No title

The

BIBLICAL

ARCHAEOLOGI

Publishedby THE AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH (Jerusalem and Bagdad) Drawer 93-A, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn.

VOL. XXV

December,1962

NO. 4

Fig. 1. An Aramaic orthostat from Damascus, found built into the wall of the Omayyad Mosque. From Syria 26 (1949), plate VIII.

Contents The Aramean Empire and its Relations with Israel, by Benjamin Mazar Indices to Volumes XXI-XXV, prepared by Margaret L. Shafer .. An Important Announcement about Subscriptions

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is published The Biblical Archaeologist quarterly (February, May, September, December) by the American Schools of Oriental Research. Its purpose is to meet the need for a readable non-technical, reliable account of archaeological yet thoroughly discoveries as they are related to the Bible. Editors: Edward F. Campbell, Jr. and G. Ernest Wright, with the assistance of should be Floyd V. Filson in New Testament matters. Editorial correspondence sent to one of the above at 800 West Belden Ave., Chicago 14. Ill., or at 45 Francis Ave., Cambridge 38, Mass., respectively. Millar Burrows, Yale Editorial Board: W. F. Albright, Johns Hopkins University; University; Frank M. Cross, Jr., Harvard University. Price: $2.00 per year, payable to Strechert-Hafner Service Agency, Subscription 31 East 10th Street, New York 3, N. Y. Ten or more subscriptions for group use, mailed and billed to one address, $1.00 per year for each. Subscriptions run for the calendar year. IN ENGLAND: fifteen shillings per year, payable to B. H. Blackwell. Ltd., Broad St., Oxford. BACK NUMBERS: Available at 604 each, or $2.25 per volume. The issues of this journal are indexed in Art Index, Index to Religious Periodical Literature, and at the end of every fifth volume of the journal itself. Second-class postage PAID at New Haven, Conn. Copyright by American Schools of Oriental Research 1962

The Aramean Empire and its Relations with Israel* by BENJAMIN MAZAR Hebrew

University,

Jerusalem,

Israel

The Rise of Aram

Mutual relations between Aram and Israel in the course of many generations are vividly described in the Bible. These relations were not merely the result of political contact through prolonged periods of time, in war and peace, but in a great measure were also the product of related origins and language, and of common traditions from time immemorial. This fact is amply documented in Biblical sources, primarily in ancient patriarchal traditions about Israelite and Aramean ancestors who roamed the extensive region between Naharaim and Canaan sustaining themselves mainly from smallstock breeding, and in the genealogical lists which emphasize consanguinity and common fate from patriarchaldays down to division and settlement in separate and distant regions. An investigation of genealogies pertaining to Aram preserved in Genesis shows, first of all, that the genealogies are not of one piece and period; they reflect to some degree an historical development from which the wandering Aramean tribes emerged as an important factor in the political and economic life of the Near East. This development effected important changes in the relations between Aram and Israel and related ethnic groups. * We are delighted to present this informative study by Professor Mazar; it first appeared in 1961

in the volume The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah published in Hebrew by the Israel Exploration Society. The translation has been made by Rabbi Ben-zion Gold of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Professor Mazar has agreed to let us remove some of the documentation of the original article, since it refers to materials in the Hebrew language; those who need these references will be able to use the original publication. The rather technical final section is preserved both to introduce our readers to the technique of reconstructing a broken text and to explain the source and usage of the term Syria.

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The oldest genealogy is that of Nahor (Gen. 22:20-24), Abraham's brother. This genealogy affords us a glimpse of an ancient historical tradition about a cluster of nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes who had apparently reached the zenith of their strength in the eighteenth century B.C. The area of their expansion stretched from the political-religiouscenter of Haran, where Nahor lived, to the valley of Lebanon (Tebah and Tahash) and to northern Transjordan (Maacah).' In this list Aram is the son of Kemuel,2 one of Nahor's sons; that is, Aram, the eponym of the Arameans, a younger branch in the organization of the Nahor tribes, was the grandson of Nahor, just as Jacob, the eponym of the Israelites,was the grandson of Abraham, "the father of many nations." Another tradition, prevalent in Israel, bestows a position of high importance on Laban,3 the son of Bethuel and the father of Leah and Rachel. In the genealogy of Gen. 22, Bethuel appearsas Nahor's youngerson and brother of Kemuel the father of Aram (vs. 22), whereas in the cycle of stories about Jacob and Laban, Laban is described as an Aramean who lives in Aram Naharaim or Padan Aram,4that is, in Haran (Gen. 27:43ff) and in the neighboring town Nahor (Gen. 24:10).5 The Israelite folk tradition apparently ascribed to Jacob's father-in-law Laban the position of eponym of the Aramean tribes, who spread from their center into the land of the "people of the East" (Bene Qedem) as far as eastern Transjordan, and there conspired against Israel (Gen. 29:1).6 Surely the story in Gen. 31 deserves attention here. This story tells about the covenant between Laban the Aramean and Jacob at Mt. Gilead, where they fixed the boundaries of their territorialpossessions;as a witness thereof, they built a stone heap, set up a pillar, and called on the names of their ancestral-gods,the god of Nahor and the god of Abraham (vss. 44ff). The latest genealogical list is given in the "Table of Nations" (Gen. 10:22-23), where Aram, Asshur, Arpachshad, and others are counted with Shem; Aram's firstbornis Uz, the eponym of the large tribe that appears in 1. On several of the geographical conclusions here see Zion 11 (1946), pp. Iff; 23-24 (1958-59), pp. 118f; Eretz Israel III (1954), pp. 18ff. These references are all in Hebrew. 2. Kemuel is not found in extra-biblical sources, but is an ancient west Semitic name mentioned in the Bible as the name of the leader of the tribe of Ephraim (Num. 34:24). 3. On Laban as an epithet for the moon-god and his relation to Haran, the cultic center of the moon-god Sin, see J. Lewy, Hebrew Union College Annual 18 (1944), p. 434, note 39, and that Laban appears as a component in west Semitic names and as a pp. 455f. It is noteworthy geographical name, for example in Mt. Lebanon. 4. On Padan Aram (= "Field of Aram"), see R. T. O'Callaghan, Arant Naharaim, Rome, 1948, throughout. 5. The town Nahor, which is in the vicinity of Haran, is known as an important city already from the Cappadocian tablets (19th cent. B.C.) and in particular from the Mari tablets (18th in documents from the middle Assyrian empire (14th-12th cent). It is also mentioned cent.) see W. F. Albright, BASOR 78 (1940), pp. 29f and From the Stone Age to Christianity, 1946, pp. 179f; J. R. Kupper, Les nomades en Mesopotamie 8 ff. (1957), pp. 6. In Genesis, Qedem is the name of the enormous area from the eastern borders of Palestine to the vicinity of Haran, including the Syrian desert (Gen. 25:6). Balak, king of Moab, called Balaam from Aram, from the mountains of Qedem (Num. 23:7), that is "from Pethor, which is near the River (Euphrates) in the land of Amu" (Num. 22:5; see Albright, BASOR 118 (1950), p. 15), that is, Pethor of Aram--Naharaim As early as the Mid(Deut. 23:5). dle Kingdom, the Egyptians used this name; this we know mainly from the Sinuhe story.

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the older genealogy of Gen. 22:21 as the firstborn of Nahor. The "Table of Nations" evidently reflects the period of mighty expansion by the Arameans and their settlement throughout the countries of the Fertile Crescent, which began about the end of the second millennium B.C. Therefore, in this author's time, Aram, the father of the Arameans, was considered to be the son of Shem and the grandson of Noah, and not, as in the older genealogy, the grandson of Nahor. The cuneiform sources testify that the Arameans were but a relatively late ethnic group among the west-Semitic nomadic tribes; they are designated Akhlamu in Assyrian documents from the fourteenth century. Only towards the end of the twelfth century are they mentioned explicitly in the combination akhlami-'aramayaas nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes. At that time they spread through the Syrian desert7and the border areas of Mesopotamia and Syria. The Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I (1114-1076) fought them fiercely, mainly to weaken their pressure upon regions conquered by the Assyrians and to wrest from them the control over lines of communication to Syria and the Mediterranean shore.8 However, in the course of time the Arameans not only gained enough strength to swallow up many west-Semitic tribes, to gain control over vast regions in the Euphrates area and in northwest Mesopotamia (Aram-Naharaim), and to break into southern and northern Syria, but also to impose their authority on Babylonia. This process initiated far-reachingchanges in the ethnic and political scene of the Near East. Already in the second half of the eleventh century the Arameanshad attained great power in large areas on both sides of the Syrian desert and had even succeeded in settling and taking possession of them, in adjusting to living conditions in their adopted lands and in establishing ruling dynasties in the conquered countries. Having gained control over caravan routes, the life lines of the Near East, leading from Mesopotamia to Anatolia and Syria (including the desert roads) and having gained a foothold in the large centers and important stations for merchant caravans and nomadic tribes with their enormous flocks, they secured for themselves a constantly growing position of importance in international trade. In their expansion southwest, the Arameans clashed with the Israelites who already in preceding generations had extended the borders of their settlement from its center in Palestine to the certainly was an important center of wandering in 7. Palmvra (Tadmor) Arameans, mentioned the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser I as Tadmar. On Palmyra, see Dhorme, Revue Biblique 33 (1924), p. 106. Here we find an explanation for the mention of Palmyra as one of the cities built by Solomon, that is Tadmor in the desert (I Kings 9:18, following the qere; II Chron. 8:4), because it served as the main station for the caravans from the banks of the Euphrates to Damascus. 8. It appears that it is from this period that the term "Aramean" was meaning a nomad retained in the Israelite and Assyrian tradition: "A vagrant(?) Aramean was my father" of Deut. 26:5 and "the fugitive, Aramean" in Sennacherib's wandering 22f. Taylor Prism, V, For the origin of the name Aram and the Arameans see in detail R. A. Bowman, Journal of Near Eastern Studies VII (1948), pp. 65ff.; Kupper, Les nomades en Mesopotamie (1957), A. Dupont-Sommer, pp. 112ff.; Vetus Testamentum Supplement I (1953), pp. 40ff.; S. Moscati, Journal of Semitic Studies I (1959), pp. 303 ff.

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distant regions in northern Transjordan. This clash produced bloody and protractedwars for domination and over boundary disputes; it also produced mutual influence and intermarriage in times of peace. Concerning this eventful period detailed informationis preservedin the Bible. Israel and Aram from the Bible

In the eleventh century, the Arameans penetrated en masse the settled countries of the Fertile Crescent, countries with a rich material and spiritual culture, and an ancient royal tradition;gradually they widened their area of settlement and control. It ought to be noted that during this time the great empires suffered amazing decline. Already at the beginning of the twelfth century, the Hittite empire was shattered into fragments. Its large districts in Syria were inherited mainly by comparativelysmall Hittite kingdoms such as Carchemish on the Euphrates and Hamath in middle Syria. The Egyptian empire fell from its mighty position during the second third of the twelfth century and ceased to be a weighty political factor in Canaan in the eleventh century. Babylon fell prey to its neighbors and to the Aramean tribes, while Assyriadeclined after Tiglath-pileserI and shrunk into narrowborders.At the same time, three west-Semitic nations, the Arameans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, were rising. These nations attained a great measure of power at the beginning of the first millennium. As far back as the end of the eleventh and the beginning of the tenth century we encounter an important Aramean kingdom in southern Syria, Aram-Zobah,ruled by the dynasty of Beth-rehob. This kingdom established a federation of Aramean and non-Aramean kingdoms in Syria and northern Transjordan, thus controlling the roads leading to Mesopotamia (see II Sam. 8:3, 10:16; I Chron. 19:10). The focal point of the Zobah kingdom, which included in its boundaries also Mt. Senir (Anti-Lebanon), was probably in the northern part of the Lebanon valley; that is where we ought to look for the three main cities of Hadadezer ben Rehob, the king of AramZobah, namely Tebah, Cun, and Berothai, which were conquered by David in his decisive battle with Hadadezer.9The region of Damascus was one of the Aramean districts in the confederation under the leadership of AramZobah, whereas the kingdom of Maacah and the land of Tob in the northern part of eastern Transjordanwere, presumably,not Aramean as yet, but along with the kingdom of Ammon, an ally of Hadadezer's,were among the satellites. It is my opinion that in his wars with David, and especially in his great military expedition to Transjordanwhich brought him as far as the valley of Madeba (I Chron. 19:7), Hadadezer sought to gain control over the "King's Highway" (see Num. 20: 17, 21:22), one of the essential caravan routes in 9. See A, Malamat, BA XXI (1958), pp. 82ff; M. F. Unger, Israel and the Arameans of Damascus (1957), of Hamath-Zobah, see Lewy, op. cit., pp. pp. 42ff. For the disputed explanation

443ff.

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internationalcommerce,which led from Damascus along eastern Transjordanto Elath and Arabia.It is worthyof note that the kings of AramDamascus'osubsequentlyfollowed the same policies.However,these ambitions of Aram-Zobahwere frustratedby the young kingdomof Israel. David, who firmly establishedthe Israelitekingshipfounded by Saul, and around it consolidated the Israelite tribes in a permanent and lasting political-military and social regime, succeeded not only in conquering the countries bordering Israel but also in subjugating the confederacy of Aramean kings and their satellites up to the border of the Hittite kingdom Ha-

math, the adversaryof Aram-Zobah.Hamathestablishedintimaterelations with David and apparentlyacknowledgedhis suzerainty(II Sam. 8:9-11,

BURGTHOR NachFileundes Pilastersunddo NO "andbei"eidung ANSICWtvon

." Fig.

3. Drawing of the citadel gateway figure 5. From F. von Luschan,

at Zenjirli, decorated with reliefs, such as those shown in Sendschirli, III (1902). Ausgrabungen

in

II Chron. 18:9-11) in southern Syria" and to the Euphrates in the northeast. Control over the wide spaces from the River of Egypt up to Lebo in the Lebanon Valley (Lebo'-Hamath), and over the main caravan routes to Mesopotamia and Arabia, raised the young Israelite kingdom to the level of one of the important states in the Near East. David's treaty with Toi, king of Hamath, and with Hiram, king of Tyre (the Sidonian Kingdom), as well as the friendly relations with the rulers of Arabia in the days of Solomon and the development of trade relations with them (I King. 10:1-13,15), added much 10. One ought to mention to Gilead and the conquest thereof up Hazael's military expedition to its southern border at the river Arnon (II Kings 10:33). It is not unlikely that he proceeded southward across Israel's border to Moab and Edom. This is borne out, indirectly, by a list of tribute-payers to Adad-Nirari III after his expedition to Damascus in which Edom is D. D. Luckenbill, Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia I (1926), mentioned; ?739. That Rezin reached Elath is explicitly stated: "and he drove the man of Judah from Elath" (II Kings 16:6). After having conquered Damascus and incorporated it into their empire, the Assyrians continued the same policy. This accounts for the extreme importance in of Damascus Syria and its strong ties with Arabia under the Assyrians and in later periods. See the survey on trade with Arabia in Gus W. van Beek (BA XXIII, 1960, pp. 70ff) and W. F. Albright (Eretz Israel V, 1958, English section, pp. 7*-9*). 11. See Mazar. Bulletin and of the Israel Exploration Society XII (1946), pp. 96ff (Hebrew), Malamat, BA XXI (1958), p. 101.

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to Israel's political stature and economic power. According to a source preserved in II Chron. 8:3-6 Solomon even succeeded in strengthening and broadening his control over Syria. The districts under Israelite rule in the days of David and Solomon can be divided into conquered countries in which David set up governors and states subject to Israel whose rulers were in the position of satellites. About Aram-Damascuswe are told: "then David put governors in Aram of Damascus; and the Arameans became servants to David and brought tribute" (II Sam. 8:6), whereas the story about the defeat of the armies of Aram-Zobah and its satellites under the leadership of Shobach, Hadadezer'sgeneral, concludes with the words: "and when all the kings who were servants of Hadadezer saw that they had been defeated by Israel they made peace with Israel and became subject to them" (II Sam. 10:19). Deserving particular attention is the fact that in dealing with the kingdom of Solomon, Israelite historiographersemphasize that "Solomon ruled over all the kingdoms from the River (Euphrates) to the land of the Philistines and to the border of Egypt" (I Kings 5:1; II Chron. 9:26). It seems that lale in Solomon's reign when his rule weakened and the state was disintegrating internally and externally, the position of several conquered nations and particularlythat of the Arameanschanged. In this period of weakness, when Egypt's power waxed under the leadership of Shishak, the founder of the twenty-second Dynasty, and a rebel movement was afoot in Israel, Aram-Damascustook advantage of the opportunity, threw off the yoke of the house of David and built itself upon Israel's decline. The reigning dynasty in Damascus, founded by Hezion,12 made Aram-Damascusthe most important Aramean state in Syria. Hezion's grandson Ben-Hadad I initiated aggressive policies against Israel. It is possible that he founded the coalition of Aramean states in Syria under the leadership of Aram-Damascus which attained great power in the time of Ben-Hadad II. This king of Damascus is mentioned in several interesting biblical historiographicalsources. According to I Kings 15:18-20, and II Chron. 16:2-4, Ben-Hadad availed himself of the opportunity to interfere in a Judean-Israelitedispute and broke through the line of fortified cities in Naphtali, from Ijon and Dan to Chinneroth. This war most certainly took place in the twenty-sixth year of Asa's reign (886 B.C.; II Chron. 16:1 "the thirty-sixth year of the reign of Asa" is an error) which was Baasha's13last ruling year. It seems that one ought to 12. Some time ago, in Leshonenu 15 (1944), pp. 42f, I expressed the opinion that Hezion ought to be taken as the proper name of the founder of the dynasty, and Rezon (cf. Prov. 14:28) as his royal title. Some scholars assume that, after Rezon, Hezion was the founder of a new dynasty in Damascus. 13. See H. Tadmor in the Hebrew Encyclopedia Biblica I, cols. 469f, against Albright (BASOR 100 (1945), p. 20). Albright accepts the Chronicler's date and proposes a new chronological method differing from the one accepted by most scholars, even identifying Ben-Hadad of Baasha's time with Ben-Hadad of Ahab's time.

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Fig. 4. Stele dedicated to Melqart by Bir-Hadad, king of Aram, found in the vicinity of Aleppo. From BASOR 87 (Oct.., 1942), p. 24.

attributeto the periodof Israel'sdecline after Baasha'sdeath the historical informationinterpolatedin the genealogicallist of Judahto the effect that Geshurand Aramtook Havvothjairas well as Kenathand its settlementsand its satellite "sixtytowns"(I Chron. 2:23). EvidentlyAram-Damascus

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Geshur wrested Bashan from Israel -

(Vol. XXV,

to be exact, from the district of Ra-

moth-Gileadfoundedby Solomon(I Kings4:13) - and joined it to their states.14 Undoubtedly the pressure of Aram-Damascus on Israel did not

slackenin the days of Omri.Accordingto the testimonyof I Kings 20:34, Ben-HadadII's fatherBen-HadadI tookcities fromAhab'sfatherOmriand establishedbazaarsin Damascus.15However,the assumptionthat Birhadad, the king of Aram,who dedicatedto Melqartthe stele found in the vicinity of Aleppo, is Ben-HadadI is problematic.This assumptionwas based on Albright's proposed restorationof a break in the text, but this restorationis not satisfactory.The inscription seems to refer to Ben-Hadad II instead.16

Much informationabout Ben-Hadad,Ahab'scontemporary, apparently Ben-HadadII son of Ben-HadadI, has been preservedin the Bible.It stands to reasonthat this Ben-Hadadis none other than Adad-idri(Hadadezer) king of Aram,known from the inscriptionof ShalmaneserIII, king of Assyria. It is even likely that Ben Hadad (Bir-Hadad) is not a personal name but a title common to kings of Aram-Damascus;it means "son of the god Hadad"(Hadad-Rimmon,the god of Damascus).17 Under Ben-HadadII, wrangling between Israel and Aram-Damascusturned into a protractedwar

which put Israelto a severetest. During the last yearsof Ahab'srule, when the kingdoms of Judah and Israel were enjoying some measure of political

and economicprosperity,Ben-HadadII put Israelunder extremepressure in hopes of gaining control over the whole state. At that time Shalmaneser

III (859-829 B.C.) was alreadycasting fear upon Syria xwithhis military expeditionsto the regionof Sam'al(858) and his warwith Beth-Eden(857-

855) which resulted in the conquest of this important Aramean kingdom in the Euphrates and Balikh regions and its annexation to Assyria. It is not unlikely that Ben-Hadad'saggressivepolicy towards Israel and his attempt to gain control over it were intended primarily to secure his rear by turning the strong and flourishing kingdom of Israel into one of Aram Damascus' satellites"I before the Assyrian king began his decisive battle for the conquest of Syria. 14. See Journal of Biblical Literature LXXX (1961), p. 24. Proverbiastudien 15. I Kings 20:34; see G. Bostrim, pp. 91ff, referring to the extra (1935), right given to the stronger ally to build business quarters for mercrcants in the large cities and especially in the capital of the state. was published 16. The inscription by Dunand in Bulletin du Musde de Beyrouth 3 (1939), pp. 65ff. Albright wrote in BASOR 87 (1942), pp. 23ff. See also de Vaux in Bulletin du Mus'e de Beyrouth 5 (1943), Les inscriptions aranmdenp. 9, note 1; J. Starcky apud Dupont-Sommer, nes de Sefird (1958), p. 135, note 1. 17. Albright (BASOR 87 (1942), p. 28, note 16) is of the opinion that the kings of Damascus, like the kings of Israel, took on an additional name upon coronation. The parallel expression "the house of Hazael" and "the palaces of Ben-Hadad" in Amos 1:4 in my opinion alludes to Hazael as the founder of a new Aramean dynasty which gives its name to the (the house of Hazael, like the house kingdom of Damascus in the later Assyrian documents of Omri as the name of Israel), and alludes to Ben-Hadad as the title of Aramean kings in general. Also worthy of note is the parallel in Jer. 49:27: "and I will kindle a fire in the wall of Damacus, and it shall devour the palaces of Ben-Hadad." 18. It stands to reason that the Egyptians these policies of Ben-Hadad. supported During the battle at Qarqar, the Egyptian army lined up with Ben-Hadad.

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t

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Fig. 5. Reliefs from the outer citadel gate at Zenjirli, probably dating from the ninth century. From Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli, III.

From a highly interesting historiographicalsource in the book of Kings we draw enlightening information about the Aramean incursion into the center of Israel and about Ben-Hadad's siege of Samaria, where Ahab had entrenched himself. This military expedition ended with defeat for Ben Hadad "and the thirty-two kings who helped him" (I Kings 20). The biblical story describes Ben-Hadad as the head of the Aramean kingdoms: "BenHadad the king of Aram gathered all his army together; thirty-two kings

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were with him, and horses and chariots;and he went up and besieged Samaria and fought against it" (I Kings 20:1). There is no reason to assume that the number thirty-two was invented by the author. Among Ben-Hadad's satellites were apparently not only the rulers of small states in Southern Syria and Transjordan (as for instance Geshur and perhaps even Ammon), but also tribal princes from all over the Syrian desert as well as the Aramean kings of northern Syria. This view gains force if one accepts the proposition that Ben-Hadad II set up the Melqart stele found near Aleppo. The dramaticdescription of the Aramean defeat by "the servitorsof the governorsof the districts"who were besieged with Ahab in Samaria,contains several interesting details. According to this story, which is part of a cycle of prophetic tales of the period of the Omri dynasty, the attack surprised the Aramean kings while they were drinking in their booths: "And each killed his man and the Arameansfled." (ibid., v.20). It is not unlikely that a bloody dispute broke out among Ben-Hadad's followers, completely undermining the basis of the political alliance and precipitating its dissolution. Another story in the above-mentionedcycle (I Kings 20:22ff) provides us with explicit information about basic changes in the structure of the kingdom of Aram-Damascus.These changes resulted in the absorption of satellite kingdoms into Aram, following the defeat at the gates of Samaria. According to this source Ben-Hadad with the advice of his ministers instituted political and military reforms in order to renew with more vigor the war against Israel: "And do this: remove the kings, each from his post, and put governors in their places: and muster an army like the army that you have lost, horse for horse and chariot for chariot"(ibid. vs. 24-25). One is not to assume that these words are bereft of historical basis;'9for not only does the Israelite historiographerreport them in all innocence, but they also fit the events which occurred between the fall of Beth-Eden in 855 (echoes of which were still reverberatingstrongly in a much later period: Amos 1:5), and the battle of Qarqar in the land of Hamath where a Syrian-Palestinian coalition headed by the king of Damascus lined up against Shalmaneser III (853). The biblical story leads to the conclusion that the reform primarily accomplished the conversion of the loose coalition of Armean kings under the leadership of Ben-Hadad into the great united and sovereign Aramean empire, with Damascus as its capital. The satellite states were liquidated and turned into administrative districts headed by governors appointed by the king of Aram. Administrative reforms were followed by military reforms. Ben-Hadad unified under his command the various armies of the satellite 19. See among others Alt, "Die syrische Staatenwelt" in Kleine Schriften III (1959), 223f. Alt is not unaware of the fact that the author was acquainted with the life of the period, but he disqualifies the trustworthiness of the testimony concerning the establishment of a unified empire.

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kings, and welded them into a mighty force. According to Shalmaneser III's testimony in his description of the battle of Qarqar, the army of Aram was composed of 1200 chariots, 1200 cavalry, and 20,000 infantry. Results

and Implications

of Unification

The results of these military and political reforms, which for generations shaped the image of the Aramean regime, are clearly discernible in the subsequent period. It is important to note that biblical and Assyrian sources make no further mention of satellite kingdoms of Aram-Damascus. In the battle of Qarqar, Hadadezer, who certainly is none other than BenHadad II, with a mighty army under his command heads the coalition of Syrians, Phoenicians, and Israelites. The list of the twelve allies mentions but one Aramean state - Damascus. Beginning with the ninth century, Aramean kingdoms in southern Syria as well as non-Aramean satellites of Damascus, simply disappear from the historical arena. What is more, names of Aramean administrativedistricts, unknown from previous sources, begin to receive mention. For example, the administrativeunit Qarnaim does not appear in the sources before the ninth century; it is named after the new capital of the district which was located in Skeikh Sa'ad,not far from Ashtaroth,previously the capital of Bashan. Geshur, formerly an Aram-Damascussatellite, was apparently absorbed into this district. It is not unlikely that Ben-Hadad II not only founded the district Qarnaim in Bashan but also the district capital Qarnaim, while Ashtaroth declined and became just one of the towns in the new district. This, by the way, explains the name Ashtaroth-Qarnaim in Gen. 14:5; Qarnaim here is used to locate the ancient city in the administrative division of later time. Presumably the foundation of the administrative districts Hauran in east Bashan and Mansuate in the southern part of the Lebanon valley dates back to this time. Hauran is first mentioned in an inscription of Shalmaneser III describing his campaign against Hazael, and Mansuate is known from Adad-nirariIII's military expeditions. Both districts subsequently became Assyrian prefectures under Tiglath-pileser III. It is enlightening that when the Assyrian scribe depicts the conquest of Damascus by Tiglath-pileser III, he counts sixteen districts of the Aramean empire, despite the great changes in the political scene of Syria and after the truncation of the empire. The Assyrians obviously did not change the administrative division introduced by the Aramean kings which originated with Ben-Hadad II as he centralized power in his own hands. Ben-Hadad's reform undoubtedly affected other areas of life. Damascus became the metropolis of a mighty empire, the seat of civil and military government, and it dominated major lines of communication, the life arteries of east Asia. It became the city of Aram,20 first in national, religious, and

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economic significance for the Arameans. It became "the famous city, the joyful city" (Jer. 49:25; cf. Ezek. 27:18), like Jerusalem, the city of Israel under David and Solomon. Not much is known about Damascus as a religious center. By inference from several sources, one can conclude that Hadad, worshiped in Damascus under the name Raman, (biblical Rimmon),21 became prominent in the ninth century. His temple, the remains of

Fig.

6. The Omayyad Mosque in Damascus, stood. Photo courtesy of the Oriental

which covers the place where the temple Institute, University of Chicago.

of Hadad

which are now covered by the Omayyad Mosque, was famous for hundreds of years down to Roman times as that of "JupiterDamascinus."22 It is not at all unlikely that Ben-Hadad, the common title for Damascus kings, originated in the cultic-religious relationship between the rulers of the locality and their god. We encounter the composite name of the god Hadad-Rimmon in Zech. 12: 11, where reference is made to mourning for Hadad-Rimmonin the valley of Megiddo. This certainly was a religious ceremony performed regularly in 20.

It is likely that one of Damascus' names was 'ir 'arami (the city of Aram, compare the designation of Jerusalem as "the city of Judah"). This is apparently the reading in Zech 9:1 for Israel Exploration Journal I (1951), 'yn 'dmin (Malamat, p. 82, note 13). The variant reading 'yn/'yr' is frequent in the Bible (e.g., Josh. 19:29 and 41). 21. The epithet or divine title Raman known from Assyrian sources and personal names is unof Aramaic origin. In the Bible, the vocalization has been adjusted to the Hebrew doubtedly word rimmon (pomegranate), which is also the name of several places in Palestine. In my opinion, rdmain is but a broadened form of rfim with the suffix -an; at first it was a divine title like Ram or 'Elyon (in the Sefire treaty 'lyn). It stands to reason that from time immemorial the deity of Damacus was Hadad, one of whose major cultic centers was in Aleppo; the Aramaic epithet Raman was attached to him after the Arameans took Damascus. 22. For the place of Hadad's temple in Damascus, see Dussaud, Syria 3 (1922), pp. 219ff; worthy of note is the orthostat from Damascus' heyday as the capital of Aram, depicting a "cherub" in Syrian (Aramean) style, which was found out of place in one of the ancient walls on the grounds of the Omayyad Mosque (Djafar Abdel-Kadr. Syria 26 (1949), pp. 191ff).

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the sanctuaryon the crossroadsnear Megiddo and derived from the cult practiced in the temple of Hadad-Rimmon in Damascus,23 the royal temple which is referred to as Beth Rimmon in Damascus (II Kings 5:18). It stands to reason that the priest Uriah patterned the altar in the temple of Jerusalem which he built by order of Ahaz king of Judah (II Kings 16:10-13), after the altar in that temple. Furthermore,the story about Ahaz emphasizes the high esteem in which the Damascene cult was held in Jerusalem: "He sacrificed to the gods of Damascus which had defeated him and said: 'Because the gods of the kings of Aram helped them, I'll sacrifice to them that they may help me' " (II Chron. 28:23). The divine title Rimmon which we encounter as a compound of the theophoric name of King Tab-rimmon son of Hezion, and which was common among the Arameans at least from the beginning of the ninth century B.C., became particularly important after Damascus became the metropolis of Aram. The formation of the Aramean empire raises the problem of the official language used in royal offices in Damascus, in the districts throughout the empire, in trade, and in contact with neighboring states. This problem is linked with the origin and dissemination of imperial Aramaic which, as is known, was current as the lingua franca in the Persian empire from India to Ethiopia, and to a lesser degree was the official language of diplomacy, administration, and business under the Assyrians and Babylonians in the eighth-sixth century B.C. We shall merely point to the fact that already in the eighth century Aramaic had spread well beyond the boundaries of Aramaic-speakingcountries. Assyrian documents from the eighth-seventh century mention Aramean scribes in the service of the Assyrian government. Also the officers of Hezekiah, king of Judah, turn to Rabshakeh saying: "Pray speak to your servants in the Aramaic language, for we understand it; do not speak to us in the language of Judah within the hearing of the people who are on the wall" (II Kings 18:26).24 Evidently Aramaic emerged as the official language of the Aramean empire by the second half of the eighth century and spread beyond its borders, particularly in the Aramean countries, all the way to Ya'di (Sam'al) in the north and to the Euphrates regions of the Khabur and Balikh (for example in Gozan and Hadatta) in 23.

24.

to Zechariah, to Jerome in his commentary Hadad-Rimmon is but the ancient According name of Maximianopolis that inherited the place of Megiddo; Jerome may have been (Legio) influenced a folk Hadad-Rimmon tradition which linked with Gath-rimmon by (Josh. 21:25). There was presumably on the crossroads of the Megiddo plain, a sanctuary of Hadad-Rimmon not far from the Assyrian district capital Megiddo. There may have been some connection between this sacred ground and the threshing floor (Adar, no. 28) and Yad Hammelek (no. See Vetus Testamen29) mentioned alongside Megiddo (no. 27) in the Shishak inscriptions. tum Supplement IV (1957), pp. 60, 62. For official or imperial Aramaic, see the summaries of F. Rosenthal, Die aramaistische ForsLes Aramdens (1949), chung (1939), pp. 24ff, A. Dupont-Sommer, pp. 82ff. For the Aramean scribes in the Assyrian administration, see Lewy, Hebrew Union College Annual 25 (1954), pp. 188ff. Dr. H. Tadmor brought to my attention the fact that an Aramean epistle is mentioned in a document from the second half of the ninth century, in a letter of an son of Shalmaneser, most likely none other than Shalmaneser Assyrian clerk to Ashur-dan-apli, III.

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the northeast. Of particular importance is the stele of Bir-Hadad king of Aram dedicated to Melqart found near Aleppo. It testifies that Bir-Hadad's empire reached to the northern districts of the Arameans; by the time of Ben-Hadad II, imperial Aramaic was the official language of the unified Aramean state. Also worth mentioning is the ivory plaque from a bed-board found at Hadatta (Arslan Tash) on the Euphrates, with an Aramaic inscription dedicated to "our lord Hazael," in all probabilitynone other than Hazael king of Aram, who ruled in Damascus after the death of Bir-HadadII, founding a new dynasty, and appreciably widening Aramean dominion. Also, the stele of Zakir, king of Hamath and Lu'ash, inscribed in "official"Aramaic, is to be attributed to the end of the ninth century, or at the latest to the first quarter of the eighth.25 In he eighth century, Aramaic was already accepted throughout Syria and Aram-Naharaim.What is more, these inscriptions, dating from the second half of the ninth century, exhibit the distinctly Aramean script, which differs from the Phoenician script of that period.

Fig.

7. An ivory plaque from the side-board of a bed, found at Arslan Tash (ancient Hadatta); in Aramaic is dedicated to "our Lord Hazael." From F. Thureau-Dangin, the inscription Atlas (1931), Arslan-Tash: pl. XLVII.

The theories on the origin and dissemination of "official"Aramaic, that it was first instituted in the offices of the small Aramean kingdoms in the Euphrates region, or in the offices of the Assyrian government, are not convincing. It is more reasonable to assume that it originated in the Aramean idiom of Damascus where it developed and crystallized into a written language. When Ben-Hadad II founded the Aramean empire, Aramaic began to be used as the administrative language in all of its provinces. Then it became the official language of diplomacy and business, and thus spread be25.

21 (1952), des deutschen pp. 418; M. Noth, Zeitschrift Lewy, Orientalia Paldistina-Vereins 52 (1929), pp. 124ff. The stele was found at Apis about forty miles southeast of Aleppo. In Zakir describes his victory over Bir-Hadad, king of Aram, that is Benthe Aramean inscription Hadad III, son of Hazael, who had, with his allies, laid siege to Hadrach (Zech.9:1), Zakir's fortress in the land of Lu'ash. Lu'ash, which was populated by Arameans, was properly part of the Aramean empire, but after Adad-nirari's defeat of Damascus it was attached to Hamath, which was at that time an Assyrian ally. As can be gathered from t-e inscript on, BenHadad III did not succeed in retrieving Lu'ash for Aram, and it remained under the authority of Hamath, a fact attested by Zakir's title: King of Hamath and Lu'ash. It seems that due of this important Aramean country, Aramaic became the official language to the annexation in the course of time it even banished of Hamath Hittite; alongside hieroglyphic Hittite. This is an enlightening example of the expansion of official Aramaic as the official language Aramaic discovered at Hamath are from the eighth and seventh of Syria. Some inscriptions centuries.

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yond the borders of the Aramean empire. With the spread and consolidation of Assyrian rule over Trans-Euphrates,and in particular over the provinces of Aram, the Assyrian administrationinherited official Aramaic as one of the official languages of the empire. This assumption is supported by, among other data, the fact that official Aramaic has none of the earmarks of east-Aramaicdialects. The preceding discussion does not exhaust all the implications of the establishment of a united Aramean empire in the middle of the ninth century. Particularly deserving of mention is the cultural influence of the Aramean empire upon the neighboring countries, including Israel and Judah. As is known, Palestine was for a long time under the political and cultural influence of the Phoenicians, from the time of David to the end of the Omri dynasty. Traces of this influence, viewed against the alliance between the courts of Israel and Tyre, are clearly discernible in Palestine's economic, religious, and cultic life, as well as in architecture, court, and upper class manners, and are strongly reflected in biblical literature and in material remains discovered all over the country. When the Israel-Tyre alliance ended, with the bloody purge of Jehu, Phoenician influence on Israel and Judah waned. Political, economic, and military pressure from Damascus brought Israel under the influence of Aram, and mutual relations affecting all areas of life developed between them. This explains the great changes in the culture of the country during the second half of the ninth century, particularly towards the end of that century, as evidenced by archaeologicalexcavations on the one hand and biblical literature on the other. This would mean that along with the decline of Phoenician influence, the country came under the influence of the eclectic culture of the Aramean empire, which blended ancient Syrian with Phoenician and neo-Hittite elements, and also absorbed a constant stream of material and spiritual influence from Assyria.26 The biblical source discussed above (I Kings 20) implies that after the defeat of the Arameans at the Gates of Samaria and the implementation of Ben-Hadad's reforms, Aramean pressure on Israel did not cease, but was renewed with greater vigor. "In the spring Ben-Hadad mustered the Arameans and went up to Aphek to fight against Israel" (ibid., vs. 26). The war took place in the plain southwest of Aphek, the border fortress of the 26. The clarification of this highly important problem in the cultural history of Syria and Palestine is awaiting a large scale and exhaustive study of Syrian architecture, sculpture, pottery, ivories (see Barnett, The Nimrud Ivories (1957), pp. 44ff), and seals in the ninth and eighth centuries and their influence on Palestine in that period. On the basis of indications from ceramic chronology, Y. Aharoni and R. Amiran (Israel Exploration Journal 8 (1958), pp. 171ff) proposed to divide the Iron Age in Palestine into three secondary periods; Iron I, 1200-1000, Iron II, 1000-840, Iron III, 840-587. However, G. E. Wright (BASOR 154 (1959) pp. 13ff) argues convincingly that a date about 800 (or 815 more correctly) rather than 840 is the critical transition point. From the cultural-historical point of view, the transition between periods II and III is expressive of the decline of Phoenician influence and the rise of its great neighbor, the Aramean empire, before Syria and Palestine became an integral part of the Assyrian empire.

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formerkingdomof Geshur,whichwas subsequentlyannexedto the Aramean empire.The Arameanarmywas againdefeatedandnegotiationsbetweenBenHadad,who was entrenchedin Aphek,and Ahab,endedwith an agreement and a peace treaty(ibid., vss. 26-34). It appearsthat this treatywas made in anticipationof the greatshowdownat Qarqar(853 B.C.) where,according to the Assyriansource,a coalitionof Syrian,Palestinian,and Phoenician kings, joined by Egyptianand Arabianauxiliaryforces, lined up against the mighty armyof ShalmaneserIII, and succeededin halting it. At the head of the coalitionwe find Hadadezer,who, as has been pointedout, is Ben-HadadII, and with him his two sworn adversaries,Ahab, king of Israel, and Arhilenu, king of Hamath, togetherwith Gandabuthe Arab and Baashathe Ammonite,and auxiliaryforcesfromthe coastalcities (north of Byblos) and from Egypt. Such a distributiontestifiesto largescale and thoroughplanning,the result of Ben-Hadad'sinitiative.27 This coalition,however,wascreatedonly to meeta crisis.Aram'spressure on Israelwas renewedand even intensified,and Ben-Hadadsucceededin gaining control over Ramoth-Gileadand its district,undoubtedlyfor the purposeof imposinghis authorityon Transjordanand perhapsalso on the III'sexpeditionsagainstDamaswholekingdomof Israel.When Shalmaneser cus in the years841 and 838 weakenedthe Arameanempire,the old alliance fell apart,Hazaelwas left to standalone againstthe mightyAssyrianarmy, while Jehu, the founderof the new Israelitedynasty,chose a policy of submissionto Assyria.But when Assyrianpressureon Syriasubsequentlyceased, the empireunder Hazael revivedits strength.It succeedednot only in regainingcontroloverArameancountriesin northernSyriaand the Euphrates region,but also in conqueringIsraeliteterritoriesin Transjordan(II Kings 10:32-33; Amos 1:3) and perhapsin dominating the King's Highway throughoutits length to the Bay of Elath. In 815-814,Hazaellaunchedhis greatexpeditioninto westernPalestine,proceedingalong the coast to Gath on the borderof Judah.Joash,king of Judah, was forced to capitulateto Aramand to pay Hazaela heavy tribute(II Kings 12:18-19);the Philistine kingdomspossiblybecameArameandependenciesat this time also. That is the indirectimplicationof the inscriptionsof Adad-nirari III, who obviously aimed at gaining controlnot only of Aram but also of its dependencies. Adad-nirarimentionsthe fact that Israel (Omri-land),Philistia,and Edom wereamongthe stateswhich paid him tributeafterhis expeditionto Damascus. Consolidatedby an efficient imperialregimeand dominatingthe major traderoutes,the Arameankingdomthus reachedthe summitof its greatness 27. See W. W. Hallo, BA XXIII (1960),

pp. 39f.

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Fig. 8. An ivory inlay piece from Arslan Tash, found near the fragments of the inscription in figure 7. It depicts a god or a king (perhaps Hazael?). From Thureau-Dangin, ArslanTash: Atlas, pl. XXXI.

and extent as the strongest and most influential power in the western fertile crescent. The biblical historiographer is justified: "Hazael, king of Aram, oppressed Israel all the days of Jehoahaz"(II Kings 13:22; cf. II Kings 8:2), "and the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel, and he gave them continually into the hands of Hazael. Then Jehoahaz besought the Lord 0 . . and the Lord gave Israel a savior, so that they escaped from the hand

of the Arameans"(II Kings 13:3-5).This "savior"was none other than Adadnirari III, king of Assyria, who by his military expeditions to Syria and Palestine succeeded in raising Assyria again to the level of a mighty militarypolitical force and in weakening the power of the Aramean empire.

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In summary, we can say that, beginning with the middle of the ninth century, the kingdom of Israel was severely tried by the mighty Aramean empire which had attained the level of a decisive ethnic, political, and cultural force in Syria, this at a time when the Assyriangiant had already begun to cast fear upon Trans-Euphratesand was destined ultimately to swallow up Aram and Israel. Aram-Israelrelations from the end of Ahab's rule down to Jehoash'stime become clear if we bear in mind that Ben-Hadad II consolidated the Aramean kingdoms in Syria into one state, officially named Aram, with its capital at Damascus. This was a vast empire occupying a central position in the political and economic life of the Near East. Aram achieved this position by its successful consolidation of all the Aramean tribes, its excellent organization of civil and military administration,and the spread of Aramaic as the official language of business and administration.Hazael, the founder of the new dynasty in Damascus, not only managed to preserve the stability of the empire, but also to broaden and strengthen it internally and externally. The turning point in the fate of the Aramean empire came during the reign of Ben-Hadad III, his successor. The expeditions of Adad-nirariIII, king of Assyria, brought about the dissolution of the empire; Damascus declined and was even conquered by JeroboamII of Israel. Damascus continued its decline for a long time, but regained some of its strength under Rezin several years before its was finally conquered by Tiglath-pileserIII and was converted into a district capital, a stronghold of Assyria in Trans-Euphrates. The Sefire Treaty and Aram in the Eighth Century

An impressive phenomenon in the history of the Arameans in Syria is their tradition of unity and distinctiveness, which remained unimpaired even in their period of decline, when they split up into small kingdoms and northern Syria replaced Damascus as the center of importance. This is strongly attested in a treaty between Mattiel, king of Arpad, and Birga'yah, king of Ktk, dating from approximatelythe year 745. This treaty was written in Aramaic and preserved on three stelae which were discovered at Sefire about 15 miles southeast of Aleppo.28This important document informs us that Mattiel, of the aggressive Bir-gush Aramean dynasty, succeeded in raising Arpad to a position of leadership in the Aramean empire in Syria; the ruler of Ktk most likely was a vassal of the mighty state of Ararat (Urartu) which from 749 ruled over southern Anatolia and began to compete with its enemy Assyria for dominion over northern Syria.29According to the treaty, 28.

29.

A. Dupont-Sommer, Les inscriptions for stelae I and II; idem. aramdenes de Sefird (1958) Bulletin dui Musee de Beyrouth 13 (1956), pp. 23ff (stele III). Stele I was first published by P. Ronzevalle, 15 (1930-31) as the stele from Sujin Saint-Joseph Melanges de l'Universite in the vicinity of Sefire, and has hence been known as the contract from Sujin. See also Alt, Kleine Schriften "The Aramaic Inscriptions of III (1959), pp. 214ff, and J. A. Fitzmyer, Sefire I and II," Journal of the American Oriental Socidty 81 (1961), pp. 178ff. at first proposed to identify Ktk with Kalka mentioned in Assyrian docuDupont-Sommer ments together with Tubal and Halah, later postulated that Birga'yah is but the title of Sardur II, king of Ararat.

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Mattiel represented not only Arpad (stele Al, line 4), but also all of the Aramean states (i.e., "all Aram"). Furthermore, the term "all Aram" ('rm kl1h) includes two separate regions of Aram, i.e., "upper Aram" in northern Syria including Arpad, and "lower Aram" in southern Syria (kl 'ly 'rm wthth). However, the decisive passage in the treaty appears in stele BI, lines 9-10. It explicitly informs us that "all Aram" - with its division into upper and lower Aram - includes all Aramean territoriesin Syria, that is all of the provinces previously in the Aramean empire. I-- ,LI

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Fig. 9. The stele BI from Sefire, containing in lines 9-10 a description of the boundaries of Aram. From Dupont-Sommer,

Les inscriptions

Aramdennes

de Sdfire, pl. VIII.

Regrettably, this important passage is defective, and its restoration is highly problematic. It undoubtedly contains a detailed description of Aram's boundaries, patterned after parallel biblical descriptions which delineate the boundaries of Canaan and the land of Israel. Dupont-Sommer published the following transcription of the text with some restorations: 9. mn] rqw w'd y'd[y w]bz mn lbnn w'd yb-

10. [..................]q w'r'rwwm..w.[wm]nbq't w'd ktk

The italicized letters are uncertain. On the basis of a careful analysis of the photograph published in Dupont-Sommer'sbook, and in the light of biblical,

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Accadian, and Greek sources for the historical geography of Syria, I propose emendations in the reading and an attempt to restorethe two lines as follows: 9. mn ']rqw w'd y'd[y] w.z mn lbnn w'd yb 10. [rdw wdms]q w'r'rw wm[ns]wt [m]n bq't w'd ktk Again italics indicate uncertain letters. The translation that emerges, then, is "fromArqu to Yad[i and .]z, from Lebanon to Iab[rud, and Damas]cus, and Aroer and Ma[ns]uate, from the Valley (of Lebanon) to Ktk." Should this restoration of the text prove correct, it would contain a delineation of the boundaries of upper and lower Aram, in sum, of "all Aram." "Upper Aram" is none other than the region stretching from Arqu (which is Arqa in the vicinity of Zumur on the coast, known from Tiglathpileser III's inscriptions and from the Arkite of Gen. 10:17, and now Tell 'Arqa not far from the basin of the Nahr el-Kabir30) up to Aramean Ya'diland, the capital of which was Sarn'al (now Zenjirli), and thence to a place or province the name of which is not explicable in any satisfactory way.3' As for "lower Aram," its boundaries are well defined in spite of the defects in the document. The north (western) border of "lower Aram" is marked by Mt. Lebanon,32 whereas the southern border is described by four names only one of which, Aroer, has been preserved intact. But the proximity bctween the name ending with "q" and Aroer brings to mind the passage in Isaiah 17:1-2: "An oracle concerning Damascus. Behold, Demascus will cease to be a city and will become a heap of ruins. The cities of Aroer are deserted; they will be for flocks, which will lie down, and none will make them afraid."Thus it is clear that Aroer is the fertile stretch of land in the vicinity of Damascus; hence, the word ending in "q"may be restored to read "Dameseq"(Damascus). This would suggest that the two other names refer to cities or districts east and west of Damascus. We may therefore restore the first name, the first two letters of which are "yb" to read ybrd, the city labrud, known from an Assyrian source and from the Hellenistic-Roman period.33Even now labrud is the name of a village located in an area rich in springs on the eastern slopes of Mt. Senir in the vicinity of Nebk on the main road from Damascus to Aleppo, which branches off east to Palmyra. As to the fourth name, of which only the letters inm wt are preserved. I referring to Mansuate of the Assyrian propose to restore it to read m[ns.]wt, documents, located in the southern valley of Lebanon, vwestof the oasis of 30. This is the city Arqata mentioned in the Amarna letters and Egyptian documents. 31. While Dupont-Sommer's proposed restoration y'd[y] is acceptable, his supposition, proposed with some hesitation, that the second name is bz (that is, Buz, known from Jer. 25:23ff.), is doubtful. Also the proposed heading hz is doubtful. 32. It is noteworthy that Lebanon serves, in many instances in the Bible, as the mark of the northern border of Canaan (Deut. 11:24, Josh. 1:4), analogous to the fixed border point Lebo Hamath which is north of the valley of Lebanon. 33. Iabrudu is mentioned in Ashurbanipal's campaign to Arabia (together with Zobah, Ammon, Edom, etc). Cf. also A. Rust, Die H6hlenfunde von Jabrud (1950), pp. 3ff.

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Damascus.34To outline the boundaries, the author uses names of countries and of political and administrative units.35 It is noteworthy that labrud, Damascus, Aroer, and Mansuate are, in all likelihood, counted with the sixteen districts of the Aramean state mentioned by Tiglath-pileser III in connection with the conquest of its metropolis. At the end of the passage, the author sums up the whole area of Aram by emphasizing its extreme borders; from the Biqa't to Ktk, that is from the valley of Lebanon36in the south to the border of Anatolia. We have thus exhausted the content of the passage in stele I which spells out, in detail, the boundaries of Aram, and which indicates that as late as the third quarter of the eighth century "all Aram" was an accepted ethnic-territorialconcept in Syria, though two or three generations had already passed since the united Aramean empire had disintegrated.37 "All Aram" and "Upper and Lower Aram"

These territorialexpressions, "all Aram" and "upper and lower Aram," coined in the days of the Aramean empire, were preserved, surprisingly enough, down to the Hellenistic period, despite political changes that occurred with the passage of time. It appears that already in the Persian period the Greeks were accustomed to use the name Syria in a double sense: a) for Trans-Euphratesas the general name for Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine (including Philistia), a name established apparently in the time of Sargon and current in the Persian period as the name of the fifth satrapy;b) for Aram, that is, the territories of the Arameans in Syria, without Phoenicia and Palestine. This is the reason why Aram is generally translated in the Septuagint as Syria. The composite term Koile Syria appears already in the first half of the fourth century as the name of Syria proper in its restricted with Adad-nirari III who made military in Assyrian sources beginning Mansuate is mentioned to Mansuate in order to gain control over this important district of the Aramean expeditions empire, which was blessed with rich iron deposits, down to the later Assyrian period, when 33 (1937), it was a district in the Assyrian empire (see Noth, Paldstinajahrbuch pp. 42f.). 35. This approach brings our document quite close to Ezek. 47-48. Ezekiel outlines the future borders of Israel on the basis of the ancient "land of Canaan in its full extent" (Num. 34), but with names of districts to bring the reader closer to the realities his description intersperses of his time. 36. In Josh. 11:17, 12:7, 13:5, in place of Mt. Hermon the sacred place Baal-gad in the valley marks the northern border of Canaan. Against that, our document of Lebanon refers not to a particular border point, but to the whole valley. The valley of Lebanon is now called el-Biqa', "the valley." and a renewed investigation of the cuneiform 37. In the light of the Sefire inscriptions sources 8 (1961), one gets the following impp. 232ff.), (cf. H. Tadmor, Scripta Hierosolymitana events during the years 748-738. the death of Jeroboam II; 748/7: pression of the unfolding of Rezin's reign?); disorder in Israel; the end of Israel's rule over Damascus (the beginning the ascendancy of Arpad in upper Aram to the chief Aramean state in Syria. 746/5: Sardur into a satellite state; Carchemish and its transformation to Kumuhhi II's expedition a proIII ascends the throne of Assyria; establishment tectorate of Ararat; Tiglath-pileser of the headed by the king of Arpad. 745/4: Aramean states' league ("all Aram") Tiglath-pileser fights the Chaldeans in Babylon and Namri on the Medean border; the treaty between Matwar against Sardur king of Ktk. 743: Tiglath-pileser's tiel, king of Aspad, and Birga'yah, II: defeat of the Ararat army and its Syrian allies in the vicinity of Arpad. 742/1: Tigmarch on northern Syria; the seige of Arpad. 740: the fall of Arpad. 739: Tiglath-pileser's march on Ullaba on the border of Ararat; Azariah, king of Judah, at the head lath-pileser's 738: Tiglath-pileser's march on Syria; disintegation of the Syrian coalition. of the alliance of Assyrian prefectures in northern and the defeat of Judah; conquest of Calneh; organization Syria and on the sea coast; tribute paid by Menahem, king of Samaria, and Rezin, king of DamDamacus' recovery and rise to the level of political center of lower ascus, to Tiglath-pileser; Aram.

34.

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meaning, whereas the coastal area is called Phoinike, Phoenicia. This is the case in the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax, which gives a description of "Syria and Phoenicia." This division reflects the ethnic-territorialdifference between the population of interior and northern Syria and the Phoenicians on the seashore. The etymology of the word Koile is interesting; E. Schwarz had already postulated that it is a graecized form of the Hebrew word kol.38A. Shalit39 added further evidence and proved convincingly that Koile Syria is identical in meaning with the normal expression in Greek for "all Syria." However, the Greeks probably formed the name Koile Syria on the basis of the ancient term "all Aram," current among Aramaic speaking people, the antiquity of which is attested by the Sefire inscription discussed above. Furthermore, the division of Syria into "upper Syria" stretching from the Cilician border to the Orontes river and "lower Syria"south of the Orontes, was still prevalent in the Hellenistic period. It is amply clear that this geographical division reflects a tradition prevalent in Aramaic Syria and based on the old division found in the Sefire inscription. After Ptolemy I (Lagos)' conquest of southern Syria, Koile Syria began to be used exclusively to designate the area of the Ptolemaic conquest; such use of this name was consistent with Lagos' claim to the right of ruling all of Syria. The name was thereby given a new meaning, from the point of view of the Ptolemaic rulers, and it was used in this new sense by Diodorus, who actually identifies Koile Syria with "lower Syria" in distinction from "upper Syria" which was within the area of Seleucid rule. The entire discussion of these names demonstrates that the concepts "all Aram" and "upper and lower Aram" were used in Syria from the time of the Aramean empire through the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian periods, down to the time of the Diadochi, except that in Greek "Syria"was substituted for "Aram." 38. E. Schwarz, Philologus 86 (1931), p. 309. 39. A. Shalit, Scripta Hierosolymitana 1 (1954),

pp. 64ff.

1962, 4)

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

121

INDICES TO VOLUMES XXI- XXV prepared by

L. SHAFER MARGARET I.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Achievement of Nelson Glueck, by G. E. Wright .....................XXII. 4. 98-100 The Amarna Letters and The Amarna Period, by E. F. Campbell, Jr. ................... XXIII. 1. 2-22 Ancient Biblical Traditions and Modern Archaeological Discoveries, by J. A. Soggin XXIII. 3. 70-95 The Apostle Paul and the Isthmian Games, by O. Broneer ..................................... XXI. 1. 2-31 The Aramean Empire and its Relations with Israel, by B. Mazer ........... XXV. 4. 98-120 4. 34-40 Archaeological Fills and Strata, by G. E. Wright ...............................................XXV. The Architectural Recording of the Shechem Expedition, by G. R. H. Wright .... XXIII. 4. 120-126 XXI. 1. 2-28 Athens, City of Idol Worship, by O. Broneer ........................................ The Bodmer Papyri, by F. V. Filson XXII. 2. 48-51 ............................................................. A. Bronze Age Necropolis at Gibeon, by J. A. Pritchard ................................ .. XXIV. 1. 19-24 Coins of the 1960 Excavation at Shechem, by O. R. Sellers ................................. XXV. 3. 87-91 Excavations at Ramat Rahel, by Y. Aharoni .......................... XXIV. 4. 98-118 ............ Excavation at Shechem, 1960, by E. F. Campbell, Jr. XXIII. 4. 102-110 The Fourth Season of Excavation at Hazor, by Y. Yadin.......................... XXII. 1. 2-20 ................................ Frankincense and Myrrh, by G. W. Van Beek ........ .... XXIII. 3. 70-95 ................... From Qarqar to Carchemish: Assyria and Israel in the Light of New Discoveries, .... ....................... XXIII. 2. 34-61 by W . W . H allo ............................. .... .......................................... The Hebrew Conquest of Palestine, by G. E. Mendenhall XXV. 3. 66-89 Industry and Trade at Biblical Gibeon, by J. B. Pritchard ............................... XXIII. 1. 23-29 Is Glueck's Aim to Prove that the Bible Is True? by G. E. Wright XXII. 4. 101-108 ............... The Kingdom of David and Solomon in its Contact with Aram Nanaraim, by A. M alamat XI. 4 96-102 .....X .. ................. ...................................... The Link Marine to T. C. Fritsch and I. Ben-Dor Expedition Israel, 1960, by ....XXIV. 2. 50-59 2. 62-64 Louis-Hughes Vincent, In Memoriam, by O. R. Sellers ................................. ..XXIV. The Maternal Civilization of the Ammonite, by G. M. Landes ................... .........XXIV 3. 66-86 More Bodmer Papyri, by F. V. Filson ........................................ XXV. 2. 50-57 More on King Solomon's Mines, by G. E. Wright XXIV. 2. 59-62 More on the Letters of Bar Kochba, by Y. Yadin ....................................... 3. 86-95 ...............................................XXIV.XXI. 3. 50-70 Mosaic Map of Madeba, by V. R. Gold ........................................ The Nabataean Bitumen Industry at the Dead Sea, by P. C. Hammond ................ XXII. 2. 40-48 Nabataean Torques, by N. Glueck ........................................ XXV. 2. 57-64 The Negev, by N. Glueck XXII. 4. 82-97 ....................................................................................... New Discoveries in the Judean 2. 34-50 Desert, by Y. Yadin ................... New Greek and Coptic Gospel Manuscripts, by F. V. Filson ............................... .............................XXIV. XXIV. 1. 2-18 New Light on Solomon's Megiddo, by Y. Yadin ........................................ XXIII. 2. 62-68 The 1957 Campaign at Beth-zur, by O. R. Sellers .................................... XXI. 3. 71-76 The 1958 Sounding at Pella, by R. W. Funk and H. N. Richardson XXI. 4. 82-96 ............... Petra, by P. C. H ammond ................................. .......... XXIII. 1. 29-32 .................................. Philistine Coffins and Mercenaries, by G. E. Wright XXII. 3. 54-66 ........................................ XXIV. 1. 25-31 Reconstructing Archaeological Remains, by G. R. H. Wright ........................ A Re-examination of the Shechem Temple, by R. J. Bull .......................... XXIII. 4. 110-119 Salt as a Curse in the Old Testament and Ancient Near East, by R. C. Fensham ... XXV. 2. 48-50 ............. Salt, Soil and Savior, by E. P. Deatrick ............ ........... XXV. 2. 41-47 ........ Samaria, by G. E. Wright ............................................. XXII. 3. 67-78 A Solomonic City Gate at Gezer, by G. E. Wright ........................................ XXI. 4. 103-104 Tasseled Garments in the Ancient East Mediterranean, by S. Bertman ............XXIV. 4. 119-128 The Third Season of Excavation at Hazor, by Y. Yadin- ...................................... XXI. 2. 30-47 Weights and Measures of the Bible, by R. B. Y. Scott .. XXII. 2. 22-40 ................................

II.

INDEX OF AUTHORS

Aharoni, Yohanan Excavations at Ramat Rahel ........ XXI. 4. 98-118 .................. Fritsch Ben-Dor, Immanuel and Charles T.................................. The Link Marine Expedition to Israel 1960 ......... XXIV. 2. 50-59 ... .................. Bertman, Stephen Tasseled Garments in the Ancient East Mediterranean 4. 119-128 Oscar .............................XXIV. Broneer, Athens, City of Idol Worship ........................................ XXI. 1. 2-28 The Apostle Paul and the Isthmian Games 1. 2-31 ................................................XXV. Bull, Robert J. A Re-examination of the Shechem Temple .... XXIII. 4. 110-119 .............. ........... Campbell, Edward F. Jr. The Amarna Letters and the Amarna Period ............. 1. 2-22 Excavation at Shechem, 1960 .....................XXIII. ... ....... ...XXIII. 4. 102-110 ............................................... Deatrick, Eugene P. Salt, Soil and Savior V . 2. 41-48 ................................................................................................ Fensham, F. Charles Salt as Curse in the Old Testament and Ancient Near East ................................XXV. 2. 48-50 Filson, Floyd V. The Bodmer Papyri ....................................... XXII. 2. 48-51 ........................................................ More Bodmer Papyri .................................................XXV 2. 50-57 New Greek and Coptic ............................... Gospel Manuscripts 1. 2-18 ....................................................XXIV.

122

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(Vol. XXV,

Fritsch, Charles T. and Immanuel Ben-Dor 2. 50-59 The Link Marine Expedition to Israel 1960 ....................................................XXIV. Funk, R. W. and H. N. Richardson The 1958 Sounding at Pella ................... ................... ......................82-96 Glueck, Nelson XV . 2. 57-64 N abataean T orques ...............................................................................................X XXII. 4 . 8 2 -9 7 The N egev ............................................................................................................. Gold, V. R. .......... XXI. 3. 50-71 The Mosaic Map of Madeba ......................................................... Hallo, William W. From Qarqar to Carchemish: Assyria and Israel in the Light of New Discoveries XXIII. 2. 34-62 Hammond, C. Philip The Nabataean Bitumen Industry at the Dead Sea XXII. 2. 40-48 ............................................... XIII . 1. 2 9 -3 2 Pe tra ................... ....................................................................................................X Landes, George M. The Material Civilization of the Ammonites XXIV. 3. 66-86 Malamat, A. The Kingdom of David and Solomon in its Contact with Aram Naharaim ....... XXI. 4. 96-102 Mazar, Benjamin ..................... The Aramean Empire and its Relations with Israel XXV. 4. 98-120 Mendenhall, George E. The Hebrew Conquest of Palestine XXV. 3. 66-87 Pritchard, James B. A Bronze Age Necropolis at Gibeon XXIV. 1. 19-24 XXIII. 1. 23-29 Industry and Trade at Biblical Gibeon ........................................ Richardson, H. N. and R. W. Funk Pella at T he 1958 Sounding XI. 4. 82-96 ................................................................................X Scott, R. B. Y. XXII. 2. 22-40 Weights and Measures of the Bible ....................................... Sellers, Ovid R. Coins of the 1960 Excavation at Shechem 3. 87-96 .......................................................XXV. XXIV. 2. 62-64 Louis-Hughes Vincent, In Memoriam The 1957 Campaign of Madeba ........................................................................... XXI. 3. 71-76 Soggin, J. Alberto Ancient Biblical Traditions and Modern Archaeological Discoveries 3. 95-100 Van Beek, Gus W. ...........XXIII. Frankincense and Myrrh ................................. ..................XXIII. 3. 70-95 ............ Wright, G. Ernest The Achievement of Nelson Glueck XXII. 4. 98-100 ....................................... XXV. 2. 34-40 Archaeological Fills and Strata ........................................................................ Is Glueck's Aim to Prove that the Bible Is True? ............................ XXII. 4. 101-108 More on King Solomon's Mines XXIV. 2. 59-62 Philistine Coffins and Mercenaries XXII. 3. 54-61 ........................................ Samaria ......... ...................... .......................................................... XXII. 3. 67-78 A Solomonic City Gate at Gezer ....................................................... ......XXI. 4. 103-104 Wright, G. R. H. The Architectural Recording of the Shechem Expedition ................... .........XXIII. 4. 120-126 1. 25-36 Reconstructing Archaeological Rem ains ............................................................XXIV. Yadin, Yigael The Third Season of Excavation at Hazor 2. 30-47 The Fourth Season of Excavation at Hazor ...........................................................XXI. XXII. 1. 2-20 ....................................... More on the Letters of Bar Kochba ................... XXIV. 3. 86-95 New Discoveries in the Judean Desert 2. 34-50 ...........................................................XXIV. New Light on Solomon's Megiddo ........................................................... XXIII. 2. 62 68

III.

GENERAL INDEX

Aaron XXIII.1.30; XXIII.3.82 Abdi-Ashirta XXIII.1.8ff Abdi-Heba XXIII.1.18ff Abimelech XXIII.1.14ff; XXIII.4.107; XXV.2.48 Abimilki of Tyre XXIII.1.9f Abner XXIII.1.24 Abraham XXI.3.66f; XXII.2.33; XXII.4.99; XXIV.3.67; XXIV.4.116; XXV.4.99ff. Aceldama XXI.3.70 Accadian XXII.2.34; XXIII.1.5 acre (size) XXII.2.40 Acts of the Apostles XXIV.1.3; XXIV.1.53; XXV.1.2ff Adad-guppi XXIII.2.41 Adadnirari III XXIII.2.40ff; XXV.4.109ff. Adiabene kingdom XXIII.2.61 Adoni-nur XXIV.3.75ff Aelius Gallus XXIII.3.88 Aenon XXI.3.61ff 'Aglatain XXIV.3.94 Ahab XXII.1.10ff; XXII.3.64; XXII.3.72; XXIII.2.37ff; XXIII.2.68; XXV.4.106ff. Ahaz XXIII.2.48; XXV.4.111 Ahaziah XXIII.2.40 Ahiyo XXIV.4.111

Ahuni XXIII.2.38ff Ai XXIII.3.98 'Ain el-Weibah XXII.4.86 Akhenaton XXI.4.98 (see XXII.2.51); XXIII.3.84 Akhlamu XXV.4.101 alabaster XXIII.3.89; XXIII. 4.119; XXIV.1.22 Alalakh documents XXII.3.64; XXV.3.78 Alexander Jannaeus XXI. 4.85f Alexander the Great XXI.4.85; XXII.3.70 Amalekites XXII.4.91 Amanappa XXIII. 1.13 Amarna tablets XXI.4.84.98; XXIII.1.2ff; XXIII.3.84; XXV.3.72 Amaziah XXIII.2.44 Ambaris of Tabal XXII.2.50 Amenophis II XXIII.1.6 Amenophis III XXI.4.98 (see XXII.2.51); XXIII.1.4ff; XXIII.3.84 Amenophis IV (see Akhenaton) amethyst XXIII.4.106 Ammi-nadab XXIV.3.81f Ammon XXI.4.100ff; XXIII.2.50; XXIV.3.67ff; XXV.4.102 Amos XXIII.2.39

1962, 4)

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Amphitrite XXV. 1.9 amphora XXIV.2.55ff; XXIV.4.108 Amurru XXI.4.100; XXIII.1.13ff; XXIII.2.43 Anastasi Papyrus XXI.4.84 anchor

XX1V.2.57

anthropoid coffins XXII.3.54ff; XXIV.3.77ff Antigonus XXII.2.47; XXIII.1.30 Antiochus the Great XXIII.4.104 Antonius Placenteus XXI.3.54ff Aphek XXV.3.83; XXV.4.113 'Apiru XXIII.1.6ff; XXV.2.71 Apla-iddina XXIII.2.56 Apocryphal Correspondence of the Corinthians XXV.2.54 Arabah XXIV.2.59 Aram XXV.4.97ff Aram-Damascus XXV.4.102ff Aram Naharaim XXI.4.96ff; XXV.4.99 Aram Zobah XXI.4.100; XXV.4.102ff Arameans XXI.4.100ff; XXV.4.98ff Aramaic XXI.3.60; XXIV. 3.86; XXV.3.85; XXV.4.1 11ff Ararat XXV.4.116 Aretas IV XXV.2.60 Argishti I XXIII.2.44 Arhilenu XXV.4.114 Arnon XXI.3.57 Aroer XXV.4.118 Arpachshad XXV.4.99 Arpad XXIII.2.43ff; XXV.4.116ff Arqa XXV.4.118 arrowhead XXI.4.101f; XXIV.1.22; XXIV.2.41 Arslan Tash XXIII.2.34; XXV.4.112, 115 Asa XXV.4.104 Ascalon XXI.3.54ff; XXII.3.64; XXIII.1.18f; XXIII.2.49 Ashdod XXII.3.64; XXIII.2.56 Ashtaroth XXI.4.84 Ashurrabi II XXI.4.102 asphalt XXIII.2.41 Asshur-uballit XXIII.1.4 Asnapper XXIII.2.61 Assur XXIII.2.34; XXV.4.99 Assurbanipal XXIII.2.36ff; XXIV.3.81 Assur-dan III XXIII.2.44 Assur-nirari XXIII.2.44ff Atargatis XXV.2.57ff Athaliah XXIII.2.41 atheneaus XXIII.1.30 Athens XXI.1.2ff; XXV.1.3ff Ausan XXIII.3.95 awilu XXIII.1.22 Ay XXIII 1.6 Ayyab XXIII.1.18 Azania XXIII.3.78 Azariah (see Uzziah) Aziru XXIII.1.9ff Azotus Paralius XXI.3.56 Baaru XXI. 3.57 Baasha XXV.4.104f Babylonian Chronicle XXIII.2.60 Bagohi XXIV.4.111 Ba'li XXIII.2.43 Balikh XXV.4.111 Ba'lu-shipti XXIII. 1.20 Barbaricum XXIII.3.79 Bar Kochba XXIV.2.34ff; XXIV.3.86ff Bar-Rekub XXIII.2.50 Bar-Sur XXIII.2.48 Barygaza XXIII.3.79 Bashan XXV.4.106 Basilica in Bethlehem XXI.3.54ff Basilica of Zion XXI.3.69 bath XXII.2.5ff bath-house, Roman XXIV.4.112 Batnaya Bar Misah XXIV.3.89 Beersheba XXII.4.86 Beit Jibrin XXI.3.54ff Beitin (see Bethel) beka XXII.2.32ff Bel-tarsi-ilumma XXIII.2.43 Ben 'Ammi XXIV.3.67

123

Ben-Hadad I XXV.4.104ff Ben-Hadad II XXIII.2.39ff; XXV.4.104ff Ben-Hadad III XXV.4.115 Benjamin XXIII.3.99 Ben-Tab'al XXIII.2.49 Berothai XXV.4.102 Bethabara XXI.3.54ff Beth-Eden XXIII.2.39; XXV.4.106 Bethel XXIII. 1.11; XXIII.3.81; XXIII.3.98 Beth hakkerem XXIV.4.114 Bethlehem XXI.3.61ff Beth Rehob XXV.4.102 Beth-shan XXI.4.84ff; XXII.3.54ff; XXV.2.63 Beth-shemesh XXI.4.103; XXIII.1.29 Bethuel XXV.4.99 Beth Yerah XXIV.2.57 Bethzatha XXI.3.70 Biqa't XXV.4.119 Bireth 'Areva XXIV.3.90 Birga'yah XXV.4.116ff Biridiya XXIII. 1.19f Bir Qadisma XXIV.4.114 Biryawaza XXIII. 1.14 Bit Adini XXIII.2.34ff Bit-Jakin XXIII.2.56ff bitumen XXII.2.40ff Bne Ammon

XXIV.3.86

Bne Qedem XXIV.3.86; XXV.4.99 Bodmer Papyri XXII.2.48ff; XXIV. 1.3ff; XXV.2.50ff Bohairic XXII.2.49 bone inlay XXIV.1.22 bone spoon XXIV.2.45 burial places XXI.2.34; XXII.3.55; XXIV.1.22ff; XXIV.2.38; XXIV.3.74ff Burnaburiash XXIII.1.4ff Byzantines XXII.3.50ff; XXII.4.96f Caesarea XXIV.2.52ff Calebite XXII.4.93 camel XXIII.3.77 Cana (Qana), XXIII.3.76ff capitals (column) XXII. 1.11; XXIV.1.26ff; XXIV.4.103ff Capernaum XXIV.2.56ff caravanserais XXII.4.86 Carchemish XXIII.2.34ff; XXV.4.102 cement XXII.2.44 Chenoboskion XXIV.1.7 Chester Beatty Papyrus I XXIV.1.3 Churches, Egyptian Martyrs (Ascalon) XXI.3.54 Galgala XXI.3.54ff Holy Sepulchre XXI.3.54ff Kathisma XXIV.4.113f Madeba XXI.3.51ff Probatike XXI.3.70 St. Victor XXI.5.54ff cinnamon XXIII.3.80 cisterns XXII.4.90; XXIII.1.27; XXIV.2.59; XXIV.4.108ff XXII.2.41 Cleopatra Codex Sinaiticus XXIV.1.2 Codex Vaticanus XXIV.1.2 coins XXI.4.92ff; XIII.4.104f; XXIV.2.41; XXIV.2.56; XXIV.3.92; XXV.1.7; XXV.3.87ff colossi of Caesarea XXIV.2.54ff columbarium at Gibeon XXIII.1.29 conical houses in Negev XXII.4.89 Conway High Place XXIII.1.32 copper articles XXII.3.58; XXII.4.85 copper industry XXII.4.90; XXIII.4.119; XXIV.2.45; XXIV.2.59ff Copper Scroll XXIV.4.116 Coptic XXII.2.49ff; XXIV.1.3ff; XXV.2.51 cors XXII.2.31ff Corinth XXV.1.2ff; XXV.2.54 cosmetics XXI.2.40; XXIII.3.84 cost of living XXIII.3.87 crucible furnace XXIV.2.59ff cubit XXII.2.23ff Cun XXV.4.102

124

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Damascus XXIII.2.40ff; XXV.4.102ff Darb es-Sultani XXII.4.85f David XXI.4.96ff; XXII.4.91; XXIII.1.14ff; XXIII.2.63; XXIV.3.74; XXV.3.71; XXV.4.102ff Dead Sea Scrolls XXV.2.55 Debir XXIII. 1.11 XXI.4.86 Decapolis Dedan XXIII.3.73 Deir XXIII.1.31; XXIII.3.72 Delos XXIII.3.81f Der XXIII.2.53ff Dhofar region XXIII.2.73 Dioscorida XXIII.3.78 Dor XXII.3.65 Dothan XXV.2.35 Dur-Sharrukin XXIII.2.34 Dura-Euronos XXV.2.5 7ff XXV.2.36 Ebal, Mt. XXI.3.58ff; XXII.3.70; Ebionites XXI.4.87 Edom XXI.4.96ff; XXII.4.93 XXII.3.66; XXV.4.114 XXIII.2.43ff; XXIV.3.67ff; Edomites XXIII.1.30; XXV.3.82 Eglon XXIII. 1.12 Egyptian Execration texts XXII. 1.18 Ekron XXII.3.64; XXIII.2.53 El-'Arish XXIII.3.76 El-'Ola XXIII.3.76 Elamite XXIII.2.61; XXV.3.86 Elath XXIII.3.76; XXV.4.103ff Elijah XXII.3.65 XXIII.2.40 Elisha XXI.3.54ff; Elizabeth XXII.2.50 XXIII.3.85 embalming XXII.2.43ff; En-Gedi XXIV.3.87ff XXIII.2.29ff ephah XXIII.3.99 Ephraim XXIII.2.50; Ephratah XXI.3.65f XXII.2.50 Epiphanian Eponym Chronicle XXIII.2.38ff Eriba-Adad I XXIII.1.10 Eriba-Marduk XXII.2.34 Esarhaddon XXIII.2.57ff; XXIV.3.74 Essene XXV.2.5 5 Arabia Eudaemon (Aden) XXIII.3.76 Eudocia XXI.3.54 XXV.4.101ff Euphrates XXI.4.102; Exodus from Egypt XXIII.1.2ff Ezekiel XXII.2.22ff Ezion-Geber XXII.4.90; XXIV.2.6 XXIII.3.76; fathonm XXII.2.27

Feinan area XXIV.2.60f Flaminius, T. Quintis XXV. 1.12 forum of Ael'a XXI.3.68f Fort, Ammonite XXIV.3.68 Antonia XXI.3.70 Hazor XXII.1.10ff; XXIII.2.67 Lachish XXII.2.26 Megiddo XXIII.2.67f Negev XXII.4.92 Ramat Rahel XXIV.4.105ff frankincense XXIII.3.70ff Gabbatunu XXIII.2.53 Galilee XXIII.2.61; XXIV.2.52ff Gandabu XXV.4.114 gate, en-Nasbeh XXII.2.26 Hazor XXI.4.103f; XXII.1.8ff; XXIII.2.62 Jerusalem XXI.3.58ff Megiddo XXI.4.103; XXIII.2.62 Petra XXIV.1.25 Shechem XXIII.4.103ff Gath XXII.3.64; XXIII.1.18; XXIII.2.42; XXV.4.114 Gaza XXI.3.54ff; XXII.3.64; XXIII.2.49ff; XXIII.3.76; XXV.3.89 Gedor XXIII.1.25 Genesis Apocryphon XXIV.4.116 gerah XXII.2.37f Gerasa XXI.3.54; XXI.4.86

1ff

(Vol. XXV,

XXII.3.70; Gerizim, Mt. XXI.3.58ff; XXV.3.88 XXV.2.36; XXIII.4.103; Gerrha XXIII.3.77 Geshur XXV.4.105ff Gethsemane XXI.3.70 Gezer XXI.4.96ff; XXII.2.39; XXI.4.103f; XXIII.2.62; XXIII.2.49; XXIII.1.11ff; XXIV.3.76 XXIV.1.19ff Gibeon XXIII.1.23ff; Gideon XXIII. 1.11 gilding XXII.2.44 XXV.4.99 Gilead, Mt. XXIII.2.37ff; Gizeh XXIII.3.81 Habiru XXV.3.78 XXII.1.6 Hadad XXI.4.96ff; XXV.4.102ff Hadadezer XXI.4.100ff; XXV.4.112 Hadattu XXIII.2.34; Hadhramaut XXIII.3.73 Hadrian XXI.3.66ff Hajar Bin Huineid XXIII.3.90 XXV.4.102ff Hamath XXI.4.101; XXIII.2.49; of Elam XXIII.2.53 Hambanigash Hammat XXI.4.84 Hammurabi XXV.2.71 Hanam'el XXIV.3.83 Hanuni XXIII.2.53 Haran (Harran) XXIII.2.52; XXV.4.99ff Haremhab XXIII.1.6 Hasmoneans XXII.3.70 Hatarika XXIII.2.44ff Hatra XXV.2.60 Hattina XXIII.2.38 Hauran XXV.4.109 XXV.4.105 Havvothjair XXV.4.109ff Hazael XXIII.2.41; Hazazu XXIII.2.43 hazianu XXIII.1.22 Hazor XXI.4.84; XXI.4.103; XXII.1.2ff; XXIII.2.60; XXIII.2.50; XXIII.1.12; XXIV.4.99ff XXIII.3.98; XXIV.3.87 Hebrew (language) XXIII.1.29 Hebron XXI.3.57; XXIII.1.21; Hellenist'c artists XXI.3.56 Hepher XXV.3.83 Herod Antipas XXIV.2.57ff the Great Herod XXII.2.44ff; XXI.3.66f; XXIII.1.31; XXII.3.69ff; XXII.2.50; XXIV.2.53 XXIV.4.112, Hezekiah XXII.2.25ff; XXIII.2.56;

XXV.4.111 Hezion XXV.4.104 hieroglyp's XXII.3.58ff

bin XXII.2.29 Hiram of Tyre XXV.4.103 Hittite XXIII.1.4ff; XXV.2.50; XXIII.2.43; XXV.4.102 XXV.3.78; hotmer XXII.2.28ff Homily on t're Passover XXXV.2.56 Iabrud XXV.4.118f lamani XXIII.2.56 Ianm:a XXI.3.5S Idumaeans XXIII.1.30 in!ay work XXII.2.44 iron instruments XXII.3.58ff incense routes XXIII.3.75f inscriptions, XXIV.3.79 Ammonite Aramaic XXV.4.112 XXIII. 1.25 on Hebrew Archaic pottery ff Assyrian XXI.4.101 cunieform at Hazor XXII.1.7 Deir XXIII.1.31 XXII.4.96 Nabatean Siloam XXII.3.24ff XXII.3.70 Isis XXIII.3.89; Isthmian games XXV. 1,2ff XXV.4.112 XXII.3.74ff; ivory XXIII.2.38; XXIV.3.67ff Jabbok River XXI.3.57; Jacob XXV.4.99 XXIV.1.14f James (brother of Jesus) XXII.2.50; James the Just XXIV.1.14 jar burial XXIII.4.108

1962, 4)

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Jarhulani of Hamath XXIII.2.39 Jebel Harawa XXIII.1.30 Jehoazar XXIV.4.111 Jehoram XXIII.2.40 JehoshaDhat XXIII.2.37ff Jehu XXII.3.69ff; XXIII.2.41ff; XXV.4.113 Jephthah XXIV.1.14; XXIV.3.70 Jeremiah XXIV.4.115 Jericho XXI.3.54ff; XXI.3.76; XXII.2.41ff; XXII.4.101; XXIII.1.11; XXIII.1.29; XXIII.3.98 Jeroboam XXI.4.96ff; XXIII.3.81 Jeroboam II XXIII.2.44ff; XXV.4.116 Jerusalem XXI.3.53ff; XXI.4.86ff; XXIII.1.11ff; XXIII.2.62; XXIV.4.112 Jesus XXII.2.50; XXIV.1.3ff; XXIV.2.56ff Jezebel XXIII.2.37ff; XXII.3.64 Joab XXIII.1.24; XXIV.3.74 Joash XXIII.2.41 John (gospel) XXIV.1.3 John tne Baptist XXII.2.50; XXIV.1.15 Jonah XXIII.2.46; XXIV.2.53 Joppa XXIII.2.61 Jordan XXI.3.52ff Joseph (father of Jesus) XXIV.1.4 Joshua XXII.1.10ff; XXIII.1.llff Josiah XXIII.2.61 Jotham XXIII.2.46ff Judah (man) XXIII.3.99 Judas XXIV.1.15 Jude XXIV.1.3 Justinian XXI.3.54ff Kadashman-Enlil XXI.4.98; (see XXII.2.51) Kadashmanharbe XXI.4.98; (see XXII.2.51) Kadesh-Barnea XXV.4.86ff; XXII.4.99; XXIII.1.16 Kahun papyrus XXIII.1.7 Kakzu XXIII.1.34 Kalah-Kalhu XXIII.2.34ff Kapara XXIII.2.43 Kar Shalmaneser (see Bit Adini) Katute dump at Petra XXIII.1.32 Keilah XXIII.1.18 Kemuel XXV.4.99 Kenath XXV.4.105 Kerite XXII.4.93 Kerak XXI.3.56 keys XXIV.2.42; XXIV.3.92 Khabur XXV.4.111 Khazne Faraun XXIII.1.32; XXIV.1.25 Khirbet et-Tannur XXII.4.98 Khirbet Fahil (see Pella) Khor Rori XXIII.3.73 Khorsabad XXIII.2.34 King's Highway XXII.4.86; XXIII.3.76; XXV.4.102 Kore, temple of XXII.3.72 Ktk XXV.4.116ff Kummah XXIII.2.43 Laban XXV.4.99 Lab'ayu XXIII.1.18ff Lachish XXI.4.103; XXII.2.26ff; XXII.3.59; XXIII.1.12ff; XXIV.4.104f Lady Tahpenes XXI.4.97 lamps XXI.4.91; XXIV.1.22; XXIV.2.57; XXIV.3.85; XXIV.4.108; XXV.1.1lf lead XXIV.2.55 Lebanon, Mt. XXV.4.118 lethech

XXII.2.31

Leuce Come XXIII.3.76 Lihyanite names XXIV.3.84 lion orthostat (Hazor) XXII.1.6ff lioness orthostat (Hazor) XXII.1.15ff log XXII.2.29 lotus blossom XXIV.3.79 Lutibu, battle of XXIII.2.38 Lydda XXI.3.56 Maacah XXV.4.102 Maccabees XXI.3.74 Madeba XXI.3.50ff Ma'in XXIII.3.76ff Malao XXIII.3.73

125

Mamre XXI.3.57ff Manasseh XXIII.2.59ff; XXV 3.83 Mannaeans XXIII.2.43 Mannu-ki-Assur XXIII.2.43 Mansuate XXIII.2.43; XXV.4.109ff Marduk-apal-iddina II XXIII.2.53 Mari XXIII.3.97; XXV.3.60ff Marib XXIII.3.76ff Mark (gospel) XXIV.1.6 Market of Spices XXIII.3.73ff Mary (mother of Jesus) XXII.2.50ff; XXIV.1.4 Mary Magdalene XXIV.1.12ff; XXIV.2.56 Masabala XXIV.2.47ff; XXIV.3.87 Massebah XXIII.4.111ff Mati'ilu (Mattiel) XXIII.2.44; XXV.4.116f Matthew XXIV. 1.14 Medes XXIII.2.43 Medina (Yathrib) XXIII.3.76 Megiddo XXI.4.84; XXI.4.103; XXII.I.11ff; XXII.2.26ff; XXII.3.76f; XXIII.1.11; XXIII.2.61ff; XXIV.4.104; XXV.4.110f Melikertes XXV. 1.26 Melito XXV.2.56 Melqart Stele XXV.4.105f Menahem XXIII.2.46 Mendes XXIII.3.85 Meqabelein XXIV.3.75 Meritaten XXIII. 1.9 Merneptah XXII.3.66; XXV.3.83 Micah XXI.3.54 Midian XXIV.2.59 mile (Roman) XXII.2.27 Milkilu of Gezer XXIII.1.18 Millo XXIII.2.62 mina XXII.2.32ff mining XXIV.2.60ff Mitanni kingdom XXIII.1.3ff; XXIII.3.84 Mizpeh XXIII. 1.11 mmt

XXIII.1.29;

XXIV.4.105

Moab XXI.3.52ff; XXII.3.66; XXII.4.93; XXIII.2.37ff; XXIV.3.66; XXV.3.81 "molten sea" XXII.2.25f Moresheth-gath XXI.3.54 Mosaic XXIV.4.102 Moscha XXIII.3.75ff Moses XXII.4.93ff; XXIV.1.4ff Mosyllum XXIII.3.73 mouth-plate of gold foil XXII.3.56 rmsh XXIII.1.29 mummification XXII.2.43ff; XXIII.3.85 Mummius, Lucius XXV.1.13ff Mundus XXIII.2.73 Mushezib-Ninurta XXIII.2.42 Mut-Ba'lu XXIII. 1.18 Mutkinu XXI.4.102 Muza XXIII.3.76 Muziris XXIII.3.80 Mycenaean XXII.1.5; XXII.3.56 Myrrh XXIII.3.70ff Nabateans XXII.4.82ff; XXII.4.98; XXIV.3.86ff; XXIII.1.30; XXV.2.57ff; XXII.2.40ff Nablus XXI.3.56; XXI.3.63f Nabu-nadin-zer XXIII.2.50 Nahal Arugot XXIV.2.35 Nahal Hever XXIV.2.35; XXIV.3.86 Nahal Tse'elim cave XXIV.2.34 Nahor XXV.4.99 Nahum XXIII.2.61 Nakia XXIII.2.41n Naphtali XXV.4.104 Nativity of Mary XXIV.1.4; XXV.2.54; XXII.2.50f Nea XXI.3.54ff Nebuchadnezar XXIII.2.61 Necho, Pharaoh XXIII.2.61 Nefertiti XXIII. 1.9 Negev (Negeb) XXII.4.82ff; XXIV.2.61ff Nehemiah XXII.3.69ff; XXIV.3.87; XXIV.4.111 ff Nergal-uballit of Ahizuhina XXIII.2.50 net (bird-catching?) XXIV.3.92 Nibhurririya-Amarna letters XXIII.1.5

126

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Nile XXI.3.52; XXI.3.57 Nimmuriya XXIII. 1.5 Nimrud XXIII.2.34 Nineveh XXIII.2.34; XXIV.3.74 Noah XXV.4.101 Nuzu XXIII.3.97 Obodas, Nabatean king XXII.4.95 Ocelis XXIII.3.76 Og XXV.3.80ff; XXII.3.66 ointments XXIII.3.84 Omana XXIII.3.79 omnerXXII.2.29 Omri XXIII.2.41; XXII.3.69; XXV.4.106ff Orontes XXV.4.120 ossuary XXIV.3.76f oval houses XXII.4.89 p45 (papyrus) XXIV.1.3 p52 (papyrus) XXIV.1.3 paints XXII.2.44 palaces at Dur-Snarrukin XXIII.2.54 Hazor XXI.1.17ff; XXV.2.38 Megiddo XXII.2.26; XXIII.2.63 Samaria XXII.3.69ff Shechem XXIII.4.108ff Palaimon XXV.1.11 Palashtu XXIII.2.43 Palmyra XXV.2.57ff; XXV.4.101 Panamu II XXIII.2.48ff papyrus XXIII.3.80; XXIV.1.2; XXIV.2.45ff; XXIV.3.86ff Parthians XXV.2.57ff Paul XXI.1.2ff; XXIV.2.53ff; XXV.1.2ff paving XXIV.2.57 pearls XXIII.3.88 Pekah XXII.1.10; XXIII.2.46ff Pekahiah XXIII.2.48ff Pella XXIII.1.18ff Pelusium XXI.3.56 Perea XXI4.86 perfumes XXIII.3.84 pestle XXII.4.89 Peter XXIV. 1.3 Petra XXII.4.94; XXIII.1.29ff; XXIII.3.76; XXIV.1.25ff; XXV.2.59 Peya XXIII.1.20 Philistines XXI.4.99f; XXII.3.54ff; XXIV.4.125f; XXV.3.86 Phoenicians XXV.4.102 pinmXXII.2.37 Pisiris of Carchemish XXIII.2.48 Pistis Sophia XXIV. 1.11 Pitru (Pethor) XXI.4.102 plene XXIV.4.109ff Pompey XXI.4.86 pool at Gibeon XXIII.1.23f; XXIV.1.19ff Poseidon XXV. 1.2ff pottery, Amman XXII.4.100 Ammonite XXIV.3.68ff Beth-zur XXI.3.73ff Gibeon XXIII.1.25; XXIV.1.22ff I-azor XI.2.32ff; XXII.1.18ff Lachish XXII.2.29ff measures XXII.2.29ff Nabatean XXII.4.96 Negev XXII.4.93 Pella XXI.4.85ff Qumran XXI.3.76; XXII.2.30 Ramat Rahel XIV.4.103ff Sea of Galilee XXIV.2.57ff Shechem XXIII.4.103ff; XXV.2.34ff precious stones XXIII.3.88 Psalms XXIV.1.3; XXIV.2.44 Psammetichus I XXV.2.63 Psusennes II XXI.4.99 Ptolemaic coins XXIII.4.104; XXV.3.87ff Ptolemy I (Lagos) XXIII.4.104; XXV.4.120 Ptolemy II XXIII.4.104 Ptolemy III XXIII.4.104 Ptolemy IV XXIII.4.104

(Vol. XXV,

Ptolemy V XXIII.4.104 Pulu XXIII.2.50f Punt XXIII.3.77 Pytholaus XXIII.3.73 Qarnaim XXV.4.109 Qarqar XXV.4.108ff Qataban XXIII.3.72 Qiryat 'Arabaya XXIV.3.90 XXI.4.88 Qumran XXI.3.76; Quseir XXII.3.77 Rabbath-ammon XIV.3.68 rabis XXIII.1.22 Rachel XXI.3.66 Ramah XXI.3.66 Ramat Rahel XXII. .11; XXIV.4.98ff I XXIII.1.6f Rameses Ramases II XXIII.1.6f Ramases III XXII.3.58ff; XXIII.3.80 Rameses IV XXIII.3.80 Rameses VI XXII.3.58 XXV.4.114 Ramoth-Gilead XXIII.2.40; XXIII.2.55 Raphia-Rapisu Ras Fartak XXIII.3.79 Ras Ktanzira XXIII.3.73 Rechabites XXII.4.9 3 reeud XXII.2.26f XXIII.2.68 Rehoboam XXI.3.74; XXI.4.96ff; reliefs at Dur-Sharrukin XXIII.2.54 XXV.3.81 Reubenites Rezin of Damascus XXIII.2.49; XXV.4.116 Rhapta XXIII.3.80 Rhind Mathematical Papyrus XXII.2.28 XXIII.3.76 Rhinocolura Rib-Adda XXIII.1.5ff; XXV.3.77 Rimmon XXV.4.110 rock drawings in Negev XXII.4.96 Roman roads XXI.3.59 Romans XXIII. 1.30 royal stamp on jar handles XXIII.1.29 Rubutu XXIII. 1.18 Sabaeans XXIII.3.88 "sabbath day's journey" XXII.2.40 Sachalites bay XXIII.3.72f SA.GAZ XXIII.l.l1ff Sahab XXIV.3.75 Sahidic dialect XXII.2.49; XXIV.1.8; XXV.2.51 Salome XXII.2.51; XXIV.I.14 XXV.2.48ff salt XXV.2.41ff; XXV.4.106 Sam'al XXIII.2.38; Samaria XXII.2.11; XXII.3.67ff; XXII.2.26f; XXIV.4.99ff; XXIII.4.103ff; XXIII.2.37ff;

XXV.2.35; XXV.3.88; XXV.4.113

XXIII.2.41n Sammuramat Sanballat XXII.3.69 (see Tanis) San-el-Hagar XXIII.2.36ff; Sargon II XXII.3.69ff; XXIII.4.106 XXIV.3.70 Saul XXII.3.66; scarab XXI.2.38; XXII.3.56; XXIII.4.114; XXIV. 1.22 XXV.2.57ff Scythians XXIII.3.80ff; XXI.4.86 Scythopolis Sea of Galilee XXIV.2.52ff seahs XXII.2.28ff seals XXI.2.37ff; XXII.1.6; XXIII.2.42; XXIV.3.81ff; XXIV.2.56; XXIII.4.106ff; XXIV.4.1 10 Sebastiyeh XXII.2.38 Secret Gospels XXIV.1.6ff Sefire Treaty XXV.2.49; XXV.4.116ff Sela' (Petra) XXII.4.94; XXIII.1.30 Seleucid coins XXIII.4.104; XXV.3.87ff XXIII.1.9 Semenkhkere Semiramis (see Sammuramat) Senir, Mt. XXV.4.102 XXIII.2.38ff Sennacherib XXII.2.34; seren XXII.3.64 seror XXII.2.36 Seti I XXIII.1.6 Shabwa XXIII.3.76 Shallum XXIII.2.46

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

1962, 4)

Shalmaneser III XXI.4.102; XXIII.2.36ff; XXIII.2.68; XXIII.4.106; XXV.4.106ff Shalmaneser V XXIII.2.36ff Shamash-shum-ukin XXIII.2.60 Shamshi-Adad V XXIII.2.41 Shamshi-ilu XXIII.2.44 Sheba XXIII.3.77ff Shechem XXI.3.61ff: XXI.4.84; XXII.1.7; XXII.3.70ff; XXIII.1.19ff; XXIII.2.51; XXIII.4.102ff; XXV.2.34ff; XXV.2.48ff; XXV.3.87ff shekels XXII.2.22ff; XXIV.4.111 Shem XXV.4.99ff Sheshbazzer XXIV.4.111 Shibaniba XXIII.2.34 Shilkanni XXIII.2.55 Shiloh XXII.4.100; XXIII.1.11 Shimon Bar Yehudah XXIV.2.45ff Shipti-Ba'lu XXIII.1.20 Shishak XXI.4.96ff; XXIII.2.68; XXV.4.104 shovel XXIV.2.42 Shulgi, King of Ur XXII.2.34 Shuppiluliuma, Hittite king XXIII.1.4ff Shuwardata XXIII.1.18ff Siamon, King of Egypt XXI.4.99 Sib'e XXIII.2.53 Sidon XXI.3.52; XXII.3.58ff; XXIII.2.39; XXV.3.89 Sihon XXII.3.66; XXV.3.80ff Sikyon XXV.1.13ff Silas XXV.1.3ff silver XXIII.3.88; XXV.3.88ff Simeon XXII.2.50 Simirra XXIII.2.53 Simon (see Peter) Sinai XXII.4.84ff Socho XXI.3.54 Socoh XXIII.1.29; XXIV.4.105 Sodom XXV.2.48 soil conservation in Negev XXII.4.94ff Solomon XXI.2.30ff; XXI.4.96ff; XXII.4.91; XXIII.1.23; XXIII.2.62ff; XXIII.3.83; XXV.2.54f; XXV.4.103f Song of Deborah XXV.3.84f span XXII.2.27 spindle XXIV.2.45 spiral stairway at Gibeon XXIII.1.24 stade XXII.2.27 stadium XXII.3.72; XXV.1.10ff stamped jar handles XXIII.1.29; XXIV.4.104ff standing-stone XXII.1.14; XXIII.4.111 statues XXII.2.24; XXIV.3.79; XXV.1.9ff stelae, alabaster XXIII.3.89 Strato's Tower XXIV.2.53 Subakhmimic dialect XXIV.1.8 Sultan TePe XXIII.2.34 Sumur XXIII. 1.13ff Syagrus XXIII.3.73 Sychar XXI.3.61ff Syllaeus XXII.2.47 Syria XXI.4.83ff; XXV.4.101ff "Table of Nations" XXV.4.99ff Tab-el XXIII.2.49 Tabula

Peutingeriana

XXI.3.52ff

talent XXII.2.32ff Tanis XXI.4.97f Tappuah XXV.3.83 Tarhundaraba of Arzawa XXIII.1.4 Tarichaeae XXIV.2.56ff tassel XXIV.4.119ff taxation XXIII.3.86 Tebah XXV.4.102 Teima XXIII.3.76 Tekoa XXI.3.57; XXIV.3.87 teleilat

el-'anab

XXII.4.95

temple, Amman XXII.4.100; XXIII.3.93; XXIV.3.68 Ashdod XXII.3.64 Corinth XXV.1.7ff Deir el-Bahari XXIII.3.72 Ekron XXII.3.64 Ezida XXIII.2.42

127

Hatshepsut XXIII.3.72 Hazor XXI.2.34ff; XXII.1.3ff Jerusalem XXI.4.103; XXII.2.25ff; XXV.4.111 Khirbet Tannur XXII.4.95ff; XXV.2.57ff Medinet Habu XXII.3.61 Megiddo XXI.2.46f; XXII.1.7; XXIII.4.113 Nabu XXIII.2.42 Petra XXIV.1.25ff Samaria XXII.3.69ff Shechem XXII.1.7; XXIII.4.103ff; XXV.2.35 Tent of Meeting XXIII.3.82 Terebinthas XXI.3.61n,66f Thamudic XXIV.3.82f Theatre of Corinth XXV.1.3ff Thebes XXI.4.97f Thomas XXIV.1.14ff Tiberias XXIV.2.56ff Tiglath-pileser I XXV.4.101 Tiglath-pileser III XXII.1.10; XXIII.2.36f; XXV.2.38; XXV.4.109ff Tjikal people XXII.3.65 Til Barsip XXIII.2.34ff Timnah XXIII.3.76ff Timothy XXV.1.3ff Tirzah XXV.2.35; XXV.3.83 tnhm ngb (seal impression) XXIII.1.29 Tob, land of XXV.4.102 Tobiad "dynasty" XXIV.3.86 Toi, king of Hamath XXV.4.103 tomb Absalom XXIV.4.116 Amman XXIV.2.68ff Gibeon XXIV.1.22ff Petra XXIII.1.32ff shaft XXIV.1.22 Tutankhamun XXIII.3.82 torque XXV 2.57ff tower Ammonite XXIV.3.71ff Caesarea XXIV.2.54f Samaria XXII.2.26; XXII.3.71 Strato XXIV.2.53 Transjordan XXI.4.82ff; XXI.4.102; XXIV.3.66ff; XXV.3.67ff Tribal territories XXI.3.55 Turbazu XXIII. 1.20 Tushratta XXIII. 1.4ff Tut'ankhamun XXIII.1.5ff; XXIII.3.82 Tutannu XXIII.2.48 Tuthmosis III XXIII. 1.6ff Tuthmosis IV XXIII.1.6ff Tyre XXII.3.64; XXIII.2.37ff; XXV.3.89, XXV.4.113 Ugarit XV~T2.38: XXII.3.64; XXIII.1.6; XXIV.3.67; XXIV.4.116 Ukin-zer XXIII.2.50f Ululai XXIII.2.51 Umm el-Bivara XXIII.1.30 Unqi Province XXIII.2.48 Urartaean kings XXIII.2.43ff Uriah XXV.4.111 Uris XXIV.4.112 urn tomb at Petra XXIII.1.32 Urningursu of Lagash XXII.2.34 Urtas XXIV.3.91f Uz XXV.4.99 Uzziai XXII.4.91: XXIII.2.44ff; XXIV.4.116 vats at Gibeon XXIII.1.26ff; XXIV.1.19ff Via Dolorosa XXI.3.68 wadis Aravah XXII.4.59ff; XXIII.1.30 Barra XXIII.1.29 Beihan XXIII.3.74 Dabuq XXIV.3.72 el-Arish XXII.4.91 Hadhramaut XXIII.3.73 Hatirah XXII.4.60 Khureisheh XXII.4.88ff Merzebah XXII.4.60ff Murrah XXII.4.59 Musa XXIII. 1.29

128

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Timnah XXIV.2.59ff Zerqa XXIV.3.67 Walls Caesarea sea wall XXIV.2.54ff Gezer XXIII.2.62f Hazor XXII.1.9f; XXIII.2.62f; XXIV.4.99 Megiddo XXIII.2.62f Negev XXII.4.93 Ramat Rahel XXIV.4.99f Samaria XXII.3.72ff; XXIV.4.99 Shechem XXIII.4.107 "Wailing" XXI.3.70 Well of Abraham XXI.3.66f Wen-Amon tale XXII.3.65 winepresses at Gibeon XXIII.1.28; XXIV.1.20ff winecellars at Gibeon XXIII.1.27ff; XXIV.1.20ff women XXIV.3.83 w'w XXIII.1.22 Yanhamu XXIII.1.16ff Yaptih-Adda XXIII.1.20 Yarah'azar XXIV.3.81f Yarimuta XXIII. 1.16 Yathrib XXIII.3.76

IV.

(Vol. XXV,

Yaubidi XXIII.2.53ff XXIV.3.87 Yehonatan XXIV.2.47ff; Yehuda Bar Menashe XXIV.3.90ff XXII.4.93 Yerhmeelite XXII.2.27f yoke of oxen (measure) XXIV.1.4 Zacharias XXI.3.54; XXII.2.50; Zakir XXV.4.112 Zanzibar XXIII.3.78 Zaphon XXIII.1.20 Zared XXI.3.57 Zechariah XXIII.2.46 Zenjirli XXV.4.103ff XXIII.2.61 Zephaniah Zerubbabel XXIV.4.111 XXV.2.57ff Zeus-Hadad Zilu XXIII. 1.20 Zimreda of Lachish XXIII.1.20f Zin, Desert XXI.3.57 Zion, Mt. XXI.3.54ff Ziph XXIII.1.29 Zita (Amarna letters) XXIII.1.5 Zoan (See Tanis) Zurata of Accho XXIII.1.19

INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS

ART AND SCULPTURE XXI.2.47 Stylized head of horse ................... Ivory sphinx inlay, Beth-zur .......XXI.3.74 Cone seal, Beth-zur XXI.3.75 ....................... XXI.4.92 Lamp, Pella ................................. Double unguentarium and glass Pella XXI.4.93 bottle, ................................... Bronze male deity, Hazor ............... XXII. 1.3 Cult upright stone and votive XXII.1.16 bowl, Hazor ............................. Basalt lioness, Hazor ............... XXII.1.17 Two Proto-aeolic capitals ............... XXII. 1.11 Mold for jewelry, Hazor ............... XXII.1.19 Cow bronze ........ X....... XXII.2.21 weight of ShalLion bronze weight maneser V ..................... ......... .. XXII.2.30 Bas-relief of Amenophis IV and Nefertiti ...... XXIII. 1.7 .........X.................. Statue of Shalmaneser III, Nineveh XXIII.2.33 ....................................... Detail from sculptured relief, Nineveh 45 XXIII.2.39, ................................. and Naqi'a on a Esarhaddon Louvre Bronze . ... ...................... XXIII.2.54 Statue of Yarah'azar ....................... XXIV.3.65 Zeus Hadad, Khirbet Tannur .......XXV.2.58 Marble head of victorious athXXV. 1.19 lete, Isthmia .................................. Marble statue of goddess ............... XXV. 1.27 Bronze dolphin, Isthmia .............. XXV.3.65 Small incense burner, Timnah ... XXIII.3.94 of abundance Baal, producer .......XXV.3.65 Caravan of Asiatic "nomads" ...... XXV.3.85 Copper jug from Judean desert ... XXIV.2.49 Aramaic orthostat, Damascus ..... XXV.4.97 Reliefs from Zenjirli ................... XXV.4.107 Ivory from Arslan Tash ........... XXV.4.115 CHURCHES Floor plan of Church at Madeba ... XXI.3.53 Church at Abda in Byzantine XXII.4.97 Negev .......................................... COINS Silver Ptolemaic coins, Shechem XXIII.4.105 Coins showing temple of Palaimon XXV.1.13 Ptolemaic Tetradrachmas, Shechem XXV.3.91 Ptolemaic Bronze Coins, Shechem XXV.3.93 Seleucid Shechem Coins, ........... XXV.3.95 GENERAL VIEW OF SITES & TELLS Athens ........... from the West XXI.1.23 Hazor air views .. XXI.2.29, 42; XXII. .3, 15 Israelite citadel, Hazor ............... XXI.2.39 Khirbet Fahil (Pella) XXI.4.83, 85, 91, 94, 95 XXIII.2.66 M egiddo ....................................... Excavation at Ramat Rahel ...... XXIV.4.99

Balk-face cut, Shechem XXV.2.33 ............ of Probe trench cut in Temple Baal-Berith, Shechem XXV.2.37 Isthmia from the South .................. XXV..1 Temple and Palace sections, Shechem ...................................... XXIII.4.101 Ruins of an Iron Age fortress ...... XXV.3.82 Cuttings in rock, Gibeon ........... XXIV. 1.19 Middle bronze room, Gibeon ...... XXIV. 1.23 The entrance to the cave in XXIV.2.39 the Nahal Hever ...................... HOUSES of 8th Israelite dwelling century, XXI.2.45 Hazor Bronze I house, Negeb XXII.4.102 Middle .......................................... INSCRIPTIONS AND WRITINGS An inscribed bowl, Hazor ............... XXI.2.41 Clay model used by temple diviner, Hazor ................................... XXII. 1.7 Israelite stele at Samaria ............... XXII.3.77 Nabatean Rock-drawing in Negev XXII.4.107 Cuneiform tablet of Nuzi, Assyria XXIII.1.3 Egyptian letters, Luxor ............... XXIII. 1.9 Cuneiform tablet containing a vassal treaty of Esarhaddon .......XXIII.2.58 The Seal of Adoni-pillet ............... XXIV.3.81 Seal of Adoni-nur ....................... XXIV.3.83 Seals of Shub'el and Menahem ... XXIV.3.84 Royal stamped jar handles, Ramat Rahel ....................... XXIV.4.104, 110 10th Legion stamp, Ramat Rahel XXIV.4.117 Victorinus inscription ...................XXV.1.17 XXV.3.72 Amarna letter 74 ........................... First lines of the Gospel of XXIV. 1.1 Truth .................................... Gnostic codices found at Cheno-.... 1.10 XXIV. .... boskion ........................ ...... XXV.4.105 Melqart stele ............................... "Our Lord Hazael" inscription in ivory, Arslan Tash ................ XXV.4.112 Sefire stele BI ............................... XXV.4.117 MAPS & SKETCHES Plan of the Acropolis, Athens ...... XXI. 1.5 Map of surroundings of Athens ... XXI. .13 The Agora, Athens ............... ........ XXI. 1.17 Model of buildings on the West edge of the Agora ....................... . XXI. 1.21 Mosaic Map of Madeba XXI.3. 49, 51, 55, 59, 61, 65, 68, 69 Plan of Beth-zur excavations ......... XXI.3.73 Plan of Samaria .......................... XXII.3.68 North and Central Negev .............. XXII.4.83 Model of a manor house, Amarna XXIII. 1.13 Sections of 4 vats at Gibeon ....... XXIII. 1.21

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

1962, 4)

Sketch map locating border fortresses, etc., Ammon ................... XXIV.3.69 Location of towers in ancient Ammon ........................................ XXIV.3.73 Map showing location of Bar Kochba finds ..............................XXIV.3.91 Drawing of painted figure from XXIV.4.108 jar fragment ..... ............................ Sketch of garment worn by Syrian of tribute XXIV.4.121 .................... beaiers Comparisons of lower portions of Syrian garments ...................XXIV.4.123 Scalloped loincloth of Asiatic XXIV.4.125 captive ......................................... Scalloped loincloth of god XXIV.4.127 Resheph of Palestine rock-salt .......XXV.2.43 Diagram ...................................... Sketch-map of Greece ................... XXV.1.3 Plan of the Isthmia Excavations .. XXV.1.6 XXIII.3.90 Sketch-map of Arabia ............ Sketch plan of the Shechem temple ...................................

XXIII.4.112

Sketch plan of main room of 119 temple, Shechem ........... XXIII.4.117, Plan of the mound of Shechem XXIII.4.122 Modern map of Egypt showing papyrus finds ................................... XXIV.1.5 MTapof Palestine and Syria, showing Aramean centers ........XXV.4.100 PAPYRUS Bundle of letters written on 3 papyrus, Bar Kochba .................XXIV.2.3 Leaf of Bodmer Papyrus VIII ....... XXV.2.53 Bodmer XVI ......... ..................... XXV.2.55 POTTERY i\ycenaean vessels found at Hazor ..................... XXI.2.31 Two juglets from Cyprus .......... XXI.2.32 Two-handled pot, Pella .............. XXI.4.81 Hellenistic storage jar, Pella ........... XXI.4.87 XXI.4.89 Cooking pot, Pella .................... XXII.2.23 Storage jar, Lachish .................. Israelite vessels of 8th cent., Samaria ................................... XXII.3.78 Iron II from Ezion-geber ........XXII.4.94, 104 XXIII.1.24 Storage jar .............................. Headpiece of pottery anthropoid coffin ........................................ XXIV.3.77 Coffin tomb ...............................XXIV.3.79 Horse and Rider figurine from XXIV.3.80 ,Meqabelein tomb ............................ Roman vessels from the floor of the Sea of Galilee ............. XXIV.2.58 PUBLIC WORKS AND BUILDINGS Basalt drain-outlet, Hazor ...........XXI.2.43 Middle Bronze Age stone revetment and moat, Hazor ...........XXI.2.44 Cisterns in Negev .......XXII.4.85, 90, 100 Kurneeb Dam, Nabatean-Byzantine .... ......... XXII.4.105 .......... Pool at Gibeon .... XXIII. 1.1 ................... Floor in Roman bath-house, Ramat

Rahel

XXIV.4.113,

115

................... The Theatre Cave, Isthmia ....... XXV.1.15 The Palaimonion, Isthmia ........XXV. 1.26

TEMPLES AND TEMPLE ART Athens ............... XXI.1.3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 25 Foundations of Shechem temple ... XXV.2.49 Temple of Poseidon ................XXV.1.8 Marble bowl from Poseidon temple XXV. 1.9 The Palaimonion, Isthmia ...........XXV.1.26 Lamps from the Palaimonion .......XXV.1.30 Canaanite Temple, Hazor . XXI.2.35 Temple furnishings, Hazor XXI.2.36, 37, 38 Lion at Hazor .........................XXII.1.1,5 Holy of Holies, Hazor ........... XXII.1.4 Olympieion, Athens ................... XXI.1.1 Omayyad Mosque in Damascus ... XXV.4.110

129

TOMBS AND BURIALS A clay coffin, Philistine ............... XXII.3.53 Philistine coffin lids and potter XXII.3.55, 57, 58, 59 Two coffin lids at Lachish ....XXII.3.60, 61 Pottery vessels, Lachish ................ XXII.3.62 Coffin lids and pottery, Aniba, Nubia ........................................ XXII.3.63 Palestinian vessels of Philistine XXII.3.64 manufacture ................................ WALLS, GATES, AND ENTRANCES Late Bronze Age gate, Hazor ...... XXII.1.9 Revetment wall, Hazor ....................XXII. 1.10 Main entrance to the court of XXII.1.12 Ahab's citadel ............................ Orthostat entrance, Hazor ........... XXII.1.18 Walls, Samaria ..................XXII.3.73, 74, 75 Hellenistic Tower with Israelite walls, Samaria ............................... XXII.3.76 Northern wall of the Northern XXIII.2.63 Fort, Megiddo of the Northern Tile West wall ................................ Fort, Megiddo .... ...................... XXIII.2.65 Wall of the columbarium, Gibeon XXIII. 1.27 Wall 900, Shechem .................. XXIII.4.108 Wall Sections, Ramet Rahel XXIV.4.100, 101 102, 103 Citadel gateway, Zenjirli ........... XXV.4.103 MISCELLANEOUS XXI.2.33 Rock-cut catacomb ....................... Copy of one-mina weight ........... XXII.2.25 30 Thirty-mina weight ................XXII.2.28, Two-thirds mina weight ........XXII.2.33, 36 Cup-holes in rock in BasutoXXII.4.88 . ...... ........ land .......... Solomonic mining and smelting installation XXII.4.91 (see also XXIV.2.62) Slag at Timnah from Copper .. XXII.4.92 mining ......................................... tree A frankincense ....................XXIII.3.69 A mvrrh tree ...............................XXIII.3.74 Relief showing myrrh trees .......XXIII.3.78 Gum resin from frankincense tree XXIII.3.84 Nelson Glueck selecting potsherds, Solomon's mines . ........XXIV.2.60 Pere L.-H1. Vincent and W. F. Albright ..................................... ...XXIV.2.63 Large round tower at El-Malfuq ... XXIV.3.71 to cave in the ladder Nanal Rope XXIV.2.88 ........................ Hever .... . Oasis of En-Gedi ........................... XXIV.3.93 Piping from bath house, Ramat XXIV .4.97 Rahel ....................................... Ramat Rahel .......XXIV.4.106 Two stamps, Shekel weight and stamp, Ramat XIV .4.109 Rahel of salt and rock salt Pillar ...........................................X cliffs along Dead Sea . ............. XXV.2.47 Early Stadium, Isthmia ............... XXV.1.11 Tae Later Stadium, Isthmia .......XXV.1.12 Stone jumping weight, Isthmia ...XXV.1.24 Bedouin at an ancient well in the Negeb ...................................XXV.3.68 Pouring Water from the Spring XXV.3.75 at Jericho ..................................... Pre-Yahwistic Worship .................. XXV. 3.77 Agricultural scene from Egypt ... XXV.3.79 The Yarmuk River ...................... XXV.3.80 Two settling basins, Gibeon .......XXIV.1.21 Removal of Middle Bronze XXIV. 1.24 storage jar, Gibeon ................... Raising an original block into Petra position, .............................XXIV.1.27 At work on the scaffolding, reconstructing a ruin, Petra ............XXIV.1.30 Basketful of skulls from Nahel Hever caves .......................... XXIV.2.40 Planning the operations in the field ................... ........................ XXIV.2.36 Mine-detector at work in cave entrance ................. ..... XXIV.2.43

130

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

Basket of copper vessels found in the caves ........................ The Sea Diver at anchor off Caesarea .................. ...............

V.

Y. XXIV.2.34f,

Aharoni,

.XXIV.2.46 ..XXIV.2.51

here are persons whose or theories are discussed at length in the places

I. XXII.2.28ff

Biberkraut, J. XXIV.2.45ff; XXIV.3.87

Bowen, R. L. XXIII.2.92 XXIII.3.99 Bright, J. XXII.4.107; Budge, E. A. W. XXII.2.45 Burckhardt, J.L. XXIII.1.31 Campbell, E. F. XXV.3.72 G. XXIII.3.92; XXIV.3.76 Caton-Thompson, Celsus XXIII.3.83 W. D. XXV.2.41 Chamberlain, Clement of Alexandria XXIV.1.6 Cousteau, J.-Y. XXIV.2.52 Cross, F. M. XXIV.3.68 Crowfoot, J. W. XXII.3.67ff Cullman, O. XXI.4.88 Cyrillus of Scythopolis XXIV.4.114 Dajani, A. XXIV.1.23 Daniel (Russian Monk) XXIV.4.114 Dawson, W. R. XXII.2.43 De Langhe, R. XXII.2.38 Dio Cassius XXIV.3.89 Dio Chrysostom XXV.1.16ff Diodorus Siculus XXII.2.40ff; XXIII.1.30;

XXIII.3.80

Diringer, D. XXI.2.39 Doresse, J. XXIV.1.7ff

Dothan, T. XXII.3.60ff Dupont-Sommer, A. XXV.3.49f; XXV.4.117f XXII.2.22 Epiphanius Eusebius XXI.4.86; XXII.3.58;

XXIV.2.53

Finkelstein, J. J. XXII.4.10lff

Fisher, C.S. XXII.3.54ff Forbes, R. J. XXII.2.40ff Freedman, J. XXV.2.43 Friedrich, J. XXV.2.50

Gadd, C. J. XXIII.2.53 Garstang, J. XXII.4.101 ; XXIII. 1.11ff

R.P. XXII.2.32 Germer-Durand, Gese, H. XXIV.3.68 Glueck, N. XXI.4.95; XXII.4.98ff; XXII.4.101ff; XXIII. 1.12; XXIII.3.97; XXIV.2.60ff; XXIV.3.67ff Grohmann, A. XXIII.3.71 Gunkel, H. XXII.4.104 Harding, G.L. XXIV.3.75f XXI.4.86 Hegesippus R. XXIV.3.68ff Hentschke,

Herodotus XXI.4.98; XXII.2.22ff; XXIII.3.85; XXV.2.63 Homer

XXIV.4.120

Roman anchor found on floor of Sea of Galilee ............................... XXIV.2.54 Israelite stone cosmetic palette, Hazor ..................... ................ XXI.2.40

INDEX OF SCHOLARS AND WRITERS

(Listed writings cited). 61

Albright, W. F. XXI.4.83ff, 103f; XXII.2.25ff; XXII.3.56ff; XXII.4.98ff; XXIII.1.9ff; XXIII.2.36ff; XXIII.3.73ff; XXIV.3.67ff; XXV.4.106 Alt, A. XXII.4.104 Amiran, R. XXIV.4.113 Avigad, N. XXIII.1.25; XXIV.2.45; XXIV.4.112. Aviram, Y. XXI.3.52ff Barrois, G. XXII.2.30ff Benzinger,

(Vol. XXV,

Horsfield, G. XXIII.1.32 Jamme, A. XXIII.3.81 Jastrow, M. XXIV.3.81

Jeremias, J. XXIV.1.7 Jerome XXI.3.54ff; XXIV.4.115f Josephus XXI.3.58ff; XXI.4.85; XXII.2.22ff;

XXIV.4.112 XXIV.2.53ff; XXII.3.70; XXV.2.34ff Kenyon, K. XXII.3.73; XXII.4.101; Kirkbride, D. XXIV.1.20f Knudtzon, J.A. XYXII.1.4 Kutscher, Y. XXIV.4.111 Lamsa, G. XXV.2.44ff B. XXIII.2.49 Landsberger, Link, E. A. XXIV.2.50ff

Lucas, A. XXII.2.43; XXIII.3.71ff

Macalister, R.A.S. XXIII.2.62 Manetho XXI.4.99 Alazar, B. XXIV.2.61; XXIV.3.90; Menge, HI. XXV.2.44 XXIV.4.114 Metaparastes Mlontet, P. XXI.4.99 Moschus, John XXI.3.58ff iMowinckel, S. XXII.4.104 E.T. XXV.3.90 Newcll,

XXIV.4.103

Noth, M. XXII.4.101; XXIII.3.95ff; XXV.3.81

R. T. XXI.3.52ff O'Callaghan, Olhnstead, A.T. XXIII.2.36

Origen XXI.3.58ff; XXIV.2.53 Papias XXIV.1.3f Pedersen, J. XXII.4.104 Perrot, J. XXII.4.84

Petrie, W.M.F. XXII.3.56ff; XXIII.1.4

Pliny XXIII.3.72ff Plutarch XXIII.3.83 B. XXIV.2.59ff Rothenberg, Saggs, H.W.F. XXIII.2.49 L. XXV.4.120 Schwarz, Segall, B. XXIII.3.89 XXII.2.28ff A. Segre, Sellin, L. XXIII.4.107ff Shalit, A. XXV.4.120 Shifton, S.L. XXV.2.43 Sminith, M. XXIV.1.6 H. XXIII.4.103 Steckeweh,

Strabo XXII.2.42; XXIII.3.73ff

Teicher,

J.L. XXI.4.88

Theodosius XXI.3.54ff; XXIV.4.114 Theophrastus

XXIII.3.84

Thiele, E.R. XXIII.2.35ff Thomson, XW.H.XXV.2.42 Tufnell, O. XXII.3.59; XXIV.3.85 XXIV.1.9 Valentinius Van Zyl, A.H. XXIV.3.66 XXIV.2.62ff Vincent L.-H. XXII.3.54f; Welter, G. XXIII.4.111 XXV.2.34f M. Wheeler, XXIII.2.63f; Wright, G.E. XXII.26; XXIII.1.11;

XXIII.3.100

Yadin, Y. XXI.4.103f; Yeivin, I. XXIV.4.111

XXII.2.26;

XXV.2.35

1962, 4)

THE BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST

131

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