Model-oriented Systems Engineering Science: A Unifying Framework for Traditional and Complex Systems (Crc Complex and Enterprise Systems Engineering)

MODEL-ORIENTED SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SCIENCE A Unifying Framework for Traditional and Complex Systems COMPLEX AND ENTER...

Author: Duane W. Hybertson

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MODEL-ORIENTED SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SCIENCE A Unifying Framework for Traditional and Complex Systems

COMPLEX AND ENTERPRISE SYSTEMS ENGINEERING Series Editors: Paul R. Garvey and Brian E. White The MITRE Corporation www.enterprise-systems-engineering.com

Designing Complex Systems: Foundations of Design in the Functional Domain Erik W. Aslaksen ISBN: 1-4200-8753-3 Publication Date: October 17, 2008 Architecture and Principles of Systems Engineering Charles Dickerson and Dimitri N. Mavris ISBN: 1-4200-7253-6 Publication Date: January 30, 2009 Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science: A Unifying Framework for Traditional and Complex Systems Duane W. Hybertson ISBN: 1-4200-7251-X Publication Date: February 15, 2009 Enterprise Systems Engineering: Theory and Practice George Rebovich, Jr. and Brian E. White ISBN: 1-4200-7329-X Publication Date: April 15, 2009 Leadership in Decentralized Organizations Beverly G. McCarter and Brian E. White ISBN: 1-4200-7417-2 Publication Date: May 15, 2009 Engineering Mega-Systems: The Challenge of Systems Engineering in the Information Age Renee Stevens ISBN: 1-4200-7666-3 Publication Date: June 25, 2009 Complex Enterprise Systems Engineering for Operational Excellence Kenneth C. Hoffman and Kirkor Bozdogan ISBN: 1-4200-8256-6 Publication Date: November 16, 2009 Social and Cognitive Aspects of Engineering Practice Stuart S. Shapiro ISBN: 1-4200-7333-8 Publication Date: March 30, 2010

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MODEL-ORIENTED SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SCIENCE A Unifying Framework for Traditional and Complex Systems

Duane W. Hybertson

Zachman enterprise framework © 1987 John A. Zachman; hexagon model © 1998 Zachman Framework Associates; derivative work © 2002 Zachman Framework Associates; metamodel projection © 2008 Zachman Framework Associates. 2009 single commercial publication license 291345 issued to Duane W. Hybertson. All rights reserved.

Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC Auerbach Publications is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-7251-8 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http:// www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hybertson, Duane W. Model-oriented systems engineering science : a unifying framework for traditional and complex systems / author, Duane W. Hybertson. p. cm. -- (Complex and enterprise systems engineering) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4200-7251-8 (alk. paper) 1. Systems engineering--Simulation methods. 2. System analysis--Technique. 3. Engineering models. I. Title. II. Series. TA168.H93 2009 620.001’171--dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the Auerbach Web site at http://www.auerbach-publications.com

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Book Summary "UPQMFWFMPWFSWJFXPGUIFCPPLDIBQUFSTJTQSFTFOUFECFMPX&BDIDIBQUFSOBNFJTGPMMPXFECZ LFZDPODFQUTJOUIFDIBQUFS

Chapter 1:

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Chapter 2:

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Chapter 3:

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Chapter 4:

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Chapter 5:

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Chapter 6:

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Chapter 7:

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Chapter 8:

$PODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO -BOHVBHF POUPMPHZ SFQSFTFOUBUJPO TFNBOUJDT 4&MBOHVBHFHSPVQ

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Book Summary

Chapter 9:

5JNF $IBOHFBOETUBCJMJUZ NPEFMTPGDIBOHF UISFFMFWFMTPGDIBOHF

Chapter 10: 7JFXT $SPTTDVUUJOH GSFFGPSN BSDIJUFDUVSFSFMBUFE EVBMJUZ WJFXDBUFHPSJFT

Chapter 11: 4QFDJﬁDBUJPO*OGPSNBUJPO *OUFSOBM FYUFSOBM BOEJOUFSGBDFDPOUFOU QSPCBCJMJTUJD GV[[Z

Chapter 12: .BQQJOHBOE6OJﬁDBUJPO .BQQJOHNPEFMTUPUSBEJUJPOBMBSUJGBDUT VOJﬁDBUJPOGFBUVSFT

Chapter 13: 4&"DUVBMJ[BUJPO1SPDFTTFT 5SBEJUJPOBM $4& NPEFMJOH BOEBDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTFT

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xxi

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Acknowledgments

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About the Author %VBOF )ZCFSUTPO JT B SFTFBSDIFS BOE NFNCFS PG UIF UFDIOJDBM TUBﬀ JO UIF *OGPSNBUJPO BOE $PNQVUJOH 5FDIOPMPHJFT $FOUFS BU UIF .*53& $PSQPSBUJPO JO .D-FBO 7JSHJOJB )F IBT B CSPBECBDLHSPVOEJOTPGUXBSFBOETZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH CPUISFTFBSDIBOEQSBDUJDF)FIBTDPO EVDUFESFTFBSDIJOUIFGPVOEBUJPOTPGBSDIJUFDUVSFBOEIBTQVCMJTIFEQBQFSTPOBVOJGPSNNPEFM JOHBQQSPBDIUPBSDIJUFDUVSFBOETPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOH)FIBTTVQQPSUFEFOUFSQSJTFBSDIJUFDUVSF EFWFMPQNFOUBOEEFﬁOFETZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHBQQSPBDIFTGPSMBSHFTZTUFNTGPSTFWFSBMDJWJMJBO EFGFOTF BOEJOUFMMJHFODFBHFODJFTPGUIF64(PWFSONFOU)FIBTBMTPDPOEVDUFESFTFBSDIPO DBQUVSJOHTFDVSJUZQBUUFSOTBOEEFUFSNJOJOHIPXUPJOUFHSBUFUIFTFQBUUFSOTJOUPBVTBCMFFOUFS QSJTF FOHJOFFSJOH DPOUFYU ThF PVUDPNF PG UIJT SFTFBSDI XBT B CPPL PO TFDVSJUZ QBUUFSOT UIBU IFDPBVUIPSFEBOEDPFEJUFE)JTSFDFOUSFTFBSDIIBTCFFOJOTUSFOHUIFOJOHUIFGPVOEBUJPOPG TZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHXJUIJODSFBTFEWJTJCJMJUZPGTZTUFNTTDJFODF BOEJOFYUFOEJOHBOEBQQMZJOH QSJODJQMFTPGTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHUPDPNQMFYTZTUFNTTVDIBTPSHBOJ[BUJPOTBOEPUIFSTZTUFNTUIBU JODMVEFQFPQMF

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Chapter 1

Opportunities and Challenges for Systems Engineering iThFTQJSJUVBMUFNQMFPGUIFGVUVSF XIJMFJUXJMMCFCVJMUMBSHFMZPGUIFPMEXFMMQSPWFE NBUFSJBMT XJMMSFRVJSFOFXBOEBNQMFSGPVOEBUJPOTJOUIFMJHIUPGUIFJNNFOTFFYUFO TJPOPGPVSJOUFMMFDUVBMIPSJ[POTw +4NVUT )PMJTNBOE&WPMVUJPO ThFﬁFMEPGTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH 4& IBTBDIJFWFEBEFHSFFPGNBUVSJUZBOETVDDFTTJOJUTUSBEJUJPOBM TDPQFPGBQQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOTTVDIBTBFSPTQBDF EFGFOTF USBOTQPSUBUJPO BOEDPOTUSVDUJPO8IJMF 4&JTXPSLJOHUPTUSFOHUIFOJUTNFUIPETBOEJODSFBTFJUTEFHSFFPGTVDDFTT DIBOHFTBSFTJNVMUBOF PVTMZPDDVSSJOHJOUIF4&FOWJSPONFOUUIBUHFOFSBUFBGPSDFGPSFYQBOTJPOCFZPOEUIFUSBEJUJPOBM TDPQFPG4&ThFQSJNBSZBSFBPGDIBOHFJTUIFFYQBOTJPOUPRVBMJUBUJWFMZNPSFDPNQMFYTZTUFNT 'PSFYBNQMF CVJMEJOHBQPXFSQMBOUJTBDPNQMFYFOHJOFFSJOHBDUJWJUZJOWPMWJOHCPUIUFDIOJDBM BOETPDJBMFMFNFOUTCVUUIFCFIBWJPSPGBQPXFSHSJEBDSPTTBSFHJPOJTTVCTUBOUJBMMZNPSFDPNQMFY BOEMFTTQSFEJDUBCMFThF4&DPNNVOJUZJTOPUPOMZCFHJOOJOHUPFYQBOEGSPNQPXFSQMBOUTUP QPXFSHSJET CVUJTBMTPCFHJOOJOHUPUBDLMFQSPCMFNTFWFOGVSUIFSCFZPOEJUTUSBEJUJPOBMIPSJ[POT 3FQSFTFOUBUJWFQSPCMFNTJODMVEFBWPJEJOHEJTFBTFQBOEFNJDT DSFBUJOHBNPSFWJBCMFIFBMUIDBSF TZTUFNNPEFM BOUJDJQBUJOHUIFFﬀFDUTPGBMUFSOBUJWFFOFSHZQPMJDJFT JNQSPWJOHUIFFﬀFDUJWFOFTTPG UIFDSJNJOBMKVTUJDFTZTUFN BOEQSFWFOUJOHPSEFBMJOHXJUIJOTVSHFODZBOEUFSSPSJTN"TFDPOE BSZGPSDFGPSFYQBOTJPOJTUIFFNFSHFODFPGOFXUFDIOPMPHZBSFBTTVDIBTOBOPUFDIOPMPHZBOE TZOUIFUJDCJPMPHZThFTFUFDIOPMPHJFTBSFNBLJOHTJHOJﬁDBOUQSPHSFTTCVUUIFEJﬃDVMUZPGCVJMEJOH TZTUFNTBUEJﬀFSFOUTDBMFTNBLFTDMFBSUIFOFFEGPSFYUFOEFE4&TVQQPSU ThFDVSSFOUTUBUFPG4&UIVTDPOUBJOTCPUIPQQPSUVOJUJFTBOEDIBMMFOHFTThFPQQPSUVOJUJFT BSFUIFQPTTJCMFBSFBTPGFYQBOTJPOJOUIFﬁFMEThFDIBMMFOHFTBSFUPTUBSUXJUIBO4&UIBUIBT TUSFOHUITBOEXFBLOFTTFTXJUIJOJUTDVSSFOUTDPQF BOEUPEFﬁOFBO4&UIBUJTNPSFSPCVTU DPWFSTB TJHOJﬁDBOUMZFYQBOEFETDPQF BOEDPOTUJUVUFTBDPIFSFOUXIPMFPGUIFPMEBOEUIFOFX'PSUVOBUFMZ NBOZPGUIFTPMVUJPOFMFNFOUTGPSBOFYQBOEFEBOESPCVTU4&BMSFBEZFYJTU JOTPNFDBTFTXJUIJO 4&CVUJOPUIFSDBTFTJOSFMBUFEPSTVQQPSUJOHEJTDJQMJOFT8IBUJTOFFEFEJTUPCSJOHUIFTPMVUJPO 1

2 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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4 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Opportunities and Challenges for Systems Engineering O

5

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BOEDPNQSJTFThFﬁSTUUXPQBJST BSFXPSETUIBUMPPLMJLFBOUPOZNTCVUBSFTZOPOZNTThFUIJSEXPSEJTCJQPMBSJUIBTUXPNFBO JOHTUIBUBSFBOUPOZNT O *OﬂBNNBCMFNFBOs ﬂBNNBCMF*UJTKVEHFECZUIFQPQVMBUJPOUPCFBOBDDFQUBCMFXPSE O *SSFHBSEMFTTNFBOTSFHBSEMFTT"MUIPVHIJUIBTCFFOVTFEGPSOFBSMZBDFOUVSZ JUIBTDPOTJT UFOUMZCFFOKVEHFECZUIFQPQVMBUJPOUPCFBOVOBDDFQUBCMFXPSEJOQVCMJTIFEXPSLT O $PNQSJTF IBT UXP PQQPTJUF NFBOJOHT JODMVEF CF NBEF VQ PG &YBNQMF ThJT CPPL DPNQSJTFTDIBQUFST DPNQPTF DPOTUJUVUF &YBNQMFDIBQUFSTDPNQSJTFUIJTCPPL PSUIJTCPPLJTDPNQSJTFEPGDIBQUFST ThFUXPNFBOJOHTIBWFCFFOBSPVOEGPSPWFSB DFOUVSZ BOEUIFTFDPOENFBOJOHIBTBMXBZTCFFODSJUJDJ[FEBTXSPOHThJTTFDPOENFBO JOHIBTCFFOVTFEJOTDJFOUJﬁDBOEUFDIOJDBMXSJUJOH CVUOPUJOMJUFSBSZXSJUJOH3FDFOUMZ IPXFWFS MJUFSBSZVTBHFIBTTIJGUFE BOEOPXUIFTFDPOENFBOJOHJTVTFEBCJUNPSFCVU JUJTOPUDPNQMFUFMZBDDFQUFEZFUJOUIBUDPNNVOJUZBOETUJMMDSJUJDJ[FE/FWFSUIFMFTT UIF UJEFJTUVSOJOHThFNFBOJOHPWFSBQFSJPEPGEFDBEFTBQQFBSTUPCFSFWFSTJOHJUTFMGJUJT DIBOHJOHQPMBSJUZ PSQFSIBQTDIBOHJOHGSPNCJQPMBSUPQPMBS ThFEJDUJPOBSZEPFTOPUTBZXIBUJTDPSSFDUBOEJODPSSFDUJUSFDPSETXIBUJTHFOFSBMMZDPOTJE FSFE CZNBTTDPMMBCPSBUJPO UPCFDPSSFDUBOEJODPSSFDU"OEUIFQPQVMBUJPOBTTFTTNFOUFWPMWFT PWFSUJNF*OBEEJUJPO EJDUJPOBSZXSJUFSTEPOPUDSFBUFOFXXPSETUIFQPQVMBUJPODSFBUFTJUTPXO XPSET /BUVSBM MBOHVBHF JT PSHBOJD OPU NFDIBOJTUJD ThF QPQVMBUJPO JT TFMGHPWFSOJOH XIFO JU DPNFTUPOBUVSBMMBOHVBHF

Storytelling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

Scaling in All Directions 4&JTFYQFSJFODJOHFYUFOTJPOTPGTDBMFJOBMMEJSFDUJPOTVQ EPXO BOEIPSJ[POUBM)PSJ[POUBMTDBM JOHJTSFﬂFDUFEJOUIFNBTTDPMMBCPSBUJPOQSBDUJDFTXFIBWFEJTDVTTFE BOEBMTPJOUIFWFSZMBSHF OVNCFSTPGQBSUTJODPNQMFYTZTUFNT EJTDVTTFEJOUIFTQBOPGDPOUSPMQPSUJPOPG$IBQUFS6Q BOEEPXOTDBMJOHJTBEESFTTFEIFSF

Scaling Up SE 4&JTBEESFTTJOHMBSHFSTZTUFNTThFFYBNQMFPGFYUFOEJOHGSPNQPXFSQMBOUUPQPXFSHSJESFﬂFDUFE UIJTThFUFSNiTZTUFNPGTZTUFNTwJTTPNFUJNFTVTFEUPSFﬂFDUBIJHIFSTDBMF XIFSFBWFSZMBSHF

10 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

TZTUFNJTQVUUPHFUIFSGSPNFYJTUJOHTZTUFNT"OPUIFSBSFBPGTDBMFVQJTPSHBOJ[BUJPOTPSFOUFS QSJTFT&OUFSQSJTFDBONFBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOPSNJTTJPOCVUDBOFYUFOEVQUPNVMUJPSHBOJ[BUJPOFOUJ UJFTPSNVMUJOBUJPOBMDPBMJUJPOGPSDFTThJTMFWFMPGTDBMFFYUFOETCFZPOEUIFTDPQFPGNBOBHFNFOU PGBTJOHMFPSHBOJ[BUJPOBOEQPTFTJUTPXODIBMMFOHFT

Scaling Down SE *OSFDFOUZFBST TNBMMTDBMFCJPMPHJDBMBOEQIZTJDBMTZTUFNTIBWFCFFOBOBSFBPGDPOTJEFSBCMFJOUFS FTU DSFBUJWJUZ SFTFBSDI BOEEFWFMPQNFOU0WFSMBQQJOHUPQJDTJODMVEFNJDSPFOHJOFFSJOH OBOP UFDIOPMPHZ OBOPCJPMPHZ OBOPTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH TZOUIFUJDCJPMPHZ TZTUFNTCJPMPHZ CJPMPHJDBM FOHJOFFSJOH NPMFDVMBSDPNQVUJOH BOERVBOUVNDPNQVUJOHThFTFBSFBTIBWFHSFBUQSPNJTFJO NBOZBQQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOT JODMVEJOHNFEJDJOFBOEDPNQVUJOH6OJWFSTJUZEFHSFFQSPHSBNTBOE KPVSOBMTIBWFCFFODSFBUFEUPGPDVTPONBOZPGUIFTFJOEJWJEVBMUPQJDBSFBT 4ZTUFNTCJPMPHZBOETZOUIFUJDCJPMPHZBSFQBSUJDVMBSMZJOUFSFTUJOHBOEQBSUJBMMZPWFSMBQQJOH BSFBT*GUIFSFJTBEJTUJODUJPOCFUXFFOUIFUXP JUJTUIBUUIFHPBMPGTZOUIFUJDCJPMPHZJTUPFOHJOFFS CJPMPHJDBM QBSUT PS i#JP#SJDLT w BOE UIF HPBM PG TZTUFNT CJPMPHZ JT UP CVJME TZTUFNT GSPN UIFTF TUBOEBSEQBSUT.*5IBTFTUBCMJTIFEB3FHJTUSZPG4UBOEBSE#JPMPHJDBM1BSUT 3FHJTUSZ ThF QVSQPTFTBOEFNFSHJOHQSBDUJDFPGTZOUIFUJDCJPMPHZBSFEJTDVTTFEJO/BUVSF ThFFDPOPN JDTPGTZTUFNTCJPMPHZ JOUFSNTPGUIFQSPTQFDUTPGTVDDFTTGVMMZCVJMEJOHTZTUFNTGSPNTUBOEBSE CJPMPHJDBMQBSUT JTEJTDVTTFEJO)FOLFMBOE.BVSFS %PUIFTFTNBMMTDBMFTZTUFNTSFMBUFUP4& :FT TZTUFNTBSFCFJOHFOHJOFFSFEBUUIJTMFWFM BOE BOZXIFSFTZTUFNTBSFFOHJOFFSFEFWFOJGUIFZBSFBUBWFSZTNBMMTDBMFXPVMETFFNUPCFBO BQQSPQSJBUFBSFOBGPSBQQMZJOH4&ThJTTFOUJNFOUJTSFJOGPSDFECZUIFDVSSFOUTUBUFPGUIFFﬀPSU EFTDSJCFEBCPWFUPCVJMETZTUFNTGSPNMJCSBSJFTPGTUBOEBSECJPMPHJDBMQBSUT1BSUTIBWFCFFOTVD DFTTGVMMZCVJMU BMPOHXJUITPNFFYQFSJNFOUBMDJSDVJUT CVUUIFDPNNVOJUZJTTUSVHHMJOHUPCVJME XPSLJOH TZTUFNT GSPN UIFTF QBSUT "O FYBNQMF JT B SFQPSU UIBU PO POF TZTUFNT CJPMPHZ FﬀPSU UIF HSPVQ TQFOET PG JUT UJNF USZJOH UP ﬁOE BOE ﬁY VOJOUFOEFE JOUFSBDUJPOT CFUXFFO QBSUT ,FBTMJOH SFQPSUFEJO)FOLFMBOE.BVSFS ThJTQSPCMFNTPVOETWBHVFMZGBNJMJBSUP TZTUFNTFOHJOFFSTThFTFTZTUFNTCJPMPHJTUTNJHIUCFOFﬁUGSPNBEEJUJPOBM4&BTTJTUBODFBOEFEVDB UJPO"EWPDBUFTGPSBO4&WJFXPGOBOPUFDIOPMPHZJODMVEF%BTFUBM BOE3PVTF

Multiscale SE .BOZPGUIFTFTZTUFNTJOWPMWFBOBMZTJTBOENPEFMJOHPGEJﬀFSFOUTDBMFTJOUIFTBNFTZTUFNThF QSFTFODFPGFNFSHFOUQSPQFSUJFTBUIJHIFSMFWFMTJTBEFTJSFEDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPGUIFTFTZTUFNT CVUJU BMTPDPNQMJDBUFTUIFBOBMZTJTBOEFOHJOFFSJOH0OFFYBNQMFPGUIJTJTUIFBOBMZTJTPGUIFQIZTJ DBM DIFNJDBM BOECJPMPHJDBMQSPQFSUJFTPGJPOJDMJRVJET UPDPNCJOFUIFNJOBXBZUIBUQSPEVDFT EFTJSFEDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBUBIJHIFSTDBMF 3PHFST "OBQQMJDBUJPOPGUIJTJTUIFQSPEVDUJPOPG MJRVJENJSSPSTGPSUFMFTDPQFT'PSFYBNQMF POFQSPQPTBMJTUPQSPEVDFBNJSSPSUPNFUFST JOEJBNFUFSGPSBUFMFTDPQFPOUIF.PPOUIBUJUJTCFMJFWFEXPVMEHJWFVOQSFDFEFOUFEWJFXTPGUIF FBSMZVOJWFSTF #PSSB "OPUIFSFYBNQMFJTUIFFYQFDUFEGVUVSFVTFPGDBSCPOOBOPUVCFTJO DPNNFSDJBMBJSDSBGU BTEFTDSJCFEJO/BUVSF ThFFYQFDUBUJPOJTUIBUDPNQPTJUFTNBEF GSPNOBOPUVCFTXJMMSFTVMUJOBJSDSBGUTUSVDUVSFTUIBUSFUBJOUIFOFDFTTBSZTUSFOHUICVUTJHOJﬁDBOUMZ SFEVDFUIFXFJHIUJODPNQBSJTPOUPQPMZNFSCBTFd ﬁCFST 4ZTUFNTTVDIBTUIFTFSFRVJSFBO4&BQQSPBDIUIBUDBOBOBMZ[FBOENPEFMNBOZEJﬀFSFOUTDBMFT JOBTZTUFNBOEDBOSFMBUFUIFEJﬀFSFOUTDBMFTBOEMFWFMTUPFBDIPUIFSThFTBMJFOU4&RVFTUJPOGPSB HJWFOTZTUFNJT8IBUMFWFMTPSTDBMFTEPFT4&OFFEUPBEESFTT "NVMUJTDBMFNPEFMJOHBOEBOBMZTJT

Opportunities and Challenges for Systems Engineering O 11

DPNNVOJUZJTFYBNJOJOHUIJTJTTVF"OFYBNQMFJTUIF$FOUFSGPS*OUFHSBUJWF.VMUJTDBMF.PEFMJOH BOE4JNVMBUJPO $*..4 BUUIF$BMJGPSOJB*OTUJUVUFPG5FDIOPMPHZ $*..4 $*..4 JTBNVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSZDFOUFSTFUVQUPNPEFMBOEBOBMZ[FDPNQMFYTZTUFNTBDSPTTNVMUJQMFTDBMFT PGCPUIUJNFBOEMFOHUI"SFBTPGTUVEZJODMVEFBTUSPEZOBNJDT BUNPTQIFSF FBSUIRVBLFT ﬂVJE NFDIBOJDT TJHOBMQSPDFTTJOH JNBHJOH NBUFSJBMT CJPMPHJDBMTZTUFNT BOEOBOPTDBMFTZTUFNT

Scale Viewpoints .BOZPGUIFFYBNQMFTQSFTFOUFEJOUIJTDIBQUFSSFﬂFDUDIBOHFTPGTDBMF0OFQFSTQFDUJWFPONBTT DPMMBCPSBUJPOPOBHMPCBMTDBMFJTUIBUJUSFQSFTFOUTBTDBMFVQPGFOHJOFFSJOH CVTJOFTT BOELOPXM FEHF QSPEVDUJPO $MFBSMZ CJPMPHJDBM TZTUFNT BOE OBOPUFDIOPMPHZ SFQSFTFOU TDBMFEPXO #PUI TDBMFVQBOETDBMFEPXOIBWFPDDVSSFEPWFSUIFQBTUGFXEFDBEFTThJTTUSFUDIJOHJOCPUIEJSFD UJPOTQSFTFOUTJNQPSUBOUDIBMMFOHFTGPSTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH 5PBEFRVBUFMZVOEFSTUBOEUIFSPMFBOEFYUFOUPGTDBMFT XFOFFEUPMPPLBUBNPSFHFOFSBMDPO UFYU OBNFMZ UIFQPUFOUJBMSBOHFPGTDBMFTGSPNTFWFSBMWJFXQPJOUTThFTFWJFXQPJOUTUZQJDBMMZBSF USFBUFETFQBSBUFMZBMUIPVHIUIFZPWFSMBQTJHOJﬁDBOUMZ. ThFZJODMVEF O 1IZTJDBMThFQPUFOUJBMSBOHFPGTDBMFTFYUFOETGSPNTVCBUPNJDQBSUJDMFTVQUPUIFFOUJSF VOJWFSTFBTXFLOPXJU O 4PDJBMPSPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMThFSBOHFFYUFOETGSPNJOEJWJEVBMQFPQMFVQUPTPDJFUJFT OBUJPOT BOENVMUJOBUJPOBMDPBMJUJPOTPSHSPVQT TVDIBTUIF6OJUFE/BUJPOT O &OUFSQSJTFThFSBOHFJOUIJTWJFXQPJOUUZQJDBMMZFYUFOETGSPNTZTUFNTUPPSHBOJ[BUJPOTPS FOUFSQSJTFT*OUIJTDPOUFYU TZTUFNUZQJDBMMZNFBOTTPNFUIJOHMJLFJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFNPS NBDIJOF BOEFOUFSQSJTFUZQJDBMMZNFBOTPSHBOJ[BUJPOPSNJTTJPO CVUDBOHPVQUPNVMUJ PSHBOJ[BUJPOHSPVQTPSNVMUJOBUJPOBMDPBMJUJPOT*OSFDFOUZFBST UIFDPODFQUPGiTZTUFN PGTZTUFNTwUIBUJT BMBSHFTZTUFNQVUUPHFUIFSGSPNFYJTUJOHTZTUFNTIBTCFFOEJT DVTTFE PGUFOCVUOPUBMXBZTJOUIFDPOUFYUPGUIJTWJFXQPJOU O #JPMPHJDBM ThF SBOHF FYUFOET GSPN OBOPCJPMPHZ BTTFNCMJFT PG CJPNPMFDVMFT VQ UP FDPTZTUFNT O -JGFPSMJWJOHTZTUFNTThFSBOHFFYUFOETGSPNPSHBOJDNPMFDVMFTPSDFMMTVQUPNVMUJOB UJPOBMHSPVQT PSBQQSPYJNBUFMZUIFDPNCJOFESBOHFPGCJPMPHJDBM FOUFSQSJTF BOETPDJBM PSHBOJ[BUJPOBMTDBMFTThFGVMMFTUFYQSFTTJPOPGUIJTWJFXQPJOUJT+BNFT.JMMFSTNPOVNFO UBMXPSL-JWJOH4ZTUFNT O .BDIJOFThFSBOHFJOUIJTWJFXQPJOUFYUFOETGSPNOBOPEFWJDFTVQUPMBSHFNBDIJOFT UIBUBSFBOBMPHPVTUPPSHBOJTNTJOUIFTPDJBMPSCJPMPHJDBMWJFXQPJOUThBUJT BDBSPSUSBJO PSBJSDSBGUPSTIJQPSDPNQVUFSJTPGUFOSFHBSEFEBTBNBDIJOF CVUBUSBOTQPSUBUJPOTZTUFN PSBﬂFFUPGTIJQTPSBDPNQVUFSOFUXPSLJTVTVBMMZSFHBSEFEBTBOJOUFSBDUJOHHSPVQPG NBDIJOFTBOEPUIFSFMFNFOUTUIBUJT BTZTUFNBOEOPUBTBNBDIJOF O *OGPSNBUJPOThFSBOHFFYUFOETGSPNCJUTUPBMBSHFHMPCBMJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFN PGXIJDI UIF*OUFSOFUJTUIFEPNJOBOUFYBNQMF O 5JNF ThFSBOHFPGUFNQPSBMTDBMFTFYUFOETGSPNOBOPTFDPOETPSUJNFDZDMFTPGBUPNJD CFIBWJPSUPCJMMJPOTPGZFBSTPSUIFMJGFPGUIFVOJWFSTF

/PUFUIBUCFDBVTFTPNFTZTUFNTBSFOPUSFHBSEFEBTNBDIJOFTEPFTOPUNFBOUIBUNBDIJOFTBSFOPUSFHBSEFE BTTZTUFNT.BDIJOFT BOEJOGBDUNPTUJUFNTBDSPTTUIFSBOHFPGTDBMFTJOBMMUIFWJFXQPJOUTJEFOUJﬁFEIFSF BSF SFHBSEFEBTTZTUFNT BTUIJTCPPLFNQIBTJ[FTUISPVHIPVU

12 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

The Bridge: Information, Computation, Software *OGPSNBUJPO TZTUFNT JODMVEJOH DPNQVUBUJPO BOE FTQFDJBMMZ TPGUXBSF GPSN B QPUFOUJBM CSJEHF CFUXFFOUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTBOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNT3FDFOUEFWFMPQNFOUTJOUIJTEPNBJOSFQSFTFOU TJHOJﬁDBOUTUFQTUPXBSESFBMJ[JOHUIJTQPUFOUJBMThJTTFDUJPOEFTDSJCFTUIFQPUFOUJBMPGBOETUFQT UPXBSE SFBMJ[JOH JU $PNQVUBUJPO BOE TPGUXBSF DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT BSF EJWJEFE JOUP UISFF TFUT 54& SFMBUFE$4&SFMBUFEBOECSJEHFSFMBUFE

TSE-Related Characteristics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ﬀ BOE4XFFU JEFOUJGZBVUPNBUJPOBTUIFGBTUFTUHSPXJOHBOETUSPOHFTUJOﬂVFODFPO4& ThF*OUFSOFUBOEUFDIOPMPHJFTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIUIF*OUFSOFUIBWFCFDPNFJODSFBTJOHMZJNQPS UBOUJO4&4PGUXBSFJTBLFZQBSUPG*OUFSOFUQSPDFTTFTBOEUFDIOPMPHJFT

CSE-Related Characteristics "NBKPSBSFBPGTPGUXBSFTVQQPSUUP$4&JTBHFOUCBTFETZTUFNT.VDIXPSLIBTCFFOEPOFJOUIJT BSFB FYQMPSJOHDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTTVDIBTBVUPOPNZ MFBSOJOH BEBQUBUJPO FWPMVUJPO GBVMUUPMFSBODF BOESPCVTUOFTT 0WFSUIFQBTUEFDBEFPSNPSF UIFDPODFQUPG TPGUXBSF DPHOJUJWFBHFOUTIBTCFFOQVSTVFE'PS FYBNQMF )VIOTBOE4JOHI EJTDVTTUIFHFOFSBMDPODFQU BOE.BKJEBOE"INFE EJT DVTTBTQFDJﬁDBQQMJDBUJPO*OGBDU UIFJEFBPGBTDSJCJOHDPHOJUJWFPSNFOUBMRVBMJUJFTUPNBDIJOFT TPGUXBSF XBTQSPQPTFEZFBSTBHPCZ+PIO.D$BSUIZ "DPNNPONPEFMVTFEJOEFﬁO JOHBOESFBTPOJOHBCPVUDPHOJUJWFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGTPGUXBSFBHFOUTBTXFMMBTNPEFMJOHIVNBO BHFOUTJTUIF#%*NPEFM CFMJFGT EFTJSFT BOEJOUFOUJPOT 3BPBOE(FPSHFﬀ 1 *O *#.QSPQPTFEBDPODFQUDBMMFEBVUPOPNJDDPNQVUJOH ,FQIBSUBOE$IFTT

XIJDIUIFZEFTDSJCFBTBTZTUFNJDWJFXPGDPNQVUJOHNPEFMFEBGUFSBTFMGSFHVMBUJOHCJPMPHJDBM TZTUFNThFGPVSBSFBTXFSFTFMGDPOﬁHVSBUJPO TFMGIFBMJOH TFMGPQUJNJ[BUJPO BOETFMGQSPUFDUJPO ThFPSJHJOBMNPUJWBUJPOXBTMBSHFMZUIFGBDUUIBUNBOZDPNQMFYJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFNTJOPQFSBUJPO BSFCSJUUMFBOEOPOSPCVTUBHBJOTUJOQVUPSFOWJSPONFOUWBHBSJFT BOELFFQJOHUIFNPQFSBUJOHJT CFDPNJOHBEJﬃcVMUBOESFTPVSDFJOUFOTJWFFﬀPSU4JODFUIFO UIFDPODFQUIBTCFDPNFBOBDUJWF BSFBPGSFTFBSDI BOEUIFTDPQFIBTCSPBEFOFEUPJODPSQPSBUFNPSFNBOBHFNFOUBTQFDUT 4BMFIJF BOE5BIWJMEBSJ 'PSFYBNQMF NPEFMTPGCJPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTFTBSFCFJOHBQQMJFEUPBTTJTUJO QPMJDZEFDPNQPTJUJPO ,FFOFZBOE8BEF "OPUIFS BSFB JT UIF JODSFBTJOH FNQIBTJT PO POUPMPHZ FOHJOFFSJOH BOE NBDIJOFNBOJQVMBCMF TFNBOUJDT4PGUXBSFQMBZTBNBKPSSole in these eﬀorts. This arFBJTEJTDVTTFEGVSUIFSJO$IBQUFS

Opportunities and Challenges for Systems Engineering O

13

Bridge-Related Characteristics 4PGUXBSFJTBQSPNJOFOUTFHVF BMJOL CFUXFFOUIFNFDIBOJTUJDBOEPSHBOJDNPEFMT*UDBOSBOHF GSPNNFDIBOJTUJDTUSBJHIUGPSXBSEBMHPSJUINTPSEBUBQSPDFTTJOHUPBQQFBSJOHUPCFBOJOUFMMJHFOU BHFOUThFQPJOUBQQMJFTUPBVUPOPNZBTXFMMBTJOUFMMJHFODFTPGUXBSFBOEDPNQVUFSTZTUFNTDBOFYJTU BOZXIFSFJOUIFBVUPOPNZTQFDUSVNCFUXFFOUIFDPOUSPMMFENBDIJOFBOEUIFBVUPOPNPVTIVNBO 4PGUXBSFJTJOIFSFOUMZNPEFMPSJFOUFEThFTPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOHﬁFMEIBTJOWFTUJHBUFENPEFMJOH JOHSFBUEFQUIBOEIBTQSPEVDFENVDINPEFMJOHNBDIJOFSZGPSEFTJHOBOEBOBMZTJTPGBMMEPNBJOT .PEFMJOHJTTPNFUIJOHUIBUBQQMJFTUPUIFFOHJOFFSJOHPGCPUIUSBEJUJPOBMBOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNT 4PDJBMBOECJPMPHJDBMTDJFODFTBSFBTPVSDFPGNVDIJOGPSNBUJPOGPSUIFOFX FYQBOEFE4&ThF TPGUXBSFDPNNVOJUZIBTBMSFBEZHJWFOUIFOFX4&BCJHIFBETUBSUUPXBSEQSFQBSJOHUIJTJOGPSNB UJPOGPS4&CZEFWFMPQJOHBOEFYFDVUJOHNPEFMT.VDIPGUIJTXPSLJTJOBHFOUNPEFMJOH "OPUIFSQFSTQFDUJWFPOUIFTPGUXBSFSPMFGPDVTFTPOUIFDIBMMFOHFTPGTPGUXBSFJUTFMG FTQFDJBMMZ MBSHFTDBMF TZTUFNT ThF 4PGUXBSF &OHJOFFSJOH *OTUJUVUF BU $BSOFHJF .FMMPO QSPEVDFE B SFQPSU POVMUSBMBSHFTDBMFTZTUFNTPGUIFGVUVSFBOEUIFJSDIBMMFOHFT JNQMJDBUJPOT BOEBSFBTPGOFFEFE SFTFBSDI 'FJMFSFUBM ThFTFMBSHFTPGUXBSFTZTUFNTBSFDIBSBDUFSJ[FEBTEJﬀFSFOUJOLJOE UIFZOFFEUPCFWJFXFEOPUBTTZTUFNTPSTZTUFNTPGTZTUFNT CVUBTTPDJPUFDIOJDBMFDPTZTUFNT ThFZFYIJCJUNBOZPGUIFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGMBSHFDPNQMFYTZTUFNT JODMVEJOHDPOUJOVBMDIBOHFBOE FWPMVUJPO DPOﬂJDUJOHHPBMT BOEEFDFOUSBMJ[FEDPOUSPM 4PGUXBSFQMBZTBLFZSPMFJOCPUIUIFFYUFOTJPOPG4& WJB$4NPEFMTBOEBHFOUT BOEJOVOJ ﬁDBUJPO TQFDUSVN PG BVUPOPNZ CSJEHF 54& BOE $4& BTQFDUT &YUFOTJPO BOE VOJﬁDBUJPO BSF DIBMMFOHFBSFBTEJTDVTTFEJOUIFOFYUTFDUJPO

Challenges: A Foundation Needed for the Future SE #BTFE PO UIF TUBUF PG 54& UIF PQQPSUVOJUJFT GPS 4& FYQBOTJPO BOE UIF TPGUXBSF CSJEHF UIJT TFDUJPOQSFTFOUTUIFDIBMMFOHFTPGEFﬁOJOHUIF4&PGUIFGVUVSF5XPFMFNFOUTSFQSFTFOUUIF4& DIBMMFOHFBOEBSFEJTDVTTFEJOUIJTTFDUJPOThFﬁSTUJTUIFHFOFSBMOFFEUPTVQQPSUBOFYQBOEFE 4&ThFTFDPOEJTUIFHFOFSBMOFFEGPSVOJﬁDBUJPOPGUSBEJUJPOBMBOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNT JODMVEJOH BVOJﬁFEUBYPOPNZPGTZTUFNT BOEBVOJﬁFEGPVOEBUJPOThFDIBMMFOHFTBSFUIFODBQUVSFEBTB TFUPGSFRVJSFNFOUTUIBUBO4&BQQSPBDIOFFETUPTBUJTGZUPBEFRVBUFMZTVQQPSUUIFFYQBOEFEBOE VOJﬁFE4&

General Challenge: Support Expanded Scope *G4&JTHPJOHUPFYQBOEJOUIFEJSFDUJPOTJOEJDBUFEJOUIFTFDUJPOFOUJUMFEi0QQPSUVOJUJFT5ZQFT PG&YQBOTJPO wJUXJMMOFFEUPEFﬁOFNFUIPETUIBUTVQQPSUUIFBTTPDJBUFE$4DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT$4 FOHJOFFSJOH PS$4&4VDITVQQPSUJODMVEFTBMBSHFSWBSJFUZPGTZTUFNUZQFTBOEUIFJSBTTPDJBUFE EJTDJQMJOFT NBTTDPMMBCPSBUJPO BOENPSFTDBMJOH CPUIVQBOEEPXO "MUIPVHITPNFJOUIF4&DPNNVOJUZIBWFCFHVOUPFYBNJOFIPXUPFOHJOFFSUIFNGPS FYBNQMF#SBIBFUBM BOE,VSBTBOE8IJUF UIFDPODFQUPG$4&JTTUJMMSFMBUJWFMZ JNNBUVSFThFEJﬃcVMUJFTIBWFCFFOWBSJPVTMZEFTDSJCFEBTXJDLFEQSPCMFNT 3JUUFMBOE8FCCFS

NFTTFT "DLPﬀ o

BOE B TXBNQ 4DIÚO *O UIFJS CPPLT PO TZTUFN "TFUPGQPUFOUJBM$4&NFUIPETJTJEFOUJﬁFEJO$IBQUFS

14 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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General Challenge: Unify Unify TSE and CSE &WFO JG XF NFFU UIF DIBMMFOHF PG EFﬁOJOH B $4& NFUIPE UP TVQQPSU UIF $4 FYQBOTJPO PG 4& XF TUJMM IBWF B QSPCMFN ThF OFX TDPQF JT TP MBSHF BOE IFUFSPHFOFPVT UIBU 4& XJMM OPU IBWF B DPIFSFOU NFUIPE UIBU DPWFST JU BMM 54& BOE $4& IBWF TJHOJﬁDBOUMZ EJﬀFSFOU BTTVNQUJPOT $PODFQUVBMJ[JOHUIFTZTUFNTPGUIFQBTUBTNBDIJOFTBOEUIFTZTUFNTPGUIFGVUVSFBTPSHBOJTNT PSBHFOUTCSJOHTVTFGVMBOEOFFEFEDPODFQUTUPUIFUBCMFCVUMFBWFTPVUBOJNQPSUBOUSFBMJUZ.PTU TZTUFNTUIBU4&XJMMFOHJOFFSOPXBOEJOUIFGVUVSFBSFBDPNCJOBUJPOPGNBDIJOFTBOEQFPQMF OPUTUSJDUMZPOFPSUIFPUIFS8FDBOOPUTJNQMZSFQMBDF54&XJUI$4&"OEBEJTKPJOU4&DPOTJTU JOHPGUIF54&CPPLBOEUIF$4&CPPLXJMMOPUTVﬃcFXIFONPTU4&TZTUFNTSFﬂFDUBTQFDUTPG CPUI0VSQPTJUJPOJTUIBUUIFZNVTUCFJOUFHSBUFEJOUPBVOJﬁFE4&

Unify Multiple Disciplines 54&JTDPOTJEFSFENVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSZThFOFXﬁFMETPGTZOUIFUJDCJPMPHZ OBOPCJPMPHZ BOEPUIFST BUUIBUTDBMFBSFNVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSZJOUIFNTFMWFT TPUIFZBEEUPUIFNVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSZTDPQFPG4& *OBEEJUJPO DPNQMFYTZTUFNTBSFCSPBEMZNVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSZCFDBVTFUIFJSNPEFMTBQQMZUPNBOZ EJﬀFSFOUBQQMJDBUJPOBSFBTThFSFTVMUJTUIBUUIFFYUFOEFE4&SFJOGPSDFTBOEFYUFOETUIFNVMUJEJT DJQMJOBSZTDPQFPG4&*OGBDU UIFSFBSFTFWFSBMXBZTJOXIJDI4&JTNVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSZ JODMVEJOH O 4&TZTUFNTBSFCVJMUJONBOZEJﬀFSFOUBQQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOTEFGFOTF BFSPTQBDF USBOT QPSUBUJPO DPOTUSVDUJPO FOFSHZQMBOUT NFEJDJOF PSHBOJ[BUJPOT FUD O "OZHJWFO4&TZTUFNUZQJDBMMZSFQSFTFOUTNVMUJQMFEJTDJQMJOFTJOJUTDPNQPOFOUT O 4&NPEFMT JODMVEJOHNBUIFNBUJDBMBOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNNPEFMT DVUBDSPTTPSTVQQPSU NVMUJQMFEJTDJQMJOFT O ThF 4& PG UIF GVUVSF DBO CF FYQFDUFE UP QBSUOFS XJUI PS BU MFBTU VTF LOPXMFEHF QSP WJEFE CZ UIF WBSJPVT TVQQPSUJOH EJTDJQMJOFT PG 4& JODMVEJOH 44 $44 BOE PUIFST UIBU XFMJTUCFMPXBOEJEFOUJGZNPSFGVMMZJO$IBQUFS*GXFBSFTFSJPVTBCPVUVTJOHIPMJTUJD BQQSPBDIFTUPTPMWFQSPCMFNTJOUIFOFXFYUFOEFE4& XFOFFEUPNPWFCFZPOEQJHFPO IPMFEBOETUPWFQJQFEEJTDJQMJOFT 5P NBLF UIJT NVMUJUVEF PG EJTDJQMJOFT XPSL UPHFUIFS JO B DPIFSFOU GBTIJPO SFRVJSFT TJHOJﬁDBOU VOJﬁDBUJPO

Opportunities and Challenges for Systems Engineering O Extend? TSE

CSE?

15

Extended and Uniﬁed SE of the Future TSE ........... CSE Provide basis for

First deﬁne extended and uniﬁed science foundation

CSE = Complex Systems Engineering CSS = Complex Systems Science SE = Systems Engineering TSE = Traditional Systems Engineering

Figure 1.1

New Extended and Uniﬁed SE Science Foundation Traditional sciences Extend Life/social sciences – CSS – Physics – Biology – Chemistry – Psychology – Materials science – Sociology –... – Organization theory – Economics . . . Unify General systems science; Computation; Mathematics

Need for extended and uniﬁed SE science foundation.

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Speciﬁc Requirements List for New SE Foundation #BTFEPOUIFHFOFSBMDIBMMFOHFTBOEUIFJTTVFTSBJTFEJOUIFDIBQUFSUIVTGBS XFDBOEFﬁOFBMJTUPG SFRVJSFNFOUTGPSBGPVOEBUJPOPGUIFGVUVSF4&"OFOBCMJOHGPVOEBUJPOGPSBVOJﬁFE4&TIPVME TBUJTGZUIFSFRVJSFNFOUTMJTUFEJO5BCMF$PMVNOJOEJDBUFTBKVEHNFOUPGXIJDISFRVJSFNFOUT 54&TBUJTﬁFTTVCTUBOUJBMMZ 4 PSQBSUJBMMZ 1 'PSUIFNBKPSJUZPGSFRVJSFNFOUTOPUTBUJTﬁFECZ 54& UIFSFBTPOJTUIFVTFPGUIFNFDIBOJTUJDNPEFMPGTZTUFNT 54&BQQFBSTUPBUMFBTUQBSUJBMMZTBUJTGZNPTUPGUIFTFSFRVJSFNFOUT#VUUIFIPMFTBSFTJHOJﬁ DBOUPSHBOJD IZCSJE DIBOHF BOEVOJﬁFEBQQSPBDIBSFMBSHFHBQT

Response: Model-Oriented SE Science ThF4NVUTRVPUFHJWFOBUUIFTUBSUPGUIJTDIBQUFSXBTUBSHFUFEUPiUIFNBJOQSPCMFNTPGTDJFODFBOE QIJMPTPQIZ FUIJDT BSU BOEBMMJFETVCKFDUTw 4NVUT Y )PXFWFS UIFRVPUFDBOBMTPCFJOUFS QSFUFEBTBHPPETVNNBSZPGUIFDVSSFOUTJUVBUJPOGBDJOH4&EFQJDUFEJOUIJTDIBQUFSUIFTZTUFNT FOHJOFFSJOHUFNQMFPGUIFGVUVSF XIJMFJUXJMMCFCVJMUMBSHFMZPGUIFPMEQSPWFONBUFSJBMT XJMMSFRVJSF OFXBOEBNQMFSGPVOEBUJPOTJOUIFMJHIUPGUIFJNNFOTFFYUFOTJPOPGPVSJOUFMMFDUVBMIPSJ[POT

16 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Table 1.1

Requirements of a Future SE Foundation

No.

Requirement

1 2 3

Support mechanistic characteristics of systems Support organic and agent characteristics of systems Support a hybrid mix of traditional and complex or sociotechnical systems in multiple disciplines (people and machines) in a seamless way, including characteristics in common to both TS and CS, and characteristics in which TS and CS differ Support a mix of matter, energy, and information elements in systems (i.e., a mix of conceptual and physical elements in systems) in a seamless way, including the dominant role of information and computation Support scale-up and scale-down of systems, and multiple scales in a single system, to include a variety of scale viewpoints Support arbitrary, fuzzy, and uncertain system boundaries Support the modeling of the interaction of a system with its environment, to anticipate mutual adaptation and side effects Facilitate precision, minimalism, and simplicity Support formal and informal approaches Be ﬂexible, adaptable, and extensible, and evolve as needed Facilitate incorporation and use of knowledge and experience Support appropriate mass collaboration in systems engineering, including innovation and mechanisms for intellectual property Support multiple views and perspectives of a given system or class of systems Support tensions, dualities, contradictions, contrasts, and paradoxes in a uniﬁed way that includes both their separation and their integration; in the manner of yin-yang principles Support balance of simplicity and complexity: everything should be as simple as possible, but no simpler; recognize imperative of complexity Support balance of commonality and variability: Find everything in common but do not force one-size-ﬁts-all; recognize imperative and beneﬁts of diversity Support balance of stability and change: ﬁnd everything that is stable but do not force false stability; recognize imperative and beneﬁts of change Support clear communication among all SE stakeholders but recognize that not all clear communication is explicit; support both explicit and implicit communication Support clear articulation of problems and solutions Support analysis of alternatives Support uncertainty in speciﬁcations Support SE management by providing clear communications and analysis via appropriate management models Support the engineering modeling process; automate as much of it as possible Provide a uniﬁed approach to organizing and harnessing the knowledge from the array of disciplines supporting SE

4

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

15 16 17 18

19 20 21 22 23 24

TSE Satisﬁes? S

S

P

P P S S

S

P S

P

P S P P P

Opportunities and Challenges for Systems Engineering O

17

8FDBTUUIJTUBTLJOUFSNTPGEFﬁOJOHBO4&TDJFODF 4&4 ThFBQQSPBDIXFUBLFJTXIBUXF DBMMNPEFMPSJFOUBUJPO .0

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Scope and Basic Aspects .04&4 JT EFQJDUFE IFSF JO UXP XBZT 'JSTU UIF TDPQF PG UIF DPNQPTJUF .04&4 JT TIPXO JO 'JHVSF 4FDPOE UIF JUFNT JO UIF ﬁHVSF BSF FMBCPSBUFE BOE EFTDSJCFE BT B TFU PG .04&4 BTQFDUT

Scope of MOSES ThJTDIBQUFSIBTEJTDVTTFEUIFFYUFOTJPOPGTDPQFJOUIFUZQFTPGTZTUFNTUIBU4&JTBUUFNQUJOH UPFOHJOFFS)PXFWFS UIFUPUBMTDPQFPG4& BOEUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOHTDPQFPGBO4&TDJFODF HP CFZPOEUIFTZTUFNTUIBUBSFFOHJOFFSFE'JHVSFTVNNBSJ[FTUIFTDPQFPG.04&4ThFTZTUFNT

Systems Taxonomy

Modeling Scope

1 SE Application Domains (D1…Dn)

Collective actualization space Dn

Model Space

Problem space TS/CS diﬀerent in kind

2a

Traditional systems 3a

2b

Complex systems

TS/CS diﬀerent in degree

3b Complex

Traditional

Deﬁne need

Complex

4 Traditional

Highest level system

All SE application domains…

TS is special case

5

Characteristics of all SE systems Traditional and complex

6

Characteristics of all systems

Indivisible unit Model of individual system or component

Universal model

Common speciﬁcation approach: Repeating internal/external structure Solution domain

Views exist within and across all the dimensions

Produce solution

Deployment

Satisfy need

Solution/system space

Systems taxonomy partitions SE systems and shows traditional and complex systems relations Collective actualization space includes all SE and management processes, artifacts, contexts Problem space includes all application domains SE supports and in which systems are deployed Model Space contains all engineering and management artifacts (as models) Solution/system space includes all solutions/systems produced by actualization processes

Figure 1.2

Composite MOSES map.

Problem/ user domain

Conceptualization – Language/notation – Universe of discourse

e

D7

Ti m

D6

Composition

D5

C – om – Kin mo Ca d ni te s zat go io rie n s

D1 D2 D3 D4

18

O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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BOEXJUIUIFDPMMFDUJPOPGTZTUFNTJOUIF TDPQFPG4&EFﬁOFECZ.BSUJO BTUIFTFWFOTBNVSBJ

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Opportunities and Challenges for Systems Engineering O Table 1.2

19

Basic Aspects of MOSES

Aspect of MOSES Expanded and uniﬁed taxonomy of systems, including TS and CS Expanded and uniﬁed supporting disciplines Expanded scope of science and engineering, especially relative to natural vs. artiﬁcial systems, driven by SS, CSS, and CSE Model orientation: –Artifacts of SE and all supporting disciplines are models –Whole systems modeling: problem, model, solution, actualization spaces –Model space: dimensions: self-similar repeating patterns; scope includes models in all spaces, across full systems taxonomy, in all supporting disciplines, and in SE –Modular decoupled concepts –Uniﬁed speciﬁcation approach: external, internal; common info types –Exploit software and computation as unifying bridge

Reqmts Satisﬁed 1, 2, 3, 14, 15 11, 24 2, 3, 24

1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 20, 24 7, 24 5, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 20, 24

8, 10 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 24 3, 4, 7, 23, 24

Collective actualization: –Actualization as a technical and social process: model vs. 2, 8, 12, 18 speciﬁcation –Management as part of actualization: Management as engineering 22 –Actualization process: opportunistic; support for change 12, 23

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20

O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Table 1.3 Elements of Collective Actualization

Enterprise Produced System

Engineering

Autonomy

EEM

EA

enterprise engineering/management

enterprise autonomy

SE

SA

system engineering

system autonomy

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22 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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24

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Opportunities and Challenges for Systems Engineering O Systems Taxonomy

3

1 SE Application Domains (D1…Dn) D6

D7

Dn Problem space

TS/CS diﬀerent in kind

2a

Traditional systems 3a

TS/CS diﬀerent in degree

3b Complex

Traditional Traditional

6

6 Deﬁne need

TS is special case

Characteristics of all systems

Model Space

Indivisible unit Model of individual system or component

7 Universal model

Characteristics of all SE systems Traditional and complex 2

5

Highest level system

All SE application domains…

Complex

4

5

2b

Complex systems

13

Composition

D5

12

Collective actualization space

C – om – Kin mo C a d ni te s zat go io rie n s

D1 D2 D3 D4

Modeling Scope

4

25

Common speciﬁcation approach: Repeating 11 internal/external structure Solution domain

8

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Conceptualization – Language/notation – Universe of discourse Views exist within and across all the dimensions

9

e

m

Ti

10

Produce solution

Deployment

Satisfy need

Solution/system space

Systems taxonomy partitions SE systems and shows traditional and complex systems relations Collective actualization space includes all SE and management processes, artifacts, contexts Problem space includes all application domains SE supports and in which systems are deployed Model Space contains all engineering and management artifacts (as models) Solution/system space includes all solutions/systems produced by actualization processes

Figure 1.3

Composite map elements allocated to chapters.

References "ckoﬀ, R. 1999. "ckoﬀ’T#FTU)JT$MBTTJD8SJUJOHTPO.BOBHFNFOU/FX:PSL+PIO8JMFZ4POT "YFMSPE 3BOE.$PIFO)BSOFTTJOH$PNQMFYJUZ0SHBOJ[BUJPOBM*NQMJDBUJPOTPGBScientiﬁc 'SPOUJFS /FX:PSL#BTJD#PPLT #BS:BN :8IFO4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH'BJMT5PXBSE$PNQMFY4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH *OU$POG 4ZTUFNT .BO$ZCFSOFUJDT o *&&&1SFTT 1JTDBUBXBZ /+ #FOZVT +#JPNJNJDSZ*OOPWBUJPO*OTQJSFECZ/BUVSF/FX:PSL)BSQFS$PMMJOT #MBODIBSE # BOE 8 'BCSZDLZ 4ZTUFNT &OHJOFFSJOH BOE "OBMZTJT UI FE &OHMFXPPE Cliﬀs, /+ 1SFOUJDF)BMM #MVNTUFJO ""O03NJTTJPOBSZTWJTJUTUPUIFDSJNJOBMKVTUJDFTZTUFN0QFSBUJPOT3FT o #PDDBSB /.PEFMJOH$PNQMFY4ZTUFNT/FX:PSL4QSJOHFS7FSMBH #PSSB &.BLJOHUIFQBQFSIPXBOJOGSBSFETQFDUSVNUFMFTDPQFDPVMECFCVJMUPOUIF.PPO/BUVSF YW #SBIB % "".JOBJ BOE:#BS:BN &ET $PNQMFY&OHJOFFSFE4ZTUFNT4DJFODF.FFUT5FDIOPMPHZ /FX:PSL4QSJOHFS #VFEF %The EOHJOFFSJOH%FTJHOPG4ZTUFNT.PEFMTBOE.FUIPET/FX:PSL+PIO8JMFZ4POT $*..4$FOUFSGPS*OUFHSBUJWF.VMUJTDBMF.PEFMJOHBOE4JNVMBUJPO $*..4

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Chapter 2

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Highest level system

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Solution domain

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Deﬁne need

Composition

Systems taxonomy Modeling scope 4JODFUIFJOUFOUPGUIJTCPPLJTUPEFﬁOFBTDJ 1 SE Application Domains (D1...Dn) Collective actualization space FODF PG 4& BMUIPVHI NPTU PS BMM PG UIF QJFDFT D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn Problem space Model Space BMSFBEZFYJTU

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Conceptualization Conceptualization -- Language/notation Language/notation -- Universe ofdiscourse discourse Universe of

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Produce solution

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What Is Science? 8FTUBSUXJUITPNFDPNNPOEFﬁOJUJPOTPGTDJFODF 29

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O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Systems Science Context

O 31

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O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Systems Science Context

O 33

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Law of Gradation ThJTMBX EFﬁOFECZ8BSﬁFME

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O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Table 2.1 Extended Scope of Science and Engineering Natural systems

Artiﬁcial systems

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Full extension

Engineering

Partial extension

Traditional

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Systems Science Context

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Missile Guidance as a TSE Artiﬁcial Science An example of an artiﬁcial science is the domain of compiled knowledge of missile guidance and control. One compilation of this knowledge is (Siouris 2004). It includes mathematical models, taxonomies of missiles and other entities, and terms (referring to the universe of discourse). Chapter 4 of the Siouris book presents laws of tactical missile guidance. Two samples are selected from the book. The ﬁrst is a taxonomy of missiles (Figure 2.1). The common characteristics and the differences between the various types are described. The second sample is the dominant guidance law, called the proportional navigation guidance law for homing missiles. It is expressed as follows:

BO/7D ELEU

where an Commanded normal (or lateral) acceleration, in [ft/sec2] or [m/sec2] N Navigation constant (also known as navigation ratio, effective navigation ratio, or navigation gain), a positive real number, [dimensionless] Vc Closing velocity, in [ft/sec] or [m/sec] dL/dt LOS (line of sight) rate measured by the missile seeker, in [rad/sec] The argument that this domain of knowledge represents an artiﬁcial science is this: it is artiﬁcial because its subject matter is a domain of engineered

36 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Missile

Guided

Nonhoming

Unguided

Homing

Direct (or external guidance)

Inertial

Programmed

Active Semiactive Passive

Command Beam rider

CLOS

Pursuit

Figure 2.1 Missile types and classiﬁcation. (Source: Siouris, G. Missile Guidance and Control Systems. New York: Springer, 2004. Used with permission of Springer Science + Business Media.)

(i.e., artiﬁcial) systems. It is a science because it ﬁts our deﬁnition of science given above: “the systematic practice of observing patterns in the characteristics of existing phenomena or systemsz” In the Siouris book, the ﬁeld is deﬁned in the title: Missile Guidance and Control Systems. A large number of patterns of the characteristics of existing missile guidance and control systems are deﬁned and shared in this book, so clearly they can be independently examined. If other specialists disagree with these patterns or models, they can challenge them.

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40 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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42 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Close Intertwining with CSS in the Literature .VDIPGUIFTZTUFNTMJUFSBUVSFPWFSJUTIJTUPSZIBTJOUFSUXJOFEBOEFWFODPOﬂBUFE44BOE$44" EJTDVTTJPOPGIPMJTN XIJDIJTUZQJDBMMZQPSUSBZFEBTBUIFNFPG44 PGUFOJODMVEFTBEJTDVTTJPOPG FNFSHFOUQSPQFSUJFT XIJDIJTUZQJDBMMZQPSUSBZFEBTBUIFNFPG$44#PUI44BOE$44BSFNVMUJEJT DJQMJOBSZ"GBJSBNPVOUPGTZTUFNTMJUFSBUVSFDPOOFDUT44XJUIPSHBOJDNPEFMTJODPOUSBTUUPUSBEJ UJPOBMNFDIBOJTUJDNPEFMT BOEEFTDSJCFTIPXUIFPSHBOJDNPEFMTBQQMZBDSPTTNVMUJQMFEJTDJQMJOFT .BOZ JGOPUNPTU QSJNBSZ44BVUIPSTFYIJCJUBMMUISFFPGUIFTFUIFNFTCVUGFXJGBOZNBLF UIFEJTUJODUJPOTFYQMJDJUThFZTJNQMZHPCBDLBOEGPSUICFUXFFOIPMJTNBOENVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSJUZ

Systems Science Context

O 43

XJUIPVU JOEJDBUJOH UIBU UIFZ BSF DIBOHJOH UPQJDT ThF MJUFSBUVSF IBT OFJUIFS NBEF B DMFBS EJT UJODUJPOCFUXFFO44BOE$44 OPSIBTJUOPUFEUIFJSIJTUPSJDBMBOEDPOUFNQPSBSZJOUFSUXJOJOH 4PNFSFDFOUQVCMJDBUJPOT IPXFWFS IBWFCFHVOEJTUJOHVJTIJOH44GSPN$44(IBSBKFEBHIJ JNQMJDJUMZ EJTUJOHVJTIFT CFUXFFO IPMJTN BOE $44 DPWFSJOH UIF UXP UIFNFT BT EVBM QBSBEJHN TIJGUT POF JT B TIJGU GSPN BOBMZUJD UP IPMJTUJD TZTUFNT UIJOLJOH BOE UIF PUIFS JT B TIJGU GSPN B NBDIJOFNPEFMUPBCJPMPHJDBMNPEFMUPBTPDJBMNPEFMPGPSHBOJ[BUJPOT)FEPFTOPUQSFTFOUUIFTF EVBM TIJGUT BT B EJTUJODUJPO CFUXFFO TZTUFNT TDJFODF BOE DPNQMFY TZTUFNT TDJFODF ThBU JT PVS JOUFSQSFUBUJPOPGIJTEVBMTIJGUT

Essence of SS and Its Relationship with CSS 'SPNUIFTFUIFNFT XFDPOTJEFSUIFFTTFODFPG44UPJODMVEFBUMFBTUUIFGPMMPXJOHFMFNFOUT 8IPMFTBOEQBSUTBSFCPUIFTTFOUJBMUP44 BOEUIFZGPSNSFQFBUJOHTUSVDUVSFTPSIPMBS DIJFT.04&4TVQQPSUTUIJTSFMBUJPOJOUIFDPNQPTJUJPOEJNFOTJPOPGUIFNPEFMTQBDF EJTDVTTFEJONPSFEFUBJMJO$IBQUFS .VMUJEJTDJQMJOBSJUZJTBOFTTFOUJBMFMFNFOUPG44.PSFTQFDJﬁDBMMZ 44DBQUVSFTDIBSBDUFS JTUJDTPGTZTUFNTBDSPTTBMMEJTDJQMJOFTXIBUUIFZIBWFJODPNNPOTPMFMZCZWJSUVFPGUIF GBDUUIBUUIFZBSFTZTUFNTThJTJOGPSNBUJPOJTDBQUVSFEJOHFOFSBMNPEFMT44JTBHFOFS BMJ[BUJPOPGBMMPUIFSTDJFODFT BOEBHFOFSBMTVQQPSUGPSBMMFOHJOFFSJOHEJTDJQMJOFTThJT SFMBUJPOTIJQJTTVQQPSUFEJOUIFDPNNPOJ[BUJPOEJNFOTJPOPGUIFNPEFMTQBDF EJTDVTTFE JONPSFEFUBJMJO$IBQUFS ThFHFOFSBMJUZPG44JOGPSNTUIFJTTVF JNQMJDJUMZSBJTFEJOUIFMJUFSBUVSF PGUIFSFMBUJPO CFUXFFO44BOE$44UIFJSJOUFSUXJOJOHBOEFWFODPOﬂBUJPO0VSQPTJUJPOJTUIBUUIF UXP BSF EJTUJODU 8IJMF CPUI 44 BOE $44 BSF NVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSZ UIF TDPQF PG $44 JT B TVCTFUPG44$44JTDPODFSOFEXJUIDPNQMFYPSHBOJDTZTUFNTBDSPTTNVMUJQMFEJTDJQMJOFT XIJMF44JTDPODFSOFEXJUIBMMTZTUFNT XIJDIJODMVEFTGPSUIFQVSQPTFTPG4&CPUI DPNQMFYPSHBOJDBOEUSBEJUJPOBMNFDIBOJTUJD$PNQMFYTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH $4&

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Disciplines Contributing to SES 8F JEFOUJGZ JO 5BCMF B TFU PG EJTDJQMJOFT UIBU DPOUSJCVUFT UP BO 4&4 BOE JO QBSUJDVMBS UP .04&4 ThF EJTDJQMJOFT BSF MJTUFE BMQIBCFUJDBMMZ XJUIJO GPVS TPNFXIBU MPPTF DBUFHPSJFT TDJ FODFT NBUIFNBUJDT DPNQVUBUJPO BOE JOGPSNBUJDT BOE PUIFS EJTDJQMJOFT 4JHOJﬁDBOU PWFSMBQ FYJTUTBNPOHNBOZPGUIFTFEJTDJQMJOFTThFXPSLPGJOUFHSBUJOHUIFTFEJTDJQMJOFT FTQFDJBMMZGSPN BNPEFMJOHQFSTQFDUJWF JTBMSFBEZCFJOHEPOFUPBTJHOJﬁDBOUFYUFOUCZ$44BOEUPBMFTTFSFYUFOU CZ4444SFTUSJDUTJUTFMGUPDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBOEUBYPOPNJFTPGBMMTZTUFNT XIJDINFBOTJUJTWFSZ CSPBE CVU OPU EFFQ 8F VTF 44 BT UIF BODIPS GPS B TZTUFNT UBYPOPNZ EFﬁOFE JO UIF TFDUJPO FOUJUMFEi4ZTUFNT5BYPOPNZBOEUIF.04&4'PVOEBUJPO wXIJMF$4BSFDPOUSBTUFEXJUI54JO UIBUUBYPOPNZ

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44 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Table 2.2 Disciplines That Contribute to SES Sciences

Mathematics

Algebra Anthropology Category theory Bioinformatics Complex functions Biology theory Catastrophe theory Continuous math Chaos theory (calculus, z) Chemistry Discrete math Cognitive science (logics, z) Complex systems science Dynamical systems Cybernetics Factor analysis Ecology Geometry Economics Graph theory Epidemiology Nonlinear systems Geology Numerical analysis Linguistics Probability and Medical/health science statistical theory Military science Topology Network science Organization theory/science Physics-classical, theory of relativity, quantum theory Political science Psychology Sociology Systems science

Computation, Informatics

Other Supporting Disciplines

Artiﬁcial intelligence Computer science Computing science Formal languages and methods Formal semantics Software science

Artiﬁcial life Conceptual modeling Decision theory Epistemology Forecasting Game theory Information theory Knowledge management Knowledge representation Law Mechatronics Mereology Public policy Ontology Operations research, management science Simulation Small worlds Urban planning

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Systems Science Context

O 45

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1a D1

1b D2

1c D3

1d D4

2. TS/CS diﬀerent in kind

2a Traditional systems

3. TS/CS diﬀerent in degree

3a Traditional

4. TS special case of CS

4 Traditional

5. Common to all SE systems

5

6. Common to all systems

6

1e D5

1f D6

1g D7

1h D8 2b

Complex systems 3b Complex

Complex

All SE systems Traditional and complex All systems

SES

1. Distinct domains*

Other supporting sciences

O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

SS

46

Science foundation *Domains: Transportation; construction; aerospace; software; organizations; economy…

Figure 2.3

SE taxonomy and the range of supporting sciences.

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Systems Science Context

O 47

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48

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Chapter 3

Core Concepts of ModelOriented SE Science (MOSES) i5PTFFXIBUJTHFOFSBMJOXIBUJTQBSUJDVMBSBOEXIBUJTQFSNBOFOUJOXIBUJTUSBOTJ UPSZJTUIFBJNPGTDJFOUJﬁDUIPVHIUw "8IJUFIFBE "O*OUSPEVDUJPOUP.BUIFNBUJDT Systems taxonomy 1

Modeling scope

SE Application Domains (D1...Dn)

Collective actualization space

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn

Problem space

3a

TS/CS diﬀerent in degree 3b Traditional Complex

Characteristics of all systems

Highest level system

Deﬁne need

Complex 4 Traditional TS is special case 5 Characteristics of all SE systems Traditional and Complex 6

Model Space

All SE application domains...

Indivisible Unit Model of Individual system or component

Universal model

Composition

TS/CS diﬀerent in kind 2b 2a Traditional systems Complex systems

Common speciﬁcation approach: Repeating internal/external structure

Solution domain

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Conceptualization Conceptualization -- Language/notation Language/notation -- Universe Universe of ofdiscourse discourse

Views exist within and across all the dimensions

e

m Ti

Produce solution

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Satisfy need

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50 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Core Concepts of Model-Oriented SE Science (MOSES)

O

51

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O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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54 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Example Driving Models or Patterns Examples of models of driving a car, in the form of various types of patterns: O Basic object or concept patterns: Self (dimensions, mass, engine power, turning radius, braking effectiveness, fuel level, many general health status indicators, direction of movement, speed, etc.); external: car; vehicle; pedestrian; animal; obstacle; bicycle; road; lane; surface condition; speed; destination; direction of movement; adjacent vehicle (front, rear, left, right); clearance between vehicles, curve in road, straight ahead, right turn, left turn, right of way, speed limit, trafﬁc signs, rain, snow, ice, slippery, wind speed and direction, temperature, amount of visibility, etc. O Basic primitive driving patterns: Avoid hitting other vehicles and pedestrians; change from stopped to moving forward, from moving forward to stopped, from stopped to moving backward, from moving backward to stopped; when moving forward, leave space in front 5 ft + (5 ft * speed in mph); drive in middle of lane; keep speed at posted speed limit; slow down if road is slippery; turn left turn signal on 10 sec and

Core Concepts of Model-Oriented SE Science (MOSES) 150 ft prior to turning left; likewise right signal prior to turning right; give right of way to oncoming trafﬁc when turning left; turn left signal on prior to moving one lane to the left, and right signal on prior to moving one lane to the right; go around an obstacle. N Stop light pattern: stop at stop light if red, proceed if green, right turn after stop allowed on red if clear. N Stop sign pattern: stop, then proceed when clear right and clear left and clear ahead. O Basic intermediate patterns: Keep driving on current road unless otherwise instructed; turn left at the next stop light; turn right at the next intersection; ﬁnd a parking spot; parallel park; keep speed low enough to maintain traction and keep car on road; override posted speed limit if adjacent cars are all exceeding the speed limit, and adjust to their speed. N Legal driving pattern: several primitives, including avoid hitting other cars, comply with trafﬁc signs and stop lights, use turn signals, etc. N Defensive driving pattern: all patterns listed so far + drive no slower than 10 mph under the speed limit, conditions permitting; if major obstacles appear, go around them if possible, otherwise stop immediately; if minor obstacles appear (pothole, small to medium size rock, small box) and there is heavy trafﬁc following close behind the car, do not stop, and if trafﬁc is on both sides of car, do not go around the obstacles; at all times, assume the possibility that: N Surrounding vehicles may not follow same rules (e.g., they may not stop at stop lights or stop signs). N Trafﬁc may suddenly stop. N The road may suddenly become slippery. N Obstacles may suddenly appear in road. N Pedestrians on the side of the road may suddenly walk on road in front of car. N Animals may suddenly run onto road in front of car. N Emergency driving pattern: avoid hitting other cars and pedestrians and major obstacles, keep speed low enough to maintain traction and keep car on road; proceed as fast as possible within those constraints; slow down when approaching stop sign or red stop light until verifying that cross road is clear; use turn indicators; all other rules are suspended. O Route patterns: The basic form is Drive from location A to location B (e.g., from Bob’s home to his ofﬁce). Each route consists of a connected series of intermediate or primitive patterns, similar to the directions of a typical Internet direction ﬁnding service (e.g., turn right out of driveway, go straight 3 blocks, turn left on 11th Avenue, etc.). These patterns may be produced on-the-ﬂy, rather than stored in the repository. But the repository might make it appear to the user that the route was stored; for example, the user asks for a route from A to B; the repository query processor requests an Internet service to determine this and passes the result along as if it were stored in the repository. For the purposes of this automated car, the most common routes between commonly used locations may be loaded into the robot data store and reused each day.

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56 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science O Route planning pattern: There is one basic pattern: It ﬁnds an appropriate route to get from current location to desired location, based on current road and trafﬁc conditions (e.g., trafﬁc backups, road construction, ice conditions, etc.). It can work with or without a route pattern. Example of using the planning pattern with a route pattern: Suppose there are two route patterns for getting from Bob’s home to work, called Primary and Backup. Each day just before Bob gets into the car, the route planning pattern follows an algorithm something like this: Check Primary route current conditions using online trafﬁc service; if OK, then today’s route Primary; if not OK, then check Backup route current conditions; if OK, then today’s route Backup; if not OK, then go to online route-ﬁnding service and get another route, to exclude routes equivalent to Primary and Backup. Algorithm for using the planning pattern without a route pattern: First, go to online service and ﬁnd a route from location A to location B. Then check current conditions of the route. If OK, use that route. If not OK, go back to the route ﬁnding service and get a different route; check current conditions of that; if OK, use that route.

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58 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Core Concepts of Model-Oriented SE Science (MOSES)

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60

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Individual

Category

Types of Mosaic Entities Physical

Conceptual

The person whose name is Bob; Bob’s car with serial no. 1234; Bob’s house with address XYZ; the U.S. power grid; the General Sherman tree in Yosemite National Park; the George Washington forest in Virginia; planet Earth —(Physical categories do not exist. See discussion in text)

Bob’s job; the company Bob works for (e.g., IBM); the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE); the names Bob, IBM, and NYSE; the serial number 1234; the address XYZ; the names General Sherman, George Washington, and Earth; the set S {1, 2, 3, 4} The categories person, car, house, power grid, tree, forest, planet. The categories job, company, stock exchange, name, serial number, address, set.

62 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Core Concepts of Model-Oriented SE Science (MOSES)

O 63

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SPBE GPSDFPGHSBWJUZThFCPVOE BSZPGUIFDBSTZTUFNTFFNTTUSBJHIUGPSXBSE*OTJEFUIFCPVOEBSZBSFBMMUIFNFUBM HMBTT FOHJOF UJSFT QBSUT BOEDPOUSPMFMFNFOUT TUFFSJOHXIFFM CSBLF BDDFMFSBUPS FUD UIBUNBLFVQUIF5PZPUB The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hFQBTTFOHFSTBOEESJWFSBSFQBSUPGUIF FOWJSPONFOU#VUOPXDPOTJEFSBTJUVBUJPOJOXIJDI#PCT5PZPUBJTBUBYJDBC8IBUJTUIFCPVOE BSZPGUIFUBYJDBCTZTUFN "SFBTPOBCMFNPEFMJOHDIPJDFIFSFJTBHBJOUPSFHBSEUIFQBTTFOHFSTBT PVUTJEFUIFTZTUFNCVUUPJODMVEFUIFESJWFS #PC XJUIJOUIFTZTUFNThF5PZPUBTZTUFNJTPOF QBSUPGUIFUBYJDBCTZTUFN#PCJTBIVNBOTZTUFNPVUTJEFUIF5PZPUBTZTUFNCVUJOTJEFUIFUBYJDBC TZTUFN8IZUIFEJﬀFSFODFJOUIFDPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOPGUIFESJWFSJOUIFUXPDBTFT #FDBVTFXIFO XFCVZBOEVTFBQFSTPOBMDBS XFEPOPUCVZPSVTFBESJWFSXJUIJU8IFOXFCVZUIFTFSWJDFTPGB UBYJDBC XFFYQFDUCPUIDBSBOEESJWFSBTBTZTUFN BTBTFSWJDFFOUJUZ*GXFTBXBUBYJDBCDBSXJUIPVU BESJWFSJOJU XFXPVMEOPUSFHBSEJUBTBDPNQMFUFUBYJDBCTZTUFNJUIBTBNJTTJOHDPNQPOFOU 0UIFSCPVOEBSZJTTVFTBSFEJTDVTTFEMBUFSJOUIFCPPLQFSNFBCJMJUZJO$IBQUFS BOEGV[[J OFTTBOEVODFSUBJOUZJO$IBQUFS

Model Model Deﬁnition ThF.04&4EFﬁOJUJPOPGNPEFMJTEFSJWFEGSPN *&&& ThJTTUBOEBSEEFﬁOFTNPEFMBT UIFiBQQSPYJNBUJPO SFQSFTFOUBUJPO PSJEFBMJ[BUJPOPGTFMFDUFEBTQFDUTPGUIFTUSVDUVSF CFIBWJPS PQFSBUJPO PSPUIFSDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGBSFBMXPSMEQSPDFTT DPODFQU PSTZTUFNw0VSEFﬁOJUJPOJT .PEFM&YQMJDJUBQQSPYJNBUJPO SFQSFTFOUBUJPO PSJEFBMJ[BUJPO PGTFMFDUFEBTQFDUTPG UIFTUSVDUVSF CFIBWJPS PQFSBUJPO QSPQFSUJFT PSPUIFSDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBUDBOCFBTTP DJBUFEXJUIPOFPSNPSFTZTUFNT *OBCSPBEFSTFOTF POFDPVMENPEFMNPTBJDTBOEXPSMETBTXFMMBTTZTUFNT*OUIJTCPPLUIFGPDVTJTPONPEFM JOHTZTUFNT#FDBVTFJONBOZDBTFTNPTBJDTBOEXPSMETDBOCFEFTJHOBUFEBTTZTUFNT UIJTGPDVTJTOPUPWFSMZ SFTUSJDUJWF

64 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

8IZ DIBOHF UIF GSPOU FOE BOE CBDL FOE PG UIF *&&& EFﬁOJUJPO ThF GSPOU FOE i&YQMJDJUw JT BEEFE UP EJTUJOHVJTI FYQMJDJU SFQSFTFOUBUJPOT GSPN JNQMJDJU DPODFQUT ThJT EJTUJODUJPO JO .04&4JTCFUXFFONPEFMBOETQFDJﬁDBUJPO BOEJTEJTDVTTFEJONPSFEFUBJMJOUIFTFDUJPOFOUJ UMFEi4QFDJﬁDBUJPOBOE*UT3FMBUJPOUP.PEFMwThFCBDLFOE'JSTU iQSPQFSUJFTwJTBEEFECFDBVTF QSPQFSUJFTBSFDPNNPOMZVTFEDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTJONPEFMJOH4FDPOE UIF*&&&EFﬁOJUJPODPVQMFTB NPEFMXJUIBTZTUFN iSFQSFTFOUBUJPOzPGBSFBMXPSMEzTZTUFNw 8FDIBOHFEiDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT PGwUPiDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBUDBOCFBTTPDJBUFEXJUIwUPEFDPVQMFNPEFMGSPNTZTUFNThBUJT XF XBOUBNPEFMUPFYJTUPOJUTPXOBTBEJTUJODUFOUJUZ*UTSFMBUJPOXJUIBTZTUFNTIPVMECFBTFQBSBUF BDUJWJUZPSEFDJTJPO OPUIBSEXJSFEJOUPUIFEFﬁOJUJPOThJSE XFDIBOHFEiBSFBMXPSMEQSPDFTT DPODFQU PSTZTUFNwUPiPOFPSNPSFTZTUFNTw3FBTPO8FJODMVEFDPODFQUVBMTZTUFNTBTXFMMBT QIZTJDBMTZTUFNT BOEPVSEFﬁOJUJPOPGTZTUFNJODMVEFTQSPDFTTFTBOEDPODFQUT*OBEEJUJPO XFEP OPUXBOUUPDPVQMFBNPEFMUPPOFTZTUFN"NPEFM JOBEEJUJPOUPCFJOHBOFOUJUZUIBUTUBOETPO JUTPXO DBOUBSHFUPSBQQMZUPPOFPSNPSFTZTUFNT BTXFEJTDVTTOFYU

Model as System " DPNNPO SFMBUJPO BNPOH TZTUFNT JT UIBU POF TZTUFN EFTDSJCFT JT BO BCTUSBDUJPO PG BOPUIFSTZTUFNPSTZTUFNT. ThJTEJTUJODUJPOMFBETUPBOJNQPSUBOUUBYPOPNZWJFXJOUIFPOUPM PHZPGTDJFODFBOEFOHJOFFSJOHNPEFMTZTUFN XIJDIEFTDSJCFT BOEPCKFDUPSUBSHFUTZTUFN XIJDI JT EFTDSJCFE ThBU JT B NPEFM TZTUFN EFTDSJCFT B UBSHFU TZTUFN %FTDSJCF JT VTFE IFSF BT B CSPBEUFSN UPJODMVEFSFQSFTFOU BQQSPYJNBUF JEFBMJ[F TQFDJGZ PSBCTUSBDU BOEUIFEFTDSJQUJPO NBZSBOHFGSPNWFSZHFOFSBMUPWFSZTQFDJﬁDBOEEFUBJMFE BOEGSPNGPSNBMUPJOGPSNBM BOE GSPNNBUIFNBUJDBMUPHSBQIJDBMUPUFYUVBM*UDBOBMTPSFQSFTFOUBOZNPEBMJUZ BTEJTDVTTFEJO $IBQUFS ThFTBNFTZTUFNDBOCFCPUIBNPEFMTZTUFNBOEBUBSHFUTZTUFN TVDIBTXIFOBUBSHFUTZTUFN JT JOUVSO BNPEFMTZTUFNPGBOPUIFSUBSHFUTZTUFN"TBOFYBNQMF TVQQPTFXFBSFCVJMEJOHBO JOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFN BOEXFEFﬁOFBOBSDIJUFDUVSFPGUIFEFTJSFETZTUFNBOEXFEFﬁOFBEBUBWJFX PGUIFBSDIJUFDUVSFUIBUJT XFEFTDSJCFUIFEBUBFMFNFOUTUIBUBSFWJTJCMFBOEFYDIBOHFEBNPOH UIFQBSUTPGUIFTZTUFNThFO UIFEBUBWJFXDBOCFTFFOBTBNPEFMTZTUFNXIPTFUBSHFUTZTUFNJT UIFBSDIJUFDUVSF BOEUIFBSDIJUFDUVSFJTBNPEFMTZTUFNXIPTFUBSHFUJTUIFJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFN ThFBSDIJUFDUVSFJOUIJTDBTFJTCPUIBUBSHFUTZTUFNBOEBNPEFMTZTUFN8FEFﬁOFBOFOEUBSHFU TZTUFNUPCFBUBSHFUTZTUFNUIBUJTOPUBNPEFMTZTUFN*OUIJTFYBNQMF UIFJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFN JTBOFOEUBSHFUTZTUFN/PUFUIBUBOZNPEFMVTFEJOUIFFOHJOFFSJOHPGBTZTUFNDBOIBWFUIF FOHJOFFSFE FOEUBSHFU TZTUFNBTPOFPGJUTUBSHFUTZTUFNTThVT JOUIJTDBTF UIFEBUBWJFXDBO BMTPIBWFBTJUTUBSHFUTZTUFNUIFJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFNUIBUJT UIFEBUBWJFXDBOCFSFHBSEFEBTB NPEFMPGUIFJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFN *OUIJTCPPL VOMFTTPUIFSXJTFOPUFE XFVTFUIFTIPSUDVUUFSNTiNPEFMwBOEiTZTUFNwUPNFBO SFTQFDUJWFMZ iNPEFMTZTUFNwBOEiUBSHFUTZTUFNw

Characteristic 4ZTUFNTIBWFOVNFSPVTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT*OUIJTCPPLUIFUFSNiDIBSBDUFSJTUJDwJTVTFEBTBCSPBE DPODFQU UPJODMVEFOPUPOMZTZTUFNQSPQFSUJFTTVDIBTQFSGPSNBODF CVUBMTPCFIBWJPS TUBUF FYJT UFODF BOEDBUFHPSZPSUZQFPGTZTUFN*UJTJOUIFTQJSJUPGUIFVTBHFPGUIFUFSNJOUIFEFﬁOJUJPOPG NPEFMUBLFOGSPN *&&& JOUIFQSFWJPVTTVCTFDUJPO *OCPUITDJFODFBOEFOHJOFFSJOH XFXBOUUPCFBCMFUPJEFOUJGZ EFTDSJCF GPDVTPO FYBNJOF NFB TVSF FWBMVBUF BOEDPNQBSFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBUBSFPGJOUFSFTUBOEUPJHOPSFPSIJEFUIPTFUIBUBSFOPU

Core Concepts of Model-Oriented SE Science (MOSES)

O 65

8IBUXFGPDVTPO BOEXIBUXFJHOPSF WBSJFTBDDPSEJOHUPPVSQVSQPTFPSQFSTQFDUJWF*OBEEJUJPO JO FOHJOFFSJOHXFXBOUUPTQFDJGZBOECSJOHBCPVUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGJOUFSFTUBOEBWPJEDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBU BSFEFUSJNFOUBM. ThFVTFPGNPEFMTJTUIFEPNJOBOUXBZXFBDIJFWFUIJTGPDVTBOETFQBSBUJPO

Correspondence and Region Correspondence* ThFEPNJOBOUSFMBUJPOCFUXFFOBNPEFMBOEBTZTUFNJTDPSSFTQPOEFODFp*UFYJTUTJOUIFDPOUFYUPG BEFﬁOFEXPSME"TZTUFNBOEBNPEFMDPSSFTQPOE PSIBWFDPSSFTQPOEFODF JGUIFTZTUFNSFTJEFT JOUIFEFﬁOFEXPSMEBOEIBTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBUNBUDIPSBSFDPOTJTUFOUXJUIUIFNPEFM 0OFPGUIFDPOEJUJPOTPGDPSSFTQPOEFODFJTUIFMBXPGSFRVJTJUFWBSJFUZJOUSPEVDFEJO$IBQUFS "NPEFMdeﬁnes DFSUBJODIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGJOUFSFTU BOEJHOPSFTPUIFSDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT8JUIJOUIFTFU PGDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGJOUFSFTU UIFNPEFMNVTUSFQSFTFOUBWBSJFUZUIBUJTBUMFBTUBTHSFBUBTUIFWBSJFUZ PGUIFTZTUFNCFJOHNPEFMFEThe MBXPGSFRVJTJUFWBSJFUZEPFTOPUBQQMZUPUIFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTCFJOH JHOPSFECZUIFNPEFM'PSFYBNQMF TVQQPTFXFdeﬁne BNPEFMPGUIFBDDFMFSBUJPOQFSGPSNBODFPGB DBS"DDFMFSBUJPOJTPGJOUFSFTUUPUIFNPEFMCVUPUIFSDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFDBS TVDIBTDPMPS BSFOPU The NPEFMNVTUCFBCMFUPSFQSFTFOUUIFSBOHFPGQPUFOUJBMBDDFMFSBUJPOPGUIFDBSUPCFBOBEFRVBUF NPEFMCVUJUEPFTOPUIBWFUPSFQSFTFOUUIFSBOHFPGQPTTJCMFDPMPSTPGUIFDBS $PSSFTQPOEFODFJTOPUEJSFDUJPOBMJUJTBTZNNFUSJDSFMBUJPO*GBTZTUFN4DPSSFTQPOETUPB NPEFM. UIFO.DPSSFTQPOETUP4 BOENPSFHFOFSBMMZCPUIBSFJOFBDIPUIFSTSFHJPO4JTPOFPG UIFTZTUFNTUIBUDPSSFTQPOEUP. BOE.JTPOFPGUIFNPEFMTUIBUDPSSFTQPOEUP4 ThJTJTBQSBDUJ DBMJTTVF OPUKVTUBOBDBEFNJDPSNBUIFNBUJDBMQSPQFSUZJTTVFThFTZNNFUSJDOBUVSFPGDPSSFTQPO EFODFBMMPXTNPEFMTBOETZTUFNTUPCFCVJMUPSEFﬁOFEJOBOZTFRVFODF BTXFEJTDVTTJO$IBQUFS 8FDBOEFﬁOFBNPEFMUPDPSSFTQPOEUPBOFYJTUJOHTZTUFN PSCVJMEBTZTUFNUPDPSSFTQPOEUPBO FYJTUJOHNPEFM Pr ﬁOEBOFYJTUJOHTZTUFNBOENPEFMBOEEFUFSNJOFJGUIFZDPSSFTQPOE $PSSFTQPOEFODFJTGVMMZEFTDSJCFEJOUFSNTPGBDPSSFTQPOEFODFTFU XIJDIJTJOUSPEVDFEBOE EJTDVTTFEJOEFUBJMJOUIFDPOUFYUPGEFDPVQMJOHNPEFM TZTUFN BOENPEBMJUZJO$IBQUFS

Region 8FEJTDVTTSFHJPOGSPNUXPQFSTQFDUJWFT BHJWFONPEFM BOE BHJWFOTZTUFN 1FSTQFDUJWF *O HFOFSBM NVMUJQMF TZTUFNT DPSSFTQPOE BU MFBTU QPUFOUJBMMZ UP B HJWFO NPEFMThFFYDFQUJPOTBSFDBTFTXIFSFBNPEFMJTTQFDJﬁDBMMZEFTJHOFEUPJEFOUJGZJOEJ WJEVBMT TVDIBTBﬁOHFSQSJOU B%/"NPEFMPGBIVNBO PSBNPEFMPGBDBSUIBUJODMVEFT UIFWFIJDMFJEFOUJﬁDBUJPOOVNCFS 7*/ *OHFOFSBM BSFHJPOJTUIFTFUPGBMMTZTUFNTUIBU DPSSFTQPOEUPBHJWFONPEFM BOEXFSFGFSUPJUBTUIFSFHJPOPGUIFNPEFM PSNPSFFYQMJD JUMZ BTUIFSFHJPOPGUIFNPEFMJOUIFEFﬁOFEXPSME&YBNQMFTJOUSBEJUJPOBMFOHJOFFSJOH JODMVEFBMUFSOBUJWFTZTUFNTUIBUTBUJTGZBHJWFOTFUPGSFRVJSFNFOUT PSBMUFSOBUJWFTZTUFNT UIBUBEIFSFUPBHJWFOSFGFSFODFBSDIJUFDUVSFq $PSSFTQPOEFODFJOUIJTCPPLJTEJTUJODUGSPNUIFDPSSFTQPOEFODFUIFPSZPGUSVUI TFFPWFSWJFXPGUIFMBUUFSJO %BWJE "TEJTDVTTFEJO$IBQUFS XFBSFOPUJOUFSFTUFEJOXIFUIFSBNPEFMJTUSVFXIBUXFBSFJOUFSFTUFE JOJTXIFUIFSJUSFMBUFT DPSSFTQPOET UPBTZTUFNPSDBUFHPSZPGTZTUFNTJOBVTFGVMXBZ p *OUIJTTFDUJPO JODMVEJOHUIFFYBNQMFT UIFDPSSFTQPOEFODFNPEFJTBTTVNFEUPCFEFTDSJQUJWF BTPQQPTFEUP QSFTDSJQUJWF GPSFYBNQMF $IBQUFSFYUFOETUIJTUPBGVMMSBOHFPGNPEFTPSNPEBMJUJFT q "SDIJUFDUVSFBOESFRVJSFNFOUTBSFEFﬁOFEJOB.04&4DPOUFYUJO$IBQUFS

66 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

1FSTQFDUJWF *OUIJTQFSTQFDUJWF BSFHJPOJTUIFTFUPGBMMNPEFMTUIBUDPSSFTQPOEUPB HJWFOTZTUFN BOEXFSFGFSUPJUBTUIFSFHJPOPGUIFTZTUFN&YBNQMFTJOUSBEJUJPOBMFOHJ OFFSJOH JODMVEF B TFU PG EPDVNFOUT SFRVJSFNFOUT EFTJHO FUD BTTPDJBUFE XJUI B HJWFO TZTUFN PSBTFUPGWJFXTPGUIFBSDIJUFDUVSFPGBHJWFOTZTUFN

Examples of Correspondence and Region *O UIF ﬁSTU FYBNQMF XF EFTJHOBUF B DBS BT B TZTUFN BOE FYQMPSF NPEFMXPSMESFHJPO SFMBUJPOT 'JHVSFJMMVTUSBUFT&YBNQMF*OUIFﬁHVSF UIFTZTUFNTBSFSFQSFTFOUFECZEPUT UIFSFHJPOTCZUIF WBSJPVTCPYFT UIFNPEFMTCZCSBDFT\z^ BOEUIFXPSME 8 CZUIFPVUTJEFCPY$PSSFTQPOEFODF CFUXFFOBTZTUFNBOEBNPEFMJTJNQMJFECZUIFBQQFBSBODFPGUIFTZTUFNJOUIFSFHJPOXIFSFUIF NPEFMJTEFﬁOFEThFCMVFEPU DJSDMFXJUI# MBCFMFE4JTUIFTZTUFN UIFCMVF)POEB JO&YBNQMF "MMCMVFEPUT CMVFDBST BSFJOUIFSFHJPOPG.BOEBMMSFEEPUT SFEDBST BSFJOUIFSFHJPOPG. "MMCMBDL CMVF BOESFEEPUT BMMDBST BSFJOUIFSFHJPOPG."MMXIJUFEPUTBSFTZTUFNTJO8 UIBUBSFOPUDBST&YBNQMFTPGXIJUFEPUT"OZUSFF QFSTPO QFODJM IPVTF DJUZ FUD UIBUJTJO8 "OZTZTUFNUIBUJTPVUTJEFPG8 XIFUIFSDBSPSOPODBS JTOPUBEPUJOUIJTﬁHVSFJUJTPVUTJEF UIFCPY"MMEPUTPGBOZDPMPS BMMTZTUFNTJO8 BSFJOUIF.SFHJPO &YBNQMF.PEFM. O 4ZTUFN4UIFCMVF)POEB*IBEJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTJO O .PEFM. \^ .JTBOVODPOTUSBJOFENPEFMFWFSZTZTUFNJOUIFEFﬁOFEXPSMEDPS SFTQPOETUPJUBOEJTJOJUTSFHJPO

O .PEFM.\JT$BS^ O .PEFM.\JT$BS JT#MVF^ O %FﬁOFEXPSME8 ThF6OJUFE4UBUFTGSPNUISPVHI

R0 = Region of M0: {*} in world W1: United States in 2006

R1 = Region of M1: {isCar} in W1 R2 = Region of M2: {isCar, isBlue}

S1

B R

Figure 3.1

B

R

B

B

B

R3 = Region of M3: {isCar, isRed} R

B

B

R

B

= Blue car = Red car = Car that is not blue or red = System that is not a car

Models, systems, correspondence, and regions.

R

R R

R

W = world M = model S = system R = region

Core Concepts of Model-Oriented SE Science (MOSES)

O

67

O 3FTVMUJOHDPSSFTQPOEFODFT N .BOE4DPSSFTQPOEJO8CFDBVTF4JTBTZTUFNJO8 N .BOE4DPSSFTQPOEJO8CFDBVTF4JTBDBSJO8 N .BOE4DPSSFTQPOEJO8CFDBVTF4JTBCMVFDBSJO8 N 3FHJPO3PG.JO8"MMDBSTJOUIF64JO\z 4 z^ N 3FHJPO3PG.JO8"MMCMVFDBSTJOUIF64JO\z 4 z^ N ThFSFHJPOPG4JO8BMMDPSSFTQPOEJOHNPEFMTJO8\. . .^ .PEFMT. . BOE.JMMVTUSBUFUIBU JOHFOFSBM UIFMBSHFSBNPEFMJOUFSNTPGUIFOVNCFS PGDPOTUSBJOUT UIFTNBMMFSBOENPSFIPNPHFOFPVTUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOHSFHJPOTh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hFTF DMBTTJDBM FOHJOFFSJOH FYBNQMFT JMMVTUSBUF UIBU EFUFSNJOJOH DPSSFTQPOEFODF JT OPU TJNQMF $PSSFTQPOEFODF MJLFNBOZFMFNFOUTPG4& JTPGUFOGV[[ZPSVODFSUBJO8FPGUFOIBWFUPNBLFB KVEHNFOU TVDIBTi8FCFMJFWFUIBUUIJTTZTUFNTBUJTﬁFTUIFSFRVJSFNFOUTNPEFMwPSi8FCFMJFWF UIBUUIJTNPEFMSFQSFTFOUTUIFDMBTTPGIVNBOHFOFTw

Speciﬁcation and Its Relation to Model *O.04&4 TQFDJﬁDBUJPOJTEFﬁOFEBTUIFTIBSFEVOEFSTUBOEJOHPGBOBQQSPYJNBUJPO SFQSFTFOUB UJPO PSJEFBMJ[BUJPOPGTFMFDUFEBTQFDUTPGUIFTUSVDUVSF CFIBWJPS PQFSBUJPO QSPQFSUJFT PSPUIFS DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBUDBOCFBTTPDJBUFEXJUIPOFPSNPSFTZTUFNT ThJTEFﬁOJUJPOMPPLTTJNJMBSUPUIFFBSMJFSEFﬁOJUJPOPGNPEFMThFCBTJDSFMBUJPOCFUXFFONPEFM BOETQFDJﬁDBUJPOJTUIBUBNPEFMJTUIFFYQMJDJUQBSUPGBTQFDJﬁDBUJPO"TQFDJﬁDBUJPOEPFTOPUIBWF UPCFFYQMJDJUJUDBOCFQBSUMZPSFWFONPTUMZJNQMJDJU#VUBTQFDJﬁDBUJPOIBTBOBEEFESFRVJSFNFOU UIFJEFBMJ[BUJPONVTUCFTIBSFECFUXFFOBUMFBTUUXPBHFOUT XIJDIDBOCFQFPQMFPSNBDIJOFT " NPEFMDBOFYJTUJOEFQFOEFOUMZPGDPOUFYUJUJTBTFUPGTZNCPMT"TQFDJﬁDBUJPO IPXFWFS DBOPOMZ FYJTUJOUIFDPOUFYUPGBUMFBTUUXPBHFOUTUIBUCPUIIBWFUIFTBNFVOEFSTUBOEJOHPGJUTNFBOJOH ThFHPBMPG4&JTUPQSPEVDFVTFGVMTZTUFNTUIBUTBUJTGZEFTJSFEQVSQPTFT5PBDIJFWFUIJTHPBM FOHJOFFSTQSPEVDFBSUJGBDUTUIBUDIBSBDUFSJ[FUIFTZTUFNTUIBUUIFZFOHJOFFSThFHPBMPGUIFBSUJGBDUT JTUPEFTJHOBUFJOGPSNBUJPOBCPVUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFTZTUFNTBOEUPDPNNVOJDBUFUIJTJOGPSNBUJPO UPBMMQBSUJFTTQFDJﬁDBMMZBNPOHBMMUIFTUBLFIPMEFSTPGFBDIBSUJGBDU4UBLFIPMEFSTJODMVEFQFPQMFJO WBSJPVTSPMFT TVDIBTVTFST CVZFST TVQQMJFST EFWFMPQNFOUNBOBHFST SFRVJSFNFOUTFOHJOFFST BSDIJ UFDUT EFTJHOBOEEFWFMPQNFOUFOHJOFFST GBCSJDBUJPOFOHJOFFST UFTUFST JOUFHSBUPST PQFSBUPST BOE BVEJUPST4UBLFIPMEFSTBMTPJODMVEFUPPMTBOENBDIJOFTUIBUQSPEVDFPSBOBMZ[FBSUJGBDUTPSTZTUFNT PSJOHFOFSBMNVTUiVOEFSTUBOEwDFSUBJOBTQFDUTPGUIFBSUJGBDUTPSTZTUFNT TVDIBTTPGUXBSFFEJUPST BOEDPNQJMFST IBSEXBSFTJNVMBUPST BOBMZ[FST QSPCFT TFOTPST BOENFBTVSFNFOUNFDIBOJTNT

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Core Concepts of Model-Oriented SE Science (MOSES)

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References %BWJE . The $PSSFTQPOEFODF TheorZ PG5SVUI 4UBOGPSE &ODZDMPQFEJB PG 1IJMPTPQIZ IUUQQMBUP TUBOGPSEFEVFOUSJFTUSVUIDPSSFTQPOEFODF "DDFTTFE+BOVBSZ

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Chapter 4

Features of MOSES i3FNFNCFSUIBUBMMNPEFMTBSFXSPOHUIFQSBDUJDBMRVFTUJPOJTIPXXSPOHEPUIFZ IBWFUPCFUPOPUCFVTFGVMw (FPSHF&1#PYBOE/PSNBO3%SBQFS &NQJSJDBM.PEFM#VJMEJOHBOE3FTQPOTF4VSGBDFT Systems taxonomy 1

Modeling scope

SE Application Domains (D1...Dn)

Collective actualization space

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn

Problem space

3a

TS/CS diﬀerent in degree 3b Traditional Complex

Characteristics of all systems

Highest level system

Deﬁne need

Complex 4 Traditional TS is special case 5 Characteristics of all SE systems Traditional and Complex 6

Model Space

All SE application domains...

Indivisible Unit Model of Individual system or component

Universal model

Composition

TS/CS diﬀerent in kind 2b 2a Traditional systems Complex systems

Common speciﬁcation approach: Repeating internal/external structure

Solution domain

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Problem/ user domain

Conceptualization Conceptualization -- Language/notation Language/notation -- Universe Universe of ofdiscourse discourse

Views exist within and across all the dimensions

e

m

Ti

Produce solution

Deployment

Satisfy need

Solution/system space

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Table 4.1 Types of Models Variable Linearity

Type Linear

Non-linear

Brief Deﬁnition, Example Involves a single dimension, or all variables are of ﬁrst order, or output is proportional to input; or elements are additive. Ex: F(x) ax b; linear differential equation Not linear; at least one variable is second or higher order; output is not proportional to input; or elements are not additive. Ex: F(x) ax2 b; nonlinear differential equation.

Distribution

Lumped or centralized Distributed

Dependent variables are independent of spatial coordinates Ex: ordinary differential equations Dependent variables are functions of spatial coordinates. Ex: partial differential equations; network model

Variability

Static or time invariant Dynamic or time varying

Model parameters are constant across time. Ex: differential equations with constant coefﬁcients Model parameters vary across time. Ex: differential equations with time-varying coefﬁcients; simulations

Continuity

Discrete

Dependent variables deﬁned only for distinct values of independent variables. Ex: difference equations Dependent variables deﬁned over continuous range of independent variables. Ex: differential equations

Continuous Determinism

Deterministic

Stochastic or probabilistic Analysis method

Quantitative Qualitative

Executability

Nonexecutable Executable

Outputs are known, certain, predictable given inputs. Ex: equation with ﬁxed variables; deterministic cellular automaton model Outputs have a degree of uncertainty given inputs. Ex: equation with random variables; probabilistic cellular automaton model Uses and produces numbers; based on interval and ratio measurement scales. Ex: differential equation Uses and produces descriptions, categories, comparisons; based on nominal and ordinal measurement scales Ex: taxonomy Model does not imply a process; or no agent exists that can execute it or translate it into executable model Ex: requirements document; design document Model implies a process and an agent exists that can execute it or translate it into executable model. Ex: simulation; executable architecture; UML design model for which code generator exists; requirements written in Prolog

(Source: Kulakowski, B.T., J.F. Gardner, and J.L. Shearer. Dynamic Modeling and Control of Engineering Systems, 3rd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press. 2007. Modiﬁed with permission.)

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Model Derivation and Application "OJNQPSUBOUEJTUJODUJPOJOUIFTVQQPSUPG44GPS4&JTUIBUCFUXFFOUIFEFSJWBUJPOBOEUIFBQQMJ DBUJPOPGBNPEFMThFEFSJWBUJPOPGBNPEFMJTUIFTFU DMBTT PSDBUFHPSZPGUIFTZTUFNTGSPNXIJDI JUJTEFSJWFEPSBCTUSBDUFEThFBQQMJDBUJPOPGBNPEFMJTUIFTFUPGTZTUFNTUIBUDPSSFTQPOEUPJU *GXFBTTVNFDPSSFTQPOEFODFPGBNPEFMUPCPUIJUTEFSJWBUJPOBOEJUTBQQMJDBUJPO UIFODMFBSMZUIF BQQMJDBUJPOTFUJTBUMFBTUBTHSFBUBT BOEJODMVEFT UIFEFSJWBUJPOTFUUIBUJT UIFEFSJWBUJPOTFUJTB TVCTFUPGUIFBQQMJDBUJPOTFU*OUFSNTPGNPEFMSFHJPOT UIFEFSJWBUJPOJTBiTUBSUFSTFUwPGUIFNPEFM SFHJPO BOEUIFBQQMJDBUJPOTFUJTUIFGVMMNPEFMSFHJPO *O UIF MBSHFS TDIFNF PG UIJOHT UIF EFSJWBUJPO PG B NPEFM JT PG MJUUMF JNQPSUBODF XIJMF UIF BQQMJDBUJPOPGBNPEFMJTPGDSJUJDBMJNQPSUBODF8FEPOPUDBSFXIFSFBNPEFMDBNFGSPNXFEP DBSFXIBUJUBQQMJFTUP 8IBUJGXFUSZUPBQQMZUIFCJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPONPEFMCFZPOEJUTEFSJWBUJPOTFU UIBUJT CFZPOE QPQVMBUJPOTPGPSHBOJTNTPSMJWJOHUIJOHTBTEFﬁOFEJOUSBEJUJPOBMCJPMPHZ 'PSFYBNQMF EPFDPOP NJFT PSHBOJ[BUJPOT TPDJFUJFT BJSDSBGU TPGUXBSFTZTUFNT BOECSJEHFTGPMMPXUIFNPEFMPGCJPMPHJDBM FWPMVUJPO ThBUJT EPUIFZFYJTUJOUIFSFHJPOPGUIJTNPEFM *GJUBQQMJFTBUBMM JUJTIFMQGVMUPEFUFS NJOFXIBUMFWFMPGUIFNPEFMBQQMJFT4VQQPTFXFXBOUUPBQQMZUIFNPEFMUPPSHBOJ[BUJPOTThF HPBMJTUPBQQMZUIFNPEFMBUUIFMFWFMUIBUTBUJTﬁ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hFSFJTBOPUIFSJNQPSUBOUXBZJOXIJDIUIFEJTUJODUJPOCFUXFFOEFSJWBUJPOBOEBQQMJDBUJPO JT JNQPSUBOU UP 4& BOE VOJﬁDBUJPO ThF OPUJPO UIBU POMZ USBEJUJPOBM NPEFMT BSF BQQSPQSJBUF GPSUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTEPFTOPUIPMEJONBOZDBTFT4&IBTNBEFDFSUBJOBTTVNQUJPOTJO54 NPEFMTBOEJNQPTFEUIFNPOUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTIPXFWFS UIFTZTUFNTIBWFWBSZJOHEFHSFFTPG ﬁEFMJUZUPUIPTFNPEFMTBOEBTTVNQUJPOT$4NPEFMTPGUFOIBWFBIJHIFSﬁEFMJUZUPUSBEJUJPOBM ThFEFSJWBUJPOTZTUFNTDBOCFBOFNQUZTFUThBUJT BNPEFMEPFTOPUIBWFUPCFEFSJWFEGSPNTZTUFNTJUDPVME CFDSFBUFEPSEFﬁOFEJOEFQFOEFOUMZ

96 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

TZTUFNTUIBOEP54NPEFMT0OFJOUFSFTUJOHFYBNQMFPGUIJT BTBSHVFEJO&SEJ

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Speciﬁed Behavior and Valuation *OUSBEJUJPOBMTQFDJﬁDBUJPOTPGTZTUFNCFIBWJPS XFEFﬁOFXIBUJTFYQFDUFEPSOPSNBM BOEEJTUJO HVJTIJUGSPNBCOPSNBMCFIBWJPSTheBTTVNQUJPOJTUIBUBMMQBSUJFTBHSFFPOXIBUCFIBWJPSPGUIF TZTUFNJTOPSNBMPSHPPE BOEXIBUCFIBWJPSJTBCOPSNBMPSCBE)PXFWFS JOUIFDPNQSFIFOTJWF BQQSPBDIUIBUJODMVEFT$4 TVDIBTBVUPOPNPVTBHFOUT OPUPOMZBSFUIFSFNPSFDBUFHPSJFTPGQPT TJCMFCFIBWJPS JODMVEJOHBiCFUUFSUIBOFYQFDUFEwDBUFHPSZ

CVUBMTPUIFBTTJHONFOUPGBCFIBWJPS UPBDBUFHPSZ JODMVEJOHUIFUSBEJUJPOBMOPSNBMBOEBCOPSNBM JONBOZDBTFTEFQFOETPODPOUFYU SPMF WJFXQPJOU PSJOUFSQSFUBUJPO"TBOFYBNQMF TVQQPTFBNBOBHFSJOBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOCFIBWFT JOBXBZUIBUFOUBJMTBTJHOJﬁDBOUBNPVOUPGSJTLUPUIFPSHBOJ[BUJPOXJUIDPSSFTQPOEJOHQPUFOUJBM GPS DPOTJEFSBCMF CFOFﬁU UP UIF PSHBOJ[BUJPO ThBU CFIBWJPS SFHBSEMFTT PG UIF TQFDJﬁD PVUDPNF NBZCFJOUFSQSFUFEBTHPPECZBSJTLUBLJOHPSHBOJ[BUJPOBOEBTCBECZBSJTLBWFSTFPSHBOJ[B UJPOTheSFGPSF .04&4BMMPXTUIFWBMVBUJPOPSJOUFSQSFUBUJPOPGBCFIBWJPS TVDIBTHPPEPSCBE UPCFEFDPVQMFEGSPNUIFTQFDJﬁDBUJPOPGUIFCFIBWJPSJUTFMG TPUIFDPOUFYUDBONBLFJUTPXO JOUFSQSFUBUJPO *O DPNQFUJUJWF HBNFT BOE DPOﬂJDU NPEFMT TVDI BT XBS UXP PS NPSF QBSUJFT IBWF PQQPTJOH WJFXTPGiHPPEwBOEiCBEwCFIBWJPSPSSFTVMUTPGCFIBWJPSThJTTJUVBUJPOSFRVJSFTEFDPVQMJOHPG WBMVBUJPOGSPNCFIBWJPS "OPUIFSSFBTPOGPSEFDPVQMJOHJTUIBUUIFWBMVBUJPOPGNBOZCFIBWJPSTJTOPULOPXOGPSTPNF QFSJPEPGUJNFBGUFSJUPDDVST PSJUNBZOFWFSCFLOPXO*GBDPNQBOZNBLFTBTJHOJﬁDBOUDIBOHFJO EJSFDUJPO UIFSFTVMUTPGUIBUDIBOHFNBZOPUCFLOPXOGPSTPNFUJNF"OEJGUIFHPBMJTUPEFUFSNJOF JGJUXBTCFUUFSUPNBLFUIFDIBOHFUIBOUPNBJOUBJOUIFTUBUVTRVP UIBUNBZOFWFSCFLOPXO "MUIPVHICFIBWJPSBOEWBMVBUJPOBSFEFDPVQMFE .04&4EPFTOPUSFRVJSFUIFNUPCFVODPO OFDUFEJOBMMDBTFT'PSBMBSHFOVNCFSPGTZTUFNTJUJTMJLFMZUIBUBMMPCTFSWFSTXPVMEBHSFFPO DFSUBJO CFIBWJPST CFJOH HPPE BOE DFSUBJO PUIFS CFIBWJPST CFJOH CBE BOE GPS UIPTF DBTFT JU JT SFBTPOBCMFUPDPNNJUUPBTQFDJﬁDWBMVBUJPOThFQPJOUJTUIBUUIJTEFDPVQMJOHJTJOUIF.04&4 SFQFSUPJSF BOEUIFSFGPSFDPNNJUNFOUEFDJTJPOTDBOCFMFGUPQFOPSEFFNFESFMBUJWFUPUIFPCTFSWFS JOBQQSPQSJBUFDJSDVNTUBODFT. ThFCFIBWJPSBOEWBMVBUJPOSFMBUJPOJTBQQMJFEJO$IBQUFS 7BMVBUJPOPGBHJWFOCFIBWJPSCZBHJWFOPCTFSWFSDBOBMTPDIBOHF BTXBTJMMVTUSBUFEJOUIF $IBQUFSTFDUJPOPOi3PMFT wXIFSFBOJOJUJBMWBMVBUJPOJOEJDBUFEBTFSWJDFCVUMBUFSBEJTTFSWJDF

Usefulness and “Truth” *OFOHJOFFSJOHJOHFOFSBM BOE.04&4JOQBSUJDVMBS XFEPOPUUBDLMFUIFJTTVFPGXIFUIFSTPNF UIJOHJTUSVF8FBSFJOUFSFTUFEJOXIFUIFSTPNFUIJOHJTVTFGVM'PSFYBNQMF 5SVUIIFSFNFBOTDPOUJOHFOUUSVUIXFEPBMMPXBOENBLFVTFPGMPHJDBMUSVUI OFDFTTJUZ UBVUPMPHZ QSPPG BOE SFTVMUTJNQMJFECZBYJPNTBOEQSFNJTFT

Features of MOSES

O

97

O /PUi*TUIJTSFBMMZBTZTUFN wPSi*TUIJTFMFNFOUJOTJEFPSPVUTJEFUIFTZTUFN wCVUi*TJU NPSFVTFGVMUPEFﬁOFUIJTTZTUFNUPJODMVEFUIJTFMFNFOUPSUPFYDMVEFJU w*OPVSFBSMJFS EFﬁOJUJPOPGTZTUFN XFBEESFTTFEUIJTJTTVFBUTPNFMFOHUI O /PUi*TUIJTNPEFMUSVF wCVUi*TUIJTNPEFMVTFGVMGPSTPNFQVSQPTF w O /PUi*TUIJTUIFSJHIUWJFX wCVUi*TUIJTWJFXVTFGVMGPSTPNFQVSQPTF w O /PUi*TUIJTTZTUFNBVUPOPNPVT wCVUi*TJUVTFGVMUPNPEFMUIJTTZTUFNBTIBWJOHBVUPO PNZ wPSi8IBUEFHSFFPGBVUPOPNZTIPVMEPVSNPEFMBUUSJCVUFUPUIJTTZTUFN w O /PUi*TUIJTTZTUFNVODIBOHJOH wCVUi*TJUVTFGVMUPNPEFMUIJTTZTUFNBTVODIBOHJOHJO UIJTTQBDFUJNFSFHJPO w

Summary ThFEFDPVQMJOHEFTDSJCFEJOUIJTTVCTFDUJPOQSPWJEFTﬂFYJCJMJUZJO.04&4ThJT UPHFUIFSXJUI UIFNPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOEFTDSJCFEFBSMJFS FOBCMFT.04&4UPTVQQPSUUIFCSPBESBOHFPGFYUFOEFE 4&. ThFDIBQUFSTUIBUGPMMPXTQFMMUIJTPVUJONPSFEFUBJM

References "ckoﬀ, R. 1979. The FVUVSFPG0QFSBUJPOBM3FTFBSDIJT1BTU +0QM3FT4PD o 1FSHBNPO1SFTT #MVN #4PGUXBSF&OHJOFFSJOH")PMJTUJD7JFX/FX:PSL0YGPSE6OJWFSTJUZ1SFTT #PDDBSB /.PEFMJOH$PNQMFY4ZTUFNT/FX:PSL4QSJOHFS7FSMBH #PFIN #BOE%1PSU8IFONPEFMTDPMMJEFMFTTPOTGSPNTPGUXBSFTZTUFNTBOBMZTJT*51SPGFTTJPOBM o4FFBMTPIUUQTVOTFUVTDFEVSFTFBSDI.#"4& "DDFTTFE+BOVBSZ

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98

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Chapter 5

SE Model Space

i*BNNZTFMGBHSFBUMPWFSPGUIFTFQSPDFTTFTPGEJWJTJPOBOEHFOFSBMJ[BUJPOUIFZIFMQ NFUPTQFBLBOEUPUIJOLw 1MBUP JO1IBFESVT Systems taxonomy 1

Modeling scope

SE Application Domains (D1...Dn)

Collective actualization space

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn

Problem space

3a

TS/CS diﬀerent in degree 3b Traditional Complex

4 Traditional TS is special case 5 Characteristics of all SE systems Traditional and Complex Characteristics of all systems

Highest level system

Deﬁne need

Complex

6

Model Space

All SE application domains...

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SE Model Space

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Collective Actualization Space Problem/environment space Model of need

Model/description space Model of solution

Deployment space

Satisfaction of need

Solution/system space

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Figure 5.1 SE model space interaction context.

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Produce solution

Solution space Application Domain 1

Application Domain 2

Application Domain 2

Application Domain 3

Application Domain 3

Application Domain 4

Application Domain 4

Application Domain n

Application Domain n

Problem space: SE problem space includes multiple application domains Model space: Models must address problems and produce corresponding solutions in each application domain Solution space: Each solution exists in the corresponding application domain

Figure 5.2

SE model space domain context.

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Table 5.1 SE Foundation Requirements Allocated to the Model Space No.

Requirement

5

Support scale-up and scale-down of systems, and multiple scales in a single system, to include both spatial and temporal scales. Be ﬂexible, adaptable, and extensible, and evolve as needed. Facilitate incorporation and use of knowledge and experience. Support multiple views and perspectives of a given system or class of systems. Support balance of commonality and variability: ﬁnd everything in common; but do not force one size ﬁts all; recognize imperative and beneﬁts of diversity. Support balance of stability and change: ﬁnd everything that is stable but do not force false stability; recognize imperative and beneﬁts of change. Support clear communication among all SE stakeholders, but recognize that not all clear communication is explicit; support both explicit and implicit communication. Support analysis of alternatives. Provide a uniﬁed approach to organizing and harnessing the knowledge from the array of disciplines supporting SE.

10 11 13 16 17 18 20 24

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Approaches Approach 1: Partition into Separate Application Domain Model Spaces 8FDPVMEIBWFBQBSUJUJPOFENPEFMTQBDF PSFRVJWBMFOUMZNVMUJQMFTFQBSBUFNPEFMTQBDFT POFGPS FBDIBQQMJDBUJPOEPNBJO TVDIBTBFSPTQBDF USBOTQPSUBUJPO DPOTUSVDUJPO NFEJDJOF PSPSHBOJ[B UJPOBMNBOBHFNFOU8FXPVMEIBWFEPNBJOTQFDJﬁDQSPCMFNT XIJDIXFEFTDSJCFJOUIFNPEFM TQBDFJOEPNBJOTQFDJﬁDNPEFMT GSPNXIJDIXFQSPEVDFEPNBJOTQFDJﬁDTPMVUJPOT XIJDITBUJTGZ

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Collective Actualization Space Model space disciplines, domains

Appl’n Domain 1

Int Ext

Appl’n Domain 2

Int Ext

Appl’n Domain 3

Int Ext

Appl’n Domain 4

Int Ext

Appl’n Domain 5

Int Ext

Int Multiple disciplines

Problem space

Solution space Ext Appl’n Domain 1 Appl’n Domain 2 Appl’n Domain 3 Appl’n Domain 4 Appl’n Domain 5

Solution space: From an external view, each solution exists in the corresponding application domain; internally, each solution draws from multiple disciplines and domains Model space: Models exist in multiple application domains and multiple supporting disciplines — SS, CSS, mathematics, computing, biology, physics, etc.

Figure 5.3

SE model space multi-domain texture.

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Model Space

Universal model

C – omm K – in on Ca ds iz at te io go n rie s

Model of individual system or component

Problem/ user domain

m

Solution domain

e

Common speciﬁcation approach: Repeating internal/external structure

Ti

Indivisible unit

Composition

Highest level system

Conceptualization – Language/notation – Universe of discourse

Views exist within and across all the dimensions

Figure 5.4 SE model space internal structure. (Source: Hybertson, D. A uniform component modeling space. Informatica, 25(4):475–482. Published by Slovenian Society Informatika. 2001. Used with permission.)

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Conceptual and Physical Space Models of physical systems often include parameters that designate the position or movement of those systems in classical three-dimensional (3D) space. In that context, discussions of space and time, or time as the fourth dimension, are also based on 3D classical physical space. In this book, however, the term “space,” especially in the context of the model space, means conceptual space. The model space has three conceptual dimensions, with time as the fourth dimension. It is pure coincidence that the number of conceptual dimensions in the model space is equal to the number of dimensions in classical physical space, and that time is the fourth dimension for both. Those models that parameterize physical space are of course included in the envisioned SE model space. Does that pose a contradiction? No, because they are conceptual models of physical systems. That is, the models position physical systems in physical space dimensions, while the model space positions the conceptual models in conceptual space dimensions. The physical space position of the physical system is important to the model but irrelevant to the model space. The model space cares about where the model is, not about where the modeled system is. Therefore, unless otherwise noted, in this book all discussions of space, or space versus time, are referring to the model space conceptual dimensions.

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External = black box view Internal = clear box view

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Figure 5.5 Intertwining composition structure. (Source: Hybertson, D. Using a speciﬁcation approach to facilitate component testing. In Testing Commercial-off-the-Shelf Components and Systems, S. Beydeda and V. Gruhn, Eds. New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 213–237. 2005. Used with permission of Springer Science + Business Media.)

SE Model Space

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113

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Internal

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Problem space: Semantics of environments in which engineered systems are needed Model space: Semantics of models ranging from problem space (typically external models of the system) to solution models (typically internal models of the system) that are far removed from problem space Solution space: Semantics of solution/system ranging from problem space (typically externally visible) to elements of solution space that are far removed from problem space (typically internal)

Figure 5.6

Semantic range view of model space and its context.

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MOSES Concept General problem space of application domain Solution, system Speciﬁc system environment in application domain Application domain universe of discourse applied to speciﬁc system Model of application domain inclusive of speciﬁc system, (i.e., with the system operating in the application domain) External and internal models of the system External model of system

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Jim Neighbors: Hierarchy of Domains +JN/FJHICPSTEFTDSJCFTBIJFSBSDIZPGEPNBJOTGPSTPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOHUIBUDPOTJTUTPGBQQMJDB UJPOEPNBJOT NPEFMJOHEPNBJOT BOEFYFDVUJPOEPNBJOT i8FEFﬁOFUIFMFWFMPGBCTUSBDUJPOPGPUIFSEPNBJOTXJUISFTQFDUUPBOFYFDVUBCMFEPNBJOUPCF UIFMPOHFTUBDZDMJDQBUIGSPNBOZPGUIFSFﬁOFNFOUTPGUIFEPNBJOTDPNQPOFOUTUPUIFFYFDVUBCMF EPNBJOThFEPNBJOTXJUIUIFIJHIFTUMFWFMTPGBCTUSBDUJPOBSFDBMMFEBQQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOT XIJMF UIFEPNBJOTJOUIFBCTUSBDUJPOMFWFMTCFUXFFOUIFBQQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOTBOEFYFDVUJPOEPNBJOTBSF DBMMFENPEFMJOHEPNBJOTw /FJHICPST "QQMJDBUJPO EPNBJO FYQFSUT DPOTUSVDU BQQMJDBUJPO EPNBJOT BOE NPEFMJOH EPNBJO FYQFSUT DPOTUSVDUNPEFMJOHEPNBJOT. ThFCBTJDQSPDFTTJTUSBOTGPSNBUJPO /FJHICPSTUISFFEPNBJODBUFHPSJFTNBQSFTQFDUJWFMZUP.04&4BQQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOTJOUIF QSPCMFNTQBDF UIFNPEFMTQBDF BOEUIFTPMVUJPOTQBDF

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Correlation of Blum and MOSES Model Space Concepts

Blum Concept Application domain Need Conceptual model Formal model Software product

Implementation domain

MOSES Concept Application domain in problem space Application domain problem or gap model User requirements model in application domain terms Formal external system model Internal system model in programming language or computer processor language; exists both in the model space and in the solution space Solution space

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Model Space Dimensions " DPOTJEFSBCMF MJUFSBUVSF FYJTUT UIBU EJTDVTTFT FBDI PG UIF WBSJBCMFT JO UIF NPEFM TQBDF " GFX FYBNQMFTBSFQSFTFOUFEIFSF

Philosophy, Especially Ontology "TJHOJﬁDBOUFMFNFOUPGPOUPMPHZJOQIJMPTPQIZJTUIFDBUFHPSJDBMTUSVDUVSFPGSFBMJUZ )POEFSJDI 1IJMPTPQIFSPOUPMPHJTUTBSHVFBCPVUXIBUPDDVQJFTUIFTFDPOETQPUPGUIFPOUPMPHZIJFS BSDIZPSUIFIJFSBSDIZPGCFJOHThFUPQJTiCFJOHwPSiFOUJUZwi4PNFTDIFNFTUBLFUIFEJWJTJPO CFUXFFOVOJWFSTBMTBOEQBSUJDVMBSTBTUIFOFYUTUFQJOUIFIJFSBSDIZ PUIFSTUIFEJWJTJPOCFUXFFO BCTUSBDUBOEDPODSFUFFOUJUJFTw )POEFSJDI 4JNPOT XSPUFBUSFBUJTFPONFSFPMPHZPSQBSUoXIPMFUIFPSZJOUIFDPOUFYUPGPOUPM PHZ1IJMPTPQIJDBMEFCBUFTBCPVUUIFDPODFQUPGFNFSHFODFIBWFPDDVSSFEPWFSUIFQBTUDFOUVSZ &NFSHFODFJTEJSFDUMZSFMBUFEUPQBSUoXIPMFTUSVDUVSFT ThFTF DPODFQUT GSPN POUPMPHZ JMMVTUSBUF TFWFSBM QPJOUT DPODFSOJOH .04&4 NPEFM TQBDF EJNFOTJPOT O ThFPOUPMPHZUSFBUNFOUPGUIFIJFSBSDIJDBMTUSVDUVSFPGDBUFHPSJFTPGCFJOHDMFBSMZJMMVT USBUFT BOEPDDVSTJO UIFDPNNPOJ[BUJPOEJNFOTJPOPGUIFNPEFMTQBDF O ThFCBTJTPGUIFEFCBUFPWFSUIFTFDPOEPOUPMPHZMFWFMJTUIBUUIFSFJTPOFDPSSFDUTFDPOE MFWFMTFU BOEXFOFFEUPEFUFSNJOFXIBUUIBUJTThF.04&4QPTJUJPOPOUIJTJTTVFJTUIBU DBUFHPSJFTBOEHFOFSBMJ[BUJPOTBSFDSFBUFECZIVNBOTBOEUIFSFGPSFUIFSFJTOPUPOFJOIFS FOUMZDPSSFDUTFDPOEMFWFMThFSFNBZCFNPSFUIBOPOFTFDPOEMFWFMUIBUJTVTFGVMFBDI XPVMESFQSFTFOUBEJﬀFSFOUWJFXPGUIFIJFSBSDIZPGCFJOH BOEUIFSFGPSFUIFNPEFMTQBDF DPODFQUPGWJFXDBOJOGPSNBOEQPUFOUJBMMZSFTPMWFUIJTEFCBUFThFUXPTFUTNFOUJPOFE SFQSFTFOUUXPWJFXT O .FSFPMPHZ BOE FNFSHFODF JMMVTUSBUF BOE PDDVS JO UIF DPNQPTJUJPO EJNFOTJPO PG UIF NPEFM TQBDF

SE Model Space

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127

Whitehead’s Discussion of Generalization and Stability/Change "MGSFE/PSUI8IJUFIFBE NBEFUIJTTUBUFNFOUi5PTFFXIBUJTHFOFSBMJOXIBUJTQBS UJDVMBSBOEXIBUJTQFSNBOFOUJOXIBUJTUSBOTJUPSZJTUIFBJNPGTDJFOUJﬁDUIPVHIUwThFRVPUFIBT UXPJOUFSQSFUBUJPOTJOUIJTCPPL*OUIFDPOUFYUPG$IBQUFS JUNFBOTUIBUBLFZHPBMPG.04&4 JTUPDBQUVSF4&DPODFQUTUIBUIBWFTPNFHFOFSBMJUZBDSPTTUIFCSPBETDPQFPG4&BOETPNFTUBCJM JUZBDSPTTUJNF*OUIJTDIBQUFS JUSFJOGPSDFTUIFJNQPSUBODFPGUIFDPNNPOJ[BUJPOEJNFOTJPOBOE UIFUJNFEJNFOTJPOJOUFSNTPGBMPDVTGPSDBQUVSJOH4&SFMBUFELOPXMFEHFJOUIFGPSNPGHFOFSBM NPEFMTBOETUBCMFNPEFMT

Information Systems Engineering Sources *OGPSNBUJPOTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHIBTNBEFTJHOJﬁ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ﬁDJBMJOUFMMJHFODF TFNBOUJDOFUXPSLT LOPXMFEHFSFQSF TFOUBUJPO BOEEBUBCBTFLOPXMFEHFCBTFNPEFMJOH"OFYBNQMFEJTDVTTJPOPGLOPXMFEHFSFQSFTFO UBUJPOJO.ZMPQPVMPTBOE-FWFTRVF JEFOUJﬁFTUIFPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMBYFTPSEJNFOTJPOTPﬀFSFE CZTFNBOUJDOFUXPSLTGPSTUSVDUVSJOHBLOPXMFEHFCBTF. ThFTFJODMVEF O "HHSFHBUJPO XIJDISFMBUFTBOPCKFDU +PIO4NJUI UPJUTDPNQPOFOUTPSQBSUT DBOCFEJG GFSFOUWJFXTBTQIZTJDBMPCKFDU QBSUTBSFIFBE BSNT FUD

DBOCFBQQMJFESFDVSTJWFMZUP EFﬁOFQBSUTPGFBDIDPNQPOFOU FUD O $MBTTJﬁDBUJPO XIJDIBTTPDJBUFTBOPCKFDU +PIO4NJUI XJUIBHFOFSJDUZQF 1FSTPO TPNF UJNFTBQQMJFESFDVSTJWFMZUPEFﬁOFNFUBUZQFT O (FOFSBMJ[BUJPO XIJDISFMBUFTBUZQF 4UVEFOU UPBNPSFHFOFSJDUZQF 1FSTPO

SFDVSTJWFMZ PSHBOJ[FTUZQFTJOUPBHFOFSBMJ[BUJPOIJFSBSDIZ $MFBSMZ UIFBHHSFHBUJPOBYJTDPSSFTQPOETUPUIFDPNQPTJUJPOEJNFOTJPOJOUIFNPEFMTQBDFThFDMBTTJﬁ DBUJPOBOEHFOFSBMJ[BUJPOBYFTDPSSFTQPOE SFTQFDUJWFMZ UPUIFDBUFHPSJ[BUJPOBOEHFOFSBMJ[BUJPOBTQFDUT PGUIFDPNNPOJ[BUJPOEJNFOTJPOJOUIFNPEFMTQBDFThFSFDVSTJWFGFBUVSFPGBMMUISFFBYFTBMTPDPS SFTQPOETEJSFDUMZUPUIFSFQFBUJOHNVMUJMFWFMIJFSBSDIJDBMTUSVDUVSFTPGUIFNPEFMTQBDFEJNFOTJPOT

Summary ThFEFTJHOPGUIF4&NPEFMTQBDFIBTCFFOQSFTFOUFE#FDBVTFUIFNPEFMTQBDFJTBEPNJOBOUGFB UVSFPG.04&4 FBDIPGUIFWBSJBCMFTJTGVSUIFSFMBCPSBUFEJO$IBQUFSTUISPVHI$PNQPTJUJPO $PNNPOJ[BUJPO $PODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO 5JNF BOE7JFX

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Chapter 6

Composition Systems taxonomy 1

Modeling scope

SE Application Domains (D1...Dn)

Collective actualization space

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn

Problem space

3a

TS/CS diﬀerent in degree 3b Traditional Complex

Characteristics of all systems

Highest level system

Deﬁne need

Complex 4 Traditional TS is special case 5 Characteristics of all SE systems Traditional and Complex 6

Model Space

All SE application domains...

Indivisible Unit Model of Individual system or component

Universal model

Composition

TS/CS diﬀerent in kind 2b 2a Traditional systems Complex systems

Common speciﬁcation approach: Repeating internal/external structure

Solution domain

CCoo m - -KK m m m - -CC inindd oonniz aatete ss izaati go tioon n rrieies s

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Problem/ user domain

Conceptualization Conceptualization -- Language/notation Language/notation -- Universe Universe of ofdiscourse discourse

Views exist within and across all the dimensions

e

m

Ti

Produce solution

Deployment

Satisfy need

Solution/system space

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

TFQBSBUFMZBOECVJMUTFQBSBUFMZ*OGBDU NBOZPGUIFTVCTZTUFNTBSFEFTJHOFEBOECVJMUCZFOHJOFFST JOEJﬀFSFOUEPNBJOT"FSPOBVUJDBMFOHJOFFSTEFTJHOUIFBJSGSBNFTUSVDUVSFTBOEUIFKFUFOHJOFT TPGUXBSFBOEFMFDUSJDBMFOHJOFFSTEFTJHOUIFBWJPOJDTTVCTZTUFN BOENFDIBOJDBMFOHJOFFSTEFTJHO UIFOBWJHBUJPOBOEDPOUSPMBDUVBUPSTBOEIZESBVMJDT.BOZPGUIFTF TVDIBTUIFKFUFOHJOF NBZ CFEFTJHOFE CVJMU BOETVQQMJFECZBDPNQBOZTFQBSBUFGSPNUIFDPNQBOZCVJMEJOHUIFBJSDSBGU 4ZTUFNTFOHJOFFSTUBLFBMMUIFTVCTZTUFNTBOEQVUUIFNUPHFUIFSJOUPPOFDPIFSFOUTZTUFN *OUIJTEJTDVTTJPOPGTZTUFNBTQBSUT XFIBWFJNQMJDJUMZIJOUFEBUBOPUIFSBSDIJUFDUVSFQFSTQFD UJWFUIFSFMBUJPOTBOEJOUFSBDUJPOTBNPOHBMMUIFQBSUTPSTVCTZTUFNTThBUJT IPXEPBMMUIFQBSUT PSTVCTZTUFNTSFMBUFUPFBDIPUIFS BOEIPXEPUIFZJOUFSBDUTPUIBUUIFPWFSBMMGVODUJPOTPGBO BJSDSBGUBSFBDIJFWFE "OPUIFSQFSTQFDUJWFJTUIFBJSDSBGUFOWJSPONFOU XIJDIXFEFﬁOFBTUIFTFUPGFYUFSOBMFMFNFOUT UIBUJOUFSBDUEJSFDUMZXJUIUIFBJSDSBGU0OFFMFNFOUPGUIFFOWJSPONFOUJTUIFQIZTJDBMBUNPTQIFSF UIBUTVSSPVOETUIFBJSDSBGUXIJMFJUJTﬂZJOHBJSQSFTTVSF DMPVET UFNQFSBUVSF XJOE SBJO TVO FUD"OPUIFSFMFNFOUJTTFOEFSTBOESFDFJWFSTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPOTXJUIUIFBJSDSBGU TVDIBTBJSUSBG ﬁDDPOUSPMMFST"OPUIFSFMFNFOUJTUIFBJSQPSUSVOXBZTPOXIJDIUIFBJSDSBGUMBOETPSUBLFTPﬀ BOE UIFHBUFTBUXIJDIJUQBSLTGPSQBTTFOHFSTBOEGSFJHIUUPFOUFSPSFYJU"OPUIFSFMFNFOUJTUIFTFU PGPUIFSBJSDSBGUJOJUTWJDJOJUZ XIJDIJUXBOUTUPBWPJE"OPUIFSFMFNFOUJTUIFBJSMJOFUIBUPXOT UIFBJSDSBGU BOEUIFNFDIBOJDTBOETVQQPSUTUBﬀ XIPNBJOUBJOBOETFSWJDFJU%FQFOEJOHPOUIF QVSQPTFPGUIFNPEFM QBTTFOHFSTBOEDSFXNBZBMTPCFQBSUPGUIFFOWJSPONFOU "OPUIFSQFSTQFDUJWFJTUIFJOUFSBDUJOHFMFNFOUTPGUIFMBSHFSFODPNQBTTJOHTZTUFNPGXIJDI UIFBJSDSBGUJTBQBSUThJTJODMVEFTUIFSFMBUJPOTBOEJOUFSBDUJPOTBNPOHUIFTFFMFNFOUTUIFBJS DSBGU JUTFMG UIF BJSMJOF JOEVTUSZ UIF MBXT BOE SFHVMBUJPOT BOE MBXNBLFST BOE SFHVMBUPST UIBU HPWFSOBOEDPOTUSBJOUIFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBOEVTBHFPGUIFBJSDSBGU BOEUIFFOUJSFJOGSBTUSVDUVSF UIBUFOBCMFTBJSUSBﬃc JODMVEJOHUIFTFUPGDPNNFSDJBMBJSQPSUT UIFBJSUSBﬃc DPOUSPMTZTUFN BMM UIFSPVUFTCFUXFFOUIFBJSQPSUT UIFFOFSHZDPNQBOJFTUIBUTVQQMZGVFM UIFTVQQMJFSTPGBJSDSBGU BOEBJSMJOFBOEBJSQPSUFRVJQNFOUBOETFSWJDFT UIFHMPCBMQPTJUJPOJOHTZTUFN DPNNVOJDBUJPOT OFUXPSLT BOEUIFMJLF*UDPVMEBMTPJODMVEFOBUJPOBMFOFSHZQPMJDZ CVTJOFTTUBYTUSVDUVSFBOE SBUFT UIFPWFSBMMOBUJPOBMFDPOPNJDIFBMUI BOEJOUFSOBUJPOBMDJSDVNTUBODFTUIBUDBOBﬀFDUFOFSHZ TVQQMJFTBOEQPTTJCMFEFTUJOBUJPOTUIBUUIFBJSMJOFDBOTFSWJDF

Characteristics ThFQFSTQFDUJWFTXFIBWFQSFTFOUFEBSFBMMSFMBUFEJOTPNFXBZUPUIFBJSDSBGUBTUIF40*ThFTF QFSTQFDUJWFTBSF UIF40*BTBXIPMF UIF40*BTQBSUT UIF40*BTBTFUPGSFMBUJPOTIJQTBOE JOUFSBDUJPOTBNPOHQBSUT UIFEJSFDUFOWJSPONFOUPGUIF40*BOEJUTJOUFSBDUJPOXJUIUIF40* BOE UIFJOUFSBDUJPOTBNPOHUIFFMFNFOUTPGUIFMBSHFSFODPNQBTTJOHTZTUFNPGUIF40* *OUIJTTFDUJPOXFEJTDVTTBOEFYUFOEUIFTFQFSTQFDUJWFTBOEUIFJSDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT"QSPNJOFOU DIBSBDUFSJTUJDJNQMJFECZUIJTTFUPGﬁWFQFSTQFDUJWFTJTUIFDPODFQUPGNVMUJMFWFMDPNQPTJUJPOIJFS BSDIZ"OBJSDSBGUJTQBSUPGBMBSHFSTZTUFNPGBJSMJOFT BJSQPSUT FUD*OUVSO BOFOHJOFJTQBSUPGBO BJSDSBGU"MUIPVHIXFEJEOPUNFOUJPOJU FBDITVCTZTUFNDBOCFDPOTJEFSFEBXIPMFTZTUFNXJUI JUTPXOQBSUT"OFOHJOFJTBTZTUFNUIBUIBTQBSUTUIJTEFDPNQPTJUJPODBOCFDPOUJOVFEEPXOUP UIFOVUTBOECPMUTMFWFMPSFWFOEPXOUPUIFMFWFMPGBUPNTThFDPNQVUFSTVCTZTUFNJTBTZTUFN UIBUIBTQBSUTJUDBOCFEFDPNQPTFEJOUPDPNQVUFSIBSEXBSF TPGUXBSF BOEOFUXPSLJOH BOEFBDI 54&XPVMEWJFXEFDPNQPTJUJPOUPUIFMFWFMPGBUPNBTFYUSFNFBOEPVUPGTDPQFCVUCFDBVTF4&OPXJODMVEFT OBOPUFDIOPMPHZ JODMVEJOHGPSBJSDSBGU UIJTMFWFMXPVMEOPUCFFYUSFNF

Composition

O 131

PGUIPTFDBOCFGVSUIFSEFDPNQPTFEGPSFYBNQMF UIFTPGUXBSFEPXOUPJOEJWJEVBMMJOFTPGDPEF PSFWFOGVSUIFSUPJOEJWJEVBMTZNCPMMFWFM ThJTNVMUJMFWFMIPMBSDIZTUSVDUVSFNFBOTUIBUFOHJOFFSTPSPUIFSTUBLFIPMEFSTOFFEUPEFﬁOF UIFJSMFWFMBOETZTUFNPGJOUFSFTUThBUJTXIBU40*JTGPSUPEFTJHOBUFDMFBSMZXIBUTZTUFNJT CFJOHDPOTJEFSFEJOBNVMUJMFWFMBOENVMUJTZTUFNDPOUFYU8FEJTDVTTUIJTﬁSTUJOBUSBEJUJPOBM TZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH 54& TDPQF5PBQPMJDZNBLFS UIFFOUJSFBJSMJOFJOEVTUSZNJHIUCFUIF40* 5PBTZTUFNTFOHJOFFS UIFBJSDSBGUNJHIUCFUIF40*5PBDPNQVUFSTZTUFNTFOHJOFFS UIFTZTUFN PGDPNQVUFSIBSEXBSF TPGUXBSF BOEOFUXPSLTPOUIFBJSDSBGUNJHIUCFUIF40*5PBTPGUXBSF FOHJOFFS UIFTPGUXBSFNJHIUCFUIF40*"OEUPBOBFSPOBVUJDBMPSBKFUQSPQVMTJPOFOHJOFFS UIF QPXFSQMBOUPSBTJOHMFFOHJOF NJHIUCFUIF40* *OUIFTDPQFPGUIFFYUFOEFE4&EJTDVTTFEJO$IBQUFSTBOE UIFTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSSPMFDBOCF FYQBOEFE'PSFYBNQMF JOBEEJUJPOUPUIFBJSDSBGU UIFTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSNBZCSJOHBOFOHJOFFSJOH BQQSPBDIUPUIFMBSHFSFODPNQBTTJOHTZTUFNUPBEESFTTJTTVFTTVDIBTBOBMZTJTPGBMUFSOBUJWFBJSMJOF SFHVMBUPSZBQQSPBDIFT FOFSHZQPMJDJFT BJSQPSUBOESPVUFQMBOOJOH BOEDPOTUSBJOUTCBTFEPOQSP KFDUFEJODSFBTFTJOBJSUSBﬃc PWFSUIFOFYUEFDBEFPSNBZCFIPXBMMUIFTFGBDUPSTBﬀFDUFBDIPUIFS "OPUIFSFYBNQMFJTTDBMFEPXONBZCFUIFTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSXJMMCFJOWPMWFEJOFYBNJOJOHIPX OBOPNBUFSJBMTDBOCFVTFEUPBDIJFWFEFTJSFENBDSPGFBUVSFTBUUIFBJSDSBGUMFWFM

Common Structure Models &BDIQFSTQFDUJWFPOUIFBJSDSBGU40*JOUIFQSFWJPVTTFDUJPOJTOPXHFOFSBMJ[FEUPBDPSSFTQPOEJOH TFUPGNPEFMTPSWJFXTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIBO40*. ThFTFDPNNPOWJFXTBSF

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0VS40*JTUZQJDBMMZBOFOEUBSHFUTZTUFN BTEFﬁOFEJO$IBQUFS5SBEJUJPOBM40*TJO4& JODMVEFPVSFYBNQMFPGBDPNNFSDJBMBJSDSBGU BNBKPSNJMJUBSZXFBQPOTTZTUFN BQPXFSQMBOU FUD40*TPGUIFFYQBOEFE4&JODMVEFBNJMJUBSZDPBMJUJPO BOPSHBOJ[BUJPOTUSVDUVSF BUSBOTQPSUB UJPOTZTUFN BIFBMUIDBSFTZTUFN JODMVEJOHBSFTQPOTFUPQPUFOUJBMFQJEFNJDT

BQPXFSHSJE PSB TPDJFUBMTZTUFNTVDIBTBOPWFSBMMSFUJSFNFOUTZTUFN

Basic Model Types 4VQQPTFXFIBWFBO40*4UIBUIBTQBSUT4 4 4 BOE44JOUFSBDUTXJUI4BOE4 JOJUTFOWJSPONFOU BOE4JTQBSUPGTZTUFN4 XIJDIIBTQBSUT4 4 4 BOE4ThFﬁWFWJFXT BTTPDJBUFEXJUI4 MBCFMFE7UP7 BSFEFQJDUFEJO'JHVSF

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132

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

V5: Connection among parts of encompassing system S

S

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S3

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V2: S1 as parts

S13

S14

V3: Connection among S1 parts

V1: S1 as whole V1..V5 = Views 1–5 associated with system of interest S1 = Port; point of interaction or connection of a system with its environment = Connector; locus of relation, connection, interaction among systems or components

Figure 6.1

Common views associated with a system of interest.

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JOXIJDIDBTFFBDI7NPEFMIBTBEJﬀFSFOUUBSHFUTZTUFN BOEOPOFPGUIFNBSFUIF40*48IJDIJTUIFQSFGFSBCMFXBZUPSFHBSE7 8FMFBOUPXBSEUIF TFDPOEQFSTQFDUJWFUIBUJT 7BTBTFUPGGPVSNPEFMT BTFQBSBUFFYUFSOBMNPEFMPGFBDIQBSU0OF SFBTPOJTUIBUUIFQFSTQFDUJWFPGBMMQBSUTDPOTJEFSFEUPHFUIFSJTBEESFTTFEBEFRVBUFMZJO7 UIF DPOOFDUJPOBNPOHBMMUIFQBSUT"TFDPOESFBTPOJTUIBUUIFTFGPVSTFQBSBUFNPEFMTBSFVTFGVMGPS TQFDJﬁDBUJPONBUDIJOHJOUIFDPNQPTJUJPOPGQSFCVJMUQBSUTThJTMBUUFSUPQJDJTCSJFﬂZEJTDVTTFE JOUIFTFDUJPOFOUJUMFEi$PNQPTJUJPO3FMBUFE1SPDFTTFTwJOUIJTDIBQUFS BOEBEESFTTFEGVSUIFSJO $IBQUFS 7JTTUSBJHIUGPSXBSE*UJTBNPEFMPG4UIBUJT JUJTBNPEFMXIPTFUBSHFUTZTUFNJT47JT MJLF7 JOUFSQSFUBCMFJOUXPXBZT#FDBVTFJUJTEFﬁOFEGSPNUIFWJFXQPJOUPG4 BOEJUJTUIF FOWJSPONFOUPG4 POFDPVMEBSHVFUIBUUIFUBSHFUTZTUFNPG7JT4#VUXFBSHVFGPSBTFDPOE JOUFSQSFUBUJPO7JTOPUKVTUBNPEFMPG4JUJTBNPEFMPG4JOUFSBDUJOHXJUIJUTFOWJSPONFOU TP UIFUBSHFUJTUIFDPNCJOBUJPOPG4BOEJUTFOWJSPONFOU

Composition

O 133

Variations ThF CBTJD NPEFM UZQFT JO 'JHVSF SFQSFTFOU WBSJBUJPOT PG CPUI JOUFSOBM BOE FYUFSOBM NPEFM DBUFHPSJFT

Internal Model Variations ThFﬁSTUWBSJBUJPOJTUIFJOUFSOBMNPEFMXFKVTUEJTDVTTFE"GVMMJOUFSOBMNPEFMJODMVEFTBMMUIF QBSUTPGBTZTUFNBOEUIFJSDPOOFDUJPOT BTJO7 JOUFSOBMNPEFMPG4 PS7 JOUFSOBMNPEFMPG4 "OFOWJSPONFOUDPOOFDUJPONPEFMJTEFﬁOFEXJUISFTQFDUUP PSGSPNUIFWJFXQPJOUPG BHJWFO QBSUJUJODMVEFTPOMZUIFQBSUTUIBUDPOOFDUXJUIUIFHJWFOQBSU BOEJUJODMVEFTPOMZUIFDPOOFDUJPOT XJUIUIFHJWFOQBSU BTJO7XIFSFUIFHJWFOQBSUJT41BSUTBOEDPOOFDUJPOTOPUWJTJCMFJOUIF4 FOWJSPONFOU FWFOJGQSFTFOUJOBGVMMTZTUFNTVDIBT4 BSFFYDMVEFEGSPNUIFFOWJSPONFOUNPEFM /PUFUIBUBOFOWJSPONFOUNPEFMDBOCFEFﬁOFEXJUISFTQFDUUPFBDIQBSUThVT JO'JHVSFXF DPVMEIBWFEFﬁOFETFQBSBUFFOWJSPONFOUNPEFMTGPS4 4 BOE4 SFTQFDUJWFMZ8FDPVMEBMTP IBWFEFﬁOFEFOWJSPONFOUNPEFMTJOUFSOBMUP4GPS4 4 4 BOE4 SFTQFDUJWFMZ 8IBU IBQQFOT JG B HJWFO QBSU DPOOFDUT XJUI FWFSZ PUIFS QBSU PG B TZTUFN %PFT UIJT NFBO UIFFOWJSPONFOUNPEFMPGUIBUHJWFOQBSUJTFRVJWBMFOUUPUIFPWFSBMMDPOOFDUJPONPEFMGPSUIBU TZTUFN $POTJEFS4JO'JHVSF4VQQPTFXFBEEFEBDPOOFDUJPOCFUXFFO4BOE48PVME UIBUNBLFUIF4FOWJSPONFOUNPEFM7FRVJWBMFOUUPUIF4DPOOFDUJPONPEFM7 /PThF4 FOWJSPONFOUNPEFM7XPVMETUJMMOPUJODMVEFUIFDPOOFDUJPOTCFUXFFO4BOE4 BOECFUXFFO 4BOE4 CPUIPGXIJDIBSFQBSUPGUIFDPOOFDUJPONPEFM7

External Model Variations ThFTFDPOEWBSJBUJPOPGCBTJDNPEFMUZQFTJO'JHVSFJTBWBSJBUJPOPGFYUFSOBMNPEFMT TQFDJﬁ DBMMZNPEFM7PG4/PUJDFUIBU7QPJOUTUPUXPNPEFMJOTUBODFTPG4ThFTFBSFUIFWBSJBUJPOT ThFUPQPOFTIPXT7BTBOFYUFSOBMNPEFMPG4JOUIFDPOUFYUPG4ThFCPUUPNPOFTIPXT7 BTBTUBOEBMPOFFYUFSOBMNPEFMPG4ThFUPQNPEFMEFﬁOFTBTQFDJﬁDFOWJSPONFOUGPS4BOE JTDBMMFEBDPOUFYUTQFDJﬁDFYUFSOBMNPEFMThFCPUUPNNPEFMEPFTOPUEFﬁOFBOZTQFDJﬁDFOWJ SPONFOUGPS4BOEJTDBMMFEBDPOUFYUHFOFSBMFYUFSOBMNPEFM"MUIPVHIJOTPNFJOTUBODFTUIF UXPWBSJBUJPOTNBZCFFRVJWBMFOU JOHFOFSBMUIJTJTBOJNQPSUBOUEJTUJODUJPO8FHJWFUISFFCSJFG FYBNQMFTBNPMFDVMF BTPGUXBSFDPNQPOFOU BOEBIVNBO 4NBMM NPMFDVMFT DBMMFE NPOPNFST DBO DPNQPTF UIFNTFMWFT JOUP MBSHF NPMFDVMFT DBMMFE QPMZNFST"OFYBNQMFJTTIPXOJO'JHVSF ,JSDIOFSTFFBMTP.JMMFS o 5XPBNJOPBDJENPOPNFST BOBMPHPVTUP4BOE4JO4JO'JHVSF BSFTIPXO JO UIFJS TUBOEBMPOF DPOUFYUHFOFSBM GPSN JO UIF VQQFS QBSU PG 'JHVSF BOE JO UIFJS DPNQPTFEcontext-speciﬁc GPSNPOUIFMPXFSQBSUThe UXPFOUJUJFTJOUIFTIBEFECPYJO UIFVQQFSQBSU 0)NPMFDVMFBOE)BUPN BSFSFNPWFE JOUIFGPSNPGBXBUFSNPMFDVMF XIFOUIFUXPNPOPNFSTDPNCJOFThis DIBOHFDPSSFTQPOETUP4JO'JHVSF XIFSFUIF UIJSEEPUPOUIFCPVOEBSZPG4JOJUTTUBOEBMPOFGPSNJTSFNPWFEXIFO4JTDPNQPTFE JO4*UJTBMTPBOFYBNQMFPGNVUBCMFDPNQPTJUJPO XIJDIJTEJTDVTTFECFMPXJOUIFTFDUJPO FOUJUMFEi$PNQPTJUJPO1SPQFSUJFTw 4VQQPTF4JO'JHVSFJTBTPGUXBSFDPNQPOFOUUIBUPﬀFSTUISFFGFBUVSFTPSTFSWJDFT TVDIBTJEFOUJﬁDBUJPO BVUIFOUJDBUJPO BOEBVUIPSJ[BUJPO SFQSFTFOUFECZUIFUISFFEPUTPO UIFCPVOEBSZPGDPOUFYUHFOFSBMJ[FE4"OETVQQPTFUIBUUIF4FOWJSPONFOUPOMZOFFET

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Peptide Bond A molecule of water is removed from two glycine amino acids to form a peptide bond.

Figure 6.2 Example of context-speciﬁc and context-general external models. (Source: Kirchner, G. Self-Instructional on Biological Molecules: Organic Compounds. http://homepages.ius.edu/ GKIRCHNE/biomolec.htm. 2001. Used with permission.)

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Composition

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Composition Properties 8F QSFTFOU UISFF DPNQPTJUJPO QSPQFSUJFT JO UIJT TFDUJPO FYDMVTJWJUZ NVUBCJMJUZ BOE TZNNFUSZThFTFQSPQFSUJFTTUSVDUVSF BOEUPTPNFEFHSFFNPUJWBUF PVSEJTDVTTJPOPGDPNQPTJUJPO NPEFMTThFFYDMVTJWJUZPGBQBSUJTUIFEFHSFFUPXIJDIJUJTFYDMVTJWFMZJOPOFXIPMFThFNVUBCJMJUZ PGBQBSUJTUIFEFHSFFUPXIJDIJUDIBOHFTJOUIFDPNQPTJUJPOQSPDFTTThFTZNNFUSZPGBDPNQPTJ UJPOJTUIFEFHSFFUPXIJDIJUDPNCJOFTQBSUTUPGPSNBXIPMF BTPQQPTFEUP GPSFYBNQMF BEEJOHB QBSUUPBXIPMF8FOPXEJTDVTTDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIFBDIPGUIFTFQSPQFSUJFT BOE UIFOCSJFﬂZEJTDVTTIPXUIFUISFFSFMBUF

Exclusivity ThFFYDMVTJWJUZEJTUJODUJPOJTCFUXFFOBQBSUUIBUJTJOPOMZPOFXIPMF FYDMVTJWF BOEBQBSUUIBU JT PSDBOCF JONVMUJQMFXIPMFT OPOFYDMVTJWF 0OFNJHIUUIJOLUIBUBQBSUDBOCFJOPOMZPOF XIPMF)PXDBOBOBUPNCFJONPSFUIBOPOFNPMFDVMF BDFMMJONPSFUIBOPOFPSHBO BCSJDLJO NPSFUIBOPOFIPVTF BOFOHJOFJONPSFUIBOPOFDBS BUSFFJONPSFUIBOPOFGPSFTU PSBQMBOFUJO NPSFUIBOPOFTPMBSTZTUFN *GBQBSUDBOFYJTUJOPOMZPOFXIPMF XFDBMMJUUIFDPOUBJOFEDPNQPTJ UJPONPEFM*OUIFNPTUFYUSFNFPSQVSFGPSNPGUIJTNPEFM UIFXIPMFPXOTUIFQBSUTUIFQBSUT EPOPUFYJTUTFQBSBUFMZGSPNUIFXIPMFBOEJGUIFXIPMFJTEFTUSPZFE UIFQBSUTBSFBMTPEFTUSPZFE *OMFTTFYUSFNFGPSNT BQBSUDBOOPUCFQBSUPGNVMUJQMFTZTUFNTTJNVMUBOFPVTMZ CVUDPVMECFQBSU PGPOFTZTUFNBUPOFUJNFBOEQBSUPGBOPUIFSTZTUFNBUBEJﬀFSFOUUJNFTh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

TVDIBT8FCTFSWJDFTUIBUBSFBDDFTTJCMF UPNVMUJQMFDPOTVNFSTThFTBNFDPNQVUFS $16 PQFSBUJOHTZTUFN ﬁMFTZTUFN BOENJEEMFXBSF QSPWJEFDPNNPOTFSWJDFTUPNVMUJQMFBQQMJDBUJPOT/FUXPSLTTVDIBTUIF*OUFSOFUBSFTIBSFEQBSUT PGNVMUJQMFTZTUFNT"NPSFSFDFOUUPQJDJOTFSWJDFPSJFOUBUJPOJTUIFDPODFQUPGDMPVEDPNQVUJOH XIFSFDPNQVUJOHQPXFSBOEPUIFSDPNQVUJOHSFTPVSDFTBSFBWBJMBCMFGSPNEBUBDFOUFSTPSDPNQVU JOHDFOUFSTPOUIF*OUFSOFU )BZFT (SVNBOBOE,OPSS 7BSJBUJPOTPOUIJTUIFNF BOEUIJTUFSNJODMVEFPOEFNBOEDPNQVUJOH TPGUXBSFBTBTFSWJDF 4BB4

VUJMJUZDPNQVUJOH QMBUGPSNBTBTFSWJDF *OUFSOFUBTQMBUGPSN NBOBHFETFSWJDFQSPWJEFS TFSWJDFDPNNFSDFQMBUGPSN BOE*OUFSOFUJOUFHSBUJPO XIFSFUIFMBUUFSJTJOUFHSBUJPOPGDMPVECBTFETFSWJDFT

Composition

O 141

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EPDUPS UBYQSFQBSFS FUDTFSWFTNVMUJQMFDMJFOUT*OFBDIDBTF UIFBHFOUDMJFOUPSTFSWFSDMJFOUJOUFSBDUJPO DBOCFEFTJHOBUFEBTUIFJOUFSOBMNPEFMPGBTZTUFN4PJGBEPDUPSIBTQBUJFOUT JUJTFOUJSFMZSFBTPO BCMFUPEFTJHOBUFUIBUUIFEPDUPSJTQBSUPGTZTUFNT QMVTTFWFSBMPUIFSTZTUFNT TVDIBTIJTDPMMFBHVFT BOEUIFPﬃDFTUBﬀJOIJTQSBDUJDF ThFXIPMFOPUJPOPGDPNNPOTFSWJDFJTWFSZTUSPOHBOEUSBEJUJPOBM JOUIFQIZTJDBMXPSMEDPNNPOTPGUXBSFTFSWJDFTIBWFOPUIJOHOFXPOUIJTDPODFQU0VUTPVSDJOH TVDIBTBDDPVOUJOH )3 FWFO*5 ﬁUTUIJTNPEFM4PUIFCBTJDTIBSFEDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMTFQBSBUFE MPPTFMZDPVQMFEJTWFSZTJNJMBSGPSQIZTJDBMTZTUFNTBOETPGUXBSFTZTUFNT ThFTIBSFENPEFMIBTUXPWBSJBOUT0OFJTXIFSFBTIBSFEQBSUPDDVSTPODFJOFBDITZTUFNThF FYBNQMFTHJWFOBCPWFBSFPGUIJTWBSJFUZ*OUIFTIBSFENPEFMTIPXOJO'JHVSF QBSU4 BTB QBSUPGTZTUFNT4BOE4 JMMVTUSBUFTUIJT ThFPUIFSWBSJBOUJTXIFSFBTIBSFEQBSUPDDVSTNVMUJQMFUJNFTJOBTJOHMFTZTUFN JMMVTUSBUFE JO'JHVSFCZUIFNVMUJQMFBQQFBSBODFTPGQBSU4JOTZTUFN4.PTUPGUIFTZTUFNTJOXIJDI UIJTPDDVSTBSFNPEFMT.BOZUBSHFUTZTUFNTIBWFNVMUJQMFQBSUTPGUIFTBNFUZQF UIBUJT UIFZ IBWFUIFTBNFTQFDJﬁDBUJPOPSNPEFM'PSFYBNQMF BIPVTFIBTNBOZCSJDLTUIBUBSFTJNJMBS*GXF EFﬁOFEBNPEFMPGBIPVTFUIBUTIPXFEFWFSZCSJDL BOEXFXFSFVTJOHCSJDLTPGUZQF4 B DFSUBJOTJ[F DPMPS NBUFSJBM FUD NBZCFFWFOGSPNBDFSUBJOWFOEPS

PVSNPEFMXPVMEIBWFQBSU 4SFQFBUFEUJNFTThPTFQBSUTXPVMECFNVMUJQMFPDDVSSFODFTPGUIFTBNFQBSUJOUIF NPEFMTh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hFTIBSFENPEFMBMTPCSJOHTUPHFUIFSBOEFOBCMFTVOJﬁDBUJPOPGUIFDPODFQUPGDPOUSBDU" EFTJHOCZDPOUSBDU BO40"TFSWJDFDPOUSBDU BOPMEGBTIJPOFEDPOUSBDUCFUXFFOUXPPSHBOJ[BUJPOT PSQBSUJFT BOEJNQMJDJUDPOUSBDUTJOUIFUSBEJUJPOBMTFSWJDFJOEVTUSZBMMBMJHOJOUIFVOJﬁFETIBSFE

S1 S11

S12

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S22

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S13

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S14

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Figure 6.6

S3

S2

Shared composition model.

142 O

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

NPEFM*OBEEJUJPO .04&4BMJHOTBOEVOJﬁFTCPUIDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMTDPOUBJOFEBOETIBSFE XJUIUIFDPNNPODPOUSBDUTQFDJﬁDBUJPOBQQSPBDI BTEFTDSJCFEJONPSFEFUBJMJO$IBQUFS ThFSFBSFJOUFSNFEJBUFNPEFMTCFUXFFOGVMMZDPOUBJOFEBOEGVMMZTIBSFE0OFJTBDPOTFDVUJWF DPNQPTJUJPONPEFM JOXIJDIBQBSUDBOPOMZCFJOPOFTZTUFNBUBHJWFOUJNF CVUDBOCFQBSUPG BOPUIFSTZTUFNBUBOPUIFSUJNF*GJUJTEJﬃcVMUPSSBSFUPNPWFBQBSUGSPNPOFTZTUFNUPBOPUIFS JUJTDMPTFSUPUIFDPOUBJOFETJEF&YBNQMFTBSFNPWJOHBOFOHJOFGSPNPOFDBSUPBOPUIFS PSVTJOH BCSJDLJOPOFIPVTFBOEMBUFSVTJOHJUJOBOPUIFSIPVTF PSSFNPWJOHBIFBSUGSPNPOFIVNBOBOE QMBDJOHJUJOBOPUIFSIVNBO *GJUJTFBTZPSUZQJDBMUPNPWFBQBSUGSPNPOFTZTUFNUPBOPUIFS JUJTDMPTFSUPUIFTIBSFETJEF "DPNNPODBUFHPSZPGUIJTJTQBSUTUIBUDBOEPNVMUJQMFKPCTCVUDBOPOMZEPPOFPGUIFNBUB HJWFOUJNF&YBNQMFTBTJOHMFDPNQVUFSQSPDFTTPSTVQQPSUJOHNVMUJQMFQSPHSBNTWJBBUJNFTMJDJOH PQFSBUJOHTZTUFN PSBTJOHMFBDDPVOUBOUUIBUDBOIFMQNVMUJQMFQFPQMFQSFQBSFUIFJSUBYSFUVSOT CVUDBOPOMZXPSLPOPOFBUBHJWFONPNFOU*OUIFTFDBTFT UIFEJﬀFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFDPOTFDV UJWFNPEFMJOXIJDIXFBMMPXBQBSUUPCFDPOUBJOFEJONVMUJQMFTZTUFNTCVUDPOTUSBJOUPPOMZ POFTZTUFNBUBUJNF BOEBQBSBMMFMQSPDFTTJOHTIBSFEQBSUUIBUDBOCFQBSUPGNVMUJQMFTZTUFNT CFDPNFTWFSZTNBMM ThFGPSFHPJOHEJTDVTTJPOUIFSFGPSFSFQSFTFOUTUIFGPMMPXJOHDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMWBSJBOUT O "QVSFDPOUBJOFENPEFMBDPNQPOFOUJTQBSUPGPOMZPOFTZTUFN BOEDFBTFTUPFYJTUXIFO UIFTZTUFNDFBTFTUPFYJTU O "DPOTFDVUJWFDPOUBJOFENPEFMBDPNQPOFOUJTQBSUPGPOMZPOFTZTUFNBUBUJNFCVUNBZ NPWFUPBOPUIFSTZTUFNBUBMBUFSUJNF O "DPOTFDVUJWFWJFXPGBTIBSFENPEFMBDPNQPOFOUJTBQBSUPGNVMUJQMFTZTUFNTTJNVMUBOF PVTMZCVUDBOPOMZJOUFSBDUXJUIQBSUTPGPOFTZTUFNBUBUJNF BOEUIJTJOUFSBDUJPODPO TUSBJOUJTQBSUPGUIFNPEFM O "TJNVMUBOFPVTWJFXPGBTIBSFENPEFMBDPNQPOFOUJTBQBSUPGNVMUJQMFTZTUFNTTJNVMUBOF PVTMZXIFUIFSPSOPUUIFDPNQPOFOUDBOPOMZJOUFSBDUXJUIQBSUTPGPOFTZTUFNBUBUJNF JTOPUQBSUPGUIJTNPEFM ,FFQJONJOEUIBUUIFTFWBSJBOUTBOEWJFXTSFQSFTFOUQPJOUTPOBDPOUJOVVNUIBUSBOHFTGSPNQVSF DPOUBJOFEUPTJNVMUBOFPVTTIBSFE ThF6.- 0.( EFﬁOFTDPNQPTJUJPOUZQFTUIBUDPSSFTQPOEBQQSPYJNBUFMZUPPVS DPOUBJOFE QVSFPSDPOTFDVUJWF BOETIBSFE XIJDIUIFZSFGFSUP SFTQFDUJWFMZ BTDPNQPTJUFBHHSF HBUJPOBOETIBSFEBHHSFHBUJPO. ThFZEFTDSJCFUIFUZQFTUIJTXBZ i"HHSFHBUJPO,JOEJTBOFOVNFSBUJPOPGUIFGPMMPXJOHMJUFSBMWBMVFT N /POFJOEJDBUFTUIBUUIFQSPQFSUZIBTOPBHHSFHBUJPO N 4IBSFEJOEJDBUFTUIBUUIFQSPQFSUZIBTBTIBSFEBHHSFHBUJPO N $PNQPTJUFJOEJDBUFTUIBUUIFQSPQFSUZJTBHHSFHBUFEDPNQPTJUFMZ UIBUJT UIFDPN QPTJUFPCKFDUIBTSFTQPOTJCJMJUZGPSUIFFYJTUFODFBOETUPSBHFPGUIFDPNQPTFEPCKFDUT QBSUT w

Mutability *OUIFEJTDVTTJPOUIVTGBS XFIBWFVTFEFYBNQMFTXIFSFQBSUTBSFDPNQPTFEJOUPXIPMFTNPSFPS MFTTJOUBDU#VUJONBOZDBTFT UIFQBSUTDIBOHFXIFOUIFZBSFDPNQPTFEXJUIPUIFSQBSUT8F DBMMUIJTBNVUBCMFDPNQPTJUJPONPEFM$PNNPOUFSNTGPSUIJTUZQFPGDPNQPTJUJPOBSFCPOEJOH

Composition

O 143

GVTJPO BOENFSHJOH1SPNJOFOUFYBNQMFTBSFDIFNJDBMCPOEJOHBOEPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMNFSHFSTThF FYBNQMFJO'JHVSFTIPXFEUXPNPMFDVMFTDIBOHJOHXIFOUIFZNFSHFE5XPIZESPHFOBUPNT BOEBOPYZHFOBUPNXFSFSFNPWFEEVSJOHDPNQPTJUJPOBOEDPNCJOFEUPQSPEVDFXBUFSBTBTJEF FﬀFDUPGUIFDPNQPTJUJPO 8IFOUXPPSHBOJ[BUJPOTNFSHF UIFZVTVBMMZDIBOHFPSSFNPWFDFSUBJOFMFNFOUTTPUIFZEPOPU IBWFVOXBOUFEEVQMJDBUJPOPGDPNNPOGVODUJPOT

Symmetry "MMUIFDBTFTBOENPEFMTEJTDVTTFETPGBSBSFTZNNFUSJD JOUIBUUIFDPNQPTJUJPOTXFSFPGQBSUT JOUPBXIPMF"OBTZNNFUSJDNPEFMBMTPFYJTUT XIFSFBXIPMFBEETBQBSUUIBUJT BXIPMFBOE BQBSUBSFDPNQPTFEJOUPB SFWJTFE XIPMF.PTUPGUIFDPNQPTJUJPOEJTDVTTJPOJOUIJTCPPLJT BCPVU TZNNFUSJD DPNQPTJUJPO &YBNQMFT PG BTZNNFUSJD DPNQPTJUJPO JODMVEF BEEJOH B TNBMM NPMFDVMF NPOPNFS UPBQPMZNFSDIBJOJODIFNJTUSZPSBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOIJSJOHBOFXFNQMPZFF BQFSTPOKPJOJOHBTPDJBMDMVC PSBOFUXPSLBEEJOHBOPEFThFSFDBOCFTPNFUIJOHPGBDPO UJOVVNCFUXFFOBTZNNFUSJDBOETZNNFUSJDDPNQPTJUJPOThFQBUUFSOPGDPNQBOZNFSHFSTBOE BDRVJTJUJPOTSFﬂFDUTTVDIBDPOUJOVVN(FOFSBMMZ JGUXPDPNQBOJFTNFSHF XFXPVMEDBMMJUTZN NFUSJDDPNQPTJUJPO XIJMFJGPOFDPNQBOZBDRVJSFTBOPUIFSDPNQBOZ XFXPVMEUZQJDBMMZSFHBSE JUBTBTZNNFUSJD

Relations among the Three Categories ThF NVUBCJMJUZ DPNQPTJUJPO DBUFHPSZ JT JOEFQFOEFOU PG UIF TZNNFUSZ DBUFHPSZ ThBU JT CPUI NVUBCMFBOEJNNVUBCMFDPNQPTJUJPODBOBQQMZUPTZNNFUSJDBOEBTZNNFUSJDNPEFMT *NNVUBCMFDPNQPTJUJPODBOBQQMZUPCPUITIBSFEBOEDPOUBJOFEDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMT.VUBCMF DPNQPTJUJPODBOBMTPBQQMZUPDPOUBJOFEDPNQPTJUJPO*GBQBSUJTVTFEPOMZJOPOFTZTUFN UIF QBSUDBOCFDIBOHFEXJUIPVUBﬀFDUJOHBOZPUIFSTZTUFN FTQFDJBMMZJGUIFQBSUJTFODBQTVMBUFE .VUBCMFDPNQPTJUJPOEPFTOPU JOHFOFSBM BQQMZUPTIBSFEDPNQPTJUJPO"TIBSFEQBSUNVTU SFUBJOJUTTFQBSBUFFYJTUFODFUPCFBWBJMBCMFUPPUIFSTZTUFNT TPUIBUJGPOFTZTUFNDIBOHFEUIFQBSU UIFDIBOHFXPVME JOHFOFSBM BﬀFDUBMMPUIFSTZTUFNTUIBUVTFEPSJODMVEFEUIFQBSU *UJTJNQPSUBOUUPEJTUJOHVJTICFUXFFONVUBCJMJUZBOEBEBQUBUJPOPSTZTUFNDIBOHF"NVUBCMF QBSUDIBOHFTEVSJOHDPNQPTJUJPO"EBQUBUJPOJOWPMWFTTZTUFNDIBOHFPWFSJUTPQFSBUJPOBMMJGF" QBSUDBOCFCPUIJNNVUBCMFBOEBEBQUBCMF"EBQUBUJPOBOEPUIFSGPSNTPGDIBOHFBSFEJTDVTTFE JO$IBQUFS

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144

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Composition

Part Part only

Whole Shared

Whole only

(a) Spatial relation

Time 1 Earlier

Time 2 Persistent

Later

(b) Temporal relation

Figure 6.7

Relations of characteristics in space and time.

The Issue of Emergence When we consider the relations between wholes and parts, we encounter the potential relation of emergence. The vernacular form of emergence is “The whole is more than the sum of its parts.” A more formal deﬁnition of emergent properties, from Honderich (1995, 224), is: “A property of a complex system is said to be ‘emergent’ just in case, although it arises out of the properties and relations characterizing its simpler constituents, it is neither predictable from, nor reducible to, these lower-level characteristics.” A variety of deﬁnitions of emergence exists. See Emmeche et al. (1997) and O’Connor and Wong (2006) for discussion of some of the variants. In traditional systems engineering, emergence is often implicitly assumed but is rarely discussed as an explicit topic. Much of the complex systems literature includes emergence as a deﬁning characteristic of complex systems. For example, Boccara (2004, 3) states that “The appearance of emergent properties is the single most distinguishing feature of complex systems.” On the other hand, some researchers in complex systems call themselves reductionists — for example, Shalizi (2007). The MOSES approach is to focus on and characterize the relations between wholes and parts. For both TS and CS, the whole often has characteristics that parts do not have, which may be called emergence. But parts may also have characteristics that the whole does not have, which we might call submergence. We explore these and other relations in the sections that follow. While we occasionally use the term “emergence,” the primary MOSES depiction of the general situation for both TS and CS is to say that a whole and its parts have partially overlapping characteristics.

O 145

146

O

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

Connection Among Parts Part a

Whole

c b

d

e g

f

a. Characteristic of part only b. Characteristic of part and connection c. Characteristic of connection only d. Characteristic of part, connection, and whole e. Characteristic of connection and whole f. Characteristic of part and whole g. Characteristic of whole only

Figure 6.8

Differing characteristics among system views.

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Composition

O 147

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S external model Sext p2

S

p6

r3 r1

S internal model Sint p2

S1

r4

S1ext

N1 p4 N1ext

r6

p2

Figure 6.9

S2ext

r7 r5

r3

N3ext N3

p6 S3ext S3

r3

p7

N2 N2ext p6

S2

N4ext N4 p5

Example of basic whole–part relations.

S4

r1 S4ext r1

148 O Table 6.1

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Basic Whole–Part Relations

Relation Decomposition

Encapsulation Composition Componentization Inclusion

Delegation (char C(d,e)) Delegation (char C(b,d)) Delegation (char C(d,f)) Propagation (char C(d,e)) Propagation (char C(b,d))

Propagation (char C(d,f))

Non-delegation (char C(f,g)) Non-delegation (char C(c,e))

Non-delegation (char C(g,e))

Description Using Entities in Figure 6.9 Sint is a decomposition of Sext. In engineering, decomposition is the traditional design problem, i.e., Sint represents a design or architecture of a system. Sext is an encapsulation of Sint (conjugate of decomposition). Sint is a composition of {S1,S2,S3,S4,N1,N2,N3,N4} {S1,S2,S3,S4,N1,N2,N3,N4} is a componentization of Sint (conjugate of composition). Internal model of S (Sint) includes external model of each part (S1ext, S2ext, S3ext, S4ext, N1ext, N2ext, N3ext, N4ext); view of a whole as connection among parts includes view of each part as a whole; clear-box view of whole includes black-box view of each part. Sext delegates characteristics (properties, behaviors, functions, services) to Sint. Refers to an external characteristic of the whole (Sext) that is or becomes a characteristic of the connection among the parts (Sint). Sint delegates characteristics to {S1,S2,S3,S4,N1,N2,N3,N4}. Refers to a characteristic of the connection among the parts that is or becomes a characteristic of one or more parts. Sext delegates characteristics to {S1,S2,S3,S4,N1,N2,N3,N4}. Refers to an external characteristic of the whole that is or becomes a characteristic of one or more parts. Sint propagates characteristics to Sext. Refers to a characteristic of the connection among the parts that is or becomes a characteristic of the whole. {S1,S2,S3,S4,N1,N2,N3,N4} propagates characteristics to Sint. Refers to a characteristic of one or more parts that is or becomes a characteristic of the connection among the parts. A model in which all characteristics of Sint are propagated in this way, and are dependent on the parts, is sometimes called reductionism. {S1,S2,S3,S4,N1,N2,N3,N4} propagates characteristics to Sext. Refers to a characteristic of one or more parts that is or becomes a characteristic of the whole. A model in which all characteristics of the whole are propagated in this way, and are dependent on the parts, is sometimes called reductionism. Sext does not delegate to Sint. Refers to a characteristic of the whole that is not a characteristic of connection among parts. We call this a systemic characteristic. Sint does not delegate to {S1,S2,S3,S4,N1,N2,N3,N4}. Refers to a characteristic of connection among parts that is not a characteristic of parts. We call this a composite characteristic. If there is a dependence on parts, this relation corresponds to what is sometimes called a form of emergence. Sext does not delegate to {S1,S2,S3,S4,N1,N2,N3,N4}. Refers to a characteristic of the whole that is not a characteristic of parts. We call this a systemic characteristic. If there is a dependence on parts, this relation corresponds to what is sometimes called a form of emergence.

Composition Table 6.1

O 149

Basic Whole–Part Relations (Continued)

Relation Non-propagation (char C(b,c)) Non-propagation (char C(a,f)) Non-propagation (char C(a,b)) Trace

Description Using Entities in Figure 6.9 Sint does not propagate to Sext. Refers to a characteristic of connection among parts that is not a characteristic of the whole. {S1,S2,S3,S4,N1,N2,N3,N4} does not propagate to Sint. Refers to a characteristic of parts that is not a characteristic of connection among parts. {S1,S2,S3,S4,N1,N2,N3,N4} does not propagate to Sext. Refers to a characteristic of parts that is not a characteristic of the whole. Trace or mapping between characteristics of Sext and Sint, or Sint and {S1,S2,S3,S4,N1,N2,N3,N4}, or Sext and {S1,S2,S3,S4,N1,N2,N3,N4}.

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

Propagate (internal to external) or delegate (external to internal)

S external model p2 p6

r3 S

r1

S internal model p2

p2

p6

S1

r4

N1

p4

S2

r6

p7

N2

N3

p6

r7

S3

r5

N4

p5

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r3 r3

r1

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Figure 6.10 Conjugate propagation and delegation relations. (Source: Hybertson, D. Using a speciﬁcation approach to facilitate component testing. In Testing Commercial-off-the-Shelf Components and Systems, S. Beydeda and V. Gruhn, Eds. New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 213– 237, 2005. Used with permission of Springer Science + Business Media.)

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S2

S3

S11

S12

S21

S22

S31

S32

S13

SE1

S23

SE2

S33

SE3

External model of S

SE

SI 1

SI 2

(context-general)

SI 3

SI11

SI12

SI21

SI22

SI31

SI32

SI13

SI14

SI23

SI24

SI33

SI34

Implementation space

Figure 6.11

Example of extended whole–part relations.

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Table 6.2 Extended Whole–Part Relations Relation

Description Using Entities in Figure 6.11

The following relations can exist in both contained composition models and shared composition models: Alternative Alternative

Alternative Consecutive

One whole to many alternative potential sets of parts: S could be decomposed into many alternative relations on parts — such as SI1, SI2, or SI3. One whole to many alternative “actual” sets of parts: S could be decomposed into many alternative views, where each view has different components; e.g., SI1 might be a functional view, SI2 a physical deployment view, SI3 a data view. One part to many alternative potential wholes: S could be a part of many alternative systems, such as S1, S2, or S3. One part to many wholes consecutively at different times, i.e., subject to the contained model constraint (but not the shared model constraint) that a part can only exist in one whole at a given point in time: S could consecutively be a part of multiple systems — ﬁrst S1, then S2, then S3.

These relations can exist only in shared composition models: Simultaneous One part to many wholes simultaneously. Simultaneous Network of many wholes to many parts.

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S S1

S2

S3

S4

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Figure 6.12

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At each level, whole = external model, connection among parts = internal model, part whole at next level down; = external model so the repeating pattern is an intertwining of external-internal-external-internal... S4 S41

S42

S43

S44

S4 S44 S441

S442

S443

S444

S44

Repeating whole–part contained composition structure.

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Figure 6.13

Views of extended relations in multilevel compositions.

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Extreme Encapsulation: Boxology ThF EJTDVTTJPO JO UIJT TFDUJPO BTTVNFT PQFO TZTUFNT *U JT BMTP CBTFE QSJNBSJMZ PO B DPOUBJOFE DPNQPTJUJPONPEFM8FEFTDSJCFFYUSFNFFODBQTVMBUJPOJOUFSNTPGCPYFTJOTUFBEPGTZTUFNT UP FNQIBTJ[FUIBUUIFDPODFQUTBSFWFSZHFOFSBM*UBMTPTVNNBSJ[FTNBOZPGUIFQPJOUTUIBUIBWFCFFO NBEFJOUIJTDIBQUFS*OUIFEJTDVTTJPOUIBUGPMMPXT CPYNFBOTXIBUJTPGUFODBMMFECMBDLCPYThBU JT BCPYUIBUIJEFTXIBUJTJOTJEFJU O #PY TPNFUIJOH PG JOUFSFTU BT B XIPMF DPOUBJOT B TFU PG JOUFSBDUJOH QBSUT IBT B deﬁned CPVOEBSZUIBUTFQBSBUFTXIBUJTJOTJEFGSPNXIBUJTPVUTJEFIJEFTCPUIJOTJEFBOEPVUTJEF GSPNFBDIPUIFSBOEIBTQPJOUTJOUIFCPVOEBSZ DBMMFECPVOEBSZQPJOUT UIBUDBOCFJOUFS QSFUFEBTQPSUTPSBDDFTTQPJOUTPSJOUFSGBDFQPJOUT4tuﬀ DBOHPUISPVHIUIFCPVOEBSZBU UIFCPVOEBSZQPJOUT FJUIFSGSPNPVUTJEFJOPSGSPNJOTJEFPVU O ThF QBSUTPGBCPYBSFUIFNTFMWFTCPYFTBOEDPOOFDUPSTUISPVHIXIJDIUIFZJOUFSBDUWJB UIFJSFYQPTFECPVOEBSZQPJOUT O " CPY FYIJCJUT DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT XIJDI BSF TFQBSBUFE CZ JUT CPVOEBSZ JOUP FYUFSOBM BOE JOUFSOBMDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT N ThF FYUFSOBM CMBDLCPY DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGBCPYBSFFYUFSOBMMZWJTJCMFBUJUTFYQPTFE CPVOEBSZQPJOUT N Th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hFSFMBUJPOCFUXFFOUIFUXPBOJOUFSOBMNPEFMPGBCPYJODMVEFTUIFFYUFSOBMNPEFMT PGJUTQBSUT N 0UIFSSFMBUJPOTCFUXFFOJOUFSOBMBOEFYUFSOBMNPEFMTFYJTU BTEFTDSJCFEJOUIJTDIBQ UFSJOUIFTFDUJPOFOUJUMFEi3FMBUJPOT#FUXFFO8IPMFTBOE1BSUT wCVUUIPTFBSFMFTT SFMBUFEUPFODBQTVMBUJPO

ThFFYQPTFECPVOEBSZQPJOUT PSQPSUT PGBTZTUFNBSFJONBOZDBTFTBMTPQBSUTPGUIFTZTUFN FH BDPOUSPM LOPCPOBOBQQMJBODF PSUIFTUFFSJOHXIFFMJOBDBS 8IFOXFEJTDVTTFYUSFNFFODBQTVMBUJPOPGTVDIBTZTUFN XFNFBOJUIJEFTBMMJOUFSOBMQBSUT OPUQPSUT1PSUTBSF CZEFﬁOJUJPO OPU GVMMZ FODBQTVMBUFE

Composition

O 157

O #PYFTBSFOFTUFEBCPYDPOUBJOTBMMCPYFTCFMPXJU.PEFMTPGCPYFTBSFOPUOFTUFEBNPEFM JTPOMZPOFMFWFMEFFQ O "CPYJTBWFSZHFOFSBMDPODFQUUIBUDBOCFJOUFSQSFUFEBTBOBUVSBMPSBSUJﬁDJBMTZTUFN B USBEJUJPOBMPSDPNQMFYTZTUFN BDPNQPOFOU BQFSTPO BOPSHBOJ[BUJPOPSFOUFSQSJTF BHSPVQ PGQFSTPOT BDPMMFDUJPOPGBOZPGUIFGPSFHPJOHBOEBOZDPNQPTJUJPOMFWFM GSPNOBOPUP NBDSP

Partial or No Encapsulation 8IBUDIBOHFTJGBTZTUFNJTOPUFODBQTVMBUFE UIBUJT UIFTZTUFNCPVOEBSZJTUSBOTQBSFOUBOE DPNQMFUFMZ QFSNFBCMF 8F DPVME NPEFM UIJT TJUVBUJPO JO BU MFBTU UXP XBZT 0OF NPEFM JT UIBU UIFXIPMF UIFCPVOEBSZ 4FYUEPFTOPUFYJTU FYDFQUQFSIBQTJOTPNFWJSUVBMPSMPHJDBMTFOTFTh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hJTMBUUFSFYBNQMF JTBOBMPHPVTUPPUIFSUZQFTPGTZTUFNT TVDIBTJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFNTThFZNBZIBWFTPNFQBSUT XIPTFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTQSPQFSUJFT TFSWJDFT CFIBWJPSTBSFPQFOUPVTF BOEPUIFSQBSUTXIPTF DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBSFFODBQTVMBUFEBOENVTUCFBDDFTTFEPOMZUISPVHIUIFTZTUFNCPVOEBSZ $POTJEFSBOPUIFSFYBNQMFUIF*OUFSOFUBOEUIFSFMBUFETUSVDUVSFPG3&45CBTFE8FCTFSWJDFT ThFTFBSFIVHFJOUFSDPOOFDUFEHSPVQTPGFOUJUJFTBOEMJOLTXJUIBEFFQOFTUFEPSDIBJOFETUSVDUVSF )JODIDMJﬀF DMBJNT UIBU UIFTF TUSVDUVSFT WJPMBUF FODBQTVMBUJPO BOE DBMM JOUP RVFTUJPO UIF FTUBCMJTIFEQSJODJQMFTPGFODBQTVMBUJPOBOEJOGPSNBUJPOIJEJOHThF.04&4JOUFSQSFUBUJPOPGUIFTF TUSVDUVSFTJTBTGPMMPXT*GXFBTTVNFBDPOUBJOFEDPNQPTJUJPONPEFM UIFOUIFTUSVDUVSFTMPPLBT JGUIFZCSFBLFODBQTVMBUJPOBOETIBSFUIFJSJOOFSTFDSFUTXJUIUIFXPSME#VUJGXFBTTVNFBTIBSFE DPNQPTJUJPONPEFM UIFOJUBQQFBSTUIBUNPEVMBSJUZBOEFODBQTVMBUJPOBSFTUJMMBMJWFBOEXFMM&BDI MJOLPS8FCTJUFJTFODBQTVMBUFECVUJUDBOCFTIBSFEJOUIFDPOUFYUPGNVMUJQMFMJOLDIBJOT

Composition-Related Processes Processes 1SJNBSZDPNQPTJUJPOSFMBUFEQSPDFTTFTJODMVEFDPNQPTF FODBQTVMBUF EFDPNQPTF DPNQPOFOUJ[F SFTUSVDUVSF BEE SFNPWF BOESFQMBDFThFTFJOWPMWFPUIFSTVCTJEJBSZQSPDFTTFTNBUDI ﬁU NVUBUF BOEJOUFHSBUFThFﬁSTUGPVSQSJNBSZQSPDFTTFTEFSJWFEJSFDUMZGSPNUIFSFMBUJPOTJEFOUJﬁFEJOUIF TFDUJPOFOUJUMFEi3FMBUJPOT#FUXFFO8IPMFTBOE1BSUTwThFMBUUFSGPVSQSJNBSZQSPDFTTFTBSFDPO DFSOFEXJUIQBSUT"EEJOH SFNPWJOH BOESFQMBDJOHBQBSUBSFJOUVJUJWFQSPDFTTFT3FTUSVDUVSJOH JOWPMWFTDIBOHJOHUIFJOUFSBDUJPOQBUUFSOPGXIBUQBSUTJOUFSBDUXJUIPUIFSQBSUT

158 O

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Agents "OBEEJUJPOBMFMFNFOUPGUIFDPNQPTJUJPOQSPDFTTJTUIFDPODFQUPGBHFOU"DPNQPTJUJPOBHFOUJT BOFOUJUZPSDPOEJUJPOUIBUJTJOTUSVNFOUBMJOCSJOHJOHBCPVUBDPNQPTJUJPO4PNFDPNQPTJUJPOT

Composition

O 159

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Examples of Direct Agent Composition *ODIFNJTUSZ DBUBMZTUTBOEJOJUJBUPSTBSFPGUFOVTFEBTBHFOUTJONBOZDPNQPTJUJPOT"OJOJUJBUPS IFMQTTUBSUBDPNQPTJUJPOBOEBDBUBMZTUJODSFBTFTJUTSBUF"UFNQFSBUVSFSBOHFNBZJOEVDFBDIFNJ DBMDPNQPTJUJPO"HFOUTJOFOHJOFFSJOHJODMVEFBSDIJUFDUT EFTJHOFST BOECVJMEFSTXIPEFTJHOBOE DPNQPTFBWBSJFUZPGTZTUFNT0UIFSBHFOUTJODMVEFGBDUPSZXPSLFSTXIPQSPEVDFQSPEVDUTSPCPUT UIBUQSPEVDFQSPEVDUTBOETPGUXBSFUIBUBTTJTUTJOQSPEVDJOH PSBVUPNBUJDBMMZQSPEVDFT BEFTJHO PSQSPEVDFTPUIFSTPGUXBSF.PTUPSBMMPGUIFTFBHFOUTDBOCFDIBSBDUFSJ[FEBTBMMPQPJFUJDTZTUFNT PSTZTUFNTPGPOFUZQFUIBUQSoduce a system of a diﬀerFOUUZQF

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160

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

S: Hybrid system M1

Figure 6.14

A1

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Autonomous agent (e.g., human)

Mixed composition of hybrid systems.

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Composition

O 161

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Chapter 7

Commonization

Highest level system

Indivisible Unit

Model of Individual system or component

Universal model

Common speciﬁcation approach: Repeating internal/external structure

Solution domain

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Deﬁne need

Composition

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Satisfy need

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Categorization Hierarchy Biological category Instance-of

Kingdom

Species

Class

Plant Animal {…Lassie, …} {all animals}

Bird Mammal Fish

Homo sapiens Dog Horse

{…Lassie, …} {all mammals}

{…Lassie, …} {all dogs}

Generalization Hierarchy Living thing Kind-of Animal Fungus

Plant Bird

Mammal

Homo sapiens

Kingdom Class Species Breed

Figure 7.2

Horse

Combined Hierarchies

Kind-of

Instance-of

Dog

Fish

Animal

Lassie

Mammal

Lassie

Dog

Lassie

Collie

Lassie

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Table 7.1 Dog Roles and Relations in Two Domains Dog Role/Relation 1 Category 2 Instance 3 Generalization 4 Specialization 5 Instance 6 Instance 7 Instance 8 Instance

In Context of Lassie of Species of Collie of Mammal of Category of Instance of Generalization of Specialization

Domain Biological taxonomy Biological taxonomy Biological taxonomy Biological taxonomy Modeling domain Modeling domain Modeling domain Modeling domain

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Figure 7.3 Ontological metamodeling view. (Source: Atkinson, C. and T. Kühne. Model-driven development: a metamodeling foundation. IEEE Software, 20(5):36–41. Published by IEEE Computer Society, 2003. Used with permission.)

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Intension and Extension The terms “intension” and “extension,” as terms of logic, are encountered in some of the disciplines supporting SE. This sidebar brieﬂy describes these concepts and how they relate to SE and MOSES. Intension and extension are two different ways of deﬁning a term. An intensional deﬁnition deﬁnes one or more properties. Those properties may apply to any number of individuals, from zero to many. An extensional deﬁnition deﬁnes a set of individual things by enumerating the individuals. Either of the two deﬁnitions can exist without the other. When both deﬁnitions exist for a term, then the extension (or the extensional deﬁnition) is the set of individuals whose properties match those of the intensional deﬁnition. A few examples will illustrate the difference. We will deﬁne a function, a model, and two speciﬁc concepts: the morning star and the evening star. 1. Function: intensional deﬁnition: y f(x) x2 in the domain of positive integers. Extensional deﬁnition: (x,y) {(1,1), (2,4), (3,9), z}. 2. Model: intensional deﬁnition: for stimulus T, response is R; response time a 2 sec; extensional deﬁnition: {S1, S2, S3, S4} (assuming S1, z, S4 are all systems that satisfy the model and no other systems satisfy it). 3. Morning star: intensional deﬁnition: bright star seen in the morning; extensional deﬁnition: {Venus} 4. Evening star: intensional deﬁnition: bright star seen in the evening; extensional deﬁnition: {Venus}

Commonization Often, one set of properties (intensional deﬁnition) corresponds to multiple individual things (extensional deﬁnition), as in the ﬁrst two examples given. On the other hand, many times a given individual thing corresponds to multiple intensional deﬁnitions. In examples 3 and 4, Venus is both the morning star and the evening star, although these terms have different intensional meanings. Taken together, these examples illustrate that the relation between intensional deﬁnitions and individual things is many-to-many. How do these concepts relate to SE? In MOSES and SE in general, models typically have multiple corresponding systems. In some cases, a model is deﬁned to correspond to one system only — for example, a biometric model intended to uniquely identify one individual human. In other situations, one system satisﬁes multiple models. One such situation is where a set of models describes the same system, for example, a requirements model of system S1, an architecture description of S1, and a design model of S1. A second situation is when a given system plays different roles in different environments, for example, a system has multiple features, and different environments use different features. Another example of the second situation is when a systems engineer plays multiple roles on a project such as team leader and chief designer. Team leader and chief designer are two different categories, two different intensions, but the extension is the same for both. More generally, in MOSES, the relation between intension and extension is the same as the relation between category and instance. This has implications: O

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Intensional and extensional deﬁnitions are at different levels of the categorization hierarchy. Intension deﬁnes the properties of a category of things, and extension enumerates the instances of that category — which is one level down. Intensional deﬁnition deﬁnes a model, and extensional deﬁnition deﬁnes the region of the model. Both provide pieces of information that the other does not provide. An extensional deﬁnition of a model provides information on what systems are in the region but it does not provide explicit information on the system characteristics of the model. An intensional deﬁnition of a model is the opposite; it provides information on the system characteristics of the model but not what systems are in the region.

Another distinction of the intension–extension duality is time invariance versus time variance. Let’s use the notation RI(W) to mean an intensional deﬁnition of a region in deﬁned world W, and RE(W) to mean the analogous extensional deﬁnition. Now consider this example: the employee database of ACME company is a region R that results from the model “is employee” applied to the deﬁned world W “ACME company.” Then RI(W) {S|S ACME employee}. This is abstract with respect to time; that is, it does not specify a point in time or a time period, and it does not change over time. RE(W), on the other hand, is the set of ACME employees as recorded in the employee database at any point in time, and it changes as employees are hired by or leave ACME. The concept of an employee database (RI(W)), which is stable, and the current set of employees (RE(W)) in that database, which changes, are both useful. And the relation between the two is equally

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science important. If all we see is a list of names, we do not know what it represents. If someone tells us that “This is the list of current ACME employees,” then we know what the list means. This approach of abstracting time is a very common use of the intension – extension distinction. Intension is the dominant way models are deﬁned in MOSES. One goal is to encourage deﬁning a set of characteristics and constraints on them; for example, give characteristics of a platform instead of simply saying “Windows XP.” Many things are deﬁned extensionally in TSE (platforms, connectors, components, etc.); this is one reason the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) changed its acquisition approach from deﬁning “requirements” to deﬁning “capabilities”: DoD customers (i.e., DoD managers and organizations that were requesting solutions) were deﬁning requirements extensionally, in terms of “I need System S” or “I need Product P” instead of intensionally, such as “I need a system that performs these functions and has these propertiesz” In addition, intensionally deﬁned models signiﬁcantly help deﬁne a body of knowledge, as opposed to a collection of individual systems. General models are essential to deﬁning and using knowledge. An appropriate combination of general intensional models that deﬁne the properties and rules, and speciﬁc extensional regions that serve as examples, is a good basis of knowledge.

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Figure 7.7 Leverage metric. (Source: Hybertson, D. A uniform component modeling space. Informatica, 25(4):475–482. Published by Slovenian Society Informatika, 2001. Used with permission.)

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Table 7.2 Vincenti’s Engineering Knowledge Categories Category 1.

Fundamental design concepts (standard models or design patterns)

Contents – Operational principle: how the system/component works; – Normal conﬁguration of the system or component: general shape and arrangement, characteristic parts, general design of the system or component

2. Criteria and speciﬁcations (system properties)

– Salient properties of the system or component; – Speciﬁed values for those properties – Applicable generally (e.g., regulated limits)

3. Theoretical tools (for design analysis)

– Mathematical tools, no physical content; – Mathematical tools, based on scientiﬁc theory; – Mathematical tools, based on engineering theory; – Mathematical tools, based on assumptions; – Intellectual concepts (variety)

4.

Data to input to the mathematical analysis tools: – Empirical data (applicable generally) – Theoretical data

Quantitative data (measurement and experimentation)

5. Practical considerations

Rules of thumb based on experience or convention

6. Design instrumentalities

Process of design

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Organization management BoK SWEBoK

SE BoK EABoK QMBoK

Computer science, discrete math, linguistics

PMBoK

CSBoK TSEBoK Physics, analytical math

Organizational theory, industrial engineering, operations research, economics, sociology, psychology, political science...

Complexity theory, chaos theory, dynamical systems, nonlinear systems, quantum theory, biology... Systems science; math, probability, statistics; modeling

Key: BoK = Body of Knowledge; CS = Complex Systems; EA = Enterprise Architecture; PM = Project Management; QM = Quality Management; SWE = Software Engineering; TSE = Traditional Systems Engineering

Figure 7.8

Contributing elements to SE BoK.

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Chapter 8

Conceptualization Coauthored by Leo Obrst

Highest level system

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Solution domain

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Figure 8.1

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

1 Describe

Model space

2 Instruct

Problem space

Execution space

3 Interact 1. Describe: Model space entities describe problem space entities and behavior 2. Instruct: Models are interpreted by execution space entities as instructions and data 3. Interact: Problem space entities interact with execution space entities – Interaction is governed by models and problem space data – Entities operate within their own universe of discourse: problem vs. computer

Figure 8.2

Semantic range: architecture of software engineering.

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Conceptualization

O

195

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Ontology Efforts and Tools "TJHOJﬁDBOUCPEZPGXPSLJTCFJOHEPOFJOUIFFOHJOFFSJOHBOEGPSNBMJ[BUJPOPGPOUPMPHJFTThF PSJHJOTPGUIJTXPSLHPCBDLBUMFBTUTFWFSBMEFDBEFTThFBQQMJDBUJPOPGGPSNBMMPHJDUPMBOHVBHFT BOETFNBOUJDTIBTCFFOBTJHOJﬁDBOUFMFNFOUPGUIJTHFOFBMPHZ"OFYBNQMFJT$BSOBQ ThF

196

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Conceptualization

O

197

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Domain Ontologies ThFSF BSF GFXFS NJEMFWFM POUPMPHJFT UIBO VQQFS MFWFM CVU UIFSF BSF B HSFBU OVNCFS PG EPNBJO POUPMPHJFT0OFBSFBUIBUIBTQVSTVFEPOUPMPHJFTWJHPSPVTMZJTCJPNFEJDJOF"XIPMFDBUBMPHPG PQFOCJPNFEJDBMPOUPMPHJFT 0#0 JTCFJOHNBJOUBJOFEBUUIF0#0GPVOESZ 0#0 ThF FWPMWJOHPOUPMPHJFTUIBUBSFGPVOESZDBOEJEBUFTBSFDBUFHPSJ[FEJOUPEPNBJOTUIBUJODMVEFBOBU PNZ CJPDIFNJTUSZ CJPMPHJDBMGVODUJPO FOWJSPONFOU IFBMUI QIFOPUZQF QSPUFJOT BOEUBYPOPNZ ThF0#0BOEUIFGPVOESZBSFEFTDSJCFEJO4NJUIFUBM 0OFFMFNFOUPGUIF0#0TFUPGPOUPMPHJFTQSPWJEFTBHPPEJMMVTUSBUJPOPGBDPODFQUUIBUJOUF HSBUFT.04&4JEFBTJODPNQPTJUJPO DPNNPOJ[BUJPO BOEDPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOThFJOUFHSBUJOHDPO DFQUJTUIFVTFPGPOUPMPHZUPTIPXUIFTJNJMBSJUJFTBOEEJﬀFSFODFTPGDFSUBJODIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBDSPTT EJﬀFSFOUDPNQPTJUJPOMFWFMTThF0#0FMFNFOUJTUIFCJPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTPOUPMPHZ TQFDJﬁDBMMZUIF EFWFMPQNFOUOPEFQBSUPGUIJTPOUPMPHZUIFJMMVTUSBUJPOJTUIFTUSVDUVSFGPSEFWFMPQNFOUUFSNT JOWPMWJOHGPVSDPNQPTJUJPOMFWFMTDFMMT UJTTVFT PSHBOT BOEPSHBOJTNT)FSFBSFUIFTUSVDUVSFBOE UFSNTBTTIPXOJO (0

XIFSFNFBOTQBSUPGUIFPWFSBMMQSPDFTTBOE<J>NFBOTiJTBwPS TQFDJBMJ[BUJPOPGUIFPWFSBMMQSPDFTT ThJT JT UIF TUSVDUVSF GPS EFWFMPQNFOU UFSNT JOWPMWJOH UJTTVFT PSHBOT BOE PSHBOJTNT <9> NFBOTUJTTVF PSHBO PSPSHBOJTN<:>NFBOTDFMM [X] development [p] [X] morphogenesis ---[p] [X] formation ------[p] [Y] cell differentiation ---[p] [X] structural organization [p] [X] maturation

ThJTJTUIFTUSVDUVSFGPSEFWFMPQNFOUUFSNTJOWPMWJOHDFMMT cellular process [i] cell differentiation ---[p] cell fate commitment ------[p] cell fate specification ------[p] cell fate determination

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---[p] cell development ------[p] cellular morphogenesis during differentiation ------[p] cell maturation

ThFUIJOHUPOPUJDFBCPVUUIJTFYBNQMFJTUIBUUISFFMFWFMTPGDPNQPTJUJPOBSFTFMGTJNJMBSXJUISFHBSE UPEFWFMPQNFOU BOEUIFGPVSUIMFWFMJTEJﬀFSFOUThFEFWFMPQNFOUPGUJTTVFT PSHBOT BOEPSHBOJTNT BMMDPOTJTUPGNPSQIPHFOFTJT GPSNBUJPO FUD XIJMFDFMMEFWFMPQNFOUGPMMPXTBEJﬀFSFOUQSPDFTT "UBCSPBEFSMFWFM UIFTJNJMBSJUJFTBOEEJﬀFSFODFTFYQSFTTFEJOUIJTFYBNQMFJMMVTUSBUFBQSJO DJQMFPG.04&4NPEFMJOHBOEFOHJOFFSJOHTIPVMEBMMPXTZTUFNTJNJMBSJUJFTBOEEJﬀFSFODFTUP BTTVNFUIFJSOBUVSBMQMBDFJONPEFMT5PPPGUFOXFFJUIFSUSZUPGPSDFFWFSZTZTUFNUPCFEJﬀFSFOU PSGPSDFBMMTZTUFNTUPCFUIFTBNFThF0#0EFWFMPQNFOUFYBNQMFJTDPOTJTUFOUXJUIUIF.04&4 QSJODJQMFJUDBQUVSFEUIFTJNJMBSJUJFTBUUIFUJTTVF PSHBO BOEPSHBOJTNMFWFM CVUBMMPXFEUIFDFMM UP CF EJﬀFSFOU BOE DBQUVSFE UIF EJﬀFSFOU DFMM EFWFMPQNFOU QSPDFTT ThJT QSJODJQMF BQQMJFT OPU POMZUPDPNQPTJUJPOMFWFMT BTJOUIJTFYBNQMF CVUUPBMMUZQFTPGTJNJMBSJUJFTBOEEJﬀFSFODFT BT EJTDVTTFEJO$IBQUFS "OPUIFSFYBNQMFPGBEPNBJOPOUPMPHZPGJOUFSFTUUP4&JT(6.0(FOFSBM6TFS.PEFM 0OUPMPHZ )FDLNBOOFUBM *UJTBUBYPOPNZPGVTFSEJNFOTJPOT BOEFBDIEJNFOTJPOJTB DBUFHPSZUIBUIBTBOVNCFSPGJEFOUJﬁFEFMFNFOUT"GFXFOUSJFTGSPNUIFPOUPMPHZBSF O #BTJD6TFS%JNFOTJPOTDPOUBDUJOGPSNBUJPO EFNPHSBQIJDT BCJMJUZBOEQSPﬁDJFODZ QFS TPOBMJUZ FNPUJPOBMTUBUF FUD O $IBSBDUFSJTUJDTUBMLBUJWF BTTFSUJWF EPNJOBOU RVJFU SFTFSWFE TIZ FUD O 1FSTPOBMJUZFYUSBWFSU JOUSPWFSU UIJOLJOH GFFMJOH FUD 8FJODMVEFUIJTNPEFMGPSTFWFSBMSFBTPOT0OFJTUPTIPXFﬀPSUTUPCSJOHIVNBOTNPSFGVMMZ JOUPUIF4&BSFOBBOEEFﬁOFNPSFDPNQMFUFNPEFMTPGUIFN BTQBSUPGUIFFYQBOTJPOUP$4"TFD POESFBTPOJTUPTIPXBOFYBNQMFPGBOPOUPMPHZJOUIFFYQBOEFE4&ThF(6.0NPEFMFYUFOET CFZPOEUSBEJUJPOBMNPEFMTPGIVNBOTBTVTFST. ThJTNPEFMJTEJTDVTTFEGVSUIFSJO$IBQUFS

Bridging and Mapping Ontologies "O BSFB JNQPSUBOU UP 4& JT UIF XPSL UIBU BEESFTTFT NVMUJQMF EPNBJOT BOE POUPMPHJFT CSJEH JOH JOUFHSBUJOH NBQQJOH NFSHJOH BOE DPNQPTJOH 8F CSJFﬂZ EJTDVTT B GFX FYBNQMFT ThF 0OUP.BQQSPKFDU ,JSZBLPW 4JNPW BOE%JNJUSPW JTBOFﬀPSUUPQSPWJEFBHFOFSBMVQQFS MFWFMPOUPMPHZUIBUTFSWFTBTBDPNNPOMPDVTGPSNBQQJOHPOUPMPHJFT QSJNBSJMZVQQFSMFWFM UP JU BOEUIFSFCZUPFBDIPUIFS*UVTFTUIFHFOFSBMSFMBUJPOTXJUIJOJUTPOUPMPHZ QMVTBGFXDSPTT POUPMPHZSFMBUJPOT UPEFﬁOFFBDINBQQJOH*GUIFPOUPMPHJFTBSFGPSNBMMZEFﬁOFE UIJTQSPDFTT TIPVMECFBVUPNBUBCMF ThF $304* QSPKFDU $BQUVSJOH 3FQSFTFOUJOH BOE 0QFSBUJPOBMJTJOH 4FNBOUJD *OUFHSBUJPO ,BMGPHMPVFUBM JOWFTUJHBUFETFNBOUJDJOUFHSBUJPOUFDIOPMPHJFT JODMVEJOHBOFYUFOTJWFTVSWFZ PGFYJTUJOHUFDIOPMPHJFT GPSUIFQVSQPTFPGPOUPMPHZNBQQJOHThFZBMTPEFWFMPQFEBQSPUPUZQFPOUPM PHZNBQQJOHTZTUFN UIF$304*.BQQJOH4ZTUFN $.4

UIBUEFNPOTUSBUFTNBQQJOHUFDIOJRVFT 8PSLPODPNQPTJOHPOUPMPHJFTIBTCFFOEPOFCZ,BVTIJL 8JKFTFLFSB BOE"NNBOO ThFJSXPSLJTJOUIFDPOUFYUPGB4FNBOUJD8FCCBTFEFOWJSPONFOUJOXIJDINVMUJQMFPOUPMPHJFT BSFQSPQPTFECZEJTUSJCVUFEDPMMBCPSBUJWFDPNNVOJUJFTThFZIBWFEFﬁOFEBUZQFTZTUFNGPSUIF 3%' BOEBOBMHFCSBGPSDPNQPTJOHPOUPMPHJFTCBTFEPOTUSVDUVSBMDPNQBSJTPOTThFZIBWFBMTP DPNQBSFEUIFJSBQQSPBDIXJUIFYJTUJOHBQQSPBDIFT

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.PSFOBSSPXMZGPDVTFEMBOHVBHFNBQQJOHXPSLIBTCFFOEPOFCZ.BUVMFWJƦJVT )FZNBOT BOE0QEBIM ThFJSTDPQFJTHPBMPSJFOUFEMBOHVBHFT UIFJSJOUFSPQFSBCJMJUZXJUIFBDIPUIFS BOEXJUIPUIFSNPEFMJOHMBOHVBHFTThFBQQSPBDIJTUPNBQMBOHVBHFTPOUPUIFTBNFPOUPMPHZ XIJDIJTCBTFEPOUIF#VOHF8BOE8FCFS #88 SFQSFTFOUBUJPONPEFM 8BOEBOE8FCFS BOE ThFZJMMVTUSBUFJUVTJOHBHPBMPSJFOUFEMBOHVBHFDBMMFE,"04ThFZBSFBMTPBQQMZJOH UIFNFUIPEUPEFWFMPQBOFXWFSTJPOPGUIF6OJﬁFE&OUFSQSJTF.PEFMMJOH-BOHVBHF 6&.-

Storytelling 4UPSZUFMMJOHXBTNFOUJPOFEJO$IBQUFSTBOEBTBNFBOTPGDPNNVOJDBUJOHUIBUJTJODSFBTJOHMZ CFJOHVTFEJO4&"QSFMJNJOBSZPOUPMPHZNPEFMPGTUPSZUFMMJOHIBTCFFOEFﬁOFE /BLBTPOFBOE *TIJ[VLB ThFHPBMJTUPHFOFSBMJ[FNPEFMJOHPGTUPSZUFMMJOHUPBCSPBEFSMFWFM*UJTCBTFEPO SFMBUJPOTGSPNUIF3IFUPSJDBM4USVDUVSFThFPSZThFTUPSZUFMMJOHDMBTTFTJOUIFNPEFMJODMVEFDPO DFQU FWFOU SFMBUJPO BDU TDFOF BHFOU BOESPMF. ThF.PEFMEFﬁOFTSFMBUJPOTBNPOHUIFTFDMBTTFT

Automation .BOZPGUIFQSPKFDUTMJTUFEBCPWFIBWFEFWFMPQFEUPPMTUIBUNPWFUPXBSEBVUPNBUJOHUIFWBSJ PVTQSPDFTTFT3FDBMMUIBUBVUPNBUJPOJTPOFPGUIFLFZFMFNFOUTPG4&BTFOWJTJPOFECZ.04&4 .PEFMPSJFOUBUJPOGPTUFSTUIFBVUPNBUJPOPGFOHJOFFSJOHTZTUFNTThFXPSLUPNBLFPOUPMPHJFT FYQMJDJUBOEGPSNBM XJUIUIFHPBMPGBVUPNBUJOHUIFBOBMZTJTBOEVTFPGPOUPMPHJFT GPTUFSTUIF SFDPODJMJBUJPOBOEJOUFHSBUJPOPGNVMUJQMFPOUPMPHJFTGSPNEJTQBSBUFEPNBJOTThBUJTBLFZFOBCMFS PGUIF4&PGUIFGVUVSF

Spectrum of Semantics and Ontologies Used in SE Models 'SPNUIFWJFXQPJOUPGTFNBOUJDTBOEPOUPMPHJFT BWBSJFUZPGNFUIPETBOEBQQSPBDIFTIBWFCFFO EFWFMPQFEPWFSUIFQBTUGFXEFDBEFTJOUIFEBUBCBTF TPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOH BOELOPXMFEHFSFQ SFTFOUBUJPODPNNVOJUJFT NBOZPGXIJDIXFSFOPUFEBCPWFThFSFBSFEFCBUFTDPODFSOJOHXIJDI PGUIFTFNFUIPETNBZQSPQFSMZCFDBMMFEPOUPMPHJFT4FWFSBMEJﬀFSFOUBVUIPSTIBWFJOEFQFOEFOUMZ EFﬁOFEBOPOUPMPHZTQFDUSVNPSTFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNUIBUSFﬂFDUTBSBOHFPGPOUPMPHZSFMBUFEDIBS BDUFSJTUJDT&BDIBVUIPSVTFETMJHIUMZEJﬀFSFOUUFSNTUPDIBSBDUFSJ[FUIFSBOHF O %BDPOUB 0CSTU BOE 4NJUI EFﬁOF B SBOHF GSPN MFTT UP NPSF FYQSFTTJWF XIFSF UIFMFTTFYQSFTTJWFJTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIXFBLTFNBOUJDTBOEUIFNPSFFYQSFTTJWFXJUITUSPOH TFNBOUJDT O 4NJUIBOE8FMUZ EFﬁOFBSBOHFGSPNMPXUPIJHIDPNQMFYJUZ XIFSFUIFIJHIFOE JTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIBVUPNBUFESFBTPOJOHNFUIPET CVUOPUUIFMPXFOE O .D(VJOOFTT EFﬁOFTBSBOHFGSPNMPXUPIJHITQFDJﬁDBUJPOEFUBJMBOEFYQSFTTJWF OFTT XJUIJOUIFTDPQFPGPOUPMPHJFTFNFSHJOHPOUIF8FC O .D$PNC EFﬁOFTBSBOHFPGTFNBOUJDQSFDJTJPO GSPNBTJNQMFEBUBDBUBMPHBUUIF MPXFOEUPHFOFSBMMPHJDBMDPOTUSBJOUTBUUIFIJHIFOE O ,BMGPHMPVFUBM EFﬁOFBSBOHFPGTFNBOUJDJOUFOTJUZ XIFSFUIFMPXFOEJTDIBSBD UFSJ[FEBTTFNBOUJDBMMZQPPSBOEUIFIJHIFOEBTTFNBOUJDBMMZSJDI ThFTFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNQSFTFOUFEJO'JHVSFJTBTMJHIUNPEJﬁDBUJPOPGUIBUQSFTFOUFEJO %BDPOUB 0CSTU BOE4NJUI *UQPSUSBZTBSBOHFPGTFNBOUJDNPEFMTUIBUQPUFOUJBMMZ

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Modal logic First order logic

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Logical theory Description logic DAML+OIL, LOW UML

Conceptual model RDF/S XTM Extended ER

Thesaurus ER

Relational model, XML

Is disjoint subclass of with transitivity property

Semantic interoperability

Has narrower meaning than

DB schemas, XML schema

Taxonomy

Is subclass of

Strong semantics

Structural interoperability

Is sub-classiﬁcation of Syntactic interoperability

Weak semantics

Figure 8.3 Semantic spectrum (Source: Daconta, M., L. Obrst, and K. Smith. The Semantic Web: A Guide to the Future of XML, Web Services, and Knowledge Management. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley Publishing, 2003. Used with permission.)

DIBSBDUFSJ[FPOUPMPHZThFFYBNQMFTBSFPSHBOJ[FEBSPVOEGPVSDPOTUSVDUTUBYPOPNZ UIFTBVSVT DPODFQUVBMNPEFM BOEMPHJDBMUIFPSZ PSMPHJDBMEPNBJOUIFPSZ "UBYPOPNZJTUBLFOUPNFBO UFSNTPSDPODFQUTXJUINJOJNBMIJFSBSDIJDPSQBSFOUDIJMETUSVDUVSF"UIFTBVSVTJODMVEFTUFSNT TZOPOZNT BOEUFSNUBYPOPNJFTCBTFEPOUIFCSPBEFSUIBOOBSSPXFSUIBOSFMBUJPOBOEBTTPDJB UJPOSFMBUJPO"DPODFQUVBMNPEFMTUSVDUVSFTDPODFQUTJOBTVCDMBTTIJFSBSDIZXJUIHFOFSBMJ[FE SFMBUJPOT QSPQFSUJFT BUUSJCVUFT BOEJOTUBODFT"MPHJDBMNPEFMPSUIFPSZDPNQSJTFTFMFNFOUTPG BDPODFQUVBMNPEFMGPDVTFEPOSFBMXPSMETFNBOUJDTBOEFYUFOEFEXJUIBYJPNTBOESVMFT BOEJT SFQSFTFOUFEJOBMPHJDBMMBOHVBHFFOBCMJOHNBDIJOFTFNBOUJDJOUFSQSFUBUJPO"DPODFQUVBMNPEFM DBOCFDPOTJEFSFEBXFBLPOUPMPHZBMPHJDBMUIFPSZDBOCFDPOTJEFSFEBTUSPOHPOUPMPHZThF JOUFSPQFSBCJMJUZ MBCFMT PO UIF SJHIU JOEJDBUF SPVHIMZ UIF FYQSFTTJWFOFTT PG UIF NPEFM SFRVJSFE UPBEESFTTFBDIMFWFMPGJOUFSPQFSBCJMJUZ9.-JTTVﬃcJFOUGPSTZOUBDUJDJOUFSPQFSBCJMJUZ 9.- 4DIFNB FOBCMFT TUSVDUVSBM JOUFSPQFSBCJMJUZ CVU B NJOJNVN PG 3%' JT OFDFTTBSZ GPS TFNBOUJD JOUFSPQFSBCJMJUZ 'SPNUIJTBOBMZTJT %BDPOUB 0CSTU BOE4NJUITUBUFUIBUBOPOUPMPHZJODMVEFTDMBTTFT HFOFSBM UIJOHT

JOTUBODFT JOEJWJEVBMUIJOHT

SFMBUJPOTBNPOHUIJOHT QSPQFSUJFTBOEQSPQFSUZWBMVFTPG UIJOHT GVODUJPOTPGBOEQSPDFTTFTJOWPMWJOHUIPTFUIJOHT BOEDPOTUSBJOUTPOBOESVMFTJOWPMWJOH UIPTFUIJOHT*O.04&4 XIBUJTJNQPSUBOUJTOPUUIFEFCBUFBCPVUXIBUDPOTUJUVUFTPOUPMPHZPS XIFUIFSBMMPGUIFJUFNTJO'JHVSFSFQSFTFOUBOPOUPMPHZ8IBUJTJNQPSUBOUJTUIBUUIPTFJUFNT DBOSFQSFTFOU4&NPEFMT JODMVEJOHEPNBJOPOUPMPHJFTThJTVTBHFJTDPOTJTUFOUXJUIUIF.04&4 DPODFQUUIBUHFOFSBMNPEFMTDBQUVSFBOESFQSFTFOU4&LOPXMFEHF BOEDPMMFDUJWFMZGPSNBCPEZPG LOPXMFEHFPG4&8FBMTPOPUFUIFTJNJMBSJUZPGUIJTMJTUPGPOUPMPHZJUFNTXJUIUIFTQFDJﬁDBUJPO JUFNTJEFOUJﬁFEJO$IBQUFS

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Sample of Languages That Support SE %BDPOUB 0CSTU BOE4NJUI EFTDSJCFUIFCFOFﬁUTPGVTJOHSFQSFTFOUBUJPOMBOHVBHFT UIBUBSFNPSFDMFBS QSFDJTF BOEVOBNCJHVPVTUIBOOBUVSBMMBOHVBHF"MUIPVHIOBUVSBMMBO HVBHFDBOCFVTFEUPEFﬁOFNPEFMT JUJTOPUUIFﬁSTUDIPJDF/VNFSPVTMBOHVBHFTBOESFQSF TFOUBUJPOBQQSPBDIFTBSFBWBJMBCMFJO4&8FMJTUBOECSJFﬂZEFTDSJCFTPNFPGUIFNIFSFThF MBOHVBHFDBUFHPSJFTSFQSFTFOUBOJOGPSNBMBOEBEIPDTFU BOEBSFOPUQSFTFOUFEJOBOZQBSUJDV MBSPSEFSThFDBUFHPSJFTBSFBMTPOPUNVUVBMMZFYDMVTJWFTPNFMBOHVBHFTCFMPOHUPNPSFUIBO POFDBUFHPSZ

Simulation Languages $POUJOVPVT4ZTUFN4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF $44- JTBOFWPMWJOHTFUPGMBOHVBHFTUIBUXBTJOJUJBMMZ EFﬁOFEJOBOEJTEFTJHOFEUPIFMQFOHJOFFSTBOETDJFOUJTUTNPEFMUIFEZOBNJDCFIBWJPSPG QIZTJDBMQIFOPNFOB'PSCSJFGFYBNQMFT TFF)VOUTJOHFS 0OFNFNCFSPGUIJTTFUJTUIF &VSPQFBO4QBDF"HFODZ &4" 4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF &4- $SPTCJFFUBM "OPUIFSNFNCFS JTUIF"EWBODFE$POUJOVPVT4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF "$4-

XIJDIJTUBSHFUFEUPUJNFEFQFOEFOU OPOMJOFBSEJﬀFSFOUJBMFRVBUJPOT %ZNPMBBMTPTJNVMBUFTEZOBNJDCFIBWJPSPGQIZTJDBMTZTUFNTCVUJUJTEFTJHOFEUPGPMMPXUIF DPOTFSWBUJPO QSJODJQMFT PG FOFSHZ BOE NPNFOUVN BOE OPU SFMZ TUSJDUMZ PO TUBUFTQBDF NPEFMT 3BD[ZOTLJ /FVSBM 4JNVMBUJPO -BOHVBHF /4- JT EFTJHOFE GPS MBSHFTDBMF HFOFSBM OFVSBM OFUXPSLT 8FJU[FOGFME "SCJC BOE"MFYBOEFS

System Modeling and Design Languages ThF4QFDJﬁDBUJPOBOE%FTDSJQUJPO-BOHVBHF 4%-

EFﬁOFEBT*56TUBOEBSE; IBTFWPMWFE PWFSBZFBSQFSJPE*UJTBXJEFTQFDUSVNMBOHVBHFGSPNTZTUFNSFRVJSFNFOUTUPJNQMFNFOUB UJPO BOEJODMVEFTCPUIHSBQIJDBMBOEUFYUVBMFMFNFOUT*UJTEFTJHOFEUPTVQQPSUGPSNBMNPEFMT BOEJTTVJUBCMFGPSSFBMUJNFTZTUFNT"DDPSEJOHUP4%-

XIFO4%-JTVTFEGPSTZTUFNTFOHJ OFFSJOH JUJTVTVBMMZJODPNCJOBUJPOXJUIPUIFSMBOHVBHFT JODMVEJOH.FTTBHF4FRVFODF$IBSUT .4$

"4/ 55$/ BOE6.- 6.- 0.(B C JTBMTPVTFEFYUFOTJWFMZJOTPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOHNPEFMJOHBOEEFTJHO BOE JT UIF CBTJT GPS PUIFS QSPﬁMFT BOE MBOHVBHFT "O FYUFOTJPO PG 6.- DBMMFE 4ZT.- 0.( D IBTCFFOEFﬁOFEUPBEESFTTNPSFTZTUFNTPSJFOUFENPEFMTTVDIBTCMPDLEJBHSBNT"OPUIFS FYUFOTJPOPG6.-UIBUBEESFTTFTSFBMUJNFTZTUFNTJT."35&.PEFMJOHBOE"OBMZTJTPG3FBM 5JNFBOE&NCFEEFETZTUFNT %FNBUIJFVFUBM0.( ."35&TVQQPSUTNPEFMJOH BOEEFTJHOPGCPUIIBSEXBSFBOETPGUXBSFBTQFDUTPGUIFTFTZTUFNT ThF "SDIJUFDUVSF "OBMZTJT BOE %FTJHO -BOHVBHF ""%- XBT EFﬁOFE CZ UIF 4PDJFUZ PG "VUPNPUJWF&OHJOFFST 4"& UPCFBTUBOEBSEGPSNPEFMCBTFETZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH*UTVQQPSUT GPSNBMNPEFMJOHBOETZTUFNTQFSGPSNBODFBOBMZTJT 'FJMFS (MVDI BOE)VEBL ."35&JT BMTPDPNQBUJCMFXJUI""%- 'BVHFSFFUBM *O UIF IBSEXBSF BSFOB UXP MBOHVBHFT IBWF CFFO VTFE FYUFOTJWFMZ 7)4*$ )BSEXBSF %FTDSJQUJPO-BOHVBHF 7)%- BOE7FSJMPH)%-#PUIDPOUBJOIBSEXBSFNPEFMJOHDPOTUSVDUT TVDIBTUJNFDPODFQUTBOEQBSBMMFMQSPDFTTJOH UIBUBSFOPUGPVOEJOUZQJDBMTPGUXBSFQSPHSBNNJOH

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PSNPEFMJOHMBOHVBHFT#PUIBMTPIBWFWBSJBOUTGPSBOBMPHBOENJYFETJHOBMBQQMJDBUJPOT DBMMFE SFTQFDUJWFMZ7)%-".4BOE7FSJMPH".4*O UIFUXPPSHBOJ[BUJPOT7)%-*OUFSOBUJPOBM BOE0QFO7FSJMPH*OUFSOBUJPOBMKPJOFEUPCFDPNF"DDFMMFSB "DDFMMFSB *O UIF*&&&JOJUJBUFEBOFXTUBOEBSEDBMMFE13PTFUUB4ZTUFN%FTJHO-BOHVBHF *)4 The HPBMJTUPQSPWJEFiBTZTUFNMFWFMBQQSPBDIGPSEFWFMPQJOH DPNQPTJOHBOEBOB MZ[JOH speciﬁcation NPEFMT GSPN NVMUJQMF EFTJHO EPNBJOT FBDI XJUI UIFJS PXO WPDBCVMBSZ BOE TFNBOUJDTwThis TIPVMECFPGJOUFSFTUUP4&XJUIUIFNVMUJEPNBJODIBMMFOHFTEJTDVTTFEFBSMJFSJO UIJTDIBQUFS

Architecture Description Languages (ADLs) *OUIFT BDPBMFTDFODFPGSFTFBSDIBDUJWJUZQSPEVDFEBWBSJFUZPGBSDIJUFDUVSFEFTDSJQUJPOMBO HVBHFT JODMVEJOH3BQJEF $ "$.& 8SJHIU "FTPQ BOE6OJDPO"TJHOJﬁDBOUQPSUJPOPGUIJT XPSLXBTGVOEFECZUIF%FGFOTF"EWBODFE3FTFBSDI1SPKFDUT"HFODZ %"31"

BOEUIFQSJNBSZ GPDVTXBTTPGUXBSFTZTUFNT"TVNNBSZPGUIJTXPSL BTXFMMBTBOBQQMJDBUJPO JTQSFTFOUFEJO 1FUUZ .D,FO[JF BOE2JOHXFO "NPSFSFDFOUVOJﬁDBUJPOBOEFYUFOTJPOPGUIJTXPSLJT QSFTFOUFEJO%BTIPGZ 7BOEFS)PFL BOE5BZMPS ThF"%-SFTFBSDIXBTUIFTPVSDFPGUIF HFOFSBMDPNQPOFOUDPOOFDUPSNPEFMUIBUDBOCFBQQMJFEUPBMMTZTUFNT OPUKVTUTPGUXBSFTZTUFNT BOEXIJDIJTUIFCBTJDTUSVDUVSFPGUIFCJOBSZJOUFSBDUJPONPEFMJO$IBQUFS

Software Languages "MBSHFOVNCFSPGQSPHSBNNJOHMBOHVBHFTTVDIBT+BWBBOE7JTVBM#BTJDIBWFCFFOEFWFMPQFEBOE VTFEPWFSUIFQBTUIBMGDFOUVSZ.BOZPGUIFFBSMZMBOHVBHFT JODMVEJOHUIFWFOFSBCMF'PSUSBO BOE FWFO$0#0- BSFTUJMMJOVTF BMUIPVHIUIFZIBWFFWPMWFEUPTPNFEFHSFF ThFSF BSF BMTP NBOZ TDSJQUJOH MBOHVBHFT TVDI BT 1FSM BOE 1ZUIPO .PEFMJOH MBOHVBHFT XF NFOUJPOFEFBSMJFSTVDIBT6.-BSFBMTPVTFEFYUFOTJWFMZJOTPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOH

Business Process Languages 84#1&- 8FC4FSWJDFT#VTJOFTT1SPDFTT&YFDVUJPO-BOHVBHF JTBOPSDIFTUSBUJPOMBOHVBHFGPS TQFDJGZJOHCVTJOFTTQSPDFTTCFIBWJPSCBTFEPO8FC4FSWJDFT 0"4*4 *UJTCBTFEPO9.- #1./ #VTJOFTT1SPDFTT.PEFMJOH/PUBUJPO JTBHSBQIJDBMNPEFMJOHMBOHVBHFGPSCVTJOFTT QSPDFTTFTPSJFOUFEUPXBSEXPSLﬂPXTThFOFYUWFSTJPO 7 JOUFOETUPJODPSQPSBUFUIFNFUB NPEFM HSBQIJDBMOPUBUJPO BOEJOUFSDIBOHFGPSNBUJOUPPOFQBDLBHF BOEUIFOBNFJTUIFSFGPSF DIBOHFEUPUIF#VTJOFTT1SPDFTT.PEFMBOE/PUBUJPO #1./ ThF9.-1SPDFTT%FﬁOJUJPO-BOHVBHF 91%- JTBOJOUFSDIBOHFMBOHVBHFGPS#1./ :"8- :FU"OPUIFS8PSLﬂPX-BOHVBHF XBTEFTJHOFEUPTVQQPSUBCBTJDTFUPGXPSLﬂPXQBU UFSOTPSWJFXTDPOUSPMQFSTQFDUJWF EBUBQFSTQFDUJWF SFTPVSDFQFSTQFDUJWF BOEFYDFQUJPOIBOEMJOH QFSTQFDUJWF*UBMTPQSPWJEFTTPNFTVQQPSUGPSIVNBOUBTLT )VNBOCVTJOFTTQSPDFTTFTIBWFCFFOHFUUJOHNPSFBUUFOUJPOSFDFOUMZ"OFYUFOTJPOPG#1&- DBMMFE#1&-1FPQMFIBTCFFOEFﬁOFEUIBUGPDVTFTPOIVNBOUBTLT "HSBXBMFUBM "GSBNF XPSLGPSEFﬁOJOHIVNBOTFSWJDFTBOEVOJGZJOHIVNBOBOETPGUXBSFTFSWJDFTJTEFTDSJCFEJO4DIBMM 5SVPOH BOE%VTUEBS )PMNFTFUBM IBWFEFﬁOFEBWJFXCBTFE NPEFMESJWFOGSBNFXPSLUIBUTVQQPSUTCPUI IVNBO BOE BVUPNBUFE CVTJOFTT QSPDFTTFT *U QSPWJEFT B IJHIFS MFWFM PG BCTUSBDUJPO UIBU BMMPXT

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Chapter 9

Time Systems taxonomy 1

Modeling scope

SE Application Domains (D1...Dn)

Collective actualization space

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn

Problem space

3a

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Characteristics of all systems

Highest level system

Deﬁne need

Complex 4 Traditional TS is special case 5 Characteristics of all SE systems Traditional and Complex 6

Model Space

All SE application domains...

Indivisible Unit Model of Individual system or component

Universal model

Composition

TS/CS diﬀerent in kind 2b 2a Traditional systems Complex systems

Common speciﬁcation approach: Repeating internal/external structure

Solution domain

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Figure 9.1

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1. Same cycle: Model = Circle

2. Similar cycle: Model = Spiral

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3. Non-repeating cycles: Model = Strange attractor

Figure 9.2 Cyclic model variations. (Source: Wikipedia 2008.)

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State-similarity view

Figure 9.3

Timeline view

State-similarity and timeline views of cycles.

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

Scale 1: Small portion of one cycle. Change is acyclic at this scale.

Scale 2: Cycle. Change is cyclic at this scale. But a modest number of cycles collectively show repeating cycles (circle on left) or an acyclic overall trend (spiral on right).

Scale 3: Large number of cycles. Only see constant (dot on left) or acyclic trend (line on right) at this scale.

Figure 9.4

Scale effects on views of cyclic and acyclic change.

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220

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

Conceived Level

Planning

Born/IOC Reach adulthood/FOC Retire

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Full function

System behavior: L1

Retirement Range = System Versatility = Extent of phase portrait

System change: L2

Range = System adaptability

Model change: L3

Range = Model adaptability

IOC = Initial Operational Capability; FOC = Full Operational Capability

Figure 9.5

Process and change levels during system life span.

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0UIFSUSBEJUJPOBMNPEFMTJODMVEF1FUSJOFUTThese BSFNBUIFNBUJDBMMZCBTFEHSBQIJDBMNPEFMT PGEJTDSFUFCFIBWJPSPGTZTUFNTThe LFZFMFNFOUTBSFQMBDFT BSDT BOEUSBOTJUJPOT XIFSFBOBSDDPO OFDUTQMBDFTXJUIUSBOTJUJPOT&YUFOTJPOTUPUIFCBTJD1FUSJOFUTIBWFJODMVEFEDPMPSFE1FUSJOFUTBOE IJFSBSDIJDBM1FUSJOFUTUIBUBMMPXTVCOFUT (JSBVMUBOE7BML %ZOBNJDBMTZTUFNNPEFMTJODMVEFUIFQIBTFTQBDFPSCJUTPSUSBKFDUPSJFTPGTZTUFNT#PUIBUSB KFDUPSZBOEBOPSCJUBSFUIFTFRVFODFPGTZTUFNTUBUFTPWFSUJNF5ZQJDBMMZUIFUFSNiPSCJUwJTVTFE JGUIFCFIBWJPSTFRVFODFJTDZDMJD XIJMFiUSBKFDUPSZwJTVTFEJGUIFCFIBWJPSJTBDZDMJD%iﬀerFOUJBM FRVBUJPOTBSFVTFEUPNPEFMTZTUFNCFIBWJPSPOBDPOUJOVPVTUJNFTDBMF BOEdiﬀerFODFFRVBUJPOT PSPUIFSUPPMT TVDIBT1FUSJOFUT BSFVTFEUPNPEFMTZTUFNCFIBWJPSPOBEJTDSFUFUJNFTDBMFThese NPEFMTUFOEUPNBQNPSFUP.04&4FYUFSOBMNPEFMTCFDBVTFUIFZDIBSBDUFSJ[FUIFCFIBWJPSPGUIF TZTUFNBTBXIPMF JODMVEJOHGPSQIZTJDBMTZTUFNTUIFJSQPTJUJPOBOEWFMPDJUZ GPSFYBNQMF"TVCTFU PGUIFEZOBNJDBMTZTUFNNPEFMTDIBSBDUFSJ[FTCFIBWJPSPGDIBPUJDTZTUFNT JODMVEJOHPSCJUTBSPVOE TUSBOHFBUUSBDUPST This DPOUFYUQSPWJEFTBOBEEJUJPOBMWJFXPGUIFMBXPGSFRVJTJUFWBSJFUZ $IBQUFS "TTVNFB TZTUFNIBTTJYEFHSFFTPGGSFFEPN PSTJYWBSJBCMFTPGCFIBWJPSThen JUTQIBTFTQBDFIBTTJYEJNFO TJPOT"TTVNFUIBUJUTQPTTJCMFCFIBWJPSUSBKFDUPSJFTBSFDBQUVSFEJOBTJYEJNFOTJPOBMQIBTFQPS USBJU/PXBTTVNFBSFHVMBUPSOFFETUPSFHVMBUFUISFFPGUIFTFWBSJBCMFTThen UIFSFHVMBUPSOFFET UPIBWFBUISFFEJNFOTJPOBMQIBTFQPSUSBJUUIBUJTUIFTBNFBTUIFUISFFEJNFOTJPOBMTVCTQBDFPG UIFTZTUFNTQIBTFQPSUSBJU XIFSFUIFTVCTQBDFJTCBTFEPOUIFUISFFWBSJBCMFTUPCFSFHVMBUFEThe QPJOUJTUIBUBNPSFQSFDJTFTUBUFNFOUPGUIFMBXJTUPTVDDFTTGVMMZSFHVMBUFBTZTUFN UIFWBSJFUZPG UIFSFHVMBUPSNVTUCFBUMFBTUBTMBSHFBTUIFWBSJFUZPGJOUFSFTUPGUIFSFHVMBUFETZTUFNThe WBSJFUZPG JOUFSFTUUPUIFSFHVMBUPSJOUIJTFYBNQMFJTUISFFPVUPGUIFTJYWBSJBCMFTThis JTDPOTJTUFOUXJUIUIF i(PPE3FHVMBUPSwUIFPSFN EJTDVTTFEJO$IBQUFS UIBUQPTJUTBSFHVMBUPSPGBTZTUFNBTBNPEFM PGUIBUTZTUFN

Models of Level 2 Change -FWFMQSPDFTTNPEFMTTIPXIPXBTZTUFNJUTFMGDIBOHFT BTPQQPTFEUPIPXJUCFIBWFT"TTIPXOJO 'JHVSF -FWFMDIBOHFTPDDVSEVSJOHTZTUFNGPSNBUJPO NBUVSBUJPO BOEGVMMGVODUJPOJOHThis TFDUJPOEJTDVTTFTDIBOHFNPEFMTGPSUSBEJUJPOBMBOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNT JODMVEJOHCJPMPHJDBMNPEFMT PGDIBOHF BOEUIFOEJTDVTTFT-FWFMCPVOEBSZDSPTTJOHDIBOHF

Traditional and Complex System Change Models 5BCMFTIPXTDPNNPOUFSNTGPSDIBOHFJOCPUIUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTBOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNT TVDI BTIVNBOT.BOBHJOHDIBOHFJTBMTPJODMVEFEJOUIFUBCMF #JPMPHZIBTNVMUJQMFNPEFMTBQQSPQSJBUFGPS-FWFMQSPDFTTFT5BCMFTVNNBSJ[FTBOVNCFS PGCJPMPHJDBMNPEFMTPGDIBOHF*OFBDIDBTF UIFJOGPSNBUJPOJODMVEFTUIFDIBOHFNPEFMBOEUIF VOJUPGDIBOHF1SJNBSZTPVSDFTPGNBUFSJBMJOUIJTUBCMFBSF'VUVZNB BOE.BZS .PSFHFOFSBMNPEFMTUIBUVTFTPNFPGUIFBCPWFQSPDFTTFTBSFJOIFSJUBODFBOESFQSPEVDUJPO %FWFMPQNFOUPDDVSTPWFSNVDIPGUIFMJGFPGBOJOEJWJEVBMThe PUIFSQSPDFTTFTMJTUFEUFOEUP PDDVSNPSFTVEEFOMZ/PUFUIBUUIFEFTJHOBUJPOPGTVEEFODIBOHFWFSTVTDIBOHFPWFSUJNFJTOPU JOIFSFOUPSBCTPMVUF*ODBTFTXIFSFUIFUJNFTDBMFJTWFSZﬁne HSBJOFE BMMUIFDIBOHFTJO5BCMF DPVMECFSFHBSEFEBTPDDVSSJOHPWFSUJNF "OPUIFSTPVSDFPGCJPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTFTJTUIFPQFOCJPMPHJDBMPOUPMPHZ 0#0

BOEspeciﬁcally UIFCJPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTPOUPMPHZ 0#0

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Table 9.1 Level 2 Change and Change Management Change in Phase System Type

Formation

TS

Development

CS (humans)

Gestation

Maturation Improvement, refactoring Growth, learning

Full Functioning Sustainment (External) Adaptation (Self)

Managing Change Conﬁguration mgt Feedback, peer pressure, homeostasis

Boundary Crossing Change .PTUPGUIFDIBOHFEJTDVTTFEJOUIJTTFDUJPOJTDIBOHFPGBOFOUJUZXJUIJOJUTFMGUIBUJT DIBSBD UFSJTUJDTDIBOHFCVUUIFFOUJUZSFUBJOTJUTJEFOUJUZPSUIFDBUFHPSJFTJUJTJOPSUIFDPSSFTQPOEFODF UPNPEFMT4PNFUJNFT IPXFWFS DIBOHFJTTPsigniﬁcant UIBUBOFOUJUZCFDPNFTBOPUIFSFOUJUZPS NPWFTUPBdiﬀerFOUDBUFHPSZ BTJMMVTUSBUFEJO'JHVSF'PSFYBNQMF BTZTUFNDIBOHFTUPUIF QPJOUUIBUJUOPMPOHFSsatisﬁes JUTSFRVJSFNFOUTNPEFM TPJUDSPTTFTUIFCPVOEBSZPGUIFNPEFM SFHJPOGSPNJOTJEFUPPVUTJEF"MUFSOBUJWFMZ BTZTUFNDPVMEDIBOHFPSCFDIBOHFETPJUOPXEPFT TBUJTGZJUTSFRVJSFNFOUTJUNPWFTGSPNPVUPGUIFSFHJPOUPJOUIFSFHJPO GSPNOPUDPSSFTQPOEJOH UPDPSSFTQPOEJOHUPUIFNPEFM"OFWFONPSFESBTUJDDIBOHF GSPNUIFTZTUFNTQPJOUPGWJFX JTB DIBOHFUPUIFQPJOUXIFSFJUCFDPNFTBdiﬀerFOUTZTUFN*OBEEJUJPO UIFDPSSFTQPOEFODFDIBOHFT DBOBMTPCFBDIJFWFEJGUIFNPEFM FH UIFSFRVJSFNFOUT DIBOHFTBOEUIFTZTUFNEPFTOPUDIBOHF That JTB-FWFMUZQFPGDIBOHFCVUJUJTJODMVEFEIFSFUPQSFTFOUBNPSFDPNQMFUFTFUPGCPVOEBSZ DSPTTJOHDIBOHFUZQFT

Comparison of Selected Engineering Models 8FDPNQBSFUISFFFOHJOFFSJOHNPEFMTCJHCBOHNPEFM JODSFNFOUBMNPEFM BOEFWPMVUJPONPEFM They BSFJMMVTUSBUFEBOEDPOUSBTUFEJO'JHVSF"TTVNFBTJUVBUJPOJOXIJDI VTFSTdeﬁne UIFJS OFFETBUBQPJOUJOUJNF TBZ5 BTZTUFNJTEFWFMPQFEPWFSUJNFUPTBUJTGZUIFVTFSOFFETBOE VTFSOFFETDIBOHFXIJMFUIFTZTUFNJTCFJOHEFWFMPQFE*OUIFﬁgurFUIFGVMMUJNFQFSJPEJOXIJDI UIJTPDDVSTTUBSUTBUUJNF5BOEFOETBU5The SFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFODIBOHJOHVTFSOFFETBOEUIF DIBOHJOHTZTUFNWBSJFTBDDPSEJOHUPUIFUISFFFOHJOFFSJOHNPEFMTThe CJHCBOHNPEFMEFWFMPQT Table 9.2 Biological Models of Change Change Model Development/growth Mutation Recombination Division Replacement Birth Death

Unit of Change Individual organism DNA/RNA DNA Cell Cell Individual organism Individual organism

Time

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225

Change correspondence System change

Model change

A

Time 1

Time 2

A

A

A A

B Time 1

Figure 9.6

B

Model change

A

A

A

A

Effect: -------- In to out --------

Change to different system

System change

A

-------- Out to in -------

Change A into different system Replace A with different system

Time 2

Boundary crossing change examples.

UIFFOUJSFTZTUFNUPTBUJTGZUIFGVMMTFUPGSFRVJSFNFOUTThe TZTUFNJTEFWFMPQFEBOESFBEZUPVTF BU5 BOEJUsatisﬁes UIFVTFSOFFETdeﬁned BU5 UIFTZTUFNJTEFTJHOBUFEBT4#JOUIFVQQFSMFGU QBSUPGUIFﬁgurF #FDBVTFVTFSOFFETIBWFDIBOHFECFUXFFO5BOE5 UIFSFJTBsigniﬁcant HBQ CFUXFFOUIFTZTUFNDBQBCJMJUZBOEXIBUUIFVTFSTOPXOFFEBU5

Changing user needs over time

Changing system over time

Needs at T1

Needs at T2

SI5

System at T4

SI4

System at T3

SI3

System at T2

SI2, SE2

Figure 9.7

T1

Needs at T4

Needs at T5

SE5

System at T5 SB5

Start

Needs at T3

SE4

SE3

T1 .. T5 = Time 1 .. Time 5 or = User needs S B5= System at T5, developed using big bang model S I2 .. S I5= System at T2 .. T5, developed using incremental model S E2 .. S E5= System at T2 .. T5, developed using evolution model

Comparison of Engineering Models

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The JODSFNFOUBMNPEFMEFWFMPQTUIFTZTUFNJOTFWFSBMJODSFNFOUT XJUIBMMSFRVJSFNFOUTdeﬁned BOEBMMPDBUFEUPJODSFNFOUT 4* 4* 4* 4* BU5The ﬁrst JODSFNFOUIBTNJOJNBMDBQBCJMJUZ BOEFBDIJODSFNFOUBEETUPJU VOUJM4*SFQSFTFOUTUIFGVMMTZTUFN)PXFWFS MJLF4# UIFJODSFNFO UBMMZEFWFMPQFETZTUFN4*JTTUJMMUBSHFUFEUPUIFVTFSOFFETBU5 TPUIFSFJTBTJNJMBSHBQCFUXFFO UIFTZTUFNBOEUIFVTFSOFFETBU5 The FWPMVUJPONPEFMEJWJEFTUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGUIFTZTUFNJOUPQJFDFT BTJOUIFJODSFNFOUBM NPEFM CVUUIFFWPMVUJPONPEFMBTTVNFTDIBOHFBOEEPFTOPUDPNNJUUPBﬁnal HPBM"UFBDIJUFSB UJPO JUSFWJTJUTVTFSOFFET BOEPOMZdeﬁnes EFUBJMFESFRVJSFNFOUTGPSUIFOFYUTUFQ UPXBSEUIF updated user needs at that point). Thus, for example, at 5 UIFFWPMVUJPONPEFMEFMJWFST4& BOE SFBTTFTTFTVTFSOFFETBU5#BTFEPOUIBUSFBTTFTTNFOU JUdeﬁnes UIFOFYUJUFSBUJPOBT4& XIJDIJT UIFOFYUTUFQUPXBSEUIFOPXSFWJTFEVTFSOFFET The CJHCBOHBOEJODSFNFOUBMNPEFMTBSFCBTFEPOBDPNNJUNFOUUPﬁxFEOFFETBOESFRVJSF NFOUTUIBUEPOPUDIBOHFPWFSUJNFThe FWPMVUJPONPEFM IPXFWFS JTEFTJHOFEUPFYQFDUBOEBEBQU UPDIBOHF"TBSFTVMU UIFTZTUFN4&FOETVQDMPTFSUPVTFSOFFETBU5UIBOUIFTZTUFNTEFWFMPQFE CZFJUIFSPGUIFPUIFSUXPFOHJOFFSJOHNPEFMT "DUVBMMZ XIBUUIFﬁgurFEPFTOPUTIPXJTUIBUUIFFWPMVUJPONPEFMDPOUJOVFTUPMPPLGVSUIFS JOUPUIFGVUVSFBUFBDIJUFSBUJPO CFZPOE5 UPUSBDLUIFDIBOHJOHMPOHUFSNEJSFDUJPOThis BTQFDU PG UIF 4& FWPMVUJPO QSPDFTT JT EJTDVTTFE JO $IBQUFS FTQFDJBMMZ JO UFSNT PG UIF SPMMJOH XBWF NPEFM

Models of Level 3 Change This TFDUJPODPODFSOTIPXNPEFMTDIBOHF"EJTUJODUJPOJTNBEFCFUXFFODIBOHFPGspeciﬁc NPEFMT BOEDIBOHFPGHFOFSBMNPEFMT

Change of Speciﬁc Models 4peciﬁc NPEFMTUFOEUPFYJTUNPSFJOUIFXPSLTQBDFQPSUJPOPGUIFNPEFMTQBDFUIBOJOUIFLOPXM FEHFTQBDFQPSUJPO*OUIJTTFDUJPOXFEFTDSJCFUIFDIBOHFPGBspeciﬁc NPEFMBTTPDJBUFEPOMZXJUI a speciﬁc system; that is, it exists only in the context of a speciﬁc correspondence set. The life span PGTVDIBNPEFMJTUJFEDMPTFMZUPUIFTZTUFNMJGFTQBO 'PSNBUJPOPGBspeciﬁc NPEFMPDDVSTEVSJOHUIFTZTUFNQMBOOJOHQIBTF*UJTGPSNFEUISPVHI DSFBUJPO PSUISPVHIUBJMPSJOH .BUVSBUJPOPGBspeciﬁc NPEFMPDDVSTEVSJOHTZTUFNGPSNBUJPO BOENBUVSBUJPO QIBTF'PS FYBNQMF SFRVJSFNFOUTPGUFODIBOHFBOENBUVSFJOUIFDPVSTFPGEFWFMPQJOHUIFTZTUFNBOEBSF EFWFMPQFEBOESeﬁned furUIFSXIJMFUIFTZTUFNJTHBJOJOHJUTGVMMGVODUJPOBMJUZ 'VMMGVODUJPOJOHPDDVSTEVSJOHTZTUFNGVMMGVODUJPOQIBTF#PUITZTUFNBOENPEFMBSFGVMMZ GVODUJPOBMJOUIJTQIBTF CVUCPUINBZDIBOHF

Change of General Models (FOFSBMNPEFMTUFOEUPFYJTUNPSFJOUIFLOPXMFEHFTQBDFQPSUJPOPGUIFNPEFMTQBDFUIBOJOUIF XPSLTQBDFQPSUJPO"-FWFMDIBOHFPGBHFOFSBMNPEFMSFQSFTFOUTBDBUFHPSZDIBOHFUIBUJTEFDPV QMFEGSPNPSEPFTOPUSFMZPOJOEJWJEVBMDIBOHF(FOFSBMNPEFMDIBOHFTUIBUBSFBTTPDJBUFEXJUI JOEJWJEVBM - DIBOHFBSFDBMMFE-DIBOHFTBOEBSFEJTDVTTFEJOUIFTFDUJPOFOUJUMFEi.PEFMTPG $IBOHF*OWPMWJOH-FWFMTBOEw

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(FOFSBMNPEFMTUFOEUPCFSFMBUJWFMZTUBCMF BOEUIFJSSPMFJTUPQSPWJEFBHVJEFGPSPUIFSDIBOHFT TVDIBT-speciﬁc NPEFMDIBOHFPS-JOEJWJEVBMDIBOHFThey UZQJDBMMZSFQSFTFOUUFDIOPMPHJFT UIFPSJFT NFUBNPEFMT SFGFSFODFNPEFMT BOEQBUUFSOT$IBOHJOHBHFOFSBMNPEFMUFOETUPCFB DPNNVOJUZeﬀorUCFDBVTFJUJTQBSUPGUIFFWPMVUJPOPGUIFLOPXMFEHFTQBDF"OFYDFQUJPOJTUIF DBUFHPSZPGHFOFSBMNPEFMTUIBUSFQSFTFOUUIFBCTUSBDUWJTJPOPSHPBMPGBspeciﬁc TZTUFNThat DBU FHPSZPGNPEFMTUFOETUPCFJOUIFXPSLTQBDF

Models of Change Involving Levels 1 and 2 This section discusses prPDFTTFTBOEDIBOHFTUIBUDPWFSCPUI-FWFMBOE-FWFM

Autopoiesis "VUPQPJFTJT .BUVSBOBBOE7BSFMB JTUIFQSPDFTTPGTFMGDSFBUJPOPSTFMGQSPEVDUJPOThe LFZ DPODFQUJTNBJOUBJOJOHJUTPXOPSHBOJ[BUJPO QSFTFSWJOHUIFSFMBUJPOBMOFUXPSLUIBUdeﬁnes JUBT BTZTUFNJDVOJUZ .BUVSBOB The TZTUFNUIBUHBWFSJTFUPUIJTUFSNXBTUIFCJPMPHJDBMDFMM The UFSNJTDPOUSBTUFEXJUIBMMPQPJFTJT XIJDIJTBQSPDFTTJOXIJDIBTZTUFNPGPOFUZQFQSPEVDFT BOPUIFSUZQF TVDIBTBGBDUPSZQSPEVDJOHBDBS#ZPVSdeﬁnitions, BVUPQPJFTJTJTB-FWFMCFIBWJPS UIBUIBTB-FWFMeﬀect, XIFSFBTBMMPQPJFTJTJTTUSJDUMZB-FWFMCFIBWJPS/PUF IPXFWFS UIBUUIF eﬀect PGUIFBVUPQPJFUJDCFIBWJPSJTJOUIFEJSFDUJPOPGNBJOUBJOJOHTUSVDUVSFJOUIFGBDFPGDIBOHF SBUIFSUIBODIBOHJOHTUSVDUVSF

Phase Space Concepts Phase Trajectories, Orbits, Portraits 8FJOEJDBUFEFBSMJFSUIBUQIBTFUSBKFDUPSJFTPSPSCJUTSFQSFTFOUEZOBNJDCFIBWJPSTFRVFODFTPGB TZTUFN XIJDINBLFTUIFN-FWFMQSPDFTTFT)PXFWFS XFDPVMEBMTPDPODFJWBCMZdeﬁne BQIBTF USBKFDUPSZPGXIBUBTZTUFNJT UIBUJT IPXUIFTZTUFNJUTFMGDIBOHFTPWFSUJNF BTPQQPTFEUPJUT CFIBWJPS. This would be a LevFMQSPDFTT TherFJTBMTPDPODFJWBCMZUIFOPUJPOPGUIFQIBTFTQBDFBOEQIBTFUSBKFDUPSZPGBNPEFM XIJDI deﬁnes IPXUIFNPEFMDIBOHFTPWFSUJNFThis XPVMECFB-FWFMQSPDFTT*OGBDU UIF4&NPEFM TQBDFNBZQFSIBQTCFWJFXFEBTUIFQIBTFTQBDFPGNPEFMTPG4&TZTUFNT

Phase Transition *OUIFSNPEZOBNJDT QIBTFUSBOTJUJPOJTUIFTVEEFODIBOHFJOBTZTUFNGSPNPOFQIBTFUPBOPUIFS DMBTTJDBMMZUSBOTJUJPOJOHCFUXFFOTPMJE MJRVJE BOEHBTGPSNT*ODIBOHFUFSNT QIBTFUSBOTJUJPOJTB -FWFMDIBOHF JOTUBUF UIBUSFTVMUTJOB-FWFMDIBOHF JOGPSN

Self-Organizing Processes Self-Organization 4FMGPSHBOJ[BUJPOJTBQSPDFTTJOXIJDIUIFJOUFSOBMTUBUFPSTUSVDUVSFPGBTZTUFNUFOETUPCFDPNF NPSF PSHBOJ[FE XJUIPVU FYUFSOBM EJSFDUJPO PS DPOUSPM The DPODFQU IBT CFFO BQQMJFE UP B WBSJ FUZ PG EJTDJQMJOFT BOE TZTUFNT CPUI OBUVSBM BOE BStiﬁcial. The JTTVF PG NFBTVSJOH UIF EFHSFF PG

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PSHBOJ[BUJPOJTOPUFOUJSFMZSFTPMWFE1PMBOJ BSHVFTUIBUJUDBOOPUCFNFBTVSFEBTBOJOUSJOTJD DIBSBDUFSJTUJDPGBTZTUFNBOEOFFETUIFBEEJUJPOPGBOPCTFSWFSBOBMPHPVTUPUIFDBTFGPSFNFS HFODF XIJDIJTPGUFOBTTPDJBUFEXJUITFMGPSHBOJ[BUJPO

Self-Organized Criticality 4FMGPSHBOJ[FEDSJUJDBMJUZ 40$ #BL 5BOH BOE8JFTFOGFME JTJOPOFTFOTFSFMBUFEUPCPUI QIBTFUSBOTJUJPOBOETFMGPSHBOJ[BUJPOThe DSJUJDBMJUZDPSSFTQPOETUPUIFDSJUJDBMQPJOUPGBQIBTF USBOTJUJPO*GUIJTDSJUJDBMQPJOUJTBOBUUSBDUPS JOUIFEZOBNJDBMTZTUFNTTFOTF UIFOUIFTZTUFNJT ESBXOUPUIJTQPJOUJOBTFMGPSHBOJ[JOHNBOOFS)PXFWFS UIFSFJTTPNFEFCBUFPOUIFEFHSFFUP XIJDI40$SFQSFTFOUTTFMGPSHBOJ[BUJPO 7FTQJHOBOJBOE;BQQFSJ 40$JTDPOUSBTUFEXJUIIJHIMZPQUJNJ[FEUPMFSBODF )05 BTBMUFSOBUFWJFXTJO$IBQUFS

Panarchy 1BOBSDIZ (VOEFSTPOBOE)PMMJOH JTBDPNQSFIFOTJWFQSPDFTTJOUFOEFEUPTDBMFVQUPSFTJM JFODFBOETVTUBJOBCJMJUZBUUIFMFWFMPGJOUFSBDUJOHFDPTZTUFNT FDPOPNJFT BOETPDJFUJFTThe CSPBE TVCKFDUBSFBJTUIFJOUFSBDUJPOCFUXFFOQFPQMFBOEOBUVSFThe XPSEQBOBSDIZXBTQJDLFEUPDPO USBTUXJUIDPOUSPMIJFSBSDIJFTBOEUPJODPSQPSBUFUIFDPODFQUPGUJNFBOEDZDMFTThrFFUIFNFTBSF CSPVHIUUPHFUIFSJOUIJTQSPDFTT 4UBCJMJUZ DIBOHF BOESFTJMJFODF $SPTTTDBMFJOUFSBDUJPOTBDSPTTBXJEFSBOHFPGTDBMFT JODMVEJOHUIFUJNFTDBMFBOEBMTPNPTU PGUIFTDBMFWJFXTXFEJTDVTTFEJO$IBQUFS "EBQUJWFDIBOHFBOEMFBSOJOHTMPXDZDMFTJOUFSTQFSTFEXJUISBQJEDIBOHFDZDMFT This QSPDFTTFNCSBDFTUIFUFOTJPOTBOEQBSBEPYFTPGFYQMPJUBUJPOBOEDPOTFSWBUJPO EFTUSVDUJPO BOE CJSUI SFMFBTF BOE SFPSHBOJ[BUJPO BOE TUBCJMJUZ BOE DIBOHF The JOUFHSBUFE FMFNFOUT PG UIJT QSPDFTTBSFGVMMZDPOTJTUFOUXJUIUIF.04&4BQQSPBDIUPFYUFOTJPOBOEuniﬁcation PGUSBEJUJPOBM BOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNTThe QBOBSDIZNPEFMDPVMECFBsigniﬁcant DPOUSJCVUPSUPUIF4&QSPDFTTFT PGUIFGVUVSF

Models at Runtime "NPWFNFOUBEESFTTJOHNPEFMTBUSVOUJNFIBTFNFSHFE"QSJNBSZUIFNFJTFYUFOEJOHNPEFM JOH JOUP SVOUJNF FYFDVUJPO PG TPGUXBSF BOE JOGPSNBUJPO TZTUFNT The NPUJWBUJPO JT UIF DIBOHF PDDVSSJOH JO SVOUJNF FYQFDUBUJPOT PG TPGUXBSF 4PGUXBSF JT NPSF EZOBNJD BOE NPSF EFDJTJPOT BOEDIBOHFTBSFNBEFBUSVOUJNF*O.04&4UFSNT UIJTJTQBSUPGUIFCMFOEJOHPG-FWFMBOE DIBOHFTXIFSFUIFTZTUFNDIBOHFTEVSJOHPQFSBUJPO 4PGUXBSFOFFETUPCFBEBQUBCMF ﬂexible, BOESeconﬁgurable OPUKVTUJOUIFEFTJHOFOWJSPONFOU CVU JO UIF SVOUJNF FOWJSPONFOU *O BEEJUJPO NPSF TPGUXBSF BVUPOPNZ BT JO TFMGNBOBHJOH PS BVUPOPNJDGVODUJPOT JTFYQFDUFE4FMGBXBSFOFTTBOESeﬂection BSFBMTPJNQPSUBOUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT .PEFMESJWFOBQQSPBDIFTIBWFTUSFOHUIFOFEEFTJHOBOEQSPEVDUJPOPGTPGUXBSF CVUNPEFMJOHTVQ QPSUEVSJOHSVOUJNFJTXeak. That is what this moWFNFOUJTBUUFNQUJOHUPSFNFEZ 4VNNBSJFTPGUIFﬁrst UXPXPSLTIPQTPGUIJTHSPVQBSFJO#FODPNP #MBJS BOE'SBODF BOE#FODPNP 'SBODF BOE#MBJS

Time

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Models of Change Involving Levels 2 and 3 Example -FWFMDIBOHFJOWPMWFTDIBOHFJOBNPEFM - UIBUJTJOUJNBUFMZBTTPDJBUFEXJUIDIBOHFJOJOEJ WJEVBMTZTUFNT - The NPEFMQMBZTUIFSPMFPGDBUFHPSZBOEUIFJOEJWJEVBMTZTUFNTQMBZUIFSPMF PGJOTUBODFTPGUIBUDBUFHPSZ-DIBOHFJTUIFMPDVTPGCJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPO"OFYBNQMFXJMMIFMQ SFWFBMUIFTJNQMJDJUZPGUIF-DPODFQU -FUTDPOTJEFSUIFGPMMPXJOHTDFOBSJPPGNPEFMTBOEQPQVMBUJPOTJOUIFEPNBJOPGIVNBOBOBUPNZ 'JSTU BTTVNFUIBUFTTFOUJBMBOBUPNZPGIVNBOTPO&BSUIIBTOPUDIBOHFEEVSJOHUIFNJMMFOOJVN CFUXFFOZFBSTBOE"TTVNFBMTPUIBUIVNBOTXJMMTVSWJWFJOTPNFGPSNGPSUIFOFYUNJM MJPOZFBST BOEFTTFOUJBMDIBOHFTUPIVNBOBOBUPNZXJMMPDDVSPWFSUIBUQFSJPE UIBUJT CFUXFFOZFBST BOE'VSUIFSBTTVNFUIBUUIFBDUVBMQSPDFTTPGCJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPOPGQPQVMBUJPOTPO &BSUIJTTVTDFQUJCMFUPDIBOHF CVUUIBUEVSJOHUIFQFSJPEUPJUEPFTOPUDIBOHF /Pw deﬁne four models: "UIFNPEFMPGIVNBOBOBUPNZdeﬁned CZUIFDPNNVOJUZPGIVNBOBOBUPNJTUTBUBOZ HJWFOQPJOUJOUJNF '"UIFhigh-ﬁdelity NPEFMPGIVNBOBOBUPNZBUBOZHJWFOQPJOUJOUJNF UIBUJT UIF NPEFMUIBUSeﬂects actual human anatomy at that time. $UIFNPEFMPGCJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPOdeﬁned CZUIFDPNNVOJUZPGFWPMVUJPOBSZCJPMPHJTUT PSUIFFRVJWBMFOU BUBOZHJWFOQPJOUJOUJNF '$ the high-ﬁdelity model of biological evPMVUJPOBUBOZHJWFOQPJOUJOUJNF 5BCMFTIPXTUIFTFNPEFMTBUTFWFSBMQPJOUTJOUJNF (JWFOUIFBTTVNQUJPOTBCPWF XIBUDBOXFTBZBCPVUUIFdiﬀerFODFTCFUXFFOUIFTFNPEFMTBOE XIBUMFWFMTUIFZSFQSesent? The rFMFWBOUQPJOUTJODMVEF '" '" BOE'"BSFBMMUIFTBNFCVU'"JTdiﬀerFOUCFDBVTFFWPMVUJPOPGBOBUPNZ PDDVSSFEJOUIFIVNBOQPQVMBUJPOGSPNUP*UJTBO-DIBOHFCFDBVTFJU JTBNPEFMDIBOHF - CBTFEPODIBOHFJOUIFQPQVMBUJPOPGJOEJWJEVBMT - " " BOE"BSFBMMTPNFXIBUdiﬀerFOUUIBUJT BMUIPVHIBDUVBMIVNBOBOBUPNZEJEOPU DIBOHFEVSJOHUIJTQFSJPE PVSVOEFSTUBOEJOHBOENPEFMPGJUEJEThese DIBOHFTUIFSFGPSF SFQSFTFOU-DIBOHFJONPEFMCVUOPUJOTZTUFNT "diﬀers GSPN"GPSUXPSFBTPOT'JSTUBOBUPNJTUTQSFTVNBCMZMFBSOFENPSFBCPVUBOBU PNZ XIJDIJT-DIBOHF4FDPOE BOBUPNJTUTUSBDLFEUIFDIBOHFJOIVNBOBOBUPNZPWFS UIFDPVSTFPGUIFNJMMJPOZFBST TPUIBUDIBOHFJTBO-DIBOHF

Table 9.3 Sample Model Changes across Time Year Model FA A FC C

Change Level

1009

1909

2009

1002009

L2-3 L3 (L2-3) L2-3 L3

FA1 A1 FC1 C1

FA2 A2 FC2 C2

FA3 A3 FC3 C3

FA4 A4 FC4 C4

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

'$ '$ '$ BOE'$BSFBMMUIFTBNF/PDIBOHFJOUIFFTTFOUJBMFWPMVUJPOQSPDFTT PDDVSSFEBDSPTTUIJTUJNFQFSJPE $ $ $ BOE$BSFBMMdiﬀerFOU$XBTUIFNPEFMPGDIBOHFJOIVNBOBOBUPNZJO XIJDI XBT TPNFUIJOH MJLF UIJT IVNBO BOBUPNZ EPFT OPU DIBOHF PWFS UJNF JU JT DPOTUBOU$SFQSFTFOUTFTTFOUJBMMZ%BSXJOTUIFPSZPGFWPMVUJPO$SFQSFTFOUTUIFDVSSFOU UIFPSZPGFWPMVUJPO XIJDIJTNPSFPSMFTTUIFNPEFSOTZOUIFTJTUIBUclariﬁed UIFHFOFUJD SPMFJOWBSJBUJPO 'VUVZNB $XJMMSeﬂect XIBUFWFSBEEJUJPOBMMFBSOJOHUBLFTQMBDF PGUIFQSPDFTTPGFWPMVUJPOPWFSUIFOFYUNJMMJPOZFBST"MMUIFTFDIBOHFTBSFUPUIFNPEFM POMZ -

OPUUPUIFFWPMVUJPOQSPDFTTJUTFMG XIJDIXFBTTVNFEPFTOPUDIBOHFEVSJOHUIJT QFSJPE The DIBOHFGSPN$UP$XBTQSPCBCMZHSFBUFSUIBOUIFDIBOHFGSPN"UP"CFDBVTF BMUIPVHIPVSLOPXMFEHFPGBOBUPNZJODSFBTFEsigniﬁcantly UIFDIBOHFQSPCBCMZXBTOPUBT SBEJDBMBTUIBUSFQSFTFOUFECZ%BSXJOTUIFPSZ This FYBNQMFJMMVTUSBUFTUIFEJTUJODUJPOCFUXFFOBO-NPEFMDIBOHF XIJDIJTOPUBTTPDJBUFE XJUI TZTUFN DIBOHF BOE BO - DIBOHF XIJDI JT NPEFM DIBOHF CBTFE PO TZTUFN DIBOHF *O UIJTDBTF -DIBOHFXBTCBTFEPOMFBSOJOHNPSFBCPVUUIFTZTUFNTCFJOHNPEFMFE UIBUJT BCPVU JODSeasing ﬁdelity of the model.

Applying Biological Evolution &WPMVUJPOIBTCFFOBEPNJOBOUBOEHSPXJOHUPQJDJO4&JOSFDFOUZFBST NVDINPSFUIBOPUIFS CJPMPHJDBMNPEFMTPGDIBOHF8FFYQMPSFJOUIJTTFDUJPOBdeﬁnition PGCJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPOBOEIPX UIFUFSNiFWPMVUJPOwJTVTFEJO4&

Evolution: Deﬁnition and Introduction #iological deﬁnition: #JPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPO BDDPSEJOHUP'VUVZNB BOE

JT iDIBOHFJOUIFQSPQFSUJFTPGHSPVQTPGPSHBOJTNTPWFSUIFDPVSTFPGHFOFSBUJPOTThe EFWFMPQNFOU PS POUPHFOZ PG BO JOEJWJEVBM PSHBOJTN JT OPU DPOTJEFSFE FWPMVUJPO *OEJWJEVBMPSHBOJTNTEPOPUFWPMWF(SPVQTPGPSHBOJTNT XIJDIXFNBZDBMMQPQV MBUJPOT VOEFSHP EFTDFOU XJUI modiﬁcation z The DIBOHFT JO QPQVMBUJPOT UIBU BSF DPOTJEFSFE FWPMVUJPOBSZ BSF UIPTF UIBU BSF QBTTFE WJB UIF HFOFUJD NBUFSJBM GSPN POF HFOFSBUJPOUPUIFOFYU#JPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPONBZCFTMJHIUPSTVCTUBOUJBMJUFNCSBDFT FWFSZUIJOHGSPNTMJHIUDIBOHFTJOUIFQSPQPSUJPOTPGdiﬀerFOUGPSNTPGBHFOFXJUIJO BQPQVMBUJPOUPUIFBMUFSBUJPOTUIBUMFEGSPNUIFFBSMJFTUPSHBOJTNUPEJOPTBVST CFFT PBLT BOEIVNBOTzThe AHFOFUJDBMUIFPSZPGOBUVSBMTFMFDUJPOzJTUIFLFZTUPOFPG DPOUFNQPSBSZFWPMVUJPOBSZUIFPSZz/BUVSBMTFMFDUJPOJTOPUUIFTBNFBTFWPMVUJPO &WPMVUJPOJTBUXPTUFQQSPDFTTUIFPSJHJOPGHFOFUJDWBSJBUJPOCZNVUBUJPOPSSFDPNCJ OBUJPO GPMMPXFECZDIBOHFTJOUIFGSFRVFODJFTPGBMMFMFTBOEHFOPUZQFT DBVTFEchieﬂy CZHFOFUJDESJGUPSOBUVSBMTFMFDUJPOw &OHJOFFSJOHdeﬁnitions:*ODPOUSBTUUPCJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPO JOFOHJOFFSJOHBDPNNPONFBOJOHPG FWPMVUJPOJTDIBOHFJOBHJWFOJOEJWJEVBMTZTUFN SBUIFSUIBOJOBQPQVMBUJPO*O.04&4UFSNT UIJT UZQFBQQMJFTUPUIF-FWFMDIBOHFPGBOJOEJWJEVBMTZTUFNThis NFBOJOHPGFWPMVUJPOJTSeﬂected JO QISBTFTTVDIBT“This TZTUFNFWPMWFTPWFSUJNFw#JPMPHZVTFTUFSNTTVDIBTiBEBQUBUJPO wiHSPXUI w

Time

O

231

iEFWFMPQNFOU wBOEiNBUVSBUJPOwGPSUIJTUZQFPGJOEJWJEVBMDIBOHF#FDBVTFUIJTVTBHFPGFWPMVUJPO JTFTUBCMJTIFEJOFOHJOFFSJOH UIFHPBMBUUIJTQPJOUJTUPQSPNPUFSFDPHOJUJPOPGCPUINFBOJOHTPG UIFUFSNBOENBLJOHUIFEJTUJODUJPOTFYQMJDJU FWPMVUJPOJTHSBEVBMDIBOHFJOBOJOEJWJEVBMTZT UFNPSFOUJUZ BOE FWPMVUJPOJTHSBEVBMDIBOHFJOBQPQVMBUJPOPGJOEJWJEVBMTZTUFNTPSFOUJUJFT Which deﬁnition is being used in a givFOTJUVBUJPOTIPVMECFNBEFDMFBS The remainder of this subsection discusses deﬁnition (2). .04&4QFSTQFDUJWFPOdeﬁnition *OUIFDPOUFYUPG4&BOEUIFJTTVFPGDIBOHF UIF.04&4 QPTJUJPOJTUIBUJUNBLFTTFOTFUPEFTJHOBUFBQPQVMBUJPOBTBDBUFHPSZ XJUIJUTNFNCFSTBTJOTUBODFT PGUIFDBUFHPSZ&BDICJPMPHJDBMQPQVMBUJPOIBTBdeﬁned TFUPGDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBUIPMETGPSBMM JUTJOTUBODFT4P FWPMVUJPOPGBQPQVMBUJPOJTDIBOHFJOBDBUFHPSZ XIJDIJTBDIBOHFJOBHFOFSBM NPEFMB-FWFMDIBOHF"OECFDBVTFJUJTJOUJNBUFMZBTTPDJBUFEXJUIUIFDIBOHFPGUIFQPQVMB UJPOJOEJWJEVBMT JUJTEFTJHOBUFEBT-

Deﬁne the Unit of Selection &WPMVUJPODBOCFBQQMJFEUPBOZEPNBJOJOXIJDIVOJUTPGTFMFDUJPOBSFdeﬁned BOEUIFZFYIJCJU WBSJFUZPOXIJDITFMFDUJPOPQFSBUFT#BMEXJOBOE$MBSL EJTDVTTUIFBQQMJDBUJPOPGFWPMV UJPOJOUIJTTFOTFUPUIFHFOFSBMBSFBPGEFTJHO6OJUTPGTFMFDUJPOJOEFTJHOFWPMVUJPODBOJODMVEF BSUJGBDUT TZTUFNT EFTJHOT BOEUBTLTUSVDUVSFT6OJUTPGTFMFDUJPOJOJOEVTUSZFWPMVUJPODBOJODMVEF FOUFSQSJTFTBOEPSHBOJ[BUJPOT*ONPEVMBSTZTUFNT UIFVOJUPGTFMFDUJPOEPFTOPUIBWFUPCFUIF XIPMFTZTUFN*UDBOCFBTVCTZTUFNPSDPNQPOFOUBOZXIFSFJOUIFDPNQPTJUJPOIJFSBSDIZThis QSPWJEFTHSeater granularity in selecting ﬁt elements oWer unﬁt. *OTPNFBQQMJDBUJPOT UIFVOJUPGTFMFDUJPOJTBCFIBWJPSPGBTZTUFNThe CFIBWJPSTSFQSFTFOUB WBSJFUZ BOEDFSUBJOCFIBWJPSTBSFTFMFDUFEBOEPUIFSTBSFOPU*GXFDPOTJEFSUIFJOEJWJEVBMCFIBWJPST UPDIBOHF PSUIFGSFRVFODZPGCFIBWJPSTUPDIBOHFJOUIFQPQVMBUJPOPGCFIBWJPST UIFOXFDPVME DBMMUIJTBO-DIBOHF8FTIPVMEOPUFUIBUXIJMFUIJTJTBSFBTPOBCMFBQQMJDBUJPOPGFWPMVUJPO JUJTOPUDMFBSUIBUUIJTJTNPSFVTFGVMUIBOUIFTJNQMFSCJPMPHJDBMNPEFMTUIBUFYJTUBU- TVDIBT BEBQUBUJPOPSNBUVSBUJPOPGUIFTZTUFN PSFWFO-CFIBWJPSPGUIFTZTUFN

Applications 0OFDMFBSBOEBQQSPQSJBUFXBZUPBQQMZFWPMVUJPOUP4&JTUPVTFHFOFSBMNPEFMTUIBUSFQSFTFOU DBUFHPSJFT"QSPNJOFOUFYBNQMFJTUZQFTPSHFOFSBUJPOTPGUFDIOPMPHJFT"QFSTQFDUJWFUIBUIFMQT FYQMBJOUIJTUZQFPGBQQMJDBUJPOJTUIBUPGFWPMVUJPOJOBDIBOHJOHFOWJSPONFOU*GUIFFOWJSPONFOU DIBOHFTUPPSBQJEMZ UIFQPQVMBUJPODBOOPUFWPMWFRVJDLMZFOPVHIBOEJUEJFTPVU *OUFDIOPMPHZBOE4& UIFFOWJSPONFOUTPNFUJNFTDIBOHFTRVJDLMZ8IFOUIF*OUFSOFUFNFSHFE JOUIFT JUXBTBSBUIFSSBQJEBOEsigniﬁcant DIBOHFGPSJOEJWJEVBMT BOEBTPNFXIBUNPSF HSBEVBMDIBOHFGPSPSHBOJ[BUJPOT.BOZJOEJWJEVBMTRVJDLMZBEBQUFEBOEFYQMPJUFEUIFOFXFOWJ SPONFOU CVUTPNFEJEOPU"GUFSBQFSJPEPGUJNF JGPSHBOJ[BUJPOTEJEOPUBEBQU UIFZXFSFQSPC BCMZBUBEJTBEWBOUBHF/PXUIFSFJTBOPUIFSHFOFSBUJPOPGUFDIOPMPHJFTDBMMFE8FC TVDIBT CMPHTBOEXJLJT*OUIFDPOUFYUPGPSHBOJ[BUJPOT TPNFDBMMUIJT&OUFSQSJTFThis DPODFQUJTOPU HBJOJOHUSBDUJPOJOPSHBOJ[BUJPOTBTGBTUBTFYQFDUFE $IVSDI #BTFEPOBOFDEPUBMFWJEFODF UIFSFJTBHFOFSBUJPOBMdiﬀerFODFJOBDDFQUBCJMJUZPG&OUFSQSJTFUFDIOPMPHJFTUIFPMEFSHFOFSB UJPOPGQFPQMFJTNPSFDPOUFOUUPTUBZXJUIﬁrst-generation *OUFSOFUUFDIOPMPHJFTTVDIBTFNBJM XIJMFUIFOFXFSHFOFSBUJPOJTVTJOHUIFOFXUFDIOPMPHJFTNPSF *O4& FWPMVUJPOJOQPQVMBUJPOTTVDIBTPSHBOJ[BUJPOTDBOPDDVSJOTFWFSBMXBZT0OFJTCZBEBQ UBUJPOPGUIFJOEJWJEVBMNFNCFSTUPBOFXFOWJSPONFOU XIJDIJTXIBUIBQQFOFE UPBMBSHFFYUFOU

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XJUI UIF *OUFSOFU "OPUIFS JT CZ SFQMBDFNFOU FH UISPVHI SFUJSFNFOU BOE IJSJOH PG NFNCFST XIPIBWFOPUBEBQUFECZOFXNFNCFSTXIPBMSFBEZﬁt UIFOFXFOWJSPONFOU XIJDIBQQBSFOUMZJT IBQQFOJOHUPTPNFEFHSFFXJUI&OUFSQSJTF"deﬁned QSPDFTTPGBQQMZJOHFWPMVUJPOUPPSHBOJ[B UJPOTJTQSFTFOUFEJO"YFMSPEBOE$PIFO BOEEJTDVTTFEGVSUIFSJO$IBQUFS The TBNFQBUUFSOFYJTUTXJUINPSFUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNT*GUIFFOWJSPONFOUPGBTZTUFNDIBOHFT JOBXBZUIBUSFRVJSFTsigniﬁcant DIBOHFTUPUIFTZTUFN BOBOBMZTJTOFFETUPCFEPOFUPDPNQBSF UIFPQUJPOTPGDIBOHJOH BEBQUJOH UIFTZTUFNUPUIFOFXFOWJSPONFOU PSSFQMBDJOHJUXJUIBOFX system that has a better ﬁt. The NPSF HFOFSBM QBUUFSO JT UIBU HFOFSBUJPOT PG UFDIOPMPHZ SFQSFTFOU QPQVMBUJPOT BOE TZT UFNTVTJOHPSSFQSFTFOUJOHUIPTFUFDIOPMPHJFTBSFJOEJWJEVBMT5FDIOPMPHJFTFWPMWFWJBTFMFDUJPOPG TZTUFNT 4DJFOUJTUTBOEscientiﬁc UIFPSJFTIBWFFYIJCJUFEUIFTBNFUFOTJPO UIFTBNFQBUUFSO.BY1MBODL FYQSFTTFEUIFQBUUFSOUIJTXBZJO "OJNQPSUBOUscientiﬁc JOOPWBUJPOSBSFMZNBLFTJUTXBZCZHSBEVBMMZXJOOJOHPWFSBOE DPOWFSUJOHJUTPQQPOFOUT8IBUEPFTIBQQFOJTUIBUJUTPQQPOFOUTHSBEVBMMZEJFPVU BOEUIBUUIFHSPXJOHHFOFSBUJPOJTGBNJMJBSJ[FEXJUIUIFJEFBGSPNUIFCFHJOOJOH *OGBDU UIFQBUUFSOJOTDJFODFJODMVEFTUIFQIFOPNFOPOXIFSFFWFOBTDJFOUJTUXIPQSPQPTFTBOFX UIFPSZDBOOPUBDDFQUJU XIJMFUIFOFXFSHFOFSBUJPOJOUIFﬁFMEFNCSBDFTJU"XFMMLOPXOFYBNQMFJT &JOTUFJO XIPNBEFTVCTUBOUJBMDPOUSJCVUJPOTUPRVBOUVNUIFPSZCVUDPVMEOPUBDDFQUNBOZBTQFDUT PGUIFUIFPSZ JODMVEJOHTPNFPGIJTPXOJNQMJDBUJPOT *TBBDTPO 4UPOF

Distinctions, Differences 4PNFEJTUJODUJPOTCFUXFFOUIFFWPMVUJPOQSPDFTTJOCJPMPHZBOEJO4&BSFEJTDVTTFEIFSF *OIFSJUBODFBOEJUTSPMFJOFWPMVUJPO*OCJPMPHZ UIFSFJTBTUSPOHHFOFUJDMJOLGSPNUIFPMEUPUIF OFXUISPVHIUIFJOIFSJUBODFDIBJO/PJOEJWJEVBMTZTUFN PSHBOJTN JTTJNQMZDSFBUFEXJUIBXIPMF diﬀerFOUTFUPGHFOFT&WFSZUIJOHJTMJOLFEUISPVHIDPNNPOEFTDFOU#VUJOFOHJOFFSJOH UIFSFJT BNVDIDMFBOFSCSFBLJONBOZDBTFTGSPNPOFUFDIOPMPHZHFOFSBUJPOUPUIFOFYUTher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

Time

O

233

*OCJPMPHZ NVUBUJPOTPDDVSXIFODPQZJOHUIFHFOPNF XIJDIJTPOFTPVSDFPGUIFWBSJBUJPO OFDFTTBSZGPSFWolution. The counterparUJOTPGUXBSFJTHFOFUJDQSPHSBNNJOH "Stiﬁcial FWPMVUJPOTherFJTBSFTFBSDIDPNNVOJUZFYQMPSJOHBStiﬁcial FWPMVUJPO XIJDIJTSFMBUFE UPBStiﬁcial MJGFThis ﬁeld deﬁnes BOEVTFTNPEFMTPGBHFOUT ﬁtness MBOETDBQFT TFMFDUJPODSJUFSJB FUD"DDPSEJOHUP%VDPVMPNCJFSBOE4FCBH

BStiﬁcial FWPMVUJPOVTVBMMZDPOTJEFSTﬁxFEFOWJ SPONFOUTPSﬁtness MBOETDBQFT'PSBQQMJDBUJPOUPUIFGVUVSFPG4& UIJTMJNJUBUJPOXPVMEOFFEUP CFSFWJTJUFE

Conclusions: Needed Change Models This TFDUJPObrieﬂy DIBSBDUFSJ[FTUIFTVJUFPGDIBOHFNPEFMTOFFEFECZUIFGVUVSF4& CVJMEJOHPO UIFQSFDFEJOHTFDUJPOT'JSTU JUJTFYUSFNFMZJNQPSUBOUUPJODMVEFNPEFMTPGDIBOHFJOUIFBSTFOBM PG4&PGUIFGVUVSF8FCFMJFWFUIJTBSFBJTRVJUFXFBLJOUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH#JPMPHJDBM FWPMVUJPOJTPOFPGBOVNCFSPGCJPMPHJDBMNPEFMTPGDIBOHF4&OFFETUPFYBNJOFPUIFSTBTXFMM The BQQSPQSJBUFTFMFDUJPOPGCJPMPHJDBMNPEFMTPGDIBOHF BOEBQQSPQSJBUFXBZTUPBQQMZUIFNBOE UBJMPSUIFNUP4&BUWBSJPVTMFWFMT JTBTVCKFDUGPSGVSUIFSSFTFBSDI 8FDBO IPXFWFS EFTDSJCFDFSUBJODIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFOFFEFETVJUFPGDIBOHFNPEFMTGPS4& The TVJUF JODMVEFT NPEFMT BU BMM SBUFT GSPN WFSZ HSBEVBM DIBOHF PWFS UJNF UP TVEEFO DIBOHF *U JODMVEFTNPEFMTPGTFMGDIBOHF TVDIBTTFMGBEBQUJOH TFMGNPEJGZJOH TFMGPSHBOJ[JOH FH )PMMBOE Kauﬀman

HSPXUI EFDMJOF BOE UFSNJOBUJPO PS EFBUI *U BMTP JODMVEFT NPEFMT PG DIBOHFJOEVDFECZBOFYUFSOBMBHFOU TVDIBTBEFTJHOFSPSDPOUSPMMFSPSVQHSBEFSPSUFBDIFS*U includes purposeful change, accidental change, and inﬂuenced change. *U BMTP JODMVEFT EFTJSFE DIBOHF BOE VOEFTJSFE DIBOHF BT TIPXO JO5BCMF *O HFOFSBM B HJWFOTJUVBUJPOIBTCPUIGPSDFTGPSDIBOHFBOEGPSDFTGPSTUBCJMJUZ4PNFUJNFTXFEFTJSFDIBOHFBOE TPNFUJNFTXFEFTJSFTUBCJMJUZ'PSFYBNQMF JGXFBSFFOHJOFFSJOHBOFXTZTUFN XFPSUIFQFSTPO SFRVFTUJOHUIFOFXTZTUFNEFTJSFDIBOHFPGTPNFUZQF*GXFEFTJSFDIBOHF XFTIPVMEFYQMPJU UIFGPSDFTGPSDIBOHFBOEDPVOUFSUIFGPSDFTGPSTUBCJMJUZ*ONBOZDBTFTPGPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMDIBOHF TPNFQFPQMFEFTJSFUIFDIBOHF XIJMFPUIFSTEPOPUThose EFTJSJOHDIBOHFXJMMFYQMPJUUIFGPSDFT GPSDIBOHF TVDIBTUIFdiﬃculties DBVTFECZUIFDVSSFOUTJUVBUJPO BOEUIPTFPQQPTFEUPDIBOHFXJMM FYQMPJUUIFGPSDFTGPSTUBCJMJUZ, such as cost, diﬃculty of change, inerUJB *OLFFQJOHXJUIUIFNPEVMBSOBUVSFPG.04&4 JUJTJNQPSUBOUUPFNQIBTJ[FUIBUDIBOHFJT EFDPVQMFEGSPNUIFWBMVFPSEFTJSBCJMJUZPGUIFDIBOHF BTTUBUFEJO$IBQUFSThe BOBMZTJTBOE NPEFMJOHPGDIBOHFJTPOFBDUJWJUZ"TFQBSBUFBDUJWJUZJTUIFEFTJHOBUJPOUIBUUIFDIBOHFSFQSFTFOUT QSPHSFTTPSEFDMJOF PSJTEFTJSFEPSVOEFTJSFE5BCMFSFQSFTFOUTBTUBUFJOXIJDITVDIBEFTJHOB UJPOIBTCFFONBEF&WPMVUJPOJTEFDPVQMFEGSPNWBMVBUJPOPGUIFDIBOHFUIBUPDDVST

Table 9.4 Actions

Desired and Undesired Change

Forces Desired

Change

Stability

Change Stability

Exploit Counter

Counter Exploit

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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ABSOLUTE FUTURE

PRESENT ELSEWHERE ELSEWHERE ABSOLUTE PAST

Figure 9.8 Dual hierarchies of time. (“Interior illustration” by Ron Miller, ©1988 by Ron Miller, from A Brief History of Time by Stephen W. Hawking. Used with permission from Bantam Books, a division of Random House, Inc.)

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Chapter 10

Views <1SPHSFTT>IBTCFFONBEFSFDFOUMZJOﬁOEJOHiEVBMJUJFTwPSDPSSFTQPOEFODFTCFUXFFO BQQBSFOUMZEJﬀFSFOUUIFPSJFTPGQIZTJDT ThFTFDPSSFTQPOEFODFTBSFBTUSPOHJOEJDBUJPO UIBUUIFSFJTBDPNQMFUFVOJﬁFEUIFPSZPGQIZTJDT CVUUIFZBMTPTVHHFTUUIBUJUNBZOPU CFQPTTJCMFUPFYQSFTTUIJTUIFPSZJOBTJOHMFGVOEBNFOUBMGPSNVMBUJPO*OTUFBE XFNBZ IBWFUPVTFEJﬀFSFOUSFﬂFDUJPOTPGUIFVOEFSMZJOHUIFPSZJOEJﬀFSFOUTJUVBUJPOTzThJT XPVMECFBSFWPMVUJPOJOPVSWJFXPGUIFVOJﬁDBUJPOPGUIFMBXTPGTDJFODFz 4UFQIFO)BXLJOH 'PSFXPSE, ThF*MMVTUSBUFE"#SJFG)JTUPSZPG5JNF Systems taxonomy 1

Modeling scope

SE Application Domains (D1...Dn)

Collective actualization space

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn

Problem space

3a

TS/CS diﬀerent in degree 3b Traditional Complex

Characteristics of all systems

Highest level system

Deﬁne need

Complex 4 Traditional TS is special case 5 Characteristics of all SE systems Traditional and Complex 6

Model Space

All SE application domains...

Indivisible Unit Model of Individual system or component

Universal model

Composition

TS/CS diﬀerent in kind 2b 2a Traditional systems Complex systems

Common speciﬁcation approach: Repeating internal/external structure

Solution domain

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Conceptualization Conceptualization -- Language/notation Language/notation -- Universe Universe of ofdiscourse discourse

e

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Views exist within and across all the dimensions

Produce solution

Deployment

Satisfy need

Solution/system space

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245

Potential Targets of Nested Views Potential Targets

View

S

V1

V2

V3

V4

C1

V1: A(S) V2: static(V1) V3: structure(V2) V4: components(V3) V5: ext C1(V4)

√ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √

√ √ √

√ √

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√

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Examples of input

r1

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Output view; e.g., pipeline model

r2

S2

p2

N2

r3

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Examples of interaction view; e.g., client-server model

Figure 10.1

Contrasting views of components in interaction.

p3

248 O

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Table 10.2 Recommended Design Views Design View

Scope

Entity Attributes

Decomposition

Partition of the system into design entities

Dependency

Description of the relationships Identiﬁcation, type, among entities and system purpose, resources dependencies, resources List of everything a designer, Identiﬁcation, programmer, or tester needs to function, interfaces know to use the design entities that make up the system Description of the internal Identiﬁcation, design details of an entity processing, data

Interface description

Detail description

Identiﬁcation, type, purpose, function, subordinates

Example Representations Hierarchical decomposition diagram, natural language Structure charts, data ﬂow diagrams, transaction diagrams Interface ﬁles, parameter tables

Flowcharts, N-S charts, PDL

Source: IEEE. IEEE Recommended Practice for Software Design Descriptions. IEEE 1016-1998. New York: IEEE Computer Society, 1998. Used with permission.

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Figure 10.2 Zachman enterprise framework. (Source: Published by Zachman International, 2008. http://www.zachmaninternational.com/ index.php/the-zachman-framework.)

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Did Parnas Anticipate Features of Aspects? Parnas, in his famous decomposition criteria paper (1972, 1057), may have presaged or foreshadowed concepts that later became key elements of aspect-oriented programming. In his discussion of performance issues with his KWIC information hiding design (because it would cause many calls to the same Line Storage module), he said: “To save the procedure call overhead, yet gain the advantages that we have seen above, we must implement these modules in an unusual way. In many cases the routines will be best inserted into the code by an assembler; in other cases, highly specialized and efﬁcient transfers would be inserted. To successfully and efﬁciently make use of the second type of decomposition will require a tool by means of which programs may be written as if the functions were subroutines, but assembled by whatever implementation is appropriate. If such a technique is used, the separation between modules may not

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Table 10.3 Examples of Harmonizing Traditional and Complex Dualities Traditional

Complex

Harmony/Balance

Order Simple Top down Control

Disorder Complex Bottom up Autonomy, laissez faire

Avoid change

Encourage change

Both coexist Both coexist Both: back and forth, opportunistic Both: arrangement, inﬂuence, higher-order patterns Both: ﬁnd and exploit stability, ﬁnd and exploit change, use stability to guide change Analyze both whole and parts

Reductionism: Analyze Emergence: Analyze parts whole Pure dictatorship/ Pure democracy/ one over all everyone is equal Avoid risk, even if it Embrace opportunity, arises from signiﬁcant even if it entails opportunity signiﬁcant risk Do what we know Try something new

Everyone has a voice, but leadership arises, emerges, sanctioned by the group; a few are leaders, many are followers Risk and opportunity; evaluate appropriate balance Explicitly trade off the two; or sometimes do a combination of both; or do both in parallel and see which works out better. In situations where a binary choice must be made, having the perspective, the sense, the awareness, the gestalt, to know which to pick is an important kind of knowledge or intuition. This is a universal trade-off.

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Chapter 11

Speciﬁcation Information Systems taxonomy 1

Modeling scope

SE Application Domains (D1...Dn)

Collective actualization space

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn

Problem space

3a

TS/CS diﬀerent in degree 3b Traditional Complex

Characteristics of all systems

Highest level system

Deﬁne need

Complex 4 Traditional TS is special case 5 Characteristics of all SE systems Traditional and Complex 6

Model Space

All SE application domains...

Indivisible Unit Model of Individual system or component

Universal model

Composition

TS/CS diﬀerent in kind 2b 2a Traditional systems Complex systems

Common speciﬁcation approach: Repeating internal/external structure

Solution domain

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Problem/ user domain

Conceptualization Conceptualization -- Language/notation Language/notation -- Universe Universe of ofdiscourse discourse

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Views exist within and across all the dimensions

Produce solution

Deployment

Satisfy need

Solution/system space

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External = Black box view Internal = Clear box view

Internal speciﬁcation of A

A The internal speciﬁcation of a system (A) includes the external speciﬁcation of each of its components (B, ...) –or–

B r3

The architecture of a system (A) includes the requirements of each of its components (B, …)

N3

r1

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Interface speciﬁcations of D

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r5

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p5

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Figure 11.1 Internal, external, and interface speciﬁcations. (Source: Hybertson, D. Using a speciﬁcation approach to facilitate component testing. In Testing Commercial-off-the-Shelf Components and Systems, S. Beydeda and V. Gruhn, Eds. New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 213–237. 2005. Modiﬁed with permission of Springer Science + Business Media.)

Speciﬁcation Information

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Elements and Background of Approach A general source for the speciﬁcation approach described here is Szyperski (1998), as well as the general SOA approach to service speciﬁcations. An important element of achieving precision in speciﬁcation is a clear understanding of dependencies. Traditional systems speciﬁcations deﬁne what services or stuff are provided but not what are required. Luckham, Vera, and Meldal (1995) describe an “object connection architecture” as an architecture of a system in which component interfaces deﬁne services provided but not services used or required. They suggest, instead, “interface connection architectures” that specify both services provided and services required. An approach that supports this concept is Design by Contract (DBC), deﬁned by Meyer (1997). DBC originally emphasized contract provisions in the code itself, and the focus was primarily on behavioral or functional — as opposed to non-functional or performance — issues. Other inputs to the approach deﬁned here include UML (OMG 2007a, b), SysML (OMG 2007c), and RealTime Object-Oriented Modeling (Selic, Gullekson, and Ward 1994). The component-based development community has embraced the DBC concept and extended it for component use. First, the concept of trusted components has come into play. Meyer (2003) deﬁnes a trusted component as a reusable software element possessing speciﬁed and guaranteed property qualities. In the same paper, Meyer deﬁnes a high road and a low road toward establishing high-quality components. The low road is to start with today’s COTS or open-source components and move to certiﬁcation based on contracts. The high road is to produce new components with correctness proofs by deﬁning correctness properties based on contracts. Second, DBC has been extended to include nonfunctional information (performance, QoS) as well as cost. QoS in general has been deﬁned and researched extensively over a period of time. Common metrics include performance, such as message throughput and reliability, as well as security. See, for example, Wang et al. (2004). Aagedal and Ecklund (2002) describe an approach to QoS modeling that features the notion of QoS proﬁle. A proﬁle deﬁnes a QoS region in which a component operates. Multiple different QoS proﬁles may be deﬁned for a given component — for example, one proﬁle deﬁned for a PDA platform and another for a desktop platform. De Miguel, Ruiz, and Garcia (2002) adopt a similar idea in deﬁning a QoS model using UML extensions and applying it to component frameworks. Urting et al. (2002) also use contracts to model nonfunctional constraints for embedded software. A metric that has emerged more recently is quality of experience (QoE), which is the ultimate effect experienced by a consumer or user; for example,

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science see Kilkki (2008) and Gallo, Siller, and Woods (2007). An earlier variation of QoE is work done on task-technology ﬁt (TTF). Goodhue and Thompson (1995) proposed that for information technology to have a positive impact on individual performance, the technology must be utilized and it must be a good ﬁt with the task that it supports. They measured the ﬁt based on user perception and evaluation, which is what makes it a form of QoE. QoE is positioned at the user end of the interaction, in contrast to quality of direct output of system, and QoS of the connection or medium between system and user. Although the QoE value of a service or transaction is deﬁned by the user, it can be included in a system speciﬁcation in terms of a QoE response level that is received from the user or consumer. The cost might be the initial purchase of the component, the purchase of ongoing maintenance updates, or the cost of “renting” the component as a service on a pay-per-use basis. Cost may also be speciﬁed at a more granular level for each service. Brucker and Wolff (2001) and Paige and Ostroff (2001) discuss different approaches to increasing formal support for contracts in UML and OCL. The speciﬁcation approach described here incorporates these extended contract concepts. It does not require formal speciﬁcation or automation but it is fully consistent with these ideas. The well-developed area of reliability, with various metrics such as dependability, MTBF, etc., addresses much of the concept of probability of normal and abnormal characteristics. This provides a sound foundation for extending the approach of probabilistic speciﬁcations to autonomous agents and complex systems (CS). One basic theme: MOSES does not require any particular language or method of speciﬁcation; many can be used. On the other hand, most current speciﬁcation languages and methods have some deﬁciencies as viewed from the MOSES deﬁned approach. For example, adequate semantics, and making explicit the dependencies in an external speciﬁcation are often lacking, although in recent years more attention has been given to semantics.

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Content List 5BCMFT BOETIPXUIFUZQFTPGJOGPSNBUJPOJOBOJOUFSOBMTZTUFNTQFDJﬁDBUJPOThFZ SFﬂFDUUIFSFMBUJPOTTIPXOJO'JHVSFOBNFMZ UIBUBOJOUFSOBMTQFDJﬁDBUJPOJODMVEFTUIF FYUFSOBMTQFDJﬁDBUJPOTPGJUTDPNQPOFOUTBOEDPOOFDUPST BOEBOFYUFSOBMTQFDJﬁDBUJPOJODMVEFTUIF TQFDJﬁDBUJPOTPGJUTJOUFSGBDFT5BCMFQSFTFOUTSVMFTUIBUEFTDSJCFUIFSFRVJSFEJOGPSNBUJPOGPS "OFBSMJFSWFSTJPOPGUIFTFUBCMFTXBTQSFTFOUFEJO)ZCFSUTPO

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Table 11.1 Internal Speciﬁcation Content Rules Identiﬁer of the model: unique in a deﬁned namespace Version of the model, if appropriate Mapping between views (if more than one view deﬁned)

UML/OCL Interaction name Interaction stereotype or attribute Associations, OCL, stereotypes, annotations

For each view in the model (if only one, model view): Identiﬁer of view Interaction or class name Identiﬁcation of external models of system parts (components and Interaction, component, connectors) in this view (may be general or speciﬁc models) deployment diagrams (or simple list) Roles that may be assumed by parts in this view Role in association end or interaction Class/object deﬁnition; Rules about stuff visible in this view: information, goods stereotype deﬁnitions, invariants, initialization, states, relations etc. Process or behavior rules: ﬂow of stuff, synchronization of parallel Interaction diagrams; processes, interactions, state transitions etc. state charts Types of components allowed Annotations, stereotypes, OCL Types of connectors allowed (e.g., Internet-based; distributed Associations specialized types: signal, operation, ﬂow (RM-ODP 1996); software types: via stereotypes procedure call, data access, linkage, stream, event, arbitrator, adaptor, distributor (Mehta, Medvidovic, and Phadke 2000) Attachment of connector interfaces to component interfaces Interaction diagrams Protocol speciﬁcation: format, sequence, error checking, Associations, OCL or properties stereotype or annotation System-wide constraints on supporting environment Annotations, stereotypes, (e.g., physical or information technology infrastructure) OCL Implementation rules (e.g., use certain suppliers of material, Annotations, stereotypes, or certain vendor products, or follow certain standards) OCL Creation, use, and deletion of resources in system Annotations, stereotypes Other constraints the system places on each component, Annotations, stereotypes, or on each connector (e.g., security constraints or policies) OCL For each component and connector: whether shared Annotations, stereotypes, or contained OCL For each component and connector: If inclusion in system is Annotations, stereotypes, uncertain, probability of inclusion OCL For each component and connector: if inclusion in system Annotations, stereotypes, is partial, fuzzy measure of inclusion OCL External speciﬁcation of each part (by inclusion or reference Class or object name or hyperlink)—See Table 11.2 Optional information—e.g., architecture style, view type, Annotations, stereotypes, explanatory notes, correspondence information OCL Source: Hybertson, D. Using a speciﬁcation approach to facilitate component testing. In Testing Commercial-off-the-Shelf Components and Systems, S. Beydeda and V. Gruhn, Eds. New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 213–237. 2005. Modiﬁed with permission of Springer Science + Business Media.

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Table 11.2 External Speciﬁcation Content Rules Identiﬁer of the model: unique in a deﬁned namespace Version of the model, if appropriate Mapping between views (if more than one view deﬁned) Cost of system (e.g., purchase, maintenance upgrades, cost-per-use) For each view in the model (if only one, model view): Identiﬁer of view Identiﬁers of interfaces that provide a service Version of provider interface Identiﬁers of interfaces that require a service Version of receiver interface System invariant over all provided services and all required services (e.g., policies or other constraints) System externally observable properties Service or feature interactions among the interfaces of this system (sequence constraints, how one affects others, z) Speciﬁcation of each interface (by inclusion or reference or hyperlink)—See Table 11.3 Optional information—e.g., view type, explanatory notes, correspondence information

UML/OCL Class or object name Class stereotype or attribute Associations, OCL, stereotypes, annotations Interface annotation or stereotype1 Package or class name Interface name Interface stereotype or attribute Interface2 Interface stereotype or attribute Interface invariant in OCL or annotation Interface attributes in OCL or annotation Interface invariant in OCL or annotation Interface Annotations, stereotypes, OCL

1

This assumes a cost is associated with the system; if cost is instead associated only with each interface, then this item will not apply.

2

For all cases where Interface appears in the table, an additional mapping to UML for systems in a connector role is Association or Association End.

Source: Hybertson, D. Using a speciﬁcation approach to facilitate component testing. In Testing Commercial-off-the-Shelf Components and Systems, S. Beydeda and V. Gruhn, Eds. New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 213–237. 2005. Modiﬁed with permission of Springer Science + Business Media.

BOJOUFSOBMTQFDJﬁDBUJPO5BCMFTIPXTUIFSVMFTGPSBOFYUFSOBMTQFDJﬁDBUJPO BOE5BCMF TIPXTUIFSVMFTGPSBOJOUFSGBDFTQFDJﬁDBUJPO "HJWFOTQFDJﬁDBUJPOIBTBEFﬁOFETDPQFBOEQVSQPTF TPJONBOZDBTFTPOMZBTFMFDUTVCTFUPG UIFJOGPSNBUJPODBMMFEGPSJOUIFTFUBCMFTXJMMCFOFFEFEJOUIFTQFDJﬁDBUJPO.PSFTQFDJﬁDBMMZ BO BHFOUUIBUHFOFSBUFTBNPEFMUZQJDBMMZJOUFOETUPMFBWFDFSUBJOTQFDJﬁDBUJPOJUFNTVODPOTUSBJOFE TPUIPTFJUFNTXPVMEOPUIBWFSVMFTEFﬁOFEThJTNFBOTUIBUUISFFOFTUFETFUTPGJUFNTFYJTU'SPN NPTUUPGFXFTUJUFNT UIFZBSF ThFGVMMTFUPGDPOTUSBJOBCMFTQFDJﬁDBUJPOJUFNT5BCMFTUISPVHI ThF TVCTFU PG DPOTUSBJOFE JO B HJWFO TQFDJﬁDBUJPO UIF TFU PG EFﬁOFE SVMFT NVUVBMMZ VOEFSTUPPE ThFTVCTFUPG NBEFFYQMJDJUJOUIFNPEFMBTTPDJBUFEXJUIUIFTQFDJﬁDBUJPOUIFTFUPG SVMFTFYQSFTTFEJOPOFPSNPSFHJWFOMBOHVBHFTBOEOPUBUJPOT

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Table 11.3 Interface Speciﬁcation Content Rules Identiﬁer of the interface: unique in a deﬁned namespace Version of the interface, if appropriate Service if provided through this interface: Access method Semantics: What it requires of its users: precondition What it provides its users Part of invariant associated with service Provided post-condition Provided properties, QoS (performance, precision, reliability, throughput, capacity…) Policies or other constraints under which it operates Provided QoE (quality of experience) assessed by user Probability of meeting expectations (post-conditions, QoS, QoE) Ways of exceeding expectations and probability of each Ways of failing to meet expectations and probability of each Cost of service (CoS) Service if received through this interface: What it offers its providers: precondition What it requires of its providers: usage dependencies Part of invariant associated with service Required post-condition Required properties, QoS (performance, precision, reliability, throughput, capacity…) Required QoE (quality of experience) Probability of meeting expectations (post-conditions, QoS, QoE) Cost of service (CoS) constraints Optional information—e.g., explanatory notes, correspondence information

UML/OCL Class or object name Class stereotype or attribute Interface operation Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation

Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation Interface operation in OC or stereotype or annotation Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation

Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation Annotations, stereotypes, OCL

Source: Hybertson, D. Using a speciﬁcation approach to facilitate component testing. In Testing Commercial-off-the-Shelf Components and Systems, S. Beydeda and V. Gruhn, Eds. New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 213–237. 2005. Modiﬁed with permission of Springer Science + Business Media.

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Figure 11.4

Wikipedia 2008

(e) Normal (Gaussian) density function

Examples of probability mass/density functions.

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Probability, PDF, and Knowledge We discuss two small examples. The ﬁrst is a case where we have a good estimate of the PDF but do not know the outcome of an event in the past. In the second case, we do not know about the occurrence of an event and we also do not have a solid basis for a PDF. The discussion in Chapter 9 pointed out that uncertainty exists about past and present events as well as future events. Based on that, we can deﬁne probabilities about any uncertainties — past, present, or future. Suppose a friend of mine is on the phone at time T1 and says he is about to ﬂip a coin, and asks what the probability is that the result will be heads. I have a good estimate of the PDF of the possible outcomes: Both heads and tails have a probability of .5. Therefore, my estimate of the probability that the outcome of this speciﬁc toss is heads is .5; that is what I tell him, and he agrees. Now he tosses the coin, and at time T2 he observes that it comes up heads but does not tell me the result. This observation changes his knowledge of the event, but not mine. Now he asks me again: “What is the probability that the result was heads?” I repeat my answer: “The probability is .5 that it was heads.” For him at this time T2, the probability that it was heads is 1.0, and the probability of it being tails is 0. Then at time T3 he tells me the result was heads. Now we both agree that the probability that it was heads is 1.0.* The estimated probabilities were based on knowledge of the PDF and presence or absence of knowledge of the event outcome. Probabilities do not have an independent or inherent existence in a situation; they depend on the knowledge of the observer. The second topic is PDF: Assume that today is April 17 and we want to estimate the probability that it will it rain a month from now, on May 17, in Hong Kong; and we also assume that we know nothing about the climate or rain patterns in Hong Kong. How do we estimate the probability? Because we know nothing about the PDF, we could assume a uniform PDF of rain or not rain, and estimate the probability of rain on May 17 (or any other day for that matter) to be .5. That is a very weak basis for estimating. Now suppose we obtain a better basis for the PDF. We ﬁnd out the following two items of information: 1. Rainy days as a proportion of all the days of the past century in Hong Kong is .37 2. Rainy days as a proportion of all the days in May of the past century in Hong Kong is .47 We interpret (1) as an estimate for the PDF of rain on a randomly selected day of the year in Hong Kong; and (2) as an estimate for the PDF of rain on a random day in May in Hong Kong. Which of these two PDF estimates gives a better basis for estimating the probability that it will rain on May 17? The ﬁrst is

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a larger sample, which generally means a better basis; note that in this case, the data are from two distinctly different distributions. However, the second indicates that there are cyclic seasons and May is a rainy month, so we would select (2) over (1) as our estimate of the PDF because it is the more speciﬁc population of which our event is a member. That is, our estimate of the PDF of the variable M rain on a day in May is: P(rain) .47; P(not rain) .53. Based on all this, we would estimate that the probability that it will rain in Hong Kong on May 17 is .47. If the only PDF estimate we had was (1), and we had no knowledge of Hong Kong rain cycles, we would estimate that the probability is .37. The collective point of the two examples is that our estimates of probabilities in system speciﬁcations are themselves relative and uncertain. That is, we make uncertain estimates of the uncertain behavior of systems. Does that mean the method is weak? No, it is still a useful method in specifying the uncertainty of behavior in systems.

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)PXBSFQSPCBCJMJUJFTBOEFRVBUJPOTMJLFUIJTVTFE "DPVQMFPGBQQMJDBUJPOTBSFCSJFﬂZEFTDSJCFE "QQMJDBUJPO "TTVNF B TFSWJDFPSJFOUFE BSDIJUFDUVSF JO XIJDI # QSPWJEFT TFSWJDF Q UP UIF TFSWJDF DPOTVNFS $ XIP SFRVJSFT TFSWJDF S *O UIJT DBTF # BTTVNFT SFTQPOTJCJMJUZ GPS TBUJTGZJOHJUTEFQFOEFODJFTSBOES5IFSFGPSF #QVCMJTIFTJUTTFSWJDFXJUIBTQFDJGJFE2P4 PG1 Q "QQMJDBUJPO "TTVNF B DPNQPOFOUCBTFE TZTUFN JO XIJDI UIF BSDIJUFDU JT BTTFNCMJOH DPN QPOFOUT $ # 4 BOE 4 *O UIJT DBTF UIF BSDIJUFDU BTTVNFT SFTQPOTJCJMJUZ GPS TBUJTGZJOH #T EFQFOEFODJFTSBOESJOUIJTFOWJSPONFOUThFSFGPSF UIFWFOEPSPGDPNQPOFOU#QVCMJTIFTJUT DPNQPOFOUTQFDJﬁDBUJPOXJUIB2P4PGDPOEJUJPOBMQSPCBCJMJUZ1 Q\E 8IZUIFEJﬀFSFODF "O40"TFSWJDFQSPWJEFSNVTUQSPWJEFUIFTFSWJDF XIJDINFBOTJUNVTU BDDPVOUGPSUIFVODFSUBJOUZJOJUTSVOUJNFFOWJSPONFOU"DPNQPOFOUWFOEPSEPFTOPUQSPWJEFB TFSWJDF CVUSBUIFSQSPWJEFTBDPNQPOFOUUIBUDBOCFJOTUBMMFEJONVMUJQMFFOWJSPONFOUTUPQSPWJEF BTFSWJDFThFDPNQPOFOUWFOEPSDBOOPUTQFDJGZUIFQSPCBCJMJUZUIBUJUTEFQFOEFODJFTXJMMCFTBUJT ﬁFEUIBUWBSJFTCZFOWJSPONFOUBOENVTUCFTQFDJﬁFECZFBDIBSDIJUFDUUIBUVTFTUIFDPNQPOFOU *U TFFNT UIBU QSPCBCJMJUJFT BOE UIF DPOEJUJPOBMVODPOEJUJPOBM EJTUJODUJPO QSPWJEF B SBUIFS FMFHBOUBOEQSFDJTFXBZPGNBLJOHUIJTVTFGVMEJTUJODUJPO /PXBTTVNFUIBU"DBOQBSUJBMMZDPNQFOTBUFGPS#OPUQSPWJEJOHUIFQSPNJTFETFSWJDFGPS FYBNQMF #JTEFHSBEFE PSJTOPUQFSGPSNFEBUBMM#ZiQBSUJBMMZDPNQFOTBUFwXFNFBOUIBU 1 "\# 1 "\# <XIFSF 1 "\# NFBOT QSPCBCJMJUZ PG " HJWFO iOPU #w JF HJWFO MFTT UIBO FYQFDUFETFSWJDFGSPN#>. ThFSFBSFUXPEJﬀFSFOUTUBUFNFOUTNBEFJOUIJTFYQSFTTJPO O 1 "\# TBZT UIBU " JT OPU EFBE JO UIF XBUFS CFDBVTF PG UIF EFHSBEFE PS MPTU # TFSWJDF*ODMBTTJDBMFOHJOFFSJOH "XPVMEOPUCFBCMFUPQFSGPSNJUTGVODUJPOJGJUTEFQFO EFODZXBTOPUTBUJTﬁFE TPUIFTUBUFNFOUXPVMECF1 "\# O 1 "\# 1 "\# TBZTUIBU"DBOOPUGVMMZDPNQFOTBUFGPSUIFEFHSBEFEPSMPTU#TFSWJDF *G"DPVMEGVMMZDPNQFOTBUFGPSJU "XPVMEOPUEFQFOEPO# BOEUIFTUBUFNFOUXPVMECF 1 "\# 1 "\#

XIJDIJTBOPUIFSXBZPGTBZJOHUIBU"JTJOEFQFOEFOUPG# *Oeﬀect, UIFDPNCJOFETUBUFNFOUTBZTUIBUJG#EPFTOPUEPJUTKPC "DBOTUJMMGVODUJPO CVU OPUBTXFMM/PUFUIBUPVSTUBUFNFOUBCPVUDMBTTJDBMFOHJOFFSJOHBTTVNFTOPGBVMUUPMFSBODFPSFSSPS SFDPWFSZ$MFBSMZ NVDIXPSLIBTCFFOEPOFJOGBVMUUPMFSBODFBOEFSSPSSFDPWFSZGPSNBOZZFBST JONPTUBSFBTPGFOHJOFFSJOHBOETZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH8FBSFOPUUSZJOHUPJHOPSFUIBUXPSL0O

O

292

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

UIFDPOUSBSZ XFBSFUSZJOHUPSFDPHOJ[FJUNPSFFYQMJDJUMZJOUIF.04&4BQQSPBDIUPspeciﬁcaUJPO BOECVJMEPOJUBTBQQSPQSJBUFJOUIFBSFBTPGTFMGIFBMJOHBOETFMGBEBQUBUJPOUIBUUIFMBSHFS TDPQFPGBVUPOPNPVTBHFOUTBOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNTCSJOHJOUPUIJTBSFOBThe BCPWFGPSNVMBUJPOPG UIFQSPCBCJMJUJFTPGBOBHFOUDPNQFOTBUJOHGPSBCOPSNBMCFIBWJPSPVUTJEFJUTDPOUSPMJTBﬁrst TUFQ UPXBSEUIBUHPBM #FOFﬁUTPGUIJTBQQSPBDIUPTQFDJﬁDBUJPOPGVODFSUBJOUZJODMVEF O 6OJﬁFTTQFDJﬁ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ﬂFYJCMFDBOTVQQPSUBMBSHFOVNCFSBOEWBSJFUZPGWJFXTBOETUBLFIPMEFST BOEBMMUIF WJFXTXJMMCFDPOTJTUFOUCFDBVTFUIFZBSFCBTFEPOUIFTBNFGSBNFXPSL O 1SPWJEFTBXBZUPJODPSQPSBUFVODFSUBJOUJFTPGGBVMUUPMFSBODF TFMGIFBMJOH BOETFMGBEBQ UBUJPOUIBUDIBSBDUFSJ[FUIFMBSHFSTDPQFPGBVUPOPNPVTBHFOUTBOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNT

Other Uncertainty Methods "MJTUPGVODFSUBJOUZNFUIPETXBTQSFTFOUFECZ3BKBCBMMZFUBM ThFZJODMVEFUIFGPMMPX JOHGPSNBMJTNT

1SPCBCJMJUZUIFPSZ#BZFTJBOCFMJFGOFUXPSLT *OUFSWBMBOBMZTJT 3VMFCBTFETZTUFNTDFSUBJOUZGBDUPST &WJEFOUJBMSFBTPOJOH%FNQTUFS4IBGFSUIFPSZ 1PTTJCJMJUZUIFPSZGV[[ZMPHJD

"OPUIFS BQQSPBDI UP VODFSUBJOUZ JT NPEBM MPHJD PS UIF WBSJPVT MPHJDT PG QPTTJCJMJUZ ThF 4UBOGPSE&ODZDMPQFEJBPG1IJMPTPQIZJEFOUJﬁFTTPNFPGUIFNPEBMSFMBUFEMPHJDT 4&1

Logic Modal Logic Deontic Logic

Symbols

Expressions Symbolized

It is necessary that z

O P F

It is obligatory that z It is permitted that z It is forbidden that z

It is possible that z

Speciﬁcation Information

O 293

Temporal Logic

G F H P

It will always be the case that z It will be the case that z It has always been the case that z It was the case that z

Doxastic Logic

Bx

x believes that z

ThF.04&4BQQSPBDIVTFTTPNFPGUIFTFJOEJﬀFSFOUXBZT'JSTU BTUIJTDIBQUFSTIPXT JUVTFT QSPCBCJMJUZ UIFPSZ FYUFOTJWFMZ BT UIF QSJNBSZ UPPM GPS TQFDJGZJOH VODFSUBJOUZ 4FDPOE JU VTFT NPEBMMPHJDQSJNBSJMZJOFYQSFTTJOHSFMBUJPOTCFUXFFONPEFMBOETZTUFNJOBDPSSFTQPOEFODFTFU CVUBMTPVTFTJUJONPEFMTBOETQFDJﬁDBUJPOTUIFNTFMWFTThJSE JUDPOTJEFSTGV[[ZMPHJDUPCFBCPVU QBSUJBMOFTT OPUVODFSUBJOUZ. ThJTJTBEESFTTFEJOUIFOFYUTFDUJPO

Partialness: Fuzzy Speciﬁcations 'V[[ZTQFDJﬁDBUJPOTNBLFVTFPGGV[[ZMPHJDBOEGV[[ZTFUUIFPSZThFCBTJDDPODFQUJTUIBUDPO DFQUTUIBUXFOPSNBMMZUIJOLPGBTCFJOHEJTDSFUFTVDIBTXIFUIFSBOFMFNFOUJTBNFNCFSPGB TFU XIFUIFSTPNFUIJOHJTUSVFPSGBMTF PSXIFUIFSBQFSTPOJTJOBSPPNBSFJOTUFBEDPODFJWFE BTCFJOHBNBUUFSPGEFHSFF XJUIBSBOHFGSPNUP4PBOFMFNFOUDBOCFIBMGXBZJOBTFU PSBQSPQPTJUJPODBOCFIBMGUSVF *O .04&4 GV[[Z TQFDJﬁDBUJPOT DBO CF VTFE GPS B OVNCFS PG QVSQPTFT &YBNQMFT JODMVEF UIFEFHSFFUPXIJDIBDPNQPOFOUJTJOBTZTUFNPSUIFEFHSFFUPXIJDIBTZTUFNJTJOBNPEFM SFHJPOUIBUJT UIFEFHSFFUPXIJDIBTZTUFNTBUJTﬁFTBTQFDJﬁDBUJPOPSQFSIBQTUIFEFHSFFUP XIJDIBTZTUFNJTFODBQTVMBUFE 'V[[ZTFUUIFPSZJTTPNFUJNFTJODMVEFEBMPOHXJUIQSPCBCJMJUZJOUIFTFUPGUFDIOJRVFTGPSSFQ SFTFOUJOHVODFSUBJOUZ BTJOUIFQSFWJPVTTFDUJPO"TTIPXOJO'JHVSF JOEJDBUPSTPGGV[[JOFTT BOEPGVODFSUBJOUZCPUIIBWFBSBOHFGSPNUP)PXFWFS UIFNFBOJOHJTEJﬀFSFOU1SPCBCJMJUZ JTBOJOEJDBUPSPGVODFSUBJOUZBCPVUXIFUIFSTPNFUIJOHJTUSVF TVDIBTXIFUIFSUIFOFYUDPJOﬂJQ XJMMCFIFBETPSUBJMT'V[[JOFTTJTBOJOEJDBUPSPGQBSUJBMOFTTPSHSBEVBMJTN*G*BNTUBOEJOHJOUIF EPPSXBZBOEBNIBMGJOUIFSPPNBOEIBMGPVU UIFGV[[JOFTTNFBTVSFEPFTOPUSFﬂFDUVODFS UBJOUZBCPVUXIFUIFS*BNJOUIFSPPNSBUIFS JUSFﬂFDUTUIFQBSUJBMOFTTPGNFCFJOHJOUIFSPPN *BNDFSUBJOMZIBMGXBZJOUIFSPPNThFSFGPSF GV[[JOFTTJO.04&4JTOPUVTFEBTBOVODFSUBJOUZ NFDIBOJTN

Examples )FSFXFHJWFTPNFWFSZCSJFGTLFUDIFTUIBUJMMVTUSBUFBTQFDUTPGUIFTQFDJﬁDBUJPODPOUFOUQSPWJEFE JOUIJTDIBQUFS

A Human Performance Example ThJTFYBNQMFTQFDJﬁFTIVNBOQFSGPSNBODFBTBNFNCFSPGBOPSHBOJ[BUJPO )PXFWFS GV[[JOFTTDBOCFVTFEJODPOKVODUJPOXJUIVODFSUBJOUZ"TJUVBUJPODBOCFNPEFMFEBTTJNVMUBOFPVTMZ GV[[ZBOEVODFSUBJO

294

O

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Universe of Systems

Region boundary interpreted as not certain: Probabilistic

Region boundary interpreted as not discrete: Fuzzy

Degree F to which systems are in region

Probability P of systems being in region P(A) = 0.0

A

C

B

D

E

F(A) = 0.0 F(B) = 0.4

P(B) = 0.4 P(C) = 1.0

F(C) = 1.0

P(D) = 0.6

F(D) = 0.6 F(E) = 0.0

P(E) = 0.0 P=0

P=1

Gradient from P = 0 to 1

F=1

F=0

Gradient F = 1 to 0

Figure 11.6 Fuzzy speciﬁcations use same gradient measure as probabilistic speciﬁcations but with different meaning.

8FIBWFEJTDVTTFEIPXEFﬁOJOHBSPMFIFMQTOBSSPXUIFTQBDFGPSTQFDJGZJOHIVNBOCFIBW JPS*OGBDU BQSBDUJDBMBTTVNQUJPOXIFOBQQMZJOHUIFTQFDJﬁDBUJPOBQQSPBDIJOUIJTDIBQUFSUP B IVNBO PS PUIFS BHFOU JT UIBU UIF BHFOU JT BDUJOH JO B TQFDJﬁFE SPMF i1FSTPOw IBT BO BMNPTU VOMJNJUFE BOE IBSEUPEFﬁOF PVUDPNF TQBDF #VU SPMF CFIBWJPS JT USBDUBCMF QBSFOU FNQMPZFF TPMEJFS GBDUPSZXPSLFS TPGUXBSFBHFOUJO99EPNBJOPSDPOUFYU HFPTQBUJBMBOBMZTU SFTFBSDIFS DPNQMFYTZTUFNTSFTFBSDIFS DPNQMFYTZTUFNTSFTFBSDIFSBU4BOUB'F*OTUJUVUF 4'*

DPNQMFYTZT UFNTSFTFBSDIFSBU4'*JOFWPMVUJPOBSZEZOBNJDTThFFYBNQMFDPVMECFTPNFUIJOHMJLFBGBDUPSZ XPSLFSXJUIBXFMMEFﬁOFEKPCCVUUPTIPXUIFSBOHFPGUIFBQQSPBDIJONPSFDPNQMFYTJUVBUJPOT XFDIPPTFUPTQFDJGZBSFTFBSDIFS XIJDIUZQJDBMMZJTBMFTTDJSDVNTDSJCFEBDUJWJUZGPSXIJDIJUJT EJﬃcVMUUPTQFDJGZQFSGPSNBODFThFTQFDJﬁDSPMFGPSXIJDIXFXJMMTLFUDIBOFYUFSOBMTQFDJﬁDBUJPO PGFYQFDUFEGVUVSFCFIBWJPSJTUIFMBTUPOFNFOUJPOFE UIBUJT DPNQMFYTZTUFNTSFTFBSDIFSBU4'* JOFWPMVUJPOBSZEZOBNJDT ThFFYQFDUFECFIBWJPSDPVMECFEFﬁOFEBTHFUUJOHBQBQFSQVCMJTIFEJOFWPMVUJPOBSZEZOBN JDT2P4POFQBQFSBDDFQUFECZBSFGFSFFEKPVSOBMJOFWPMVUJPOBSZEZOBNJDTJOPOFZFBS PS POFPSNPSFQVCMJDBUJPOTQPTUFEPOUIF4'*QVCMJD8FCTJUFUIBUDPMMFDUJWFMZHFU)IJUTJOUIF OFYUZFBSPS%EPXOMPBETJOUIFOFYUZFBSXJUIQSPCBCJMJUZPG8FEPOPUTQFDJGZXIBUUIF DPOUFOUPGUIFQVCMJDBUJPOXJMMCF POMZUIFEPNBJOPGFWPMVUJPOBSZEZOBNJDT XJUIQSPCBCJMJUZ TJODF DPNQMFY TZTUFNT SFTFBSDIFST BSF PGUFO NVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSZ

BOE TPNF NFBTVSBCMF 2P4 BTTVHHFTUFEBCPWF4'*NBZJOGBDUOPUDBSFXIBUUIFTQFDJﬁDDPOUFOUTBSF CVUPOMZJO BEWBODJOHUIJTﬁFMEBOEHFUUJOHSFDPHOJUJPOBOEDPOUJOVFEGVOEJOH4PUIJTSFRVJSFNFOUTQFDJ ﬁDBUJPOPGUIFSFTFBSDIFSiTZTUFNwJTBUUIFBQQSPQSJBUFMFWFMPGHFOFSBMJUZThFQSFDPOEJUJPOTPS ThJTFYBNQMFJTVTFEIFSFUPJMMVTUSBUFTQFDJﬁDBUJPOFMFNFOUTThFFYBNQMFJTSFWJTJUFEJO$IBQUFSBOEQBSTFE JOBEJﬀFSFOUXBZ JOUFSNTPGNBQQJOHUPUIFFYUFSOBMBOEJOUFSOBMUZQFNPEFMTBOEUPUSBEJUJPOBMBSUJGBDUTTVDI BTBSFRVJSFNFOUTEPDVNFOU

Speciﬁcation Information

O 295

Table 11.4 Possible Researcher Behavior in Each Category #

Category

1

Out of range — interpreted as good

2

In range, better than expected

3 4

What is expected In range, less than expected

5

Out of range — interpreted as bad

Possible behavior Researcher discovers or initiates whole new area of research Researcher publishes two or three papers instead of one Researcher publishes one paper; satisﬁes QoS Researcher does not write paper, or paper is published but not in a refereed journal Researcher destroys lab

EFQFOEFODJFTJODMVEFHFUGVOEJOHGPSSFTFBSDI TUBZBU4'* SFUBJOIFBMUI FUD/PUFUIBUHFUUJOH GVOEJOHGPSSFTFBSDINBZCFBQSFDPOEJUJPOJG4'*BTTVNFTSFTQPOTJCJMJUZGPSGVOEJOH PSNBZ JOTUFBECFQBSUPGUIFFYQFDUFECFIBWJPSPGUIFSFTFBSDIFSJGFBDISFTFBSDIFSJTFYQFDUFEUPﬁOE UIFJSPXOGVOEJOH /PX DPOTJEFS QPTTJCMF CFIBWJPS EVSJOH UIF OFYU ZFBS PG UIF SFTFBSDIFS JO FBDI PG UIF ﬁWF CFIBWJPSDBUFHPSJFT4FF5BCMF/PUFUIBUUIFTFCFIBWJPSTBSFOPUBMMNVUVBMMZFYDMVTJWFThF SFTFBSDIFSDPVME JOJUJBUFBOFXSFTFBSDIBSFB QVCMJTIBQBQFS BOEUIFO HFUBOHSZBOE EFTUSPZUIFMBC

Other Sketches ThSFFCSJFGTLFUDIFTBSFHJWFOUPJOEJDBUFUIFBQQMJDBCJMJUZSBOHFPGUIFTQFDJﬁDBUJPOBQQSPBDI

Organization 4VQQPTFXFXBOUUPTQFDJGZDFSUBJODIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOPSFOUFSQSJTFJOJUTDVSSFOU TUBUFBOEJUTEFTJSFETUBUF &YUFSOBMNPEFM-FUTBTTVNFUIFQSFDPOEJUJPOJTUIFDVSSFOUBDUVBMDPOEJUJPO4UBUF UJNFJT OPXGVODUJPOPSQSPWJEFETFSWJDFQSPEVDFTXJEHFUTQSPQFSUJFTDVSSFOUQSPﬁU TJ[F SFQVUBUJPO JONBSLFUQPTJUJPO OPUJOCFTUDPNQBOJFTUPXPSLGPS FUD "TTVNF QPTUDPOEJUJPO JT EFTJSFE DPOEJUJPO 4UBUF UJNF JT NPOUIT GSPN OPX TBNF GVODUJPONPSFQSPﬁU MBSHFSPSTNBMMFSTJ[F CFUUFSSFQVUBUJPO JONBSLFUQPTJUJPO JO CFTUDPNQBOJFTUPXPSLGPS FUD /PXUIFPSHBOJ[BUJPOKVTUIBTUPSFEFTJHOJUTFMG UIBUJT EFﬁOFBOJOUFSOBMNPEFMUIBUXJMM FOBCMFJUUPTBUJTGZUIFFYUFSOBMTQFDJﬁDBUJPO&YBNQMFSFQMBDFDFSUBJODPNQPOFOUT TVDIBTUIF $&0. ThBUUBTLXJMMOPUCFQVSTVFEJOUIJTTLFUDI

Army $POTJEFSBOJOTVSHFODZoDPVOUFSJOTVSHFODZTJUVBUJPO *OUFSOBM NPEFM ThF DPNQPOFOUT JODMVEF BO PDDVQZJOH BSNZ UIF IPTU OBUJPO MFBEFST IPTU OBUJPOBSNZ JOTVSHFOUT BOEMPDBMQPQVMBUJPO%FﬁOFBDVSSFOUJOUFSOBMNPEFMPGJOUFSBDUJPOJO XIJDIUIFJOTVSHFODZJTDBVTJOHTJHOJﬁDBOUIBWPDBOEEFTUSVDUJPO IBTUIFTZNQBUIZPGNVDIPG

296 O

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

UIFMPDBMQPQVMBUJPO BOEUIFIPTUOBUJPOBSNZJTXFBLThFOEFﬁOFUIFHPBMJOUFSOBMNPEFM XIFSF UIFMPDBMQPQVMBUJPOJTPQQPTFEUPUIFJOTVSHFOUTBOETVQQPSUTUIFIPTUOBUJPOMFBEFSTBOEBSNZ BOEUIFJOTVSHFOUTBSFPOUIFEFDMJOF ThFOEFﬁOFBQMBOBOBDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTUPNPWFGSPNDVSSFOUNPEFMUPHPBMNPEFM "O FYBNQMF DPVME CF UBJMPSJOH UIF 64 "SNZ DPVOUFSJOTVSHFODZ NBOVBM 64 "SNZ

XIJDIJTBHFOFSBMDPVOUFSJOTVSHFODZEPNBJONPEFMUIBUDPOUBJOTNVMUJQMFQBUUFSOTBOEJODPSQP SBUFT$4GFBUVSFTPGJOTVSHFODJFT

Everyday Example: Safety Deposit Box *OBTBGFUZEFQPTJUCPYTJUVBUJPO BTFSWJDFDPOTVNFS4$HJWFTBTFSWJDFQSPWJEFS41JUFN T .JO DPOEJUJPO$BUUJNF541SFUVSOTUIFJUFNTJOUIFTBNFDPOEJUJPOBUBMBUFSUJNF5UIBUXJMMCF DIPTFOCZ4$The DIBSHFGPSUIJTTFSWJDFJT9NPOUIThe LFZspeciﬁcation JUFNTPGUIFQSPWJEFE TFSWJDFBSF O 1SFDPOEJUJPO.JODPOEJUJPO$BUUJNF5 $JTiBTJTwJUJTOPUDPOTUSBJOFECZ41CVUJT SBUIFSBCFODINBSLGPSUIFJOWBSJBOU

O *OWBSJBOUDPOEJUJPO$PG.BU5DPOEJUJPOBU5 O 1PTUDPOEJUJPO.BWBJMBCMFUP4$BU5 O 2P4SFTQPOEPOEFNBOEBUVOLOPXO5XJUIQSPCBCJMJUZ1q.XJMMCFJODPOEJUJPO $BU5XJUI1q O $PTUPGTFSWJDF9UJNFT /VNCFSPGNPOUITCFUXFFO5BOE5

/PUJODMVEFEJOTQFDJﬁDBUJPOTUPSF.JOBTBGFQMBDFTUPSFJOESZQMBDFTUPSFJOUFNQFSBUVSFSBOHF CFUXFFOUFNQBOEUFNQMJNJUOVNCFSPGFNQMPZFFTXJUINBTUFSLFZz

Scaling down the Approach for Software 8FDMBJNUIBUUIFTQFDJﬁDBUJPOBQQSPBDIEFTDSJCFEJOUIJTDIBQUFSTDBMFTCPUIVQBOEEPXOUPBOZ MFWFMEFTJSFE. ThJTTLFUDITIPXTIPXJUTDBMFTEPXO $POTJEFSBGFXMJOFTPGTPGUXBSFDPEF x y a z r

3; y 1; x2; sqrt(x2 y2); z – 7;

&BDI MJOF PG DPEF PS TUBUFNFOU DBO CF DPOTJEFSFE B TZTUFN BOE UIF UZQFT PG TQFDJﬁDBUJPO EFﬁOFEJOUIJTDIBQUFS TQFDJﬁDBMMZBOFYUFSOBMTQFDJﬁDBUJPO DBOCFBQQMJFEUPFBDIThJTBQQSPBDI XBTFTTFOUJBMMZEFﬁOFEZFBSTBHPCZ)PBSF JOXIBUCFDBNFLOPXOBTUIF)PBSFUSJQMF 1 \2^ 3 XIFSF 1 JT UIF QSFDPOEJUJPO 2 JT UIF TUBUFNFOU \2^ SFQSFTFOUT UIF FYFDVUJPO PG UIF TUBUFNFOU BOE3JTUIFQPTUDPOEJUJPO0OFXBZPGDIBSBDUFSJ[JOHUIFTQFDJﬁDBUJPOBQQSPBDIPG .04&4JTBTBMBSHFFYUFOTJPOPG)PBSFTNFUIPEUPBMMUZQFTPGTZTUFNTBUBMMTDBMFT *O BEEJUJPO UIF DPMMFDUJWF TFU PG TPGUXBSF TUBUFNFOUT MJTUFE BCPWF DBO CF DPOTJEFSFE BT UIF JOUFSOBMNPEFMPGBMBSHFSTZTUFN XIFSFUIFTUVﬀ FYDIBOHFEBNPOHUIFJOUFSBDUJOHDPNQPOFOU TUBUFNFOUTDPOTJTUTPGEBUBBOEDPOUSPM

Speciﬁcation Information

O 297

References "BHFEBM +BOE&&DLMVOE.PEFMMJOH2P4UPXBSETB6.-QSoﬁle. *O1SPDFFEJOHTPG6.- %SFTEFO (FSNBOZ 0DUPCFS "HSBXBM " ."NFOE .%BT .'PSE $,FMMFS .,MPQQNBOO %,ÚOJH '-FZNBOO 3.àMMFS ( 1GBV ,1MÚTTFS 33BOHBTXBNZ "3JDLBZ[FO .3PXMFZ 14DINJEU *5SJDLPWJD ":JV BOE. ;FMMFSB8FC4FSWJDFT)VNBO5BTL 84)VNBO5BTL

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"HSBXBM " ."NFOE .%BT .'PSE $,FMMFS .,MPQQNBOO %,ÚOJH '-FZNBOO 3.àMMFS (1GBV (,1MÚTTFS 33BOHBTXBNZ "3JDLBZ[FO .3PXMFZ 14DINJEU *5SJDLPWJD ":JV BOE.;FMMFSC84#1&-&YUFOTJPOGPS1FPQMF #1&-1FPQMF

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Chapter 12

Mapping and Uniﬁcation Systems taxonomy 1

Collective actualization space

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn

Problem space

3a

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Highest level system

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Model Space

All SE application domains...

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Universal model

Composition

TS/CS diﬀerent in kind 2b 2a Traditional systems Complex systems

6

Obvious Mappings

Modeling scope

SE Application Domains (D1...Dn)

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V5: Connection among parts of encompassing system S

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Figure 12.1

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Mapping Interaction Artifacts ThF$0/014EPDVNFOUNBQTGBJSMZDMFBOMZUPUIFFOWJSPONFOUSFMBUJPONPEFM7JO'JHVSF BMUIPVHIJUDPVMENBOEBUFPUIFSDPOTUSBJOUTPOUIFTZTUFNBSDIJUFDUVSF ThFBSDIJUFDUVSFEFTDSJQUJPONBQTTJNQMJTUJDBMMZUPUIFJOUFSOBMNPEFMPG4 XIJDIJT7JO 'JHVSF/PUFUIBUUIJTJOUFSOBMNPEFM BTBMMJOUFSOBMNPEFMT JODMVEFTUIFFYUFSOBMNPEFMT PGJUTQBSUT JOEJDBUFEJO'JHVSFBT7ThJTJTXIFSFJUTUPQT)PXFWFS UIFSFBMJTUJDNBQQJOH PGBOBSDIJUFDUVSFDBOESJWFEPXOBMMUIFXBZUPUIFCPUUPNPGUIFDPNQPTJUJPOTUBDLCZJNQPT JOHDPOTUSBJOUTPOBMMFMFNFOUTPGUIFTZTUFN BOBMPHPVTUPUIFJOXBSEMPPLJOHFYUFOTJPOPGUIF SFRVJSFNFOUTEPDVNFOU

Signiﬁcance of the Overall Engineering Mapping ThFFOHJOFFSJOHNBQQJOHFYBNQMFTBOEBOBMZTJTQSFTFOUFEJOUIJTTFDUJPOIBWFTIPXOUIBU.04&4 DMBSJﬁFTDFSUBJOBTQFDUTPGUSBEJUJPOBMBSUJGBDUT BOEQMBDFTTPNFDPOTUSBJOUTPOUIFNCVUBMTPBMMPXT DPOTJEFSBCMFﬂFYJCJMJUZJOUIFN4FWFSBMTJHOJﬁDBOUGFBUVSFTPGUIFNBQQJOHDBOCFJEFOUJﬁFE&BDI JTQSFTFOUFEBOECSJFﬂZEJTDVTTFEJOUIFGPMMPXJOHTVCTFDUJPOT

Mapping and Uniﬁcation

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The Mapping Makes Dependencies Clear 8FTUBUFEUIBUUIFiQSPWJEFTwBOEiSFRVJSFTwTUSVDUVSFPGBOFYUFSOBMJOUFSGBDFTQFDJﬁDBUJPOHPFT CFZPOEUSBEJUJPOBMSFRVJSFNFOUTEPDVNFOUTUPTQFDJGZEFQFOEFODJFT3FRVJSFNFOUTUIBUDPNQMZ XJUI.04&4NVTUNBLFUIFEFQFOEFODJFTDMFBSJOUIFTQFDJﬁDBUJPO XIFUIFSUIFZBSFUIFNJOJ NBMEFQFOEFODJFTPGTZTUFNCFIBWJPSPSUIFNBYJNVNEFQFOEFODJFTPGJOEJSFDUFﬀFDUT ,OPXMFEHFPGUIFTFEFQFOEFODJFTBOEIPXUIFZBSFBMMPDBUFEBSFFTTFOUJBMGPSBEFRVBUFUFTUJOH *UJTSFMBUJWFMZTJNQMFUPEFﬁOFUFTUTGPSTZTUFNCFIBWJPSCFDBVTFUIFEFQFOEFODJFTBSFNJOJNBM#VU EFQFOEFODJFTPGJOEJSFDUFﬀFDUTDBOCFTVCTUBOUJBM BOEJGUIFZBSFOPUVOEFSTUPPE UFTUJOHDBOCF WFSZDPNQMJDBUFEBOEVOGPDVTFE BOEUIFSFTVMUTIBSEUPJOUFSQSFU $PNQMJBODFJTBDUVBMMZCBTFEPOFTUBCMJTIFEEFQFOEFODJFTThJTSFGFSTUPUIFGBDUUIBUJOTPNF WJFXT OPEFQFOEFODJFTIBWFCFFOFTUBCMJTIFE*OUIF3SFRVJSFNFOUTWJFXPGUIFDBSFYBNQMFJO UIFTFDUJPOFOUJUMFEi0QQPTJUF&OEPGUIF5FMFTDPQF6TFS7JFXQPJOU wOPTPMVUJPOJTJEFOUJﬁFE POMZUIFJOEJSFDUFﬀFDU/PEFQFOEFODJFTBSFFTUBCMJTIFEJOUIJTWJFX8IFOTPMVUJPOTBSFJOUSP EVDFE BTJO B UISPVHI H

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SE General Problem Solving 4PNFSFRVJSFNFOUTBSFTUBUFEBTBNPEFMPGBVTFSSBUIFSUIBOBTBNPEFMPGBTZTUFN"TZTUFNT FOHJOFFS NVTU EFﬁOF BOE BTTFTT QPTTJCMF TPMVUJPOT BOE EFUFSNJOF XIFUIFS UIF TPMVUJPO TIPVME JOWPMWFBO4&TZTUFN5BCMFTIPXTUIFQBUUFSOThFBOBMZTJTPG B JODMVEFTBWBSJFUZPGQPT TJCMFTPMVUJPOT NBOZPGUIFNOPU4&TZTUFNTThFDBSFYBNQMFJOUIFTFDUJPOFOUJUMFEi0QQPTJUF &OEPGUIF5FMFTDPQF6TFS7JFXQPJOUwMJTUFEBWBSJFUZPGTPMVUJPOT4VQQPTFUIFTZTUFNTFOHJOFFS

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Table 12.1

Pre-Systems Problem Solving

Traditional Artifact

Level

a. Need or gap

Indirect effect

b. CONOPS

Direct effect

c. Requirements speciﬁcation

System behavior

MOSES Model External model of user (but not a requirement of the user) Internal model of interaction of system with its environment External model of system

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OPTZTUFNPSTPMVUJPOJTJEFOUJﬁFEJOSPX C BOE D

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Adaptation and Versatility ThFBOBMZTJTUIVTGBSJTPOMZQBSUPGUIFTUPSZ'PSBHJWFOTZTUFNUIBUJTSFBMJ[FE XFEFﬁOFUIF FﬀFDUTBOEUIFTZTUFNQFSGPSNTJOBXBZUIBUBDIJFWFTUIPTFFﬀFDUT'JSTU EFQMPZNFOUPGBTZTUFN JOWPMWFT NPWJOH DPQZJOH PS JOTUBOUJBUJOH UIF TZTUFN GSPN UIF TPMVUJPO TQBDF JOUP B EFQMPZFE TUBUFJOPOFPSNVMUJQMFQSPCMFNTQBDFFOWJSPONFOUT TVDIBTBGBDUPSZQSPEVDJOHNVMUJQMF#PFJOH BJSDSBGUUPTFOEUPEJﬀFSFOUBJSMJOFT PSBTPGUXBSFTZTUFNCFJOHEJTUSJCVUFEUPNVMUJQMFVTFST 1BSU PG UIF EFQMPZNFOU NBZ CF DPOﬁHVSJOH DVTUPNJ[JOH PS BEBQUJOH UP UIF TQFDJﬁD FOWJSPO NFOUEVSJOHJOTUBMMBUJPO BOEDPOUJOVJOHUIFSFBGUFS ThFTPMVUJPOTQBDFTZTUFNBOEUIFBTTPDJ BUFEEFQMPZFETZTUFN T DPSSFTQPOEUP.BSUJOT JOUFSWFOUJPOTZTUFNBOEEFQMPZFETZTUFN SFTQFDUJWFMZ 4FDPOE XIFOUIFTZTUFNJTEFQMPZFE JUOPUPOMZFOUFSTUIFQSPCMFNTQBDF CVUJUBMTPCFDPNFT QBSUPGUIFQSPCMFNTQBDFBOEUIFSFCZDIBOHFTUIFQSPCMFNTQBDF8FOPXIBWFUPDPOTJEFSUIBU UIFTZTUFNBOEJUTFOWJSPONFOUBSFNVUVBMMZBEBQUJOHFOUJUJFTXJUIJOUIFQSPCMFNTQBDF"TTPPO BTUIFTZTUFNJTTVDDFTTGVMJOBDIJFWJOHJUTFﬀFDUT UIFFOWJSPONFOUDIBOHFTThPTFDIBOHFTPGUFO

Mapping and Uniﬁcation

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Table 12.2 Areas of SE Uniﬁed by MOSES

Model orientation Whole systems modeling Model space Self-similarity patterns Common speciﬁcation approach Agents Use of systems science Similarities and differences Expanded systems taxonomy Collective actualization Opportunistic process Support for change

Composite SE BoK

DevelopmentOperations

ManagementEngineering

Disciplines

MOSES Element or Concept

TSE-CSE

What SE Areas It Uniﬁes

Mapping and Uniﬁcation

O 315

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Chapter 13

SE Actualization Processes

Highest level system

Indivisible Unit

Model of Individual system or component

Universal model

Common speciﬁcation approach: Repeating internal/external structure

Solution domain

CCoo m - -KK m m m - -CC inindd oonniz aatete ss izaati go tioon n rrieies s

Deﬁne need

Composition

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Conceptualization Conceptualization -- Language/notation Language/notation -- Universe Universe of ofdiscourse discourse

Views exist within and across all the dimensions

e

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Produce solution

Satisfy need

317

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Offbeat History of Process Context This sidebar presents a view of process based on an examination of how process has been treated in several SE-related disciplines. The view, and the discussion that follows it, explain the role that process plays in MOSES.

The View Historical practice in several disciplines shapes the view presented here. The two primary historical examples are traditional architecture and science, especially the scientiﬁc method.

SE Actualization Processes Architecture. An evolution of the design process in the traditional architecture ﬁeld in the 1960s and 1970s, especially in Britain, is described by Jones (1963), Hillier, Musgrove, and O’Sullivan (1972), Rittel (1972), and Broadbent (1979). In the 1960s, the people who studied the methods of architectural design decided that the process needed to become more systematic and more quantiﬁed. Architects needed to clear their mind of preconceptions. They needed a rationalized process of analysis then synthesis, with more emphasis on user requirements, and more open-ended designs and options as opposed to a standard set of built-in requirements. This approach, called Analysis-SynthesisEvaluation, has been designated a “First Generation” design method. (The way architectural design was done during the thousands of years prior to this period does not seem to deserve any name or generation number; perhaps we could call it Generation 0. Apparently, process was not a focus. In his ten books on architecture written in the ﬁrst century BCE, for example, Vitruvius (1914) focused on designs and not so much on the process of creating them.) The result of this ﬁrst-generation process, according to Hillier, Musgrove, and O’Sullivan (1972), was deterioration in user acceptability of buildings that were built. The problem seemed to be that designs did not incorporate the built-in knowledge of requirements they previously relied on and instead they relied too heavily on speciﬁed user requirements. A second generation then emerged, containing elements of political consideration; it was a rebellion against the notion that an expert designer was more knowledgeable than other stakeholders about how to design the system. The approach was more like design by committee, in which it was politically incorrect to think that anyone knew more than anyone else about design. The designer acted as coordinator. Also included were some legitimate ideas such as an argumentative approach in which each idea was to be open to discussion and challenge, rather than accepted as a pronouncement from an expert at face value. This approach resulted in buildings that were not quite usable because amateur designers on the committee wanted exotic features that were not workable, but the architect was not in a position to overrule them, and could not persuade them of the folly of their ideas until after the building was built. The third-generation process that followed owes much to the philosophy of Karl Popper (1965), and is called the conjecture-refutation model. It has these characteristics: it returns to the notion of an expert designer proposing a design in the form of a conjecture, which is then examined and opened up to refutation. The process also portrays deﬁnition of the problem and development of the solution(s) as simultaneous activities that support each other. The argument is that the old sequence view (deﬁne problem, design, implement) is inappropriate because problem and solution emerge together. The third generation seems to be the application of problem solving to design. That is, it seems to be an explication of how architecture was done before all these “generations” began, with perhaps the added value of explicit recognition of refutation and debate on proposed designs. Science. Medawar (1969), Weinberg (1994), and Bauer (1994) discuss the process of science and the scientiﬁc method. The basic argument of Medawar

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Applying the View We have mentioned in several places in the book that TSE (and software engineering) has focused on process. We have also mentioned that the heritage of MOSES lies more in the orientation of traditional engineering handbooks and less in the process focus of software and systems engineering. More speciﬁcally, the heritage is a combination of the conventional designs of traditional engineering handbooks and the complex systems emphasis on ultimate effects, versatility, and adaptability. The structure and emphasis of the overall book reﬂects this heritage. The heart of the book, Chapters 5 through 11, is directed to models and the model space — the actual designs etc. The process chapter is last, and from the view presented above, one might wonder why we include it at all. It is included for two related reasons. First, the extended and uniﬁed SE of the future as depicted in this book has some implications for the SE process, and it is important to spell out those implications. Perhaps the most important general implication is to reduce the emphasis on process. Other implications are spelled out in this chapter. Second, the point of presenting this view is not to say that process does not matter. The point is that the history of process in SE-related disciplines, and the over-reliance on process in recent decades in software and systems engineering, both indicate that the future SE needs to ﬁnd a more appropriate balance between product and process, or in MOSES terms, between models and modeling or actualization. Part of the needed balance is the recognition of CS and actualization processes.

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Figure 13.2

Creative Process

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Figure 13.3 Pattern of cognitive activity of one designer: the “jagged” line. (Source: Conklin, J. Dialogue Mapping: Building Shared Understanding of Wicked Problems, Chichester, England: John Wiley. 2006. Used with permission.)

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Figure 13.5

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Figure 13.6 Rolling wave model.

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"HFOUCBTFETZTUFNT "HFOUT DPNQPTJUJPOBOE o deﬁned, 73–74 JOUFSOBMJOUFSBDUJPOTBOE MBOHVBHFTGPS uniﬁcation and, 315 "HHSFHBUJPO "HJMF"MMJBODF "HJMFNFUIPET o "HSFFNFOU TDJFODFBOE "JSMJOFTFYBNQMF DPSSFTQPOEFODFTFUTBOE o "MFYBOEFS $ISJTUPQIFS o o "MHPSJUINT "MJHONFOU "MMPDBUJPOWJFXUZQF "MMPQPJFTJT "MUFSOBUJWFSFMBUJPOT U "NJOPBDJET G ".-4FF"HFOU.PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF "OBMZTJTNFUIPE NPEFMUZQFTBOE U "OBMZTJT4ZOUIFTJT(FOFSBUJPO "OBSDIJFT PSHBOJ[FE "OUPOZNT "0%4FF"TQFDUPSJFOUFEEFWFMPQNFOU "QQMJDBUJPO EFSJWBUJPOWT o "QQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOT o 4FFBMTP 1SPCMFNTQBDF "QQMJDBUJPOTBSDIJUFDUVSFWJFX 50("'BOE "SDIJUFDUVSF IJTUPSZPGQSPDFTTBOE o MBZFSFE o G

347

348

O

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

QBUUFSOTPG o WJFXTBOE o U G "SDIJUFDUVSF"OBMZTJTBOE%FTJHO-BOHVBHF ""%-

"SDIJUFDUVSFEFTDSJQUJPOMBOHVBHFT "%-

"SDIJUFDUVSF%FTDSJQUJPO.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF "%.-

"SDT "SFBTPGLOPXMFEHF4FF%PNBJOT "SNZ, speciﬁcation apprPBDIBOE o "SUJGBDUT o o "Stiﬁcial evPMVUJPO "Stiﬁcial intelligence, 196 "Stiﬁcial science, 34–37. 4FFBMTP/BUVSBMTDJFODF4DJFODF "TQFDUPSJFOUFEEFWFMPQNFOU "0%

o "TQFDUPSJFOUFENPEFMJOH "TTFNCMZDPOOFDUPST "TTFTTNFOU BTQFDUPSJFOUFEEFWFMPQNFOUBOE o "44-4FF"VUPOPNJD4ZTUFN4peciﬁcation Language "TTPDJBUPST "TZNNFUSJDJOUFSBDUJPOT o "TZODISPOZ JOUFSBDUJPONPEFMTBOE "UPNJDCPNC EFWFMPQNFOUPG "UPNJTN "VEJFODFTPG.04&4 o "VUPNBUFEBVUPOPNPVTBHFOUT "VUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMF o "VUPNBUJPO "VUPOPNJDDPNQVUJOH "VUPOPNJD4ZTUFN4peciﬁcation Language (ASSL), 203 "VUPOPNZ4FFBMTP&OUFSQSJTFBVUPOPNZ BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTBOE DPNQMFYTZTUFNTBOE deﬁned, 20t, 21 FOUFSQSJTFTBOE FYUFSOBMNPEFMTBOE NJYFEDPNQPTJUJPOBOE o G USBEJUJPOBMWTDPNQMFYTZTUFNTBOE "VUPQPJFTJT

B #BMBODF BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTBOE o #BTJD'PSNBM0OUPMPHZ #'0

#BTJDPCKFDUQBUUFSOT #BTJMJ 7JD #%* CFMJFG EFTJSF JOUFOUJPO NPEFM #FIBWJPSEJBHSBNT #FIBWJPSPGTZTUFN 4FFBMTP%JSFDUJOUFSBDUJPO eﬀects; IOEJSect interaction eﬀects #FMJFG o #FMJFGT EFTJSFT BOEJOUFOUJPOT4FF#%*NPEFM #'04FF#BTJD'PSNBM0OUPMPHZ #JHCBOHNPEFM o G #JOBSZJOUFSBDUJPONPEFMT o G

#JP#SJDLT 4FF3FHJTUSZPG4UBOEBSE#JPMPHJDBM1BSUT #JPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPO4FFBMTP&WPMVUJPO BOBMPHZPGTDJFODFUP deﬁnitions of o JOIFSJUBODFBOE NPEFMEFSJWBUJPO BQQMJDBUJPOBOE NPEFMTPGDIBOHFBOE o UJNFBOE o #JPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTPOUPMPHZ #JPMPHJDBMWJFXQPJOU TDBMFBOE #JPMPHZ DPNQMFYTZTUFNTNPEFMTBOE NPEFMJOHPGGFSUJMJ[BUJPOBOE NPEFMTPGMFWFMDIBOHFBOE o U NVMUJMFWFMTUSVDUVSFTBOE WJFXTBOE #JPNFEJDT POUPMPHJFTBOE #JSds, modeling ﬂight and, 87–88 #MBOLTMBUF NZUIPG o #MVN #SVDF U #PEJFTPGLOPXMFEHF #P,

DPNNPOJ[BUJPOBOE o U G DPNNVOJUZ deﬁned, 181 HVJEFTUP o NPEFMTQBDFBOE o #PFIN #BSSZ #PFJOH #P,4FF#PEJFTPGLOPXMFEHF #POEJOH o #PUUPNVQQSPDFTTFT o #PVOEBSJFT4FFBMTP.FNCSBOFT BSUJGBDUTBOE DIBOHFBOE G DPNQPTJUJPOBOE DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE o MJWJOHTZTUFNTBOE NFNCSBOFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBOE o G NZUIPGSFRVJSFNFOUTESJWFOBOE TZTUFNTBOE o #PVOEBSZQPJOUT #PVOEFESBUJPOBMJUZ #PYPMPHZ o4FFBMTP&ODBQTVMBUJPO #1&-1FPQMF #1./4FF#VTJOFTT1SPDFTT.PEFMBOE/PUBUJPO #SJDPMBHFBQQSPBDI #SJEHJOH o #SJEHJOHPOUPMPHJFT o #SPPLT 'SFE #VOHF8BOE8FCFS #88 SFQSFTFOUBUJPONPEFM #VTUPQPMPHZ G #VTJOFTTBSDIJUFDUVSFWJFX 50("'BOE #VTJOFTTNPEFMJOHWJFX 40"GSBNFXPSLTBOE #VTJOFTTQSPDFTTMBOHVBHFT o #VTJOFTT1SPDFTT.PEFMBOE/PUBUJPO #1./

Index #VTJOFTT3FGFSFODF.PEFM #VTJOFTT4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH #88SFQSFTFOUBUJPONPEFM4FF#VOHF8BOE8FCFS SFQSFTFOUBUJPONPEFM

C $BQBCJMJUJFTCBTFEBTTFTTNFOU $#"

$BQUVSJOH 3FQSFTFOUJOH BOE0QFSBUJPOBMJTJOH4FNBOUJD *OUFHSBUJPO $304* QSPKFDU $BSCPOOBOPUVCFT4FF/BOPUVCFT $BST o o $"4GSBNFXPSL4FF$PNQMFYBEBQUJWFTZTUFNT GSBNFXPSL $"4&4FF$PNQMFY"EBQUJWF4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH $"4-4FF$PHOJUJWF"HFOUT4peciﬁcation Language $BUBMZTJT $BUFHPSJFT4FFBMTP,JOET DPNNPOJ[BUJPOBOE o G U G G G G deﬁning in ontologies, 190–191 NPTBJDTBOE U QPQVMBUJPOTBT $BUFHPSJ[BUJPOIJFSBSDIJFT G $#"4FF$BQBCJMJUJFTCBTFEBTTFTTNFOU $#%*4"&.FUB.PEFMGPS40" $FMMVMBSBVUPNBUB U $FMMVMBSQSPDFTTFT $FOUFSGPS*OUFHSBUJWF.VMUJTDBMF.PEFMJOHBOE 4JNVMBUJPO $*..4

$IBMMFOHFTPGTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH PWFSWJFX PG o $IBOHF4FFBMTP"DZDMJDDIBOHFNPEFMT$ZDMJD DIBOHFNPEFMT5JNF CJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPOBOE o CPVOEBSZDSPTTJOH G DPNQMFYTZTUFNTBOE EFTJSFEWTVOEFTJSFE o U PGJOUFSFTU o NPEFMJOHMFWFMTPG o G U G U OFFEFENPEFMTPG o U TDJFODFBOE UJNFBOE o XFBLOFTTFTPG54&BOE $IBOOFMBOEOFU $IBPT $IBPUJDTZTUFNT Characteristic, deﬁned, 64–65. 4FFBMTP$PNQMFYTZTUFNT DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT5SBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT CPYPMPHZBOE $IFNJDBMCPOET $IFNJDBMFOHJOFFSJOH $IFNJTUSZ WJFXTBOE $IPJDF4FF.PEFMJOHDIPJDF $IPSFPHSBQIZ BTJOUFSBDUJPONPEFM

O

349

$*..44FF$FOUFSGPS*OUFHSBUJWF.VMUJTDBMF.PEFMJOH BOE4JNVMBUJPO $JWJMFOHJOFFSJOH o $MBTTFT 4FFBMTP,JOET $MPDLT DIBPTBOE $.44FF$304*.BQQJOH4ZTUFN $PHOJUJWFBHFOUT $PHOJUJWF"HFOUT4peciﬁcation Language (CASL), 203, $PHOJUJWFTZTUFNT 4FFBMTP+PJOUDPHOJUJWF TZTUFNT $PME8BS o $PMMBCPSBUJPO o o4FFBMTP.BTT DPMMBCPSBUJPO $PMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPO DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGQSPDFTT o G G G NJYFEDPNQPTJUJPOBOE PWFSWJFXPG U o U uniﬁcation and, 315 uniﬁed prPDFTTGPS o G $PMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPOTQBDF4FFBMTP1SPCMFNTQBDF 4PMVUJPOTZTUFNTQBDF NPEFMTQBDFBOE G G PWFSWJFXPG G G $PNNPONPEFMT Common speciﬁcation apprPBDI $PNNPOJ[BUJPO4FFBMTP%iﬀerFODFT4JNJMBSJUJFT BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTBOE CBTJDDPODFQUTPG o G DBUFHPSZ LJOEBOE o G U G G G G (FOFSJD.PEFMJOH&OWJSPONFOUBOE JOUFOTJPO FYUFOTJPOBOE o LOPXMFEHF CPEJFTPGLOPXMFEHFBOE o U G MFWFSBHFBOE o MJNJUTPGHFOFSBMJUZBOE o NPEFMTQBDFBOE NPEFMTQBDFEJNFOTJPOTBOE NPEFMTQBDFTUSVDUVSFBOE G NVMUJMFWFMTUSVDUVSFTBOE o SFMBUJPOUPDPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO TVNNBSZPGQSPDFTTFTSFMBUFEUP o UJNFBOE $PNNVOJDBUJPOEJBHSBNT $PNNVOJUZ .JMMFSTMJWJOHTZTUFNTBOE $PNQFUJUJWe interactions, deﬁned, 73 $PNQMFUFOFTT NPEFMTQBDFBOE $PNQMFY"EBQUJWF4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH $"4&

$PNQMFYBEBQUJWFTZTUFNT $"4 GSBNFXPSL o $PNQMFYTZTUFNT $4

CPEJFTPGLOPXMFEHFBOE DBOEJEBUFQSPDFTTFTGPSFOHJOFFSJOHPG o DIBOHJOHQFSTQFDUJWFTPO DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPG o

350

O

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

DPMMBCPSBUJPOBOE o deﬁned, 37 FOHJOFFSJOHBOE FYBNQMFTPG o mapping and uniﬁcation and, 307 NPEFMUSFOETBOE o OFUXPSLTBOE WJFXTBOE o $PNQMFYTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH $4&

o G o $PNQMFYTZTUFNTTDJFODF $44

o $PNQMFYJUZ $PNQMJBODF EFQFOEFODJFTBOE $PNQPOFOUBOEDPOOFDUPSWJFXUZQF $PNQPOFOUCBTFETZTUFNT $PNQPOFOUDPOOFDUPSNPEFM $PNQPOFOUT o U $PNQPTJUJPO BHFOUTBOE DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPG o FMFNFOUTPG o MJWJOHTZTUFNTBOE NFNCSBOFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBOE o G NPEFMTQBDFBOE o G NPEFMTQBDFEJNFOTJPOTBOE NPEFMTQBDFTUSVDUVSFBOE G NVMUJMFWFMTUSVDUVSFTBOE o G QSPDFTTFTBOE o QSPQFSUJFTPG o G SFMBUJPOUPDPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO TDBMFBOE o TZNNFUSJD UJNFBOE o 7FFNPEFMBOE o G XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE U ;BDINBO&OUFSQSJTF'SBNFXPSLBOE $PNQPTJUJPOIJFSBSDIJFT $PNQPTJUJPOWJFXT o $PNQSJTF $PNQVUBUJPO U $PNQVUFSTDJFODF $4

NPEFMTQBDFBOE $PNQVUFST o4FFBMTP4PGUXBSF $PODFQUT QSedeﬁned rVMFT MFBSOJOHBOE o $PODFQUTPGPQFSBUJPOT $0/014

o U o $PODFQUVBMNPEFMT TFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNBOE $PODFQUVBMTQBDF $PODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO deﬁning ontology categories and, 190–191 EFTJHOBOE GPSNBMBOEJOGPSNBMWJFXTPG o NJUJHBUJPOBOE o NPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOBOE NPEFMTQBDFBOE o G o G

NVMUJQMFEPNBJOTBOE o G ontology eﬀorUTBOEUPPMTBOE o POUPMPHZWT PWFSWJFw and deﬁnitions of o SFMBUJPOTPG o UJNFBOE WJFXTBOE o $POEJUJPOBMQSPCBCJMJUJFT o Conﬂict, cooperation and, 154 $POKFDUVSFSFGVUBUJPONPEFM $POKVHBUFSFMBUJPOT XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE o G $POOFDUJPOT o o4FFBMTP*OUFSBDUJPOT 3FMBUJPOT $POOFDUPSQBSties, deﬁned, 71 $POOFDUPST o G4FFBMTP*OUFSBDUJPOT 3FMBUJPOT $0/0144FF$PODFQUTPGPQFSBUJPOT $POTFDVUJWFDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMT $POTFDVUJWFSFMBUJPOT U $POTUSBJOFEBDUJPOT $POTVNFST 4FFBMTP1SPEVDFST1SPWJEFST $POUBJOFEDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMT o $POUFYU PGNPEFMTQBDF o G $POUFYUHFOFSBMFYUFSOBMNPEFMT o G G Context-speciﬁc external models, 133–134, 134f $POUJOVJUZ NPEFMUZQFTBOE U $POUJOVPVT EJTDSFUFWT $POUJOVPVT4ZTUFN4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF $44-

$POUJOVVN TDJFODFBT $POUSBDUT DPOUBJOFEBOETIBSFEDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMT BOE o $POUSBEJDUJPO DPNQMFYTZTUFNTBOE $POUSBTUT o4FFBMTP%VBMJUZ1BSBEPYFT5FOTJPOT $POUSPM NPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOBOE o $POUSPMGVODUJPOT $POUSPMIJFSBSDIJFT $POWFSUFST Cooperation, conﬂict and, 154 $PPQFSBUJWe interactions, deﬁned, 73 $PPSEJOBUJPO BTJOUFSBDUJPONPEFM $PSSFTQPOEFODF o G o $PSSFTQPOEFODFTFUT o o o $PTU BTSFTPVSDFDPOTUSBJOU $PVSUSPPNUSJBMT $304*.BQQJOH4ZTUFN $.4

$304*QSPKFDU4FF$BQUVSJOH 3FQSFTFOUJOH BOE 0QFSBUJPOBMJTJOH4FNBOUJD*OUFHSBUJPOQSPKFDU $SPTTDVUUJOH o G $44FF$PNQMFYTZTUFNT$PNQVUFSTDJFODF $4&4FF$PNQMFYTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH $444FF$PNQMFYTZTUFNTTDJFODF

Index $44-4FF$POUJOVPVT4ZTUFN4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF $VTUPNTPMVUJPOBQQSPBDIFT $ZCFSOFUJDT $ZD $ZDMFT $ZDMJDDIBOHFNPEFMT o G G4FFBMTP "DZDMJDDIBOHFNPEFMT

D %"31"4FF%FGFOTF"EWBODFE3FTFBSDI1SPKFDUT"HFODZ %BUBBSDIJUFDUVSFWJFX 50("'BOE %BUB3FGFSFODF.PEFM %BWJT (& %#$4FF%FTJHOCZ$POUSBDU %FDJEFST %FDJTJPONBLJOH FOUFSQSJTFFOHJOFFSJOH FOUFSQSJTF BVUPOPNZBOE %FDPEFST %FDPNQPTJUJPO U U4FFBMTP $PNQPTJUJPO %FDPVQMJOH o %FGFOTF"EWBODFE3FTFBSDI1SPKFDUT"HFODZ %"31"

%FGFOTJWFESJWJOH %eﬁned worlds, 247 %FMFHBUJPO XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE U o G %FMFHBUJPODPOOFDUPST %&-044FF%JHJUBM-JCSBSZ3FGFSFODF.PEFM %FQFOEFODJFT EFTJHOWJFXTBOE U NBQQJOHBOE NBQQJOHUPFYUFSOBMNPEFMTBOE speciﬁcation apprPBDIBOE 7FFNPEFMBOE %FQMPZNFOU %FQMPZNFOUTQBDF G %FSJWBUJPO BQQMJDBUJPOWT o %FTDSJQUJWFNPEFMT %FTDSJQUJWF0OUPMPHZGPS-JOHVJTUJDTBOE$PHOJUJWF &OHJOFFSJOH %0-$&

%FTJHO o %FTJHOCZ$POUSBDU %#$

%FTJHOWJFXT o U %FUBJMT EFTJHOWJFXTBOE U %FUFSNJOJTN U4FFBMTP1Sobabilistic speciﬁcations %FWFMPQNFOU PQFSBUJPOWT o %JDUJPOBSJFT NBTTDPMMBCPSBUJPOBOE o %iﬀerFODFT o G 4FFBMTP 4JNJMBSJUJFT %JHJUBM-JCSBSZ3FGFSFODF.PEFM %-3.

%JHJUBM3FQPTJUPSZ*OGSBTUSVDUVSF7JTJPOGPS&VSPQFBO 3FTFBSDI4FF%3*7&3QSPKFDU %JNFOTJPOBMSFMBUJPOT NPEFMTQBDFBOE o

O

351

%JNFOTJPOT %JSect interaction eﬀects, 301–302, 304–305, 310t. 4FFBMTP#FIBWJPSPGTZTUFN*OEJSFDUJOUFSBDUJPO eﬀects %JSect interactions, deﬁned, 73 %JTDJQMJOFT4FFBMTP4peciﬁc disciplines DPOUSJCVUJOHUP4&4 o U G MBOHVBHFTBOE NPEFMTQBDFBOE G NVMUJQMFEPNBJOTBOE o uniﬁcation and, 314–315, 314f uniﬁcation of o U U WJFXTBOE %JTDSFUF DPOUJOVPVTWT %JTPSEFSWTPSEFS U %JTTFSvice consumers, deﬁned, 72 %JTTFSvice initiators, deﬁned, 72 %JTTFSWJDFQSPviders, deﬁned, 72 %JTTFSWJDFT 4FFBMTP4FSWJDFT %JTUSJCVUJPO NPEFMUZQFTBOE U %JTUSJCVUJPOGVODUJPOT %JTUSJCVUJPOUSBOTQBSFODJFT %JTUSJCVUPST %-3.4FF%JHJUBM-JCSBSZ3FGFSFODF.PEFM %PDVNFOUBUJPO BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE %P%TFSJFT %P%"SDIJUFDUVSBM'SBNFXPSL %P%"'

o %P%"'4FF%P%"SDIJUFDUVSBM'SBNFXPSL %PHT DBUFHPSZ LJOEBOE o G G %0-$&4FF%FTDSJQUJWF0OUPMPHZGPS-JOHVJTUJDTBOE $PHOJUJWF&OHJOFFSJOH %PNBJOPOUPMPHJFT o %PNBJOT4FFBMTP"QQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOT.VMUJQMF EPNBJOT BStiﬁcial science and, 35 DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOPGNPEFMTQBDFBOE IJFSBSDIJFTPG NPEFMTQBDFBOE G o U U %PNJOBODF %0034 %ZOBNJD0CKFDU0SJFOUFE3FRVJSFNFOUT 4ZTUFN

%3*7&3QSPKFDU %VBMIJFSBSDIJFT G o G %VBMJUZ4FFBMTP$POUSBEJDUJPO$POUSBTUT1BSBEPYFT 5FOTJPOT UJNFBOE o G WJFXTBOE o U XBWFQBSUJDMF %ZNPMB %ZOBNJD TUBUJDWT o %ZOBNJDNPEFM U o o4FFBMTP 4UBUJDNPEFMT %ZOBNJD0CKFDU0SJFOUFE3FRVJSFNFOUT4ZTUFN4FF %0034 %ZOBNJDBMTZTUFNT U o

352 O

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

E &"4FF&OUFSQSJTFBVUPOPNZ &"GSBNFXPSLT4FF&OUFSQSJTFBSDIJUFDUVSF GSBNFXPSLT &BSMZBTQFDUT FC9-.4FF&MFDUSPOJD#VTJOFTTVTJOH&YUFOTJCMF.BSLVQ -BOHVBHF &DPMPHZ, deﬁned, 59 &DPOPNJDT G &DPTZTUFNT &$4".4FF&NCFEEFE$PNQVUFS4ZTUFN"OBMZTJT BOE.PEFMJOH &EHFT /BSZSFMBUJPOJOUFSBDUJPONPEFMTBOE &&.4FF&OUFSQSJTFFOHJOFFSJOHBOENBOBHFNFOU Eﬀects deﬁned, 72 EJSFDUJOUFSBDUJPO o U JOEJSFDUJOUFSBDUJPO o U JOUFOEFEBOEVOJOUFOEFE TJEF o &MBQTFEUJNF &MFDUSPOJD#VTJOFTTVTJOH&YUFOTJCMF.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF FC9.-

&NCFEEFE$PNQVUFS4ZTUFN"OBMZTJTBOE.PEFMJOH &$4".

&NFSHFODF 4FFBMTP3FEVDUJPOJTN &NFSHFOUDPTIBQJOH &NFSHFOUQSPQFSUJFT &ODBQTVMBUJPO BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTBOE DIBOHFTPGJOUFSFTUBOE o DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE o DPOOFDUPSTBOE NFNCSBOFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBOE o XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE U &ODPEFST &OEQPJOUQBSties, deﬁned, 71 &OHJOFFSJOH BSDIJUFDUVSFGSBNFXPSLTBOE BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE o DPNQMFY IZCSJETZTUFNTBOE DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOPG deﬁned, 37 TDJFODFBOE o U G uniﬁcation of &OHJOFFSJOHIBOECPPLT 4FFBMTP )BOECPPLT &OUFSQSJTF &OUFSQSJTFBQQSPBDIFT &OUFSQSJTFBSDIJUFDUVSF &" GSBNFXPSLT o G &OUFSQSJTFBVUPOPNZ &"

U o &OUFSQSJTFFOHJOFFSJOH &OUFSQSJTFFOHJOFFSJOHNBOBHFNFOU &&.

U o

&OUFSQSJTFTFMGPSHBOJ[JOHBDUJWJUZ &OUFSQSJTFTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH &OUFSQSJTFXPSLTQBDFT &OUFSQSJTFT o &OUJUJFT o4FFBMTP.PTBJDT4ZTUFNT8PSMET &OWJSonments, deﬁned, 59 &4-4FF&VSPQFBO4QBDF"HFODZ4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF &VSPQFBO4QBDF"HFODZ4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF &4-

&WFOJOHTUBS JOUFOTJPOWTFYUFOTJPOBOE o &WPMVUJPO4FFBMTP#JPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPO BOBMPHZUPCJPMPHJDBM BStiﬁcial, 233 BStiﬁcial and natural science and, 36 DIBOHFBOE o FOHJOFFSJOHBOE o FOUFSQSJTFDPODFQUBOE mapping and uniﬁcation and, 301–302, 307 TPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOHBOE UJNFBOE o &YDMVTJWJUZ BTDPNQPTJUJPOQSPQFSUZ o G &YFDVUBCJMJUZ NPEFMUZQFTBOE U &YFDVUBCMFNPEFMT G &YFDVUJPOEPNBJOT &YQBOTJPO &YQFDUFECFIBWJPS o4FFBMTP/PSNBMCFIBWJPS &YQMJDJUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT o &YUFOEFEXIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOT U &YUFOTJCMF.BSL6Q-BOHVBHF 9.-

o &YUFOTJPO o 4FFBMTP*OUFOTJPO &YUFOTJPOBMPOUPMPHJFT &YUFSOBMNPEFMT o 4FFBMTP*OUFSOBM NPEFMT &xternal speciﬁcation languages, 203 &xternal speciﬁcations, 274, 274f U G 4FFBMTP*nternal speciﬁcations &YUFSOBMWJFXT o4FFBMTP*OUFSOBMWJFXT &YUSFNFFODBQTVMBUJPO4FF#PYPMPHZ &YUSFNFQSPHSBNNJOH 91

&YUSVEFST

F 'BJMVSF SFBTPOTGPS 'BJMVSFUSBOTQBSFODZ '&"QSPHSBN o 'FSUJMJ[BUJPO NPEFMJOHPG 'JEFMJUZ o 'lammable, inﬂammable vs., 9 'MJHIU NPEFMJOHPG o 'MPXJOHXBUFS NPEFMTFMFDUJPOBOE o '0$4FF'VMMPQFSBUJPOBMDBQBCJMJUZ 'PMLTPOPNJFT o 'PSNBMEFTJHO 'PSNBUJPO DIBOHFTBOE G U 'PVOEBUJPOT

Index WJFXT 'SBDUBMT 'SBNFXPSLT4FF&OUFSQSJTFBSDIJUFDUVSFGSBNFXPSLT 4peciﬁc frBNFXPSLT 'VMMGVODUJPOJOH DIBOHFTBOE G U 'VMMPQFSBUJPOBMDBQBDJUZ '0$

'VODUJPOT 'VTJPO 'VUVSF EVBMIJFSBSDIJFTBOE 'VUVZNBNPEFM 'V[[JOFTT NZUIPGSFRVJSFNFOUTESJWFOBOE 'V[[Z QSPCBCJMJUZWT G 'V[[ZCPVOEBSJFT 'V[[ZMPHJD 'V[[ZTFUUIFPSZ 'uzzy speciﬁcations, 293, 294f 'V[[ZUIJOLJOH o

G (4&#P,4FF(VJEFUPUIF4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH#PEZ PG,OPXMFEHF (BNJOH (BSCBHFDBONPEFM ($.

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o G 1SPCMFNEPNBJOT NPEFMTQBDFTUSVDUVSFBOE G 1SPCMFNTQBDF G G G G4FFBMTP "QQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOT$PMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPO TQBDF.PEFMTQBDF4PMVUJPOTZTUFNTQBDF 1SPDFTT4FFBMTP"DUJWJUJFT$PMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPO 4FMGPSHBOJ[JOHQSPDFTTFT DPNQPTJUJPOSFMBUFE o GPDVTPOBTXFBLOFTTPG54& IJTUPSZPG o NPEFMJOHMFWFMTPG o G U G U scientiﬁc method and, 323–324 1SPDFTTPST 1Soduced systems, deﬁned, 20, 20t 1SPEVDFST 4FFBMTP$POTVNFST 1SPEVDUMBZFST 1SPHSBNNJOHMBOHVBHFEPNBJOT o 1SPHSBNT 1SPKFDUMBZFST 1SPQBHBUJPO XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE U o G 1SPQFSUJFT TFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNBOE 1Sosumers, deﬁned, 8 1SPUPUZQFT BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE 1SPWJEFST 4FFBMTP$POTVNFST 1TFVEPTDJFODF 1TZDIPMPHZ WJFXTBOE 1VODUVBUFEFRVJMJCSJVN 1VSQPTFGVMBDUJWJUZ o 1V[[MFNFUBQIPS 1ZUIPO

Q 2P&4FF2VBMJUZPGFYQFSJFODF 2P44FF2VBMJUZPGTFSWJDF 2VBMJUBUJWFNPEFMT 2VBMJUZNFUSJDT 2VBMJUZPGFYQFSJFODF 2P&

o 2VBMJUZPGTFSWJDF 2P4

o

R 3BEJDBMEFTJHO o 3BOEPNOFTT VODFSUBJOUZBOE

Index 3BUJPOBM6niﬁed PSPDFTT 3%' 3FBMJUZ TPGUXBSFTZTUFNTBOE o 3FBMJ[BUJPOTZTUFN4FF$PMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPOTQBDF 3FBM5JNF0CKFDU0SJFOUFE.PEFMJOH 3FDPNCJOBUJPO o 3FEVDUJPOJTN o4FFBMTP&NFSHFODF 3FGFSFODF.PEFMPG0QFO%JTUSJCVUFE1SPDFTTJOH 3.0%1

o 3FHBSEMFTT JSSFHBSEMFTTWT 3FHJPOT4FF.PEFMSFHJPOT4ZTUFNSFHJPOT 3FHJTUSZPG4UBOEBSE#JPMPHJDBM1BSUT 3FMBUJPOT G 4FFBMTP*OUFSBDUJPONPEFMT 3FMBUJWFIPMBSDIJFT 4FFBMTP)PMBSDIJFT 3FMBUJWJUZ o 3FQMJDBUJPO PGNPEFMT 3FQPTJUPSJFT o4FFBMTP.PEFMTQBDF 3FQSFTFOUBUJPO G 4FFBMTP $PODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO7JFXT 3FQSPEVDFST 3FRVJSFNFOUT EFQFOEFODJFTBOE o FYUFSOBMNPEFMTBOE o o 3FRVJSFNFOUTESJWFO NZUIPG 3FRVJSFNFOUTGPSGPVOEBUJPOPGGVUVSF U 3FRVJSFNFOUTMBOHVBHFT 3FRVJTJUFQBSTJNPOZ MBXPG 3FRVJTJUFWBSJFUZ MBXPG o 3FTFNCMBODFUIJOLJOH 3FTJMJFODF QBOBSDIZBOE 3FTPVSDFDPOTUSBJOUT 3FTPVSces, deﬁned, 74 3FWFSTJCJMJUZ 3FWolutions, scientiﬁc, 31 3IFUPSJDBM4USVDUVSe TheorZ 3JFNBOOJBOHFPNFUSZ 3JOHUPQPMPHZ G 3JTL DPNQMFYTZTUFNTBOE 3JTLBTTFTTNFOU o 3.0%1'SBNFXPSL4FF3FGFSFODF.PEFMPG0QFO %JTUSJCVUFE1SPDFTTJOH 3PCVTUEFTJHO o 3PMFT o G o 3PMMJOHXBWFNPEFM o G G i3PTFUUB4UPOFw TZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHTDJFODFBOE o 3PTFUUB4ZTUFN%FTJHO-BOHVBHF 3PVUFQBUUFSOT 3PVUFQMBOOJOHQBUUFSOT 3VMFT o 3VOUJNF NPEFMTBU

S 4"4FF4ZTUFNBVUPOPNZ 4BGFUZEFQPTJUCPYes, speciﬁcation apprPBDIBOE 4atisﬁcing, 328

O 359

4DBMBCMF7FDUPS(SBQIJDT 47(

4DBMF BDZDMJD DZDMJDNPEFMTBOE o G DIBOHFTPGJOUFSFTUBOE o DPNQPTJUJPOBOE o MBXPGHSBEBUJPOBOE TUBUJDWTEZOBNJDBOE 4DBMFGSFFOFUXPSLT 4DBMJOH4FFBMTP.VMUJTDBMFTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH EPXO NVMUJTDBMF o VQ o WJFXQPJOUTBOE 4DFOBSJPT POUPMPHZEFWFMPQNFOUBOE 4DJFODF4FFBMTP4ZTUFNTTDJFODF DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOPG o FOHJOFFSJOHBOE o U G MBOHVBHFTBOE MBXTPG o .04&4DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE o OBUVSBMBOEBStiﬁcial, 34–37, 36f SBUJPOBM MPHJDBMBOE o 4IBXBOE'JODIIJTUPSJDBMQBUUFSOBOE 4DJFODFPGOFUXPSLT 4DJFODFQBUUFSOT4FF1BUUFSOT 4DJFODFT U o o Scientiﬁc method, 323–324 4DPQF o o 4$054FF4PDJBMDPOTUSVDUJPOPGUFDIOPMPHJDBM TZTUFNT 4DSJQUT 4%-4FF4peciﬁcation and DFTDSJQUJPO-BOHVBHF 4&#P,HVJEF 4FDVSJUZ 4&*4FF4PGUXBSF&OHJOFFSJOH*OTUJUVUF 4FMFDUJPO VOJUTPG 4elf-conﬁguration, 12 4FMGDPOTDJPVTEFTJHO 4FMGDSFBUJPO4FF"VUPQPJFTJT 4FMGIFBMJOH 4FMGPQUJNJ[BUJPO 4FMGPSHBOJ[BUJPO o o 4FMGPSHBOJ[FEDSJUJDBMJUJFT 40$

4FMGPSHBOJ[JOHQSPDFTTFT o 4FMGQSPUFDUJPO 4FMGTJNJMBSJUZ 4FNBOUJDOFUXPSLT 4FNBOUJDTQFDUSVN G 4FNBOUJD8FC 4FNBOUJDT BSDIJUFDUVSFPGTPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOHBOE G DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOPGNPEFMTQBDFBOE NPEFMTQBDFDPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE G VTFEJO4&NPEFMT o G 4FOTPST BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE 4FQBSBUFDPNQPOFOUDBUFHPSJFT G

360

O

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

4FQBSBUJPO BTQFDUPSJFOUFEEFWFMPQNFOUBOE o DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE o NPEBMJUZBOE o VODFSUBJOUZBOE WJFXTBOE 4FQBSBUJPOPGDPODFSOT4FF.PEVMBSJUZ 4FRVFODFEJBHSBNT 4FSWJDF$PNQPOFOU3FGFSFODF.PEFM 4FSvice consumers, deﬁned, 72 4FSvice initiators, deﬁned, 72 4FSvice interactions, deﬁned, 73 4FSWJDF.PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 4.-

4FSWJDFPSJFOUFEBSDIJUFDUVSF 40"

o 4FSWJDFQSPviders, deﬁned, 72 4FSWJDFPSJFOUFEBSDIJUFDUVSF 40"

4FSWJDF0SJFOUFE.PEFMJOHBOE"SDIJUFDUVSF 40."

4FSWJDF0SJFOUFE.PEFMJOH'SBNFXPSL 40.'

4FSWJDFT o 4FFBMTP4FSWJDF DPOTVNFST 4&44FF4ZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHTDJFODF 4(.-4FF4UBOEBSE(FOFSBMJ[FE.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF 4(434FF4PDJFUZGPS(FOFSBM4ZTUFNT3FTFBSDI 4IBSFEDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMT G 4IBSFEVOEFSTUBOEJOH o G G 4FFBMTP4peciﬁcations 4IBSFEXIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOT U 4IBXBOE'JODIIJTUPSJDBMQBUUFSO 4ide eﬀects, unexpected, 4–5 4JNJMBSJUJFT o G 4FFBMTP %iﬀerFODFT 4JNPO )FSCFSU 4JNQMJDJUZ 4JNVMBUJPOMBOHVBHFT 4JNVMBUJPOMFBSOJOH 4JNVMBUJPONPEFMT 4NJUI #BSSZ 4.-4FF4FSWJDF.PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 40"4FF4FSWJDFPSJFOUFEBSDIJUFDUVSF 40"SFGFSFODFNPEFM 40$4FF4FMGPSHBOJ[FEDSJUJDBMJUJFT 4PDJBMDPOTUSVDUJPOPGUFDIOPMPHJDBMTZTUFNT 4$05

4PDJBMQSPDFTTFT 4PDJBMTDJFODFT 4PDJBMTZTUFNT QFSTQFDUJWFBOE o 4PDJFUZGPS(FOFSBM4ZTUFNT3FTFBSDI 4(43

4PDJPMPHZ 4PGUXBSF MBOHVBHFTPG .FZFSPO o QFSTQFDUJWFBOE SPMFTPG o

speciﬁcation apprPBDIBOE USBOTGPSNBUJPOTBOE U 5VSTLJPO 4PGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOH 4PGUXBSF&OHJOFFSJOH*OTUJUVUF 4&*

o 4PGUXBSFNPEFMT BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE 40*4FF4ZTUFNTPGJOUFSFTU 4PMVUJPOEPNBJOT NPEFMTQBDFTUSVDUVSFBOE G 4PMVUJPONPEFMJOH 40"GSBNFXPSLTBOE 4PMVUJPOTZTUFNTQBDF G G G G 4FFBMTP"QQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOT$PMMFDUJWF BDUVBMJ[BUJPOTQBDF.PEFMTQBDF1SPCMFNTQBDF 40."4FF4FSWJDF0SJFOUFE.PEFMJOHBOE"SDIJUFDUVSF 40.'4FF4FSWJDF0SJFOUFE.PEFMJOH'SBNFXPSL 4QBDF4FF$PMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPOTQBDF.PEFMTQBDF 1IBTFTQBDF1SPCMFNTQBDF4PMVUJPOTZTUFN TQBDF 4QBDFUJNFSFHJPOT 4QBOPGDPOUSPM o 4QFDJBMJ[BUJPO DPNNPOJ[BUJPOBOE 4QFDJBMJ[BUJPOIJFSBSDIJFT 4peciﬁc models, 180, 226–227, 335. 4FFBMTP(FOFSBM NPEFMT 4peciﬁcation and DFTDSJQUJPO-BOHVBHF 4%-

4peciﬁcation apprPBDI DPOEJUJPOBMQSPCBCJMJUJFTFYBNQMFPG o G DPOUFOUUZQFTBOE o U U U FMFNFOUTBOECBDLHSPVOEPG o FYBNQMFTPG o U FYUFSOBMCFIBWJPSDBUFHPSJFTBOE o external speciﬁcations and, 280t, 283, 284f JOUFSface speciﬁcations and, 281t, 283–284 internal speciﬁcations and, 279t, 282–283, 282f QBSUJBMOFTTBOE G QSobabilistic speciﬁcations and, 284–289, 286f UZQFTBOETUSVDUVSFPG o G VODFSUBJOUZNFUIPETBOE o G G 4peciﬁcations, 67–70, 68f o 4peciﬁed behavior 4QFDUSB o o 4QJSBMNFUIPE 444FF4ZTUFNTTDJFODF 4UBCJMJUZ DIBOHFBOE 4UBOEBSE(FOFSBMJ[FE.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF 4(.-

4UBOEBSET o 4UBOGPSE&ODZDMPQFEJBPG1IJMPTPQIZ 4UBSUPQPMPHZ G 4UBST JOUFOTJPOWTFYUFOTJPOBOE o 4UBUFNBDIJOFEJBHSBNT 4UBUFT QFSTJTUFODFBOE 4UBUJD EZOBNJDWT o 4UBUJDNPEFM U 4UFQXJTFSFWPMVUJPO 4UPSZUFMMJOH

Index 4USBUFHJDWJFX BSDIJUFDUVSFGSBNFXPSLTBOE 4USVDUVSF OFUXPSLTBOE 4USVDUVSFEJBHSBNT 4USVDUVSFNPEFM o 4tuﬀ, 71, 74 4VHHFTUFE6QQFS.FSHFE0OUPMPHZ 46.0

46.04FF4VHHFTUFE6QQFS.FSHFE0OUPMPHZ 4VQQPSUFST 4VQQPSUJOHEJTDJQMJOFT4FF%JTDJQMJOFT 4VTUBJOBCJMJUZ QBOBSDIZBOE 47(4FF4DBMBCMF7FDUPS(SBQIJDT 4XBNQT 48&#P,HVJEF 4ymmetric interactions, deﬁned, 73 4ZNNFUSZ o 4ZODISPOZ JOUFSBDUJPONPEFMTBOE 4ZOPOZNT 4FFBMTP4ZOTFUT 4ZOTFUT 4ZOUIFTJT 4ZOUIFUJDCJPMPHZ 4ZT.-4FF4ZTUFNT.PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 4ZTUFNBVUPOPNZ 4"

U 4ZTUFNCFIBWJPS o o 4ZTUFNDPNQPTJUJPOIJFSBSDIJFT 4ZTUFNMBZFST 4ZTUFNNPEFMJOHBOEEFTJHOMBOHVBHFT TFNBOUJD TQFDUSVNBOE o 4ZTUFNPGTZTUFNT 4P4

o 4ZTUFNSFHJPOT o G4FFBMTP.PEFMSFHJPOT 4ZTUFNTQBDF4FF4PMVUJPOTZTUFNTQBDF 4ZTUFNBTPSHBOJTNNFUBQIPS o 4ZTUFNT CPVOEBSJFTBOE o DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPG o DPSSFTQPOEFODF SFHJPOBOE o G deﬁned, 60 EFWFMPQNFOUWTPQFSBUJPOPG o diﬀerFODFTXJUIJOBOEBDSPTT G NPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOBOE o NPEFMTBOE o NPTBJDTBOE o U SFHJPOTBOE o G UBYPOPNZPG o G UFSNJOPMPHZPG o 4ZTUFNTBOETFSWJDFTWJFX BSDIJUFDUVSFGSBNFXPSLTBOE o 4ZTUFNTCJPMPHZ 4ZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH 4& 4FFBMTP$PNQMFYTZTUFNT FOHJOFFSJOH5SBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH CPEJFTPGLOPXMFEHFBOE o G GV[[ZUIJOLJOHBOEMPHJDBOE MBOHVBHFTTVQQPSUJOH o G NPEFMTQBDFBOE U QSPCMFNTPMWJOHBOE o U TFNBOUJDTBOEPOUPMPHJFTVTFEJONPEFMT o G

O 361

uniﬁcation and, 314–316, 314f WJFXTBOE o U G 4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH)BOECPPL */$04&

4ZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHTDJFODF 4&4

o U G 4ZTUFNT.PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 4ZT.-

4ZTUFNTPGJOUFSFTU 40*

4ZTUFNTPGTZTUFNT 4P4

4ZTUFNTTDJFODF 44

DPNQMFYTZTUFNTTDJFODFBOE o IPMJTNBOE JOMJUFSBUVSF o NPEFMTQBDFBOE NVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSJUZ HFOFSBMJUZBOE TZTUFNTUBYPOPNZBOE o G UIFNFTPG o uniﬁcation and, 315 VOJUZ, uniﬁcation and, 45 4ZTUFNTUBYPOPNZ o G

T 5 MBOHVBHF

5BDJULOPXMFEHF 5BHHJOH 5BJMPSJOHVQWTUBJMPSJOHEPXO BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTT BOE 5BSHFUTZTUFNT 5argets, deﬁned, 267 5ask-technology ﬁt (55'

5BYPOPNJFT4FFBMTP4ZTUFNTUBYPOPNZ BStiﬁcial and natural science and, 36–37 CJPMPHJDBM '&"QSPHSBNBOE (6.0BOE IJFSBSDIJFTBOE G JOIFSJUBODFBOE TFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNBOE TZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHBOE o G 5FBNXPSLTQBDFT 5FDIOJDBM3FGFSFODF.PEFM 5FDIOJDBMTUBOEBSEWJFX BSDIJUFDUVSFGSBNFXPSLT BOE o 5FDIOPMPHZ o 5FDIOPMPHZBSDIJUFDUVSFWJFX 5FMFTDPQFT 5FNQPSBMMPHJD o 5FOTJPOT o4FFBMTP$POUSBEJDUJPO $POUSBTUT%VBMJUZ1BSBEPYFT 5FTUJOH4FF7eriﬁcation of model ﬁdelity ThesaurVT TFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNBOE 5JNF BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTBOE DIBOHFBOE o

362 O

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

DIBOHFPGJOUFSFTUBOE o DPNQPTJUJPOEJNFOTJPOBOE o diﬀerFODFTXJUIJOBOEBDSPTTTZTUFNTBOE G EVBMIJFSBSDIJFTBOE G FWPMVUJPOBOE o MFWFMTPGQSPDFTTBOEDIBOHFBOE o G U G U MFWFSBHFBOE NFBTVSFNFOUPG o NPEFMTQBDFBOE NPEFMTQBDFTUSVDUVSFBOE G OFFEFEDIBOHFNPEFMTBOE o U QFSTJTUFODF EVBMJUZBOE o TDBMFBOE TUBUJDWTEZOBNJDBOE o UZQFTPG o G G 7FFNPEFMBOE o G 5JNFJOWBSJBODFWTUJNFWBSJBODF o 5JNFST 5JNJOHEJBHSBNT 50("' 5PQEPXOQSPDFTTFT o 5PQPMPHJFT /BSZSFMBUJPOJOUFSBDUJPONPEFMTBOE o 5PSWBMET -JOVT o 5SBDF XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE U 5rade-oﬀs. 4FF-FWFSBHF 5SBEJUJPOBMFOHJOFFSJOHTQBDF VTFSSFRVJSFNFOUTWT 5SBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNT 54

DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPG EVBMJUJFTJO o 5SBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH 54&

HFOFSBMNPEFMTBOE o G QSPCMFNTXJUI o o TJNVMBUJPOBOE o TUBOEBSETBOE o UFNQPSBMDIBOHFBOE uniﬁcation and, 314–315, 314f 5SBKFDUPSJFT o4FFBMTP1IBTFTQBDF USBKFDUPSZ 5ransactions, deﬁned, 74 5SBOTEVDFST 5SBOTGPSNBUJPOT U 5SBOTJUJPOT 4FFBMTP1IBTFUSBOTJUJPOT 5SBOTMBUJPO 5SBOTQBSFODZ 5SFFUPQPMPHZ G 5SJBMT 5SVUI o 54&4FF5SBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH 55'4FF5ask-technology ﬁt 5VSCJOFT 5VSTLJ 8MBEJTMBX o 5ZQFT4FF$MBTTFT,JOET

U 6%T4FF6OJWFSTFTPGEJTDPVSTF 6&.-4FF6niﬁed EOUFSQSJTF.PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 6.- 4FF6niﬁed MPEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 6ODFSUBJONFNCSBOFT 6ODFSUBJOUZ o G 6OEFSTUBOEJOH4FFBMTP4IBSFEVOEFSTUBOEJOH 4peciﬁcations 6OFYQFDUFECFIBWJPS o4FFBMTP&YQFDUFE CFIBWJPS 6niﬁcation BTBEWBOUBHFPG.04&4 BTHFOFSBMDIBMMFOHF o G NPEFMTQBDFBOE o QFSTQFDUJWFBOE QSPNPUJPOPGCZ.04&4 o G TZTUFNTTDJFODFBOE 6niﬁed EOUFSQSJTF.PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 6&.-

6niﬁed MPEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 6.-

o 6niﬁed PSoﬁle for DP%"'BOE.P%"' 61%.

6niﬁed speciﬁcation apprPBDI o 6OJGPSNQSPCBCJMJUZEJTUSJCVUJPO 6nintended eﬀects, 73. 4FFBMTP*ntended eﬀects 6OJUPQFSBUJPOT 6OJUTPGTFMFDUJPO 6OJUZPGTDJFODF 6OJWFSTBMBSDIJUFDUVSF 6OJWFSTFTPGEJTDPVSTF 6%T

o 6/*9PQFSBUJOHTZTUFN 5PSWBMETBOE o 6OQSFEJDUBCJMJUZ DPNQMFYTZTUFNTBOE 6OTFMGDPOTDJPVTEFTJHO 61%.4FF6niﬁed PSoﬁle for DP%"'BOE.P%"' 6TFDBTFWJFXT 6TFGVMOFTT o 6TFMFTT"SJUINFUJD 1JMLFZ

o 6TFSOFFET o G G 6TFSSFRVJSFNFOUT USBEJUJPOBMFOHJOFFSJOHTQBDFWT

V 7BMVBUJPO 7BSJBCJMJUZ NPEFMUZQFTBOE U 7BSJBCMFT JNQPSUBODFPGTFMFDUJOHDPSSFDU 7BSJBUJPOT o 7BSJFUZ -BXPGSFRVJTJUF o 7FFNPEFM o G 7eriﬁcation of model ﬁdelity 7FSJMPH)%- o 7FSTBUJMJUZ G o4FFBMTP"EBQUBCJMJUZ 7FSUFY /BSZSFMBUJPOJOUFSBDUJPONPEFMTBOE 7)%-4FF7)4*$)BSEXBSF%FTDSJQUJPO-BOHVBHF 7)4*$)BSEXBSF%FTDSJQUJPO-BOHVBHF 7)%-

o 7JFU/BN8BS

Index 7JFXQPJOUT 7JFXT BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTBOE BEEJUJPOBMSFTFBSDIBOE o BSDIJUFDUVSFSFMBUFE o U G BSUJGBDUTBOE CBTJDDPODFQUTPG o CBTJDTZTUFNFOHJOFFSJOHSFMBUFE o U G DBUFHPSJFTPG o G PGDPNNPOTUSVDUVSFNPEFMT o G DPVSUSPPNUSJBMTBOE deﬁned, 84, 268 EJTDSFUFWTDPOUJOVPVTBOE IBSNPOJ[JOHEVBMJUJFTBOE o U IJFSBSDIZBOE o NPEFMTQBDFBOE G o NPEFMTQBDFEJNFOTJPOTBOE PGQSPDFTTFT o TDJFODFTBOE o speciﬁcation apprPBDIBOE o G G UJNFBOE WJFXQPJOUTBOE 7JHOFUUFT BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE 7JODFOUJTFOHJOFFSJOHLOPXMFEHFDBUFHPSJFT o U 7JSUVBMNBDIJOFT MBZFSFEBSDIJUFDUVSFBOE 7JTVBM#BTJD 7JTVBMJ[BUJPO BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTBOE o G 7JUSVWJVT 7PJDF&YUFOTJCMF.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF 7PJDF9.-

7PJDF9.-4FF7PJDF&YUFOTJCMF.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF

O 363

8FC0OUPMPHZ-BOHVBHFCBTFEPO%FTDSJQUJPO-PHJDT 80-%-

8FC4FSWJDFT#VTJOFTT1SPDFTT&YFDVUJPO-BOHVBHF 84#1&-

8IJUFIFBE "MGSFE/PSUI 8IPMFTZTUFNTNPEFMJOH 8IPMFT4FFBMTP)PMPOT1BSUT4ZTUFNT 8IPMFT SFMBUJPOTIJQPGXJUIQBSUT o G G G oU G G 8JDLFEQSPCMFNT G 8JLJOPNJDT 8JLJQFEJB 8JOEUVSCJOFUFDIOPMPHZ 80-%-4FF8FC0OUPMPHZ-BOHVBHFCBTFEPO %FTDSJQUJPO-PHJDT 8PSE/FU 8PSLTQBDFT NPEFMTQBDFBOE o 8PSME8BS** o 8orlds, deﬁned, 59–60, 247 84#1&-4FF8FC4FSWJDFT#VTJOFTT1SPDFTT&YFDVUJPO -BOHVBHF 8ZNPSF 8BZOF o

X 9.-4FF&YUFOTJCMF.BSL6Q-BOHVBHF 9.-.FUBEBUB*OUFSDIBOHF 9.* TUBOEBSE 9.-1SPDFTT%eﬁnition Language (XPDL), 202 914FF&YUSFNFQSPHSBNNJOH 91%-4FF9.-1SPDFTT%eﬁnition Language

Y W 8BSHBNJOH 8arﬁeld, JPIO 8BUFSGBMMQSPDFTT G 8BWFT EVBMJUZBOE 8FBLOFTTFTPG54& o

:FU"OPUIFS8PSkﬂoX-BOHVBHF :"8-

:JO:BOH o U

Z ;BDINBO&OUFSQSJTF'SBNFXPSL o G

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Complex Time-Delay Systems: Theory and Applications (Understanding Complex Systems)

Springer Complexity Springer Complexity is an interdisciplinary program publishing the best research and academic-level...

Transforming Organizations: Strategies and Methods (Complex Systems Engineering and Management)

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Modeling and Control of Complex Systems (Automation and Control Engineering)

Modeling and Control of Complex Systems AUTOMATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks ...

Biological Networks (Complex Systems and Interdisciplinary Science)

BIOLOGICAL NETWORKS 6459 tp.indd 1 10/1/07 4:43:00 PM Complex Systems and Interdisciplinary Science (ISSN: 1793-454...

Testing Complex and Embedded Systems

Saunder November 10, 2010 10:35 © 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC K11134˙C000 Saunder November 10, 2010 1...