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HOUSING SYSTE~lS FOR THE
lRANlAN DESERT AREA
Hassan Moayeri M. (Arch. )
A theale submitted to the Faculty of Crn~unte Studies and R~search of MeCill University, J.lontré{ll i'Jl pat"Ual t'ulfillment of the requirements for the degree of ~9ter of-Architecture. -,
August, 1915.
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ABSTRAeT:
,
Traditionsl hotlsinr, solutions às well as contemporâry hoUSitg probleme of the Iranien Desert vil18Rers ia 'the
main topie of th18 thesis.
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Asfthe cost of housin?, constitutes a
tl~
.. significant
- "1
pa~t ln
eéonomy of the v111ager,' this cost must"he evaluated
sodall)' ~ "é.Cqpom~csl1y as well
8S
îutstheticslly'.
The conventionsl ways of deal1ng ~ith the hous1ng problem J
x:e8~ond
do not adequ4te1y
to the needs of ,the people in
the desert. New metbods sre deàerlbed wlth the objective , of :f.mprovinfj shelter and raising the standard' of living
]
amang v111àgera.
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~VAN'l'-PROPOS'~
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~e sujet principal de cette th~se 'concerne l'habitation traditionel a1ns~ que les PTobllmes eontempora1ns de l
'habi~ on des Vll1age~iS du Dése~t Iranien.
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Pui8qu~ le coGt de l'habitation ~onstltue une gr~nde
l'ar~le de-i,l écoQ6mie
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du ''VUlageois, ce coût doit. être
4v~luer ert termes Isociologique, ~conomique ainsf que
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Lès m4thodes cOI\Vent1onnelles employhs -pour tésoud;.:e·
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le prohUme d 'habltatl'ort ne répondent pas adéquatement 1
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- . . aux,,~beso1n8 d1,1 p~uple du d~sért.
On décrit ici de
nouvelles ~éthode.' en vue -eJ'amêliorer les mals.ons et '
....;....ter le .• .
t~.rd d. ~1e
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III ACKNOWLEDpEMENT rhé pr~plltation of 'a report of th!. nature eould not have,' \)e~n compl~ted without the good ut11,
in~erest
and eo .. operation of .. nu~ber of people. \
1 w1sh to express my gratitude to my thesi~ superv1sor, Prof. NOrbert
""
Schoenauer 1 Who maintained a friendly lnterest in the rep
beglnning to end.
have generated many new ideas and enabled me to " complete
Ume.
1; am also grateful to Prof.- Philip
C.
'l,
can~ents
~his
report,oQ
Salzman, Departmeht of
Anthropology, MeGnl University an'd Prof. Brian Spooner of the Uni ver.;st ty ,
,
Museu~,
u
Pennsylvania University for their interest and guidance in the
preparation of the firSt part of thls report.
To Prof. Hassan Fathy,
Department of Architecture, College. Qf Fine Arts, Cairo, who helped ,
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me discover new ways of 1001<:1ng at peasant problems. Rybcz~.ki
. Ortega and Prof. Witold ,~To
To Prof. Alvaro,
"
who gave më valuable information •
ttt'J partner in Tehran, Farhad Roofeh, tO"Ali
.
Djaber~,
.
and Jost!Pl).,
"f r~ '
Melamed who provided me with many' detaUs about locsl conditions and; , , otber vital 1nfol;'l\1stiQn. , . '
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To my vife,
Pari~
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who made a speei81 trip to
Iran and brought back up-ta-date documenta. ' 'ra, Maureert Anderson' ,~or her ntorai.
and
s~pport.
~h1rley
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allO. gratefu,l ta Andr4 McLaughlin ~1( c~rrecJ,:~~'
Hal1am who typed and ,corrected th:1. report. , c
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to 'thantc Dr. Mohammad Ramin ~O1': his financ:ial aBd8t~nh8 ,;
,'durf.ng 'my 8tudles and Cliff, Woodward,,: ~
let tera , and'poems gavè ~e hope.
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Ylnally~
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front Manchester ~ •• ~.
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special delt of gratitude to all humble fesert pessants and
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,n0m4,de-, among whom l lived. and enjoyed .... their "shah-navad" (traditional
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hospitality).
In particular, l wish ta thank Aligholi Mi~~ee, and
KhanaH Kllhali, 1 love them,,. respect them, and wish aH of them ,
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hap,py, long life. /
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Hassan. Moayeri, 'August 1975, Montréal.
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" V , CONTENTS
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IN'l'RODUCT'ION •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~ ••••••••••••-• • • • • • • • •
Part One:
1
ENV,IRONMENTAL BACKGROUND
Geographieal Charaeteristics •••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3
CUmatologi oltl Charaeteristics: •••••••••••••••••••••••• 1. weather •••••••••••••••••••• , , ••••••••••• 2. wa ter ••••••••••••••• __ ....................... . 3. ~ vind ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
S 5 7
, '
...
9
/
Historiesl Characteristics ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 14
Agriculturel and Pastoral Economy •••••••••••••••••••••• 22
. '
Int,er-reln~iontlhip bet~leen Social, Economies1 '..a.nd ~ulturDl
forces ............. '•• :j' •••••••..•..•••••••••.•• 26 1. ~'o8tnic foctors •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2.7 2 •. Hum,,'n ,(1~tors: species% .. ethnic groups and tribes •••••• 21 3., Culturel fnètors: in~elligence:
eOl'll1lUnication ......... 'j, • • • • • • • • 29
wèlfare:
-
\0:
control: d
educ.tion •• ,', ................. . 29
health •••••••••••••••••••••••• 31 • • ttltation .................... . 32 ~
population •••••••••••••\, •••••• ,33 o~aants.tlon •••••••••••••••••• 35
•
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admtnistJ'atton •••••••••• '.' ~ •• 3"8
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-protection •••••••••••••••••••• 38 !inaftce ••••••••••••••••••••••• 38 fI'Oduction: cultiv.tion ••••••••••••••••••• 39 trànsportation •••••• ~ •••• ~. '••• 42
ors_mut ion':
family uni ta ••••• '.' ••••••••••• 1.2 ' i'llcome groups ................ . 45 oeeupstion and se~ice grOUP~. 46 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • '. Il • • • • • • •
48
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IXISTING COMMUNITY AND INDIVIDUAL S~
Outlines of Village Formation ••••••••••••••• ~ •••••••••• 52 factors Influencing Village Formation •••••••••• '•••••• '. '.
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VI Walled vlllag.......... ~ ••• i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Semi-walled viltage ••••••••••••••••••••••••• ...l-underground villag••••••• ! ••••••••••••• ,
'1
Y111ag•• ,and Thelv- rouction ........... '.' • ". , • ,
61 62
1
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, Maydén (village centre) ••••••••••••••••••••• Mahall~ (quarter) & Charsough (cro8sroad) ••• Haahti (neighbourhood centre) ••••••••••• , •••
J
Individuel Fam11y 'Shell •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Community Fac1lities complementing housing ••••••••••••• Ma.djed (Hoaque) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Hammam (public bath) •••••••,••••••••••••••••• Cbaikhane (tee house) ••••••••••••••••••••••• Ilefer enC8S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63 65 66 17 78 80
82
• t
83
Part Thr•• :'rRADITIONAL SOLUTIONS FOR WATER SUPPLY AND CLlMAnC PROBLEl1S .- Vater Supp1y Methods: ttQanat" syltem •••••••••• -••••••••••••••••••••
"qanat rl construction .................. .
as
Ci.tern ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Yakh-chal (ice-mak1ng ~nd storage) ••••••••••
91 93
Solution. for CU.matie Problema: ••• "•• '.', ~,' o... ~,.; ••' •••••• 2.
lhad1ng: •••••• ., ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
94 94 96
3.
v.ntilation ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• wind-catch.r ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
101
1.
.
84
lité
p~ann1ng •••••••••••••••••••••••••••
97
4. thermal_eapac1ty •••••••••', •••• , ......... . 105 5. réfl.ct1vit' •••• , ••••••••••••••••••• ~; •• <-l05 . aefer.nc •••••••••••••••••.•••••. ,l, ••••••••••• 108 ...
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'art Four: BA'l'IVI BVlLDING HA.TEltIALS AND HBTHoDS
.
• ative Building Materiala:
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, lhak (lol1) •••••••••••••••••• ~ ••••••,.•••••••• 109 « Iahg.l (plaster of mud 6c' straw) •••••••••••• , . 109 lheaht(mud briek) •••••••• ~ •••••••••••••••••• 110 AJor (burnt brick) •••••••• ~ ••• ~ ............ .. 111 Ahak (Ume) & Gach' (gypaum) o••,'\• • • '•• ' " • • • • • • • 114 , Sang (9tone) •••••••••••••••••••••••• ~ ••••••• Choub (wood) & Nef. (bsmboo) •••••••••• : ••••••
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"tive Building TechnoloS)' •••••••••••••••• "i • • • • • • • • • • • • • Pai (foundation) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Dlvar (~all) ••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••.•• Saghf (roof) •••••••••••••••••••••• , ••••••••• Finishing •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••~. ()y)enf. np,s •• ., ...............................
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•••••
118 118 119 121 1-32
134- ,
aeferencea" ....... '" ••.•••• ,. .................... . 13.5
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VII pârt "Pive: 1 DESERT, AN ~&ù~UAKB REGION
a1rthquake. and their Bftect' on Buildings •••••• ~. " ••• 136 Foundat1.ons •• ',' ••••••••••••••••• ,.. •••••••••• 1~2
Wa111 .... • ••• "' .............'••••••••••••••••••• 1/,2 Ioof., ....................................... Iil7
Vatel' supply .ystem ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 148 SUftIlIIry .. • • • • • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 149 De.ign Solut1onsfor Reduètion of Earthquake Damage ••••• 151, P'oundat ioua ... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 153 Walls ••• • ••••• • • •••• : ••••••••••••••••••••••• 154 Roof •••• • ••••••• • •• '" ..... '," .............. " 1S6 General requ:f.rements .......................... 157 leferencl\!8 •• • ••• • • • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 162
Part Sb:
PROPOSE]) SOLUTION
The IMs i gt\er • s Raspon. i bi1! ty ............ ~ • • • • • • .. • • • • •• 164 The ,Social Syiltent •••••••••••••••••••••••• : ••••••••••••• '~ 71 Propo.ed Prototype .Pessant JIou,~""",,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1 7 6
A Gommun1.ey· »estan•••••••••• _•••••••••••••••••••• ~ ••••• 205
1. spontaneou. C0Jmn2nlty ••••••• •••••••••••• 205 2. pre-planned COIlInunlty ••••••••••••••••••• 208 C..e Study of a Plan .fOf. a Village CODIIIUnit:y ••••••••••• 212 ~leferenee •••••••••••••••••• ~ •••••••• ~ ••••••••• 230 "'fart-.......U:<=O!eCtUJION. • • • • '. • • • • • • • • • ............................ ~ .... 231 Bihliograpby •••••••••••••• ~ •••••••••.'.1 •••••••••••••••• 232
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.. The problem of man can be kept
.~e1t.r h~
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8imUar in urg.ncy a. food provillon.
~ve with •
It.
loaf o,f bread or a cup of dried milk but
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he dies an early death or live. a stunted life due to unsanltary, unfi
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.afe and \lgly bousing. 'Thia' pro~_ has .tarted attracting the attentign of govemment •• So far,
~uthoritie.
have
bee~
trying to keep out of the rlin and cold ~esult
at a co.t they can afford.
The
cella
Furtbermore, the conventional method of
aIl over the world.
ha. been milfion. of conèrata
.olving the hou.ing problem doe. not .eem to have bad any effect.
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i. 8specially true in a .ociety
w~ere
culture identify a person.
tra~itions
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economy, locial organization and are in fact hi. on1y •• fa-
gùard of .urvival. This ,thesis attempt. to restore the balanee in a mOdele vay by taklng a
.
.ubje~t
whicb
i~
intimtte1y related to the ne.ds of the poor,'
primitive and arueh bara.sed" people ,who have .trong, tradition.
For the ••
people, thinga whicb cannot he had by th. fruit of the~r own labour or from that of thelr Immediate neighbour, 'rherefor., in terme of houaing, not only
i~
c~nnot
he obtained at ail.'
.tructural ateel ... an item .
u.uaUy imported with hard currency· an imposaible luxury, but even urban induatry producta from other
re~ions
of the country' su ch as
CeMent, timber, 8lass are uneconomical or impractic.ble. e
The coat of hou.t'ns muet, of course, be looked et in ternua\ of econOmica \
but it should a180 consider the social and aesthetically point, of
vj..eif~~·'
Por theee reasons, we propo.se "self hclp" in rural rehabilltat1.on. A, partnersh1.p of the peasent's labour and technical advice plus the
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pe88ant' 8 own cr!!8t1v1ty 1n ue1ng'jtbe one mater!al on band, the ...rth under his feet, can sccomplish a ereat de.l.
The architect can mske a major contribution in helping the pessant solve the technical problems of housing, using appropria te, inexpenl1ve, and aesthetic maens, while preserving the existence of traditional crafu.
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The vast section of central and eaatetn Iran, is known as the Iranian
•
Desert Area (Iranian plateau n8med Kavir).
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GEOGRAPHlCAL CHARACTERISTICS
This cove~proximately 2
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one third of Iran's total aréa of land or about 365,000 km.
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Because of the different topography and geology, Lt has been divided
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into tbree sections:
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(see map of Iran Fig.1tl,)
Dash-é-kavir (Great Salt Desert) which is located on the northern section of the desert snd ia bordered by the following:
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to the Qorth it exteods along the Alborz Mountains, with the
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city of Tèhran to the northwest and the town of Neishabour to
the
north-east. to the esst, it i8 bordered by the road of Mash-had/Zahédan, and to the southeast the road to Mash-had/Gonabad. to the south is the zig-zag road from Gonabad to the southwest.
Y8~d
situated in
Thia rpad acts as a division between the northern
section and the Dssh-é-lut (the central section of thé desert). to the west ,la the road from Tehran to Kérman by way of the city of Yazd. 2. p-
Dasht-é-lut (Great Sand Desert) ia located in the central section. ltta boundaries are: to the north, the road from Gonabad ta Yazd. ta the East 18 the continuation of the Mash-had/Zâhédan road, from Gonab8d ta Zahédan. '" to the south by the Baret Mountains.
to the west by the ci ty of tcermân in the south and Yud i~ the north.
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....
3.
Kav1r-e-Jszmurlsn la located in the lower part of the desert. ttls buonderies are:
- to the north, from Sirjan ta Zahedan. - to the esst, by the border of Iran/Pakistan. - to the south, by the Sea of Oman. to the west, the road of Bandar-abas ta S1rjan.
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5 CL'IHATOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ~
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of the country i8 mountainou8, the two range. being thè Alborz in
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the north and the Zagros along the we.tern and south-western border •• These two chains, which meet ln the north-west, serve the central plateau, a relatlvely arid
r~gion
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from over 1,800 meters~o under 600 meters. fail ls
re16tivel~
a8
buttresses for
which varies in altitude
On this plateau, the rain-
sparse, and in the lower-lying regions the soil 1.
very saline, making
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ln the fev oasis such as
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and therefore life, impossible, except
"Of Taba. and the periphery of thç plateau.
The climate of the central plateau is hot and dry. in 8ummer and co Id and d~
in winter, but there are variations in degree oving to differencee
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/ in dt1tude as mentioned earUer. (3) In the early spring, the loothills of the Alborz have a speci.l be.uty of thair ovn, when they are thickly carpeted with wild tulip. and ma.s •• of other flowers.
However, the sun gathers strength so rapldly that
it scorches and kills these blooms, leavlng only a barren waste. 1.
Weather:
While dl,cu88ing the weather lt 18 necess8ry to con.1der the important factors which affect the tamperature, pressure and humidity of the are., and also their effeet on the structure of
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earth. The mo •.f: important factors influenclng weathe!' are. the wind, the ,'.un's poslt1on(fig.' j) il" "
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re.lation to the earth,' the time of day and the season, and the qu.lity and shape of the surface. byer.
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s
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SfJO' " ., flv/IQM
.
, ~'YQnCd1 ~1I4/)DW
/2 "PM /lNqŒ ~
Df Iftt :srm ~ I~ ,;ecft~ Ù ~/ ~MIIJ ~ • Il ;, /IIt!tI.1U~ .". Ik k;rQlCl' (0"1 tp$ :z,nilh (9~/. It 'j/l(X)/d he IIe/Jd ilia! Ille tflM:' flf!rf/q/ :shadO/4,) .'!9/e . ,; t!F~1 -0 ",?e ~el.r .lIilult: ~Â6p ~t _~ l"fP vc ~l<.u"",. -40 AS, .~ J,'4~.
. .. The ."9k
"
, , -
. '!,r~,ot;:'...
,
(,
_'l"
. 'e:i;~
,_
"'b:i'-\"'~""""""""'- .... """'-~_ ~!\t"'.T,,+~',,",-,,-'~"_-',$I~tl:~'~"_'-' .:......;.:.,~"..L
D,
..
4. 7
,
In the western section of the desert, because of the mountains, there are always unexpected changes in tempèrature and directions of the wind.
The
following illustrates how the qua lit y of the surface in fiat aress in the central desert plays an important ~
role in determining the weather. The surface of
~he
earth in this area ls a mixture
of salt and fine sand.
lt absor,bs hest from the
lun during the day and emits it during the night. This absorption and emission of heat in turn leads
.
to the blowing of the' wind during the" night in the opposite direction to that of daytime winds. Todar, there are paraUel ranges ~",,~ild d. .nle-,; ,SO km wide by 200 km in length, located to the west of Shahdad,
,from Kisht to the Suor river, whieh are ereated by ~
the wind named "Tu rki s tan" • <+-) In the deSert area there are two main seasons: summer and winter.
Generally
the weather in this,ares ls
hot and dry during the summer durlilg the
winter~,4)11owever,
and eold and dry It should be noted that
•
there 18 always a dramatle fall in temperàture durlng the n:f.ght. 2. 'Wat.t'I
,;1
,, '
V.ter 1. considared a very ea.enttal and important ,
part
of~everyday
Ufe aa 1t 18 net re.dUy available.
It'il available to a
certa:f.~
degree'for .anitatien,
dtink.\~,a.o 'fr''Sat~ •H ~'d be' oo\-eo' n~te \na-\ : . , - , '
\n"'t.e ~ 't:.omml7f\\ties' ~~~t. à4-e" no di&t\f)e~1Ô1'l 'ol!.t""ee.n
\~risat\on &u~ ôt"\~\t\tj ""m ___ ,
, ,
, ,
•.
,
a~ .lch~J a.\.\ ~~éd
8
A. fig. -5 shows, the amount of rainfall fR this area 1& minimal (lOO-150\lC\m per year).
reUable sources of water
88
Streams 8re not
thèy are formed on.1y
during the rainy season and only in certain areas. Purthermore, these
strea~s
run only
8
short time
because of the high water-absorptibn of the soil. However, the underground sources of water are
,
plentiful in these areas for the fOllowing reJlsons: ~)
the absorbing nature of the Boil, b) the rocky
layera of the underground envelope and, c) the low land. One of the ways to cope wi th this problem is to
colle et
ana' ~ra . rBin ~er :\Yl
ci~~n~
,and
a TI dt~e.fi. ".œt~.i'\W~·· 6~\-ef.\n .1er J,)~~r.Qb~.'W. .Y ~'n\(.n will be di8cusseo in Part Three. .
sooe /450 1,00 35° 30°
25° 20° 15° 10°
~
...
• ~5°,..
~ •.'
L
~~ ".
"
•• .. ,.......
1'\
30mln.
~ ~
-'.
0° "
.
-~ ~
~
iJ .~-
25 .20 . 15 10 5 . Omm.
.
... ~
~~
"1\
\
/ ~
r-
~~
"
1.;'''' :-""
0:
III Cù
....llJ.....
~
0:
~ ::c .....
~ 0 1.\1 lIJ ::> ~ W .... u: t!.) v .... ~ a. t~ 1IJ ct O:! w 0.. ~.~ ::> ~/ ~ (J) o·z 0 ~
.... .... ~
(,)
..,
i'Q
l·J !JJ ('l f;.!~ .4
.., fî!
....... ~ \ }1i"imvm
.
...
,
9
tif tbe desert, one Hnda variou8 types of wlnds.
3. Wind:
,
Bach winc1 has Hs o.wn peculiarities depending on the region and direction in which it blows. Some ~f the winùs are very harmful for being hot
"
and travelling nt high speecls carryinB particles of sand and
salt~
they cause destruction. Measures
have been introcJlIced to avold the C:estruction, and use them for bcneficia l purposes. these will be discussecl in Part Three. Direction. and Particularities of the Wlnds: a)
Summer Winds:
1.
Winds of the Saud! Arabisn Desert:
Theae
·c
v1nds, which blow from south to north durlng the summer, bring slong with them large amounts of
heat energy, sand and sslt. and destrqy the crops.
They block the roada
Théy have
al80
been known
ta cover entire villages and many farma.
As a
result, very few villages are found in the' of these
w~nd8
pa th
and those that still exist are
rapidly vanishing.
Another major harmful effect
ia that the.e winds
ca~y gras8hop~er8
.nUre crops.
which destroy
The dam4ges are irrepairable(,).The
only natural reBouree which la preventing the complete disappearance pf the villages 18 a wild
*
plant whlch grow8 ,in the desert.
1
~
This plant i.
helpful beeause It reduce. the .peed of tbe wlnda ,
~
and tbe amount of .alt and sand being carrled '1
J
b~
tbem.
-
•
10
Unfortunately, the.e plantl are alowly being de.troyed by
011,
by
herd~
of camel and, most important of
man who uses them for
indus trial
purposes. (fig.6)
•
Gulf of Bengal Wiud: This wlnd b1'ows during ;
2.
the summer from east to west.
lt 1. aemi-hot and
humide (see fig.5) Scandinavian Wind:
3.
These winds whlch b10w
during the summer from the-northwest are dry and
cool. (see fig. 6) 4.
Mediterraneen and Bhek Sea Winds:
blow from the nort;hweat. ( •••
s.
Theae winds
They are hot and humid.(6)
,
fig.~)
Borthe.st or TurkiatanJ Wind:
(Bad-' Sada Biat Rooz)
This wind unabated blows for 120 days from tlié Qizll-qum .teppes of Turkistan aU the <,vay from Ma.h-bad and Herat to w•• ~ern lndia.
lt la known
a. one of th. fastest wlnds in th. desert and i. dry and carri.. a10ng gr.at amounts of sand.
It la.ts
frOID th. end. of June to th. end of September\?).lt ie
a
~.t
harmful vlnd which creat.s aaDd-storma in the
cIe.art and . v•••andy hU-li. (le. fig. 7-). ..
"
IJ
~ ~
~
/
~
\
J
"i
/
~
r~
\' f / l
\ t\ /
" ~.D
~
, 1'-:.
"-...
""--« / '
Direction of sUnimer winds
- ....»..,~ '" Viad. of the Saud! Arabiall ne.ért.
» •
'
..
Culf of BalISai'. Wirad••
)
Scand11Ulvbra Winet..
'
..
" ,"
. , ......
....
~ .. - . _ "
... -
--
. " .. ,. .....,.., .....
v
__ "' _ _ . . . . . .
.... ...
-.
~~
~
.. """,...
__ _
..
-
12
~
J
, ~,
~I
l ;
--->
~
-t<,
1i~
.,
J
D~tion
~.T
' r winds
/
W1nd. ...
,
t
,
,
O;/the ~diterranean aQd ~. /
Nor
'/ ,
est or Tu;k1atan Wlnds~ , ,
~he Black S.a. A _
'! ~«
W
r
0
t ~
~
t
13
b)
Winter Winda:
•
e
1.
Iranian Desert Wind: The.e winds come frolll the
louth and blow towarda the north. changea the
t, r.
temperatu~e
Therefol'e, it
and pressure. in
Dorthe~
Turkiatan. (see fig. 8)
~
i
2.
;.
1 •
Mediterranean and Scand:f.navlan W:f.nds: Theae
vinda which a1so blow durirtg the apring, usually
~
cote from the northwest which make, tbem cold and >
humide
These winds are responslb1e for the ralnfall
in the desett. (see fig.S)
,.... "-
- )........... )/
"\
/'~/
\.
'-\, <, l \.
\.,
,
.'
\1';~ ~
\
'i,
) ~
\ ()
"\il
i"
,.
.
-<
... '
,"
) ~
~l
~.,
"
, .:;;
".
l' '00
>;'
'>' ~
e • !
16. ..........-.)
'.
1
..
onction
of winter winds' .
."
,,/'
.
.-;}, }.'
f
Q
Iralda.- Duert, V1D4a •
.
Med1t.n'aa••a au. ac.Ddlud•• Vi• •
~
1
l
i
"
14
HISTORICAL cMRACTERISTICS
"The first Inda-Iranian, or Aryan, groups (a branch of Indo-European emigrants). who, coming from Europe towards south-east Asia, penetrated east of Iran and vere
forc:~d
.
to pus through a passage between two
native tt·ibes of Jhe Iranian Desert (Kavir). - t
These tribes
,~ere
the
Gorgan on the north and the S,agaha on the south-east." (8) "This took place in three wsves: the seond
follm~ed
50 B,p. 1I (9)
the Uret bet'ween 2000 and 1600 B.e.,
some 600 years later and the third between 100 to
Theae Aryans who began to live in this area on hunting
and gathering were the Parthiana on the north·eaat and the Peraiana on the southwest, t'wo of the thtèe major Aryan tribes. •
,
1
According to R.L. €arneriO~Q)) and the Iran~aQ' Desert geographical characteristics, it becomes clear tnat people who lived neal' fish-laden rivera ,
fi
and lakes (north, south and east) were the flrst groupa to become acqusinted with cultivatlon, and the l'est of the people rémained nomade. Rowever, sinle seven ta eight thousand years when the Neolithic aettlers began to grow crops and raise sheep" goats, and
ca~le
on
the~
Plateau" Peraia has been prima1."ily ah agricultural country. (11:) ;'t
But how did agr:f.è:ulture come to lUe in the aresa where fish1ng dld ~
ftot exist?
1.
,
This was due to the- following reasons:
,ï:
.-
The need of the nomadie èociety for agriculturel product.1orêed
_OI1le pebple to cultivate.
2.
For pol1tical reuons
the
~overnment.
preferred to
ma~e g~~upe
of
'f
J \Il'
~
Ilomada iuto farmera.
, !(
e-
'. 1.
If
Il
.Ii
15
The question of how states came to existence ia worth discussing. Here the historicsl sides of their existence Is explained. " For the fix:st two million years of hia existence, man lived in bands "
i
or villages which, as far as we can tell, were completely autonomous.
"
PNot until perhaps 5000 B.e. did villages begin to aggregate into lerger political units.
1
But, once this process of aggregation began,
lt continued st a progressively faster pace and led, around 4000 B.e., to the formation of the firat state in history.
(When l speak of a
state l mesn an aut6nomOU8 political unit, encompassing many communitiea
,
within its territory and having a centralized government with the power
t
Although it was by aIl odds the Most far reaching political development
,
to collect taxes, draft
~en
for work or wsr, and decree and enforce laws.)
"
•f
ln human history, the origin of the state is still very imperfectly understood.
lndeed, not one of the current theories of the rise
atate i8 entirely satisfactory. faU.
of
the
At one point or another, aIl of them
There ia one theory, though, which l
bel1ey~
.
does prov1de a'
convlndng explanation of how states began." (a) "
.,
liA close examination of hiftoty i'ndlcatês that only a coercive theory
can account for the rise of the state.
",
Force, and ndt enlightened
self-lnterest, ls the mechanlsm by whlch polltical evolutidn ~s led, step by step, from autonomous villages to the state. The vieu that war Iles at the root of the state la by no means new. Twenty-five hundred years ago, Heracl1tus wrote that·~ar ls the father ç
/
of a11 th:l.ng".
"
The tirst careful study ôf the role o'f warfare in the
tise of the sute." (13) ;:
...
1 1
.
Il
,
16
There are many theories in this respect, for example the "Natural1ty of the States" or the theory that "It WaB created by Historicsl Accidents". According to R.L. Carneiro (14) anG Herbert
~pencc;: (15), \-Jar
pl<Jyecl a decisive
role in the rise of the state and, according to Iranian history and archaeological Hnds, there i8 evidence of war.
Tb~
theory is most
acceptable for desert society. Ferdowsi, the Iranian historian, in his book "Shshnameh" which i8 an ancient Iranian history, has written that the creation of the first state in Iran
,f
t,, ,
b~gan
at the same time as the beginning of the long wars between
the inhabitants of the eastern desert snd the Touran* people. ly the existence of the first centralized government in the
Apparent-
d~sert
area began in about 2000 B.C. There are no documents about 1ife-duration and historie events unti1 the Islamic period, exeept for Alexander the Greatls invasion of Iran and India, in 330 B.C. which passed through the 80uthern parts of the desert.
A few years ago, a German' group of 80ciologists eal1\e
amali group of
farmer~
in the north-east Baluchistan.
~~~o~
a
'\,
They believe that
the ancestors of these farmers were the Greelc soldiers of Alexander who 8tayed in
t~is
the past, served
area. a8
8
The Iranian desert bas, on many occasions in
bridge between the steppes of Central Asia
on the one hand, and Anatolia and Europe, on
t~e
other.
also caused many invasions of Iran by different nations,
This situation
.
The trafflc
8topped the growth of the city population and developed individuality
*T~n:
name of the people who lived Tui'kiatan.
1n"~he north-eaat of Iran and
{
17
and nomadlc life ao that IIOV8daJ78, tribal aud
~clic
orgauizatloa iD
Iran la one of the IDOst c:omplez.
. The growth of Islam and tht! Arab invasion in tht! t!ight centory, via
the Peraian Gulf and aouthern desert had no cultural influence in thi. rei3\ol} ~
siace the apread of the Ialamic religion aud lta acceptaoc:e.
reached tnta ares only in the 12-14th centurit!S, at the time of the Mongol invasion.
Tht!
intt!rest:i~
point: is tbat, in some parts of the
desert, people bave kept tht!ir local relig!oua customs
tg
thia day.
It is alao possible ta find large groups of Zoro&strtana in the south-
west of the desert, Yazd and Kerman regi.ons.
Zoroastrlanism is one of
the oldest religlons of Iran, dat1ng back t~ 2000 B.C. this faith are the
()t""3\.na~
Iranians.
They bave strong falth in their
religion and bave avoided racial interchange. Zoroastrians
emigrate~
Many groups of
ta India fram the 10th ta the 17th ct!nturies.
Aftet' \he i~dÜchon of :6\3"".I:I.~ invasion wsa
Believers of
<:;cne''='' Khan
w.lS i""acid tw~c: 1hrnCS~ -'l'ne de.se.~t-_ 'ne f\f5t-
in 1220 A.D. and, the second onè, was that
p
of Tamerlane, in USO A.D. in~bitants
The partisan fightiug between the deaert
and the !fongols contiDaed for 400 years.
.
-
'
..
The 16th century was the period of Iran and ~D.+roman t.m~tt. wa.f'5. Al though thase _ra bad
DO
direct influence over the desert area, they
cau.ed many 1üJrd f:lghters ta he drtftll iuto the deSert. Al though there are
DO
the kurdtsh language
historiesl dàc:aments for thie, the growtb of Ûl
the IlOrth of -Baluchistan in the ISth" eentary
indieates that the Kurds were" driVén into thi. area. Duringthe 18th
c~ntury t~ stmale by' the AfgbaDB ta dom1Uh _tbis aréa lead tG half a aentary of wars.- These and prerioua titara caaaed hte creation
of large DOIII8dic orgauizattoas.
'J
,
1 J
(/2~9 -1'11'1) in :J(1t1/Jwe6Iw-Q A~;" .. I/IIr}J~1I !Jfrlel? ~d :JCIJ~h" E~ . 6,>/.;.,/, ~/,,,,liAf)pI~ . AJ~ a/Id 7VrJ/~1t Iilpre.
''The 011011811 .Empire
,---
, 1 i
---
\
"
and downs cBused the creation of large nomadic organizations. wrote Marc Bloch in'Feudal
"The nomad, in fact, is a 'soldier born'
Society' (University of Chicago Press, 1960).
Because pastoralists
are mobile they have sometimes been able to exert an influence on history that has been disproportionate to the1r numbers or military strength. One of the greatest monuments in testimony to this is the Great Wall of China.
Not on1y have pastoralists terrorized sett1ed people for the
past several thousand years, they are fond of warring upon and plundering each other.
They have primarily sought movable goods, especially
livestock; bravery in warfare has almost a1ways been a main source of prestige among them.
They are sdaptively Inde pendent of lines of
8upply and home bases, whereas log1stic problems have always plagued sedentary conquerors.
Psstoralists have.been able to wage war wherever
their herds could graze, and the!r ease in segmenting has generally reduced their vulnerability to
att~ck.
Às
thos~who
,.-J
tr1ed to destroy
pastorialists have learned quickly-on the North American ,
Pla1ns~
ln
,
Eaat and Northwest Africa, Central Asia, and the far north of the
U.S.S.R.- 8uch people are difficult to defeat.
Pastoralists are able
to split up and still retain effective leadership, but Westernized armiea often are unable to function when their
ta destroyed."
centralize~
authority
(16)
Though the growth of internal and feudal powers can be advantageous to the
econo~J
especially vith regard to food
producti~n
and ·animal
busbandry, it can a180 be harmful for the pol1tical structure. -2001ea~8
of treat!es and -
. exchanges between the nomade '.
The
of southern
Iran and the forelgn countries oUe,re ample proof of this.
For example,
the Baluchistan vars, beglnning in the early 19th century to end during ?'
,
.,,1-
, the Second World War, vere the direct reault of political tr.atiel vith the British in order to undermine the central goveramentl. a re.ult of the.e war., parts of Baluchistan
~re
A.-
annexed ta vhat i l toclay
Pakiatan.
~or
more than 40 yeare, the problem of nomadic tribes has been one of
great importance to the govemment and a subject of daily concerna With the change in the country's polltical situation by the creation of an independent govemment with a united army, the central government decided on the centralizatlon of aIl nomadic tribes. The government defeated aIl the tribal partisans. This policy was contrary ta the previous tribal system since, before this, the tribeâ had complete autority in their own region. According to previous agreements the . chiefs of the tribes provided soldiers for the country and patd taxa. to the central governments. Naturally when the new govemment decided t.destroy-the tribal organizations, the tribes 8tarted to fighting with the govemment
a~d force~
and large number. of brave nomade
were killed. After these fighta, the armed forces were instalied in tribal regions and offteera, who had no
und~r8tanding
nor'knowledge
of handling the tribal p,ople, placed in commando
Tbeae 'offieera, without s'tudylng the nomadle way. of lUe, began ta .top the1r 18ariy travel
fram
aummer grazins areas to.winter grazing area.
and vice-ver'a, and forc*d them 'to Uve in one piace. The govemmetlt tried to
cent~altze
tbe trib•• aad to ..ke the. obey the central.govem-
.'
19
J
20
liA briet look st the Iranian)organ1zation in the Isst/40 years indieates
how much we lacked the specislized sociplogists in this respect so that, at the beginning of the Second World War (1940), many nomads started tribal life again (living in tents and travelling year-round), and entered the internaI politlcal life through the polltical events o,f the Ume, which resulted in bitter adventures.
For example, in sorne
parts of the country, the nomads started destroying the houses and gardens which were meant to make them accept rural life. they went under the tents and began their annual journeys.
Once
~ore
What should
be mentioned here 1a that the government's lsst 40 years' policy has caused peor economy in the life of the inhabitants of the small towns in the path of the tribal yearly travels. and
~nimal
The exchange of agriculturaL
produ-cts between the pastoral and agricultural groups whieh
had always been their econom.ic foundatiO-n, has become very seant y resulUng in very poor diet for these people." (11) The government's lastœn years* policy, which has fortunate1y beeu
:j,,
1
8pp~oved .by ail the Iranian nation, has brought new hopes for the eco-
Itomie development of Iraniàn villages.
But unfortunate1y, nothing biI.·
been dona vi th respect to nomadic economy.
"'-
The history of toe Irânian desert can be aummarized under the fOl1owing beadtngs: 1.
The late appearance of town civilization and,
ized agriculture. (Aparb from the 8ituation of
2.
o r~
,
so~e
~~8uitabil1ty
88
a
~esult,
non-modern-
of the geographical
reSions).
The a~pearance 'of "fortU architecture (walled, ,cit:t~. and -villag••)".
,j
l
J.
The sppearance of
4.
Division of large and organized
soldier-~1fe
and indiv1duality Bnd partisanship. gr~ups
into small and unorganized
groups in the fIat regions.
54
Uniting of small groups and the growth of large and organized groups
in the mountalnous regions.
6.
The ruin of large and organized groups and
th~
graduaI death of
economic resources in the lsst 40 years.
7. The appearance of pessimistic feeling towards town life and ideas by the nomads.
f
f
~I
()
( "
"
,)
.
• '..
n~v
21
22 ;
AGRICULTURE AND PASTORAL ECONOMY
Firstly which groups are to be defined as being agriculturalists and which are pastorialistS?
Secondly what is their relationshlp?
-Becau.fta Df . . , lh!l'(,d~mt>s ô-\ a,s\\oGoH'ure -\:n~ 'G'3d'('LI\tura\I~t-s lire ~Y\-\:ar~ .ln Iran's statistical records, they always belong to the villages. Therefore, in this report, they are referred tO' a8 "vi llagers".
Al though
sorne villagers are familiar with animal husbandry, this only provides 15':. of their diet.(IB) "Pastoralisrn which i8 based exclusively on natural pasture demanda movement, because no natural pasture can supply a herd continuously. Pastoralists adapt nomadically to their environment where their adaptation requires movement beyond a certain range from a home base, or alternat1vely when there iB a greater .balance of edvnatap,e in max1mizing movibility than in investing in fixed setthments."
a11 of these groups are tribesmen.. \ha\ arc. 'oe\oY\3 \0 a 'band.
-:!Ioc"\o\
or.9afl\aat~on ha~e:d on COl'l1~O" \itH!~5e. AlI th~ou&h the nomadic regions of Iran, villages are found with inhabitants who are involved in farming and handicrafts. ~~
,
p'rmbn~t
The inhabi-
1
tants o( these villages, in sorne parts of the country, do
n~depend
on
pastor.list groups (tribes), but in other p~t8, the inhabitants of the village. are actual tribesmen plus some
non-tribes~en.
Thus, from the composition point of view and formation, the village. located in the tribal areas have kept the1r 1
dep~ndency
on the psstoral1st
•
groups (tribes) and they cannot be 8urveyed separatel)' fram one another.
.
.
23
The villages situatedein the nomad1c ~reas, in spite of their age-old fonnation and organization, are closely linked w!th the tribes (pa8t~ral nomada).
These villages are either aituated in the nomads' 8ummer
grazing areBa or winter grazing areaa.
As
a result, they are
f~quently
visited (twice a year) by the tribes (pastoral nomads). "In the Middle-East where generally nomads and peasants are close neighbors, there ia close economic inter-dependance between them. This takes several forma, Schurmann,
1962~
Nomad flocks may grsze on peasants' stubble (see
page 30 & Barth, 1961, page 4).
to shepherd the peasants' animaIs, relationships are formed.
Nomads msy contract
Individual trading and visiting
But the most basic and generalized relation-
ship between them lies in the need of each for the products of the other. Mo8t_typi~ally,
the nomad acquires grain and dates from the peasant,
and the peasant requires ghee
(~larified
butter) from the nomads.
In
short terms, it 1a eBsier for. the peasant to do without ghee than for the nomad to do without grain and dates.
A bad yesr affects the nomsds
more,sdversely than the pessants, because it will stop the growth of' the nomads pasture, but it will not necessarily stop .the flow
~f
the
peasant's irrigation water," (ZO) This relatlonship increases tremendously
.
wh~the
professional produc-
tions of these twQ eocieties exceed their consumption.
The villagers·
by getting more animale from the pastor.d nomade, profit by se11ing datry producta"wool and other animal products,.apart from the nutr!tional benefits.
On the other band,
pa8~oral
nomads who J through molt
of thê"year, eat.barley and dates, will be able to use wheat and other
o
8grieultural" productl.
24
"The tribe'l surplus of l1vescock"aMl liveltock goods 11 by no me.n. compl.tely expended in supporting the Khan (chief of the tribe.).
'\ -There i8 large-.cale.ale And trading in village. and town bazaars. Sheep and goats, clarified butter and cheese, bides and
ru~a
and wool
are, exchanged for cash, clothes, various type. of equipment and luxury items and agricultural and indus trial products." (21) "In southern Persia, where dates provide a further staple for the nomada, the date harvest, which reaches lts peak st the end of
th~
summer when
the pasture la at its vorst and the sheep and goats are moatly dry, provides an ideal time for interaction between nomad and du1tlvator. the Persian Baluch provide a good example of thia type of interaction, for in Southeastern Persia, relatively small nomadic areas are regulerly
intersp~rsed
with settled oasl. of date plam groves.
free-for the poor to gather.
Windfalls are
ln retura-for dates and grain the
peasants individually vislt the nomads' camp. in the
spri~g
to drink
mllk when it 1& plenttful, and to obt.in ghee." (2.2,) Thul it becomes clear how close their re1atiOllshlp
j!t
frorp ~ nutrition-
al point of vlew. According to the 1966 records, about 901 of the country"
animal pro-
. duction vas produced by the pastoral nOmad. and 'Olof the agriculturaI
produ~t8
pi.tlch1o~
vere produced by tb. villagerl. The desert ares, apart fram
81ffron, and spices which are
foun~
of the overall agriculture production in Iran. people'. own ulage of their ln the towns and eltles. a
.
...
~'Y
d." buy1ng an1mal
product8~there
only here, accounts for 301 Theref~re,
apart from the ••
II alao a need for these produets '-VI
As. r •• ult~ the merebanu and bu.lnellman hava all~
agrieultural product••. Tbe ••
_rch.Dt.~
.
i ;
~
1
through the village markets and wholesalers prov1de nomads and vill!gers ' alike with factory-made products. Thé point
made
18 that the more contact these people have with
people of towns and eities in regard
to the buying and selling of
merchandise, the more their income 18 pitilessly absorbed by the town economy of se1ling
useless, expensive, and gaudy products.
'The town eeonomy wlth its large and well-equipped organizations, handles the regionai markets and obliges the
villag~rs
8ell their products and handicrafts st eheap
pri~es,
and nomads to
while selling them
at high priees tools and equipment, previously made by the villagers and nomads.
In this manner, a large amount of their incarne 18 absorbed
"'
by the town economy." (23)
Aa a result, the town economy advetsely affects the village and nomadic
economy and steds away their capital and apt:,eads cxrœme poverty among tb~se
,groups.
;
lt is very important "for the govemment to stop this eeonomie system. ~
Fortunately, during the last, few yeara, the government hss started cQoperative 80cieties in agricultural areaa,
These soelettes, with the
atd of trustworthy village autborfties, gather the
ag~~eultural
products,
bring them to the markets and, in retufn, provide for the needs of these people.
. ,,'
, <
.
,,: .
)
" 'l'
,1
"
" '
..
• f ./
,'
25
INTER-RELATIONSHIP BE'l'WEEN' EiwIRONMENTAL, SOCIAL, BCONOMICAL, AND CULTURAL 26 FO ROE S
"Any environment can be analyzed as different factors.
à
complex entity comprising many
Not only is there the well-recognized physirial
spectrum embracing such cosmic factors
8S
l19ht and heat and sound and
all the natural formation factors represented by people themselves and by
what they make and do and beUeve.
As a means of coping with this multiplicity of environmental factors, the classification system set forth in Development Index (Holm and Larson, The University of Michigan Press, 1953) bas beeQ adopted, This system is based on three major groupings: 1.
Co smic
a11 the .forces and forms which exist independent "'Of man.
2.
Human
all the attribut.s that characterize
3.
Cultural - a11 the fielda .of activity and forma creacted by man.
man.
"
The various factors in each grouping interact on each other
\
Ion factor_ in the two otbe~ gro,uPlngs, in varyittg degree.
\ 1
8. weIl
8S
Some inter(
,
~ ,
" actions are more important tban others in the performance of various
1
(~..,)
, act1vlties. Il
,
,
\
,
...
?
1
\
\ 1
1 "
-,
e
.
0
•
t. {fi
"
,~
n' "
,J
, r",
,'f*I"o.~~f~+~~ .....,_"* _ _ _ _ ",,,_
"'0#
..
...... _._ _ _ _ ....._.-_ _ _ _ _
_~_~
~_
27 ~
To consider aIl the elements that comprise groupin~
Cultural
paper, however,
B
the~Cosmlc,
Human and
(25\ in depth 15 not w1thin the scope of this \
cursory examination of elements pertinent to the sub-
ject matter follows: 1.
Even though the cosmic factors are out of the
Cosmic Factors:
scape of this paper, the previous sectibns of the Geographieal and Climatologieal Characteristics ~
of the Iranian Desert Area have dealt with the cosUlic factors. 2.
Human Factors: Speciel Ethnie Groups & Tribes:
Approximately six and aUhalf
m~lllon
people live
in the desert area, out of which one and a half live in five major
udlli~n
c1t~e8,
while the rest
are spead over the total"area.
In general, the
population i8 . .de of six major
t~ibes
six differant ethnie backgrounds. \
. Trlbea ,
.~
1.... Parsi or Zoroastrian
'2. Ba lùeh "& Slstani 3.
J.ho~a8anl &
s.
" •~
~
T,;.'
,.
'"
Language
Southw•• t ' " East &, S.I.
Parsi
llaluchl Parai & Paehtu
North
Mazande'l'ani & Turkiab Lori
-
.':-
r'"'
J
1 ;;~'
Lor
-
Location
Afghan
, 4 .. Matanderani & Turkaman ",
:~
or come from
'/,1,
'''1-
6. Kurd
lait. & Nortb
lurc:Ü.,h
1
--, l'
1
2R
The most predominant ethnie group would come from the Baluch Tribes, who make up approximately one"
third of this population .. The settlement people
w8S
Co~idering
over a long period of
'.
/' oe' these
'tirn~.
the social organisations, tribal and
-
religious customs, the Parsis are known as
b~ing
the oldeat ones who have formed the backbone of most of the population in the towns
~d
villages,
although the Sistani and Mazanderani tribes are the first inhabitants of the desert area. The Parsis have ~been there for approximately four thousand
~e8rs.
Th~e are.
followed by the Baluch
and Khorasaril tribes who have been there for almost three thousand arrived more reeently.
years, and other tribes Some of these tribes today
are living under their own homogeneous society and local leadership.
Their economy ia based on
pastoralism, therefore, their adaptation requires
> ,
"
nomadisme
'The "
oldest organized tribe , the Parsi; 1>~*,ièc!r
tne
Zoroa5trian\~1t\, whHe other tribes are of
r
the Isls11.'ic !religion. /
Three quart<érs o,f the Modems
1n this area are Shi'ih, whi1e the remaining quarter, mostiy Afgham and Turkaman,s, are Sunn!.
It 1. interesting to note tbat vl11sgers living in
,
... ,,,"
.
,
~
1
29
Il, ,1
the Northeast, close to the religiou8 city of
~., ,1
M8sh-had; are strongly influenced by Islam, which
is reflected by their education, social
life~
'~ ~
:'
:J
I,~ ~
economy and their attitude towards life.
However,
in the south and southeast, we can find Afghan and Baluch pastoral nomads who do not necessarily follow Koranic Law, but by their own tribal ~d 1\
traditionsl rules depending on their type of organization and their location. ~5) 3.
Cultural Factors: Intelligence COl'lllluni ca tion:
1=arsl
is spoken throughout the desert, with
the following aress speaking "far5t.· dialect8: "Péchtou" in the aast;
& south-east;
"Baluchi" in the south
"Lori" in the west;
"Kurdish"
and "Turkish" in the Dorth. Art, MUsic, and literature are other means of c~nication
•
with carpet-making, handicrafts,
folklore music, and poetry being Just ,a few examples. a.ligio~
1. also conaidered to"be a
8~rong
moti-
vation for communicatipn.
Intelligence Education:
(J
The rate of 1l1iteracy in Iran was very h1$h," "pecial!y among the nomadic trtbes, bowever,
vith the onBet of the White Revolution ordered
,
./
•
30
by his Majesty the Shahanshah Aryamehr, in 1962,
the educational standard
of the general populace
has improved dramatically and more vil1agers are able to receive
education/th~8
enabling them to
understand and consequently to improve their environment. (f,Ô. 9) Among
the unsettled tribes and nomads, where the
educational system has not yet bce~J-ülly innmv'ç,w,
o
31
tbe Koran and old literature 18 taugbt in the "maktabs". * (fi':}. 10)
1
i
1 t
~i.s.lq Il ·f11i1HiI}; "m 6o"4b;/ , 3nd a "mulbh·l»fjl·(f~tnal mv/~.h) "c..ch/~ !/(J(/'J liU/,es.
)
l'Irq
, Welfare Health:
The White Revolution brought about better medical attention and faellities for aIl.
lt 18
eompulsory for medical doetors as weIl as persons tn other medical services to serve the country, and~
therefore, the people, for two years in
lieu' of actlve serv,iee in the armed forces. Drugs
G~d
medicine are distributed free of char-
ge by the government and there are many clinic8, .ponsored by the govemment and charitable orgaa!zationa, available.
-e
Bowever, because of tbe
cultural background and
•
*Old style of
.
.è~ola
~raditioD8,
vi'th lectures by the "mullahlt •
•
moat people
"
32
still bel1eve ih old remedies.
Because of the
(.var1ous nomadic tribes, distribution of modern medical eare i8 not without difficultlea.
Welfare hni tation:
Generally speaking, aanitation among villages and nomads in the desert areàs ia still primitive. '~e numb~r
of deaths in children, especially
in new-born babies, is very high.
These dea'ths,
which are called 'mortalité exogen' are a resuIt of unsanitary living conditions and nonhygienie milk and food.
o to
, ye4r old children died of Gastroenteritis
in 1955/1 (~~).
for they
h8~
Natives!!! aware of 8anltation learned by experiencé to protect
their wster sources by a~ay
For example, 34.7'- of
placin~
thelr toi lets
.from their living quartera, however, as they syst~,
have no piped water, drainage
elèctri-
city or detergent&1 keeping food and living conditions hygienic is very difficult for them. Recently some attend'Pn has been given to their probleas, but the "8itu~tlon has not noticeably \ improved. \ \
\
.1
.
'.
'.J
Control l>opulation:
33
Out of the JJ million Iranian population, approxlmately
80~
live in villages although, in official
documents and national census, nomadic tribes are considered as "villagers".
Almost 10 to 15%
-of this segment of the population live in desert villages or desert tribes, in the proportion of about half villagers, half nomad tribes. ,
The general population 1s increas1ng st a rate of about 2.9% per annum with no control measures. There 15 presently a program under study to
(.ç.'~.11.1 "ma DI
•
J!evo ful,pnb II~NIA Gc'i"~ d/~ft"6vlt: b/,. Ih_é:IH1Irl'1 ffll~ ,nt:! tl/suse _?rev~nft:'" ,df"rtn,I/QIf ,.,e~ f Df 5hir;~. ,,_rI DI fIJ~ nt!W pr,!!r8t11. ~e
Diagra~
A, Band C show the averege age and sex
Itructure of ten villages 1n the desert aree for the years
195~
1966 and 1971 respectively.
changea that occurred durlng this period are .hown
,
.
.
~n
diagram D•.
fif~een
The year
fO~E~'
(\
MEN
A: 'population 5tructure ( 1956)
1
1
1 : 1 .
8: population structure (1966 ~
1
1
1
1
C: population structure , (1931 )
1966 .n,."
\
\
,.,
~~~~ ~\ I::J 1 1 ~""~ ..
Io..~
.....
~
\
,
•
i.. _ _ _ _
,
~ '~ ~..:.-- ~,
. . ---<1'. ..
.. ......;:-., ~""Iô
~
0-9
- .... ,
;.~ur..~
.
10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50~59 ~e~~ .Ii'
35
Control Organlzation:
The polltlcal control and organization among
o
villages can be simply analyzed by studying the kad-khoda (head man of the village) and his duties.
He is the representative of his village
in othe'!' villages, tribes and to the government.
He supervises aIl the affaira of the village and gives advlce and, because his advice and orders are within the boundaries of law and tradition, they are therefore reasonable and accepted by aIl. He has under him a few temporary organizations. made up of voluntary memberH, such as the court of justice and organizations in charge of festivals and religious
celebratio~s.
PoUtical organization among nomadic t,ribes is very important to their existance.
Although "the
social organization 18 basèd upon a patrilineal idlom, aIl members being patrillneal descendents of the founding snces tor of each tri be. 1/ <:lB) Aiso each member of the trJ.be has a specified position and rank; however, his rank and position depend on
h~s
family linesge and, ss
a.re8ul~,
tbe ,male àdults of the main ~lneagè have ,
8
greater
welght ln community declsions thsn members of
other lineages, and the '''khan'' (chief of the tribe) '>-
i. the most powèrful ~_the eldèt.-, of the main
1
!
/
/-
iJJ
1ineage.
1,."
/' V"
/
J
"\
!
.~,:
'"
36
"The khan i8 the central, autocratie leader of the tribe.
He has great power, and this power
18 S'een by the tribesmen as emanating from him
rather than as being instituted in him by them. The outstanding feature of the chiefls position ••.
•
18 his power of decisipn and autocratie command
over liis subjects." (2 8 ) To understand the structure of one of the nomadic trlbes, we shall
éxamin~the
Bakhtiari tribes.
As mentioned eariier, the tribe ls headed by the khan and it 8eems quite clesr that without his direction, the system of adaptation and organization could not survive.
He lives permanently
in one place outslde his tribal area.
Two other
chiefs are responsible to him for two Bakhtiari families and under each of these chiefs, there are four Goruh-eeiy, each of them divided into four Tayfe, under whom there are other sections, which are ealled T.,(re.
The Kalantars are res-
ponsible for the tires.
Each of the Tires are
again subdivlded into Tash whlch are headéd by • 1 ,
Kadkhodas.
The Tash consista of. several
Oalads.~o)
Oalad, being the basic unit of the tribe, has I"f,t
tu
own' territoty and _grazing areas , consisting,
of an average of fifteen families .- (Ç-i9' \2.)
o -~
.1'
37
Each tribe , therefore, consists of several sections hence severa 1 head men under the khan' 8 cotlll1l$nd.
These men act as communication links
between their camps and the khan but they have no " aothority in the tri he. (3,J)
"Thus, there are chains of communication, but no ' 1
chains of command."
(3~)
"In the tribal system,
the khan 19 the only source of adjudication. 1
Disputes must he otherwise settled by custom, compromise, or diffuse sanctions in the herding camps.
But once it i8 brought to the khan, he
l
decides the ma tter according to his own views, and 1a theoretically not hampered by euS tom, precedent, or Shariat*.
of the
trib~
The khan also acts as a preaentative
to other trlbes or sedentary Butho-
rit1es' of aU kinds." (33)
; <
• o . * Sharlat:
loranie la•••
If
38
Control Âcbnin18 t ration:
The administration in use in the villages and tribes is very primitive but the national government has installed ttts representatives.
The
village inhabitants choose a head man (kad-khoda) but the tribal laws and traditions prevail in the choiee of their own chief (khan) and both act as
repre8entative~
to the govemment which, in
tum, is represented by the "gendarmerie" in the villages and tribes.
The administrative
duties are therefore divided between the kad1
khoda, the khan and the gendarmerie and other visiting govemment representatives.
ContTol .. Protection:
The govemment's rearesentative) the gendarmerie, i8 responsible for the protection of the people. Oving to tradition and custom, however, some village8 and Just aDout a11 of the tribes prefer .e1f-protection.
Historieal incidents sueh as
wars and revolutions have bean known to be instigated by the groups in charge of the protection
of the vartou8 v1l1ages and tribes, for theyla" very powerful. (3!J
," , ,
Control "" li'QIIllce:'
,Vith the ,axeeption of • few;J the majodt)" of popula~1ol\
"
of th18 eru il
col18idere~ p~r.
,
~he
The
f i
.
1
,
J
1
39
average income per capita la 1ess than $100.00 per annum.
Ct
Government aid ls on1y avai1able to
the vil1agers and in the form of short-term.loans, usual1y made in the way of seed, fertl1izer, and small macqinery for spraying insecticides and \ for cultivation.
These are dlstributed through
,
cooperative societies. An9ther form of finance, perhaps the most important, accurs between city busineasmen and their mdddlemen with the vi1lagers and tribesmen
way
Dy
of advance purchasing of thelr products which 1
\
cODsist mostly of carpets, 11vestocK , livestock goods and ,dairy products.
,
This form of lendtng
yields a phenomenal profit for the Shopkeepers lending small
amo~nt8
busine88men.~5)
of cash with
paymenta by installment to the poeple in need of ~edlate nece8.itles, iSaRother common practlc~.
'1
i
Produe.ttoll .: CUltlvatlon:
'Because of the 'vast area of thls desert, ODe ftnde dlfferent geographlcal speciftéatlona and cllœatea, dependiog
00
the location.
cultivation i8 exercised.
Bence, dlfferent' . Fqr
e~lè
in the
north-west, fruit gardens conslsting of pOlllegraMtes, fiss and vegetables are found; in the north,
•
,,":/ . ,
1
•
plstachio, cotton and grain; in the north-east, '
grapes, peaches, pears, grain and " the south, spices and 'dates. ,
",
1
1
1 1
8affro~
and
10
...
-;"~~"",,~,,,,'''-~~-~--''''--'-'--''''''-'_.,....--_.....:.-..~-~ ~ --
.:
Sta tistically, the inconie frorn these forms of
40
eult1vation 18 negl1gible and does not necessarily satisfy everyday needs. The following briefly descrihes cultivation methods: The stream or river uS,ed for irrigation is often embanked to protect the adjacent low-Iying land
on wh1ch the plots are made and, in addition, most often are dammed back in the spring with a strong wall of stones and mud, ao that the watér will flow lnto the irrigation channels when the walling
at the entranee to each is breached for the flooding. Where water cannot be made to flow directly over
the plots, wooden water-wheels are usually used to lift it inta the channels or it ls often la bor• ,1 tI"
iously,carried in ;J.eather ,kins. (3.6) 'f~le most importan~
form of water-supply for irrigation in
the Persian Plateau 1s the "ganat" system wh:lch will he expla~ned ·in Part Thrct.
Ob the retent1ve soil, of the east and south '.
whera dry DOt
f~rudng
.
ia practieed, the land does
need watering but, in the wflt and north, . t·.
whera the 80i1 18 sandy and salty 1 fruit gardens ,laUst be watered every week dUdng the drought .of il 8U1111Mtr.
!he poorest cultiva tors My till the ground by
•
,
Mnd with hoes ,
.~
"
~
but -'the ani1l:Ul1-drawn. plow {.
generally used 1n Perda, digging. by .pade i.
.... , .)
.
",
~
41
quite common even in large orchards, in vegetable eultivation and, in sorne districts near Isfahan, Yazd, and Ke't1D8n, for field tillage. _ The market gardeners around the larger cHies claim that tbe spade provides a better turning over of the so11 and bU'rying of the trash.
They dlg in springtime
when nothing else 18 to be done, and ,there would not bè mùch'work for draft animaIs for the rest of the year.
For the digglng by spade of the wheat
fields in central Persis, there seem to be dÙferent ressons.
lt 18 true that the soU there does
not yield enough to feed men ahd animah as weIl. A deeper lying reason seems
t~
be the fact thst
m8ny of the cultivators there are Zoroastrians
for whom the bovine 18 a sacred ratlter than a laboring animal." (3;-)
At
~he
larger- s1t~s ~ wind-
. wheel gr1nding" miUa of central-adatte type ln
erected and strong granaries built to hold the
harvest'. Although tr1bes are essentially pastoralists, 8ma11 groups of tribes are found engaged in
cultivation and remain st work in the fields fr01ll .pring to autuom.
Tbes.e are IDOstly poor
. "
,
•
1
"r
'. ,1
,'
:.~~~ ~,'
•
't
faDdl1e8 with little or no llvestock of thé1r own, ü
• .": J
\
who depend for their livelihood on service to ~
-richer families who provide them with meat and adik products. suit~ble
Whenever physical eonditiona
for the diversion of
rl~er
water
~
42
offer opportunlties for irrigation, water channels and embanked plots are laid out for wheat and barley.
The cultivation techniques are similar
,.
to villages but the standard of cultivation 18 often much lower, and agricultlral products are proQuced on a small scale. Production Transportation:
There i9 no heavy traffic through the desert, hence not much attention la given to building highways orproper roads,
A road resembling a belt partly
asphalted has been built around the periphèry of the desert. by
Villages are connected to this beit
seeondary dirt roads which are built by the
inhabitants,
Public transportation exists ooly
between important cities -and villages.
The use
of antmals for transportation ls common, This lack of proper roads linking the des&rt area wlth the main eitles and large villages, where the products
Qt
the Inhabltants could be sold
quickly and at better priees, has been a 8ignifleant contributing faetor in lts falling economie and Bocial life. Organization -
FaroUy Unlts:
The predominant type of band organization, combination of families, and related
8yst~
of kinship ,
nomenclature among Iranlan familles has been the
o
patrilocal band. '~e
patrilocal type of band.organizatlon li i.
:J "
1,
43
t
created by two related rules or customs perta1n1ng to marriage.
First is band exogamE: one marries
8omeone from outside one's own band.
•
Second,is
virilocal marital residence: the married couple join the man's band, not the woman's.
Virilocality
results in patrilocality: tbat-- -ts-, - chlldren grow up in their father's band, not in the mother's original
band~
The band is thus also patrilineal;
,
.
the members are aIl related through the male line because of the res1dence ru la ." (31)
In the patrilineal systems, marriage plays a very important role, economically 1,1
From
a~d~olitically. ~
J
the point of view of the partners, it ls an economic institution.
Perhaps for the parents of the
bride it is an economie venture, while for the parents of the groom and for the head of his fami1y 1t is a consolidation of the family political unit.
The head of the fami1y collecta about him
a 8ubstantia1 group of depandent kinships within ,
his
f~mi1y/pol1tical
unit, thus 80lidifying his
po1itica1 base within the community unit, thu8 .olidifying his politica1 base within the community structure.
(st>
'Tor the band as a ,
who~e,
marriage bas very' ,
important political function.
1'-
The variations in
-the marriage ru1e bas variouB politica1 reaulta, particularly with respect to the alliances created
7
""'·_-~"""·-"_"_"'L""'·_'
_~
__ .... "
~".~._''''''''''''''
___
'''''''''''''_~'''''_
~
44 , among bands, and they can be narrow and firm or extended and lÇtose."
(~)
The family unit among the lranian nomadic tribes can be 8imply recognlzed by a tent, each tent represents a faml1y, and for a bigger family a
"mall"* might represent a family unit or dependent families under One head.
lt should be mentioned
that all the daughters before marriage and sons before and after, close kins such as brothers and unmarried sisters, grandparents, and sometime aunts and uncles of the head of the family stay in the family circ le, ~d they are under his support and protection.
The succession upon the
deatb of the head o,f the family 1s eitber inherited by someone already chosen by himself or ia passed on to the individual accepted as being the most
~ture
man. (4t)
Recognition of the family unit in the villages ia quite difficult because of its complexltles. Molt marrisges are of the exogamy.type and even
the composition of a family Is not understood as
...
being formed
Dr
the residence
rul~.
For thls
rea80n they cannot be recognlzed by thelr res!, dence.
o
Sometimes a poorer family becomea the
.. ' ....11" ia a ama11 tr1be. unit conabting of 2-6 . 1 faadl!es (tente) Under oalad,_
45
ward of a wealthler and stronger family.
Thus
wealth ls the main determlnant of the political structure.
Sometimes families may divide into t
smaller units, often living in different dwellinss or different villages.
In aIl esses they are
under the protection of the head of the family, but they are not economically supported by him. Organlzation Income Groups:
The villagers have sorne arrangements for cultivation, ploughing, sowing seeds, wataring and
•
harvesting mostly but this does not mean that they share thelr incornes.
.
lt seems there are more
political reasons rather than economic ones. In the past ten years, cooperative societies, developed by the govemment, have appeared.
More
and more smail villages are joining these cooperative soeieties.
By virtuè of these socleties i
villagers can get such necessities as farm supplies, clothing, m8chinery and other materials. ln
th~
desert villages, cooperative
8oci~tie8
1 are not always welcome mainly becauae of one reason: the prime source of incorne in the villages 18 carpet-weaving and handicrafts and Dot 8gricultural products.
Theae cooperative
80cieties tend to encoura8e
fa~ing
band1crafts and cottage industries.
o
rather than
<:.
--
.....
46
Organization Occupation & Service Groups:
!
Most of the village population comprises of fermera and nomadic tribes of pastoralists. Each member of either a village or tribe Is engaged in sorne kind of work. These
workin~
people can
be classified into two basic categories: 1.
\
l ;~
Productive groups:
AlI individuals working on plots from ploughing to harvesting.
Each individusl works at aIl
stages of farmlng but 18 generally specialized in one ares. AlI individuals who are associated to animal hU8bandry.
This includes shepherds, wool workers,
• heep sheerers, wool spinners and clairy producers. "
~ll
crafts are considered productive.
~o
kinds of crafts: hard and soft.
There are
Ha~~ts Include the production of building mate~a18J
construction,
potJry, .tc.
C8rpe~~ry,
metal work,
~•••••nti.l1y me.'. Job••
Softcrafts lnclude a11 kinds of weaving such 8S mat weaving, c10th weavlng,
~arpet
weaving, •
. aih,oe mak ''!9 ' .~ Ai . neeJ \e; wor ~ \ n B Jo
These are
mostly women's 'and children's joba. 2.
SerVice groupa:
Iven
t~ougb
tbese groups are 1e8. active tban the 1.
productive g~oupa because ot'tbeIr distinctivè po.ition and vea1th, they-bave greater welght ln
1
'"
-
..
~;
-
~J"'<"
.. ~.
_,
--
~
~ ............ _,_ _- _........... ,,~ ...............
----.~-~- --~-
-
-
~ ... _------~
47 'c
c01l"l11Un1ty dec1sioos.
This group can be divided
in ta two major sub-groups:
(j
«)
Direct productive
service groups: aIl shop-
keepers 8uch ss butchers, tatlors, repairmen, salesmen, midd1emen, water distributors, land. lords, animal watchers, field guards and sea90na1 workers. b)
Indirect productive service groups: aIl
owners of public facllities such a9 owners of baths, wells, cisterns, ice storage sheds, tea houses, palestras, maktabs, etc.
.
AlI leaders, riflemen,
commanders, teachers, mullahs, judges, native
"
doctor'S, etc. (41)
• Il
.!
r
\.1 '
/ ..
,',
/
(
,a
»
•
..
-
• 48
o
1.
DAPT.u MAKHSUS SHARBANOO Dar Rahgozar Kavir, Offset Publ1shing Co.,
1973, Tehran, P.12. 2.
Ibid. P.16.
3.
COSTA, A. & LOCKHART, L. Persia Thames & Hudson, 1957
4.
Londo~
p.9
DAn'AR MAKHSUS SHAHBANOO Dar Rahgozar Kavir, Offset Publ1sh!ng Co •.,
1973, Tehran,pp.21-22
5. PORESTRY nEFABlMENT ReEort on Gr••• hoE!"r Damage 1964 Tenran 6.
RASERI, Ali lYPica1 Bouse for Different 1970 Tehran
Cii~ates
'\
'~
Housing Organizatl0 '\
7.
~FP, Hans E. the Traditional Orafta of Persis M.I.T. Press, 1966 London, p.284.
8.
DAPTAR MOKHSUS SRAHBANOO Dar Rahgozar Kavir Offset Publ1shing Co.
1973 Iran, p.7 .. 9.
COSTA, A. & LOCICH.ART, L. Persia Themes & Hudson, 1-957 London, p.2J.
10. CARNEIRO, Robert L. Science Vol.169 Tokyo & Kyoto, 1968, pp.244-24B. ~l.
VtJI..n', .Bens .2. _The;tu$t;lcmal {!rafts..of ~l!.e~.ia.H.l..T ...P,.e", 1-966 London, p.240.. 0
12.
CARNEIRO, Robert L. Science Vol. 169 Tokyo & lCyoto, 1968, p.733.
13.
Ibid. p.735 •
14. .Ibid. pp.732-739.
,15.
SPJ!IqCI!R, Herbert PrillCifes of' Soc1oloSY. va 1. 2. D. Apple t , , Company, New York, 897 • ~n , COHEN, Yehudi Â. Ma;U' in Adaptation The Cultural Presence ~in 16. Publi.hing Co. 1974, Chicago, p.264.
11.
VAlU>JAVAND1 Dr.P. 1. 'introduction
'1,'
)
a
l'Etude Générale des Tribus lfomades en Iran, L'Institut d'Etudes et de Recherches Sociales de l'V~iver81tê de 7éhéran, 1965, p.1S.
18.
SAlI-NEGAD, J. Ta1,b-Abad, 'Honography of a Villase Tehran University, 1966, Tehrau, pp. 22-24
19.
Sl'OORElt, Brian The Cultural Eeolo'gt' of Pastoral. Nomade No.4S Add:18on~ We.1ey Publiahing Co.lnc.,· 1973 PhiU.ppl... " p.2l.
20. Ibid.p.18. 21.
COBEN', 'Yehudl Â. Han 1ft Adaptation - The Cultural Pre.ence Aldin PublUhill8 Co. 1974" Clûc:aso" P.218.
,
,
.
1
îl
1
!
!
!
o
22.
SPOONER, Brian The Cultural EcoloBY of Pastoral NomAds No.45 AddisonWesky Publishing Cd.Inc., 1973 Phi1~ppines, p.20.
23.
VARDJAVAND, Dr.P. L'Introduction à l'Etude Générsle des Tribus Nomades én Iran Publication de l'Institut d'Etudes et de Recherches Sociales, Université de Téhéran, 1965, p.l2.
24.
SER 3 Schoo1 Environments Research, The University of Michigan, 1965, p.I,J.
,
r
25.
Ibid.pp.l,4-1,6.
26.
BARTH, Fredrik Nomads of South Persis, Allen.5. Urwin Co., 1961 London, pp.135-l53 & DOUGLAS, M~ry Natural Symbols Barrie .5. Rochiff Publishing Co., Gesset Press, 1970 London pp.IÜ-12.
27.
VARJAVAND, Dr.P. L'Introduction a l'Etude Générale des Tribus Nomades en Iran, L'Institut d'Etudes et de Recherches Sociales, l'Université de-Téhéran, 1965 p.135.
28.
IRONS, W. Persnective on Nomedism, 1972 London, p.6.
29.
S~,
Philip
ç.
Proceedings of the A~erican Philosophiea! Society, anon a N~~dic Peo~le, Vol.III, 1967, p.124.
Politic~l Qr~2nization
"0.
VAlU),lIWl.JID, Dr.P. Bamadi. a FamUv from Bakhtiari Tribes Technlcal
Research and Standard Bureau, 1968 31.
Tehr~n,
pp.81-120.
~, Philip C. proeeedings pf the American Philosophicsl Society, Politicsl Organization amang Nomadic Peopl~. Voi.III, 1967, p.124. il
32.
Ibid.p.123.
33.
Ibid. p.127.
34.
SPOONER, Brian The C~ltural Economy of ,Pastoral Nomads No.45 AddisonWesky Publishing Co.Inc., 1973 Philippines, pp.18-l9.& COHEN, Yehudi A. Man in Adaptation The Cultural Presence Aldin Publishing Co. 1974, Chicago, p.264. ' 1-
VARDJAVAND, 'Dr.P. L'Intro~ctipn ~ l'Etude Gén4rale des Tribhs Noms~e8
35.
en Iran LtInstitut d'Etudes et de Recherches Sociales, de Ténéran, 1965, pp.10-19. 36.
l'Universit~
FORDE, C. Dary11 Geographieal Journal, July 1937, p.21.
37.
wutPF, Bans E. The Traditioual-Crafts of Perala H.I.T. Press, 1966
London, p.260.
38.
SERVICE, Ebe1l R. The Ruttters Prentice-Hall l,ne., 1966 Eugiewood, N.J., \
p.34~
39. GLtJClCKA.R, Max Afrtcan Pol1tieal SV8tema Oxford University Press, 1946 toadon. .
1
'
50 40.
Ibid.p.36.
41.
BARTH, Fredrik Fatherrs brotherrs daughter Marriage in Kurdhtan, Southwestern Jouraal of Anthropology, Vol. 10, 1954, pp.164~171.
42.
SAFI-NEGAD, J. Taleb-Abad, Monography of 1966 Tehran.
à
Village Tehran University,
'.
1
/
1
\
o
. . -; /
,
"
,-
,
51 Note:
In the firet part, we tried to analize the environmental, cultural, and economical conditions in the desert, and we noted how strong the social "network" ia among the peasants and nomads sHke.
HoweV'er,
\
.\
in the forthcoming parts, the focua Is on the
pe~santlS
housing
•
"
"
pro~lems because of the following reasons:
the effects of nornadism on peasant architecture are not widely recognized, and cannot be Included in an architectural stupY
• as lone as the nomad
has~t
settled, his temporary shelter will
'\
reIllBin as ia becBuse it has been developed and adapted to the very nature of nomad society and the physical environment we have not attempted to take any change that would add to the
,,
.
î) nomad' 8 exiating problems. 1'
Rowever, it must.be stated here thst the problem of nomadlsm must be Bolved through careful study of national economy and rehabilitation.
.,"
, 'l,
o
--
4'"
.-.. -'--"-:._- ---~ "-' l----"- .:_-
52 orrr-LINES OF VILLAGE FORMATION
G
Although the reasons for the appearance of settled communities in the lranian Plateau are mostly unknown, they might have come about through historieal incidents but, it ls elear that a11 communities are gathered around vital sources, especially water.
Form and situation of these
vital sources specify the type of social and productive activities. Even though none of these communities have been preplanned, and ail are spontaneous, esch one has it\ own particularities which are influenced by severai factors luch as cultural, economicai and geographlcal 8S
well as histories!.
These give charaeter and distinction to each
particular area. In this section, without going into historical"and
~ultural
detalls,
firet outlines of the Iranian villages will be explained and then factors which influeneed village formations in the desert area will.
be described. wnen a location,ia éoeially and historieall)'
re~ognlzed
as a centre
of agricultural activity,' it in'eludes six: sectionà(1).These Bections as a whole are recognized aB a f.a,rm or a village commtJnily. (fI3\~)
.'
1 1
.___ - ____ ,~--~.r_~----~.-~~..~----~-------.•~~.--------------..~~------
53
Therefore we cao assume that s village ia
set up ir six circles
8S
Hs boundarles.
The dwelling8 are usually gathered in the first inner circle because of security and to prevent intrudets from entering,the core of the villaBe.
Even though this might not be the resson st this point in time,
traditions, ties of kinship and economy are the resson for retaining chiS, formation. The second circle consists of small gardena where
a
variety of vegetsbles v'
are grown.
These gardens either belong to a single family or to a
group of families and are usually annexed ta the The produce from these gardens provide the village.
~urrounding
houses.
e~~y necess~tles
V
for the
"er..-circle consists of plantation gprdens which might cultivate one \
The~rd
or different kinds of fruits. The fourth clrcle which ineludes the most important section of the vi~lage,
N~èdless
consista of the farm,lands.
,
to say, the village 18
economically dependent on tnis land ~nd, for this reason, th!s area has been the centre of'confliets pf
0\~ner8hip
and usage beeween the
fatllilies and the melllber8 of the village. Tbe fifth eircle consists of dry farro lands which mostly belong to the community, but in practice it t8 u8ed by families who are rlch or that have the manpower to cultlvate lt. , The outer ci!~le 18 u.uallY used for ·pasture.
in the
e
mOOn~a\M or
on
a ~\~ , .!rne ol:lter è..\t-c\e. .
~ rand c.a.<\ no-\- ~e '('e&d.\~, \l;)eà~
\
Wntn a \)\\\~~ ',";:. \cx:a\-eJ
.
\!>
oH~..fI ~~.j ~tcm.~ ot
. ,
.
,
"
,
~.~___•
--_
~ ___ ~
.. ..-----
..
~~~~.~~----~~~--------------.~.~-------------.. ~ _ _
~
_.
_
'"
A ___
'
_
.....
___
~
..... _ _ ~_ _
~--
~
. ...
'e'"
1
The.above description ia on1y an
ap~roximstion
èa the eirclee are often
interehanged because of aecurity, geog'raphy and accus to main roada. ln the deaert, villagea are made out of four clreles.(F~.~}
The dwellings are located around the wells and water sources at the ce~t~e
of the village.
The second circle includes the fruit gardens
_ud vegetable gardens where the trees sbadow and help the vegetable
,.
srawth.
The tllird circlf includea the dry-:-fanaing land _Ill the fourth
cirele con.iat. of uneultiyated land and la uaed for pasture.
./
1"
, , ",
l
,t
'[
.1
.
"
»
.c
-
•
55
FACTORS INFLlTENCINr. VILLAr.E FORMATION
(;
Architecturels first goal is shelter but ft must also achieve an equilibrium between man and his physical environment. Architecture has always considered two basic factors:
one, protection
from lntruders, and the other, protection from the elements
(fi~.J~
)
therefore, from an architectural point of view, desert villa8ea can be 8urrrnarized into the following types:
inc/emenl wedfIJer OV!.j,"tk i"lruler~
~rchile, Ivre
1.
Protection from intruders (walled villages):
\ Fr~m
the beglnning of written history
unt1l half a century ago, was a period of violence, ralding and wars between the intradlng nations and the different ldnship groups.
The need f6r protection rose above
1 1
,i
J
aIl other concerns and a safe settlement was the most important facet of life. In Borne parts of the desert, people constructed
o
wa.Ha around towns and vi Uaees. (fig.16 )
theBe were created for two other reasons:
56
first, because of pastoralism where the women and chilàren could he left irr safety "
,1.""'" '''1 1-dl~'" ..,.~ .tt!t.l~llj .. h'~ l ,'. "", ijfl'\;.,,·j " 1
..
while the men were on Rrazinr, trips and, secondly, by landlordisrn, not only for protecting food produce and
/
col1ectin~ , / - s "
hut rather for better domination of tl1e farmers.
The layout of one of these
villa~es
u8ually
consists of four tall walls with observation tm,ers located at the corners.
It has a
main gate which is the only entrance to the village. f'.! /6 7ïir1, n~ /II~r ",,/y ,n."Y . metht! ",/ 1O'11k, Ibl _~ "J".I (Ii! "'-:'.11" hp".IeJ Il,:! M, """j DI rh"" . TJe ,r- ft f',d ~ tll SIJ"~' ü.l ~I"r"ek,
1166111"",1
ln
/%5"0 k- ~
l'N1oJ
Roomp are attached to the outer
walls forming a central court yard (fig. '1-). Each room houses one family and each walled village can accomodate ttarr to two hundred
families.
Sorne room8 have basement8 for
8torage and stables.
The central court yard
18 the place for social activities. lt should be noted tha t cven thou-;h some
villages have no walls around them, as such,
o
57 the outside houses are arranged to open onto the villar,e thug turning their backs to the outside world and forming a protective wall around the village.
2.
Protection from the elements: a) Semi-walled village: This type of village 18 located in the eas tern de sert (provinces of Khara88n and Sistan) which 1s exposed to the Turklstan
A village is surrounded by a straight
wind.
or cres cent shaped wall to break the wind(r~ 18)
which blows st 120 km per
hour~
and pro-
tects the village sgainst the sand carried The wall may be constructed
by the wind.
in one of two ways:
a solid mud wall of
80-150 cm high or a date-frond woven
fence supported by bambu or lotus After a fev years, the sand is
~nches.
pU~igh
against the wall and another parallel
-
.. ~:: :\.,~,:: ~---------
.,. "
.~ .... ,
o
(
/
'.'
:
\
";,
-----
.._---. ~-~.----.......
;,.
-'~-----
------.
ft
•
Windmills are common in the eastern desert. Most modern authors on the history of technology agree that the origin of the windmill ia Iran (2). The earliest known mention of a windmill is in an ancient Hindu book, the Artha8astra Kantilya (cirea 400 B.e.) which refers to a windmil~ used for lifting water (3). Next we hear that wind motors were the prayer wheels of Buddhists in Central Asia as described by Chinese travellers cirea )400 A.D.
:~
(4).
Al-MosudiJnlranian historian, in his book Tarikh Masudi writes abo t an lranian slave, Abolulua, to whom the Caliph Omar asked: ' "1 have b e told that you were heard toasting about the ability to build a t.nill which is driven by the wind", to which the Iranian slave replied: "By Gad', 1. will bul1d a mil! about which the who1e world will talk. '1 The Iranien windmi11s, with their vertical axis, spread through the Islamic world; they became an important power source in Egypt for the juicing of lJugar cane (5). During the Ilth Centuryl the windrnill had already reachea western Europe but the axis were no longer vertical but inclined about 30° to the horizontal. However, the first mention of windmi1ls in northern Europe i8 in a French tax law (1105 A.D.) which stated tbat each windmill owner shou!d pay \ 5X tax on it's turnover.
A /Vint/mil/ /'om 5/~filn ~Ih~}tyn
J~vl-
DrIlWl~ cf il
lIIIAc'mlll b;J ~rMn "*'~".fÎ'*' ;qL -lJi#w,w,ri " (1.2;6-1),2,6)
1)
58
.all 18 bul1t behlnd the fir8t wall and ou.
10
walls.
Sorne villages have three or more Another type of wall, perhaps the
mo8t 8ophlatlc8ted one, Is used in agrl-
•
cultural SItes where dry farming 18 practlced.
The main purpose of the wall
remaina the same but this heavier wall 18 mounted by windmills.
This 18 one of
the mon benefic::ial uses of the wind.(2.) It is interesting to note that this type "
...
-*':
of w1.ndmi Il, wi th vert iea 1 axis, 18 the
oldest type known àtil1 in operation and has
o
8
surprisin3 output. (P'j_
IfI)
'\
,
ln Iran today windmills are uaually ~8ed for grinding wheat and barley but the y are sometimes used for irrigation and for pumping salt brine. A w1ndmill has two stories with an upper room conaist1ng of two 6m. h1gh walls, 6m. apart, snd parallel to the preva1l1ng wind. The third wall of the ssme height (wingwall) ia only 3m. wide w1th a 30 0 inward deviation to bring 1n the wind at h1gh pressure. The other end is open to let the wind out. The wind wheel i5 approximately 5.Sm. high and its main wooden shaft with a steel pin at the ower end i5 1ed through a holè 1n the centre of a domed or vsulted roof to the lower Eloor (millhouse). The steel pin rests in a cavity of a wooden block. Many layers of strong cotton cloth are placed in this cavity to prevent eros1on of the block. The upper end of the shaft runs through heavy horizontal beams which, in turn, are fixed ta the side wslls of the mill. Five tiers of spokes with eight spokes in each tier are inserted into the shaft. Bundles of reed of 5.Sm. in helght are tied with pegs and ropè to the ends of the spokes. Diagonal stay ropes run from the top of the shaft to the end of the lowest tier of spokes ta prevent the spokes from sagging under the heavy weight of the reed bundles. The outer ends of the spokes are tied to each other.
-,
The upper end of the thrust block fits into the bed stone which 1n tum rests on a brick stn}cture. The runner stone rests on a steel whell set into a slot oE the thrust pin. This wheel in tum fits in 8 groove eut 1nto the unders1de of the runner stone. The dimentions of the mi11 stones are 2m. in diameter and O.2m. in thickness. The grain is fed into the throat of the runner stone, passes througb the feeder channel and flour 1s collected below the bedstoue.
,,e "
"
Approximately one ton of grain 1s milled datly in each of these windmills. This means 120 tons per m111ing season (7).
~;
I~. l "
"
,'<~';'
/m
j,;
L
l·
i
59 b)
Bemi-underground villa0es:
\i
Althour,h the term "Berni-underground" ia odd, J'
tt 18 not untrue as this type of housin?, consista of mounds of earth rather than actually belnlj underground.
(fi~.l,O)
One of the oldest methods of provlding shelter for man and domestic animaIs has been caves and tunnels dug into hillsldes, st! 11
8
\
technique
reflected in the word 'kand" (basement)
or place names such as Samarkand, Murkand, Sar8skand.
These houses are partly in the
ground and partly built of rammed earth.( S ) These communitiea are common throughout the desert and are the background of Iranian architecture
8S rno~t
towns and cities were
barn from these villso;es (ff.:s. 1,1) 1t 18 al80 the cause of the most important
l!
research aspect of this paper.
Note:
Resl underground villages
~till
exist
to some extent where entire villages are underground or dug into rocky rnountain slopes thus creating'grottos which are . still u8ed as summer dwellings.(
o ,
\
somet~me8
.
a)
-~~~~~~--~~-------.-----------------
60
j.o
Il ~u.hOfJ of' (/",de.r8n~und vi /Ias e •
~ lIt
f "
I"J/ Ldl
"o~/~'J"
il
~eml_(//lcI~r.yroC/lld
l'III'!.J~ b,./"..., ·F~rdow5" a :se",,_ pnd~,.!r"""d fotln. '-
'.
o
•
lU
•
'$
•
•
r
t/ ,\Ni\TYSIS OF
EXI~;rIN(~
In thi s section.
VIU.M:f.S /ND TllEIP..
the Eoclls i
Il
on scmi
F[IN~TI()H
_1111(lcr 'rOlln,1
-
chey ore the rlost commol1
-
thev have not lost their value throur>hout th!'
-
the'.'
.1re
we11
nd,1pte(1
to the physicDl
'Inderst:lnd the str1lcture of the semi-IJnc1rr
\JC
present hcrc it's h
eci minimal in Pllhlic spaces.
D5
possi ble nnd
i
;]r(>
vill.l",c"' .1nd
r0 1 11111
(ii' .21).
it5
r'Jn,-f
1011.
JlC're strC'els ,Ire conr.Ji, C'r-
The nee-
Hith the nC8<1 Cor built- .. p privDtl' spare.
,
VPdr"
pnVil"0l11'1ent
'1'0
~
vi 11.'1' cs:
Henrc
the slrpet's ,1re
considerpd [\lnction.J] Hhcn they
4tlo\!
[15
roo1'11 f nr 1
I1drrO"
pprs
n T1
'
ano his donkcy.
1 2 •
'fI'sl"J.," .. G.CVlI-..-e
o
Pwe//',&s
»»» l1a:.e
5$
1>
;Iu /Inn
~}
n~&h 60",./,00<:I ~_ 9./'"tI~$
:
,.~
;
'1'
:,' ,~ ~. : '1\:1
./
~~
'"d
I.M/.s.
ri
':':<,::
,
,
o '"
.,
'BAS HROUYE:
A TOWN
,
, ,
1
~ ,
.'
,
,
"
.
", '; ;
?
~ ..
'\
..... -
,
~p 01 Me .l3t1shr~i a
~ cenfer,,/ '~erl
'
.-
,
.s mail I-own
Rt!6Y
1 (2 ••
mij'tlin"
'éha'f',Jov.!lh·' cellfa. of mahal}: (llilha/ll and dlY'l/i5' (JcceS5
t{) krm /lndS ., ,
62
Maydan (village centre):
In Most cases, the only acce8S to the
.
village i8 a secondary narrow dirt road. Therefore, the maydan, where aIl trading activ1ties take place, must be 81tuated along this road whether 1t passes tbrough the
v1~lage,
slang its bordera or ends in the village proper. The maydan 18 also the social centre; it " i8 a meeting place for aIl.
Social
gsther1ngs and ceremonies are held here and aIl public buildings and shops are s1tuated around the
maydan'(f1z.Z~).
The
maydan aa s market place playa a tremendous role in desert villages.
It is the heart
of the local economy where aIl community actions are concluded, especially on market deys.
"
4
1/;"';", (pvJ./tè ul-II J
5
Y,i/'·c.!t,1
,
.-1&; 2) -A m'5d8l1 lrM
WeJ km
J e.serf
(/C. M41c/'!1 tslo"'Jd
6'\
., 1
;,
1 1 -1
-
Mshalle (quarter) and Charsough (crossroad): "Mahalle" 18 a part of the vi 11age which specifies a unit of inter-dependent families; or a group of independent families; or a group of the same social leveli and 80metimes a religiou5 group. It should he mentioned that even though the lI\8halle i8 a semi-Independent part
of the village, i t 18 no t bounded by architectural elements.
lt i8 an 8gree-
ment or a desl between families which specifies the borders of a IlI8halle. (Contrary to the Indian "muhalla" which has the same function hut
.!!
by architectural elements).
bounded The number
of ~hallea depends on the aize of the village; the average village has two to 1
four mahalles.
The centre of
8
mahalle ls known as "ehsrsough"
which mesns crosaroads but ia not necessa-
rUy a~ a crossrosd.
T~e "charsough" la
a meeting place for the people who live in t,hat particular "mahalle". (fi~ ..~lt~ ,
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65. ,
Hashti (meaning octagonal is the neighbourhood centre):
The Raaht!, which 18 the semi-pri va te ares of
8
vUlaRe i8 the neighbourhood
centre. It 18 mostly s roofed ares where small chUdren play and it 18 also a place for ..,;
women's activities.
They gather here
and chat for hours as is their nature.
As Fig.25" shows, from the Haahtis, exits are made to give access to the gsrdens and the farm lSl].ds but,
8S
mentioned previously, each village has only one entrance and these exits never
.
serve as entrance to the village .
\
\
.
«««cr Il"t:~s " Inti
rvm
JanJ$.
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• 66 /
INDIVlDtI/lL FAMILY SHEU
1
This section describes
housin~
in Bemi-underground villages althoup,h
this type of housing can be found in other villages as weIl. Most of the village houses and other
buildin~s
are no more than one
story hip,h except for those houses wi th basements.
Rouaea are built
of mud or sun-dri,ed bricks wi th \burnt bricks sometimes used on the corners and around doorframes. or dome shapes.
Roofs are usually vaulted in barrel
Interior walls and
ceilin~s
are fini shed with mud
plastlf and the floors are made of a mixture of mud, sand and lime creatinr, a similar consistency to that of a concrete floor. walls and roofs are all'mud plaster finished.
Exterior
Th1s construction i8
quite durable and requires little upkeep. The layout of follaws:
8
standard house in
8
semi-underground village ia a8
the house ia approached through a narrow lane stemming from
the "hashti" (neighbourhood centre). through a small court yard.
Ta enter the house one mus t pass
This central court yard i8 the place for
women's activit1es during the day thus a second wall or a curtain behind the door 1a
prov~ded
to give privacy to this area of the bouse.
Rooms usually give into the court yard which has great value from both social and c11matic points of view. piece
~!
sky.
It a1so gives the owner a priv8te
A standard house conc1sts of four rooms: the living and
)
sleeping area where aIl fa~ily 8ctivities take place; a 8mBiier second. ary room
whi ~Ch 18
reserved for
sp\~ecial
and storaee room; a kt tchen and pantry
occasions and visitors; a workshop 8S
tl1ell a8 a toilet.
Washlng
takes place in the central court yard in a little pool or {n·an old
o
oU" barrel.
.'
!
-
-
67 There ia not, however, the remotest connection with the Idyllic country-
c
side of one's imar,ination.
Most of the houses can be described
8S
mud
huts -low , clark, damp, no windows or elean water- and wlth animaIs practlcally living in the same room ,dth people. \
Th~~e
Is a difference in kind between a peasantls house and the house of
a townsman.
The pessant familY'8 whole life depends upon one or two cows
and an acre or so of soil.
If the cow dies or the crop fails, the family
must starve, for there Is no insurance scheme to save him. The difference between ed ln their houses.
8
peasentls way of life and
8
townsmsn's ia reflect-
Whereas in the town a house la meant to accomodate
just the people who live in it, in a village the houses must hold a large variety of bul\{y stores and the owner' seattle as weIl. ln the town the .... kitchen is a smaU room with a stave in it, a basin, and a tap. In the country the service
ar~eeds
aIl over the house.
Insteacl of a little
"-,
eupboard hanr;inr, on the wall, -~_two or threa tins and a loaf of bread
--
in it, there are belon~ings and stores h~n9
from the roof, clothes
',-
strune aeross the corners on a bit of rope, gràin piled up on the floor, "
and odd possessions stuffed into little holes made in'the mud walls or balanced on mud ledges that serve as shelves.
Instead of an electric
,'
power point or a amaH tin of kerosene, the houee le crammed wlth fuel: wool and cotton stalka, dried
dun~,
aIl heaped up ap,ainst the walls or >
piled on the roof.
,\1.
,
There are hens runnin3 in and out among the dust and babies, there are even cows 1nside the house itself, so that lt looks more like a barn with some people putting up in lt than a real family home.
o
lives so close to went that he cannot afford to
ne~lect
Thè
peas~nt
even the most
..
•
6R cumbprsome et'Onol"y (El .26).
Hp
,d1J li1hor:fn'lsly
~ather
in fuel and
bake his own bread becallse it s,aves him s farthinp; a week. 'J
.
He will live
on BOl1r cheesc from thin sldmmed milk because he has solù the butter for money.
He will never taste a ereen vegetable because aIl his land ia
erooln~
cash crops.
To hold on to ev!?n his present
he must treasure every la st leaf and p,rain
o~
~ies
8
standard
sslable crop and treBt his
cows as jealously and tenderly as his childrFn -more will say that if
liv:ln~
sOJ
in fact, for he
baby dies he can make plenty more free, but i f a co,,",
he must pay to replace it.
'1
Since the winter can
~e qui~cold
in the desert, the peasants
varions '.Jaya of wannine t;heir houses.
u~e
Often they have a bakinp, O'1en
inaide the bedroom in addition to the one in the court yard •. This 18
1aree structure, taking up a lot of room.
.'
Since it·has no chimney,
\
8
6Q
the smoke pours out of it, 8wirls around the room, and escapes throur,h
c
the door.
The
~nterior
of the room, which has hardly any proper venti·
lation, eets black with Boot,
becomin~
insufferably dark and stulfy.
Because of the baking oven's inefficiency as a heatin8 unit, the whole faml1y usually has to sleep on top of It (after it has Bone out, naturally). Another popular method of heating, used particu1arly when there ls no baking and the oven has not been lit, ia the charcoa1 brazier.
This,
however, gives too litt1e warmth and exhales poisonou8 carbon monoxide fumes.
Neither baking oven nor bazier is at aIl efficient, and both are
dangerous to health. The following are examples of existing indigenous houae5
in different
serni-underground villages in different parts of the desert:
Mrs. Behfrooz's house in Gonabad.(surveyed 1969) Mrs. Behfrooz lost 'her husband and her fiveyear old daughter in the earthquske of 1968.
Her house 18 ha If collaps8d l'Ïtnd the roof ie dangerous.
She lives wlth her two-year old
.on and her mother-in-law and has three chickens.
o 'If
:f
70
~c:.TIOI{.
.. 1.
o
.2. J. 4.
Il,,rk ~h"p /(.;f~ht" Flmlli roam c..-I'y~rJ
5. "{;;I.I-·
À.A
71
Mr. Falavand's house in Fin, near Kashan (surveyed 1972)
c
They are nine people, his wife and his four children, his fsther, mother and sister. The largest room i5 for guests, however it i8 used as a bedroom.
His eldest Son has been
engaged ta hie cousin for over [our years it seems they must await more. As he
h~s
no
land of hie own and there i5 no room to house them. Mr. Falavand's brother lives next to him. Their families have a very close relationship and are inseparable. (t,.J. 2.Z)
Mr. Falavand has two goats and eleven chlckens, they are part of his wealth and his 1ncome source.
.,. /I~. FZ/Ù4"/ ~ ht.r ~~!e.r_in - /~w
ô
(Jn
•
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chiUru?
1Re nJ
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72
1 bd rtltl/ll 2 f 4""!J rt>o"J 3 K./h/le.II 4 -.!f#6Ic ç 5 /culd-
6 7
5fo,.~e
"'L w-.r
~:.I- ~ ~Prf ..jfVd
o
~c.a\e • rv 6& ('T"O N
1/1!50
, [
l
'7)
Mr. Mlrzaee's house in Muslem-abad (surveyed 1972).
l'
~
l'
!
8
As his house stands at an angle to the lane, Mr. Mirzaee, the baker, i8 proud to say he has a corner bske shol'. (fig.29) Ho~vev~" he Is unhappy st having three unmarried daughters even though they are of assistance to him and are considered to be among the best carpét w~vers ln the village.
Mr. Mirzaee's eyes are weak and he
can only see in the daylight; he Bays he ... 10Bt his eyesight in chl1dhood from carpet
wesving.
Mrs. Mlrgaee 18 his second wifej
his first wife could not bear him a son, nelther could the present one.
Ht'. Mirzaec the b.kr of t1~\eR\."ba.
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PLbN
:x..a \e
J)o!I~"l'"j
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2 fam.ib e!>e.A
3 Gtdr.......~
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room
roo'"
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r
~or~e.
5 To; L.e..\6 Loo!""\-
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Mt. Kahali's house in Mend, near Ganabad. (surveyed 1971) His father was the head man of the village, and Mr. Kahall ls proud of
it~
Kahali's
family has lived in this house for over four generations, it ago.
rebuilt about 15 years
w8S
He 18 a wealthy man, with two potter's
whee1s and one kiln.
He and his two wives
and their seven children are aIl patters. Haoshang Khan, his eldest son, has recently finished military service and has Just married.
As part of a group of researchers,
the writer w8S invited to attend this wedding party along wlth aIl the viltagers.
Everybody
enjoyed the hospitality and folk music for t~reè
days.
With the help of the villagers,
they have built a new room for the newly ~rried
couple.
It ia the biggeat room of
the house with windows fadng the street .r~J 30)
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8rit/e 9rDDm , fh~ ~ ,Jllu w~~ y(}~ m,no
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75
22oJ(,Ltoo
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., s
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y
•
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PlhH ing
~-a \~. rv \ ~\50
body
8,
~j 30)
=
II
76
Ardestani brothers' house in Ardestan. (surveyed 1970)
c
They are three brothers with their
famili~s,
making a total of 28 people including three daughters-in-law and three grandchlldren. Their houses are interconnected (see plan No.3Z) ànd aIl the cooking takes place in a communal ~1tchen.
There 18 not enough room for every-
body so Sorne have to sleep in the workshops.
1
Lil'l"'!J
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F:t111-~
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PLAN
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For~jj.t:!I
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7 Bank.
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11
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iallle.
P~I- olf/cil
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13 f:J/i"',"C cel/Ire
•
C0J71"';rt:./~1
Ha8djed
7R
(Mo8qu~):
The Masdjed is'a very important place in the lalamie community, eapeclally in the desert area where people actually practice their religion at least flve times per place, apart ,from being
8
da~,
This
worship hall, has
many other functions (fig.33) !t 18 a school for children and adults and, as there are no locks', the Masdjed Is home for wanderérs and people in need.
The M8sdjed i8 also used as a
conference hall and even as a court of justice. 1
J
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s:
Hlin elliruct. Clurl.f"" fINI hr ~N6'
H.,;, ..,,.~~.,, Il./1 J..tI,"tts ~û.ftim
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fil.""".;
,fi"
11..
j'-~e
_
, ..~~
,
Desert builders turn aIl their sensibi~ity
(fi~.~~)
sldl~
and
into perfectlng their mosques
most of which are located on the
highest land of the
villag~ 80
that the
minarets rench high into the sky
(fi~.
35).
TheBe minarets, reverently regarded by the inhabitants, give prom1.nence to the mosque. They are hU8e towers from which the "muezzin" cella the fRithftll.(!O)
.
,
,
,
t:.
0
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80
Hanrnam (public bath): .
1 !
"
Ae most village house. and to~ hou ses have 1
no ba throoms , hammams are co.~on in Iran.(;!f.J6) 1
The han'lnam i s a gathering place' where
.
~en
ean exchange news, g0881p, eonduct business
,
and diseu8s po~itical ~tter8 in an atmos,
phere of 'luxury.
es~p.'~e
18 an excuse ta of the house. and most
For/the women, the hammam from, 'the restrictions"
Thiy put on their
valu,ab~.e
bè~t clothes
~
jewels for thei.r weekly
,1 1
. visita. in their
a~,$o
'lt
liV~
plays a most important role i
as they get ta select brides
1
/ 1
•
/
for their sbna and brothers,. and a rrange the! r 1
/
1 1
marriages 'and, the day before the wedding bride is
ltaelf,
~aken
1
to the hallD8n to
./ /
/
1
d, scented, depilated and generally
be
1
/
,made ready for the ceremony. •
1
1
ahould be emphasized that the hanmam is ,'~8ed
/
everyone, rich and poor allke
e ause
who have private bath. in their ft ie
a public
and,dr~8.e~,
meetin~.
place.
the usera l'est ih a
.pace (cold bath) ,and pray, chat
te-washed .moke
vi th friend ••
1.
0,
~11 f
ba_II,
villag•• whera earlY
..nad for
for 1.4t•• ~
IIOrn~ns.
Mft
(4
vhi i. the
t of th. da, i l .i j
1 /
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6,~rJ c~"û ~. M/~, hsih hi' dil~l-,oA'
J.
S. ~ile} (i" 1/",
/P""".
6. IJ..tStiy
(11, 1-
1"i~ ;~ /6Ufe/ i" IJ~ é'DI" p,l), bt/I
III,,~!! ;,.,,~ 11",f, fAit M;',~ .r~.) e,~.
r./
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~fJ)
1-. t;l6 ~h" 8. H~ .~#I-., , •• /. keuly 1NoN.~.Ir (c,ld f' INf) b.rl h~iÎl -Ir.""IUI"C,' 1; :fil, ,.""..1 •
.9. /ûi,e fflN~1 ..~ ,~F-;/,,-IIV
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82
Chalkhane (téa house)," ~
. ' Although npbody preventa ladies from going ta teahousea, thia place is trèditionally used by men,
except for city visitors who do not
care for native traditions and ridicule them. The "Cheikhane" is used as a
time~honored
forum for exchanging idess, insulta and g08aip. , . It ls a gathering place for'all villsgers,
especially in wintertime when there 18 no work to be done, and the weather Is eold. People sit by the fire, savoring a water pipe, and 11atening to the naghal (narrator) .inga oid 80ng. and haroie stories.
~ho
(11.)1)
~
~
t-
J
t'
t~
r.
, "
~
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®
--t1---..- ..... ----
"-~I=~.
o
1.
Cooktng ar••
2. 3.
CoaDoft room
au•• t
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t'00ll
•
,
,
-REFERENCES li
1~
TBUNEN;Johann Heinrich Von Der Isalierte Staat in Beziehung au! Landwi~stschaft und Nationalokonomie, Darmstadt, Wlessenschaftliche Buchgesellscbaf~, 1966. Berlin
.
,
2. WULFF, Hans E. the TradltionalJCrafts af Persia, M.I.T. l'reas, 1966, Lond'on, p.284 /,
3. Freeae Stanley Windmills and Mill Weightlng,David & Charles 1971, Newton Abbot, p.l·
4. Forbes R.J. Studies in A;ci!nt Technology,Hakkart, 1964, Amsterdam,' vo1.2, p.61S . (
s.
Ibid,p.116
6. Ibid,p.ll?
7. WULFF, Bans E. The Traditional Crafta of Persia, M.l.T. l'r~._, 1966, London, Pf?286-289 8. tbid, p.102 9. Ibid, p.103 lO.ELBADAWI, M.S. S.ha~, The CanadianArchitect Vn1.16, 1972, ,
'Ior-onto, p-..S
l "
, ~~
/"
1 if
"
1
.,'
k
1,',_
•
-
4
WATER _SUPPLY MET.!!QP2. The "Qanat" System While dama
a~d
weirs are methoda for water conservation known in many
countr,ies, tt ta tbe qanat system that is a special feature of Persia. Qanst are underground channels dug into the alluvial fans rising from the valleys touard the slopes of the mountain8.
A bead weIl or a '
gallery of them tap the aquifer at a depth between 150 anc! 9QO me-\-el"'S ~sing
and, by
.
le8s slope for the eonduit tunnel then tbat of the turface
t'"
(Fig.~S).
of the fan, water i8 eventually led ta tbe open
Tbe length
-
of su ch a qanat from tbe head well to the outlet may be only l..5 tD3 _~~
often 1t i. lS ~"ol1\t.l-ctl'and occasionally mucb, more, e.g., the
qanat from Mahun to Kerman is
25- K,lo""c.\-e.. )
long. (1)
Althougb tbe Persian qanat sy.tem is of such venerable age it i8 to
.
thie day by far the most important source for water. by a United Nations expert show that
75~
Recent estima tes
of aIl water used in Persia
come. ,from._qanat, and that their aggregate length exceeda
...
y~O,?OO KILo1l'lt~n.t2.)
The city of Tebran alone has 36 qsnat, a11 .originating from the foot-
hine of the Albun \2
to 25 Ki\ow(lc"sway
vitb a me.sured flow. of 23
u h million ~--4t in .pring and never below
~~
~
million ..
.~~~
~,~
.
in autumn.
An eminent authority on groundwater ia convinced that tbe'qanat sy.tem undoubtedly 1. the moat
extraord1n~ry
method to develop
groun~ater.
"9' ;'1
S.d~1
.1 , .... ; . ,
~rin"". le' ' • • : '
"
,.~'~.
•••
'II-
. .
.. -
.' ,'I.:
,
.
Il
Vi• ..,
0.,,;1
./
85
ganst Construction
c
As considerable capital outlay i8 involved in the building of a new qanat, and as the future flow of water, determining any fi~anclal return, depends on
80
many factors, it ia customary fot
to engage an expert surveyor for the prepara tory work.
ft
landowner
This
exp~rt,
--
..--.-
usually a former qan8t bullder with great fle)d experlence and a keen power 'of observation, carefully examines the alluvial 'fans from whlch the qanat i8 to draw its water during autumn,
lookln~
for traces of
seepage on the surface, often only for a hardly noticeable change ln vegetati~n,
and decides where a trial weIl la to be dug by a team of
qanat builders.
They set up their windlsss
Il
(Fl~.'9)
on the upper slope
of an alluvial fan, and two qanat builders, worklng wlth a broad-edged spade, dlg a shaft shopt 3 feet ln diameter.
The spoil la placed ln
large leather bucketa and two laborers on the surface haul them up and empty them ln a heap around thè mouth of the shaft.
The leather
buckets, taking about 30 Kilosr3"15 of spoU, are kept open at the top by a strong circular iron hoop suspended from an iron hook.(')
\',
If
o
1,'.1' It (J. T/'t /fol/fh" ()f Il a~n.1
/';''''.// J,/6I'1:cr JJr~à9/~ lIN 'olï 'ID fh, J(/~«" ~, Jl/nelt ,,
(
,
R6
The trial weIl ia sunk until the qanat buildera reach the aquifer. they proceed alowly from the top of the aquifer until they reach the bottom of the water-bearing stratum, usually characterized by an Impermeable layer of clay or sedimentary calciferous For the next few days the
~nflowing
con~lomerates.
water 18 hoisted up in the leather
buckets"and the quantities are noted, while st the same time Any depression of the
aquife~
ia observed.
This helps the surveyor to
decide whether they have reached genuine groundwater or just some water trickling in from a local clay or rock
she~f.
This so-called Itab-e
araq .. e zamin" would be of no value. 'If necessary more trial wells are dug to find a genuine aqulfer or to de termine the extent of the one already found and
l\S
and yet with ita bottom
~d.
The shaft with the highest yield
~fficiently
watered is then chosen as head weIl. ""'-
~ater
high above the fields to he In SOrne casel aIl trial wells
linked with a conduit, thus forming a water-yielding gallery.
"'-'-'"
For the next step, the determination of the course, gradient, and <
,
outlet of the underground conduit, the surveyor is con.ulted aga in. A 10n8 r?pe 18 let down the head weIl to the water level, and a mark i8 made on It at surface level.
Looklng towarrl the proposed mouth
of the qanat, he marks a 'point about 30 to 50 weIl for the next ventilation shaft, where stave.
8
rn.e~
away from the trial
laborer la placed with a
Ùalng a level, the .urveyor me.suree the fall on the surface
and put. a aecond mark on
th~
rope.
The"length of thia rope from,the
lower end to th1. mark ind~eate. the requlred depth of this second ahaft.
o
Although .oma .urveyor. are .atiafied by extending a'itring
betveen the head well end th. apot for the next lhaft and regard it
'o.
87 as being horizontal when water splashed against its center no longer rune along the string one way or the used for more important work.
other~
leveUng instruments, are
Proceeding trom each point of a future
ventilation shaft to the next one, the surveyor marks the drop of
...
surface level on the rope each time until he reaches the lower end of it.
Thus he has reached the point on the surface, even with the
level of the head well.
~ater
r
For the mouth of the qanat he now chooses a
place on the surface below the level point but still above the fields. He then divides the drop from the levei point to the mouth by the number of proposed ventilation shafts and adds this amount to the previously surveyed depth of each shaft.
ln this way he de termines
the gradient of ,the conduit, which 18 usually 1 in 1,000 to l, in 1,500. Too much gradient would Mean too rapid,a speed of
fl~
and result in
excessive washout and damage to the conduit. After completion of the .urvey, a number of guide shaft8, about m~JfX'~
apart, are made under the supervision of the' 8urveyor.
30~
Then
the rope with the marked lensth of each vertical .haft i. handed over ta the qanat builder.
He
now
begins ta work with hls assistants by
driving the conduit into thé alluvial fan, beginning at the mouth. Ta protect the latter from storm-water damage it i. often carefully reinforced with a .tone lining ('1s.40), the lined end being 10 to \
15 feet long.
The firat .ection of the work take. place ln the dry
stratum, i.e., aboYe the natural water table. te... of q.nat builder. et work:
Figure~f ~s
.everai
two of them are diSging at the head
of the conduit, the .poU mad, by them beins hauled tO the 8urface by th,ir te•• IIIte. through the Durelt .baft.
They.'bep the conduit
Itr.tght by .1ShtinS over • pair of burnlng oll 1a.,l.
•
A .eeond telm
8A
ls bu.y sinking another ventilation shaft.
At the extreme left is one
of the fini shed guide shafts dug by the- surveyor.
"".tt/ 5f~~~ /nHJt C,on$frvel,ôn '" 4
f,'J.4'1. Odnal_Lil1Ü7!j H"o;>~
QS"6f
The conduit mea8ures about'O by \SDc.m .
When it passea through reason-
ably bard soU or weli-packed coarae conglomerate, the work,_can proceed fast, but if the qanat buUdera strikes 80ft, friable soU he is worklng under an unlafe roof, and baked clay hoop. have to be brought down for lining.
They a1l;e oval ,in ahape, ''5 by
100''''·
and about
lOG .....
deep (Fig. 4~), and are packed tn po.ition vith gravel and broken hoops. The 1008e SQilthay he of the aandy type or a loft clay aol1.
In each
of the.e cales th. conduit ha. to he cont!nued as a lined stretch unti1 better solI 1. met. i~
Coll.p.ing roof. aie the greateat
the qanat bui1der'a work.
their
pr~grea.
danger~
If they ..et a rock or a boulder during
they have to build • diver.ioD tunnal, and after ita
camptation they have to find a n.. in which they . bearing, an operatio~ \ . \
aho. a good de.1 of .kilt, partly relying OD their len•• of direction, partly lilt.ning to tha noi.e. . .de by the d1gserl of the nearest vent-
\
,
,
89
-,
1latlon shaft.
Dur1ng the work they carefully watch
the1r 011 lamps
.'
aa these are the best indicators of pGor air and vapors, goin& out long before a man ia in danger of 8uffocating, 'When the workers enter the aquifer they face another danger, i.e., a sudden flow of w8ter from a water-filled vein in the Bubsoil.
Therefore, when
w~rking
in thi8 ares the y proceed slowly to prevent s Budden break-through. Similar esre i8 taken when approaching the hesd weIl, which i8 often ~mptied
before the break-through.
But if a qanat builder mi8judgea
the distance and taps the full head weIl he may be washed away at the moment of break-through. ~re
It 18 feral\ oç these ressons that qanat.s
.
-
oHen referred to as "the murderers."
-qanat
Nohody will
~ver
force a
Il
builder to go lnto a qanat if he thinks that it ls his unlucky
day, and he alvay.8 8ays a prayer before entering. Whén
t~e,hèad
well hss been reached it will soon become obvious whether
a continupus flow can he msintained, or whether
t~ wate~
short time in spring or ia depending on heavy rains.
runs 'only a
In many eaaes
lt. ia pos8ible to construct a branch into another alluvial fan, a
.
practiee saving the duplication of the qanaF from the hranch point to (
Sometimea it is necessary to.~orrect a level conduit.
the mouth.
Jefor. a qanat is handed over to the,owner the cratera of spoil around the topa of the sbatta are carefully arranged ao that no storm r.,
vater rùnning down,the d... ge.
aurfa~e
may enter the qanat, causing great
Sometimel these cratera are protected by chimney-like hood.
that prevent vater from entering but let enough air in for ventilation. AU the qanat "need conltant attention.
Oving to the continuou8 flow,
,
o
a{lt ia v•• hed out from
th~ aq~fer
and tha conduit valls and
depoaited on the floor of tha conduit.
~.
Another caua. of trouble ia
~
the occ.sional
c.vln8~ln
of the roof and the blocklng of the flov.
9.0 So for a good deal of the year the qanat' builder is occupied with cleaning work and
repairing.(~~.~3)
',The considerable variation Is due to dlffering local conditions,
yield of aquifer, depth of head weIl, etc. water per second
co~ld
Ten to twenty gallons of
be regarded as an average yield;
fi~ty
gallons
per second would be' the flow in a number of well-planned and .we.llmaintalned qanat; 110 gallons per second is an exceptional yield, and has been measured in
sprin~.{~'
1
~
o ,
\
'
91
Cisterns
CJ
ln an endeavor to atore as'much
possible of the precious water
a~
~
while it is available, many cisterns have been built tbroughout the country that serve a rtumber of purposes. Itorage tank in lts basement.
Almost every bouse ha$ a
lt ls built of fired bricks and lined
with waterproof" mortar, a mixture of lime, sand, wood 8s~es, and the see
hes.
This tank and the traditional pond in the court-
yard of almost
eve~y
Persian house are filled from the qanat whenéver
the householder has his tum.
In dry years the needs of the house and
garden must often he aupplemented by weil water. Surplus rain water is often led tnto huge datern, domed circular structures (Fig. 44> 15 ~eYS,
to 20
\'M.~
in diamater and reach1ng
often more, below the surface.
?
to B
ln some cases such a clstern
i8 Bupplied from the spring surplus of 8 qanat; in others an underground spring d1scharges into tt.
Famous in early Islamic times was
the tank ln the city of lstahr near Persepolis built by the"Buyid ruler Azod ud-Douleh (949-983 A.D.).
The histor1an Hamdullah MUstouf1 tells
us in the Nuzhat-ul-Qulub that the insertion of bitumen-soaked 'csnvas between m8sonry and the rendering made the walls Impermeable, a rather modern,approach to the problem.
The basin wea so deep that 67 stepa
lad down to its floor, and ln one yelr when 1,000 men used the the levei dropped only by one atep. t.~ luppo~ted
of the weatber.
a roof
10
~ater
Several rOW8 of columns in the
that the water wa. protected fram the effect.
,The Bnglilb travele~ John Fryer wa. quit. impre.aed
by many of the ciaterna he .aw in 1672 •• He .aid that lame ôf them
vere built by the charity of well-meaning people, and otber. were fi
92 constructed at the "conmon charf,e." 88W
()
ft
His countryman Thomas Herbert
a cistern ,st Band-Ali in &outhern Perais of
w8S
8S
deep as the span of its vault and that its •
to the last bucket.(5)
..
,~hich
"""HD CAiC.ttea.
..
oOt
he said that
~ater
kept sweet
~----
Il)
L
5LC.TION
" .• - ..........• _•. - - - : ;
,
.,Ii
-'
l, ,1
.... _-...{----
r' --
".'1" -'- -. -- -'- - • - - - ...,:
~~._ _:-.-:~~/ r---AWiM[ill.~mJ@[WWÛI!! /III ~ --.J!1' .tt______~ . ." '
:t-_ •/ • • • • __ •
'o.
_. __ • _ _ "
fi.J 44. "
l._. __ ...,_ -_.-
.
,.....• _.. -- ·····---·-1.':':7_1: .,1
Il C/STE-eN
01/\ r, ':lIN..r
IN NifE/N"
.
--
______
...._--~~.
:==~
_ _ .'1
...
.....
=-
===-=:-=::=-_. _- - ..------
=::=:
.
. . . .::::-
----~~~-~~~~==~~--~_.~_\.~_==~~~_A-----. ....==t
~
93
yakh-ehsl (tee maktng & storase) liA Yakh-chal or place for making and stori the ground and a mud-brick wall is th en
g
icé.
A trough is dug in
ilt immediately to the south
1
of it to screen it from the sun(/D).In th, winter the trough is fiUed 1
with water, which will freeze hard dur ng the night; the ice is then the conteal
cut out in blocks whieh are stored building shown in the centre:
the
aIl of the yekh-chal 1s beyond, on
the left" ( 6 ).
5LC.\"\OI't
1-'9. 45"
5~c.fIOfl èlnd
or
- - -
-----
-_
.....
I!I
rial?
Yakl1..chal
_-
Most of the yakh-chals have private bwners but, .in some places, a yakh-chal 18 constructed at the cotmlOn charge.
In the latter ca.e;
it 1. operated each year by a different family chosen by drawing. They are entit1ed ta produee and se1l the tee ·and aIl profits are their'a.
The bther families keep their food and dairy producta in
.this huge tee starage lpace free of charge.
o
A pers on
who becomea expert in yakh-cl\al operating becomea a yakh-
chal 6perator for .ver and paye rent to the owner or, if the yakh-chal i l cOIa)nly owned, h. paya a aliui_l l'eut to the Molque.
SOLlTl'IONS FOR CLIMATIC PROBLEMS
Thi. aectlon diacusses the ways in whléh desert buildera provide comfort in that extreme climate.
The main problem 1s CO reduce the amount of heat from absorbed solar radiation
t~t pene~rates
the
bullding~
Most houses where the writer llved
vere remarkably comfortable with tamperatures of betwèen 16 and builders use no electrical or mechanical deviees.
27~C.
The
They aimply use the five
following oatura! prlaciples: 1.
Site plannins:
e~ctly
Desert builders know
the direction and angle of elevation
of the sun at different timès of tbe day and ln the different .easons.
In the de.ert,
•• ttlement. are orientated so that the two lborter .idee of their buildings face eest end ve.t, while the long .ide. faee north snd louth.
A building in thia situation gaina A
1••• heat from direct Bun radiation than it would i f dted otherwhe (fig. 46)
East and west sicle walls are u$ually windmll· le8S or with 9,.ll windows protected by stra10l mat shutterB or with ornamented brlc1C'Nork to
prevent the penetration of héat and r,lare.
(fie.4 7)
J
The layout of desert vi 11s8es', ~ter of narrow, tortuous .treets, have
rationale.
At
nlgbt~
in temperature, °a
8'
'"
powerful
wben there ls a drop
1II88S
of (o\d. air
18
"stored"
nur the ground and tbe coolnes8 lingers.
througb mOlt of the followlng day. lt 1.
~egrettable
that new developpera tireak
open the old structure and build broad, stralght boulevards where the wlnd blow. the coolne•• evay and the vlliage i . 1eft at the mercy of tbe bla&lng aune
~,
----_. ,
e' '1
0, t!f"s('rt. rël\1Y"\ and rftrtJB, trees shllde> th(> \'.llls
the bonse rourtv,lrch to pn)"; (1.> pro! "'ct ion th~
hot
r.1'·S.
r r,wl
(f1".of8'
,
,~(' stern
In the
(:psc rt. the. S l !l'lp.J eS t
rn~ tho,;
in shar1tn~ /"ommonl v l1~ec1 is thl' roof ovpr1!;!n,9 Nh i ch ~:
fHnr. t i "ns <15 n hor:l.7.ontn 1 511n- hn.'.1 l'Pt.
(fir..""
1·
i'
o \
)
<1
In major town8 and
vi11a~e8 o~
,
the western
desert, colonnades are used to prevent the sun'" raya from shinil1'. ,directly on1 an_ o+t.riof.. wall, especially the east and W~9t \
wa11s.
In a4d1tion to shading houses the
colonnades provide well-shaded
wal~~ays
for
the peopl~. (f1B.~)
•
)
1~.50 . .5heJ/~ by co ID"" /!! / ~
In smaller villages colonnades are
fou~
only
in the marketplace, where they provide shsded area. for
comme~1al
activities.
On
buildin~s
inside the community there 18 no need and, 1n fact, no apace for constructlng colonnades.
3.
Ventilation:
Builders in de sert
c~mmuni-
tle. pay clole attention to the ventilation
•
'of tb.it &tructurea. Moat of the ventilation
•
la providedothrounh varioua ,special!y designod ope'Al1\!lI.
.
.. -
,
•
•
•
q8
The house of Broodjerdi in Kashan ls a unique example.of ventilation techniques. A cool and refresh1ng drau,ght i8 provided by a po 1ycros s ventilation system.
the central dome has rows
of small openlngs which face the winds.(fig.5/)
Builder8 know that pre8sure differences on windward and leeward walls can greatly influence ft
,
the amount of air flow in,ide the buildinr, and tbat the greater the ratio of air outlet area to , the air intake area, the, greater the air
o
.
flov through th. structure •
'.;.
, The
qf the Btool<jerdi house are . . thus arranged accordinp, to th~ best concepts opentn~8
~
of aerodynam1c8. Another
appll~atlo~
used,by- desert .,
of cross ventilation is
builders-~-r~medy
the prbblem
"~~
//...:/.of hieh temperatures in building Interiors J
...
caused by transfer of heat fr.om roofs exposed to the sun.
A double roof 18 constructed J with
the upper roof lieht irt'20lour and wéighinr,
1es's than the lower one.
C·ross ventilation in
,
the space between the roofs replaces the hot
alr there with cooler air. (fig.5J)
The lower roof does not pick up much heat to ,
radiate"ta the interiar and the
buildln~
remains
relatively cool.
In'.ome communities, builders place pergola ovar
o
the roof. to aet .. an umbreila.
.
'
(fi~.IJ)
.'
\
100
-
Buitdera also utilize differences in temperaturé to provide air circulation: air ciro
culates when heated,sir from different rooms rise. and e8cap.s through the open courtyard
.
and cool sir la Bucked in
throug~
openings
to replace it, (fig,5i)
i1 Anotber method employed il the wind catcher.
i.
•
cc
•
_
;
.
'. lOI
~~d-gir (wind-catcher or ventilation 'toHers) Although wind-catchers are known and used 1n the
Mid~
East and North
African countries, they are a pecul iar feature to the houses of Iran' ( '1). TheBe towers are built on the roof of the house in order to catch
wha~-
". !~
ever breeze there is during the hot weather and convey tt to the interior of the house (8 ). The principle of the wind-catcher: 1.
If you put a large tube on
8
burning candIe, because of
th~
accumu-
lation of carbon-dioxide, the candIe will go_out in a matter of sèconds. Even though the air aurround1ng the candIe warms-up and trsveis towards the only outlet st the top of the tube, the air pressure slows its movement and becomes an obstacle to 1ts exit .
.... -. -.
X.
-
If a hole 1. made at the very bottom of the tube, this prevent8
the candIe from golnS out
o
1
.'
-
.a
frash .air 18 replenished iris ide the tube.
102
m.
By placing a partition inside at the top ·of the tube, we can
control the movemènt of the air and keep the candIe lit.
o
The frame
will be pulled towards the exit opening while the other opening brings in fresh air.
,
...
~
The wind-catcher worka very much on the sarne principle: ,
air caught snd ~
compressed inside the first canal of the wind-catcher crea tes a vacuum st the end of the second canal.
~I""" _ _-il~...
'::--. " .
'
"
Through the centuries, wind-catchers have been developed in various shapes and sizes adapted for each particular need.
For example, s
double wind-catcher ia used for most cisterns in order to ventilate the insidè and prevent the water from putrefying.
Î" t ,
'1
. wind-catcher can ventl1ate and provide lufficient
A well-planned cool, fresh air
'for a huge Masque containing hundreds of people.
\1 Here are different types of wind-catchers:-
A. This flexible wind-catcher i8 found in places where the wlnd blowa at different hights.(I!!.,.,.)
~~~- ~----~~
....----------------
..........
-----..-~--~~--._..--------
103
a.
This ia the moat compIex wind-
li
catcher.
The firat canal starts
inaide the exterior wall, continues under the floor and ends at the top of the opposite wall where the fresh
.....-
air is discharged pushing out the stale air in the room through the
'.~
~
,.,
•
second canal.
~
~l
_---'1/
This method has ad-
di tiona 1 advantages: on ,the bot tom o'f the first canal and before tt turnS ~
i
under the floor, is a smaii trap
f
door leading into the canal where ,
,
water and food are kept cool(l&.56).11.t canal under the floor a1so absorba some of the humidity in the earth
L-______________________~~
and thua add. a little humidification to the ventilation system, a very importa~t factor in this ~td·· part
.
of the
,
world.(/~.5~)
~
.
. '
j .., ' i .
.~
'
." ft
•
1
lM
C.
This 1s the most common type of
wind-catcher found in the de sert area.
In rhe èastern desert, where
the preva1ling wind ia generally froom' the north-west and csrr1es with lt large smounts of sand, th!s i8 the only type which preventa the room from being covered hy sand and dao, protect8 the room from the direct ventilation, a8 the wind is too strong. A hole 18 dug at the bottom of the
canal,
shawn in Fig. 58 , where
8B
the sand gathers.
n.
This type i8 a180 found ln the
e.ltern de sert but 18 more sophiatlcated than the onè just deacribed.
)----
~~-_.....
It is a comblnation of the last two typee.mentloned above.
Depending
on the .peed and1directlon of the wlnd, l,t will ventilate directly or indirectly
a. shawn in Fig.5,a & b. ,
..
o D' •
, ,
'
fJ
lOS 4.
Thermal capaeity:
factora in
keepin~
One of the most important
a settlement cool in the
8umner ia the high thermal capacity of the
.
bUilding materials uaed. In some settlements, people make use of the ~
thermal capacity of the ground itself. have constructed basements
~hich
They
are used as
summer shelters when the temperature is at its highest.
Because these
b~ements have no
direct contact with the hot ground surface, , the temperature inside remaina close to the
yearly average.
Most of these houses are at
leaat 30 to 100cm. below natural ground levei and this, slong with thick mud-brick ",alls,
.
eneble. them to stoTe heat during the day and radiate 1t at night.
lei.
"IV'
tp H~h
CI,~d{y
..
,,1 !)i
Thua the temperature
inaide the buildinB ia lower than the outside
/)",-1dli:.! tÏJ ~kn~ f;'~
temperature at midday ,but
/lui
hi~her
at night.(S)
(fig. ~)
s.
leflectivity: In 80me parts of the desert
houses are white-w8shed and thu8 lt
~eems
that
peo)le realize the important part thJt white-
.. W88hing their bui~ding.
plays , in
ke~inR interior
'paces cooler than the outside air.
The white
~
cplour provld•• a hlr.h reflectlvity for light radiation, comb1ned
,A ~
sol~r
high emilaiv1ty
~ith
for lons infra-rad radiation to the
.urroundin~
air.
, ,,, '
'.
106
Another aspect of reflectivity and one that causes dlscomfort to the desert people ls the Blere from the bri~htn~'88, of the sunHrht and its reflection off the sandy ground.
,
Builders have dealt w!th: this problem in varying ways.
Small windows are
~laced
high in
the wal1s, cutting off the view of the sandy ground and leaving only the sky.
In sotne
places the space around the settlem@nta la cultivated so that the plant cover reduces both glar~ and heat ~ain.
(fie.
\
tt )
.. :
,{" t ;
~}~
'r
Ilof
';,
...... '
,~.
.~ -}~ ~:' ~1.~,!1;~:"A,*~~Ir.~~;;"_. "~iL !.!));l:I.~ M. _
1
. ." , ~.~ . .-.'>_·,~;:~'.:~.!;~~~~~,;;.k~1<:."'II'"';",,*.;,,::.~'C!..:~:....:.~~'.L.'
--:;. • ..;.,,-""'"......._ _ _ , '...l'......_
_ _ __
.
-
uu
•
•
cc
•
•
As
8
107 final note, sorne mention should be made
of the domes and vaults
,
desèrt.
!
80
COTl11\on În the
They are important from the point of
view of comfort
8S
weIl
8S
th8t of structure.
The area of the external surface of
8
ro~ghly
ba~eJ
three times the area of its
dome Is so
the sun's radiation is spread over a larger ares than it would This results in
8
b~
if the roof were fIat.
lower surface temperature
on the roof, which 19 further reduced by ",Ind cool1ng. (ft!)
•
•
'1
108 REFER~ES
1.
SMITH, A. Blind White Fish in Persia George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London, p.142.
2.
NOEL, E. Qanat Oxford University Press, f939 London, p.191.
3.
WOLFF, Hans E. The Traditions1 Crafts of Persia M.I.T. Press, 1966 London, pp.251-252.
4.
Ibid.pp.252-254.
5.
Ibid.pp.257-260.
6.
COSTA, A. & LOCKHART, L. Persia Thames & Hudson, 1957 London, p.40.
7.
WULF.F, Hans E. The Traditions1 Crsfts of Persia M.I.T. Press, 1966 London, p.106.
8.
COSTA, A. & LOCKHART j L. Persia
9.
BLBADAWI, M.S. Sahara The Canadian Toronto, p.23.
10.
Ibid.p.23.
.
.
.
'
....
1
Thames & Hudson, 1957 London, p.39. A~chitect
Vol.16 & 17, 1972
• =
-
109 ~ATI~E.. ntlTLDTNC MATEllIALS
-
.
Khak (soil): the s01l 1s not the sarne throughout the, desert,
,.
ing on its geographieal location has tions,
~
Eaeh place, depend-
different texture and compo9-
On the northern border and the western p1rt of the desert,
the" soil is
5ui+able for blllldin~ pu'rposes. \-\er~( One f!_n~ red 80il
or clay with which bricks are made.
These bricks are considered one
of the strongest buildin7, bricks available in Iran toQay.
There are
still sorne houses standing today that are more than five centuries o1d.
On the opposite side of the desort where the percentage of nitre
in the
80U
ls high, it is nQt,as good for bulldinF; pLrposes, however,
thro\lgh experience, natives have learned how to utle th{s soil and, by simple processlng, they use ii to its fu11est potential.
Kahgel (mud & straw plasterl!
.
"the earth ia moderated, wetted and mixed with atraw and chaff. Labour,
lt into a plastic mass(fig.6Î. )
ers tread it barefooted, I;hua kneading
When a suffieiettt quantity has been prepared, a labourer earrles lt to the building si te in a mortar bàaket"( l )..
Irudl'!.!! mvd and $fraw pla:Jfe.r:.
110 This mixture is used as a mortar for mud btoicks.
The richer mixture
which has more straw and therefore more flexibility and adhesive value, and has been kneaded for a longer period of time, 18 used for plsstering the walls and ceilings. Khesht (mlld or sun dtied bricks): Mud bricks have been the most common building matet;ial in the country since time Immemorial.
The
bri~k-makers
take
th~
earth from the excavation
for the house and obtain additional earth from a pit they dig nearby. To the mixture of soi1 andwater, 18 added atraw and chaff which i9 ~horoughly
mixed wlth bare feet until it 18 softer and can be further
Ddxed by hoe (fig.t2).
This mixture Is brought to the building site
where the brick-maker puts it in a wooden mould (fig.") •
• >
.;:
.,.
•
'. .
,,
r
..,:'0$ ~-
l'.
~
Ij.
t"
br,ék mou/dt?!
The brick-maker can make close to 2000 bricks per day. "bricks bave bean 1aft in 'the .un for three .et on adg. tor f'urther drying (fig •. ~).
o
they at:e u.ed straightavay for building
o~
After the
four hour., they
ar~
When the bricks have dried, o~tI.ide
and inaide waUa,
·
a ~",,
__ __ ~
'0 i se. • ~--~--P-----~~----~--~~--~~~-----
even for v8ultà and domes.
111 Th, total drying process takes a day or two
dependinB on the weather.{Z)
AJor (burnt bricks): Brlck-making 18 an ancient skill in Iran where thousands of years oid kilns have been found (
3 ). The brick-malter usually has his worka
à~t8ide the village, with a sul table clay pit nearby.
The moulding
the bricks i8 done much in the same manner as for mud bricks.
oe
The
materials used for burnt , brick. are different as they are mos~ly used
.
for facework on outside wall..
He ule. clay for base material whlch
he cIeans to remove the impudties
112 The clay 19
transporte~
-
to a seaking weIl where- it is mixed wlth one
fifth of its volume of p,ray sand, which iB added to make the clay and give i t
8
H~ht
cream colour ,(fie. (,6).
~ean'
The pit lS 'filled with water
and the mixture left for 24 hours to allow slaking.
The fQllowing day, the workers mix the mass wlth wooden shoveis.
Be-
cause of tts llqu~dity, du~ to the water that was added, tt can be 8cooped with a bucket and ailowed to'run in a gutter where a worker puts the mixture
throu~h 8
sleve to remove
The stralned clay ls then allowed to eettle
impuritie~
such as pebbles.
(fig.6~.
After one day,
the exce~8 water le scooped off and 'four days later the mixture ia
dry enough for moulding •
•
ft
,
113
The moulder tises 8ray sand to coat the inside of the cast-iron mould ta prevent the clay from
stickin~
mould with clay,
it with his hands and cuts off the excess
beatin~
clay with a strair,ht edge or
.
a
(fiR; 68).
piece of wire.
He then fills the
The raw bricks are then
removed from the mould and allowed to dry in a Hat position for 24 hours sfter which they are placed on
daya to allow ev en drying and prevent smooth ,
a
b~
ed~e
bendin~
and left to dry for three or cracking (fig.6Q).
rand before being sent to the kilns.
UsuaUy, the base of the kiln is 250cm. below gro1Jnd levei and forms the fireplace, with steps leading down to it. arch over it with holes, forming a grate.
There ia a vaulted
Thè bricks are stacked aIl
over the grate with some of the bricks placed inside the kiln proper. Spa ces are left between the bricks to allow the combustion gasaes to flow through.
The last row of ~riCks ia layed tightly together ex-
cept for an area of about 90cm.1 in diameter at the very top of the "
mound to allow
th~
8mbke to escape
(fi8.~).
Such a kiln has a
capacity of 50,000 standard bricks (20 x 10 x 5cm). Before the Second World War, the fuel for the kiln was mainly desert .hruba and wormwood.
o
ftring.
The.e vere collected for veeka before the
TOday, eheap blaek fuel 011 haa replaced theae.
lt la
1
mixed vith chaff
o~
dry .talk. of augar beet. and .hoveled into the
114
kiln (
4). Firing tQkes about 72 hours. ot kilns
Iran has many different types
8S
methods vary from province
to province.
.,
.
t
,
~'
t" ' , 1
.
--~
15' 10
"'),',
"
brK.k kiln
3
"l
Ahak/Gach (lime
sypsum):
/
Gypsum has been uaed for mortar and Btucco-plaster sinee early Iranian times.
Plaster was used in the buildings of Sus a and Persepolia by
Achaemenian kinga.
Lime mortar was later lntroduced dur1ng Sa8inisn
tiMeS, when lime/sand
~rtar
replaced the ule of pl.ster for mortar. M'
Iran has large d.positl of limeatone auitable for lima burnlng, and ~
.of Jypaum rock a180. Thua tbe burner. can get adequat. local supplies of each.
In
~ar8er
communit!e., thera la usual1y a craftlman for each
material, but ln .maller
bot~
are done by the, lame
"gyp8um
rOck
la
the . . . type of kilo 11
~aed
for both.
The Umeatone and
d18Mter and 2Spca. deep.
o
towns
pe~8on.
carried to the kUa. by donke, alld A .haft 11 dug 90c:m. ln
A .econd graduatecS pit 1. bullt 60Clll.
frOli it vith the .... depth.'
Thil pit .\\4 .hafe are C01Ulected by
... 60ca. hole vhich ecU ••• Ure bOle.
The .halt 11 U11ed vith
f t
,<
1IIIIIIIIIIIIII....·i2. . . .·2....JS. . .~. . . .--~·P---------------~ 115 rock materiel and a flre 18 kept
~
the tunnel for twelve hours.
\
1
A more conventional furnace, similar to the brick kiln, i8 often buHt on the side of a hill.
-
Therearth ia dug into the hill and
covered with a perforated brick arch to allow the combustion gas8$ to enter the kiln.
The limestone or gypsum is stacked in the kiln
and a fire 18 lit.
The fuel used 18 similar to that use? ln brick-
making: shrubs and wormwood.
The
st the hottom with the smsller
bigger rocks (4Scm.) are placed l
on~
(lOcm.) at the top with spaces
\
between them to allow the flow of combustion gasses
If! .1/
.r /~ • btlrner~
(fig.~{).
Jui"
After cooling, the lIme là .oId to the builder for slaking, ,where8s the gypaum 18 cru8hed to the 8ize of hazelnuts with mailets before - (,
being pulverized by an edge-runner mill.(5)
Today lime and gyp8um are vldely u.ed J from village building to high risea.
Gypaum pls8ter la u.ed to cover mud and 8tràw plaater as, a
\
fint.h.
A mixture of
~lay
and gyp8um t. us.d for brick arches in
building. CQnltructed of 8t.el be... and fl.t brick••
A lime and
8~avel ~ture
i. commanly u.ed for foundationl of build-
ingl of up to live Itorie. high.
ll'aniaca ao".iuS Code (6 ).
Thie ..terial t. iecognised in the ,
--
1
---------~
--------
-1
, 116
Sans (stone): In Part One, we mentioned that the desert area,may have been at one time a huge lake, sa that most of the stones found are sedimentary: travertine~
limestone,
different types of marble and marmareal.
AIso,
\
,/
due to the volcanic mountains, igneous stones can be found.
,
However,
l'
the moat common stOne grained. •
ia limestone, blue in col our and fine
~sed
The, more whitish and veined variety is referred ta as marble. J
One of the more humble crafta in the
t
building trade 18 that of tne. quarry·
man, although his task ia important and hia skill at excavating suitably sized stones for the
mason~a
necessity. ,Hia tools are rather
limited: steel crowbar, chisel and wooden wedges.
Holes are made in
the rocks with the crowbar,and black povder i8 poured into these
~
and closed with vads of paper.
Saltpeter cords are used as fuses.
The waste fragments are removed during these operations and aold to the builder for foundetion building or ta the lime
burne~
if
su~table.
_Ànother method of cutting the atone from its bed is to chisal a .aries of hole. along the desirad proportion. and place steel wedge. in
~ch
hole.
A. the vedge. go into the stone, it breaks avay from ~
lts bed.
.0
,
t-
Instead of .teel ,.dges, wooden one. are placed and wetted
th,t the
subseq~ent
expansion breaks the rock from tts bed (
~
).
Shen (sand): ,
A. de.cribed earlier, ma8t of the de •• rt i8 sandy. •
'
f
in plaster made of sud and strav, mud bricks and
Thil sand is u.ed
bu~t
brickS. Bowever,
bec~use of'lts ftne t.xtur., it cannat b~ usad in lime mottar and concrete. The
.an~
ua.d for mortar i. brought fram the river bed.
vhen they are dry or
~urlng
the dry ••••on••
,
117
Choub/nai (wood/bamboo): , ~
These materials are found in the desert area tn very limlted quantltles.
Thls la one of the reasons for the native deVelopment of different types of vaults and domes. In the northern and westèrn desert, only dead frutt trees are uaed as building materials. possible to find
.
Hawever, in the
~mboo
easte~n
and southern desert, lt il
whicn grows on the shore of lake Hamoon, and
in the marshy area8. The thick hamboo i8 ~8ed for different b~11ding purpo.e8: tent l,tTUcture. by nomadic tribes as weIl as fences and roofing. into
ma~s
Thin bamboo il woven .
and is also used as a building materlal.
desert, where date treis grow; they a1so provide 1
ln the louthern building materi~l.
The trunks of dead date trees.àre used as colurons and thelr leaves for rooflng, fences and mats.
It ls interesting to note
have developed numerous ways of uslng date
-
,
"
prod~cts.
~hat
the natives
a
:s
..
•
i
IIi
NATIVE
~UIJ,DIN(~
TECHNOI.OGY ,
"There is no clear distinction in traditionsl Persian crafts between builder, mason and brick-layer. ~8ter
builder.
They aIl start as apprentices of a
Those who were more talented than the aversge brick-
l8)'er" made Perslan srchi tecture famous throughout the lslamic world .. """
( 8)
However, in the villages there is not much work for a
professionsl builder because every man, whatever his job, ls able to build a wall and a vaulted house for himself. To thls day, no drawings are prepared for the b~ildlrtg of an ordl~ary house.
The common practiee ls that the owner and the bullder 'draw'
the plan on the àctual
~ite
by marking the walls with powdered lime
or gypsum and labourers dig the trenches for the foundations. cases, there ts no need for drawing a plan on the
ground~for
ln Most
the
peasant and his faml1y start digging the ground for foundations ss they know how much space they need. the most fantastic and beautiful
This 18 the .reason that one of
spontaneous
architecture Is found
in the desert.
Pai (foundation): After drawing the plan on the .ite, the labourers start digging the trenches for the foundatlon which ls .bout vider than the planned wall.
~Ocm.
The earth which
.
deep and slightly
ls~ug
out ls gathered ,
and mlxed with lime and vater into a soft paste.
~.laYfJr of, about
20cm. of thi. paste la placed in the trench and a course of atonea, brought fron the neareat quarry or gathered fram river banks, i • thrown lnto 1t •
.
A ••cond layer of the palte 1. worked over the
• tone. and again atone. are thrown into tt. ed until the trench 1. ftl1ed.
Thi. procedure ia repeat-
Vlthln two to tbree •••k., thi.
u
_
»
;s
•
e
•
•
119 foundatlon becomes as hard as rock and ia ready for the wall. If a basement is planned, the rnethod ,of constructinp, the foundation ia the same
8S
above except for the ciatern and water storsge •. ln
thls case the foundation would be laid aIl over the floor ares.
Fot
the finishing, .'saruj', a mixture of lime, sand, wood aahes and the seeda of rushes, ia used and 18 consldered to be waterproof material. Dlvsr (walls): 1
The walls surrounding yards, gardens ,and orchards are ususlly made of 'pisé' (rammed earth). The bu1lder places a layer of eut rocks on the bare gounàs and 'kah-gel' (plaster of mud and straw) is carried"in mortar baskefs by labourers to the builder and he places the mortar in position (fig.12).
The clay lumps are shsp.ed freehand lnto a
course of about 40cm.
From l1ne to line, the builder draws a stra1ght
edge along the growing wall for p'roper alignment and checks it vertlcally with a plumbline.
When the first course has properly set
and hardened) the next one is laid,and
80
on,until the desired height
has been reached.
•
1
••, \l
\
J
~
\
J
120
The thicknes8 of a wall 2\ meters high is 90cm. at the bottom and 25cm. st the top.
For the capping, a course of burnt bricks or
a layer of 'saruj' is used to keep the rain away from the wall, which would otherwise soften too readily and be,gradually washed away.( S ) Constructing walls for
8
situation of the owner.
building depends directly on the financial A richer man ma)' hire a mason and build the
walls with burnt bricks and lime mortar.
ln this case he may use one
or two courses of stone over the foundation as a base up ta a height of about (30-60cm. above ground lèvel.
Such a solid stone base keeps
the brick portion of the walls sufficiently removed from the ground to prevent their being exposed ta too much rain during the winter However, a peasant builds the technique: atraw
wall~
(/~
with mud bricks or uses the 'pisé'
.
the courses are ali3ned along a string and bonded with a mud-
mortar~
identical ta the-mix used for brickmaking.
about 2em. thick.
The bond 18
The brick-layer spreads the mortar with a steel
trowel and checks his level with taining a small pendulum.
8
plumbline or a straight-edge con-
When the wall has reached a height beyond
the reach of the builder a wooden Bcaffold 1. erected dn the outBide of the building and lB reached by a ladder. sin~le-brlck,
Inside walls are mainly
8ometime8 brick. on edge or hollow-built square bricks
forming box-Ilke hales. Uaing brick work on the façade is attractive finish.
co~n
to give to the 8urface 8n
The outBide walls a.re .a combination of mud brick'
structure with a bonded-ln veneer of burnt brick for the outside.
o
).
1..21
Saghf (roof): feraslong as màn can remember,the roof was directly supported hy walls and columns without the intermediary of arches.
'~ith
the growing
scaréity of timber for building purposes another technique was developed in
Asia~
most ptobably in Iran, namely vaulting that permlts the
of buildings without wooden heamB.
roofin~
Durinr, the Parthian and Sas8nian
periods vaulting Bchieved high technical and architectural standard in public and private buildings.
There were tow bastc.forms, the barrel
vault to cover rectangular rooms and the dome over square rooms.
For
the transition from thé square base to the circular dome, the Persisn buUder invented the so-cal1ed 'squinchés' (fig.
1~).
Today there ls
hardly a room that an Iranien builder could not cover with a vault, from the humble peasent hpuse in the desert of a cinema in Yazd where a single barrel a hall seating six hundred people"
(fig.1~).to
v~ult
the coverinp,
of mud bricks Bpans
(fi). The Iranian buUder is a
master in covering rooms of aIl shap-es in this manner, and most of the work is done without' any wooden formwork at aIl.
Light cornes in from
àrched windows in the walls or throup,h a glass pane set in the top of the dome.
The following explaina roofiog techniques:
Almost aIl roofs are vaulted, either barrel, paraboia, basket or domes with or with0ut squinche •• A.
Pa.rabota v8ul,t (Suantsn barrel vault):
AI mentloned earlier, aIl of the work is done without wooden form. except for the more ela,borate and ornamented ceiUngs. common practice li
a. follows:
The
the mBson out-
-~
-
.._...-----------------
.
---- -----.------.---,.---~~~~~---._..----~---1
122
o
/
Id. 1) 1
-....
•
'"
o .
.
/
/
123
" l1nes a parabola on the end wall with mud
o
plaster and corrects the groove with a little stick.
The end wall is a little bit higher
tban the height of the vault and must he strong enough to carry part of the vau1t's '1 weight. 'He uses no measure or instrument,
but by eye alone traces a perfect arch.
An
inexperience6 mason, h~~.,ever, may draw an arch
wit~
.... of string.
a piece of chaUt Hed to a piece The only taol that the mason uses
for spanning a vault ls a chip-axe with which he hannera the bricks Inta the plaster or cuts the brick when smaller pieces are needed. Next~
the mason lays
two
mud bricks, one st
each end of the parabola (fig.?S'>.
Standing
on their ends on the side walls they are hammered into the plaster.
Tbe m8son then
takea soma ~d and,'agal~t the foot of these bricks, .-kèS a ltttie wedge-shaped packing, t~t
s~
the next course 18ans slightly towards the
end wall Instead of .tanding up straight.
In
order to break the l1ne of the joints between tbe brick., the second course start. with a half-briek followed by a full brick (fig;1').
If the joint. are in a .traight l1ne, the .trength of the vault
coUap...
i'
reduced and
tt may
The ....on nov put. in more mud
2
j
lb
$
2
24
•
•
packing agalnst the second course
80
that the
third course will lean even more towerds the centre of the parabole (fig. 1'1).
-In this way,
the mason gradually bullds the Inclined courses out, e8ch one outline of
th~
rl~ing
a little higher round the
arch, tiU the two curved lines
of brick meet at the top
(fi~t. H~1V). 1\9
he
bullds each complete course, the mason Is careful to insert into the gaps between the bricks dry packing such
8S st'o~,
or broken pottery.
lt la most important that no
mua
mortar·be put
between the ends of the bricks in e8ch course for mud can shrink by up to 37% in volume and 8uch
shrinklng would seriously dis tort the arch caudng the vault to collapse (/2.).
The ends of
the bricks must touch one another, dry w!th no . mortar.
At this stage the nalcent vault 18 3 to
7 bricks thick at the bottom and on1y one brick
thlck at the top, so that lt appeau to be lean-
lng at a considerable angle agalnst the end'wall. 1
Thu. lt
prese~~s
an inclined face to lay the
lucceeding\ courses and the bricks have planty ,
of IUppo-rt. ·Thia inclination stops the bricks
from .dropping off a. IIlight a 'lII()oth brick on a vertical face •. A . .ater mason can bulld . . .vault with str.tght eour ••• of brick. without vorrying about dropptng brick ••
"5' .~
..
~
... "
<
'
.
~
•
, 1
'r
di~r#Ulj tif • G8~"'dn 6.,.,../ r.,I!NIJ Will, 7·:~AoJt;: cft/ll6't .:uu;.I';"', 6vif! ",illJov} &tlIIh:r;"q,
"" th ",er/1U1 :JtfIn,;:ln:V/6r e.#tJr:JeS.
.J
••
12(,
Thus the who1e vault can be built stralght out ln the air vith no support or centering, and wlth no instruments.
Just a mason standing on
a plank and a boy underne8th tOBslng up the
,
.
bricks. ~hts
method ean he used for any klnd of vault:
barre11,~parabo1a
or basket.
lt shou1d
b~
that, for vaults more than 3m. vide, two masons, u8ua11y work, one at each end of the vault. If mud brick is used, it contains more straw for lightnes8 and
8
plaster of mud and straw i8 used th~n
for mortar for this mixture is 80fter
wal1ing
mortar. If the vault ia made of bumt brick, the 'brick
TTI"s~be
"
wetted before u.tng because dry brick has a great water abaorbing capacley and lt can absorb )
a11 the water from the mortar and 1eave i with no adhesive value.
t
dry,
The mortar used for
burnt: brick vaults i l a mixture of mud and gyp-
.ua which driès quiek1y and keeps
dropping. ~rick
and
bricks from
Because these two materials
~burnt
'and mortar) do not have the aame strength
adhe.lven~ •• ,
_tarlat.
a.
~e
C8ftt\Ot
,the vaults made of these perfora -11 agalnst sbocks
do aud brick vault..
The latter have re.i.t-
~
ed eartbquake. more then VII 'and VItI M on the llchtel' Scale.
-
-
~-----~--..,..---.----
IJ7
B.
Semi-domed vault:
Another way of covering a room (mo8tly rectang-
"
ular rooms) la
8
comblnation of tht. sail and barrel
vaults: The m8son starts on the end wall ( the he1ght of this wall is
th~
,
sarne
8S
the side walls)
where he laya a handful of mud and makes it amooth.
He then places three ta seven bricks
in one course in the céntre of the wall. n~ber
The
of bricks depends on the span and hetght
of the vault.
Then he 1ay8 the mortar on this
course and makes a litt1e wedge-shaped packing on eaeh end and lays the second course of brick over the mortar.
For the second course, he adds
two more bricks, one at each end.
Agatn he puts
some mud and makes a 1ittle wedge-shaped packlng on the ends, and laya a third course, he '\
Adda two more bricks, one on each end.
He
repeat8 the courses until the arch reaches the desired height and the ends of the last course reach the side walls.
At this
8t~ge,.
the mason
.tarte on the .ide wall. and, st the end of the "
arch, he U8es the salI vaulting technique:
he
put. seme mud on the end wall and laya two bricks st th. vault footings. s'Qg1e vith the end ".U.
These bricks make a 150 He then puts more mud
and plact. wedge •• haped pscking on each end and
~2R
,
1
lays the second course, s half-brick first And then three more bricks, sot each footing.
The
second course 18 more curved and makes a 300 angle.at the bottom and 150 angle at the top.
•
The m&son repeats this procedure and each course he lays is more and mo.re curved until the bottom makes a 900 angle with the end wall and the whole arch makes an angle of 65-750 with the side walls (fip,. 80).
At this point, the sail
vault gives adequate support for the whole vault snd the mason now uses the parabole vault tech1
nique and finishes the vault. If the other end
~st
an individusl roof,
be closed and the room has he stops the work at the
centre of the room and starts the same method on the other end until it reaches the first balf. Tbe two half vaults have an opening of 10-20o between them.
He then filla the gap with the
squinch technique.
-
... " ..... ~
<",
t
,
..
•.1
a •
..
\
"
c.
Sail vault:
Thls type of roof lB used moBtly for square rooms. The maBon builds four solid brick arches with curved sq,uincheB untU a circular shape 18 formed on the top of the arches.
. -
gives him an adequate
bas~
Th~s
circular plan
to builft a dome •
If the curve of the dame le the same
as the
squlnchea, it ls called a sail vault (fig.81).
If the curve of the dame le more thén
the
aqulnches, and the dame ls more convex, it i8 csU.ed pendentive dome (fig. 8.a).
.1
I~
,t'y.''': cal/ft" s../' 14U'" .,i/i rSf.1Iin~"6e ."tI rI';;'~ ·"p.nJe,,'-h;'e do;r" ", . 1
130
/
D.
Persian dome:
This techniqué which goes back to the Sa.lnian period, i8 a dome using
~quinches ~t
the corners.
lt is used to cover squère rooms, (fig.
8~
)
The m&son starts on the corners and makes four half conical shaped squlnches, one in each ,corner.
He stops when lt l'esches' one third of
the length of the walls.
At this stage the
mason start8 to fll1 the gaps 'squinches,
bet~een
the
As more courses are laid and more
bricks used, the base becomes smaller and clos el' ta a clrcular shape.
soon as the
As
courses reaoh the top level of the squinches, the base the~
bai
a parfect circular shape and he
usee the dama technique.
the dome ie the same a8 lt8 t~
The height of
.p~n
therefore,
redfce"the hei8ht~ ,the mBson 1114y use _"other
technique which ia called full sq\1inches. H~
carrie. on building conical shaped .quinches
.
on each corner until they meet each other at the centre of the aide wal1s (fig. ," ). thi~
point, he may fill the gaps between the
.quinches the
At,
h~ight
8S
for a Per.ian dome until lt reaches
of the top/of the Iquinchea and makea
. . . .11 dome ovet lt, or he may fill the glpa v1th .mal,lei' .q\lll'lchel and contin\Ie doin!; .0
until they __~t eaeh othér.
(Is)
-
-
-- - - - -
~~~
~~~-----
131
(.)
•
..
'~Î "" ,
,
r5.Nlf
dti.$rll m (Jf lPellttxl ~f c.OIf$l-l'vell~ DII Ad! ~fllinche~,
Il
Fèr~/;fldo",.
.\
132 ,
FINlSHING,
)
lnterior floor: "Better class houses have stone slabs or purnt bricks, sometimes glazed tlles for flooring, whereas the average home has a floor made from a
( 1
hard-setting mixture of lime and plaster, often mixed with stone Rrit and red iron oxide for
colourin~"
(13).
However, DIOst of the pessant
houses have either no finlshing on the floor or a plaster of gypsum floor. lnterior walls and ceilings: After finish1ng the building, all the interior walls and ceil1ngs are rendered w\th mud and stral'7 plaster.
This coat dries within three dayli
and Is now ready for several costa of gypsum plaster.
A pO,orer man may
render the walls with a coat of preserved lime paint.
.1
Exterior walls: After lsying
th~
wlth a coat of a
1
usuall~
bricks (mud) of the walls, they are mud/~traw
insoluble after setting.
rendered
mixture often enriched with lime to make it
The rendering is done with
lmoothed with a wooden flost.
steel trowel and
8
If thé wall ia made of bumt bricks, only
the joints are filled wito a mixture of lime/sand. Roof: A mixture of mud/atnw and lime, well worked and rather lOft', ia spread
over the ceilinga ln many th ln layera.
Ea~h
layer i. given time to dry
after whlch it is compscted vith. rolling stone.
The layera are
continued until a thickneaa of about lO-2Scm. ta r,eached.
Dodng the
construction of the roof, ample .alt la atrewn and mixed vith the mud
,-
\
,
to keep tlUlacte away and to prevent the dry 8eedl,:f~t\~ l\t\,~. ('
4lftl.+ .... ~.)-
1
from .pTo\ltin~.
•
...
k
133
Ventilation, spart from wind-catchers, 18 provlded throup,h the doors and ventilating holes.
These holes are at the top of the walls, facinp,
either "the court yard , street, or the neiBhbouring house. way to look through these
-
•
There is no
apertures.
The main entrance door Is 8 strqng wooden door or a 801id stone door
(fig. 86) Bet with pivots ta act as hin8es. available material, fLatened
011
Other doors are of any
banels, bamboo shutters, wooden
doors, galvanized iron, etc., some have sheeta of
gl8s~
Inserted. "
This constructing i8 véry lasting and requires little up-keep.
After
heavy rainfalls, the roof has ta be compacted with the stone raller, otherwlse, it would develop cracks while drying. ln acld,h'on ev.ery three to five
~ear8,
the roof 18 sprinkled with soil, straw, and salt and
compacted again with the
rollin~
stone.
Apart from these maintenance
precautions, the mud roofs serve a good purpose in
keepin~
the room
cool in SllllJDer and warm in winter. Openings: As mentioned earller, the frame of the openlnga la mede of burnt bricks or renclered with a thick coat of gypsum plaster. window frame and are, usual1y flxed.
Most windows have no
A sheet of glass ls simply set
into the mud wall tO,provide light inside the room.
Skylights are
also used and they are mostly ornamented on the top of the domes (fig.
. ',
••
1
()
~
•
135
REFERENCES 1. 'WOLFF, Hans E. The Traditions1 Crafts.pf Persia M.I.T. Press, 1966 London, p.I08. 2.
Ibid.pp.lI0-113.
3.' SrlhER; C. A History of Technology Oxford Clarendon Press, 1958, p.396. 1
4.
FiELD, H. & HOOPER, D. Us~ful Plants and Druges of Iran & Iraq, p.87.
5.
WOLFF, Hans'E, The Tradittona1 erafts of Persia M.I.T. Press, 1966 London, pp.125-127.
6.
HOUSING ORGANIZATION Buildins Codes 1966 Tehran, p.47
7.
WULFr, Hans E. The Traditionsl Crafts of Persia M.I.T. Press, 1966
London, pp.127-130. 8.
.
Ibid, p.108.
9. ,Ibid. p.109.
10.
Ibid.p.1l4.
l1.
Ibid.p.IOS.
12.
PATHY, Hassan Architecture for the Poor the University of Chicago Press, 1973 Chicago & L0ndon, p.lO. '.
13.
WULFF, Hans E. The Traditional Crafts London, p.Il3 •
'of Persis 'M.I.T. Press,
.. ,
ct
-
./
1966
-
136 (
_
EART»QUAIŒS
~ND
THEIR EFFECTS ON
BUII.])~NGS
AlthouRh the exact cause of earthquakes 18 llnknown, many sicentists believe that certain sections of the earth's crusts are in motion (1). MOvement takes place in a series of energy build-ups and releases which are felt at the surface as earthquakes. earthquake occurs in the
cru~t
The exact point where the
is called the fccus; the point on the
surface directly above the focus la called the epicentre. The force released by an earthquake ia called its magnitude; thts is most commonly expressed on the logarithmic
Richter Scale, developed
by comparing earthquakes to a standard minimum or zero earthquake. The
magnitude
"M"
of an earthquake is defined as: 'the difference between
the logarithm of the amplitude "A" of ground motion produced by the e~rthquakê
and the logarithm of the amplitude "Ao" of ground motion
produced by a zero earthquake 8t the same diltance. Thus:
K - log A - log Ao
(Z )
The greatest magnitude ever recorded, 8.9 on the Richter
~eale,
il
unlikely to be much exceeded becauae the maximum stress build-up (and hence the maximum energy relealed) ia limited by the ètrength of the earth's rocks (fig.S8 shows different types of instrument. for recordlng earthqu.akea) • The lfod1fied. Kercdl1 .eale of inten81ty i l a descriptive 8cale ,of effecta
,
at the surface.
.,~
.!
•
The 1ntenaity felt will depend upon the magnitude of the
.;,
,
•• rthquake, ltl depth of focu. and the
ob8erver'~ ~i.tanee
.plcentre.
from the
11'-
~
~
f ~,
,
3
,.
1 1
--~~,----
T-he earth has two ma'jor fault Unes shawn in Fig. Bq.
o
In addition, there
are fault lines under both the Atlantic and Pacifie Oceans. faulta have produced,earthquakes in Canada, USA and USSR.
Smaller More than a
million tiny shocks occur each year; UNESCO publishes the locations of the 5,000 or so tnOst
pm~erful
every year ( .3 ) •
.,
/'I.P St"fJ
. . . . . ~ ~=---+-,.J..-._~'"7Yr
-a~~
(c)
" /'",.
,
',/
VLbratl ng object
.,;':>fnJIII4II"~ ,,, rucrd,.'!1 !{frfXI"d m"f,;;'"s ... .~ff'lll~UlI I/$~d D.,y c:h/'!t$1 ~~"'"h$f,J." h'ell
j
b. ~e.1lt6
Il' I~:slrv",enl ;tlr,..~ GO,."''!.:! /I~r'J.o."f8/ :irtWncl ,."ol-Ion; c. IfIs~l'V",e"f la, reCord,,?! f"erru;a! .!jrDf/ndmèJh;'".
J
13f\
Shallow focus earthquskes affect only very local areBS; sorne tens of
o
square miles. miles.
Deep foeus
ear.thq~akes
can affect hundreds of square
AlI the earthquakes in Iran, after 1900, have been shallow
earthquakes with a focal depth of between 20-40km (
~
).
1
A review of the earthquake history of Iràn shows that this country i8 1n a selsmic region. map
(fig.~O)
A glance at the location of epicentres on the
showB that ma8t of the activity for the per10d 1900-1969
1a apread through northern and western parts of Iran.
There are two
main distinct bands, one 8tarting,from the north-esat and extending towards the north-west a10ng the , Elburz mountain and the Caspian Sea cossts.
The second band starU from the north-west and ex tends 'towaros
the western and southern parts of Iran along the Zagros range. two bands of seismic activ1ty
al~gn
These
with pre-existing faul ts, or with
branches of these faults. There have been sorne earthquakea along the firat band of the Doruneh fault whieh by-pa8sea Torbat-Haydarie in the
north-ea8tern·.ee~ion
the desert, and some earthquakel dong the second band Bam in the south-western part ot the desert.
of
by Kerman and
Due to the fact that the
northern epicentres are very ~iose to numerous USSR selsmlc stations and western
épl~entrel
are close to European stations, there ia a
good collection of information available.
As for the rest of the
country, eapeeial1y for the central parts and the desert area, there 1. no adequate information.
Earthqu~ke freq~ency Itudy ba.ed on the data covering the palt fev centuriel bal failed to reveal any aignifieant informatIon, and could he ai.leadinS.
Thia section d.~~
no" ~rofoe~
to help in the predlcting
o
-.
4(r • "
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1900-1969
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'0
140
of future earthquakes, but rather to show where past earthquakes have caused damage and may cause'in the future.
It seems that seismic
activity in Iran originstes 810ng the pre-existing fau1ts or branches of thèse faults.(5) t
The récent earthquake of 1962 at Buyin south of Qazvin in the northwestern desert, shows a revival of activity after a period of rest of nearly 300 year8.
This event be10ngs to the same zone of seismic
activity which, according ta historical data and ta the tectonics of the region, passes a few kilometers north of Tehran, a modern city about half a century old which so far experienced no earthquake damage of any consequence. many times; the last time
The nearby old city, Rey has been destroyed wU
800 years ago. 'l (6) 't
It is possible that these areas that are quiei~eht now and have been active in the p8st will he active again in the future.
~specially
since
specifie prediction 'of the Ume and magnitude of futUJ;'ê earthquskes 18 st the present time impossible, the palt seismic hiatory of a region is of great importance to the designers, and areal with a well-doeumented seismic history could hé • te.t alte for prediction of future earthquake •• Thil section _111 moltly dl.cu •• the effect. of the August 31st and September
~.t,
1968 earthquake. in the ealtern and northern desert based
on ,field ob.eTVatlon of a .clentiflc tee. and their analysls of the nature of fr,ctur •• and fi.sures ln the buildingl and discuisions with tbe Local population
~.
\
to the defect. they have noticed in their house ••
Aa part of a group of 'architecte And ...lne8r. for reconstruction and re-building the damaged towaa end village., the writer had the
oppo~unity
of spending sorne time ln the area.
Remarks
baaed on his observations
ar~
and field experiences. SiRce the enelneerlng aspect
of this problem Is not within the scope
of this paper, only a few architectural and general remarks will be
,
mentioned.
These may be useful
~o
future urban or rural development
prograllllles. During the great Buyin-Zahra earthquake of 1962 ( +), the most important and responsible cause of mass demolition of houses in the desert was the poor quality of the building mater!a1s and thelr unsafe deSign.
The problem ia aggravated by a rather 'chaotic distribution of
heavy roof-loadlng and the unstabl11ty of wal1s. As described in Part Two, up to the present, typi~l rural houses in single story adobe or
desert areas, wlth few exceptions, 'condst of
li
mud wall structure covered by fIat or vaulted
ro~fsJ,with
clay or lime
The mortar, without lime as has been used, ls a very poor
~rtar.
adheslve witb very 8mall reaiatance to comp,ession and, consequently, under the effect of any'strain, .tres8 or vibration, the entire syatem collap.es or may he partlally demolished. Bouses in
th~
epicentral area, moatly conatructed a few centuries ago,
would easily collapae.
.
The great destruction caused by the earthquake
1. mainly due to the fact that the 'bearins walls spread apart caua1nR
,
roofs to coll.p.e under th.lr own .tatie welsht and re.ulting in heavy caeuattiea to life and property. Although 1IIOit of the da_se' il cau.ed by the earthquak•• th.... elve., ft ahould
DOt he ,
...
\
forgotten tut
the _la agen .. of
" thé da..agè were poor
«
•
materials and
o
..
•
;u
th~
•
~
unsafe design of the buildings.
Foundation weakness: ;'
As described previously, the foundation of a
hous~
is a simple trench
of about 60cm. deep and slightly wider than the wall. with lime and water and poured into the trench in ly 20cm. and stone is trown into it.
Earth ia mixed
layer8~f
approxima te-
This ls repeated until the trench
is filled.· In some csses, we mentioned that the building sits on bare ground with only a course of stones used as foundation.
lt lB ohvlous
that this kind of building 'cannat withstand sven wma11 vibrations. A1though most houses had good foundations, because the lsst layer of the foundation of many houses waB made smooth
1
~th
a fine paste of
lime mortar covered by 8 layer of mudlatraw mbrtar, wh en the mud bricks , , ' are p1aced on top, there_as not 8ufficient adhesiveness to withstand 1
shocks.
Walls had sUd
cff their bases.
lu a few houses it was observed
that the surface of the foundations had not been made BmOoth and, as a' .. tter of fact, higger stones had been thrown on the ·last layer and the walls built directly on top.
Because of good interlocking between the
.. teriala, most of the damage was caused by weak walls and not by faulty. founda tian•• Although ground 1evel foundat1ons may Pa .trong eoough, they become part l
of the ground aud not part of the wall., therefore, when there 18 any kind ol ground mov...nt, the wa11s alide Qif their foundatione.
!!!!!!.: Althou8b coll.p.ed wall. were .oltly
~
to poor ..teriall and paor
workMuMp, the following re.aru .bow other by eartbèluake.:
rM8O'DI
for da_ge. cau.ad
)
.. 143
(
1.
Uslng weak mQrtari
2.
Uslng
wid~
joints between brick couraes;
often more than lcm.
J. Using rubble-stone and river atone for ) eonstructing the walls; [This kind of building; ) . could not resist even earthquakes of V M (8 ) ..] 4. lhin walls, leas than 20em. or one brick thick. S. ' ~ettl,ng openin~s in! ~"rotlg- places{q~(It wes ~oted,
even in weIl
buildings
conltructe~modern
that openings were tao close to corners (fi8.Q/) or ta ea~h other. (fig. fl. )] •
1 1
open~np,s
6. M.:aking
-
tao wide (fig. f" );
Setting chimnej
7.
~omersj
;Ln walls and in
[In the caBe of the public bath of Ghir whlch vas
a recent building with ehim~t~
reinfo~ced
concrete,
t~e
was set in the'wall and was the main
,
,
agent of damage, ta the bùUding (t 0 ) ~ ,c,',. "it ~ilding
8.
unconneeted walls sueh as walls
"
.
betv.en two door., calumn.; etc. were q,lIted by the eàrthquake. (fig.'~;
9.
,~ullding
.
weak corner. eapeclally external
cornera were a gres t cau.e of da_g8.
This
problem va. éarefully atudled tiy a group of acleftt18u: • Àn the JlUd aDd brick •• 11s .1thout ~
adequate iDterlocklng value st the. cornera or vltbout retatDlns vaU. vhteb coul"" 8ul,ort the corner, had
beén ••~loOJly 't,
__loIt
"
~
•
"
,~Ied.
....
..
........ ...... ......iS. . . . . .
~a~.a
~
~
i--~.~--~·~c~~~---------------..~,--------------------------
- all brick, concrete }lock and concrete ~""
!.
wall.
w~thout
adequate connectlon between
i.:
floors and cel1lngs at the corners, were damaged. 10. Damage to bearing walls, therefore
oofs.As
most of these are vaulted, the load
the vault is , ldeally carried by the bearing walls at an angle
of 900 but, uaually, the angle la not calculated 80
accurately.
If there ls no retalning wall, this
lo.d of the vault will push the wall outward Photos of the tomb of" Eman-Zadeh-Soltan-Mohsmm4md-Abld in. Kakhk shows clearly this ,Und of damage. (fig.96 a;~b)
_.- ....... .~
,"
r
r
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.,.n"'.J~ c/~~
~c e.,."e~.
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----
-
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t>'
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rI lA ....
~1r;"'41
III
'lai "'. . ........,, ___ . __••_ ...._ ...... _._ _ _ _ _
-
_ ____
.~
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........ ,. _ _
t._~
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-----
'.
)(.ft:hl.:
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I~. f&·b III, I(HW}, 01 ,
: flf'lllfj
•. 1J6id
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''.ffJ .Ikr -I11t' U'f Ih rlll K~ .
,,'
_
--;-
.
-"
ln
_~
i r
,
/'J.'16 8. Hu famp of .E"'i",.Z.JÛI - 5611.,,1 }{,1t'fII",ad_ /Ibid e!:Jl'/ Jy, af krikurlltft!~ü ,
--------------
~~
~~
,
r
in /(.iM,
liJ7 ~:
Ae described above, IDOst of the roofs in this àrea' are either vaulted or dome shaped.
These types of roofs have had good results du ring earthquakes.
Damages ta the roofs were mostly small cracks which could ea811y be repaired.
Serious
dema~es
were caused by poor wa1ls and foundations or unsuit-
able design, most1y where the vaults meet each other.
It is interesting to
note that the main dame of the tomnof Sultan -Shah-Hassan in Dahbeh which was built with rubble stone and lime mortar has resisted an earthquake of VIII M. These were river stones which are round and considered unsuitable, especia11y for roofing.
In the earthquake of April 10, 1972 1n Ghir, ooly 1
the domed roof of the public bath'collapsed and thls was doe ta the un8uitable design of the dome. W8S
In this particular building, the main dame
constructed wi th a steèl frame f!lled wi th fIat arched bricks.
As a
matter of fact, the dome was shaped of several brick walls which were p1aced between curved beams and it ls clear that this dame could not work like a traditional dame.
Ano'ther cause of damage to roofs, a180 dealing
vi th design, was the fIat or basket vault.
As this vault requires leu
material and 1ess workmanspip, it i. commonly uaed especially for small
h
and narrow roorna. 88
lt i. also clear tha~ this kind of roof cannot work
well as full arches.
There are a1ao
~wo
They work in tension raihtr thaD ln compression.
type. of f1at roofs!
one ia used mostly in peasant
hou.es in the province. of Khora.an and Baluchistan.
These roofs are ),,
conJtructed vith the trunks of poplar or date trees with straw mats and .hingle. between the ... laid on top.
()
The~e
b~am&.
Several layera of mud/atrav mort.ar are
kind of, hou.es vere entirely demo1iah.d by earth.
quake. of V M or less.
The s.cond type, mo.tly for government or publie J\
building. and town hOu,."
are of .olid brick construction and concrete "
1 ,, ,
148
mortar with roofs made of steel beams with fIat arched' bricka ln between.
o
The top of the roof is filled with concrete and ia usually asphalted. Almo8t a11 of these buildings could notresist an earthquake of VII M. An earthqnake of, VI M had damsged them serioua ly but the afterahock made them collapse entirely.
These buildings had resisted earthquakes of IV M
and V M with sorne cracks (1ft).
lt ahould be mentioned that,
althou~h
Çhese buildings did not resist earthquakes or were partially dam8ged, with sorne attention to the deslen and good supervision
durin~
the building
process, one can ensure that they withstand an earthquake of VIII M. Most of the dama8;s to these buildings
w~re
becauae of unaafe design and poor
workmanship. Water Supply Systems: Be~au8e
of the importance and ahortage of water, earthquake damages to
this vital source has been one of the most lrrepa ra"1e.
'
and, in some
csses, the water supply systems of towné and villages have been
de5+ro~éd
and water stopped: 1. namage to the w8ter reservoir of
Ghir~
this
reservoir w81 conltructed with thick concrete ;
~al18
and the damage wa. no more than a.few cracks
in the side walls, but the water inside w8S discharged a few "
m1~utes
.fter the earthquake. The
structure of thla reservoit
W81
not reinforced.(12)
2. The plpltÎg lyst8m l of Ghir 'was conatructed with
.ebeltos,cement.
Almoat aIl the pipes were broken.
the vater tower of thi. town (25.. high) with a 'capacityof 15Om.'
Vi'
not damaged but, becaule
of the broken pipe., the tower dl.charged quickly
•
........... . . ,!Mo.'" . - .... ' .•
~
__ ,.....,...!......-... ......
~_.
__
~.'"
~
__
r
_~
,
....
-1---
149 and the town was left wit'hout water.
('3·)
3. The water towers of other towhS were damaged mostly
because of incorrect design or structural
errors.
Instead , of using flexible structures with
cables and bolts, most of the joints were oxygen acetylene welding. (14) 4.p1spiacement of the qanats by the faults or the
r&-€ûfs/,,~
~g.of
--'
qanat tunnels are two-of the most
serious damages to water 8upply systems. Qan8ts
of
Dasht~e-Bayaz,
Boskabad and Baynavaj are now
dry or the water flow considerably decreased by the earthquake of 1968.
However, the flow of sorne
qanata, sueh as Gonabad and Bidokht, far from, the area of epicentre, have increased after the earthqutke.
(15)
5. The rèmarkable thing 18 the incl'eaae in the out-
put
of pumplng from deep
epicentre.
".U. in
Thil phenomenon might
the area of the
he due to the
deformation of the aquifers, or to an inereas. in
the coefficient of tranam1ssibility of the water\
bearing beds.
( \6 )
SUIIIDIl 1")' :
Bere il • lUIIID8ry .nd remarka of leveral groupl of .cienU-"ts and earthquak• •ngineer.:
• A.
th. Iranian de••rt 1. one of the world' 1
••dimentary reglonl# seneral1y r18id and unflex~ \ . ible building. had reli.ted bitter tban oth.rl
81Ich a. .t.el fl"A8td building.. Thi. .... due to
1
Il
\
\
1
1 •
1
__________________________. . . . . .~"~<~. . . '.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I I. .~ Z~
150
the followinG:
o
in aediméntary aress, the
fluctuation pe1'iod of the earth 18 close to the rlgid materials, and the fluctuation period of flexible building la more than the natural fluctu.tion period of the earth. -
l'l08t
(Il)
of the damages on rip,id building waB because
of the fragil1ty of building materials. -
~ost
(\~)
of the buildings could resist earthquakes
if they vere aafely designed.
- 1 ndigenous
bul1din~ that resisted are good subjects
of study for architects and engineers in future reconstruction and rural developments.
- A. molt of the later hardahips for the people Ind the local eco~my were due to' the demolition. or decreaae
~f
the water .upply .ystems, thi8
important fa ct muet he well conaider.ed by urban d.sign~r8
and engin.era.
151, DESIGN SOLUTIONS FOR THE REDUCTION OF EARTHQUAIŒ DAMAGE
The development of man' 8 knowledge of tbe causes and effects of earth movements and tremors has been a gradual process over many centuries)and .by a series of careful 8tudy and analysis of the causes and effects of
the damages,man has come to recop,nize how the great forces of earthquakes aet upon the human built structures. These motions are due to a dynamic rebalancing of the internaI forces in the' parts of the earth' 8 cru8t, which through millions and millions of years have been subjected to stress and .train and through one reason or another the fatigue limlt of the crust has arrlved and breakap,e, shifting, faulting, landsllde and uplifts are unavoidable. The information which has been obtained bit by bit,since the later p rt of the las t cen.tuT)', has helped engineera to evaluate and 8S8e88 the abl11ty of the 8truGtures to wlthstand and resist thls great destructive force of nature. UnfortunatelYJ Iran i8 situated ln one of the well known seismic belts 1
''The Alpide Eelt" crossing the Plateau of Iran vith an average of 3,000
~'.
.hocks per year and occ88ionally causlng considerable damage to life and propert)'. Nowaday. vith modem accumulateci data~it 18 posaible to de~ign modern .truetures with,eertain degre. of reU.abiUty and aafety in many parts
of the worlèl prone to earthquake movementa. ,Thi. i l one of the lnteresting ca ••• "hue human mind and inlUative overeome.
deatructive abil1ty.
mo8t
\~
152 1
Ea~thquake
CJ
engineering has reached an sdvanced level in designs for
expensive construction but, unfortunately, precautions for sma11 and law-cost buildings are not so widely practised.
It Is important to
make ordinary builders aware of the forces they must allow for and to expia in the problem in simple
laneua~e
and
~ketches.
The United
Nations has produced a manual (1.Q) and otÀ.ers are avai1ahle from England (20) and Columbia (.zl) on this subject ~ Most Qf the solutions again can he cons1àered as too expensive .ln most middle-incarne people cannot afford them. materials, such
8S
r" add\'r\oY\
hc.+
the suggested
reinforced concrete, steel frame or timber, are not
available in the Iranian Desert Area. , Land and qetaU observations by the writer and se,veral,groups of scientists and engineers have been a great les90n.
Aa a result, many solutions
can be found in the native building technology.
It 18 really unbelievable,
from the point of view of modern concepts, that the strength of materials and design calc\\lations of such primitive and rather unsuitahle construction
ma~eria18
have reeleted 8uch violent shocks.
As. Fi~.11
shows,
the entire village of H1an-Dasht has resisted an earthquake of VIII M without suffering any destruction. Such prlmitive construction, with due regard to iaolation againat heat d, and d.signed vith hygienic requirements has proved to ba the belt rural
uainR for luch areal.
ba.vy abocks, th.r
If the •• houaea have relisted auch
le lame criteria as to the po.8ibility of deaignlng
auit«bl. bouslng vhlcb
~
• lIO.t econolldeal .olution
oniy resilt earthquakea but also provide t~
t
hou.lng probl ... and rural development
153
o
This leads us to simple and praccical solutions for reducinp, earthquake damages.
The basic remarke shown below are chosen from the Iranian
Antiseismic Construction Code, tfle writer's personal experience and the site observation of earthquake englneers and scientiste.
Almost
aIl the suggésted building techrtiques and materials are local, and the writer's endeavour 18 nat ta 8uggest new and expensive materials or unfamiliar techniques.
However, from a construction point of view,
i t seeme ,quite difflcul t not to use new materials and techniques as some local methods and materials Founda tions :
~re
no longer applicable.
-
1. lIrenches for foundatione must reach 801id
o~
bard ground. In mo.t place. this' level lies between.60-l50cm. below natural ground level.
If
thia bard level ia deeper, reinforced concrete foundatlons are required. 2. The bullder .hould not un earth as a fou nd-
stion material
a.
much
a.
pos.Ùle.
Instead, a
mixture of .and, lime and gravel make. a hard and .olid foundàtion. 3. U:K of one or two layera of chicken wire ta reco.mended to reinforee the foundation.
4. The founc:lation muat he
At
hut lScm. wider
tban the planned .111 ••
S. All foundatloftl
,
'
BlUet
be continuous.
6. The finiahed foundat:I.Qn
•
"It
he at laaat lOc.aa.
154 below nBtural ground level to give Rood interlocking value to the walla and foundations. 7. T be wall ovèr the founda tion must he at least WO
courses below and eight courses above p,l'ound
l~vel
with burnt bricks and rich lime and sand
mortar as a base;
ft
stone
ls alao recommended.
bas~
The burnt brick or stone base must be at least lOcm. wider than the planned wal1s, .Other local materials su ch a8 sun-dried bricks and mudjstraw mortar are not apPl'opriate for use directly over the foundation. ,
....... -,
They retain moistul'e from
\
the earth and become moist and soft.
This i8 one of the reasons for walls
sliding off their foundations.
o
Walls:
1. T he minimum thicknen of the bearing walls must
b.
n~leas
than 45cm. or two standard bricks if
the vall i. made of
8~n~drled
bricks.
If hurnt
bricka are uaed, the minimum thickness must he 3Scm. or one and a half bricks. 2. The minilMll thicknesa of the partition walla DJ.t he not lea. than 20em. or one brick for .un-dried bricks and lOcm. or a haIt brick for burnt bricke..
lu both eue. the mortar used
au.t be rich U_ IDOrtar or cement mortar. 3.' Vain.g lnterrupted or aeparate wall., espedal'. "
11 tôr th. _ring v.l1"
ta not
recoapende~.
vaU. are int.rrupt.d they . . t he aupported by
ntailltna walla.
,\
'.
.,,-
If
155
4. i"he number and Bize of the openinv,s must remain minimal. 5. The distance between two opentngs must he "0+
1ess than lOOcm. othe~iBe a retaining wallis required. 6.
The distance of the fint opening from the
interior corner must bf. no t less than lOOcm. , which means from the exterior a minimum of 100em. \
pluS the thicknesB of the wall. retainins wall 18
'7.
Otherwise,a
requir~d.
Vsing brick arches over the openings i8
recommended td give 8uff1cient strength to the opening.
USing steel or wood for the lintel is
not recommended unless they are well supported
'.
\"
by the aide wal1a. 8. Uaing vertical
1 teel,
wood or conerete _beams
in the wall t. recommend8d e8pecialty for the exterior corners, if th!8 i8 not possible, retain-
lns val18 are required. 9. A layer of chicken wire or straw mat is needed et lealt
eve~y
fifteen courses of brick vork. Thil 1
1. to
reinfo~'ee
the vall agaiut bath vertical and
horizontal 8hoekl.
10. If the va11 1. built
vit~
mud brlçk., at least
lb. cour." or 3Oc•• of the top of the wall
,
1 1
lII1.t
,
\
156 be done> wi th burn t bricks and lime morta r .
o
11. Placing
'8fIy
kind of chimney, water or drain
.
pipe in the wall is not re~mmended as they split the wall in half and reduce its strength. 12. If the wall i9 built with mud bricks or burnt bricks, retaining walls for supporting the wall
• against horizontal movements and pressures are recommended,as approximately 951. of the earthquakes in Iran are horizontal ground motions. Roofs! As thé vaulted and domed roof are two of the hest types of roofing for earthquake regions, suitable design and workmanship are important.
The following
ramarlts deal with vaulted and domed roofs. 1. The shape of the vault must be designed to ita
best static form. 2.
"f lat or basket ar
3. 1 f the end of the vault 18
.
nnected to
the otber vault and is open, this end must he
done with burnt bricks' and lime mortar to a depth
of at le.sot 2Scm. or live brick courses. 4. The open end of the vault MUst be tied Inward vith ela.tic material •• uch as ateel vires or cablel-
a. 'thi. end ia veak and cannot re.ist
.-
..
\
vertical .hocks •
.tron~
-------------~---~----
-
157 5. 1ih.
.
he
()
hau~chea
or
footin~a
of tb. vault. muat
t1ed 1uyard due to the campra•• ion force ••
6. ïhe .pace wbich the vault covera mu.t he ~n1.. l,
a.
t~e
"
ama1ler vault bas greater re.iat-
.1lce to motiou. 7. lf the de.ign requir•• aeveral parenel vaulta
91th party walla, the lait outer wall mu.t be "
lupported by a retaining wall. T
8.
.
~~'. ~.
~r...
~er.ver
the tenaion force of the roof ia Maner
tban other points, a retaining wall ia requirea.
"
'
Ceneral
1. Roofed apace. arult he minimal.
r.quirement~:
2. A buildiq
~
tuu two ltori.. high t.
DOt
TecoaM1lded uni". the bulleliu.g i. COIIIpfetely ..rthquake re.i.tant.
,
,
r'
. .11 cOÙJiclereel in th. cleaigu of .. coaabiMt1cm of
",
" ~riaa wall1 8nel nofs.
rQ .'
.
f
(,
4. All· public buUdiql
aJlt he
COIIPletely _rt~
. . . rel1ata1lt •
.'
...
1
5. frni4i. . . .tu thrOulh t.he deep ,..,1111 welll)
., ,
.....f.a11' 'or . .11er ea tl 2ttltte.,i~
ftC] /,
_
. . . ., .... • pipt. .
.
SMed.
.;at- nd t'- "tar 'IY
•
t~1n (PO lI .......) _ t .. ~ W\tn
a-al.·....ul••
.
-
.
, ,
,
--
158
6. 1 n csse of earthquake., a11 rep4irable cracks
o.
and damages must be repaired immediately as molt of these damages will become serioul or will cause collapse of the building during the after shocks.
This 18 especially applicable for social, historicsl or artistically important bu1'ldings.
J
o
7. ~xpan810n and contraction of different materials .~
diff.rent temperatuTe. may cause damage to
buildings; thi8 must a180 be calculated by the
\
,
.'
159
Note:
o
Tying the footings and ende of the vaults are not a new method of securine the v~ults from tention forces,
8S
clearly one can see on
fig. 88 the maRon has tied the footings of the vault in a very prim!the way.
The figure 98 shows dHferent forms of damages of an earthqualce of
IIV H ta a single vault with different construction methods. In the figure 99 details of tying footings and enda of a vault.in a simple and prActical ways is shown.
•
.
"
'r
,
••• :';"
'0
, l,
'~ , .J'
.'
,
...
.
f,,~' \
.
i>
f
()
A. •
~Ic tII,,1f w,Ntqv/ $lJfP tH' f. eJlll'$l Il.~ "'''''f'.1Jc ",,//. 10- so 7. ".J ,...1: &<J-lDOX
,
co,,,,.,
,..,.,,.,.1.
" .,.,H ..,A
,.r,,",'!!
"./, .&5'-50% col5rs~
""II.,
w" : () -51. u/t.f.1C
1101 ry.r..J.
",.,;1"1/ ~
.
i; . • ",N
"'1
M~ Iltl
l-"iIs . cM., ,.,..,.ü
I~~JJ" .,,/1: 1) -11f, ctllltfH
".~ fW.~
~. , ,.,,11 wr'lj l,..'
"al
'-"'if- .",
NII*:J ., ".ID'~ III ~/,.
_"
J
~ t!IW/c.
H •.
,.,..,.~1.
"';".'••
1
,r
.14/
()
8 A~C=====--
~
;
,
A&~:.--==:======== l
~==-========:=:::::"'lj
'
~
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L 1
,Ir ,
J"
~
,
~
A&O
r.
\
'.
.
..mf" ~ 111111
8&C
\U1tIf
8&C
,
, 162 REFERENCES
()
---
1.
HuDSON, John H. Earthquakes and Earthquake Structure Prentice HAll, 1946 New J~rsey
2.
Ibid.
J.
UNESCO Résumé Annuel d'InformRtions sur les Catastrophes Naturelles 1971 Paris.
4.
BANISADR, M. !he Seismicity of Iran 1900-lQ69 Planning & Progromming Department, 1969 Tehran, p.5
5.
Ibid.pp.10-22.
6.
Ibid.pp.25-26.
7.
ttHAAN UNlVERSI'lY The Great Dl1sht-e Baysl'! Earthquake lnstitute Geophyslcs, 1968 Iran l pp.70-79.
8.
MOINFAR, A.A. Preliminary Study of Ghir Earthquake Technical Resesrch and Standard Bureau, 1972 Tehran,p.33.
9.
TABARSI, M. Bandar-abas Earthquake of 1971 Plan 1971 Iran, pp.7-~.
l
&
10.
MOINFAR, A.A. Prel1mlnary Study of Ghlr Earthguàke and Standard Bureau, 1972 Tebran, pp.1-2.
11.
Ibld.p.29.
12.
Ibld.p-.63.
•
o~
Budget Organization Tec~nical
Research
13. Ibid.p.69. 14. Ibld.pp.67-70.
15. TBHRAN UNIVERSITY The Great Da.he-. Bayaz Barthguake In.titute of Geophy.lc., 1968 Tehraft, p.16. 16. Ibid.pp.17-18.
17. MOINFAI, Â.Â. 'Iel1mlnarr Beud! of Ghlr Earthguake Tachn1c.l Re ••arch aad St.nd.rd Bureau, 1972 Tehran, p.26. la.
UlfITlD HA'1'tœB Haœal on Building .1\d Pla""1n, 1.n RadOM Su1)ject ~turll Difi.ter., Economic'and SociJi Councit, dëntre for 1ftl, Bul1diftl and Plann1nl, unpubl1.had, December 1972.
t'
*'
M
20.
BUtLDING RESEARCH STATION,Seventh Note on Tropical Building Legislation, Model Rel?è!lntions for Small Buildings in Earthquake ànd Hurricane Areas Garston, Watfbrd, Herts, England, 1966.
21.
ENTRO INTERAMERI~O DE VIVIENDA y PLANEAMtlmTO ABism1cldad en Viviendas Economic8s, 1959 Bogota
22.
TEHRAN UNIVERSITY The Great Dasht-e Bayaz Earthquake of Geophysies, 1968 Tehran, p.73.
()
Insti~ute
, \
\ ;
\
,
\,
\
\
\ 1 \
'\
,
\
, \
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....
·1
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"
,
'~
.. ~ i.:
<.
~
, .... ~ l~
~
...
~'j • 1'"
, ~
~I:'.
J ~
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"
~
1
,
" q.
,.~i~II.\:~,~.~.~~ ~
,
\.k
t.
!~'I' .J!'.~i',i! ••l.i'lfi;iili.hli!
1
!
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1
·-
16~
tHE DESIGNER'S RESPONSIBILITY
\
\ ~
new materials and construction methods becoue prevalent, the architect
emerges as an indispensable specialiste a •• ociated
~ith
Oftentimes the pleaaures once
the building of one's bouse are lost in the architect's jargon.
He views himself as superior to his client because of his epueation.
This
occurs desplte the fact that few architects cau bandle the innovations and, arti.tlcally, ett$ineering replaces aesthetics, resulting in the uglif1eation of towns and cities. Tbe poor man, who cannot afford the architect, emerges as the lucky man for ,
he cau still make decisions, that is unless the govemment step~~ c.ii
-------
_____ --------
IOvemment architects canuot deal vith each f~project involving ~-~-
thua-.tgtlstI~~ take on an .dded importance.
a million dwellings.
Once
they are tabulated and evaluated, housing style Is limited to a few variants .ucb al family aize and Income level.
The relult i8 hideou ••nd inhuman:
families are given ill-fitting cells without cou.ultation al to the design and needa .• ~
so acting, the goverament architects forget that thougb Itati,tici show Jo'
Q'
::.~....
g.ueral trend., the indivfdual 1. uapredictable. l i '
s~, ".
IIn110n people in that l.ngtb of tilDe.
Be do•• thi. by limply des1gning
one bou.. and 1IIUlt:lplylng it by on. mUlon. thlug. which IbQuld ln
bu~ldlng
J:
.
If the architect were .skad to design oua hundred hOUle. in cae month, he • would be cru.hed by tbe tnk; yet he cau design a hous1ng project for a
IlOt he
1II11tipUed.
!.ut 1u
10
do1q he 1II1ItipU.••
Vadou type. of labour are u ••d
a hou•• : ,- 1. creative labour . (the d••1ID);
2.
tec~c.l·
labour
(the . .enataeeriaa . calculat1ou); 'l. edldD18trative anel "oqaD1utioul labour (accOUlltt.raa, ncnlt11l1 _Hari, etc.):
ara, pla.bera , ,, atc.);
4••kUI .. labour (-..ons, carpent-
5 ••_b~l1ed labour (eoDCrete
1ay"".~
etc.);
6.
UIUIklllad lalJour. ...b type of labour ta p&oport1oute to the 'total labour
,
.
,1
i1-
and the ratio. should he fairly constant. falter it affects
(
th~outcome
If any
and will haye
~ype
of labour ahould
repercuss{on~
on the whole
pl'ojeet. Economies also play a large role in the building of law-cost housing.
The
creative and,technical labour are often 88crificed because of their higher COlta, causing the quality of bousing ta suffer.
The familias' also suffer
in the process for they will become dull and dispirited living in rows
of
identical houses.' The govemment architects, and tbe govemment itself argue that there, muét be staudardization in bousing if a million people are to be hOused.
lt is
'a pit Y that the authorities thiKk of people only in numerical figures or a. objeets to be plaeed in a box, for they are, in the end, the greatest national resource and asset in building., Man bas creative pawer and, given
1
half a chance, he eau solve his part of the bousing prohlem and, in the
•
proeess, produce a lively work of art.
Tbe alternative to the dis8strous
mass bouling projects Iles in each perlonrl longing for a house and his Ir
. . gemels to build it hiuelf.
l'he
gove~t
would ltill hlVe an import,nt
role to play in a building revival stemming from the individual family:
...
they could create conditions where such a revival could flouriab; remave obataeles to private building; guide and
trai~
people in.tbe craft of
building and provide financial alliatance where needed.
Special training
abould be ext.nded to .rchitects in Iran to sensitize them to th. problema of rur.l
dev.~opment.
1~81Ipl.a
of familiel undertaking such eudeavourl at'e found ln tbe Nubi., in
upper !aypt (1), where one can
.e~
tbat uneducated f.ll.h.,
.kilt., can do fil' better the.. the lovernment acheme..
g1v~
the required
Sbanty tOWld made
of ,a.ollne e.n., p.cklna c•••• and otber wa.te productl a180 lbow tbe , • .lI>'".
"
:.
''':)\i'-
< ,
"
"..
. " , '
imagination, ingenuity snd enthusiasm the peasant can bring to building his
c
own house.
Of course, things such as
roa~s,
drainage and
fire-pro~fing
are
lacking. ln Cora, Jor"n in 1954, refugees from Palestine built such a settlement (2).
In Athens, (1920-37) refugees built many districts that are today the only ln Peru (4)# there is a
presentable native architecture in that city (3). lesson that a11 plaJUlers should heed:
in building the "Ciudad de Diosrr in, .
. 1959, 100,000 people previouslY,living in the slums of Lima decided, in aecrecy, without and despite govemment intervention, to build a new suburb thus demonstrating their contempt for government
p~anning.
The] planned the
roads, houses and even churches and, on Chrismas hight, carrying materials vith them tbey put up a thousand temporary houses.
Police intervenecl but
5,000 people stayed and are living there now.
The lesson canuot be stronger:
if 5,000 people can house themselves in a well
laid-~t
cocaun1ty deapite
the negative govemment intervention, what could be doue vith positive savemment participation?
Oua must not, of course# assume that a11 pealants can naturally produce fine hou.ea given the materials ne.decl and .bown how to u.e tbem.
Becaus. Qf the
'Very nature of man, people tend to copy ~hat othera, better off than the~
are, have. _ Thus a paor man will
~i1d
a cbeaper and ulUer verdon of a
rich man'. house who, in turn, copied it fram a
E~pe.n.
lven when he bulld. hb '_clam" houae or the 8O'YeràlMnt oUer. hi. a concrete one, h• •Y IlOt lbe in id ln the ca •• of the 1961 earthquake ~n lain-Zahra wbtch left hehiDd 30,000 ~
Il' ,.' .
. .4 and aDOther 30,000 or lIOn hoeel... # th.
A.,.e~t
decidec1 to hou ••
i
;<.
the•• people.
.
" ~
"l
There .... .:ma,. and' _terUl. ava:f.lable Neau,_ of B&tioDa1
<
" .'~, , .. ~
.r'" 0k ~t.'
~~~g~am~. . . . . . . .""""""""""--------------------~
f
and international help, and there was enoup,h manpower as the projeet was DOt
too larse.
.
The govemment lent in its .urveyers and atatistltiana Along vith engineers and architects.
They huilt a new coamunity with 700 or more unita and
public facilities.
Weil, one might ask were these houses enough for them?
lt 1IIUet be saiJ., some stayed with their dead, same were attracted by the cityls colourful neon l1ghts and some lived in their newly built hou ses . Although ail governmentsl departments were very concerned and very interested in helping these villagers, because of their education and standard of living, they had no full villagers.
under8tandin~
of the needs and viahes of. the
The outcome of that vas that the new village was not liked by
the villagers and eould not serve them socially and culturally.
More than
that,' as the veather of Bain-Zahra i. very cold in .inter (sometimea over
l50c belov zero), the 20em. thick concrete walls .urrounding the ro~ could freeze th.. to death.
So, ona or two year. after the village had
bien completed, the villagers built an adjacent community in their ovn .a,_
They dismantlad and u.ed many of the govemment'. building compo-
.
Dente to build thair new eoaDUnity. la 1969, a rich client a.ked thawriter to bulld a little houee for hi. gardener.
A. he had a very big and niee garden vith a vhite marbl. villa
near the casplan S.. , and ail the
~i.ito~s
vould pa •• through hi.
gar~en,
he wantad a nie. guard hou •• which would a1.0 •• rve a. a hou.e fot hi.
IArd.ner.
The outcome of thi. projact vas a ... 11 hou •• vith vhite-
v..hed concret. va11. and red shingl •• OD top, .urround.d by
,
greena.
"
Th. rieh
_n
l1ke lt
ever-
.0 .ch that h••• ked to ha"a an .partment
'"
()
~.11
ud offiea buU4ing built for hi.
ln T.hran.
1 later heard that the
\61'
old gardener refused to liv, in hia modern hou.e.
(
.ame change..
,
He
did net like the
want~d
ha th
He wanted to make
to change thè toi let for a aquatting toi let and
tub aa h4l was uaed to using the "ha1llD8m".
He a180
did not like the gas range which va. too high as he wa. aceuatomed to "
cooking at ground leve!. 'IIfj
The rich man later told me uI had to change
gardener for a civllized one 111
Thé na.ht-e-Bayaz earthquakea of August 31st and September lat, 1968 which ,demolished two tOWOB and Beverai village. was the second big housing project taken up by the government. ~e\~3
st that time an architect ln the Housing Organizatlon ,the
vrlter had the opportunity to work. this wu the rebulldfng of. tHO entire towns and three villages a. weIl of .ame other villag... belped.
88
the rebuilding and repairing
Ali goverament departmenta vere coneemed and
AlI planning and de.isning took place in office. in Tehran and
the whola project took exactly one year to complete.
1:. l' r, 1..
Th. hou.e. vere
aIl coloured cqncrete vith the front and beekyard. facing va.t asphalted .tr•• t..
AgaiD aIl fa.tll .. and bou••••ere divided into thr.e cl ••••• :
tvo rooa, thr•• rODa, four,raa.
~ ••••
All tha hou ••• v.re .1ngl. unit.
with open .pac. on four I1de. and .urrouucled bJ'low 60c:m high wall •• Th. whole hou•••a. th.refor. vi.ibl. to pa•• ~-by even the inaide of
,:.,
th. hou.e becau.e of big .,clem vindowe. ~tb DO
"
.hade end
DO
tr... a. tbe,e vould take at l ..n 10-15 yean to glve UnfortUMtely, the vriter ha. no further
data about th. occupaacy of the •• "
can imagine the.. ~u •••
vide a.phalted .tr.et. lD the -'641e of the d••• rt wber. ther. i.
• very _11 a.ont of .hacte.
'..
cm.
c~it1••
but, to . p t ta th.. e
co..unitie., .... cultural 'acton 8l.-t be cbaaged or
o
Nid~ th.y bave to kCOM 'civiliseel' people".
10.t.
AI the un '
vu
..
lU
»
•
•
, ."
. ,,'
~,
HOst
architects, when they
c~
to tbe decision of building housing
for the poor, design a smal1 bouse .ith minimum facilities and space as has been done aIl over the world. angle.
They never think about the buman
Their clients are mas. population.
When they design
for v1l1agers, they again think of npoor~.
poor, there are differences
be~en
housin~
Although the'villagers are
a poor tovnsman and a paor villager.
True, everybody bas a cultural baclcgTound and tradition; a poor townsman
ha. been forced to 2ive up hi. tradition especial1y when he lives 'in ~
large city, but a villager ha. a .trong
back~round
of traditions. He
;
lives vith them and die. Vith them.
\ 1
1
Hi. property, his .ealth, bis
fadly, even the climat~ he lives in formspart of bis traditions. His attitude towarda everythinq ia part of his traditions.
B~ uain~
,
the
wropg type of .rchitect~re (modern per perhaps"civilized architecture)
---------- - ---
. . take avay bis ...t~hbours, his family, and he l00 •• s aU social life.
bulth, technology and architecture.
True, but .verytbing takes time. ,
A yl11ager in hi. village la identified vith hl. family, neip,hbour.,
and hi. atrength of decidou and .hen vith architecture ve apreacl out hi. fadly and neighboura, taking hi. .trength of clecUion away, he may change to a vallderer or even pn-baptl a beggar.
J'or a 'ri.llager, his houa. ia the ..at 'bIportant
. . . . . .r MIltlou ..., f ....ly", he aaya Ida fad.1y.
~
~rt
.
of hi. property •
bou*e" for hUa hia houae ia
81_ father aad forefathera had layefl the
he ba_ ad4e4 to i t aDCl hi_ . . . ftll .44.we.
brick.
of the bou •• ,
TberefOre, aay boua1ng
1
pl"Oject for rillagera 818t be doM wlth tbe1r . . hnda ,or coaaulted
\naarftas tutl.u.as
..lu. '.
the project. ~1ogy
nia i. ,apert tra.
--' Mel". _terlala.
tawear-at, ea4 . . . . .t ail the
re-latrocluc1lll tra41tioDal ~
requiN
1...
"chi. .ry JI
nquire.enta of the cU_t., their
~eial
life, and beauty.
Tb.
a~e~t.ct
.hould htmaelf have
t~.dition
and
-
be re.pondble, DOt only to hb dedgu but rather to bu.ap beillg•• Q
lJDfortunately, .tbi8 il,an academie for tbe
•
•
areh~tect
who vork, in •.~
"gov.Mnt ciepertlMllt. wbera everytMnB 1. dietated to hill. . archit.et ever d,...... of vorking. vith tbe
1Ili.era~le
Al'o
:
DO
..
relourçe. of the
,... .nt.
\ ..
)
..
l'
..
"
i'
.. ,' • t
, ,
•
" ,
'. .
1
;
~
.
/.
a ,
),JJ •
.'.
~
.of r
':.' '.
.,
-
'!~ , ';
~
.~
l.
.. TIIE SOCIIiL ,
17/
SYSTr;~f:
(.\ lt 18 ooly rccent1y miser(lb~e"
that'~overnments
have taken an intereet in the
and rapiclly worseninp.., con<1itionR in which ",ost 'peaS8l'lts live.
-1 althou~h
ln'the S8me wBy,
people h3ve becn building houses for them-
aelv(!s for thousands of years, i
t
is on1y very recent 1y that, they have
begun to consult lIrchitects about the ,desl,I',n of their houses, a house was the sole creation of the
owncr
EarHer,
therefore he was ~rchitcct,
èverybQdy was""arc-hitect, \
T.he spec'ialised archltect in the bureaucratic society is an expensive luxury ; sa he iR found only ,,,here there is money, Dac811se he w()rks! for f,airly prospcrous clients or the ,
~ovcrnment,
the architect is not
\11
alwa-ys concerned with C'lIttinr., the co st of Ids blliJrlin,,:, This cost
i
s
determined by the bllildinr. contractor who cxecutes the work. Tlle professional contractor, 11ke the architect, tends to he expansivej
'0
he too is found on1y where there is moncy,
like to live in townsj further, only n 8uf~icient flo,~
Mow moneyed men in Iran
fa1r-si~ed
town cao provide
8
of work ta keep architect l'Ind contractor in business,
!hus the peopl~ prôfessionally conC'ct'ned "rit'h buildinr. ~ the only people, in fact, "'ho have any. ~xp~rience in larp,e-sr.t1le hUlld,inr. - live in the towns ,and have 'experience in buUclinp, only Ilnder the pecuHar conditions prevailinn in tm~ns,
The'architect olway~ desir,ns in the ey.pectation
that his deeif>,n ,01111 be executeo by n buildinr. cont1'8ctOl', and the
.
contractor
ah~(\y,$
...
aS8\lmes the existence of smallcr fi rms to which he
ean '\1b-contrnct the work, and of An ndequate supply of materials and
labour. Whe" • novernment or other Itlthorlt)' ,wiahu tq bulld, lt obtnins tech-
nied advlee from architecte.
Architectl (tcslnn And prepare estimate.
~
with the idea that the work will he executed through the ar,ency of the commercial building contractor.
1
For
8
172
cusç~mary
project in a "
town -
•
1
8
b~ock
hospital, perhaps, or a
of offices - the cast of build-
1
ing done in this way is acceptable to the authority.
!ut when the
authority cornes to conslder laree-scale building in the country, 'particularly the rehousing of grest numbers of
pea~ant
families, then
st once the enormous cost of the pro,1ect condemns it ss.impr!1cticable. Thus, though Many ambitlous schemes of rurat redevelopment have been provided none,has evel' survived the first committee meeting st which lts probable cost was revealed. The contract system must bear ,the blame for this high cost.
The principal
contraeto'r farms out the work to subcontractors, who are severally. l'esponsible for auch items as thè masonry, the carpentry, the 8anit1fY - installations, the
pla8~ering,
and sa on.
will put the work into the hands of
8
The 8ubcontl'actor in his turn
jobbine builder, who wilÎ actually )
engage labourers and supervise them on the job,
There are several middle-
men, each of whom takes his profit and helpa to put the priee of the job
up.
Materials tao, when bought
rea~Y-~de
from commercial
"
supplie~s,
tend
to be dear. There are two further disadvantages ln having big rehousins projects executed by a private contractor.
The firat i8 that the primary contract-
or ia aImait aa remete from the work .'
8S
la the
pl~nnlng
authority,
that he cannot exe~8e any de~ailed control over the building. of reaponsibility,
th~ough
80
The chain
jobbing buUder"j8ubcontractor, primary contract ..
or to the planning authorlty ia ao alternated tbat no
p~ee18e
cheCK
ca~
be
,01"','
o
kept on the eost of individual items. çontact w~th the labour market,
10
Relther i. the contractor in clole
that wark may'he beld up,or b6come
unrea.onably co.tly, becau.e tbare are no worker. to do lti
r
173
The second d1sadvantar,e 18 that when
project 18 8uffic1ently
8
lar~e,
it can disturb'the labour and materials markets so much that the prieeà
(
of these commodities.sre forced up weIl above their ordinary level.
"
Thus) very large building séhemes do not secure Bny economy, and, instead
.
of being cheaper, houses are actual1y dearer by the doten. beCBuse no architect knows the red cost of building; he
This is
knO'~8
on1y the ,/
.priees usually quoted hy contractors.
·Not even the contractors Imow'the
cost; they are al1 at the mercy of the economic8 of the trade and cannot quote wlth aoy cdnfidence for Why then do the
plan~ing
proje~ts
authorities stick to the
bec8use they,rely upon their
8~ch~tects
architects have no experience of any i8 very
~eldom
unfamiliar1y large. ~ontract
system?
Simply
for technical advice, and the
othe~
method of exècuting work.
lt
that an alternative to the privabe contractor i8 consldered
when rural housing schemes are be1ng discussed.
,
One alternative, though, has gained sorne favour recently.
This ia the
system knows as "ai,d~d self-help", and rehousing schemes based u~on th1s l'
method of secur1ng
l~bour
have been enthusiast1cally fostered by United
Nations aeencies and others.
Briefly the principle 1a th1s: . the govern-
ment, or the United Nations, or sorne other benevolent authority, provides the pe8ssnts in sorne depres8ed countryside with equipment and materials 1
to bulld thair own
h~:
the help of the machines Improve thei,.
o , l~ "
'
,
0W1\
Th~
pe,ssants give"
~materia1s
t~eir
"Jork free, and, with
which they have. been
31~en,
they
eondition.
The trouble vith this sy.tem ia chat the "self-help" lasts just as lon3 8S
..
the ·"ai.d"'does. ' The peasants learn how to work a cement mixer ,or how
to fit up
8
. prefabricateù 'roof, but 8a'800n
,
88
the free materlala stop )
,
the peasant8 are
arrivln~J
AS
174 badly off as ever - except, of course, for
the buildinns they airesd}' have.
The point ia that they cllnnot employ
the skills they have learned because they cannat nfford the
A further
dsn~er
ia that they may cven
l08~
mate~ials.
the crafts they already
which enable them to make use of their own native m8terials,
1
happen either by the traditionsl craftman's
f
~eliberate
poss~ss,
This may
rejection of his
old methods, out of mistnken admiration for the imoGined superiority of the aHen methods, or, more ironlcally, by the slien method
the
drivin~
traditionsl craftsman out of his job, takinp, n'vay his work, and chasin8 him into some,other employment.
Then,when the brief period of artificiel
construction ls over and the expensive machiner}' breaks down and the
/.
\
supply of forel~n materiale driee up, there la nobody left to build in
1
the old
way~
"Aided self-help", in fact, merely aucceeds in
~iving
the
local craftsmen an illusory feelinp, of proeress and superiority while temptinr,
~hem
trsde that t~ey
the
into that
~.Jil1
most
frustratinp; of blind alleys,
a
sophisticaten
inevttably hè shut to them a short time later.
Either
hecome zealous advocates of the new metho~s, 'more royalist than kin~,
and desplse their old ski Ils, or they are driven away to he come
.
farro workers.
In either case the!r craft ia destroyed •
The two moat frequently suggested systems of executing lar&e-scale plans the contract system and the system of "aided self-help" - cannot cope with a
probl~m
for
the aize of lran's. ln the same way certain other solutions -
~ample
the use of the army or of volunteer banda of atudentl, or
even of forced,labour - will not work.
If the peasant has his
vills~e
bu 11 t t'or him, as ,a kind of chari ty, then be will not gain the skU land 1,
~
o
"
"
experlenee that he would if he built it himlelf, and when the army, or wh'taver it la, ha. gone home, and the building. ln the courie of time begin to deteriorat. 1 the villager will not be able to repair them.
lt i8_
f
t
L
115"
exactly aS' if a man
,~ho
wnntüd
1
f>:lrden w('nt to a s\1or and p,ot
hortlcultlJrlll expl"rts to come nncl malec'him
fi
ft
dozen lt woulel
p,areJen one weekend.
be very nice for n week, but the man would lack the skil1, and even perhapa bi~
the impulse, to keep it in p,ood orcIer - ft would prohahly he too or too exotic for him ta mannp,e llnywlly - and
heforE~
) on?, his
~8rden
would become a wildernesB. If, on the other hand, he. had lT\{\de it with his own h/r'nds in
h~s
own time, he
,~ould
understand every bit of ft and
be weIl able to kcep lt attractive.
In brief J "81de
can eaelly acquire.
u8in~
sk:llls which they themselves already have or
Above all, mtltedals such
88
"
s~ee1
or concrete - or
even, often, timber - which nearly' 3h~nys hllve to he imported, regarded
,~1th
should be
the utmost suspicion when it is proposed to hand them out
to help pessants build theit: houses.
On1y when the country itself U
produc1nr, these mo'terials cheaply enour,h, and the i,:,habitilnts are eal"nif!R .enough money to buy them, are they permissihle in national rehousinr, schemes. (5)
...
.. \
..
o
.. •
'. 176
PROPOSED PROTOTYPE PEASANT HOUSR: In the "hdt spot" of housinp; prob1ems, we understand that none of the working systems except, self:help or "do-ft - yourself" can permanently survive.
Almost aIl
othe~'so~utions
are like an aspirin which tempo-
rari1y esses pain. If we let a peasBrit build his house in his own way and with familiâr materials, which fact~rs limit , abiUtiEis?
Row do.we provide freedom for his
ln other'words, what are the basic outlines for our proposed '1
design?
him~
,
We examine these problems here: 1
A house must be 'afeguarded
agai~s
natural disasters, particularly earth-
quakes. 1
We already
k,~ow
that we cannot intt'oduce advanced earthquake enginèering
techniquet, therefore, because of local Materiels we are tted to certain 1
forms and sizes • ./
Of course, with these materials and techniques, we can build a cone, a pyramid, or a globy which are t'he most geometricelly stable forms, 'but 1
.'
man;canno~ ,
live ln them.
For hlm,
8
room ls a four sided space with a
roof above it and, with adjacent forms, we can protect or perhaps reinforce ltagainat sh6cKa and motions. Let
U8
now look at the peasant house:
two inner squares, the inside one
11 a courtyard, .nd the outer one the llm1tat10n of his land.
between the.e two ·r
the maas of a
1
o
next one.
~quare.
villaBe~
la divided
a.-11 .paces called
The space roo~.
In
each room, each .pace, and e.ch hou •• supports the
On the one band if we bul1d the .ame p•••• nt houi' with open
"" ... ,~
\
ln~o
f
..
•
V \
'
1'+;1
space around it, the inner square'(the court yard) seems more stable and prote~ted than the outer square.
as the peasant
dOèS,
On thé other h~ndJ if we build ~he house
aIl walls backed with the nei~hbourlng houses, there
will be no more space to add to and expand.· ln the cities, the growth of the family Is perhaps not a problem but, ln villages where families double et least every 10 years, the structure must be flexible
enou~h
to house
the ,,,hale family in Ha cycles.(Mr. Falavand's son should not have to wail! 10 yeats to marry nor should his cousin),
How to 891ve these two problems:
build a house which wlthstands natural
forces and is flexible as weIl. MSn has found the cross shape, a natural form of five squares, e8ch one supporting two other squares. {f1g.IAO )
~:,.
'''0
A
cro:s,
A study of Roman Cathollc churcheB, Persian mosques, and old Persian houses wlth
8
bie room and an aicove in each side, leads u8 ta the cross
.hape.
1
~.
1
In the Desert Area, viIlaees are the only outgrowth of the
~arth. (f1~./GV) 1
/ '"
o
_
. -.-.
. . . . . . . .~. .2. . . .~. . .----~--e---.. '"
.
Th~st' IIpm,l-unr\c,':rollncl IIssamhlllS(~S (WE!
n<,ctl J
r,ht
cllnnot c.al1 r-1H'm \Jindmvs) arc nE't ir~t
c--~~--
,1n(1 air, th('xefore holcs
(fig./O,2.)
----~
The peasant's technfclll Anc! econoll1;cal Ihdtation8 have preverlted him from npplyin;:r, c'ldv,mced :me~hod8. onl}' a stotic
'.
'. -,..,
c!se 1""t,;"i;
,
""
T'lccd of materials an ..i·'techniql1t"s, but n naturlll remcdy
ar,ainst heat And cold. (Ci~.1()3)
1;. I()J
The cl~se pr6~~Mity of bllUdinr;s 1s not
.r bv,lJ"s' "
:1I11 1
This itself h:18 lh1!t-cl\ thc,vcnlil:1tion, lj"htinr:, H~wc'\l('r,
1.
in
'rccpin~
".fth th1s princir]~,"l-'c mtly so!J"'C' norlc of th<> prohlcms.
i t p,ives hettcr control of tf:'mpCr.1t,llrr>.
2: " ~conomic:\ lly, snvcs
l:ln(l
and prcvents the vi]ln'
C'
more than f,ts r:llpllCity.
--
~';
,,< f
,
:"..
>
,,'
~, f
3.
oriental'iQn.
it 8,ives more p,?ssiblHty ta \lee hearfrr~ wall s.
(
~
r"om expl1~di nn ~o
\ • la
\
\
180
.
principl!'!>. if ','l' brin~ th!.> who1e hlli1(ljn~ . \out of the ",roull,1 [lnf! provtcle llr'hcr roofr. <15 wel) ns rombine And desil'n Beai(1ca 1(C?cpin: sorne in(\i·:enou!.
~
Jtffprent fornUl o( roofs
(f{~"It>L(),
the
fol1m~in~
advantnr>.es wOlllc1 be
'1
\
obtn ned:
,
fti' 1.
101
Iole.
Pf'I"'J t'lu.
IV
~01~ bv//d,':j 0(,11- "t -I1u.. fJr"Ov'!:.d.art:! rx-orje ~h(jl?tr rooh
li.p,ht and ventilation from the nei~hhourin~ hotlSe nnd street without clisturbin~
or
bein~~
(Hsturbcd .
....
2. '.
the third rHmens10n could be 1I5ed in ventilati.on and li ....htin""
-....
1 C:=.=.,.==,::::J:J .. -; .... '"
Jo"
,j
..--~--~e------------~--
~""i.S"2~2~2""jj~.~
IiI
3.
we could incresse the capacity of Air in s l"oom
8S
.compared ta an
equal shen room '.Jhich uses other roofing methods.
,
, 1
1
1
1 1 -
1
)--------
__ -
".
/
1
/.
./
/
/
,"
/
No,.. one may S3y that by designinB a cross shaped house or sny othe: house for that
mat~er,
have we not taken lmay the joy Çlf
,imagination from the pessant?
house-blli1din~
and
lt should'be said that we cannot leave him
to build the Bame house he has always built if we are responsible.
By
1
introducing
li
new method of building w~ may incresse his knowledge, imagi-
nation, education,'snd his ability to p~ov1de a house for himself thereby Improving his environment. The she of t'oomS must he Umited but he ia free to buHd whatever he
wishes: one room or ten roomB;' a kitchen or two; a single
toile~
or
li
large bathroom, if he can afford it; a small courtyard or a big one. He must simply underatand and be taught where to put windows, where to 'build his tOiJet, snd how to ohtaln the best advantaees of his land, teehnology and his workmsnsh1p.
~terialB,
,
...
Our solution 18 one InBwer to the problem of housing in' th!8 area, however, other architecte may have other solution,. one or that one i. the bett.
.
There i. no elalm that thie
Wheu a man comesto a decll10n, it ia based
·.... ,1.
o
on bis culture and knowledge; if lt i. rea.onable, it 18 respectable. "
.
Generally, the cross shape (known as Greèk cross) 1s based on a blp, square divided into nine equal sized squares or the second power of three (square root of nine).
The Greele'cross fits into the five inner squares leavinp, four corner squares.
As mentioned earlier, the
sta~dard
peasant house consists of
a court yard, three rooms (living, guest, workshop), a k1tchen, and a
toilet.
If we can fit' these spaces into our form and provide space for
future expansion, our house can serve a
s~11 fam~ly
of 3 or 4 and up
to families of 15 or more. The court yard is' the most important part of J
~he
peasantls
ho~se.
It 1a
more than just an architectural device for obtaining privacy and protection,' lt la like the dome, part of a microcosm that parallela the order of the universe ttself.
1
In this .ymbolic pattern, the four sides
of the courtyard represent the four columns that carry the dame of the skYe
•
The,sky itself roofs the court yard, and ia reflected in the customary pond in the middle.
In
This pond la in faet
à
projection of a dome on squlnches.
plan lt la the same J ba.icaIIy a square wlth the corners eut off at
the lower levei to form an octagon, ào that the whole pond la an inverted mo~l
of a dome, juat as if a real dome were mirrored in the water.
The lnward-looking Iranian houae, open to the calm o
beautiful by tbe femlnin
\
~f
the sky, made
\ \
element of watet, 'elf-contained and peaceful,
the deliberate antitbe.i. of th~ har.h world of work, warfare, and commere~,
1. the domain of womari.
".
-~~-------
...
103
1
"
"New it la of Breat blportance that thls enclosed space ",ith the trembling
11quid femininity It côntains shpuld.not be br.oken. ln the ,eneloslng building, this special atrnosphe.re waste in the desert sands.
If
thereois a gap
1
out and runs to
flOl'lS
Such a fraBile creation 18 thls pesee and
1
holineS8, this womanly Im"ardness, this atmoaphere of a house for whlch 'domesticity' ia 80 inadequate a word, that the least little rupture in the frail
l~a1l8
that guard i t destroys H.
That is why the patio, open on
~
one or ewo sides, whieh perhaps
~s
pleasant enough ln Spain where the
countryslde is comparatlvely tarne, would never do ln the Middle East, where the fierce deseTt will jurnp .....
ru
like a jinn and Qevastate the house.
If even one side of the court yard Is a simple l'leU, the atmosphete will be spoiled.
Il
can hold
_
The saltina ls .disturbed. th~
Only rooms that are really Uved in
magic in place, and thls la
becaus~,
of course, lt la not a
substance - we cart pnly talk ln parables - but s feeling, and it ls
.
....
ereated exactly by thls turnlng inward of the room. "( 6 ) For these ressons we believe eourtyard.
each house.should b~ built around a , Therefore the central square in the cross forms the courtyard. ~hat
J;'
x One of 'the squares 1. the entrfnce with the toi let n~arby so that lt i. . ' far a,,,ay
fr~
.-
the livins are's. l'
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As the leitchen, ('onsist1n': of S'orllr,e anel il sm,,11 nreplllce, lISCS little space, cao sl80 he in th('! entx:ancp. :;..
sq"~re.
\
,-. toilet i8 sepilrated from the livlnr. aretts and the court yard toilet
~entilated
from the street and roof
kit chen direC'tly opens to the courtyl1rd by providinr: a vestibule, we
,
~ive
more privàcy ta the courtysrd
.' the corner S!}\1are left in frônt of the entrance acts 8S nn intermediAte srace between
in~oor
and outdoor.
It enn pcrhaps he used
~s B
front·
yard (8 amall ve~etllble r.srden),
The squarè
oppo~ite
the ehtrance ta the fil'st l'oom and the bASic forro
,of a house s'tartR wi-th these thrE'e_
s~ullre8.
The two re~inin~ sqùares aie for additions1 rooms •.
o
• . '.
. 185
On
wh.t basis do we decide room sizes? \_,
1.. Existing room sizes -
In indigenous buildings, the larBest: room ls
3.50 X 4.S0M and the smallest one is sometimes smaller tban 1.90 X 2.2OM. 4(j
HoWever l the average roorn lies somewhere between 2.JO X 2.80M & 3.00 X
4.00M. 2.
Construction techniques -' If the rooma are covered by vaults and domes,
with 8imple and practical methoo8, the biggest span one person can run is It is as difficult as covering a lOM wide room with
no more than J.lOM.
:r
reinforced
~oncrete.
matter rather then 3.
ft
To build a vault
more than J.IOM 18 more a technical
practical one.
People movement a)
~IfM
guestroom
b)
-,,,t,,;,
h,.~ .~ $~'/~', !SInoJ:,:Y plpt.) . Il;::, :son i~ xr~i".J ft!a.
,,,.J
,.,~ ft!r
living and bed roOut -
,
f.t~/;,!! ~;",~. , The 11I",,'~(JJ:iy • ",.t~ p;'~ H11l#()11J8n i~
H,....,,,
,gr, f'6.$5tJj
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le8 frrJ" ~.,"D".", h;~
-lit,..,':.!". ,
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5/elp!fIj c)
fime
wot'kshop
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-f,.,o P'f/,jO/l 6rc ~t.a+~ kI~8VI"ny d ~8rp4f <. ano~~ :Sflp~rlll$~$ fhem 8r,,1 sl'!!Jin.J de s'.j t1 and col",,-s of '/Irr.
. in ttlrK.11n 18'!J()~~ •
t,;.j(I4!!J
he.,~
An
pe.t"son,
t:arpe f
olt! w~'''er.
As we cau see, the av.erage wldth of the room lie. betweeu 2.9OH& l.OOH.
Furnishin~8
4.
c
-
As the mllin incarne Bource is from carpet
a11 the rooms are carpeted ",aIl ta wall. carpetinr, 18 another basls for
~eciding
'weavin~,
The size of carpets and
WB)'
of
on room sizes.
A standard carpet la 3.00 X 4.00M and 80% of carpeta are this aize. brand new carpet ma)' never go to market because of the a)
almost
fo~lowine
A
reasons:
it must be used beforehand ta showup its mistakes and faul ts, workmsn-
ship and quallty of dying Olaterials. b)
an old carpet costs more as the buyer knows exactly what he ls buyinq.
1 c)
as
~
carpet is taken from the loom, it starts rolling on itself beeinning
at the corners. the wall.
To straighten it out, the corners are folded up against
The. 2.95M wide 't'oom will he,lp fonu a carpet of 3.0011 wide.
therefore, see
~hy
the rooma are less than 4.00M.
l~e,
As the starting point
of the carpet rools itself more than the other parts, it must be corrected before
~oin9
to market otherwise it i8 considered a weaving fault.
In the
f~llolng
our proposAl peasant house is presented. HQ101ev<>T i.t
should be noted here that, these are not final design, only
,
\~l'ys
of
construction and usage of the spaces. lié unclerstand, that each peesAn«;. has bis it ja his choice ta 88
his forefathers did.
,
o
follm~
nee(\s sne' the way of livi..ng, • our design or to creste a better architecture OH1\
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NOTE:
•
All pa 11s use standard size (to x JO x 5 cm) brick (mud &: bm:nt), hm"e'ler, vaults use bigeer mud brick (25 x 15 x 6 cm) ,.,ith a
vlm~
r&d\1cin~
of
the
many usual 1ayers of" compacted mlldfstra,,, plaster. , Also, the bricks beins laF~er
will reouce the number of joints. r--.f"
{',
To the mixture of ~ucl for the vault bricks, J% cmulsioneJ asplull t i s ndded
and S% 18 added for the last
of the 1.
Mlid
bricks up to 15% -(tested by the ~n·iter). Dil"eC'tly exposed to
the hot sun, the asphalt particles in the mixture melt and prevent the top
layer from (
crackin~:.
By addinp. the emulsioned asphal t. He elimi08te the
peasant!s use of salt.
The salt f6rms saltpetel" which expan
winter and causes cracks in the roof. ~
f., 1
)
layer sa as to waterproof the roof
The emulsi.oned asplialt aIsa inerenses the stren<">th
(tested by the '\-lri ter). J
fjnishin~
producin~
As Iran is one of the major oil
countries, cheap barrels of emulsioned 8sphalt cao be obtained
but, in remote areas, the same mllterial can be achieved by
ssphslt pUh soap Iather.
mixin~
hot
'r\is process wes done by the writer on a stT'sll
scale and the results were succes8ful.
Mud bricks ,can be compacted by incresses the
Btren~th
8
simple hand-made compactor.
This process
of the brllks; reduces the drying tlme; snd reduces
th4- stnOunt Ot wster used. Tapered burnt bricks are ueed for the arched Ilnt-I of the apeninga. , ,
The arch shape ia
ach~evéd
vith wooden forma.
(fig.~
•
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7
7
204
A haH "qAnat"
100p
ean dso be tlsed
loop!! are in elliptical shRpe:
of
118 Er pe~nent moul(1in~
fom. These
95 cm. and' 65 cm, 1n axis J "dth a hei~ht
20 cm. snd a thickness of 3 cm, (fi~./~
These loops provide enormous stren~th to the opening- and cOn be inst~lled by 4n unskilled labourer,
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4 ÇDMMUNITY
DESIGN:
Man takes refur,e in caves or he follows modern and \
advanc~d
programs to
givè forro to his community and, therefore, to his environment.
In each
case, sorne kind of oreanizBtion takes place:
"\ 1.
..
Self-growing or spontaneous community:
.
#,
A vital source has ahMY' attracted people to gather round the vital j
source of wster:
a riven; a weIl,
ft
sprine or the sea.
requires a different form of development. a linear form, a a)
b)
,
.ttract. a man to bul1d a house
\
the~Bea
or a spring a radiocentric or ring forme
vital source, a river
ft
,
~1e11
A river or
Each of them
;'
requires
206
c)
8S
his family grows or another man i8 attracted, another house
d)
their families grow and more people find out about them, houses are built
~oes
up'
(\ \
~o
more
...
"
e)
famiHes grow, more people come, more houses are built 80 pusage8 and road. are needed.
~ J "
.
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f
ii,
f)
Roads meet each other,
,
. ,
.
1 ~ \
~.
,
g)
There is now a need for community and publie Sacilities, a pla~ fbr transactions, gatherind and meeting places: a main square. This la usual1y accompanied by a church or a mosque. Perhaps for security réssons, â wall will be built around the community.
,\
1
1
A
~>
J 11<
;:
,.
At tbis stag., the, cOIIIIIUnity la caUed t1townn or "village" dependlng
,
on ite .1ze or type of produetive .•ct!vttie•• <~)
\
, 1 "
\."
2.
'Pre-planned comnrunities:
As hh"tory shows, there have ah~ay8 been communit~e8 which did not appear spontaneouBly~ rather they ,have been based on a plan. l
,
The most famous
examples are: 1
a)
Khorsabad~
.Iraq, 8th çentury B.C. - an example of rectilinear tawn layout.
1000
l
b)
~' ,
The Greek colonialJto~ of Priene J 11lustrating the principles of Hippo4amus, but planned after his time.
-
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,. . .'. . . . -
e)
r'
Ao.ta, a typf.cal Roman taiu.tary tovn •.
...
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\ d)
Monpazier. 1n 1284.
A forti{ied town built by the Enr-lish in 80uthern France
. ...,.
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e)
.
T
r ~:~Afe
f~
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7
. M-M4e~ET".IN
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Karlsruhe, from a plan of 1715.
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-f)
~&S~~ __
/-;-;;~-tr: \~"
Walter Burley Griffinta prize-winning plan for Canberra, Australia.
'. ~,.,c
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Stalingrad, tu.lia. An example of an actuel linear city baeed on Unear cotmlUnicstion. (8) .
1
"ii'I'I\'I','liIÎil'H!ll,!'I"'!I'i/i';t ,i Ii'~ij {'!r!;';" FI', 1 l, ,111.'1· -\"1" • IL.
!
1
210
1 Pro~r.amD
1,
and· theorles of town-planning, which are thè result of centuri'es
of practice, have given
lo~ical
new values for modern plannin?,.
otder to these experiences and created Nm~adaysJ
town-planning, rather than just
1
being an architeotural problem, deals with the delicate scientific aspects > of humans, their environment and technology.
These practical experiences
and programmed plannings, have been combined sa that no one can think of one without considering the other. However, one may build a community
(villa~e,
town or city), but lt may
not he welcomed; a compulsory population may abandon it or change it to suit them. Now the planner asks himself ''Why did my community not work? read aIl the booka and study àll the new ideas? sbapes of cHies."
t
Did l not
knew the severai basic
He is right, in that he had 81so considered geographic-
al, climatologieal, economic .exactly the clear and cloudy
and Bome cultural factors. days~and
He also knew
aIl the statistieal figures.
It 18 not too difflcult to build a town for immigrants who have come ta the United States or Canada, because they are forced to give up their traditions and ac.cept the changes.
It Is possible ta find a Chinese,
Italian l Greek, Jew1sh or Black community in the hesrt of a western city. The
~roblem
la a cultural one.
Planners see their cltles from far uP! they vork on scales no bisger tban 1/500.
The biggest building. or tree 18 ,
ne)
bigger tban a pea;
Even vith
a powerful tele.cope, it 18 impossible to'find a lingle person in their
plana.
o
Por a vill.ser, a vulture il the bisse.t flylng obJect
.ni a
D
three-story
211 1
bulldlnz ~8 a hlehrisej he lives in smal1 details ana understands them. The
~olution
for the planner's problem ls not the choslng of thls or
1
that, It 18 found in the culture and traditi9n of the people who are gOing/to inhabit the new cOlllm.;nity in which no
~lng
link can have a
logical explanation. {\
,
.
, • "
-
\
-
-
----~----------
212
CASE STlIDY., OF 1\ Pl AN...!PJ!_~..5..!.!:l-.A'-:E COMMllNITY: 1
As noted enrlicr, P'loS't plannE'Ts And respons1hle Dllthorfties ",hcn
plc'nnin~
for peaslint-s star!" "y st llr1 yfnc> statisticnl ft .... ures and toponraphlcal l
factorR And, From thpse. <11"1n•• their plnns.
J
e18s'sified cl ty l'Ihllpe's to fonn t11C'i r comm l1 nf ties. Ostad
1
vil1a~e,
wHh
li
They .
As an example, the
population of ahout 500 people) was planned :In a
rad10centric ShRpC ,,Illich f9 mos!" frequèntly [ollOcI in
lan~C'
dUes.
(fi~.IU)'
1
~
1
lr [
A8
ft
pers on who
hAS
becn involved with this and other t"ommllnity plnnnines,
the writer never had a chancé to Bee the sites, maybe J,tS t photos to help h1m. fi~ul'es:
plannel's cio not \lndcrstand that
ft
en~ineerin'1
and soil tests.
l-lost
small villnr,ê docs no': have traffie
Traffie nnd transportation mi"}lt he a problC'nt when plllnners
are workinr, on P81'tir.ular mllSS Rusaian kolkhorc or
o
fe,,' aeria l
However, he W8S provif\ed with a l'reat qllllntfty of
numbel' of honses, population,
problems.
"
II
p~~ramlf;
s\lch as 8n IsraeU klbbutz, 8
ChineBe rural commune.
But even ln these cases,
tran.portation le not the mnin problem a. it t. affected hy the national economy and
b:t,
.
secul"lty cltt1\lu\c15.
j
-
-
------
---~------
l
213
If wc arE' to improvc the pr.,1sont 1!l environm('nt llncl
(
start with ~ to 6 Jane strcf'ts7
jeep, oncc a wcek, in thcse
brin~
in moclernf sm,
,~hy
lThe uri ter has n('ver secn more ,thlln one
villn~es~
Is modernism representcd hy televiRlon sers and cassette recorders7 When 8
peasant docs not have a
nei~hbollr
hom whom he can
horrO\~
a copper howl,
he buys a cheap plastic one. fihen his chU/ l ren hilve left him to
1'0
to
work in town llnd his closest neir.hbour anel friend live6 40H away, he buys himself a portable radio for company.
When we Rive him
Buperrnarket, he will not r,ct ta chat and
bar~ain
A
nice, clcan
as he normally does.
The
(
p('8BBnt will p,ather
~O\lOd
him f,Audy plastic products and Japanese n:'lde
'
We cannot chan~e a cul tllrr> 'Just by strikinr, a match hl1t
toya and china.
\
maybe we can chanp,e iJ: a little faster thAn the Stone Ar,e to the Bronze Age.
Let us brinr, our attention to an Durin~
1970-72, the
'~riter
existin~
case:
was involvcd with a planninr, pror,ram.
program W8a the joininR of fivc villares.
The
Thcse villages were situnted on
the western border of the desert and sorne 50km. in the southwest of Kashan. (fi~.I01-)
Briefly, the reasons for grouping thcse villages into one community were
as follows: lack of proper roads and transportation laek of water (in sorne instances) lack of 8ultAble fanninr, land dispereed population
' ..
,
!'
()
o
villages conaistinr. of one or two
~immir,ratlon
ta
clties·beca~ ,
f8mili~s
of poor economy
~
o
poor and danr,erolls strl1r-tures economlcal1y and socilllly,
vllla~es
Nere clependent on cach other as
weIl as on the psstoral nomacls. It shoulcl he noted that, in this area, the nomads do not belonR to
li
tribe,
they are samlt r,roups of wanclerers, more likc r,ypsles. The proposcci site for the new
commlJnit:~
to the Ministry of Natural Resourees.
wh!!'h
It
14as
,~aa
named Roosta, belonr,ed
b:\re land, full of stoncs.,as
opposed,to most other parts of the desert ,~hjch are sandy: hard and approprIa te for btlildinr, wi th
Il
The r,round
very rich underr,round
l~ater
w8S
sllpply.
Two parallel Bessonal· rivers were si tuated on the northwpst and southeast of the site which could feNI the crops anel r'l'.y farms. The direction of t,~o prevaUin'>, wlnds ,~as 'from north and south, with a 81i~ht
devlation to the west. (fir,./P1) 1('
Much data was ·collected:
stat.istlcal flgures frnm the Depsrtment of Statistics soU tests anq earth<]\Iake data from the
G~ophysi~al Department of TehrBn
Unive~8ity
underground water sVpply and suit4bility of soil from the Forestry Department suitabllity of native mnterials from the Enr,lneerinr, Dppartment of Tehran University
.ituation of quarry., lime and F.Ypsum, from the Mlnistty of Mlni.nr,.
o
.
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215
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E.r~f'it V/JtJ~' 14"" fJ~ ~tecPlltl .:sir~
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5vil.J,1e
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cCJlh~_I/Ï?/l 4000 ~TERS I........,J ...
2000
1.....-oII!!'~!.
5000
3000
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216 The r,overnment 1 S Llssiatllnce
(
\
rcsponsihle
WAS
f\stim.1ted to be cloné thro l1.ght Us
dcp~~tments:
roads to be provided Dy the Ministry of Roads schools and cultural centre by thc Ministry of Education cHnie, ,doctor lInel vetC'rioatr... by~ the Mintstry of Health public bath and Hosque
8S
well as
"llterin~
stations by the Ministry of
Development crafts centre
an~
communal storap,c, veterinary, deep wPll, piped water,
cooperative society hy the Ministry oE Nl1tura] Reso l1 rces
.,
smal1 machinery, equipment, supervision of first star.e of buildinr, and techn1clli staff by the Housing Orr,nnizlltlon. It must he ,notccl here that future star;es which
,~ere:-
mostly ad<1/ttion and'
extention of hOllses l I··cre to he clone hy archi tecta and en;,ineers who were eOl1lpelled to work in the villar,es
for two years ln lieu of active service
ln the armed forces.
of
Ali
this
wBS
backr,round material but the most important part of the study
took place in the existing vll1aees and in discussion with the real people. The writer lived for more than a year with them, sat with them, worked with them, ate
wit~
them, loved with them, aud
WAS
happy and sad with them.
Host of the previous sections presented in this report such as tradition, culture, vay of living, mater!al., technology and viller,e and house
•
fo~
,
vere studied and found
durin~
~
this stay.
.
J
!f.,
",)
Durln~ thla study, three other villages with the same'difflcultiea 88 the
/
~
other five, .howed ,intere.t in jolninr. our program.
~n
f.
our proposaI, wè
tf
had considered them, however, because of dlst,nce, it .eemed quite difflcult but not impossible.
,
•
"
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1
AH the villar,ers promised to work hard in the building of the- new community and, in return for this labour, requested long.term loans to caver the work they put into the building.
The villagers also vrn~ed to
do their hest for the old people who could not actively participate in
V
the buildinp, process..
They were preparing themselves for a new lHe.
After aIl of these studies we sat behind the dr8win~.
draftin~
As the writer i8 primarily an architect
Jan~
tables and started not a planner,
Iole started with the houses and drew different types of units.
Our
1
proposed ptototypes were principally cross shaped but the one presented in this paper i8 an 'improved one either in function or detail, and wé have provided here more freedom for the peasant in implementine his cr"ativity. In the proposed community plan, we toOk the same principles of village . structure and developed it.
As we ssw, the main principle of the village
form in the desert ls that it i8 inward-looking because of family structure, economy ànd for seeurity reasons. ture has no flexlbility
an~
However, the traditional villap,e struc-
our proposed community plan kept this inward·
looking princ1ple and combined i t with other fOrtlls,.
One could say it was
a combinstion of the "ting" form where aIl activity i8 directed towards
the center(fig./1;)8) and with the "satellite" form which the existing villages were to become part of. (fi?"/09) 1
Rowever, Iole later reallzed that the
trad'1tional village fom teself wss a combination of these two forms. (Hr./lo)
I~.I/)' Ar.J· :tj.fl ~ ~ aHUlllni'J 6,,//1 ar,,"". t>fu ~I'.l~.
i, l "",~IcH. . 1&.lIfJ flle ".~~,.~" "'; Il!J • ,1 ~~"!,,.ih~ 'f'WIII 1 ",.". Iir", 7~"·1Ie1;. If ,,"If)
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The outcome
c
o~
our two year study was a small village of Sorne 120 families
with a population of 800 people.
The families ranged from smaH three
person families to large families of fifteen people.
ca~ee
Because of this, one
that althoug? we had shown identical cross houses, they would in
fact (if ever they Nere bui! t) be different in shape, colour, size, ornamentation.
,
family.
,
In other words, each house would identify a pers on and a
.
,
As shown in our proposed prototype, each house has great flexibility for expansion.
However, in the planning process we found thot on the one hand
it is. impossible to provide Adequate space for each family to build 10 rooms unless we followed "linear", or "réctnlinear" or other similar forms, which we were trying to avoid. ' On the other hand, aIl families such as an old man with his wife and sister or brother did not need extra rooms. Therefore
we~ssified familie~
into three
catep,ories~
~
big and flexible families were placed on the community borders young families also were placed on the bordera or in places with enough space tO grow in. These two typ)s accounted for approximately 807. of
th~ population.
, "
oid and 8mall families mostly wlthout livestock were placed inside the ~
village where they could feel secure and because they had more visitors (fig. nI ).
~s. III Th~t! 16h1f.y c.;de.Jor"i!5 ilhl -Inor p/~~ in fht ~"'/III//lJ!y,
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h!J
,nt!
/Ie"bl~
•
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old .,,1
$1111111
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-
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---
---------
219
ln Qur proposaI, we provided three "mahall~8" with entrance- and exit to the fields
8S
these villa~es ori?,"~nall'y stemned from three interconnected
tribes. (fig.IIZ)
•
~
We hav'8 already d~.ct'lbed that ".U •...ballé... are lnterconuected but in our proposai" we designed cloa.d
ttl14
halUa" due to
~he
",1
~
~'"1
fact that .ome
'~
of tha familie. carrled on 01d lauds which we wanted to di. courage.
!
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Therafore,
.0.
'f
hou.e. vere d •• iped to open onto alther of tvo ttmaball'.".
I.~
"
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,-
1
220
AlI the "mnha Il {os Il w('re ùirE'ctcd [rom the " m:'1ydnn" (vil1a'ic centre) ~
( Even
thou~,h
wc did not try to copy the trn
the completcd flcfiinn, "Je found we han nf"rivcd nt the old "m.1y<1Lln s l , (orro. ' We gllthered l'Ilmos! 1111 the community [:tciJïtfes And public
build1n~s
around
th is ce n tr El • ( fil' .//:3 )
If1J!lJ3"~ form
lh( ole!
~r
1. 'PIallo,.,n 2 H()fjvt
Ilu cutmIJI?,M
.3 fu h(J(/,u 1r ?"bI,c. ba 1/1 5. Ytlkh. Ch21 6 C/~fun 1- 5mell pool c!S: J)r,A l:(~ !oo"falt? 9 IIJn1"'/~/r~ h'y~
o
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AlI the "rnllhal1 (.s" w('re ùirectcQ from the- "mnydlln" (vU1Ll~a c:iPt,re). Even tholl~h
wc
MI! not try to copy the ttndition3I villar,e cchtre, after
the completc.() ocst ~n, we found we hac! arrived nt the! old "m:J)'c1.ln 's\, [omo We ,gathered almost nU' the c(lmmunity Cllcilltf.es And public buildin~s Ilround ,
Tnt
DM IfIJ.Jd3"~ form
t.
"PIaf/or", I~r 'he 2 1f()!5fllt
"et't/l'l()I1,N
J. 1u h"v# 't, PUb/,C. DaM 5. r,k"- d'l2l
6, L,~/un 1. 5me/l foof c!S
f)r"',k/~ f()tl"rB(/?
9
IIJml"/~fr.. h'y~
o
5/J.ofs
J,
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We r,llthercd ten filMiU es around 1 Gemi ·privnte courtyanl which cou1d also act
l\8
2ZC
the tratlit10nal "htJ.shti", (ncir~hbourh()od c(!ntre) for Horncn activities,
and for chllc1ren
la~dry arel!
t<1
plély in.
WPrf! lllso
A domed wlltcrinr, station "Jith seats nncl
provic1ed here. (fig.JI",)
.\ <1 /I~.lI"· •
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V/II~t U/1fr~
{ha'-~Of(jh" 1l13ha/~ c~n If~ ÏI;~hfi"
oQ&h6curhtJcltl
anl".~
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•
i1CL~~ 10
8ft!iI\
IhL ft't IdS
\
.
2Il !:la teri n?, s ~at ion &
(
,
1nunr~ry: th~
These were p111cerl nt
centre of aach "hsshti" 1n order to provide \o111ter
for the houses and the houses themsalves \oJere provided with drum on the roof to keep a 9upply at their disposaI. be refilled 11\3nu:111y.
p31nte(1 ail
8
These drums were ta
This system mi<;ht seem less desuable th an a
r\\nnin~
water supply ta each individusl house but, in spite of aIl the advantages
1· of runninp; \-,ster, it must be introduced lolith C<1re and after carefu1 consic1eration of its effects on the society.
"In India,
~.,here
certain
villa~,es
were supplied with pure 'vater on tap in the houses, the ~irls still ''pref"erred ta Sa down ta the river and heads.
brin~
back heavy jars of dirty watet on their
This was becausc fetchine water was their on1y excuse for
~ojnn
out,
and thus theit on1y chance to he seen by the youo:; men of their vilJ"'3e. A 3irl \~ho stayed iI1, the kitchèn drawing water from the tap, ",ould never
eet marwri eo." (9 ) In peasnnt society, whcther in India or Iran, we aee rigid and
seemin~ly
antiquated framework of tradition
unexpected pract1ca1 p\Jrposes. removed, then we have an
·'
a~ain
and again how the
8erve~
aIl sorts of
If one useful item of traditiona1 lUe is
ob1i~ation
to replace it
that will perform the Bame social function.
\~ith
some other item
If, for exemple, we take
away.~
the communal, watering point, then we mùst provide sorne othef -.devic~ to faeilitate the
contractin~
of
enea~ements
- and, 1ndeed ta facilitate the
exehange of gQssip.
The the time being, we stuck to public waterlng stations. vith tts 0Wft.
Rach neir,hbourhood
These stations vere iri tum supplied by a ,~ep pumpinr, weIl
where it was kèpt free of harmful baeteria.
•
-
c
While the
discussin~
rlrainn~e
the water 8upply and laundry, it i8 neressary ta
,
system.
Wc a1so stuck to the
methorl, not becnuse
existin~
it 18 trarlitional hut rathcr bec&use af,thM.e facts: canal
draina~e
can only he Ilsed
~'lhere
m~ntion
(
there is wBter: a river, the sea, ctc.
septie tanks have not as yet been intraduced.
They are expensive ta build
and to maintain besicles being impossible ta build with local materials. The existing
draina~e
method i9 ta dig a
r~ther
deep weIl some IO-20M deep
with a lat-~e reservoir below the water level., Hht;ltever water is 3athered is absorbed by the earth and the solid waste remains in the reservoir: Rach week, one or
t~10
buckets of lime and sa 1 t is poured into i t to prevent
bacteria fram developin3.
This mcthod has proved most effective in this
...,
regard. Stables: The problem of providin3 stables for cattle, sheep and 30ats
~~ould
arise until the village was built and the peasants arrived,
On
fsrm there 18 a certain
not
the isolated
amount of space for housing animaIs and plenty of
open apace to cope with the inconveniences of a manure pit but, in a
J "
village of hundreds of families each
,~ith
one or
t\~O
cows snd gonts, the
human beings \wuld ba forced into an unhealthy situation. AnimaIs est fodder and produce animais with
ft
dropping8~therefore
we had to provide the
manger accessible to the fodderstore and, in sorne way,
preserve the droppings for man~e without :lnviting {Ues.
The pessant has
'\
solved the problem in this manner:
o
the droppinr,s on the and every
8ta~le
every day he shoveis fresh earth over
floor, which.thus elowlyaBcends toward the roof,
.0 often he cuta out thi8 mixture snd carte lt off to the fields.
lt ls, however, a
M~thod
wasteful of manure; many of the vatuable'constituents
-
.. 224
evaporate or soak
(
,
a
waterti~ht,
a\~ay.
The best solution ia the European manure pit,
~overed_tnnk
into which
a~l
the animaIs' urin&
and into which .straw and aIl other sorts of to form
B
rich compost.
ve~etable
dra~ns,
refuse may be thrown
This will only work, though, where there are
plenty of c'a ttle; two or three
COW8
don' t produce enough urine to run
down to the pit successfully.
We therefore decided on a combinat ion of
both rnethods: retain the pessant system of earth', but shovel it into
ft
800n
the
droppin~s
covered, waterproof pit every day.
the manure could be carted td the fields. however, we
cover~ng
with
From here
This required communal stables,
learned that animaIs need care and,
as
they are so
close to their owners, they might get sick and produce less milk or even none at aIl. owners.
Also communal stables might cause miatruat between animal
Therefore, we aeain stuck to the existing method, but designed
rows of 3 to 10 stalls outside the villap,e, bet\4een two neighbourhood centres.
Each sta11 alloted to an individual family with its own 10ck and
key to the staIl.
(fig.//5' )
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After considerin~ the three vil1a~es interested in joinin~ our pro~ram,
...,
we decidecl that they ",ere simply too far away ta be include'd at this
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t
space for them in our finnl plan for the future, (fif>,.116)
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The final proposaI never ~ent to discussion with the authorities.
·e
Nobody
seemed interested and nobody replied to'the any lettera and calls HO'l-1 inexperienced the writer was,and
~~h8t
a chimeric81 dream to think he
wou Id see hi s ~ u~ ly,' "di rty .. mU d h ouses i nstea d
0
f·n i ce,."c l ean... concret:e
houses!
"
The whole story ended with con~l'atulations from the Director of the Fine Arts faculty of Tehran University~ ~md applause from the audience. We did, however, acquire a great experience in the realities of , life. This project was nevel' Sn end to itself.
The writer continued to improve his
idees" and this report is part of his
camp8~gn.
,
~
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2.30
, llEFEltENCES
o. .
/
1. PATHY,Hassan Architecture for the Poor The University of Chicago Press, 19~3 Chicago & London, pp.6-11 2.BUEHRIG,Edward H. The VN & Palestinian Refugees, Indiana 1 U~iversity Press,' 1971 London. & Land Policy in the N~ar Eeast, Vol. 3, 196~, pp.152-163 , ARURI, Naseer H. Jordan: A Studl in PolitisaI Development,Martinus nij~off/ The Bague 1972, pp.45-49
.' i
3. PATHY,Hassan Gourna, a Tale of Two Villages Dar el Ketab Pr~s8,
el A!abi
1
1968 Cairo, pp.48-49
4. TURNER,John C. & FICHTER,Robert Preedom to Build The Macmillan Company, 1972, New York,pp.13l-l4~ 5. PATHY'Hassan Architecture for the Poor The University of Chicago Press, 1973 Chicago & London, pp.113-120 6. 7.
Ib1~.p.57.
RASMUSSEN, Steen Eil.er Tm-ms ,,,,11 Ruil tH. n~s M.I. T. Press, 1973,
Cambridge, M8ss,pp.55-116 •.
8.
.
SP.RElREGEN, AlA, Paul D. Ihe ~rçhit'rture ne Tm.ms An~ Ctt1es, McGrow-Rill Book Company, l,q65,Nft1 Yor~,pp.1-29. ,
9.
.
"
FATHY, Hassan Architecture for the Poor The University of Chicago Pre •• , 1973 Chicago & London, p.99.
1
t '1 1
f 1
/
/
/
o
/
/
- -
-
,
231
o
The first
t\-10
parts of this report have pointed but the ln;3jor achieve-
ments of the desert builder.
Over the years, he has wiae1y and quiet-
1y exploited lOCRI materials to
h~s
advântage hy using aIl his physical
and mental abilities towards perfectinr, his environment thereby serv1ng his cultute.
AlI architectural elements are there for a reason, either
cultural or physlcal.
Unfort\lnately, many of the traditionsl solutions have been forgotten or are simply
bein~
than that, these
.
,
copièd -by builders'who do not underétand them. pr8cti~àl
More
solutions hsve not apreaç and sorne rems!n "
unknown to qther parts of the,desert.
This i8 moatly due to lack of
communication or the builder's secrecY'with his methods.
Also, rnany
unneces8ary and uneconomical techniques have been imported from the city. ~1
In this paper, we have studied the desert culture and re-introduced the
fa.t-disappe~ring solutions to their housing probl~ma. wants to
drft~
This paper also
the attention of urbanists" architecte and p,overnments
td the human'side of reconstruction and redevelopment of ruràl communities.
Out solution i8 not to change the peassntts culture but to help him
m8k~
a 8mooth transition into modernism by employing his useful, 'traditionsl methods and lmproving on them.
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,,-
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