc magnitud e of thc diffcrences is primarily referable (o Iwo seis of condtñons. First are the differenccs in the tYPl'S of ectivities and associated strategies. Thl' hunting camps nrl' nccumulalivn puints for Coads in ao extended logistical systcm. Animals introduct'd and culled al 5uch tocations are being accumulated not direclly in ferms of th~ consumer needs of the occupimls but instcad in terms of the consumN nl'cds uf a mueh larger group of consumcrs in the residenlial locatilms. This is no! thl' casl..' al the surnrncr residentiallocations. St.'cond are the differences belween fresh meat and dI)' meat consumption. Fresh meat consumption is alrnost always a dir~t consumption from anatornical parts containing bones, and dry meat consumption is largely lhe reverse. consumption of meat that has been previously removed or stripped from the bones.
Comp.rleon. of Summer .nd Sprlng Reeldentlal Loe.tlone TlH' ralitls (nr Ilw
.o;prin.~
rt'sitll'nli,ll sitl'S fal!
bl'l WL'l'n IhuSL' Jor 1111' su I1lllll'l' hu nlillg l·,' m p!' and those lor the summer rcsidenlial locations. In both cases lhe spring ratios indicate ao excess of animals presento This situation is easily understood in terms of the (act that fresh meat inputs are being received into the spring residentiallocations. There processing fUf drying occurs, rt.'sulting in buny parts of marginal utility associah..d with the rL'sidL'ntial locations. This inHates (he MNI valut.'s since Ihe majorily of the meat represented by these nnimals is .1ctually guing intu dry ml'at slmage. The reVerse situation is chafilch.'rislic uf
.
-
the summer resídentiallocenons, whcrc much of the meat is boneless dry meat removed frcm storage. This has the effect of depressing the nurnbers of animals visible archaeologicelly.
SUMMARY
lt te cleer that vast diHerences exist between summer and spríng. Sumrner ís charactcrizcd by thc consumptlon uf fum1s nccumulutcd during spring. so the summer systcm is an extensión of Ih e spring systcm. I h<1VL' mentioned rcpcetcdly how the charnctcr of thc population of parts avail;¡ble conoitions the character uf usage. 1 ha ve docum('nled lhe effects in a Markovian sense of e.ulier deletions of parts available for use al a ),ll('r lime, thus condilioning between·sile v<1riabilily in the anatomical parls pn'sl.'nt on sitl's rl'prl'senling a mobilily sl'qucnCL' thruugh the summl'r seasun. In additiun, I havt.' notcd the different charactl'r of the Il'gistical systl'm during summer when practically al1 hunting is encounler hunting or Illw-vulume intcrcL'pt hunting, as at the saU Iicks. The faunal rcmains in hunting camps have a charólcteristíc signature in that someculling strategy is ¡nvaríably practiced. Variability among such loca· tions stems from the degree to ,which the hunting party was provisioned from,stores at the time of setting up the camp, and from the dog-human compusition in the camp and the diffl'n'nti.ll ft'l'ding stratl'gil's ólssnd.lh'd wilh Il11'st, t'¡Ut'rt'nl nlllStlnWr pllpul,tlillns. In .llhlílitll1, tl1l' rl'l.llivL' hUllling Slll"ll'!'!' .1lId lill' attt.·ndant varialions in transport prublL'ms may condiliun the particular forros of culling strategies employed. The data lrom the period when the Nunamiut were mobile provide considt'rable insight into the praclices in tht' eontemporary viJIa~l'. Wl' hilVl' found that prior tu tht.' nmstrucliun of the icl'l'ellars at Anaktuvuk SUI1lmer slores were exclusively from dried meal populatiuns. Neverthc1ess, must of thc parls fed to dogs fmm sueh pUplll.'li()n~ Wl'rl' thUSl' parts dried with bunes includcd. In thl.' eun-
T_ temporary setting the situation is different in only ene major respecto The parts previously processed for dry meat storage are now simply placed in the ice cellars unprccessed. Dogs receive essentially the same dtet as in earlier days. The dífference is in the labor investments in processing. Prevlously, when the Nunamiut were mobile, labor was invested in processing high-utiJity parte each spring. Tod.1Y thcse snmc parta are placcd in thc ice rellnrs. Thc labor costs wcre high Ior thc cons!rllction uf the ice ccllars. Howevcr, ovcr the long run, glven a scdentary way of hfe, these clIsls arl' Il'SS than lhl.' ill'cumulntl'd ell~ts uf processing ml.'at f()r drying eaeh spring. Such long-tL'rm advanlagcs frllm high initiallabor cosls cou Id no! be fl'alized in a context of residl.'n!ial mobility, despile the greater reliability IIf frozen ov{'r dried sh1rage. Anothl'r important aspect of the contrasts bctwcL'n ~pring and summl'r bt'hólvior is the fl'cognitiun Ih,ll Ihe diffcrenccs are not cultural di((~renccs considered appropriate to spring versus summer. They are different solutions to similar probJems that eonfront the Nunamiut col\slantly. During summer the
"." transport problems are Increased and game tends to be dispersed rather than aggregated, as it is in spring. Nunamiut behavlor is not different because it is summcr or spring. It is dlfferent because dlffering problems erise from changing conditions relative to the same problem consíderatíons {transport ease, varience in bulk, periodicity of inputs, and 50 on), These are the variebles to which the Nunamiut rcepond. Thesc variables diffcr in v.llut.' sensonally and are thcrcfore responded tu diffcrently. Nevcrthelcss. they are common to thc expcrienccs across seasons. Simply !It.ltl'd, thl' Nun.lmiut olrl'llol hi.'llo\ving differen!ly in summer bceause uf somL' eulturally dictated bias as to the appropriale behavior in summer. They are bchaving dif· fcrcntly because of the difft'r.... nt values that common dimen5ional variables h<1ve in difft.'rent seasons. Thus. the l'xpl.1nilti\Jn fnr different b....havinr is n\Jt sL'asonality; su eh an L'xplanalion must be bascd (In
7 Fall
In late Augus] there ts generally a períod when rlcuds Me very low in the mountains, temperatures may drop, and scattered snow ShOWNS may occur. The first severe drops in tcmperature occur al thia time, and the tundra becomcs brown, touched by the brilliant reds oí sedges growing around large boulders. Ouring September, warm, pleasant days may alterna te with days of snow showers and low tcrnpemtures. bUI ma jor snow accurnulatíons ran-lv occur. This pattem continuos into Octola-r, .IS thl' tcmpcraturv gr.H.lu.dly Jl'(I"l'.I~·S. Ay the fiftecnth uf Octobcr frecze-up may tll'l'ur-Ih.lt is. llu- rivcr bl'nmll'S covcrcd wilh solid ice. From late August through enrly September the caribou are Ieedlng on the northem tundra and are moving slowly toward the mounlains. Peeding group stzes gradually increase. This buildup is coupled with a breakdown of the summer pattem, in which bulls are díspersed and separated from the nursery herds of cows and calves. Now bu lis incrcasingly join the
cows and calves to form larger, mixed herds. (Figure 6.41 shows dispersed caribou feeding on the yetlow tundra in early fall.) As the animals approach the mountains they tend lo enter small valleys 00 the front of Ihe eastwest oriented Brooks Range. Geologically speaking, the fronl of the range iscomposed of two formaticns from two distinct periods of uplift. (See Figure 6.15.) Along the margins of the frcnt are low hilIs and ronical knnlls with distinctive tiltcd gl'\)I11gil"11 dl'pu~H~. T1w~l' !'m.lll r.lIl¡':l's .Ir,' hcnvily erodcd and gcucrnlly dis!"l'l'll'1.! by wide, n.ll valk-ys and low tundra pJ.lillS lh.lt are oricntcd rougbly north-south. tJifl'dly bchind these low, roundcd hills nsc th ..• massive, and extremely rocky east-west oríented mountains of the main and presumably more recent Brooks Range. The slope of this massíve hump is steep, with elevatíons rising lo 7000 feet in less than 3 miles from the front. The range is díssected by small V-shaped valleys with very steep slopes spaced rather
13451
(3461
7. Fa"
Conl4!mpormy Fall HunClng scnttegy
[347)
.~ " /..... -. .. ~ '''~-~-?'-~ _~ ~_-
... ~\... .-"'-. ••
<
,,_-".'.-
-
•
... ~
~
Figure 7,t.
A typical (aHIltuation.
evenly along the front ebcut every 4 miles. Such valleys tend to drain directly down the massive rocky slopes from the erest of the maio hump, where there may be small mountain gleders and perpetual snowfields al their origins. Occasionally such streams have their origins in an upland mouolain valley, which is always oriented east-west, representtng the troughs between the main rncuntain ndges, also oriented east-west. 5uch hígh mountain valleys tend to have both north-south drainage and east-west drainage. In the latter case they are connected lo the drainage of the main pasees through the Brooks Range such as Anaktuvuk Valley itself. (See Figure 6.15.) CONTEMPORARV FALL HUNTING STRATEGV
The caribou tend to move in a general northwest-southeast dírectícn, so the herds move up against the Brooks Range and tend to eqter only the wider vaJleys. They ar!.' ehanneled into the upland valley. (Figure 7.2), and as they tend to foUow drainage systems they are eventually "dumped" iota the maio passes, 5uch as Anaktuvuk. The funoeling effecl oi the topography results in the aggregatíon of caribou into massive herds. As the animals actually enter the passes in their annual move lo the winter range, they are movíog in ever-increasing herd sizes rangíng fram 300 to as many as 3000 animals in a given group. The pattem of animal movement duriog fan migratioo i5 weU understood, and the
Eskimos todey, as in the past, prectíce an intercept hunting strategy. Fall hunting camps and stands are situated at three main locations today and at least two of these have been used as far back into the past as the contemporary population can recall, Figure 7,3 shows the patlcrn of caribou movemcnt through the Anaktuvuk aree observed between 1969 and 1972. Informants agree that this has been the general pattern for as long as their knowledge extends-through the times of their fathers, grandfathers. and greatgrandfathers. The pattem oí actívlty coinciding with the fall mígration season ls lnteresnng. When the tundra browns, generaUy in late August and early September, there ís a perceptible shift in attitudes and spirits amoog the viUagers...The typical summer boredom and lethargy are'replaced by a busy interest in toolmaking, clothing manufacture, storingand caching summer gear. and engaging in intensified discussions of the anticipated fan migration. (See Figures 7.4-7.7.) Traps are repaired, "eotlon" is gathered from the wiUows to be used as tinder with fUol and steel sets (or winter firemaking, women work in groups manufacturing winter clothing from the fawn skins already harvested durioglate summer, and young men sit listening to the endless folklore recounted by the older men as they busy themselves with tool manufacture. Snow goggles are made, sIeds are repaired, snow probes and walking sticks are carved, and ice shovels for dipping ice fmm fishing holes are repaired. The shovel, are made from scratch fram the brow tines o(
large bull ceribou ~r moose antier. This time of year is also a busy perlod for the ethnographer-in the outsider's view, traditional Eskimo life eeeme at its peak and there Js mueh to observe and record. Partíes oí women, accompanied by children and young gírls, may be seen leaving the víllage to collect berríes. These expedítíons are marked by a kind of pienic atmosphere and are leisureJy, conducted with much conversation and ~ood cheer. Tht:' frequency with which "Eskimo dances are held ¡ncreases, so that evenings itnd nights are now oceupied with traditional dancing, an occasional bingo garne, and cards. Small groups walk out to nearby knolts to enjoy thli! moon in a night sky for the first time since the previous spring. The northem lights appear and people wiU call others out to observe and enjoy the splendor oí the undulating curtains of light in the sky. This is a happy, sociable time of year. TraditionaUy this was the "gathering time," when famiJies that had been dispersed during late summer began to
congrega te near une of the rellablc spots uf 1.,11 íntercepr hunting. One such site ls Kongumuvuk ("the gathering place"). Kongumuvuk is the flrst east-west drainage to enter the main Anaktuvuk Valley from the west after one enters the valleys along the frcnt of the range (see Figure 7.3). Its stream has its origin in a huge upland valley into which caribou are channeled as they ente'r the mountains aloog the front. These particular topographic features ensure that large herds of caribou movingsoutheast will stream out of Kongumuvuk into the majn valIey. Similarly, animal5 chaont"led ¡nto Ihe maio A""~.hn'11~ V,li;,'.,
.
gumúvuk Creek if traveling alung the wcst side oE Anaktuvuk Valley. The topographic and vegetative Eeatures here make an ideal intercept location. The Kongumuvuk Valley itseUentersAnaktuvuk Valley through a steep V·shaped streambed, which cascades down into the main vaUey. On coming out oE Kongumuvuk the animals tend to stream across
13491
CO"'emporGry Fall Huntrllg StrtlUofW
Anaktuvuk Valley in a general northwest to
>00"
Figu,-.1.6, muuntalns.
A newly wmlru~'ll'd Jl'ildfalllrap in
Figure 7.7.
A wirucr house undr-r repnir in f"lI.
L-K."&ND FAa..t.. H
WTINO 6T........ D6
1
e,es, 1'1
Z
LITT"'~
~
N._Vc...1lt.
A-J-l 4. A-J·Z.
H "' ........ ).J.Y.
o
Hvlfto El MolltllLV
7
KON"VMUVVI(..
9
CONT....cT" C"ll:c..... ~I ...NT C'UE"t<....
e FA!." ~'T&$
•
o Fi8U~ 7.3.
e
L./? CAIt.I.OU
Óc......... c
tl>.l
•
a
.o'Nro~D
MOVltl\ol&NT
M ...... 15>
•
•
T
•
•
M;,r uf Anakluvuk area shflwing Iall carib...u movement and hunting tocenons.
"."
."
Figuf'f' 7.4. Er)'j.,h Kaki"y a making n puuch Iur lin·m.lking kit
"
-
.1
Figure 7.5. pjetcd k.'Yllk.
Stmon l',llll'.lfk wuh his p.Uli,llly (111"-
Inl'
southea~1 directum, rnovlng alon~ the west aíde of él series uf lakl'll In thl-' vnlley f11'nr and moving up an extensivo kame tcrracc systcm in the general direction of Anakriqtauk and Giant Creek. That is, the animals tend to come out of Kongumuvuk, cross the main vatley, and enter either the Anaktiqtauk or Giant Creek valleys on the east. There are two prominent knolls along the kame terrace system and tbe herds generaliy pass between them, going in the direction oí the Anaktiqtauk Valley. Thesc two knolls Me laughingly rcferrcd tu today as Linle and Bi.g Happy New Year. The Implicatían is thnt if everythíng goes well here a "Happy New
k.",J,R.-ilM..ó ]u, (jR
7. Fall
[3501 Year" 15 eneured, sínce there will be plenty of
stored meato These two knollshave been used systematical1y since about 1956 as the major locations from which caribou are taken during faU migration. The selection oí these sttes is directly related to the use oí high-pcwered rifles. Previously most animals were hunted from ambush or from locatíons where hunters could approach relatívely clase to fhe animals befare ñríng. The current strategy is to hunt in open country rather than in constrictions aloeg valleys, in boulder beds, or al lakes, as
was the strategy in the pasto Today the Nunamiut seek a locatíon where visibility is greatest within the main valley in areas where experience has taught that the herds tend to
move. Long-range ñríng is conducted from such knolls and as the animals spook away from the firing they find themselves moving into the Iiring range of another F;rouPof huntera. Tbis procedure iR followed by hunters 111 the large rotunda-shaped vaJley bchind the contemporary village in spring. That this strategy is recent is verified by the almost total absence of archaeologícel remains from earlíer periods on such exposed knolls. The monitoring of caribou movement is much less intense in fati than in spring. In general, monitoring is left to the very youog hunters, who make periodic trips to the front of the Brooks Range to evaluate the degree of herd aggregation and try to anticipa te when the movement through the mountains will begin. Older, more experienced hunters tend lo go out less, since they are involved in tool mc¡nufacture and house repair. Once the young men report that the herds are congregated the older hunters go out to prominent hunting stands where visibility is maximum for viewing the northem end of the Anaktuvuk Valley. Men may go out singly or in pairs and they may remain at the stands the greater part of the day. Little conversation ¡;I;oes on in these stands at this time of year and Ihe men almust always presl'nt élO air (lf l111'ditaliun whill' ~i1tioK Hut in lhl' sti1l1lls, willchil1K the northern horiron for signs of game movement. Prior to the actual appearance of ani~
- ~u.«<
mal. In the valley the men take dried meat and marrow bones wlth them Into the atands. This introduced meat is consumed in the hunting stands, and since the high, exposed knolls frequently lack a nearby stand of willows, bone is comrnonly used as a supplementary fuel for the fires kindled there.
Cont~mpol'tJry
[351)
Fall Huntlng StrtJtegy
Eskimo was to be cached so that lt could be studled the foJlowing spring. Unfortunately the cached bones were burned by sorne young boys who thought they were doing a good deed by cleaning up the tundra. This meant
that the important material representing the previous 16 years of use was lost to the record. Table 1.1 summarizes the inventory of bones recovered in the spring of 1971 and in the spring of 1972.
TABLE 7.1
BiS Happy New Vee. The most frequently utilized stand is al Big Happy New Year.U ís occupied a Iittle earlier in fallthan the other site (Little Happy New Year) because it is hlgher and affords a better view. Early in the fall, when monitoring is being condueted and the herds have not yet entered the upland valleys, pairs of men and men elone wiJIcommonly go to this location to watch the valley for signs of game. Once the herds are reported in the upland valleys this ,dt\;' is used very llttle untll thc hcrds nctuolly begtn moving across the valley. It is thcn occupied almost exclusively by huntcrs (women and families tend to be at Little Happy New Year or in the willows east of the hunting stands). During migration hunting, it is one of the most important hunting stands. On the erest of the knoll are two massive glacial boulders. On the east side uf (loe ~ rack is a small hearth. 5lightly northeast ufthe hearth is another cluster of boulders, no\' as large, where thefe are two hearths. 5ix small stone drdes, weights for drying hides, were noled along lhe margins of the knoll, two on lhe west side and four on the east side. Around each hearth is a limited scattcr of bones, gun shells, cigarette butls, and sorne sherds from broken cups. Collections of faunal remains were taken from this site for 2 successive years, representing the use of the site during the fan of 1970 and the fan of 1971. Prior to the initial rollection, a cooperating Eskimo had beeo asked to pick up all the bones present on the site in the early {aIl of 1970. Rl'lnuving aH thl'St.' bum's wuuld thl'n mnkl' thl' col1l'ctioo takl'n tht.'fnllowinR ~prinR relate specifically to the use of the site during the faU of 1970. The coUection made by the
Inventort•• 01 An••omlc.1 P.rt. 110m .he Blg H.pp, New V..r F.II Huntlng S••nd (1971 .nd 1972) 1971 CoUt'Clion
Analllmica\ part Anll"r !'\..ull M.lIltlibll' AlIas Axis Cervical vertebrae Thoracic verll;-'bral;-' • Lumb.u vt'rll.'bral;-' I'dvis Nib... SIl'mum Sc.lpula I'ruxim.ll huml;-'rus Dislal humerus Pru:dnlitus Cup.lls I'rullil1l,lI ml'lacarpal Disl.11 ml'l.lCarp.ll I'roximal femur Dislal femur Prollimal tibia Ois!
Arca
Area
A
B
MNI
MNI
MNI
(1)
(2)
,
"5 "O O O O
" n
.3
O O O
O O
O O O
.5 .5 O O O O O
n n
1:lr..1"h.ll,m.;I· SI'UIIUI ph ••I.II1).;'·
"n
Third rh"lan~c
n
1.0
1.11 .5 O O O O O O
Aeea A
Arca B
%
MNI
MNI
MNI
%
MNI
%
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
1.." 1.11
100.n
r.s
7'W SlI.O
.1,11 2.11
"",7 s7.1
5U.U
2.11
O O O O O
O O O O O O !.lll
57, I IJ O O
Tol a 1
UJ
O O O O
O
O O .....1 O
O
O
1.0 .5 .5
1.0
.11
5 .5 .5 1.11 O 5
1.0 1.5 .5 1.0 1.0
.5
1.5 .5 1.0 1.0
66.6 66.6
.5
33.3
1.l1 O O O O O O
n .42 O O O .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 1.5 .5 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
.2~
11 1"',7
,f,.1
.25
16.7 16.7
.SO .50
" ."
25 .25
M.ft M.b O O O O O O .15.13 O O 66.6
33.3 33.3 33.3 33.3 33.3 M.6 33.3 66.6 66.6 100.0 33.3
5 .5 .5 .5 .5 1.11 .5 1.0 1.0
n
n
19n coüecñon
5
"n I.n
O
Tolal
I,S
1.0 1.0 O
O O O
O
O
O IJ
O
O
O
.15
O 5
O O O
O O O O O .5 .5 .5 .5 .5
IJ ';7
IJ
.5 O .5 .5 5 .5 .5
5 1.5
LO 2.0 2.0
5
L5 1.5 15
.5
1.5
1.0
1.." 1.1.1
"
2-year lotal
.~I
LO
.~
t.O
2K.5 O 25,0 O
\l
25.0
1.0
25.0 25.0 25,0
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,5 2.0 2.0
25,0 25.0 75.0 50,0 100.0 100.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 7''0.11 Sh.'i 5h.5 56.5
.5 1,0
3.0 3.5 2.0
2,5 2.5 2.0 1,"
1,.1li 1.25 1.25
O IJ
"
.11.4 IJ
14.3 28.6 2!1,6 28.6 28.ft
"6
28.6 42,H
57.1 57.1 tl5.7 1110.0 57,1 71.4 71.4 57,1 42.11 1'/.4 :15,7 3.5.7
The site itself ís a low, loaf-shaped esker with large bculders íonning its lower margino On the l10rth end oí the ridge is í\ rock-wall hunting blind and windbreak. (Figure 7.8 shows the view oí Anaktuvuk Valley from this windbreak.) Features observed at this end of the site consisted of two hearths, the windbreak, and two small skin-weight circles where fall skins had been weighted down for dryíng. 00 the opposite side of the knoll were tbe skelctons of two Yl'ilrling calves minus Ihl' heads. These animals had been skinned and dismembered into flve basic parts-the complete torso frcm the atlas vertebra through the pelvis with ettached ribs and stemum, and ..11 four quarters. The legs were grouped about 4 íeet away from the basic axial skeletons. The animals had been kiUed for their skins and the
Llttle Happy New Year This site is on a lower knolJ north uf Brg Happy New Year. After the monitors announee in the village that the herds are on the front of the renge. many oí the villagers begin making daily trips out to Little Happy New
Year. There is a kind of party atmosphere al the Iocation as the hunters and their famllies w;¡it and watch for the firs! hcrds te come out of Kongumuvuk. Pires are kindled along the lee side of the knolt food Introduced from vi1lagestcres is prepared, and stories are told. 5ince the Iall migration is generally colncídent with the arrival of first substantial flocks of wiUow ptarmigan in the valley. these tasty birds may be hunted in the willows alaog the river northeast of the ,ite.
.
.,..., •
.. ~ f~'~.: - ' ~-.,~ :.:.. --~. , -:.". -1.......
.
• .....
~-"... ~ .., ? ' . /.t~ -, ...:.,--
-
....~
~?~~ .
_
--'~
.. ..._.. --_ ... -
-..-
or-
E
Figllft 7.8.
_ ..~~-::--:i ..~,.-'
....
-
-~---_.-
,.;-
-
.,
.-.'
-~.
').:,
-........
'?;"'-.I ..4- .. .. ..:;-¿-
~
.-
-
-
..
parts mentioned had been fed to dogs at the locaticn. The heads of the young animals had been removed to a hearth along the southeast margin of the knoll, where they had been roasted by the hunlers and consumed on the spot. The skins had been dried along the eastem margin of the knoll at the localions of the two identified smaU stone circles. Along the
t
In"ntorlea 01 Anatomlcal Parta Irom the L1ttla Happy Ne.. Vur FaU Hunlln, Stand (]972) Nnrlh end sample
E.1!11 marwn sampliP
Total
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
(3)
('1
(SI
('1
AntIer Skull Mandible Atlas Axis Cerviclll v...rll'brae Thoracic vt'rleerill' Lumb.lr \ll·rtl'!.'r.ll' 1'l'1\1;S Ribs
2.S O O O O O O
71.4
'.S
100.0
3.0
66.'
(1
(1
2.S O O O O O O 1.3
55.5
(1
O O O O O O O
Stl'tnum
10 O O O U O
Analomlclll parl
Scapula Proximal hume-rus Distal humt'rus I'h"timal rildio·cubilus DiSloll ro1Jio-cubilus
C.upals Prmcim.ll ml'iilcolrpoll Distal m('lflcolrroll Proximoli I"'mur Distal femur Proximal tibiol Distallib¡a TnJI'ilI!t C.,kllln'UlI
The view of Anaktuvuk Valle)' from the hunting sland al LiUle Happy New Year.
eastern margin Dí the knoll were five hearths nested among the rocks and boulders as well as one smal! stone meat cache conteíníng the unrecovered remains of three cows butchered in 1970. Table 7.2 inventaries the fauoal remains associated with the windbreak and the two hearths al the northem ti oí the knoll as well as the material recovered rom around the
TABLE ?2
""1r¡lK<111J~
•
[3531
Contempora'l' Fall HUlltlng Strategy
7. Fall
[3521
Proximal mct..,tarsal Distal me(oltarsal First phoJlangeSeoond phafange Third phalolnge
•
2.0 3.0
3S I.S
2.S 3.0 3.0
3.S 3.' :\.~
2.S 3.0
2.75 2.75 2.75
21.2 8S.?
O O O
••S O O
(1
O
O
O O O O
57.1 85.7 100.0 42.8 71.4 85.7 85.7
100.0 lIJO.O
1.0 10
2S 2.S
10n.0 71.4 I!IS.7
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
18.6 18.' 18.'
.S .S .S
O O O O
7.0 3.0
2.S O O O O
100.0 42.86
35.71 O O O O
(1
(1
(1
(1
O
(1
2K.ml 14.141:1 J I.I t
O O ti O O O O 22.22 22.22 55.55 55.55 22.22 22,22 22.22 22.22 22.22 11.11 11.11 11.11
2.\
30_0
3.4
4H51 1_14
S O (1
ti O 2.0
lO 3.5 2.S lS S5 5,!i
O O (1
O 2H.57 42_86 S
-:-:.S 4.!\ 3.S
"'"
M.2'i
~I.txl
2.25 2.25
57.14 46.43 46.43
3.25
%.43
'.0
[354J
7. Foil
five hearths located along the eastern margin of the knoll. Figure 7.9 shows the herds approaching Little and Big Happy New Year after crossing the valley from Kongumuvuk in 1972. Figure 7.10 shows the herds movíng ecross the saddie between Ltttle and Big Happy New Year just prior to the hunters opening fire in 1972. Once the herds areactually moving through the main valley most people are al Little Happy New Yeer. Big Happy New Year is not at this point used as an observation stand. Men go there during the actual migration only for firing; observation and socializing are restricted to Little Happy New Year.
.....
.._,.4'
...
-.:.~,~""'~- .. " .
.
....
.. ~,._ . ~'
' . - • .- " ' j
..-;
..-:.-
.~
Fisuft 1.9. Fan herds approaching the hunting stand al Uttle Happy New 'reer.
.... ....... ~ ~ '". ';""" ~.'~ ~i"'" __'""","__.. . .... . ~"-"'. - "" "
'.
..
~I --':"0-uo._
'
.... ,,'
,
~ FIRurt 7.10.
Figure 7,11.
".
. . . . . .-_.--. " "_.' . :".::;:ro tJl,r. --"':,.. . .--,,-.....~~...... --... ..... - _.. .. ,--" . .,,-.. , ,. - -":. -,~- ~'
--".
~.
~~
~
.. ,:,;1
-j¡¡'
"'.
....
r., • •~
..
'
~,
.
~...... .
lIunlt'rllllbtlul tu fin'ull lilll hl'f'tlllln'ln 1.1111,' II.II'PY N\'w
Nunamiut butcher at work.
.
~
..
....-~
'
.
Yl'.U
Unlike the situation described for spring intercept hunting, there are no nearby butch· ering areas associated with these two sites. Animals dropped by hunters operating out of these sites are butchered where they fati and cached on the tundra forlater use. Figure 7.11 shows hunters beginning to butcher animals scattered along the migration path sorne distance from the hunting stands, Alang the westem margin of the valley are a series o( kame terraces on which are loeated a numberof smaUer, more "personal" fan hunting stands (see Figure 7.3). These Joeations are less regularJy used than the two main sites at
(355)
Contemponrt')' Foil Huntlng Stroiqv
Happy New Year. Nevertheless, they are important, because once firing begins from the New Vear complex the animal s tend to spread out and ron for the west side of the valley, directly into the Une of fire of hunters occupying the westem stands. The hunters rarely move to theee stands until word is receíved that the animals are actually moving through the valley. The stands tend to be used by the more experienced hunters, who go out unaccompanied by their families, hunting alone or in pairs. Generally, no provisions are carried to these stands and any consumption that takes place is from animals killed by occupants or from parts removed from nearby caches of animals killed earlier during the migration. Three of these sites were surveyed, mapped, and ínventoned. AIIare very similar and differ sornewhat from the ge-neral structure of the Heppy New Year sites. In no case is there a hearlh associated with the natural or artificial windbreak thal constitutes tbe cbservatíon or firing position on all three si tes, In all cases, there is an associated hearth area along the southern margins of the knoU or kame on which the stand is loc..ted (see Figure 7.12). lt is around this low hearth that most of the bone debris is eoneentrated, although low densities of marrow splinters are present around the windbreaks. Table 7.3 summarizes the bone inventoried from the three stands documented. Unlikc the previous situation where the hOlw inV('nltlril'~ rt'lah'd tu ~pt'cifk Yl'nrilO ur USl', tht'Sl' invl'nlorit's rt'ptl'sl'nll'd the ac· ,,:uJ1lullltt,.11'11Ulhl1 fl'l1li.dn fmm tht'luldl perlull of use-the previous 16 years, generally by single hunters or pairs of hunters.
Late Mlgratlon Huntlng The major migration of animals through the Anaktuvuk area lasts between 12 and 16 days. During this perlod the rot begins, and the Eskimo daim that once mating starts the meat of bulls has a strange and unpleasant odor. Once signs of the rut are evident in the foon of fighting bulls and actual mating there is a tendency to select younger males and prime cows as kili targets. Relatively few of these are
.j,,'
Figure 7.12.
Hearth ", A-J hunrlng stand.
taken, since the major effort to get sufficient meat for the winter ís made prior to the begínning oí the rol. Once the rut is noted. hunting from the Happy New Year sites gradually stops. Thcse hunters who judge that they still need meat for winter begin taking up hunting positions in three loeations from which small groups and stragglers are hunted during the last few days of migration. One sueh location ís directly opposíte the mouth of Kongumuvuk Val1ey. Another is along a major kame west of the present village, not far from the Mask site used for spring straggler hunting. The third location ¡salong the rock outcrops leading into the mouth oí Giant Creek on the east side of the valley. (See Figure 7.3 for locations.)
Kongumuvuk Fall Hunt'n9 Stand Localed 'lhm~ 111.., nHlr~ins '''ld ¡nlu tlw ~mullll'n~h'rnll"'~ll'xh,'n:"4iUI1 01' willu\\':"4 .11 111., mouth oí Kongumuvuk Valley is a hunting srand. (See Figures 7.3 and 7.26.) There are four "eating" hearth5 on the site as well as seven well·defined small stone rings used in drying fall caribou skins. There are no windbreaks. Three small bone dumps are ad~ jacent to one of the hearths where hunlers had prepared bone juice and dumpe-d the contents of Iheir coffee can cooking pots around the hearth area. The bone juice had been made almost exclusively (rom split ribs; small "lab· lets" of cancellous sections of rib made up the three dump areas. Just to the north of the site proper, on the northem edge of the willows. is
7. Foil
(356\
(357)
ContemponJr)i' Ftdl Huntlng StroteBv
lABtE 7.3
TABLE 7.4
In_nloma o, Anatomlcal Parta &om Thre. FaU Huntlng Stand. Lee•••d OIRc:tly Weat of tlM Happy N_ Vear Sltea
Inventortc. (Jf AnaComlcal Pam from Thrwe Late·hU HunUng Stand.
I\-J stand MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(S)
(6)
Antier Skull Mandible Atlas
1.0 O O O
25.0
21.4
2.5 2.0 2.0 O
20.8
Axis ('('rvil',¡1 vt'rh'h,¡w
(1
1.5 1.0 5 O O
Thoraric vertcbree Lumbar vertebrae Pelvis Ribs Slernum Scapula Proximal humeros Distal humeros Pro"imal rad¡o-cubilu~ Distal radto-cubltus
.5 O
12.5 O
o
u
Anatomical p.ut
Carpals f'roximi'll metacarpal Distal metecarpal Proximal femur Oist.,¡ remur Proximal tibia Distal liria Tnrsals Astragalus
Calcaneus
u
.42 .37 O O O .5 .5 5 1.0 IS .5 .5 3.0
O O O
u n
10.5 9.25 O O O 12.5 12.5 12.5 25.0 37.5
12.5
3.0 3.0 3.0
12.5 75.00 75.00 75,00 75.00 7S.00
3.0
n
1.12
16.00
O
O O O 14.2t1 14.28
O O 1.0 1.0 1.7 2.5 2.5 1.0
14.28
16.66
O
(1
n
O
u
O
u
O
O
O
O
2.12 3.62 .5 .5 .5 3.5 4.0 3.2 5.5 SS '.0 .0
17.66 30.]7 4.17 4.17 4.17 29.17 33.33 26.67 45.83 45.83
H5
70.8' 79.17 75.IX) 79.17 75.(1(1
.l:tJ3
LO
14.28
64.'" 71,43 78.57 '78.57 78.57 92,f\06
9.0 11.0
100.00
12.0
91.f;7 Hlll,flll
57.1-4
7.0
!it\,;\1
57.14
h.~
C>o1.II.
57,14
b.5
~_lh
S.U
55 5.5 5.5 6.5
'.0
100.00 37.5
Sl'fll/lll pIMI,tnW' Tbírd phalange
1.5 1,5
7.0 4.0 <1.11 4.11
a smaJl spring. Near the spring are bones from an unexploited meat cache containing the butchered remains of seven caríbou, of whích on~ two were males. his site was mapped and faunal remains plotted during the summer of 1971. The material recorded relees to Ihe use of this ,ite dur· jng the faIl of 1970, slnce it had been cJeaned
24.28 35.71 35.71
16.6&
45
~7.50
37.S
o u
1.31
3.5
:115
7.14 O
11.43 O O 18.71
.H O O
rr\lllimal melalo'lrsal Distal melillar:'loll Firsl rh;llan~e
15
14.28
Kongumuvuk
Morry stand
Hego stand
9.5 9.0 9.5
33.33
by the Bskímo of all bone remaln. during the summer 011970. Table 7.4 presenta the faunal inventory of this location.
ContGet Cree" Approximately 2.10 miles west and slightly south of the presenl viUage there is a large. flat.topped remnant of a moraine west of the
Ano'ltomical part Antier
Skull
Mandiblc Atlas Axis Ct'rvi.:al vertebrae Thomoc vvrtebme l.umb.rr vt'rh'br.l\' t'eív¡s Ribs Stcrnum
S"ilpU!¡¡ Proximal humerus Dtstal humerus
Proximal radio-rubttus Distill radlo-cubuus Carpals Proximal metacarpal Distal m~I'KMpal Proxim,ll f..mur Di'ó!"\ temer 1"".~io'1.,1 !Ib", lJi~l.ll tibia
r.u"'lb A~lr.,~,)llI~
C,ll',llll'llS Prll'l(illl.lllllt'I,1Iolr'ó'11 1 )1~1,1I ll1t't,ll.lrsdl I',,~I I,I",I.",W' '~,"
",,,1
i·h.l1,1l1~¡'
rhlnlI111"J,'I1~\'
Contad Creek
CiAnt Cr\'i,'k
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
1.0 O 1.0 O 1.0 1.0 1 JI
I,n O .69 O O O O 1.0
l'
1.5 20 4.0 .5 O
25.0 O 25.0 O 25.0 25.0 32,75 2~.1l
O
17.25 O O O O 25.0 37.5 37.5 SO.O 100,0
12,5
1.0 1.0 1.5 O O O .1
.s .5 .23 O O O
.5 1.5 1.0 .5 1.0 15 O
20.0 20.0
300 O O O 2.0 JlUI 10.0
2.5 10 O O O O O O O
4.6 O O O 10.0 30.0 20,0 JIU) 20,0
O O O O 15 25 2.3 30
30,0
30
O
"
O
,
~5
n2 O (1
O O
O
"
U
lQS
O O O
O llJ ~5
Sil M,~ ~6
•
O
5
HU)
5
12 '"
1,[1
21).0
J :,
3.5 3,5
87.5
15 35
Jp,fl
.\ O
m,u
45
ll~lll
II1l.lJ fino
,l.'> ·1',
JIIP
35
87.5 fll.S
.1(1
7(,3,)
.1.,
JS
¡¡7.S !17.S
-r.u
1I ( n~ ~'I
u
2"
~.!I. (l
2,(\
~1'1
'""O "'" 111
:!:?·l 21l.ll
""
2.11
17.M
~lIn
,'!'
111
21111
vv
77M
lflll.ll lfIllJ
l
~,
WI!U to« O 11/(111
77M
h't'tJlI'lt Wltl'tl' 1\14' M.1'lk '111" :,' 1,,,. lile muth, .1 ,
prominent boulders in two main clusters. ro either side uf the bouldere clase to the northern rim of the moraíne are smaller rocks piled to form a substantial windbreak oriented east-west. Directly south of the large central boulder is a hearth surrounded by marrow· craeked bone splinters and sorne articulated feel in the peripheral area. Slightly to the
addihunal rocks have becn plit.'d ht'll" bUI there are three hearths, ene on the east eide, one on the west stde, and one on the south side of these two large boulders. Around this area are marrow-crecked bone splintcrs. Ad[acent to ene hearth was a Jarge willow stick from whlch eoffee can pols had been sus· pended ior boiling tea. Men using this location
'~
'
.._.- -._",:':
7. Fa"
(358J never carry meat from the village and never bring dogs. Use ís intermittent since the location is so near the present village. Young men and inexperienced hunters are more cornrnon in this location than in etther oí the other two late Iall stande. The movernent aE animals approaching this Iocation is from north lo south along the talus of the mountains formíng the northern edge of Ccntact Creek, which fJows below this stand sorne 200 yards lo the north. KilIs made from this loeation are generally long shots slnce the animals rarely move very clase lo the stand. Mast killsare along the creek and on the northern talus or the streambed.
G'an' Creek This Iocatlon is interesting in that lt ls the only fall hunting locatlon that yielded evidence of pre-gun use by stone-tool-using predecessors of the Nunamlut. It is 3.7 miles from the contemporary village and is located along the mergin of a linear rock exposure that run! aJong the north margin of the main valley for over a mUe in a northwest-southeast direction. This smaU diff stands aboye the valley floor, varying in height (rom 20 to 80 feet. The south face is sheer, almo~t vertical rock. Along the base is a rubble talus ranging (rom 10 to 40 feet aboye the valley floor. Along the south margin of this particular valley is a 10wer, intermiUent rock outcrop that is abutted by morainic deposits, so that the low rock dilf is
intermittcntlyswamped by morainic depositB and thE' surface is therefore more rounded and rolling in character, This pair of low rock diffs begins slightly southeast of the knol1s on which the Happy New Vear sitl'S ¡trl' lued. Caribou moving aeross thl' main Annlng it isappn1ximatclySOOyafi1s widl.',but whl.'reit is swé'tmpl.'d by mnr.,inic dl'pusils it i~ It.'~s than lOO yards wide and more Iittered with large glacial erratics. AlI along the south margin of
this rock-faced trough Is archaeclogical evldence of earlier hunting stands and windbreaks. There ls a greater concentration of the archaeological locations nearer the southeast tenninus o( the valley. This loeation is known to informante as a major ambush location used regularly by their bow-hunting ancestors. Todey. only ene major stand is re1?ularly used. It is about half a mile from the begmning uf the rock outcrops en the south side of the valley. Tbe stand is nested between a bulgíng morainic deposit that is pushed up over abare rack expcsure. Along the juncture of the morainie deposit and the bare rock surface are a number of huge glacial boulders. h IS from among these boulders that contemporary Nunamiut ñre on small groups and stragglers moving lnto the Ciant Creek valley durlng thl' late phases of migration. This is described by the Nunamiut as a short-shot loeatton and an excellent hunfing stand. Animals takcn from thís loeation rarely faU more than 150 teet from the firing lo<:ation, Among the boulders are three hearths, one of which is located on the south side of the largest boulder, resting almost directly on the edge of the low rock cliff. Two others are behind the bulging morainic deposit, between a group of four large boul· ders. H is around these two hearth;; that the highest densities of bont! are noled. illlhough a thin s('atter of marrow-craeked chips .ue found around the north('rnmost hearth. Men comíng herl' frequently earry meat hom vil. In~l' !Itnrn tu eat whl1v 'h~y tUl.! wi'llUnM In ti1\' st.,nd for animills tlJapprt1iH:h. Dogs afl.'neVl'r brought with the hunters. Table 7.4 summarizes the ínvenrory of bone c(lilt!clt'li here during thl.' 196Q (¡t'ld Sl'ason. Comp.ratlve Evaluatlon 01 the Fall
Huntloa St.ode The Itandnrdlzed relative frequendel (lf ániltomlcal parf! rccovered in the nin\!popula. tions from eight locations Is summarized in Figures 7.13-7.15, Simple in!lpt'ction dcmonstrales that there is considerablt' variation among samples ol fauna from fan hunting
c ~ Fdll Huntlns
o
13591
Stnrtqy
10 20 30 40 50 60 10 80 90 lOO
O 10 20 30 40 150 60
AHT
AHT
$K
lWID
AT
80 90 100
-'
"
MANO
ro
AT
A'
AX eERV THOR
eERV
THOR
LUN
LlJM PELV
PELV
•se
R
ST
ST
se
Pll OH
PH OH
PRe
PRe
CARP
~p
... e
...e
ORe
PNe
:Jí"C--!.-.......
X
~AH1' l;1Ie:t:1l
PNe
P'
Pe
O,
O,
PT
PT
O, 'AO
DT TAO
AS' CAL
AS' PMT
CAL
POT
~¡l ~
I
a
".~
Flgul't 7,13, Compereuve
pel'ftntllgt'1
St'mblaf;t'!l frnm tht' Morry, I Iugo, and stand".
o AHT
10 CO ~O 40 ~O 60
ro eo 90
for
í1!1.
I\.J huntln¡t
F1sul't '1.1!. CompM,lllvl' p<'rq'nt'lt1t'~ f(lf ,1:1~'m¡'l,l¡;I'S trom tilO' I
100
0'- -, 1~__~J'''. '"'" ". ,,'" .n,
$K
, •
r,'I"
-4
MANO A'
A'
slilnds. FOT all lhl' st,'lh,b llw mn,,!
(r.' ."
",''':" .':e tJlIl~l' \); Inl.:
CERv
TI'¡OR LUM
-.i::¡f;~.~
r:__-....""'~
PELV
•sr
se
~
Pll
UH Nle
PEiC
tARP PMe
-==:::::::::r : _--=d
CMe
"DF
~,
b! TA.
OST CAL
,•
PM'
~LI
• S
. :- _x
,: ~Inu:
¡... _",!IIW'I'VoIl...,.,
....", ..rw "AIl
FI"u"," 1.14, ("Ilmp;nillivt' P"ft'l'nt,'f!:\'1 lor MIIt·l1lbl.lgt·J fwm Big;m,j Ulllt, JI"ppy Nt'w Yt'ar hunling stand •.
;,':J. ;.' ,p.,' •. l. j:rt'qul.>ndcs of
StJlI'lll'>
fuel and some have not; (e) lhl' shouting r.",. may b~ Ihart or long; (4) dl'8" may b• brought fo sorne but not to oth ...n; and (t) some locations may be uSl'd In antidpation uf migrlltion. sorne during peak migr.1lion, .,nti some for straggler hunling aftcr lhl.' milin herds have past. Tablc 7.5 summarizt.'s tht.'se differenees. (See also Table 7.6.)
of
--&lf%:>"
~_.,.:".~~f!:..~~~~:.:~_: .
~
-
Q
'" -'"
up
o
.58 .07
2 2
o
O 10 10
.25
Jl 16 27
J7
11.0
300 O
10.7
11.•
•
O 16.6 12.7 10.7
51.3 15.3
5.0 SO.O
"
O
O
..
2 3
s.36
350 55
O 11.86 •.0 8.'
51 7
S 7 3
7.'"
S."
'.78
5'7 253 8SO O
.'1 .42 .04
"
22
O 22 22 2
57
.12
JO
" .,"
.2Jl .15 60
•
6 O
•
O 4
18 20 38
,.,
14 14
20 .17
.10
.28
"
..
10
O
29 .32
52 61
•
26
,. l'" .so
O 13 13 10 8 18
1 S 3
2 S 2
t
75.9 24.1
59 120
.,
No.
1 1
3 3
1 2
220 34 6.47
12.0 8.' '.7
•
3 5 1 1. 35 1
8.2
3.8
13.0
O
394
2.. '5
47.9 52.1
%
%
.09
15 100 ll5
O SO SO
70.2 29.S
SO.8 49.2
site
Mony
1
2
•
. 25
23
No.
Hugo site
1 2
2 1
11 6.0
..
O 7.14 7.00 8.40
7 21
O 45 2
1
1 2
2 1
O
3.3
700
1
2Jl.7
8.'
2Jl
1
. -
2Jl
"
14
:\0.
n.3 134
600 SO.O
%
A·J
Si~
t'. Vi••• ,
14.1
O
355
253 102
18 12 JO
No.
L:iUle Happy New Year
13 1.01
O 17
90.5 9.5
SI.8 IS.2
%
TABU 7.6
.90
.90
7
7 70
.JO .36 O
O 10 10
O
••
J
2
2
'.83
111 18
16.6 SO.O 52.2 IS.0
O 5 32 58
1
•
5."
~I
3.91
10.0
101 O
60
.,
• 12 18
1':0.
.15
2J 28
O lO 20 7
56.1 43.9
33.3
....
%
KongumUlluk
O U U
•
58.' 43.8
n.7
27.3
%
.22
.46
...
8 12
.15
27
2J
• •
O
••
1
•
1 1 1
7.5
•
45
13.0
....
O O
O
38
,.
6.6
•••
14.3
146 O
56
..
• 1. 22
No.
Cree.
Contact
•
48 .31 10
3 12 15
.07
43
..
2. 5
O
2.
O
65.8 34.2
51.3 48.7
%
14 14
1 3 3
2
••
138 21 6.57
...s
35.0 26.3 16.8
7 5 7 3 27 120
11.5
8.1
H.7
O
...
295 133
" 3.
20
No.
---
Giant Creek
2.58
4.S1
4.31
257.4 386.• 1.16 1.74 5.0 '.5
7 "7
1.5
"
Never
184.1 .S2 '.0
98
7
Never 2
Long
22 12
11 J 10 2 O 6
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1
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NonO/! Stores + fresh Short
Creek Fm F_
GLant
Cree.
Contad
5
Modérate Never 2
F~h
Cood
Kongumuvuk
Ancllla", Fcts: Fauna. ASAmblage. hom Fall HunUng Stand.
20
1.12
1.57
15.38
2945.6 13.27 12.00
1709.5 7.70 7.00
7
3.55 '.00
78.
....3 ....1 7.0
10
5
,.
10 1120
13
JO.'
Mony site
Fair Poo' F,"", Fresh Moderate Modérate Frequently Frequently 13
Hugo site
650
10 300
15 375
80
8
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25
S
14
22.2 SO.O 41.6 SO.O
2 1 2 O O 35 15
8."
1
. 7. 8
2 11
•
No.
A-'
5ite
: ~RC. di~t..Il radio-cubrtus. O\1C, distal mf'lacarpal; Pr. rrOlum.l1 ttbta: OT. distal tibia; PMT. proll1m.a1 metatal'Soll; OMT, distal rnf'tatarsal.
Pf'~ntage
FlOnl Rear
H. Dismrnrbtntl't"It rahos
G. Dis",..".,bt>mlent va{l.lts" Frene up Front down Total Rear up Rear down Total
DRe down Carpals down DMCdown PT down DTdown Tarsals down PMT down DMT down PMT + tarsals Foot
f. Arti
E. Ribs Rib hagments Rib heads Ratio
Peeceeteges Long-bone ends MetapodiaJ ends Splinlef5 Rib splinters
T...... Carpals Rib fragments Leg-bone spbnters Antier fTagments
D. Burntd bon~ Counts umg-bone ends Mrtapodi.aI eods
".'
C. RJJhos Smooth splinters Long·bone end~
B. Shafl splint,,-s Smooth splinters Channeled spunters Totalsplinlers Cylinders
Long bone Metapodial Total
A. A,heuLztor mJ~
Attributes
Litt!e Happy New Year
No", Poor Cood Slorrs + fresh Fresh + srores Fresh Short Long Long .....y Always Frequently 1 5 1
Big Happy New Year
FUt'1 sources Consumption sources Shooting range Family present Number of years userepresented b~' sample Average number of persons'day using see Avrrage number of daj-s used Perscn-davs of use represented by sample ~eat needed (lb) MNI needed MM observed MNI observed MNlnHded
Big Happy New Year
JABLE 7.5 Sbe Characteridlc. o, F.o H1UItltlg Stand.
1362J
7. F.1l
Tbere are a number af interesting queeticns we may now esk. We saw that there were reJationships berween transport distance and abandonment oí parts al kili sites. Might there
Another interesting question is whether or not there is any regular relationship between the overall size oi the faunal assemblage and the number of persone using the location coupled with the duration of use. Table 7.5 summarizes the data for fall hunting sttes, based on both observations and informant input. It gives group sizes, number of days of use, and number of years of use represented by the bone sample. These values allow us to calculate the number of person-days of use represented by each faunal collectton. By making the assumption of total food support for the persons occupying the location, we may compare, as in prevíoua cases, the number of animals needed to support the occupants te the number of animals observed at the lucation, Such data are summarized in Table7.5.1 found the resu1ts ol this exercise surprising. sinee I was fuJly aW
not be analogous reJationships between parts introduced into hunting stands and distances from the kili as estimated Irom informant as-
sessment of shooting range? Stands from which the shooting range ls assessed as long would be characterized by animals dropped
grear distan ces from the shooting stand, whereas stands with short shooting ranges would be characterized by animals dropped very clase to the stand. 1have noted that when transport distan ce ISahort between loealio" oE procurement and ¡otended Icxation of con· sumption higher frequencies of parts ol marginal utility are transported, whereas as the distance ¡ncreases the frequency of marginal parls transportl'd decreastc's. Table 7.7 summarizes the relationships between shooting ranges and the percentages of the ma:lf.imum MNI represented by phalanges at each site. lt is apparent that the relationship observed in other contexts also applies to faJl hunting stands. Thus, we may anticipate that frequen. des of phalanges will vary independently of Ihe character of decisions relating to types of partschosen for consumption and c1early they will vary independently ol the overall function of lhe site.
Confemporary Foil
Hum'n. StnllegJI
animal). Snacking exclusively 00 marrow boncs would thcrefore requtre bones from more caribou lar a reasonable snack rhan would be the case if there were no marrow bias in hunting stand consumption. Putting this relationship another way, it has been shown that the average daily ronsumer demand for ceribou is approximately 2.63 lb per day. An unbiased consumption of marrow daily would be .12Ib. Given a marrow consumption bias a reasonable snack would require the introduction of bones from more than one caríbou. because all bones are not generalIy available (they remain ínaccessíble without the removal oí meat from the bcnes of the upper legs). Thus, when there is a marrowbias the number of ,lnimals represented will exceed the number nceded to meet the total daily food demands jn spite of the fact that only marrow snacks are being consumed and most consumptioo occurs elst'where. Figure 7.16 iIlustrates the relationship between the estima tes for the number of caribou needed to rneet the total food demands for the occupants of the different siles and the number of caribou indicated in the fauna~ remains.
•
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al
TABLE 7.1
CompartMft o, Sheet.n, Dl"ance and Inclclenc. o, Ph.I.n... a' F.II HUft'lft' Stand.
----
Silt'~
Shml rangl'
Muderah' rangc
Bi~
Happy New V...ar LiUlc Ilappy Ncw Yl',u Silt'A·J Hugo site Morl')' sile kongumuvuk ContaCI Cl't'ek
Clant Cfft'k Ml'.lll .....· rl·l·nl.l,;l·
Long rallg'" 56.5-1".7
7ll .•
37.5
57.14 54.16
SOO 20.0
77.' 77.7
~.1.n
.
o ~
o:
I'erc...n la';l· 111 rhal.ln,;.. ~ on lóill'
.12.1>7
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-"
"'oltlty
-"
lHa..... CONt
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•
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CARIBOU NEEDED FOR DAILY FOOD DEMANDS O. FALL HUNTING STAND OCCUPANTS -TABLE 7.S flg1.l~ 1.16, Jkolationl'hip ~lwHn con!UtMf de. mand and number of caribou Ubt'efVed lit eiR:ht (al! huntInR: "t.1ndl'l.
The relationship is clearly linear wñh a relatively high lntercept. Among small sttes, where food demands are very Icw. the ratio of animals represented to animals needed ís greater than 2 to 1. This reflects the almos' total consumptícn bias in favor of marrow. As cases of consumer dernand lncrease as a function oí duration oí use and number of people, the ratio oí caribou needed to caribou observed decreeses. so that on the Morry síte the ratio dtps to.90. This reflects the increasing variance in the actual events of consumption. On sltes al long duration or with a relatively large number cf occupants, Sorne people are not engaging in consumption behavior depending upon a numbl'r of increasingly rl'Il'vant variables thelt have
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70
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100
MARROW-BONE SELECTION FOR TRANSPORTEO POPULATlON IMGUIl (SQUARE OF MARROW INOEX)TABLE 5.5 COL. 14 FiSure 7.17.
Ri..I21lirml'lhir bl'lwt-.:'n Jala f«.m lh{' 8ig
Something of the differences may be seen by contrasting the data from this síte wilh those from Líttle Happy New Year. Figure 7.18 illustrates the Ht of Little Happy New Year with the mode1 found useful in antiripattng the Big Happy New Year data. As far as marrow bones are concerned the tit ia linear for all bones of the rear leg except the proximal tibia, which is again everrepresented. As in the case of Big Happy New Year the tntercept is high for the distribution relatíve to the dístributions from the spring stands. Differing from the Big Happy New Year site is the behavior of the bones of the front leg. The phaJanges and metacarpal are overrepresented and the radio·cubitus and humerus are underrepresented. Allhough both sitl's are anticipated by the same model we see clearly how they differ. Big Happy New Year shows an unbiased fit to the model with a high intercept, whereas tittle Happy New Year exhibits relatively strange
Happy New Year ,¡te "nd a model for marr..,w·bone seledion.
the dala from the fall hunting stands. Figure 7.17 displays the relationship between a model developed earlier (Table 5.5, column 14) and data from the Big Happy Ncw Year site. In the modet él populatiun previuu!lly scll.!cled from él kill·bulchering IOl'llliun iN
eepl rather high in terros of our previous
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.CA"" texperience. The only part appearing overrep- woc( ~ ~ X) resented is the proximal tibia, a fact almost certainly indicative of the butchering out of ..J ~ •• bones at the joint and the selection of com- ¡!z O ~I" • ....ltceD~ plete bones for marrow consumption. In es- .... '--.:.--.:10 10 'o .0 .0 lO 10 lO lO 100 sence, the proximal tibia is riding with the higher-valued distal tibia. That the bones of MARROW-BONE SELECTION FOR TRANSo PORTEO POPLLATION IMGIJl)(SQUARE OF both front and rear leg are represented and the MARROW INDEX) TABLE 5.5 COL. 14 femur is present in fair numbers reflects the introduction to the location of parts from the Figure 7,11. Relatj(ln!lhlp between d.'t~ hum the Utvillage or from animals killed prior to the abunlIe Happy New Yt";usite and A model f\.r milrrow-bont dance of meat characteristic of the fall migraselection. tion hunting.
•
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Conlemporory Foil Huntlng Strategy
behavíor for the front leg, and the assemblage is dominated by antier rather than marrow bones. It will be recalled that these are the two main shooting stands used during migration hunting. In additicn, there is a slight bias in favor ol using the Little Happy New Yeer site as the migration proceeds. At both these locations the behavior is similar in that observation and initial firing take place. Once the animals are spooked the hunters pursue in hopes of gettíng additional shots es other hunters fire from the opposite side of the valley. Animals are generally butchered where they faH or they may be dragged to a better place in terms of winter topography. AH during this time the hunters are not accompanied by dogs. After butchering sorne hunters will rL'luro lo the hunting stand carrying pieccs or choice dements uf the caribou to share with their friends and/or family at the hunting stands. DurinS Ihis phase of hunting, meat and marrow consumption is relatively common at the stands. Hunters may returo with dogs or a snowmobile lo caches or animals leH unbutchered or only eviscerated, load sleds, relurn lo the sta-nds, and Irequently pick up family members for the retum trip to the village. This behavior ensures that parts introduccd inlo Ihe hunting stands are either sl'!cclL'd i'lS choicl.' clernenls, resulting in pil'n'·butl·hcced "nimells in the ficld, ur they are L"ulled (ruin meat already ilJ.,dcd on aleda and deslined for ¡ntroduction into the viUage. Thus, the population from which con5ump~ tion proceeds in these locations is always a selected or transported population as modeled. The consumption of meat on these stands is relatively new in ourexperience with the Nunamiut. This is clearly evidenced in the rclatively high frcquencies of femur present relative to spring sHes such as the Mask site . The high frequency of antlers on these sites is related to the cooking of stripped meat on Ihe stands. These antlers, from freshly killed faJl caribou, are introduced as facilities to be used in roasting meat over fires. The differences between the two stands is understandable in terms of the increasing use of the tittle Happy
(365)
New Year site as an intermediary transport node or stopping place for sleds loaded with meat for the village. When dogs are being used it is not uncommon te see a hunter culling off parts from the already loaded sled to give the doga, which remaln hemessed lo the sled while tbe hunter may converse wíth his friends or consume sorne food around one of the hearths. The men explain lhat this "calms the dogs. "In my opinión. this action i. reflected in the inflated frequencíes of the lower front Iegs. Human choices are sornewhat of a gourmet form during this period of the year, wíth Ihe back leg being the most commonly selected part. Cutting offthe lower legs of front quarters already loaded on sleds is simply a dog pacifier. In dog fceding there Is an access.. laetM conditioning sc1t.'Ctiull uf parts, whcfl'as in human consumption nu aL".. .l'ss factor exists. The small hunting stands along the western margin of the valley playa different role in the overal1 migration hunting strategy. Most commonly the hunters walk to these stands. If hunters do take out sleds with either dogs or snowmobiles, animals loaded on sleds for transport into the village are general1y transported to tittle or Big Happy New Year where the hunter joins his companions in snacks and conversation rl'sarding the hunt. Lah.'r those sleds of mt.'at may be tmnsported to the village. When kllls are made froln the small stands the hunlers almost always butcher and cache the kili knowing that much meat will be introduced into the village from the activities at the major hunting locations. Rarely is meat introduced from kill-butchering Jocations and destined for the village consumed at the stand. This difference in situation is well ilIustrated in the faunal remains from the locatians. Figure 7.19 iIIustrates the fit between data from the A-J stand and a limited~access model designed toaccommodate data selected from a population of parts en route to the village. The model being used was found to accommodate the data from the Mask site, a spring hunting stand. At the Mask sHe, meat was transported
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through the hunting stand bUI rnarrow bones were removed for local use in terms of a limited-access model-Ihat is. bones made inaccessible by virtue of beavy meat masses were avoided as a luncHon oC the value of the meal itself. Clearly, the fil oí data fram the taU stands is nol very convincing. Upoo reflection Ihis is nol surprising, since we know Ihat the normal fall pattem al the small slands is lo butcher animals near the kili lacatian and leave Ihem cached on the tundra. Meal does ROl pass lhrough the stands en route lo the village for storage as was che case duriog spring. Figure 7.20 iIIuslrales the fU between data from the A~J hunting stand and a Umited-aecess model fOf marrow·bone seleetion when complete tmimals ore Dvailable. Now we note a mueh dearer approximation of the data by the mode). However, the proJli~ imal tibia is overrepresented, a eharaclerlstie noted repeatedly in the spring hunting stand data. This refleets the fact that the Eskimo are removing the complete tibia ratherthan breakiog Ihrough the tibia shaft at the time of dis-
memberment. In addition, we note a slightly split distribution in that parts of the front leg are systematically underrepresented relative to parts of the rear leg. As has been the case in the past sueh a distribution frequently betrays a weighting problem. Figure 7.21 ilIustrates the fit between the A-J data and the square of the marrow índex unconditíoned by access consideratíons. Now we note a very nice fit with all the outliers clearly understandable in terms of dismemberment strategy rather than any selection bias. 80th the proximal tibia and the metatarsal are overrepresented, índícatíng that complete bones were being selected and dismemberment was at the joints rather than through the shañ as the model assumes. The distal radio-cubitus and carpals are underrepresented. This reflecte the fact that the complete radto-rubitus is being selected in terms of a value bias relañve to the proximal end. This is understandable in terms of the larger marrow cavíty at the end of the bone. Finally, we note the overrepresenteríon of the phalanges, which as we have already seen ríde with the marrow bones as a Iunction of
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ll'lBIASED MARROW BONE SELECTlON FROM POPll.ATlON Of COMPLETE ANIMALS TABLE 5.5 COL. 4 Figure 7.21. Relationship between dala from Sne A.J imd an addilional modal for marrow-bone selecncn.
shooting dtstance. Al! three of the small hunting stands of Table 7.3 fit this model. The late faH hunting stends are examples of still another type of sttuation, one where relatively few animals are being killed and where hunters are remaining on the site for greater perlods of inactivily. In addition, these are not locafions where animals killed are transported into the camp; the common procedure is lo cache lhe animals where they are bUlchered al Kongumuvuk and al Contact Creek. At Giant Creek iI is more common to transport the animals to Ihe village, since the location is out ar away from the normal winter travel routes. 80th Kongumuvuk and Giant Creek are sorne distance from the village; Contact Creek is very clase (see Figure 7.3). Coosequently, much less snacking goes on at the laller loca. han. Figures 7.22 and 7.23 iIIustrate the fil between data from Contact Creek and Kangumuvuk and the cube of the marrow indexo In this mode1 the assumption is that a com. plete animal is available from which selections of marrow bones are made. The cube of the
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CUBE Of MARROW INDEX-TABLE 7.8 COLl Filure 7.22. R..lalionship Iktwt't'n data trom the Kongumuvuk hunting stand and a mcd e1 fur marrowbone selecnon.
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CUBE Of MARRQW INDEX-TABLE 7.8 COLl Figure 1.23. Rt'lationship bt.>lwt't'n data from Contact Cre ..k fall hunting stand and a ffilxtd for m.urow-oone sel"clíon.
marrow indeJli suggesls that a very selective situation is involved in which not much bulk is consumed al any one time or alternatively thal
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(MGUU lICPI TABLE 7.16 COL. B flsure 7.31. Relationship between the ft'COnslructed Kakinya site assemblage and alternative model~ val",!!'s.
fil between the model and the reconstructed data from the Kakinya site. We note immediately that the fH between model and data
linear relationship tndícated between the two assemblages. Slightly underrepresented on the Kakinya site relaríve lo the ice ceUar Ptccessing area are the proximal humerus, metacarpals, and carpals. The reader may recall thet the model that best approximated the ice cellar processmg area was one where we assumed the processíng of sorne complete animals as well as animals previously culled at kill-butchering locanons. (See Figure 3.19.) The dues to the fact that the Kakinya site is a resideotiallocation where processing for drying was the dominant activity rest in the cheracter of the site structure as well as in the condttíon of the bones. This again emphasizes that the composition of the wcrk group and fhe locancn of the síte do not necessarily vary directly with the character of the dominant activitíes conducted al the síte. Por ínstance, in the processing location associated with BilIy Mony's processing of 11 caribou during the spring of 1972 almost aUbanes were complete (not broken for marrow) and the dismemberment ratios were 96% and 93% for the hont and rear legs respectively (see Table 5.14). On
.,
is better in that Ihe underrepresented elements in the previous comparison have now converged ioto the strong linear distribution for the majority of anatomical elements. Remaining as a parallel bul inde~ndent dislributiao of overrepresented parts are the head plus neck, phalanges, distal humerus, and radio-cubitus. • The model that anticipates the data best (Table 7.16, column 8) is a model for a process¡og location where parts remaining are those removed from a transported population duriog the eourse of processing meat for dry storage. (Compare Ihis model to Ihat presented in Table 3.2, column 6.) As an additional demoostration of the similarity between the Kakinya fall residentiallocation and previously discu~ed processing localions, Figure 7.32 iIIustrates the relalionship between ahe anatomical frequencies discarded in the proeessing area adjacent to the ice cellars (Table, 3.7, column 2) and the data from the Kakinya site. There is dearly a high variance
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PROCESSING AREA AOJACENT ICE CELLARS - TABLE 3.7COL.2
figure 7.32. Rdationship ~tw4,"('n th~ total Kakinya site assemblage and debris hom processing afeas oulside the conlemporary in' cellan.
CoruumpUon and Sto,..... In FaJ' R...dmt,.1 Locotlo..
the other band, at the Kakinya eite the díamemberment ratios were 9,4% and 25.9"0, showing that a much greater degree of dismemberment characteriz.ed the processing of parts at the Kakinya síte. Similarly. et the Billy Morry processing locañon leg bones were not only articulated bUI unbroken, wherees at the Kakinya site most bones had been broken for marrow as is shown by the observed and corrected valúes for articulator ends in row B of Table 7.14. Still further dífferences are noted between the two processing locations in the nature of the ínternal site structure itself. At the Billy Morry processing locatton there was no evidence of a house or tent on the location. Similarly, aUthe bones were piJed in a single píle. At the Kakinya aíte there was a distinct structure to the spatial dísposltion of bones reflecting dif· ferentiated usage, as in the case of the dog yard versus the house area as well as spedfic dump localizations and drying rack facilities. Even if we included the drying camp of the Mony family as a component af the processing location we would have the tent remains and the remains of the drying facilities. However, dumping and differentiation af usage in lerms af parts are lacking from the spring drying-processing locatioos oí the Mony fam· ily. Similarly laeking are the features as· Bociate-d wilh chi1dren's play. Regarding location, it is inte-re-stíng that the Billy Mony spring processing site was in almost an identiazl location lo thal of the Kakinya fall site. BiUy Morry's drying camp was in the willows, 19 m east of our excavationson the Kakinya sitel AU this simply points to the reality that under sorne conditions we may see special-purpose locations characterized by short-term occupatioos, liUle eonsumption, and in other situations the same basic aetivities may be conducted al locations where many other ac· tivilies are performed and the social and durational eharacteristics oí the sites are quite difierent. This is exactly what 1 envisioned in my discussions with Fran.;ois Bordes regard· íng the possibilities for wide-ranging compounds oí 1001 assemblages at difíerent Joca-
[389J
tions-many of the same aetivities being performed but in different combinations and in different organizational contexts (see Bínlord and Binlord 1966). I think that one can readily see that had the Eskimo been using stone 10015 the assemblages occurring at the BiUy Morry drying camp and proeessing area are Iikely to have been different from the total assemblage at the Kakinya site, where additional proceaaing for merrow. acnvltíes related to preparations for wínter, and the construction oí winter houses nearby were betng conducted. Neverthelees, the relationships between the processlng for meat for drying and the use of certaín tools would more than líkely have been similar at the two locations. Returning for a moment to the parte that are overrepresented in the Kakinya site assemblage, there is one condition Ihat most Iikely aecounts íor this. This is illustrated by the introduction to Ihe processing loeation of essentially complete front legs when such processing is anticipated and Iransport is relativelyeasy. We. have seeo this previously in Ihe case oí Billy Morry' S processing location (see Figure 5.37) and we have seen a similar situation al the spring processing locations adjacent to the ice cellars and in the residential processing locations within the contemporaey village. These faets lead me lo eondude that the high frequencies oí the head and neck at Ihe Kakinya site are in response to the ease of transport as was the case around the ice celJars given the contemporary use of snowmobiles. In 1948 there were no snowmobiles¡ however. the site was directly adjacent to the mouth of Kongumuvuk Valley through which the faU herdsof caribou come out. This makes it likely that many kills were made very dase to the camp and for Ihis reason excess frequencies of marginal parta were introduced and used primarily for dog fcod. Now I shaU address the task of anticipating the parts that would have beeo destroyed beyond recognition had bone grease been manufactured at the site.
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TABU 1.8 Model. Ior Marrow·BoH SeIec:tIoaTransporled
Complete animal
(Ml)s
Limited access (MI)
Limited access (MI)I
,
Limited arceas (Mi)I
population (MGUI)
Transported population (CMGUI)
UnLimited selecñon
Limited access (MI)
Kili
ene population (ICMGUI)
Unlimited selertiun (MI)
Unlimiled selection (MI)I
--
Anatomica! p.lrt Antler Skull Mandible Atlas Al<.is Cervical vert..brae Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae Pelvis Rib:; Slernum Scapuli'l Proximal humero s Distal humeros PfOl<.imal radic-cubnus Distal radlo-cubnus Carpals Proximal metaciJrpal Distal metacArpal Proximal Iemur Distal Iemur Proximal tibia Distal tibia Tarsals Astragalus Calcaneus Proximal ml'latarsal Distal metalarsdl First phalange Second phalange Third phalange
(MI)'
Table 5.5, rol. 5 )( Table 5.5, col. 4
Col. 2 88.8
Table 5.5, coi. 1 )( Tal>le 5.5, col. 7
Col. 4 36.'
Table 5.5, rol. 1 )( rol. 3
(1)
(2)
(3)
(')
(5)
.03 2.62 2.30 8.31 28.89 26.09 23.46 30.18 3.75 12.06 8.39 80.17 66_52 66.52 66.52 54.61 100.00 2.70 2.70 170
.23 6.26 5.70 16.24 37.28 36.95 36.06 42.65 11 .24 14.28 64.29 6222 62.22 6222 59.J2 88.80 '84 4JIl O
.26 '.04 6.41 18.29 41.98 41.61 40.61 48.03 .12
.27 16.08 7239 70.06 70.06 70.06 6680 tOOJJO
.95 542 O
l."
10.33 8.28 11.16 14.11 10.11 8.01 7.51 37 .55 23.77 36.70 25.41 25.41 25.41 24.46 23.93 12.39 4.55 4.55
34.09
Table 5.5, col. 1 x Table 5.5, col 4
Col. 8 4064
CMGUI x Teble 5.5, col. 7
Col. 10 72.87
ICMGUI x Table 5.5, col. 3
Col. 12 50.63
ICMGUI )( rabie 5.5, col. 4
Col. 14 39.46
(6)
(7)
(8)
l')
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
4.71 28.15 22.56 JO.41 38.45 27.55 21.83 20.46 101
.11 3.06 2.34 4.87 9.33 6.46
.32 .98 6.86 11·28 27.37 18.95 14.49 14.18 .35
ISO
.27
6477 100.00 69.24 69.24 69.24 66.65 65.20 12.39 12.39 12.39
10.41 34.09 22.18 22.18 22.18 19.9'9 23.99 1.37 1.37 1.37
.44 9.42 7.18 12.48 23.89 15.60 11.39 11.61 27.61 6006 30.51 100.00 59.35 59.35 59.35 49.19 5888 303 3.03 3.03
2.62 15.66 14.53 25.11 38.04 34.55 JO.""5 33.66 .37 .55 3434 12.87 6510 65.10 65.10 59.O'J
3.11 15.52 14.80 24.92 37.75 42.72 46.56 50.63 O O 3.61
n.14 30.65 2tl63 4':122 7456 84.38 91.96 HJO.110 O O 113 Ib.\17 4H1 46.41 46.41 63.70 71.93 4t1.4)
Col. 6
'.94 5.04 .12
- TIIMr rqercllfes: MGUt rabie 5.5, column 1; CMGUI, Table 5.8, column 3; ICMGUI, Table 5.tI, column 5.
79 30.53 100.00 65.06 65.06 65.06 5864 7031 4.02 4.02 4.02
I
.18 3.83 2.92 5.07 9.71 634
.63
.n
11.22 24.41 12.40 40.64 24.12 24.12 24.12 19.92 23.93 1.23 1.23 1.23
n30 17.30 11.30 17.30
3.59 21.49 19.93 3496 52.20 47.41 42.47 46.19
.SO .75 47.13 100.00 9004 90.04 90.04 81.09 99.31 23.74 23.74 23.74
,,.
23.50 23.50
23.50 32.25 39.46 20.47 20.47 20.47
40,43
40.43
20
SI
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t1.65 10.'11 27.>4 63.25 6~ lb 72.75 Kb.t1O O O 4.4t1 20.22
411 10.87 2496 21.29 2871 33% O O 1.77 '98 20.51 20.51 2051 26.36 3946 6.14 6.14 6.14
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Invenlon". 01 Anatomlcal Part. on ran Drylng Rack.
In Anaktuvuk Vlllase (l971 and 1972)8
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TABLE 7.10
t j
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t::
Analomical part Antler
Skull Mandible
AII.1s Axis Cervical verl ..brae Thoracic vertebra.. Lumbar vertebral' Pelvis + S>1crum Ribs Stemem Scapula Humerus Radio-cubítus
MNI
%
MNI
%
..J " ..JIU -..J > ID ..
(1)
(2)
(3)
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7
7 13 18 18 18 24 17 20
•
1.5
1.5 1.5
Tibia Tarsals Mel.llars.ll~ Ph.,lang('~
PO
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Ml'tacarpal
•
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Obeerved o«. 24, 1972
Carpels
Fcrnur
!i.
Observed oa. 26, 1971
1 1 1
""
¡ 1
' .1
1
29.1 2IJ.1
8
B 54.1 15 75.0 22 75.0 22 75,0 22 100,0 29 70.tI 20 H3.3 24.5 25.0 é. 2 JS
•
•. 2 •. 2
1.5 1.5
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16.6 16,6
•
2
8.3
3
1 1
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1
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13731
3.4 3.4 3.4 27.5 275 51.7 75.8 75.8 75.8 100.0 ".9
".4 20.6 5.1 5.1 5.1 20.b ]7,2 10.3 3.4
1.7
" IlunllnK h.hl ¡;h'rp~'d 12 d.l),!'! bdllr~'l'l'Ich Invl'nhlry was madc.
reduced, untiJ finally the Eskfmc líves through the peak of winter in perpetua! darkness. It is during this period that the majority of the dry meat stores are in íect used since frequent trips into the area around the vitlage are greatly rurteiled by the darkness. It is notable that the candidate population model (Table 3.2, column 9) antícipatcs the actual data quitewell. Parts appcaring undcrreprescnn.'. d are the sternum (nlsu underrt.'presented in the !ipting dala), hUllll'ru~, riHJjo-cubituH, and mnndibll', Tht.· lU.lndibll'·S undcrrt.·prt.'sl'llt<'ltinn is understandable in terms of its low drying po. tential, as pointed out for the spnng data. That the bones of the front leg are underrepre-
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CANDlDATE POPULATION MOOEL FOR ORYlNG TABLE 3.2 GOL 9 Fi8U~ 7,25, Rclationship b..'t\"'l'en Jitll'l Irom lht' Anakluvuk village Iall drying r.1.:k~ ,lnd.1 c,tmlid.1Il' por"'lalion mcdel.
sented wculd be anticipated in terms of the proccsslng index, as argued in thc case uf the summer dog feeding record (see Table 6.3), The reduced fall frequencíes of the humerus and redio-cubltus are almost certainly reiated to the biascd consumption and processtng of marrow. srece the Eskimo can anticípate successful storage uf marrow given the much colder temperatures.
F.U Re.ldentlal Locatlon. PrIor to the E.tabllshment o, the Sedentary Vlllage The most usefuJ dala on faJl consumption were obtained from a series of well-documented residentiallocations occupied prior to the establishment of the sedentary village at Anaktuvuk Pass, Por thc mobile Nunamiut, fall was a timl'uf sll'ppt.'d-up aclivity and prcp· aralion for wintl'r, i1!'l il i~ for Ihl' Nunamiut today. Thl' winll'r sturl'S of nu'at h'll..11t1 bto' ul;ltilint.'d, SUmntl'r 6t.'ar (.Kht.'J, .md wintcr dothes manufactured. Their activitit.'s also inc1uded the periodic eonstruetion of winter houses, the recovery of gear eaehed at the end
(374)
7. Fall
of the previous winter-incIudin$ the a11important sled-and the construcñon 01 repair of traps to be used during winter. Residentiallocations of the (aU perlad were typically coincidental with the migration oí caribou and were normally abandoned in favor of winter houses before freeze-up in late Oclobero Two fan residentiallocations wereexcavated, the Rulland site and the Kakinya site. The Hul/and
Sll~
The RuUond site (see Figure 7.26 for locatian) WllII occupled by a single family-an adult couple and sil( chlldren. The family ts reported to have had 14 dogs. This was one of the faroilies that occupied the Akmoglik site prior to moving to thís locauon in September 1948. The site is al the edge of the willow stand clase to Kongumuvuk Creek. Jt was chosen by the Eskimo i19 a very good localion from which to hunt migration caribou coming out of Kongumuvuk velley. While living here for ap· proximately 26 days the family successfully hunted caribou and built a winter house in the willows along Kongumuvuk Creek onefourth of a mile to the east of their faH site. While the Rullands lived at their fall resldence two other families werecarnped nearby, so the en tire site consisted of three tents occupied by 20 people for a maximum period of 39 days. The Rulland site and the Kakinya site, to be discussed next, were both part of this threefamily campo 1have treated the archaeological remains ol the two families as two separate sites since this is the way I believe an archaeologist would view them. They are physidll y separated and there is Iittle if any overlap between the debris distributions associated with the two tent sites. The site consisted of a number of features, induding a central tent ring formed by large stones placed as weights along the bottom of a tent. To the west of the tent was a dense scatter of partiaUy rotted wood-the remains of the firewood piJe. In front, or on the south side oE the tent, was a Une oE partially rotted brush-the remains oE a brush windbreak that
shielded the entrance to the tent. Downslope and south of the tent were the remains of the meat rack and a cache of bones. These bones were the artieulator ends of long bones that had been broken and consumed for marrow as part oE the daily meals taken inside the house as well as the processing of parts for drying. Still Iarther south were a number of interestíng archaeological features, the remains of children's play ereas. The dogs had been tethered in the wiltowsalong the south base of the small rise on which the tent had been pleced. The dog area is violently washed each spring during melt and nearly all archaeologlcal traces of the dog yard had been washed away. Similarly, persona who had occupied the site reported a small dump area to the south but no such dump could be located archaeologicaUy. The area polnted out by informants was, as in thecase of the dog yard, in the low area that is annualIy washed. It is presumed that the smaD dump has aleo been destroyed by natural agents. The informants described the activities here as all primarily related to hunting faIl caribou and the building of nearby winter houses. The occupants recall that mostof the anlrnals killed during migration hunting were cached on the tundra. Sorne killed nearby were field butchered and introduced into the residentiaJ location directly from the kills, These an'lmals were largely processed for drying but choice parts were consumed on the spot. Table 7.11 summarizes the anatomical part frequt"ndes recovered from three general areas of tht"site; the area inside the tent and adjacent to the door oí the tent, the area between the tent and the meat rack, and the cache of bones below the meat rack remains. (See .lIso Table 7.12.)
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The Kakln,a S/l~ The Kakinya sile (see Figure 7.26 for locatian) was occupied by 5 people and 15 dog! during fall migration hunting. The head of the house waa engaged in building winter houses in the willows east of the site. Meat was dried and later moved to the winter site. The length
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problems associated with the excavation uf süee having considerable internal sitc strucinduded components not represented in the ture. Figure 7.27 compares the total asRulland materíals. semblage recovered from the Rulland slte with Maio features on the site included the tent the subtotal of parts occurring on the Kakinya area and its telltale ring of stones. The ensíte in comparablt' activitiy arcas; the house, trance opened to the south. and along the drving rack, and bone cache. Deleted hum front uf the tent was a brush windbrcak with consideranon in ütc comparison werc boncs the main path to the tent entrance opening al in the dog yard and in the dump at the the east end of the brush windbreak. To the Kakinya site. These features were not pre· east and slightly north, approximately 7 m served en the RuUand site. What is clear is that from the northeest comer of the tent, were the the two sltes are essentially identícal when the collapsed remains oí the drying rack. North of comparison is between comparable structural both the tent and the drying rack was the dog elements of the siles. The relationship indiyard where eaeh animal had been telherl!d in cated in Figure 7.27 is slightly curvilinear, a low willows. East oí the house. along the path phenomenon we should expect when comparlo the dog yard and slightJy south of the iog populations of bones from two localiuns. drying racks, was a dump area. Occurring 00 the other hand, Figure 7.28 iIlustrates the archaeologically "on lop" of the north edge of relationships between the two siles when the the dump was a dense concentration of ar~ total assemblages are comp
arcbaeologicolly- Thus, the Kakinya sample
COflSlumptlon and Storagr In Fa" Re.l.n"a1 1.ocatlo...
thc assemblege. We note immediately that the graphs are csscntinlly parallel for all bones of the axial skeleton plus the scapula and the phalanges. On the other hand, the pattem of the graph for all elernents of the legs except the scapula nnd phalanges is vastly diíferent wh ..'n we assumc destruction of ,111 the !;It,JOt'S in the t-one cache. The change is a dramatic one. frorn an assernblage dorninated by the distal fernur to une dominatcd by the first phalenge. How may we model the character of the assemblage as observed and anticipa te the assemblage as it might appear had bone gre
13791 11 is reasonablc to cxpect thnt this indcx 1ll.1Y well anticípate the parts moved intu the Kakinya site as well. Table 7.16, column 2, presenta a model in which the MGUI ís rnulfiplied by the inverse drying indexo Table 7.16, column 4. presente a model in which the conscrvatíve MCLll (CMCLT\) is rnultiplicd l;>y the iuverse dryins iudev. lable ;.1(1. column too summarizes the values for the irwerse randidate population prevlously found lo monitor the parts p1aced on drying racks in both {al! and spnng. whereascolumns4 and 10 present the values for the MGUI and the CMGUI multiplied by the inverse candidate populaticn mode!. These fout mudels are suggested as the most likely forms far anticipating the parts actually remaining on the Kakinya site as reconstructed. Figure 7.30 iIlustrates the tit between the reconstructed site total from the Kakinya site and the model for Ihl.' site basl.'d un thl' .,ssumptiun that the MGUI .lntidp,ltl's tlw piUIs intwdurl'd .1l1d tllt' in\'l'r~l' \lrying index anticip.1tes lhe population as it would appear after dried meat had becn removed to another location. WC see a strong linear rela~ tionship between the model and alJ parts of the rear leg, the lower front leg, and the pelvis, mandible, and ribs. Underrepresented in the assembJage relative to the model are the stetnum, lumbar and thoracic verlebrae. scapula, and proximal humerus. Thl'se <1ft' .111 pilTtswe h,lVC ¡t'aroed to asslld.llc wilh dril'd meato Sincc thl'sC reprt.'st·nt a corrl'l,lll'd but undt'rrepresented cluster of parts. it is Iikt.'1y Ihat tht.' candidate population best apprmdm
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(14)
0/0
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5íll1' toral
100.0 85.65 71.51
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1.67
7.16
(4.00)
285
1.27
1.60 393
1.51
25.17
30.83 O
•• •
17.67 1I.17
IIJ.D
30.83 O 1'-83
22SO 4O.SO 8.33
15..67
."
309
'.68 .00
18.16
78.00 100.00 900
UN '.68 e.00
'.5 5.38
(IIJ)
33.33 56.33
(18)
".
".
37.0
o
e
.
.,'"
35.24 54.01 nOI
"
44.05
38116
.....
61.67 57.36
10000
17.62
o
o
O
o
O
o
O O O
o
o
O
o o
O O O
o
.......o
O 20. 20.o
20.00
,.,
o o
10000 ""00 ...00
(10)
...
O 2.85 1.00 .8. 1.16 1.ll6 '7 SO .SO
3.93 1.27
160
6.15 1.51
'.00
'68
'.5 5.38 3.09
(21)
6.13 S.'" 4.87
•l."
1.00 .SO
2.51 2.32
•
1.85
...
•
79.l8
94.15
99.67
40.81 37.72 16.26 8.13 26.99
O
11.37
O
16.26 14.47 18.86 17.23 10.89 8.13 8.13
O ".34
20.65
63.90
73.17 87.48 50.24 76.10 97.56 100.00 24 ..55 26.02
(22)
mM
Reconstructed total minus
MNI
O O O
o
e
O O O
•o
O O
o o
O O O
o
1.0 1..
o
.5 .5
o
.41
.5
o
o
,.,,. •
18.95 2202
5339
61170 6308
3524
2511
SUS 13..31 1409 34.63 11.19
1l.22 41.23 5286
47.40
39."
(20)
...
Reronstruded si~ total
MNl
.12 12
.5 S O .37
50.0 SO.o
tOO.O l
.o
1010 1000
o
O
O
o o o 1.0 1..
•o
o o
o
o
O
o o
u O
o o o o
SO.
o
o
25.o
u
o
o
25 2. 1.5
(9)
(8)
•o
MNI
[)rytng rack (54 m')
...
u
o
.08
o o
O .5
o
25
o o
o
•o
(7)
MNI
20 3.36
(17)
M:NI
MNI
.
Reccnstructed dog yard
hou se. cache and racle. cefv
o
O
o
42.10
36.84
42.11 47.'P
21.05
42.11
7368
100.00
94-.701
",.,
2l.05
lnS>
631' 5263
63.16
31.58
o o
n
o o
o
O
o e o o o
o o u
(.)
...
(S)
MNf
Subtotal o'
8.33 8.33 '.00
o
16.66
•e
33.33 10.66
o
,o
ü
...
O
,o ,." ,." ....
33.33
...
o
'.00
20.61
.....
11.00
100.00
100.00
83.30 33.33
.....
(')
(3)
(2)
Proximal meta<arpaJ DiSI,,1 metac",poll Proximallemur Distal femur Proximal tibi<1 DiStoll bbiol Tarsals Asrragalus C.lkolneus Proximal metatar'5.lI Distal metalarsal Fírst phalangeo Second phalangeo
Carpals
Proximal humerus Distal humenJs Proximal radío-
Scapula
Stemum
Ri'"
Cervkal vertebrae ThorKic "'ertebrae Lumbar veetebrae Pelvis
""'.
Atlas
Mandi~
Antier 5kuU
Anatomical part
Fint phalange S«ond phalange Third phalitnge
Distal mll!'tatarsa&
Astragalus c.kon
O O O
Distal tibU T.......
•o
O
.s
.5
o
Proximal femur Distal len'lUf Proximal tibia
proximal metacarpal Dístill metacilrpal
Carpals
O ProximAl radio-cubitusO Distal ra
Proximal humems Distal humeru5
Seapula
Slemum
Ri'"
5.41
10.82
3.46
.23
O
.5O
l.
o o o
10.82
o
o
Pelvis
o
o
.3
o
e
(1)
...
MNI
(135 m')
(2.5 m")
(81 mi)
(27 mi)
%
Hou. and yard
Cache area
Dos yard
Dump erea
AD. Cervical vertebral' Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar verrebrae
Atlas
5kuU Mandible
Antier
Anatom.ical part
TASLE 7.13 In..ntort•• o, ADatomlcaJ P.rts &om the FaU Reslcleadal KaIdn~ su.
MNI
.
~
~
308 O O
Total splínters
(3) Cache atea (4) House and yard (5)
Drying rack
(6) Site lotal
•
3 3
1.0
.50
O O O
50
O 1.0 1.0
5 5
O O O O
O
O O
.37
3 O 3 O 5 S
1.00
3.45
•
O
•
20.1
20.7 O
•
O .1. SS
O
5 4
O O O
1
1 2
O 1
O O
O
O
O
O O O
113 22 135
O O O
O O
46
.99
•
42 38
O
42
O
3.22
113 16 129
416.4
389.8 26.6
O
O O O O O O
O
O O
O O
1 O
.33'
.25
12.1
•
6 2
4 12
•
O O
121.0
107.0 14.0
1.0
O O O 3 O 3
1.0
3.09
2 10
•
JO.O
27.6 3.3
1.0
J.O
O O O
2 2
O
O
O O
O O
O O
O
1.0
10.0
O 13 13
2
O
2
20 O O
2
l.
1.0
O O O
2 2
O
J.O
3.45
2
O
2
6.0
6.0 O
360
.... .259
14
O 5 5 5 O
2
1
O
2
O
.37
3.16
.2
23
30
131 29 160
O O
469
423 46
• EJcpected values were calculated using only splinm coestents 3.45 per lceg-bcee end and 1.66 per metapochal end (see Table 4.6) . • OnIy splinters are tabulated here. Chips WE't!" elirninaled trorn the counts because of sorne inconsistencíes in data coüecncn. ~ Figures in "expected" colurnn are ccrrected vehres. , Corrected vetees. ~ Pints calcined bone. I PMC, primary metacarpal; DT, distal libia; PMT, proximal rnelatarsoal; DMT, distal metalarsal.
Percentage up
Re"
r12tios Fronl
H. Oismmtbmrrmt
Pront up Front down Total front Rear up RNrdown Total reer
NI/liS
C. Dismnrr«rmtflt
O 3 3 O O O
O
Tusals lo DT
tarsals
O O
1 O
O O
O
.20-
33.3
12 3 15
2 10
•
20.0 O 2
18.0 2.0
O O
DMT lo tarsels PMTto
Real up
Froat up Re.u down OTdown PMTdown
PMCdown
Franl clown
1.0
1.66
O 1 1
1.66
O 1.66
1 O
.25'
E. 811mal bon~
F. ArticuLl'li01lS '
.10
308.0
21 5 26
Rib heads Rib tolals
Articulator ends"
D. RAhos Shaft splinters
Ribtotal
Rib fngmmts Rib huds
C. Aibs
T"'"
MetapodiaJ
B. Arnculdtor mds~ long bone
S......
Cylinders
O 1 1
280 28
splint~
(2)
Dog yard
.1l3
48 5 53
1.0
3.22
129 lO 148
476.6
445.1 31.5
Observed ExpKtIl!'d Observed Expeded Observed Expecred Observed Expected Observed Expected Observed Expected
Smooth splinters Otanneled
A. 5h'¡t spli"tos.
Attribule!.
(1) Dump afea
TABLE 7.14
Aadlluy Facts: Kaldny. Slt.-
~
c , . o ;;j
~N
;
7
[
~
~
~ ~
•
-.
,-
:!.,
o.~
e, •
H
~ &. -6"
~. ~
~
• o
N
ji
o
"
r.o •o
'" o ¡;; •
o PI •
r
ID •
O 2.5 1.0 O 1.0 O O O
O O O JOOO O 75.0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 50.0 O O O
.s
O
O .'
O
O O O O O O O O O O O O O .S .S .S O O O
O 100.0 40.0 O 40..0 O O O 20.0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 20.0 20.0 20.0 O O O O O O
(4)
%
i
•
1
·
•
-i~
~
ll-
•••
. i
K}
••
••
i
~
..
.-
-f~" ,:~; e~
P
•
i _1-' S~ ~
••• ~.¡¡
•
~•. .. =;-
~
•
~
oa:;a~s!a;;g
'" _
RECONSTRUCTID KAKINYA SITE TOTAL TABLE 7.(3 COL. 20
g
~
~
o
~
s
g
o
•
~
~
o ¡;
.S 1.0 1.0 1.S 1.0 .S JO .S 1.0 .S .S .S .37
.s
O 1.0 1.0 .S
.s
O O O O O O O O O O O O
(5)
24.7
.s
O O 33.3 O O 16.6 O O 33.3 1217 33.3 O O 33.3 O O O O O O O O
,-
~
;:o
....'"5i
-6"
~
~
CIoI~
'-c:
"'0
PI:r
::
~:;
o
g
~:;
SI)
Di ifi :
'0
;;
• o
•
!5o
'Il
~
~
•
;;:
. o
i'
o
r ;;¡
8
8
o
~ •
:-01 ;;
¡;¡
¡;;
CD •
o
:~. :~
~
l>l
rrt o
50.0 33.3 33.3 24.66
...e
16.6 33.3 33.3 50.0 83.3 83.3 100.0 66."
16.6 16.6
33.3 33.3
16.6 16.6
O
16.6
! ea = 5 .SI-:!
IX
iJ
:
•
.~
~
~ .... ~ ~
~.»o!i
:::...
• ~ •~
.~
~
.'"
~
'. s ,
.
-
~
3
•1
•~
~
O O .S O O O O O O O O l.S 2.0 2.0 l.S 1.0 1.0 .S .5 .37
.s
3.0 3.0 10 1.0 1.0 O O 1.0 .19
.s
(13)
%
•
~
li
•
l
8
12.3
16.6 16.6
50.0 33.3 33.3
........
O O O O O O O O 50.0
16.6
O O
16.6
33.33 33.33 33.33 O O 33.33 '.3
100.00
16.66 100.00
(14)
cache
Total minus MNI
RUlLANO SITE TABLE 7.11 COLlO 3 a t ! S a 3
.~
=.~ ~
•••
!:IC .'
.i
" ~·S
I'i
~.. '¡~
-;. -.1=1 ...
~
~..
/:'''
~t;.
_ :::. o e,
, ,,
t
~
o
.5 1.0 1.0 .S .S .S 1.0 1.0 J.5 2.S 2.S 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.S 1.0 1.0 .74
.s
O
.s
16.66
100.00 100.00 33.33 33.33 33.33 O O 33.33 '.3
.s 3.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 O O J.O .19
(12)
%
(11)
MM
RULLANO SITE TABLE 711 COLlO
12.0
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 25.0 25.0
100.0
50.0 50.0
(10)
%
Total
aa~g~!S:
..... ~ ·fr·e
~~ ;~ ,.=.,.
-'l!
;'3!
J
o •
~~ :;
¡;!z
1
!:('"
J~3 ". ~R
~
"'~
·,
~
"'••
~ii
~
il.~
·
~f "O x ¡¡! ~g. ~ r¡ ,
o
·, ,-
~f z;
16.6 16.6
33.3 16.6
JOOO 1000 100.0
O O O O O 2 O .25 .25 .12
O
1.0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
.s
(9)
MNI
Drying rack
(8)
%
inr
33.3 33.3 33.3
33.3 66.0 33.3
1000
33.3 33.3 33.3
O O O O O O O O 1.0 1.S 1.S 1.5 1.0 .S .25 .25 .25
.s
.19 .5 O O
.s
O O .5 O O .25 O O
(7)
MM
Hou,",
...... ...... ... ... ... ...
O O O O O O O O O O O O 33.3 O
(')
%
Cache
MM
;~~r~~~~~~~~tn~zzn~ ~
1.0 O .75 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O .S O O O
.s
(3)
(2)
(1)
O O
MM
%
Dos'
MNI
---
Dump
~~~~~~c~C~O~O¡~c~~~~~r~n~~~0~
-i~. - . '" ¡g. §3 gX ·· ,
~
'" -5';'
5" ~ Qtl a
i·~
o -
"
~Q
.
~a
~ ~
g-~
.'
-." ~ ":
~~
~ :::
~ ~
~~~
~ íll ;G Q:C n '" 3 e
~_ •~. N~
~
3~~
;~::!!
.-
7~
Second phalange Third phalange
Astngalus CaJGlneus Pf'O:lCimal metatu'sIJ Distal metatarsal First phalange
T......
Scapula Proximal hu~ OisUl humerus Proximal radiG--<'''::.itus Distal radio--cut-:-...:.s Carpals Proximal metaca."'?'l Distal metacarp.L Proximal temur DisI.lLl femur Proximal tibia Distal tibia
Strmum
Pehis .,;'"
Cervical vertecese Thoracic vertebr-~ Lumbar vertebree
Axi>
Atla,
SkuJI Mandible
AnUer
An.1tomical pI.."1
TABU 7.15 . . . . . . . . 01 AaatOlDlcal Paru fro. Sbeep f'4MIIId a. tbe Kaklaya SI.,
&t
J
f
:l' :::
!t
f
I
f
7. Fall
13881
~ "'
... 0 (i) N
....
".
..
".
70
.'" ."
~..J
!: 8
... 'a.re U .-... .el
lS!!! ..
AJe
,lT'"
.....T
•
"LV f'II
."
."
lIT 'Cl!ltV
efA.
.'IIT
• • •OIIT
I
,-
'..c..CAII"
DIIIC. eU'-
10
n_ 10
SO
40
ISO
lO
70
110
lO
100
(MGUil OCP) TABLE 7.16 COL. 8
FIIUN 7.31. Rl'ialiunship bc.·twl't'n lhl' n..'("unstructl·d Kakiny" !il~ assemblage and alternative modelt-d valul"S.
fit between the model and the reconstructed data from the Kakinya sile. We note immediately that the fit between model and data is better in that the underrepresented ele~ ments in the previDus comparison have now converged ioto the stroog linear distribution
for the majority ef anatomical elements. Re~ maining as a paraUel bul independent distri· bufioo af overrepresented parts are the head plus neck, phalanges, distal humerus, and radio-cubitus. The model that anticipa tes the dala besl (Table7.16, columnS) isa model fora processinS loeation where parts remaíning are lhose removed from ól transportl'd pnpulillinn tI.... ring the coursL' uf pmcl'ssing ml'al fm dry storage. (Compare this model lo that pre· sented in Table 3.2, column 6.) As an additional demonstration of the simililrity beIween the Kakinya faU residentiaJ loeation and previously discussed processing locations, Figure 7.32 iIIustrates the relationship between the anatomical frequencies discarded in the processing area adjacent to the ice cellars (Table, 3.7, column 2) and the data from the Kakinya site. There is c1early a high variance
.
~
.
linear relationship indicated between the two
a.".mbl.g.". Sllghlly unue,,"p,."enll'U un
the Knk1nya síte relanve to the Ice celler processing area are the proximal humerus, metecarpals, and carpals. The reader may recall that the model that best approximated the ice cenar processing area was one where we assumed the processing of sorne complete animals as wel1as animals prevíousJy cuJled at ki1l-butcheríng locations. (See Eígure 3.19.) The dues to the fact that the Kakinya slte is a residentiallocation where processing for drying was the domina ni ectivity rest in Ihe character of the site structure as well as in the condition of the bones. This again emphasizes that the composition of Ihe work group and the location of the síte do not necesserily vary directly wilh the character of the dominanl activities conducted al the sile. Forinstance, in the processing loealian associated wilh Billy Morry's processing of 11 caribou during the spring of 1972 almost all banes were complete (not broken for marrow) and the dismemberment ratios were 96% and 93% for the front and rear legs respectively (see Table 5.14). On
..,
....
~
.,~
.
,,~'.
~1il z ..
.. ~m .... ..
~~
r"
.I"IW.
010 1
"T. o:
.A.
• C!IlV
e~fl. .DRC '~":T.DIIlT
~~.".
••
'" o"'
10
eAT
.-.1C¡".c
...., ."fUl
z'-
§
.IOJIC .DT
"'0
10
-.oo.
¡eCAll,,1 ~
30
40
DO
to
1'0
tO
.0
100
PROCESSING AREA ADJIlCENT ro ICE CELLARS - TABLE 3.7COL.2 Fisure 7.32. Rt'lalilln~hip btotween Iht' Mal Kakiny. sile aSSl'mblagt' and Jt.·bri!lfnlm pnlC'e!lsingan'astlulside tht., contemporary iet' cl'llars.
Couumpj'on and Storage In FallRa'.,.,lal LocoUo..
the other hand, at the kakinya site the dism~mbE!rm~nt I'i'itloi1 weee 9.4% and 25,9%, showlng that a much greater degree of dlememberment characterized the processing of parte at the Kakfnya site . Similarly, at the BilIyMorry processing locaríen leg bones were not only articulated hut unbroken, whereas at the Kakinya site most bones had been broken for marrow as is shown by the observed and corrected valúes for artículator ends in row Bof Table 7.14. Still further differenees are noted between the Iwo processing locatíons in the nature of the ínternal site structure Itself. At the BilIy Morry processing location there was no evidence of a house or tent on the loeation. Similar1y, a11 the bones were piled in a single pile. At the Kakinya site there was a distinct strueture to the spalial disposilion of bones refleeling dif· ferentiated usage, as in the case of the dog yard versus the house area as well as spedfic dump locaHzations and drying rack facilities, Even if we included the drying camp of the Morry family as a component of the process~ ing location we would have Ihe tent remalns and the remains orlhe drying facilities. How· ever, dumping and diffeeentiation of usage in teems of parts are lackíng from lhe spring drying-processing locations of Ihe Morry family. Similarly lacking are the features as· sociated with children's play. Regarding loca· tion, it i5 interesling Ihat the BilIy Mony spring processing site was in almost an identical location to that of the Kakinya fall site. BiI1y Morry's drying camp was in the willows, 19 m easl of ourexcavations on the Kakinya site! AII Ihis simply points lo Ihe reality that under sorne condilions we may see speclal-purpose locations charaeterized by short-term occupations, liule consumption, and in other situations the same basic activities may be ronducted at locations where many other activilies are performed and Ihe social and dura· Iional characteristics of the sites are quite different. This is exactIy what 1 envisioned in my discussions with Franl;ois Bordes regard· íng the possibilities for wide-ranging compounds 01 tool assemblages at differenl loca-
{3891
tiun,..-mony uf the same .'livltiu beinM perlormed bul In dlflerent camblnatians Ina in different organlzaUonal contexts (see 81n· ford and Binford 1%6). 1 Ihink that ene can readily see that had the Eskimo been usíng stcne tools the assemblages occurring al the BilIyMony drying camp and processing area are Ukely to have been different from the total assemblage al the Kakinya sne. where additionaJ processlng for marrow, ectivities related to preparations for wínter, and the construction of winter houses nearby were being conducted. Neverthelesa, the relationships belween the processing for meat for drying and the use of certain tools would more Ihan likely have been similar at the two locations. Returning for a moment to the parts thal are overrepresented in the Kakinya site as· semblage, Ihere is one condition that most likely accounts for this. This is iUustrated by the introduction to Ihe processing location of essentia11y complete front legs when such processing is anticipated and transport is relatively easy. We have seen this previously in the case of Bi11y Morry's processing location (see Figure 5.37) and we have seen a similar siluation al Ihe spring processing localion! adjacent to the ice ceHars and in the residen· tiat processing locations within the contemporary village. These fads lead me to conclude that the high frequencies of the head and neck at the kakinya site are in response to the ease of transport as was thecase around the ice cellars given the conlemporary use of snowmobiJes. In 1948 there were no snowmobiles; however, the sile was directly adjacent lo the mouth of Kongumuvuk Valley Ihrough which Ihe faU herd, of caribou come out. This mi\ke~ it lik~ly that many kills were mOlde very c10se to the camp and for Ihis reason exceS5frequencies of marginal parts were introduced and used primarily for dog food. Now 1 shall address the task of anticipating Ihe part5 that wouJd have been destroyed beyond recognition had bone grease been manufactured at the site.
[390)
1. Fati
As has been previously suggested (Chapter 4), the manufacture of bone grease is a '"OOrintensive activity. A large numberof bones are needed te produce a substantial yíeld of grease. Tñís means that bones are apt to be set asirle for later use in bone grease manufacture
was multiplied by the modified grease index as summartzed in Table 7.16, column 16. The resull is glven in Table7.16, column 18. Figure 7.33 ilIustrates the fit between the model and the values for the reconstructed population minus the bones in the bone cache (Table 7.13,
in terms of a bulk-oriented selection. For this
column 22),
reason it seems likely that sorne aspect of the square root of the white-grease index will anticipare the selection of bones. These valúes are summarized in Table 7.16, column 13. In any real situation of bone grease manufacture we are concerned wíth anticipating the bones not sefected. beceuse those chosen would have been destroyed. Por this reason the Inverse values of the standardized scale of square roots are multiplied agaíost a model popula· tion for anticipating toe bolle frequencies remaining after manufacturing. These values are surnmarized in Table 7.16, calumn 15. A complication arises from the fact that when bonl"s are destroyed exdusively for white grease there can be expected to be sorne constant characteristic of each situation that ref1ects the power of the selection. For ¡nstance, bones are not generally selected relative to the grease values of the bones of the axial skeleton not being processed. In short, there is sorne value that indica tes the degree to which bones yielding white grease are actually deJeted relative to those bones nol processed for grease. This constant is Iikely to vary fmm one sHuation to another depending un the llsagl' mad{' (lfbones prior to thl'ir bl'ing aVililabll' f"f!'l'fl.'Ction as sources of grease. This conslant must be established experimenlally in t'a~h ana• Iytical situation and once known it gives a rough indication of how intensely bones were selected for processing. In the case of the data from the Kakinya site this value was found to be .44. l"he inverse values of the standardized squarl' muf9 (lf the whitl·-~rl.'''~l· indl'x Wl're multiplil.'d by this l'tJn~tanl (.44) ilS ~lIm m.1tizl.'d in T'lbll' 7. lb, ,'ulumn Ifl. As a test of lhe dcgree to which thl' gn.'ase index as modified anticipates the actual behavior of the Eskimos at the Kakinya site, the reconstructed site total (rabie 7.13, column 19)
. ......
This exercise tells us somethlng quite directly. It is dear that the phalanges were not betng considered as potential sources of bcne grease. This we already knew slnce they occurred in the dump and not in the bone cache (see Table 7.13). Aside from the phalanges the fit is quite good for all parts except the distal tibia, tarsals, proximal humeros, and proximal femur. Table 7.13 indicates that the distal tibia and tarsals are represented in the dog yard, meaning that they were not avaílable for sturage as sources of grease after being fed to the dogs. Therefore, their overrepresentation does not indicate an inaccuracy in the model but a differentiation in usage on the site that eliminated these parts from consideration as sources of grease. The underrepresentation of
.. .. ::> ~
.0
&IJ N
.0
lE
... "! -..J
: 8 10 ¡¡; ~ " !-'"a>~ so Ea ~
...
,
.0
IU"tIID
~~
ZO
o:
the proximal fernur is probably understandable also in terms of dog feeding. No proximal fémur parte remained in the dog yard. Therefore. no reconstruction was possible for this element. Had only one bone been present in the dog yard we would have reconstructed 1.31 MNIs for the proximal femur. This would have yíelded a percentage value of21.30 in the reconstructed population minus the cache pladng the proximal femur squarely on the line as indicated by the letter X in Figure 7.33. Thus we can see that chance error in bone destruction or recovery of a single bone could account for the underrepresentation of (he proximal femur in the model for the population iIlustrated in Figure 7.33. This very tíght fit between a known population a5 modified by the grea5e indices and a potential poputa. tion as seen through the subtraction al the bonecache trom the total population as reconstructed for the Kakinya site provides us with a great deal of confidence in the grease indices. We can henceforth consider with sorne confídence assemblages where the actual pro· cessing 'of bon!s for grease was conduct('d.
A •••
.M
.'110
.:.r
1t01
......T·."
Tl
" •
01 meat needed to sustain the known occupants for a known penod of time and the amount of meat indicated by the bones present on the sites.
F.n Resldentlallocatlone of the Pre.Gun Era Prior to the use oí the gun faJl hunting strategies were quite different. We already saw that spnng hunting prior to the use oE the gun depended largely on the use of caribou drives and pounds. Drives were of two types. In one the caribou were directed along a predetermined path and into a line of ambush lacations where the Nunamiut waited with bows and arrows. In the other, more common technique the caribou were driven Ihrough a stand of willows into a pound 00 Ihe north
TABLE 7.17
•• ."
1'crS
.. .. .. .. " "
Rulland site
Kakinya sile
•
15
14
5
Daily conllllmr1icm" (lb)
Dog.
..
These twu sites have provided an interesting set of controlled data relative to the relationship between group sizes, duration of occupation, and the amount of bones present on the síte. Table 7.17 summarizes the data needed te evalúate the relationship between the amount
Summary InfonDlltlon on ConeUJDf:f D.m.nd ancl Animal. R.malnlng .t the Rulla'" .nd Kaldnv. SI••
.Pt:lV
lt
[3911
Cl:IIV.
UINDl·tllTl
g", ..
o l;l
COlUumptlon and Sto~ In Fati Raldentlal1.Dcatlo..
•• •• '.,
SONE DE5TRUCTlON IN RECON5TRUCTED KAKINYA POPULATION-TABLE 7.16 001.,18 Figu~ 7.33. Relalionship belween Ih€! Kakinya sil~ assemblagt' minus Ihe b.me greaw cache and a model for "" assemblage where borlE' pase was manufacture
Total daily ronsumption (lb) Duralion of occupa!ion (days) Total ronsumplion (lb) Caribou needed lo susl"in the occupanls J CMihulI IlhN,'rv"d tln Ihe.' lIih' t'llri....1lI tlh!t..·rYl,,1 r;;rll~m llI'nl';ll
21.04 15.82 36.85 26.0 958,' 4.31
13.25 16.95 30.10 39.0 1173.9 5,2ll
1.~
IU"
1.101
l.U
• Daily human ronsumption is eslimale-d lo be 2.63 lblday; daily dog consumption i5 estimatl"d lo be 1.131b1day. (See Tabl~ 4.2.) & Total consumption divided by 222 (mean weight of caribou = 222 lb).
[392J slde al the wíllows. The letter technlque la represented by the Blg Surround site. (See Figure 5.20.) Duriog such aperatians the use of snares was an important part of the stralegy. Snarea were set within the pound ateas as well as in the line of willow vegetatíon through which the caribcu were driven. Animals becorrung entangled tended to slow clown the movement of the herd and produce • mílhng-eround behavlor that made kUllng with a bow and arrow much easier. AI1 spring hunting duriog the pre·gun era involved sorne combination of dríve linea,
soares, ambush loeations, and pounds. As will be recalled from the discussion oE spnog, the spring caribou migtatioo herd trequenrly passes through the Anaktuvuk atea jusi prior to breakup aE the river ice and always well befare the melting of the ice on lakes. This means that migration hunting in the pre-gun era couId not be succe5sfully conducted at ríver cros9ings since caribou would have crossed on continuous ice, or on rare occasions when Ihe rivers had bruken up, they would have been so swollen and carrying such large chunks of ice that getting into the water with kayaks would have been suicida!. During the fan migration the situation is totalIy different. AH the lakes and rivers are free of ice and the rivers are generally low compared to spring. Hunting strategies during the pre-gun era were designed to take advantage of these condUions. The most common technique was to drive migrating caribau herds lnto lakes. where they were • laneed from kayak,. The bodies were pulled ashore and butchered on a nat, low-banked area around the lake. OceasionaUy circles of snares were set up in narrow valleys to entangle lead animaJs; followers would pile up and mili around the snared animals. Hunters Iying in the path of the migrating herds were roUed up in blankets of tUl)dra moss. They were clothed in caribou skin parkas with antlers mounted through the ear holes of the heads of calves used in the manufacture of the hood of the parkas. They could then stand up in the midst of the miUing heTd and fire i\rrows
7. F.II
unttl they were out of projedUea or until they hsd .lmply kllled enough. The s¡¡ence of the bow and arrow ensured that the animals would not spock and run away from the snared animals if the camouOaged hunter was skillful. Pounds were rarely used during faJland all dríve linea generally converged on a Iake or river crossing. Steaggler hunting was scmetimes conducted with the etd of dríve hnes. whích directed the ,mall groups of late animals pasf ambush locatíons. In sorne places features of the topography were used in a manner similar to a drive Une for the same purpose-Zeading the caribau paat ambush locations as in the case of the Giant Creek hunting stand. In the area around Anaktuvuk Pass there were six lakes that were the target loeatians for faUmigrabon hunting during the pre·gun era; ChandleT Lake to the west, Shainin Lake to the east, Natavakruak and Tulugak lakes on the front of the Brooks Range near the mouth of Anaktuvuk Pas!t (see Figure 6.15), Dnd Cache Lake and Kumik lake in the main valley opposite the Kongumuvuk Valley (see Figure 7.3). One of the factors that conditioned the frequency with which these alternative locations were used was th~ distribution o( willows, Ihe Eskimos' exdusiVI! souree of firewood. At Cache, Kumik and Tulugak lakes there are extensive stand s of willows; at Natavakruak willows are present but in relativeJy small numbers. At ehandleT Lake wUlows are aH but ablent and Shainin Lake has a amall stand, Therefore. faU hunting al Cache, Kumik, and Tulugak lakes was the most common strategy. FaU camps would be placed in the large stand of wil10ws to the north of the mouth of Kongumuvuk Valley, along the valley fIooT northeast of Cache Lake, or, occasionally, somewhat south oE Cache Lake along the east side of the valley so that hunting in the lakes and later straggler hunt· ing near the mouth of Giant Creek were both within easy reach from the fan campo 1 was able 'to locate and excavate a small famny camp occupied during migrafioo and
Co...canpUon and Storoge In Fell Balden'''' .l.ocvUo..
Jt was located on a high kame aboye Summit Lekc very near tbe contemporary village (see Figure 7.3). Thissíte is not specífically documented ethnohistorically; however, a number of lines of evidenceccntents, ccndítions of the bones, antlers present, locetíon, and the behavícr indicated by several caches-all convínced fhe Eskimos and me that thís stte had been occupíed during migration and abandoned prior to íteezeup by an Eskimo famUy. The only evidente as to the year of occupatíon rests with the artifacts and sorne ítems obtained in trade that commonly occuron other locations documenred ethnohistoricaIly as in the 18705and 18805. This site was designated the Net si/t. íer lome perlod thereefter.
The Net SIte
The Net site is on the north end of the major kame that forms the eastern edge of Summit Lake. At the site was a tent area, an outside hearth, and a ci\che area with a nearb'{ featu re cumpm''''d )¡lrBl·ly uf (uc bun"'N .1n( Ih,,· re. mains (Ifa dl'C'ólY"'d dryinf?¡ rnde Then' was no i"sirle hearth in the ten! ringo Slightly to the south (approxiftlately ]2 m) of the tent was a small depTession or ditch where there was an ash dump and a small outside hearth. AIong both sides and in the ditch was a scatter of bones associated with the use of the hearth. South of the ditch along the eastem edge of the kame were three distinct caches. One cache contained one broken D-shaped flint scraper. one well·made end scraper, one broken 51ate ulu blade, one blfadal preform, one long retouched blade, and two broken but unmodlfied flakes. Slightly to the east was another cache under a large rock. This cache contained the remains of a (jshing net consistjng of 14 drilled antier net weights, rhree pTeserved wooden net f10atstogether with others badly decayed, one large stane from which hematite had been rubbed, and one marmot skull. South of this cache was still another, 8150 under a rock, consisting of a woman's cutting board made from ""ood identified as having come from tobacco pacJt;ing boxes common up until around the turn of the cen-
[393/
tul')', one slrip of sheet metal from an unldentlfied ecuree, two unmodlfied fllnt f1akt,s, and one partially manufactured antier ser.per handle. Directly west of the Une of caches were the dearly identifiable but poorly pre. served wooden ribs of a kayak. The ribs were aD oriented east-west and distributed over a north-south distance of 5.8 m. Just northwest of the kayak remains was an oval area approximately 6 m long and 5 m wíde in which there was a very high density of toe bones and lome remaíns of a collapsed drying rack. AII these were ltems commonly cached at fallloeations, such as the kayak and fishnet. or items likely lo have been cached if the group departing from the site was heavily burdened with meat or other important bulk materials. The excavation of this sHe was actuaUy carried out in arder to keep a stranded crew busy until air transport could be arranged to move them out to whl"Te they were supposed to be working. When tTansport arrangem('nts wcrc marll', thl.'"'xt:avatillll W.\S ll'fminatl'd bl'",.llIS'" Wl' h.lrl to t.lke .1dvant'lgl· uf ;lir Ir"nsport when it was availablt.'. I;or this rt.'ason the eastern slopes of the kame were not excavated. This was the area Ihat al! informant' designated as being the most Iikely Jocation for dog yards and dump5. Almost certainJy the Tecovered materials renect exdusively human use; no evidence of dog gnawing was found, so the sample is deficient in the remaios fed to dogs. Similarly, as We will ser, there is good reason to suspect fhat there was at leaat one dump that remalned unexcavated . Table 7.18 summarizes the bones excavated from the Net site. Several facts are worthy of comment. First, the (ewest bones were recover~d from the ten! ring and immt'diate l"nViTons. This is <'onsis. tent with observations made elsewhere that indicate that the immediate house area has Iow fauna! yields, particularly during nonfreezing wealher. Second, the numbcr nf marrow-cracked leg-bone splinters is almost six timeslhe expected number in the tent ring area (Table 7.19, column 1) relative to the number of articulator ends present. This faC't
7. Fall
13941
~II
TABLE 7.18 Inventort... 01 A_Iomlcal Parta for Sheep .nd Caribou from lhe Net SUe (a FaU Re.ldentt.1 LouClon)
House and
y.ro
Anatomical parl Antier Skull Mandible Atla!l
Axis Ü."rvical vertebral' Thoracic vertebral'
Lumbar vertebral' Pl"lvis Ribs Sternum
scapcte Proxim.a 1humerns Di..tal humeros I'ruJ(imal ra\till-cUNlus Distal r.1diu-cubiIIlS Carpals Proximal metacarpal Distal metacarpal
Proximal temer Distal Iemur Proxlm..1 tibi.1 Oistal tibiA Tilr!>o11s Ao;tr.. t,...rus Ci'lk..nl'us I'mll.imi'll m('I"lar~1 Distal metalarsal Fil'!'t phalange Sccond phalange Thinl rh.llan);I'
Outslde hearth and
Meat rack and cache
ditch ilrea
area
Síte tetar (she-ep)
Sne lotal
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
ló)
(7)
1"
lQ)
(lO)
.S 1.5 3.0 20 lO .25 .07
16.6
l5 2.0 6.S lO 1.0 lS .7 O lO lO .37 3.S O
3.0
20.19
14.m
15
2.l.55
46,43
11.5 4.0 3.0 1.7
77.3~
10 IS 2.11 O O O
SO.O O 100.0 SOO SO.O O
1.0 O 2.0 1.0 1.0 O
.15 O O .07
.25 .S O
,
o
75 O O 3.5 12.5 25.0 O 2!HI
n u
u .1 .S 1.0 O O O O .S .S
.,
O 1.0 25 ,31
"
s.o 25.0 SO.O O O O O 25.0 2!i.O 25.11 O SO.O 12.5 IftS 12."
.12 100 .15
O 1.0 O
.,
5(},0
100.0 66.•
33.3 fU 13 4.0
33.3 5.0 O 33.3 O 26.6
UI 1.5 .15 1.0 10 O O O lO lO .5
:n,)
.S O
Ht.6
,
.ez .12 .12
~1.l1
'"
JJ.J 333 O O O 333 33.3 te.e 1h.f't O 20.• 4.0 4.0
.s .s .s 1S O O O O O I.S .66
1.0 UI
.s 1.S 14.0 11.% 11.7.\
10.71
7.14 7.14 10.71
SOO O 7.14 7.14
2." 25.00
O 157 :'.57 .'\57 l.t)?
O O O O O 10.71 4.71 7.14 7.14 3.57 10.71
100.00 Rl14 611.~,(J
v .12 2.0 1.22 .ól S.O O 15 1.5 2,(1
.4U I.S 20 O O O 15 2.16 2.0 2.11 \.11 2S
14.111 ll.R5 11,74
26.92 20.19 11.44 6.1)6
."
D.45
.15 O O
O O O 7.5 11 11 32.5 25.11
33.!iS O IO.(W
1.lJ
5(U1
.s
2<;0 2<;(1
,
\(l.(1l1
."
1Q.15 65.~
75.0
O
o
u
O O O O O I.S .S
O O O O O 75,0 25.0 2<;.11 2<;.0 25.0 25.0 O O
.s
.s
.5 .S O O
"
l'I
¡:;
8
o.
-o..,.:;
g~~
-'
l3
"
3iÑ~
~:::l~
~:¡;;¡;
~
H §i ~
,;
"[:
-
.. ~
"~ ~
~
~~o
!i;~~oo
1
-o ~
-'
~ ~
r-,
N~~
~-~
o
o
11
'"Z; s•
.::
'€
11 -
,n
-o:li~
:01
~.Q;t;
ce..,.';::!
."
~
¡"
E • ]t <3 g 51 ~
~~:;20o
«> ....
~
'" ~ 6~ c-.
:t
Q.
.n
8
:::;"":q
~
;:
~
~
-'
!::
o
..., ~
] -e e
ce
'"
~-5
~~~
E!
il' -'
-~~
l""i1lÓ:
8
>
-'
~ t
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-
:8
:;:;~RoO
-~~
:::
~-~
-
e ~
•e
r-,
o
o
scvcral ureas uf th e' Nct sitl' given in Tablc 7.2(). l t ts clcar Irum Tablc 7,20 that thl're are rneny smal1 chips in the house Mea: b~.~'YI> uf allleg-bcne fragments were less than 2,1 cm in
í¡;
;¡
.:;
E .s " ~i:i"il_
l~!j~,] V<Jl .<.11
-e
•e"';; e
E
t
.E~]
"2'8e c..~ '::J~~ ~
-oc:
.;
~z :g
,l;J::.J:.D
-.c.oii! c.::i:ihi
u
~"
, 1 .ao•• ,,••. '5 j2~ && "1 E• • " • e > e " "='l.9
~",.:3
a
~<
'l,/~
~
. .. " "' ~
]
~ "E
]
.:;
E
u
t
reflecte the regular clcaning uf thc hUUSl' ¡¡rl'a and thc n-moval uf b(llWS tu a dump or cnclw arca. This size-rl'!atL'd rcmovnl uf parts from the imrnediate living area is well illustrated by the data 00 fragments of leg bone from Ihe
S:l:~oo
8
"
75.0
.SO lS O
16.K2 100.00
000
'"
~~~
~ u •
IOlJ.Q
4.17
IO.OY 13.45 O O O 16.142 14.53 11.45 11.45
~Il El
:¡;
~;:jr-!
1] §I ;: 3"
~.O
.65
2.6~
:~lJl~
-e
R.20
1:\ 40;
g[
e E
~
o
v
..
Q;
S
~q¡]f ··t.E"iE ;.. c: ...
.
s"2'G1:
~ ~
e~ ~
0
i.i:uitO
Q
~
E
ot :lc: ,S ~
13951
7. F.II
(3961 TABLE 7,20
Dletrlbutlon of Lon..Bone SpUntert .DeI Chl.,. (Net Site) Hoose and yard
Hearth and ditch
4' 18
2
O 4
3 10 31 27 9 2 2 7
Chips (cm)
0-1 1-2
1
Splintel'!o (cm)
2-3 3-4 4-5 5-< 6-7 7-<1 8-'
•
13
2 O 1 O O O O
9-10 10-11
11-12 12-13
• 7 3
Meat r;u:k and cache
3 4
,2 21
17 10
,
1 3 14 2 O
Tolld, (alllDallions)" 77 (2.0) 226 ( 54)
Chips
Spllnten
.. vejues in parentheses are expected valúes.
length. The expected proportion ol chips to splinters for an entire cariboll is 78.87% chips or fragmentsless thit" 2 cm in length, based on marrow~cracking experiments. Thus, in the house area our observations are c10se to expected relationships. However, Table 7.19 shows that in tne house only one nonmetapodial articulator end and five articulators 01 metapodials were recovered. Based on these data we would expect 43 chips and 12 !'iplinlt'rs in the hause if these had been Ihe only bones ~roken there. We note that 67 chips and 29 splinters were recovered from the house. The expected values acrount for 64% of the observed values for chips whereas the expeeled value based on ohserved articulator ends aeeounts for only 42% of the observed vaJuc of ,plinters. Thus, it seems clear Ihat sorne bunes broken in the house are not represented by articulato" ends presento Turning to the eomparative data from the other areas of 'he site therc is an t'ven more striking contrasto Of 207 reeovered fragmenls exclusive of artieularor ends, 197 are greate r
.
~
.
lhan 2 cm in length. Based on Ihe marrowcracking experiments for 200 splinters we should have found 947 chips and in faet we only ohserved 10. I think that from this fact alone we may eondude lhat the bon~s from which the splinters were derlved w~ nol cracked far marrow in the area where Ihe splinters were recovered. Also, Ihere are a vast number of chips and articulalor ends not represcnted in the assemblage. For instance. in the marrow-cracking experiments (see Table 4.6) the mean numbers of splinters (fragmenls greater than 2 cm in length) produced per articulator end were 3.45 for long banes and 1.66 for metapodials. Given the counts of splinters from the hearlh and cache areas (see Table 7.19) the, splinters present would represcnt 18.6 long·bone articulator ends and 11.4 metapodial ends in the hearth area; we observed only 8 and 4, respeetively. Similarly, the splinters in the cache area would represenl 16.5 long-bone articulaton and 9.6 mctapodial ends; 6 and 4 were ob· served. In these Iwu areas is a sufficient
(397)
Co_umptlon and SltoralJ4! In Fall Ru'dentlal Loccruo,.
number of marrow-crackíng splinters te represent 56 articulator ends. and only 22 were observed. The conclusión is inescapable that artkulatcr ends originally present are no longer represented in the assemblage. At this point the analysis may be summarized as follows: (al some marrow bones were cracked inside and around the house; (b) articulator ends were removed, presumably to a cache area; (e) in the hearth and cache area there are more splinters than are accounted for by articulator ends; and (d) there are far more splinters than chips. I must conclude that articulator ends were removed or processed beyond recognitlon at the eíte, and that many chips were removed from the stte before it was studied. Whal are the known behavioral contexts in which we might expect such deleticns from a bone assemblage7 We have seen that dog feedíng may delete bones from an assemblage. Similarly, processing for bone grease may selectively delete arñculator ends. Finelly, removal from the site and transport to another Iocation is a possibility fcr grease-yielding articulator ends. Tke Iast alternative appears unlikely, since it would not account for the low frequencies of bone chips observed. When marrow bones are processed for marrow and for renderlng into bone grease, the activity is normally carried out oVer a skin placed hair side down in front of the person doing the processing. On this skin is the aovil used forcracking marrow bones and forcrnshing articulator ends. The large splinters are tossed aside but the small impa,t chips accumulate on the skin with scraps of meat cleaned from the bones. After the marrow bones have been cracked and the rnalTow has been removed, the accumulated articulator ends may then be crushed on the anvil. The resulting bone meal accumulates on the skin and is eventuaUy dumped into a container for boiliog with the impad chips and the scraps from cleaning the bones. When thecontents of the container are dumped, the bane meal from the crushed articulatorendsisdiscarded along with the many small impact chips resulting flom the marrow cracking. This activity would
account for the low frequenctes of articulator ends and olimpact chips al the Net stte. The presence of a dump containing the bone meaJ resulting from bone grease rendering would have made such an ectlvity identification certain. Unfortunately we could not excavare the area suggested as the most likely Iocation for such a dump. Nevertheless, 1 believe that bone grease was manufactured at the Net site and that such a dump exists along the margina of the kame. Figure 7.34 display! the total assemblage of bones recovered from the Net site compared to the faunal assemblage from the Keklnya ene minus the bones occurring in the cache, bones destined íot destruction in the event that bone grease wae manufactured. The baste character of the fauna1 remains for all parts lísted below the stemum i50 very similar. The major differences between the two assemblages are leen in the parts Usted ebove the stemum. 11 wtll be recalled that the d.ta from the Kaklnya ene were fitted to a model of
o
10 20 30 40
AHT $K MAND AT AX
1'"
IIT1
eo 60
~
i
CEl'lV
",. o
TN""
70 80 90 100
x~,
-,_...... _-, _x II:AIUIlIYA
I'ELV
ST
~~
~~X
ON
PRO
o."
CAIIP
PMC o." P'
OF PT OT TAO
AST
~l
~,
1
, .... '
NET SITE (TABLE 1.17 COL. 8)COMPARED 10 RECONSTRUCTED KAKINYA SITE MINUS CACHE ASSEMBLAGE - TABLE 7.1~ COL. 22 "&UN 7.34. Comparative
percentages
lM!mblagel 'rom the Kakiny" And Nel s¡tes.
íor
as-
~
7, Fall
[398)
.
a population introduced from a kiU~butchering location with the parts occurríng on the site being those remaining after the processing oí
•ec
the populalion lar drying, The dog yard at Kaldnya "'a.ldenKRed andexcavated whereas
"
al the Net site the dog yard was not excavated. To evaluare the degree tu which the differencea between the two sites-the Knkinya assemblage with simulated bone grease pro· cessing and the Net site with almost certaln processing for bone grease-c-rest in tbe bias al the Net site against those parts fed te dogs, 1 have taken the total assemblage from the Kakinya site and deleted those parts lKcurring in the dog yord. Thie operation makes the Kakínya population roughly equal to the Net sHe frcm the standpoint of the structural units observed archaeological1y. Nevertheless, the Kakinya population still contains the articulator ends cached but not used for rendering bone grease. This population was then multiplied by the inverse values for the square root of the white-grease index multiplied by the.44 constant (Table 7.16, column 16), simulating what the Kakinya population would have looked like had bone gn'asc been manufacturcd and no dug fl'eding n'mains recoven:d. This simulatcd S('t of frcllucncit'5 is campa red to the actual frequencies observed on the Net site in Figure 7.35. The simulated Kakinya assernblage and the observed Net site assemblage are essentially idenfical, with the exceptiun of higher Crcquendes of mandible, scapula, and atlas and axis at the Net site. The atlas and axis are equivalent to the skull in frequency, and I SOIpeet that they are rlding wlth the skull on the Ne' sUe. The high frequency of the mandible may well represent a slight1y different strategy on Ihe parl uf the pre·gun ~skimtl ólnd the occupanb oC the 1948 Rull.lnd .lnú Kakinya sites. Forinstance, observations were made on the numberof limes that tongues had been cut from the mandibles at kill-butchering locations surveyed in the Anaktuvuk area. Table 7.21comparesthe frequency with which mandibles were abandoned at kill-butchering locations by season with the frequency with
.~
"'", .J "'8 ..
. .. '" iñ!!
which the tongues had been removed from those abandoned mandíbles. Several points are of Intereet here. For the Anavik spríng klll locatíon and for the sumrner
liT •
."
.tll"
....
di.p"..ed kili. lhere was • demonstrable
&O
W "" .0 Z...J
."
; 20"~.: 1T~b'é'.'[LV "" ,,:' ." C'T~:!TOM
10
~
o
10
tO
... "
JO
....
40
DO
'0
ro
lO
'O
100
l
Fi¡ure 7.35. Relationship belween a limulaled Kakinya sile assembltlgl.' tll1d Ihe observed auemblage from th~ Nel sill.'.
lABLE 7.21 11ae Abando""". 01M.n.llhl .. wn..
Re_oval of lo..... (by Milndibll'!1 abandoned on kilibulchering location"
Silt'!l by
---
~ason
s...on)-
Fn'<.¡u('ncy with which tongues were removed from .bandon~ mandiblea
MNI
%
(3)
('1
69.0
70.16
14.0 Sb.O
5.0
35.71
6.0 SO.U 27.0 46.5 39.0 13.5
2.0 8.0 24.0
JJ.3 29.6 61.5
~1.5
6.0
85.71
MNI % (1)
(2)
Pan D1~persed
Winler Ob.pl'l'll'od
9'7.5 78.0
SprlnK
Disp.!1Wd Anaktiqtluk Anavik Summer Oispersed
7.0
Co. .umptJon ond Stonlfrl! In Fall Re.fdn'IGI 1.oeaUo..
• The total assemblages lor Itte faunal samples discuued art' summarized in Tables 2.8 and 2.9.
transport problem. The high tncídence of the abandonmcnt uf maudiblcs as indicated in Table 7.21, column 2, is therefore underatandeblc. In both cases the frequency with which these abandoned mandtbles had the tongues removed is hlgh. showing that only the bony mandibles, not the tongues, were beíng abandoned, thereby redudng the weight for transported ¡tems. On the other hand, the fan killcache locations are characterized by high frequencies of abandoned mandibles, but Iransport problems are least acute in fall. We can understand lhis in terms of the use of the head and antlers of bul1caribou as markers for the meat caches. If the mandibJe is left attached lo the head, the antlers stand abaut 6 inches higher than when the mandible ig removed. Therefore, the common tendency is to remove the tongue but leave the mandible attached to heads used as cache markers. This results in fewer mandibtes in.troduced into the falJ resid •..'htiai lociltions. Al th~ Net Sitl', hUWl'Vt'r, we sec an inf1atl'cl frequency of mandibles, as was also noted at the spring residentiallocatíons. This pattern is consistent with the informants' description uf fall activities in the prc·gun era. Almost to the man, the old men who either recalled the pre-gun era or were knowledgeable about the era through their fathers' recollections insistcd that the contempory caching strategy was nol common during the pre-sendenlary penod and very HUle used during the pre~gun era. The differences were explained as folluws: 6dlll"l', wh~'n Wl' kill,'IJ ,',Jribllu in Ihl' 1.1kl'S. Wl' .....lluld be logl'lher in big Cilmps Ilnd alllhe tlnimals would be puUl"d up on the ,>d~ of lhe lakt' in the same place. Evt'rybod)' woold bulchl.'r lhe animals and the meat would be dividt-d among lhe families there. Afler the division everybudy would strip the meal for drying and crack Ihe marrow bones and mOst of the time make bone grease whert' Ihey butchered lhe animals or in
(399) their camps nt'arby. After this mosl families would leave, scattering oul to thelr places for wink'r houses aOO packing the meat wilh them. Somt'bmes some families would build winter houses near tbe kiU bul
MU8t 01 lne tlm~ tamlUl'S wmlld ;catlér (JlIt d"wl\
loward the IlYt'Swhert' there was lots llf fi~W(llllJ 1m winter. If the kili h.1l1 bccn .Il N.\l.lv.lL.nlo\"'lwl\l,r lhn"\' familil'1l might d,'t.idl' tu wintcr in ti\(' WilltlWll .11 Tulug.1k. Thl'y might Il'.we Ihl'ir meal on r,'rk.s olIt lh" but,'ht'rlng place al Nalv"k.n.l.lk. and unly bring It ro Tulugak afll'r freeze-up when lhefl" was no probll'm crossmg the river. Olher men mighl pack their mt'allo Kongumuvuk in the wiUows there, or otbers might 80 all tht' way to Hunt Fork far the winteror lo some place like I'uvalafuk. In Ihose days sume- men made caches Uke today bul nol as mucho TOOtl)' dried meat in faU is uled mostly tor dog food duril'lg the dark days, but in Ihe oId daYIl we SlliPrN meal for drying more. h il easier lo movt' and weig.hs ll'ss. Before tht! gun every. bodyhad only30r4dogs 10pulllhesled, nollikt! Ihe 15 or 16 dogs people have afler the gun.
This account states the situation nicely. The USe oí skulls for markingcaches on the tundra, common practice today, was much less common in the past. Therefore íall butchering at nearby kms was likely to be chitracterized by the removal of mandibles.
The Tulukana Slte and .he DI.turlnd She A good example of the character of faunal assemblages abandoned in residential locations adjacent to the kill-butchering IDeations for animal s killcd in lakes is provided by the data recQvered from the Tulukana site and the Disturbed site. (See Figure 7.3 for location9.) These two locatioos are very c10se to the contemporary village. They are on the same kame aboye Summit Lake that the Net site occupies. There 15 a large body of foUdore about these tWQ localions. lnformants agree that one of the sitcs was occupil'd by Tulukana-thc oldcr half-bruther oC Sirnon P"nc,'ack's !athc,'r. Simon had never seen Tulukana, who died befare Simon waS bom (prior to 1900) but Simon knew Tulukana's younger brother, who had wintered with his family during the winterof1912. Tulukana's brotherwas judged by Simon to have been about 65 years oí age at that time. According to both Simon and Elyjah
eo...umptlon ond Storoge In Fal1RuldenUaI Locoüo ...
7. Fa"
[4ooJ Kaklnya, Tulukana Uved to be about 60 yean 01 ase and dled in the mid-1890•. When he
occupied the alte in questlon he was a hunter exceptionally skilled for his age and had three children between the ages of 10 and 15. Given 28 as the average marriage age for males {see Binlord and Cha.ko 1976:75), Tulukana would heve been around 45, and the stre would have been occupied around 1880. TuJukana is sald to have moved with his fama ily from the Kobuk settlements to [oín the Tulugakmiut who were then centered in the Anaktuvuk region. He was noted as a very powerful and famous ,haman. During the
year he occupied lhe site, most oi the Tulugakmiut families had gone to lhe coast to trade caribou skins al lhe site Di Negalik (see Gubser 1965:178-180 for a sood descrlption 01 this activity). Tulukana had decided aga¡nst making lhe trip to lhe coasl and had stayed in the mountains an 5umrner despite warnings that Indians moved ioto the mountains during summera when the Eskimo were gone. The previous spring the Tulugakmiut had hunted caribau around Tulugak Lake and had stored dried meat there. After most oí the people had left lar Ihe coast, Tulukana fished at Tulusak Lake and hunted sheep at Tiglukpuk (see Figure 6.15). In .arly August Ihe lamily beg.n moving toward the high mountains for the purpose of hunting sheep and caribou. They took some dried meat with them, knowing that if they were unsuccessful in hunting they could atways return to the stores of dried meat left near Tulugak Lake. Tulukana made a camp on the east edgeof Cache Lake and from thete hunted sheep both up Kongumuvuk and up the Anaktiqtauk. While he was hunting his wife and famUy fished in Cache Lake. They had ptanned to stay in this area until fan caribou migration and take caribou in Cache Lake using a byak. Late in summer and just befare they anticipated the fan migration ta begin, one of the children announced that he had sighted a nursery herd oE cows and calves within the main Anaktuvuk Valley just south of the main river crossing. Tulukana devised a plan to
.
~
.
obtain a large quandty of CIUskin. for winter c!othing and for trade the followins year at the COI,t. The Iamíly observed the herd end noted that they were feedíng along the west side oí the long Une oí eskers and moraines at the base oí which is Summit Lake. Tulukana sent his wife and smallest child north along the esken to position themselves above the herd. With the oider children he clrded around to the west on the flats until he was in a good drive position. Tulukana signaled his wife and they began a cautious agitation of the herd, which etopped feeding and began moving south in the desired direction. As the herd moved, the agitation increased until the ani· rnals were running directly for and into Summit Lake. Tulukana killed a large number of the animals with a lance from his kayak. The wife and children kept running around the lakeshore, keeping the animals from coming out of the water. Tulukana and his famUy processed and dried a vast quantity of meat from the animals kiUed. The majority oí the Tulugakmiut retumed from the coast after the main catibou migration had passed, and it was . the vast stores of drled meat obtained by Tulukana that "saved the people during the winter." This is a well-known story and one that is told in conjunction with discussions of why the Nunamiut selected the current aite 01 Anaktuvuk for their permanent village. '1ñis is a lucky spot for our people" is a common comment. At first 1 was somewhat skeptical of the Eskimos' "positive" identification of the arehaeological remains on the knolJ as Tuluka· na's campo As we began investigating the location this skepticism faded-I am now quite confident that the informants have eorrectly identified the loeation and its behavioral con· texto
THE SITI!. At the south end 01 Ihe high knoI1 overlooking Summit Lake are two obvi· ous tent tings. The tent ting loe.ted f.rthest south had baon prevlously investisated by¡ack Campbell, and aíter Campbell', investig.tions several young Eskimo men di,turbed the lite
,ji
[401J
in search of artifads that could be sold. This represented on the sites in appreciebie fretent ring and the immediate area were desig .. quendes. . neted the Disturbrd ,ite during my investiga. This situation is one in which we know that tíons. Campbell indicated that he had not dried meat was removed from the loeation and collected bones during his excavatíon. There- that bone grea6e was manufactured. The letter Icre 1reasoned that although the placement of fact ís established by two lines oE evídence. the bones was eertainly disturbed the charac- First il the presence 'on both sites of large ter of the populallon was probably unaffected concentrations of pounded-up bone fragby previous work. Therefore, we pulled sod ments. Second are the bone splinter lo erand attempted to make a complete collectíon tieulator end ratios (see Table 7.23). On the oí the bones from the arca around the dísTulukana site we observed 61.63 sphnters for turbed tent ringo The undísturbed tent ring to every articulator end and we would expect a the north was excavated completely and alJ ratio of 2.43 splinters. SimíJarly. on the Oisbone fragmentsas well as othercultural debris turbed site we observed 86.n splinters per were recorded-the site was piece plotted. articulator end and we would expect a ratio of This undisturbed tent ring was designated the only 2.47. There is IHtIe question that many Tulukana site in view of the ¡nformants' posiarticulator ends are absent from the astive identification' of the loeation. semblage. The presence ol the bone meal piles The internal structure of the Tulukana site shows that these encls were pounded up bewas interesting. There waS a tent nng without yond recognition and processed for bone an internal hearth. An outside hearth was grease. southeast of che tent. Around the hearth was a The question of the character of Ihe as. concentration of bones and garbage, and semblage of long bones that were destroyed slightly to the wesl of the hearth was a dump remains. In Table 4.6 we saw that 3.45 spUn01bone meal remaining from the manufacture ten are expected for every long-bone ar. of bone grease. To thlil. west and near the edge ticulator end and 1.66 splinters are expected oi the knoIl was a major dump consisting for every metapodial articulator end. There almost exclusively of splinlers from long are 1610ng-bone ends and 8 metapodiat ends bones cracked for rnarmw. A similar dump in the anatomy of i\ single caribou. We wuuld was found near thl" cenler of the knoll to the expect 16 X 3.45 + 8 x 1.116 = 68.48 marrowwest of the site. There was a small ditch or cracking splinlers for every complete caribou depression that ran behind the tent to the processed. Dividing the lotal number of splinsoutheast, ¡ust behind one of the splinter ters observed on eaeh of the two sites by this dumps. Scattered in this ditch were a few constant we obtain an estima te of the number dog-gnawed bones and splinters, suggesting of complete caribou represented by the splin· the location of perhaps no more than three ters remaining on the site-- 27 caribou for the dogs. Tulukana site and 13.93 for the Disturbed site. 1 belicve that our excavations at this site We observed 21.5 and 13.0 caribou on these have exposed the entire concentralion of culsites represented by mandibles. These values tural remains, and all the expected areas are are very clase and lend strong support lo the represented-dog yard, dumps, cooking argument that aH the leg bones from aH Ihe areas, and house. Table 7.22 summames the caribou represented on the two sites were faunal remains recovered from the Tulukana actually processed for both marrow and bone and Disturbed sites. Figure 7.36 compares the grease on the sites. Given this probability we faunal material from the two sites. It is dear then aee that the parts missing Erom the site that thcy are very much alike and both are are elements of the axial skelelon-parts lhat characterized by low frequencies of anatomi. are mosl commonly dried with bones incal parts. Only the mandible and head are cluded.
7. Foil
[402)
•
TABLE 1.22
-5
Tulukana ene totals
Ten!
Anatomical part Antll"T 5kull Mandible Atlas
Axis Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar vertebra... Pelvis Ribo Sternum Scapula Proximal humeros
Distal humerus Proximal radio-cubilus Distal radío-cubitce Carpals Proximal metacarpal Distal metacarpal proximal femur
Distal femur Proximal tibia Distal tibia Tarsals
Astragalus Cakeneus
Proximal mctatersel Distal metatarsel Firsl phalange Second phalange Third phalange
(1)
Yard (2)
3.0
4.0
O
.76
O O O O O
I.SO
O
O
O
(4)
O
2.0 4.0 9.0
.12 .12
(3)
Dog dileh
O O
2.0 3.0 5.5 1.0 1.0 .5 .31 .17 .35 .25 O O O O O O O O .5 O .5 O O O O .5 .5
Outside hearfh
O O O O
1.0
.53 O O .5
.5 O O O O O O .5
O .5
O O O O
O O .5 .04
15
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O ü
5
O O O
O .5
O
O O O
.."
Wesl dump
MNI
%
MNI
%
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(lO)
1.0 .5
6.0 7.5
27.9
O
21.5
9.S 9.0 13.0
O O O O O O O .34
O .07
O .5 O O O O O O
O O O O
O O
O O
O O O O O
O O O O O O
.5
O O O
O O
The only parts not represented on the slte that mlght have been annclpated are the phalengee. Their absence tells us immediately that there was a km site independent of the marrow- and grease-processing location. 01 course, the informants had already gtven us the information that the animals had been killed in the lake and butchered on the sbore.
1.0
O O O
O
O O O O
O O
O .31
O O O O O .5 .5 .5 2.0 .5 20 20
O O .5 .5 .5 1.0 .5 >0 1.0 O
O O
t
Dtsturbcd site totels
dump
1
1.0 1.0 1.0 62
1.27 20 1.15 .25 .5 1.0 1.0
34.9 100,0 4.65 4.65 ".65 288 5.91 930 5.34 1.16 2.33 4.65 4.65
25
.98
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 .5 .5 1.0 1.0 .5 1.0 1.0 2.5 20
9.30 2.32 930 930
2.32 232 4.65 4.65 232 4.65 4.65 11.62
9.30
12
.56
.12,
.56
O
O
~
•
~
•
s•
100.00
O O O
O O
O .23 .66
tOO 1.65 1.0 20
O .5 .S 1.0 1.2 20 O
O O O .5 .5 1.0 1.0
..•
al
•e
O 384 3.84
~
9.23 15.38
.5 .5
3.M
.38 .25
2.92 1.92 .92
•
~
~
O O O 'O
~ ;;
•~ •
~
•
~
"-
11é
J ,
• "
000
000
:J::!:lfl
000
000
000
~~lJl
000
- ..-
~-
~ o
o
o
o
•
<3
::¡
!'"
"' i:1
~-~
;.
o
"'
r:
6t
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
11s 11
e,
NoN
11<3
~~~
NON
11
-ei""'¡ooo
NN.
r:~~oo
MN.
.~
"'
oo ...
::¡ ~
~
~
"oO-D
•,.¡ ~
.,;
::2r-.~
:11
-
al
~l • i i t
~ 5
:t~nH " V)~ó""V'~ -é
..
1
Hi ~'.§~~ ...~ '"
oi
:>i
"
~h] .. o:
0
:;:
N
'"
~
:El
~
N_~
~-
o
~
~;1;;1;
• .n ~
Alsu. no rtngs of 8ton~1I Ior drylng hidcs end no I'crnpers or chipplng debris from eharpening scrapers were found on the eíte, strongly suggesting that the lude proceseing was done on or adjacent to the kül-butchering location on the Iakeshore. Finally. the relatíve ebsence of tarsals and cerpals. parts having generally low grease valúes, suggests that the marrow
000
s
••
o
• .nti -"• •
1
! •...
7.69
.-~
al
I ..8
" 1!
1.n
ij
ii
~
3.84 3.84 7.69 7.69 3."
.12
~
1.76 5.07 7.69 12.69 1.69 15.38
"'
000
000
é 73.llH 69.23
l
o
e,
'6 .n
.....ntorla 01 Anlitomlcal Pertli from th. Tul"""....nd m.turbed Sito Areas of Tulukana sile (MNls)
~
~ . !
•• .~ -= e
.u ti
'"
,
i\-. .~
-"-
~~
.Ie 1 . • ,)
j j
l! l! E ~
"' '"
f
'"
0
eS
'"
I
1403)
(405)
Co...umptlon Gncf Slorage In Fa" Raldentlal 1.oeoUv..
~
1
I] .1 ~
~~Ñ
!;¡
~a'¡::;¡
"
1/")-0;::::
o
O
--'
MANO
tn-o:::
~i!I:l'i
~Q~
~
:ll ;¡
~~B
üil'!
"
~~~
G!
- -....
~
80 90 100
" 11-
_
•
A' CERV TOlO'
¡¡¡
~
ro &0 70
<,
"'T
LUO PELV
fC' fC'
•se
5T
PH OH
PRC
O
ORe
--'
CA""
.,
'OC CMC
2
~
lO 20 30 40
AHT
"
demand for meal lo be 26.61 lb. Multiplying this by the average fall camp duration of 18.2 days, we obtain an estímate of 484.3 lb of meat needed to sustain the average pre-gun camp
Il 4-- IJIIJTURlIED IITI
O>
]
~$;
~'.:::.~
~:.~
i3
,¡;
l'j
ií:.
~
t":
'T OT el
unU during fall. We observed 14.87 caribou at the Net stte.
TAN
AST CAL
C:l
'OT
OOT
21.5 at the Tulukana site and 13 at the Disturbed síte. The estimated consumer demand
+- ........UIlUlA IlR
PHAI.
1l
~~~
~,I
I/"):;tl!:
u~
t/'l;!:2:;
"
~
~
~
~
~
1 ~
(4041
l
Figure 7'.36. Compll.tlvr ptfrtntaStl for al' semblages from the Tulukena and Disturbed sUes.
::l
~¡:jS
~
000
o
~
o
o
bones were introduced to the site aIread y dlsarticulated from the Ieg, a point a150 indicated by the absence ef phalanges. We wculd expect
o
thilicondUion only when the proces!'lng nrt"1
1
"gO"g
1
~~¡¡¡
~
NON
NON
V)IIlÓ
0'0.:0
5
O
--'
UIIl
<JE
lH
.,'(. ';
t!:] ~..
f j~ i ~..(!~ ..rl~ ~'[d ·J!I~ 1lC!:¡: tiJ~~ ~~~ ~ii! 'u
l:IIÍ'.1
~
for rneat drying W
~
'"
~
1l. o
o
o
~8 Q
~
1
~ o
!
•
j JI 'lI 'lI JI ~ ~ .~
.. u lli
~
'"
'¡
;;
·0
I~
t
~~
- lli]
foil h ~ iJdH
ti :r:
...
perspective, processing Iocatíons. Ethno-
graphic data r~lative t? the pat~8 of moblllty and group Slze dunng tne pre·~un .ra .11 indícate hiSh rnobilily durlng faH anJ ('x-
~
¡¡~
jlt~1~~J j2~" ~.l! .;
~ ..;
~
~
..
t".
~
r-f
higher ratios between the number of caribou visible archaeologically and the actual number needed to feed a group during Its stay et faU residential campo As an approximation the mean estimates have been used to apprcxímate the number of caribou needed te su sta in the occupants of the Net síte. Using the figures on consumers in an average pre-gun camp unit and the consumption constants gíven in Table 4.2, we estímate the daily consumer
Il-"nc1l."drllnlllvnnHIIII,w('r""¡r ..'~'
no more,than 4 Jug:.
jJ~¡ "tél.~
J
of 484.3 lb of meal ccnverts tn ~.18 <.ribo., using the mean body weight cf 222 lb. Dlvlding the observed number by the estima te for the number oí caribou needed. we obtain ratios of 6.8 Ior the Net site. 9.86 for the Tulukana slte. and 5.96 for the Distrubed site. Although these values are certainly inaccu-
rate, stnee w¡;a
dIJ
nct knuw lht' unll Slll'S end
durations, they are probably !>ugol'!>!ivt' of the range of ratio valúes that rnight be anticipated on fall residentlal locatlons WhN(, nu-at ;,; being processed Ior t r..:n~púrt tú olntit.lY :"\"l··1 "~': .. í' . 'ji. 1 ¡"'.\ \ ....'1 .• 1: .: 1" latter lites HUle winter mobilitr. WA. antid..
pat.d by th. oocup.ntl .nd ....hln_ Ilr.lf8V w•• J;tt;tt"" .m"I"IJ.... j.ln (hu fm: ·!.'JlU ¡'I~ ;;'.;,"" of
.'-~i-'
'wir
~.
','"'
...•• ,'
c ... , • • • _
relatively few documented examples we haver ,we know that the average duration of a fan
camp wa. 2.6 weeks or 18.2 days. If the suggested rdationship obtains between the degree to 'wifich fall-killed animals were processed for transport during the pre-gun era and the degree of processing during the 1948 period, documented by the Rulland and Kakinya sites, then we would expect evP··
,
t"'"
jede
hlgh ratio curve lor 5uccelisful'"" yielding ratios of 26 • needed. It seems ...' processing fl''' occurs ...
,.:
p"
------~
[4061
7. F.II
LATE FALL SHEEP HUNTING ANDTHE USE Of SHEEP IN FALL RESIDENTlAL SITES After fall caribou migration the huntera quickly tum lo other activities. Many men may stop caribou hunting even though large herds are still passlng if they have obtained enough caribou for the winter. They will turn their attention lo hunting "fat sheep" before the snow in the mountinas gets too deep. Today, there is only one Iocation that is fre-
stand 1.5 miles to the west, on the very top of
the h>.f·sh.p,·d mountain, and another oblIervftUon .'.nd In Iht! upland valley lt!WIf, aboul.75 mile from the lick. The latter observation stand is used only when the wind is blowing from the south. FinalIy, there is a modern hunting camp at the confluence of the two small streams near the southern end of the loaf-shaped mountain.
The Uck
quently used forfall ~hC.1Cp hunttng. This is the
Behind the Kollutukllckis n steep ano pre-.
salt lick al Kollutuk. (S." Ptgure 6.15.) To the south of Anaktuvuk village, appruxImetely 6 miles. ls a traditional sheep-hunting complex of sites. This is an area of somewhat mofe massive mountains than those that characterize the Tiglukpuk area, bul il is less rocky and has somewhat fewer rack e)(posures. KoJlutuk Mountain peaks at about 6800 feet. Directly between its peak and a long. loaf-shaped mountain that bounds the John River valley on the east side is a high. rolling upland val1ey running between Giant Creek and Kollutuk Creek. Near the base of Kollutuk Mountain, as it drops down to the upland valley mentioned. there is a Ikk at the foot uf i1 steep1y cut side drainagc (sec Figure 6.15). Sheep traUs converge from both sides of Kol~ lutuk Mountain on this deep ravine. The Iick proper is gl!ulogically somcwhat differcnt from those at Tiglukpuk Crct'k; it is in a mudstone shale dcposit. Thcre are two streams that drain this upland valley. One f10ws along the base of Kollutuk Mountain an4 rons at right angles to the axi§ oC the lick. A second stream rUM along the base uf the long. loaf-shapcd mountain. Thcst' lwo streams converge and form a small stream entering the John River just north of KoIlutuk Cr~k itself. The two streams f10w with great vigor in spring. but by late summer they are dry boulder beds. The four types of sites seen at Tiglukpuk are also present at KoUutuk. There is the lick itself. where sheep are kiUed. There are butchering hlcalions nt.·..r Ihe lick. Tht.'rl' is i'lnobst.'rv.1Iion
cipitous rtse, which forms a small, boxcanyon-like pocket with the lickat the bottom. During the spring melt a waterfall cascades sorne 300 feet directly onto the tick. so lhat each year any loose material pawed up by lhe .. sheep is washed away. The higher eJevalion5 of the Iick are near the opening of the small box.canyon pocket, and to the rear of the canyon isa sman pool of water, whkh may dry up by early fall. 1 first observed a herd of mountain sheep at Kollutuk from the observation stand on the loaf mountain. Jean-PhiJippe Rigaud, Johnny Rulland, an Eskimo informanto and 1 had climbed from Ihe floor of the John Rivcr valley (lYOO fcet) lo the observation stand (4200 fect). The climb was extremely difficult, and we made the last hundred feet practically on our hands and knees. T.he mountain has a sawlooth ridge, and one can Iiterally grasp the top of the mountain and peek over it. As I approached the top, Johnny who, needless to say, W8S ahead of mewhispered the magic word: shf.'f.'p. We lay on the stecp slope, holding on to the very top of the mountain, and louketol uver at a herd of about 30 sheep. They Wl'rt.' high on the side of Kollutuk, moving north toward the Iick on a high trail approximately 1000 feet aboye the lick. They moved slowly aJong the trail and began bunching up at what appeared lObe the end of the trail jusI above the tick. Then, with a magnificence hard to describe, they poured off the end of the traíl direclly over the lick, in what looked for all the world like a sheep w.11t.'rfall. Ccrlainly Iht.·y mu!>t ha ve bt.-t.·n r
.
~
Últe Fall SIIHp
Hunt.ng and the Use 01 SIIeep In F.II Ru""mt••1 Slw
pellng down the canyon but from ourvantage
14071
mayapproach the lick from the south, possi-
pui"llh~y app~nr~d lo fr~e·f.J110 the floor of the IIck. As they hit the Itck they boundcd
b[y shoollng une ~h~ep;
th~ h~rd wllJ ~pouk. runnlng north p•• t flrI"S .tand. uf from two Iu
around, looking Iike many Ping-Pong balls bobbing up and down. Their movement gradually slowed and they carne to rest on the tick itself. This un usual approach pattern, typical at Kollutuk, glves sheep hunting here a special twist. [ohnny explained that cooperatíve hunting pays off al Kolluluk; al tbe Tiglukpuk Iicks, on the other hand, individual hunters can hunt quite eííccttvely. One men stays in the high observation stand only 40 m from where we observed the sheep, on a f1attened part of the ridge of the loaf~shaped mountain. This observer watches the high trails for approaching sheep. Posilioned in the boulder bed of the stream are from one to three huntlog parlners, who are well concealed from the sheep on the high trails. The observer uses a combination of rayen ca lis and prearranged movements to signal the hunters that the sheep are in position. The hunters quickly rnove up to the edge of the Iick to greet the cascading sheep as they hit the bottom. The sheep are powerlcss to run and must go through Ihcir bounding behavlor before Ihcy can ¡niliale an escape run aloog the ground. Snares were never used on this Iick in the pasl. Hunters met the sheep with bow and arruw and clubs and could get near1y as many as the cuntcmpmary hunters can get with rifles. Sheep approaching the Iick from lhe north, down the upland valley, walk in slowly, as on the Tiglukpuk Iicks. However, they must approach from lhe front rather than f10m the fear or high side, as al Tiglukpuk. This approach pattern presents certain problems for the hunlers. They normaUy wait until the sheep are on the tick and then approach from the south or downstream position. Ani~ mals frightened on the tick generally come out of the lick moving north, and after fanning out on the rolling surface of the upland val1ey, they turo east and go up KoUutuk Mountain. Once aKain, the sheep's pattern is exploited by Ihe huntL'rs wurking co()p~ralivdy. A hunter
three hunters before they cut eest up rhe mountain.
The Butcherlng Slte The alternalive hunting pattems at the Kollutuk líck result in a more general use of the area around the lick for butcheríng. A walking survey of the area around the lick resulted in the recogniuon of no lesa than flvc obvlous
butcheríng locaticns. At the time of my work at the Kollutuk Iick 1 was quite familiar with Nunamiut caribou hunting and the patteming of discarded anatomical pans on caribou butchering loca~ lions. 1 was immediately struck with the contrasts between the sheep and caribou killbutchering locations. Both show a high frequency of articulated elements and a highly scattered distribution of remaining bone parts, bul the range of anatomical parts abandoned varies. At caribou sites a wider range of anatomical parts is abandoned at the butchering locations, and heads and antlers are everywhere. Howcver, al thc sheep !litcs heads and homs are rare, and metapodials. partieularly metacarpals with attached phalanges, are the most cammon parts. Another difference is that hearths and caches of lools, supplies, and food are found all around the caribou butchering locations, but not at the sheep butchering locations. This difference is aUributed by the Eskimo lo two sets of conditions: (g) Sheep hunting is gener~ ally carried out by a hunting p"rty that estabIishes a hunting camp relatively c10se to the specific location where hunling is anticipated, most commonly at licks. The men are within easy reach of foad and supplies in theirhunt· iog campo In contrasto caribou hunting. particularly migration hunting, is conducted by men based in a residential campo frequently some distance from the location of favored migration hunling. And (b) since many more animals are killed at caribou migmtiun silt's•
1.
[4081 the men are al the sltes longer-butchering, loadíng pack dogs. and making several in and out trips packing meato After each trip oc alter a long episode of butehering al a caribou locatíon the men will rest, tell stories, and eat al the butchering location. This ís not the pattem al a sheep tick. Fewer animals are taken, and eating, reetíng, and telling stories take place al the hunting campo Only rarely do such activltles oceur al the eheep butchering location, as, Ior example. when a sheep hunt is conducted out of a distant residentíallocation rather than out of a specific hunting campo The majar butcheríng locatíon al Kollutuk is along the boulder terrace of the stream that Ilows below the lick. It is about 100 m downstream, behind the nose oí Kollutuk Mountain and is therefore hidden from the tick. The site is a long, narrow strip of high ground en the side of the stream at the base of a prominent kame rising up to the east. It ís 60ro long and a variable 20-m wide along the tenace of Kollutuk Mountain. Informants explained that sheep kllled on the lick proper are most commonly butchered here. This means that animals approaching the lick from above and íntercepted al the bottom are the enes butchered here. There were no visible features at the site-no meat caches, no hearthsmerely a díffuse acatter of sheep bones. Butchering locatíon 2 is north of the tick behind a nose of Kollutuk Mounlain and is commonly used foranímalsintercepted on the Jick and killed while they are moving norlh inlo a position lo fIee up lhe mountain. This location is smaller (lB x 2S m) and, like Ihe oth/r location, it is marked simply by a scattering of sheep bones, primarily articulated neck9 and metapodiaJs with attached phalanges. The other three locations on the raised valley are very small, representing loca· tions where scattered sheep shot while fIeeing were dragged together and butchered two or three at a location. As in the previous case no hearths or features were associated with the locations. Summary data on the faunal remains collected from these butchering loca· tions are given in Table 7.24.
,./1
utt F.II Slteep Hu,..J,.••,.d u.. u.e DI SIN." Jn Ftdl R.'de..'_' SUa
[409)
The Ob.enatlon Stand
The primary observation stand is at an eJevation of 4200 feet on the south tip of the loaf-sheped rnountaín, about 1.5 miles west of the lick. (See Figures 6.15 and 7.37.) The stand is in a small, relatively f1at saddle area on the crest of the mountain. It is an oval-shaped enclcsure of upendcd rocks chinked with smal1er rocke. The rock enclosure stands between 40- and 7D·cm high and the area endosed is 4.3-m long and 2.6-m wíde. It is hard to describe the vlew from this location. One has the feelíng of being líterally at the top of the world. The mountain is so precipitous and the valleys below so extensive that conversation seems trivial and superfIuous. From this location one can see the summit of the high valley between the stand 'and the Kollutuk lick. Any sbeep approaching from the north or moving across the pass from Giant Creek would be immediately visible. In addition, the entire west face of Kollutuk Mountain ítself with ¡ts many sheep traits is clearly visible. This stand was constructed by the old-timers and has stood here "longer than anyone rernembers." It is still used regularly and after we completed our work al the site, our Eskimo friends were concemed abaut repairing the protective ring of stones, whi.ch had been damaged during the prevlous winter and during OUl excavation. Excavation of the interior of the rack endosure and the path area approaching it confirmed the andent use ol the site. Cached in the west side of the rack endosure was an unfinished antier arrow being fashioned from a grooved and slotted antier blank. With the unfinished arrow was a stone tool referred to by informants as a bont cutrtr. It i5 a small, burin-Iike tool produced on a free flake and retouched to a chisel-shaped edge on a break along the transvene edge ol the flake. In addition, there were amall, pressure-removed flint chips on the floor (I{ the stand. No other artifacts were recovered and there was no hearth in or around the observation stand. A few scattered banes were around the stand and a smal1concentra-
TABLE 7.24
Inventart•• 01 Anatomkal P.,. from ThIee Loatlon. e' the Sheep Huntlne Compl_ el KollutukSheep Butchering ItM:tltltln
Anatomical part
Hom Skull Mandible Atlas Axis Cervical vertebrae Thoracic veneteae Lumbar vertebral! Pelvis Ribs 5ternum Scapula Proximal humeNs
Hunting camp Ob8cI"\lIUon !
l'.UIl>t."1
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
lO
125 SOO 25.0 37.5 37.5 125
O O .5 O O O O
O O
O
SO.O
O
O O 100.0
O
O O
O O 1.0 1.0
4.0
z.o
3.0 3.0 1.0 O
O O O O O O
O O O O O O
.25 .SO .SO
lO
O
1.0 1.0
Distal humeras
O
O
lO
Proximal radio-cubitus Distal radio-cubitus Carpals Proximal metacarpal Distal metacarpal Proximal femur Di!llol femur PlVIlimal tihia Distal tibia Tanals Aslrasalus Cakaneus Proximal metatarsal Distal metatarsal First phalange Second phalange Third phalange
20
.5
7.0 7.0
25.0 31.3 81.5 87.5
8.0 O O
100.0 O O
lO
125 31.3 43.7 43.7 43.7 SO.O
.5 .5 .5 .5 O
62.5 93.7 937
1.0
•
Sht'('p
2.5
25
3.5 3.5 3.5 4.0 5.0 7.5 7.5 7.5
93.7
.5
O O O O .5
lO .25 25 .25
O O O
25.0 SO.O SO.O 100.0 100.0 100.0
100.0 SO.O SO.O O O O O
SO.O SOO SO.O SO.O SO.O O
100.0 100.0 25.0 25.0 25.0
.5
O O O O O
O .5 .5
lO lO lO .5 .5 .5 .5 O
.5 .5 .5 .5 .5
.5 .5 O O O
SO.O O O O O O O O O
O O
SO.O SO.O 100.0 100.0 100.0 SO.O SO.O SO.O SO.O O
lO lO .46 O O O O O O O
.5 .5 .5 .5
.5 O O
SO.O SO.O SO.O SO.O SO.O SO.O SO.O
.5 .5 O O
O
O O O
O O
O
.5 .5
100.0 100.0 100.0 46.0 O O O O O
O O
SOO SO.O SOO 5lJO SO.O O
•
SO.O SO.O O O O
SO.O SO., O O O
• Because of vt'getalion no allempt was made to collect bone splinters at these locations. Similar/y. ir"ormation was not recorded On arliculalions.
14101
Fi8U~
7. F.II
7.37.
Observalion stand ,11 Kolluluk.
li(ln uf Shl-'l'P bnnl's occurfl'd un Il1l' Wl'st sitie uf Ih(-' l'nc1nsure m'in thl' small t:élchl'. Thl'Sl..' dala .Ut' summarized in Table 7.24.
The Huotlog Camp • The hunting camp is al Ihe base of thl' loaf muuntain on the disscclcd fan uf lhe upland V.lIll'Y, bUI f,u bl'low thl' t'lt'V,llioll uf bolh lht.' lil,:k .1nti Ihe <-'n's! uf!l1l' upl.md villlt.·y. It is ti! lhe ¡uncHo" uf tht.' Iwo slreams rnt'ntioned
earlier. Along lhe streambeds is a low and minor stand oí willows used for fue!. The currenl pattern ol use is Ihis: Hunting parties (two lo four men) from Anaktuvuk (only 6 miles away) go lo KoJlutuk in Jate fal! aft('r Ihe caribou migratiun. They generally fake only lwo p.lck dogs, enough lo carry Ih""ir geaT.
~
Such parlil's r<1rl'ly camp al Kolluluk"'1ll0H' thilll 4 dilYS. The fl';\luH.·s un thl' sill' aH' dj{· ferent in many ways from thos(> at fhe sht:'l'p hunting camp al Tiglukpuk. Thl!rt:' are no dns; wcight StOOl'S piles, no burm'd gn.'asl' bUlles in lhe ht'arths, ilnd no skin wl'ights. ft'.lturt's seen at Kolluluk bul nol .lt Tiglukpuk
Late Fall Sh~~p Huntlng alld
th~ U~e
14111
DI Sh~~p 'n Fall Ra'úntlal S'te~
The stone dog anchors. the calcined bones in the hearths, and thc firewood breaker are simply il sct of feuturcs relnted to lhe absence ()f wtllows at Tiglukpuk and thclr prescnce at Kcllutuk. The absence of the small skin wcights al Kol1utuk betrays a mejor differcnce in the Nunamiul between 1955 and 1970. Tiglukpuk was last occupíed in 1955, when a direct procurement strategy was being practiced during the summer. Kollutuk was occupled thc Iall bcfore my 1971 reconnnissance. In 1955lall'~summer shccp skins were sought {UT l'ltllhill~. Tud.1Y, prnctically all clothiug is obtattu-d through mail-ordcr hOUSl'S. Thc difh'rl'nn's in SIH'l'P .md raribou hOI1\'S h.tvc in th¡s case a seasonal and situational referencc. Addlticnally, Tiglukpuk Is located in an area where both sheep and caribou are available. Kolluluk ís located in an area where, at the time it is most commonly occupíed, caribou are rctatlvcly raro and shecp relatívely abundant. This mcnns tbnt at Kollutuk sbcep aJune are primllrily b('in~ hunlcd, wh('rl'as al Tiglukpuk bolh caribllu and sheep were hunted. Cltibou bOIWS pn'M'nl ilt Ti~lukpuk iltl' Iht, rl'In,l;IlS0{ illlilllills'lilh'lt by hUllll'rs frllm Ihat l'lImp. The btlnl'S T\'prcscnt p,uts of thc caribou thal Sl'IVl'd lo support lhe hunlers and IhE'ir dngs until hunting was finishl'd and they wuld Irilnsporl dl·sign.1tl'd p,lrts bilCk lo the tl'sidl'nti¡lllo..:atitlll. Thu:-;,
sponsively to the dlfferences between sheep and ca nbou anatomy. figure 7.38 displays the relatkmship betwecn the fauna] materials re-
covered 1",,,, the 'l'lglukpuk klll-butchering location and those recovered at Kol1uluk. Cleerly. there is a strong positive corrclation between the tWI,) sets of data, suggesting very similar treatment. Hgure 7.39 illustratcs the fit between the data from the Kollutuk kilibutchering area and the inverse conservative MGUI (oc ICMCUI) [Tabh- e.f l. column 6). There is a strong linear distribution iudicatcd for all p.HIS l'll:n'pl Ihe thoraclc and lumbar vcrtcbrnc. purts of llll' t1ppl'r frtlnllq~, ,1Ihl 1111' compom-nts uf llu- lu-ad, ,lSSlll1lill~ lh,l\ 111" atlas and axis are riJing wuh thchcad. AII thc latter parls appeat as a paretlcl and correlatcd linear distribution with él greater intercept value. In previous cases su eh a distribution was found to indicare sume bias ..... ithin the scale and was sometimos corrccted by thc use of sorne power such as the 5'1uarc or cube of the indexo In this case sueh modific
'"I W
-'
Q.
"
"'"
" "
:r
" " .,
.~H,I,l
.~
'"zir " w g
:>
al
'"~
:>
-'
~
" "
'"'"
• •CA""
.....
•'"' • • ~MT
.AST
."
OF• • DIlC
.......ft
••
• • CAl
•"
.~lIC
H • •CUI!
lUM~ElV
"
" " " " " " " "
,'o
TIGLUKPUK BUTCHERING AREA TABLE 6.10 COL. 2 Fi&u~
7.38.
Rd'lti\,"~hip
lukpuk sn,·"p kill.bulIh,'rlll¡';
I;'\'lwl,,-'n KI,t1utuk ,IIlJ·1 .l<;"I'mbl.l~I'S.
i~
1. Foil
14121 basic índex were nol found lo be helpful. The bias in the Kollutuk data appears lo be a
treatmenl between the Iront and rear Iegs as well as for 'he lack of differential treatment for
Cnh!guricnl type ufbin ln that the UPPl'f frunt
the axial unlt, DI'e1.iun. al tu whell1l'r tu ebandcn the heed were most IIkely a funcllon of the number of animals killed at once. Despite the smallness of the samples from the hunting camp and the observation stand, they ncverthclcss cilrry iuformntion. 1";¡~lIrc 7.40 illustrates the fit between the comblned dala from the cbservation stand and the huntingcamp al Kollutuk and the inverse valúes of the data from the kill-butehering location multiplied by the ICMGUI. This model assumes that lhe parts introdueed into the hunting eamp were the p
leg appears lo have beco treated áI equívelent to the rear leg, the enttre vertebral column including the head was treated as a unit, and there was a strong biased deletion of sheep Iwrn~ Irom thc ~ifc. This typc uf bias is, in my opinión, related lo three factors: (a) the retaüvefy small size of mounlain sheep, (b) the infrequency with whích they are teken, and (c) the special usage of the relatívely rare sheep horns in artifact manufacture. Field butcheriog appears lo have consistcd uf skinning, cvisceration, and segmcnting inlo uníts of the four legs and the complete axial skcleton. Additional segmentation consisted of proporlional (to the utility srale) deletion of the lower legs including the phalanges. It is quite likely that the quarters were not in fact removed in the kill-butchering area. The entire carcass minus the skin. viscera, and lower ¡egs was carried by the hunter from the kill-butchering location to Ihe hunting campo Thís bchavior would account for the lack of differential .OMC
'" " ;¡;
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¡¡
"
Q
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"
."' •
..
" " ",
~
.T"III
.OT
........
.01llC .'IIIC
ST"I:
•"
."
·CEIIIV
;1&1 ~ ffi
70
~
". I8 ~ "
~
Kolluwk
¡'"T'" TIoIII
I 11I
; C.U,
'T~L:!4
,
1'IltC; .,"AL;
zoOlft
-
/
CEItV/
/
..
TAIII
,/ ...... •, ,/ / .LV" ~AIl
/
MI'
I
I 1 .. 1
/
" "SITE" " " '" " " INVERSE " KlLl TABlE 724(CQ2)X(ICMGUII
TABLE 6.12 COL. 6 7.39. Rd.llit>nship b\'lwl'l'n di1lil ilnd muddl,d villues.
/ I
fiJo.'~
o
buldl\'rin~
I
I~T
10
JI,
"
I
.," -/
il'fIlTOIIC.f¡ ~.
~o o~ ~d."o ~~
1
I
lO
~
T..dRUIl~H
,
v
""" ~
" " "SHEEP " ICMGUI " " " " " '" Figu~
5
I
ZU
'" "
J J'
1-
I iD"1
100
'", 'o ;:¡o..,
.'IfC .CAIII,
., " ..J ..J
etI tf')
.'MAL
kili·
Figuff' 7.40. R.'I;llion~hip bl'lw.·.·n K"lIuluk nbM'rV,Ilion sl.1nd plus l".Hnr dal.l ilnd mOlkl.·d v,llul'S.
Late Foil Sheep Huntlng ond tIle U.e o/ Sheep In Fall Ruldentlo' Slte.
small semple. There is a clear linear distribunon for all parts of the "ppendicular skeleton. Al! vertebral elemt't\ts appear as a clustered and underrepresented set that combines wilh the mandible. Still more underrepresented are the skull and homs. This type of distribution, as in the previous case of the kill-butchering dat.l, betrays .1 categorical bias in the use of parts in the hunting campo The vertebral' and head are selected Qgainst as sources of food in the field. Part of this bias may stern from a slightly different dismemberment strategy used 00 small animals. Thitt is. the tenderloin is nut, in many cases, removed from the dorsal surface of the vertebrat' as is inv.lriably done for cariboll. This mean s that the meat value ol the vertebral segments, particularly thoracíc and lumbar, is greatly inflated relative to the values assigned in the general utility index (see Table 1.4, columns 7 and 8 and text disw cussion). Such a strategy would infla te estimates made relative to the indices for these parts at kili or culllocations and depress estío mates at consumptiun locations. This is, of course, what we se~ at both kili and hunting camp sítes al Kollutuk. The number of such parts is far smaller than expected using the anatomical indices developed under the assumption that the tl'nder!oin is removed from tht.· vt·rtcbTéll'. This possiblility (non-rcmovill of the tenderloin) dues nut, however, aecount for the underreprcsentation of the neck and head parts. Part of the calegorical bias against the abandonment of the head and neck is related to the Eskimo's desire to keep the horns, which are difficult to remove in the field. Huwever, a social variable ís also in~ vnlvt'd in tht' bi.1Sl'tI rl'tl'nlion ilOd Irilnsptlrt uf h l' .l t1S. Sht,l'p ht'ads .1Ild t"L'ilT skulls oUt.' the only items I ever observed systematically dis w played on village meat racks as trophies. The Eskimo consider a man's successes in the hunting of sheep to be a mark of his "greatness" as a hunter. The best huntersare almost always discussed in terms of their exploits huoting shet.'p, or bcar, ralhcr than cariboll. Eskimo folklore is filled with allusions to a "spedal" set of attitudes assodated with hunt-
14131
ing sheep and bear. One old Eskimo explained the situation as follows: Inland pecple ~at caríbou eVefy JIlY. If soml'lhing happens and caribou dcn't come or you 105(' your cachee. then there are only two Ihings that can happen-you sterve oryou catch ,1 bear or sh~'p, lf ~'ou an' .1 1'\11\",1 huntcr .\I\ll ~I·t shl,t·1' or t-,.'l1T \'1'11 ••\". tlwm m\lre; thl' "power" of Ihe ~hl'l'r IIr l-\'.lT M\'l'l1 ~·llllr Iifl' wben things are bad the Eskimc m.1Y USl' lheshilmiln a lot-if pecpte are starving and aman kills a snl'l'p ur beer, even sometimes a moose, the Eskimo Ieels verv gratefulto the animal spirits formaking toce aVo'Jilabl~. When thingsare good and il hunler kills bt>.lror shl'l'p he must kt·~p Ihe spiri ls from becommg m.ld. ¡ur if thl'Y do and lilh.'rman is hungry thcrc milY b(.· nll Shl...·p ur bear. That is why the old-fiml'rs hild spedill rules fur lreating sheep ilnd bear-so the spirits would no! gt'1 mad.
Sorne of these special rules consisted of displaying the heads of sheep and bear and making smalI symbolic offerings to the spirits they represented for a perlod of 4 days after the death of the animal. In addition, there were spedal shrines in the mountains as w sociated with kili and hunting camp loeations. At these shrines heads were aceumulatt'd and smalJ offerings of amulets and musk were made by hunting partiC's who for trilnsporl rea~(lns could not rduro thl' hl'ild~ tlJ the rcsidl'ntial camps whcrc the nmmal 4-d.1Y rituals were carríed out. At Kolluluk there is such a shríne. l. unfortunatt'ly, did not ¡earn of it until my survey workin the Kollutukarea wascompleted and l had moved a great distance from the Kollutuk complexo John M. Campbell, who has seen the location, describcd to me a ~t'rie~ of stont> niches belwcen gl.'ciill boultkrs, which Wt.'Tt' packcd wilh shl't'p hl',llis. WIll'n I W.1S hJld uí the location the older hunter relaling the in w formation confided thal the Eskímo "over 30 still go there when hunting at KoUutuk." Although I cannot prove it, I feel confident that the low frequencies of heads at the Kollutuk hunting camps are to be understood ('xc!usively in terms of the cultur.l! meaning given lo both the activity of sheep hunting and the animals themselves.
14141 Oí all the examples ol behavioral variability thus Iar presented, this is only the second example of behevior that is probably condltioned by purely cultural considerations.
1. Fell
abandoned. Informants suggcsted that in most cases there was an attempt lo retum the whclc ahecp to the restdence when possiblc. The sheep assemblages from both sites are small: three animals at Kakinya and two at the Net site. This means that we may anticípate sorne srnall-sample effects in attempting to flt the data to a behevioral model. Figure 7.41 illustrates the reletionshtp between the Net site and Kakinya essemblages when the latter is ccrrected for structuraJ components not excavated or remaining al the Net site. As in Ihe cese of the caribou data, when the Kakinya síte ís adjusted lo an analogous fonn, the two siles arpear very similar. Fur the sheep dala the Net site has more scapulas than the Kakinya site; the latter has more pelvises and tarsals. Two additional elements faH away from the fairly regular linear distribution-the proximal mctatarsal and the stl'mum-a situation I believe to bt.' cunditionl'd primarily by small·sample effecls. Fur inslann', th..., dillerence between the proximal and distal metatarsal in the Kakinya sample is only (he difference of one articulalor end. Similarly,
With the exception of the treatment of the brisket discussed in Chapter 5, and the treatment of sheep heads discussed here, all other behavioral variability can be understood in purely pragmatic terms-that ts. in terms of maximizing decisions made on the basis of en accurate evaluation ol the realities of animal anatomy and such sltuational variables as dlstance of transport, amount of meat on hand, decay probabilities, and estimates of future nceds. Only in these two cases were parts of the animal treated in ways that could nol be accounted for in terms of a knowledge of the anatorny or of the environment given certain Iimitations of human labor performances. 1 shall fetum to this point again, Sheep bones occurred on two uf the documented fall fesidential lucalions-tht.' Kakinya site and the Net site. As we havl' seen, both these sites were technicillly residential locations trom the standpoinl uf the social units occupying the site. On the olher hand, the faunal assemblages wcre illmosl ·UIt,UT "O •• exclusívely eumposed of piJrts rem\lvt.,d Jur· .0 ing the processing of me.lt fur dry stort.'s, and 6 there was a bias in favor of mar~inal parts used .0 primarily to feed tht.'largc p\lpulitlion uf Jllf;S 701,.1\.11 at tht.' K,lkiny.l silc. Thl' Nl'l sill' was (,sSl'n~ .'MT • • OT .n H • • O" tially idl'nticilllo Ihl' KakinYil sill' l'xn'rl bonl' greasc was manufactun.'d tlll'n' ilnd nnt ilt Ihe.' Kakinya silc. In additiun, Ihc (cedíng of illargc number of dogs was represenled al the kakinya site whereas at the Net site dog feed~ g¡ .D.7 z ing areas were not excavated. When the ;¡¡ Kakinya population was correcled for these differences, caribou fauna from analogous l! z .O~""" •• unils on lxJth sites Wert' lound to oc' h.h'nlkal 10 ,e;~ ", (Sl'C Fi~Ufl' 7.3.e;). -" Inform,lOls whu h.ld liwJ .,t th\' Kakiny.l ,u lI'u ",u .. O !lO '0 7 .O'D 100 sile recaU shcep hunting, and rt.'!atcd that NET SITE sorne ml'at was dried, i1nd iI considerable amuunt was givt.'n aw.ly as gifts to rt.'!i1lives Figurl' 7.41. Rl'laliHnship bo..>lwl·I'n mll,liht·,j IllI,llul and friends. The dried meat was rt'porh.'d to S}ll'\'P bunl'S frnm Ihl' KilkioYil sih' .100..1 i1~""'mhl,l¡;l' hum ha ve been rem(Jved from the Sitl' when il WilS Ihl' Nl'l sill'.
the value for the sternum is for a single animal. The sternum is normally ccnsumed in unils of a single brisket, not in Iracnons. Therefore, the difference here is that a single brisket was recovered on thc Kakinya aite and only half a brisket was recovercd on the Net site. Neverthefess, it is likcly that a single brisket was consumed there as well. Although th¡s comparison demcnstrates that the two sites are much alike relaüve to the sheep assemblages, it does not tell us the "position" of the sites and their assernblages in a logistical or consumption sequence. Modeling the situation is apt to be more informative for thc Kakinya assemblage since it is both I¡uger and mOTe complete from the standpoint of sik e1ements. Figure 7,42 iIIus~ trates the relationship betwecn the Kakinya assemblí'lge and iI mudel that assumes that pclrls Wl'rl' fl'l1lowd (mm í'I kili locí'ltion in k'rms of lhe MGUI
.
'" '" 8'"
g
..
~
.. ~
'"
~
-,
14151
"'Jr Fell ShrI!P HunJlng end Mr U"r 01 Shftp In fa" Ru'tknJJal SUu
AST•
M· .SII
'"'
anatomical parts from caribou at hunting camps. Tbe interesting Ieature uf this distributiun is that there are sorne obviously analogous Ieatures to the pattern observed at the Kullutuk hunting C'amp and observation stand when those dala were plotted egninst the ICMGUI (see Figure 1.43). In both cases the front leg from the radio-cubitus up is undcrrcpresented. Símilarly the vertebral elements-elumbar, thoracic, atlas, and axis vertebrae-eare underrepresented. The major diffcrcnce between the two patterns is in regard to the head. At Kollutuk the head is underrepresented whereas al the Kakinya Sitl' the head is overrepresented. Jf 1 am corree! about (he cultural or ritual aspects of the lrealment of the head, the Kakinya sample would appear to be from a residentiallocation, and Ihis is in fad thl' C
".•
~.J
70
'" o J:U
~
~ ~
so
~~
40
"'01
j!
~.
.~
'"
li:'"'
'"
.•,,,
00
~
'"
"'-'
'" ••
,,~
•
:HAL A:¡
O., .'MC •
10
20
30
.. 0
!lO
-
~~
...."
C...llP • • 'lIe
.0117
'O .~M1" ~
... ... .. . •• o'" .. .'" ... :".OM .. , !i " • 8 ~~
'" • ""'• , • .0" .Ptl
...
lO
...3"''"
'0
'"
O'"
~
.T"ll
.0
_DIIC
;s:;¡!
•• o~
lO
lO
100
CULL MOOEL rABLE 6.12 COL. 16 A FiRUI? 7.42. Rt'I,lljtln~hir bdwl'l'O Ihl' K.lkioy.1 ..ill' ..hl'l·I' r'·lIlo1in .. oH1.! .1 nllt t1l"dt'1
_"
'O
"
llCUY
101 ·'[LV
70
'
",01
THO:'SC aLUM
o
:::> f-
00
o'"
'¡.DMT
20ST
,.
.~,
'00
00
THOIt. lllU'" 20
30
40
ISO
lO
70
.0
.0
tOO
SHEEP (ICMGUII rABLE 6.12 COL. 6 Figu~ 7.43. Rl'I.11¡on~hip bl'lWt'l'O
14161
7. Fa"
s!rolegy isalrned ~t ubtnin-
imate the site data. This clearly indicates that parts were rcgularly introduced intn thc re>si~
in pron'~~in~ Il1l'O! lor l1ryin~ Wl're eqllillly
denual IUe.lliun,
ing sufficient rneat tu suslain the grcup for a comparatively long periodo In both cases there is a massive hunting effort during caribou migration. But there are basic differences in the seasons themselves that condition the differential character of logtsucs. residential mobility, and the organization of activities. For the Nunamiut spring behavior is characterized not only by a rnassive hunting effort, but 0'150 by an equally Intensíve logisticalprocessing cffort. 8 e-cause thc days ~('t Wilrm...'r ,lS th(' y"'>ilr progrcsses from sprin~ lu summer, meal obtilin ....d during spring migra. tion hunting must be transported, processed against increasing probabilities of putrefac~ tion, and securely placed in storage. In fall the situation is quite different. The days are getting cooler, not warmer. Freezing is a viable storage alternative and 1055 of stores from fly infestations is not Iikely. Therefore, we note a very diHerent set of strategies. Ani· mals are taktm in lar~e numbers, as they are in the spring, but there is little logistical and proctc'ssing pressure related directly to the obtaining of secure stores. In the contemporary setting animals are cached on the tundra near where they are killed and are introdll(~d into the village as needed over the extended winter periud. In lh.... pas!, Ihe situillion was somc .....hat more complicat...·d. Bdore Ihe ~un, f,ll1 hunl· ¡ng was centered around lakes and river cross¡ngs, where the animals could be killed from kayaks. In the mountains such locations were generally north of the Brooks Range divide. This meant that the mass of meat nceded for winter consumption wns taken in areas producing little if any firewood. Since fuel is a prime concern in !'electing locations for wintrr housing, there was commonly an incongruily between the Jocation of food and the location of fuel-both critical resources for winter living. These condilions provided the context for an investment in the processing of meat for transporto That is, the meat obtained at locaIions of faJl hunting was in the past processed
approprtotc to thc processing of m...·at for transport. Bonos wcre removed from heavy mcat-mass parts, and there was an intensive processing of bones both for marrow and bone grease- We may suspect that there was a slight reversa! in th e, consumption uf parta that during summer werc maintalned within the system for sorne tirne-c-those parta with high drying probabillties in the absence of processIng. These are of course the perta with hlgh bone-to-meat rntios nnd wnuld thcrvforo he llw ~1ilrls hilVin); thl' mosl llh1rgillill tr,lnsporl ulilHy. Informanls agrel.' thal in the past, when faH and early winter mobility was high, caching parts with high processing times and low general utility was a common practice. This means that assemblnges resembling dried meat popul;]tions (from a summer perspective) were insurance populations during: winter. Thus we see a situation that presents th.... archaeologist with sorne ambiguiti ...,s. An asst¡"mblage of faunal parts having all thecharacteristics of a dried meat population may commonly occur during the faH and winter seasons when freezing is the technique of meat preservation. The probability of this occurring is likely to vary dircctly with the mobility pattero in fall and winter. If mobility is low and the distance between residenliaJ IOGltionanÓ IOCiltions of faH hunting ilrc short. thl-'n w.... m"y anlicipilll.' little processing, which would produce populations of anatom· kal parts having tht' structural properties of dried meat populations. On the other hand, if mobility is high andJor distances between 10calions of procurcment and winter consumplion ar\.· grl.'at, w\.> may antidpate ao increase in faunal populalions having properties of dried m ...· ill ilss...· mblages. Gne feature that radically distinguishes fall locations from spring locations is the degree to which processing of anatomical parts is con· ducted within residential arcas. In all cases of faJl residentiallocations, either Crom the 1948 period or from the pre-gun era, some model of a pruct'ssing assemblage was found to approx-
transport, nnd thc debns wns dlsposed uf around the campo In no case was such a clcarcut case demonstrable for the spring residential data. It will be recalled that thcre was a great deal of difficulty in modeling the faunal remains from the rcsidentiel arcas on spring sites. Almost invariably sorne mix of al least two models was needed to accommodate the data. Marrow bones were generally introduced from a processtng locatlon. and there was a bias in favor of consumin¡.; parls Ih.11 h,ld mod ...·rilh.> ml'al valu(' bul ,llstl rl'!.lliVl'ly high proccssing lim....s. That is, consumptiun was biastc'd in favor of parts that had low drying probabilities and high processing times. Dog feeding was always a seeming altemative for disposing of any small quantitics of processing debris that might hélVC becn inlroduced duriog late-phase spring hunting. Thus, the spring residentiallocations had a characteristic cumplexity that dcriVl'd from thc ind ...·p...·ndtc'nt scil..'Ction uf parts for diffl.'rcnt purpos\.>s from populations indepcndcntly dislributed spatially. No such complexity characterizes the fal! residentiallocations. Tht.> allocation of parts to different uses within a sitc wns ilccomplishcd through the differential sclcclion uf parts from a single introduced population. Dog fO(ld, human food, parts alhl('ilt...>d to stofag\.·, ,lnd parts accumulated fur sl'cond.1TY pru .......· ssing such as bone greasc rendering ,111 derived from a single introduced population of parts. This is very different than the situation in spring, where parts for diHerent u:r.age gtc'nerally had diflerenl Sources al(mg a lugistiC.11 pmr(,.>ssing scquenctc'. 1 noted rep .... élh..>dlythilt human C~,"· sumption during spring was .l" ilCC(lmm(lda· tion to tht.> 1.1bur d...>m,lmb fm :'lln:",'ssful shlrage of anatomical parts. No such c1ear-cut consumptíon strategy is '-'vident in the faH data. We cannot distinguish between those parts remaioing from consumption and thos...• parts remaining from processing activities. People 5eem to ha ve been l..'ating parts consistenl with lheir valuc as potential stores. We
on spring behavior, are sufficient to permit some interesting comparisons. During both
the vrry short
spring ~nd
di~t~n(e
between 1111' hunting
camps of the successful hunters resembled hunting camp debrís oc parts oí marginal utility. Elyjah Kakinya, who lived al the Kakinya stte. was ene of the most famous sheep hunters among lhe Nunamiut. Hl' fl~call('d making many gifts (lf ShCl'P meal whill' Jivinr; "t thl' site. Thus, lhe structure of lhe k)('.ltiun n~I distribuled to other persons. It is my guess that the front legs and vertebrae were dned, and that ·the rear legs, ribs, and brisket were distributpd lo other persons. 5ince we do not ha ve data from dumps and dog areas for the Nct site and w(' know thal bone grease was manufactured, I have not altempted to lit the faunal remajns to a mode! ¡ndependent of the argument presented for the Kakinya site. SUMMARV The data collected relative to the faJl system, although less complete than the datil obtained
,
~
,
14171
to reduce the bulk relative to the usable or consumable mear. The same techniqucs used
lances between the Kakinya site and any likely location of successful sheep hunting versus camp al Kollutuk and the kili Jocation. Why are the parte of the sheep found in a residentiallocation analogcus to the parts 0(curring al hunting camps? We have seen something Di this previously in the case oí the Ingsted site, where parts remaining in the
SummOIJ/
f~lI!he
prol'l'~Sl'l1
fur liryillW
[4181
7. Foil
also do 001 observe the biased consurnption of tengue and brisket so common on spring sltes. Por instanee, in the summaries of the logistical distance and consumption pattern for spríng sítes, 1 noted an Increase in the importance of tengue and brisket in tho diet as une moved away from poinls uf prccurernent in the dtrec-
hibit values much lower than those observed for the smal1 migration stands and the postmigration hunting stand s of Kongumuvuk, Contad Creek, and Giant Creek. Finally, as was the case in the spring data, resideutial locations ha ve a gcnerally lower frcquency of
ñon of locattons of consumption. (See Table
ies shows similar fuzzy pattcms relative to the logistical ordinatlon of the sitos (Table 7.25). Why is there such a difference between tbe patterning evtdent in the spring data and that evident in the fall data? In my opinion, this is a dassic case of at leasl parlial spurious com.'la· Uon in the spring data. It will be rcc.llled that lhe spring logistical system was a "quick" system, in which labor was needed fur procurement, processing, and transport simul· taneously. This means that there ís a corre1a· tion between logistical distance and the general length of time any given person can be expected to remain at a given location. For inst.mce, at the Anavik location during spring ml'n hunted,lfthcy were succcssful.1nd kilk'd .mimals they werc in volved in thl' fidd bulch· eríng of animals and then tht! transpurl to processing and stmagt! location such as the ice
5.19.) SimiJarly 1 notcd a clear blas in favorof quick consumption of marrow-yielding parts. with heavyconsumption al kili sitcs and hunting stands and decreaslng proportional cunsumplion aS une moved in the direction of residential locations. (See Table 5.20.) 5uch patterning is nol nearly as c1ear-cut in the data from falllocations. Inspection of the faJl data suggests that the correlabon is greater with the site type than with any dírectionill logístical trend as was 8uggested by the spring data. For inslance, with regard to the metatarsal, which was found to be almost perfectly corrclated with logistical distilnce in the spring délt.l (Sl'('Table 5.19), no such clear seal" is evident in the fall data. Thl' two major migr
metatarsals. Examinationof the othcr categor-
lABLE 7.25 Comp.nUve COMumer 81•• tbro-.h • LottIUcal Sequen« Durtng FaU HUntlng
Sitl'
Ml'l.u,\rp.ll
Bif:: Happy Nl"w Yl"ar Liltll" Harry New Year
35.7 46.43 31.75 29.99 45.113 7500 25.00
A-J Hu~o
Morry Kon~umLJvLJk
I{,ldiontbitus
Ml't,llarsal
28.6
49.95
O
53.S
12.5 14.2R 3t.25 31.25
93.75 %.43 qs.tl3 K7.SO
25.00
95.tk}
Clllll,lIl:t CTl,'k Cianl C'T{'ek Rull,md K.lkiny.,
"'."."1.3
44.4 4.1.2
100.00
22.5
~75
Net~
11.77
11,77 8.14
42.5 11.75 10.46
TLJlukana~
9.3<J
ró.t,s
libid
M.lndibll'
92.85 78.57 75.00 67.tl5 75.00
57.1 35.71
so.m 25.00 HJ.J:'i 46,",1 Ó5.U M.H2
4.65
O 7.14 16.66 25.1JI1 JO.OO 1I I:UlI :lIJ.tJ 77.39 100.00
Sh'rnum
h'mnr
O
57.1 42.85 12.5 14.2R :13.33
48.57 9.25 16.00 1766 1I 1I 1I 1I 1I 417 1.16
6.25
5.1k) :";.~I
\,l."I.l5 \,l:";.(Kl
1I
2.23
~ Valul"S lor tllt'Sf' sih""l h.1Vl'be.'l'n modilil'.t \'Iy tllI' d('slnl<"tiun uf .1n"tnmk"II""rl'i dtlrin~ IIIt' o',lt1uf
.~
Summo".
cellars. The men were under very strong time constraints given the timing between spring migration and the breakup of the river ice, This meant that men spent Hule free time at the Anavik location. Thc fall Big and Little Happy Nl'W Yoar locations, nlthough logistically analogous. were very different. First, they were generally occupíed befare migretion hunling bcgen, since they were elso monitoring locations. Secundo hunting conducted from thesc Iocations was not conducted under a lime crunch. Third, no secondary pruc~ssing for storagc was rt'quired. As a result. the labor force uf women, which n(JT· míllly remaincd in the village during spring, carne out to Ihe hunting stand s during faH to observe, ¡oin in the sociality of the occasion, and aid in field butchering. So, between actual hunting and butchering episodes the hunters and in many cases their wives were engaged in conversation and food consumption at the hunting stilnds. During spring. on the other hilnd. sUl:h intl'rruptions in hunting and field bukhl'rin~ Wl'rc occupied by thl' men Irill1Sporting meal lo tJ1e viIJ
14191 hunting rnlght well be conducted rtsarJ/~55 01 tht number o{ attimals taktlll1llring migmtíon, In Iail we see the heaviest marrow consumption at postmigration hunting stand s, whereas in spring thc postrnigration sites cxhlbit thc lowest marrow-bone consumption. In spring there was a premium on f.ll animals and the rnarrow was ti desirable nnd relatively rare hunting product. but in fdl!.1111he animals are in generally good nutritional condition. Good marrow was not ti raro cnmmodity al the residential location, a felet corrcboratcd by the higher incidence \lf marrow.yielding bon~s ill fall residential locatíons. Also marrow bones are proccssed in the residl'ntial sites in faU rather than at spedal locations as was the situation in spring. Table 7.26 summarizes the data on the relative consumplion uf marrow bones versus meat-yielding parts for the fal! sites compared to spring logistical analogues. In spring the logistical sequence was corn·· lated with a labor continuum and el slack-time continuum; in faH Iht·S(' corrl'!alions do nol perta in given Ih~ fil'ld c;,\ching of animals ílnd the lack of a transport sllucl'ze. Thus. we Sl'e in the fall datil that the consumptil1n bielS in f.wor uf m.1Trow is currd.ltl'd wilh tI\{' compo· sition of the labor force present al el location and the amounl ef free time between periods of intense activity. In the spring data we notl'J a corrl'lalion bctwcen thc rdativl' pli\Cl'ml'nt of a sile in the logistical sequcnce and the dl'grl'c (lf dismcmbt>rment characteristic tlf lhe blmes. Tablc 7.27 summarizeS the dismembennent ratios for the fall sites. The correlalion between logistical distance and dismemberment mtio is better for the faH than for the spring data. Thl"re is a direct corrclation betwcen logislical distance and the disml'mbt.'rml'nt ratio and an inverse correlation bctween dislanct' amf thl' percl'nl· ilge uf up articulations. Thl'S(.' rdalionships wcrl'
TABLE 7.26
Summory
Pereentagea 01 DlagnOlltle Bon.. Rep... aent.d bV Mano..Vleldlns Parta fol' a Fall1.Gglatleal S.quene. 1.(~i'ilic"l a n.,I\l);ut'S
Sue
Marruw bone perrentage
Big Happy New Vear Litlle Happy New Vear
51.29
'i)'stt'm~
57.62
A·¡
"'.02
Hugo Morry Kongumuvuk
aO.70
85.41
Comect Crock Cíanl Creek Rulland
'" 47 97.18 43.55
Kaklnya
52.94
Tulukana
19.09
63.4
Anavik
59.0
Mask stte
40.4
Dlspersed stands
28.9
Village consumplion
73.36
"el ~
'irrin);
frum
28.85
Nene
Dala taken from Table 5.20.
TABLE 7.27 DlamembcmMnt Ratloa
.0" Both Fall and Spr1n.1.osIaUul Sequence. I'all daY di'iml'mbcrmenl ralios
1.\l('.,liuns
Fwnt
A. Pr¡mllril.lllasi'i/iar//(/(lllitluS Dispel'SE'd fall kili sitM B. Priman/v IPltJifltt'IItJflCl' /o('fl/iom IlunUn,;· st,lndO( ni); 11.1PI'V NI'W Y\"lf I.illl\' Il.lppy Nt·w Y\'M
A·/
R\'i'lr
rl'rn'nla';t' ur
Fwnt
Rl'a,
¡'(·rl"(·nt.,t;l' up
.71
.00
.94
.01
.11'"
.21
40
;4
.51
.14
.93
.'.""
,ll7
.:!H 511
Ilu~u
Mtlrry Kun¡;umuvuk Contact Creek Ciant Creek
"
}:,,;,
x=
.30 .4. .41! 3.79 8.0
Ñ"
.47
Rl'sil!t"ntiallocalions Rull.mtl K.lkinY,1
.22
I =
x=
Ñ"
.m
2'1
.12 .17
.211 36 .44 .31
>24
'".2ft 11
.~
,f>II
11 .22 .11' 1.45 '.0
.1' 1.1lO
2•
O 11
O O
.:\1 4.0
2. 4.0 .07
....
O
.012 .Ir;
.IN
"el Tulukana
Analt'Ruus valu('S for spring sit ...s
",
O O 1.36
4.0
.34
lO
inlo the Iactors thnt diffcrcntially condltion Nunamiut bchevior in sprtng versus Iall, the data prcsentcd from the Iall sítcs provide sorne interesting lcssons for the student of archaeological remains. For Instance, it was argued that the majar differences between the Net site and the Kakinya síte derived from Inadequate sampling of the Net site coupled wilh a slighUy different strategy of caching or handling meat during thc fall migration, both bvlorv and oftcr tho gun carne i nto use. The differences betwecn the Kakinya and Rulland essernblages wcrc shown to be related lo thc differential prcservation of the twc sües. which rcsulted in an activity-btased assernblage in the Rulland case. These examples demonstrate the need to comp
1421 I food needcd by an occupant dunng \1 d.ty W.l~ consumcd at the hunting stand. From obscrvatíons madc on huntiug stand bchavior 1 know this not to be the C.1St', More commonly only snacking occurs al the stands, and mosl meals are taken at the residcntiallocation. The regularity of the relationshíp observed was vlewed as deriving from Ihe rnarrowconsumption bias in the hunting stands and rhe low vclurnes of marrow that any une animili yields. Thus. pnrts from more animnls are needed to provide en adequate snack, Thc proportion between snack size and mnrrow volume in a single animal appears asa regular proportion of total daily consumption and total food yield of an animal. resulting in the impression thal occupants were receiving all their daily needs for food at thc hunting stands. Despite these complicattons and the lack of knowll'dgt' ,lbtlul why t1ll' rl'i.1tionship holds, Ihis is lhe fir~1 illsfmlCt' of .; presl'n!. (~l'l' hgurl' 6.47.) TIHS rl'l,ltionship was viewl'd ilS J'l"asonílble sinn' hunlin~ camps are occupied by hunting expeditivns seeking to obtain meat for many more consumers Ihan are pn'sl'nl al the camp-thl' hunting camp is a Illgistical pnKUrl'llll'nf location and nol a COnSUnll'T IIK.1liltn. On Ihl"lllhl'r hand, Ihl' nmlmlll'd d,ll.l lfllm sprm h .11ld sumrTll'r residt'nlió'll h)(.l!itl\ls·-("llII~w"l·r /oCltrions-also failt'd lo yil'!d.1 direLl .1Ild uncompliciltL'd rt'!ó'ltionship betWt'l'n consumer dem.1nd and numbt'r uf an¡mab prL·st·nl. Fur the spring localions approximately ll\l(, ilnd onl'-half times the nUlTlbt'r of a"imals "t't'dt'd
14221 to sustatn the occupants for the known occupatíonel durations were erchncologtcally visible. For the summer data, the situatton was reversed: there were far rewcr animals rcpresented archaeologically al the rcsidcntial sítes than were in faet needed tu sustain thc occupants. Al the fall residential sites reportcd here, thcre W.1S again a reversa! nnd it was found that thcre were esscntially twice as many animals represented archaeologically as were needed to sustain thc occupants fur a known perlod of time. This lnck uf correlation between consumer demand and faunal remaios is viewcd as deriving (rom lhe character of the storage and logistical stratcgics cmployed by the Nunamiut. In spring, as I have dcmonstratcd, consumption is largcly of mar· ginal parts that have low drying probabilities in the absence of processing. Therefore, there is a consumption bias in favor of parts with included bones, resulting in an overrepn'· sentation of animals bast'd on highly sl'lt'clt'd faun.11 remains. During summt'r, un tht' other hand, consumption is largcly from dril..>d meat, the bulk of which ¡s strippcd meat lack· ing bones. This means that thcre is a strong underrepresentation of the actual rneat consumed when bones are tabulated. In fall, the number of animals indicated by the faunal fl'milins is CXCt'ssivt' Tt'lntivt' to tht, food lk· mitndsuf theoccupants. Thisdl'rivcs fnllTl the ."1ctive pron'ssin¡:; of ml'at for winll'r on thl' rt'sil1entiill Sitl'S. Tlwrl'furt', hUI1l' dl'hris rl'· I,'h.'s tu .lntit"ip,'tl,¡J l:(msumplillll l:(llll11Hmly not carried out at the filll site itsdf. Thl'St' filcts c~rry implications for archaeologicill pron'· dures commonly used tuday-the USl' of r,lW MNls and animal body sin's for estimating lhe amount uf meat consumed or rt..' presl'nted in a sile. An MNI of six animals indicaled by Ihe mandible dues not mean the same thin~ as six animals indiciltl'd by ph.1Iilnges. I have shown that there ilTC rl'gular l:(1I1sumption slr.1Il'~il's nllnlllonly iH"nllllIllOd,lh'd to holh logislk.ll illld slIlr"gt· slr,lh'gil's, r1w ,lrdl,ll'ulugil'"l rl'lllc1illS 1I1l ,1 sih' m,IV ,llId t'tlllll1lonly ..I\! n'lIt'd :-.tll h slr.l!t'gi(·s .llh11l1.1Y bt' wmplk.ltt'J by prot"l'ssillJ; ill"livilil's, ilS in Ihe case of Ihe faH resit.1ential locations, The
7. Fa"
faunal remains from the processing activitles. although informative, do not necessaríly carry Information ebout the ccnsumer demend at the site where they occur archaeologically. Only in cases where there is tlO logistical t'xtt'tISiOlI in the procurcment of animal foods and wherc there is dirrctand ímmedíate flmSWllptüm ti! ;lItnll/Ill"l'd pans can we anticipnte any n'S"/I/r relaüonshlp between the quantity uf f.lun.1 present and the consumption of mear in prop .. ortion lo the body slzes of the animals repre· sented. These conditions are apt to be rere und to be more characteristic of tropical ano subtropical settings than lemperate or Arctic ('nvi~ ronmcnts, particularly with regard to animals of modera te to large body size, An archacologist's estimate of Ihe relative contributions uf diffl'Tent specil's lo the dit't, or uf consumer demand as partitioned among group sizes and occupational durations, is apt to bt.' inaccurate ilnd misll'ading if IOf;istical and slorage vilr;ilbles as wl'll as rdatt'd Ct)ll· sumption strategil's are nol wntrolleJ foro Once again we sel' the need for archaeologists to control for structural properties of ar.. chaeulogical assemblages and make comparisons among slructurally similar assemblages-{}r, even better, have n'Hable ways uf giving ml'atli"x to whilt is oqst'TVl'd arChill'()logically. Thl' simpll' pnrildigm,nir assumption that it rl'lati(mshipIIIIIM (lblilin .1S lhe justificalitm f(lr tr.1nsÍtlrm."1li()ll bl'lwl't'n nUll1ht.·r (Jf btuws ,1Ild PUUlllIsuf 111l'.lt is hlf¡llly insuffidl'llt and mislt'.ldillg. '('hl' rl'gul.lr USt.' uf this typt.' uf convenliun hilS in my npiniun been onl' of thc miljor fililin~s (lf Imdilion;;¡1 arChill.·ulugy. The data from the faHresidenliallocalions uf the 1948 period provide arare kind uf Rosetta stone situation in which parts were set aside for bunt., greilse manufadure but thl' ilctivity was nevl'T performcd. Thl'St.'bonl' citchl's pro .. vide us wilh a dirl'(f picturc uf thl' parts lhal wtlllld hav(' ht'l'n dpslroYl'd hMII:tOlw ~n'.lsl' lll't'll lll.1dl'. TIH' dfpd uf t111' tll·...lrtldivl, pron· ...sillg is wl·1I i11llslr.lh'd in Ilw l'tmlr.l:-.b l't,IWt'I'11 11lt' J~tlll.llUI .lI1d K,I"illY,1 siit'.'> wlwl\ comparisons ilre m.lde bt'twt'l'n lhe .1S· semblages as recovcrt'd archaeologictllly ami
Summary
the assemblages with the bone caches deleted, approximating what the asscmblage would look llke had bone grcase been manufactured. These sües provided a good test of the ability of our anatomically based grease índices for anticipating the parts delcted through bone gn'ast' proccssing. Thcsc results werc encoura~in~. In tho actual situaticn ot attcmpting to modcl csscmblages Tl.'C(WCTl.'d archaeulogically, we need to know whether it is likely that bone grease was rnanufactured and whether such indices would therefore be relevant in attempting lo reconstruct the popuIation as it existed before the destructive processing. We found that the tcl1tale concentration of bone meal or small fragmcnts of cancellous tissuc was a positivc due Ihat bone grease had bl'l'n manufilcturcd. Neverthc1css, wc recognized that in sorne cases articulator ends dcstined for deslruction as sources of bone grease may be removed from a sitl' for processing l'1sewhl'rl', In this situation no dl'ar positive evidencc of proccssing would remain at the sile. How couId wc recognize such a situation? It was fQJlnd that the observed lo expectcd ratio of long·bone splinters calculated in terms of number of observed articulator ends was a uscful indicator of both the dl'slruction of articulator ends and, in the abSt'nl-t' IIf POIll' llll'al CUllCl'lltraliuns. a gund c1ue lhat ilrticulator enJs hnd becn removt.'d fmm thl' sile. TIlt' fMI Ih.ll unly wilh lhe {;l1! data did I obl.lin ,111Y l'vidt'llCe (llr Ihl' pf(~-t'ssillg uf bOlle grcasl' is takl'n as rl'sulting (mm a snmpling bias in my dala. I know from informanls that in lhe past bone grease was regulilrly milnu· factured in spring, yl't thl' spring sites re· ported did nut yield any evidence fm lhis activity. This reflecls two Iypes of bias in my datil, First, musl of Ih(' spring sites reported were post-ll.)48. which marked the beginning uf thl' abillldonmt.'nt of bonl' grease processing in favor of Ihp USl' of imporlt'd 1.1rt.1 and Vt'gl'" t"hll' ni!. SI'nl1ld, 110 pn1n·ssin¡.; 100",tions Ihal d,llpd In Iwlon' lllt' l'tlllll'l1lpOr,ll)' l'r.l lar !'>l'dl'nl,lry livill}!, Wl'!"l' idelllili,'d .lIld sludil'd arl-hat'ol(lgk'ally, Civell tht' Nunilmiut tendency in spring to process animal parts in
[4231 locations other than those where stores are kept, It ís qulte Iikely that much evídcnce could be found for bone grt'ase manufacture on processing locations or adjacent to spring kili siles for the earlíer period uf Nunamiut history. Although Llack good summcr sitc data from tbe pre-gun era, it is likelv that cvidence for hum' grt>¡lsl' procl'ssillg would bl' nbsent from such sitos. lnformants .111 .lgrt't·d that bones could not be accumulated over the summer period because of spoilage. AII informants insisted that if fresh meat was ob· tained bone juice might be manufactured, but this was nol a consistent activity afft'cting a total assemblage, as the praclice uf saving bones over a period of time and then proCl'SSing them prior to a move would be. Finally, the data fmm the fal! sites provide additional information on Ihe faunal remains of different species occurring on archaeological sites. Several points are of inl('rest herl'. I have noted l'arlit'r, with regites. J .llso noll·d 111011 sheep pilrls intrudun'd into Tl·sidl·nti.ll 1(lt'.I" tions such as the Kakinv.1 and Nt'l sitt.'s Wl're treated diffl'renlly than -caribou intrnducl'l'J to the same localions, Thesl' differences rl'!.lll'd to the different roles that shccp <md c<1Tibuu played in the oVt.'rall subsislencc stratl'gy. In addition, the characleristic pt11tl'rn of dislributing shecp mcat I:tul rart.'!y caribou meal to re1atives and friends providl'd Ihl' contt'xl for Vilst diffcrcnccs bctwcl'n Ihe faunal as .. sl'mblagl's IIf thl' tWtI spt'ci('!'> on:urring on ti si ngll' si le. AIM'l J( in It'rt'sl is 1111' .ISSt'lll h',I'~l' III rulll'd llI,lrhill.d ¡',Iris ,Illhl' K,l\"iny.l ... ilt,. I hi:-. .lssl'mhl.1W' h.\s 1ll,IllY tll IIH' prupl'rlit's 111,'1 wc mighl anticip.lle fm caribou al ,l hunlin¡.; campo Gnly in this caSl', lhe culling is rl'1.1It'd
14241
7. Foil
not to transport concerns but lo altempts to rnaximize the meat value of parts givcn away to friends and relatives. This supports a generalization made earlier. Tlwre ;5 no necessary or unambiguous re/ations1Jip between a decision-making strategy IlMd tire varia¡'les condítioning llie declsion. In the case of hunting camps, a culling strategy is used tu maximize the quality of the mcat transported lo a location of cunsumption. In thc case of the culhng stretegy in the residential camp the same criteria and knowledge are employed lo maximize the quantity of quality mcat distrtb-
uted lo friends and relatives. Although we may have developed an anatomical reference dimension to aid in recognlzing thc chnractcr of the decisicns being made, this does not inform us directly as to the contexts in terms of which such decisions may be appropnatc. The Iatter is a problcm in thcory building and thc data from the Nunamiul, although provocative and informntivc, are almust ccrtainly nut complete or cxhnustive in pruviding clucs to the variables to which men respond with vary· ing decision strategies.
8 Winter
•
Por the Eskimo, winter beglns with the
slderation, because fircwood is the single
freezing up of the rivers, which normally occurs between October 10 and October 20. In the past, the construction of winter houses occupted the maJe members of households dunng thc period prior to freeze-up, since dig~ing or leveling of soil had to be accomplished bcfore the ground surfaces were fuUy frozen. The move into wlnter houses was cnnditioned by the amount of snowfall, since such rnoves wcrc mure easlly made with the aid uf thc sled (Figure 8.1). If huuses wcre eompletcd and snow carne before freeze·up, lhe move might be mnde anytime during late 5eptcmber Uf l'arly Ocluber. In the event that substantial snowfalJ did nut uccur until after frl't.'Z\..'-up, moves lo winh.'r houses might bc dt.'!aYl'd. Locations fur wintcr houses wcre almosl {'xclusivdy conditioncd by a compromisc bc~
largest bulk rcsource necdcd during winter. Every effort was made lo construct winlcr houses in or very near a substantial stand uf willows, or, alternatively, al the timberline south of the present village of Anaktuvuk. The recovery rate of J stand of willows is estimated by the Eskimo to be approximatcly 45 yenrs. Most Eskimo men commcnted that wintcr houses were gcnerally good Cmonly 2 yt·ars, sinee most willow stands could sustain a íamíly only for two wintcr occupations. Aftl'r th,lt it would be about 45 years befmc (lile could expect to reoccupy Ihat location during the winter. Thl're Wl'rl', hOwt.'vl'r, l'lllt.'nsivl' willow stands, as at Tulu~ak Lakt', Kongumuvuk, aboul midw,'lY up Ihl' An,lktiql
IWl'l'n tlll' Itl~·,llilln uf 111(',11 (,KIH's IlMdl' durin~
fal! migration and thl' availability of firl'wlllld. The 1,Ittt'r WJS tlle most crucial (t.ln-
14251
.
~
14261
8. Wlnter
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.H"tivilil.'!' wcrc nonually centcrcd.
tbc Nunamuit to refer to powerful shamans who were in rnost cases umialik. It frequently happened that the umíalik would move into his prcvious Yl.'¿lT'S wínter house during the f.lll hunt. Around this wintcr sitc the more
\'
stitute the fati cncampment of the hunting families during migration. Undcr such conditinos IIH'rl' would frcqucntly be wry extensivo processing J.fL'.lS around the winter housc uf tlu- 1II11111lik n-prcsvntinu \l1l' (llrp\lfilh.' octivilíes of an "'¡..mregall'd fn1lhunting gfllUp, Af!t.'r thc hunt, the lcss promincnt hunters would movc off to othcr locations and evcntually into wintcr houses scattered about the landscape in relatton to the distribution of Hrewood.
Thcy would, of l.'lIUP,L', c.ury wilh tlu-m IIw processed mcat obtaincd during thc pcriod uf
cooperative hunting. During winter. the logistical arms of the Nunamiut subsistence sttatcgy were at their longest extension. Long hunting and lrapping trips were most commonly made in late winter aíter the hours oí daylight bega n to incrcase. By this time of year thc snow is crustcd and travel by dog team is fast. Ncvertheless. during late Novcmbcr and carly December hunting end tr.:lprin}; trips of somcwhat shorter distanccs wen- comrnon. OI1l' 01' thc n-asons Ior Ilwsl' tripo; \\'.lS In providc s\...ins usually uf wolvcs. wolvcrincs. and foxcs-c-Ior tho wornen tu "work up" dunng thc period of darkness, sincc the light from thc firc wns nol generally good enough for sewing. The Nunamiut ha ve traditionally divided
J;
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A dog team in winter.
Multiple-family camps could be sustaincd in any (lne uf tht.'Sl' plílCl'S, wlwn'
desired end of having their winter camps ad¡acent lo Ihe localion where animals were killed dUring Ihe fall. In Ihe llld days. when hunting in the lakes (rom kayaks was the dominant fal! hunting strategy, the Ilmialik ("hunt leadl'r") of the (aHhunt had first chuice of a wintc-r huuse locatiun in thl.' willuw!' at Tulu¡:;
1,
.~"·,';.'I
\.,
~
Figure 8.1.
hUlltill~
ThL' phrasc "rncn uf thc tal] willow" is used by
temporary tents of the less prominent hunters would thcn be placcd. This, then. would con-
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[4271
Wlnter
.,t Knn~umuvuk, .
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whl.'n' ti1\' (.111
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[4281
8, Wlnter
the animals of their world into two categories:
predators and nonpredators. Nonpredators were viewed as havlng little, if anything. in common with manoThey werc viewed as playing a service role in the scheme of nature. 00 the other hand, predators of all kinds, inciuding blrds, were viewed as belonging to the sarne natural domain as mano In <1 kind of cosmic power pool they shared with men differing amounts of power or tll'JIlrak. They were believed to have the ability to affect the
lives of meno Por these reasons thcrc was a great deal of "danger" surrounding lhe exploitation of predators. Aman had to take
many precautions and be able lo justify his expluitatinn!lf prcd.1tors, bnlh tn the tlnim"ls and to his fellowmen. lt was wnsidcrL'd ¡nappropriate and evidence of evil intentions for any hunter to take more than four each of wolves, foxes, wolvcrines, or bears during a single year. When a huntcr rcturnt!d (rom a successful hunting or trapping expedition during which a predator was taken he was considered "charged" and somewhat dangerOUS. Upon returning to the camp, such a hunter had to drde his house three times making loud stomping noises oear the en· tra nce. He aIso had to cache the weapons used in killing predators outside the village until thl'Y were ritually neutralized. In addition, he was required to remain relatively seduded from normal household activities and to use a spedal drinking ladle. "This is fhe way most nld men stmt lhl' days of darkm's~" was a nlllll1ll'nl ortl'lI I1lol\I,' hy (hl..' Illd lll,'n whlllll I interviewed. Hunting trips made after the p~riod of darkness Wl're generally fUf fr('sh meal. As spring approached, thl' emphasis of these trips shifted to monitoring the environ· ment in anticipation of lhe caribou migration. Needless to say, the pattern of predator hunting in recent times has been different. The taboos against killing predalors bl'came ()l;1soll't{' with tht' advl'nl uf Ihl' fur lró'lfit" ó'lnd OHlsl 'r;tppin~~ ¡Inlt 1'll:Il'nsiv,' wtlll-httnling Irips Wt.'rt' l..'omludl'd .llIl'r 1Ill' winkr d.trk· nl'SS. If camps were moved during the winter, the
.
~
moves were scheduled around the period of darkness. For Instance, a family might construct a winter house fairly close to thc fall hunting location and stay at the winter house until just before the days of darkness. Much uf the meat cached would have been consurncd by this time, so the packing problem associated with a move would be greatly reduced. Sorne families abandoned their early winter houses just before the period of darkness and moved to another winter settlement to [oin severa! other families. Sometimos a visiting family moved into the house of another family or simply used a tenl in this "darkness" sett1ement. EVt'ry informant agrl'es that Iht.'rl' was a tendency to congrega te during the period uf darkncss so everybody could enjoy visiting. Once the hours of daylight began to increase, thc familil.'s might split up. The men wuuld go on extended trapping trips, and the women and children from several families would share a single house. Alternatively, a visiting family would either return to the early winter location or move to another winter location for a visit wilh another family. Although winter sites were certainly occupied longer than any other seasonal residentiaI locatioo, mllbilily 11 ""' m,jlfl'"tin! lo'''' wn~
1111 [nmifilos.
flelt
u,,¡[o,mal1y !awII",lIt1,l( •
WINTER RE5IDENTIAL LOCATlONS
The Beo, Slte 1 excavated a winter camp of the Kakinya family Ihat had been uccupied during thl' winters of 1lJ48 and 1949. (Sec Figure 7.26 for location.) The house had becn construcled while the Kakinya family was living at the Kakinya site at Kongumuvuk during the fan caribou migration of 1948. It was occupied by 5 peopll' ó'lnd 1~ dn~s hl,twel'n Octotlt'r 10 and DI'n'mht'r 20, 194K. ,lIld wwd ,lg.lin Iwhw('n Nuvl·mbl..·r h .1I1J Ilt'l't'mhl'r 21.), JIJ4lJ. Tlw l.ll1l'r occupatiun uf this sitl..'-dl.'signated the Ul'ar site---was in the company of Helge Ingsted,
1429 [
W"'trl" Rr_ltll!nl.lal Local.'oRt
whu has described his arrival at the site with Simón Pancack (Ingsted 1951:131-141). Thus thc Bear site was occupied for a total of 130 dnys during the winters uf 1948 and 1949. This site is intercsting in a number of ways. The flrst sud houscs in the Brooks Range were constructed hcre by Elyjah Kakinya and Frank Rulland. The síte is wcll documentcd ethnographically because of the houses and because of lngsted's visit there. The carnp is loceted in a tall stand uf willows along Kongumuvuk Crcck. Thc site was clearcd of wlllows during September 1948. Thc largcr trocs wcre sct aside for USe in Ihe construction of the houses and the rest were placed in huge piles for use ¡lS fud durinA IIw wintl..'r. Thl.' total ó'lr('a of the dt.'iHinA is 1834 m~. Within this dt.'aring Wl.'r(' constructed Ihe lwu sud huuses, occupied by Elyjah Kakinya and Frank Rulland. During the 1948 occupatiun lcssie Ahgook had a skin tent allht.' edge uf thc In'l.'s and Simon Paneack had a skin h..'nt between the Iwo sud houses. During thl' J941J use of the site Simon Paneack placed his tent again belween the two sod houses wilhin the clearing. This is the location Ingslcd describes a~ yielding archaeological remains (1951:135-136). OUr l.'xacavations wcrc limtcd to the site of Ihe Kakinya sod housc and cnvercd 423 m'l or about 21% uf the total dl..'ared ó'lrl'
rabies 8.1-8.3. Before 1begin the analysis of the data from the site, seveml known behavioral facts shnuld bl.' cit(,d. Fir~t. Wt.' know that drit..'d nW,11 W,I'" mo\'nl lrntll ti1\' K,I(.,inY,l ."lih' ltlIJ1l' 11I',lr ... ile· ,11 tI1\' hq,;illllill~ 111111(' 194M OCl'UPtltílll\. Sl'nmd, in(~lrm'lOls úllllirm th.lt artirulator ends were saved by the women of the
house in anticipation of making bone grcese at the end of the occupution. Howevcr, as in the case of the Kakinya and Rulland sites. bone grease was not madc. This mcans thnt thc cache of articulator ends provídes arare body of data relative to what would have been normally destroyed at a wintcr sitc. Finally, informants agreed that sheep and caribou hunting was conducted from this location, partirularly during the 1949 occupation, and that dricd meat was removed from this sitc and transported to late winter sitos during both Yl'ars of occupatíon. Thurcforc, the fauno! .lssemblage is composed of prl'viously processed dried meat introdun'd fwm the fal! r('sidential c.lmp, I11t.·.lt introou{;l..'tl fmm cacht.'d animal~, .1nd frt.'~hly killl'd animólls. Also, dried meat was delelcd from this assemblage and moved to a late .....intcr campo Figure 8.4 compares the Bear site fauna with fauna recovered frllm the Kakiny.:l sit(" which was occupied by the same family just prior to their move to the Bear site. We note that the elements of the axial skeleton are analogous in frequency, and that leg parts are dominant in both assemblages. There are, however, interesting shifts in frequl'ncy between the two sites. Thc scapula and pruximal tibia domínate the Bear site assembl.lge. Thl' scapula is poorly rl'pre5entl'd in the Kakinyól as~emblag~, which is dominated by the distal femur. In addition, parts of marginal utility, such as the metacarpal and phalangcs, are more common on the Bear site. Thc low fn.'qu('nciC's ofaxial Skl'ldull p.lrt... MI' ll"dt'r~I,lIld,lhlt\ in Iltllh caSl'S, bt.·caus~ of the ddt.'tion of drit.'d Il1l'.lt stores from both siles. The rdatively low frequency uf hcads is almust certainly th(, C.:lst.' because Ihe heads wcrc still being USt,d .:IS cache markers during the early part of the winter consumption sequencc. The markcd ¡ncrease in the use of the sea pula, metacarpals, and phalanges at thc Bcar Sitl' is almost certainly to bc understolld in tl'rm~ ot Ihl.' !'lI.'lJlIelln' uf l.'unsumplio" (rlll11 s!llr'· ... Al tl1l' K.lkiny.1
l'>i1l' WI' S,IW
;1 pidllrt, of
pnl\'¡'l'> .. II1);
and use uf imml.·diatcly ,lVail"ble frl'sh mt.·,ll, but at the Bear site Ihe pallern thal emerges is
-
:;¡
g[~1
1";:9 '"L.: 0"01
son
(O.~
9""
6t'¿f ('9"L.l
S..,
,9"6 Ló'U
9lnn
roz (8'01
6t'¿f
O'" ro"t6 ,S"66
9rL
SS"¿ "'"L O'S
on
0'[1
S, [L
H ,'61 S'U S'U S'U S'ZI 5"[[
S"Ql
99' 99"' 99"9
En:
szc
50"t t6T S¡:'t LZ"Z O O O
ni.
s
Ol
O,
, st
n n 99"' SOl
O O O O'Z OZ
nz o,
O O O
s
O O O
os
O O O O O"' O
s
O O
O O O O 00' O
os
O O
O
O
O
"r uwnl0:J
t()"{
eSl
sz n
O"'
'""
5n l6"1 96 i:8'B 9'tl S..:.'(
LE Si:"
.-c
O"..:.
O
o O
sz
c'oz ooz
L(
s ,, s
]l'.\l.unS '"
J5
PU_':o.lS
,)~Ul'lt'4J rH'4.1 ,)~Ul'lt'4..i IjJlj
,¡ji;:u P¡P4J
Jl"S.IPIP¡<>W In~1(] Ill"iJf'lpl
sn¡t'::\t'Jl""" S¡N.lt'l erqu [rls1{J
Jnw,,¡
r\'l~la
1'1'lQ Il'WI'-l'Jd
Jnw
l-R'd I1!JIWOlt'UY
nn115 J¿ollUY
'U!..Iq
'H'lq~lJ~,\ lfo'~UH11
SU[
""NI
t'ln,trJS wnU..l
1iru~wmlll'Wl\OlJ
sru~wmlll'ls!o
Sn¡lqro-Ol)'l'J ll'lSIO Sn:¡lqru-OfP....l 11'Wl\l'..Id
~ld..lrJ
11'Wl\
11'.!J(')PI.,lW lrlsl{]
s
lt'dJt',)1!¡~W
5'1
,
s
O
o
O O
O,
s
O
"Il"fi .JlqP~ JO S.il~Plua:lJad
5L.'Q
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,"
u-rs
ni:
nz
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O"" 0"09
O"OZ O
o
0"0i:
o o 0"001
L(
sn n
O'Ol 0'0l:
s s
s-et s"rQ
OT OT ST
O"OZ
En..::
s-u
..
O'S
n
n
0"01 O'U 5'8 '"L 0'01 O". 0"01
'"S
O
1[09 O
o
Lel
"
O 0"1
S "01.
sr'
O
(l"Ol
LL
,n
s sn
S"()(
o osz:
00"'
zsc
tI".~
tl"1. SS"
ntz
9"Ql
O·~
0"01
O 0"09
tzs;
lL"SE
ou OTooI (t"C
Ka.! 1[09 9'Ef O'H
o (n..:.
s es o o
o o
6<"'"
O O O
o
os s • ...s os
O,
5"1
1"1
s ocro
,
Il"S L6'Z 6l"l CE LI'S 91"t 5[91
91"1
O O O .'51 t'SI
...
88'U
58' O"S
S'U
0'001
69"( H'CI
n
5'01
e-n 0'([
00 OS'SI SZ'Z
KI'
00"0 L.eZ
S'([ '"O S'sr
n
5'51 0'11
sn
ss
rzr 91"¿
6'(8
L"BE
S't[ 1"91:
0"001
r"
6'QL
9'" 0'001 O"OL OTi '"LL 1."l9 L:lt 1."1.9
S'SE Z""
O,
a'(l
seó S'SI D'n O'U tl"LI t'Z·tl
zzs 61"1t
osn L.l'SI 99'1l 51.'81 9(·t[ ""O SI 'tI SIT
n:E
9'!"LS ¿9"S( L.Z'Ot Unt OO'Z5
su
SS"t
U'OL
lt"16 G¿'Sl tt'6t 89'65 91:'99 O"" lS'l9 0'001
69"9¿
. ""
E'('69
qg"SS
(S'Zi?
00' OO"Z "'"0
st
'n
En Rt
¿:r"t, SITZ
ztc
5Lt
61'8f 60TZ L,9"Z"Z
tt'''1
('("H
00"0 Er"S
..
"9"0\
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~6'!;;(
te·!:!
t1."9 l6'Z 6I"I
zts
Sí"9 ¿Z'OZ
zszz ~1."8
91"t
sc
61"~
S-~
99'i:
!in
OCHX)l L.9·9 6[ ·tl fE"6Z
""9 (t"S 00'91
rr-tz
crzc (("IZ
8.!·t
ttz szt
o'ez
,,
O O
ts
6"t[
O O O,
O"Ol
(¡)
sz:
96'
..'e
Ill""tl
0<:
(l¡
o sz
9t"SL 8'91 89-61 St'Ql
SZ..tl
lE)
L'\J\:
""
O"'
s s
(.)
00
L' 1('1
os os
l<)
INV\
O"Ol O
OE
(9)
0"0
O
'H
(L)
IN)\:
O"'
nz nz nz
(,)
%
tO'Lv
OT O"L 0"0 0"9
(o)
p""uasqO
asnoH
O O
t-6[ Z"H L"" L""
(00
dS x L. '1°':'
dw"(]
o
(al
SL'91
B 'loJ pnÁ ~
o
L.B"U. 0'9E O·L.E
(lIl
INV\
O O
OT O'¿ O"' O"'
(El)
o,;,
9'tt
(ttl
lNl'i
5oln~A
'"'
(SI)
%
papru:¡suo.>a~
"'lI
1I\.1\:
'1,)11..1
'''''1
o. snu!w f1!10.l
('831SVl
.'1S.l-a MI' UlO.IJ pNMo:)aH noq¡.D;) JO QRd 1r.1lutOl.UV JO sapo'u.......
e
~
O
F 8ollt' mtJlll
Percentage ur
Frant Rear
Dismernbermt'lrt r:'!:<J!;
1.00 .66 .16
4
3
1
2
.25
O 2 2 2 4 6
1.0
2.89
9 4 lJ
31.05 6.64 37.69
,.
.82
.76
.155 061 .32
5 7
2
21
7 14
11 1 11
1 111 11 1
O
O
8 36 44
166 SI 217
24 149
U5
Expected Obser....ed
(6)
1.0
42 93 135 46 69 115
(1)
35
(1)
(2) (3)
(3) (2J (2)
82 .091 .40
6 9 1 O 1
.41
11
s
6
11
3 8
(1)
(3)
.45
2
O
4.5<
.21 .091 .31
12
8
4
32
10 22
1
3
1 2
1
2
1
2
3 2
3
O
O
.29
3.71
1
O O O O O O
1.0
14.65
(5)
O O O O O O
O
t.o-
.03
39.4
77
32
264
26
28
130 105 235
73 265 55
192
U
17' 896
721
14
68.22
....3 19.92
14 14
289 92 381
'"
.35
132
54
148
103
45
1.00
3.'"
192 49 241
743.74
81.34
6624
Expected
Total
Expect'" Observed
Dos yards Observed
22
273
3 2 5
10.35 3.32 13.67
Expected
31 1
s
3 2
32 197
165
Observed
Dump
(2) (3) (4)
1.0
3.17
166 31 197
572.7 51.46 624.16
Expected
Ra'"
G
Figures in "expecred" column are ccrrected \'alutoS. ~ Corrected value < Pints oí calcmed bcne. d OMC, distal metdcarpal; P~C, proXImalmetacarpal; ORe. di!>tal raoio-cubüus: PRC. proximal radso-cubitus: DMT, distal metatarsal; P~IT, prol.imal metatarsal: OT, distal tl:-la.
1.
Total Rear up Rear down Tolal
Front clown
Front up
H. Dísmemberment : ,¡ll.lfS
PMT to taesals Tarsals eo DI
Rear up
DMT PMT
Real' clown
PMC taDRe
OMC to carra:; PMC te carpa.:.s Carpals to DRe
Front up
DRC PRC
Carpa!s
DMC PMC
,
1.5 r
E. B",rIlN borfl'
G. ArtÍCllIQtio/1$" Front clown
.56
13.0
36 46 82
9 6 15
Rib heads Rib total
D. Rsti!JS Sh.lI fragmefm Articulater ends'
Tolal
C. Ribs Rib fragments Rib heads
Total
Long bone Metapodial
t~rJ...~'
27 169
B. ArticulatoT
142
Channeled fragments Totallragments Cylinders Shafts
Observed
Smooth fragments
A. Sho.ft splilltm
Attribute
Hcuse
TABLE 8.2
Anc.U1uy Facts: Carlbou Remalns at tbe Seu Slte
[434)
8. Wlnter
MfHkllng Faun(l' Contrnts 01 W'nter 5tora
o
TABu:a.3 Inwntory of Analomlcal P..... 01 Sheep Recovered from tlle 8ur Su.
ro eo 'KI
10 20 30 40 5060
100
Rack
summer consurnption, winter consumption i50
SK
from stores and we may tbercforc suspect sorne scqUl'IW' of variability to be relatcd tu 'hl' pattcrn uf mubility fur t111.' pcrind uf time consumptiun was from a stored populatiun of parts. The basic content of the stured population available for wtnter use is established al the time of fal! mígration. Ccnsumption and processing of parts for transport at that time change the compusition of the population. The parts available for sclcction at a later ttrne are therefcre biascd away írom the original condítíon al the time oí storage. As the number of moves Increases, and as the partítionlng of the etored population into processed transported meat versus unprocessed cached meat increases, there is an increase in the probability uf differences in the cornpositton of parts used at any sequence oí multiple locations occupíed during thc penod of storego dcpendcncc. Thc chamctcr of such sequencing is wcll illustrntcd by comparing the assemblage from the Bear site with that recovered {rorn the fall Kakinya sito. As has bccn mcntioncd. thc two sitl's wcn- runsccurively occupied by thc same family. Figure 8.5 iIIustrates lhe contrasts bctwl'l'n Ihe remn· structed assemblil~es from the two localions. There are a number of reVl'rf;
MNI
AnaComical par!
%
MNI
--_... MNI
%
%
-----
MNI
er
TI.I,II
O(~S
Dump
..
%
"1HOR
L lRV
-
MNI
%
eUN
PELV
Homs
1.5 O O 1 O O
Skull Mandible AtIa'" Altis Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebeae lumbar venebrae Pelvis
Dislal It'mur Proximal tibia Oi~I.,1 tibi,l T.u...,ls
Calcant'lIs Proximal ml'lalarSilI Oislal metalars.'tl First rhalan~e St'('(md 'rh¡r\l
.5
:tU
35
31.3 O
4.0 O 15 U) 15
O 5 .5 .5 O .5
O O O O O O
AS!ra¡';,llll~
ph"J.lll~I'
rh,l"lIl~{·
"'O"
.5 O O O O
.011
Proltimi\1 humerus Distal humeros Proximal radio-cubitus Disl.,1 radro-cubüus Carpals Proximal m~·I.lcarpal Distal ml'lacarpal Proximallemur
2.U 1.0 2.0 10 .25
.z
.5
Sraputa
20
O O
O 20.7 O 33.3 5.3 O 33.3 33.3 33.3 O :n..1 1:1.:\
.31 O
R'" Stenwm
100,0
(l
o (l
O O (l
O O (l
(l
(l
(l
(l
.31 SO 10 .04
O 1.0 2.5 1.0 10
2.5 1.0
1.1:'7
:1.00 3.00 300 300 3.62 .1./)2 ,1,17
SO.O SO.O 250 SOO 25.0 (1.25 7.75
-
O O
O
25.0
O .1' O O O O O O O
h2.5 7'UI tt7..'i
11 11 11
12.5 25.0 10 O 25.0
62,5
25.0
100.0
O .17.5 25.0 37.5 411 75.0 75.0 75.0 15.0 90.5 1;1(1.5 M4.Z
'Slancl', to Ihe nurth of HOUSl' 1 Ihl'rl' arl' two additional houses, one excavated complett'iy aod the other ooly located. Thcre are fcatures analagaus to those found in association with House 1 but, unfortunately, lhis norlhern areil has not been fuUy excavaled. Nevertheless, there is evidence that Ihe two C'xcilvated hous..'S w..'re contl'mporary. For inst,1nn', in House 2 a broken bow wns found, One l'nd of this bow, which had oc"l'n rewurkl'd into a sled shoe. was recovered from ne;)r tht, cntryway of House 1.
.
O O 5
5
O O O O O O O O O
O
O 100.0 O O O O
.25
"
40,0
100.0 100.0 RO.O RO.O
.75
:lO,O
O O O O O O O 11
.3/1 O 1.5 .3/1 O O O 2.0 15 .5
15.2 O 60.0 15.2 O O O ROO 60.0 200
11
h
11
24.0 40.0 40,0
24.0
O
1.0 10 O
u
(l
O
(l
100.0
u
5
O O O O
.5 .5 5 lO 10
(l
25
10 2.5 15 2.0 2.0
O O O 20.0 20.0 200 20.0 40.0 40.0
SO.O SIl.U
.h>
.2<;
24.H 111.1I
';ll,(1
.17
1-1,/1
45 45 4.0 50 3.0 10 1.0 .62 3.0
s
O 15 3.0 15 25 3.5 J./{
5.11 60 O 15 1.0 2.0 2.17 .1.5
3.5 4.0 4.0
75.0
75.0 "'.6 ~3.3
5(10 Ib.6
16.6 10.3 SO.O '.3 O 25.0 SO.O SRJ 41.7 ~_1
1\.13 H.1..1 ](JO.O O 25,0 I",lí .1:L1 ,lb. 17
913 ~,3
'&6.6
45
".h 75.0
4.12 4.ll
hl,./)
"".,
Thl' arlifiu.:t invl'nlories fmm thl' eXl.:.lViltions at the Palangana silc are extensivc and will províde a fine record of krolohistoric Nunamiut technology. The detai cd reporting on lhis and other sites is forthcoming, In summarizing Ihe fauna\ data from the Palangana f;ite, I have grouped the data ínto ~f(lSS units, sim:e Ihl' ddaill'd ploUinj!, ~)f l;lones nnd arlif.lds, whkh will pl'rmil tlU' rnlhl'r specifk idt'ntific.1tilJO uf ilctivity an'.lS, has not yet been compJelt'd. I ha ve groupcd the fauna as follows: (a) n house sample, in
that we may anticípate. As is the case for
ANT M.llNO
House
1435)
•sr
-
SC
'" ,oc
-
-..=rx
'" '"C
CA"P
'NC DNC
" ,
,-
I "TE
"
DF
"A'UNTA
1"1
-,- """
OT.
TA'
I
CAL A5T
PMT
DNT
PH.llL
I
2 3
'
X X
-, -xx, x -
lEA" ,tT(
{·ollll'.lr"hVl· pt"fn'nt"~.,sfllrils'.{:mt>I;I~'~ fr"m lh., 1I".lr si'" (T.lhh> K.l. C.,I. 1J) and fnun th.' KakinY,1 sik (1'.Ihlt, 7.11, ('111. 12) FiguTC! itA.
which the differenccs between bone from the roof and boru- ftDm the hOUSl' floor are tgnorcd, ('l) a yard sample, which includcs the dog aren, (t') thc toe-bone sphnters around thc impermanent tent Slruclure, (d) the general scatter in front of lile house, (e) bones from the immediate vicinity of the outside hearth, and ({) bones from the small rack. Tables 8.4 and 8.5 summarize the faunal data from thearea of IlnuSl' I as wP11 as thl' invl'ntory fmm House 2. AlIl1om's n'l"tlVer,'d from Ihl' nortlwrnm"sl t'xcílvations ílround IlouSl' 2 ílnti 111l11sl':\ .:Irl' liskd ilS a singll- s.lI11pll', ,It lhis point poorly underslood in structural tl'rms. The reason is that only a partial excavation of the northern area was carried out, making it difficult to say how different arcas are related to the known huusl's. MODELlNG FAUNAL CONTENTS OF WINTER STORES Undl'rst;¡nding thl' p.:Ilh'rning char.-.dl'ristic af the wintl'r settlemenls is a challenge, There are sevl'ral fe;)turl'S (lf winter síte variabilíty
(436)
(4371
Modrllns Fauna' Cont,=,ntll o/ Wlnter Sto,.
B. W'nter
1
TABUS.• FallDllJ Inventory 01 tM Palan••'" Slte House area House 1
Analumíc.ll p.1ft
Yard
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
(1)
(2)
('1
(4)
(;1
(.1
(7)
('1
(9)
(lOl
( 11)
(12)
( 11)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(171
(,"1
(191
(2(1)
O
2.5 25
1«1.0
25.5
4~.(J4
2.lJ
)(,,36
155
51.66
17.5
HIl.ll 32.US 32.05 O tI.01 36.86 32.05 M,10 61.54
4.1.0 41.0 42.0
142.%
.1(]
SI.~
5K.:n
71Ul4
lO. .'i 20.5
211.0
5.1.1\4 44.71 31.(12 54.10 7tI.M5 52.04 40.3M
5 2.0 10 1.0 1.07 1.12
175 20,(1 211.0 JO.O
53.H4 (,.1.5 1>3.5 92.30 95.38 H2.31 71.87 57.26 100.00 60.43 42.31 80.00 7.69 20,1.2.1 153K 1flo46 18.77 26.15 29.23 tl,15 6.15 9.:Z,1
.5 O O LO 1.0 1.5 .5 .5 lO .23 O O O O O O O O O 5 .5 O
:'l:lO U O "O ".0 100.0 330 33.0 ".0 15.3 O O O
.5 LO .5 O O O O O O O
50.0 100.0 50.0 O O O O O O O O SItO SO.O O O O O O O O O
45.45
HU)
2'1.5 32.(1 2M.O
•. 0 9.0 11.0 4.0 5lT7 5.77 45 9.26 7.75 '.SO 2.0 45 3.0 25
Ribs Slernum Scapul:t Pro:dmal humeru!! Di~tnl hum\'nl!l Proximal r.dlo-t'Ubitus Distal radic-cubitus Carpals Proximal ml!'lacarpal Distal metarerpal Proximal fémur
"
35 2.5 45 15 25 .10 20 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.62 3.62 Ul7
Dtstat fernur )'rnllimi1llihí,l Di..lal Iihi, Tarsals A:o;tra~.lhl" ('ak.llwtl~
J"tlllimal mctatarsal Dislill mC'l.ltars.ll First phalangt" ·Second phatange Third phalangf'
54.~
HIlI 100.00
52.17 "5.5 92.75
si.re 40.58
36,3(,
14.0 17.75
46.09 52.45 40.91 M.1K 70.45 77.21 llUR
9311 17.99 29.5 1196 1125 :W,S 15
4{).~1
:lO
27.27 22.73 19.09 31.82 22.73 40.91 1],1>..1
20 30 5.3 90 7.5 4.0 1.5
22.n
lO
27,27 18.18 9.09 'UN IH.IH 27.27 32.91 32.91 17.00
2.11 2 ..
27.19 52.14 R5.5 40.46 32.61 100.0 04 tU"" 5.79 8.69 15.36 26.0fI, 21.74 11.59 4.:14 fI.fl9 5.79 7.71 1.1,IW 11,~" 5.7<:1 8.to9 56.14 55.78 46.00
45 ·1.0 2.0 3.0 19.37 19.25 I5.1l7
51.45
and Bear sites was very short (sce Figure 7.26). We may therefore anticipa te that the populafion introduced by the occupants of the Bear sne was the cached meat remaining aftcr parts had becn selcctcd for US{' al thc Kakinya Sitl'. Thl' oVNJII chara('ll'r uf Ihl' faun ....l pOpUlil· tinns fmm the- thrl't.' wintt.'r sitl'S is shown in
,
HouSE' 2
House 1
MNI
(,R.IH
Pt'lvi~
Total
%
75
Cervical vertebrae Thorade vertebr..t' Lumbar vertebrae
Yard
House 2
MNI
;.0
Axis
Tolal
%
Antler
All.1s
Rack
Heerth
Sheep remains
MNI
SkulJ
M,lnd;ble
lncomplete excevenon
~
,
O .1.5 2.0 4.U
lO 1.25 .53 3.37 5.00 1.92 1,75 e. 00 O
.s
.5 LO .8 .5 >O
1.U O U
.s O O 11 11
.5 2.75 1.87 1.37
5H.:1.1 :\3.3
.... so.o
lO.R3 8.83 sn.16
81:13 32.00 29.17 100.00 O
i.o 1.11 O .25 1.15 lOO 2.00 1.'12 .25
lOO 5
8.01
%.15 16.03
K.:\1
.s
Ud)"
R.33
O lO 1.10 1.5 2.5 .5 O U
O 32.05 35.26
2(1
M1\l
1.5
4fl(]K
16.67 13.33 8.33 33.3 16.67 U
"leo O U 11 U K.33 45,83 31.17 22.1l3
;
; Ul Ul J 12 2.2 2.87
48.01
flO.OO 1603 U
"
IIí tu Ifdl1
21.25 16.13 28.13
41.0 27.06 21.0 52.0 4.0 '.5 55 7.5 9.3 14.5 14.5 10,0 JO 55 7.5 fdh "(JO
<;50 5,lJ(1
.12.5 32.5 100.0 83.97
7.5 2M.86 27.36
91,~
21.~
1«1.76
l00,(]() 7.69 Iti.:l4
IO.5tI 14.42 17.H8 27.flN 27&1 19.23
s.r«
5.SO )1!lJ
2.5 5.SO O 3.0 .5 2.0 .7 .5 3U O
.s
54.0
9.09 36.36 12.72 9.09 54.00 O 9.09 9.(19
2229 17.49 27.00 15.K4 11.25 20.5 2.5 6.5 4.5 4.0
'"
.0 6.5 2.0 15 25
"'.30 9000 52./; 37.5 l'>H.33 R.))
21.67 15.00 13.33
is.oo
...
26.67 21.67
5.00
IK.IH
4,(1
.s
9.OY
10
10.0
;
9.nq 'UJIJ lJ.(JIJ
~5
l/en
4.5
ts.m
25 4.5 14.75 13.62 D.12
tUI
.s
l·t:42
1,(1
11.85 1lSl 1U5Il
FigUfl'8.6. Thc Bcar sitc asscmblagc has bccn adjusted to fit the form most likely to occur had bonc greesc actually bcen rnanufecturcd un thc location: that is, all articulator cnds in 'he mchL' havl' bl't'n dl'1t'tl'd fmm thl' poru1a· linn. Thl' uVt'rall slrudufl' uf Ihl' lhu'" wintt'F assl'mbla~l'S is similoH, but Ihl'fl' arL' meilning·
"'09 45.45 100.00 O
25.75
66.67 93.33 100,0 fl5.H3 74.30
H,:n 13,:n
1U.5tl
'1.tol 14.42 55.5 52,61 42.2tl
9.OY 36.36 l!tIH 1M. 1M 19.45 20,36 100.00
; 5 1.5 20 1.5 1.5
27.27 36,)6 27.27 27.27
15.00 49.17 45.4 43.73
30.0 31.0
26.75 23.36 18.61 32.5 19.64 13.75 26.00 2.5 9.5 5.0 •. 0 •. 1 .5 9.5 2.0 2.0
lO 5.(1 15 60 5.0 3.0 6.0 16.75 15.12 14.62
15.;114 10.76 1804f>
15,11t 9.23 111.46 51,54 46.52
44.'18
" O O
"
O O O O O
ful differcnccs in certain detnils. For instanco, at the Bear slte phalangcs are overrcpresentc..d; vcrtcbree and ribs. parta most commonly expectcd in a dried mcat population, aro und\'rrl'r.rl'sl'nh'd. Wl' know from ínfornlitllls IIMI , ril'" rnl'<'( W¡lS n'n1l1v('d fmm llll' Bl',¡r sitl' at Iht' lim\.' of .1b.lndonml'nt.
O
O O O O O 33.0
:no u n
O O O O O O O O
O
.5 .5 O O O O O O O O O
o
.s
51.1,(\
lO 1.0
100.0
uno
1.0
nn.u
1.0 1.0 O O O
uno 100.0 O O O
Thc best way to gain an apprcciation fur the differences bctween thc winter sites is to curnpare them directly with (loe anothcr. FigurL' 8.7 Hlustrates the.. relatiunship bctween the Bear sito al" corrected for the manufacture of bOOl' ~fl'asl' and 'hl' sampl(' fmm IIOUSt' J .11 thl' Palangana sitc. Thl' skull, mandibl(" ilnd
t: 'O
t:
'"
G.
1.6 r
• , • •
G
7.2"
.62 0
5.2
Figures m "evpected" columns are ccrrected values Corrected velues. Pints of calcined bones. Gallons of bone mea! Xct tabulated al this potnt. However. there are Iew, if an:-" at this stte.
G. Articu/aticl>lS"
,"mi
1.9"
1.0
1.0
7,2~
252'
54
21.79
780
158
23.4
427
511 '38
129
54
75
2201
516
1685
J68
13.25
1.00
242
Observed
412
E. Burntd l!cn( Bcm~
85
103
72
99
.63
F.
43
2.54
42
60
216
IH 71
Expected
43
Yard
O
50 69
76
21
21
12
291-1
51
Total
1.00
248
101
54
47
251
8.
162
Expected
9.8~
2.35'
.53
13.55
703 1308
605
150 83 2J3
•
2098 816
31 20
• l'
Total
1.00
2.75
215
132 83
593
455 138
Expected Observed Expected
• 12
2 16
"
Observed
Ra<.
59
218
5 11 16
•
35
212
1""
510
Observed
1.t-79
15 11 26
1.00
2.15
7 6 13
2S
4
"
Expected
lncomplete excavancns
.75'
17
5
53 .62
30 50 80
7 6 13
7 O 7
lB"
Expected
100
7.44
J4 4J 77
117 71 188
Observed
Hearth
House 1 area
6
206
9.S"
O
.53
JO.76
675
313 362
4J 83
'"
3
,.,,; 2369
1613
Expected
Yard Observed
Hcuse 2
Observed
1.0
Rib heads Rib total
D. RDtíos Shaft fragments Articulalor ends-
Total
C. Ri/Js Rib fragments Rib heads
B. Artie:t
Sh.lfts
.49
5.01
Chenneled rragmenrs Total C\"ünders
A. 5h.Jft ;pl¡'lI~ Smootn lTagments
Attribute
Arh(lj;¡jh<'II~'
F. 8mlt meat
E. Burned t>í>lte
Rib tot.al
Rib heads
D. Ratim: Shaft frilgmenls Articulalor ",nds" 3.07
:!B
'"
1'"
116
Total C. Rib-i Rib fragments 484
22
Rib heads Total
82
2Jl3 37 320
""pect'"
22
6
58 522
-1M
Observed
94
B. Articula/o' I!fJds~ Long bcne Metapodial
5moolh fragments ChanneJed iragments Total Cvlinders Shafts
A. 51laft ;plintm
Attribute
Hcuse 1
TABUS.5 Anclllary Faca: Palangana SU.
8. Wlnter
[4401
o
10 20 30 40 ~O 60 70
ea
o
90 100
. .. er
• -e:•
-,
CE.RII TltDR R
T"OR LUO
-',
'" 'Re '" ,"e
........----
o,
sr
se 'H OH
'''''
ORe
-<
.-
.
'oc ooe
R
0----
'- -,
,,
CUP
PELII
~,
~.-
sr se
CARP
'oc cec p, O,
"OT
"
TAR
TAR
CAL
Asr
CAL
OT
AST
-
,-
'OT OOT
PHAl
,
1
por
KM SIn:
~=¡L
KAlCINVA • 51ft --.....
2
a
,
Figure 8.5. Comparativv pcrcentagcs Ior Tl'I"UIl»tructed assemblilgt.'s from the Bear süe i'lnd from Ihl' Kakinya ene.
S(· \
'00
o
-'
,
"
o.
8
~
al
1!1
lJl
~
!lO
./
/ ·"1
/
/
/./
/lU: I
UIIV
/
/ ../
/
Al
/e
•
/
./
/
,/
lIT.
... -- --... -,/
'"00 ",,-
,. .'T
/
/
/
• pUV
./ ./
/
/
./
,/ :7
~SfCl
.'" ""1 .. -.
90 100
CERV
LUO
PELV
ea
..
SK
MAND
10 20 30 "O :10 60 70
ANT SK MANO AT
ANT
I
./
/ 4In KlIII/ l M»o eOlllc /"" ,/ :Kl "'Ull eOlt /' 10 I'M~:;'.:~'"Y
"
(MtC •
141M
.....
,-
,;'
"~=-=-,-::--:;-;;;;-~;;;-~;;-;; 80 '0 '0 &0 70 20 30 "'0
"
'"
BEAR SITE TOTAL MINUS LONG BONES IN CACHE-TABLE 8.1 C01l4
Figure 8.1. Rd.lli\ln~hip b!.·lwl,,-'n l""Trcrh'd Ih',lT .~ill· .l"sl'mbl,lgc and dillil fWm "flbmgana Ilt'USI' I
Fisure 8.6. Cump,lT.lti\'I' pl'Tn'nl"KI'S for ó'lsSt'ml'>I.IKI'S (mm three wmter residential samples.
cervical nnd lumbar vertebral' are ovem-prcsl.'ntl·d at Ilnusl' I and tlw stl'rnUnl ;)nd metacarpals are overrl'prcsentcd at thl' BeJr site. The assemblages are in other respecls strongly correlated. Part of the differenc~ beIween these Iwo assemblages is probably'Telated lo the larger dog population al lhe Bear !'lite (15 dof';s, compared to 4 at House 1). Table H.I (I.:otumns7 .md 11) indil',ltl'S !n.JIlhl'l'xn'ss of lower fmnt legs al Inc Bl'ar site is comin~ from thl' d()~ yard. Onn' Inl.' parts naVl' bl.,t'n givl.'n lo the do~s they arl.' nu hmger avail¡lhll' for the manufacture (lf bOlle grease. On Ihe other hand, at Housc 1 the same number of lower front leg parts Clluld havc bt'en prescnl, but beca use of the smaller nurnber of dogs ft:'wer uf lhese bon~s would have gone lo lhe dog yard. Th('r(' would Ihl'rdore have bt:'en more availablc for destructive proce5sing. I believe that this explanation is accurale and accounts fur Ihe higher frequcndl's of lower leg parls at the Bcar site. The larger than
[4411
Modellng FounGI Content. 01 Wlnter Stora
normal population of dogs also accounts for lhe overabundancc of phalangcs, since Icct with attached phalanges are Iikely to be fed lo dogs. The overabundance of skulls, mandíbies, cervical vertebral', and lumbar vertebrae at Hcuse 1 is, in my opinion, the result of the longer duration of winter occupation at the Palangana site. During the later phases uf the occupation, parts from nearly exhausted caches would have bccn increasingly Introduced. Thc compariscn between House 1 and House 2 from the Palangana site Is shown in Figure 8.8. There ls a strong correlation between all parts excepr for the ovcrrepresentation of atlas-axis. cervical, and thoracic vertebree and the pelvis al Hnuse 2. Gíven the faet that the sample from House 2 is poorly undvrstood structurally, JI is likcly that hnd Ilouse 3 bccn cxcavatcd and the food rcrnains from instde the house bcen included in thc sarnple Irorn Hnusc 2, there would be sorne differences. Nevertheless, it is clear that the entire vertebral unit is overrepresented in the House 2 sample. This is the unit commonly used last from a dried mcat population and alsu the unit that-hils .1 high in
Q
oo.
""1 o.
-' O 001
.. u
cri
PI!LV·
re
~ "ee
1!, «
'" er
Ir
-
'"
8:z:'"
IITLUIIl Ztlo.·
..
ro
"e
...•• ". .., • ".
' •• "
ST.· 3"0
'"• eOMC
,,~
.T"OIl
PI' CAII' T:II O¡ :oJtC. 0" n i • PIIC " ....T
eo ec ee " " " ." " 2ac AREA"HOUSE TABLE 8.4 COL 16
Figuft 8.8. Rl.'l.ltionship bl,'\w,'.'n .1,....·mhl,,¡.;.·s Irom House 1 ami House 2 al the 1'"liln¡';ilna sil.'.
ing; neither do we know thc proportion, if ilny, of the population of parts found on the wínlcr site dl'rivl..'d fnlm Ihl.' prl'viously proccsscd drícd ptlpulation. SUl.:l..'l'ssful Intldl'ling depends on making some estimah.'s as to thl' state or composition of the original population from which selections for use were made. We .lIso do not know the amount, if any, of meat from freshly killed animílls that might have becn introdun'd to thl'Sl' localions. Fur thCSl' rl'asons, I hílve prl'sl'ntcd unly lwu Olodl'l sequl·ncC'S. Thl'Sl' tW(l modd St'qul'nt't's ¡trl' dcvdoPl'd in T
¡;
[ 442 I
Modellng FoufNlI Contents o/ Wfnter Stores
8. Mnl«
( 443 I
TABLE 8.6
Development of Modela for Wlnter Raldentlal Loc.Uon.~ Dt'vdopmt'nt of firsl'st,l~l' modo!
JABLE 8.6-{contlnued)
s...'("n1ll1-sl.1~1' ml"I¡,'
Third-slaJ;l' nmdl'l
Fourlh.st.'j.;l' modcl ----
100 MGUI x .5
PI x
(1)
Analomical parl
DI x
.25
Col. 1 col. 2
(2)
I\nlll'r Skull
911.49 YS.hl
M.mdihlt· Atl,ts
If.UIf> 2.\0 95.It.HH 95,11 1.:l4 H2.IS 6.71 77.24 7.57 H3.911 5.51 5.R3 76.06 75.12 1.64 67.1}4 5.69 :nl.27 9.H7 71U7 9.87 81.74 9.87 86,68 9.87 88.85 9.87 92.24 9.87 93.91 9.87 94.75 9.1'17 50.0 2.1.14 so.n 23.14 67.64 23.14 76.46 23,14 M.17 2.1.14 M.17 2.1.14 M.17 21.14 1'15.04 23.14 88.03 23.14 93.14 16.51 93.14 16.51 93.14 16.51
Ihi..
Cervical vertebrae Thorartc vertebrae Lumbar vertebral' Pelvis Ribs Stcmum Scapula Proximal bumerus Distal humeros Proximal radio-cubitus Distal redto-cubttus Carpals Proximal metacarpal Di!'tal mctacarpal Proximal Iemur Di!'tal Iemur Proximal libia Di!'t,,1 tibia Tar,;,11!' A!'tra¡;alus Calcancus I'nlximal mt'l.ll<1r!>oll Disral metatarsal Fil'5t phalange Sccond phalange Third phalan¡;t'
() 2.21'>
Col. 5 X
Col. 6
.33
Col. 3 col. 4
MGUI
(3)
(4)
(5)
W.4l:l
'1.1 ..17
II n
l)l}.%
2.11'
1J4.23 91.77 75.44 69.67 7fl.47 70.23 7J.41i "2.75 6Il.4H
4.714
&II.7K K'J.45 1I(J..10 eam 57.27 70.31 51.26 40.4R 36.h.1 62.97 64.67 611.06 72.70 74.87 78.99 81.39 112.23 21.42 21.42 39.75 48.57 56.31 56.31 5(,.31 57.22 60.21 75.39 75.39 75.39
6HA8
71.117 76.81 78.98 82.37 144.04 M.MM 2h.H6
26.R6 44.50 5.1.32 61.0.1 61.U3 61.03
et.so 64.89 76.63 76.6..1 76.63
1.47 7.43 12.40 fU6 1fl.Y7 11.00 25.62 5.51 3.HI 3.81 4.11 4.11 3.38 2.65 2.65 5.44 5.44 4.75 4.75 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.6H 4.68 1.24 1.24 1.24
16.21
MGUI
10.42
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
I.tkl 7.44
h.I(, 4'> ~N
'I7AX 77,77
.IN fl.711
1í"i.16
lII.h2 7.HIJ 7.Y7 1."i.61 14.20 15..11 12.79
h"i."il
h."i.H.l
4H.h7
n.HU
73.49 2H,1l 17.00 32.47 13.92 10.22 4.72 20,n 2UJ9 27.43 39.13. 45.29 56.36 62.711 65./i1l
9.14 7.12 7.19 0.0.1 7.74 10.40 6.66 5.IN .1.n2 105 9.16 10,01 10.42 10.06 8,75 7.64 6.91
2IJ.1'I1 4~.n5
32.00 32.00 &11.74 95.25 82.32 89.69 73.62
SO.54 51.lJ5 100.00 90.Y7 9fl.(lfl 81.94 64.77 53.94 w.n 5,M 20.29 14.90 15.02 11.11 13.97 7.2H O O 4.11 16.06 15.02 14.2(, 10.41
MGUI
(1'0)
(7)
(8)
IJ'IA':'
un
'1.1,,17
14.16
.1.h'l 29.MI 4~Ul"i
H.7b R.IW
24.29 26.07 22.53 24.55 20.15 2.1.49 27.37 24.85 19.37 16.64 12.27 9.91 8.63 21.42 21.42 25.73 22.K3 17.M2 17.H2 17.M2 17.12 14.41 10.35 10.35 10.35
32.00 .12..10 &11.74 95.25 H2.32 H9.69
73.62 HS.H2 ](lO,O 90.79 70.77 60.79 44.83 36.21 31.53 78.26 78.26 94.0 83.41 65.10 65.10 (,5.10 62.55 52.62 37.81 37-'11 37.81
7(1.,1'; HO.69 RI.46 41.72 31.20 47.7R
26.71 20.11 1.114 .15.(,(1 37.30 43.21 53.33 Stl.23 66.72 71.48 73.60 • O "JJ 14.02 25.74 .1.'iA9 3XAQ JH.4t,l 40.10 45.HO 65.04 65.04 65.04
99.81
Col. 12
27.37
12,:n
96.29
Col, 11 x
Col. 9
H.42
4'1.lh %.2'1 H7.60 94.44 7fl.90 62..17 51.'J4
15047
'15.4.1
16.21 15.78 14.20 12.94 10.36 f1.70
100.00 97..15 87.60 79.1:12 63.91 5.1.67 47.h2
10.11
r.n
O
O
o
(J
9.07 12.12 12.1M 12.1S 12,111 12.00 10.95 8.92 11.92 8.92
55.95 74.76 75.14 75.14 75.14 74.0.1 67.55 55.112 55.02 55.02
O O 4.95 13.62 26..11 26.31 2(,..11 2fUO )4,115 56.12 56.12 56.12
O O 2.91 6.41 K..12 8.32 M.32 H.41 H.33 7.69 7.69 7.69
---table 7.16, col. 16
Col. fI col. q
Col. 8 x
14''1.21
-----
<':11I. lO x tablc 7.16, col. 16
Col. 7 x table7.16, col. 16
Col. 5 cot.e
'IMAR
--~-
Cul. 13
ji(
PI x .75
lOO col. 17
01)( .7S
Ctll. 1M )( cnl.1':1
(16)
(17)
(1R)
(19)
(20)
u
IfllUl
h'UI'I
fitI.f)/l
1oI7.H9 btI.46
1.157 1'1.1'11
11 O
u
47.67
1J,~l
1i7.72 6M.33 69.00
96.25 74.28 99.81 63.91 41\.1\5 21i.9ff &1.97 fl7.91 %.07 100.00 %.54 83.97 73.37 66.31
O O 27.92 61.52 79.1'14 79JW 79.H4 1'10.71 79.94 73.1'10 73.1'10 73.80
H~.H2
100.00 5.5 1H.93 12.04 11.44 7.79 9.42 4.82 12.93 O 6.90 17.92 13.01 12.35 9.01 15.91 7.93 37.111 37.81 37.R1
" PI, processing Index (Table 3.2. Cl1lumn 4); DI. drying Indt'x (Teble 3.2, column 3); MGUI, modtñed gt'm'ral utili'y
18.H2
10.19 55.02 55.02 55.02
lHA7
1'1114.1 t,l1.19 IJ7.13 <¡5.M 7H.25 75.45 H2.32 81.11 94 67 74.44 HI.5.1
31.98 31.9R 31.98 31.98 31.'NI 31.98 31.9/i 75.fXI 75.00 75.00 75.lXl 75.11t1 75.00 75.00 75.011 75.ClO S3.4Q 5.1.49 5."\.49
R.67 bO.02 H.67 60.02 9.14 60.02 9.34 60.02 7.69 60.02 6.04 60.02 6.04 25.00 12.37 25.00 12.37 25.00 1O.IIt 2.'UXl W.141 25.00 111.7.1 25.IKIIII.7.1 25.00 10.73 25.00 10.64 25.00 10.64 46.51 2.84 4651 2.M 46.51 2.M
VI7
1'19. n
4.14
%.43 74.42
21.7~
un.m 64.03 41'1.94 29.04 M.13 5.14 20.03 17,01 1IU7 14.59 19.09 10.14
O O 2.04 13.22 15.% 1515 11.0Il 20.52 12.05 73.HO 13.RO 7J.HO
24.55 17.&11 lH.H9 5..1.1 25..">6
4 '1'> IO.HIi 7.H9
Ih./i9 lH.ll'1 11'1.55 43.11 75.00 5!l.22 12S\
bO.02
~
terrns of borw greasl' considerations) in Figure 8.9. Al! parts are distributed relative to the mude! as a gcnüe negative curve, cxcept for the ribs and the lumbar, cervical, and thoracíc vertebrae, parts we heve come to recognize as
4111 HI.~ 754
1:1.22 21.26 15.27 14 ~ 71.lKJ 4J.14 1tI.21 5.20 5.20 5.61 5.61 4.61 3.62 3.h2 3.IN 3.(N
2.70 270 2.N( 21>1'I 2.t.M 2,M 2.66 J.J2
1..12 J.J2
Tllblf 8.ti Gm/ullIl'" 011 /"'X'" 444 -445
lndex ('Iilhlt· 2.7, rolumn 1).
cache, Thc products that remain are then exploited by the occupants of il wlntcr site in terms of the MGUI. This model is displayed against fhe recenstructed total population (not modified in
ti
typunl of dricd rm-at populations. We know from informants.that dril'd.ml'at was removed from the Bear suo when lt was abandoncd. Parts overreprescntcd are the phalangcs, mctacarpals, and atlas vertebral' ".These are parts that. as I ha ve argucd prcviously, are
probably biescd by thc vl.'ry Inr~l' population of dogs. Thus, even though the details uf thc modifications that took place in the original population resulting from fall mlgration hunting may vary from those nssumed, thc modcl does permit thc ready rccognition of the
•. Wlnw
(4441 TABLE '.6-(COIt"nued)
--Coi. 18 col. 20 Anatomical part Antier
1.02 1.55 12.30
3.29
"L98
24.35 39.bfI
"',AA 76.2M
10.59
!Io4R 8.62
21.35 21.HO
2'1.22
74.90 79,58
"''''
7,64 7'"
86.57 ~,12
65.03 54.19
24.67
67.05 46.14 2.1.67 31.10 71.32
22,09
69.32 71.26
lJ.7K
"'00
10.94
64,32 100.00
21.49
3UJO
54.82
25,50
54.82 54.41 54.41
2002 14.49 12.(19 fI,(11 fd\7 5.'12
~~.41 ~40 ~1.4n
21.'/1 21. 111 12.JtI 22.3U 22.32 22.32 22.32 22.34 22.34 45.l9 45.11,1 45.19
faunal rernains frorn the Bear site as at least a second~stareassemblage. This implies the occupetion o a fall site (or at least one location) attc faH huntíng and prior to occupatinn nt thc Bear slte. This scquenceof events ls, of rourse, known lo have occurred. Figure 8. 10 iIIustrates the ñt of the data from House 2 tu the modcl, which is ídcntical cx(ept for compt'nsating for the manufacturc uf bone ~rease al House 2, something that did
~
(26)
100.0
,,"5'
.
(25)
(23)
Mandible All.1s A:Ilrs. Ceorvicat vertebr..e
SL"COnt.l ph31.1ngt' Third phalenge
Col. 25
(22)
86.43
Catcaneus Proximal metatarsal Dil'tal mclatarsal fiJ"ll1 rhJI,,"~('
Col. 24 x MGUI
(21)
Skull
Thoracic verteeeae Lumbar verll'brAe Pelvis Ribs Sternum Scapula Proximal humeros Oi!lal humeros proximal rl1dio·('\Ihltu!lo Di!ital radin-cubttus Carpal!' I'tuxlm;'!} n'l<'I.ll·¡lr\lill l)i!'ll.lIl11l·I,U·;lrIMI I'rullÍl11.11 ft'lIlllr Di!'I." Iomur I'wximal lihia Distal libia Tarsals Astragalus
Col. 21 )( Col. 22 Col. 21 .3UiO col. 22 MGUI
21"1 2l. tll 14.43 10.50
Ufl
7.07 707 6"" 6,"" 6.20 6.20
6,20
82.3 64,58 46.74 .19,00
2n'
22.1h
I'UN (oM.:1"
1"".1.5 46.54 33.87 22.81 22.81 22.81 21.55 21.55 lllIJ
2O.lJ
20,0
(24)
79.50 41,Hl
29.52 45,56 24.05 tI.M9 11.16 40.32 29.32
34"" 39.92 42.32 4fdtO
1.01 6.R9
14.Y3 13.44 14.60 11.51 5.91 7.16 17.53 12.74 12.70 10,6.1 9.40 7.26
49.~1
e.m
~14M
~.1I1
IJ IJ 7.H7 lUlO 15.25 15.25 15_25 15,66 15.66 :\R,99
IJ IJ 5.lJ9 5.57 4.82 4.82 4.82
"'"'
...
''''' 3.74 5.:\4
5,34 5,34
17.53
Modrl'ng F(Junlll Conl.enq of Wlnter SIDr-
TABLE 8.6-(conUn~d) "-
Col. 24 col. 25
(27)
,
,-
Col. 27)( MGUI
Col. 2ft
(28)
(29)
(JO)
('1)
1O.(lI 6141
3.29 24.35 39.6fI 27.35 27.tlO 74.90 79,58
5.76 39.30 60.41 43.5M 44.311 85.16
9,92
5.76
97.97
tOO
;\9JO fJl:J.41 43.5X 44.3/\ M5.16 76.65 1l1.28 65.f17 :t\.71 4(l,1W 100.00 12.67 72,45 60,6..1 53.62 41.41 :lot.:N 1tl24 IJ IJ 2<,l.!J4
11.1/9
(;,29
ftS.tll,l 70.<15
lJ,l2
91.93
6.HI/
71.72 26.HM
7112
6'1.45 70.?6
'1.1. ';() 4S.IM IJ IJ 2.7H
31.71
623
6.14 '>.2'1 4,74 IJ IJ 1.7'l1 2.!})
27.49
10.43
,:lO
~~.:~
10.43
3.30
10A:\
:UO
1O.9M
3.2!! 2,M5 4.61 4.61 4.61
26.69 21.:'13 3046 30.46 3O.411
not occur at the Bear site. That is, thc Bear site model was multiplícd by the inverse of the s~uarc root uf thc white-reOlSL' index multiP icd by iI constant uf.44 Tablc 7.16, column 16). This predlcts the frequency of parta remaining after the manufacture ofbone greasc. Thc fit between the mude! and the data is fairly good for all parts, but the alias and axis are overreprcsented. Parts commonly associated with dried meat populations, however, are
(4451
16.0fI
lJ.59 7.32
3(),%
9,92
1254
6,00
5.,"
2.97 2.S(,
4,tlll 22.79
',90
16,58 22.10
8N
:N.29 .12.92
7..11
.19.54
1l,92 :\1.05 3..1.05 33.65
96.67 73.79 100.00 6O,4M
29.94 25.1'1 99.79 72.58 81.35 7f1.6..1 73.69 61.1W
7.20
7.RO
.
Col. 23)( Col. 26)( Table 7.16, col. 16 table 7.16, col. 16
1'2) 10.00
f\.lAI 91.9:1 69.45
40.AA 100.00 4.25 15.11 10.:\2
71\,7f1 ,*,.67 73.79 100.00 1>0,48 29.94 25.1l1 99.79 4.24 16.97 n.39
7,34
10.10
nfIH
4.M.:t
7.20 9.111 4,(12 IJ IJ
Ill.n
69,)2 71.26
"'Jl(J bU2 100.00 4.81 13.47 7.95
76.65 fU.2B 65,67
n.7l
.';.1.:13
.'>.11.
47.7H IJ IJ 1H,114 29.43 33.27 33.27 33.21 33.06
2.92 11..10 IJ 3,42
46.47 46.47
200 20,0
6.!!3 5.49 5,20 3,Rl 6.18 3.22 31).46 30,46
4b.47
20.0
30.46
","
Col. 29 x table 7.16, col. 16
7." 06 4.33 3.16 5.48 3.25
underrcprescnted: scapula, stemum, ribs, and thoracic and lumbar vcttebrae. This could indicatc (11) an undcrestimatíon uf parts in insurancc storage, or (1,) thc delcnon of a dricd mcat population from thc slte (as is known to ha ve occurred at the Bear site). As an ex¡erimcnt in modcling, an additiunal mo el sequencc was calculated assuming il .75 dell.'tion from a population of complet(' i1nimals. From what r",mains of this,
z.n
1.1,KM 7..11 IJ IJ 1.32 6,33 6.65 6.30
461 fI,41
414 4",47 46.47 46,47
a .75 deletion was made oí parts Ior dry storage Iinsurance caching). ThL' rcrnalning population was exploited twice followed by consumFttion in term.... uf the MGUI. Finally, thc resu ting population was modlfled by thc destruction of parts during thl.' processing for bone grcasc. This modcl is summarizcd in Table 8.6, column 32. Figure I:L 11 illustratcs the relationship betwt'l.'n data from lIousc 1 and the mode1. This (jI is (onvincing in Ih.. t .. 1I
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TA6LE 66 COL. 32 Figure 8.11.
1{¡'I"tilmship b!·IWI'1·t'l II,II,1 Inllll 1'.11.111-
h,ln.l Ilousl' I il!llt mlldl'll'd \/;llm·!O.
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roe
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o
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Comumer Demcmd and MNIt. Repruented In
CI
Raftknrlol FClu".llbHmhIGge
parts are well distributcd in accordance with the modcl, except for the vertebrae and the '" rnandible. The mandiblc is likely to be under- MtoNO representcd in such a situation for the same rcasons it wns likcly to be overrcprescntcd in C(RV fllOR thc pn'-gun fall locations (scc discussion of P(IV thc NI'! site. Cheptcr 7). This loavcs only the vertebral column "misbehavíng." As in thc se case of the Bear stte, we may rcasonably suspcct a delction from the remaining winter ... ston-s at the time of the move from the winter CARP
..
C,,"ItV. TtoOlt ~
,OlOJ040!lO.o'Ofl(]9(l1OO
St!m ICMGUI TABLE 6.12, COL. 6 H"urt' H.12. RI·I,IIÍlIJl..hil' hl'lwt'I'1l ..111'1'1' d,II.1 Ir"lll thl' Ul';lr sile ,mJ mmkll·J V,¡[UI· ...
14471
PAltoNGtoNA HOJSr
(_-=:==__ 2-:'--"'-~--
l.
..
"
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sitc to thclocanon of spring intcrccpt hunting. Tho wintcr sitos. like thc fJI! locations,
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TA6LE 6.6 COL 14
sih" and modelcd vatucs.
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yiclded rcmalns of mountain sheep. Figure 8.12 illustrates thc relationship between sheep found al thc Bcar sitc and a modcl (lCMGUI, Table 6.12, column 6) for shecp rcmains that has prcviously been found to be relevara almost exclusively to kili sttes. Thc hvad of thc Iamily occupying thc Bcar site was Elyjah Kakinya, one of the more noled sheep huntcrs among the Nunamiut. As I have previously emphasized, sheep meal is systematically distribuled lo relatives and friends by the sun:{'ssful hunters. The parts rl'tainl'd by lhl' su~t'l'ssftll hunlt.'r an' comnlllnly m.lrginill in lJu.llHy (sl'e Chapll'r 4, p. (42). From thl' sht,l'p rt'nlilins on thc Bcar sill', il is ,'pparl'nl lh.lt Elyjah had sucn'ssfully huntcd shl'l'p, and thilt ht' hild introduced thCSl' .1!'> compll'll' .mimals intu the rt'sidt'ntial Im:atll\n, wlwrl..' hl.'distributl,.'d ml,.'at to frit'nds ano rl'1.'ti... I·..... Thl' rt'sult was that parts n'· m.linin~ ,lt his sill' had m.lllY propl,.·rtit,s in commlln with parls .1b.lndoO\.'d on kili silt's. Tlll' 8l,.'.u sitt' slll,.'l,.'p d.1til ShlJuld be compared to those from the Tiglukpuk kil1~butchering arca (Table 6.10, column S) and from the KoJlutuk kill-butchl'ring aren (Tt1ble 7.24, columns 1 & 2). In T.lhll' K.4 llll' d,lt'l on Shl'I'P rl'main!'i from I\w ''.d,lIlg'lI1.1 silt' .Hl' sUllllllolrii"l·d. 1len' Wl' Iloh' .1 Vt'ry tlifh,rt'nl p,llh'rn. l~l'n1il¡ns fnlln llousl' I h.lVe featurt'!i in common wilh a dril'd meat population, whl'rt'aS parls r('{'uvered fwm IllItlSI' 2 haVt' the over,lll appl'.1rilnn' of a POPUl,llion l'u!lt'd fmm .1 populi.1lion introduel'd from i.1 kill-butchcring ¡ocatinn. Figure
8(toR SlT[
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------------1 ~""".. ,
H(U;[ 2
I
,
a
o
Flgurr 8.13.
10
zo
'0 .0 ,O
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10 80 'JO 100
CompMaliv~' p~'rt:t:nt,lg~'S ftlr !>hl't·p rl'o
main§ al wintC'r r¡>~it.h·!lli,ll ~ih's.
B.13 c:ompares th... sht'l,.'p rl'mains rt'CllVered {mm tht' thrt'l' winlcr IOl\ltillOS. Allhollgh tlw populations of parts frtHll thl,.' (ariboll Wl'rl,.' very similar, no such patkrn is CVl,.'n remotcly rccognizablc in tht, shc1.'p data. Thc 8l'oUsill.' shcep remains look Iikc a kill~~ite population; House 1 remains look somcthing Iikt· a dricd meat population, and House 2 rl'mains look likt' a hunling camp cull. CONSUMER OEMANO ANO MNI. REPRESENTEO IN A RESIDENTIAL FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGE I havc prcviously summMi7.1'd infmmiltion on Iht, rl'lationship bdwl'l'n (111' ml'.11 llt·..'dl'd tu slistain a known numhl'r uf OI'{'lIp.ulh fo r ,1 knuwn pl'riud uf timl' ,mtl tlll' nUl1lbl'r uf animals rt'presentt'u by MNI valucs .lt tillo.' It)cillion. We havl' S('t'n that this rd.l~ionship is lluilt.' difft'renf at diffcrl'nt lypl'S uf siles. Ilunt· in~ camp!i l'xhibit .1 l'llOlpliralt'd .1l1d highly variJble ~ct uf rl'lationships in whidl thl'
8. WlnJer
14481 number of animals observed systcmatically exceeds the number needed to sustain the occupants. Al kili sitcs and processing locations, the number of animals present in the fauna! assemblage bears little if any relationship to the number of consumer days of occupation. In all these logística! locations, the relationship ís systematically in favor of the presence of many more animals than arenccded to susmin the occupants dunng thcír use of thc location. It was Iound thnt for huntIng stands there was a deceiving linear Telationship hetween the number of consumer days of use on the slte and the MNls r('pTesented in the fauna! assemblage. (See Figure 7.16.) Only afterthe final description of the winter resiclential locations can we explore the rdationship bctwccn consumer days rl'prl'Sl'ntl'd at the residentiallocatiuns and MNls obscrvcd in the assemblages by scason. Table 8.7 su mmarizes the data for the relationship bctween consumer demand and thl' numbcr ()fanimals rcmaining at rcsidentiOlI IUl.:ations. Figure 8.14 illustriltlos the rdationship between the known consumcr demand for mcat and thcamountof meat indicated in thl' faunal
...
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-00
,""U[NT
I
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~=~~~ 'UIUI[I'
Fisure 8.14.
'ALL
."",[1'
Cornparative distributi(>n uf ranos be·
tween animals rcpeesented archill·(.Ilogkally and consumer dernand .'1 residenüal sites (by season].
assemblages by the MNI oí the mosl commun bone in the assembl
"',
TABll8.7 Com~rtson of
ConeumC1' Dem.nd .nd Number 01 Anlm.l. RWpNHnted AtthMOIOlIe-lIy lor Nlne Re.ldentl.ll.ouUo... Nllml'l'r "h~'n'l'd
Sill'
S....I<;\llI
Frank Rull.lnJ (ohn Mony Schooltellcner Amalp;amation In¡;stl'd AkmOKulik Rul1.1nd Kakínya Bear
Spring Sprin¡.; Early summet Early summt>r Lale summer I.alt' <;Unlml'r Fall F..dl E.1rly winlcr
Ñüiil1~r'I1;:;";;¡-
~
Nmlll,,', n''I'II,'d
N~;,"I-;;:'r "i,~~·rv\·~i
l.' LO .10 .09
"
.D
-9.95 -10.9& -5.64 -4.17
1.74
2.15 .&1 (1.06)"
" Value in I'arenlhe!les is for rt.'Constructl'd a§semt>la¡;l'.
.
ptll'[CT 11[· LUIOIoI'"'," HTWUIoI
CONAuilllEII Dllll.lND'. .lNIIlIAl'
01
\
-00
-
I
\
~.
...
-1.13
COruumC!'f Demond ond MN1. Repre.enled In o Re.fdenJlol Founal Aaemblose
asscrnblage than were nccdcd to sustain the occupents. This fact relates directly to the biased consumption of meat that had been processed Irom the bones during the spring storage ectiviücs. The striking underrcpresentatiun of animals in the late summer sttes reflects the lncrcased dependence on animals killed during cncounter hunting near the end of the storegc periodo Only at the single documcnted winter sitc is there an approximate isomorphism bctwccn the nmount of mcat needed tu sustain Ihe occupants and the number of animals represented in the faunal assemblage. This situation reflects two conditions. Most important is the fact that animals killl'd in faH and stored fur winter are normally cached on the tundra and introduced as n{'edt'd. This rnl'ans that the conditions under which ml'at is inlroduccd intu the winlt:'r site are dirt'ctly rcsponsivc to eunsumer nCl'ds. In addition, since the vast majority of meat for winter consumption is frozen, there has been no dcstrucliun by processing of bunes prior to
14491
the introducticn of parts tu the location. The result is a fairly accurate relationshlp between eonsumer demand and the number of animafs represented. This aecuracy is increased by the correction for parte likely to ha ve been destrcyed by dogs d.uring fcedtng. On Figure 8.14, the winter síte has two entries: (a) the arde, which indica tes the ratio calculated using the reconstrueted MNIs (which compcnsatc for dog-feeding destrucnon) and
9 Conclusions
In attempting to summarize the results or draw concIusions from this study, 1 could view the materiaIs in many contexts. 1 could view the work as a subject-biased account of a hunting-and-gathering sodety al work. Similarly. 1could use the material as a background fnr discussing factcrs conditioning dífferences in regionalland use, seasonal cyclíng, or localiana! patterning in the distribution of site types. These would be legitima te approaches nnd ccrtatnly I would ha V" somothlng to say based on my Nunamiut experience. The contexts in which rny Nunamiut experience might be vicwcd as rclcvant ere potcntielly infinite. I havo focused on faunn vicwed primarily frum thc pcrspecíive of thc relativo frequcncíes of a natomlcal parts. This focus or topícal lnterest was r.ur~ut.'d with the aim of understanding the actors that conditioned the pTt~S ence uf diHerential anatomical part frequences in assemblagcs from different archeeolog¡nI! sln-s. In Iht, I"trmtul'lion 1 traccd thc n,.I~(lllin~ ilnd n-scnrch buckground Ihnt lcd
me to seek an understanding of faunal vanability. 1 pointed out that the focus on fauna and my study of the Nunamiut were not research choices made because of en abiding interest in either fauna or Eskimos. My primary interest was in evaluating the utility of certain concepts commonly emplcyed by archaeologists. By documenting the relationship between the dynamics of a living system and the static archaeolcgícal remains deriving from that systcm 1hoped tu be ablc tu improvc or offer more reliable conventions for giving meaning te archaeologtcal Facts. In a broader sensc, I was particularly intcrcsted in Ihe behavluml nll'anin~corried by Oln'h.'l'lll\)~k"I.,S scmblagcs uf variable contcnt. Given these interests. I shall prcscnt the condusions 1 have drawn from the Nunamiur study in two parts-Part 1, on the meaningful analysis of assemblage contents, and Part 11, on the meaningful analysis of patteming i1m(ln~ asscmblOlW's in contcnt, Itll".ltion, .md rl'sponNivl'nl'~!'l tu ~l'nl'ral systems Ch.lll~l'. 14511
·
~
.
(454)
9. Conc'...IoRl
Throughout 1have noted how decisions made nt one tímc IUl' nlmost cxclusivcly tl'll'ologknl
The Eskimo are fascinated by tl'('hnoh~y and are ñnocmftsmcn. TI1l'Y are equally f.1Sd·
in that tbvy are rnado so as tu nchtcvc a dcstred condition al a future time. We have seen this
nated by nature and ¡1fC etways tclling storics of their experience with nature. Walking along the Arctic byways of the Nunamiut is a silent experience. The Eskimo are watching, analyzing, and evaluating the world around them in a continuous and studious manner. They discuss among themselves what they have seen and in turn what the observations may mean in terms of future conduíons. When will the caribou come? WiIIthe snows come early? Are the whistling swans about lo fly through the passes? These are the questions being pul to the facts of their experience with their environment. "Good judgments about tht'Se thin~s l'nsun..' thólt li(~ will bl' bl'ttl'r lll'xt munlh." Tlw julo.fgn1l'llts n( condiliuns .Ul' of cours!! the bm.¡s 1m dl'dsion milkingwhether to move camp, where to move, who to camp with, whether to go hunting in the mountains or on the northern tundra, whether to set out Snitres lor ground sl.luirrl'ls, whethl'r h\ (¡sh, an ..i so 011, Jud~ml'nts arl' thl' rl'sult ..)f ri.lti~Jni11 an.llysh.; IIll'Y olfl' not sYlltlnynhllls wilh "mt'nlal Il'mpl.ltl's" (lr "prl'pn'~r.llllnlt.'d ..1". signs for living." Judgml'nts arl' mildt.> by nll'n in terms of evaluations regarding the situilHon 01 the moment relative to some desire-d.,e-nd. Part 01 the situation of the moment is' the knowledge of the various toOl5 available to the person and how thesl' may be differentially combined to aid in a('hieving the desired end, Which tools will be used and how they will be recombined arl' fl'sultS o( the judgml'nts mildl', Thl'Sl' in luro arl' l'tJually ~uidl'd by assessments uf the environmental and system-state conditions relativl' to the dt'sired end, The execution of dl'cistons stemming from judgments rt'Sults in situationally variable behavior. This potential for bl'havi~lr.,1 flexibility, the ('apacity for rational assessml'nt resultins; in flexiblt' stratl'f.w plilOS, is unl' ul tlll' fund'lmcnlal char;}ctl'ristics uf hum.lIl bl'· haviur. ThOSl'who wuuld l'tlu.ltl' p.ltll'rnin~ in thl' archaeological rt'cord with "culture" would deny this property to mano If the patternillS; is a simpll' rt.,nl'clion uf "prl'pro·
repeatedly in decisions along a logisticel series. along a consumption series from stored
meat, and through a series of activities designed to achieve successful storage of foods. In my experience with the Eskimo 1found this
repeatedly to be the case in other domains of their lives. There ís an Eskimo saytng that sta tes. "If 1 use good judgment today life will be better next month." Given this approach to Iife it is very difficult to elidl from informants "cultural rules" or the formal behavioral conventioos for living 50 frequently pmphasized by ethnog:rapht.·rs. The Eskimo ¡Ul' pr.l~miltic, t11l'Y i1r~ l'mpiridsts, ilnd t11l'Y im.' Vl'ry Skl'pti· cal of ¡;.tiltl'ml'nls ilS lo Ih!! "right" way tu do something. This i5 well exemplified in the following story, which was related to me by Simon Paneack as an object Icsson: Rat.y Kraylin~
Wi'I!I
swimmin~ in lht.' w¡um Wi'lt~'fS uf
Tulu~.,k L.lk~', lit, a~kl'li his m
hnw Iw ,'1'111,1 ,lIW,1VI'IN' S\IIl.' "f ~I'llill~ l'l'l'lI~h hH·,I1. MnllwT ~MV' Iill~ W,lS sill'nl "'r ,1 ""'1111'111, Ill<'n in ,\ "l'T\' ~i\'ritllls v¡.in' !'I,lid, "L.isl"ll r,lrl'ful1y ,111.1 1 willl..ll yoll h..w Y""I c.m .llw"yI'I N.' SUH' ~lf ¡:;l'ltin¡:; ~'nllu¡:;h tn 1',11." lI,ll1y grayling list,'nl.'d intently. Mother grayling Solid, "Always swim againsl the currenl and Ihe water will t.ring yuur f('l¡'<1 to you." Baby grayling Ihought aooul this and rould not wait lo Iry oul his molher's advin'. Baby b~n swimming ag.linst Ihe CUfrt'nt and sur(' t'mlu~h lillle piKt.'!I of fO\'<1 carne pasl him. It was such ;'J wonderful l."pHience Ihat he kept on swimming agllinsl thlt omltnl, swimming againsl thE'(Urrenl, and ..'lwimmin~agilin!'ll t'rl('curr,'nl, SI""" I"'lt.y ~r,lylin~ W,lS up in ., small sidt' !Iln'am k,>din~ inh' Tulu~.lk Llk,', bul ht.' kept following Ihl" roll:", !Iwimming a¡.;.linst IhE' CUfTl'nt,and SO\lR he began lo nulic,,'lh.ll th,'rt' was 1{'S."l and less f(lod, It.'!ls and less wall'T; nl"llt'r!ht'1"ss, h" kt'pl !l.....imming against Ihe currt>nl. r"'lIy 100n tht'r.. was no more fond and very ¡ittll' waler-indl't'tt, thl'rl.' was nowhl:"rt.' dst> t(1go agilinsl the nUrt'nl! 8,lby ~r.lyling was vt'ry u~et, hE'turned and swam IikE' a flash duwn Ull' Mlr\'¡lmb,ll'k inlolh,' w,lrm w,ltt'r!i ufTulug,lk Llkl'. wh,'Jt' hl' 1I.1W hi!! molhl'r t.ut ilvuiJt'd h~'r. 111.' h.lh-d h"r f"r Idling him th" wrun~ rult'! Yuu .lsking mI' qUt'!ltitlRlJ i:ol Iikt" hat>y ~raylinlt I ('An giVl' YI1U iln an5wer Nt yuu mU!lt llpl"Rd the r('st uf your lif.. ll'arnin~ wht'n '''''' ttl USI:' íl.
[455J
Pan I
grarnrned dl'~is;ns Ior llvtng," then rl'ltional behavlornnd tho n'Aul.lT use uf judgnll.:'nt are
able to functional v.uiability a!' 1 had envisioned thc situation in thc llllOt.'lilll1~ rited
dented. 1 do not deny the reality of culture or the
in the Introduction of this book.
exíetence of learned desígns for living. However, the relative flexibility I as opposed to rigidity, characteristic oí human adaptations will be variable and responsiva to the relative stability of the environments in which men Iive. If the environmentis stable, not subjectto great seasonal cbangcs or major instabilities as to source and quantity of foods. we may expect greater behavioral rcdundancy and a greater role for unreasoned acceptance of traditional strategies for living. More important, huwever, is to what dcs;rel! traditional conCl'pls u( clllturt' and thl' convl'nlillll.ll m('iln~ n( using archat.'ologkal rcmi.lins as indic.llors uf culture accuratl'ly accommodate the known realities of the Nunamiut case, Very few would disagree with the statement that, judging from th" Nunamiut expericnce, there is ao enormous amount of variability in faunill ilssl'mhJ¡l~~'s (mm diHl,rt'nt locatiuns. In f.1Ct, nnly in vfIlf'Y rólrl' caSl'S was much n,..h md.lncy lkm~lnstf,ltt.'(t ilmnng thl' repurted licving thal patterned frequenc)' vari· ations among aH archaeological assemblages rl'fll'd l'u1tur¡¡1 diHl'Tl·nt."l'S, Il\ln unly gUl'SS ¡lS to thl' numbt'r uf diHl'fl'nt cultures and cthnic gruups that mighl b~ proposed as a rl.>sult u( such
pf'Ople draw upon a repertolre of cultural background .nd experience to meetchangíng Ufvariable condilions in Ihelr environment, both social and phy,ical, Our exp«talions,lhen, ere for variability in the ercheeologleal record te rl.'flect a veríety of difft'rt>nl kinds of coping siluations. Activities will vary with the particular edepuve siluation uf the gwup and IhE'character of tasks being performed. w~ wt,JUld lhl'r('fort' expect veríebñny in the archaeologiral record 1<1 refh-rt thesc differenl sttuattons [Biníord IlJ72: 1321.
I have demonstrated again and again that the facts of the cconomic anatumy of thl' mountain shl'~p ilnd the carihol! W,,'H'.l part ~1( the basic knowll.'dgt.' that was uscd to lll.lkl' decisions by the Eskimo about how to dismember, transport, consume, process, storc, and share animals. In all these situations, the same finc1y tuncd knowledge uf ólnim.ll anatomy was being l1s~d, but uSl'd for diffCTl'nl purpnsl's. Thl' plIrpusl's Wl'H', uf coursl', bt'inr; conditiont'd not by this knuwll'dgt', bllt by uther considl'rations, su(h ,lS huw many porlt.'rs thl'rc Wl.'r..· hl tr'lll"porl how much meat fur so many milt's, Assemblage variability generally resulted from the use of the same body of knowledge to see-k solutions to very diffenml problems. The problems arose from the ongoing characll"r of the man-environment interaction and the state of the subsistence security of the m~n at the time the problem was manifest. Thus, thl' docum('nted variability was dcrivl.'d from thc practical solutinn to diHl'rent pwbll'ms facl'd by the same people, sharing the same body of knowledge. What was thought in 1966 to be a plausible view uf the dynamics standing bt.'hind at least sorne assemblage variability is a documentl'd reillity today. This dcm(lnstr.ltion does not ensure that functional variability is th~ l'xdusivl' S~nlrl.'l' of v.lfi.lhilily in t1w archa('olo¡.;ical rl'cord. It .llsu dl'lt.'s nol Jis· prove or wl'akl'n the (aith thal many havl' in their ability as archaeologists to r('wgnizl' dif· ferences or similarities that are refl'rable lo Ihl' cthnic or cultural idl'nHty of th~ produrl.'rs of
I 14561
9. Concluslons
artifacts. lt does, however, demonstrate that the archaeologist can no longer naively assume that all variability is directly rcferablc to degrees of cultural similarity or differencc. In addition to the demonstration that the "fabrication mcdel" for the linkage between dynamics and statics 15 inadequate and most certainly misleading when used uncritically for giving meaning to assemblage variability, other interesting observations have been made. 10 what degree can the Nunamiut "culture" be said to be distinctive to the Nunamiut? It is a common belief among historically oriented anthropclogists that geographic patterning derives primarily from patterned interaction
among peoples. Such patterning is commonly thought of as having a large arbitrary component to ir, unrelated, in any dirt'ct Wily. to Iht, man-environment interaction. SimilarHit's are not similarities as such, but are evidencl? for sharing or interaction among persons. To what degree is there any support for this view of drnamics in the Nunamiut experience? I studled in very objective terms the existential properties of the anatorny of animals. I de· veloped a variety of descriptive scalcs of value for the anatomical segments of sheep and caribou. 1 then used these objeetive scales as rdcrence dimensions fur viewins; tht' dcci· sions that Nunilmiut Eskimo madt' in thcir exploitation and use of animals.1 found a truly astonishin~ fit b'?twl'E'n the eumulative evi· dt'nce of dt'cision makin~ and tht, facls of animal anatomy. J found the results of informcd, skillful, and vcry rational bt·havim. In fact, I sCilreht'd for any t.'videnee uf meaning given to the facts of animal anatemy that was "expedient" and not intrinsic to the experience. In modern anthropolo~y c1ilsses, a common t'xamplt.' ~ivl'n (lf ('ultun' is Iht., cast.'frt.'tlUt'ntly dlt'd hy I.l'slit' Whilt.'--holy walt.'r, Whitt,. in ilth'mplill~ lo ~ivt.· sludl'nts an apprl'dation for Wh.ll WilS meant by the eoncept of culture, noh..'d thal ene could study holy water chemícally, physi. cally, or by any other objective ml?ans and find no real differences between it and any other
,
~
water, yet man behaved differently toward it by virtue of his having given meaning to it. Whitt.· said that this typc of behavior wcs uniquc te man and was a good cxample of his ability to symbolize. Such behavior could not be understood through a study of the objectíve properties of the experíence. The fact that man can do this does not ensure that he will behave this way consistently. The popularity of Freudian approachcs to understanding behavior and the conternporary search for understanding the human mind are basically approaches that say that man is unique in his capacity for culture. These also suggest that this capadty is used not in terms of the objecñvc world in which man IiVl.'S, but in terma of the subjective world of his culturally c1uttl'red mind. Such a vicw is an ('xtr~me and unrt.'alis· tic position. The t'x¡".tt.·nt'C uf a capildty for giving meaning tu cxpt.'ricnc(' do('s nut diclat~ that the meaning so given must be objectively "wrong," out of touch with reality, or unrelated todireet experience. If sueh was the case, onecould onIy be puzzled by the evolutionary condifioos that might seleet for a capacity that would ensure the deviation of bl'havior away from any realistic coping with the concrete problems presented to man by virtue of his ecoloF;ical role in the environment. What pos· sibil' set of sclective conditions would inC'r:f..'aSl' Ihe repruductivc putl'ntiJI uf individuals ~hu could only convert their concrete cxpcricnces of Jife into concepts bearing no relationship lo those l'xpcricnn's? This is litcrally unrt'JI. Current conCt'rns in Iht' ficlds of symbolism, structurJlism, and many othcr "isms" pla~u ing Jnthropulugy MCJltempls f(l vil'w hum.m behavior in such unreal terms. In many cases, these approaches may be deceiving in that they offer plausible views of l'xpcrience. Fl)r inslana', 1 mi¡.;ht be tuld Ih"t cl'rt.lin bt'hJviors on tlU' part uf Jnti·busin~ .1dvot.".1It·s in lllilny (·.lskrn Arnl'rkan t'itil'S .IT(' underst
Pan I
14571
clustered on the sidewalk of a midtown street is that the stoplígbt is red! In both these cases wc would have an intuitivo understanding 01 the behavior in cultural terms, and 01 people responding to the world around them in terms of meanings given. These meanings are not eesüy understood in terms 01 any facts we miglit know about blacks biologically or what we know about color in physical terms. We may go a long way in attempting to understand or appreciate variable human behavicr through seeking a blOwledge 01 the cultural conventions in tcrms 01 which people behave in certaín situations. Inclusion 01 the phrase ceríain sítueíions recognízes that the same pcoplc in diffcrcnt settin¡:;s may respond to identical stimuli diHNently. As Marvín Harris (1974) has said, "Tht:'re are 'rules' for bre ..king the 'rult's' of cultur.11 conventions." This is, 01 coursc, anothcr way of pointing to the rational use of conventions that may appear irrational. The problem 01 overconcern for conventions becomes apparent when we observe, over time, ehange in such conventions. How do we explain this change? When we observe in differr'nt places di(fer~nt conventions seemingly reJated to similar behaviors, how do we ex· plain that? We cannot explain such changes or variability by describing the things said to be in nt'ed uf l·xplanation. A knowledge of thl' wnwntions and variability eHht.'rin spatial or temporal lerms is nat an explanation for the variability obsl?rved, Traditional archaeology dt'vduped intellectually in the context of an overcuncern for cunventions. For insrance, sut.'h OVt'rconn'rn is c1t.'arly cxprcsst'd by
Dunnell (1971):
The impurlann' {lf rt~lrictjll~ Ih~' r(ls~¡bk St.'! uf attributl'S to thosp whkh arp derncm!ltrabl(' produm of human bt'havit>r i!' l'vid ...nt. If Ihpilllributt'S con~¡d"r.·d are I.nly Ihn ..(' whirh ilrl' th(' pr\l'dlKts uf num¡m 1'11' dl'.lYI.r, " li,I/"II'Slhul Im"n,J/"'llI""" "1 t1r"O:I·(/II,illilf.-s io: 1Ir·,.,... ~.trrl"oImr,·m """"11I ""/,,., """, 1I11111m/ ti,,.;, '/i.•'m.lil·.·"...., /i,... /11 I/"'¡' /umrru,.,.·.,.,. ,h.·/I SI' r/,"'S I/,.·Ir I'XI,j,¡IIII/lulI. rurthl'r, ~ivl'n ¡Iur ,l~sumptjtln<; .lboul th l' unklul'nl"is l" Inl' ph,'noml'm,lugkal world, r('cur· renú' or sharíng nt'(I><¡~itates an idealional eJemenl in thl' t.'kplanatiun .... Herl'Ín th", concept uf culture i~ to bt, undt'rstulld as m"'ilIlin~ shar,·d idt'as and nothing
'..,m.'. '(
more.... First culture is a concept.... It ls a mean~ 01 explanalion .... The concept culture. t1'lt'n. r!\lVid~ the mean! by which prt'histnríans ,'''plain Ih,' pwdu<'ls of human aclivity Ipp. 121-124; it"linl addl'dl.
Observed patteming is evidence of sharing and sharing is the manifestation of a set ol ideas in the minds of rnen, These ideas are in tum the explenation for the patterning observed! This is the same intellectual position we found ourselves in when we sought te explain changes or variability in conventionsor culturally gcnereted means-for giving meaning to experience. We found that, as long as we sought to understand behavíor in cultural terrns, we had no explanations for cultural variability itself. Silllilarly, JS long i.1S archaeologists etluate variability in arehat'o· logical remains with variability in eultuft." thcre will be no t.'xplanatiun fur the lalter. We find ourselves in the idl'ntical position of a language translator, having conv~n(ions for translating observations made in ont" idiom (English or archaeological collections) into an· other idiom (Freneh or "culture"). Becau!'Ic we may accomplish this Iranslatíon, to what de· gree can it be said fhal the idiom of Freneh, or 01culture, explains lhe Engllsh or archacoJogical facts? In the Nunamiut cas(' we havt' set'n how sharin~ results in variJbility, not Tl'dundancy; in differcnccs bl'twcl'n assemblagt's, not similarities. The süurces of variability must be viewed as thc consequcncl's of diffl'rt'nCes in thc condition!'l of behavior, not th.. idl'ilS, (Ir mental tt.'mplates, in tht' hCOlds of thl' Eskimo. The idcologkal sharing WilS illmost total; difft'fl'nt Wt'rl' (11) systl'm·sti.ltt' V.ui.lhll'S, (/1)
transporl dislanres, (e) bulk diflerenre' in goods to be tTansportl'd, (d) stor.lgt' rr(l~
.' I>i '; ~; • (t') wei.lther conditions .lflt'l'tlll¡'; lr.lvt.'i, .IllJ;,o
un. Thl'St.' nmtin~l'n('Íl's nmdilillnt.'d hlJW tlH' Eskimo wuuld t'mplllY hi!'i shJn'd l1ll,ty of knuwlt.·dge regilrdin¡.; .lnim.ll an.llomy. F.lun.ll assemblages of vastly different fmm resultt'd from differing problem contexts. r could understahd and therefote predict th .. panern· ing when I could conlrol fOf tht.' chilraeter of
.--.,9. Concl""ona
[4581 the condHioning or determinant variables de-
riving not from man's humanncss, but directly from the environment in the context oE his particular strategy goals.
T0010 and Analytlcal Proced_o Dewloped 'ar Glvlng Meanlns ta Varlatlone In Faunal AaHmblage Content Throughout the hody of this book 1 have been involved in developíng techniques and methods for the analysis of the Nunamiut material. As was suggested in the previous secñon, my ínterests go far beyond the spedfies of the Nunamiut. We must th~reforc gain somt> perspedive on the Nunamiut relative to other hunter-gatherer adaptations far a beginning appreciation of the possible relevanee oE tht.> Nunamiut case with its accompanying analysis forother matl'rial from other places. l have charactt!rized the Nunamiut system as ane that was profitably viewed dimensionaUy or in terms of very basic strategy characteristics. The Eskimo employ strategies to ¡ncrease (a) the time utility of resources (storage), (b) the space utility of reSources (Iogistics), (e) the consumer utility of resources (sometimes complicated serial or use differentiations among foocl sources), and (d) the social utility of resources (variable patterns of sharing and mutual aid that frequently resulted in a kind of time-and-space banking strategy for access to resources already socially incorporated by others). As an examp1e ol hunters and gatherers, the ~unamiut probably represent one of the more extreme cases. As we have seen, they were traditionally almost totally dependent upon animal foods. My data show that the average Nunamiut adult consumed around a cup and a half of natural plant foods yearly! This WilS supplemenled by the partially digosted stomach contents of the caribou. However, I was unable to obtain a re1iable estimate of Ihe quantity consumed. It was pointed oul, however, that Ihis wasa "male blased" food, in the past most commonly consumed as a snack at kili and butchering locations by male hunters.
.
~
1know of no ceses of hunters and gatbcrers
where there js a greater dependence en storage than among the Nunamiut. Stored food ... constituted the major bulk source of food for 8Vz months of the yeaL lt was an important source of food for an additional1 '11 months of the year. Fresh foods sustained the Nunamiut for approximately 2 months of the year. The growing season is approximately 22 days at Anaktuvuk Pass. The dependence on storage and the short growing season are not related by chanceo Logtstícally the Nunamiut are fasctnating, etnce here we see the strategy adjustments that compensate for many of the facts of spatial independence that characterize th(' resource distributions of their world. Fllr instance, sheep are cornmonly available where there is little if any usable ftrewood. Similarly, the places where cmibou may be huntl'd in large numbers successfully are frequelltly lucations that cannot stand sustained exploitation of the wilJows for firewood. The locations where young calves may be taken in late summer are frequently places where good water sources are rare and fuel is scarce. In addition to the problem of congrucnce, which logistics aids in overeoming, thcrc is thc additional problem of bulk. Given a heavy dependence on stores there is always the question of whether it is better to mctv,~ the consumers together with their gear and stbred foods or to move foads and resources to the consumers. It is no aceídent that residential mobility is greatest in late summer and early falJ when stored foods are at their lowest bulk. 5imilarly, there is always the bulk problem associated with the transport of goods. It is never worth the eflort to make extended trips in search of food if one does not make judgments a5 to how to Itl/lx;lIliu the consumer utility of the matl'rial transporh.·. d. Simil.uly, given high costs of thc procuremtmt of foods auring periods of low Eood abundance, and uncertainties regarding the procurement of addilional (oods and the potential security uf stores, it makes no scnse not to st.'l'k the maximum utility from foods on hand. We have seen this repeatedly in the form of dif·
Pare' Ierenñal usagc of different anatomícal parts accompanled by dlfferent consumption stratcgtcs . Mobllity has been cheractenzcd as thc final accommodatlon betwcen logistical and storege options. Mobility is the manifest pattem of a positioning strategy. The decísions that result in moves are based on judgments. 5uch judgments take into consideration the probable distribution of resources in tbe hábitat. the probable utility of their stores. the costs in movíng consumera versus supplyin~ consumers logistically, and finally thc relative labor demanda for executing different types ol procurement, storage, and logistical f
Loglotlcally Related Varlabll"y--6alnlns Space Utllltv Throughout the study I ha ve emphasized that the basic problem to be solved in logistical situiltions is that of thl' !'ucc('Sosful transport uf gOllds fmm poin!s t..Jf procurement to points uf consumption. In alllogistical contexts the use or abandonment of anatornical parts is in lerms of sornE." negative utility eriteria. The teleolo¡:;y in such situations is simply lo returo to consumers the greatest quantity of the highest quality íood given the limitations of laDor avaJlabihty, means of transport, and dis-
1459) tances lnvolved. Therefore, it 15 posslblc tu certaln general propositíons: 1. The greatcr thc distence over which meut ls te be transported, per unit uf time, the more radical will be the euIling of low-utility anatomical parts along the transport route. 2. The greater the bulk of material lo be transponed, per unit of time, the more radical will be the culling of low-utility enutomical parte along the logistical route. o(f~r
5ueh gencralizations are lntcresting. However, in the reality of archacologtcal remaina culling does not take place continuously along Ihe logistical route. In addition tu the point that logístical strategies resull in lugisti(ally related archaeulogical sitcs (kili sites, hunting stands, hunting camp, and Ihl' Iikc) culIin~ is a behavior thóll m,lY wdl bl' l'mbl'ddl'd in other stratcgil's sut:h <1S consumplioll ur processing for storage. AH kili sites were found to fit sorne form of an inverse general utility index (IGUI-see Figure 2.13-2.18), although the index was found to be weighted in various ways such as in a conservativc fashion or in tcrms of a form where other consideratíons werl' evidl'nccd, such as dryability of parts. NCVl'rtlldl'Ss, all kili
sítes Jit sorne lIegat;ve f07m of Q utility illdex regardless of $eaSOtl. 5imilarly, alllumtillg stallds exhibited a l¡lrm modeled by crileria of marroH'-btme se1t'clioll (see Table 7.9). Thc criteria rangl'd from thl' marrow index to its cubed fmm as wdl as a Jimited-access formo The assemblagcs varied primarily in terms of the form of the populaIion from which the choice of marrow bones was made and whether provisions Werl" introdueed from the residentiallocations. Tht'st' conditions varied in terms of th ..• "placemenl" of the location rl'!ativt:' to the lWl·r.lll hl~isti(.ll sl'<.luencl'--thilt is, whethl'r it W.lS., hlgistk.ll nocle through which meilt was bl'ing mO\'l'd llr whether it was a location lnto which foods were introduccd f10m a IOJ;istical or maintenance localion. 1also noted that the composi. tion of the group at the si te conditioned the type of consurnption, and that considerable variability was introduced when there was
,. 14601 secondary use made uf the bone materinl-c-fur inr;t¡,ncr, if bono juin' Wí\1i miln~lfilrlun.·d Uf if bone was used as a baste UT 5uppll'li\l'ntdry fuel. Hunting earnps con.!llnm'Cl to a basic paítcrn in tlrat011 assemblages lit sorne fonn ofa cu// modet. ln all hunting camps, locations where persons engaged in the procurement of golme were
maintained while engaged in these activities, there was a biased deletion of marginal parts
from a population already bíased in favor of high-utility parts (see rabie 6.20). These locafions dlffered from the hunting stands in that they were more variable in the associated faunal assemblages.ln addition, thl're was no particular bias noted in favor of marrow bones ayer and aboye that indicated by the general utility rneasures. Most of the variability noted arose from the relative cvntribution to the assemblage of parts introduced from residentiallocations, the relative hunting success, the character of thl' population from which parts Wl're culled, and the compJcxity of the consumL'f population (specifically. whetheror not do~~ wcrc prcsent).fn additiun, tlll'r~ was the added source of variance associatcd with the dcgrec to which processing lor either storage or the reduction of bulk was conduded early in a logistical sequence or whether it was deJayed until goods were moved further along such a sL'qul'nce. The introduction of thl' notion of pn.lCl'ssing as 0ppusL'd to culling cal1s (lr " di~cussion ()f storage-rPlatro variability. Sl.orage-Related VarfabllUyGalnlng Tlml! UtllUy • In ,111 {'aSl'S of ,1nimals takl'n for stnf
9. Cond....o...
sociatcd with the dismembcrment of frozcn anirnals. DrYlt'lg was accor.tpanll,d by spl'd~1 t'i'~i ccsstng. Processlng diffcrs from culling. Cufl-
illg is fhe seíectioe rt't'lQvalor use ollow~ufilify parís o{ the anatomy. ProCt'Ssing is file inueeíment o{ fabor in íbe rwaval of low·utility componente
from lligh-utility anaíomical eíements. Thus when an animal is culled there is an indirect relationship between the likelihood oí removal or deletíon of a part and its general utilityvalue. When a part is proccssed there is a dlrect relationship between the Hkellhood of the removal or abandonment of abone and its gencral utility value. Proccssing complicates the relationship befween bone frequ~ncies, utility values, and site types relative to the generalizations offered regarding logistical sites. 1{ prol,.'t$sing ocrurs alo"8a logistical route
eitlJer for bulk red"rlio" or in terms of anticipafed of Oll' t/ll'llt, flsscmNagl's may r('SI/U 11IIIf
!tftlrage
Jlat't"I¡,"111 {tI'fluendlos IIfImtlllli1.J1- Ilud ftlw- utility parts witlt tllt' n/{hk"'fl'iy valued ¡l/iris l¡dllo'< It'fl:,l common.
In thl' casc uf proCL'Ssing fllr drying thL'rL' is an added incentive for the removal of bone from high-utility parts in that the bones serve as reservoirs of decay when marroW or brains are contained within the bone. Thus, in the proccssing [or drying we see a consistent bias in f¡,'Vor of the rcmoval of boncs frum·'high· utility anatnmical sL'gmL'nts. As thl' J;l.-'m'rill utility of the scr;mcnt decreased I found it inversc1y rclated to the ffL'<Juency with which procL'Ssing labor would bt.' investl'd in tht' pllrt. In addititln,' found th.1t pr(H.:l'ssin~ timl' inL"tl'asl'd with rl'<.iuctillns in thL' smmlthnl'sS of thL' bones oc'in); rl'mt)\ll.-,d. Thus pro«'SSill~ was more common fur IL'g bone." and lL'sS common for vertebral' and other roughsurfaced bones regardless of meat ulility. ( noted that, since processing is the removal of low·utility c1ements from high-ulilily Sl'g· rnents, there ís an analogy between the character of parts processed for dryin~ (stor· age) and those processed for achieving a bulk reduction for logistical reasons. In sorne cases processing for 5forage may be conducted in
Pon I
14611
IlIgistk,11 sdtings (Sih.'s 64 and ;\.111) lo g.lin thc situation of simple bulk rcductiou slll'h 1'.lrts ,ldv""lil~~' uf tlll' bulk rcduction whcn thc would be ilh.·n'.lsingly ab.mdoued ,11 llu- hll,.'.lm''oll obl,lim'u i§ u"§IiIll'U (01 ~lorJ~l' ..1"'_ (iUI1 111 favuI IIf hi~h-qu"llIy pmtl'ss..d nuut. wherc. (Sec also the Cartbou Eskirno example Decisíons made in logtsücal settings m<1Y be in Figure 5.34.) Such field proccssing is not substantially modiñed in terrns of anticipated rcstricted to meat, as is exempliñcd by the future mobility of consumers. This is well numerous skins drying in late fall hunting iIIustrated by Billy Morry's dry meat cache, carnps and stands. This situation was and the stone caim meat caches at Tulugak generalized as follows: Undried skins are slm- Lake and Kongumuvuk. ln these situations ply too heavy. A single, moderate-sized populations of parts were cached in locations caribou skin weighs about 35 lb when fresh, relative te anficipated future mobility. The but after drying its weight is minimal-Iess rairns are examples of "insurance' caches; than 3112 lb. Drying the skins for transport parts of modérate utility that would ha ve hígh takcs time end such "dead time" is used in processing and transport costs were placed in scrapjn~ tnc skins and in pcrforming tne th~m. In thc BiIly Morry ~xampll', hi~h c1t'aning tasks i'lssociatcd with the lírst stages quality processcd meat was cachcd in antid· of skin preparation for use ilS clothing matepation of a [uture move uf consumers doser to rial. 1 may point out that otht'r bulk-reducing the area of the cache. These cachl's are acactivities are more common in locations where commodations of logistics to anticipated fu· skins are being dried for transport. This is also tUTe mobility-another example uf the intetrue foc differentiated Use of anatomical parts gration achjeved amonp; logistical. stor,l~e, as l.-'xL'mplifk'd by tht, milnufacturc of bone and consumption str.1tl'~iL's. ¡uice and bonc grl'cl jng and one {or bulk reduction, would be in and OCcur in stacks of analogou!'i an.ltomical the rd.ltivc frequcncy of moderatcly valucd parts. Such conscrvationtll prL'(aulinns Wl'fe parts. In the drying situation moderately val· rarely taken unless the cache was of dried ued parts art' gt.'ncralIy also those with relameat and was on or very ncar the processing tively high drying potential without process. loeation, ¡ng. These would be removed unprocessed to The stone cairns are located considerabJe the drying rack. On the other hand, in the distances from the areas of bulchering and
1 ,
(462)
9. COnf:'.,.lon.f
...... --.,-..--,.
source of meat, and (e) regular patteming for consumption sequences assodated with the use of dry meat stores cver an extended period of time (see Chapter 6).
Con.u...... Utl/l'Y
Flgun! 9.1.
8ulch"'ring dl'brl" bt.'inJ; bumcd al
il
pru-
,..",~¡n¡.\ loc,llion.
processing; many are in relatively high places, along talus deposits where (11) ground squirrel populations are low, (b) winds aTe high, ¡lod (c) wall'r is SG'lrCL', These tOFl1grilphk,il bi.:lsl..'s ('OSUfl' thólt jf .. ir circulation ís "dl-'lll..,h.' the storoo meat will be partially dril?d in storage, aod flies and ground squirrels will rarely find t\1l' ('"ches. If cairns are construdc"d in ¡l sufH· c.'kntlv sul'!stilOlial manm'T, loss frllm bl'.US, Wt1lvl:S,
.1m'l (OXl'S will bl'minil11
Ir,'p.....Hulfm .... Ctlrl\:rows Wl'fl' pl.1Cl·d .Hollnd
such caches. None of the conservational precautions mentioned would be taken in situations where pl'ocessing was for bulk reduction and usab1e materials were to be removed from the location after proccssing. We may generalize that fidd IJrl)n'S~i'IS lit
rwimals l(Iilf i"crea~( as tln' l1umbt.'r of animals (wtaitlcd incrt.'tlsrs rdative to tht.' disttHlCt' (rofr wlridl tlrl'Y must br tram;portl'Ct,
Despite the complications that processing introduces a signature pattern for parts placed in dry storage emerged (see Figure 3.12). Thus, dues to the practice of dry storage are to bl' noted in s~veral situations: (a) the presenee uf processíng debris accumulated and deposHed only a short time after animals Me obtained, (b) signature patteros for filunal fr('tluC'nciL's in consumption pOpUI.ltions whl'n dril'd ml'at is the exclusive or cuntributory
In epeakíng oí consumer utility I have noted procedural dtfferences as well as strategy differences in the aUempt to maximize food potential frorn resources. Procedural differences include the different ways of preparing food in different settings and in dlfferent combinations. Strategy differences include the selection and allocational criteria used in deciding what will be eaten when and in what WilY. COIISllll1l'lhlll is afTmys IICCtl'",II(l(I"h'd It' t/¡l'/PSisticaí, Sltlrag~, and social IItility stmt~XÍl'S vI ttse momento A good example of accommodation is the biased consumption of elements oí the swing population during and immediately following the placement of parts on dry-storage racks. 5uch n slrntl'~Y largets for cunsumption those pnrts thi'lt hnvl.' tlnly modl'ratl' drying potential withoul bein~ processed. These same parts are, however, those with onlr modcrah.' vahlt' as SOUrl"L'S of food, whkh ml'.,"S Ihnt tht' n,tllrn from a pron.'ssjn~ invl':-.tml'nt i:-o IllW. Bi,lSl'd nmsumption of lI11'sl' p.lrlS l'lUly in tllL' ."l'tllll'llt·C of ('on.'lulllplilln from dried meat stores elimina tes the need for processing and ensures that maximum use,is made of these parts, Another example of the accommodation of consumer strategies to the realities of the logistical, storagl', and socinl situation was seen in the strongly multidimensional character of the residential assemblages from thc spring season. We saw thallhere were several different and near-simultaneous locations where animals were processed, cuned, and finally stored. The faunal populations in the residentiallocations reflected the compounding of segrnl'nts deriv....d from the severallocations in the logistical and storage sequences. For instance, marrow bones in the residential localions had b('{'n positively se\t'cted from the pr(le('!'lsin~ dL'l:'lris n'mainin~ from stripping ml'at for drying. On thl' utht..'r h..mtl,
Pon I
sorne parte, such as the head and mandíble, were sefected for use from the cull at killbutchertng locations. Additionally, sorne animals appear to hnve been introduced directly into the resídential locaticns for processmg and in such cases culIed elements were fed to dogs. sorne parts were processed Ior dryIng. and consumption from such animals was largely from elements of the swing population. 5tHI another example is provided by the marrow bones recovered from the dispersed spring hunting stands and the spring drying camp of the Billy Morry famlly. ln both situations we note an exclusive bias in favor of marrow bonos from thc rear lef;. In addition, thcre Wi'lS sornething oí a gourmet selection among the rear leg elements. This seemingly indulgent strategy can also be seen as an accommodation to the extant situation rather than as an l'X
(463) grease, the processing of marrow for aklltllk and storage. and the differential preparation of sorne anatomical parts depending on thcir Iresh versus stored condition. In the case of bone grease and bone juice manufacture, there is an accompanying destruction of parts beyond eccogntuoo. This activity clearly can distcrt thc picture rcmaining for the archaeologtst regarding the relative frequencies of faunal elements uriginally present on (he site. Throughout this study I have addressed the problem of (a) identifying the likelíbood that such bchavior took place in the past, (b) anticipating the cheracter of such behavior, and (e) dlscrirninañng such processing activitics from uther conditions that could have destroyed or delcted anatomical p.uts from an assemblage. To aid in such analysis l ha ve systematically prescnted data on the number of long-bone splinters and articulator cnds. In addition, I haVt' rcportt'd rib ratios as possibly infurmatiVL' as to wht..,thl'r frt.'sh oc storcd ribs Wl're bL'ingnmsumt,d on the sitt's. In the following sections I Sh.1I1 review the accumulated information and evaluatl' the dl'grel' tu which thcse dala l"
During the earlier phases of my work among the Nunamiut, I attempted to recover all the beme fragments remaining on a site. This inc1udcd bune splintt'rs as wl'lI ,1S all the very small bone chips. 1 rt.'ali7.ed that this stralt.'gy could nol continul' if I was tu accomplish thl' excavation or rccording uf i1S many sitt.'s as desired, so we shifted to recovering only splinters more than 1.5 cm in lenglh. This means thal there are two 5ets of d
l"
JABLE 9.i
I
Pan 1
14651
Raitloe 01Bo... SpUnten lo ArtIcula.m End. 101' $It.. o, Kaown ActM....
done, the ratios of observed to expected values are very close indeed. There are 10 minus valúes and 11 plus valúes in the difference cclumn. suggcsting that the differences are largdy minor, probably vague fluctuations duc to sampling and recoVl..'ry as wcll as varlance in brcakage pattems. Thc mean minus value (exclusive of the data {rom the personalized stands) is -.24, and the mean for the plus values (exclusive of the data from the Mask sítc) is + .13. These devlations are wry small and consistent with a random pattern of variance. The underrepresentation oC spünters at the personallzcd slands is a result oí a bias in collcction. These locetions tended to be covered with vegetatíon, but in spite of this, I attempted lo rccover all the very tiny chips. 1 am fairly confident that the underrepresentation of spllnters and chips as opposed to articulator ends ís a result of a failure in my ccllectíng strategy. The overrepresentation of splinters and chips at the Mask sito is not as easily undcrstood. It is my guess that my failure to report diffcrences between hearth contents and scattered debris is the source of this dl'vialion fnllll lhllr.l'xpl'clt.'d riltios, As in must situations, there was bone in Ihe hearths on the Mask sile. Burning results in additional breakage and reductions in size of splinters, The re!'ultinR increase in thl' number of splinters and chips is, in my opinion, Ihe Tcason that we observe an inordinalely high ratio for thl' M.1Sk site. Sites {ln which bonl' juicl' was knowll ltl h.lVl' bl'l'n m.lnufadun.'d or those Whl'rt' bonc..'s w...·re known (o hi1Vl' Dt't'n us",'d fur ful'1l'xhibit a v('ry differl'nl patkrn. In al! caSl'S, tile observed values L'xceed the expecled values, showing an f,'Xcess of bone splintcrs rt.'!alivl' to the numbcr of articulator ends pn..'sent. In all casc..~, the exccss uf splinters is mClderate, rallging fmm + J.57 lo + 7.40 (mean, 4. JO). The productinn of bolle juice has certain propcrties in common with thl' use of h(m(' liS fud, In ~('nl'r.ll, hUlle ¡uin' ¡s pro· t1ul"t'd ('uinddt'nUy wilh 111(' pn'p.lr,llitlll of IU(lt! 101' nll1SUmplilln. lls prepar.ltioll is pt'rIlIflIu'd :,iltl,IIiIlIl.llly dl'I'\'ll\ling 1111 pl'rimlk inputs of food, Thus, we would rarely expl'Ct bone ¡uice preparation to accompany al! in-
Splinte~
ArliClJlalors Observed
Expected
Dillcrence
A. Sifrs w/rrrt' 111) ,o.:fl'aS(' processirlg IUJS condue/t'd 'ohn Morry (1948)
2.67
2.82
Frank Rulland (194R) Schoolteacher
3.00 2.66
Akmoglik
2.61
Kakinya
3.16 3.71 9.8
2.94 2.84 2.75 3.22
Bear
Anavik-
3.08 10.09
12.1'1
12.3 12.4
Anakliqtiluk A"
Anakliqtiluk 8" Anavik A·B·e"
Mask" Personal stands" Kongumuvuk high carnp" Site 17
3.56
Big Happy New Virar
3.45
Uttle Happy New Year A-J stand Hugo stand Morry stand
2." 1.82
(;i;1Il1 C1\'~'k
Contarl Cred:
13.2
12,07 14.9 lQ.5 12.09
-.15 +.06 -,18 -.14
-.06 +.63 -,29 -.30 -.HO
12.0 13.68 14.5
+.07 +-1.33 -4.00
12.36
-.27 +-.16 +.33 +.10 +.10 -.01 +.03
3.40 3.12 2.73 1.72
2.50
2.51
2.60 2.14 2.97
2.57 2.1)4
~.W
2.57
+.40 ±.44
Mean difference B. Si!~ whtrt OOtlt' juirr UIlIS ,'rcllfuud or /Io"t lilas u!1td as(lit! "mal~amali(ln
4.lN
2.47
+1.62
In~~led
7-32
H.OH
Ne. Silc 27
A.01 4.10
3.24 2.61
(19~~1
2""
+5.46 +215 + 1.57
:1.10
2.2ft
9.10 4.61
1.70
+-7.411
2.25
+2.36 +4.10
Tulukana
61.6,1
2.43
Disturbed
86.72
2,47
+59.20 +804.25
Kakinya (COrtt'Cled)
18-76 HUí6
2.44 2>1
+16.15
11.';~
2,7~
+ 1l1.KO
21.1"
20tH
+ 1\1.11 \ JI.:\oI
Sill' 27 (I"l'\'inus) Sil ...338 Kongumuvuk f.111 (amI' Mean difference
C. 5i,¡o<: uolrtrt /Ionr grfflSt'
WIJS
prlldllr:rd
Bear (corrected) 1';1I.1n¡';,ln.l Iltlllst' 1
""'''''V,.''',l 1"111"'- 2 MI'Ml dill\'H'IU\' /l.
+16.32
~11l'~ JI'/rnr' rlllllll'~ u'nl'
dt'stwyrd Rull¡1nd~
" Sil('s wnl'fl;' both splinl('fo; ;lnd chips
15.8
1.87 Wl.'fl'
colle<:tt>d.
-1.193
l
puts of meat to the location. The same is true
for the use of bone as fuel. Similarly, bone juíce is prepared in hunting stands and huntingcampsinmuch thc same wny, namely, it is a ~l'fcial preparatíon associatcd with SIII1lI'S;hllltítlllS o/ introduced foods, but it is not a general stratcgy executed in all Input situations. This normal1y means that sorne parts amenable to processing for bone [uice will be introduccd and escape such processing. Dectsíons to make or not make bono [uice are commonly made in terms of (o) the food security of the group at the time of a given meat input and'or (/1) sorne estímate of the storagc potcntial of these bones, given dtffering temperature variations, for the future processlng oí bone grease. As far as the Nunamiut are concomed. most bone juice processing occurs either al summer and early falllocations, or in hunting camps and stands where the warm broth ís considered a good pick-me-up for cold and tired hunters. Most of the small. periodic inputs of meal resulting from hunting dispersed animals are Iikely to occur duriog summer and ('.lrly fall. Similarly, tht'Sl' Ml' t11l' nwnlhs during whkh tlll' :-Ht1r.lgl' of .utkul.ltllr l'llds lllr future bone grease processing is not a reJiable strategy, Of the seven locatiolls where bone ¡uice manufacture was documented, five were occupied during summer and two Wt'fl' ocCUpil'd during fall. Thrt'(' of the sites afl' residentiallocations and four are hunting camps or stands. Bone jUicl' prnCl'ssing is a maximizin¡.; ~tr.ltt.'gy fuq~eltin~ thl' most out of limitl'd material when it i~ irnmeditltl'!v .lVilil.lblt.,. In ~ysl{'rns otl1c..'r than the NUIl:lmiul, wherl' hunted foods .m.'introducc..'d irrl'gul.uly and in relatively small quantitit.'s, 1 anticipa le that bone juice proccssing will bl' il m(lrl' gl'nc..'roll stratcgy carried out with H'!'iPl'(t to almost all meat inputs. Bone juice procl'ssing .lmong thl' Nunamiut is generally rcstricled to thl' processing of parts that are considl'rc..'doptim.ll fur yidding white gH"l~f,', In olh('( IO(iltitlO"', .1IHJ in silu.llitlns wilt'r" htlllh'd flltlds oIft' rolfl', I wtluld ('xpl'rl a mon' ~~t'nt'r,ll. ,llld JI'SS sl'lt'\'11l'1', pl'tln'ss¡llt~ pi \lom's h., 11l'tltl1. I Il.l\'l' examined some taunal as~embltlges {mm Ihl' American Southwest, and am aware of others
[466J
from MacNeish's excavations in the Ayacucho Valley of Peru where very extensive destructíon 01 the bones of the axial skeleton was carried out in the rrocess of preparing Done juice. This type o less-selectíve destruction
should increase as the contribution oí hunted foods decreases in the diet, oc in situations where there are food shortagcs. The six assemblages that represen¡ the remains after bone grease processing exhibit a very different set of relationships between the observed and expected valúes. The fOUT residential Jocations where bone greesc manufacture was conductedafteraperíod o{accumuíaííon have high positive valúes for the difference between observed and expected valúes. The range is from 10.8 to 19.31, meaning that the number of splinters excrrds the number anticipated based on the obsetved articulator ends by those values. This ímmediately teUsus that sorne substantial quantity of articulator ends is missing from the assemblage. These values are all considerably aboye those observed for situations where bonc juice was manufac· tured. This marked difference derives from the faet thal thc production of bone grease is an activity conducted after an accumulation ol appropriate parts culled from the debris re· m",inin~ from daily consumption. Thus, unlikc the situation where bone juice is manulac· tured immediately as part of a consumption slrategy associated with each input, Ihe accumulation of articulator ends for bone grease manufacture touches all acts of consumption throughout the period of occupation. The resull is that higher proportions of the arti,¡:ulator ends introduced are actually processed and destroyed during bone grease manufacture just prior to abandoning the site. Nevertheless, all articulator ends do not end up in the cache for later processíng. For instance, parts fed to dogs are removed from consideration as sources of bone grease. Articulator ends used as dog foad are not later collected from the dog feeding areas and added to the cache. Because of this, more articulator ends remain at the site fUf liS to rl'WVl'r. Similelrly, thl'ft' arl' othl'r sl:wdal cir·
9. Concl.,.,oIU
cumstances of feeding and snacking where potential sources of bone grease slip out into the population of bone debris on the site and are not placed in the accumulating cache of parte destined for destruction. The contrast between the systematic accumulation of parts cver a substantial period of time versus the short-term processing uf large 9uantítíes of immediately avallable matenal IS well ilIustrated by the exceptionally large difference in the values for the Tulukana and Disturbed sites. These sites were occupied by a small group who had been successful in killing a large quanrity oí caribou at Summit Lake. They processed the mass kili Ior drying. This meant that there were large {luan· títies of leg bones available over a very short span of time. The bones were then systematically processed, first for marrow and then for bone grease. The result was that there was only a very minor accumulation of debris from daily consumption. Because of this, very few articulator ends entered the debris population as a result of normalloss and diffenmtial usagc such as dog fel'ding. Neverthell'ss, thl' lluJn· tity of bonl's prucl'sscd for bone greasl' was quite large. Thus, the quantity processed was in no way proportional to theamount of dl'bris accumulated from consumption durin~ the shoet duration of tht.'occupation. On al~ uthl'r residentialsites the opposite was the case"},The amount processed was in sorne way proporlional to the amount consumed and, ín turn, lo the quantity of debris gencrated. Therdorc, we note extremely inflated values for the Tulukana and Disturbed locations, and a 10wer set of values for the long-duration occu· pations. The data from the Runand site íIIustrate an opposite pattern. Here the difference between obsetved and expected ratios is -13.93. That is, there are far fewer splínters observed than one would expect given the number oí elrticulator ends present. It will be recaHed that informants told us that the bone dumps had been in a small ditch, which is seasonally wíl~hl'd during hl'.wy mdt conditions. TIll' dumps Wl'fl' not pn'sl'rvl'd ólTcheleolo~kellly.
Por1.1
The minus ratio signifies this condítion quite accurately. Thus, among the control collections the ratios of splinters to articulator ends monitor quite nicely the conditions that resulted in the deletion from the observable assemblage either of articulatcr ends or debris from cracking marrow boncs. In uddition, the ratio is sensitive to differing processing conditions (such as bone juice versus bone grease). as well as to scheduling of processing, as in the case of the Tulukana and Disturbed ettes. versus the other locations where bone greaee was manufactured. There are, of course. other conditions that may result in the delction uf anatomical parts from a faunal assemblage. Destruction of parts by feeding them to dogs is one such condition and has been repeatedly documented. In the case of two winter dog yards from the cootemporary village (sel' Binford and Bertram 1977: 80-81) the ratios for corrected values of the articulator ends were 5.04 and 5.24, and the cxpl'cted víllul's Wl're 3.21 and 3.33, respectively. The diffcH'nc('s arl' both positive and within the ral'lge for the sites Iisted in Table 9.1 where bone juice was manufactured. Data from threeadditionalassemblages where dogs Wl're the only destructive agents are available.ln these cases, however, tabulations were made before 1 realized the need for correcting the valul's of articulator ends relative to thl' frl'quency uf cylinders and shafts, as described in Chapter 4. Thus. the raw ratios, not corrected for shafts and cylinders, yielded values of 2.33 observed to 3.05 expected for Brain's Hottentot goat sample (Brain 1969: 17); 1.49 observed and 2.93 expected for my Navajo summer camp sampie (Binford and Bertram 1977: 103); and 1.96 observed to 2.41 f'xpected far the Navajo winter camp sample. The differences between corrected and uncor· rected data certainly account for the consistent negative difference between the observed and expected values in the last three cases. I rnust condude that the values of these ralios taken alonl' do nut appear to discrimin..tl' bt:tw('en d(,~ dl':-otrudion "nd bom' juin' milnuí"dure
[4671 as conditions under which articulator ends were deleted from an assemblage. In orderto assess the probabilities of agents, such as dogs or scavenging animals, acting on a faunal assemblage, we must turn to morphological eriteria for the survívmg bones. 1 have pointed out that there are regular potteros of destruction assodntcd wíth dll~ gnawing-scooping out of articulator cnds. high Irequencies of shafts as well as cylinders. and a high incidence of mashed and bruised edges along bone projections or reJatively llat bone margina as in the pelvis, scepule, and ribs. As of yet, the detatled morphological study of bonc modífications by dogs has not been done in a systematic manner. J have the materials for such a study and look forward to it being accomplished in the future. Finally, we can appreciate that thl're are likely to be sorne rather marked effects on the ratios of articulator ends to splinters resulting from natural processes oí bone decay related to soil acids, pressure, or exposure. In my studies oí bone dl'nsity (Binford and Bl'rtram 1977), I obscrVl'd thJt shaft splintl'rs Wl'rl' consistently amung the densest bones in the anatomy of both sheep and caribou. This means that givf?n density~rdated destruction, the survival probJbilitil'!' for,:,h.lft!'plintl'r!' clfl' higher than those for thl' ..rticurator t.'nds. That is, the destruction beyond recognition of articulator ends will procecd at a fastN rate than the destruction of shnft splintl'Ts. Thl'rc· fore, we would expect that. givl'n bOOl' dl'cay, the observed values oí the ratio should in~ crease as a function oí thc degree of attrition that has taken place on the assemblage. Under such conditions, we might expect a potentially continuous distribution of vaiues that might well appear to be similar to values obtained when bone grease was manufactured or wh('n irnmediate processing of large quantities of material was carried out (such as at the Tulukana and Oisturbed sites). This means that we rnust be able to recognizc the acrion of postdepositional agents of destruclion before making usc of thl' splíntl'r hl
r-r
,. -
strucfion by mano If this control can be achieved, 1believe that the rafias may be given dircct bchavioral meaning. RrBRATIOS. Consistent observations were made on the number of proximal ends of ribs and the number of rib fragments occurring on sites. 1 noted that when fresh meat was direcdy available, there was a practice of breaking the ribs into smaIl segmente and sucking
the broken ends. 00 thc other hand. when ribs werc consumed out of eithcr dned or Irozen stcres, there was an attempt to prcvent breaking them, since the small quantities of blood and ffbrous contente of the rib cavity wereapt to be putrid. J should cmphesizc that él convention has bcen used in tabulating these data. The convention derives from the recognition thet. during butrhenng, the rib slabs are normally eraeked or broken away from the thoracic vertebrae. This results in the heads of the ribs normally being butchered out with the thoracic vertebrae and riding with the vertebraco For this TCd heads of ribs were oot tabulated, sinel' thl'Y tend to assodatc wilh thorade vt'rlebrat'. IsoJah.'d heads Wt'n' unly !élbuliltt'd as heads if él substanlial segmt.'nt (mon' Ih.m I ineh) nf the rib blade remained attached. Table 9.2 summarizes the rib ratios fmm 33 documented faunal assemblages, ea1culated undcr lhl' cunvl'ntions discuSSl,d. AH V.l!tU.'S c..·nc!nsed in parcnthl'sc..'S are..' valul's fmm sitL's ahout which we have good informant infor~ation indicating the introduction or primary use of ml'elt from drit'd stllra~l'. At al1 !Ill' hunting st.mds. tlll' mijo is highly nm<;ish'nl ;Hld Itlw, wilh 1I1l' I'Xl'I'pli(JIl IIf Bj~ 11.1PPY Nt'w Yt',¡r. WIH'H' Wt' "'now 11,,11
IllI'•• l
Inllll
village stores was introduCl-d during the prernigration monitoring phase of fall hunting. Thes€ are aH iocations where consumption was from immediately availabl~ fresh meat sources. Among the hunting camps, the pattem continues, such that sites where fresh
meat was immediately available exhibit low valúes. The surnrner rcsidennal camps consístently cxhlbit thc hfghcst rntios and thcse, in turn, are the sites where there was the greatest dependence on dried meato The interesting exception to this generalization is the Ingsted stte, where 1 previously noted that there was a food shortege, the su mmer stores being largely exhausted. My earlier analysis showed that consurnption was mainly from minor inputs of fresh mea! obtaincd durtng widcranging encounter hunting. The rib ratio reñects this condition. Among the fall locations, we note modérate rib ratio valúes except Ior the Dísturbcd site. Thesc are a1l sites wbcrc Iresh mcat was lntroduced and processcd. The modérate valúes almos! certainly rctlect a mixed consumption slrategy with sorne use of fresh meat and sorne use of dried meat. The high value for the Disturbed site Is difficult lo interpret since the site had becn previously excavated and 1 was not abte to obtain any site structural information. JI is my guess that tht.'f(' had bt.'en an abómdolll'd meat rack on this sitc with re1óltivdy large qUélntitil's of nearly complete rib slabs contributing strongly to the canten! of the assemblage. This is jusi a guess, however, and will forcVl'r r('main SUdl. On the winlt'T sitcs, thl' ralios ilppn1ilt'h th()Sl' n'ílli:t.l'd 1m tht'hunlin¡.; ~l,lnds and cílmps whl're drit,d meat W.1S intf(t~uced and consumed. As 1 previously noted, fhere was an attempt made to cook frozen rib Slilbs by boiling, and also a conscious attempt made to boíl thl'Sl' wíthout bfl'akin}; thc..' rib bl.ldes, and L'xposing thl' inh.'riors. Among these assemblages, the rib ralills distinguish perfectly between sites where consumption WélS frum frt'sh ml'al souret'S .md thost' whl'n' nmsumpti(lO W,lS frllm l'ithl'r dri('d ur (rozl'n stort's. JI is my ('XP('rl,)tioll Ilhll l!lis p,llh'l"ll Is Ihll lllliqlll' 11' lile Nunamiut. A number of suggestions made earlicr in this book about consumption patterns have not yet beL'o mentioned in this ehapter. For instance, 1 noted that the Nunamiut were aware oí the smalJ quanlity of marrow in the
1-,
"." TABLE 9.2
Summ.ry of Rlb Spring A.. fllm/i,¡S slallds Anavlk An.lklhJtauk A An.)kli\lt,luk Il M.1.~k
Personal stands Big Happy Nt'w Year Lillll' Happy New Year
RAtI~"
Summer
Wintt'r
.12 .14 .06 ./3
15 (.47) .12 14 /3 .1'
A·J HU~
Mnrry Kongumuvuk (Fall) Giant Creek Contad Crt'l'k M~an veluc
Fall
.09 .12
.13 0.12
B. H,mfillg mmps Anavik A·S-C Kon¡.;urnuvuk (J-li~h) Sill' 27 (llJSS) Sitt' 2';1o(previ(lus) Sil!' 338 Silc 17 M\',¡n v,llul'
.12(.17)
.13
l' (.46) (.55)
.17 .14 0.16(.31)
C. /(,os/d""lm' '111111'._ IlJhn Murry (194R) Frank Rulland (1941\) S<:ho(Jlt~acher
17 .1' (.53) (.75) .lb
Amalgamalion InR~h'ct Akmu~lik
l.")
Tulllkana OislUrl:Jed
."
"
N"
.2X
KakinYiI
..17
.'"
KIII),lnd
lll'.lr 1',II.1tl~.1tl,1 11"II~l' I
Palan¡.;ana IJollse 2 Mean vdlue
"
.'.1 .1'
.53
.3.
~ Parenlheses indicate kn(lwledgl" of primarily dried mea! consumrliOll al sitc.
.54 .51
,,~,
,~
ability arisíng Irom consumer accommodamargins of the mandible. 1also noted that they lions can be expccted tu increase. This rncans do not procesa the mandible for the recovery that consurner sites that are scemingly ídcntiof thls small rnorsel today. The older men cal in function from systems that are variable recall that this was done in the past, in the in organlzaríonal complexíty can be expected days ot their youth, when the AJaska caribou to be variable in faunal content depending un herd was al its recorded populational low. the situational and system-state condltions Similarly the processing of phalanges for marrow and the breaking of the pelvis and the characteristic at the time of occupation. In short, an assemblage carnes more informatíon scapula tor the small morsels of included marrcgarding tho ongolng systcm-smtc both prior row werc all ronsumption alternativcs known to and after the occupation than it is likely to to most of the Eskimos. Whl'ther thcy acnmlly carry in tcrms of ,1 sti.llk functional typoltl~Y \l( executed thcsc altcrnativcs W.lS clenrly n..,ié'ltl,d to the security 5tale of the consumers. UndE"T sites or locations, modem conditions the Nunamiut enjay rela· tively high levels of subsistence security, aod SocIal Utll"y-Sharlng-Re/alft Varlabll"y One o( Ihe conditions thM was noted to vary these emergency procedures are not comwithin the faunal remains from the Neandermanly practiced. Jn my experienc(' with thal site of Combe Grenal was lhe rl'!atiVt' archaeological assemblages I have noted the lreguent occurrence 01 broken mandibles, frequency pattern llf anatomical parts from broken phalanges, and so on, evidcnct' of different spccies occurring in the samc ;uchaeological deposits. In all cases whcre both labor investmenls for truly marginal returns. Dne could develop a "breakage ralio" similar mounlnce for the assemblage under study. This ralio would be rather simple to cakulate. Thl' maximum very different manner in which caribou and sheep are utilízecl by the Nunamiut. In the number of complete bones that could occur in earibou data, know1t.'dgc uf the ilnatL1my is an assemblage would be divided intu lhe numbC'r nf complcll' htmcs obsl'rvcd in Ihe being uSl'd to m..kl' judr:ml'nts rdati'w to logistic. sttlrag~', nnd nmslllllpfion str.ltq~it's, "ssl'mbl.,~l' f(lr ('mort> bulk oricnkd the curve, the situations that are indt.'pendl'nl of lile chataemore labor invested for less rcturns; the more ter of the persons present in the situation. gourmet oriented the curve, the less process~ With sheep this is not lhe case. For these IOg investment in parts of marginal utility. animals, knowledge u( the anatomy is molppt'd Consumption among the Nunamiut is the onto plaees only when the bulk input5 are most heterogeneous, "dependent" aspect of largl', or when the distances Me gn'at ot wlll'n theuseof .animal foods, Wc have s~n that jt ís a hunting party Is poorly prnvisiuned ..nd llw accommodatt'd at aH juncturl's to thl.' Illgísti. distance to be traveled is considerable. Thus, cal, storage, social, and overallsecurity condlthere is a logistical component to Shl't'P hunt· tions of the group at a given time. As a suurce ing and it is represented archaeologic.1lly at of intersite variability, it should be clcar that as the-system varies in the direction of increased Tiglukpuk and Kollutuk. Howl?'ver, once sheep are transported to locations (lf con· logistical and storage support, inlcrsile van-
1 _. I
sumption, they are never, or only rarely, stored. Instcad thcy are shared and distributcd. At this point, the chnracter of the entire pattern o( assodation between pleces and strategies breaks down. In this situation, the knowledge of sheep anatomy and dectsíons made with reference to this knowledge are mapped onto persons who are dífferentially evaluated Independently of place or situation, but instcad with rcfcrencc tu sorne dimcnslon of a set of conventions or social valúes relative to the pl'rStln intrcdudng thl' mcat. In thc case of the Glribou dat.1, we c
(4711 Jt is my gUl'SS that had 1 interviewed Eskimos on the subjcct of food preferences relative to sheep instcad of carlbou I would have obtained a Vl'ry dífferent picture uf the relationship between the Iacts of anatomy and preferences. It will be recalled that my ínterviewing attempts with the Eskimo were very trying situations, in which the infcrmants demanded that I specify all the vartous contingcncics of thl' hypothctical situatton befen..' they were comfortable in making a judgmcnt of choice. In hind:-;i¡.;ht. this is dl'Mly undcrstandable givcn the con~istl'nt .1l1d r.1titll1i.l1 charaeter of the patterns of faunal rcmains recovered from situationally different set~ tings. AIthough no systematic interviewing was eondurted, ( rl'call numerous incidences of persens exprcssing, sodally, sume preft:'r~ enre for parts of sh!;'!;'p, bear, and moose. I eannot recaH
[472J
.~I
addltíon, patterns may chan};t' even if only ene person is making dlstrfbutluns relativo to any changes that may oceur in the composltion of the group recetvíng food. The structure of this situation is such that redundancy in patterning, cr a lack thereof among segments o! a community, would bear no relationship lo the degree that they shered a common con-
short-term dcmand Ior mv·.1., SIl"" tlJ','cit-s wi/l l\' rl'gu1arl.lI shart'd. In the event that there are numerous individuals of this moderate to large species takcn al une time, sharing may occur but then the units shared wíll lend toward complete animals depending un the ratio of number taken to number of consumer unlts.
vention for conducting meat dlstrlbution! This
I am suggesting that the sharing pattem is directly conditioned by the package sizc and the pattcm of bulk inputs-c-how many packages errtvc at once. I arn alsu suggcsting that the package size and the pattern of bulk input are by-products of the execution of a strategy. There are nu advantages gaincd by a huntt.'rgatherer rcgularly secking largl' package sizrs---big animal5 or multiplt.' kills--unless therc is an opcrational storage aption ur thete is sorne security to be' gained from sharing itself. In the latter situatiun thc search fur sharable food packages would always bc f(lr moderate-sizc animals in the abscnce of a storage option and in the presence of sman to m~ldl'f<1tl'luc'll ,.;euupsin's. Lar);t.' "nimills and multiplt' kills would not ¡m'rl'asl' tht' shitrin~ putential uf a situaliun unless clJuplt.'d with a storage option or an unusual aggregation of a large social unit. Civen Ihese types of expeetations reg-uding sharing we can anticipal!?' sorne varyability among different species deriving froin dif(erent sharin~ mlt's. Some of this variability may bt.' t.'xpt.'dtod lu wrn'lall' with body sin' and wilh the (rt.'quency uf difÍt'renl spccies and ('tmtributors to a faunal assemblagl'. Certainly lhe Nunamiut data are ¡nsufflcient fUf ulfering l'mpirical f;t'neralizations abnut sharíng and insuffident wurk has bl'l'n done to offer a theory of sharing:
exarnple illustrates the differences betwcen patterning that resulte from thc exccution of él strategy and thc conventions used in its exccution. The archaeological remains derive {roro the candilioos of execution. Pattl'rning within them does not refer to the conventions uscd in executing the stratep;y, but instead lo the {aetors condilioning its mode of execution. These factors are, of (ourse, situational conditinns of sodal character and they are variable from one distribution.. 1situation to anoth..'r. D..'spit..'lhl' possibility of a great deal of variability lhat could arise from situationally different execution of a sharing strategy, there are sorne patterns uf variability that might be \'Xpl,ctt'd In MiSt' frum variabilily in sh"'ing pt'r Sl'. For instanct.', caribuu are lakl'n in lar¡.;t' qu,lntilit.'s ruughly twice ayear, If sharing oceurs during such times íl is done in units of complete animals or more. This is similar to situations documented for the Creat Basin where large numbt!rs of rabbits taken in drives are distributed in whole animal units. Howevcr, caribou taken infrequently and in small numb('rs during late summt.'r may wdl be shart'd and distributed in anatomical segments rathC'rthan as complete animals, as is the situation for bear, trnoose, and sheep. We may generalize these conditions as foUows: 1. When meat inputs to the system are in units that arl' less than a family's dajJy or shortterm demand for meat, sudl Spt.'fÚ'S wilf l/uf be sharl'd. In Ihe event thal there are large numbers of a smallspecies takl'n at one time, sharing may occur but Ihen the distribution unit will most eommonJy be the complete animal. 2. When meat inputs to the system are in unils Ih.lt art.' ~rt.'ater than a family's daily or
ShilrinJ; is rare ilm(lnR I"c ,wr¡hlJman primates. It occur! in rudimt'nlary form onl)' in the chimpanzet' and pcrhap! a fcw ulhl.'rOld Wllrld mOl1ke)'!I and apt'!l. But in miln it is OMe o(lhe stronRt!Stsocial tr,its.... As a rc!ull only man has an cronomy. His high IntelliRenn' and symblllil.ing al'lilil)'lll.lkt' trlJt' bilrlt'rpt~sible IWiI· sun 197~: ~'ill.
p... ,
Many othcr rcsearchera are quick to poiot out that altruism, tu be evolutlonarlly successfui in the human form, must be accompanied by the ability to discrimina te one's kinsman from "others" at a high level o( accuracy. Thls means that the very capacities that we recognize as basic to cultural behavior, cognítion, are a general prerequislte for suceessful altruistic sharlng. It would be very important to the evaluation uf curren! theories of kin selection, interdemic sclecticn, and other fascinating argumente lo be able tu recognlze in the archaeologtcal record evidence for sharing behavior. We havc secn here Ihat there are certain conselluences in the patterned structure uf archaeolo~ical remains that derive from sharing mea!. The development of this lead may well alIow us to pinpoint the times and places of evolutionary change responsíble for our vt'ry humannt.'ss. I find such pussibilities cxciting.
Tbe Implle.tlon. and Umltatlon. 01 the Method. Developed Here lo, Current Method. and J\pproache. to the Study 01 F.UJM,I Material 1 have developed a procedure for making use of basic anatomical facts (in varying combinations) to accommodate obscrved frcljucncies of anatumical parts in the archaeological record. 1 havl' becn suc('essfui in developing modds bascd on assumptivl' argumt.'nts rl'~
14731
belleve that modcling technlqucs based 00 anetomlcal scales of value will permit the analysis of faunal remains in realistic terms regarding the strategies executed and the organization of the mobility-Iogistical, storege, and social strategíes characteristic of extinct systems in which largo mammals played a significant role. The reader must also reaüze that, although I ha ve demonstrated the utiJity uf the approach, f have not yet attempted to develcp a straightforward proccdure for analysis. lt is quite likely that therc are arnbiguous models, that ls. difft.'ring combinalions of assumed aetivily st.'ts that could yield similar assemblages. 1 hi.lve not attempled to explore the wmbin.ltions .1Od permut.lti\Jns that (ould conceivubly rt'sull in similar assemblage forms. Inslcad, I ha ve construcled models expediently in terms uf ctlnditions that werc known or suspl'ctl.'d to charactcrin' Nunamiut behavior. r have not yel attcmptcd to provide guides to analysts for the use of the models gent.'rated. Such procedures would grcally aid the invt'stigatlJr sn'king to id ..' ntify an unk.ntlwn faun'll assl'mbl.,~\,. Th('Sl' proú'· dures can certainly bt.' dl.'vcl0pl.'d. I havl' not attempred this at the present time sinee I havl.' not yet had the opportunity to t'xaminl', in any detailed way, the character of faunal aSsemblage variability recovered from ancient archaeological sites. Allhis juncturc, 1simply emphasize that the Nunamiut are a ~roup of people who arc mnrt.' ht.',wily dl'pt'ndcnt on large mammals lhan must groups that are known ethnographkally. Simil.uly, the-y <1re organizt.'d Iov,istically and with .1 grt.'all'r dept'ndt.'nce on stores of drit'd ml',lt than m(lst l,thnugraphit' ~rours, This "l'xtrt'nll''' C.l~t' i~ likely to b(' much mur(' comr1ico1fl'd th.ln mos! '!' . ~ ~
. , ,
.. I '
docutnented ldHl's Irtlm lIlu:,t p.ll b \.1 the world are less variable .1nd more rC'coKnizable in term5 uf some s(');ments of the murecomplicated Nunamiut case. If this turos out to be correcl, we may antkipate that the models most likcly to accommodate Ihe vast majuríty (Ji .udl.l\'olo);il',ll e,lSl'S h,lVl' ,lln"ldy
[4741
been generated and summarized in this pTescntatlon.
Another
rCJS(Jn
for not procccdlng to the
development of keys lo identification for unknown essembleges is that in the material s I ha ve presented 1 have had Iittle occasion to concern myself with postdepositional modifications resulting from bonc dccay. I have studied this phenomenon and found jt complicated and capable of produdng substantial modification in the patterns of relative frequencies remaining for the archaeologist lo
observe (Binford and Bertram 1977). It is my impression from having exarnined numcrous fauna! assernblagcs from Plcistocenc and more recent sites that attrition by natural agente is a general condition of archaeologicel assemblages. This means that mcthods of reconstructing depositional frequl'ncil's fmm survival frequencies must be developed wirh sorne degree of accuracy before the modeling strategy <:an be effectively used wilh man}', if not most, ar<:haeological assemblages, lhe 50lulion to such probll'ms is <:urrt'ntly wn"lidl'red t1ttainable and imminl'nt; hOwl'vt..'r, I have nat addressed myself diredly to lhe question in this book, An adclitional consideration surrounding the development of the analytical procedures advocated here concerns the study of the economic anatomy of other species and an investigation of withjn~spedes variations in anatomical properties, Goe criticism that may justífiably be leveled at the work reported here is that aH the anatomical scales were developed on the basis of onIy three animals. In fhe beginning of this book, 1 defended this shortcoming in two ways, First, I offered the opioion that there was as much if not more variation stemming from nutritional varian<:e in a single animal as there was bclw('cn animals in a single species differing in age and sex, That is, the variances in relative proporlions of usable parts in the total anatomy was allomelrjcally distributed among individuals. Second, I suggested that the shortcoming is a result of research difficulties and ir was not my origin.ll inll'nliun to havc so few
.
~
,,-~
studied. While in Alaska, I found it difficult to conduct the anatomical studies in the company of my Eskimo ccmpanions. Thcy considered it siJIy and a waste of time. This is the reason [ studíed domestic sheep in Albuquerque rather than Dall sheep in Alaska. My "messing around" with caribou was not so bad but the idea of doing this to shcep, whlch had to be shared, even by me, was approaching a total absurdity in their eyes, Finally, I should emphasize that the anatomical facts are a reíerence dimensión. Even if we knew the variance among individuals of diffcrcnt S('X('S and ages, es well as within a given individual through a nutrítional cycle. we would have to construct mean or modal modela and I am not sure this would help in lhe modelin~ prllcedure. A direcl use of such information would require a control for sex, age, and nutritional state variables in the unknown population before any documented variance about those variables could be meaningfully used. Thl' SUCCl'SS of the moddin~ procedurl' dl'monstriltl'd Iwn' f.u l'xcl'cds my urigin.ll eXpl'ct.llions. I h.1VC encountered many situations in which curvefitting approaches were neces!lary, or where 1 needed to estímate various constants to approximate the relative contribufions of f~unal componenls from different sourees. In pra.;tically aH Ihe cases of poor fit the problem seemed to derive fram the crude techniques ust>d in modeling rather than from any inae· curacies in the anatomical reference data. J have repeatedly pointed to the differential use of parts from animals of different ages and sexes, It is my opinion that the major factor conditioning this difference is simply body size, not any meaningful proportional dif· fereoce in the relative value 0t.r.arts within an animal. For instance, I pointc out the biased use of bull heads as cache mark('rs. In the one case in which 1had the opportuTÚty to observe a mixed species cacht>with moose present, the rnoose head was pa'ferentially used and thl' caribou head was transported. 1 haVl' .llso repeatedly noled lhe preferential consumplion \lf l-illf and cow hl'ads, ilOd the Kl'lwr.ll
Por11
avoidance of bul! heeds as sources of foods. In cases of documented rnoose hunting, therc was almost complete avoidancc of heads regardless of thc sex of the moose. Only the nose was consumed, even in fieId camps, and the heads were uniformly abandoned. I suggest that body size and the number killed at one time are the major dtmcnsions that condition both bias in hunting for food and variability in the use of analogous anatomical parts. Body size is a property that wouid not be monitored usefully by measured propcrtíonal differences (H they meaningfuJly exist) between anatomical parts from animals differing in age and sex. I have shown that there Is a considerable correlation between the proportional valúes for anatomical parts of species as different as shel'p
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IMGUI (CARIBOU) TABLE 5.5 COL 2 figurt' 9.2. Relationship bt-twl'l'n bi!'o<'n bt>nl' Ire. quendes frum lhe Glenruck Buffal.. Jumr !'ill' (Ftifotln 1970) and a colribou modt'l fm a kili !'ih'.
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• L_7,;"-;;;;--;;;--;;-;;;--;:--::-::--::--:: ,1' ..~_ n ,,, ..~v " .... ~~ "v.O 70 .a .0 1010 PARTS SELECTED FOR PROCESSING TABLE 3.2 COL.6 (CARIBCU)
FilVlf" 9.3. Rd.lli,,,, ..hip bt'lWt't,., hi~PIl I.....nt, Ir\' I\Ul'IIfil·S hum 8o.,"lirt' Shdh'r bt>l1l' JI'n'l 2 {Dlhhl., olnJ t"rr,l!n IW>M: 1001 ,1n,1 ,1 f.lnl'tul 1l1lld,·1 fl" rru"t""ir\~ 1,,,·,lli"Il'l.
1 I
[4761 condition that seems likely, given the general profile of a bison versus a caribou. In spite of the overrepresentation of sorne parts it is clear lo me that the Bonfirc Shclter assemblage doiS not represen! a kilí-siíe IlS-
semblage; rather, it is an assemblage from a processlng location and initial fleld butchering was conducted elsewhere. presumably 00 the talus deposits below thc rim of thc ~hdh..r. Such an interprctetion is supportcd by thc excavators' observation that there wcrc segregated concentrations DE identical bones and sheet-burning {eatu res caromon lo processing
locations. Even using the economic anatomy informanoo from ao animal seemingly as distant {rom Bison as Ranxifer, we couId have recognized truly signifícant differences between the Bonfire asscmblaR,l' and a kili sitc. The authors, who are naive to thcse "functional differences," conc1udl'd that the differences noted at Bonfire, in contrast to the kili sites documented on the Northern Plains, "confirm the ob\lious expectation that there should be cultural differences betwcen the Late Northern Plains sites and Bonfire She!tcr [Dibble and Lorrain 1968: lORI." Despite the regularities. thl'Tl' arl' ..150 ambiguihes and complcxities that deri\ll.' from the flexibility realized in the course of an adapta· tion in reJation to logistical, storagc, consumer, and social options. For instance, I ha\l(" documented a situation in which a number of diHerent activities that are commonly conducted at diffl'renl loealions may be, undl'r eertain conditions, collapsed into a sustaincd series of aetivities earried out al a single locati&n. The contrasts between the assemblage at different locations that stem from the behavior documentcd in Billy Morry's trcatment of 11 earibou (see Chapter 5) and the data from Sitc M Whl'rt' thl' saml' h"sk .1('tiviti(·s Wl'rt' ('onductL'd Jt a singk' IOCiltillO aH' Iruly imprl's· sivl.'. This fll.'xibility n'sulls in a ¡.;r('al dl",1 of inh.·. rassemblagl.' \lariabilíly, yd the only differenee between the two examples was in the disposition of the activities in space; no differenees existed in "culture" or in Ihe charac·
9. Conclulo,..
ter of the activities in whieh persons were engaged. This ía an cxample of the conditions that result in rather substantial differences ín the character of archaeological remains with no differences in either the activities conducted or the basic procederes used in theír executicn. In other examples, particularly the lover hunting eamps (Chaptcr 6), we noted markod diffcrenccs in thc content of asscmblages. YL,t.111 these sites wcrc establisbcd and occupied at the same place for essentially the sarne reasons at the same time of ycar. Here variability stemmed from the proportianal differenees between dependenee on in· troduced foods and dependenee on animals taken in hunting. Símilarly, the degree of hunting suecess eonditioned the manner in which av..i1abk' foods werc uti1i7.ed. In Ihis example, w(' were holding constant Ihe season and the purposC' and location of occupa· tion. In turn, I am ab1e to document substantial variabilíty in the situational variables of both Ihe planning and rclative hunting suc· cess variety. In still other situations, I was able to document similarities belween assembla~es from locations that diffl'red in season. pur· pose of occupation. and role in Ihe o\leT..1I subsistcnee selt1t.'ml..'nt strategy. For instmll"l', I demonstrated that a cun model might equally well fit thc following situations: (a) dog'f~cd ing in a spring residential camp (see the 'discussion of Frank Rulland's 1948 spring d(l~ yard), (b) a hunting camp (Site 17), (e) the rl.'mains in a residl.'nli,ll camp aflL'r a meal dislribution by a sheep huntcr (the sheep rl..·· mains in the Tulugakmiut hunters' camps al the In~sled site). and (d) an exhausted meal cache (parts remaining in the ice cellar, Au· gust 1971). Similarly, a proeessing for drying modd mighl apply to a spccialized proCl'ssirlg loralion (Rilly Morry's pr(lCt'ssin~ ltlcJtilln) Of "rrear as a l.'tlmp~)Ill'nl of
Pan'
might be employed with different archaeological conscquenct'S, dcpcnding on the character uf the composíticn uf the meat populatíon available for use. We "ave seen how this affeets consumption sequences from stcred food. For this rcason, we expect dtffcrences in the cornposition of archaeological remains emong sequenually occuplod locations during a poriod {)f dcpcndcncc upon storcd food. In the case uf the documcntcd Nunamiut assemblages. I was gencrally informed about the activlties that had preceded the deposition of the assemblage or had dC'structively modi. fied the assemblage away from frequendes of parts thal were actuaJly introduced into the loeation. My succe5S in modeling is therefore tí\ken as a demonstmtion that sorne knowl· l'dAl.' of the anatomicai parts ..nd tht'ir rd..tivl.' values for various usages is part of the information used by thl' Eskimo in making decisions concerning Ihe use or abandonment of anatomical parts in different situations. We ha ve seen that certain very conslstent patterns of decision making are manifested in the faunal assemblagl.'s. Thesl' consistencics are taken as dirC'et e\liJence for the execution nf alternative Slratl'git·s aimed at maximizing consumt'r utility frnm resourees in the conlexl uf logistical, storage, and social coneerns. In logistical seltings, we havc noted a eonsistent stratL'gy of Ihe diffcrential ab.lndonment of analomic..1parts in tl'rms of tl1l'ir gl.'neral utility valul.'s. The degree to which parts are abandoned Uf uSl'd f{lr thl..' mainkn..ncl' oí the logistica! p
14171 terial such as marrow and'or grcesc. The effect of such processing is such that parts with only modera te utility commonly appl..'ar un sites where consumption is from dry rneat stcrcs. Patterning is complicated whcn transpott uf parts Is an integral part of thc loglstícs of pladng mear in dry mcat stomgc. This varicty arises from both k~istical ond pnlCl'Ssing activitics. 1 havo notcd eonsislently that consurncr activity is accommodated. "long logistieal routes and in processing contexts. to the use of parts that are either of marginal value for transport, or expensive to proeC'ss for stor· age. 1 have also suggested that the coneerns aod aetivities of logistics and storagc wer~ not always independently distributed spatially. Where large quantitil's of animals weft· t"kl'n long distant't's from eonsUrHt'r Itl(,lfions, thL' mcat might be processt'd for drying at t1w point of procUfl'nll.'nt. This would grl'.ltl)' rl'duce the bulk to be transporled. In addition, I pointed out that processinA for drying might be conducted during seasons when frel'7íng was a viable storagc alternative, sinct' it re· duced thc bulk in antidpation uf futUfl' residential mobility. Furlhermtl(L', this stratl..'¡';y supplies a low·r.ulk, high-utility f\lod for U'il' by members of hunting and lrappin~ l'xpl'ditions. l will not attcmpt to summilri7.l' a11 the arguml'nts that relate to the S()l1rn's or condi· tions thal ft'sult in variability in faun,,1 assemblagl's-that ¡s, of C(lursl', the subjl..·ct llf the preeC'ding pagc~. Thcs<' expl'ril'nCl's with v.lfi.lbility Il.'nd themselves lo sevl'ral gt'ncralizati(!Os: (a) Evafuati1lg t"e utility (lf [milla/ dt'lrll'1Its agaillsf ktlOWt¡
anatomiOlI scaks (o[ llllfll!'J mll1/ pamit fl1('
rrcogllitioll (lta stmkSY. blll fIle fdl~'/;':o:Y ",ay 'wt b(,t'vidctlt. We m.1Y rl'cogni7.t'. qUitl' aecur.llt'l'l.
a cullinR, slr011\-'I-:Y, ~ut Wl' m.1Y l;ll' un.ll;lll'. llsin¡.; IIH' f,Hlllcll d,ll,l ,11\lllt'. hl dl'h'rmilll' wht'thl'r ur ntll (ulling \\,.1'-; l'Wl'utl'd f{11' g.lin ... in lngislkal, Sh)r.l¡';l', t'On'iUn1l'f, (Ir sot'Í.11 domaios. Such ambiguitil'S arisl' frum thL' flcxibility and integration that is (haracteristic of an ongoing system of adaptation. (b) Fml1lal
assemb/agcs arecommo1lly tllt' nmseqllt'llcc:; ¡I! 111/11-
í 9. Concl_Io'"
[4781
l/pi, .tqut"tll1t dmtC'Rifrf ultlmnttly rtltlvt'rgfng 0/1 locatiol1s Wl1('re CtlllSUmer cr sccíaí utility fOlfCl.'rtIS
domínate. The content and the condition of the assemblage carry information about its prior history in the system. 1 have seen such situa-
tíons repeatedly in the modeling of assemblages. The best single example is the inference of a form of kill-site population then unknown empiricaUy from the cornposition of
the 1948 spring residential síte data. Later l had the cpportunity to díscover a population (the Bi,; Surround) that approximatcd the form that rnodeling procedures suggestcd should existo These modeling procedures, therefore, provide us with a means for analyz-
iog single assemblages that may result in the anticipation of archaeologkal facts not then known. The procedure offers the potential for gaining sorne systematic perspective from the analysís of a síngle elemen' 01 the systcm. (e) fallllltl assemblaSL'S m(lY bepartitiollcd jllto eOIllIJ(I~ nl,,,t~ for rlt1H'r diffcrt'nrial use I)r n/l(1Cflfillll III diffl'n'tll nlltSIOPII'r lIt,;ts ;PI fI sil/Sk si ti'. Olln' l'(Irlitilmt'd, dt'Strl/dil'l.'l'm(t'ssj,,~tIl/lY 111' {'Xt'(,lfil'd
11IffcTt'/ltíally illl 511dr ;/lflI7,t'"dt'lIf SI'Sll1{'llf:, of 1111' "l'llll/lltio", 1 havr prescntl'd l'vidl'nn' of this rcpeatedly in examples of thc al1ucatjon of very different parts to dogs and to humans. I have also discu....(¡ed situations wherc sorne parts Wl'rc dl'structivdy proCl'!'!'l'd fm l'ithl'r bonc juice or bone grease. These fads t11l·.ln that the recovery of archaeological assemblages must be controlled in terms of spaliat distribulion within site, sínce populational components that are allocated for differential usage or segmentl'd among different corfsumers are generally distributl'd at letlst partial1y independently on the site. We need enteria for recognizing destrucHve processing ordeletíons from an assemblage if modcling is to be successful. (d) Faw,at asst·",blagl'f. are slIb~ ject la agenfs (Ir c(lnditirms of attrilio'l after O/('/'r crItry inlo the archaeological rt'cord. I have demonstra.ted repeatedly the eHect of dog fecdinp; as il modifying condition in the compositiun \lf a~5emblages that remain for thc archaeologist. Earlil'r work (Binfl1rd and Bl'rtram 1977) has suggcstcd the effects of son acid5 and lllt'l'r physical aod chemícaJ conditions of decay. We
'~
muet heve way. 01 recognlzlng the relevance
01 such condítions to the character of
<JO as~
sernblage that ís recovered erchaeologicelly. (e) Faunaíassembltlgt'S are commonly compollnded populatione resllfting !rmn muitipíe decisions made aboutenaíomicalsegmcnts, nat animals. It hardly
seems necessary to reiterare this point, but J will stress agaln that butchering is a dismemberment strategy. and decisions are genemlly made with regard to the dismembered segments of the anatomy. The recognítion of these "Iacts of experíeoce" permíts us tu evaluah.· the Iikdilwod that many of the currently employed analytical or observational techníques are either useful or confusing, Probably the most straightforward example is the conventioo..l method of tabulating MNls in faunal analysis, It is conventional to tabulate one individual regardless of whether the count is 1 rib or 12, or even 24. The argument is that there had lo have \?cen a sin~le animal "standin~ behind" t.·ven a sin,;lt.· rib. Thus, faunill rl'milins frum an.:haeolugical sitt.·s arlO t.lbultlft.'d in ..oimtll unjts. In my expcrit.'ncc, this proct.'durt.· is silly, EskimOl> do not use nr bt.'have in tl'rm~ (lf animal units; th~y make dccisions about dis· membered segmeTlts, and their strategil's uf dismemberment are relatl'd to rt.'ndering .mimal!' ioto usabll' units fm tnlnsport, prtll,,'~'ss' ing, or consumption. Jf we are interestl'd"in behavior and the significance of different pattfOroS of association and covariation, our tabulation procedures must be accurate stalements of potential :oc:;tmenfaf units, not animal units. For this reason, 1 htlVl' t.'mploYl'd lhrou~hnl1t this study a pron'dufl' oot ~l'neT
I
I
Part 1
mnll'l In animal unlt~ filthl'l' than segmental unlts. This so strongly biased the actual frequencies. particularly from small samples, that curve fitting was impossibls. Similarly, ít is not uncommon for fnunal analysts to repcrt fauna in bone units. Por instance, if ene recovers 12 proximal Icmora. and 3 distal Iemore. it is nor uncommon for the analysts to report an MNI of 6 for femota. We ha ve seen repeatedly that the proximal nnd distal ends ofbones vary in terrns of both marrow and grease valúes. They also commonly differ in thelr densities, so the sUfvival probabilitil'S fur the two ends diff~r, given some agent of attrition. Such conventioos of contemporary aoalysts iIIustrate the accuracy oí the proposition lhat the archaeological record is contemporary and that our observations upon it are contempo~ rary. What we choose to consíder as relevant ftlcts of the archaeological record are conditioned by our culture or our ideas about the nature of thl' formation pf
1479 J
Once egatn, we would probebty f1nd that tuol contents varied widely among the sltcs. In addition, toots and fauna would vary independently within the grouping. Sorne oí the problema of lack of fit would in fact derive from the dimensional independence of the classes of material studied. Other ambigulties would arise frorn more subtlc conditions. For instance, rertainly thc Kakinya sitc ond the Net site would be [odged to be vcstly different. Yet, as we have seen. the major behavicral diffcrcnces Me thc rcsult of a sin~le activity, that is, boncs Wl're dt.'stroyed duríng the bone grease processing at the Net site but Ihe same bones werc not dt!stroyed at the Kakinya site. ln addition. there were more dogs at the Kakinya site than ilt the Net sitc, yet the oVl;>ra\J strategy and use of fauna w~re shown to be esst'ntialiy lhe same. 5till more confusion would arisl' ín comparisons bt.'~ lween the Kakinya sile and the RuJland ..ik, Yl·t 1hl' unly diffl'rl'nc~' bt.'twl'l'n them is in thl' differl'nli.ll prl'St.'fv,ltion of the silt.'struduft.' ,lt Ihe twn 10Cillillns. I .1m sugHt.~tin~ Ih.11 \\'e h.wc, in the Nunnmiut dat.l, ..uffidt.·nt informati(ln tu warr,mt llll' eXpl'(I"tion th.1t archaeological assemblJ)!jes will be ch.llacterized by multidimensinna! p,lt!l'rns uf v,uiability .,",ong c1.,s."l'S of n'm.,ins th.1t .1fl' rt.'spnnsivl' 1(1 diíf~'rin~ sd~ ot dl'tl·rmin.lllt m conditilming v.ni.\bles. 5íte ~tructurl' in thl' t'xamples appears to bl' mUrt!rt.·.. ponsivl· to the character of the composHkm of the group oc~ cupying the site and the length pf thl' occupaney, Group cnmpositl\lO is nut isomorphk with thl' diffl'll'ntiíll pl'rform,lOcl' tlf hl¡.;istit.",l nr stOfil~t.' strdh.'gics. Filun.ll vMiability is, in tum, primarily responsive lo strate~y differences related directly to logistical, storage, consumer, or social conct'rns about ,1nimill foods. We may suspect th,lt tools will still vary in other ways because the activities at various locations are not Jikely to be exclusively related to the treatmcnt of anim.11 foo&.; thc tools will also rdlt.'el tht.' pcrformanCl' of olhef activitil'S interscht·dult'd with thest' aclivitit's. The recognition uf .lmbi~uítil's and flw mu!' tidímt.·nsional char.lcÍl'r of thl' Mch<1l'\ll\lgical products of an on~L1ing system slwuld rC5ult
'4'
I
14801
inour beinR waryofanalytícal proceduresand expedaHuftS (o. dtcRlW!c¡t! Uf
thc lI:'lflllicijted
sta tic forms of essoclatlon between dtffercnt ccmponcnts nf the archacological record. OUT tesk is to rocognize their systcrnic propcrtics,
develop analyñcal tools for reeognizing dimensional lndependence, and then procced in such a way that unamblguous meanings may be given to differing properties oí the
archeeologicet record. Systemíc integration is dynemic and therefore rosponsive to sltuañonal variables. lt is this vcry property that
provides man with securily lhrough adaptatioo. The various integrations are a subjcct of ~rcat ¡nterest. The resulting ambiguities carry
information and, as such, arl' pott.'Otil'1 SOUTces of increitsed understanding about the
pasto As aids to the darification of ambiguitics the systematic (lbscrvations on andllary facts--rib ratios, splinter to articulator cnd ratios, and so forth~have been presented and disCU5Sl'd. The information 5ummarized from the com~ parison of anciJlary faunal data is n(Jt CXhilUStivc uf tht.' propertics uf fauna, nor llf the ch.'lréldt..ristk~ o( bn,.. ka~t.' or uthl'r morph(ll(l~ical propl'rties that mi~ht carry u~eful information. J havf.' alrcady suggcsted lhat a detnilcd morphologicaf !->tud y uf modifications made by dogs and uther scavengint; animal 5 is nceded. Throu~hout this study, l llave pointed to Ihe significanee of deposits of bune meal and measUTcs llf unidtmtifiablc cancellous bonc tissue. The growing rCCllgnitiun uf the potcntinl uf f.)~n.ll f.lds (or umil'rst.1nuing thl' rast (ilrril'S slrtln~ il1lpliriltiun~ fm bulh our fil'id d,lt.l 111l/t'ditlll h"'Il11i\ltll'",md our I•• hor,llory "ro· ((.'duH's. For instance, it is rarl' ror .1fchaeolugists tn save or tabulate bonl' splinters. Bul Wl" havl' secn that splinter filcts an' (Tuci.,1 fo recogni7ing whcther articulator cnds have bE>en destroyed or removed. ur even if thl'Y were eVer prcsent on a site. Slmilarly, ioformalion un dismemberment of faunall'leml'nts was found usdul f(lr providin~ som(' l.'hll' to the l~istical placeroent \)f assembla~c~. TIlt.' informiltilln nCl'dE'd to t.lbul.1h.' dismt.'mh..r-
9. Cone'....Jo...
ment ranos musl be gathered at the time of ~~fAvAtlon, snd. more ímportant. 11 must be cbtalned whüe borws are In sltu. Thereforv, piece plotting uf fauna and the systematic recording of articulabuns must be done in the field since the commcn tcchnique of acreening, or delaying faunal analysis until ene reachcs the laboratory, destroys infortnaticn about arttculations under normal conditions. There are still other facts that lend themselves to analysis that 1 have not yet investígared. What have been called butchering marks on bom's pTOvid~ an l')l;amplc. In my experience, most such marks were produccd not in the context of butchering, per se, but instl'ad during marrow proccssinA. It was also my distincl imptl.'ssion that thc frt'l]uel1cy with which thesc marks were produced dur~ ing either butchering or marrow cracking varied with the skill of the person doing the processing. Another factor that conditioned tf1eir frequency was the dcgrcc to which heavy-handed techniques were used, such as dismemberment with an al( versus disml'mbl'rmcnt in the normal mannl'T with a knifl'. I frt-'tlUl'ntly obsl'rved but(herin~ bl.'in~ doOl..' with aXl'S on animals or parts that Wl're hl bc uSl.'d fur dog (ood. Animals ust'd ((lr human consumption were more commonly processcd with more delicate tt'chniques. An el(cep,tion to this would be when hunters were shoit of time, for instancc if night were approaching, and wnuld shift from Iight·handl'd to hcavyhandcd techniqul.'s. Ht're we have yd another examplc of <:oimilar strategíps bein~ empioyed in dif('rl'nt conk'xts. IIl,lVl' Iwt di~\·tlssl'd ,lllY tlf tlw pwl't'duTl'" l·urrl'lll!y i/1 Vtll~lll' 111.l1 Ill.lkl' 11<0;1' nf ílgl' .1Ild Sl'X infonn.llion ~Il,.llll'd 1mm bt lI11'S rl'l'OVt 'Tl',t archacologically. [ have such data and although som(' analysis has be",n completl'd, a vast quantity of bone material still remains to be studied. In !ipite of a lack of information. thcre are ccttain t"xpcctatinns that r havc regardinR variability that may ~ar directly nn thlT("onVl'ntinnill liS" lIt such infllrm
PaJi I
ronsumpñon of heads from Jemales and (üIW~; and that .dult malo hl'ad~ are rornmcnly llv("d('d al' Iood. ihll bias results In a rnarked distortíon of patteming for the relativc Ircqucnocs uf mak-s versus fcmales "visible nrchacologtcally,' when anrlcr, mendlbles, or skulls are used in anaJysis. I have also noted the different useges to which the fall entlers uf males ere put in the Nunamiut system. They are employed as hearth racks in sites of aJl seasons. They may be used in the expedtent ccnstructton of drying racks at summl'r sitl'S. Thl'Y r!' proví¡.ied the major 50urc(> of material USt'd to manufactur(' many of the Imditionill Nun
14811 ccnsumer location is biased in favor of adults. primarily f~male~, This j~ 8p~(ifi(ally lru,' (If hcadl or antier pllttM dCspltl' the tact fhat the actual population killed may havo been mostly calves and males. The naivc equation uf the sex and age composltíon of a faunal population found in an archeeologlcal slte with the populañon killed or hunted somewhereelse Is a cJassic example of unreal assumpñons about both the formation processes of the archaeologicaI record and the behavior of rational meno Por instance. antlers are essentially inediblc, although tips of growing antIer can be eaten and are generally snacked on at spring kili sites. t:xpending labor to transport nonusable matl'rial as pí1rt llf 1I fmxi pml"lITt'ment strall'gy is bizarrl', lo S.lY the le.1st. EVt.'n in pre~sapietls sapicm¡ sHes, fur inslancc the Mousterian remains I have studied, one of the rarest items observed is antier, and when jt occurs, it is normally ns small spike antlers from yearlings. This ís nut a miltfcr of prcser· vation; rather it is an l'xample of the intclligenee of the Neanderthal who abandon('d low-utility parts .1tkili sites. For il conlrastin~ Vil'W of the m('aning to be givl'n to variations in antll'r r('lativc tu bon('s scc Sturdy (1~75: 55-95), Most l)f tht.' prtKl'durl..'s that sl'L'k 1l) equate directly th~ scx and agl' composition uf faunal remains in an archaeologieal site wilh the sex and age structureof a death population faH totally to appreciatC' rational behaviors as. sodated with rllgistical, sl(Jrage, and consumer strategies of past human populations. r have briefly commented on sume (lf my experiencl"S as thl'Y rl'iate to soml' (lf the fil'ld nlt'thods ,,"d .11l.llytk.tl prtk.·l·dllrt'S in Vtll!.Ul' ílt Iht' pn'sl'nl. This disfllssitlll sllllllld t'l1lplMSizl' tlll' pllinl IIMt Iht·rt.' .IH' no 1/ Jlr;",i proper field melhods or obvious analylical procedures. Se1f-d\~ception alung, thesl.' Jines is the archaeologist's greatesl weakm·ss. Most commonly, this weakness is manifest by categorical assumptions. That ¡s, the charactl'r of sorne materials found nrchacolu,:;ically may be direcUy translated into stat('mcnts on the character uf sorne past conditiun Vil'Wl'd in static terms. The work of Higgs (1972) and
...,. (482J [arman (1972) is a good example. Both make the implicit assumption that the ege and sex eomposition DE archaeologically recovered faunal assemblages may be studied as the direct and unambiguous reflection of the death population of animals hunted, or those killed by people prectidng sorne form of animal domesticatton. In addltlon, sorne researchers, rarticularly those addrcsslng the problem o the recognltion of evídence for domestication (see Ducos 1969), tend to 85sume that there is a single and statie form of exploítation. I have shown that there are very diñerent strategles of exploítalion practiced by the Navajo that are responsive to seasonal conditions (see Binford and Bertram 1977). The contrasts in age structure between the documented surnmer and winter Navajo sites would almost cl'rt.linly bl' l'tlnvt.'ntionally cited as l'vídl'ncl' (or hunting in thl' C
• PART 11: TOWARD THE MEANINGFUL ANALYSIS OF PATIERNING IN ASSEMBLAGE CHARACTERISTICS. LOCATION. AND RESPONSIVENESS TO GENERAL SYSTEM CHANGE Here 1 am roncerned with viewing the Nunamiut material in a sJightly different con· tt.'Xt. I am wm."l'rnL.'d wilh lht.' dq;fL'l' ttl whkh the Nunamiut case may be prllvol"ative n'garding types of patterned variabiJity Ihat the archaeologist might expect to observe in other ethnie or historieal rontexts. 1 am concernro
9. Concl.,.'o,..
with variability in properties of assemblages that we may recognize analytically-c-that is, variability independent of the spedñc assemblage content. t refer lo such things as redundancy, relative homogeneity or heterogeneity ol assemblages, clustering of assernblages spatiatly or temporally, and the degree tu which assemblages from diffcrcnt types of sites may or may not monitor general changcs in an overall edaptenon. Baste to the discussion to fol1ow are the distinctions that were made throughout thls book between types of sites. 1 spoke uf hunting carnps, hunting stands, residential locations, kili enes. and so on. Such distinctions were offered in recogníticn of different structural properties in (a) the composition of the occupying unit, (b) the purpose of lhe oceupation, (c) the relationship of the occupatiun rdative to olhers bl'fore and alter the use uf (he location in lluestion, anti (¡f) .t~ .1 l'tlllSl'lllll"Kl' o! tlw !Ilrt'¡';tlillt-j l'tllldilinns, diHl'rl'llcL'S in the ill'livilit.'S al'tu.,lly l'on· ducted at the different locations. It was apparent that, given the particular type of adaptation eHeded by the Nunamiut, a distinction between residentiallocations and other speciat~purpose locations was usefu1. Residentiallocations were quite literally hubs of activity. These were the locations "out of which" alllogistical operations origi'Q,ated. In addition, they were the terminal foeus'of pro· curement and maintenanee activities. These were the places where consumers were localized. In contrast, the various specialpurpose sites were atways locations where foad was obtained, processed, or stored for subsequent use in a residentiallocation. They werc locations where special parties, ('ngagl'd in the task of foad procurement, were localil.ed and m.linl;lined while l'nH.1gl.'d in SP"'("Íil1 prtlCUrl'ml'nt task~, You miHht think (.f the special-purpose locations as the places where the subsístence strategies were exe~ l'utl'd; lhl' rl'sidl'nti.lllu\'
Pan 11
/483 (
dential Versus special-purpose locatíons, since there is good reason to suspect very diffcrent pattems of variability to be manifest in (a) content, (11) spatial arrangement, and (e) temporal arrangement given changa in the character of the adaptation. I will diseuss the evtdence for thcse expectations in the following throc scctions.
Evldence for Dlff.r.ntl.1 Pattemlng In Slt. Contente from Re.ldentlal vere ... Spec:lal Loe.tlone 4Purpoee
It is necessary to place the relationship be. twccn evcnt scqucnccs and assemblagc composition in sharper focus. We may thínk of an archaeological assemblage as a temporal sampIe of sorne organized series of events charac. teristic of a systenl. W(' may visuali7.e .ln as. sl'mhl,lt-jl' .1S .m .1n·1l1l111Iol!iull of by-protiul"ls ttl'rivt'd frllln ti\(' parlinllolT sl'rit's (lf l'v,'nls th,ll Illnlrrl'd during iHl on:up':llion. An .1Ssemblage accumulated over the course of an entir€' yeilr's occupalion of a location may be viewe-d as a rather gross, or coarse-grained, temporal sample. On the other hand, an assemblage accumulated during a 2-day occupation represents a fine-grained temporal sampie. It should be dear that insolar as ('VCllts arc s!'Tially difft'fmtint(yJ, l/lid tllt rumposition 01 assmlbl",~es rtsptltlsive to f'Vmt differ~cts, tllc more !itle grai'IM tllt tl'l1"l(lral sa"'p'l'~ obtaintd the grL'ntl'r OH' 11robaMt' cmltml variability am()".~ asscmhfaXt'S.
The factor that regula tes the grain of archaeological samples is the pattero of mobility characteristic of the system under investigation, How frequl'ntly a social unit moves and in turn the duration uf occupations at diffl'rent IOl"
High mobility rl'Sl/lls;" fil1e~grailll'Ci assemblagl'S, lownwbi/ity rcsu1ts in coarsl'~xrained as-
WIH'ft'llS
Thl' gfolin (lf thl' assl'mblagl' dnl's nllt dirl'l'tly rl'Hul.1tl' the vilriahility in assemblage cuntent. If thl.'re is never any difference in what people do or how they do it al difierent times of the year, the grain of the
."I'mb/IISI".
assemblage is irrelevant as a conditioner of assemblage variability since all asscmblages would look altkc rcgurdless uf the Icngth of time over which they were accumulated, given that assemblage composition varies with event differcnces. There are ethnographle examples uf hunters and gathcrers who move frequcntly but do cssl'nti.ll1y thc same thing al cach location. Thc rcsult would be a pattern of littlt., asscmblagc vartatton rcgardless of diffcrenct.'s in the lengths of cccupatíon that may stand behind the various assemblages. By way of contrast, think of the seasonal round of the Netsilikmiut Eskimo: Seasonal variabilitit'S uf gam\.' and hunlin~ tt'ehniquc meant lhe Nelsilik Eskimos, Iikt' thdr food supply, were always on 111(' move, Tht'se migrations Wl'rt' not random in character. On the ClmtTarv, the annual mi~r,ltiol\ eYl·ll' uf tltl' Nl'l"ilil. loll"",l'¡' ,1 !-,l"ir, pr.,· did.l!:>I,· r,IUt'rn. Thi'l n"I1M.ht muv.'nwnt h,,.1 1\\'11 I'hM"~, whi.-h ft'II." k.! 11", tWll m.lll1 ~"''''1Il .•1dl.ln~:'·~ in tlw Arl"lk. hr~t IIwft, w,'~ ,1 ~hurt ~tlnH1wr pll.l'>l' characterized by migrations inland, aü·ompanil'd by fishing (or salmon and troul and t1lJntin~ (OT caribou. Secund, IheTe was a longer wintN phase durinf; whkh the Netsilik hunted sl.'.lls on the sea ke. Thl' summer phasl.'Tepresenll.'dd land adaptdtilln, th...wmtt'T pha,,"', a marine adapl.ltion. ro these twu IYPl'S uf adaptatiun COTTlospundcd nol only m.lrked ch.lnges in It'chnology bul .lIso differtml kinds of social m(JTphtlt~y. Wintt'r camps un tht' k'a Ice weTe conspkutJusly lar~e.... Summ('r c.lmp' in. land weTe much smalicr IBalikci I
This quotation dues not in any way mention all the seasonal changl.,.'S in activities and thcir locations that characterize the annual cyele of lhe Netsilikmiut. Nevcrthdess, it dOl'S b(·tray somethinH of the rathl.'rdrastic ch.lractl'r uf the seasonal dynamícs. Givt'n thl'Sl' L1ra..tic" changL's in activitil's Wl' m.lY l''lp"'rt simiJ,lf m.ukl'd diHl'n'nn'~ in tlll' .lssl'ml1l,lgl's .Kcumulale-d al different seasons uf the YL'iH. It should be c1ear thal as Orere ir. a" i/lrrmsl' in ti/(: dl',l{fI'I'
lo II'llidl
11/1'IIfs
an' sl'r;flJf.1I11i{{m·"fillln/,
IIt..n' wd! 1'1' 11// ¡tla"f!."¡' ;/1 ccmfl'II1 I'l1rilll/lltly amollg assemblaSl'S Sivt'll modt'mtc- fo{illc-,I{mi/h'd assemblages, The major condilioner of event differentiation in subsistence activitics is sea-
..
-~------------------
"( I
I I
9. Conc1usloM
14841 sonal varience In baste c1imatic variables, ralnfall and solar radiation. The latter variable is monitored by the length of the growing season. It is therefore suggested that interéssemblage variability eall beexpccted lo íncrease
wilh decreases in the 1t'1I~t11 al the grow;IIX season, gil1m moderate- lo fíne-grained assl!mblagt'S. Similarly, 'lnterasst.·m6Iagl' variahility mil he l'Xp¡,ckd lo jl/en'as," wi/ll
IhW('llSCS
in thv eqllll-
¡'ilil.II ot ra¡"fall Ilj~frihllfÍlIIJ IlJrollg}wul 11 ~f"'~lIIlfll (ydl', .'\11/(,/I lII11tkmll'- lo /illl'-gmilh'd fl:>.o;,l·III/11a,~I'!'.
Thus lar I have discussed intersite variability aS if aH sites were equal monitors of scasonally variable systems conditions. 15this a justified assumption? Looking back over the Nunamiut data certain observations appear germilne. AH the specific-purpose locations were of rclatively short OCCup.ltions; that is, they produced ~en crallx very finc-graincd asscmbla~l's. Thl' length of the growing scason al Anaktuvuk Pass is approximately 22 davs-very short indeed. Therefore, we might expect considerable intersite variability. What did we observe? Kili sites wcre (ound to (it sorne (orm uf the IGUI (see Fif;ures 2.13-2.18). The index may be of a consl'rvative form or il fmm in which other considerations Wl'fl' l'vident, ~uch as dryability. Neverthelcss, kili sites Wl're rccognizable as a c1ass-a catcgory distinct fmm other sites and exhibiling only minor withindass variation. AH hunting stands exhibitl'd a f(lrm modded by ccih..'ria uf marww-bonl' :-;t'!l,ction (sel' Table 7.9). Th... erikria ranged from Ihe marrow index to its eubed form, and induded a limited-access formo The assemblages were variable, primarily depending on the charae· ter of the population from which the choice of marrow booes was made and whether provisions were introduced to the location trom the residential sites. Despite this contingent variation, it was not noled to wvary wilh any sl'asonabll' v.lriables; and as wilh km"ill's, asscmblagl's fmm hunling stanl!s, hellt logl'lhl'r as a category distinct from olhl'r Iypes of sites regardless o( seasons.
Hunting camps likewise eonformed lo a basic pattcrn in that al! assemblages fit sorne form of a cuH model. There was a biascd deletion oí marginal parts from a population already biased in favor of nonrnarginal parts (see Table 6.20). Hunting ramp essemblages verted accordíng to the relative contributiun to the nssomblagc of parts introduced as part uf the initial provisions. thc rclative hunting sucCl'SS, thc charactcr lIt the population Irorn whk-h parts wcrc cutk-d. nnd tino complvxity of the consumcr population (c.g., whcthcr or not dogs werc present}. Similarly, caches were shown to represent an internally variable eategory depcnding on the degree to which the cache had bl~n exploited. Similar types of categorical patterning were noted for other types of assemblage as, tor instance, process. ing for drying locations. . G['neríllizin~ tht.' situation at spl'cialpurpusc locillions Wl' Sl'l' Ihat the Vtlri'lbility was p¡¡rtitioOl'd into categorically dislinct units, each cotTesponding to a tunctionalIy different sHe---kill site, hunting stand, hunting camp_ Each was characterized by a signature ty~ of va.ri.ability. Tlús is nol fhe ty,Ji' l¡f varial'l//II.'I all/h'lpaled by our argumc"ls rt',,<ar¡'j,,~ sf'ttSrmaf tl/lria"c(' in actil'ilies a"d ",obi/i/lj. Undl'r
thl' latter arguml'nt we pictllred shifts in Ihc frequcncy and actual cxccution of .l,tivitit.'s throllgh a yearly cyele. Given a fl'latidJlship between activities and the archaeological re· mains, the resuit would be a graded series of variability that, if éldl'quately s.1mpled, would form a continuou:-; Sl'ri.Hion. Shifts in Ihe contl'nl uf assl'mblagl's would currdate with other ¡ndependent seasonal identifiers. This ¡s, for ¡nstanee, the pattem of variation antiapated by Jochim (1976) and othe.. who have considered archaeological consequences of seasonal variability. My failure to observe, among the special-pupase locations, such a graded series of variabilily correlated with known seasonal differenct.'5 strongly suggests thólt thl' ólr~uml'nls thllS f.u pn'Sl'ntlod by oth· l'rs ilfl' ¡nsuffidl'nl ilnd unrl'illistic. Looking back at what is known abollt the special-purpuse locations, we may obtain a
Port 11
clue as to why thcy exhibir patterns of contcnt variability that appt'ar uncorrelated with season of occupation. We note, for exarnple, that two characteristics of kili sites that dearty vary seesonally are (a) their frequency and (b) their locañons. For instance, no cases of spring or (al! kills were observed in the high mountains, although most uf thc rrudsummcr kills werc so located. Similarly, out on the flat tundra te thc north uf lhc- rnountoins m¡my late summcr kills wcrc obscrvcd. yl't no cxamplcs of early summer. spring. fall, Uf wlntcr kills wcre ubserved in such locatíons. In a more finegrained manner the contrasts in the placement and frequency of hunting slands associatpd with spriogversus fall huntingare instruchve. There were more dispcrsed or individualized stands associated with spring hunting and these wcre in differl'nt plaees Ihan the fan hunting st"nds ("'l'e, for instélnee, the contrasts in distribulion between Figures 5.2 élnd 7.3). Despite distributional differences the general contents of spring and fall hunting stands were similar. They differed in terms of whether kills Wl'fe ncar or far, whether pro· vi!'iinns Wl'rl' introCluced nr obtained (rom kills, whl'thl'r rnt'<11 wa:-; tranSpl)rtl'ti through the sitl' ur cachl'd. and so oo. AII thesl' conditiunl'rs of vari'1bilily can be recognized as situ
1485 I represented and the number of consumcr days represented in the occupation. We have seen that many arumals may be associated with short occupations, and few animals may be associated with relatívely long occupations. In addition, we hnve seenhow thc pattcrns o( consumption and use of Ioods by the huntíng party are directly rcsponslve tu thcir security as measured by their hunting SUC('l'SS. In turn, givcn such nn nccommodetion of nmsllmption stratcgles to thc immcdintc sccurity conditions. wc find encther source oí variabillty that is referable tu the general security state of the unit from which the hunting party was denved. For instance, if therc was an adt.'quate supplyof toed in thebasc camp and a hunting party went out in search uf ¡resh meat, the party would relurn fairly qUickly if no game was sighted. On theother hand, ifhlod \Vasin very short supply in 111l' b.l:-;l' camp tlll.' hunting party WllUld stay oul fm a lung timl' or until they werl' relatively succcssful. In any event, their patteros of consumption would be different than the gourmt>l pattern ¡¡pt to have characteri7.ed thl' hunting parly fil'ided fmm the secure base camp. AH thcsc con tingen cíes conditlon thl' p.ltterns of assl'mbltlgt' v.uiiloility. TIll' dq~fl't' lo which such contingl'nól'S Jrl' rl'gularly piltterned seasonally dctl·rmines the degree to which thl'rl' will bc a correlation bl'twl.'cn content variance and seasonal variables. In most cases such a corrclation wiII be slight or more obviously rl'l.1tl'd to gl'tl~r.1phi( diffl'rl'Ol"l'S. which, as Wl' h.lVl' :-;el'n, arl' l-h"radl'ri:-;lir llf seasonal difkrcnn's in the placeml'nt of otherwise similar special·purpose locations. Viewing the situation sJightJy differently, we may suggest that special-purpose locations are generaUy created during the execu· tion of single strategies. Many things may condition how thl' strategy will be eXl'cull'd and its rc!.ltivc succes:-;_ Tht':-;c contingl'ncit'" resull in considl'rable vari<1bility in thl' archae!)1 t~ical ctlOtl'nt ()foth l'rwiSt, similil r:-;i le:-;. The chilf.lcll'r tlf the (Ontingl'ndl's whilh modify the eXl'cution of a stratl'gy are partly conditioned by the nature oí the stratq:;y eXl'·
..... (4861
cuted. For instancc, the Iactors that may condttlon the successful production uf a dried meat cache are quite differcnt frcm the contingendes that impinge on the execution of a
logistical strategy-returning the greatcst amount of high-quaJity meat to a ccnsunwr Iocntlon. Por cvcry stralcgy there is a syndrome of conditions that might alter the outcome of its prosecutíon. The association between the archaeological consequences of a strategy and the archaeological consequences uf strategy modiñcations with an assodated set of contingencies resulte in the production of internalty variable but generally nonoverlapping sets, or types of assemblage, corresponding to functionally different types uf siles. Any correlation with seasonal variables will be in the frequency with which such sites are produced and the locations in which they are c1ustered (e.g., many stands are set up in . fa11 and spring, whereas few are established in "ummer and wintl'r, and thcre is a diHerent spatial disposition to the fall versus spring sitt.>s). Given this picture of patterncd variability in Ihe archaeoJogical content of special-purposc locations, consideration of intersite vanability becomes a problem of understanding the faclor5 that condition the differential productioo of spe.."Cial-purpose locations.ln the Nunamiut case wc ha ve :'lecn that thcy ilre produccd primarilr during the execution uf organi7.cd logistica and storage strategies. Given what wc know, it is Iikely that intersitc variabiJity of the categorical form wilJ ¡ncrease as dependence on logistical and storage strategies increas~s. Earlier it was suggested (Chapter 3) that storage dependence is apt to vary with the lent'1th of the growing season, and with the avadability of aggregated fe5DUrces at the end of the growing season. 1 have not discussed the factors that wnditiun a gruup of hunters and gatherers lo shift from a day-by-day Hcneral foraging strategy tu a lugistical strategy employing specializf.>d produccrs and f.'Xtcndl'd foraging with the addcd probh.'m uf the maintenance of producers in the field. Considerations of this problcm an.' bcyond the
5J.
CeNM:'_'O_
scope of this book. They are problema of gt'neral human ecology, or general thccry. My focus herc has been en middle-range theory (see Binford 1977: 6) or the meaning tha ••he static rontemporary facts of interassemblagc variability carry for dynamic systems uf adaptation that cxisted in the past. Thc question of what conditions the diflerent form of adaptation \S one for general thoory. The question of the appropriate meaning to be attached to differences in intersite variability noted between regions ls one of middle-range theory, and is the problem that 1 have addressed. 1 now return to the interesting set of outlined conditions relative to intersite variability as conditioned by mobility and seasonality in activities. Are there types of sites among which our expectation for a graded series uf variability might be met? In the case of the Nunamiut material we may hesitantly answer yes, Such variability seems evident among the assemblages from the rt.'Sidentiallucations. Rcsidcntial sites werC found to bt.' charilcterized by complex models, in which thefl.' were generally at Jeast three components. In the case of spring consumption from the rec~ ords of 1949 and from the contemporary village, and in the case of the summer Ingsted site, the population available for exploitation was approxintated by the candidate popula;,tion mudcl, For both the Schuolteacher silc' and the Amalgamation site a mude! of parts introduced. from hunting camps approximated the remains in the house areas. It was assumed that the few animals obtained in encounter hunting (the modeled population) were only a supplement to dried meat, which primarily consisted of parts lacking bones. The late-summer site of Akmoglik was more complicated in that a partially depleted meat rack was being used in terms of a J;encral utility cnteria as tcmpcrt.'li by considt'ratinns uf thedryability tJfparts. Al! the lall Tc..'Sidenti,1¡ sites (thc Rulland, Kaklnya, and Nt't Sill'S) were found lo be approximated by sum...· proc"''5sing mudcl that wa~ tht'n modifled by dclt,tions through the destruction of parts in the manufactu re of bone grcasc ar juice, and again
P.rt "
modified by the dclction uf parts at the time the site was abandoned. The winter residentia} sites 811 represented sorne second-stage population of parts introduced from a stored and partielly proccsscd population. This introduced populatíun was thcn modificd by thc destruction of parts during the manufacture of bone grease. The residentiallocations contrast strongly with the special-purpose locations in the degree to which they may be modeled by variations on a single strategy. Jf the specialpurpose locatíons were essentiaIIy unidimensional in the models that accommodated the data, the residential locations were atl multidimensional. In addition, they exhibited none of the within-c1ass similarities characteristic of Ihe spedal-purpose locatians. The rcsidential assemblages were highly variable and in many cases very different from one another. This condirion is believed to stem from the faet that thc accumulation in a resi~ dentiallocation derives from the cxecution of multiplc strategies togcther with the ac~ cumulative effects of numerous processing, logistical, and consume, decisions madI..' prior to the use of the parts as food. The accumulated debris at such a base ar hub of operations renects the execution and relative success of aH the separa te sfrategies executed during the occupation. lt is, in many ways, an accumulalt.'d samplc of the adaptivc system, composed of numerous strategies and diHerent activities with very different goals-c1othing production versus food procurement, and so on. Residential assemblages from hunting and gathering societies are c10se to being conditioned in their content by the total form of the adaptation effected during the course of the oceupation. Assemblages fram special~ purpose loeations at best reflect the accumulatcd consequenccs of various stratcgies, the use uf vi'lrious rt'sourccs, and thcir stmage and transporto In addition, (onsumer stratt.'gies accommudatc both the logistical and stor
(4871
not exist. The actual data Irom the Nunarniut are inadequate to provide an impressivc demonstration since the variablUty ís grcat and the number of residential exarnples is too few to demonstrate a secure pattem of seasonal variatiun in asscmblage coníent. Ncverthcless, the general withln-seascn similarities among the residentialsamples lead me to suspect that if a Iarge sample of sites were available a meaningful seesonal pattem of content variitlity could be demonstrated. Thus, there are three baste activity dimensions that condition the magnitude and character of intersite variability: 1. The amount of activity differentiatiun characteIÍstic of the adaptation at variable sea· sons 2. An organizational dimension in the de~ gree to which activities and strategies are executed by specialized work partit's st'eking lo exlend thc time m spacc utility of n'sourn's bcyond the normal days's furaging radius, llr beyond the 2 to J days of putcntial utility ob· tainable from unprocessed meat 3. The mobility uf the basic consumcr unit as a major conditioner of the magnitude uf in~ terassemblage variability given sorne seasonal variabiJity in logistical and storage strategies and/or the foad targels and an}' associatt'd procurcment strak'git-·s
1 have suggested that th~ charactt'f of thc patteming in assemblage contcnt that derives from combinations of item 1 and item 3 is a graded and seriational pallem that is correlated with seasonal indkators. fnterassemblage vari ability referable to variations in logistical and storag~ strategies, item 2, will exhibit a pattern of categorica! assemblage types that rarcly grade to one another. Variability among dosC!y similar asscmbla~t·s will O
-.... (4881
differential relevence of different types of sites to the past we may justifiably ask if there are not still other correlates of thesc basic dift~f~fi~e§ In the pálWnlng both .patlally and temporally of these two types of loceticns.
'. Conc:'...lo",
often correspond to change of pace conditions. As an example, a eommonly used path from the contemporary village runs north to
themoolh ofKongoh1uvuk Valley,lhen west
up the valley. One enters the valley at a deep V-shaped mouth, but only a few hundrcd meters farther into the valley there is a draEvldence lor Dlfferencea In Content matic change in the gradient-so much so that Redund.ncy 'or Re.ldenllal venus along one arm of the stream there is a Spcclol.Purpooe Slteo waterfall. Along the base of this steep grade are the remains of nurnerous fíres, sorne scat1 have described and analyzed approxitered debris, and a few scattered bones. l have mately 42 archaeologically known locations stopped here many times te rest, to eat a that related to the pre-sedentary period of snack, and to warm myself beside a smalt ñre Nunamiut adaptation. In addition, 1have debefcrc undertaking the much more difflcult scribed many faunal assemblagcs from the task uf c1imbing severel thousand fcct in less contemporary periodo These are nut in any than a mile. 5uth regularl)' used locations are way an accurate indication of the number of common in the mounlains and at river crosslocations actually visited, or on which 1 parings. Thcsl' localions gcnl'ral\y yil'ld archal'otidpalcd in ongoing activitil's with thl' E.I;logical evidence of having servt>dthis purpose kimo. These locations are those chosen by me over a vt>ry long perlod of time. 1 have not for recording in archaeological terms. Factors archaeologicollly investigated olny of these. conditioning my choices were (a) relative develapment of postoccupational vegetation, (h) One reason for this is that the Eskimo stiU regularly use Ihlose siles and they were nol relative accuracy with which lhe location overly enthusiastic about my exeavating such could be documented bchaviorally, (e) cstiplaa..'S. Fur mueh the same reasun, fish cnmps mates of the sample sizt..os of faunal mall'rial are not induded in the list of describcd locaremaining on the sitc, and (d) my uwn 10~is tions. Archaeologlcal work, of coursl', is ties. The repurted remains, thcrdorl', do not largely limited to the summer and fishing is represent an accurate sampling of the cntire largely a summer activity. 1 could nol deydop subsistence settlement system. For ¡nslanee, much ¡nteTest among the Eskimo for lear~ng there are 14 rcsidentiallocations, 10 hunting up a fish campo In addition, I am complelely camps, 16 hunting stands, and information Iacking sites, other than residential, for the from oVer 200 kili siles reporled here. Do these winter season. 1 had underestimated the time frequencics in any way accuratcly reflcct the needed to obtain a seasonollly sampled set of actual frequendes with which such locations sites, The result was that, on the eompletion of are generated by the Eskimo during an averthe pro/'eet as proposed to the granting ag~ year of the pre-sedentary period? Are these locations reprcsentative of all thc types agency, had only looked at spring, summer, of locations archill'oloJ;ically Hl'nl'ratl'd? 1 and falllocations. I had pickcd up information cm 1111' winh'r rl'"illl'nli,ll Im'aliuns n'pt,rh'll Ihink tht, 'lO~W{'r musl ht' no lo b(llh '1111'Sduring seasons when the main emphasis was tions. 'fhe normal pattern for groups of hunton nonwinter seasonal fl"Scarch. I also dl'tl'rcrs or alm{lSI any other group trilVl'ling is to mined that in order to investigate the spl'cialstop occasion¡')llyfor ROSt and snacking. 'rhl'se purposc locations used during winter 1 locations are generally scattered and related tu needed to have my own base camp near the the pace of the traveling party on flat ground. forest. An altempt was made to obtain fundOn the other hand, in broken terrain, at river crossings, or in the mountains, such locations ing and an extension of the research permistl'T\d to be localized and regularly us('d. They sion for an additional season aimed al collecl-
Po" 11
ing the missing winter data. Unfortunately, 1 was unsuccessful, hence the very short winter chapt(,f. 1 have, hOWt'VCf¡ visitrd spedalpurposc wlnter locations, and 1 heve even participated in activities in such locaticns. These experiences lead me to suspect still more variability and even more fascinating patterning in the archaeological record. For instance, there ís a particular type of winter logistieal location that is best described as a íhawing-out site. Animals taken in traps are normally frozen at the time the trapper returns to recovcr his cache. One cannot skin a frozen animal. In many areas where traps are commonly set-for example. the high passes in the mountains through which furbearcrs must movc in order tv go from one valley lo another-there are smal1 caves and Tocksheltl'fS. ThcSl' h.1\'l' bl'CIl uSl'd for Yl'.1rS in winll'r as thawing-out sites. Here trappers take the bodies of the frozcn animals and kindlt>fires to thaw thc bodies sufficiently for skinning. These sites are characterized by substantial hl'arths, remains fmm mcals (Iargc!y from introduced Í(){)ds carried by the trapper), debris from tllol and trap rl'Pair, and neMly complete and articulated sk('ll'tons uf fU1<('s, wo!ves, and wolverines. Certainly there afe many othl'r typt,'s of spl'cial-purposl' locations r('~u· larly used by the Nunamiut that are nol re· portcd here. One entire domain of interesting activities that the rcader may not appreciate from simply reading about the archaeologically described locations indudes the planning strategies that go on prior to an anticipated move, whether it be residential or logisticaJ. In the course of planning a logistical operatinn thl'Tl' is always a discll~"ion (lf Ihl' roule. Anlidp.lling HU' rllult'l'l'rl1lil~ SllIllt' jud¡.;nll'nllt'
bl' eXl-'rciSl'd in sdecting the genr needed to mOVl' oul frum tlU' b,lSl' uf operntions. Thc Eskimo know that in almost any logistical situdtion, the basic problem that they must anlici'lf1lc, if they Me to be successful, is simply how they are goin,:; lo get their kills home. One of Ihe bulkil'st pieces of equipment to transport is shl'1ter. Almost every trip-
14891
planning session in which 1 participated was centered around the question, "Do we have to
..... [490) tent, why go there and dimb over the rocks, be
3way írum wllluWI. and have tu carry your
water if ycu have a tent?" "If your tent bucns up, if scmebody breaks a leg and you can't go someplace else, oc if you're hiding Irom Indians maybe you stay in a cave with the women and children Iike a camp-e-no other time," Por the Eskimo, caves and rocksheltcrs offcr a special advantage for logistically organized hunting and trapping partics and for transient famiJies who may teke advantage of the shelter for one oc two nights so they do not have lo unpack theír sled. Becausc the locations of these natural facilities do not change, and because the locetíons of certaln acrivities are topographically specialízed, the same caves and rockshelters are used repeatedly for essentially the same purpose, that ls, as natural shelters for hunting parties exploiüng the surrounding area during speciñed seasons or for spedñc geme. Archaeologically, the caves and rockshelters known to me in thc Brooks Range have a charactcristic stability to thcir use that appro.lChcs thc stability of the intl'rcC'pt hunting localions of Anavik and Anaktiqtauk. Redundancy is the property most like1y to characterize the separate episodes of use in such settinJ!;sun1ess there is a major change in thl'l'nvirnnm",'nt th ..t could aUl'l" thl..' distribution of garnc and their normal movemcnts. Another comment on theshort-term nalure of lhe rockshelters is providcd by the vl'ry fact that I did not L'Xcavatc une. To do so would havc prcsentcd me with a very diHicult logislical problem in the maintenance of my own campo Lo('ating the camp near a cave ur focksht.'ltl.." would havl' Tl'sultl'd in ir bl'ing Vl'ry difficult to supply with fud, watl'r, and olher essentials since we, too, were living off the land. In order to provide the reader with a more realistic view of the relative frequency with which different types of archaeologicaJ siles were gcncrated by the Nunamiut, I tried to documl'nt, in great detail, the activitics of two families during 1948 and 1949. Some of these locations were described here, but many were not investigated archaeologically. Table 9.3
9. Conclushm.
P." "
(491)
surnrnarizes the number of sltes of diffcrent
lype5Ih.llV~re rt'fallt'd by lh~ m~mber~
TABU9.3
uf the
two famtlies. In additiori, 1 elicited information as to whether the informants consldcred their use of the locationas the establishment of a new site or simply the use of preextsting facilities. The data from Table 9.3 have a nurnber of implications for fhe character of the archaeclogicel remains that develop al dífferent locations. For instance, wc note thJt in Table 9.3, column 4, hunting camps. fish camps, trapping camps, and hunting stands have a vcry high incidence of reuse, or occupatíon of thc same locañon where use of prooxistIng facilities is anticipated. Rest stops and kili sites follow with a substantial reuse of the same location for the same purpose. In contrast, residential camps and transient camps exhibir no pattern of reuse. Over half of all the locations used during the years 1947-1948 were considered to be reuse of previous facilities for the samc purposcs. In addition, 40% of these locations for Onl' family and 46% for thl' other wcre known to have been us('({ by others durin~ the same year for the same purposes (column 5). In this syst",'m, thc production of functionally redundant accupational debris is to be expected most often at fish r.1mps, trappin~ c.,mps, huntinv. (';lm~, and hunting stands. Rl'St stops and km ~ites will exhibit 1e5s redundancy and reuSI.!'. Finally, redundant scqu('nces in the USl' (lf a givcn spot arc least Iikely fur residcntial camps and transient camps. Therefore, given the formation of an archaeological deposit, redundancy ílmtmJ; thc r('mains (rom rl'cogniz.,bly d¡"tinct occupatillns is most likdy at spl'dal.purpose locatiuns ilnd k'ast Iikdy at residl'ntia1 locdtions. This is consistenl with earlier observations regarding centers of residential concentranon such as Tulugak Lake, Kongumuvuk, and the present village. Around Tulugak Lake, the density of ar~ chaeological remains i!'O truJy imprcssive; therc are pounds, drive lim.'s, remains of residcntial camps, spedal processing locations, caches, and a host of other sites. Nevertheless, one rare1y encounters a situation in which one
F,.q.. tncy óf Dlffa.ntl4lttid
u•• 01 LocaUOnl by Two Famlll•• DWlns. Ih. v..... 1""-1"1-
(1)
(2)
(4)
(JI
(5)
rl'fl'l'nt.l~l·lIf
11'1.11
Locañcn
R<::'oidential campe IlunlinK camps Fish campe Trapping camps Transient cemps" Hunting stands Rest stops
Kili enes Tnlill sttes l'l'rn'nlage uf Itlt,11
Sile~
Sitt'!'
Tolal
previl'lu~Jy
established
u""'
sttes
u~J
F_R,
, I O
O
S.P. 7 2
F.R.
O
O O
10 2 3
O
,
S.P.
F.R.
O 8 3 4 O
3
4
O
O
17 7 37 44
15 6 34
20
25
4 4R
8 56
3H
56
62
,
II 2 3 3
, .,
8
37 11
S.I'
r.n,
7 10 3
O
4
"
100 100
S.I'
O HO 100 100
NumNor of M.11 on:upit'd I;oy (Ilhl'r~ for S
5_1'.
,
O 6 2 3
O 1 1
4
O
O
O
O
H
100 54
100 62 57
5 14 4
7 19 4
40 14 90
36
34
41
40
46
"f. R., hank Rulland r"mily; S.P., Simnn I'ant'.:Ick f.:lmily. For rilmilil'!'l only.. not hunling partil's
b
r('sidential camp is directly on top of another. TIw rl'Sull is a pílttt'rn (If .llmost contiml{IUS oVl'rlapping multiple occupatitms of difft'rt'nl types. The archa~ological view from a single spot is nm' uf great diversity uf remJins that vary buth structurally and in terms of content, depending on which elements of one occupation overlap those of another. In focal locations, such as Tulugak Lake and Kon~umuvuk, unL' may l'Xpcct to nave wintl'r, sprin¡.;, summl'r, and fillJ rcsidcntial use cuupted with migration hunting and seasonally differentiated processing and consumption strategies. Highly variable remains that generally overlap one another result. A totally different paltern can be expected at the spt.'Cial-purpose locations wherc thcre is rarely any overlap in thcir seasonal use or in thl' structural role they play in the overall subsistence strategy. Here, reundancy through sequences of recognizable occupa~
lions can be expccted. lf we couple this pattern of h)('.ltiun.,1 rt'us\,' with tlw d.lt.l prl'vi(lUsly summílriz...oJ about nmlt:nt vilri.lbility, t1ll' situation becomes l.'Vl'n more impressive. The faunal contents of kili siles, hunting stands, and hunting camps are highly cunsistent structurally. There are variations, to be sure, but the Oyeran pattern ís similar between multiple examples uf the samc type (lf site. Contrast this with thl' faunal rt.·maios from thl' 14 rt.'Sidential !'itl'S rl'pllrted hl'rl'. Thl' spring sites look quitt, different fmm th..., surnmcr sites. SimiJarly, the falt and winter sites provide a major contrast to the contents of the spring and summer sires. Not only are the special~purpose locations more regulariy located spatially, they are also more redundant in their content. R{'sidmtial.~ih'saremore{1rxihle in fhrir locatioll and morevariablt'''' tI/ár nmtmt. Spteial-purposelocatiu1I5 Rre morediscrete in fluir
location Qtld more redlmdant ill lheir usealld Ctlll-
... (492) tenis. It Is intc the latter catcgory that the occupation of caves and rockshctters fnlls within the Nunamiut system. This does not mean, of course, that all peoples would use these natural facilities in the same way. C1early, there is variabiHty from región lo regíon in the topographic setting oí caves and rockshelters. As we have seen, topography is ene of the featu res that conditions the Nunamiut use oí these locatlons. Similarly, there are gross differences among envirenments in the relative dístribunon of critica} resources such as fuel, water, and food. In environments where fue1 and water are widely distributed natural shelters may assume more general roles in the subsistence settlement strategy. Such usage is mnre Iikely to incre;Jse in environments with incH'<'\~ing biomass and less scasonal fluctu,ltion in rl'source production. My experit.'nce with the Eskimo leads me to make the suggestion that specialized use of caves and rockshelters will ¡ncrease in relation lo residential use as a function oí increasing seasonal variance in the environmenl. This means that, as it gcts rolder, such shclters are less Iikc1y to be used fOf residential purposes. One can expect increasing correlations between changes in the content and structure of cave-rockshelter occupalions and measured enviromental change as the use of such locations becomes more spedalized. For the Nunamiut, the basic distribution of foods and the seasonal behavior of food animals in their environmcnt is fairly prcdictable. Thus the location uf specialpurpose sites is apt to be lluite redundant. I\ny change in the basic structurc of the cnv;ronment that results in changed );aml' distributions ;lnd bl'havior would bl' thl' miljor fac' ttlf wnJitionin~ (hilngl' in tlw USl' uf S~ll'd.ll· purpose locations. As a rough check on Ihese expectations. 1 surveyed the extant Iiterature on 240 cases of hunters and gatherers and iound that there were no examples of lhe residential use of caves and rocksheltcrs by hunters and gatherers occupyíng environments that are colder than the carth's mean biotemperature. Notone single examplc cou\d
9. ConelulON
be found for the residenñai use of caves and rockshelters north or suuth of roughly 35° north or south latítude. Conversely, there was an Increase in the recorded lncidence oí their residentíal use as one approached the equator. These observations certainly bring into question our knowledge of the past when this knowledge is largely based on information from caves and rockshelters located primarily in temperate and near-pclar settings. Nunamiut subststence behavior must be seen as a system. Activities are parts of strategies, and each activity or event reptesents a judgment that considered not only past experiences and present canditions but future goals as well. Throughout these discussions, r have stressed that some behaviors are ¡)ccommodated tn conditi{lfiS uf thl' mnment. These accommudations are indk.llors of Ihe systemic character of the adaptalion. The various components of a strategy are integrated and may be manipuIated to produce a continuing set of compromises between dif· ferent means to achieve security endso What is suggestl'd here is simply that systemic chilracleristics uf an adaptation wíll condition not only variability among sites in their contents, but jt wil1 also equally cOlldition thr pattern 01 redundatlcy or varitmce in the se-
quence o/ archaeological remaiflS that aecumulafe through multiple occupations at a single site; Moving to stiU a more comprehensive vil'w
of adaptations, we may appropriately consider the dcgree tu which Wl' may anticipatc variable localizations, or use uf difft..'renl Meas ror differcnt purp{lst.'5. Throughout the discussions of faunaI assemblagt..'S, two aspl'cls of Ihe Nunamhlt system of procurt.'rnl'nt and USt..' uf animillsils f{l(Kf hilVl' aomin.ltl'lt. First, lhl' l'xplt1il.llitlll uf animals is a largdy lugistical probh:m in that the strategy is to move animals as FllOd from the locations where they are obtained to loca· tions of consumption. Second. there ís a heavy dependcnce on stored foods thóll rcsults in con~umption strategit.'s as!'oclatl'd with the long-term Cl'movaluf·f0(ld fmm storage for use. 1OU5, wc niay sum",arizc thc
1493)
Porf"
Nunamiuí sysft'1" r1Selnl' c1,aTac1l'riud hystratt'girs tllaf !>('I'k to gai" s'J(l(t' utility (ivgi.'ltics) nnd time utility (storagc) srom rt~Ol.lrces. These two basic arms of the Nunamiut subslstence strategy are integrated in such a way that one aspect of the system strongly conditions behaviors in the other, The character of the spring logistical behavior Is strnngly conditioned by antidpated condltions of thc storagc cornponcnt of the system. At present, during spnng, labor must be investcd immcdiately to transport meat from kili sltes beca use It is necessary lo process for drying the enñre amount of meat oblained during spring migration very quickly. If lhis is not done, the meal will probably spoil beFore it can be dried and placed into storage. The logistics of Ihe fallwinter ~yskm aH' diffl'fl'nt in th.lt thl' tr.1n~ port of meat. when coupll.'d with a caching strategy, can be distributed over an extended period of time since successful storage is more easily accomplished with lhe decreasing temperatures after faH migration. During falI and winter, the logistical activities may be congruently schedull.'d with secondary concerns such as Ihe proCll'rcment uf firewood, trap· ping, and the procurement of dear ice for drinking water. Thus, during fan and winter the logistical movemenl of caribou meat may be partially, or completely.. submerged or embedded in other logistical operations. In spring, howevl'r, jt is an activity nol aecom· modated lo other logistical conceroso Th\.'patteros {If mubility and thc shifts in lhe disposilion of consumers in the habitat form {lne aspect of stratl'gy that sceks to minimizc Ihe expenditurcof labor in both procurement and wnsumption ólctivitit.'s. Similarly, the or~ilnizíltion uf work pc1rHl'~ m.1Y vílry ('unsidl'r.lbly in 1I1l.' W.1YS IIhlt tl11'Y ilrl' m·l·umnHlt.!.'kd
tu Ihe logistical dcm
tions was a strall'gy of ,1g~rt'gating labor ncar the points oí procurement. This allowed thc quíck processing of meat edjacent to the points of procurement prior to transport. Subsequently, the movement of what was essenñally stored meat could be accommodated to the dispersion and mobility necessary lo procure fresh mear during the summer months. What was transponed W.15 the dncd meat minus all the parts of marginal utility thcreby reducing the transport ccsts. Thev also practiced a cachtng strategy in which the parts with the greatest utility per unit weight were moved with thc pcople and swing populations of parts-that is, those parts with moderate utility as sources of food and with high processing costs-werl' carhl'd as insurancl' a~llinst 1.1Ck uf SUllunl'r hllnlin~ SUn\'SSl'S, .1S wdl as for l'mergency fuod in tl1l' arl',1 wlwrl' they anticipated faH hunting activities to be located. During the period of high mobility, there was an attempt to find topographic settings where successful spring
tl"l1l í' (
spring migralion hunting ill C~Sl'lIlJ.I¡¡Y (ilo: same place. On the north s\upe, there Me numl"rnu~ lakl'~ that are l1ut !"urroundl'd by deep muskcg as is more commonly thl' case south of the divide. Fall migration hunting consisted of driving caribou into thesc lakt."i and killing them with ¡.lOees flOm small
--.
14941 inland-style kayaks. Achieving this congruence in the locations of both fall and spring migration hunting made a more extensive caching strategy feasible as is evidenced by the huge stone caim caches loceeed al Tulugak Lake, near Kongumuvuk, and along the Anaktiqtauk. These locations were the central places eround which moves and dispersals and aggregations centered, once in spring and once in fall. One may think of thc pTe-gun settlement system as looking something like an asymmetrical bow tic where the spring and faU migration hunting locations are the knot and the summer díspersíons are a (arge loop to the north and winter is a srnallloop lo thc south. Summer dispersions were related primarily to food procurement concerns-movement lo g(}()d fishing lakes. tu locatiuns whcre suppl~mclltary summt:r caribou nunting mighl be cunducted, Uf, if things g(lt ruugh, an early reNrn to the knut of lhe buw lie where caches existed and mountain sheep might be hunted. Winter dispersions were related more to the density of wiUow growth and the need for firewood in large quantities during winter a5 well as the need for more substanlial foresl product materiills for construction of winter houses. In the past, the relative extension of the logistical system was inversely correlated with the bulk of the input! to the system. Whcn lhe input bulk was \¡uge (e.g., during spring and fan migration) the tcndcney was to move the consumers near the food, and take advantage uf the aggrcgatcd labor fur coopcrativc hunting and proeessing. During seasons when Igame was dispersed and erratic in movement, logistics might be at maximum cxtl'nsion so that srnall hunting parties would be covering large distances ln search of game, and they would be invol'led in transporting the rela~ tivcly smélll amounts obtaincd over large distance§. This USl' nf spceializro huntlnA. partk"S varied somewhat with the subsistcnce security afforded by atored rneat. lf stores were generaUy suffioentin quantity, bul perhaps of fow quaLity, as is charaeteristic of spring meat dried for summer consumption, hun"ting par-
"
ConclullOftll
ties were the general strategy. On the other hand, if stores were low, supplemental hunting was conducted by highly mobtle family groups searching for game. In these sltuations, both consumers and labor for processing were being moved to the potential sources of food. During late sumrner, when much hunting was spedñcally aimed at procuring calf skins for use in the manufacture uf wintcr dothing, the pattern was to move in highly moblle family urúts. Consumers could thus take advantage of the bonos meat of calves' heads and tongues and could also provide a labor force for field processing hides and thcn transporting the light but bulky hides to fall locations whereclothing was largely manufactured coincidently with faH migration hunting and on into the early winter. WC might view the Nunamiutsystcm as having two arms and a pair uf feet. Lo~istics and storagc are the arms, and residential mobility the feet. Each is a polennat strategy dimension that i5 aceommodated to the other in any given situation. In the absenee of sub~ stantial stores, there is a higher probability of a residential move tu the general area uf procurement Te5ulting in minimal In~istic.,1 cxtension. In the prcsence of substantial stores, there is a lower probability of residential movement to a locus of procurement and, in tu ro, a higher probability of maxiIllunilpgisti~ cal extension, us(' of spedalizcd work p;,utics. and transport of procurl'd f(lods over largc distances. Since storage is a planned strotc¡:;y, the procurement uf meat for sturage wa~ geared to the spring and faH caribuu migrations. This meant that maximvm lop;istical t'xtcnsion wa!> ch;¡racteristic of the midJll' of the perlod of storage dependence, whcrcas increasing rdidential mobllity and smalll'r camp groups mighl charaetcrizc the end uf the period of stora¡;e dependence. Such a schedule was, uf (ourse, subjeet to modification, depending on migration huntin~ ~uc· cesses or particularly on the nulritional 5tate of theanimals. For instance, during the period of critically low caribou density in the Alaskan area between 1890 and 1935, we see ¡ncreasing
14951
Pan 11
residential mobiIity coupled with a tremendous increase in the total area covered by an average Nunamiut family during the ennual cycIe. (See Burch 1972; Binford and Chasko 1976.)
The success of a long-term storage strategy is dependent on a reliable and highly aggregated toad source. For the Nunamiut, this was províded by the regular, twice-yearly, aggregatcd movement of caribuu between their wintcr and summer ranges and their pessege through the Brooks Range along regular rentes dictated by features of the topography. In other topographic settings, the same species offer5 nosuch opportunity for integration with a storage slrategy. As an example, the farther north one is situated along the upper margíns uf the summer range of caribou, thl' grcakr the probability oí hunting being confined to late summer and related to obtaining skins for winter dothing aJong with sorne meat; rarcly are the scattered animals on the upper summer range present in suffi· ciently large aggregates to afford the opportunity for accumulatin¡; any major stores for winter use on ;J regular y('arly basis. Con~ vcrsc1y, the filrlhcr south une is in the wintcr rang(' of caribou, thc higher the probability of winter hunting of the scattered animals and the lowcr thl' probability of any accumulntion of mnj(lr ."itorl"'i. Ot1ly ot tetu~¡'ly thl' h01'..h'r b<.·twt.'I.-'n lh.., ......intcf ímd summcr ran~(";; of car:ibou is lhert' a sufficient, ilggrchilt!on to Ol.ih' ;1 rcgul.u twil'<:-Yl'Mly ~liJl,I¡;e "tf.llt'gy fl'asibll'. Evcn lhcrc, the dq:;n't· !tI whirh (1m' can rl'iy on the regular aggl'l'gation in p'H:,dicl-
abl'''''K'JlIon,1,(ulldill"nt'd by t('A\lIrliM uf Ihu topo).;mplty. W1WfI' l. Ipl>grilpl1il:. rt'llt'f 1ftilta mínimum, fHl is tlll' pn'~il:hlbi1H)' .uf Ih,' rllul!'!; uf cartt:ouu movvmt!nt. .
form of an achieved adaptaticn is not necessarily determined by thc means, but instead derives from the patterns of use to which means are put in seeking security. We may anticípate, therefore, intcrregional differences in many aspects of the archaeologlcel record that refer directly lo the character of the adaptations achieved, even though the culture or the means known to thc peoplc may be similar or tdentical. I have tbus Iar demcnstrated how tbe ongoing dynamics of an adaptaticn may result in considerable variability in the contents uf archeeologlcol sitos. I havc suggcsted th01l patterning through archaeological sequences at different sites may be quite different but still referable directly to organizational differences characlerisfic of ¡1 single adaptation. Finally, I have suggC'St~d huw g\.'n~r.lphi(' path.'rning in the frequency, contents, and forms of sitl'S can be expected to vary as a consequence of the organization of an adaptation in space and the
dilferences in the character of adaplalions a('hiev~d in dlf('rt'nt ph1f('S, whl'u'as the adaptivc stralc~ies and f,lCtors conditi(}nin~ decision milkin~ may remilin ({lnstant. I turo nvw to thal almo~t sacrl'd arca of archal'ulo~i cal pilttl'rnillg-. tl'nlpor,lJ vMi.lbiJilr. Whnt hav(' we'lcarncd ahout ilrchtl('o¡ohkdl fmm,l. tíun pro("l's!'l('S lh,lt mlHht HNvt' tu modify Ih" nw.1tlil1h~ lIl.ll "Hl ht, ,l!,¡lr(I¡"~:":l':Y hi\lt'l~ lo ()b~('rvt'd sti\b¡¡it~ N r~lkr:wd ,·h.\nr,l''' ¡I, tlh' i1rchal'()ll)~k.lr
n'C{lnl?
Evldence for DlfferenUoJ T....""rll
PolI.mlns fIoom Re.ld.nllo' ond
&peclal.Purpo.. Loc.aUon. (~, "!'"
r··'
!r..,"
Thl~ S~()rl .. h ,( • stratl!~iSt,-flh(lu~ mo1ke il df>arIhal adapt~ti()n is aI'w~!> a 1(lc41 solutiun t~l· ~Mig¡lIy local condlritill. Bccause\of thlg, _:tt~ can ahtlcl~te
consideraole variability.tmp'fig systems ¡P Ihe. cnaracter of the adaptation a:chit;ved. Thi§ ~U be manifest as geogfaphic variability in 'thl properties of archaeological remains. The
bl lile ••u dlo.lt.·OjllJ.jlüli rL·m.lill:-> IUJlll LUt· ~ltL' 111
Pldcntc (A(', ISH) lucotcd in th(' rivl'rinc "ub.zone of Ih~ thorn fOrl'8t l!lslfoclotlon In the Ayacucho Basin of highland Peru (Vierra 1975). The levels analyz.cd spanned the Jaywa ani:1 Piki phases of the Ayacucho sequence {see MacNeish ét al. 1975:220). Thus the levels
.... (4961
9. Conc:'IU'OU
In the Puente sequence spanncd the lmpcr-
Ilnllnd elltic418hltt In Ih. h(~hllnd8 (lllIn I
pure hunting-gatherlng subslstence pattern to one increasingly dependent en domesticated plants and animals. In short, the sequence spanned the important "agricultural revolutíon" in highland Peru. Vierra selected 11 stratigraphic samples for comparative study. Chi-square ca1cuJations were made for the comparison al general functional categcrles of lithics, end scrapers, side secapers, projectiíe pcints, and so on, emcng the assemblages. The result was that the observcd differences ranging from top to bottom of the sequence could be understood in terms of sampling variations al the ~ .95level of probability. In short, there was no demonstrable change in the functional charaeter of the assemblage despite the fact that the sequenee spanned the critical shift from hunting and gathering to horticulture and the use uf domestie animals. Vierra performed a factor analysis on lhe 11 levels and found that all loaded together on a single factor, demonstrating again that there was Httle basis for viewing the variability in lithic assemblage content as meaningful in adaptational terms. This was a st.aggt'ring sd uf findings. Fm thosc who would view lithic assemblages as necessarily responsivc to adaptivl' changl's and thcrdorC' usdul as monitors uf sysh.'ms chan,:;C' thesc findins;s must bl' vl'ry disconcerting indccd! Rc~ardh.'ss of the interpretalion givcn, Vit',,,,'!> [imfi":,:s 11l'1I10l/!>tmlc I1l1lt Iit/,ic asscmblflgl'S ma.v ,mI r1"fo11j'Jld lo gClIl'ml sysI('ItI$ cllmlS~ at sa",t' sitrs. This dl'arly mcans th/lt all archat.'ological sitt'S arl' nut l'llual as monitors of ,;cnl'ral systems cunditions. It ..Iso demonstrates that sorne remains, in lhis case Iithics, are not equal monitors of general systems eondítions. (Vierra demonstrated sorne changes through time in remains other than Iithics.) 1 am saying that the corred explanalions for changes in lithic-assemblage composition at some places may well bl' inappropriate and evcn downright wwng when cmployed for ceramics or othl'r c1asscs of artifaets.
.
-
It
15 my
gUe5S
Ipl!ddl·pulpu,~
that thu slte uf Puente
WB"
a
IUCdlk,,, (pcrhlp. I h""UUM
camp). I suggest that during gl.'lIeral systt'm changf'S, íhe role 01 a strategy in an averall adaptation may ch,mgc but the strategy itsell d~ not necessarily change. Stated enother way, hunting deer in thc Ayacucho Basin could wcll resen t similar problems to hunters regardess of the relative contribution to the diet of deer meatoChange in the eulturalsystem may not change the behavior of deer and the basic hunting strategies may well remein the same. We might expect thcrc to be a change in the success curve for hunting parties stnce une of the conditions for a shift to agriculture ís apt to be decreased reliability of the hunting and gathering strategies. There may even be changes in the social position of hunters and the relationship of persons who hunt to others. Nevertheless, choice hunting locations are apt to remain choice hunting locations, at least for sorne time. Similarly, the basie hunting strategit..'S and tcchniques may Wl'1J remain the same rcgardless of the changed rolcs that such strategíes played in the overall adaptation. It is not unreasonable to expeet the archaeological remains from 5uch speciaIpurpose locations tOl'xhibit vl'ry diHcrcnt patterns of variability through time rclative to a sCllucncc whcrl' thcrl' is sorne compoullding uf assl'mblilge CtlmpllOl'nts Ih.lt mllOitor'·'tlw míx of strntegies in an oVl'rall adaptation, as une mighl expl'ct at a rt.'Sidential location wilh a mOdl'ratL'-grilim'd a:O;~l'mblilge. I think I have achil'vl'd a ml,thod fur giving meanin~ lo faun&11 a~!;l'mblagcs in terms of past bchavinrs and stratt'~it':o;. In additilln, I have demonstrated Ihal many cunn'pt:o; that have bt.'Cn used paradigmatieally fur giving meaning to assemblage variability are inadequate and generally wrong. I have explored the implications of there being different factors conditioning the processes of archaeologícal assemblage produetion at different Iypes uf !;itl's. This l'xploration has led to IhC' ilrgument Ihat palh..' rning in contl'nt, spatial distribution, tl'mporal redundancy, and responsiveness to general system condi-
r.
Pan" tiuns arv ilU propt!rti!JH uf MHII:J1lb1i'lRt.'1' end IUC'4tiun" thnt ¡u~, "pi h) vary wlth thc iunctinn of the site. In short, meaníngs to be attaehed to changes observed at a special-purpose location are different than those for a residential location. I hnve argucd in the past that bcfore arcbaeotogete can give meaning to meesured differences and similarities in assemblage content they must understand the processes that brought assemblages into being. 1 now argue
1497)
that betcrc arthi1('uh1f;htts can ~lvl.' ml'i\nln~ to pb.~rved .patlnl and t~'mpornl ratt ern. characteristlc of recognízuble assemblage forms, they must understand the systems behind the assemblage. Was its generatíve process an amalgam uf ,components that in their eompound condition monitor an overall sy~ tem, or was the assemblage genereted in the context of the execution of a single strategy that may or may not have been successful?
..,.
References
".
Balikci, A. 1'170 Tne Nttsilik E.~/r:ilt/I'. Carden City, New York: Natural History Press. Ih'k\lurl, G.A. 1944 Buffaluhunt.ln T1I1'ffl'Q"rr, Oulfit275. WinnlpeK: Hudson's 8i1)' Co. Pp. 13-17. Binford, LR, 1972 Contemporaey rnodcl building; paradigms and the curreot stete of Palaeolithíc research. In M(ld¡>[s in arcllllto/t1SY. edrted by D.L. Clarke. London: Methuen. Pp. 109-166. 197..\ "tnterassemblage variabilily-the Mousterian ,Il1l1 thl' 'functional' .1r~Ullll.'IlI." 111 1'11" tXf'/IlIlIlliOl/ ofCulture ClIQ"Xe, edited by Colin Renfrew.
1-10. 8lnford, L.R., and J.B. &!rtro:m 1977 Bone frequt'nct~ .nd aflrillonal processes. In Buckxrotlnd studirs '"r 'h.~J'!I htlildins. edited by L.R. Binford. Nt'w Yurk Academic Press. Pp. 17-153. Binford, L.R., and S.R. Btnford 1966 A prdiminary ;lMalysis uf Iuncnonal variabilily, in Ihe Muusll'ri,ln of Levallois f..ces. 11\ R«'t· ...l studlcs in pdlt,t1anlhrurt.lllf';)', t'dihod by J.O. Clark and F.C. Howell. Amtridw Anlh'lJIll.rl,':{ist
I.undun: Duckworth. Pp. 227-254. 1975 Historical archa«llogy: 15 u historical cr archaeological1 P01'&llaf Archnt%gy 4 (3-4): 11-30. 1976 Forty-seven tnps: A case study in the character of sorne formation prrxesses of the archaeological record. In C"fflri"uti.m~ In olllhr.'píllIJXY: Th~ interiort"~""I'" (lfnorthcrn t1/llslm. edued by E.S. Hall, ¡r. NotiClt/JI/ Mus,'lml el{ Mllff, Mtuury St'ri,'!! (l'aper No. 49). Ouawe: NaHonal MI.l!k'um uf Caneda. Pp. 299-351.
1969 Stone tools ami hum"n behavlor. S'lt'lllifit" Amm~n 220 (4): 70-84. Binford, L.R, and W.J. Chasko 1976 Nunamiut demographic hislory: A provocaeive case. In Dr'11fI'K,aphic 1lr1lhmpolr'Xy, edlted by ER.W, Zunrnw. Alnu'1u¡·ftlul·: Univl'r~ily uf NI'W MI'l
1m
"C",nt'rallntroduction:'lnFllr 'lh,,,,rv 8t1il.l'"S "1 Archll't'Ilto,¡'li, edlted by L.R. Binlurd. NI'W York, San FranC"Í'
68 (2): 2'H-211S.
14991
..,~
15001 undcrstilndin¡; uf austwlvpilhl"linl' bone 'Kl'umlltaliuns. Stit'n'ific Pa,Jrn;.'! /11., Ntmúll D.~t"t
;m
R~'4rc¡' Sftltion
No. 39. Pp. 13-22.
Burch, ES., Jr. 1972 The canbou wild rcindeer as a human resource. Amt'rinlll At/liquit.1f 37 (3); 3)9-368.
C'mrbt'".1.M. 1%tI Tl'rrilnriollity amI1n,;.lndl'nt hunlers: Inll"pn·I••-
ñons from e,hnograph)' and nature. 1(1 An'h'lJPl"l~io" archal'o/(?lY ¡Ill!lr AtrlI7i(JJ:<.
editl"Cl by B. MeAA('rs. W.,shin~lt>n. O.e.: Anlhmro\,').;il',ll SUOl"Y \Ir Wo1shin~llln. I'p. I -2 L 1970 The hunnry summcr. In Cultur¡' ~!ll,,·k. ,1mlllt" in medem f14ltIlTa/ dlllllro1'lIJlIX.V. edited by l' .K. Bock. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Pp. 165-170. 19'76 The Nature cf Nunlmiut uchaeulogy. In Con,r¡bufiom; lo IJ"'lrropolvs.v: TJrl' interior 1'11'1,II'S northem A/a.<:ka, edíted by E.S. Hall, Jr. Natimla/ MlIsl'Um of Man, Ml'rcury Sffirs (pi!.pt'r No. 49). Otlawa: National MU5l'Um \lf Can.1Ja. Pp. 1-51. Chaplin. R.E. I%') Thl.' u!ó\' ~.f non-mtlrphtll\l~~k.,l \'ritt'ri,l in Ih\' !óludy I.f .1n;m.ll dtlml'''lkiltilln fmm l'Il",'~ f"un.J in archill'lIh~iG\1 !iil~'!l. In 11••' II'JII'I'Stilll,j¡." 011111 l'x"'mllltip,. ," J'1,ml~ ami mli",als, \'dih'J by I'.J. Uckoand G. W. Dimblel>y. Chicav,t.: Aldinl'. Pp. 231-245. 1971 n,l' s"IIIY.1 a"imallJl'lIt'S fn,,,, 1l,,/fat'(tft~iOI/ s,ll's. lllndlln: Sl'minar Prl'SS. C1ark, 1.0., and c.v. Bayotos, Ir. 1Y70 An t'\1'pn.lOl buldlt'ry 'lib' .11 Mw.lIl~.Jnd.I·!ó vil· 1.1~t·, K.HI'n~", MJI.1Wi. ilnd ils rdl'v,uln' 1m Pall'olithic ar{hal"Ology. WllrlJ Arr/¡tlt~l/OSY I P): 3'111-411.
{Ir
nuk. I.G.D. 1971 Ln"","'¡;"'ls ,It Sr"r ülrr C"mbrili~t': C.lmbr;J~I' UniVl'rsity Pn'5s. Cllmmins, S" ,md R.M. Linscoll (Eds.) 1lH7 n.,· "/¡i/,'"',.,.Jl,·rs "f srwl'Il'-·Mtllf r,,,,llt,e IIIW',·/"S,·. • Nl'w Yt'rk: R.lndllm HIIUSI'. Corbin, ,. E. 1976 Early historie Nunamiut hou~ types. In ClIIltri¡'lIlh",s lo IInthropoloxY: TI,t illterú" prvpit's .J( nprt/,rTll Alasbl, edited by E.S. Hall, Jr. Natúmal MultUm fI{ Ma", Mrrrllry Strit!l (Pa~r Nu. 49). Ottawa: Nallonal MU~l'um \11 Canada. Pr. 1:15176. Darl, R.A. 1'I~1 Tht' Osll"ut.illntnkL'ralic culture (Jf AII~tra/""itht' rus /'r""w,,",·lt~. '''m''~¡'l/I'/ MU.~"Jl'" M,.m,orr N..
'"
()ihhll', D.S., .md IJ I.urr••in 19fiH Bonfin' Shdll'f: A stratified bison kili sih', V,ll Vl'rdt· Lllunly, Tt'~ds. r"XII~ MI,,".¡r¡,11 MlI~,,"m, MISft'/I!11I,'IIl~ 1"'I"''S Ntl l.
fi?
Re/ererrc_
Re/crenr>a
Ducos, P. 1969 Ml'lhoonlugy and rt'sult!i uf thl' study uf the earüese domesticated an¡mals in the Near l~lsl (l'all'Slinl'). In TI!!' dl)",,~/iOltit"l a"d I'x'llai/a/i.", tlf p/allt!l tmd animll/.<, edited by I"]. Uckoand G. W. Dimbleby. Chtcago: Aldint'. Pp. 2b5-27S.
Dunncll, R.e. 1971 S.ystl'mrllics in Ilfdlis/,''Y' New York: hl'l' I'H"'''. Emlen, J.M. 1973 Eor/l~,Y: An ",p/lllit"tary 1I1'IITllflrl, Rl'adin~, M,I
f8
Irving, L. 1972 Ardie li[1' "f birds and mdmmll/s, i"dllding mano Ne'W York, Heídetberg, Berlín: Sprínger-verlag. [arman, M,R. 1972 Europeen deer econcmies and Ihe advent of the Neohthíc. In PaprTS in Eamomie Prthist/lry, edited by E.S. HiAA~L Cambridge: Cambridge Umversity l'rcss. I'p. 125-14H. Jelinek, A.J. 1976 Form, lunction, and styte in lilhic analysis. In ülltllTf' clltlll.'~r IInd wlltinuity, edtted by C. E. Cleliln,J. NI'W Yurk: Acaderntc Prcss. Pp. 19-33. [ochim, M.A. 1976 HUllll'r-glltllrrrr sllbsis'rllo' aud ultlrm'nt. NI'W York: Academíc Press. Kapla.n, A. 1964 TIlI' cOllduct ofinquiry_ San Francisco: Chendlee. Kl"hoe, T.F. 1%7 The Boarding School Bison Orive Sile. PI/Ú"5 An/llTapd.'xist J2 (35) Mcmoir No. 4. Kitching, J. W. 1%.1 /l"nl', I.~,th aIll1/,urn t'_lis uf Palt'tJ/il/¡ic Inlm. Manchl'sft'r: Man(hl'Stl'r Univl'rsity Ptl'Ss. KWt:bt.-r, AL, ilnd C. Kluckhuhn 19'i2 Cullutl,; d critical rl.'vit'w of rvneepts and definiti(lOS. Pamnnl; the Nunilmiut Eskiml'. In l.'I,/""lIi"'ls in rlll/llml allrllTt'l~tfc'Xy, l'dih't1 bv W.II C"l\d\'lll"t)~h. N,'IV Yor!..: McGraw-HilI. Pp. 395....31. R.lusch, R. 1951 Nl1ks on lhl' Nunamiul E!'ikimtlilnd mamm.lls lIf
1501J the Anaktuvuk Pas!! region, BTlloks RanKI', Alaska, Ardjc" (3): 147-195. Sadek·Kooros, H. 1972 PrimitivE' bcne fracturing: A method vi research. AmtTinln Arllil¡uily 37 (3) 369-382. Solecki, R.S. 1950 New dal¡¡ on tnl' inland E. ..kimo ot nothcm Ala!ók.l. '.'IIt/MI t1 lile WIIS/lill,I,"tl'" An,.I'·/II.v.1 OSÓrnctS 40 (S): 137-157. Spencer. R.F. 1959 The North Alaskan Eskime: A Sludy in I"culugy and SOOI'ty. 8u/ll'lill .1{ Illr Rllr,'QU ,1 ,,"•..,ifllll Eth"ol~y No. 171. Wa"hinglon, O.e.· US. Covemmesu Printíng Uf/ice. Sturdy, D.A. 1975 Some relndeer eccncmles In prehístcric Eurcpe. In Pallltorcllr/Ilmy, l'dited by ES. Hill:lI:s, Cambridge: Cambridgl" University Press. Pp. 5S-96. Vierra, R.K. 1975 S¡rU('II,,'Vr'r~us fUllctil'" i" Ihfllrc'hacu/d¡(ill1lrl'wrd. Ductural dissl'rlalion, [h'J'lIrtml'nl uf Anthr<Jpulu~y, Uni\'l'csity uf Nt'w Ml'lIiru, tUnivl'r"ity Mic'rofilm.) Voorhil"', M.R. 1969 Taphonomy olnd population dynolmics 01 an parly Plineene vertebrate fauna, Knm( Counly, Nl·bra!'ik,l. C!JIlt,if>IIIiI,It~ lo Gt,'¡IlXY, S,'rcial {la""r No. 1. Laramie: Univl'rsily (Jf Wyoming. Wentworth, E.N. 19!i6 Dril-d ml',lt- 1:,lr1ym,lO's trolVt'lr,¡film. In Ar"'l,,,1 r171t"1 IIf II/¡, Sm;t/,~",¡j,m IPI~'i"II!,"1 ·IQ.'1.Il. Washington, D.e.: US. GOVl'rnml'nt Printing Qffi{e. Pp. 557-571. White, T.E. 1952 Qbservatiuns 01' Ihe butchl'ring tlochniqul' nf ~ome ahori~inal pl'l>ple~. Am"riCrln An'iqllitv 17 (4): 137-3JR. . 1953.:1 A ml'thud uf clllculalln~ thl' dit'lary f1t'rn'nlaMl' of various food animals uliliz~cl by aboriginal peoples. AllltriCQII Anliquity 18 (4): 396-398. 195Jb Observations on the butchering lechnlqut! of sorne ¡,burigin¡,1 peoples No. 2. Allll'Tinm Anfiqui'y 19 (2): 1(rO-164. 1954 Observattons on Ihe bUlchertng technhlUf"'i of some abnrlKina¡ reoPI<>~ NO!l. 3, 4, ~. and 6 American Allfiquily J9 (3): 254-264. Wllson, E.O. 1975 S.Jriutoiolt~.y, ,I'r m'tI' .~.v,,'II,~i.~. C.. mbrid~e: liarv,ud Univl'r"Uy l'rt's" Wi:o..kr,l. 11J1O Material culture nf thl' U1acktoot Indi¡¡n~. A'I· I/rr">t>l,"...:im! Pal"'r~ ,,( l/u' Am,'nO/,r MlI.~'·II'" rf Nahtflflltlsl<".II.'i, polrt i
0.1
)
R_
(502) Wuod. W,R.
1%2 Notes on the bison bcne trom thr Pilul Breve, Hulf, and Demel)' sítes (Oahe Reservt:rir). P/ains Anlhrapoloxist 7 (11): 201-204. Ydll'n,).E. 19'16 Settlemenl pa.llern, nfthe lKu~: Anard1at'OIt'Kkal pt.'r.lpt'<'livc. In ""IMI/tri hlmlt'l'- X"lhl"N'rr¡.
1m
edited by R.B. Lee ¡lInd 1. Devore. Caml:oriJ!,-t" Harvard University Press. pp. 47-n. Cultural patt('ming in fauoal f\'n,ainl'i: Evi,l"nl" trom tht' !KunKBushml'n. In Lrpt1"iI'Ic'nlll/llrch"l'olu¡(l/. edited by D.W. 10,,'-',5(111. Jllhn E. Ydll'n, end WlIIi"m Mac()nn¡Jid, New York: Culumbia Univl'n;ily Prcss. I'p 271-3.11.
lndex
A
Abandoned camps, 170 Aggregation, 428 .,Agricultural revolutíon," 4%
Akutuk,29, 147,156,171,236,463 Analogy,452 Antier errow. 408 ArchaeologicaJ formation processes, 3 Archaeological models, 3, 6, 8, 11 Assemblage content,458 structure,422 variability,455 B
Bands,326 Base camp, see Residential sites Behavioral flexibility, 454
Bonegrease. 157-160,213,378,389,390,397, 398,399,422,423,429,431,436,437,461, 463,465
assemblage models for, 160,301. 386 fauna! inventoríes (mm archaeclogical, 376, 380, 384, 430 ethnographic, 36, 160 measuremenl oC utility, 32-38
Bonejuice, 163-165, 174,312,315,326,337, 355,460,461,463,465 fauna) inventaries from archaeological, 376, 380, 384, 430 ethnographic, 165 Bonemarrow assemblage models for, 188-189,287-289,
301,370,371 consumpríon, 145,147. 152-156,163-164, 195,366, seeaíso Akutuk; Hunting stand(s) faunal Invcntorics from archaeologicaJ, su Hunting srandís), fauna! inventories from ethnographic,30 measurement of uttlity of 23-32 preíerences (or,42-44 seasonal use 0(, 100
15031
.... [504)
I.
Bone splinters, 145, 146, 284, 357, 393, 396, 397,401,463,464,465,480 Breakage ratio, 468 Bull maree, 172 Butchering anatomical segments resulting Irom,
51-55,60,96 by Alyawara AustraJians, 87-89
Great Plains Jndians, 87-89 !Kung Bushman, 87-89 Navajo, 87-89
Caribou bias in exploitation by
oge,85-87,150,474,475 nutrittonal state,97, 187,224 sex,85-87,150,474,475 situation,220 migration of, 52, 94, 169-172, 178, 179, 306, 346 nursery herds, 312, 326, 345, 400 nutritional cycle of, 40, 86, 97 Caribou Eskimo, 228 Compound assemblage, 228, 233, 234, 269,
Nunamiut, 48-60, 94-97,142-144 effects on
bone Irequencíes, 62-64 utility of parts. 17, 18, 97 marks. 154. 155.480 types of
389,462,476,496 Conceptual division of animaIs, 428-429 Consumer demand, 135-138, 139, 202 relative to faunal remains, 341, 391, 404,
405,447,448,449 Consumption,src u/so Dog feeding: Pood,
contingent,59 head and lega, 61
preparation records of, ethnographic, 139, 203, 262
head only 61
sequence, 263,416,452 slrategies of 165-166, 191-199,216,222,
I
heavy,88
223,251,257,258,261,265,295,328, 363,418,462 Culling, 212, 213, 258, 259, 260, 272, 273, 275, 300,304,318,339,34°; 342, 365, 369, 379, 412,415,423,424,459,463,484
idiosyncratic.59
imtial, 50 light, 88 piece,61 secondary, 50. 55
Cultural bias, 38, 47, 48, 220, 343, 414 Cultural rules, 47, 454"455
Curation, 452 Cutting board, 145, 393
C
Cache caching, 40,48,50,53, 55-59,83, 174, 193, 241-245,259,281,291,356,373,378, 405,425,428,461 assemblage models foc • drying rack, see Drying stone caims, 239 faunal inventaries from
Drying Rack, Billy Morry's, 225 stonecaim Konqumuvuk A, 237 Long Rope, 237 Sile 1, 237 Site 10, 237 Sile 37, 237 r: Site41,237 .'
.
~
D ¡
Deadfall Traps, 242 ., Decisión rnaking, strütture of, 81, 90, 246, 252 Oismemberment, measurement ot, 64-69 trends in valúes, 249-251,419-421
Dog feedingof, 135-138, 195, 197, 204, 217, 220,221,222,262,277,285 assemblage modela for, 214-217, 330332,442-445 faunal inventorics from archaeclogícal, 2(JJ, 295, 305, 322, 380,
384,402,430,437
Ind~
(505]
ethnograph¡c, 196,264 sled, 48, 56, 57, 84
E
team,48
Egocentric distributions, 471 Empirical generalization, 452. 472 Eskimo dances, 347 Explanation, 2, 6, 89,452,457
weights, 285, 410 Drinking ladle, 428 Drying butchering for, 94-9'.! camp,225 choice of parts for, 102-111 processing for, ser also Processing assemblage rnodels of, 118, 120,214-217 faunal inventaries of BiJly Mcrry's, 225 kili site with deleation ter. 239
F
Factor analysis, 129 Fish camps, sltes of,-152, 256, 488, 490
Fishing, 255, 326 Flint chips, 282, 293, 402, 408
Site 64,234 racks. 97,98, 100, 101, 111, 112, 113, 119, 122,147,157,213,218,220,223,224, 227,331,232,203,312,313,317,318, 327,329,333,369,374,378,389,431, 441,481
Food prcfcrences, 10, 38. 471 as conditioned by nutrition, 18,30 for marrow, 42-44 for meat, 38-42 as situationally ccnditioned, 191-199,
assemblage models for, 107-109,214-
217
.
265,295,328,363,418,462 preparatlon feet and metapodials, 146-149, 337 head, 150, 151 intersite comperísons. 152 legs, 145, 146 mandlblc, 149, 150
fauna! inventaries from
archaeclogical parta associated with drying racks Bear, 430, 437 Kakinya, 380, 384 Nct,394 r.l1<1ngnna,436 ' cthnogrnphic Billy Morry's, 225 Clyde Hugo racks, 264 FaJl1971,373 FaJl1972,373 June 1969: 112 June 1971, Ji2 June 1972,,112 parts abandoned on racks BiJly Morry's, 225 utility indéx for, 101-103, 106 Oump locations sites, 146, 147, 140, 151, 155, 164, 196,3/2, 321, 326, 35~, 374, 376, 378, 389, J9Ó, 394,397,42'1,466 , .1 .,' • faunal inventori~ from • ..~ l!!
.
, "
¡
ribs,151 ronsfing. 152,269,353
stew, 145, 146,147,149,150,269 sharing, 132-133, 139, 140, 144, 192,321. 338,447 Food stress; 337, 341 Formation processes. 3,12,479,481,495 Functional variability. 455, 476 Functionally related sttes, 280 dlfferent sltes, 486 FunctionaUy specific sites, 227
G Gambling, 174 :,~neral
systems change, 451, 496 ; general the~ry,486 , ¡ ',\.
.... (506)
Inda
Indo;
esscmblage modcls for, 188-189, 287-
H
379.398.399.402.406,407,411,412,423, 458.459,463,476.488,490,491
289,301.370,371 Hearths, 172.176,179,182,183,224,268,281. 282,292,303,312,315,350.352,353, 355,357,365,396,407,408,410,411,431, 465,481,489
15071
fauna1 inventaries from
assemblage models for general. when deleation is for dryíng,
A-J. 356 Anakttqtauk A. 176
faunaI inventortes from Anaktiqtauk spring kills, 78 Anavlk, spring kills, 78 Big Surround Kili, 237
Anavik,176
436
BigHappy. 351 BillyMorry's, 356
Houses, faunal inventaries from, 294, 305.
322,323.376,380,384,394,402,430.436,
Contact Creek, 357
437, see also Tent rings
BillyMorry's KiUsite, 225
Giant Creek, 357
Little Happy, 353
dispersed fall kills, 76 dispersed wínter kills, 76 dispersed spring kills, 76 dispersed summer kills, 76
Mask site, 180 personal stands, 180
sheep al Liek21, 283 sheep al Kollutuk,409
Hunting
ambush, 235,350,358,392,493 eamps, 49,50, 84, 152,171,175.178,188, 227,249,258.266,268,273,275,277, 282,283.284,285,292,293,298,300, 302,304,306,307,310,315,317,320, . 333,334,338,339.340,342,346,363, 406,407,408,410,413,415,416,421. 428,459,461,482.484,488,490,491
logistical,458 reaídenñal, 458, 494
239
Anaktiqtauk 5,176
fauna! inventaries Irom. 295, 305, 394, 402,
Middle range theory, 45, 486
Mobility. 204,205.459,461,484.493, 494
Hugo,356 Kongumuvuk (talJ), 357
straggler, 83,86,114,122,199,368,392,419
grcuped data from a1l piece-butchered kill sites, 301
Hottentot, 19. 467
N
Navajo.47, 87-89, 467 Netsílikmiut Eskímo, 483 Nunamiut Eskimo environmentof, 93-99, 171-ln, 255-
257,345-346,425-428 research among, 12-13
o
!KungBushman, 87-89, 131,132,140.142 Observation stands, 282, 354,369,406,407,
408
assemblage modele. 188-189, 274-277,
287-289,301,314 faunal inventaries from Anavik A-S-C, 180
Kongumuvuk (high), 270 Kollutuk,409 LoverD-E,307 Lover F-H, 3('fl Lover 1,307 Lover J. 307 Lover
Ice cellars. 111,114.115.116,121.122,123, 124,125,126,141,235,238,257,260,268, 278,321,343, su aleo Srorage, by freezíng faunal inventones from, 124, 126 Ice shovels, 346 Instrument for measurement, 44 Inlersite variability, 131, 133,476,484,486,
487,491
1<. 307
Site 17.314 Site 27 (1955), 294-295 5ite 27 (prevíous), 294-295
Site 33B,314 dOives.141,235,240,241,391 eneounter, 85, 169,178,265,268.304,306, 327,333,336.337,342,449,486 expcditlon, 83,266,277,284,310,326,427, 428 lntcrcept, 169, 172,178,235,306,342,346, 347,354,447 migration, 122,362,365,494 récords, 137,138
standta), 117, 152,172,175,179,180,182186,232,246,248,249,283.306,318, 346,352,354,355,358,362,363,419, 421.459.484,488,490,491
",
L
faunal irwentortes from , 283, 409 Overnight ramps, 169-170
Lith¡c assemblage, 496 Living system, 451 Logistical mobiJity, 458 Logistical nade, 459 Logistical organlzatíon, 90, 202, 248, 419 Logisticalsequence, 454, 459, 460 LogisticaJ system, 91, 342, 369
p
rack dogs, 49,50,51,84,113, 116,179.272, 284,306,312,313,358.410 Pethways, 248,258,473 Play areas, 314
J Judgments,454
K
Kayak,348,39l,426,494 Keys for tdentiñcation. 474
KiU-buteheringsites, 9, 10,47,52,60-62,63, 74,75,84,90,96,104.111,114,116,121, 126,127. 168.171,180,183, 186,187,189, 193,198,199,201,204,213,214.218,223, 224,227,228,235,238,245,249.250,258, 269,270,273,281,283,298,300,302,306. 307,310,315,317,333.337.338,362.365.
Prediction,452
M
Problem-solving strategies, 453
Marrow, see Bone marrow Marrow pusher, 156 Maximizing stratcgy, 19,47,114,414,458,
477
MC'élt cache, 5('(' Cache preferences, 38-42 utility tndex of 19, 20 measurementof, 15-23, 47 Mental templates, 2, 454 Men's house, 182, 326 Minimum numberof individuals, calculation
of, 69-72, 478-479
Processing
debris, 125,225, 417 burning of, 461
for drying, 96, 97, 106. 109, 120, 213,334, 417.460 nssemblage modcls for, 118,120, 20()-
201.214-217 indexes of, 107-109,214-217 sitcs, locations, arcas, 100, 11h, 117-l23,
131,213.215,218,224.227,228,230, 231,232.246.249,313,318,388.414, 423,427,461.490.491 faunal Inventories from, 115, 124, 224,
225 for marrcw, 9, 54. 152-156, 163-166,213
....
,....
(5081
I.'¡'"
Structuralism, 456 Structural relationship, 471 Subsistence security, 32, 38, 45, 150, 269, 470, 494 Survival percentages, 210, 211, 222, 276, 300, 310,334,379 Symbolísm, 456 Systemic context, 3, 4, 300 System-state variables, 457, 459
Palangana, 437
R
parts returned from hunting campe. 291
Rational behavior, 453 Reference dimensíon, 19, 38, 223, 456, 474 ResidenHal mobility, 458, 494 Residential sites
camps, 9,32,53,84, 117, 118, 119, 121, 142, 149,150,152,170,171,178,191,204, 213,215,224,227,228,231,235,238, 249,256,265,282,291,300,302,316, 318,320,333,336,340,342,373,374, 388,391,408,411,412,414,417,424, 426,428,463,482,483,485,488,489, 491 assemblage models for parts introduced, 277, 289, 314 parts remaining, 200-201, 214-217, 330-332,386,442-445 faunal inventaries from Akmoglik,322 Amalgamation.322 Sear,43O disturbed,402 Ingsted,323 Kakinya, 380 Ne!, 394 Palangana, 437 RulJand,376 Schoolteacher,322 Tulugak 2A, 207 Tulukana,402
Rib ratio, 152, 463, 468-470, 480 Rockshclters, 4H9-490, 492
5ite 21,283 Sile27,305 butchering,142-144 hunting, 277, 278, 280, 284, 406, 407, 414, 429,447,458 records of, 131-138 5hrine,413 Sile(s) content, 123,421 variability in, see Jntersite variability formation,491 selection,256 .tructure, 123,388,389,479 types of,see Cache; Consumption; Drying. camps; Functionally specific aites: Hunting, camps, stands: KiIIbutchering aites: Observation stands: Processing, for drying, sftes, locatlons, areas; Residential sites. camps; Special purpose sites: Thawing-out site; Transient camp; Trapping camps Skin weights, 285, 291, 350, 352, 355, 402, 410,411 Snarels), 278, 281, 392 anchors, 176, 280 Snow goggfes. 172, 34b Snowmobile, 48, 59, 60, 115, 122, 204, 213,
Sall licks, 277, 278,279,280,313,342,369,406 Scrapers. 393 Settlement system, 253, 488, 494 Shaman, 427 Sharing, 132-133, 142,456,457,471,472,478 Sheep assemblage inventaries Bear. 437 Kakinya,384
KolJutuk,409 Ne!, 394
,
~
,
A
u
Tent ríngs, 268, 292, 312, 321, 326, 337, 374, 378,393,400,401,410, see also Houses, faunal inventaries from Thawing-out stte. 489 Thawing rack, 145
w
•
• 9
e o o , E , F
Trap., 59,312,346,349,374,427, 428,489 Trophies, 413 Tunurak,428
Umialik, 426, 427
496
s
TooI manufacturing debrts, 172,282,293 Traclitional archaeoJogy, 422. 452 Transient camp, 488, 491 Trapping camps. 490, 491
T
272 Snow probes. 346 Sod houses, 429 Spcd¡lI pUrp~}Sl' sttcs, 4K2,4K3, 4M, 48Q, 4
Static facts. 2. 4. aeo, 451, 453, 45b Stone boiling, 159 cairns, ser Cache tool assembloge, 45:l Storagc defined,91 by drytng, 91,130,131,260,265, ser 01'0 Drying, racks erwironmentel correlaees oí, 91-93 for Ieunal inventaries, so-Ice cellars by freeztng, 123, 130, 131,258,260 selection of parts for, 91, secaíse Drying; [ce cellers
(509)
J
G 4 H S
, 6 , 1
Walking sticks, 346 VVindbreak, 172, 174, 175, 182,282,352,353, 358,374,378
