INTRODUCTION TO KNITTING TECHNOLOGY
HENRY JOHNSON
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ABHISHEK PUBLICATIONS CHANDIGARH (INDIA)
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ISBN : 978-81-8247-114-6 ISBN: 81-8247-114-1
© Reserved Edition ~
2008
Published by Bharat Bhushan Abhishek Publications 57-59, Sector 17-C, Chandigarh-17 Ph. :5003768. Fax: 2707562 Email:
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Preface Knitting is the art of using yarn or thread to make fabric from interlocking loops. Its origin has been traced as far back as the fourth or fifth century B. C. In the past, knitting has been the occupation of shepherds who kept on knitting while watching their flocks, sailors also used to pass their time in the same way while whiling away the hours of long voyages during the age of exploration, apprentices who studied it in 13th and 14th Century knitting guilds and royal knitters in the court of England at the time of King Henry VIII. At certain times in history, only members of royalty were allowed to wear knitted items. One of the knitted garments on display at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London is a handsome handknitted silk shirt, which King Charles I wore on the day of his beheading. Handknitting is a popular pastime, producing items that are functional, economical, fashionable and fun to make. In addition, knitting offers an opportunity for creative selection of colour and style and allows you to fashion garments that really fit. For all these reasons and more, this book has been introduced. It deals with all pros and cons of the knitting, starting from the primary level.
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Contents 1. Knitting and its Origin ...................................................... 7 2. Five Centuries of Knitting ............................................... 84 3. Knitting for Beginners ..................................................... 99 4. Practice Knitting Patterns .............................................. 153 5. Knitting Hints ............................................................... 197
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~HAPIER 1 Knitting and its Origin Defining knitting Knitting is a way of interlocking a series of loops that creates hand and machine knitted fabric. The loops (stitches) are interlocked using a needle to hold the existing loop while a new loop is formed in front of the old loop. The old loop is then brought over the new loop to form the fabric. Knitting differs from weaving in that a single piece of yarn can be used to create fabric. The fabric consists of horiwntal rows known as courses and venical columns of loops known as wales. Knitted fabric has useful propenies that make it suitable for a range of garments including tights, gloves, underwear and other close-fitting garments. The loop structure of knitted fabric stretches and moulds to fit body shapes. The air trapped by the loops keeps the wearer warm.
Fashioning, loops and ladders When knitting, increasing or decreasing the nwnber of stitches in a row widens or narrows the garment being created. Increasing is achieved by moving outer loops sideways on a franle and creating e:\.1:ra loops. This process leaves a small eyelet hole in the fabric known as a fashioning mark. When decreasing, the process is reversed and the loops move inwards.
II This time the fashioning mark appears where two loops are compressed into one new loop. Garments shaped in this way are fully-fashioned and regarded as high quality. Occasionally some firms used fake fashioning marks to make garments appear to be fully-fashioned. If yarn in a traditional knitted fabric breaks, the loops unravel and a run or ladder forms. To overcome the problem and to sell more goods, knitters worked to design new fabric structures that were less dependent on individual loops for their strength and unlikely to run if a thread broke. Hexagonal meshes, micromesh, non-run, run-proof and similar fabrics were introduced and appreciated by consmners.
Origin of knitting The earliest looped fabrics may have been produced in the Middle East. Socks recovered from fourth century tombs in Egypt were rp.ade using a form oflooping known as nalbinding. N albinding uses a single sewing needle to make the loops instead of two knitting needles. Further examples from Egypt date from the seventh century and show loop patterns that suggest they were knitted in the traditional hand-knitting manner with two needles. In Spain, knitted cushions have been found in tombs dating from the thirteenth century. Purses for holding religious relics, gloves worn du(ing religioUS-ceremonies and knitted girCij~s are also known from this period. Peasant knitting ofsimilar ~te has. been recovered from a Polish cemetery. Fdur '-surv~g paintings from the fourteenth century show the Virgin j!~ knitting, suggesting that the craft was a familiar activity for womel1. A rising demand for knitted caps led to the development of the English hand knitting industry. References to Coventry cappers were first recorded in 1424. In 1488, the Cappers' Act was passed by Parliament to fix the prices of caps ,and prevent cappers making excessive profits.
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By Tudor times, caps were flat with a narrow brim. In the sixteenth century, an almost insatiable demand for knitted stockings further stimulated the young industry.
The industry (1589-1750) Fashionable stockings The Tudor court
Hand knitting in England expanded as an industry in Tudor times (1485-1603). Knitted caps and stockings were highly fashionable. From the time of Henry VIII, fine knitted silk stockings imported from Spain were part of court fashion. Previously, a piece of cloth was cut to the shape of a leg and the edges sewn together to create a stocking. By the time of Elizabeth I, knowledge of how to hand knit stockings had spread around England and documents refer to the industry in places as far apart as London, Kingston (Surrey) and Richmond (Yorkshire). The first knitting frame
The increasing popularity of knitted stockings at court and beyond created opportunities for entrepreneurs to make money. In 1589, \Villiam Lee of Calverton, Nottinghamshire, successfully converted the actions of hand knitting with two needles into a mechanised process. This was the first knitting fr" me. Like the hand knitting process, the knitting frame produced a shaped piece of fabric that was then sewn together to (:reate a garment. Failure to get a patent
Lee wanted to protect his invention by obtaining a patent from Queen Elizabeth. Lord Hunsdon, a courtier, promoted the case for the knitting frame to the Queen, but without success.
II The woollen fabric produced by the early frame was considered coarse compared with fme silk stockings. The frame was also seen as a threat to the hand knitting industry, which might lead to many people losing work. Lee responded to the Queen's comments and improved the frame by increasing the number of needles per inch from eight to twenty. This knitted a finer fabric. Unfortunately, for Lee, his supporter, Lord Hunsdon, died in 1596, dashing any hopes of securing a patent for the frame. French tribulations
Convinced of the value of his machine, Lee crossed the Channel to France where Henry IV promoted religious tolerance and actively encouraged the development of industry. Lee's brother James, nine workmen and nine frames, accompanied Lee on the journey. From a base in the town of Rouen, Lee began to establish his business. A contract was drawn up with Pierre de Caux to supply frames and train apprentices so that production of garments could commence by 26 March 1610. The business seemed to be progressing well, but unfortunately, for Lee, the political scene changed rapidly when Henry IV was assassinated in 1610. In the uncertainty, Lee travelled to Paris and died a broken man around 1614. London and Nottingham
Mter Lee's death, James Lee returned from France with eight frames and seven of the workmen. James promptly disposed of the remaining frames in London, returned to N ottinghamshire where Lee's apprentice, Aston, had continued to work on the frame and made a number of improvements. The route of James Lee's return resulted in the establishment of two knitting centres, one based in London with the older frames and one in Nottingham using the newer frames.
II Knitting atul its Origin The Midlands woollen industry Introduction to England
The English woollen industry- predates the arrival of the Romans. The Norman invasion in the eleventh century encouraged the industry to expand and fleeces and cloth were exported across Europe. In many areas, land previously used to grow corn was turned over to provide grazing for sheep. By the time of James I, demand for wool in England was so high that an export ban was introduced. This aimed to provide a plentiful supply of fleeces for manufacturers in the various divisions of the textile industry. For the East Midlands region, the worsted sector of the woollen industry was significant. The worsted industry developed an early centre in East Anglia and the town ofWorstead in Norfolk gave its name to the yarn. The arrival of Protestants in East Anglia from the Low Countries in the sixteenth century brought worsted production skills to England. This prompted expansion of worsted production and the introduction of new goods. Making of worsted yarn
The East Midlands region, like East Anglia, had traditionally reared sheep that produced fleeces with long fibres. Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire and Lincolnshire sheep were reputed to have some of the finest quality fleeces in the country. Fleeces with long fibres or 'staple' were preferred in worsted production. First, the fleeces were combed to place the fibres in line with each other and remove the shorter fibres and dirt. After combing, the fibres were SplU1 to create the worsted yarn. The yarn was finer and stronger than yarn processed by the wool spinning system. Woollen yarns were more bulky as the fibres were not combed and they kept more of their natural tangled characteristics.
II In the knitting industry, worsted yarn became one of the main fibres used, the others being linen, silk and cotton. Worsted provided a cheaper alternative to silk and cotton and produced garments that were more affordable for the wider population. The Leicester knitting industry developed to specialise in the production of worsted products while Nottingham was best known for cotton hosiery and Derby for silk.
Foundation of the knitting industry Investing in frames
During the early seventeenth century, knitting frames remained an expensive investment and few were built. Even in the 1660s, frames could cost as much as £20 to £30 each, more than a worker's yearly wage. The hand knitters did not have to pay such high costs and could knit as long as they had a pair of knitting needles. Demand for the output of hand knitters and framework knitters allowed both branches to expand during the two centuries after Lee's invention. To make the knitting frame profitable, framework knitters generally only produced high value, fme-gauge garments using silk and fme worsted yarns. The frame could also be used for long runs of standardised products. In comparison with framework knitting, hand knitting had low set up costs, new knitters could be taken on without the need to buy or rent expensive frames. Hand knitting was also cost effective in that it used women, old people and children during the winter months when agricultural work was at its lowest. It often provided a second income for the knitter and lower rates of pay were acceptable. The work was also undertaken during the evenings by artificial light, unlike framework knitting which needed daylight to operate the fine mechanisms of the frame. With framework knitters focusing on high value products, the lower value market was left open for hand knitters to supply.
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Hand knitting was also able to compete with the frame by being more versatile in the creation of bespoke tailored garments. The early framework knitting industry still maintained its centre in London with four or tlve hundred frames employed there in 1664. Outside London, the East Midlands had built on the work of William and James Lee. Around one hundred frames were in use in Nottingham and fifty in Leicester. A further fifty frames were located in Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Surrey and Hampshire. Industry moves to the East Midlands
Involvement in the knitting industry from this early period started to generate considerable profits for its workers. A petition by London framework knitters in 1655 noted that raw materials cost only about 15 percent of the retail price of silk stockings. The balance of between eight shillings and sixteen shillings a pair was retained by the framework knitters, hosiers and retailers. The worsted stockings, more commonly knitted in the East Midlands at that time, were less favourably priced at between one shilling and six pence and two shillings and six pence. East Midlands framework knitters benefited from lower house rents and food prices than framework knitters in London. These factors together with the lower wages and freedom from guild regulation were important in moving the industry away from London to the East Midlands. Fancy stockings in Leicester
A historian recorded that around the middle of the eighteenth century 'The manufacture in Leicester chiefly consisted in making pink stockings for the lower orders, and, for the higher, pearl-coloured with scarlet clocks. In the dress of men, the waistcoat flaps came down nearly as low as the knee and the stockings made long enough to reach the top of the thigh
II were gartered on the outside and the top rolled down as far as the leg. The chief (export) article was white and brown thread hose for Spain, Portugal and the West Indies.'
Origin of the Derby silk industry Silk from Europe
Silk stockings that copied the Italian fashion leaders were highly prized from their introduction in England in Tudor times. Worsted knitting had located itself in the East Midlands by the start of the eighteenth cenrury, but the silk industry remained in London a little longer. Imported silk from the Continent came iJ.?to London where it was processed for use in we~ving and knitting. Waste from the weaving process was often recycled and turned into silk yarn for knitting. This link between the two industries allowed London to compete with the East Midlands on price. The London industry-also benefited from being located close to the main market for tailor-made garments. The first mill
Early attempts to relocate the silk industry to the East Midlands were made by Thomas Cotchett in 1704 when he tried to establish a silk mill in the region. Described as a 'citizen and merchant tailor of London', Cotchett leased Little Island in the River Derwent from the Derby Corporation. Mter spending £2,000 building the mill, a particularly high price for a mill at that time, he went bankrupt in 1713. In 1715 John Lombe, a friend of Cotchett and silk merchant from London, visited the mill and saw its decayed state. Lombe - promptly bought the mill for £200 and began to rebuild on the site based upon designs he saw on a visit he made in 1716 to Leghorn, Italy. John Lombe died soon after he had returned from Italy and left his brother Thomas to carry on the work.
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The mill on Little Island was well positioned to supply silk yarn to the knitting industry centred near Nottingham. Ideally, such a mill would have been located in Nottingham to avoid the problem of transporting yarn to hosiers' warehouses, but the Trent was considered too slow moving a river to power a mill. The Derwent was seen as a fast moving river with enough force to drive the mill's waterwheels. This early choice of , Jocation by Cotchett and Lombe led to the development of a focus for silk knitting around Derby, while Nottingham mainly used cotton after Arkwright and Hargreaves set up their factories and Leicester used worsted. The remains of the silk mill now form part of Derby Industrial Museum. The development of the cotton industry in Nottingham Yarn problems
The use of cotton for weaving had been established in seventeenth century Lancashire. At this time, cotton yarn was irregular in thickness and tended to break at thin, weak points. The yarn was unsuitable for knitting on frames and produced poor quality stockings that laddered easily. Henson reported that the first pair of cotton stockings was knitted in Nottingham in 1730. To overcome problems with cotton, framework knitters needed a suitable yarn with uniform thickness and strength. Yarn from India had the required qualities but London framework knitters found it difficult to work and rejected it. After this, a sample of the cotton was sent to Draper, a stockinger from Bellar Gate in Nottingham. Draper successfully knitted stockings on a twenty-gauge silk frame. The pure white cotton stockings soon became popular with customers and were sometimes preferred to silk stockings.
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The spread of cotton
The rising popularity of cotton encouraged workers across England to experiment with cotton and cotton yarns. Spinners experienced in working with short-staple wool in the west of England were able to twist two threads of cotton together to produce a cotton yarn suitable for knitting, although this was not as fme as Indian yarn. A knitting industry developed around Tewkesbury using this local yarn, which W~~ alleged by the competing Nottingham hosiers to be inferior, the yarn used by the Nottingham trade having 4-5 finer threads. The inferiority of the Tewkesbury product was, however, difficult to detect from appearance. To deal with this threat the Nottingham hosiers petitioned Parliament for protection. The result of the action was an act passed in 1766, commonly referred to as the Tewkesbury Act. The Act required that eyelet holes should be knitted into the stocking equivalent to the number of threads used in the yarn. However, the effectiveness of the Act is thought to have been limited. It was not until the 1780s that the Notta.ngham industry transferred its focus from the production of silk stockings to cotton as the Arkwright mills brought down the price ofyarns. Dyeing As hosiery was a fashion industry, colours and patterning were of vital importance from its earliest years. The largest fortune in the eighteenth century industry was made by William Elliot (1707-1792) of Brewhouse Yard, Nottingham, who developed a technique to produce a superior black for men's stockings. Black hosiery was high fashion for the sober middle class for many years. Elliot served most the merchant hosiers of both Nottingham and Leicester. He later invested part of his large capital in new methods of bleaching linen and cotton (i.e., producing a superior white) that were brought from Holland via Scotland. Elliot moved on to invest in three silk
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mills in Nottingham and cotton mills on the Arkwright model in the Leen Valley (Bulwell to Papplewick). His enterprise is commemorated in the Brewhouse Yard Museum, Nottingham.
Company of framework knitters Establishing control
James Lee returned to London in 1612. He brought seven framework knitters and eight frames with him and set up a small industry. Workers and their apprentices gradually created rules by which the industry and the prices charged could be controlled. The quality of knitted goods produced by framework knitters was widely recognised and by 1655, more of their stockings were sold abroad than in London. A charter from Cromwell
Concerned at the threat of overseas competition, the group petitioned Oliver Cromwell for a chaner of incorporation to regulate and protect the trade. In 1657, the Company received its chaner. A Company seal indicated the quality of goods produced by members and prevented members from taking foreign apprentices. To avoid conflict with the East Midlands industry, the chaner applied specifically to the silk knitting industry within London and the four miles around the City. Membership of the Company was, however, open to framework knitters beyond the four-mile zone. A new charter and powers
A new charter was obtained from Charles II in 1663. Framework knitters from all branches, not just silk, were now required to register with the Company within three months of entering the trade, if they lived within 20 miles of London or within six months if they lived beyond 20 miles. Failure to
register incurred a fme of £5 for every week beyond the limit. Individuals could not enter the trade unless they had served a seven-year apprenticeship with an authorised master. Masters were only allowed to take on a maximum of two apprentices atone time. Export of knitting machines was a particular concern of the Company because it provided overseas competition with access to English technology and potentially jeopardised the future of the English knitting industry. To deal with the matter, the Company secured the power to seize machines they thought were being prepared for export. Deputies were appointed by the Company in knitting districts such as Nottingham, Hinckley and Leicester to police the industry and ensure that its byelaws were enforced. Quarterly courts of representatives were held in districts to admit apprentices and to prosecute those breaking the Company's laws. Rejecting the company
The Company's powers were met with a mixed response. Whilst it protected those already in the trade from further people entering the industry, it did not help hosiers looking to expand and find more workers. Gradually complaints built up from members who resented expenditure on ceremonial items and the Company's hall whilst some members struggled to make a living. The payment of fees to register apprentices became another issue of conflict. Provincial hosiers began to boycott the Company and ignore the apprenticeship control system. In 1730, two dozen Nottingham hosiers came together to challenge the authority of the Company. A case was eventually brought by the Company against John CartWright, aNottingham hosier, who refused to pay the eightshilling charge for each indenturing of an apprentice. The Company lost the case. Following this disastrous outcome for the Company, the deputies in Nottingham, Leicester and
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Hinckley resigned from their posts realising that the Company had no power to enforce its rules. An attempt was made in 1745 to revive the Company, but without success and its role became purely social.
Enterprise and innovation (1750-1810) Early cotton spinners ~achWnesp~g
Securing a reliable supply of quality cotton yarn was crucial to the development and success of the cotton knitting industry in the East Midlands. Lewis Paul made early attempts to machine-spin cotton in order to increase the supply of yarn. In 1738 he patented a machine for spinning cotton by drawing threads with rollers, but this was not a commercial success as the quality of yarn produced was still inferior to hand spun yarn. Success with the spinning jenny Around 1764 a Blackburn weaver, James Hargreaves, produced his 'spinning jenny'. The jenny took the principle of the spinning wheel and enabled the operator to spin several yarns at the same time. At first, Hargreaves kept the invention secret and used the jenny_at home, but in 1767, he produced further machines and made them available for sale. Soon, individuals who felt their jobs threatened by the new technology broke into Hargreaves' home and smashed his machines. To escape machine breakers in Lancashire, Hargreaves moved to Nottingham. Supported by a partnership of Nottingham hosiers, he set up a mill in Hockley and began to provide local hosiers with a reliable cotton yarn for knitting. The jenny was patented in 1770 and produced for sale to other spinners and
II hosiers. Demand for the jenny increased and manufacturers produced copies of Hargreaves' design. Hargreaves took the manufacturers to court to protect his patent, but the judge ruled that because the jenny had been used by the industry before being patented, people could make copies of it.
Arrival of Arkwright At about the same time as Hargreaves, Richard Arkwright also left Lancashire for Nottingham. Arkwright had taken Lewis Paul's technology of spinning with rollers and tried to improve the quality of the yarn produced. Aware of the demand for quality yarn in Nottingham's knitting industry, Arkwright needed financial backing to establish himself there. Support initially was secured from a Nottingham hosier, Samuel Need. Arkwright's early attempts, like Paul's, produced poor quality, irregular yarn and eventually success was achieved by fluting the rollers. Power was required to operate the rollers on the new spinning machine. The Trent did not provide sufficient power to drive a mill and the solution was to install a horse driven system in the Nottinghan1 factory. Howevet; the cost of maintaining such a system and expanding it to power further machines was prohibitive and an alternative was sought. Following in the footsteps of Cotchett and Lombe,in 1771, Arkwright moved to Derbyshire and established a string of mills with the support of Jedediah Strutt, a hosier and inventor of the Derby Rib Machine. Together they oversaw the construction of two mills at Cromford and one at Masson. The partnership between Strutt and Arkwright lasted until 1781. The development of steam-powered cotton spinning N ewcomen's engine
In 1712, Thomas Newcomen invented a steam-powered
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engine. He realised that steam produced by heating water could be trapped in a cylinder and that sufficient pressure could be built up to raise a piston. When the steam cooled, pressure was reduced and this caused the piston to fall. The vertical motion of this engine meant that it had limited applications, but with a beam attached to the piston, it was successfully used to pump water out of mines. James Watt's improvements
James Watt realised the potential of Newcomen's invention and began experimenting to see how the vertical motion of the piston and beam could be harnessed to drive other machinery. In 1782, he built a rotary-motion steam engine which used a series of gears to convert vertical movements into rotary motion. Watt marketed his engine in partnership with Matthew Boulton, the Birmingham entrepreneur. To highlight the capacity of the engine, Watt compared its strength with the strength of horses: a twenty horsepower Watt engine provided the same power as a team of twenty horses. , From waterwheel to steam engine
Arkwright's water frame was originally designed as a handoperated machine, but to control its use, the 1769 patent restricted its use to large mills of at least one thousand spindles. The system of water-powered mills was soon copied and by 1788 there were over 200 of them, many in Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire and a few in Leicestershire. Following the introduction of rotary motion, steam power was first used with Arkwright'S frames in 1785 at Papplewick Mill, Nottinghamshire. Steam power was only widely applied at the end of the eighteenth century and was responsible for a quarter of the cotton processed in 1800. Competition from Lancashire
The East Midlands knitting industry and the Manchester textile
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industry bought most of the cotton yarn produced by the new mills. Due to technological improvements, mills in the East Midlands were overtaken by mills in Lancashire. Adoption of Cartwright's power loom after 1785 caused a rapid rise in demand for cotton yarn which prompted further growth of mills in the north-west of England. By 1836 competition from the large numbers of mills in the north-west had affected the numbers of mills elsewhere in Britain, though the knitting industry in the East Midlands continued to support eight mills in the Mansfield area and eight in Derbyshire. With cotton yarn widely available in the East Midlands, cotton was a popular choice for knitting. It rapidly became cheaper than silk and finer than wool. Cotton, with the new technologies to process it, was used for a wide range of cotton hosiery and by 1815 production of cotton hose occupied the largest numbers of frames in the knitting industry.
Worsted innovations Spinning worsted
While Arkwright had successfully experimented with the spinning of cotton yarn, the worsted-spinning sector had watched developments with interest. Traditionally woollen fibres taken from fleeces were combed and left in oil for a year to gain strength before they were spun on a spinning wheel. In 1788, a breakthrough was made in the spinning of worsted when Brookhouse from Melton Mowbray transferred the process of spinning yarn with rollers from cotton to worsted. This avoided the yearlong resting period of the woollen fibres. Once combed, the wool could be spun immediately. Anger and destruction
The potential of this new technology was soon recognised by Leicester's industrialists and led to a partnership between
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worsted spinners, Coltman, Whetstone and Brookhouse. As awareness of the new machine spread, workers in the worsted spinning industry reacted in the same manner as workers in Lancashire had to the spinning jenny. The workers felt their livelihoods threatened by the advance of technology and protested against the machine. For safety, the machine was moved from Leicester to Market Harborough in the hope that this would save it from the growing unrest. The determined spinners tracked down the machine and smashed it, parading the pieces back to Leicester. Anger boiled over to the extent that Coltman and Whetstone's houses were attacked. New worsted centres To avoid further unrest, Leicester Corporation banned Brookhouse's technology from the town. New centres of worsted spinning developed in areas such as Worcestershire and Yorkshire using Brookhouse's machine and gained from the lack of competition in Leicester. Improvements in the quality of yarn produced by the new worsted spinning technologies led to a move away from the industry's focus on coarse fabrics to finer, better quality products. Despite the development of new locations for yarn spinning, Leicester remained the leading centre for knitted goods using worsted yarn. Worsted knitwear was not so fine as that in cotton and silk so Leicester and Hinckley were long regarded as the cheaper end of the industry.
Distribution and warehousing Travelling salesmen In the earliest days of the knitting industI)~ knitted clothes were
expensive and worn mainly by royalty and the aristocracy. Gradually this changed as worsted and cotton yarns brought
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more affordable knitted clothirig to the wider population. In common with other expanding industries, manufacturers developed distribution networks to supply their wares to towns and cities across the country. Hosiers gathered flnished goods together and travelled the country to fmd buyers. With a train of packhorses, the journey would often continue until the goods were all sold. Hosiers also employed salesmen to market goods for them. Regional markets opened up during the eighteenth century, but London still operated as the country's main commercial centre. To ensure that East Midlands sales continued to grow, strong links were built up between East Midland hosiers and London merchants. Frequently sons of hosiers would be apprenticed to merchants to strengthen the links. Wood street textile market
Knitted products were bought and sold in an area of the City of London centred on Wood Street. Hosiers from the East Midlands brought stock to coaching inns located there and used them as a London base. William Iliffe II, an early eighteenth century hosier from Hinckley, kept his stock at the Cross Keys Inn on Wood Street. By the 1770s, the larger, more successful hosiers had developed new relationships with the inns and constructed their own storage facilities in the inn yards. Some partnerships eventually acquired their own warehouses. John Morley of! & R Morley, Nottingham, moved to London and built a warehouse to sell the firm's goods. The success of Morley'S warehouse enabled the company to become an important wholesaler in the nineteenth century. George Brettle & Co of Belper
George Brettle & Co became the biggest firm of London wholesalers by about 1830. It opened its warehouse in London
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on Cateaton Street around 1801. Previously, the company had sold its goods through other hosiers, but with its own warehouse was able to sell directly to retailers. The impact of the warehouse on the company was reflected in the company's yarn purchases. Between 1800 and 1802 its yarn supply from Strutts doubled. By 1802 the company had written to other local hosiers and offered to act as a middleman and sell their hose in London. Brettle's records provide little guidance on the firm's spectacular success, but it was probably to do with easy access to capital (Southwell Bank had a Brettle partner) and early connections with the fast-growing cut-price drapers of London. Corah
In contrast with Morleys and Brettles, Nathaniel Corah focused his wholesale activities on Birmingham rather than London. After the failure of an earlier knitting business venture in Leicestershire, Corah found a job in a Birmingham gun factory. There he noticed that Birmingham's economy was expanding and that opportunities existed to sell knitted goods to its people. In 1815 Corah remrned to Leicester and bought a house on St Nicholas Street. On a Saturday morning, Corah would go to the Globe Inn in Silver Street, Leicester where stockingers met to sell their goods. While he bought stock at the illl, his wife would also buy stock taken to their house. The goods were then taken by wagon to the Rose Inn, Edgbaston Street, Birmingham where Corah rented a stock room. Corah would then remain at the Rose Inn until the goods were sold.
Changing products New technology
In the second half of the eighteenth century there were a number of advances in the development and use of knitting-
II frame technology. These followed on from Jedediah Strutt's patent for his Derby Rib machine in 1758, which created a more elastic fabric. Hose made using this type of fabric soon became more popular than hand-knitted stockings. With money to be made from successful inventions r many individuals invested time and money in experimenting with new adaptations and patterns. Simulated lace
In 1763 John Morris, a hosier from Nottingham, patented a frame that produced an eyelet hole mesh. The fabric created simulated lace and was widely used for Spanish silk mitts, gloves, aprons, handkerchiefs, hoods and caps. The frame produced eyelet holes by placing a set of needles on the presser bar and using them to transfer loops sideways between the frame's main needles. Demand for Morris's products was such that his business operated forty-nine frames with this attachment. The sales achieved by Morris encouraged others to work specifically in the development of open lace-style fabrics. Their collective endeavours provided the starting point for the famous Nottingham lace indUstry. Point net machine
Morris was determined to stay in control of the knitted lace market and he bought the patent for the point net machine invented by Thomas Taylor, a Nottingham framesmith. Mter Morris's retirement, the business and the patents were sold to John, William and Richard Hayne, three brothers from Ashbourne, Derbyshire. The Haynes continued to improve the point net frame and by 1786, they had managed to overcome the tendency of the fabric to run if a thread broke. A hexagonal net fabric was used to produce sunshades, aprons, handkerchiefs, caps, mitts, gloves, purses, waistcoats, shawls, cauls and a range of other goods.
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In 1786, there were only around twenty point net frames in existence. By 1810 there were over 1,500 frames providing employment for 10,000 to 15,000 lace workers in Nottingham. The Haynes family still dominated the sector and owned two thirds of the point net frames. Much of their output was exported to Paris, but the silk lace trade suffered heavily at the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and lead to the decline of the Haynes family business and other early lace merchants. The industry was revived after the introduction of John Heathcoat's bobbin net Plachine. Heathcoat's invention was based on the operations of a cushion lace wo,:"ker rather than that of a stocking frame. Warp knitting Run-resistant fabrics were also created by the technique of warp knitting, developed in 1776 by a Leicester-born framesmith, William Honon. Warp frames differed from traditional frames by feeding a separate yarn to each needle. Individual threads were formed into loops and transferred between neighbouring needles in a zigzag pattern across alternate courses. Frames were capable of producing plaited, corded, open-work and fancy fabrics for a range of goods. 'Vandyke' stockings of silk or fine cotton with zigzag patterns were produced in large quantities in Nottingham. The cost of using a warp frame led to the technology being used mainly to create high value nets, laces, trims and ornamental products. William Dawson, a Leicester mechanic, improved Horton's frame and increased its speed, making it more cost-effective to operate. Despite the improvement the warp frame was not widely used. The fabric it produced was used for the cut-up work that workers disliked and considered a threat to their fully-fashioned work. However, warp knitting emerged in the twentieth century as a major part of the knitting industry.
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In the doldrums (1810-1850) Luddite frame breaking Wage rates
Early framework knitters were a prosperous group. An average Nottingham framework knitter in 1714 earned ten shillings and six pence for a four day week, those that produced fine embroidered work could earn as much as 20 shillings a week. Others soon entered the industry hoping to enjoy the same standard of living, but rising numbers diluted standards and earnings in the less skilled branches. Like all fashion-based industries, knitting was vulnerable to sudden shifts in demand and earnings were affected. Protests begin
Unemployment in the industry sometimes resulted in framework knitters taking direct action to. In 1778, knitters petitioned Parliament for a Bill to regulate their wages and prevent hosiers or their agents underpaying them. Framework knitters also formed friendly societies to provide support in hard times. Workers paid subscriptions to societies on the understanding that they would receive money from the society if they were sick or laid off. Knitters reacted further at the introduction of wide frames in 1776. Wide frames used more needles in a row than earlier frames and produced a wider piece of fabric. The shape of the garment was cut out of the fabric and sewn together. This type of garment was commonly referred to as a 'cut-up'. The shorter production time and less skill required meant that 'cut-ups' were cheaper to produce. As a result, knitters were paid less to produce them. Workers riot and smash
The first two decades of the nineteenth century saw a downturn
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in the knitting industry as fashion changes reduced demand for hosiery. Workers felt their standard of living threatened. Wages were often less than they were a hundred years earlier. Work also became scarce as the demand for men's hosiery collapsed during the turbulent Napoleonic War period. The tensions fmally erupted with the outbreak of a series of Luddite riots. In March 1811, workers tried to negotiate higher wages and force hosiers to abandon the use of cut-ups. As talks failed, groups .from across N ottinghamshire gathered in Nottingham's marketplace. Troops were brought in to control the situation in the town, but they were unable to prevent widespread destruction across the county. Sixty-three frames were smashed at Arnold (north-east of Nottingham) and a further two hundred frames were destroyed across the county over the following three weeks. The riots continued into 1812, by which time the Luddites had broken up over eight hundred frames. Rebellion spreads
During 1812, the rebellion against new technology spread to Leicestershire and Derbyshire. The plight of the workers was made worse by a rapid rise in the price of wheat. In response to the extension of Luddite actions, attempts were made to deter further disruption, 12,000 troops were ordered to take control of Luddite areas and four Nottingham rioters were sentenced to transportation. An Act was also passed making the destruction of frames punishable by death. Controlling the Luddites
By the summer of 1812, Luddite frame breaking had ceased in Nottinghamshire. Elsewhere, occasional outbreaks of destruction continued until 1817. Heathcoat's lace factory in Loughborough was attacked on 28 June 1816 and £6,000
II worth of damage was done. Transportations to Australia and a series of hangings forced the workers behind the Luddite movement to reconsider their plans. The Luddites smashed an estimated thousand stocking frames between 1811 and 1817. The emergence of trade unions Early associations The Stocking Makers' Association for Mutual Protection, fonned in 1776, was the first association in the knitting industry to fonnally represent the workers. The Association campaigned for a Bill to regulate framework knitters' wages, but when the Bill failed in 1779, the association fell apart. Workers continued to campaign against low wages with the suppurt of their trade societies. If framework knitters went on strike against a hosier that had reduced pay rates, the society would use its subscription income to provide the strikers with money. Acting against the unions
The Union Society of Framework Knitters became one of the most succes"ful societies, with members across N ottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Leicestershire, London, Godalming, Tewkesbury and Northamptonshire. From its foundation in 1812, the Union had established a set of minimum rates, which if not met, resulted in strike action being taken against the hosier. However, such groups were illegal. The Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 banned societies formed with a political purpose or that interfered with trade. Despite its success, the Union collapsed after three of its committee members were prosecuted under the Acts and sentenced to a month's hard labour. The threat of prosecution delayed the formation of further organisations. Periodically, hosiers would meet with knitters
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I
and receive their complaints about wage levels. Where agreements were reached at these meetings a new list of rates was drawn up, but without a body to police them, the agreed rates were soon ignored as people agreed less pay in order to gain work.
Lobbying Parliament Informal groups of framework knitters campaigned for a new Bill in 1819. The Bill proposed to ban production of cut-ups and bring a stop to downward pressures on wages. Mter discussion in Parliament, the Bill was thrown out. Framework knitters reacted by agreeing to a widespread strike across Derbyshire, Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire with the aim of increasing wages. 14,000 workers joined the strike and there was wide support from the public, who contributed in the region of £800 to fmance the striking workers. The strike in Nottingham forced sixty-seven out of ninety hosiers to sign an agreement that raised stocking rates from eight to twelve shillings a dozen. The strikers, with their funds spent, were forced to return to work before all the hosiers had signed up to the new rates. Within a year, gains made by the strike were lost. Leicester knitters were the only exception to this, they were able to keep the rates for two years.
Striking again A further major strike was called in 1821. Knitters again campaigned for rates to be increased in the industry. For over eight weeks the strike was widely supported and virtually nothing was produced across the three counties. An upturn in demand for knitted goods encouraged the hosiers to raise their rates temporarily and end the strike. The achievements of the strike were soon lost as knitters undercut each other to gain work. This cycle was repeated again in 1824 when knitters were on strike for four months. The lack of money and food forced the strike to end with only a few small temporary gains.
II The ending of the 1824 strike fmally broke the will of knitters to continue the fight and union activity declined until the transition of the industry to a factory system in the 1850s and 1860s. The Combination Acts that prevented the formation of unions were repealed in 1824, but in the depressed first half of the nineteenth century unionism was slow to take hold.
The 1844 Royal Commission Poor framework knitters
After the strikes of framework knitters in the 1810s and 1820s, wages in common branches of the industry remained at a low level for a further twenty years. Repons highlighted the poor conditions faced by workers. A factory commissioner noted in 1833 that 'The men sat at their work back to back, there was just enough space for the necessary motion, but not without touching each other'. He also commented that the majority of men over twenty looked 'sickly and emaciated'. However, demand developed in new sectors for workers who were adaptable. Innovations in products included cut-ups, gloves, drawers, shirts, caps, fancy goods and socks. Wages of 11 shillings a week could be earned in these new lines, while basic stocking, knitters were paid around seven shillings a week. The industry continued to grow as population in Britain expanded and new markets were developed overseas. Between 1812 and 1844, the number of stocking frames in use increased from 29,595 to 48,482. Petitions to Parliament
In 1843, framework knitters took action to campaign for improved conditions. Over 25,000 framework knitters signed a petition and submitted it to Parliament. The petition complClined about wages, unemployment, new machinery, frame rents and imports of knitted goods. The Government
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responded by appointing Richard Muggeridge as the commissioner responsible for compiling a report on the industry. .Commission officials spent several months in the East Midlands taking evidence from a range of people connected with the knitting industry. Framework knitters, hosiers, masters, local officials, professionals (doctors, clergymen) and the mayor of Leicester were all received and presented their accounts of the industry. Frame rents The payment of frame rents was one area that particularly concerned workers. Most knitters were unable to afford to buy a knitting frame and were forced to rent their frame from the hosier. The report recorded that frame rent and other expenses (candles, oil, etc. ) could amount to a third of the knitter's wage. The impact offrame rents was made worse where hosiers rented out more frames than they needed to complete the work available. The practice became known as 'stinting'. Knitters had to pay a full week's rent even when the work supplied by the hosier only took a few days. The report recorded that between 1814 and 1844 wages fell by up to 40 percent, while frame rents continued to rise. A John Woodward complained to the Commission that he had paid £180 in rent over twentytwo years on a frame worth £9. Bagmen Middlemen or bag men collected work from the knitters' houses and took it to the hosier's warehouse. A taking in fee was charged for the service by the middleman and deducted from the knitter's wages. Framework knitters complained to the Commission that middlemen or bag men commonly underpaid them for their work, not passing on the full rate paid by the hosier. Knitters frequently demanded that lists of
II 'prices should be printed and distributed so that they knew how much they should be paid. Knitters also complained that they were forced to buy goods from specified shops or risk not being given any further work by the employer. The employer or members of his family often owned the shops and used their position to charge higher prices or just gain an unfair advantage over other local shops. The outcome of the commissions report
The commissioner's repon concluded that low wages were associated with the high number of people wanting to work in the industry. Oversupply of labour had forced wage rates down. Employers who rented out more frames than required allowed people to enter the industry easily and this did not help the situation. Some witnesses acknowledged that the merchant hosiers had been sluggish in responding to the new technical and market opponunities while others complained of competition from cheap labour in Saxony. The repon also recognised that higher wages could be gained by turning to new designs in better quality lines. The impact of the Commission was limited. The output of the domestic industry at the centre of the report was gradually transferred to factory production in the years following 1845.
The advent of factories (1820-1900) Thansition to factory production Working at home
Framework knitting was traditionally carried out in workers' homes. Hosiers supplied yarn to the workers, children commonly wound the yarn onto bobbins, men knitted it into stockings and women seamed and embroidered the stockings. The industry could keep the whole family occupied.
II Knitting lind its Origin Resisting the factory
During the eighteenth century; many industries, including other branches of the textile industry; transferred from domestic to factory production. By the middle of the nineteenth century; the knitting industry had still not made the transition to factories. A number of reasons were suggested for this. Framework knitters were resistant to any move that brought greater control over their work. Working at home, the knitter could determine his hours of work and share his workload with other members of the family. In contrast, the factory environment was associated with regulated hours and being watched over by supervisors. The system of renting frames provided employers with a reason to continue domestic production. Individuals had invested heavily in frames and benefited from the good rate of return from frame rents. The cost of frame and workplace maintenance (machine oil, candles, heating, etc.) was also the responsibility of the knitter at home under the domestic system. Transition to a factory system would require the employer to cover these costs. In addition, if the employer had insufficient work for his frames, the frames had to be shut down and earned no money. While these reasons were widely suggested at the time and have some substance, they miss the crux of the problem. Hosiers and knitters alike were hostile to the new technologies of warp knitting and circular knitting, which they regarded as inferior to the traditional fully-fashioned knitting on Lee's principles. The initiative was left to the French and Americans (circular knitting) and the Germans (warp knitting) so the British industry gradually lost the competitive edge. Redesigning the workplace
Despite these resistance factors, some factory-style developments started in the eighteenth century. Property
developers and hosiers realised tHat money could be made by 'building houses with rooms designed to accommodate knitting frames. The houses were often built in rows and focused knitting activities in one location. Houses in Bramcote, Nottipgham was built with a communal workshop on the third floor that ran through all the properties in the row. Separate workshops were built to accommodate a dozen or more frames, particularly the new wide frames. Too large for domestic living accommodation, these frames were often located in 'frameshops' at the rear of properties. A Wigston hosier built a two-storey workshop to the rear of his house to accommodate around twenty frames. The building survives today as the Wigston Framework Knitters Museum. Similarly, a Ruddington bag hosier called Parker built large workshops behind his cottage, which survive as Ruddington Framework Knitters Museum. Frameshops were common throughout the regIOn. The larger frameshops can be seen as the early factories of the knitting industry. They brought the framework knitters to a single location and enabled the hosier to control his workers. Elements of the domestic industry continued to exist with the frameshops. Hand frames were still used and they continued to be rented to the workers operating them. Employers also introduced a new charge, 'standing rent', to cover the cost of the knitter using the workshop instead of his house. Steam powered technology BruneI's breakthrough
During the early nineteenth century, framesmiths began to make discoveries that paved the way for steam power to be applied to knitting technology. William Lee's frame required a sequence of horizontal and vertical moves to be made by the framework knitter in order to produce knitted goods. The
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automation of these movements was difficult, panicu1arlywhen steam engines provided only rotary motion. However, BruneI, a French engineer and father of Isambard Kingdom BruneI, built a machine in 1816 that arranged the needles in a circular form rather than a flat bed. The machine produced a tube of fabric suitable for cut-ups, but it could not create fullyfashioned work. Against the background of resistance to cutups, the technology was slow to be introduced in Britain.
Applying power Warners of Loughborough made the first attempt to apply steam power to a frame in 1829. Success was limited and problems continued to be experienced in controlling the shape of garments. Luke Barton, a hosier from Arnold, patented a device to overcome this problem in 1838. Barton continued to work on his design as an employee ofHine & Mundella in Nottingham. In 1854, this resulted in a machine capable of producing several fashioned stockings at once. William Cotton of Loughborough secured a patent in 1864 for his rotary-driven machine. This steam-powered machine used a flat bed to produce fully-fashioned garments. The capacity of the machine continued to grow and models were built with sufficient beds to produce in excess of twelve garments·at once. Initially Cotton's machines were supplied exclusively to Hine & Mundella. After 1878, Cotton supplied his machinery to the open market and it remained a key machine in the industry for the next hundred years. Circular machines
On the continent, away from resistance to the cut-up, circular knitting technology continued to be investigated. Peter Claussen from Belgium developed Brunel's idea and patented an improved circular machine in 1845. It could produce a substantial tube of knitted fabric for cutting and be powered
by hand or steam. A Claussen machine was brought to Nottingham the same year and was not well received by hosiers wary of the potential reaction from workers. Shortly after 1845, an upturn in the economy created an increased demand for knitted goods and a shortage of knitters. This provided hosiers with an opportunity to introduce the circular machine, although a newspaper from the Great Exhibition noted that 'In addition to this large number known to be employed, many others ... are worked secretly in various parts of the town and neighbourhood of Nottingham'. Felkin estimated that 1,200 circular machines were in use by 1864. Old-established firms of merchant houses such as I. & R. Morley, however, continued to resist circulars and remained loyal to its fully-fashioned knitters.
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Invention of the latch needle
A huge leap forward for the knitting industry was the invention of the latch needle by Matthew Townsend of Leicester, patented in 1849. Since William Lee's invention of the bearded needle in 1589 all machines had used this needle to operate. The bearded needle required a presser bar and a staged process to pass courses of loops over the beard. Townsend, from Leicester, realised that with a shorter hook on the needle and a hinged latch the process could operate without the need for a presser bar. The latch needle was particularly valuable for circular machines, so it was taken up with more enthusiasm in the USA than in Britain, particularly after Townsend migrated to New England. Workshop to factory Investing for the future
The development of steam-powered knitting machines encouraged firms to invest in new machinery and buildings to
II Knitting aM its Origin
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house these large machines. Companies that had previously only operated warehouses to collect goods brought in by knitters now had large premises from which workers manufactured their goods. Pagets of Loughborough established their first steam-powered factory in 1839 followed by Hine & Mundella in Nottingham in 1851. Corah established its St Margaret works, Leicester in 1865 and L & R. Morley opened its first factory in Nottingham in 1866. Hine & Mundella
Hine & Mundella (known as the Nottingham Manufacturing Company (NMC) from 1864) benefited from its exclusive access to the Cotton machine. The company had expanded its workforce from 52 framework knitters in 1844 to 2,000 employees by 1887. The new factory, built in 1851, was extensive in scale and had long high galleries that were compared with the interior of Crystal Palace. The company built a further factory in Loughborough in 1852 __and established a European factory in Chemnitz, the centre of the German knitting industry, in 1866. Expansion was also achieved through takeovers, LL & I. Wilson were bought out in 1866 and their warehouse in Wood Street, London became a valuable resource for NMC. Richard Mitchell
Richard Mitchell, a successful merchant hosier, pioneered the factory system in Leicester. In 1851, he opened a steampowered factory with around 60 powered wide frames. He also continued to use 700-800 old-style frames for high quality work. However, his reliance on older technology led to rivals overtaking his leadership in Leicester. Corah
In 1865, Edwin Corah laid the foundation stone ofCorah's St
Margaret's works. The factory was the largest in Leicester at the time, with around a thousand people employed at the site. The site's 50 horsepower steam engine powered 50 rotary machines, 47 circulars and 77 sewing machines. The factory also used 28 hand frames for high quality products. St Margaret's works allowed the company to move from domestic to factory-based production. In 1855, the company had over 2,000 domestic workers and around 20 factory employ~es. By 1886, all of the company's employees were factory based. Improvements in technology allowed the company to maintain its output levels and cut its workforce. Morley's makes its move
By the late 1860s, Hine & Mundella were starting to lose ground to other competitors, particularly I. & R. Morley. Samuel Morley had taken control of Morleys in 1860 and started to make changes. A new warehouse was built on Wood Street with a design to impress visitors and look grander than other warehouses on the street. The company also constructed a series of factories across the East Midlands region including Nottingham, Leicester, Sutton-in-Ashfield and Loughborough. By the time of Samuel Morley's death in 1886 the company's payroll had peaked at 10,000 employees. The company's reputation for quality won many customers and enabled it to become suppliers to the royal fanlily. The product range was also extensive with around 5,000 lines by 1860. Later catalogues sent to potential customers were up to 500 pages long and contained between 40,000 and 50,000 items. Circulars in Hinckley
Hinckley's early factories were founded in the 1850s for circular-machine production. Thomas Payne opened the town's first factory in 1855 with 40 circular machines. An 1863 report recorded that five steam-powered factories had been
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constructed in the town during the previous decade to replace hand frame production. Homework continues In many cases, the opening of a factory did not end a company's relationship with framework knitters working from home. Companies had significant capital invested in frames and continued to pass work out to them and receive frame rents back. Hine & Mundella employed 300 workers in its factory in 1857 and around 3,000 domestically based framework knitters and workers. Even at the turn of the century (1900), I. & R. Morley employed more domestic workers (3,950) than factory workers (3,173) or warehousemen (1,241). Brettles employed a number of women outworkers known as 'cheveners'. The cheveners embroidered decorative designs on stockings and socks.
Regulation of the workplace Protecting the workforce
Growth in the number offactory workers across Britain during the nineteenth century raised awareness of factory conditions. From 1833 a series of Factory Acts were passed by Parliament to control working hours and who could work in factories. The knitting industry remained largely unaffected by the early acts as before the 1850s it was still a domestically based industry. Children in the industry
The Children's Employment Commission in 1862 investigated the use of children in industry and introduced a section on the knitting industry. The Commission report noted that despite the move towards steam-powered factory production, domestic production of high quality work was likely to continue for a
nwnber of years. With many yOWlg people working at home in the industry, the Commission considered that legislation should protect these workers. Common jobs for children were winding and seaming, with reported cases of children as yOWlg as three and a half being given tasks to do. The report noted evidence from child workers that they worked long hours in factories, often outside the hours set out in the 1850 Act.
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Workshop watch
The 1867 Workshops Act extended the protection of the Factory Acts to workers in small workshops employing less than 50 people. The Act was difficult to enforce due to the nwnber of workshops in existence. Villages associated with the knitting industry often had a workshop in almost every house and the task of checking them all was almost impossible. This was part:jcularly a problem at night when inspectors had to fmd workers who did not follow the correct working hours. The 1876 Factory Acts Commission recorded that people continued to work over the ten and a half hour working day and beyond the times set out for the working day. Education for children
The growth of factory employment enabled inspectors to more closely monitor working conditions in the knitting industry.
The transition to factories was delayed by the continued availability of cheap labour in the domestic industry, particularly that provided by children. A requirement for those fewer than thirteen to receive part time education was included in the Factory and Workshop Acts. The lack of school places prevented the clause being effective. The 1870 Education Act provided elementary education to tackle this problem. In 1876, a further act introduced compulsory education for children. With the supply of cheap child labour gone, the transition to factory production rapidly increased.
II Knitting and its Orioin Frame rents abolished
The abolition of frame rents by the Hosiery Manufacture (Wages) Act in 1874 also reduced the incentive of employers to continue to use domestic workers. Employers were no longer able to charge workers for the use of their frames. This ended a contentious but profitable source of income for the frame owners.
Women at work The role of women
Women played an important role from the earliest days of the knitting industry. While men operated the frames, women performed other tasks related to the knitting process. Generally, they wound yarn onto bobbins or seamed and finished the stockings. This division of work continued and evolved in the factories. High quality fully-fashioned work continued to be produced by men operating William Cotton machines. Women seamed, sewed and mended as before and took on new tasks. Many framework knitters considered the new circular machines and cut-up work an inferior part of the industry and this work were often undertaken by women. Growth of female employment
Demand for cut-up goods continued to rise during the nineteenth century creating more knitting and sewing jobs for women. The Rogers & Black cut-and-sew factory in Nottingham employed hardly any men in the 1880s. Statistics show the growth of female employment throughout the nineteenth century. In 1851, 30,076 of the 65,499 workers in the industry (45.9 percent) were women. By 1911, this figure had increased to 73.5 percent of the workforce, with 41,431 women employed out of the industry's 56,360 workers.
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Quality work
Work undertaken by women was not always linked to the production of cheaper goods. The value added to goods by women workers in some sectors of the industry, was greater than that made by the men knitting them. High quality stitching and embroidery was a skilled task and added significantly to the costs of manufacturers. The accounts of William Ball & Son from the 1850s show that to manufacture a pair of fme silk gloves 8.6 percent of the costs were related to the knitter of the fabric, whilst 19 percent of the costs were paid for stitching and embroidery. In the 1830s, an estimated 150,000 women worked in hand embroidery in the knitting industry and wider textile industry. Women in demand
New technology in the knitting industry further moved the balance of employment in the favour of women. Machines produced goods quicker and less manpower was required to operate them. The large number of goods produced still required several predominantly women-operated tasks to be undertaken. For every male employed in hand frame knitting, an average 1.77 women were employed. Where rotary machines were used the ratio was 2.3 females for every male. The ratio peaked in the favour of women for powered circular machines, where 11 women were employed for every man. The demand for women soon started to create shortages and technology was used to make the most of the women available. Rows of sewing machines were connected to belt-powered systems within factories and were use by women to assemble cut-up garments. The Singer factory in Glasgow had, by the start of the twentieth century, developed a range of eighteen different models, designed to undertake specific tasks in the knitting industry. The Singer Handbook for the Hosiery Trade
II Knitting and its Origin
II was regularly updated to provide manufacturers with guidance on how long tasks should take operators.
Raising standards Early patents
Since the fifteenth century, patents have been granted to encourage inventors to make new discoveries. The award of a patent provides the inventor with legal protection against others copying the idea within the kingdom. The Crown controlled early patents and applications were often refused ifthe monarch did not like the idea. William Lee had his application turned down by Elizabeth I because she thought Lee's frame produced an inferior product and could threaten jobs in the hand knitting industry. Patent legislation
Up to the eighteenth century, patents were generally applied to mechanical inventions or processes and not to artistic designs. The situation allowed knitters to freely copy the designs of other firms. The 1787 Design and Printing of Linen Act was the first attempt to apply legal protection to designs. The Act provided copyrights to people involved in the 'arts of designing and printing linens, cottons, calicos and muslin'. The copyright holder, under the terms of the Act, had the sole right to print the design for a period of two months. The twomonth period was extended to three months in 1794. The Copyright of Design Act, passed in 1839, updated legislation and extended the protection provided to designers. The Act covered designs in wool, silk, hair and mixes of fibres containing two materials from linen, cotton, wool, silk or hair. Legal protection provided by the Act included the shape, decoration and construction of the garment. A Registrar was appointed by the Board of Trade to manage the registration
II system. To receive protection under the Act, the design of a garment had to be registered with the Registrar before it was made publicly available. A further act in 1843 offered extended protection for designs and revised the application procedure. The new Act made provision for applicants to provide a description of the design and note which parts were not new. Registering designs East Midlands companies sent representatives to the Board of Trade office in London to register their new designs. A charge was made for the registration, which ranged from a few shillings to several pounds. An example of the garment was then glued into a register for official records and a second example attached to a certificate for the company to keep. The certificate recorded the registration number, the name of the copyright holder, the date of registration, the length of the copyright period and the copyright mark to be shown on registered designs when they were sold. Details were also entered into a logbook. Usually the copyright period was for one or two years. Between 1843 and 1883 all registered designs were marked with a diamond motif that could be used to identify registration details. The marks were either stamped onto the fabric or a paper label. The introduction of legal protection for designs led to the production of a range of unique designs by manufacturers. The registered design books held today by the Public Record Office contain many examples of knitted garments from the Victorian period.
The Trade Unions Associations and unions
Trade unions made an eady appearance in the hosiery industry. An association of framework knitters in the midland counties
II KnittingandiaOrigin
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existed as early as the 1770s. At this period they were closely connected with the friendly societies that developed in the towns and villages throughout the region. In those early years, the unions were a spontaneous response to threats of cuts in traditional wage rates. Fluctuations in the economy in the 1840s and 1850s led to demands from workers for increased wages in the good times and resistance against reductions during recessions. To aid them in their battle against the employers a number of new unions were formed. In 1857, the Nottingham Circular Framework Knitters' Society was formed after circular machine knitters had been out on strike for a numbers of weeks as a protest against falling rates of pay. This was followed in 1865 by the United Rotary Power Framework Knitters' Society, representing workers on the newly mechanised fully-fashioned machines.
Union membership Mid-nineteenth century union membership was often restricted to men and union activities sometimes sought to limit opportunities for women. The Circular Framework Knitters' Society campaigned against the employment of women on circular machines, with little success. The Rotary Power Society men felt less threatened by female employment and recruited female members in the 1870s including winders, seamers and linkers. The introduction of powered sewing machines led to a rapid increase in the number of women w~,rking on cutand-sew knitwear and provided an opportunity for the Society to expand its membership. However, most women were not interested in union membership and within the Rotary Power Society the women's department was abandoned as uneconomIc. The growth of union activity in factories encouraged homebased framework knitters to form unions to fight for their
II interests. In Leicester in 1858, two new unions were fOWlded, the Hose Shirt and Drawers Union and the Sock and Top Union. By 1870 the Hose Shirt and Drawers Union had aroWld 2000 members and the Sock and Top had 800. With the domestic industry in decline, framework knitters' Wlions lost members and they were closed in the 1880s. Piece rates
Victorian unions worked to raise the wages of their members. In the knitting industry they fought for printed lists of employers' rates, aiming to bring low paying firms up to the level of the best. In the 1860s, '70s and '80s, when disputes occurred between the employers and workers or Wlions, the Board ofArbitration and Conciliation of the Hosiery and Glove Trades provided a mechanism to resolve disagreements. Many disputes concerned the setting of piece rates. The continuous introduction of new machinery and products required the calculation of further piece rates. To keep the workforce happy, the rates for both the old and the new machinery had to reflect the effort put into creating a given number of pieces. New machinery generally produced more garments in a day than older machines and often needed less skill to operate them. A lower piece rate would, therefore, be set for garments produced on the new machine. Similar issues occurred with new garments, where the rate had to reflect how difficult the garment was to make and how long it took. The division of unions into separate groups, representing different sectors of the industry in different areas, diluted their power in negotiations. In 1888 the Leicester Union, the Nottingham Rotary Union and the Ilkeston Union combined to form the Midlands COWlties Hosiery Federation. The federation worked to co-ordinate activities across the region and Hinckley was brought into its membership in 1891.
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Boom time and heyday (1860-1960) Workshop of the world A resourceful Britain
Between 1840 and 1860 Britain experienced a period of rapid growth that saw many changes in the workplace and in society. The rail network in Britain expanded to around 10,000 miles of track, cutting travel times between many cities and towns. For the first time in history, goods could be trans po ned across the country within a matter of hours. Opportunities for business opened up and the economy boomed. The construction of the railways alone employed 200,000 people and at its peak used 40% of the country's expanding output of lron. The new steamships and the railways enabled Britain to trade with the world and outperform other industrialising nations, such as France and Germany. Between 33% and 50% of the world's shipping tonnage was British. The empire and developing countries supplied raw materials and Britain used them to manufacture goods. In the knitting industry, wool canle from Australia and cotton from India. Countries that supplied raw materials could use their export income to buy the manufactured goods produced by Britain and they provided important markets for British companies. Other industrialising nations also bought large amounts of British goods. Clothing the world
Markets opened up and provided wider opponunities for sales, especially in the USA and the Empire. I & R Morley of Nottingham extended its sales force overseas to increase exports. Sales offices were opened in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Mrica, France, Germany, Belgium, Denmark
II
and Switzerland. Similarly, Wolsey of Leicester sold extensively overseas. In many companies, export sales kept the workforce busy at times of the year when demand was lower in the British market. Mter sufficient goods had been made between July and December ready for the British winter, Australian orders and Canadian orders followed on from January to June. Between 1861 and 1910 exports of hosiery increased from £791,000 to £1,908,000. Much of this expansion was due to increased sales of high quality woollen goods. Sales of lower quality and cheaper cotton goods were being lost (from the 1890s) to producers in Germany. This had an impact on the industries in Nottingham and Hinckley where cotton was an important part of the production. Export of machinery
Britain's position as the leading industrial nation enabled it to sell its technology to the other industrialising nations. Overseas industries followed closely behind the British expansion and often purchased British machinery when they did not have their own machinery manufacturers. Knitting machine manufacmrers such as A Paget & Co and William Cotton & Co. Ltd supplied machines to France, Germany and USA. Overseas companies were able to examine the machines they bought and develop their own technology. Towards the end of the nineteenth cenmry, the British machinery industry experienced problems as these markets were supplied by their own domestic industry. The competition catches up
The end of the American civil war in 1865 created demand in the USA for knitted goods and Britain, France and Germany cdmpeted for sales. France and Germany invested in powered machinery after realising how investments made by British companies in new technology had increased output. Mundella of Hine and Mundella, Nottingham commented to a
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parliamentary committee in 1868 that ' ... the French and Germans are catching up in the design and manufacture of knitting machines due to the excellence of their technical and scientific education. Some years ago, although the French invented the circular knitting machine such improvements were made by the English that the French re-imported them'. He also noted that ' ... they have succeeded by the aid of our machines and their greater intelligence in developing their manufacture more rapidly than we have'. Mundella recognised the strengths of the European industry and bought a factory in Chemnitz, Germany.
Growing business Leading the industry The end of the nineteenth century saw an upturn in the British and world economy. Growth in 1. & R. Morley's sales created a turnover of £3.06 million from a workforce of 8364 employees, a considerable proportion of whom (3,950) still worked from home. In Leicester, Corahs was a leading firm in the town. The company employed 2500 factory workers in 1891 and reached a turnover of £598,000. Production concentrated on the growing outerwear market for cardigans, jumpers and jackets. The domination of the industry by 1. & R. Morley ended in 1920 when Wolsey took the lead as the industry'S biggest firm. Two Leicester hosiery manufacturers, Robert Walker and Sons and W Tyler, Sons & Co. merged together with Boswell Brown, a London-based merchant house selling to retailers. With the purchase of spinning mills in the West Riding of Yorkshire, Wolsey became a vertically integrated company with the ability to receive materials into one division of the company and process goods through to the retailer. Mergers in the British industry had been rare and the industry remained mainly composed of small firms. In contrast, the merger of firms into
single companies had been common in Germany and the US since the nineteenth century. Size enabled companies to benefit from economies of scale, thereby allowing them to compete more effectively. Financing new enterprise
New firms continued to crowd into the industry in boom periods. Some employees, with their knowledge of the industry, set up independently. A good example is John Hall, a foreman in a Hinckley knitting factory, who saved up £500 out of his £2 a week wage and borrowed £500 from a local bank in order to set up a factory in Stoke Golding, near Hinckley in 1882. The company produced fme quality socks and continues today as H J Hall & Son. By 1930, the foundation of small companies had increased the number of factories operating in the industry to 1,392. Individuals with assets to act as a security found that banks were willing to lend money to them to start up a new business. Banks in Leicester were supportive of entrepreneurs than Nottingham banks and led to many new businesses being located in Leicester. The low credit rating and greater risk associated with new firms often led to higher interest rates being charged and restrictions placed on loan amounts. John Henry Bull of Nottingham founded his business in 1879 to produce a range of goods on circular machines. The business survived until 1892 when Bull went bankrupt, attributing the bankruptcy to a lack of capital and borrowing at high interest rates. Foreign entrepreneurs move in
In the 1920s and 1930, foreign enterprise came to Britain. Howard Ford, a menswear retailer, started to import fleshcoloured stockings from the US in 1920. These sold well and a factory was set up in Liverpool four years later. With the
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brand name, 'British Bear Brand Luxury Stockings', the company soon became Britain's largest producer of stockings. Kayser Bondor is another example of a company that built its business by importing affordable US stockings for the mass market. A further wave of company arrivals occurred in the 1930s when Jewish families fled Nazi persecution in Germany. The Djanogly Brothers moved to Mansfield, Noskwith (Charnos) to Ilkeston, H.Dessau & Co. to Nottingham and Louis Goldsmith to Leicester. British companies increasingly cut trade links with Nazi Germany and this further prompted the move to Britain. The home of the knitting industry
A major change occurred in the knitting industry during the twentieth century when the East Midlands ceased to be the automatic choice for the location of a factory. The pull of the London fashion market reasserted itself, particularly in women's hosiery, between the wars. The availability of workers and cheap redundant cotton mills in Lancashire saw the knitting industry expand there to employ 9,500 by 1935. Companies arriving from Germany or principally involved with imports from overseas often did not have established links with the East Midlands and were able to set up where economic circumstances were favourable. The location of the London warehouses encouraged companies to locate in the southeast. Pasold Brothers set up their factory in Langley, Buckinghamshire, Klinger was founded in Edmonton and Ballito in St Albans.
Changing cities Urban living
By 1851, more people lived in towns than in the countryside in Britain. Leicester's population expanded by 40% during
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the 1860s from 68,000 to 95,000. To accommodate the population growth in towns, new houses were built. The middle classes moved to new suburbs, such as South Highfields in Leicester, while the working classes were crowded into houses that were tightly packed together, creating an unhealthy environment. Civic pride The growing economic power of Britain during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries created vast wealth. Expansion of the domestic economy, export growth and returns on worldwide investments generated surplus money for individuals and organisations. In many towns and cities across Britain, money was invested in large civic buildings and facilities intended to impress and display status. Town halls, towers and toilets
The wealth acquired by Leicester from the knitting industry was used to fund a new town hall. The area once occupied by the town's cattle market was cleared to make way in 1876 for a grand Queen Anne style redbrick and cream stone building. A new square was laid out in front of the hall, complete with a bronze fountain. The square became home to Leicester's memorial to the dead of the Boer War. A few hundred metres away at the junction of the High Street and Gallowtree Gate, a grand clock tower with pink granite and marble columns was built. The tower provides a focal point for the city and incorporates statues of famous Leicester residents, Simon de Montfon, William Wigs ton, Sir Thomas White and Alderman Gabriel Newton. Expenditure on grand buildings did not just include sites at the centre of a town or city, money was also spent on unseen functional buildings. Large quantities of waste created in the towns had to be taken away from urban areas via networks of
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sewers. In 1891, Leicester built Abbey Pumping Station some two miles out of the centre, to pump sewage from the town to Beaumont Leys. The Pumping Station (now a museum) housed four huge or nately decorated, Gimson and Co. beam engines in a room with elaborate Corinthian columns. Such buildings were built in towns to overcome the health problems caused by population growth. Marketing the city
In Nottingham, a late example of civic pride is the Council House, completed in 1929. Built on the site of the former Exchange Building, the structure was designed to dominate the landscape and match the impact of the castle on the skyline. A grand columned facade and dome of Portland Stone could be viewed across the newly laid out Great Market Place with its broad pavements, lawns and fountains. Gifts to the town
Civic developments were not always funded by public money. The first public park in Britain (Derby Arboretum) was donated by the Strutt family to the town of Derby. The Strutts made their fortune in the hosiery industry following Jedediah Strutt's patent for Derby rib stockings (1758) and partnership at Belper with Sir Richard Arkwright.
Post war recovery Planning for the future
The rationing and controls imposed during the Second World War remained in place in the immediate post war period. The fragile econo(l1Y needed careful management to ensure that the country recovered from the effects of the war. Demand for goods and services was high, blitzed towns and cities had
II to be rebuilt, wardrobes replenished and nm-down factories refurbished with new, more efficient plant. Due to shortages, the building of new factories was subject to official approval. Priority areas for investment had been set up before the war in locations with high employment. The policy resulted in companies opening factories across Britain. Corah opened a site at Aberbargoed in Wales and Y\blsey developed factories at Welshpool in Wales and Dumfries in Scotland. The post war redistribution of factories continued to reduce the concentration of the knitting industry in the East Midlands. Within the region, small firms continued to be established by ex-employees of the larger firms. Using available factory accommodation, many of them achieved profitable turnovers in this period of growth. Investing in machines
Companies also had to source new machinery and raw materials. A 1946 Working Party estimated that the British industry required further 300 to 700 Cotton's patent machines in addition to the 1205 in use at the time. Many of the fullyfashioned machines in use had been imported from Germany, but the source of the machines was now in East Germany under the control of the Soviets. In Britain, William Cotton & Co. had produced an average of 32 machines a year over the previous three decades. The solution to the problem was to import over 2,000 machines from the Textile Machine Works in the USA. It was not an easy solution though, as the availability of dollars to pay for them was limited. The rage of nylons
Clothes rationing (and the utility mark) continued until 1949, controlling production levels of garment ranges within firms. Nylon had been brought into production by Du Pont in the USA in 1938 and was largely unexploited in Britain due to the
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war. Nylon stockings or nylons'found their way over to Britain with American forces during the war. Nylon was superior to rayon and demand for nylons seemed insatiable. Only two small plants had the ability to produce nylon prior to the war and it wasn't until 1948 that Britain had a factory capable of large-scale nylon production in Pontypool. Twin sets and panties
Despite the problems that faced the manufacturers, the British knitting industry continued to grow in the 1940s and 1950s. The move away from Victorian and Edwardian formal wear continued and demand increased for knitted outerwear and underwear. Women commonly wore woollen jumpers and started to combine them with cardigans. The development of a matching jumper and cardigan became known as a twin set. Cami-knickers were replaced by closer fitting panties. Men's underwear also became lighter with the introduction of y:. fronts. The 'Teddy Boy' look brought in brightly coloured socks of fluorescent pink, green or yellow. Cardigans and sweaters also continued to be popular in men's' wear and the Italian style cardigan jacket was knitted with no collar, lapels or top pocket.
The knitting machine building industry Improving on Lee
Since the time of William Lee, the knitting industry has been supported by the knitting machine building industry. Before the nineteenth century, knitting frames closely followed the design of Lee's frame. The mid-nineteenth century saw the development of circular knitting machines and automatic fullyfashioned machinery. Leading companies of the industry for the next century were founded around this time. Moses Mellor and G. Blackburn & Co. (initially known as Attenborough &
Mellor & Co.) were founded in the 1840s and 1850s in Nottingham. The next wave of innovations occurred in Loughborough during the 1860s, where A. Paget & Co. Ltd and William Cotton & Co. Ltd. developed fully-fashioned machines.
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The British knitting industry traditionally favoured fullyfashioned garments and saw circular knitting machines and wide flat frames as producing an inferior product. The Paget and Cotton machines quickly became popular in British factories and many were exported. They offered reliable service and with maintenance, some of the early Cotton machines were still in use a century later. When the Cotton patent ran out in 1879, other companies copied the design and produced their own version. The machines were commonly referred to as Cotton's Patents.
Knitting in circles Overseas competition and the demand for cheap goods in the British market forced firms to use circular knitting machines. To avoid wage cuts, companies had to use a technology that would increase output, cut costs and produce a saleable garment. The introduction of new automated processes to circular machines in the last quarter of the nineteenth century further encouraged manufacturers to invest in them. In the USA and Europe, technicians worked to develop machines capable of automatically producing heels and toes on stockings and socks. Large diameter circular frames continued to be used to produce fabric for cut-and-sew knitwear and underwear.
Selling for the competition During the early twentieth century, the British knitting machine industry was heavily influenced by developments in the USA. Blackburns became agents for the American company Scott & Williams in 1890. The company was subsequently appointed
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the sole licensee, outside of the USA, for the Scott & Williams Interlock machine. The fully-fashioned industry that the UK had pioneered and led became dominated by German designs. The German company, Schubert & Salzer, was the largest knitting machine manufacturer in the world by 1928. The Textile Machine Works of Reading in the US also developed their version of a fully-fashioned machine, popularly known as a 'Reading'. Between 1945 and 1949, over 2,000 Readings were imported into the UK. British innovation
The outlook was not entirely bleak for machine builders as companies were still able to introduce their own new machines and capture a sector of the market. Spiers and Grieves latmched their 'XE machine in 1902. The '~, through its various models, was the main double cylinder-knitting machine tmtil the 1970s. The success of the '~was closely followed by the Bentley 'Komet', a double cylinder circular machine. The British industry was given some help in 1932 when high tariffs were introduced on imported knitting machinery. However, companies such as G. Stibbe & Co. Ltd and Wildt & Co. Ltd, both of Leicester, who had imported and sold machinery, fotmd that it was no longer profitable to do so. Forttmate1y, these companies had gained an tmderstanding of the technology by making adaptations for clients to imported machines. Stibbe manufactured such machines as the Maxim, Challenger, Model T and the PBjDR 8 feed interlock machine. Wildt introduced its Model E and Auto-Express RJ. War timeout
At the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, the knitting machine building industry employed 2,766 workers. For the duration of the war, the production of knitting machinery stopped and factories were turned over to other uses. Industries
II vital to the war effort were moved from the areas lUlder threat of air raids, such as the West Midlands, to the East Midlands. When peace returned, demand increased for knitting machines to replace those worn out during the war and British companies enjoyed full order books.
Reaching the customer The beginning of brands During the Victorian era, railways made it easier for producers to sell goods across the whole cOlUltry. To ensure that the customer knew whose product they were buying, firms began to label their goods. Ifthe customer liked the producer's goods, they could then go and buy more of them, asking for them by name. Gradually brand names were promoted by using advertisements to increase awareness of the brand. The earliest in the hosiery industry was I. & R. Morley, who inserted an M in the selvedge of their stockings from the mid-nineteenth century. Robert Walker & Sons looked to the local area to fmd a name for their brand. Close to the company's factory was Leicester Abbey where Cardinal Wolsey had been buried, this inspired the company to choose Wolsey as the brand name. The merger with W Tyler, Sons & Co. saw the brand name emerge as the new name for the combined company, Wolsey Ltd. Press advertising highlighted the quality of the Wolsey product. 'Unshrinkable' combinations and socks were two of the promoted ranges. Meanwhile John Smedley & Co of Matlock developed a strong brand name (Smedleys Knitwear) based on quality Egyptian cottons knitted on fully-fashioned machines. U clocking sales
The development of brands based on new fabrics was also
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used as a way of selling goods. The 'interlock' fabric, produced on a machine developed by Scott & Williams of the USA, was carefully controlled in its use. Mter Scott & Williams had patented the interlock design in 1909, G Blackburns was awarded the only licence outside the USA to manufacture the interlock machine. Subsequently, agreements were made with George Spencer of George Spencer & Co. Ltd and P.J. and B. Lewis ofJ.B. Lewis & Sons to share the rights to produce and use the interlock fabric. Spencers used its 'Vedonis' brand to promote its interlock women's and children's wear and Lewis and Sons created 'Meridian' for its menswear. The agreement with Scott & Williams protected both the Meridian and Vedonis brands from competition until the interlock patent ran out in 1929. The interlock fabric used two threads knitted alternately on two sets of needles. The stability of the fabric made it popular for cut and sew work. Leaving out the middleman
In addition to firms advertising their products to the customer in journals and newspapers, they also had to arrange for goods to reach the shops. From the eighteenth century, firms had sent their goods to warehouses based around the Wood Street area of London. The warehouse acted as a middleman between the manufacturer and the retailer, taking on stock-holding and marketing risks in return for a margin of fifteen percent or so. Warehouses faced losing their business if the manufacturers and retailers cut them out of the supply chain and traded directly with each other. Growing connections between manufacturers and retailers, together with a range of other problems, encouraged warehouses to form the Wholesale Textile Association (WTA) in 1912. The membership of the Association increased over the next two decades from an initial figure of 80 to 500 by 1935. The WTA stated in 1913 that warehouses should give
preference to manufacturers that did not sell directly to retailers. The threat of being boycotted by the WfA faced those firms dealing directly. If they were blackballed, to survive they would have to rely on their own sales team to find buyers. Corahs was struck off in the 1930s after it had emerged that it had secretly been selling goods directly to Marks & Spencer. Manufacturers became increasingly angered by the WfA and its powers, forcing them to take action. In 1926, the Leicester manufacturers made a series of complaints to the WfA about their business practices. They maintained that buyers from warehouses would often not look at samples of new products or that they would only order smail, less cost effective quantities and, therefore, companies were forced to sell directly to retailers. Retailers also took action against the WfA. Self::"idges banned purchases from 176 WfA member warehouses in 1936. Despite the growth of the manufacturer-to-retailer trade, it was estimated that 60 to 70 percent of the trade was still going through warehouses in 1950. The rise of chain stores in the following decade had a dramatic impact on this figure and the power of the warehouses collapsed. What remained of them was bought up by Courtaulds during the period of takeovers in the late 1960s.
Mergers and takeovers (1960-Present) A new way of living Choice again
The 1960s saw the post war baby-boom generation come of age, complete with new expectations and aims for life. Previous decades had seen the controls and rationing of wartime Britain gradually removed. Prosperity increased and people were able to buy an expanding range of consumer goods. Televisions,
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washing machines, cars and many other goods, previously unavailable or unaffordable to a large pan of the population, were being bought to improve the lifestyle of families. People's houses were also being improved. Council houses and private houses were built to house the growing population and replace war damaged propenies or poor quality slum dwellings. Former luxuries such as telephones and central heating became common in the average house and changed the way people lived. For the knitting industry, warmer, centrally heated houses meant that people did not need to wear heavy clothes to keep warm at home. Jobs for the world
The influence of overseas cultures also began to have a major impact on lifestyles. Cheaper travel made it possible for people to holiday abroad and experience the way peoples from other cultures and civilisations lived, ate and dressed. Cultural influences also entered Britain with people from across the world and the commonwealth settling in the UK. The economic boom in the '50s and '60s created labour shonages. To overcome this, employers looked to commonwealth countries where unemployment was high and opponunities were limited. Because of the campaign to recruit people, residents arrived from India, Pakistan, East Mrica and the Caribbean. Leicester offered job oppornmities in the knitting, shoe and associated industries and became a popular centre for settlers in the East Midlands. Between 1951 and 1971, Leicester's population of residents from the Commonwealth increased from 1,500 to 26,419. Swinging minis
In addition to technological changes, moral and social codes continued to relax. The young adult population took advantage of the change in attitudes and enjoyed the 'swinging sixties'.
The availability of family plarming meant that people were older when they started families. This created a larger proportion of the British population without family commitments and a higher disposable income to spend on more extravagant items. The development of a pop culture saw a number of fashions come and go, from the Beatles to punk. Some of these changes brought benefits to the hosiery and knitwear industry. Mini skirts brought ab'Jut a demand for stylish stockings to wear with them. Brightly coloured designs, elaborate patterns and fishnets were all supplied by the industry to meet the demand. The 'flower power' culture and 'hippies' sought to associate more closely with nature. Long hair, loose clothes, sleeveless coats and boots came into fashion. In the 1980s, casual sportswear became popular fashion, items with designer labels and brands were bought as soon as they could be afforded. Developments in knitting technology provided new garments and looks. The late 1960s introduced tights, which removed the need for suspenders to hold up the stocking. Early examples were produced by sewing two stocking legs to a pair of pants. A body knitted in the same fabric as the legs subsequently replaced the pants.
Joining forces Growing competition
British companies, since the nineteenth century, had faced increasing competition from overseas. Germany, Italy, the USA and other countries with growing knitting industries, started to impact on the sales made by British manufacturers. The development of the Italian machine building industry, the availability of cheap labour and EEC grants, led to the development of a significant knitting industry in Italy. Cheap Italian goods sold across Europe and the USA.
II Knitting and its Origin The era of takeovers (1960s)
The difficult trading environment weakened many companies. Staff costs were increasing, stocks were increasing, some areas of production had experienced losses and customer relations were becoming more strained. Low profitability and depressed share prices left companies open to the threat of takeover. Between 1957 and 1970, Courtaulds, a yarn manufacturer, took advantage of the state of the industry and began to build a textile super-company through a series of takeovers. The theory was that once control of a company had been secured, Courtaulds could ensure that it supplied the company's nylon yarn. Famous names taken over by Courtaulds included I. & R. Morley, Brettles, Wolsey, Meridian and Aristoc. Courtaulds had by 1968 taken control of around 20% of the knitting industry. The expansion plans of Courtaulds .also included companies in the Lancashire cotton industry and major warehousing firms. Courtaulds was not the only company to expand through takeovers during this period. Courtauld's rival yarn supplier, Coats Paton, also bougHt out several firms in the knitting industry. Byfords, the Driver Group, PasoIds and Jaeger all fell to become part of the Coats Paton group. The expansion of companies was not just restricted to yarn suppliers, companies within the knitting industry played a role in the takeover activities. The Djanoglys (Nottingham Manufacturing Company) took control of nine companies between 1960 and 1972, creating a group of companies that employed 10,650 staff. Takeover troubles
The strategy pursued by Courtaulds and Coats Paton failed to achieve the anticipated outcomes. The problems of managing diverse companies, at a difficult time in the industry, did not lead to a long-term revival of the industry. The assumed sales
11 of yarn to the acquired companies did not materialise as Courtauld's companies fought to retain their ability to choose whom they bought their yarns from. The performance of the merged companies in comparison with independent companies is highlighted by the payroll figures between 1969 and 1983. Courtauld's workforce went from 22,746 to 11,886 and Coats Paton declined from 12,954 to 5,732. Both companies cut their work force by around 50 percent. The workforce of leading independent chain store suppliers only declined by 0.5 percent from 21,728 to 21,610. Employment peaked in the knitting industry at 159,000 in 1973-4. A management consultancy report produced for Courtaulds in 1983 identified that there were key weaknesses in the business. The Meridian knitwear division was seen as uncompetitive and its profit margin on sales to Marks & Spencer was only 6-7% compared with Nottingham Manufacturing Company's 9-10%. The hosiery division secured 13% of the British market, but this was less than half that of Pretty Polly at 28%. The report highlighted that if the company was to turn itself around action was required.
The Marks and Spencer effect (1900-Present) Supplying Marks and Spencer Challenging the warehouses
The late nineteenth and early twentieth century saw attempts by London warehouses to monopolise the supply of knitted goods to retailers. The formation of the Wholesale Textile Association in 1912 was designed to co-ordinate activities of warehouses and combine their power against manufacturers who tried to sell direct to retailers. Firms found to be dealing with retailers were blacklisted and their goods banned from warehouses in the WfA.
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Simon Marks sought to bypass warehouses in the 1920s and held secret talks with manufacturers. Many companies rejected the approaches made to them by Marks for fear of being blacklisted. Corahs of Leicester became one of the first companies to enter into an agreement with Marks & Spencer, in 1926. A slump in the company's order book led to Corahs taking the risk of dealing directly. To keep the arrangement secret, a code number was used for Marks & Spencer orders. The arrangement was, however, eventually discovered and the WfA took Corahs off their list of approved suppliers. The list of suppliers dealing directly with Marks & Spencer continued to expand as a Leicester agent, Leslie Hinmer of Turk Smith Ltd, negotiated deals with Wolsey, Pool, Lorrimer & Tabberer and Foister, Clay & Ward. A quality product The Marks & Spencer philosophy behind the direct orders was that it would result in the company being able to offer its customers a better product. Marks & Spencer had initially bought stockings through warehouses at 9 shillings and 6 pence a dozen, but were able to buy directly from Corahs for 8 shillings and 6 pence. Instead of using the saving to increase profit margins, Mark & Spencer negotiated with suppliers to improve the quality of the product with the shilling saved. The aim was to secure Marks & Spencer's reputation for supplying quality products. Selling to Marks & Spencer The success of Marks & Spencer between 1922 and 1938 led to its mrnover increasing by over thirty five times its 1922 level. Encouraged by the prospect of a lucrative sales deal with Marks & Spencer, many companies were willing to deal with the company and risk the consequences with the wrA. In 1933 Marks & Spencer claimed to have significantly increased .employee numbers in forty-two of it leading suppliers.
It A close relationship with Marks & Spencer offered manufacmrers a number of benefits. High volume orders were regularly placed by Marks & Spencer and goods were paid for promptly upon delivery. Warehouses could sometimes take between three and four months to pay for orders. Marks & Spencer also launcht><"i a technical team to research new technologies and designs. The team advised manufacmrers about processes, new fashions and which machines to invest in. In some cases money was lent to fund investment in new machinery. For some companies orders from Marks & Spencer soon became a major part of their sales. Marks & Spencer aimed to take no more than 60 percent of a company's output, but when products sold well this figure could reach 80-90 percent. The cost that many companies paid for a heavy reliance on Marks & Spencer orders was the loss of their own brands. Corahs had registered their St Margaret brand in 1875, but this was eventually given up in favour of the Marks & Spencer St Michael brand. Other major suppliers such as Nottingham Manufacmring Company were never able to develop their own brand.
Changing the industry New blood Family control of the Marks & Spencer boardroom ended in 1984 when Marcus Sieff retired as chairman. The new chairman, Derek Raynor, broke with the past and brought new ideas to Marks & Spencer. In the 1980s there was a lull in the performance of the company due to growing competition from fashion chain stores. Consumer demand became more diverse and hard to please, demanding small runs of products that sold before fashions changed. Marks & Spencer needed to respond to this situation to maintain its position.
II Knitting and its Origin The way ahead
Investment in new technologies had improved the efficiency of firms and reduced production costs per unit. Marks & Spencer, aware of falling manufacturing costs, sought to negotiate a better deal with their suppliers and increase their profit margins and secure savings by placing orders with fewer suppliers. A preference was stated for dealing with a small number of factories dedicated solely to Marks & Spencer production. In 1987, after initial investigations, Marks & Spencer suggested to suppliers that they should consider opening overseas factories to achieve further cost savings. Courtaulds, with its previous international experience, was one of the few companies that took up this idea. Marks & Spencer's specification and control
Suppliers to Marks & Spencer became increasingly dependent upon the design and technical services provided by Marks & Spencer. Orders were usually placed with companies based on a specified number of units of a Marks & Spencer designed garment in a specified yarn, needle gauge and dye, for delivery on a particular date. Companies that mainly supplied Marks & Spencer had no need to maintain an extensive product development section when Marks & Spencer was undertaking most of the work for them. In the 1980s, this approach changed and Marks & Spencer turned to its suppliers to undertake more of the design work and come up with new ideas. The Marks & Spencer Merchandising Development Department closed in 1985. For many smaller companies, the change created resource problems. Skills and expertise that had previously been supplied by Marks & Spencer now had to be developed within the company. New relationships with innovative overseas companies were adopted by Marks & Spencer as a fallback against suppliers failing to develop new products.
II The introduction of electronic technology in the 1990s increased the level of information available to Marks & Spencer buyers. EPOS (Electronic Point of Sale) tills fed details of sales of goods back to head office where buyers could electronically order further supplies from the manufacturers. The system helped to ensure that stocks of goods were continuously replaced as they were sold.
Old and new suppliers For over half of the twentieth century a number of knitting manufacturers had enjoyed a secure and profitable relationship with Marks & Spencer. In the 1980s, competition in the retail world began to threaten this relationship and Marks & Spencer began to look at new ways of working with their existing suppliers as well as finding new suppliers. The safety of the relationship had, however, created two weaknesses in companies, loss of brands and over-reliance on one customer for orders. Of the clothing brands sold in the UK in 1996, 85 percent were owned and developed by the retailers. Only 15 percent were brands owned by the manufacturers. In such circumstances, the loss of a contract with a retailer would leave companies without the strength of a brand behind them. Some companies tried to reintroduce brands, but it required major financing to pay for advertising and none succeeded. Regular orders from retailers like Marks & Spencer discouraged suppliers from looking elsewhere for customers. In comparison with other European countries, British textile companies were exporting only a small proportion of their output. Before 1950, wholesalers had played an important role in securing overseas sales, but the rise of major retailers had weakened the wholesale sector to the extent that it was no longer able to undertake this role. If a contract with a retailer was lost, the company could find that it was left desperately looking for new customers to stay in business.
II Knitting and its Origin Difficult times for Marks & Spencer Billion pound business in crisis
In the 1980s, high street competition intensified for Marks & Spencer. Companies like Next took customers away and forced Marks & Spencer to look at how it could change to compete in this new environment. By the mid-1990s, Marks & Spencer directors had turned the business around and it reached profits of over one billion pounds a year. It was estimated that the company still bought 75 percent of the UK domestic textile production in 1995. Other fashion chain stores bought as little as 14 percent of their supplies from British companies. The success or failure of Marks & Spencer was critical to the prosperity of the British knitting industry. A slump in sales hit the fashion retail sector in 1999 and marked the beginning of funher problems for Marks & Spencer. Profits were halved to between £500 and £600 million, market share fell from 15 percent to 11 percent and its shares lost two thirds of their value in three years. Other companies faced similar problems and did not survive. e&A closed all its UK stores after losing a million pounds a week for two or three years. The cost of recovery
Marks & Spencer responded to the crisis by underraking a funher review of its strategy. For the British knitting industry, a devastating blow was struck when Marks & Spencer sought to save £110 million by sourcing supplies from overseas. Major companies, including Richard Roberts of Leicester, lost their Marks & Spencer contract. Other contracts were reallocated to focus the production of specific ranges on individual companies. Lingerie contracts were increased with the Marrin Emprex Group, Sutton in Ashfield, at the expense of their knitwear contracts, which were transferred elsewhere. The security provided by a contract with Marks & Spencer had
II been wiped out for many companies and the knitting industry was left with an uncertain future. For those companies that retained a contract, competitive pressures had reduced the profits made on them. Coats Viyella decided that it was time to close its knitwear division, four factories were closed and three sold off. Courtaulds had diversified and opened up overseas factories to cut costs in the previous two decades, but the Marks & Spencer problems led to a fall in sales and left the company vulnerable. The Sara Lee Corporation from the US subsequently bought Courtaulds for £150 million. In the 1980s, Marks & Spencer still bought 90 percent of its supplies from British companies. The policy of sourcing goods from overseas meant that by 2000 this figure had fallen to 40 percent. This change had a significant knock on effect on the industry, with over 50,000 jobs in the knitting industry lost in Nottingham, Leicester and Loughborough between 1992 and 2001. Marks & Spencer's sales
While Marks & Spencer looked to overseas companies for supplies, the company itself was selling overseas subsidiaries. Stores in France, Belgium, Spain and the US amongst others were sold off to respective national chains. In 2002, Marks & Spencer reported that its business had turned the corner and its clothing business was recovering. By 2003, company profits had increased by 21 percent to £761.8 million and it had recovered 0.7 percent of the British clothing market share to give it 11.3 percent. But this was all too late to arrest a further decline in the East Midlands manufacturing base.
Globalisation ( 1970-Present) A global world Moving abroad
Improved transport networks and communications
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technologies made global trade in the twentieth century easier. Jet planes move packages quickly around the world and telephones, faxes and email enable people to share thoughts and make instant decisions. Companies used these developments to expand their businesses. Courtaulds and Coats Paton opened up overseas factories where they employed workers on a lower wage than in the UK. Courtaulds opened factories in Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, the Philippines, China, Thailand and Sri Lanka. By 1986, Coats had interests in thirty countries including India, Pakistan, Turkey, Philippines and Hong Kong. Coats' Clothing Division opened cut and sew factories in Morocco and Mauritius in 1992. Counaulds and Coats because of the takeovers in the 1960s and 1970s, were the two largest European companies in the textiles and clothing industry in 1980. Courtaulds employed 153,003 and Coats 60,000. Both companies continued to invest outside of the UK following demands by retailers for low cost clothing. In 1997, 65% of Coats' turnover was generated outside of the UK. Protecting markets
Western governments became concerned by the level of imports from low cost countries and introduced the Multi Fibre Arrangement (MFA). The 1974 MFA established an annual negotiation of quotas between nations. The exporting nation allocated quotas to its manufacturers to ensure that the national quota was not exceeded. The MFA has been phased out by January 2005 and the textile market is now open to the international competition. Production of clothing and textiles has continued to move to Asia. Industries in Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, India and China have all grown. The end of the MFA has brought about a rapid growth in the Chinese and Indian textile and garments industries. Within Britain and other
developed cOWltries employment is expected to fall in the industry as imports increase from low cost cOWltries.
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Free trade areas
Since World War II, cOWltries have formed trading blocs based upon common interests. Particularly significant was the 'COMECON' trade agreement formed in 1949 between the Warsaw Pact Nations. Eastern European cOWltries dominated by the USSR were joined by Cuba, Mongolia and Vietnam in the bloc. When this fell apan in 1991 there was a release of manufacturing capacity particularly in the nations bordering on the European Economic CommWlity. In 1957, the European Economic Community was founded with six member states (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Luxembourg). The European Union (the current name for what was the EEC) now contains fifteen member states, including the United Kingdom. The introduction of the 'Single Market' in 1992 removed internal trade barriers across the EU and allowed free trade between member states. The NOM American Free Trade Area (NAFTA) was fOWlded with similar objectives. Also of importance was the Commonwealth. The European knitting industry is now dominated by Italy. British and German companies have lost business to the Italian industry. The introduction of advanced multi-feed circular knitting machines in Italy led to a rapid growth in the hosiery and tights division, followed by expansion in most other sectors of the industry. In 1994 the Italian industry employed 141,000 workers while the British and German industries employed 58,900 and 40,300.
New entrepreneurs A new life in knitting
The 1950s and 1960s saw the arrival in the East Midlands
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of people from across the Commonwealth. Labour shortages in the region provided jobs for the new arrivals. Leicester experienced high levels of shortages and welcomed people into the knitting and shoe industries. By 1971, over 26,000 Commonwealth citizens from India, Pakistan, East Mrica and the Caribbean had arrived in the city. The Belgrave and Highfie1ds suburbs of Leicester housed many of these people. Entrepreneurial individuals who wanted to set up their own business often looked to the knitting industry. The set up costs in the industry continued to be relatively low and enabled people to start a garment making up business with small swns of money. Large companies invested money in new technology and sold off their old machines at low prices. In 1990, 77 of the 215 Asian and Mro-Caribbean businesses recorded in Leicester were in the knitting industry. Firms were mainly small with less than 100 employees and rented rooms in old factories across the city. The Leicester Asian Business Association (LABA) and Leicester Mro-Caribbean Business Association (LACBA) have been founded to support businesses established by members of these communities, including those in the knitting industry. Under new management
Companies like Courtaulds and Coats expanded rapidly in the 1960s and 1970s by taking over companies in the textile industry. The takeover was expected to increase profits for the company, but that was not always achieved. Failure of takeovers to deliver the expected results forced the big conglomerate companies to review their businesses. Reviews revealed that some divisions did not fit the group's business plans. To solve the problem loss-making divisions were restructured, closed or sold to new owners. Some existing managers gained financial backing and bought their particular enterprise.
II Between 1968 and 1998 Counaulds and Coats sold thirteen divisions to their managers. Coats Viyella sold a group of three factories in the Mansfield area to its managers in 1990. Wrightwear Fabrics, J. K. Lace and Stevenson's dyeworks were brought together under the company name Welbeck. Welbeck produced stretch fabric for lingerie, lcisurewear, swimwear and other clothing. Around half of the company's output was exported and the remainder mainly supplied to Marks & Spencer. Management buyouts were not just restricted to demerged companies, company owners looking to retire or leave the company often sold the business to managers. A third of management buyouts were of this type. Brian DeZille sold off the Sweater Shop he had founded in 1995. The sale included a factory at Syston, Leicester, a dyeworks and 78 shops. The Sweater Shop buyout did not repeat the success of Welbeck and the company subsequently went into liquidation.
Advances in knitting technology Computerised production
The 1970s saw the introduction of early computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) systems. Designers used the CAD system to create product designs and transferred them to CAM machines to manufacture the fmal product. CAD/CAM technology replaced the mechanical shaping and patterning devices on machines with electronic controls. The systems enabled companies to respond quickly to changes in demand. New designs could be set up using CAD and instantly produced on the CAM machine. Early systems were expensive and only the major companies could afford them. In the 1980s and 1990s CAD/CAM fell in price and small and medium sized companies invested in the new technology.
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The introduction of computerised technology enabled companies to work globally. Fast communication systems have encouraged production to move away from East Midlands' factories to other countries. Designs produced in the UK can now be instantly transferred electronically across the world to low-cost producers. Wholegarment knitting
Cutting fabric into shapes and sewing the pieces together has been used to create garm~nts since the eighteenth century. From the 1970s companles researched more efficient technologies that produced a complete garment in one process without the need for sewing. Garments could be knitted quickly and without the loss of fabric associated with tut and sew techniques. Wholegarment technology was funher developed in the 1990s by Shima Seiki of Japan. Shima Seiki achieved this advance in knitting technology by developing the slide needle. The slide needle resulted from research into the latch needle and the knitting process. The needle consists of a hook located centrally between a flexible two-piece slider mechanism. Stitches are transferred by the sliders during the knitting process. Wholegarment clothes provide greater comfort than cut and sew clothes. The absence of seams means that the fabric can fit close to the body and stretch more easily. Wholegarment machines are also capable of producing complex designs. 2D fabric is replaced by 3D knitwear shaped and pleated as required. Digital printing
Textile printing on garments such as sweatshirts, t-shirts and baby wear has been dominated by screen-printing technology since the 1970s. Set-up costs for screen printing have, in recent years, conflicted with the trend for short production runs.
Advances in digital inkjet printing teehnology during the 1990s and early 2000s have enabled machines to be built that can cost-effectively produce small print-runs on textiles. Designs can be transferred directly from a computer and printed onto fabric in almost the same way as a word-processed document is printed onto paper. Colours, sizes, shapes and looks of designs can be changed quickly using computer software. The flexibility of the technology allows samples and short runs to be produced easily without the costs of setting up screens and wasted ink. To prepare fabrics for digital printing, they are treated to ensure that fibres absorb the ink at the correct rate. The printed garments are steamed to fix the dye on the fabric. It has been estimated that by 2010, 10 percent of all rrinted textiles will be digitally printed.
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The industry in the 21st Century Falling payroll
The British knitting industry has been in decline since the mid1970s. Post-war employment peaked at 159,000 in 1973-4 and then started to fall. The figure fell below 100,000 in the early 1980s, 50,000 in the mid-1990s and reached around 30,000 in 2002. Periods of bankruptcies and closures in 197982,1989-91 and 1998 to present (2003) have led to many of the job losses. An estimated two-thirds of employees still in the industry are women. East Midlands cluster
Despite the fall in employment in the knitting industry, the East Midlands remains, in terms of numbers employed, the largest clothing cluster in the UK (23% of UK employment in the industry). The UK itself is second only to Italy in terms of output in Europe. The East Midlands industry is
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concentrated in Leicester, where etlmically owned businesses provide nearly half of the employment in some sectors. Nottingham has approximately half the number of employees as the Leicester industry, although it has larger firms than Leicester. Relationship with retailers
The direct relationship between manufacturer and retailer, as promoted by Marks & Spencer, continues to exist for around 50% of large companies. Relationships often involve long production runs, input by the retailer to the design process and frequent deliveries to the retailer. Low cost producers from overseas have forced companies to look at new ways of working with retailers. Costs to the retailer have been reduced by the use of 'just in time' production (small quantities of stock delivered regularly from the manufacturer to the retailer before stock in the shop runs out), which minimises stock levels and avoids the need for surplus stock to be sold off at a reduced pnce. Smaller manufacturers have focused on sales of goods to low price outlets including markets, small retailers and wholesalers. Mail order, small retail chains and retailers requiring rapid stock turnover also provide sales for small companies in the industry. Niche markets
The knitting industry is leading the development of technical textiles in the East Midlands. Technical textiles have specialised uses for industrial or medical purposes. The properties of knitted fabrics have been used to make medical implants for use in operations. The high quality end of the market has provided security for some East Midlands companies. For example, John Smedley, Pantherella and Commando Knitwear have focused on the production of high quality knitwear, socks, hosiery and
II underwear. Attractive designs, high quality yarn and strict attention to detail enable these companies to produce premium products. Export markets are often important sources of ,income for these companies. Across the industry only 20-30% of companies actively export their products.
The future Regional advantages Despite the problems of recent decades the East Midlands region still has a significant knitting industry and a number of advantages over other areas. The scale of the industry compared with other regions in the UK makes the provision of specialist support possible (e.g. education/training, business support services). The Region's lower cost of living and a surplus of workers, compared with other regions in the south of the country, make lower wages more acceptable to employees. Links to the country's specialist clothing distribution network enable the industry'S output to be delivered quickly across the country. The workforce of the future The past three decades have seen a decline in the number of jobs available in the industry. The ageing workforce and lack of young people entering the industry is forecast to create skills shortages in the future. Reports suggest that the industry needs to change its image to attract new workers. Universities, local colleges and other training providers offer courses that will equip individuals with the necessary skills to work in the indusuy and encourage them to fill the skills gap. Increasingly complex technologies and sophisticated markets mean that high levels of education are required. The Nottingham Trent University, De -Montfort University and the University of Derby offer degrees in fashion, textiles and
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knitwear that produce around 400 graduates a year. KLITRA, the national training organisation for the industry, is responsible for supporting the education and training needs of the sector. It offers National Vocational Qualifications, Modern Apprenticeships and other training courses. Globalising production
The survival of firms in the East Midlands may depend on the overseas production of some products. The transfer abroad of products that cannot be economically made in the UK will increase the profitability of companies and allow higher paid workers in the Region's factories to focus on the production of high value items.
Key skills While the low value mass-market may no longer provide the East Midlands with the wealth that it once did, the Region still has the ability to remain in the knitting industry. Beyond the knitting stage of the manufacturing process, 'know-how' can be used to earn income from higher value activities. The ability to identify market opponunities, create designs, source supplies and co-ordinate deliveries to the marketplace can be used by businesses to generate profits. High-level research in the Region has allowed the development of sectors in the industry that focus on technical textiles. The specialist nature of these sectors, however, limits the nun1ber of jobs available. Niche markets also provide opponunities for companies to charge premium prices for their products. To maintain their niche market, many companies have to continually develop their products to ensure that they stay ahead of competitors. The ability to respond quickly to fashion changes is an imponant asset for a company to be successful in the future.
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Preserving the heritage A new lease of life Relocation of companies has left a wealth of empty buildings in town and cities. Alternative uses for some of these structures have helped to preserve them and ensure that the industry'S inbuilt heritage survives. Conversion to flats has regenerated city centre sites and provided valuable living accommodation. Between 1996 and 2002, 49 of the 84 conversion schemes submitted to Leicester City Council involved factories and warehouses. Student housing accounted for 32 of the 84 schemes and provided accommodation for 5,698 students. Buildings have also found commercial uses. For example, West Bridge Mills on the banks of the River Soar in Leicester was built in 1850 as a worsted spinning factory and in the twentieth century the building was used for knitting. Known as the Pex factory, the building suffered a serious fire in 1979. In the late 1990s, the building was converted to office accommodation and now houses the Land Registry.
Museums tell the story of the past Buildings across the region associated with the knitting industry have been opened as museums and allow the public to access the industry'S past. The Ruddington Framework Knitters Museum in Nottinghamshire opened in 1971 as a small independent working museum. The museum's site consists of frameshops, workers' cottages and outbuildings built around a courtyard. Visitors to the museum can return to the nineteenth century when they visit, witnessing the living conditions of the tens of people that would have lived and worked in the cramped conditions. Staff and volunteers at the museum have learnt how to operate and maintain the knitting technology of the period and regularly provide demonstration.
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Wigston Framework Knitters Museum in Leicestershire is based in a master hosier's house complete with a two storey frameshop built in the garden. The site records the development of three knitting workshops during the nineteenth century. A two storey workshop extension was added to the rear of the house early in the century, followed by a single storey frameshop (second half of the nineteenth century) and the two storey frameshop (1890). Frames and yarn winders can be seen and heard in action. Each year the museum trustees present a pair of socks to the mayor of Wigston in payment of the rent for the site, which is owned by the local council. Calverton Museum in William Lee's Nottinghamshire home village is housed in a framework knitter's cottage. Evidence of the wide windows that provided light by which the framework knitter could work, can still be seen. Belper North Mill (Derwent Valley Visitor Centre) and Masson Mills in Derbyshire both supplied the knitting industry with yarn. Today museums preserve machinery and objects relating to the industry in the setting of the mill buildings. The heritage ofJedediah Strutt and Richard Arkwright lives on.
Heritage at work Knitting machines from the nineteenth century continue to work commercially in the twenty first century. Martin Green of Kirby Muxloe, Leicestershire produces fine lacy wraps, shawls, stoles, squares and scarves on a Lee-type frame. Eleganti Ltd of Moorgreen, Nottinghamshire has renovated Cotton machines and brought them back into production. With the expertise of Bill Partridge, a former manager with Atkins of Hinckley, the correct conditions have been provided in the factory to ensure the Cotton machines work effectively.
(iHAPIER
2 Five Centuries of Knitting Sixteenth century fashions William Lee invented his knitting frame at a time when the demand for knitted stockings was increasing. Stockings became an important part of men's fashions during the flfteenth and sixteenth centuries and can be seen in many portraits of the time. Henry VIII is frequently shown wearing stockings, shirt, skirted doublet, covering breeches and a gown. Up until the 1570s, the stockings were usually made from a woven material, cut to shape and sewn together. Hand-knitted stockings of worsted yarn were also available as an alternative during the sixteenth century. Early hand knitted silk stockings were imported from Spain and Italy. Sir Thomas Gresham presented a pair of Spanish silk stockings to Edward VI (1547-1553). The smooth silk flnish of the stockings was achieved by knitting with pins made from frne wire. Decorative designs, known as clocks, were created with gold and silver threads to add status to the frnest pairs. By 1589, flne silk stockings were regularly worn by men at the Elizabethan royal court. When William Lee flrst applied to Queen Elizabeth for a patent for his knitting frame, the coarse woollen stocking presented to Elizabeth was quickly rejected. Such a stocking had no place at court.
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During the sixteenth century; the ladies of the court also began to wear stockings. Generally, these were simpler in design than those worn by men and were hidden underneath long dresses and gowns. Hand knitted gloves and sleeves were worn. Knitted caps were worn in the fifteenth century and continued in popularity for much of the sixteenth century. Those that survive arc often 'flat caps' with a circular or half-circular brim and a flat crown. The famous Monmouth cap was head hugging with a double brim and a button at the top. Seventeenth century knitted caps often have deep crowns. There were various cappers' acts to protect the industry. The most famous of these was Elizabeth I's statute of1571, which directed most of the population above the age of six to wear a knitted cap on Sundays and holy days or be fined.
Seventeenth century fashions Men's fashions of the sixteenth century continued into the seventeenth century, but with more elaborate designs. The doublet became more decorative with slashes across the chest and sleeves that revealed the shirt underneath. The skirts of the doublet shortened revealing the breeches, worn from the waist down to the knee. Stockings covered the lower leg from above the knee to the foot and were often worn with strap garters buckled below the knee. Only the rich in society wore expensive decorative silk stockings while woollen stockings were more widely affordable. To protect delicate silk stockings when wearing boots, a pair of over-stockings with lace frilled tops was often worn. Hand knitted stockings continued to be produced despite the introduction of the knitting frame. The cost of the frame and the demand for customised stockings helped to keep hand knitters in work. Leg shapes, colours, patterns and clock designs were easily varied to meet the requests of the customer. Scarlet and grey were popular colours in the early seventeenth
II century. Woven stockings were also widely worn at this time. The Civil War brought about a change in fashions and the extravagant designs of previous generations were replaced by simpler designs. Plain stockings without embroidered clocks became popular. Embroidering was a slow task and formed a bottleneck in the manufacturing process, without it, stockings were completed more quickly. The plain stockings were produced in a variety of colours including white, pea green, yellow and peach. In the late 1660s, the doublet was replaced by a coat and waistcoat. About 1670 to 1680 it became fashionable for the stocking colours to match the colours of other garments worn. Many of these were knitted in London where the main buyers lived. Framework knitters in the East Midlands competed by producing high quality fine silk stockings that weighed only four oz a pair. The decline of boots and the rise in popularity of shoes during the reign of Charles II brought about the end of boot overstockings. Shoes encouraged the development of stockings with decorative designs around the lower leg and ankle. A wedge-shaped piece of fabric known as a gore was knitted into the stocking between the heel and stocking front. Often the gore was knitted in a contrasting colour to the stocking and embroidered designs (gore clocks) were added around the gore. Improvements in knitting frame technology widened the range of objects produced on them. Waistcoats of silk were frame knitted and decorated, sometimes being co-ordinated with a matching pair of stockings produced in the same thread. Breeches and gloves were also produced using fabric from frames. Nightcaps of silk or wool were knitted with side straps that were buttoned under the chin. Women continued to wear sixteenth century fashions in the early seventeenth century. Generally a stiffened bodice was worn with a skirt which, however, lost its supporting farthingale by
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about 1620. Ruffs were replaced by falling collars. In the 1680s both the bodice and the skirt became undergarments under a loose fitting gown. As it tightened up in the late seventeenth century the gown became more open in front to reveal a decorated bodice or embroidered stomacher (a triangular panel from bust to waist) and a more or less richly decorated petticoat. As they were rarely seen, stockings were plain or with simple decoration. Women as well as men wore gore clocks. Knitted petticoats were introduced during the century but were rare.
Eighteenth century fashions Towards the end of the seventeenth century, waistcoats and knee-length coats had replaced the doublet in men's wear. Lace or linen frills extended beyond the cuff of the coat and a cravat was worn arow1d the neck. Wigs were commonly worn from the time of Charles II, starting with shoulder-length wigs with ringlets and moving in the 1720s to shorter wigs with curls to the side and a shoulder-length tail. Breeches were tighter fitting and extended to below the knee. Stockings were either gartered below the knee or pulled up over the breeches to above the knee. Black and coloured silk stockings continued to be worn by the rich until the 173-Os. Gore clocks also continued to be popular. Worsted stockings kept the less well off clothed and were often dyed blue using cheap indigo dye. In the 1730s, the fashion for co-ordinating stocking colours and suits or dresses declined and white stockings increased in popularity. In the second half of the eighteenth century, knee-length coats no longer covered the front of the legs as from waist level they sloped away to the sides. A variety of collars also became popular on coats, including stiff upright 'standing collars' and turned 'stand fall' collars. Decorative embroidered coats were worn by the wealthy until about 1780 when fashions became plainer. Beneath coats, the waistcoat reduced in length to waist-
level and frilled shirts were worn. Breeches still reached below the knee, but the waistband tended to be higher. Jedediah Strutt's invention of the Derby Rib frame in 1758 enabled the production of ribbed stockings. The frame alternated the right side and wrong side of the fabric face across the Wales and created a close fitting garment. The invention of the warp frame in 1776 allowed a separate thread to be used for each needle. The frame knitted courses by moving threads from side to side and was often used for the production of stockings with zigzag stripes (known as Vandyke stockings). Cotton stockings also became popular for their fineness and pure white colour. Women's fashion saw the return of dresses supponed by underpetticoats with cane or whalebone hoops sewn in. The dress often consisted of a gown with a low cut bodice open at the front to reveal a stomacher (a stiff panel, usually triangular in shape inserted in an open bodice). Towards the middle of the century, designs became elaborate and included frills, patterned fabrics, ribbons and lace trimmings. Shawls, cloaks and scarves were worn over dresses when outdoors. Hooped skirts made it difficult to wear long coats. From the 1780s, women's fashions matched men's fashions and demanded simpler designs. Excavation of Greek and Roman sites provided inspiration for garments with a classical influence. The chemise dress had a low neckline, high waistline gathered lU1der the bust and a straight-hanging skin. The sleeves were often tight and extended to between the elbow and wrist. Dresses were long, to the ground or the foot, for much of the century, but were sometimes shortened to above the ankle in the 1770s and 1780s. The visibility of the ankle brought more elaborate stockings, such as those with lace clocks, into women's fashions. Framework knitters who produced stockings with lace clocks were able to earn up to three times the wage of those knitting plain stockings.
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A knitted stocking purse became popular during the century for carrying money. More elaborate versions were knitted in silk and finished with tasselled ends and metal slides.
Nineteenth century fashions (1800-1850) The early nineteenth century saw the development of a men's fashion that had devastating impact on the knitting industry. Trousers were widely worn in place of breeches and stockings were no longer required to cover the lower leg. Halfhose were worn to provide a covering over the lower leg, ankle and foot (Half hose were effectively a half-length stocking with a welt). Towards the middle of the nineteenth century half hose and socks developed. Ribbed tops that survive on seeks today replaced stocking welts. On the upper body, shirts gradually lost their frills as they became closer fitting and decorated with vertical pleats. Stiffened high standing collars and cravats were worn around the neck. Waistcoats in striped designs remained popular and were visible from beneath the tailcoat. Eighteenth century tailcoats had sloped from the front of the waist down to the tails, but during the nineteenth century, the front of the coat was cut square above the waistline. Doubled-breasted fronts and 'M'-cut collars were also introduced. Frock coats were also introduced in the early nineteenth century to offer a further layer of protection against the elements. The coats were singlebreasted, close fitting at the waist and had a full skirt reaching to knee-length. For women, the classically influenced dress continued in fashion during the early decades of the century. The below the bust waistline gradually lowered to the natural level. Two forms of bodice developed, one that gathered at the centre front waistline and another that was fitted to the body shape. Sleeves becanle more decorative and puffed on the upper arm. Below the waistline, dress skirts widened to balance the puffed sleeves
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on the upper body. Petticoats were worn to spread the dress outwards. Printed cottons were popular for daytime wear and silks and muslins were often worn in the evening. The broadening dress shoulders required a more flexible form of outerwear. Cloaks, shawls and scarves were wrapped around the shoulders to provide additional warmth and protection in poor weather conditions. Wide-rimmed bonnets with bows, ribbons and flowers were worn on the head. Shorter skin hems in the 1820s and 1830s continued to create demand for stockings. The declining demand for stockings in men's fashions meant that hosiers competed for the women's market. Brooks & Co of Nottingham and Derby offered 20 percent discounts on their stockings. The Napoleonic wars reduced silk supplies and cotton stockings became a popular replacement. Openwork (lace-like) designs were knitted into the stocking round the front of the foot and shin. Stockings with coloured embroidered designs were also widely worn. Flesh coloured stockings became fashionable in the 1820s: Ladies who wish to have their feet well dressed, wear very flne stockings of open work, but, lest they should suffer from the cold, they have underneath very long stockings of flesh colour, which serve as drawers and are tied to the waist like those of children. However, skirts lengthened to the ground in the 1840s and stockings became invisible again. Gloves were often worn to complement shon sleeve dresses. Black silk mittens were popular daywear while long white silk mittens were often worn in the evening. Openwork designs were knitted into many mittens.
Nineteenth century fashions (1850-1899) By the second half of the nineteenth century, a wide range of clothing items was available for people to wear. Shops were selling ready to wear clothing to the mass market.
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Men's coats and waistcoats were often made of the same fabric and worn with contrasting plain or checked trousers in the 1850s and 1860s, followed by stripes in the 1870s. Frockcoats were formal daywear, tailcoats were worn in the evenings. In general, coats became looser in the 1860s and 1870s, tightening up in the 1880s and 1890s. The lounging jacket introduced in the late 1840s for seaside wear was smartened up and with matching waistcoat and trousers became the lounge suit. The evening version of the lounge suit was introduced in 1888, becoming the 'dinner jacket' ten years later. Originally, it was only worn when ladies were not present. Socks continued to develop in men's fashions and replace stockings. Cotton, wool and merino (a thread of cotton and wool) were widely used to knit socks and silk was occasionally used for expensive luxury socks. From the 1850s to 1880s even bands of two different coloured yarns were used to provide a decorative fmish. Gradually designs became more complex and multicoloured bands were created. The availability of new chemical dyes encouraged the production of brightly coloured socks. In the 1890s, black, scarlet, bright blue and green dyes were regularly used. Men sometimes wore stockings with breeches on formal occasions. Knickerbockers stockings were worn with knickerbockers, a daytime form of breeches. Such stockings were often ribbed and their tops were turned down over a garter. Knickerbockers were a popular form of sportswear worn for tennis, golf and cycling. In women's fashions the skirt hem touched the grOlmd and petticoats bulked out the skirt. A support of steel hoops and tapes was introduced in 1856 as an alternative to petticoats. By the end of the 1860s, the bustle was in fashion. The bustle was flat at the front and used a wire frame to make the skirt project to the rear. Many of the dresses worn over these variou'i forms of support
II were made in two pieces, the skirt and the bodice. The bodice increasingly became tighter at the waist as fashions turned to the small waist look. Sleeves were flared from the 1850s to the 1860s, tight in the 1870s and 1880s and very large and puffed in the mid 1890s. The bustle went out of fashion in the late 1880s and was replaced by a long skirt that fitted closer to the hips. The thin waistline continued and bodices were boned to help contour the body. Jackets worn with blouses and skirts also became popular at the end of the century. Increased wealth in the Victorian period enabled women to have many pairs of stockings in their wardrobe. With a number of stockings to choose from, women were able to match their stockings to the colour of their dress. The fashion for coordinated dresses and stockings became significant when wearing wire framed skirt supports that had a tendency to swing and reveal the stockings worn beneath. Other accessories, such as bonnets, boots, parasols, gloves and handbags, were selected in a matching colour to provide an exclusive outfit. Chemical dyes were used to produce a wide selection of coloured stockings including magenta, olive green, moss green, plum, maroon, grey, blue, scarlet and black. Black stockings were popular in towns for their ability to hide dirt. In the 1880s, Dr Jaeger promoted the benefits of woollen clothing. At the 1882 International Health Exhibition he recommended that knitted natural wool clothes should be worn as they did not compress or distort the body and were more comfortable to wear. Woollen vests and underpants had gained popularity from before 1850 and from the 1880s were often joined together to form what were known as combinations.
Twentieth century fashions (1900-1949) Early twenty first century designs retain characteristics of the
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fashions that were being developed in the early twentieth century. Short jackets were preferred over tailcoats and worn by all classes. Waistcoats were often made to match the jacket and turned-down shirt collars replaced stiff upright collars. Trousers had continued to be worn, but with the addition of turn-ups and sharp creases. Dark striped and grey trouser fabrics were popular. Knickerbockers and pullovers allowed the body to move easily and were often worn as sportswear. Baggier knickerbockers evolved into plus fours during the 1920s. Pullovers were knitted in bright colours or shades of red, green, blue, brown and grey. The image of the golfer wearing plus fours, a colourful sweater and long pair of socks still survives today. Socks with colourful patterns were usually reserved for sportswear and informal occasions. Plain or discretely patterned socks were required for formal occasions. Black silk or rayon socks were popular for eveningwear and were sometimes plated with a different lining fabric. Cotton, rayon, silk, wool, lisle and cashmere were all used for socks. Technological improvements allowed Lastex, a rubber thread, to be used for ribbed tops. In 1929 Tenova, self-supporting socks were patented with a Lastex rib top. For women, the corseted body and long skirt continued until the First World War. High blouse and dress collars wrapped around the throat with the support of wires or bone. A change in attitudes brought about by the War impacted dramatically on women's fashions. Skirts and dresses no longer covered the feet and it was acceptable to have the hem at knee-level. By the 1920s most dresses had lost, the thin waist look and the fabric was left to drape straight down from the waist. V shaped and straight necklines replaced high collars. Sleeves were generally worn to the elbow or full length, with the exception of 1920s evening dresses that were often sleeveless. New knitted garments came into fashion in the 1920s. Hip-
11 level woollen cardigans and stockinette costwnes became popular. The jumper-dress consisted of a jumper worn with a matching skirt. The jumper was often a three-quarter or knee length jacket with the low waistline marked by a belt or button fastening. The twin set was fashionable during the 1930s and 1940s. It consisted a jumper and matching cardigan. The liberation of legs from beneath long skirts provided knitting manufacturers with the opportunity to design and sell a range of new stockings. Simple clocks were added to some stockings. Up to the 1920s, stockings were worn in a variety of colours (black, silver-grey, mole, champagne, pastel, pink, sky blue, beige, white) to match the dress being worn. During the 1920s, flesh-coloured stockings came into feLhion. Companies added shades such as nude, putty, fawn, beaver, golden tan, sand, sunburn and camel to their range of fleshcolours. Suntans became fashionable in the 1920s and women wore stockings that gave a tanned appearance. The introduction of rayon (artificial silk) provided stockings with the look of silk, but at a fraction of the cost. In 1925, fine silk stockings cost £1 9s 6d a pair and mercerised Lisle stockings were -6s 6d, but a year later, rayon stockings could be bought for 2s lId. Circular knitting machines helped to reduce the cost of stockings. Stockings were produced cheaply from a knitted tube offabric shaped on a stocking board. Unfortunately, after wearing the stockings for a period or washing, the board shape was lost and the fabric bagged around the ankles. Mock fashioning marks were added to some seamless stockings to give them the appearance of being fully-fashioned. The outbreak of World War II delayed the revolutionary introduction of nylon (discovered in 1938 in the USA) to Britain. From 1941, clothes were rationed and the government required heavy cotton, rayon and woollen stockings to be manufactured, as they were harder wearing than fine stockings.
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Stockings were carefully maintained and repaired to make them last. As an alternative to stockings, gravy browning and other solutions were painted on legs to give the appearance of stockings.
'IWentieth century fashions (1950-1999) Women
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Dior, Cardin, Givenchy, Chanel and Ricci were a few of the post war designers to have an impact on women's fashions. Design houses created an extensive range of new looks for women. H-line outfits consisted of slender jackets and skirts that were tight at the hem around the legs. A few years later in 1957, the A-line was introduced. The A-line was close fitting around the body and the skirt widened to the knee-length hem. Twin set, consisting of a colour co-ordinated cardigan and jumper, continued in fashion among older women during the 1950s and early 1960s. Chunky-knit sweaters were more fashionable for the younger generation. Jersey knit and dripdry wool fabrics gained in popularity during the 1950s and thick patterned Aran sweaters from 1966. The 1960s saw skirt levels rise. Courreges raised skirts above the knee and a year later Mary Quant dared to take them higher. The mini skirt became fashionable for young women and an icon for the decade. Women also widely wore co-ordinated trousers and jackets as suits for the first time in the 1960s. Fashions imitated men's wear with masculine styled jackets, flared jeans, baggy trousers and waistcoats. Skirts lengthened again in the 1970s. Simple dresses of flower-printed cotton were popular. Matching headscarves were also worn. During the 1960s and 1980s, retailers manufactured matching sets ofskirts, trousers and suit jackets to give women the option of buying trousers or a skirt with their jacket. Garments were sold in a range of themed colours and designs to allow them ,
II to be mixed and matched within other items in the range. Shorr skirts rerurned in the 1980s, including the frilly ra ra skirt. Dresses lost popularity as separate blouses and skirrs were widely worn by women. Close fitting fabrics and low cut designs made clothes were more revealing in the 1990s. Sweaters and cardigans continued to achieve high sales with designs in wool, cotton, synthetic fibres and cashmere. Women's underwear evolved during this period to be less restrictive than garments worn by earlier ge~lerations. With simpler styles in the 1960s, the corset was abandoned in favour of the bra and panties. Some women even abandoned the bra. Underwear became increasingly luxurious in the 1980s. Nylon revolutionised the stocking industry in the post war period. By 1952, post war recovery had reached a level that allowed resources to be used for the production of large quantities of nylon. Experimentation with the new yarn produced the finest stockings available, 75 gauge stockings in 12-denier nylon. Fully-fashioned stockings remained the most desirable and more efficient technology allowed the leg and foot to be knitted in one process. Techniques were also developed that heated seamless nylon stockings on boards in order to give the stocking a permanent shape. Seamless stockings no longer bagged around the ankles and became more popular than fully-fashioned stockings because they were invisible. New ladder-resistant 'micro mesh' stockings were worn from the 1950s. Rising skirt levels created a problem of how to hide stocking tops and suspenders. The solution to the problem was to knit a body onto the stocking legs and produce a pair of tights. Early tights consisted of a long rube of fabric that had feet formed at both ends. The tube was slit in the middle and seamed to create a body piece the width of the rube. Other early tights simply sewed two legs to a pair of pants. Eventually a process was developed to create a fuller body piece.
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The popularity of trousers in the 1960s and 1970s encouraged women to wear socks. Between January and June 1976 twenty one million dozen pairs of tights were produced compared with an annual production of fifty two million in 1972. The 1980s saw an array of new designs for tights enter women's fashions. Bright colours, ankle decorations, diaper patterns, lacy patterns, tie-and-dyed, stamped, printed and even tasselled tights were produced for the market.
Men Wartime clothes rationing ended in 1949 and fashions underwent a further radical change. The younger generation rebelled against their war-hardened parents and developed their own unique look to become teddy boys, mods, rockers and hippies. Teddy boys wore long jackets (sometimes kneelength), thin drain pipe trousers, bright fluorescent socks and thick crepe-soled shoes. Slick suits with shin and tie provided mods with their characteristic style, while their counterpans, the rockers, were more casual and wore black leather jackets and matching trousers. Hippies turned to nature and wore brightly coloured shirts with flowery prints, flared trousers and bead necklace accessories. Casual clothes were increasingly accepted as suitable for wearing on most occasions. Only the most formal events required tailcoats or morning suits to be worn. Modern weddings continue to use the fashions and dress of Victorian Britain, the key panicipants being in top hat and morning or frock coats. The 1980s and 1990s saw trousers cut straight and either plain or pleated to the waist. Turn-ups became popular in the 1990s. Casual wear included denim jeans, chinos or corduroy trousers. The American coat-style shirt popular in the 1930s continued to be worn with trousers and remained relatively unchanged. Shon-sleeved shirts were popular during the summer season.
Successful casual wear products from the knitting industry included T-shirts, sweatshirts and polo shirts. Pullovers in woo~ cashmere, cotton or mixed yarns were made with bright or neutral colours in a range of patterns and neck styles. Sportswear, such as tracksuits and ski jackets, was widely worn as an alternative to casual wear. Men's unde.rwear changed considerably during the second half of the twentieth century and Y-fronts and boxer undershorts replaced heavy combinations and long johns. Polyester and cotton blends and nylon were widely used for underwear. Bright colour co-ordinated underwear and bikini briefs became popular in the 1960s. During the 1980s and 1990s boxers and mini briefs were widely worn and Y-fronts became less fashionable. In the 1950s and 19605, socks were mainly produced in nylon. These were in subdued shades and incorporated Jacquard patterns. Bright coloured socks became more popular in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Terry knit sports socks were worn with tracksuits and casual wear. Rising oil prices in the 1970s encouraged manufacturers to use cotton and other natural fibres. 'Fun' socks with cartoons and colourful designs first became popular in the 1980s.
"
(iHAPIER
3
Knitting for Beginners The art of knitting is supposed to have originated during the 4th or the 5th century in the Middle East. While knitting, yarn or thread is used to make loops that interlock with each other and a fabric is produced. At one time, only royalty used knitted garments and some of the garments used are still displayed in museums in London. Knitting was once the chief occupation of shepherds, sailors, apprentices who studied in guilds and royal knitters. Today knitting is taken up by anyone who wants to produce something creative and functional. The colours and styles that are prevalent make the art of knitting fun. Stitches, which are used in the art, can be either Continental or American, and although there is not much to choose between the two, you can fmd which one you are more comfortable with. Start knitting with wool and use size 7 needles. American needles range from 15 to 1, size 15 being the largest. English needles are descending in size, larger the number, smaller the needle. However, size 7 is the same in both American and English needles. The word ply needs to be explained. If the wool is 2 ply, it means the yarn consists of2 plies. A ply pertains to a single strand of yarn. Once you have a skein of wool, first wrap a few yards arow1d your fingers, which should be spread apart. This forms the base for your ball of wool. Wrap the
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remaining wool arowld this base in a vertical and horizontal manner so that you get a ball of wool. This is easier to knit with. The next thing that you have to do is to hold the needles, one in each hand and make a slipknot with the wool. Place this on the left needle. Insert the right needle into this cast on stitch, wrap the wool around and pull the loop. This would be your first cast on stitch. Repeat the process till you get the required number of stitches on the left needle. This requirement will differ from garment to garment and from person to person. Two basic stitches are used in knitting - the knit and the purl. Different permutations and combinations of knit and purl produce different designs. When you want to shape a garment, add multiple stitches either at the end or at the beginning. If you want to create a buttonhole, an increase in stitches is used. A decrease, which is a reduction in stitches, is often used in combination with an increase. Binding off implies the removal of stitches in such a way that they do not come undone. If a decorative pattern is required, crossing of stitches is resorted to. Errors are common while knitting and that too when you are doing it for the first time. When a collar needs to be added or a neck needs to be finished, stitches are 'picked up'. Once the garment is finished, the knitted sections need to be joined edge to edge in a way that they are not visible. Weaving or grafting can do this.
Types of knitting needles There are several kinds of knitting needles, and figuring out which one you need can be a kind of challenge at first. The most important distinction is between straight and circular, and confusingly the 3rd type - double-pointed needles. These needles look straight but function as circular ones. The main point here is whether you want to knit flat or in the round. Straight needles are the most simple and probably the ones
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your grandmother used. They are just like stick with tapered ends. The other ends of these needles have some sort of stops like knob. They are also called single-pointed. The tapered end is necessary to let you get the needle into an existing stitch and the stop is required to keep your knitting from running off the other end, allowing you to knit something much wider than the needle length, since knitting compresses easily. However, that should be within reason, since a longer needle is a bit harder to manoeuvre than a shorter one, so skinny objects can be done on relatively shorter needles. You can do pretty much any flat object with these, but only flat objects. Circular needles usually consist of two short straight pieces, tapered as usual at one end but with the other ends joined by something flexible, usually a strong cylindrical piece of plastic. The gauge is determined by the end pieces, which also allow for stitch manipulation, so it actually does not matter that the central plastic is much thinner. The important thing here is that the joint between the end piece and the plastic should be both strong and extremely smooth, so that you do not have to fight every stitch back onto the other side's needle. Circular needles are used to make largish objects in the round, depending on total needle length, which can be as small as 11 inches and as large as 47 inches. The limitations here are that a too long needle can be unwieldy, imagine 3lb of wool hanging off your needle and needing to be moved along. And, it could be worse at the opposite end of the spectrum - a too short needle is really hard to handle. If the end pieces are too short you end up knitting with your fingers instead of your whole hands and if they are too long, the needle will not bend well enough and you'll be fighting for every stitch. But the real point here is that circular needles are necessary to make a cylindrical object, yet they can also make any flat one. It is easy enough to knit back and forth on a flat object
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and get exactly the same result, as if you had been using straight needles, you just turn the circular needle over at the end of every row. There is a huge advantage to circulars if you are not just sitting home in the same spot and knitting - they are less likely to fall out and they do not separate. Double-pointed needles come in sets offour (usually in the US) or five (usually in the rest of the word). They're meant to be used circularly - you use one needle as a spare (i.e . . you would have your knitting divided into four for a fiveneedle set) and knit from one of the needles in the circle onto it, then use it as a spare to knit with the next one in the sequence. They are very practical and it takes no time at all to get the hang of working from one to the next. However, unless they are very long, they are best suited to small pieces of knitting. They come in different lengths and people with small hands tend to love the 6" ones for socks, but they are a bit specialised. And obviously, a circular needle would be better for a larger piece - you worK cootinuously without having to switch needles. This is where total subjectivity comes in. The upshot is that many projects require both kinds, for example a sweater could easily require a long circular needle for the body, a smaller one for the upper sleeve and neck, and a double-pointed one for the lower sleeve. You can see where some people hang on to the straight needles and do everything flat. Now that you are ready to knit, sit on a nice armchair, relax and enjoy the act of knitting. Purls and plains will sort themselves as you knit and before you know it, you will have produced a work of art.
Casting on Put simply, knitting is making fabric from interlocking loops of yarn. Each loop counts as one stitch. A stitch is formed when a knitting needle pulls a loop of yarn through another
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stitch on another needle. Stitches are worked from one needle to the other. The result is a pliable, interlocked fabric. Since all stitches and rows of stitches are linked, the resulting fabric will lll1ravei if just one stitch is cut. The first row of any knitting project is the 'cast-on' row. This provides the fOlll1dation for the stitches. The last row, which finishes the loops so they don't lll1ravei, is called the 'bind-off' or 'cast-off' row. In this chapter, you will learn the basic stitches callect. 'knit' and 'purl'. Different combinations of knit and purl stitches can create literally hlll1dreds of patterns, the simplest being the 'garter stitch' pattern. Garter stitch is a knit stitch worked on every row. In garter stitch, the right and wrong sides of the fabric look the same and the fabric stretches more lengthwise . than crosswise. If you alternate rows of knit and purl stitches, you are doing the 'stockinette' stitch (also known as the 'stocking' or 'jersey' stitch). This pattern has a right side (the knit stitch side) and stretches more crosswise than lengthwise. Casting on is the first step in knitting. These stitches become the first row of stitches and one selvage of your work, usually the bottom or hem. There are many ways to do this and each way has i1 different benefits depending on the elasticity or firmness required. All methods of casting on begin with a slipknot. To form slipknot for first Slipknot stitch, make a loop with yarn, insert needle w1der one length and draw through a loop and tighten.
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Knitting on
"
Knitting on uses two needles and one strand of yarn. Each new stitch is knit and then transferred to left needle. The process is versatile and soft when worked through front loop or firm if worked through the back loops.
A
B
Hold the needle with slipknot in the left hand. Insen right needle into stitch and bring yarn around it for knitting (A), draw yarn through to form a new stitch, but do not drop first loop from the left needle (B). Instead, transfer new stitch to left needle and knit into it to form the next stitch.
Cable Cast on
Cable cast on is formed in the same way as knitting on, except that for each new stitch, the needle is insened between the two previous stitches. The resulting edge is decorative, elastic and well suited to ribbing and for edges of socks and hats.
II Knittingfor Brginners
A
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B
Make slipknot and knit first stitch on. For each new stitch after that, insert the right needle between two stitches and wrap yarn for knitting(A). Draw through a new stitch and transfer it to the left needle(B).
Doing Casting on Single cast on
/ A
Single Cast on is done with one needle an a single length of yarn. It forms a delicate selvage particularly good for laces.
II
B
Make slip knot on right hand needle. Wrap yarn from ball around the left thumb as shown, grasping end between palm and back fmgers. Turn thumb so that the back of it is facing you. Insen needle into front of the loop formed by twisting the thumb.
c Slip thumb out of loop and pull yarn downwards around needle.
to
tighten
Double cast on
It is called double cast on because it uses two strands of yarn. It is often recommended for first-time knitters and produces an elastic edge.
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Measure off a length of yarn, allowing 1 inch for each stitch you will cast on. Your pattern instructions will indicate this number. Make a slipknot, it will be your first stitch. To cast on the second stitch and all subsequent stitches, hold the needle with the slipknot in your right hand. Drape the short end of the yarn over the thumb and the yarn from the ball over the index fmger. Gently pull the two ends of yarn apart to tighten the loop. Take care not to tighten it too much. The stitch should glide easily over the needle. Both strands of yarn should rest in the palm of the left hand, with the last two fmgers holding them down.
Pull the needle downward, then inllert the point of the needle up through the loop that is on your thumb.
B
Move the point of the needle over, then around the index fmger strand of yarn.
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c Bring the point of the needle back down through the thwnb loop. Drop the thwnb loop, and then pull on the short end of . the yarn with your thwnb. This will tighten the stitch. You now have two stitches on your needle. Repeat this process until the desired nwnber of stitches have been cast on. Remember not to pull your foundation row stitches too tightly. They should glide easily over the needle and be elastic.
Looped cast on
Looped cast on employs one needle and two lengths of yarn one yarn forms the foundation and the other is wrapped around it. Left intact, the edge is very flexible. If the foundation yarn is removed, stitches can be picked up for knitting.
A
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Make a slip knot in the foundation yarn. Take foundation yarn over the thumb and casting yarn over the index fmger, grasping both yarns against the palm.
B
Wrap casting yarn around the needle from front to back and foundation yarn around the needle from back to front (yarns should cross as shown).
C
Wrap casting yarn around the needle again from front to back. Pull downward so that yarns are under the needle. Repeat steps two and three.
Holding the yarn and the needles Knitting uses only two basic stitches - the knit stitch and the purl stitch. It is the variations and combinations of these two stitches that create all the different stitch patterns which are possible in knitting. First, you will learn the knit stitch.
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The knit stitch is one of the two fundamental movements in knitting. There are two basic styles of knitting-English and Continental and the difference between the two is in how you hold the yarn. In the English method, the yarn is held in the right hand. In Continental knitting, the yarn is held in the left hand. Whatever is your natural hand-preference, you should be able to master either method because the nature of knitting is basically ambidextrous. The right hand technique prevails in English speaking countries. In this approach the yarn is drawn around the right needle with the right index fmger. Tension is maintained by wrapping yarn in various ways around the hand. It is helpful to know Continental knitting when you knit with two or more different yarns. Forming the knit stitch (English)
Hold the needle with, cast on stitches in left hand. Wrap the yarn over your index finger, under the middle and ring fingers and around your pinky. This creates the proper tension in the yarn which is necessary for creating stitches that are not too loose or too tight. !
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Holding the yarn behind work, insen the right needle into the first stitch. Hold it there with your left hand. With the right index fmger, take the yarn around the right needle from back to from, so that it rests between the two needles.
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Slide the right needle down, then bring the point forward through the stitch, bringing the yarn with it. At me same time, pushing the stitch on the left needle toward the top. (With time and practice this becomes almost one movement and will increase your speed.)
Allow the stitch to slide off the left needle. Be careful to slip only the one stitch that was worked off the left needle. Do not allow any others to slip off. New Stitch Repeat the above steps for each stitch on the left needle, pushing stitches forward on left needle with thumb, index and middle fingers, moving stitches back on the right needle with the thumb. Notice that at the beginning and end of each stitch, the yarn is at the back of the work. At the end of the row, all the new stitches will be on the right needle and the left needle will be empty.
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It is important to learn good habits early, so they will stay with you. Try to use this method of holding your work from'the very beginning. Controlling the yarn with the left hand is customary in Eastern countries. The basic action is to scoop yarn from the left index fUlger onto the right needle. One method of controlling tension is with the last two fingers and the index fli.~er. Any method for controlling the tension you work out is acceptable. Speed is the ultimate goal, and to achieve this you need to hold the needles lightly and minimise all movements. They should be natural and comfortable for you. If you are straining, then you need to revise your techniques. It is helpful to know continental knitting when you knit with two or more colour yarns. Forming the knit stitch(Continental) /
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Hold needle with cast on stitches in the right hand. Wrap the yarn over your left hand as shown. This creates the proper tension in the yarn, which is necessary for creating stitches that are not too loose or too tight.
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Knittingfin' Beginners
Holding the yarn behind work, insert the right needle into the first stitch, from left to right.
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Twist the right needle ~d pull tip under the yarn to draw a loop through the stitch at the same time, pushing the stitch on the left needle toward the top. (With time and practice this becomes almost one movement and will increase your speed.)
Allow the stitch to slide off the left needle. Be careful to slip only the one stitch that was worked off the left needle. Do not allow any others to slip off. New Stitch Repeat the above steps for each stitch on the left needle, pushing stitches forward on the left needle with the thumb, index and middle fingers, moving stitches back on the right needle with the thumb. Notice that at the beginning and end of each stitch, the yarn is at the back of the work. At the end of the row, all the new stitches will be on the right needle and the left needle will be empty.
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Increasing An increase (inc) is the addition of a stitch. Its main function is for shaping, but it is also used in combination with decreases for lacy pattems. There are four basic increases, yarn over (YO), raised, lifted and bar (Ml). Casting on is also used for increasing, mainly for buttonhole or for adding multiple stitches at the beginning or the end of a row. Yarn-Over (YO) increase
YO-increase is made by wrapping ~arn around the needle between two stitches. Because a hole is made, this method is used for laces. The basic technique is to wrap the yarn around the needle once to be knit or purled on the next row. The direction of wrap depends on the type of stitch that precedes and follows the YO.
"
YO-before first stitch. (For picot edge and some laces. Can be done either knitwise or purlwise.)
YO-after knit stitch, before purl stitch.
II
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Knitting for Beginners
.
_
YO-after knit stitch, before knit stitch. (For stockinette and lacy stitches. )
YO-after knit stitch, before knit stitch. (For Garter stitch.)
YO-after purl stitch, before knit stitch.
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YO-after purl stitch, before purl stitch. (For reverse stockinette and lace stitches.)
YO-after purl stitch, before purl stitch. (For a purl garter stitch. ) Raised increase Raised increase is made by picking up a horiwntal strand between two stitches and working it as if it were a stitch. There are two ways for this strand. If you work in the front, a hole is left beneath, suitable for lace or decorative stitches. If you work into the back of the strand, the stitch is twisted and the increase is barely visible.
lies between the two stitches.
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On a knit row for a decorative stitch, increase knit into the front of the stitch.
On a knit row for an invisible raised stitch, knit into the back of the stitch.
On a purl row for a decorative raised stitch, increase the purl into the front of the stitch.
On a purl row for an invisible raised stitch, purl into the back of the stitch. Lifted increase
Lifted increase is made by working into the stitch below as well as into the stitch itself. The result is almost invisible, but
//118 there is a definite slant to the stitches. It is good to pair increases to each side of a centre point.
"
To pair lifted increases on the either side of a centre stitch work a left increase before the centre stitch and a right increase after it.
For a lifted knit right increase, insert a needle in the top of a loop just below the stitch, knit loop and then knit stitch on needle.
For a lifted knit left increase, insert left needle in the top of the completed stitch, and then pull it back gently and knit it.
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For a lifted purl right increase, insert needle in the top of the loop just below the stitch, purl loop and then purl stitch on needle .
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For a lifted purl left increase, insert the left needle in the top of the just completed stitch, pull back gently and purl it.
Bar and moss increase Bar and moss increase is made by working into the same stitch twice. For a bar increase, you knit into the front and the back of the stitch. For a moss increase, knit into the front and purl into the back of the stitch.
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Fora' bar. increase on a knit row, knit into the front and the back of the same stitch.
For a bar increase on a purl row, purl into the front and the back of the same stitch.
I
For a moss increase on a knit row, knit into the front and purl into the back of the same stitch. Double lace increase
YO before centre stitch and after centre stitch.
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Double moss increase
Knit and purl in the stitch just before the centre, knit centre stitch, knit and purl in the next stitch. Double bar increase
Knit into the front and back of the stitch just before the centre, knit centre stitch and then knit into the front and back of the next stitch. Double lifted increase into one stitch
~"
Knit loop below centre stitch, knit into the back of the centre stitch, knit again into loop below the centre.
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Double lifted increase
In the stitch before the centre, make lifted increase left, knit centre stitch, and make a lifted right increase. Double raised increase
Knit into the back of the horizontal bar just before the centre, knit centre stitch, knit into the back of the next bar.
Decreasing A decrease (dec) is the reduction of one or more stitches. It is not just used for shaping, but is also used in combination with increasing for bobbles and lace knitting. There are two basic methods with little difference in their appearances but the slipstictch method pulls less tightly and is easier to work when tension is tight. Each method pulls stitches on a definite slant. When working random decreases, slant is not imponant. However, when doing raglan shaping or lace work, slant is very imponant. On the left side of the centre, decrease slant to the right, and on the right side of the centre, decrease slant to the left. On the knit row of stockinette stitch, do KI, S11 KI PSSO, with three stitches of end and k2tog. Generally, decreases are done every other row or every 4th, 6th row, etc. but if you require more shaping, you can decrease every row. Just watch the slant of your decreases.
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Knit decrease left sl1 Kl psso
, Slip.a stitch knitwise, knit the next stitch. Insert left needle into the front of the slipped stitch and pull it over the knitted one.
11124 Knit decrease right Kl psso
"
Knit the next stitch and return it to the left needle. Pass the next stitch over it. Replace stitch on the right needle.
Knit decrease left K2togtbl
Knit two stitches together through the back of both the loops.
Knit decrease right K2tog
.
Knit two stitches together through the front of both the loops.
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Purl decrease right (sll,kl,psso)
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Slip a stitch knitwise, purl the nextsntch. Insen left needle into the front of the slipped stitch and pull it over the knitted one.
Purl decrease left (p 1 psso)
Purl the next stitch and return it to the left needle.
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Pass the next stitch over it. Replace stitch on the right needle. Purl decrease left (P2togtbl)
Purl two stitches together through the back of both the loops. Purl decrease right (p2tog)
Purl two stitches together through the front of both the loops.
Double decreasing Double decrease left (k3tog tbl)
Knit 3 stitches together through all the back loops.
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Double decrease left sl1 kl psso
Slip a stitch knitwise, knit the 2 stitches together. Insert left needle into the front of the slipped stitch and pull it over the knitted one.
Double decrease right K3tog
Knit 3 stitches together through the front of all the loops. Double decrease vertical
Knit next stitch, pass the 2 slipped stitches over the knit.
Binding off Binding off (also called casting off) is the way stitches are removed from the needle so they will not unravel.
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Of the various methods, the most versatile are the Plain Bindoff and the Suspended Bind-off. Binding Off is normally done on the right side and the stitches are worked as you see them(purl the purls, knit the knits). Plain bind-off
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It is the simplest and most frequently used method. Work 2 stitches at the beginning of a row. Holding the yarn in back, slip the first stitch over the 2nd and
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off the needle. Work the next stitch and do the same. Continue until the last stitch is bound off. Cut a 5 to 8 inches tail and pull it through the last stitch. Suspended bind-off
It is similar
to
the plain bind-off. Work 2 stitches at the
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beginning of a row. Holding the yarn in back, slip the first stitch over the 2nd as for plain, but keep pulled stitch on the left needle. Work the next stitch, drop both the stitches off the left needle at the same time. Repeat until two stitctIes remain and k2tog. Cut a 5 to 8 inch tail and pull it through the last stitch. Ending a bind offrow
Cut a 5 to 8 inch tail and pull it through the last stitch. Then weave in ends. This little bit of instruction should at least get you started.
Plain bind off two pieces
Plain bind off two pieces forms a neat seamless joining. It can be used for two straight edges having an equal number of stitches or for the shoulder edges that have been shaped by turmng.
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"-
With the right sides together and both the pieces held in the left hand, work the first stitch on each needle simultaneously. Work next two stitches together the same way. Slip the first stitch over the second stitch. Repeat across row. Ridge will be on the wrong side. Invisible bind off
Invisible bind off makes an inconspicuous finish for 1 x 1 ribbing. It is ideal for a cuff or turtleneck.
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To begin, cut yam, leaving an end four times the knitting width, and thread the yarn in a tapestry needle. Insert tapestry needle knitwise into the knit stitch at end of the needle and drop stitch off. Skip next purl stitch, insert needle purlwise in the next stitch, draw yam through, insert needle purlwise in purl stitch at end of the needle, draw yarn through and drop stitch off. Take the needle behind the knit stitch and insert it knitwise into the next purl stitch (bring yarn forward between the stitches first). Repeat across row. Crocheted bind off
In crocheted bind off, the stitches are worked off in a chain
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stitch. The results are a firm and decorative, edging appropriate for a blanket.
Holding the crochet hook in your hand as if it were a needle, insen it knitwise in the first stitch and take the yarn around the hook. Draw through a loop and let the first stitch drop off the needle. Draw a loop through the next stitch in the same manner. Draw a loop through two loops on the hook. Repeat to end. Cables Crossing stitches is a way to produce cenain decorative effects such as braid. Basketweave or honeycomb pattern
The stitches appear to be twisted because they are pulled diagonally right or left. The left twist direction is determined
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by the way the stitches are worked-to the front or the back. To work two stitches, you work the second stitch on the left and then you work the first. Three stitches can also be exchanged in this manner, working the third stitch, then the first and the second. Crossing more than three stitches is called cabling. This technique requires a double pointed or cable needle to hold the first stitches out of the way until worked. The holding needle should be the same size or smaller than the working needle. The look of a cable is varied by the number of stitches exchanged, the number of rows between twists and the direction of twist. If stitches are held at the front, the cable twists to the left, ifheld in back, a cable twists to the right.
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Cross two stitches right (2RK)
Knit into the front of the second stitch on the left needle, but
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do not drop stitch off. Knit into the first stitch and drop off both.
Cross two stitches left, (2Ik)
Knit into the back of the second stitch on the left needle, but do not drop stitch off. Knit into the back of the first stitch and drop off both.
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Cross two stitches right, (2rp)
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Purl into the front of the second stitch on the left needle, but do not drop stitch off. Purl into the front of the first stitch and drop off both.
Cross two stitches
I~
(2Ip)
Purl into the front of the second stitch on left needle, pass it
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over the first stitch and off the needle. Purl into the front of the first stitch and drop off the needle. Cross through two stitches right (2rk)
Knit 2 stitches together through the front, knit the first stitch again and drop both off the needle. Cross through two stitches right (21k)
Knit two sti~ches together through the back, knit the first stitch again through the front and drop both off the needle. Cross through two stitches right (2rp)
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Purl two stitches together through the front. Purl the first stitch again and drop both off the needle.
Cross through two stitches right (2Ip)
Purl two stitches together through the front, purl the first stitch again through the back and drop both off the needles. Twisted cable right
Slip the cable stitches onto a cable needle, hold at back, knit stitches from"the left needle, knit from the cable holder and continue the pattern.
II Knittinefor Jkeinners 1Wisted cable left
Slip the cable stitches onto a cable needle, hold at front, knit stitches from the left needle, knit from the cable holder and continue in the pattern.
Correcting errors Sometimes it is necessary to correct a mistake in your knitting. A crochet hook is a necessary tool for this. You may have to drop a stitch several rows down in order to correct an error. Retrieve a rWl in stockinette
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To retrieve a run in stockinette, insen a crochet hook front to back, hook it over the horizontal bar and draw through a loop. Retrieve a run in garter
To retrieve a run in ganer, insen a crochet hook front to back, in each knit loop, hook it over the horizontal bar and draw through a loop. Purl stitch in garter stitch
For a purl stitch in ganer stitch, insen a crochet hook back to front. In each purl loop, hook it over the horizontal bar and draw through a loop.
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Retrieve a dropped knit stitch
To retneve a dropped knit stitch, insen the right needle through the loop and under the strand. Insen the left needle from front to back and lift the stitch gently over the strand. The strand, thus, becomes a stitch facing the wrong way. Slip needle into the loop and slip stitch to the correct the position for knitting. Retrieve a dropped purl stitch
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To retrieve a dropped purl stitch, insen the right needle through the loop and under the strand. Insen the left needle from front it o back and lift the stitch gently over the strand. The strand, thus, becomes a stitch facing the wrong way. Slip the needle into he loop and slip the stitch to the correct position for purling. Correct an error several rows down
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To correct an error several rows down, mark the row error is in, and then unravel the stitches to within 1 row of error. Carefully unravel the remaining row and correct the mistake. When picking up stitches after unravelling, use a smaller needle, a size 1 or 2 works well. There is no pull on stitches to further unravel.
Picking up stitches Picking up stitches permits you to add a collar or finish a neck, or in some cases sleeves, without having to sew. Before picking up stitches, mark your work so you can figure out an even distribution of stitches. There are a number of ways to pick up stitches. You should use the method most comfortable for you.
Hold work in the left hand and knit sideways. Insert right needle under the edge stitch, take the yarn around the needle to knit. Bring stitch through to the right side. Work proceeds from right to left, first row is knit on wrong side.
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Hold yarn, needle and work in the left hand and knit sideways. Insert the hook under the stitch, pull through a loop, place on the needle and pull it snug. i Work proceeds from left to right, first row is knit on right side.
Hold yarn, needle and work in the right hand facing wrong side. Insert hook under the stitch, pull through a loop, place on the needle and pull it snug. Work proceeds from right to left, first row is knit on the right side.
Assembling a garment The joining of knitted sections edge to edge makes for a smooth bulkless seam that is nearly invisible. There are two ways to do this - weaving and grafting.
II Knitting for Brtfinners Stockinette-side seams
Lay sections right side up corresponding stitches aligned. Attach yarn at the right end. Insert needle under the next horizontal loop adjacent to edge stitch on one section, then under corresponding loop on the other side. Stockinette-shoulder seams
Lay sections right side up corresponding stitches aligned. Attach yarn at the right end. Insert needle w1der the r~ext knit stitch adjacent to bindoff stitch on one section, then w1der corresponding stitch on the other side.
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Ribbing-side seams
Lay sections right side up corresponding stitches aligned. Attach the yarn at the right end. Bring needle up through the centres of next two corresponding stitches, then down through the centres of next two stitches. Garter stitch-side seams
Lay sections right side up corresponding stitches aligned. Attach yarn at the right end. Bring needle up through the lower loop on one edge, then down through corresponding upper loop on the other edge. Grafting, also called the kitchener's stitch, is weaving the stitches together directly from the needles. The seam is smooth and elastic.
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To graft, both edges must have the same number of stitches. It is used for the toes of a sock and for some shoulder seams. There are two ways to position work for grafting: 1) Hold both the needles in the left hand with wrong sides together. 2) Lay two sections face up on a flat surface. Use a tapestry needle to weave, removing stitches as completed.
Stockinette To stan, bring the needle purlwise through the bottom and top end stitches, re-insen knitwise in bottom stitch, purlwise through the next stitch on the needle.
Insen needle knitwise in top stitch where thread emerges, purlwise through the next stitch on the needle.
Insert needle knitwise through the bottom stitch where the
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thread emerges, purlwise through the next stitch on the needle. Garter stitch
To start, bring the needle purlwise through the bottom and top end stitches, insert knitwise in the next top stitch, purlwise through the next stitch on the needle.
Insert needle knitwise in the bottom stitch where the thread emerges purlwise through the next stitch on the needle.
Insert needle purlwise through the top stitch where the thread emerges, then knitwise through the next stitch on the needle.
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Knitting with a circular needle
To knit a tubular fabric, join cast on stitches, being very careful not to twist the stitches on the needle. Place a marker between the 1st and the last stitches. Knit around until you are back at the marker. That is your first round. Work in rounds until the desired length.
To knit a flat fabric, work the circular needle back and forth as if it were straight needles.
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Knitting with double pointed needles
Tv knit a tube with 4 (or 5) dp needles, cast on 1/3(or 1/4) total number of stitches on each or 3 (or 4) needles. As you complete one needle, place the next one parallel and directly above it, with the point a little bit forward of the lower one.
Lay the three needles in a triangle (or 4 needles in a square), with the bottom needles of all the stitches facing the centre.
Using the 4th (or 5th) needle, knit into the ttrst cast-on stitch, thus closing the triangle (or square). Pull extra firmly on the
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yarn for this stitch, so there will not be a gap. When you have knitted all the stitches of the first needle, use that one for the working needle, placing it behind the others as you knit.
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Krut each section of the circle until you reach the beginning. That is 1 round. A marker is helpful, but it cannot be used at the end of a needle. It has to be between two stitches. Place the first 2 cast-on on the 3rd needle so you can use a marker.
To knit a flat item, started at the centre, crochet a chain, having one loop for each stitch, join in a ring. Transfer the loop to 1 dp needle, then pick up and knit the correct number of stitches on each needle.
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To knit a square from the centre out, crochet 8 chains, join in a ring and pick up two stitches on each of the four needles. On the first round, increase one stitch between each 2-stitch group. On the next and subsequent rounds, increase two stitches at the centre of each section. A triangle is worked in the same way, but with six stitches in 3 sections. A circle is made summarily, but with ten stitches on five needles - 1 increase is made in each section every round, moving its location 1 stitch forward in each round.
(iHAPIER
4 Practice Knitting Patterns Abbreviations The following are the abbreviations and their full forms, used in knitting technology: Abbreviations Meaning repeat instructions following or between * asterisk as indicated repeat instructions inside brackets as [] indicated approximately approx begin(ning) beg BO bind off contrasting colour CC em centimetre (s ) en cable needle co cast on/cast off cont continue (ing) dec decrease (ing) double pointed needles(s) dp/dpn foll follow(s) (ing)
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g garter inc k kl, sl, psso k2tog or k2tog k2tog tbl or k2tog tic kb Kine K st
LH Ml Me mmetre(s) ndl(s) oz
p p2tog p2tog tbl patt pm psso rem rep rev St st RH rod
II gram(s) knit all rows increase (ing) knit knit one, slip one, pass slipped stitch over knit 2 together knit 2 together through back loop knit in back of stitch reach into loop 2 rows below and K into st. left-hand make one main/master colour millimetre(s) knitting needle (es) oWKe(s) purl purl 2 together purl 2 together through back loop pattern place marker pass slip stitch over remammg repeat reverse stockinette stitch right hand rowld
II Pmcti&e Knitting Patterns RS sk2p skp sl sl st sl1, kl, psso ssk st stJss st(s) tbl tog WS wyib wyif
yd yfon
yfrn yo yon yrn Ytb
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right side slip 1 knit 2 stitches together, pass slip stitch (es) over slip1, knit 1, pass slip stitch(es) over slip slip stitch slip 1, knit 1, pass slipped st over slip 1, slip 1, knit 2 together stockinette stitch, stocking stitch stitch(es) through back loop (s) together wrong side with yarn in back with yarn in front yard(s) yarn forward over needle yarn forward and round needle yarn over yarn over needle yarn round needle yarn to back of work
Big Block Easy Afghan Materials Used • Worsted weight yarn, about six 6 oz. skeins • One 36 inches circular needle, size 10 1/2
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Gauge 4 sts. and 5 rows to the inch
Note To make a longer version, allow about 6 oz. for every 9 inches of added length wanted. To make a bedspread size for a twin bed, use 2 extra 6 oz. skeins or a total of 8 skeins. The finished size will be approximately 50 inches x 72 inches.
Directions Cast on 200 sts. K each row for 5 rows.
Method Rowl K 5, (border), *K 10, P 10*, repeating across row, ending K 10, K 5 (border) Row 2 K 5, *P 10, K 10,* repeating across row, ending P 10, K 5. Repeat rows 1 and 2,10 more times (a total of12 rows). Rowl3 (Reverse Pattern) K 5, *P 10, K 10*, repeating across row, ending P 10, K 5. Rowl4 Repeat Row 1 as above. Repeat rows 13 and 14 for 12 rows. Now, repeat these 2 pattern sequences of 24 rows until the afghan is about 54 inches from beginning, ending on any pattern row, as long as the 12 rows have been completed. K across for 5 rows. Bind off in K st. Weave in yarn ends.
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It may be used as an afghan or a blanket. It is also a good size for car travelling.
Ancient Bib Pattern Materials Used • 1 ball of White Knitting Cotton.
Needles 1 pair - 2 V2 ffiffi. (US 2) 1/2 yard of ribbon.
Gauge 8 sts make 1 inch 12 rows make 1 inch. Starting at lower edge, cast on 38 sts.
Method Rowl
* p2, K2. Repeat from * across, ending with p2. Rows 2 &3
* K2, P 2. Repeat from * across, ending with K2. Row 4 Same as first row. These 4 rows constitute the pattern. Wo~k in pattern until the piece measures 3 % inches in all. In the next row, work in pattern across first 10 sts, bind off 18 sts and work in pattern across remaining 10 sts. Work over the last 10 sts for 2 1/4 inches. Bind off. . Attach thread to opposite side of neck edge and work other 10 sts to correspond.
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The directions are to sew ribbon to both neck edges, but you may rather use a button or Velcro.
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Dishrag Materials Used • 1 ball of knit worsted weight cotton 50 gm size • Size 9 to IOYl needles
Method Cast on 4 sts. Rowl Knit one row. Row 2 K2, YO, knit to the end of the row. Repeat row 2 until there are 40 sts (for dish scrubber) or 50 sts (for face doth). Next row KI, K2tog, YO, K2tog, knit to the end of the row. Continue decreasing until 4 sts left. Castoff.
Easy Knit Shawl Materials Used • Eight 50-gram balls (82 yards per ball) of Rust (or colour of chQice) novelty yarn, such as mock velour. • 1 pair of knitting needles, size no. 9 or size to give gauge. Finished shawl is triangular shaped and measures 80 inches across top and 45 inches in length.
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Gauge 10 sts = 4 inches. 18 rows garter st.
= 4 inches with no. 9 needles in
Pattern Begin by point of shawl. Cast on 2 sts and work in garter st and every other row, work 1 increase at the beginning and end of rows. Work 202 rows and bind off the 204 sts. No fringe is required for this pattern, however, if desired you may add your own fringe. Raglan Sweater
Materials Used This pattern takes about 24 ounces of yarn. Sweater is knit in one piece, starting at neck and increasing for raglan sleeves. Any sized yarn and needles will do. If you use very thin or very thick yarn, you may need to adjust number of sts cast on to fit neck. For pullover, start with 18 inches round needles and change to larger size when the piece becomes too big.
Method Pullover Start at neck with 18 inches round or double pointed needles cast on 80 sts. Place red marker to mark beginning. Join, being careful not to twist stitches. Work Kl, pI ribbing for 1 liz inches. Change to pattern st, Kl, place black marker, increase by knitting and purling in next st, work 25, increase in next st,
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place black marker, Kl, place green marker, increase, work 9, increase, place green marker, Kl, place black marker, increase, work 25, increase, place black marker, Kl, place green marker, increase, work 9, increase. Cardigan • Start at neck Cast on 80 sts.
As you work pattern do garter st or seed st on the first and last 6 sts of every row. (Work buttonholes evenly down front, left side for men, right side for women.) Work Kl, pI ribbing for 1112 inches. • Nextrow Change to pattern st and maintaining border sts, work 13 sts, increase in next st by knitting and purling in same st, place black marker, Kl, place green marker, increase, work 9, increase, place green marker, Kl, place black marker, increase, work 24, increase, place black marker, Kl, place green marker, increase, work 9, increase, place green marker, Kl, place black marker, increase, work 13 sts. Continue in pattern and/or border increasing each side of marker pairs every-other-row until yoke is correct size. Seam will be approx. II inches for size 12,12 inches for size 14, 13 inches for size 16-18. To insure correct fit sl a string through loops and remove needles. Try the sweater on. When the seams meet comfortably lU1der the arms you are ready to break for body and sleeves. • Body K across body sts, * sl K seam st to CN, sl sleeve sts to holder keeping green marker * , sl st from holder and K both seam sts tog, K across back maintaining pattern, rep from * to * . • Finish Up front sts for cardigan. For pullovel; keep red marker to mark the beginning of front. Continue working body in pattern
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st until desired body length. For a tapered fit, decrease at underarm each side every 2 inches. When desired length is reached, change to smaller size needles and work Kl, pI ribbing for 2 inches or to taste. Bind off. • Sleeves Take up sts from one sleeve and K in stockinet st for desired length. For tapered fit, decrease at underarm every 2 inches. Measure wrist with ribbing at bottom of body to determine proper number of sts for r-robing. Decrease to desired number by knitting 2 sts tog all around and/or adjusting to proper number. Finish off in 2 inches ribbing or to taste.
Clown Shelf Doll Materials Used • In 8ply/DK/Sport weight for America & Canada, allow 50 gms(2 ozs) of red and yellow and oddments of blue, cream and green. • No.ll (3mm)(USA2) knitting needles, toy stuffing. Tension and Size Worked at a tension of26 stitches and 36 rows to 10 x 10 cm over stocking stitch, using No.ll(3mm) needles throughout Height: 34 em (17 inches) . The Legs (Both alike) Using green yarn, cast on 18sts and knit increasing into every
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st (36sts). Row 2
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p. Row 3 K Row 4
p. RowS Using yellow yarn, K 6th row.
p. Row 7 Using blue yarn, K 8th row.
p. Row 9 Using red yarn, K lOth row.
p. Rowll Using green yarn, K 12th row. p.** Repeat from * to ** 3 times (36 rows). Leave these stitches on spare needle and repeat process for 2nd leg. The Body Continuing with the 2nd leg and using yellow yarn knit 34sts, K2tog, and then joining first knitted leg K2tog K to end. Next row
p. Continue stripe sequence work for 37 rows.
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Next row p3 purl 2 tog to last 3 sts p3 (38sts). The Head Using cream yarn, ss 33 rows. Next row p2tog to end (19sts). Next row K2tog to last st Kl. (1 Osts). Break yarn, leaving a long end and thread yarn through the remaining sts loosely. To make up the body, join row ends of each leg together, and then join back and head seam. Stuff, head, body, legs and then sew/close head. The Shoes (Both alike) Using red yarn, cast on 16sts and ss 16 rows. 17th row K and cast off 1st each end of row. 18th row
p. 19th row Same as the 17th. 20th row p. (mark each end here). 21st row K and inc 1st each end of row (14sts).
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22ndrow
p. 23rdrow Same as the 21st. ss 21 rows, cast off. Fold in half at markers and join side seams, easing the long side to fit to the shoner side and lcm around back offoot. Fill with stuffing and sew up opening and then attach to the body.
Arms (Both alike) With green yarn, cast on 14sts and Kl row, increasing in every stitch (28sts). Next row
p. IN extrow K Next row p Continue in stripe sequence and use yellow yarn ss 29 rows. Next row p2tog to end of row (14sts) Next row Use cream yarn ss10 rows Next row K2tog to end of row (7sts) Leave long end, thread yarn through sts, pull up tightly and sew up. Stuff and attach to the body at the second stripe down from neckline.
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The Hat Using green yarn, cast on 60sts and working in single rib KI pI work 6 rows. 7th row Use yellow and continue in stripe sequence throughout, ss 4 rows. 11th row *K4 K2tog** repeat from * to ** to end (50sts). ss5 rows 17th row *K3 K2tog** repeat from * to ** to end (40sts). ss5 rows 23rdrow *K2 K2tog** repeat from * to ** to end (30sts). ss5 rows 28th row *KI K2tog** repeat from * to ** to end (20sts). ss5 rows 34th row K2tog to end (IOsts).
Bobble It is knitted in with the hat and using red yarn K and inc. in every stitch (20sts) ss8 rows. Next row K2tog to end (1 Osts) and break off yarn and thread through stitches loosely. Sew up side seams and stuff the bobble and pull stitches up tightly.
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Stuff hat lightly and sew to head. Neck ruftle Using yellow yarn, cast on 120 sts and K 6 rows. Next row K2tog to end (60sts) Next row K2tog to end (30sts) Cast off and sew side seams and attach to neck. Wrist ruftles (Make 2) Using yellow yarn, cast on 56sts and K2 rows. Next row K2tog to end (28sts) Next row K2tog to end (14sts) Cast off and sew side seams and attach to wrist. Ankle ruftles (Make 2) Using yellow yarn, cast on 64sts and K 2 rows. Next row K2tog to end (32sts) Next row K2tog to end (16sts) Cast off and sew side seams and attach to ankle. Bobbles for front
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II Practiu Knitting Pattems
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(Make 2) Cast on 4 sts. K and increase in every stitch (8sts) . ss 7 rows. Next row Break off yarn and thread through sts loosely. Sew sides and stuff and then pull up stitches and attach to body.
Hooded Scarf Materials Used • 6 ounces of 4-ply knitting worsted weight yarn • Number 10 112 standard knitting needles • size H crochet hook.
Gauge (Garter st) 3 sts equal one inch, 6 rows equal one inch
Pattern St (Multiple of11 sts). Rowl (K 2 tog) twice, * (yo, K 1) 3 times, yo, (K 2 tog) 4 times, repeat from * to end of row, ending K 2 tog twice. Row 2
P Rows 3,4 K
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Scarf Cast on 33 sts. K in pattern for 23 inches (or desired length). K 2 inches in garter st (K each row). Increase rows Rowl K 16, inc 1 st in next st by knitting in back and front of same st, Ktoend. Row 2 K this arid all even rows. Row 3 K 18, inc in next st, K to end. RowS K 20, inc in next st, Ktoend. Continue in pattern as established until there are 40 sts on needle. K 4 inches in garter st.
Peak (Right Side) Bind off 4 sts at the beginning of next row for back of hood. K 10 rows. Cast on 4 sts at the same edge as bound off sts. K 4 inches in garter st Begin decrease row at face edge (opposite edge from bound offsts)
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Rowl K 7, K 2 tog, K to end of row. Row 2 and all even rows K Row 3 K 8, K 2 tog, K to end of row. RowS K 9, K 2 tog, K to end of row. Continue decrease as established until 33 sts remain. K 2 inches in garter st. K 23 inches in pattern st, bind off. Finishing Sew back of hood. Join fringe. Make a chain 46 inches long, thread through eyelets just below hood. Fold back face edge to desired depth.
Shimmering Slip-On Instructions are for size 8. Changes for sizes 10, 12, 14, 16 and 18 are in parentheses.
Materials Used • Spon Yarn weight in metallic (2oz.) 3 (4-4-5-5) • 1 pair each of No. 3 and No. 5 needles (or size to give gauge). Finished measurements (in inches) Bust 32, (34,36,28,40,42). Back With No.3 needles, cast on 94 (102-106-114-118-126) sts.
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Rowl K 2, * P 2, K 2, rep from * to end Row 2 p 2, * K 2, P 2, rep from * to end. Repeat these 2 rows for 2 inches, inc 2 (0-2-0-2-0) sts on last row. 96 (102-108-114-120-126) Sts. Change to No.5 needles. Rowl (Right side) K 3 (6-9-12-5-8), * P 10, K 10, repeat from *, end last repeat K 3(6-9-12-5-8). Row 2 K the knit sts and p the purl sts. Repeat these 2 rows 5 times more (12 rows). Rowl3 p 3(6-9-12-5-8), * K 10, P 10, repeat from *, end last repeat p 3(6-9-12-5-8). Rowl4 K the knit sts and p the purl sts. Repeat last 2 rows 5 times more. (12 rows). Repeat these 24 rows for pattern. Work to 15 inches from beg or desired length to underarms. Armholes Bind off from each armhole edge 4(4-5-5-6-6) sts twice, 4(45-5-5-6) sts once and 2(3-2-3-3-3) sts once. Work on 68(7274-78-80-84) until armholes measure 21f2 (2V2 -3-3-31f2 -3 1/2) inches. Neck Work 18(19-19-19-20-21), place centre 32(34-36-40-40-42) on holder, join a 2nd ball of yarn, work to end. Working each side with separate yarn, decrease 1 st at each neck edge every
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2nd row 6(7-7-7-8-9) times. Work on 12 sts until armholes measure 6 1/2 (6V2 -7-7-7V2 -7V2 ) inches. Bind off 12 sts at each side. Front Work same as back until armhole measures 1 V2 (1 V2 -2-2-2 V2 -2V2) inches. Neck Work 27(28-28-29-30-31), place centre 14(16-18-20-20-22) on holder, join a 2nd ball of yarn, work to end. Working each side with separate yarn, bind off 3 sts from each neck edge every 2nd row 4(4-4-5-5-5) times. Dec 1 st at each neck edge every 2nd row 3(4-4-2-3-4) times. Work on 12 sts each side until armholes are same length as back armholes. Bind off all
sts. Finishing Sew left shoulder seam. Neckband With No.3 needles, from right side, pick up 1 st in each row and each st at back of neck, 1 st in each row and each st around front neck edge. Row 1 Rib in K 2, P 2 (adjusting if necessary to have a multiple of 4 sts). Rib 4 rows more. Bind off in rib. Sew other shoulder seam. Armhole Bands Pick up sts around armhole as on neck. Rib in K 2, P 2, decrease 1 st each side on 2nd and 4th row. Bind off in rib. Sew underarm seams. Block between wet towels.
Sausage Socks These spiral socks make a warm indoor slipper sock, or they
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maybe worn inside of boots. There is no heel, but they conform to the shape of the foot, since they are very flexible. Make them as long as desired, at least twice the length of the child's foot.
Materials Used • About 4 ounces acrylic sport weight yarn • 1 set number 3 double pointed needles Gauge 11 sts equal 2 inches
Pattern Multiple of 4 sts
Child's Size 3 years and older. Stretches to 7-inch circumference. Cast on 40 sts. Arrange 12 sts on each of two needles, 16 sts on third needle, being careful not to twist sts. K 2, P 2 for 20 rnds or desired length for cuff. Place safety pin in the ribbing to mark end of rnd. Begin spiral.
Spiral Pattern p 3, * K 2, P 2, * repeat between * for 3 rnds. At end of 3rd rnd, p 3 instead of p 2. Continue K2, p 2 for 3 rnds. The spiral will progress to the left in small steps. Move the safety pin up the spiral as work progresses, so that end of rnds can be seen.
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The Shaping K 2 tog so there are 39 sts. Arrange 13 sts on each needle. K one rnd. NextRnd * K 1, sll, psso, K to last 3 sts on needle, K 2 tog, K 1, * repeat on other two needles. Continue these 2 rnds until 9 sts remain (3 sts on each needle). Cut yarn 6 inches long. With large yarn needle, pull the 9 sts tog. Fasten securely. Weave yarn into wrong side. Make second sock to match.
Thigh High Cardigan Sweater Size (8-10) medium (12-14) and large (1618).
Materials Used • All wool knitting worsted • Sweater takes about 20 (24, 28) ounces rust (or colour desired) and about one ounce copper (or accent colour desired.) • 1 pair each sizes 5 and 8 standard knitting needles • 9 one-inch plastic rings • Crochet hook size H.
Gauge 5 sts equal 1 inch on size 8 needles, 7 rows equal 1" Blocking Measurements Bust- 35 (39,42) inches.
11174 Pattern St Rows 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 Small Size K 5, P 2, * K 4, P 2, repeat from * to last 5 sts, K 5. Medium and Large * K 4, P 2, repeat from * to last 4 sts, K 4. Row 2 and All Even Rows p each st. Rows II, 13, 15, 17, 19. Small Size- K 2, P 2, * K 4, P 2, repeat from * to last 2 Sts, K 2. Mediwn and Large-K 1, p 2, * K 4, P 2, repeat from * across to last st, K 1.
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Back With size 5 needles, cast on 84 (94, 106) Sts. Work K I, p 1 ribbing for 8 rows. Change to size 8 needles and work pattern st until entire piece measures 21 or desired inches, end with a wrong side row.
Shape Raglan Armholes At the beginning of each of next 2 rows, bind off 1 (2, 3) Sts. Row 3 K 2, K 2 tog, work in e$tablished pattern to last 4 sts, sll, K I, psso, K 2 . .--Row 4 p each St. Repeat last 2 rows until 28 (32, 36) sts remain. Bind off all Sts.
Left Front With size 5 needles, cast on 51 (55,61) sts. Work in ribbing same as back. Change to size 8 needles, work row 1 of pattern st to last 9 sts, put a marker on needle, work in ribbing as
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established to end of row (front band). Keeping 9 sts offront band in ribbing, work remaining sts in pattern st. Shape armhole same as back until 31 (35, 39) sts remain.
Shape Neck Starti.'1g at front edge,work 17 sts and sl these sts on holder, work to end of row. Continue to dec 1 st at arm edge in same manner as before 10 (12, 14) times more and at same time at neck edge dec 1 st every row 4 (6, 8) times. Fasten off.
Right Front Work to correspond ~o left front, reversing placement of all shaping and placement of front band and forming first buttonhole when piece measures 1 1,4 inches.
Buttonhole Row 1 Starting at front edge, work 3 sts, bind off next 3 sts, work to end of row.
Row 2 Cast on 3 sts over those bound off previous row. Make 8 more buttonholes, evenly spaced-place last 1112 inch below start of neck shaping.
Sleeves With size 5 needle, cast on 42 (46, 46) sts. Work ribbing same as back. Change to size 8 needles and work pattern st, inc 1 st each end of needle every 1 inch, forming new patterns as sts are inc, until 60 (66, 72) sts on needle. Work even in pattern st as established until piece measures 17 (18, 18) or desired inches.
Shape Raglan Cap At the beginning of each of the next 2 rows, bind off 1 (2, 3)
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and dec in same manner as on back until 2 sts remain. Place sts on holder.
Belt Using size 5 needles, cast on 14 sts. Work K 1, P 1 ribbing until piece measures 60 inches. Bind off in ribbing.
Pockets With size 8 needles cast on 28 sts. Work pattern st as for large size for 30 rows (about 5V2 inches). Change to size 5 needles and work K 1, P 1 ribbing for 3 rows. Bind off in ribbing. Work 1 row in sc along sides and bottom.
Finishing Sew sleeves to back and front armholes. Sew underarm seams.
Collar With right side facing and size 5 needles, pick up 102 sts across neck edge, including sts from holders. Work ribbing same as back for 1 inch. With size 8 needles work ribbing until collar measures 4 inches. Bind off in ribbing.
Buttons Make 9. With Copper, work 26 sc over ring, join with a sl st in first st, fasten off, leaving 7-inch end. Thread end in tapestry needle and from wrong side draw yam through back lp of each sc and draw up tightly, fasten off. With rust, overcast entire centre of button as fill-in. Sew on buttons. Fringe With copper and wrong side of sweater facing, work 1 row sc along front edges including short edges of collar. Then cut 3- , inch lengths of copper for fringe. At lower edge with wrong
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side facing, double 1 strand to form lp at top. Insert crochet hook in each sc and draw lp through, then draw loose ends through lp and pull up tightly. Make fringe in the same manner along top edge of each pocket. Trim fringe ends. Sew pockets in place.
4 Needle Mittens Size This pattern makes a nice set for small ladies hand or most teenage girls and boys with small hands. Materials Used • Use 4 needles, #3, with 4 ply yarn. • Red heart, 75 percent acrylic 25 percent rayon (preferably). Method Cast on 44 sts on 3 needles (12,16,16). K 2, purl 2 for about 2.5" K6 rows On the 7th row K2, inc 1, Kl, inc 1, K to end of row K 8th & 9th row On the 10th row K2, inc 1, K3, inc 1, K to end of row K 11th & 12th row On the 13th row K2, inc 1, K5, inc 1, K to end of row K 14th & 15th row On the 16th row K2, inc 1, K7, inc 1, K to end of row K 17th & 18th row On the 19th row K2, inc 1, K9, inc 1, K to end of row K 2, 3 or 4 more rows, knit until you have about 2.5" from
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end of cuff. Then, slip 2 stitches from #3 needle over to # 1 needle Then, K3 drop, 13 sts on pc of yarn (will be 11 plus 1) On each side of the stitches you have cast on. Then, cast on 3 stitches over needle and pc of yarn Continue to knit around. Then, knit about 27 rows or until you get about 5%"
To narrow or decrease K 4, K2tg, repeat to end of row K 3 rows K 3, K2tg, repeat to end of row K2 rows K 2, K2tg, repeat to end of row Klrow K 1, K2tg, repeat to end of row Kl row K2tg, repeat leaving 6 sts Draw end of yarn thru the 6 sts and pull inside and fInish off.
Thumb Put the 13 stitches you dropped on 2 needles Put the 3 you have cast on over pc of yarn plus whatever you need to close the hole. Pick up at least 2 on each side of the 3. Knit around Reduce to 18 sts on 3 needles K total of 15 rows. Reduce to 14 sts K 1 row
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Kl, K.2tg (repeat leaving 6 sts. Finish as with end of hand.
Adult Bed Slippers Materials Used • About 3 ounces 4-ply worsted weight yarn, number 10V2 standard knitting needles • One darning needle
Method Cast on 29 sts, leaving an allowance of 12 inches of yarn for sewing up heel of slipper. Rowl Kacross. Row 2 K 9, P I ,K 9, P I,K 9. Rows 3 through 26 Repeat rows 1 and 2, with each 2 rows forming pattern, end withrow 2. Row 27 K 10, add extra strand of yarn from smaller ball, K 9 with two strands, drop one strand and K 10 to end of row. Row 28 With single strand, K 7, pI, pick up second strand, K 1, inc 1 st, K 9, inc 1 st, K 1, drop extra strand of yarn, p 1 and K to end of row-31 sts. Row 29 K across, adding extra strand only for middle 11 sts.
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Continue working 31 sts, adding the extra strand only for middle 11 sts, as for rows 1 and 2, until you have 46 rows. Fasten off extra strand, ending with row 2. Row 47 K across 31 sts with single strand. Row 48 l( 9, P 1, K 1, K 2 tog (dec), K 2, K 2 tog, K 2, K 2 tog, P 1, and K last 9 sts- 28 sts. Rows 49 through 59 K 2, P 2 across
Finishing Fasten off yarn, leaving a strand eighteen inches long on slipper. Thread needle with strand, pull through and draw 28 sts together, continue sewing for 3 1/2 inches above toe. Sew back of heel with 12-inch strand left at start of work. Draw elastic cord through top of slipper to hold it on foot. Sew pompon on slipper.
Pompon Make a pompom and attach to front as show. Make second slipper the same way.
Thigh High Cardigan Sweater Size About 8" square.
Materials Used • Lily cotton Yarn (1 ball, colour of choice) • Knitting Needles - # 3 • Steel Crochet hook No. 0
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Gauge 5 sts = 1" 7 rows = 1"
Pot Holder Cast on 40 sts loosely. Rows 1-8
* K 5, P 5, repeat from * 3 times Rows 9-16 * P 5, K 5, repeat from * 3 times. Repeat rows 1-16 twice, then rows 1-8 once. Bind off loosely. Make another piece the same.
Finishing Single crochet the two pieces together on all sides, working 3 single crochet in each corner.
Loop At one corner, join yarn in the first of the 3 single crochet, chain 10, skip 1 single crochet, slip stitch in next single crochet, turn. Work 12 single crochet in loop, join and fasten off.
Porn Hat Materials Used • 2 skeins Yarn 100 percent Wool • 1 pair needles size 4
Method Cast on 61 sts
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Row 1 K
Row 2 K inc 10 sts evenly across the row. Repeat rows 1 & 2 twice more for a total of 91 sts Row 7 Kl, *p9, Kl, * repeat from * to * to end of row Row 8 pI, *K9, pI, * repeat from * to * to end of row. Repeat rows 7 & 8 for 51/2" or desired length. Shape For Crown Working with the wrong side of the work pI, *sll, Kl, psso., KS, K2 tog, pI, * repeat from * to * to end of row Next Row Kl, 'p7, Kl, ' repeat from * to * to end of row Next Row pI, *sll, Kl, psso., K3, K2 tog, pI * repeat from * to * to end of row Next Row Kl, *pS, Kl, * repeat from * to * to end of row Next Row pI, *sll, Kl, psso., Kl, K2 tog, pI * repeat from * to * to end of row Next Row Kl, p3, Kl, * repeat from * to * to end of row Next Row * p2 tog, K2 tog* repeat from * to * to last
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Next Row * p2 tog, K2 tog* repeat from * to * to last stitch, pI Next Row KI *pI, KI,* repeat from * to * to end of row Next Row p2 tog across the row to last stitch, pI Cut yarn and leave an end about 18" long. Thread this yarn through the stitches remaining on the needle and draw up tight. Sew the side seam with the same end of yam. Trim with a porn-porn or as desired.
Ribbed Hat Materials Used • 2 skeins Yarn 100 percent Wool • 1 pair needles size 1. • Cast on 65 sts Method Rowl * K2, p2 *, repeat from * to * to last stitch, Kl. Repeat this row until the work measures 8 inches or desired length. Shape For Crown Rowl K2, p2, 'K2 tog, p2 *, repeat from * to * to last stitch, KI Row 2 *K2 tog, pI *, repeat from * to * to last 2 sts, pI, KI Row 3 pI, KI across the row
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Repeat row 3 twice more Next Row K2 tog across the row Next Row
p Next Row K2 tog across the row, cut the yarn leaving an 18" end. Thread this yarn through the stitches remaining on the needle and draw up tight. Sew the side seam. Fold back the cuff to the desired depth. Make a porn-porn from the remaining yarn and sew to the top of the crown.
Brimmed Bonnet Materials Used • One skein yarn 100 percent wool • One pair needles size 1 Method Cast on 24 sts and knit 8 rows Next Row K Next Row p to last 8 sts, K8 Repeat these last two rows until the work measures IS". Work 8 more rows, knitting every row. Cast off. Fold work in half and sew together the seam for the centre back of the hood. Make strings from 2 lengths of yarn twisted together.
II PmcticeKnitting Patterns Knitted Washcloth Finished cloth measures 6 inches square.
Materials Used • 1 skein cotton classic yarn • Needles size 8
Method Cast on 4 stitches. K2 rows K 2 stitches, yarn over, K to end of row. Repeat until you have 44 stitches on the needles. K 1, K 2 together, yarn over, K 2 tog, K to end of row. Repeat until you have 4 stitches on the needles. K 2 rows. Cast off.
Sleeveless Shell Directions are given for small size (10-12), changes for medium (12-14) and large (14-16) are in parentheses. You will need heavy rug yarn, 5 (6, 7) 70-yard skeins in desired colour, one pair number 10 1/2 knitting needles and a size G aluminium crochet hook.
Gauge 7 sts equal 2 inches 5 rows equal 1 inch
Back Cast on 58 (62,66) sts. Work in K 2, P 2 pattern for 2 rows.
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Next 2 Rows p 2, K 2 across each row. Repeat these 4 rows for pattern for 12 inches.
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Shape Armholes Bind off 4 sts at the beginning of next 2 rows dec 1 st at beginning and end of next row Work even for 3 more inches.
Shape Necldine Work across 17 (19, 21) sts, bind off 14 sts, work across remaining sts. Working 1 shoulder at a time, dec 1 st at neck edge every row 6 times, then dec 1 st at neck edge every other row until 5 (6, 7) sts remain, bind off. Join yarn and complete other shoulder to correspond.
Front Work same as back to armholes. Bind off same as back armholes, then work even for 1 inch. Work neck shaping same as back. Continue even until armholes measure same as back, bind off shoulder. Complete the other shoulder.
Finishing Sew or weave shoulder and side seams. Work a row of sc around neck edge, armholes and lower edge.
Duck Shelf Doll Materials Used • In 8ply/DK/WW oddments of yellow or ange, green and black
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• N 0.11 (3mm) (USA2) knitting needles, child safe toy stuffmg
1ension & Size Worked at a tension of26 stitches and 36 rows to 10 x 10 cm over stocking stitch, using No.ll(3 mm)(USA2) needles throughout.
Height From base to top of hat 15 cms (6 inches); not including legs.
Head 19cms (7.V2 inches) around centre.
Waist 19cms (7.V2 inches) around centre
Body (Make 1 piece) Starting at the base edge and using orange yarn, cast on 40 sts. Placing a coloured marker in 18th and 23rd sts in the first row, ss6 rows. Join in green yarn and ss2 rows. ss2 rows orange. Repeat last 4 rows twice. ss2 rows green.
Shape for shoulders Break off green and using orange yarn, K4, (K2tog) six times, K8, (K2tog) six times, K4 (28sts).
Next Row p4, (p2tog) three times, p8, (p2tog) three times, p4 (22sts) ss3 rows Break off orange and join in yellow yarn and purl one row.
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Head (Make 1 piece) Using yellow yarn and starting at neck edge, cast on 22sts and ss2 rows. Next Row K2, inc, in each st to last two sts, K2 (40sts). Ss17 rows Shape for top of head 1st dec, row (K3, K2tog) to end of row (32sts). p every alternate row. 2nd dec, row (K2, K2tog) to end of row (24sts) 3rddec, row (K1, K2tog) to end of row (16sts) 4th dec, row (K2tog) to end of row (8sts). Leaving a long end, break off yarn and thread through sts and put aside. Base (Make 1 piece) Using orange yarn, cast on 18sts and ss12 rows. Cast off all sts.
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Arms (Make 2 pieces) Using green yarn and starting at top of sleeve cast on 12sts and ss2 rows. Join in orange yarn and ss2 rows. Ss2 rows green. Knit one row orange. Next Row Purl inc, one st each end of row (14sts). Break off orange and join in green yarn and ss2 rows. Break off green and join in yellow yarn and sslO rows. Next Row K1, (K1, K 2tog) to last st, K1 (lOsts) Next Row
p. Next Row K2tog, to end of row (5sts). Cast off all stitches.
Legs (Make 2 pieces) Using green yarn and starting at the foot, cast on 12sts and purl one row. Next Row K1, (inc) in next 10sts, K1 (22sts). Starting with a purl row, ss7 rows. Next Row KS, (k2tog) six times, K5 (16sts).
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Next Row
p. Next Row K5, (K2tog) three times, K5 (13sts). Next Row
p. Break off green and join in yellow yarn and ss18 rows. Break off yellow and join in orange yarn and ss6 rows. Cast off all sts.
Beak (Make 1 piece) Using orange yarn, cast on 22sts and ss2 rows. 1st dec row K4, K2tog, sKpo, K6, K2tog, sKpo, K4 (18sts). Next Row
p. 2nd dec row K3, K2tog, sKpo, K4, K2tog, sKpo, K2 (14sts). Next Row
p. 3rddecrow K2, K2tog, sKpo, K2, K2tog, sKpo, K2 (lOsts). Next Row
p. Cast off all sts. Hat (Make 1 piece)
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Prturi&e Knitting Patterns
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11 II Using green yarn, cast on 42sts and placing coloured yarn in 13th and 30th st of first row, knit two rows. Starting with a knit row, ssS rows. 1st dec row K1, (K3, K2tog) to last st, K1 (34sts). Next Row
p. 2nd dec row K1, (K2, K2tog) to last sr, K1 (26sts). Next Row
p. 3rddecrow K1, (K1, K2tog) to last sr, K1 (18sts). Next Row
p. 4th dec row K1, (K2tog) to last st, K1 (10sts) Leaving a long end, break off yarn and thread through sts.
Peak Pick up and knit 16sts between the coloured markers and purl one row. Next Row dec 1st at beg, of next 6 rows (1 Osts ). Next Row dec 1st each end of next 2 rows (6sts). Cast off all sts.
Making up Legs: Sew row ends together from cast on edge to cast off
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edge. Fold the cast on edge in half to form foot seam and sew together. Turn leg to right side. Stuff foot firmly, stuff boot lightly and leave rest of leg empty. Body: Sew row ends together. Turn so that the right side of the work is facing you. Pin the legs to base either side ofmarkers, leaving a 4 st gap in the middle and the front oflegs facing the body. Boots should be facing the neck line VlTith the back seam of legs now facing outwards. Pin cast on edge of base to legs with one st overhanging each side of legs. Turn body and legs to wrong side and continue to pin base to cast on edge of body. Sew base to body. Turn body right side out and stuff firmly. Head: Pull up sts tightly and sew row ends together. Turn head right side out and stuff firmly (see measurements for correct head size) and attach to body at neck opening. Arms: Pull stitches up tightly and sew side seams together. Stuff hands and 2 cms(l inches) of arm, leaving the rest of arm empty. Fold arm so that side seam is in the centre and facing body. Sew arm to body on first row of shoulder decreasing through the first cast on row of arm. Hat: Sew row ends together. Threading a needle with a length of green yarn, work a row of overstitches round the peak edge. Stuffhat lightly and sew to head (See photo 1 for placement).
Beak Sew row ends together. Fold beak in half so that the dec sts are at the side of the beak and the row ends seam is now underneath and in the centre of the mouth. Sew cast off edge seam together. Turn work to right side and work a row of backstitches one row in from edge of beak around the outside but not including cast on edge. Stuff beak lightly and sew to head. Using black yarn, work one long stitch either side of centre of beak to form nostrils.
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Eyes Leaving a gap of 3sts between eyes and using black yarn, work a daisy st in one st and work a second daisy st around the first st.
Bed Socks Materials Used • Worsted floss, 2-1 oz. Balls - blue or any colour desired • 1-1 oz. Ball - white for trim, 1 V2 yes. narrow ribbon • 4 double pointed knitting needles #3. Crochet Hook #2 or #3. • Cast on 3 needles 48 sts (16-16-16) and K 3 rounds
Method 4th Round Begin spiral pattern * K 3, P 3, repeat from * all around. Repeat the 4th round 3 times. Next 4 Rounds ** P 1, * K 3, P3, repeatfrom * all around ending each round with p 2. Next 4 Rounds p 2, * K 3, P 3, repeat from * all around ending each round with p l. Next 4 Rounds p 3, K 3, repeat from * all around. Next 4 Rounds K 1, * P 3, K 3, repeat from * all around ending each round with K2.
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Next 4 Rounds K 2, * P 3, K 3, repeat from with K 1. Next 4 Rounds
* all around ending each round
K 3, P 3, repeat from * all around. Repeat from ** until work measures 10 inches completing a pattern. Next Round dec 1 st in each knitted section, moving pattern forward 1 st. Work 3 rounds even. Next Round dec 1 st in each purl section, moving pattern forward 1 st and work 3 rounds even. Next Round *K 2, slip 1, K 1, pass sl at over K st, repeat from * all around and K 2 rowlds even. Next Round K 1, slip 1, K 1, pass sl st over K st, repeat from * all around and K 2 rounds even. Next Round K 2 tog all around, break yarn leaving an end. Thread into needle and draw through all sts twice, fasten firmly. With White work a row of sc all around top working 1 sc in each st, join. Next Round ch 4, skip 1 s c, d c in next s c, * ch 1, skip 1 s c, d c in next s c, repeat from * all arow1d, ch 1, join. Next Round 51 st into mesh, ch 4, d c in same space, * ch 1, d c in same space, repeat from *, ch 1, s c in next mesh, ch 1, * 4 d c with ch 1 between each d c in next mesh, ch 1, s c in next mesh, ch
II Practice Knitting Patterns 1, repeat from * all around, join, break yarn. Lace ribbon through beading.
Trimmed Knit Top Materials Used • 11 (12) oZ'). Sport yarn or knitting wool • 1 pair each knitting needles~ nos. 12 and 10
Measurements Length from shoulder: 23 1/2 (241/2) in. To fit: 34-36 (36-38) inch bust.
Tension Approx. 7 sts. to 1 in.
Work back and front the same With No. 10 needles caston 136 (144) sts. Work 6 rows ganer st., then continue in st. st. until 16 (16 1/2) in. from beg.
Shape Cap Sleeves Cast on 2 sts. at the beg. of the next 6 rows, then 6 (8) sts. at the beg. of the next 2 rows. Work 6 1/2 (63/4) inches.
Shape top of sleeves and shoulders Cast off 6 sts. at the beg, of the next 14 rows, then 6 (8) sts. at the beg. of the next 2 rows. Cast off remainder. Sleeve edgings With No. 12 needles Cast On 8 sts. Work 13 (13 1/2) in. g. st. Cast off.
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Neck Edging With No. 12 needles cast on 8 sts. Work 17 (17V2) in. g. st. Castoff. Side Facings Work 2. With No. 12 needles cast an 6 sts. Work 6 in. g. st. Castoff.
Finishing Sew left side seam. Sew 10 (10lh) in. of right side seam, leaving 6 in. open at lower edge. Sew sleeve and shoulder seams. Sew seams of edgings and stitch to sleeves and neck. Stitch the facings to the wrong side of the lower opening. Press lightly on the wrong side, using a hot iron over a damp cloth.
~HAPIER 5
Knitting Hints Here are some hints that will help you while knitting: • Always check the gauge listed on the yarn against the gauge required for your pattern to make sure you are buying the right yarn. • Be sure that you know if your instructions were written in America or in Europe! There IS a difference. • Particularly in the needles. American needles go from 1 15. The larger the number the larger the needle. • English needles go from 15-1. The larger the number the smaller the needle. If you do not have a conversion chart, remember that a 7 is a 7 in both American and English. A little figuring will give you the correct size. • It takes X amount of stitches to make an inch. • It takes Y amount of inches to cover your body. • x times y divided by 2 = the amount of stitches you cast on. • If you tend to cast on too tight, try using a larger needle or you can hold two needles together while casting on. • Keep unwanted patterns from forming when using hand dyed yarns. • Makers of hand dyed yarns recommend that you al-
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ways work from two balls of yarn and alternate every other row. • The same technique works very well if you find yourself having to use different dyelots. Before you run out of one lot, start 'stranding' in the new dyelot and you will never see the difference. The transition will be gradual. For that cuddly wrap-around scarf • Use a # 17 needle and work the 'Mistake Rib' in thick, textured yarn. Quick and sensational. How to knit with elastic: • Do not cast on with the elastic but add it to the first row. Drop the elastic to the floor and unwind I or 2 yards (you will want to feel a slight pull.) Wrap the yarn and elastic around your index fmger and knit your ribbing as usual. Keep a tension on your elastic, but do not over stretch. When the ribbing is the size, you desire, cut the elastic and tie it around your knitting yarn. Do not forget that the most important place for knitting elastic is in your sleeve cuffs! If you do not fmd the exact colour of elastic to match your yarn, we recommend going a shade lighter. • Read your label carefully! • It tells you how your garment will perform and how it should be treated. Needle recommendation not only gives you the gauge, but will lead to the best performance by the yarn. It is, for instance, very important not to exceed the recommended needle size when knitting with Chenille as it will stretch. Yarns will not hold their shape as well when knitted too loose. • Put your test swatch to good use. • Measure it well in all directions and wash it the way you would wash your finished garment. Measure again carefully to compare to the original. You now know how it
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will look after washing, without jeopardising your whole garment. • Save all your leftovers. Sort them by colour families. Some of the most beautiful and original garments can be created. All you need is a basic pattern and a little imagination to combine colour, texture and design. It does not even have to be all the same weight. A good start is to use an 8 or 9 needle and then double some of the thinner yarns, reduce the number of stitches in a section for a bulky yarn and then increase back to original for regular weight. Double strand two different textures and even colours to create your own effect. That is what the designers do. • Do not forget that you can combine yarns to get different weights. If you need a sport weight yarn ... combine two fingering yarns. If you need a worsted weight yarn .... combine two sport yarns. If you need a bulky yarn ... combine two worsted weight yarns. Always check your gauge, but many times this is a great way to use up extra yarns you have.
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Notes
