Genealogy of the South Indian Deities: An English Translation of Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg's Original German Manuscript with a Textual Analysis and Glossary (Routledge Studies in Asian Religion)

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Genealogy of the South Indian Deities : An English Translation of Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg's Original German Manuscript With a Textual Analysis and Glossary RoutledgeCurzon Studies in Asian Religion Ziegenbalg, Bartholomaeus.; Jeyaraj, Daniel. Taylor & Francis Routledge 0415344387 9780415344388 9780203493168 English Gods, Hindu--India, South, Mythology, Hindu, Ziegenbalg, Bartholomaeus,--1683-1719.--Genealogie der malabarischen Götter. 2005 BL1216.4.S68Z5413 2005eb 294.5/0954/809033 Gods, Hindu--India, South, Mythology, Hindu, Ziegenbalg, Bartholomaeus,--1683-1719.--Genealogie der malabarischen Götter. cover

Page i GENEALOGY OF THE SOUTH INDIAN DEITIES For the first time, the work Genealogy of the South Indian Deities of the first Protestant missionary to India, Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg (1682–1719), is made accessible to an English readership. Originally published in 1713, the text reveals Ziegenbalg’s ethos in the emerging European Enlightenment and his willingness to learn from the South Indians. It contains the original voices of knowledgeable South Indians from various religious backgrounds and presents South India in a vivid, direct and unfiltered way. In this volume, Daniel Jeyaraj edits and presents the German original in an English translation. This is followed by a detailed textual analysis, a glossary and an appendix. This book is invaluable for anyone interested in reliable information about the interactions of Europeans with Hindu and religion and culture. Daniel Jeyaraj, is Judson-DeFrietas Associate Professor of World Christianity at Andover Newton Theological School in Newton Center, Massachusetts, USA. He is an Indian theologian with a profound interest in the intercultural relationship of Christian faith, the value of cross-cultural learning and interdisciplinary teaching and research. He is a leading authority on the study of the Tranquebar Mission and the emergence of Protestant churches in eighteenth-century India. page_i Page ii RoutledgeCurzon Studies in Asian Religion Editorial Advisory Board

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Nick Allen, University of Oxford Catherine Despeux, INALCO, Paris Chris Minkowski, Cornell University Fabio Rambelli, Sapporo University, Japan Andrew Rippin, University of Victoria RoutledgeCurzon publishes a Series specifically devoted to Asian Religion, considered from a variety of perspectives: those of theology, philosophy, anthropology, sociology, history, politics and literature. The primary objects of study will be all the religious traditions of the Indian sub-continent, Tibet, China, Japan, South-East Asia, Central Asia, and the Near and Middle East. The methodology used in the works published in the Series is either comparative or one focused on (a feature of) a specific tradition. The level of readership ranges from undergraduates to specialist scholars. The type of book varies from the introductory textbook to the scholarly monograph. TRADITION AND LIBERATION The Hindu tradition in the Indian Women’s Movement Catherine A.Robinson SHINTO IN HISTORY Ways of the Kami Edited by John Breen and Mark Teeuwen BEYOND PERSONAL IDENTITY Dogen, Nishida, and a phenomenology of no-self Gereon Kopf KRSNA: LORD OR AVATARA? The relationship between Krsna and Visnu Freda Matchett THE BIOGRAPHICAL TRADITION IN SUFISM The Tabaqat genre from al-Sulami to Jami Jawid A.Mojadeddi RELIGIOUS GIVING AND THE INVENTION OF KARMA IN THERAVADA BUDDHISM James Egge THE DIVINE AND THE DEMONIC Supernatural affliction and its treatment in North India Graham Dwyer CHAN BUDDHISM IN RITUAL CONTEXT Bernard Faure BUDDHIST HAGIOGRAPHY IN EARLY JAPAN Images of compassion in the Gyōki tradition Jonathan Morris Augustine GENEALOGY OF THE SOUTH INDIAN DEITIES An English translation of Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg’s original German manuscript with a textual analysis and glossary Daniel Jeyaraj page_ii Page iii GENEALOGY OF THE SOUTH INDIAN DEITIES An English translation of Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg’s original German manuscript with a textual analysis and glossary Daniel Jeyaraj LONDON AND NEW YORK

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Page iv First published in German, 2003 By Verlag der Franckesche Stiftungen This edition published 2005 by RoutledgeCurzon 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

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Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by RoutledgeCurzon 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 RoutledgeCurzon is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. © 2005 Daniel Jeyaraj All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-49316-8 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-69398-1 (OEB Format) ISBN 0-415-34438-7 (Print Edition) page_iv Page v To Princeton Theological Seminary Princeton, NJ-08540 USA with deep gratitude for appointing me John A.Mackay Professor for World Christianity (2001–2002), and their first Research Professor (2002–2003) page_v Page vi This page intentionally left blank.

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Page vii TABLE OF CONTENTS     PREFACE   SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION   ABBREVIATIONS     INTRODUCTION     0.1  Research status     0.2  Research aim     0.3  Research limits     0.4  On translation and transliteration CHAPTER 1:  ZIEGENBALG AND HALLE PIETISM     1.1  Francke: the founder of Halle Pietism     1.2  Lange: the defender of Halle Pietism     1.3  Freylinghausen: the theologian of Halle Pietism     1.4  Halle Pietism and the ‘Book of Nature’ CHAPTER 2:  ZIEGENBALG AND THE RESIDUAL IMAGE OF GOD     2.1  Discerning the residual image of God     2.1.1  Through language study     2.1.2  Through letter correspondence     2.2  Using the residual image of God     2.2.1  By producing Christian literature in file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

     

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1 1 2 3 3 9 9 10 11 13 17 17 17 18 20 21

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  2.2.2  By establishing a church   2.2.3  By founding schools   2.2.4  By developing a particular theology of mission CHAPTER 3:  ZIEGENBALG’S TEXT OF THE GENEALOGY CHAPTER 4:  ZIEGENBALG’S SOURCES   4.1  German sources on the religions of South India   4.2  European interpretation on mythology   4.3  South Indian sources on religions CHAPTER 5:  COMPARING THE MANUSCRIPTS   5.1  Copenhagen Version (1713)   5.1.1  Introductory remarks   5.1.2  Part One: Parāparavastu   5.1.3  Part Two: Mummūrttis   5.1.4  Part Three: Grāmadevatās   5.1.5  Part Four: Devas   5.2  Leipzig Version (ca. 1730)   5.2.1  Introductory remarks   5.2.2  Textual features page_vii

Page viii CHAPTER 6:  COMPARING THE PRINTED VERSIONS     6.1  Berlin Version (1791)     6.1.1  Introductory remarks     6.1.2  Textual features     6.2  Germann’s Version (1867)     6.2.1  Introductory remarks     6.2.2  Textual features     6.3  Metzger’s Version (1869) CHAPTER 7:  CONTINUING RELEVANCE OF THE GENEALOGY     7.1  For studying Ziegenbalg’s missionary writings     7.2  For studying South Indian literary culture     7.3  For studying South Indian religions     7.4  For intercultural learning 8:  CONCLUSION   9:  GLOSSARY     9.1  Sanskrit loan words     9.2  South Indian words     9.3  Other words     9.4  Titles of the books in the Genealogy 10:  BIBLIOGRAPHY     10.1  Primary sources     10.1.1  Paper manuscripts     10.1.2  Palm leaf manuscripts     10.1.3  Printed primary sources     10.2  Secondary sources page_viii

                                   

22 24 25 35 199 199 200 202 210 210 210 212 214 217 219 222 222 225

                           

235 235 235 235 237 237 238 242 251 251 253 256 258 264

                     

266 266 295 324 326 343 343 343 346 348 357

Page ix PREFACE Cross-cultural learning is vital for a healthy pluralistic society because it tells how human beings create, codify, preserve, pass on, receive, interpret and recreate interrelated symbols and functional meaning in their respective social, political, economic and religious life setting. Cross-cultural learning requires sensitivity, respect and acceptance of the lifestyle of others and their socio-cultural system that protects and fosters human life and does not endorse violence and injustice of any kind. After my first encounter with Christian faith (around 1980) I was hearing the allegation that Christian missionaries from Europe were damaging the Indian cultural fabric. I wanted to know the legitimacy of such contentions and decided to study the cultural contact among the first Protestant missionaries and South Indians during the early eighteenth century. During the course of my research I have recovered numerous file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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manuscripts—written by the Tamils and the European missionaries in Tamil, German and English languages. These manuscripts are living testimonies of the socio-cultural life of their period. Of them, B. Ziegenbalg’s original German manuscript Genealogy of the South Indian Deities (1713) is particularly significant. It is an intelligent, honest and fascinating witness to the religious and cultural interaction between the German Pietist Ziegenbalg and the Tamils in the pre-colonial context. It deals with the values, modes and organizations of the religious behavior of the South Indians as seen, documented and interpreted by Ziegenbalg. His study constitutes a superb example of not only representing a European view about the South Indians, but also of preserving memories, voices and reflections of Tamils about their local traditions. Numerous persons have helped me complete this study. I thank Dr. Thomas Gillespie, the President of Princeton Theological Seminary (PTS), for appointing me the John A.Mackay Professor for World Christianity (2001–2002). Besides regular teaching assignment, I had time to continue my research. The cordial working atmosphere in the Department of Mission, Ecumenics and History of Religion (MEHR) has enriched me. I thank all my esteemed colleagues at the MEHR for their collegiality and support. I am especially grateful to Dr. Richard F.Young, Elmer K. and Ethel R.Timby Associate Professor of the History of Religions at PTS, for constructive criticism and advice. His knowledge of Sanskrit language and literature has helped me improve the glossary greatly. I am thankful to Dr. Thomas Gillespie and his administrative team for appointing me Research Professor (2002–2003) and thus enabling me to concentrate on my research. I remain grateful to Dr. Max Lynn Stackhouse, the Stephan Colwell Professor of Christian Ethics at PTS for the encouragement and insightful dialogues. I remain grateful to Dr. Thomas Müller-Bhalke, the Director of the page_ix Page x Francke Foundations in Halle (Saale), Germany, for his gracious permission to base this English edition on original German version entitled Genealogie der malabarischen Götter—Edition der Originalfassung von 1713 mit Einleitung, Analyse und Glossar (Neue Halleschie Berichte—Vol. III, Halle (Saale): Verlag der Franckeschen Stiftungen, 2003). However, this English edition interprets Ziegenbalg’s contribution from a different perspective. Further, I thank the officers of the Archives of the Francke Foundations, the Library of the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission in Germany and the Royal Library in Copenhagen in Denmark for helping me consult the unique manuscripts. Much of the work depended on the wonderful resources of these libraries. I am also grateful to the officers of the Tamil Library at the Department of Indology and Tamil Studies of the University of Cologne in Germany for allowing me to use their library resources to identify the earliest prints of certain Tamil books. I particularly express my gratitude to Mr. R.Prakash, the Director for Cataloguing at the Roja Muthaiah Research Library in West Mogapair in Chennai, for giving me valuable information about the earliest printed versions of Tamil books. English is not my main language. Hence, I am grateful to all friends and colleagues who have helped me improve my English writing style. I thank Ms Denise Schwalb, Faculty Secretary at PTS and Ms Catherine Campbell in Princeton for reading parts of my manuscripts and making valuable suggestions. My daughter Rebecca Jeyaraj read the entire manuscript and made several stylistic suggestions. I am particularly thankful to Dr. Amalia Gnanadesikan at the New Jersey Indian Church at Princeton for her editorial help. I am also grateful to my friend Dr. Matthias Gockel in Wittenberg/Germany for carefully comparing my English translation with the German original. As a German he could point out certain shades of meaning that have clarified the meaning of Ziegenbalg’s statements. I acknowledge my debt to Dr. Robert Eric Frykenberg, Professor-Emeritus of History and South Asian Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison, for constant encouragement and several years of academic guidance. I remain grateful to Professor John Carman at Harvard Divinity School for his valuable suggestions. While several scholars have helped me, the limitations of this study is not theirs, but solely mine. I am grateful to Routledge Curzon for publishing this work in their series Studies in Asian Religion. My thanks, lastly and most of all, are due to my wife Sheela Jeyaraj and our daughters Rebecca, Elisabeth and Ruth for their constant understanding and continuous support. Daniel Jeyaraj Andover Newton Theological School Newton Centre, MA-02459, U.S.A. July 2004 page_x Page xi SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION vowels a

ā

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ū

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consonants k

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m y r l v ABBREVIATIONS AFSt/B Portrait collection at the Archives of the Francke Foundations in Halle (Saale), Germany. AFSt/H B Manuscript collection at the Archives of the Francke Foundations in Halle (Saale), Germany. AFSt/M Manuscript letters at the Archives of the Francke Foundations in Halle (Saale), Germany. AFSt/P TAM Tamil palm leaf manuscript collection at the Archives of the Francke Foundations in Halle (Saale), Germany. BCE Before Common Era, i.e., Before Christ. Berlin Beschreibung der Religion und heiligen Gebräuche der Malabarischen Hindous, Berlin: 1791. Version CE Common Era, in the place of AD (Latin: anno domini, ‘in the year of the Lord [Jesus Christ] Cf. or cf. Latin: confer, “refer, see” the book. Con. Continuation, i.e., parts/sections of the Halle Reports (HR). Copenhagen Copy A, i.e., Ledr. 424.40 (mentioned in the bibliography). Version Copy A Ziegenbalg’s manuscript of the Genealogy sent to Copenhagen, i.e., Ledr. 424.40. It is the Copenhagen Version. Copy B Ziegenbalg’s manuscript of the Genealogy sent to Halle (1713) Copy B1 La Croze may have had a copy made from Copy B and kept it in Berlin. The editor of the Berlin Version might have used this copy. Now it is lost. Copy B2 Francke had a first copy made from the Copy B and sent it by ship to Tranquebar. The ship sank and the manuscript was lost. Copy B3 Francke had a second copy made from the Copy B and sent it to Tranquebar. It reached Tranquebar in 1730. Copy B4 C.T.Walter seems to have prepared this version from Copy B3 page_xi Page xii Copy C DEIC ed. Ed. and Eds. Germann’s Version Gr. HR Köln L Lat. Leipzig Version LELM

(ca. 1731). This is the Leipzig Version of the Genealogy, i.e., Leipzig, D 361. Ziegenbalg’s manuscript of the Genealogy kept in Tranquebar. B.Schultze took it to Madras in 1726. Then it was lost. Danish East India Company edited by or edition Editor and Editors

Genealogie der Malabarischen Götter aus eigenen Schriften und Briefen der Heiden zusammengetragen, ed. W.Germann, Madras und Erlangen: 1867. Greek Halle Reports, i.e., Der Königl. Missionarien aus Ost-Indien eingesandter Ausführlichen Berichten . The Tamil Library at the Department of Indology and Tamil Studies of the University of Cologne in Germany. Leaf, i.e., each page of the Copenhagen Version. Latin Copy B c, i.e., Leipzig, D 361 (mentioned in the bibliography).

Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission, Leipzig, Germany, (founded in Dresden in 1836 as “Evangelisch-lutherischen Missionsgesellschaft in Sachsen” and shifted to Leipzig in 1847). lit. literally Metzger’s Genealogy of the South-Indian Gods, translated, edited and published by G.J.Metzger in Madras in Version 1869. n. p. no name of the publishing company n. P. no place of publication of a book OIOC Oriental India Office Collection, British Library, London r Latin: recto folio: “standing on the front side of a manuscript document” RMRL Roja Muthaiah Research Library at West Mogapair in Chennai

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Skt. South Indian Society SPCK SPG Tamil Library TamLet Trans. v

Sanskrit Ziegenbalg’s Malabarisches Heidenthum, ed. W.Caland, 1926. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London (1698). The Society for Propagating the Gospel in the Foreign Parts, London (1701). Ziegenbalg’s Bibliotheca Malabarica, 1880. Tamil Letters, i.e., Ziegenbalg’s Malabarische Correspondenz, 1712. Translator Latin: verso folio: “standing on the reverse side of a manuscript document” page_xii

Page 1 INTRODUCTION This study of South Indian deities is based on a unique, hitherto unknown German manuscript that belongs to the pre-colonial era. It has preserved valuable firsthand information on numerous socio-religious traditions of the South Indians at the beginning of the eighteenth century. It tells about their Bhakti (‘ardent devotion’). It also narrates how the Bhaktas (‘devotees’) express their devotion to a chosen deity and how they in turn are completely overwhelmed by their deity. South Indian Bhakti traditions attracted the attention of several European scholars. One of them is Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg (1682–1719). On July 9, 1706 he reached the Danish colony Tranquebar (i.e., the village ‘hamlet on the seashore,’ about 250km southeast of Chennai, earlier Madras) and began to live among the people for the rest of his life. He learned to speak their language, read their literature, study their culture and observe their religious practices. He documented his insights for the benefit of posterity. Now they form a rich treasure trove for the study of South India in the eighteenth century. Ziegenbalg’s wide-ranging contributions to the study of South Indian culture and religions earned him the fame of being the first German Dravidologist (cf. Lehmann, 1952/1953, 149, Gensichen, 1975, 159 and Leifer, 1977, 38). His Genealogy of the South Indian Deities (written in 1713, henceforth abbreviated as the Genealogy) constitutes his magnum opus. 0.1 Research status The manuscript of the Genealogy remained in the Royal Library in Copenhagen and was not known to scholars, until the author of this present work found it in 1993. When Karl Graul (1814–1864), who was the first Director of the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission (LELM), toured South India from July 1849 to April 1853, he found a manuscript copy of the Genealogy and brought it to Leipzig. But his sudden death in 1864 thwarted his plan of publishing it. However, his student, Wilhelm Germann (1840–1902), who became a LELMmissionary, took the manuscript to South India in 1865. He prepared his own version of the Genealogy and published it in 1867. Two years later, missionary G.J.Metzger claimed to have translated Germann’s version of the Genealogy, but his version is so distorted Ziegenbalg’s text is hardly recognizably. Stephen Neill (1900– 1984) noticed these changes. He assumed that the original manuscript of the Genealogy was still in Halle (Saale), Germany and expressed his views on Metzger’s edition in the following manner: “No one today can read what Ziegenbalg actually wrote without making the pilgrimage to Halle and consulting the original manuscript. The first editor [i.e., W.Germann] felt himself more concerned with utility than with fidelity, and took liberties with the text such as no editor today would venture to take. page_1 Page 2 […But the translator of Germann’s Version of the Genealogy,] the Reverend G.J.Metzger of the Free Church of Scotland Mission in Madras, allowed himself even greater liberties. He has made omissions, mainly, as he complains, of unnecessary repetitions. He has introduced [large sections from the works of R.Caldwell, H.H.Wilson, J.A.Dubois and M.Müller….] As a consequence of all these editorial changes it is difficult for the reader to detect omissions, to identify changes and additions, and to be sure of the extent to which he is in contact with the mind and the words of the original writer. The world of scholarship would be enriched by the publication of an accurate German text, and still more by that of a reliable English translation.” (Neill, 1985, 435). As a result, neither Germann’s nor Metzger’s versions of the Genealogy received any due recognition. Some scholars have maintained that a thorough examination of Ziegenbalg’s multifaceted contributions to religious and missiological studies will provide fresh insights. For example, Willem Caland (1859–1932), a Dutch indologist, felt that it would be very difficult for a person who does not understand well, to edit

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and evaluate the works of Ziegenbalg because that person would not be able to verify the numerous quotations (Ziegenbalg, 1926, 5). And Arno Lehmann (1900–1984), an eminent historian of the Tranquebar Mission, desired that someone write a detailed monograph on Ziegenbalg’s insight, description and theological evaluation of the religions and society in South India (Lehmann, 1956, 47). 0.2 Research aim This study, which consists of seven chapters, is interdisciplinary in nature. It recovers the original text of Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy and thus evaluates his contributions to the study of South Indian religions. The first chapter examines the influences that shaped Ziegenbalg’s thinking and lifestyle in Europe. The second chapter analyses the outcome of Ziegenbalg’s efforts to discern and use the residual image of God in the South Indians. The third chapter gives an English translation of the manuscript text of the Genealogy that is kept at the Royal Library in Copenhagen. Simultaneously, it compares the textual characteristics of the manuscript of the Genealogy in Leipzig, and documents the variations in the footnotes. The fourth chapter discusses the different German, European and sources that Ziegenbalg used (or might have used) to write his Genealogy. The fifth chapter investigates the history and characteristics of the two manuscripts (in Copenhagen and in Leipzig). The sixth chapter proceeds to explain the distinctive nature of the three printed versions of the Genealogy (i.e., Berlin Version of 1791, Germann’s Version of 1867 and Metzger’s Version of 1869). All these versions tell their own story that exhibits particular textual changes, omissions and additions. The focus is on the texts, and also on the process of their page_2 Page 3 creation. The last chapter brings out the continuing relevance of the Genealogy. The glossary contains all the non-European words that are found in the Genealogy. The transliteration of the words follows the modern system of transliteration as found in the Lexicon (published by the University of Madras during 1924–1936; 2nd ed., in 1982). After each glossary entry, the page numbers of the manuscript in Copenhagen follow. The etymological meanings of the words are briefly explained. For this purpose, the dictionaries by Monier-Williams (1899), Pinkala (1968), Mayrhofer (1956–1980) and (1996) have been consulted. 0.3 Research limits This study does not attempt to discuss the human, local, national, universal and divine aspects of the religious stories. It also does not include a comprehensive theoretical discussion about the multidimensional aspects of symbols, metaphors, metaphysics, psychology, and philosophy of the religious tales. Similarly, it does not harmonize the contradictory versions of the same religious stories that are found in the Genealogy because Ziegenbalg’s correspondents do not think of the apparent contradictions as rational differences, but as divine (=Skt. ‘divine sports, game, past time’). Some topics, depending upon their relevance, are treated in greater depth than others are. No attempt is made to describe the historical and philosophical aspects of the South Indian religions, but the content of the Genealogy is briefly evaluated. Moreover, it does not refer to all the scholarly investigations and to the large corpus of materials available on south Indian religions, but incorporates only those scholarly discussions that pertain to the understanding of the Genealogy. Similarly, the numerous episodes of epic and mythology that are found in the Genealogy are not compared with their occurrence in Sanskrit epics and The detailed works by Hopkins (1915), Van Buitenen (1973–1978), Von Stietencron (1992) and Dikshitar (1995) provide valuable information to identify and study these episodes. Finally, this study does not claim to be conclusive, but only attempts to present Ziegenbalg’s understanding of South Indian religious traditions. Thus, it seeks to encourage further research on pertinent topics. 0.4 On translation and transliteration The English translation seeks to be as true as possible to the original German text of the Genealogy in Copenhagen. Where a literal equivalent is not appropriate, it is given in the []-brackets. The structure of the text, i.e., the paragraphs, numbering of the deities and listing of festivals, is kept as in the original manuscript. The English translation orients itself to the German text. The beginning of a new page is indicated in a square bracket. Ziegenbalg’s text contains neither quotation marks (i.e., “ ”) nor inverted commas (i.e., ‘’) to distinguish between page_3 Page 4 direct and indirect speech or a quote from a book or letter. However, in this translation the quotation marks are used for main quotes or reproductions of direct and indirect speech; but if there is a reproduction of a conversation within a larger quote, inverted commas are employed. Sometimes Ziegenbalg ends a quote from letters or books with the Latin abbreviation “pp.”, i.e., perge

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perge meaning “keep on, continue, and so forth.” This English translation indicates it with the abbreviation “etc.” The Genealogy does not always differentiate between Parāparavastu and its manifestations as Śiva or Brahman. To maintain the distinction of each deity, this translation follows the following pattern: Whenever Śiva is perceived as the Parāparavastu, it is indicated with the neutral Civam (‘godness, the highest stage of a divine being, the Pure Intelligence’). If the Parāparavastu is represented as a supreme neutral being, then the Sanskrit word Brahman (‘the one self-existing being, the Universal Soul’) is used. Ziegenbalg usually distinguishes the plural from the singular noun by adding the For example, the plural form of the word Catti (Skt. Śakti, ‘energy’) is (=Skt. śaktis). However, when the masculine singular noun ends with the suffix -ar, transcribed by Ziegenbalg as -er, as in the word Piramānar (Skt. Brahmin), Ziegenbalg has followed the grammatical rule of the German language: the plural form of a masculine singular noun with a definite article such as ‘der Bramaner’ would become ‘die Bramaner.’ Sometimes this way of indicating a plural noun is confusing. Hence, this translation adds the suffix -s to all plural nouns (e.g., Śaktis or Brahmins). Ziegenbalg often interprets the (‘ancient traditional narratives’) as historical narratives, but understands their content as fables. It created a problem for him as he was unable to reconcile his understanding of history with that of fables. To clarify Ziegenbalg’s German translation renders the term ‘Historien-Bücher’ (i.e., history books) simply as ‘story books.’ Ziegenbalg considers any non-Christian sacred scripture of the South Indians as Gesetz (‘law’). As a professing and practicing Lutheran he seems to have followed Martin Luther’s teaching on the relationship between ‘the Law and the Gospel.’ Ziegenbalg views the entire Christian scripture as the gospel (‘good news’). Therefore, in his view, all the non-Christian scriptures constitute the law. Wherever the word Gesetz occurs, it is translated as ‘law.’ When the meaning is unclear, it is followed with an explanation in the []-bracket. Ziegenbalg translates the terms Piśāca and Pēy as Teufel (‘devil,’ L 170 r). To show the difference of usage, the word Teufel is translated as devil, but if the term consists of the word Pēy, then it is retained. Following the convention of his day, Ziegenbalg did not separate the various words in the long names of the Pēys (L 172 r—L 174 r). For the sake of easy reading and clarity, the page_4 Page 5 words are separated in this translation. Ziegenbalg’s interpretation of the meaning of these names is translated in the text; sometimes it differs from the actual meaning, which is then given in the glossary. Ziegenbalg translates the Grāmadevatā (‘village goddess/deity’) as SchutzGöttin (‘protective goddess’). Keeping to the actual meaning of this term and Ziegenbalg’s understanding of it, the word Grāmadevatā is rendered as a protective goddess. The people however understand them as Kirāma kāval tēyvams (‘the deities that protect the village’). Ziegenbalg translates the term Mantra in German as Gebets-Formel (‘prayer formula,’ L 258r). The Sanskrit word mantra can mean, among other things, a saying, a sacrificial formula, a prayer, a sacred utterance to invoke a deity, a magical spell and an incantation. Therefore, in this translation the phrase Gebets-Formel is rendered as prayer. Ziegenbalg seems to have translated the word Cattiram (‘wayside shelter’) as Rast-Haus (wayside ‘rest house’, e.g. L 259v). It was a charitable institution, it is especially meant for giving comfort, rest and free shelter for weary travelers and wandering religious mendicants. In this translation it is rendered as a rest house. Ziegenbalg translated the Sanskrit word as a prophet, probably because the Hebrew and Sanskrit root words for a prophet connote the idea of ‘seeing’ (L 185v). Ziegenbalg’s readers who were familiar with the Old Testament tradition of the prophets, would immediately understand the term ‘prophet’ However, Ziegenbalg thinks of the as a saintly wise man. Hence, in this translation is rendered as ‘sage.’ Ziegenbalg seems to have translated the Sanskrit loan words Tavacu or Tavam (=Skt. Tapas) or Tavayākam (=Skt. Tapoyāga, ‘performance of religious austerities as a sacrifice’) as Buße (‘penitence, repentance, penalty,’ L 209 v-L 211r). However, Buße and tavam mean two different things. Tavam includes the concepts of a severe, austere life of an ascetic denying all bodily comforts and renouncing worldly possessions. Ziegenbalg defined the understanding of Buße as “a strict way of life, in which the [human] body is subjected to severe austerities, continuous fasting and sleeplessness.” It also involves “giving away a large amount of money, forsaking kith and kin, wealth and other bodily comforts.” It further requires the person to be secluded, undertake pilgrimages and wander around begging food for sustenance (TamLet, 359). Thus, the practice of Buße implies strict religious austerities and the leading of a chaste life. Ziegenbalg was aware that those who were performing Tavam were not repenting from their sins, or had inflicted punishment on themselves as in Buße, but were engaged in merit-making activities and religious austerities because they were desirous of obtaining great boons. 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Page 6 Ziegenbalg probably translates the Sanskrit word jāti (‘birth’) as Geschlecht (‘birth, generation, family, and race,’ commonly known as a caste). He has known ninety-six caste groups in Tranquebar, and believed that each caste had its specific genealogy, birth-based occupation, endogamy, and food habits (HR, I, 7. Con., 342). Hence, the word Geschlecht is translated as a caste. Seldom is it rendered as a generation (L 254v). The word Malabar too needs brief explanation (cf. older discussion in Lehmann, 1955, 37–41). Ziegenbalg attempted to define the meaning of the word Malabar in this way: “In their language [i.e., ] the word Malabarians refers to the people. They are a great nation. Their language is widely spoken. It is not known, from where they got the name Malabarians. Perhaps it comes from the southern coast, which is also known as the Pepper-Coast or Malabar-Coast. In it is known as Malayālam. It is certain that the Portuguese considered not only the inhabitants of Malayālam [i.e., present day Kerala], but also the inhabitants of the entire coast as Malabarians because they assumed that all of them spoke the same language. This is the reason that, afterwards, all the Europeans consistently considered the inhabitants [of South India] as Malabarians. Likewise, for the sake of historical continuity, we [the missionaries] too have used this term [i.e., Malabarian] in all our writings for the Europeans about them [i.e., people, or rather South Indians].” (TamLet, 429.) It is evident that Ziegenbalg deals primarily with the religions practiced by the people. However, his presentation of religious life can stand for the entire Southern regions of India where, at present, Telugu, Kanada and Malayalam are spoken. Ziegenbalg records the following as he describes the South Indian geography: “In India the South Indian religions are spread out far and wide. They include many kingdoms, islands, peoples and languages. They reach throughout the Coromandel Coast up to Bengal, because in the books [written by South Indians] one can read many stories about the events, which were said to have happened in Bengal. […] South Indian religions extend to the entire island of Ceylon; much is told of this island in the books [of South Indians]. They extend from Ceylon in the South to the Mogul Kingdom in the North. All Indians [literally: heathen, in this context: non-Muslims] in the Mogul Kingdom belong to South Indian religions; even though they differ in several ways and are divided into sectarian groups, they worship the same deities. Among the vast number of South Indian religions two are important: the first one is known as Śivacamayam [‘religion of Śiva’] and [the second] [‘religion of ’].” (Ziegenbalg, 1926, 23) page_6 Page 7 Thus Ziegenbalg was aware of the presence of several South Indian religions. He also knew that the names of deities mentioned in the Genealogy are found not only among the people, but also among all South Indians. In the Genealogy (e.g. L 46v) he referred to the three ancient dynasties of the Cēras, and that ruled all of South India. Similarly, one of Ziegenbalg’s correspondents also believed that the South Indian religions (lit: the Malabarian religion) and all their sectarian branches were seen in the three kingdoms, namely and (HR, I, 7. Con., 377). Hence, the word Malabar is used as a synonym for South India. But when the word Malabar refers to the religions, then it is translated as South Indian religions. However, when it refers to a particular race, then it relates to the people. Hence, both Germann and Metzger interpreted the word “Malabarian” as referring to the people (cf. L 34 r with Germann, 1967, 40, and Metzger, 1869, 34). In this context, it should be noted that Ziegenbalg did not employ the words “Hindu” or “Hinduism” because they were not in use at that time. As a result, this study also does not use them to designate the South Indian religions. Ziegenbalg’s word Heÿde (‘heathen’) relates to a person who was a non-Christian and also a South Indian. Originally, this word was used in Europe to designate a person who did not belong to the monotheistic religions of the Jews, Christians or Muslims. However, after Christianity was introduced in a new place, the word Heÿde got another meaning: it denoted anyone who did not become a Christian. It did not mean an irreligious or uncivilized person. For example, South Indians demonstrated a remarkable knowledge about god and numerous other deities. They also lived a civil life that followed highly developed codes of conduct. However, as a missionary, Ziegenbalg believed that the South Indian understanding of the Ultimate Reality did not correspond to the concept of the God revealed in the Bible. Hence, he also used this word to designate both the South Indians and their society.

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Similarly, Ziegenbalg’s use of the word Heÿdenthum refers more to a society rather than to heathenism because his description of this word includes not only belief systems, but also the lifestyle of the South Indians. Hence, this word is translated as the South Indian society. The actual title of Ziegenbalg’s manuscript reads: Genealogy of the Malabarian Gods . However, the text deals not only with gods, but also with several goddesses, and other supernatural beings such as giants, devils etc. Hence, this translation employs the title Genealogy of the South Indian Deities . words are transliterated according to the system of transliteration found in the aforesaid Lexicon. Ziegenbalg uses only words and does not know that many religious words are borrowed from Sanskrit. Hence, in this translation the following method is adopted: if a word has an exact equivalent in Sanskrit, then the Sanskrit word is mentioned. But, if the nouns consist of Sanskrit and words, then only the form is given. page_7 Page 8 However, Ziegenbalg’s original words are retained in the glossary that is found at the end of this work. Though does not distinguish between uppercase and lowercase letters, this translation begins all proper nouns with an uppercase letter. Ziegenbalg has used both the grave accent (‘`’as in ‘à’) as well as the acute accent (‘´’ ‘as in ‘á’) to show long and short vowels. His use of these accents is neither consistent nor uniform. At times he employs them to show the stressing accent of a word as in “Tschiwamadàm” (i.e., civamatam=Skt. Śivamata). He also these marks to denote the long vowel as in “Duwarapálager” (i.e., Tuvārapālakar=Skt. Dvārapālaka). In the translation, however, all the long vowels carry a macron (‘ ’) placed above them as in ‘ā.’ page_8 Page 9 CHAPTER 1: ZIEGENBALG AND HALLE PIETISM Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg shared the common characteristics of the German Lutheran Pietism, which, on one hand, sought to find practical answers for the religious, intellectual and social challenges posed by the consequences of the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648). On the other, it tried to revitalize the life of the Lutheran church from within. In the course of time the Pietists were identified with those Christians who emphasized regular private and corporate Bible study and active Christian life. Generally, the Pietists resisted the popular spirit of the age such as the rationalistic Enlightenment. They also suspected the usefulness of the philosophical and intellectual disputes on theological themes that did not directly contribute to the leading of a practical Christian life. Thus, Pietism brought together Christian laity and some clergy across territorial and confessional boundaries in Europe. 1.1 Francke: the founder of Halle Pietism Ziegenbalg was in touch with many leading Pietists. August Hermann Francke (1663–1727), a follower of Philip Jacob Spener (1635–1705), the “spiritual counselor of Germany” of his day, was a great educator and leader of the Pietists in Halle. He believed that every person should have a definite born again experience. Repentance and overcoming spiritual warfare should precede the spiritual new-birth. According to Francke, Jesus Christ is the “central point” of the Bible. He founded schools for the children of wealthy people as well as for poor and neglected children and for girls. He devised several means to raise moral and financial support for his educational institutions. His pedagogical method sought to further the glory of God and the holistic development of his students. After he had become a Professor of Theology at the University in Halle (1698), he desired to improve the quality of life of all people in Europe and other parts of the world (Francke, 1701, also cf. Podczeck, 1962). His efforts to relate biblical academic studies to the practical questions of his day attracted a number of students from various parts of Europe (Brecht, 1996, 614). In 1702, Francke recommended his students to study Idea Historiœ Universalis (‘Summary of universal history’) by Johannes Buno (1617–1697), a Lutheran pastor in Lüneburg. However, he instructed them not to pay much attention to “the useless things” (Francke, 1702, 64), by which he might have referred to the deities of the ancient Babylonians, Greeks and Romans. He asked his teachers to explain ancient Greek and Roman architecture in such a way that they leave out the “fables [i.e., religious mythologies] that might mislead or confuse the minds” (Francke, 1702, 56f.) of the students because they were nothing but mere concocted stories. Ziegenbalg was one of Francke’s students. He liked Francke’s sermons (especially his Buβpredigten, ‘sermons on repentance’) and regarded him as his spiritual father (AFSt/M I C 1:3). In an unpublished work Ziegenbalg mentions page_9

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Page 10 that he spent twelve years in learning Hebrew, Greek and Latin (AFSt/M B 75–76, 102f.). By learning these classical languages, Ziegenbalg understood not only the major literature of the ancient Greeks and Romans, but also the role of their mythologies in shaping European culture.1 He also knew Francke’s views about these mythologies, but differed from him significantly. For example, later, he explained that he was astonished to find with profound spiritual truths. In 1711, he translated a few poems into German and remarked: “Where can you [i.e., European readers] find such correct expressions of god in the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans? When I was reading such things in the books [of the people] for the first time, I was indeed persuaded to think that these authors must have been Christians, because they not only reject the worship of multiple deities, and concentrate on the worship of the only one god, but also discard all other heathenish things as foolishness. After I inquired of the people, not only in this place [i.e., Tranquebar] but also in other places, and heard from their own mouth [i.e., sayings] unanimously, [I realized] that these authors were not Christians. They were such people who lived among the people and attained such high [degree of] wisdom and power of reasoning. If they had known that these authors did not belong to their own nation, they would not value their writings so highly.” (Ziegenbalg, 1926,42). However, Ziegenbalg viewed the mythologies as “fables” (e.g., L 20 r). He further believed that though the way of understanding the Supreme Being was superior to that of the ancient Romans, the poets fabricated numerous “fables” about their deities (e.g., L 23 r). 1.2 Lange: the defender of Halle Pietism Joachim Lange (1670–1744) was another Halle Pietist, 2 who influenced Ziegenbalg greatly. Lange persuaded Ziegenbalg and his older friend Heinrich Plütschau (ca. 1675–1752) to accept the missionary call.3 After Ziegenbalg reached Tranquebar in 1706, he sent his first reports to Lange, who in turn printed them in Berlin.4 Ziegenbalg’s autobiographical notes mention that he enjoyed Lange’s lessons because he engaged his students in both private and public exercises of devotion and “true Christianity.” Ziegenbalg states further that he liked Lange’s work entitled Medicina mentis (‘medicine for the mind,’ published in Berlin in 1704), because it teaches the art of simultaneously appreciating both spiritual and natural truths. It also underlines the pietistic conviction that sin has spoilt human will and reason, and hence human beings, by themselves, are unable to perform any good thing, and are in need of the salvation that is available in and through Jesus Christ.5 Probably, this is the major reason why Ziegenbalg kept on questioning spiritual validity of the good works done by those South Indians who were non-Christians. page_10 Page 11 Lange’s other teachings left an indelible mark on Ziegenbalg. For example, Lange did not like the teachings of the rational philosophers such as Christian Wolff (1679–1754), who believed that religious knowledge and good moral life were unrelated things. On the contrary, Lange was convinced that all people were sinners and therefore, by themselves were unable to live a morally sound life. Hence, in order to live a morally sound life, one should become a Christian and follow the teachings of Jesus Christ (Bianco, 1989). Moreover, Lange taught that human life should not be compartmentalized as body and soul because these two entities belong inseparably together, and influence one another mutually. If only the soul is brought under the lordship of Jesus Christ, the body also will learn to live a godly life (Lange, 1736). Accordingly, Ziegenbalg learned to support the holistic view of human beings, and understood the essence of his Christian mission not only as “service to the soul,” but also as an essential “service to the body” (Gensichen, 1975). 1.3 Freylinghausen: the theologian of Halle Pietism Johann Anastasius Freylinghausen (1670–1739), Francke’s adjunct and, later, son-in-law,6 was another Halle Pietist who exerted powerful and enduring influence on Ziegenbalg. Freylinghausen tried to make Francke’s pietistic ideas theologically relevant and practically useful (Knuth, 1898, 19). His famous theological works7 are based on the teachings of the Bible, and avoided the influence of Graeco-Roman philosophy. Similarly, Ziegenbalg also tried to keep theology and philosophy separate mainly because no philosophy leads human beings to the saving faith in Jesus Christ. For example, on May 22, 1708, while discussing with a South Indian philosopher he insisted that philosophies do not help human beings attain salvation, and these are but “a pebble.” By contrast, the Bible alone has the power to transform the minds and wills of people and lead them to salvation in Jesus Christ (HR, I, 8. Con., 577, 578 and 581). Ziegenbalg was also careful in following Freylinghausen’s teaching on the residual image of God8 in human beings. According to Freylinghausen the knowledge of God is both “natural and supernatural. It is natural because the image of God is implanted in human beings and a spark of the light of the image of God is remaining. This [flickering] light helps the people to realize that they ought to not only love and fear God, but also grow in the knowledge of God by observing the works of God. Cf. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Romans 1, 18–20. The supernatural knowledge comes from the Word of God to those who allow the Holy Spirit to enlighten them. Cf. Ephesians 1:17 and II Peter 1:19.” (Freylinghausen, 1703, 1f.). Freylinghausen believed that human beings could obtain knowledge from two sources: the natural way of understanding God is “planted” in the human heart. All human beings are created in the image of God.9 Therefore, they have page_11 Page 12 sufficient knowledge to appropriately respond to God and to live for God’s glory (Freylinghausen, 1705, 41– 43). But Satan (‘adversary’), the prime opponent of God, caused the people to sin and acquire an evil nature (Freylinghausen, 1705, 44–48).10 As a result, sin has spoilt, but did not annihilate the image of God in human beings. Still a small light of the image of God remains in them and reminds them to find ways of appropriately worshipping God. Further, human beings are able to correctly conduct their worldly business, but often their actions are selfish. Even their natural works that appear to be morally sound are nothing but dead works (Freylinghausen, 1705, 51–53). In this regard, natural knowledge of God does not help the people to live a godly life; they are in desperate need of the supernatural knowledge of God that comes from the illuminating and enabling work of the Holy Spirit.11 Then only people will be able to correctly understand the nature of the Triune God, and the pietistic concepts of creation, human sin, salvation.12 Ziegenbalg liked Freylinghausen’s teaching so much that in 1709 he summarized Freylinghausen’s Foundation of Theology into and named it Vētacāstiram (‘Theological Treatise’).13 Two palm leaf manuscripts of this Vētacāstiram are now recovered (AFSt/P TAM 36 and AFSt/P TAM 93), and each manuscript is divided into two parts. The first part contains seven chapters that deal with the attributes of God as revealed in the Bible. Accordingly, God is understood as the One who is eternal, unchanging, omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent, all-truth, all-wisdom, all-holy, all-justice, all-mercy and all-compassionate (AFSt/P TAM 36, palm leaves 6v18r). Ziegenbalg uses this definition of God to evaluate the authenticity and credibility of the South Indian deities. The second part describes the nature of humankind (AFSt/P TAM 85 containing 307 palm leaves) as those who are created in God’s image. Out of their own free will they sinned against God and misused the ability to discern between good and evil. Their sin damaged the image of God in them. As far as their present worldly life is concerned, they are able to do several things rightly; but their spiritual life is corrupt. Ziegenbalg follows this line of thought in one of his conversation with a South Indian Brahmin and expresses the following: “God has given you South Indians a fine power of understanding so that you know how to reason out worldly things very well. However, regarding spiritual knowledge you are blind and do not understand. Without any question you accept what your poets have invented and written in fine ornamental verses. It is a foolish opinion to believe that the Supreme Being has multiplied itself in numerous deities. This mistake comes from the fact that you do not yet know the Word of God. […] Without this Word of God neither evil nor good can be discerned. You, South Indians, know in your mind what is sin and what is virtue. But your natural power of reasoning is unable to realize the deeply corrupt nature of your heart, let alone understand the right kind of virtues. Without the help of [Jesus] Christ you will not be able to avoid what is evil and to do what is right.” (HR, I, 8. Con., 505, 506 and 513, date of conversation March 5, 1707). page_12 Page 13 On May 1, 1708 a South Indian medical doctor who was impressed by Ziegenbalg’s knowledge of the language asked him what he thought of religions. Ziegenbalg answered him the following: “When I [Ziegenbalg] consider your external lifestyle and your worldly business, I must confess that you are experts in natural things and you can do all kinds of good works. And it is indeed pleasant to live among you. But if one considers the spiritual nature of your heart along with your way of worship in the temples and your religious books, I cannot say anything but that you are heathen [i.e., those who have not yet accepted Jesus Christ personally], and that your religion is incorrect.” (HR, I, 8. Con., 566) Thus, Ziegenbalg recognized the high value of the people in “secular” sphere. But from this theological perspective it is understandable that he was unable to completely appreciate the religious beliefs and practices of the people. 1.4 Halle Pietism and the “Book of Nature” Ziegenbalg regarded the entire universe as the Book of Nature and the Bible as the Book of Grace. In this respect he followed the teachings of Johann Arndt’s True Christianity (1605–1610). The Halle Pietists appreciated this book and taught it in their schools and churches. The fourth section of True Christianity (Arndt, 1696, 782–785) deals with the Book of Nature and encourages the readers to observe the creatures file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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for spiritual insight because the whole universe witnesses to God and is meant to lead people to God. Moreover, it demonstrates God’s love towards human beings and encourages them to respond to God in love and also serve their fellow human beings (Arndt, 1696, 117–120, 153–155). For Christians nothing is more important than God who is “the root, source and spring of all good things” (Arndt, 1696, 168). Therefore, the Book of Grace, which reveals this God in Jesus Christ, should supercede the Book of Nature . Further, the Book of Grace teaches that “Arndt writes that “a natural person can accomplish absolutely nothing in godly things” and “the salvation of human beings depends not on their works, but solely on God’s grace” (Arndt, 1696, 783–785 and 787). Arndt also maintains that natural knowledge of God reveals neither the fallen state of human beings in need of salvation nor the love of God exhibited in and through Jesus Christ. Ziegenbalg studied Arndt’s True Christianity from his youth14 and cultivated the habit of observing the creatures to learn spiritual lessons. Ziegenbalg describes another event that changed his way of looking at natural things. At sixteen he met a friend who taught him the art of interpreting the Book of Nature and deriving spiritual lessons from it. This friend explained that all creatures point to their Creator, who alone is worthy of honor and worship, and creatures should never be worshiped (Ziegenbalg, Der gottgefällige Lehr-Standt, 1709, 13 f.). Later Ziegenbalg developed this thought page_13 Page 14 further. He writes in his Common School of True Wisdom that the universe serves as “an excellent book of divine wisdom, in which one would find as many pages as are the creatures made by God” (Ziegenbalg, Allgemeine Schule, 1710, 320). Hence, creation is a means to know God and can never become the object of worship. As a result, he encouraged the members of his church in Tranquebar to cultivate the habit of observing nature and discerning spiritual knowledge. People are meant to worship only God the Creator, and not the creatures (AFSt/P TAM 35, palm leaf 98v, i.e., twenty-third sermon). In this context, he believes that the Bible alone is the sure means to know the distinction between the Creator and the creatures. “The fifth sermon explains two ways of knowing God. By observing the creatures human beings can conclude that there should be a creator. Then, they should proceed to find out who this creator is. The second way is to derive knowledge from God’s Word. This sermon shows what people can know about God through nature, and what secrets they can learn from the Holy Scripture.” (AFSt/P TAM 37, palm leaves 17v–22r; and Ziegenbalg’s summary of this sermon in his Ausführlicher Bericht, 1713, 25.) Ziegenbalg explains further that while the Book of Nature demonstrates that there is one God, the Book of Grace alone shows the way to obtain the (salvific) knowledge of this God (HR, II, 15. Con., 14–16, Ziegenbalg’s conversation with a Brahmin on January 18, 1718). Thus, Ziegenbalg’s works bears the deep marks of Halle Pietism, especially the Halle Pietistic view about the relationship between the Book of Nature and the Book of Grace. This pietistic influence enabled Ziegenbalg to discern the residual image of God in the South Indians. page_14 Page 15 End Notes 1 Germann, I, 1868, 9 and Germann, II, 1868, 1: On December 21, 1701 Ziegenbalg wrote to his prospective teacher Joachim Lange in Berlin that he found classical studies very useful. 2 Lange worked as a teacher at Friedrichwerda High School in Berlin. He knew Spener and A.H.Francke. In 1709 he moved to Halle (Saale) to succeed J.J. Breithaupt (1658–1732) as Professor of Systematic Theology at the University in Halle. After the death of Spener, Lange became a strong intellectual defender of Pietism. 3 AFSt/H B 75–76, page 24: In his autobiography Ziegenbalg writes: “A pastor asked me to look after his church and school for sometime at Werder, five miles away from Berlin, because he wanted to travel and get married. I accepted this opportunity with great joy because I wished to work earnestly for eight weeks both in the church and in the school. In the meantime Mr. [Franz Julius] Lütkens [1650–1712] wrote from Copenhagen to a few pastors in Berlin [i.e., Joachim Lange, Laurentius Gensichen, and others] informing them that the King of Denmark [Frederick IV 1671–1730] had a pious desire, and had decided in his grace to send a few missionaries to East-India, West-India and Africa, and wanted to give the non-Christians [lit. heathen] a chance to convert from the abominable darkness to true God.” 4 Lange printed these letters in 1708 in Berlin, and thus laid the foundation for periodical publication of Protestant mission journals in Germany. Within a year, it was printed thrice. 5 AFSt/H B 75–76, pages 18, 19, 21: “[I, Ziegenbalg] was happy to receive under the guidance of Mr. M[aster of Arts] Lange useful teachings that helped me progress in my studies. I heard the clear and pure teaching about the principles of true wisdom. I was delighted. 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and to disclose to him our hypocritical life. […] In the Medicina Mentis, the work of my respected teacher, I found a decent way of understanding philosophy, which gave me the needed guidance to observe the spiritual and natural truths.” 6 Freylinghausen was also known for his devotional songs and publication of pietistic hymns. Cf. Freylinghausen, Geist-reiches Gesang-Buch, 1705; McMullen, 1989 and Busch, 1997). 7 Freylinghausen published his Foundation of Theology for high school students (1703). Knuth stated that Freylinghausen arranged his theological themes according to the model of P.J.Spener’s catechism and added several quotations from the writings of M.Luther (1483–1546, Knuth, 1898, 51). Two years later he published a summary of this book. Cf. Freylinghausen, Compendium 1705. His third work was a small booklet entitled the Order of Salvation (Freylinghausen, 1705, 143–153), and was meant for primary school children who were learning Luther’s Small Catechism. It consisted of page_15 Page 16 twenty-one questions and answers. 8 Ziegenbalg’s understanding of the image of God resembles Lutheran teaching about “the natural law.” Cf. Triglot Concordia, 1921, 121 ff.: the Article IV (II) of the Apology of the Augsburg Confession teaches that the natural law is written in human consciousness and agrees with the norms of the Ten Commandments. To some extent human reason can understand natural law. However, it cannot help human beings to truly trust and obey God. If human beings merely depend on their own reason, achievements and religious activities, and think that they are saved they deceive themselves. 9 The most fundamental text for the understanding of the concept “humankind created in the image of God” is found in Genesis 1:26 f.: “Then God said, ‘Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth’. So God created humankind in his image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them.” 10 Freylinghausen’s view on the devil agreed with the teachings of Martin Luther on the second article of the Apostle’s Creed. Cf. Triglot Concordia, 1921. 681: After “we had been created by God the Father, and had received from Him all manner of good, the devil came and led us into disobedience, sin, death, and all evil, so that we fell under God’s wrath and displeasure and were doomed to eternal damnation, as we had merited and deserved.” 11 Freylinghausen, Compendium, 1705: The Second Article reads as follows: “The knowledge of God is both natural and supernatural. God has implanted the natural knowledge into all people. This knowledge is nothing but the remaining fire/flame of the light [coming from the fact that] we are created in the likeness of God. It helps us to realize that there is God. We should love and fear this God, Romans 1:18–19. By observing the works of God we can grow and increase in this natural knowledge, Romans 1:20. Only those who allow the Holy Spirit to work in them can obtain the supernatural knowledge from the Word of God through the enlightening power of the Holy Spirit, Ephesians 1:17 and Second Peter 1:19.” 12 On December 22, 1710, Ziegenbalg and his colleague Johannes Ernest Gründler (1677–1720) reported that they had translated Freylinghausen’s Order of Salvation into as (‘the order of salvation’), copied it on palm leaves and distributed it to the (Ziegenbalg, 1957, 170 and 173). 13 HR, I, 2. Con, 83: On December 7, 1709 Gründler, informed that Ziegenbalg had prepared Vētacāstiram and desired to send a copy of it to the King of Tañcāvūr to illustrate what the missionaries in Tranquebar were teaching. 14 AFSt/M I C 1 and Germann, I, 1868, 9: On December 21, 1701 Ziegenbalg wrote to Joachim Lange explaining that he was regularly studying Arndt’s True Christianity . page_16 Page 17 CHAPTER 2: ZIEGENBALG AND THE RESIDUAL IMAGE OF GOD 2.1 Discerning the residual image of God When Ziegenbalg was ordained on November 11, 1705 in Copenhagen as a missionary, he made certain vows and was mindful of them throughout his life.1 Six days later, he received from King Frederick IV further ministerial exhortations.2 The third and fourth exhortations are important to understand Ziegenbalg’s religious research. The third instruction revolves around the complex relationship between the Book of Nature and the Book of Grace, 3 and advises Ziegenbalg first to study the (pre-Christian) knowledge of God found among the South Indians, and then find ways of leading the South Indians to the knowledge of God that is revealed in the Bible. The fourth instruction fixes Ziegenbalg’s theological frame of reference4 by requiring him to hold on file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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to the Lutheran doctrines enshrined in the Augsburg Confession . This instruction has also some political and legal implication in Tranquebar because, when Ove Giedde (1594–1660),5 the representative of the Danish King Christian IV (1588–1648), and Rakunāta Nāyak (1600–1634), the King of Tañcāvūr, signed their trade treaty on November 19, 1620, they granted the European inhabitants of Tranquebar the full freedom to practice their “Religion of Augsburg.”6 As a result, Ziegenbalg was asked to be sensitive to this religious provision and make use of it. The basic Lutheran beliefs about the natural law, justification by faith and salvation in Christ7 enabled Ziegenbalg to study the nature of the major South Indian religions and ascertain their usefulness. In this effort he followed several methods, of which the following two are significant 2.1.1 Through language study Ziegenbalg began to learn just eight days after his arrival in Tranquebar. Initially an old schoolteacher, who did not know any European language, helped Ziegenbalg acquire the basics of the language. However, in October 1706, Ziegenbalg hired (1660–1730, cf. Liebau, 1997, especially 1998, 18), who was well versed in Portuguese, Danish, Dutch and German.8 lived with Ziegenbalg for two years, taught him and procured for him several palm leaf manuscripts (HR, I, 2. Con., 82; cf. Fenger, 1845, 27f.). By August 1708 Ziegenbalg read 119 books, twenty-one books written by Roman Catholic missionaries and also eleven books on Islam,. He reviewed these 151 books in Bibliotheca malabarica (‘ Library’).9 The books that Ziegenbalg read were on many subjects including “theology, ethics, public debate, rhetoric, poetry, philosophy, physics, medicine, politics, mathematics, astronomy, geometry, music, and the like” (HR, I, 3. Con., 127f.). Though Ziegenbalg could read and understand the classical texts, he decided to get familiar with the spoken form of mainly because the written form of classical consisted of metrical verses. Common people who did not have formal education could not understand these page_17 Page 18 writings that contained rare words, idioms and Sanskrit loan words.10. In Ziegenbalg’s view, the poetic and spoken forms of constituted almost two different languages (Ziegenbalg, 1926, 223). Ziegenbalg’s study of the language and literature transformed him for the rest of his life. Firstly, it confirmed his missionary call and service among the South Indians. In September 1713 he summarized his experience as follows: “The blessed language acquisition motivated us [i.e., Ziegenbalg and Plütschau] strongly to persevere in missionary work without wavering. Learning the languages was the main reason that within one year after our arrival in Tranquebar we began to organize a church named Jerusalem for the people and Portuguese speaking Indians. Now, we have worked in this church, faithfully communicating the Word of God in oral and written forms for six years.” (AFSt/M II C 5, pages 54 f.). It is interesting to note that Ziegenbalg saw the establishment of the church in relation to his learning the language. As will be discussed later, the instructions given to Ziegenbalg after his ordination by the King of Denmark did not make any provision for an institutionalized form of Christian faith.11 The learning of the language also convinced Ziegenbalg to plan for a permanent establishment of Protestant Christianity in Tranquebar and work for intercultural learning.12 Moreover, Ziegenbalg’s study of helped him to write firsthand information on the evidence of the image of God in the South Indians. For example, in 1711 he wrote a Detailed Description of the South Indian Society (in German: Ausführliche Beschreibung des Malabarischen Heidenthums, published by Willem Caland in 1926). It is one of the much-studied works of Ziegenbalg.13 Throughout this book he stated that he was strictly following the way of thinking and writing. Though he did not agree with many religious stories of the people, he cited them to demonstrate the collective thinking and beliefs of the people (Ziegenbalg, 1926, 13, point no. 16) and went on illustrating how the people, who did not know anything about the Bible, bore the marks of the image of God and developed certain spiritual teachings that did not contradict the teachings of the Christian Bible (Ziegenbalg, 1926, point no. 26). 2.1.2 Through letter correspondence Ziegenbalg, a European missionary, could freely work in the Danish colony, but not in the territory that was under the rule of the King of Tañcāvūr; but he wanted to know what the people this kingdom did and how they worshipped their deities. Hence, he invited informed for interreligious dialogue. Later, he wrote to many scholars and requested his correspondents to comment on his questions about religion and society. One of Ziegenbalg’s correspondents wrote that Vairavēnta Guru, Pañcāccara Guru, Māppillai Guru, Sēsa Śastrin, Mīnākī Śastrin, Citampara Śastrin and Mōkāmpara Śastrinr14 were a few of the learned page_18

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Page 19 scholars in the Kingdom of Tañcāvūr. These well-informed scholars professed as well as practiced their religious faith. These and other correspondents wrote to Ziegenbalg about the rituals and ceremonies held in temples, public places and at homes; about the generally available religious scriptures and famous places of pilgrimage. They also included discussions about their ideas about sin and virtue, about the different types of religious austerities, the various ceremonies related to marriage, death, burial, widow burning, and the ways and means to attain salvation. In addition, they outlined the genealogical lineage of their deities and informed him about available written source materials. On September 17, 1712 Ziegenbalg reported that he had received twenty-six letters from his correspondents (Ziegenbalg, 1957, 249). By January 1, 1713 he had received fifty-eight detailed letters.15 He translated them into German because they gave an insider view of South Indian religions, and revealed the degree to which the South Indians were able to understand spiritual matters without the aid of the revealed Word of God. He explained in footnotes almost all the major terms and concepts that were not readily understandable to his European readers. The collection of these letters is known as the Letters (in German: Malabarische Correspondenz, ‘South Indian Correspondence,’ i.e., letters from the ). These letters testify to the distinct self-identify of the people and their own articulation (TamLet, 337–505). They also show Ziegenbalg’s comprehensive knowledge about South Indian religions, sacred scriptures and culture. His critical acumen concentrated on the evidence of the image of God among the people. To illustrate the language and content of such correspondence, the twentieth letter of the Letter collection can be summarized. The correspondent begins his letter with the following words: “You [Ziegenbalg] reject our deities. How can I write to you about them? If I communicate to you something that is not written in our books, then you will accuse me of lies. If I write to you the accounts of the deities as they are recorded in the books, then they will appear to you illogical. Don’t be angry with me for not fulfilling your desire. However, I shall summarize the important things that are written in our religious books about our deities.” (TamLet, 434). Then the correspondent proceeded to state the importance of the Mummūrttis, namely Brahmā, and Śiva, their respective principal consorts and children. He wrote of Brahmā as the god who created the world and destined the fate of each human being. Much attention was given to consorts and Bhūmidevī. The correspondent elaborated the various incarnations of and as Rāma and Sītā, their own son Kuśa, and adopted son Lava who was created by The correspondent cited Śiva, his two consorts Pārvatī and Gagābhavānī, their two sons, namely and He further stated that the titular deities, who were worshipped in temples such as page_19 Page 20

Durgā, Kālī and Vīrabhadra, who could be appeased only through the sacrifice of goats, pigs, or cocks, and through the offerings of strong alcohol drinks and rice lumps. The prayer formulas spoken in honor of and Śiva were named and respectively. The writer informed Ziegenbalg that in Devaloka there are 330 million Devas (‘deities, gods’) and 48,000 sages. Though the South Indians do not know the names of these gods and sages in the Devaloka, they know many stories about them. Finally, the correspondent requested Ziegenbalg to refer to the metrical, monolingual, specialized dictionary of synonyms, antonyms, and contextual meanings known as the 16 for further information on the South Indian deities. He then concluded his letter with the following remark: “You [Ziegenbalg] want me to explain to you our deities according to their genealogical order. How can it be possible? If you would consult the book you will find all the appellations of the deities that are mentioned in our poetical books. If someone wishes to write comprehensively about the deities, there is no end to it. I wished to write to you only this much. Calām [‘Peace’].” (TamLet, 439). Thus Ziegenbalg’s correspondents expounded the complexities of their spirituality and helped Ziegenbalg understand them. Without their help he may not have gained such a deep insight into the closely guarded secrets and values of the religious systems and traditional institutions. This kind of interaction between Europeans and South Indians is unique in the history of South Indian religions. Ziegenbalg’s original concern to find out the presence of the image of God had resulted in comprehensive studies on South Indian religions, society and culture. His relentless quest for the evidence of the image of God became more refined and focused. He interpreted the readily available residual image of God in the South Indians as “ medium paedagogicum oder Hülfmittel” (‘medium for further education and helpful resource,’ HR, II, 13. Con., 47f.).17 Hence, he desired to lead the South Indians to a higher, or rather divine light that in Ziegenbalg’s view was Jesus Christ. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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2.2 Using the residual image of God Ziegenbalg viewed the different kinds of religious similarities as preparatory steps necessary to effectively communicate the gospel of Jesus Christ, and having established the presence and function of the residual image of God in the South Indians, Ziegenbalg addressed the various forces that shaped their beliefs, values and customs. He recognized the need for preserving their dignity, identity and continuity of all that was good and acceptable in the light of the Word of page_20 Page 21 God. Thus he set himself to explore with the South Indians suitable means for an alternate way of life that would be more fulfilling. 2.2.1 By producing Christian literature in Ziegenbalg was not the first person to translate portions of the Christian Bible into Jesuit missionaries such as Henerique Henriques (1502–1600)18 and Roberto de Nobili (1577–1656) translated large sections of the Christian Bible into These translated portions of the Bible may have been only with the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church. However, in 1708 Ziegenbalg managed to obtain a few manuscripts that were written by Henriques19 and de Nobili and read them for the sake of their style of language (Ziegenbalg, 1880, 15). It is possible that Ziegenbalg was familiar with the works of de Nobili (De Nobili, 1964, 1965, 1966 and 1970).20 Ulla Sandgren has shown that Ziegenbalg borrowed most of the theological terms from the Jesuits (Sandgren, 1991) and used them to creatively express Lutheran theological concepts. However, Ziegenbalg was the first person to translate the entire New Testament into and, by doing so, made it available to all people (cf. Sabapathy, 1967; Pakiamuthu, 1990; Jeyaraj, 1997). He found the language fitting to translate the Word of God with clarity, precision and simplicity, enabling easy understanding (Ziegenbalg, 1957, 171). In October 1708, he began translating the New Testament and completed it on the 31st of November 1711.21 After a few revisions he had the four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles printed and published in Tranquebar (on September 25, 1714). Later he translated the Old Testament books from Genesis to Judges. Ziegenbalg’s Bible translation constituted the first large prose text in (‘coarse, i.e., colloquial ’)22 He wanted that ordinary people with or without formal education could understand the message of the New Testament. He acknowledged the following: “We thank our father Luther greatly, even in his grave, for giving us the Word of God in our hands to be read in our mother tongue so that we ourselves can search for and know of God’s Will. Who will not appreciate the great blessing that God has given to the people that now they have the Gospel in their own language, because the missionaries have translated the New Testament into the language? Now they can know and accept the plan of God for their salvation.” (AFSt/M I C 7:11, points 12 and 13). Ziegenbalg’s translation would have had great impact on the people. It is natural, simple, clear and authentic, and is still intelligible.23 It is indeed a great achievement of Ziegenbalg. However, Ziegenbalg was sometimes overconfident and denied the help of the people.24 As a result he used certain phrases that his readers would not page_21 Page 22 readily understand. For example, like the Jesuits before him, he used the Portuguese word: ispirintu cāntu for the ‘Holy Spirit’ On the seacoast where people were familiar with the Portuguese terms, this might have made some sense; others however would not have understood it. Had Ziegenbalg used the neutral noun paricutta āvi (‘very clean spirit,’ i.e., Holy Spirit) and addressed the Holy Spirit in the honorific third person singular (e.g., paricutta ‘the respected person, who is the Holy Spirit’), all people would have grasped the meaning better. Ziegenbalg composed a few church hymns (AFSt/P TAM 37, palm leaves 151v–169v) and used several concepts that are prevalent in the bhakti traditions. A brief review of the recently recovered forty-eight hymns sung in the Jerusalem church in Tranquebar in 1714,25 written on palm leaves, gives the varieties of religious themes covered in the hymnody.26 Ziegenbalg also translated Martin Luther’s Catechisms into wrote open letters (cf. Ziegenbalg, 1712) to the people and invited them to become Christians. All these aforementioned literary efforts were meant to lead the people from their natural knowledge of God to the special knowledge of God that is revealed in the Christian Bible. He thus built on the residual image of God in the people and developed it in a way that helped them to understand the message of the Bible in their cultural context, but at the same time recognized its otherness.

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2.2.2 By establishing a church Lutheranism teaches that the church is the place where the Word of God is preached rightly, the sacraments administered properly27 and appropriate provision made to accommodate certain special traditions, customs and rites that are necessary for a specific congregation in a particular context.28 Following these guidelines Ziegenbalg organized an emerging indigenous church in Tranquebar so that the Christians could realize that they were Christians and people at the same time. When Ziegenbalg baptized the five slaves on May 12, 1707, the first Protestant church in Tranquebar, purely meant for the South Indian Christians, began to take shape.29 Most of the converts received German baptismal names, most probably because Europeans in Tranquebar could not pronounce the personal names properly. However, there may have been dual names as the converts may have used their preChristian names in their social intercourse with their Indian neighbors, and their baptismal name in relation to the Europeans. To cite an example: on September 5, 1707, Ziegenbalg’s servant was baptized with the German name Andreas. He was a Vaishnavite and merchant. Though Europeans called him Andreas, other people, especially the non-Christians would have continued to call him Cepperumā or Andreas alias (Germann, I, 1868, 276). By August 1708, there were about 102 page_22 Page 23 church members in the Jerusalem church. Most of them were slaves of Europeans in Tranquebar; a few however were free people who became Christians along with the members of their families.30 In 1713, there were 126 Christians in Tranquebar, who formed the nucleus of an alternate socio-religious community (SPCK, ME Cr 3, page 251: dated October 3, 1710). Within the church they followed the prescribed Danish liturgy.31 However, they adopted as part of their Christian life certain habits connected with marriages and funerals.32 Ziegenbalg also reported that the church music was followed a certain system of South Indian tunes that the children used in their schools to learn new lessons.33 Ziegenbalg aimed at an indigenous church. He did not want complete social and cultural dislocation of the converts. Hence, he defined conversion as tirupputal (‘turning, changing and reorienting the heart, mind and will,’ cf. Ziegenbalg, Vētacāsttiram, 1717, 445), which occurs only at the intervention of God (HR, I, 8. Con., 530 and 532). This conversion does not mean either changing one’s name or exchanging the place of worship (e.g., church instead of temple) or total break with the social dignity, code of honor, cultural identity, way of dressing and eating (Germann, I, 1868, 290). No person was required to become a German in order to express his/her Christian faith. Conversion should transform the heart and mind of the people in such a way that they get new perspective on life, values, socio-cultural and economic interaction. According to Ziegenbalg, the new church in Tranquebar could learn from European Christianity, but would have to be essentially an Indian indigenous institution rooted in the cultural context.34 A German church should not be transplanted in the South Indian context, rather the seed of the Gospel of Jesus Christ should be planted in Tranquebar so that an Indian Christian church could emerge and challenge every human habit and every social system that was inhuman and unjust. One of the ways to promote indigenous church growth was to establish a system of giving loans. Under certain circumstances Ziegenbalg made small financial assistance available to poor Christians so that they could learn to live an independent human life.35 Within the church community the women enjoyed a special status of equality and freedom to make their own decisions. Ziegenbalg was often accused of allowing both women and men to sit together in worship services, and participate together in the Eucharist. On May 28, 1714, he expressed his view that because of the image of God in all human beings he would not tolerate any social discrimination based on gender or caste issues. Within the church community both women and men had an equal opportunity to learn reading and writing, claim their rights and exercise their responsibility in a divided community (HR, I, 9. Con., 772–776). The church as an alternate socio-religious institution helped its members to regain their human dignity, reinterpret the meaning of being created in the image of God, find ways to alleviating poverty and illiteracy, live a page_23 Page 24 good human life and seek to achieve a higher quality of social wellbeing. This dual identity of being responsible Christians and Indians simultaneously was a mark of the first Protestant indigenous church in South India. 2.2.3 By founding schools Ziegenbalg and his colleague Gründler knew that in Halle Pietism schools were a part of the church, and they were also agents of Christian upbringing and social change (Ziegenbalg, 1957, 311). Ziegenbalg wanted to

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create a learning situation in which pietistic principles could be associated with the traditional learning situation of children. At that time, some of his converts requested him to start residential schools for their children. Soon a school for boys, and by contrast to local custom, a school for girls36 and a coeducational school for Portuguese speaking children were established in Tranquebar. Ziegenbalg was responsible for the schools and Plütschau for the Portuguese school. Non-Christians in Tranquebar, who had been observing the functioning of the mission school, also admitted their children to the mission hostels. Ziegenbalg noted that education should be made available to all children; and non-Christian children in Christian schools would imbibe Christian values, and then would eventually help their parents to give up prejudices against Christians. School children would build admirable bridges between the missionaries and the people. On June 20, 1712, Ziegenbalg wrote to the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in London that the mission schools were the “fruitful seed plots of the Church” that would prepare scholars to serve the mission “as writers [i.e., clerks and accountants], schoolmasters and catechists” (SPCK, ME Cr 1, page 114). In a letter to George Lewis, a chaplain of the English East India Company in Madras in 1713, Ziegenbalg and Gründler mentioned that the children growing in the “Knowledge and Fear of God, may, by the divine Blessing become a means of planting a Church of Christ, deeply rooted in the Word of Truth” and contribute to “the future happy Enlightenment of Christ’s Church in the East” (Ziegenbalg, A Letter to the Reverend Mr. George Lewis, 1715, 2 and 23). Hence, the schools were meant to be part of a “missional church.” Ziegenbalg and his colleagues maintained a positive view on the nature and capabilities of the school children. On December 7, 1709, Gründler reported that the Indian school children were more industrious, hard working, obedient and talented in learning than the European school children,37 mainly because the school education was built on the interests, experiences and life situation of the children. Like the ancient Indian Gurukula-system of education, the teachers and their students lived together and imparted what they lived by. This made their learning experience easier. Moreover, they grew emotionally and intellectually stable so that they could achieve all-round development. The medium of instruction in the schools was On August 28, 1715 Gründler, after eight years of work among the people, affirmed that “everyone learns the principles of X’tian Religion in his mother tongue” (SPCK, page_24 Page 25 ME Cr 2, page 3). On October 1, 1709, Ziegenbalg drew up a school schedule for the children in Tranquebar (Kl.Kgl.Saml.852, 2 Fol). He insisted that between one and two o’clock in the afternoon the school children should learn things “according to the way of learning” and practice writing on palm leaves. The students were learning not only the contents of the Bible, Luther’s Catechism, church hymns/music, art of writing letters, mathematics, botany, medicine and navigation,38 but also works on religion and poetry (HR, I, 5. Con., 240). The whole educational system was organized in such a way that the children were led from their natural knowledge of God derived from the light of nature to the knowledge of God, which is revealed in the Christian Bible. The members of the church and school were learning the meaning of regaining the image of God through social interaction and collaboration that were based on Lutheran Orthodoxy and the principles of Halle Pietism. 2.2.4 By developing a particular theology of mission Ziegenbalg did not articulate his theology of mission. The following is an attempt to construct some of his basic theological convictions that underlay his missionary activity. Ziegenbalg’s self-identity was not as much a “Royal Danish missionary” (HR, I, 2. Con., 54, Ziegenbalg’s letter of January 16, 1710), as the “servant of the Word of God among the South Indians [lit. heathen]” (HR, I, 3. Con., 146, Ziegenbalg’s letter of August 27, 1709, HR, I, 4. Con., 168, Ziegenbalg’s letter dated August 30, 1709, and so on). This dual identity helped him to define his mission better: Though the Danish King had sent Ziegenbalg, his ultimate authority depended not on the political power of the Danish government in Denmark, or in Tranquebar, or any human ability, but on the power of the Word of God that he was proclaiming. He quickly realized that the political power of the Danish King was not binding on the Indian inhabitants of Tranquebar. However, he hoped that the Word of God would transform them, unite them in a community and engage them in corporate fellowship, prayer, worship, witness and service. The Word of God would enable them to live in a creative tension between the continuing and changing aspects of their culture. As mentioned above his holistic understanding of mission included a service to the soul and, simultaneously, practical service to the body. The Word of God translated into the mother tongue of the people strengthened their religious position in the society. In this way, the Word of God played a significant role in the life and work of Ziegenbalg. In 1713 Ziegenbalg spelled out some of his theological convictions that influenced his missionary methods: his christocentric worldview helped him to translate the New Testament into and preach christological file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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sermons. He believed that faith in Christ would enliven every person (AFSt/M II C 5, 41).39 He was also convinced that Jesus Christ was the very basis of missionary work, and also the normative authority and the content of his missionary service. Jesus Christ was the revelation of God and the mediator between the loving, holy and righteous God and the fallen, fallible, sick and sinful humankind. God was the page_25 Page 26 principal missionary, who chose to use human missionaries such as Ziegenbalg. Ziegenbalg believed that God was the author, director and sustainer of the mission work in Tranquebar; as a result this mission work would eventually survive all the onslaughts both from without and within. Had it been a human enterprise, it would have disappeared long ago (AFSt/M II C 5, page 46). This assumption illustrates Ziegenbalg’s profound conviction that he was primarily involved in God’s mission, not in the mission of the Danish King or of the Danish-German Church in Europe. According to Ziegenbalg the final authority for missionary work came from God. God helped the small Christian community in Tranquebar to withstand the severe social and psychological pressure produced by the conversion of individual South Indians. The caste system did not tolerate any religious conversion, particularly to Christianity, which was abhorred as the Paraki mārkkam (‘the way/religion of the [beef-eating, alcohol-consuming, women-loving and avaricious] Europeans’), because Christianity was associated with the European way of life and conversion was interpreted as a social dislocation. As a result converts were not allowed to inherit family property; they were forsaken and could not find either job or marriage partners (AFSt/M II C 5, page 52). But God who sustained the converts in their hostile context. God enabled them to find an alternate functional community of likeminded people in the church, and to persevere in their newly found faith. They also shared the message of Jesus Christ with others in their society. Ziegenbalg claimed that he was a messenger of peace and thus preached peace. But the colonial authorities in Tranquebar understood his mission as the “unrest and rebellion” (AFSt/M II C 5, page 48). It is not a paradox that preaching of peace caused rebellion because Ziegenbalg’s mission addressed not only the superficial symptoms of an unjust society, but it examined the roots of social injustice, and suggested not only preventive, but also curative measures. In this context he wrote the following: “In our writings and sermons we emphasize the need for sincere repentance and transformation of heart and mind, and explain to them [i.e., Christian converts] that faith in Christ should be active and be proven through good works. We teach them that superficial acceptance of Christianity, baptism, practicing [shallow] faith and mere participation in the Lord’s Supper are useless. By contrast, a living knowledge of Jesus Christ, faith that transforms heart, mind and emotions, and holy lifestyle that corresponds to the teachings of the Word of God are vital [and useful].” (AFSt/M II C 5, page 52). Ziegenbalg explained the goal of his work not in terms of establishing a European Christendom in Tranquebar or transplanting a European church, but in terms of preparing the way for the coming of Jesus Christ to the South Indians, and of the South Indians to Jesus Christ. Ziegenbalg was aware that he would not experience the final goal in his lifetime, but his “faith-eyes” anticipated the page_26 Page 27 future event (AFSt/M II C 5, page, 60). He concluded the Genealogy with this remarkable statement: Jesus Christ has his kingdom among all the peoples and rules over them (L 262v). Accordingly, Ziegenbalg believed that Jesus who had announced the coming of his kingdom40 was active among the South Indians. Ziegenbalg’s writings do not explicitly mention the role of the Holy Spirit in building and sustaining a local Christian congregation. But he never doubted that the mission was the activity of the Triune God, Father, Son and the Holy Spirit. This profound theological conviction sustained his missionary work among the South Indians. It helped him to look for evidence of South Indians created in God’s image and of God’s activity among them. One of the lasting results of this quest is the Genealogy of the South Indian Deities . page_27 Page 28 End Notes 1 Germann, II, 1868, 194 f.: Germann reproduces the text of these vows. 2 AFSt/M I C 1:59: A copy of the same job description was given to J.E. Gruendler when he was ordained in Copenhagen on October 22, 1708. It is preserved in Box No. 11, at the Tranquebar Archives housed in the Library of the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission, Leipzig, Germany. 3 AFSt/M I C 1:59: The third instruction reads as follows: “It is of great help if the missionary would find out the eternal knowledge of God that is still found naturally among the people, and lead them from that file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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standpoint to the right knowledge of God, which God has revealed in his Word. It is left to the discretion of the missionary to find out the residual knowledge and use it appropriately, whenever it is necessary. However, the missionary should adhere to the Word of God believing firmly that God would not allow the power of his Word be without blessing among the naturally inclined [literally: wild] people.” 4 AFSt/M I C 1:59: The missionary “in East India (i.e., Tranquebar) should not teach anything that is not found in the Word of God or in the Books of Symbols that are fixed according to the principles laid down in the Augsburg Confession. The missionary should follow the example of the Lord Jesus who began his teaching ministry by preaching the need for repentance and conversion, and asked His disciples to preach on repentance and the forgiveness of sins.” 5 For detailed information about Ove Giedde (also written as Gedde, Gjedde and Gidde) see Diller, 1999, 42– 44. 6 Registratur 14, pages 504–507, No. 5. Ove Giedde became the first governor of Tranquebar (October 11, 1620—February 13, 1620). The German version of the entire treaty agreement is reproduced in Diller, 1999, 152–158. The third point reads: “We [Rakunāta Nāyak] will defend the subjects of the King of Denmark, and allow them to practice their religion called Religio Augsburgica . We will not allow them to be troubled on account of their faith.” 7Triglot Concordia, 1921, 45: Orthodox Lutheranism believes that human beings “cannot be justified before God by their own strength, merits, or works, but are freely justified for Christ’s sake, through faith.” 8 AFSt/M I C 1:33: Ziegenbalg’s letter dated September 22, 1707: Ziegenbalg outlines how he learned the languge from his teacher and his school children. 9 AFSt/M II A 6, 34; printed in HR, I, 1. Con., 18: Ziegenbalg reported that he had sent his scribes to distant places in the country to buy the available palm leaf manuscripts. Often, Brahmin widows sold them. Ziegenbalg believed that besides the manuscripts that he could acquire for his mission library there were many thousands of other manuscripts to be found among the but he found it exceedingly difficult to obtain them. page_28 Page 29 10 Ziegenbalg, B.: Ausführlicher Bericht, 1710, 34: Ziegenbalg reported (on 22.8.1708) that he did not consciously write in metrical verses because only a very few people could understand it. 11 Whether King Frederick was aware of the so-called “Apostolic Missionary Idealism” is unclear. Cf. Sandegren, 1928, 7: “That Ziegenbalg was called ‘missionary’ was a shock to many orthodox people who considered it a great presumption showing that he thereby made himself an equal to the apostles (the Latin word ‘missionarius’ corresponds to the Greek word ‘apostle’ meaning ‘sent out’). If Ziegenbalg called himself a missionary, he ought, according to the opinion of many enthusiastic pietists, wander about in poverty and everywhere preach the Gospel, never settling down in one place to build a church, school and a comfortable bungalow.” 12 AFSt/M II A 6:5, 30, printed in HR, I, 1. Con., 44 f.: In 1708 Ziegenbalg encouraged his European contemporaries to give up their erroneous ideas about the South Indians. Because of the importance of this passage the full text is translated: “Most Christians in Europe are of such opinions that the South Indians are an extremely barbarous people without knowing anything about the one true God, and that among them there are no academic disciplines, good customs, virtues or moral code of conduct. This opinion comes from the fact that some Europeans came to the South Indians not knowing their language or reading their books. They derived their conclusions from their external observations. I myself have to confess that, at the time of my first arrival among them, I thought that their language did not have reasonable grammatical rules and that they were living an unorganised life without any civil code of conduct. Basing my judgement on what they did and what they failed to do I had all kinds of wrong conceptions about them thinking that the South Indians possessed neither civil nor moral code of conduct. For this reason I excuse those who have never known the South Indians, yet have such wrong preconceptions about them. Before I lived among the South Indians, I too had the same kind of prejudice. After I learned to speak their language to some extent and discuss with them all kinds of things, I was freed gradually from such vain imaginations. I began to have a much better opinion about them. Finally, when I acquired the ability to read the literature, I realised the following: in their own orderly way they teach well-organised philosophical disciplines that are similar to the disciplines discussed only by experts in Europe. Moreover, they have religious scriptures that are written systematically. All theological subject matters should be derived from and based on these scriptures.” 13 In 1927, Ihmels reviewed this book, affirming that it described South Indian society accurately (Ihmels, 1927). Theodore Zechariae (1851–1934), an eminent Indologist in Halle, wrote a critical review of Caland’s publication (Zachariae, 1927). In recent years, Ziegenbalg’s South Indian Society has occupied an important place in Gita Dharampal-Frick’s major works (Dharampal-Frick, 1994, 95–108, 120, 145, 149–152, 171–173, 308–310, 314, 322, 348–373, 376 and 1999) She has examined the socio-cultural contribution of Ziegenbalg file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Page 30 Hinduism” (Dharampal-Frick, 1994, 369). “ 14 A Guru is respectable spiritual preceptor from whom the disciples receive their special prayers. The guru teaches his disciples in Sāstras and conducts other religious ceremonies. A Śastrin (‘one who recites’) is considered to be an expert on the Sāstras. 15 HR, I, 11. Cont., 871–959: When Ziegenbalg travelled to Germany in 1714, his colleague J.E.Gründler continued to receive letters from the He translated forty-four that were later published as a second collection of the Letters. 16 Zvelebil, 1995, 494: A Nikau is a glossary “containing synonyms and meanings of words. […] The main feature of is the fact that entries are not arranged alphabetically but in sections designating groups of items (e.g., celestial beings, animals, plants, places, qualities, actions etc.), and that they give synonyms besides defining meanings.” Cf. TamLet, 412: Ziegenbalg mentioned that “is a poetical book. Every one who wishes to understand either the old or the new poetical writings, or tries to compose verses should learn it. It contains such difficult idioms that it amounts to almost a new language. No one, except the poets can understand and teach it.” Cf. Ziegenbalg, 1880, 62 and Gaur, 1967, 69: Ziegenbalg used another dictionary titled Tivākaram (written in the eighth century). Gaur translates Ziegenbalg’s review of Cēnta Tivākaram: Tivākaram is “a poetical book rich in words; it is usually studied by young students when they are eight or nine years of age. The author of this book was called Diwágaram, he was from the Schammaner nation [i.e., a Jain] and the Malabaris [i.e., ] look upon him as a highly learned man. He died five hundred and forty years ago. This book will only be studied by those who want to become scholars or at least know how to associate with scholars and understand their literary language. Common Malabaris do not understand a word of it, or at least only very little.” 17 Modern comparative religious studies have shown many kinds and degrees of similarities and dissimilarities among different religious traditions. Cf. Wahling, 2000, 79: Frank Whaling has identified at the observable level eight similarities among religious traditions: Each religious tradition contains a religious community, prescribes rituals for worship, rites of passage (i.e., birth, initiation, marriage and death) and festivals, unique moral system, social (at times also political) involvement, normative sacred stories, a particular view on aesthetics (in the form of art, architecture, music and iconography) and “the element of spirituality and inward prayer. Underlying all is faith.” 18 Cf. Rajamanickam, 1968: Since 1548 Henriques lived in the harbour city of (commonly known as Tuticorin) on the Coromandal Coast. Cf. Henriques, 1967: In the year 1586, Henriques translated the Flos Sanctorum (‘Life of Saints,’ i.e., the Apostles and other saints of the Roman Catholic Church) from French into page_30 Page 31 19 Of these manuscripts, Ziegenbalg liked the text that bore the German title Evangelia auff alle Sonn- und Fest-Tage durchs gantze Jahr (‘Gospel readings for all Sundays and festivals throughout the year,’ OIOC, SL 3027), which contained several New Testament passages meant for public reading for divine services on Sundays. Ziegenbalg explained further that “passages were translated very accurately according to the original [Greek] text,” and that he had to correct certain things and this mistake seems to have come “not from the translator, but from the copyists.” He added that the Jesuits did not translate the entire Bible into because “the papal law did not allow the Bible to be read by common people,” and that they would recite Latin texts and liturgies that “no could understand.” 20 De Nobili christianized several theological terms for God, angel, devil, wisdom, ignorance, good deeds, sin, human beings, soul, death, forgiveness, eternal life, and so forth. 21 Ziegenbalg had a copy of this translation neatly written on palm leaves and had it sent to King Frederick IV. This palmleaf manuscript is now kept in the Manuscript Department of the Royal Library in Copenhagen (Call No.: Cod. Tamul 581). 22 Like the authors of the books of the New Testament, who did not choose to use the literary language of the Greek philosophers such as Aristotle or Plato, but used the ordinary Koine Greek, Ziegenbalg used the colloquial form of the language. Cf. Britto, 1986: has been and remains to be diglossic language. colloquialism has a separate existence, to some extent associated with, yet independent of, the classical 23 However, the Jesuit missionary, C.G.Beschi (1680–1747, from 1709/10 in file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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mastered the (‘chaste ), and probably did not like the Bible being made available to ordinary people, criticized the quality of Ziegenbalg’s translation of the New Testament. Cf. Vīramāmunivar, 1936, 345 f. Cf. AFSt/M II B 7:14: Around 1728 Beschi had sent a letter to the Tranquebar missionary Benjamin Schultze (1689–1760). Now this letter is recovered. It shows how Beschi rebukes the Lutherans for translating the Bible into the common language of the and making it available to them. He accuses them of having mixed poison (i.e., translation) with food (the Bible), and of hiding the pearl (i.e., the Bible) in mud (i.e., translation). 24 HR, I, 1. Con., 19ff.: Ziegenbalg’s own words reveal his pride and they can be summarized as follows: “I want to do this translation alone. I wish to have a secretary to write down my dictated text. In this translation I do not need the help of any person. Even if I want to get help, I cannot get any assistance. There is no Christian or who can translate and write a correct sentence in prose.” 25 Germann, I, 1868, 315: On July 16, 1714 Ziegenbalg revised the hymns sung in the church. He added fifteen new hymns. Altogether there were forty-eight hymns. page_31 Page 32 26 AFSt/P TAM 92: This palm leaf manuscript consists of fifty-eight leaves. Cf. Reg. 107. Laeg. 6, diary entry on November 20, 1714: “I have made corrections in the song book which was copied by the writers because it has to be given this week for printing.” On 22.11.1714 the songbook with forty-eight hymns was given for printing, and 300 copies of the printed version were released on January 24, 1715. The forty-eight hymns are divided as follows: the first eleven hymns describe the magnificence of Christ’s incarnation, his various names, substitutionary death on the cross, and resurrection. The next three hymns deal with the Holy Spirit. Four other hymns praise the triune God. Two hymns are dedicated to the Word of God. Two songs tell the greatness of the Sacraments—one describing baptism and the other the Lord’s Supper. Two other hymns emphasize the need for repentance. The remaining hymns deal with good life and works, suffering as a heavenly mystery, the reality of death and the hope of resurrection. Besides a morning and an evening song, there is a very large litany comprising fifty-six petitions addressed to God. 27 Cf. Triglot Concordia, 1921, 47: The Seventh Article of the Augsburg Confession (1530) defines the Lutheran understanding of the church as “the congregation of saints, in which the Gospel is rightly taught and the Sacraments are rightly administered. And to the true unity of the Church it is enough to agree concerning the doctrine of the Gospel and the administration of the Sacraments. Nor is it necessary that human traditions, that is, rites or ceremonies, instituted by men, should be everywhere alike. As Paul says: One faith, one Baptism, one God and Father of all, etc. Eph. 4, 5. 6.” 28 Triglot Concordia, 1921, 1053: The Tenth Article of the Book of Concord explains the doctrine of Adiaphora (‘middle or unimportant things’), by making place for “ceremonies and church rites which are neither commanded nor forbidden in God’s Word, but are introduced into the Church with a good intention, for the sake of good order and propriety, or otherwise to maintain Christian discipline.” 29 Germann, 1883, 529 f.: The three male slaves received their baptismal names as “Friedrich, Christian and Conrad.” They were the servants of Johann Sigismund Hassius (1704–1716), the Danish Governor in Tranquebar. One woman was Sophia. She was a slave belonging to the tax collector Diedrich in Tranquebar. The fifth baptized person was Hetwiga, a slave girl belonging to Eidzil Abigael Bergs, the widow of the Danish pastor living in Tranquebar. Thus the first members of the Protestant church were slaves of Europeans. They began their catechetical lessons on January 22, 1707, and were baptized on September 5, 1707. Andreas was not a slave, but a free person. After his baptism he was appointed a teacher of the school of the mission. The thirty-year old Johann Almeda was also a free man and served the mission as a catechist. Anna, Francisca and Tavaciāyi (‘penitent mother’) were the daughters of Johann Almeda. Dominca was a free woman and a merchant. 30 AFSt/M II A 6: The list of names of church members from May 12, 1707 to September 27, 1708. For a printed version of this list see Germann, 1883, page_32 Page 33 529–533. 31 HR, I, 3. Con., 139 f: Ziegenbalg’s report dated August 27, 1709: “The Holy Eucharist is administered according to the Danish liturgy. Those who wish to receive Eucharist, must report to us eight days in advance, come to us daily for an hour of teaching and advice. The sacrament of baptism is also arranged according to the Danish liturgy.” 32 Germann, I, 1868, 313 f. Cf. HR, I, 9. Con., 775: On May 28, 1714 Ziegenbalg had a dialogue with a group

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of who came to see the printing press in Tranquebar. He informed them that the Christians had freedom to wear any dress, eat any food and observe any good social behavior. However, they would not apply holy ash on their foreheads, wear the beads around their neck, have extravagant marriage processions and use the Tāli . Germann contends that the missionary reports did not report on how the bridegroom tied the Tāli around the neck of the bride, and without the symbol of Tāli no marriage would be complete. For more information on the use of the Tāli in the early period of Tranquebar Mission see Jeyaraj, 1996, 245– 250. 33 HR, I, 6. Con., 228 (dated 26.3.1707): “Different Christian teachings are composed songs following the melody of the and are sung by the young students of our schools.” Cf. Germann, I, 1868, 316: Especially, there were two schoolteachers who were composing Christian songs in meters and teaching tunes to schoolchildren. One of them was Vāttiyār (‘teacher who composes/sings songs’) who became a Christian in 1709 and was baptized with the name Christian David. He was responsible for many of the above mentioned forty-eight hymns that were sung in the Jerusalem Church. 34 Cf. Nestingen, 2001, 450: “Christ’s cross and resurrection together attack both of the false alternatives. The cross acknowledges the reality of discontinuity, dislocation, and loss, of a world and a self at odds with themselves. The resurrection declares the new reality of life given under the sign of death, hope under despair, faith in the midst of unbelief.” 35 AFSt/M II C 5, pages 36 f.: Small financial help was made available to the Christians, when there was a famine and Christians could not get a job and take care of themselves, when they became sick and could not buy medicine, when someone died and that person’s relatives could not meet funeral costs, when Christians needed clothes, but could not buy them because of their low wages, or when they needed some money to build a house or to boost their business, they could approach the missionaries for help. Ziegenbalg mentioned further that the Christians had a strong work ethic and everyone was expected to work hard and earn a livelihood. If some Christians were appointed in the mission to work as a cook, gardener, teacher, catechist, etc., they were paid according to their assignment and need. 36 Cf. TamLet, 447 f.: Ziegenbalg observed that the got their daughters married at a very young age. It was usual that boys and girls were kept separately not only in public, but also in the same home to avoid immorality page_33 Page 34 that was, in Ziegenbalg’s view, common among Europeans. Daughters of ordinary people did not learn to read and write because the difficult literature in poetry that was taught in the schools did not help them in their daily life. However, daughters of kings and aristocrats knew the art of reading and writing. Cf. Ziegenbalg, 1926, 228: In the South Indian Society, Ziegenbalg mentioned another reason why the did not send their children to schools to learn to read and write. Reading, writing and singing were the occupation of the Devadāsīs, who used to dance in temples. Generally, the Devadāsīs were looked down upon because they were perceived to involve in temple prostitution. 37 HR, I, 4. Con., 179; In the Mission Library of the Francke Foundation a copy of the Halle Reports is available that belonged to Benjamin Schultze and bears the call no. “A:1, Teil 1.” In the margin Schultze corrected Gründler’s observation and wrote that mischievousness, wickedness, obstinacy and carelessness were found among those children in the Portuguese school in Tranquebar, who were used to wearing European clothes. 38 HR, I, 6. Con., 239 f. (dated December 28, 1707) and for inclusion of the subject navigation see HR, II, 13. Con., 19–22 (dated 1719). 39 Ziegenbalg believed that even his German writings, especially the unpublished manuscript treatises about The State of Christians Pleasing to God and The State of Christian Clergy Pleasing to God (1709), witnessed to his christological concerns. 40 Cf. Mark 1:15: Jesus preached: The “Kingdom of God has come near; repent, and believe in the good news.” (NRSV) page_34 Page 35 CHAPTER 3: ZIEGENBALG’S TEXT OF THE GENEALOGY Written by the Royal Danish Missionaries at Tranquebar in East India using the very books and letters of the South Indians. L 1 r, Title

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The Genealogy of the South Indian Deities This book describes in detail how the South Indians believe in many deities, from where they derive their origins, how these deities relate to each other, what they are called and how their many different names relate to each other, and how they are portrayed in their poetical books. It also explains how they assume [visible] forms, what their nature is, what kind of offices they hold, and what kinds of activities they perform. This book mentions the families to which the deities belong, which manifestations of them the people believe in, what kinds of temples are built for them, what kinds of fasts and feasts are celebrated in their honor, what kinds of [ritual] offerings are made to them and what kinds of books they have written about them. It explains their true [visible] forms and has a detailed table of contents, which describes the whole order, scope and content of this Genealogy of the South Indian Deities. page_35 Page 36 L 2 r, Dedication To the very honored Prince and Lord Charles [1680–1729], born Crown Prince of Denmark and Norway, of the Wends and Goths, Duke of Schleswig Holstein, Stornmarn [between Hamburg and Lübeck] and Ditmarsh [northwest of Hamburg], Earl of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst [near Bremen], our gracious Crown Prince and Lord, we wish that the highly praised Lord Jesus Christ may pour his grace, wisdom and love richly into your blessed heart in such a way that it may be recognized increasingly that Jesus lives and acts therein in all his fullness! [L 2v] Most Respected Prince! Gracious Lord! In our regular work of the Lord, which we are doing for the conversion and salvation of the South Indians and for which we have been sent with high orders [of the Danish King], we have never failed to examine and write down the religious teachings [lit. heathenish abomination] of the people [lit. Malabarians], their deities, their false teachings and all of their customs. In the past, whenever a ship left East India annually we had sent to Europe some writings that provide information on the South Indians. We are not sure whether they reached [Europe] safely. Regarding these books our main aim is as follows [L 3 r]: first, that Christian Europe may learn to understand the idolatrous customs and deities of the South Indians, and get an opportunity to help them in all possible manners in such a way that Christ Jesus, the light and salvation of the people [lit. heathens, i.e., the South Indians], may be preached mightily and made known to them for their salvation from darkness. Secondly, those who will be sent to work with us, according to the divine will for the conversion of the South Indians, or those who might work among the South Indians after our death as their teachers, could have a prepared work with them so that they might understand the nature of the South Indian religions; also, they will learn to grow in grace and truth and defeat the devil forcefully in his kingdom of darkness through him [i.e., Jesus Christ] who is called Advice, Might and Lord. At present, no accurate classification of the deities, based on books, has been made available. In addition, not even the learned people among them have been able to give an account [that displays] the proper coherence of it, because the chaotic order of their gods is so confusing. Therefore, in order to come to a proper understanding of their gods, before now one ultimately had to come to it on one’s own. We put together their dialogues and correspondences [with us], along with their books, and it is [L 3 v] finally possible to give a report. So we set forth this Genealogy of the South Indian Deities, and [others may] avail themselves of this classification in the future. Now we often remember how, along with the other high persons of the Royal page_36 Page 37 House of Denmark, your Royal Highness especially has a gracious concern for the furtherance of the Gospel of Christ among the South Indians. As a result, your Royal Highness has helped with this work at different times and you rejoice in the Christian delight when a great number of Indians may be led to the light of the Gospel through our unworthy ministry, so that they may live with other children of God. The concern of your Royal Highness might be strengthened, through the humble dedication of the Genealogy of the South Indian Deities, to realize how much urgently necessary it is that all pious Christians in Europe, above all the whole Royal House [L 4 r], especially Your Highness, should be willing to support the work begun among the South Indians. This support is necessary to prepare the way for the South Indians to honor the King of Kings, Jesus Christ, in obedience of faith and that they might become worthy servants in the holy kingdom of this Savior. We, your unworthy servants here, pray along with the redeemed persons from among the South Indians that the great God may pour out his gracious gifts richly into your heart and increase the years of your life on this earth according to his holy will, so that along with others, also we and our Jerusalem [name of the Church built in 1707 in Tranquebar], in this part of the world might enjoy your favor and supports. 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obedient servants of your Royal Highness we remain praying constantly, Tranquebar Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg [1682–1719] September 12, [1713] Johann Ernest Gründler [1677–1720]. page_37 Page 38 [L 5 r] Preface Dear Reader! After we had sent to your beloved Europe, all the years from South India [lit. this heathen world] by ships,1 some new works on the nature of heathenism here, we were mindful of how we should continue in this regard this year and satisfy the sponsors and friends in Europe with some information. For this purpose we took pains in our free time to write a table of contents on the deities of the South Indians. We expanded and explained it afterwards according to the principles of the South Indians, in such a way that a complete genealogy of the deities is communicated to the dear Reader.2 In this Genealogy the deities of the South Indians are described according to their origin, form, nature, the manifold names that they have, their families, offices, deeds, appearances, qualities and dwelling places. At the same time, it describes the temples of the deities, their servants and holy men [L 5 v], who are honored therein [by the South Indians], the books that are written about these deities, the days of their fasting and feasting, and the [different] kinds of offerings made inside and outside of the temples. In order to explain the Genealogy [of the South Indian Deities] in a better way [than our European predecessors], we sent our questions to the people [i.e., knowledgeable representatives of professing and practicing adherents of a particular religion in the country] and requested them to give written replies with all of the relevant details. That is why we have written them many questions, which they have answered truthfully and with detailed information. From their letters that have reached us from all sides, large portions are quoted in every chapter [of the Genealogy] partly to prove [particular points] and partly to explain [certain points] further. In the general description of the book entitled South Indian Society [lit. Malabarian Heathenism], written two years ago [i.e., 1711], many passages are quoted from the books of the people to explain their teachings on theology and philosophy. In the present work, the letters [of the people] are quoted extensively to elucidate their opinion on and the meaning of theological matters. But there are also in their letters many other things that we have received and are keeping for use at a later time. [L 6 r] Throughout this book many names and words are used that perhaps might trouble the dear Reader. The subject matter itself made it necessary that they should be included. It was done especially for the sake of those who might bring this book to the people of East India and wish to inquire either about this or another matter. They must consider [the fact] that, if they do not pronounce the names and words correctly, the South Indians will not understand them immediately. It is also certainly impossible to write the words [lit. language] in Latin letters. We employ a better method [of transliteration] than the one used by others [i.e., European scholars on South India before Ziegenbalg such as page_38 Page 39 Abraham Roger, Philip Baldaeus, etc.], who did not quite understand the language of the South Indians. At the beginning we planned to demonstrate a particular subject matter in each chapter, what the South Indians have known about the Word of God and some Old Testament stories in their tradition. [We also wanted to show] how some of their teachings agree with the creed [of the Christians, L 6 v] and how they were [later] distorted and spoiled by the craftiness of the devil and their poets. Since such an exposition could be carried out easily in Europe, we concerned ourselves with the subject matter itself, especially to present thoroughly and in detail, so that others could execute the above-mentioned purpose more easily. It was very difficult to get pictures of the deities in their true forms. European painters could not draw them because they were not allowed to see them in the temple. At the same time, the painters declined to draw them for three years. They stated that their religion did not permit them to copy their deities in their true forms and hand them over to Christians, because they knew well that we did not honor them, but despised and scorned them greatly. [Finally], we got a Brahmin, a professional painter, from another place. But our plan did not appeal to him. Finally, one person offered himself for this purpose, promised to paint all the figures of the deities in their accurate color and form [L 7 r]; only we were supposed to keep it secret so that he would not get into trouble with his people and with the Brāhmins. This person went to the temples and in two months copied all the figures that we had requested from him. It became known, and for this reason he suffered greatly. The chief Brahmin of this place [Tranquebar] called on him to account for it and threatened him greatly. He spoke to him thus: “I went to a temple two months ago and requested to god that he might look at the shortage of sustenance there is for me and my people [and so that the god might file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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help us to have sufficient things]. This god answered: ‘Go to the priests and copy myself and all the others who are in the temples and you will thus find sustenance for yourself and your people.’ I have done this and found it to be true.” Upon this they allowed him to go free, but they were very unhappy because the figures of their deities had reached the hands of the priests [i.e., the Christian missionaries, B.Ziegenbalg and J.E.Gründler in Tranquebar] who wish to destroy their idolatry. Regarding the title picture [lit. page]: in it we wish to illustrate two things—first, the darkness and [L 7 v] the idolatry of the South Indians, and second, the grace of God that comes to them now for their conversion. The blindness and idolatry are illustrated through a temple in which there are many idols, through worship of and making sacrifices to an idol under a tree and through listening to the teachings of a Brahmin. This part is dim and darkened. In contrast, the grace of God that comes to them for their salvation is illustrated through the rising of the sun throwing its beams right into the middle of the darkness, into which, at the same time, a dove comes flying and bringing the Gospel, through a ship that brings teachers from Europe and through a conversation of a Christian teacher page_39 Page 40 with a Brahmin in the presence of many people. The sunrays brighten this part. Moreover, it is to be remembered that we reluctantly spend our time examining the heathen foolishness because it contains many immodest and offensive histories. Since such a thing was never done thoroughly before now and we wish to prepare many things in many ways [L 8 r] for our successors, we have to be content with it. Moreover it also means a service to many people in Europe; otherwise, we would regard such a work more as a punishment and nuisance than as a delight. Wise people should not misuse our work as hay and stubble and letting themselves be misled for their own peril. Rather they should use it to realize how much grace God has bestowed upon them in spiritual matters, much more than on the South Indians. They should be moved to have compassion on the South Indians. When an opportunity arises, they should try with advice and practical help to bring them out of the confusion of their deities and their idolatry. In the meantime, the South Indian religions and society on the East Coast [lit. East Indian Heathenism] are becoming known [lit. are being exposed], and this has to be regarded as a sign that God has something special in store for the South Indians at the present time and is ready to visit them with his grace for their salvation. He also wishes to see if the European Christian people have compassion for the South Indians and whether they wish to discover the means of how best the word of salvation and the means of salvation might be offered to the South Indians for their salvation. [L 8 v] Now, may the Savior of the universe, Christ Jesus, who has suffered and shed his holy blood for these religiously ignorant people [lit. blind heathen] in the same way as for other peoples, free the South Indians [lit. this heathen land] from their religious [lit. heathen] blindness and brighten them with the light of the salvific Gospel. May he annihilate and destroy the false deities whom the South Indians worship here so that he alone will be worshipped as the King of Glory. May he add blessings and efficacy to his Word, which is being preached to them, both orally as well as in print, for their salvation. May he win daily, saving and redeeming many people! May he choose for himself from among these peoples his own possession that will serve him in holiness and justice and spread itself everywhere! This is our daily prayer and supplication to God. In the midst of all our work we seek this, in the hope that the Lord whom we serve will hear our prayer and bless all our work. Herewith we remain, dear Reader, with prayer and love [as your] Missionaries. Written in East India on the Coast of Coromandel at Tranquebar, August 21, 1713. page_40 Page 41 [L 9 a r] Table of Contents The whole Genealogy of the South Indian Deities is divided into four main parts, which should be noted.3 I. Parāparavastu is Ens Supremum, i.e., the one ever-existing, supreme or highest divine being and is considered 1. an immaterial being that has no form, can be compared with nothing, has no beginning or end, but is the beginning of all things, from which everything has emanated, into which everything will flow back, on which the deities depend, and which is in everything that is and who is the one god. 2. a material being which has introduced itself as a visible being in order to create visible things, to be recognized by visible creatures, for in itself it is supposed to be a male as well as a female energy, which is represented by the South Indians as an image that is clothed with fourteen worlds and as a figure, which, in a concealed way, shows both the sex organs, is called and is worshipped everywhere both inside and outside the temples 3. as such a being which in itself has separated the male energy from the female energy but has become in its external form man and woman. 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observe the following: 1. Civam has proceeded from the male energy and is considered to be the father of all emanations. Five faces are attributed to it, which are reckoned to be the five great lords and gods, known to us as the They are Brahmā, Rudra, Maheśvara and Sadāśiva, who are [later] made into a triad known as the Mummūrttis. 2. Śakti has proceeded from the female energy and is considered to be the mother of all emanations. As all the gods originate from Civam all the goddesses come forth from her line. She is known as Parāśakti. It means she is the highest Śakti; with this name she is differentiated from all other goddesses who also have the name Śakti and have emanated from her and depend on her. Nine of them, known as the Navaśaktis [lit. Navacatti], are especially important. II. Mummūrttis are the three great gods who sprang forth from Civam and in whom Śiva is also included. Some consider it to be one Supreme Being. Some people choose from them only one and make him the highest. Regarding the Mummūrttis one has to observe the following: 1. Īśvara includes Civam. The great religion known as Śivamata comes page_41 Page 42 from him. All the people who belong to this religion consider Īśvara to be the highest god, in whose honor they have built temples everywhere and celebrate many festivals. They narrate 1,008 appearances of him and hence he has 1,008 names. In a particular place he is known with one name and in other places with other names. His paradise where he resides is called Kailāsa. His best servants, who are always with him, are Nandikeśvara, Dvārapālakas, Bhairava and Aupattumūvars, who are 63 persons, whom Īśvara is supposed to have taken up visibly into bliss with their bodies and souls. Regarding the family of Īśvara one has to observe [the following]: 1. His two consorts are: 1. Pārvatī is to be viewed as the above-mentioned Śakti and is worshipped with many names in Īśvara’s temples and has her own days of fasting and feasting. 2. is like Siren, a goddess of water, and is portrayed as half-woman and half-fish. Her figure is not present in any temple. She is being worshipped as people bathe everywhere in the rivers and adore her. With the term all the water-rivers are understood, especially the great Indians consider its waters to be the holiest to wash away their sins. This has eight young women as her playmates who are: 1. Yamunā, 2. Godāvarī, 3. Sindhu, 4. Kāvēri, 5. Sarasvatī, 6. Narmadā, 7. [? and] 8. Kanyakā 2. His two sons are: 1. Vighneśvara is portrayed as the one with a trunk of an elephant. Vighneśvara has many temples as well as many names such as Vināyaka, [and] etc. His figure is present ordinarily along all paths, under the trees and in the streets. Not only does he have his own temples everywhere, where he is worshipped daily, but he also is present at the same time in all the other temples and receives the first sacrifices, because the South Indians believe that everything should be begun in his name and in him all the things which are begun in such a way will succeed well. 2. has not only his own temples but is also worshipped daily in the temples of Īśvara. Similarly, he has many names and is portrayed with either one or six faces. He took up his six faces when he had become involved with the 330 million gods in a war against the giants known as the Acuras, and he wiped out the whole race of the giants. Two consorts are attributed to him, namely: 1. and 2. who are portrayed in full [natural] female form standing on his two sides. In all places they are worshipped along with 2. is associated with the second great religion of the South Indians known as who are dedicated to this religion page_42

All the people

Page 43 as the highest god, who creates, governs, sustains and redeems everything. Because of his consider appearances and wonders, which he has brought about, he has several names and is named in every temple differently. His ten incarnations are believed to have followed each other chronologically as: 1. Matsyāvatāra, when he incarnated himself into fish and recovered from the seas the religious books which were stolen from the world of the gods; 2. Kūrmāvatāra, when he incarnated himself into a tortoise in order to move a mountain in the milk-sea so that the gods could churn the drink of immortality; 3. Varāhāvatāra, when he changed himself into a boar in order to burrow to the depth of the earth and to see the feet of Īśvara [L 9 b file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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r]; 4. Rāmāvatāra, when he was born as a human being, took up the name Rāma and eradicated the giant along with his family of giants. In this, the ape [lit. monkey] Hanumat rendered him great service and is therefore worshipped in the temples of Rāma. In this incarnation he has three brothers known as Bharata and Śatrugana, who were born with him to the King Daśarathamahārāja; 5. Paraśurāmāvatāra, when he was similarly born into the world as a human being and has some brothers. The father whom he had in this incarnation is a sage called The mother whom he had at that time is one of the [village] patron goddesses and is known as The reason for this incarnation was the eradication of the seven kings, who were known as Saptarājas; 6. Buddhāvatāra, when he was born as a priest, eradicated the religion of two peoples known as Buddhists and Jains and spread his own religion through his twelve disciples everywhere. These twelve disciples were known as They wrote most of the religious books on and are worshipped along with him in his temples; 7. when he appeared in the form of half-lion and half-man and destroyed the giant ; 8. Vāmanāvatāra, when he was in the world as a Brahmin, took away sovereignty over the world from the king Mahābalirāja and trod him down into hell; 9. when he was born as a small child and brought up in the house of a shepherd. Afterwards, with the name he performed great things, destroyed king Duryodhana and his 120 brothers and helped the five royal brothers known as the namely Dharma, Bhīma, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva to get their kingdoms back. 10. Aśvāvatāra, when he will appear in the future in horse-form, which will be followed by the end of all things. The first, second and third incarnations took place in the first great world-age known as the The fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh incarnations happened in the second great world-age known as Tretāyuga. The eighth and ninth incarnations occurred in the third great world-age known as the Dvāparayuga. The tenth incarnation should take place in this world-age known as Kaliyuga. Regarding the family of one has to observe [the following]: 1. His two consorts are: page_43 Page 44 1. the goddess of beauty and happiness. She represents eight who are known as the They are the eight fortunes: namely: 1. who is herself. All the other depend on her. 2. the goddess of riches and all the goods. 3. the goddess of corn. 4. the goddess of strength, joy, courage and calm [lit. comforted] heart. 5. the goddess of boldness. 6. the goddess of eloquence. 7. the goddess of marriage, who gives children and helps the married life function well. 8. Bhāg the goddess of all happiness. All these are comprehended under the name in who is worshipped by all [devotees] with many names in the temples of as well as of Īśvara. When had the name Rāma in his fourth incarnation, was in the world with the name Sītā. Their marriage was very grand. This the goddess of happiness, is contrasted with Mūdevī, the goddess of misfortune. 2. Bhūmidevī is the goddess of the earth and of patience. Among the South Indians she is not worshipped. They consider her a witness of everything that is happening on earth. 2. His sons are: 1. Manmatha, the god of carnal love or Cupid. He is supposedly born to in his ninth incarnation. His arrow, with which he wounds the hearts [of women] and fills them with improper love, is known as Regarding him one has to note [the following]: 1. Rati, his consort, who has the same office as her husband, could be called Venus. Just as her husband inspires unchastity in women, she is unchaste with men. 2. Aniruddha is her [Rati’s] son. 2. Kuśa was born by Sītā in fourth incarnation. 3. Lava was an adopted son whom the sage [lit. prophet] Vālmīki had created from a blade of grass. 3. Brahmā has among the South Indians neither temples nor adoration. But he is honored in [the form of the] Brāhmins who, as a result, enjoy great veneration, respect and income. His task is to create everything, to write on every person’s skull how long he should live and what will happen to him throughout his life. He passes judgment whether, after death, the soul of the person will get bliss or damnation or what kind of birth it will have on returning to earth. The law according to which the South Indians have organized their idolatrous worship is said to have come page_44 Page 45

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from him. He gave the law to a sage called Vedavyāsa, who is said to have revealed it [to the people] in the world afterwards. His consort is Sarasvatī who is considered to be the goddess of learning. Her image is also, similarly, not present in any temple. Among the South Indians she receives no adoration except when once a year poets, teachers, school children and scribes celebrate in her honor a festival known as Sarasvatīpūjā. At that time they offer her their styli [i.e., hard-pointed instruments to write or incise on palm leaves], books and accounts. [L 9 c r] III. Grāmadevatās are such gods and goddesses who guard the fields, cities, hamlets and villages in such a way that demons and dangerous giants cannot injure human beings. The South Indians worship them not for any other reason, but only to be protected from evil. Their temples are everywhere and annual festivals are celebrated in their honor. Living animals such as pigs, goats and cocks are offered to them. They are believed to have previously been in great bliss; because of their pride they are supposed to have been cursed by Śiva and are banished to this earth to be with the demons, over whom they rule over as kings and queens. All the female deities come from the line of Śakti; the nine most distinguished are the Śaktis who emanated from Parāśakti and are known as Navaśaktis. Among the demons they are of the highest order and are often portrayed as being very ugly. Offerings are made to them so that they will not harm the people, but will protect them from [other lower] demons. As such, the following are considered in this section: 1. Protecting Grāmadevatās are: 1. who was born in the hand of from the sperm of Śiva and is said to be the most awesome king of the demons. Two consorts are attributed to him, namely: and They stand at both sides of temples and receive the same adoration as that of 2. who has many snakes around the crown on her head. She is the mother of Paraśurāma, i.e., in his fifth incarnation. She has her own temples and an annual festival. 3. who is considered to be the goddess who causes smallpox, measles and blisters. In her temples the very powerful demon has his private chapel. 4. who similarly has her private temples in which and Vīrabhadra are present. The latter was created by Īśvara with 1,000 heads and 2,000 arms. He emerged from the fire sacrifice Yāga, which the king of the fourteen worlds had organized in order to depose Civam as god and instead choose another one as the Supreme God. 5. Bhadrakālī, who is portrayed with ten arms and one fiery head. Like all others, she has a festival. It is celebrated in her honor annually and lasts eight to nine days. Aghora is present in her temples. He is Īśvara page_45 Page 46 himself who in rage took up such a figure and danced with Bhadrakālī. 6. or who is one of the superior goddesses and who has her own temples everywhere. 7. who along with others is portrayed with a fiery head. 8. Durgā, who has a head of a sheep. She and have only a few temples. 2. Those [malignant] beings from whom the Grāmadevatās have to protect the people are 1. Pēys, 2. Bhūtas, 3. and 4. Acuras. 1. Pēys are demons. According to the opinion of some, God created the Pēys; but some say that because of the sins they had committed they were exiled [lit. cursed] from bliss and from among the inhabitants of the fourteen worlds and were banished to the earth as demons. Their number continues to increase through the death of sinful people. Many of the demons are given specific names, especially such demons who cause people to commit certain sins or who possess the people completely. 2. Bhūtas are also demons. They are portrayed in totally different forms. They are supposed to have been created for all sorts of menial services to the deities and especially to punish evil persons. 3. are powerful giants with many heads. They emanate from 4. Acuras are a different kind of giants who originated from Śūra. He was since king over all the fourteen worlds. With his giant-race he had plagued and enslaved the deities. IV. Devas are gods who are placed in the world known as Devaloka. In this world [of human beings] they do not have either temples or adoration, with an exception that they are remembered in several ways in the history books [i.e., in ]. Whenever sacrifices are offered to the above-mentioned gods and goddesses, the Devas receive some attention [lit. ceremonies] too. There are many beings that do not have the name of a god. Since they are highly respected, they are mentioned in the history books [i.e., ]. They too must be counted to the number of Devas. In this context one has to observe [the following]: 1. tēvars are the 330,000,000 gods. They are very different from the abovementioned gods. They were created by god to be inhabitants of that world that is known as [L 9 d r] Devaloka, i.e., the world of gods. The South Indians ascribe to the Devas physical bodies and consorts in the same way as they have done to the other great gods. The South Indians have not given all of them names. Among them some need special mention:

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1. Devendra is the king of the gods. The Devas bring their grievances before him. His conference hall is so big that not only the 330,000,000 gods, but also the many sages and the servants can all have places simultaneously. 2. is the consort of Devendra. page_46 Page 47 3. Citraputra is the son of Devendra. He was born of a cow. He is the scribe of Śiva. He records all the vices and virtues that are common among the people. Afterwards people are judged according to these records. 2. are the sages [lit. prophets] and are 48,000 in number. They are in the world of gods. Through severe religious austerities they have obtained great gifts [i.e., abilities]. They can do without food and sleep, and they can be wherever they want to be [instantly]. The distinguished sages are Agastya, Nārada, Gautama, Vedavyāsa, Vālmīki, Viśvāmitra, Kapila, etc. 3. Musicians and servants who are close to the gods are as follows: the play on instruments and sing [simultaneously]. Tumburus and Nāradas are divine musicians. are portrayed like the angels with wings; at the command of gods they perform all the kinds of [musical] works. and Gandharvas are also portrayed with wings. They allow themselves to be used by for various services. The are artists who play with snakes before gods. Siddhas can fly in the air. As they wish, they can be in one place now and then [quickly] in another place. Vidyādharas are the learned persons in the world of gods who understand all arts and sciences. In the assembly of gods they can debate on all learned subjects. or Dūtas are messengers who are of three types: Śivadūtas are messengers sent by Śiva to fetch those who belong to his religion and have lived according to its precepts. The Śivadūtas take such people from this world to Śiva’s paradise called Kailāsa. are messengers sent by to bring those who belonged to his religion and lived piously to his paradise known as Yamadūtas are the messengers sent by Yama, the god of death and king of hell, to bring the wicked from the world to hell. 4. are the guardians of the eight [cardinal] points of the world. Their names are as follows: 1. Indra is the above-mentioned king of gods. He is also known as Devendra. 2. Agni is the element fire, more precisely the god of fire, also known as Agnibhagavān. 3. Yama is the god of death and king of hell or the lowest world that is known as Pātālaloka and Yamaloka. 4. is the element earth and is portrayed in the form of a giant. 5. Vāyu is the element air, more precisely the god of air. 6. Varua is the god of clouds and rain. 7. Kubera is the god of riches. All gold, silver, precious stones, pearls and all wealth are in his custody. 8. Īśāna is Īśvara himself. Among his 1,008 appearances he took also this name and these responsibilities. All these [guardians] are worshipped on festival days and whenever sacrifices are offered, especially when the burnt offerings known as Yāga, Homa and Yajana are made. [L 10 r] page_47 Page 48 The First Part of the Genealogy of the South Indian Deities deals with Parāparavastu, who is the highest divine Being and the source of all deities. [L 11 r] Introduction to the First Part The South Indians know from the light of nature that there is one god. This truth does not need to be taught to them by Christians at all. It is implanted in their minds by the witness of the conscience so strongly that they would consider it an act of the greatest atheism if they should hear that there are some people in the world who believe that there is no god from whom everything comes and who is to sustain and rule everything. Such atheism is even found among the Christians [i.e., Europeans] and especially among some learned people. Moreover, through the witness of the conscience the South Indians are convinced of the one divine being in such a way that they regard creatures as the signs of god. Without the revealed Word they are increasingly convinced of this truth that there should be only one god who has created everything, who rules over everything, punishes evil and rewards good, whom one must fear, love, honor and worship. Because of this conviction that there is one god, who is to be honored by people in this world, the South Indians have set up a religious system, [L 11 v] written several religious books, introduced all kinds of sacrifices, built many temples and created everywhere in their country an official [religious system of] worship. They assume that through these things they serve god. They have deviated much from the right knowledge of God and the true worship of God, because in these matters they have depended on their [own] reason as their guide, reason which has become, after the fall into sin, totally false and has been spoiled. At the same time, they allowed themselves to be misled by Satan in many ways. Yet it [i.e., their belief in one god] is an open witness that they believe in one invisible being, trying to honor the same and recognizing that they depend on it and are to be maintained and saved by it. Such truth, which they have learned from

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the light of nature, is not new, but very old because they have among themselves detailed books on it, which, they say, are more than 2,000 years old. Consequently, they claim that their religion is the oldest. Their religion might have begun immediately after the deluge. They not only believe that there is only one god, but they have gone farther through the light of nature, by believing in the one [L 12 r] divine being which is the source of all life. Although they worship many gods they profess that actually all such gods originally came from the one divine being and return to the same. That is why they believe that by honoring the many gods, in reality they worship only one god. Among South Indians the educated people defend this teaching very firmly, but they are not able to prove it. Many absurdities follow from this teaching, just because they are unable to discern for themselves the inappropriate things written by their [own] ancient poets about their gods. In what manner they derive all of their deities from the one highest divine Being can be seen not only in the abovementioned table of contents but page_48 Page 49 also in the second and third parts of the Genealogy. This first part deals only with the highest divine being that they call Parāparavastu, which means the one terial being that has no form and cannot be compared with anything. 2. As a highest or Supreme Being. Such a being is considered: 1. As an [L 12 v] immamaterial being, which has revealed itself in a visible form, and in which is the form of male and female energy. 3. And as such a being in which has been separated the male energy from the female energy; in their outward visible revelation they have taken up male and female forms. The South Indians consider the male energy Civam and the female energy as Śakti or Parāśakti. The first part is divided into four chapters. The first chapter deals with the divine being in as much as it is considered to be spiritual and immaterial in that it does not have a form and cannot be compared with anything. The second chapter deals with the Supreme Being that has taken up a visible form and has become material. The third chapter deals with Civam and the fourth with Śakti. Both of them are supposed to have emanated from the divine being. [L 13 r.] 1st Chapter: Parāparavastu or the Supreme Being considered as far as it is an immaterial being that has no form and cannot be compared with anything When the South Indians talk of the Supreme Being, as far as it is considered as a purely spiritual and immaterial being, they speak very rationally and accept as unquestionable truth everything that we Christians believe regarding God’s being and attributes. They declare that there is only one god, who is purely spiritual and incomprehensible. He is eternal, omnipotent, omniscient, all wise, holy, true, righteous, gracious and merciful. He creates and sustains everything. He desires to live among people, to make them happy not only in this world, but also in the other. That is why it is a great blessing to serve him. The names with which they consider the divine being are expressions of divine attributes such as Sarveśvara, the lord of all; Nityānanda, the god of eternal bliss; Ādināyaka, the very first lord who has none above himself; Sarvalokadayāpara, the lover of all worlds; [L 13 v] the savior of all things; the lord, etc. In their books and conversations one comes across many hundreds of such names. But since to them such a being is totally unintelligible and cannot be worshipped in any [visible] form, it is not venerated anywhere in temples, much less in spirit and truth. Even in their religious books one finds few traces of this immaterial divine being and its worship. Rather, the knowledge of such a being has been completely effaced by the many kinds of idolatry and confusing ceremonial laws. Consequently, all the deities were gradually given the names that may rightly be given to the divine being alone. Now everyone has fallen into a kind of idolatry that consists of external devotions to some images of [the invisible] god. We asked a [scholar] in a letter some time ago why the South Indians do not venerate the only divine being in a spiritual manner, but keep all kinds of figures of gods in their temples and houses. He replied to us [in a letter] in the [L 14 r] following manner: “The form of the Lord, (i.e., the Supreme Being), can be page_49 Page 50 compared with no one person. No one can either understand such a Lord rightly or make a mental picture of him. But how Brahmā, and Rudra look is written in our religious books. It is also written in them how the other gods should appear. God himself has shown us, in his law [i.e., religious scripture], which deities we must worship, how it should be done and what kind of reward he will give us, for this [reason], we obey [him and], according to his command, we worship such deities in their images.” A second person has in his letter answered our question, “What is the highest god or the being of all beings?” in the following way: “The highest god or the being of all beings has a form, and simultaneously no form. He cannot be compared with anything. No one can describe him and say that he is this or that. He is neither man nor woman; neither heaven nor earth; neither a human person nor [L 14 v] any other creature. He is everything and yet one cannot compare him with anything. He is not subject to any corruption or death. He has no need to take resort to sleep. He is omnipotent and omnipresent. He has no beginning and remains file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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imperishable for eternity. No one can see his form, or describe or express it, etc.” One accepted our Christian religion. His father wrote to him using the following words: “You do not yet know the secrets of our religion. We do not worship many gods inappropriately, as you think; under [the form of] all [the gods] we venerate only one divine being. There are many [learned] people among us. If you would speak with them they would explain to you everything and remove your doubts. He who understands our religion rightly will be saved in it and there are among us many examples of those to whom god has given salvation visibly.” There are few people, who [L 15 r] are against [lit. destroy] all forms of idolatry and worship the one divine being without images. Among them those who are called the Jains are special. They have written many such books that show nothing but the virtuous life in which the only god should be worshipped. Among such books are the following: 1. Civavākkiyam rejects through thought-provoking verses many forms of idolatry along with the many religious [lit. heathenish] errors, but it praises the worship of the only god. 2. [i.e., the book entitled ] treats only morals. 3. Nīticcāram gives in parables [moral] guidelines for life. 4. contains teachings on wisdom and testimonies of the only god. From these and other such books many fine sayings on the only one divine being could be quoted; but we wish to repeat only those [passages] that are mentioned in the book [L 15 v] South Indian Society [lit. Malabarian Heathenism] written two years ago [in 1711]. In the third chapter of the first part it is written: the author of the book known as Civavākkiyam agrees with many other [authors] in saying that the only god is eternal, omnipresent, immeasnrable [i.e., infinite], the beginning and end, and, of course, all in all. That is why it is mentioned in verse 79: “There is none other than the one. This one is the lord over all. He is eternal and remains truly the Eternal One.” And verse 121: “Oh god! Before I knew you, page_50 Page 51 I went astray in every way. After I have come to know you, I have realized that you are the Eternal One, whom I long for and that there are no others.” On his eternity he writes also: “What is the being that has been there from eternity? Are they the fifty-one syllables [of the Sanskrit alphabets],” in which the South Indians place the secrets of their religion? “Or is it the soul? Or are they the five elements? Or is it the life cycle? Or are they the disciplines [i.e., six theological schools]? Or the law [i.e., sacred scriptures]? Or is it the holy priest who is by and in all these things? Behold, they are neither the fifty-one syllables, nor the soul, nor [L 16 r] the many deities, nor the five elements, nor the life cycle, nor the disciplines, nor the law, but that holy priest who is by and in all these things” Verses 122–123. In the very first verse of his book he writes: “Oh, god! You are the beginning and the end, the source of all causes [lit. seed of all beginnings], the reverberation and the five letters that are written in the five elements present in body.” Another author writes about god’s omnipresence as follows [in] verse five, “There is only one who is in everything in the world.” Still another author writes about it in the following manner [in] verse forty-two, Paramarakaciyamālai: “Oh, god! You are the body, life, reason, heaven and earth, the same and manifold in everything in the world and your glory is thus, that who can know you in this world?” In verse 51 of the same book, he writes of god’s omnipotence: “Oh god! When you move, the whole heavenly body, the earth, the five elements and the eight corners of the world move also. Who can understand this wonder?” Another author writes about the government and sustenance of god in the following way [L 16 v, in] verse one, “Oh, Supreme Being! The Lord of the heavens and the earth! I cannot hold you in my heart. Oh, King of the heaven! To whom shall I tell of my misery? If you, the one who rules over me and sustains me, would forsake me, I could not live in this world. Oh, call me so that I can come to you!” [The same author speaks further] in the second verse [of the book]: “Oh, god! You are present everywhere in the world and you are the life of all creatures,” etc. The seventy-second verse of Civavākkiyam mentions the immeasurable nature of god: “God is an immeasurable sea and has no end. If one wants to see and know him, he must first of all calm the turbulent waves in himself, become quite still and concentrate his senses on one thing;” etc. The author [of this book] writes in the thirty-fifth verse about god’s unspeakable glory-sweetness in the following way: “God is true and is present everywhere just as the all-pervading sunshine. No one wants to recognize him, but all wallow in the mire of sin. I have come to know him and do not find in the world anything with which I could compare his glory nor the sweetness that [L 17 r] I enjoy in his presence. I also do not see anyone who would trust my words.” In the fifth verse of the second part of this book the author says that he cannot compare this god with any creature: “The Supreme Being is not a flower, not a fragrance, and not anything that a person would think he would be. He is neither big nor small. He is not a voice that speaks. He is neither an encapsulated nor a locked out being. He is not a page_51 Page 52

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figure and not in anything. He is an incomprehensible being.” In the fifth and twenty-fifth verses of the second part of the same book, the author speaks further: “Oh, god! You are virtue itself; you are heaven itself; you are world itself, you are wisdom that is present in each person. You are the object [lit. purpose] of those who seek you. You are the feeling in the body and also its calmness; yes, you are the light that has mingled with my heart. I will never again neglect your glory.” Another author confesses that apart from this highest good there is nothing to be found that can comfort the soul. He exhorts everyone to seek this by saying: “You might look either outside yourself or inside yourself, [L 17 v] and you will find nothing. Hence, search for the one true Being.” [This statement was written in the] ninth verse of the book About this search the 34th verse of the second part of Civavākkiyam mentions the following: “The tortoise that floats around the sea lays its eggs on the beach, covers them with sand and goes [back] into the open sea. But, since it always thinks of the eggs, as if a rope tied them to it, the young ones, as soon as they crawl out of the eggs, follow the traces [of their mother tortoise] until they come to her. Similarly, god has placed us in this world, but he is up in heaven. However, he thinks of us always [as if he is bound to us] as a rope. Should we follow his traces, we shall find him.” In the first verse of the second part of this same book the author ascribes great power to faith in this god and writes: “God is the omnipresent highest Being. Should you believe in him, you can control your body, the world and heaven.” The following is mentioned about unity with and the indwelling of god: “When you created me, you knew me; but I had to get to know you as I gained understanding. I might sit or walk or stand, but I will never forget you. You have become mine and I am yours. I have both seen with my eyes and known with [L 18 r] my mind that you, oh god, have come to me, like lightning striking from heaven” (26th verse of the first part of Civavākkiyam). In the same [first section of Civavākkiyam] the 34th verse mentions the following: “The fig tree [Ficus bengalensis], which is very large and far spreading, is contained in a small seed. You people are also included in the generative power [of Civam], but none among you know it. Search yourself and you will find that the Most High is in you.” The 75th verse [of the first section of Civavākkiyam mentions] again: “If you direct your heart in the right way and worship the same god without distraction, then your heart and his heart will become one heart.” Another author writes about god’s indwelling nature in the fifth verse of Kīrtticcarukkam: “In him who has god in his heart, god will dwell and take his sins as a plane removes uneven nodules and parts of wood,” etc. Everything that has been quoted from the books of the South Indians has been summarized by a knowledgeable South Indian in a letter that he wrote recently to us [the missionaries in Tranquebar]. We quote the following passage: “God, the Supreme Being, is of such an infinite greatness and glory that he cannot be fathomed by anyone. In our theology [i.e., the sacred religious books, especially the theological writings] it is written that god is almighty and full of grace, and he rules and sustains everything by grace. We can know only this much; otherwise, regarding god’s [L 18 v] eternity no one can know his beginning or his end. It is because of this that no one can say that at page_52 Page 53 this or that time he began to be and that he has ruled so long. This is a subject that no one can think through. Such a Supreme Being has created all the gods, all the people, all the creatures and all things that are in the world. God is of infinite goodness, infinite righteousness and infinite wisdom, by which he governs and sustains everything. There are many such kinds of infinite attributes and incomprehensible things. One cannot describe god the Supreme Being [adequately] or understand god in certain categories and say that god is made like this or that. The reason is this: every moment god can become that which god desires to be. God alone is the only one who can understand god as he actually is; god cannot be known rightly according to god’s perfect attributes, either by people or by deities. It is written in our theology, where it is also mentioned that if one wishes to worship god, one has to conceive of god in the form of a holy person. At the end, all things will be placed back into their origin [i.e., finally, all things will return to god, their actual origin]. I am able to write this much about the glory of god, [L 19 r] the Supreme Being,” etc. Further he writes [in the letter] the following: “Regarding god’s attributes one must say that god is such a being that cannot be compared with anything. All the attributes that we consider in a person to be good and valuable are only mere shadows of god’s divine attributes. God can take upon himself as many attributes as is desirable and whenever it is desirable. God can achieve instantaneously anything that god desires [lit. It is because, when God thinks of something, it also is]. God is such a person who does have a form and yet at the same time, does not have it. God is of incomparable beauty, of immeasurable wisdom, of incomprehensible goodness, of unending grace, love and mercy, and of unfathomable humility and patience. It is written in our law [i.e., the sacred religious books] that god governs, delivers and sustains everything perfectly. We can know only this much about the attributes of god; the rest, for which we do not find either a measure or an end, is beyond our comprehension,” etc. The South Indian writes further: “Regarding the place where the Supreme Being lives: all the fourteen worlds cannot contain god; god lives far beyond them in a bright light and fills all in all. God’s work is to sustain and file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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govern everything by grace. Regarding the question whether [L 19 v] god’s providence reaches over all the world or not, my answer is this: actually it stretches over the entire world; god cares for everything and is merciful to everything. Moreover, apart from him, not even the smallest thing can move. He gives such careful attention to everything. Apart from god’s providence nothing can happen. Through god’s care all the 8,400,000 species of living creatures—from the smallest mosquito to the biggest elephant—get their sustenance, food and rest Because of god’s care and grace, everything lives, grows and moves. Should god’s providence stop, nothing could grow and move. God takes care even of those creatures that are growing from the earth.” The South Indian writes further: “Since you [the missionaries in Tranquebar] ask [me] how one should get to know god, I answer this: one can know god from the law [i.e., the sacred religious books] that god has given, from the wonders that god performs in the world, from the understanding and reason that god has given to human beings and from the works of page_53 Page 54 creation and preservation. Finally, regarding the worship that one owes god: it consists above all in love and faith [probably Ziegenbalg’s way of translating the concept of bhakti, ‘intense devotion’]. In our law [i.e., the sacred religious books] it is considered to be the best form of serving god, [L 20 r] for one to have love and faith in his mouth and heart [i.e., in his whole being] and to do everything out of love and faith. Moreover, one has to call on god and live according to god’s commandments. Yes, one has to venerate god all the time, without ceasing, be obedient to god and live in accordance with god’s will,” etc. From all these [quotes], one can sufficiently see what the South Indians believe to be the Supreme Being, to what extent they have advanced in the light of nature, in which they even excel the Roman people [of ancient times]. Through the misleading of their old poets and their Brāhmins, the light of nature has been darkened, because they have written many fables and introduced a bewildering [system] of image worship. Even if a person’s conscience bears a reasonable witness to the Supreme Being, yet that person’s [religious] practice contradicts the person’s reason; that person would hardly give up worship of idols. 2nd Chapter: Parāparavastu or the Supreme Being considered in as far as it is a material being that has taken up a visible form and contains in itself the male and female power [L 20 v] With their reason, the South Indians were unable to comprehend the Supreme Being in his immaterial, spiritual form and in his actual state. Moreover, since they did not have either the revealed word of God [of the Christians] or were unwilling to accept it, they committed many mistakes through their speculations and imagined him to consist of matter. They made material images for the Supreme Being, because they assumed that god should also have a visible and material form to be seen, known, worshipped and admired by his creatures. Some people believe that an immaterial being cannot create material things. Hence, [they believe that] the Supreme Being has assumed a material form before creating material things. The South Indians are unable to represent the Supreme Being in his material form correctly. Since they see in nature that all living creatures have their birth from male and female powers, they proceed from the creatures to the creator and consider that from [L 21 r] which everything has come god, the Supreme Being, should be in itself male and female energy. From this supposition they continue further and say that first the Supreme Being had separated its male power from its female power and then expressed [lit. was born to] itself in a visible male and female form. From this, the South Indians derive the origin of all gods and all creatures. This aspect will be dealt with later in detail. From this, one can see the following: the South Indians have a powerful imagination; regarding god they arrive at many reasonable conclusions. However, in the absence of the heavenly light and of divine revelation, they have become prey to unwise things and allowed themselves to be led in a complex way from one error to another. page_54 Page 55 Finally they have gone so far in the matter of gods [erroneously] that they do not know how they should return to their original understanding about the Being of beings. And the devil did not spare any diligence or effort to extinguish the natural light among the people more and more and turn it into utter darkness. He is successful in it so that, among them, only a very little knowledge about the divine being is left. Even though they have understood [L 21 v] god to be a material being, they do not know what he actually looks like. However, they wish to have something for their external senses and for their orientation. Hence, they conceive the divine being to be an image that is similar to a man and a woman, that covers all the fourteen worlds, showing that he fills all in all, and that everything derives its origin from him and depends on him for sustenance. They paint a picture with four hands just as all their gods are represented. In the two hands that he raises he holds with his fingers the two weapons and Cakra. These are the weapons of This is how the represent their idea of god. It is also customary among them to paint their forehead with the sign Tirunāmam. On the other hand the Śivabhaktikāras represent their understanding of this file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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[divine] figure with the weapon and the mark of Īśvara. This figure wears a crown on its head. The sun and moon are near it. It is painted green. In its ears, around the neck, on its hands and its feet it wears all kinds of jewels made of pearls, gold and silver and precious stones, just as the South Indians are accustomed to decorating their deities. [L 22 r] From its shoulders a cloth hangs down along with a string of various flowers. On both sides it is covered with twelve worlds, in which many things are painted. The remaining two worlds are on its breast. In the upper world Brahmā is represented with four heads and four hands. On his left, his consort Sarasvatī is standing. On his right, Devendra, the king of gods, stands in a position as if he has something to report. Further below, in the other lower world, Devendra is painted in a sitting position and with four hands. Some deities stand around him. They seem to give him some reports. This is known as the Devaloka, the world of gods. Further down on the body [of the image] there is the mountain on which is pictured, as having four arms and being seated. On both sides he has his two consorts: on his right and Bhūmidevī on his left. Many snakes are rising above his head. Further down the image is the mountain Kailāsa, on which Īśvara is residing. He has four arms and is represented in a sitting position. On his right Nandikeśvara is standing with the head of an ox. On his left [L 22 v] Pārvatī, Īśvara’s consort is sitting. On his two sides there are the Dvārapālakas, the two door keepers. Above Īśvara, on his right, is standing with his peacock, and on his left is Vighneśvara with his elephant trunk. The mountain Mahāmeru passes through all the worlds and places, and its top rises up above the crown [of the image]. Below, eight elephants and eight snakes sustain this mountain. These elephants and snakes are standing on a tortoise that is supposed to be himself, because one of his incarnations was in the form of a tortoise. Down below the tortoise, the feet of the figure of the Supreme Being [are seen and they] demonstrate that [finally] the Supreme Being has to sustain everything. Around the figure, in surrounding page_55 Page 56 circles, the seven seas and islands are drawn. In this form the figure of the divine Being is represented with many things that are considered by the South Indians as great mysteries. Hence, they are to be explained a little more. They divide the fourteen worlds with which the figure is covered into seven lower worlds and seven upper worlds. The names of the lower worlds are as follows: [L 23 r] 1. Atalaloka, 2. Vitalaloka, 3. Sutalaloka, 4. Nitalaloka, 5. Talātalaloka, 6. Mahātalaloka4 and 7. Pātālaloka. Among the seven lower ones, the last and very lowest must be especially noted. It is considered to be hell and the place of condemned people. It is also known as the Yamaloka, because Yama is the god of death and the king of condemned people. The poets have written many fables. The following are the names of the seven upper worlds in their ascending order: 1. Bhūloka, 2. Bhuvaloka, 3. Svarloka, 4. Mahāloka, 5. Janaloka, 6. Devaloka and 7. Satyaloka. Among these the first, fourth, sixth and seventh worlds need to be observed [carefully], because many stories are found about them in the old poetical books. The South Indians consider the first world, Bhūloka, as the one in which we people live now. They describe the size and breadth of the world very differently than European geographers do. Most probably, the poets must have fabricated the stories that are said to have taken place among the deities and human beings. The fourth world, Mahāloka, is said to be the residence of about whom they [the poets] have written [L 23 v] many fables about it. The South Indians write in their books many tales about the sixth world, the Devaloka, in which 330,000,000 gods are said to be living. Some consider the seventh world, Satyaloka, as the residence of Brahman, yet others consider it to be the residence of Civam and call it Śivaloka. Since it is the highest world, it is thought to be the place of the saints. Otherwise, the mountain Kailāsa, the residence of Īśvara, is considered to be the paradise where the Śivabhaktikāras wish to go finally. The consider the mountain to be their paradise. All the fourteen worlds are said to have the same length and breadth. They describe their length as 50,000,000,000,000,000 miles and the breadth as 25,000,000,000,000,000 miles. If one were to calculate [the length and breadth of] all the fourteen worlds, one would arrive at an extraordinary number of miles. The mountain Mahāmeru that passes through all fourteen worlds is said to be 1,600,000,000,000 miles high as well as broad. These miles are measured with [L 24 r] the scale of the gods. Similarly, the South Indians describe the seven seas in terms of immeasurable size and name them as follows: 1. samudra, the salt sea; 2. Cakkaraic camuttiram, the sugar sea; 3. Tayir camuttiram, sea of churned milk; 4. Ney camuttiram, the sea of melted butter; 5. camuttiram, the honey sea; 6. Pāl camuttiram, the milk sea and 7. Nalla camuttiram, the sea of sweet water. Apart from these, the South Indians have many more great mountains, islands and kingdoms that are described according to their size and inhabitants in the book [entitled] Tirikālacakkaram. In this book the above-mentioned [information] and many other strange things are written. The eight elephants and the eight snakes that sustain the great mountain Mahāpage_56

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Page 57 meru and all the fourteen worlds have their special names in the books of the South Indians. The following are the names of the elephants: 1. Airāvata, 2. 3. Vāmana, 4. Kumuda, 5. Añjana, 6. 7. Sārvabhauma and 8. Supratīka. [L 24 v] These are the names of the eight snakes: 1. Ananta, 2. Vāsuki, 3. 5 4. 5. 6. 7. Kulika and 8. Mahāpadma. They [also] reduce the eight snakes to only one snake, name it and ascribe to it 1,000 heads. Only the learned people know these things. They also know many other things that serve to rack the brain [lit. that causes them many headaches]. Their theology is filled with too many whimsical things. One would need many years to get an accurate idea of the theology of the South Indians, let alone to memorize and understand all the details referred to [in their theology]. The South Indians confess that their theology is such a sea [i.e., ocean] of which one cannot see the end. Because of the large number of religions and sects there are also conflicting opinions among them. Until now [in this treatise], the image with which the South Indians represent the Supreme Being in a material form has been described. They have only painted this figure in some big temples, but they did not carve it in stone or cast it in metal as they do for the images of other gods. [While some depict the Supreme Being in this manner] others conceive it in another image and paint a human picture that is a man on the one side [L 25 r], and a woman on the other, such that both constitute one single body. By this, they want to demonstrate that, from this perspective, the energy of the divine being is half of male and half of female. This image is also not worshipped in the temples but only painted here and there. The actual image with which they worship the Supreme Being everywhere in the temples is the It represents both kinds of sex organs which nature wishes to keep hidden. It is worshipped in all the temples of the Śivabhaktikāras three times daily with drink, food and burnt offerings made by the Brāhmins [of a particular group/sect] with devout gestures, recitation of prayers and performance of the ceremony Dīpārādhana with burning lamps. After the completion of the food offering, it is customary for them either to spread flowers around the or adorn it with many flower garlands. These Brāhmins wear a rosary made of the beads of and consider it to be very holy. In addition, they have another thin thread hanging around them [actually: hanging down from the left shoulder towards the right] that is known [L 25 v] as the which all the Brāhmins wear. They walk with their heads uncovered and have shaved off their hair except for a small tuft. Similarly, a rosary made of the beads called is worn [lit. lies] on their head. No one other than the Brāhmins can make offerings to the in the temples. This figure stands in the innermost chamber or the most holy place of the temples. When they make an offering to it, they light many lamps fixed on iron stands, both within the same chamber as well as in front of it. At night, one or two lamps are always burning near the Much is written about this figure in all of their books on religion and history. Hence, it has many names such as page_57 Page 58

etc. They have also carved this figure out of stones. One can find it everywhere in fields, under trees, in groves and in forests. Common people bring to them all kinds of flower offerings. They also state that some of these figures have grown up spontaneously from the ground and that they cannot [L 26 r] dig them out because they would not find their end, even if they dug as deep as they could. Such a is known as the It is considered to be the most sacred Liga. The South Indians organize great pilgrimages to those places where such are found. Some of these South Indians carry around their neck or head a small made of stone or crystal, especially the s and the Many of them never remove the Linga from their body, and when they die, it is also buried with them. Such a is known as the Some of them, when they take a bath in a river and wish to perform their religious ceremonies create on the bank a figure of clay to represent the Then, they stand in front of it and worship it. After everything is completed, it is washed in the water. Such [a ceremony] is known as the There are many kinds of offerings that are made to this figure. Generally, there is no other image among the South Indians to which more offerings are made than to this image. [L 26 v] All these offerings are known by the general name One could cite here many different stories that have happened with and near this figure. It is better to be silent about them than to publish them, because they contain too many absurd [i.e., illogical] things. The following chapter will deal with some of these matters that could well belong to this topic. However, it is not necessary to get them out in detail here. 3rd Chapter: Civam, who is supposed to have originated from the divine Being as the male power Since the South Indians wish to derive all their deities primarily from the one divine Being, they conceive Parāparavastu in many different ways. On the whole, they consider it to be such a Being that has separated

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the male power from the female power and has manifested itself in an external form. As a result, they name the male energy Civam and the female energy Śakti. The following chapter deals actually with Civam, and the next with Śakti. Civam [L 27 r] is portrayed with five faces, ten arms and hands. Two of his hands are empty. In the four right hands he holds the deer the weapon Vēl, the instrument which is like a small [hand] drum, and the dagger Katti. In his four left hands he holds the weapon the trident Śūla, fire Tī and the shield Paricai. Each of these instruments has its own meaning and history connected to it, but these belong to the works of wonder of Īśvara. As the second part of this Genealogy will describe, the South Indians identify Īśvara with Civam and worship him. Otherwise, Civam is represented completely white. On his forehead he has three page_58 Page 59 white stripes with a mark which is or the ash of burned cow dung. It is customary for the Śivabhaktikāras daily to paint their forehead with using their fingers. On each of his heads, Śiva has a crown. On his ears, neck, hands and feet [L 27 v] he is adorned with all kinds of jewels made of pearls, gold and silver. Flower garlands hang down from his shoulders. Around his waist, he wears a colorful cloth and a golden girdle. He stands on the flower Tāmaraippū, also known as the The reason is that in some books it is written that he, like other deities, originated from such a flower with 1,000 petals. It is evident that the South Indians have, among themselves, contradictory opinions about the origin of the deities. In this Genealogy, we follow only that view which the contemporary learned people accept and defend, for it is the most reliable one. The five faces with which Civam is represented are thought to be the or the five great lords and gods such as Brahmā, Rudra, Maheśvara and Sadāśiva. The South Indians consider them to be one but also different. Among the South Indians, the last three of them, namely Rudra, Maheśvara and Sadāśiva, do not have special temples or receive special worship, but they [L 28 r] are venerated with Īśvara, in whose name Civam is worshipped with offerings in the temples. Hence, only three major gods are acknowledged, namely Īśvara, Brahmā and They call them Mummūrttis, who will be considered along with their families in the next part. About the origin of the a South Indian has written the following to us in a letter: “God, the Supreme Being, has created all the deities, all the people and all other creatures. God has revealed himself in [the forms of] and given them certain tasks—to create all things, rule over the world and also help people to understand god appropriately. The five lords are included in the highest divine Being. It directs and governs everything through them [as its agents] and [once the task is completed it] absorbs them back into itself in such a way that when the five lords are worshipped, [really] only one is worshipped and it is all in all,” etc. Thus the South Indians seek to reduce the multitude of their deities [L 28 v] to only one divine Being; yet [in this attempt] they are greatly confused and so have devised many religions; among them the principal religions are the Śivamata and the The former [i.e., the followers of the first religion] are the Śivabhaktikāras, and the latter [i.e., the followers of the second religion] are the The Śivabhaktikāras think of Civam as their highest god and include all other deities in it. They say also that Civam and Īśvara are identical and prefer to use the name Īśvara to Civam. Their religion is the largest among the South Indians. Those who are committed to this religion have the following external [identifying] marks: they smear their forehead with the above-mentioned ash of burned cow dung, which is considered to be very sacred. They also recite the prayer Namacivāya that is also known as the and means: “Oh Civam! Be praised.” This religion divides itself into different sects. The others of the consider to be the highest god in the divine Being and name him They comprehend him in the picture that is described [L 29 r] in the previous chapter as portraying the male and female page_59 Page 60 energies. They say that, at the end of such a separation of the male and female energies [lit. in the product of such male and female energies], and his wife came into being. They smear their forehead with the paste that is prepared prayerfully [lit. with prayers] from a special soil. They smear on the forehead a curious figure that is known as the Tirunāmam which means “holy name.” Moreover, they also allow the two marks known as the and Cakra, which are the emblems of to be painted on their arms. The prayer that they always recite is the It consists of eight syllables and reads as namo is They praise him with the three syllables namo. Still others consider Īśvara, and Brahmā to be the same and believe they together constitute the Supreme God in the divine being. In this way, their books and opinions are, among themselves, very contradictory. As far as Civam is considered to be the Supreme God, in whom all other gods are included, [L 29 v] he has those names that are fitting only for the Supreme Being, such as Lokanāyaka, ‘the lord of the world;’ Swāmin, file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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‘lord or god;’ ‘the ruler;’ Sarvajīvadayāpara, ‘the lover of all things that are living;’ ‘the one who has neither beginning nor end and is not contained in any time,’ etc.6 In this context, one has to note that all the deities the South Indians venerate and wish to include in the supreme divine Being have these and similar names. One can read about them in the books that are written particularly about them.7 Among the South Indians Civam does not have its own temples, but is always worshipped in the temples of Īśvara, and there not in the figure with five heads and ten arms, but in the figure It has been described in the previous chapter. In this figure, they also worship Īśvara, because they do not make any distinction between them, except in name only. Among the books that are written about Civam, one finds specially four books that are respected greatly. [L 30 r] They are [the following]: 1. Tiruvācakam basically means Holy Scripture.8 It contains many conversations [of a devotee] with Civam. In these dialogues the speaker puts forth his own nothingness and misery, and, in contrast, the glory and great deeds of Civam. All kinds of moral precepts are introduced in it. It seems to have been written aleas 1,000 years ago by the poet whom they call The name means ‘the person whose words and speeches are precious stones.’ 2. Tēvāram contains many songs of praise that are sung during devotional activities. 3. Civapōtakam is also a similar book that contains sayings of praise about Civam. Like other books [in general], it is also written in verses. 4. Civakavacam is also a similar book in metrical verse or dialogue with Civam. [It is to be noted that] the South Indians write almost all their books, in which they describe their deities, as books of prayer, with the exception that, if they narrate only stories, [L 30 v] then they write them in a totally different style [i.e., in prose]. Moreover, one should note that they locate Civam in the highest of the fourteen worlds. For this reason, it is known as the Śivaloka which is otherwise known as the Satyaloka, ‘the true world.’ The South Indians say that if one would live well and virtuously and die, his soul will come to Civam in this [true] world. The bliss of this world page_60 Page 61 has four phases [or stages] that are [as follows]: 1. Sāloka, 2. Samīpa, 3. Sārūpya and 4. Sāyujya: in the first and lowest stage, one would enjoy an average bliss. In the second stage, one is close to god. In the third stage, one would get the likeness of god and, in the fourth stage, one is totally transformed into the being of god. The South Indians designate the servants, whom Śiva sends to bring in the souls of the pious from this world into his world as Śivadūtas, which means ‘the messengers of Śiva.’ In addition, they also have messengers from hell, whom they name Yamadūtas. They write of them bringing the souls of the evil ones from this world to Yama in hell. [L 31 r] It is the lowest of all the worlds. It is known as the Pātālaloka or as the Yamaloka. One can find very many things written about the activities of these messengers, about when they bring souls from the world, [especially] about all the methods they use. At the same time, without an [express] order from Śiva, none [of the messengers] are to take away [the soul of a person] from the world through death. Among the South Indians, this [Supreme Being] Civam gets most of the offerings that they bring, both within the temples and outside of the temples,9 and they are called with one word Śivapūjā. They are brought to the mentioned in the previous chapter. In the temples that are named after Īśvara, the offerings are made without ceasing three times daily, namely in the morning, at noon and in the evening. This daily, constant offering is known as the Nityapūjā of which there are three kinds: 1. 2. Dhūpa and 3. Naivedya. All three of them are offered at the same time. The first is the drink offering, for which they use honey, sugar, water of coconuts, milk, figs and [L 31 v] other similar ingredients. They anoint the with it. The second is the burnt offering, for which they use different kinds of fragrant wood and a resinous incense known as the They light them together in a censer and incense the with it. The third is the food offering, for which they use all kinds of edible things. After [the offering is made] the Brāhmins and the servants of the temple distribute it among themselves and eat it. All these offerings are made with many ceremonies and the recitation of many prayers. Apart from these, they also offer flowers that they throw on the or hang [as garlands] on it. All these take place in the innermost room of the temple known as the When the offerings are being performed, lamps are also lit in the other room. In the front portion of the temple, there are musicians and the Devadāsīs, [female] servants of god. When the offering is being made, they dance and sing. In this way the daily offerings [L 32 r] are made in honor of Civam in the temples. During festivals, everything is done more gloriously. Food offerings are made so often that the Brāhmins must distribute them later to all the houses. It is considered so sacred that it is eaten with as much reverence as the [consecrated unleavened] shewbread among the Jews [ritually placed on the Sabbath by the priests on the table in the Tabernacle]. The offerings that are made to Civam outside the temples are, similarly, several and manifold. Anyone page_61

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Page 62 can make flower offerings to the that stands in the open fields or in woods; but if the drink, burnt and food offerings are to be made rightly, with the recitation of many prayers and performance of all kinds of ceremonies, none but the Śaivas can do it. They do not eat anything that is alive. Before they can make the offerings validly, they must get permission from the priests. For this, they have a [special initiation] act which they call By this, one is accepted by the priests as their disciple. [L 32 v] Those who wish to attain this sacred privilege [lit. holiness] and make offerings independently must perform such an act four times. The first act is performed when they are still children, because they ascribe to the same power that we [Christians] ascribe to baptism. They say that these children are adopted into the fellowship of the disciples of the god. When they are grown up [lit. when they have reached understanding], they allow the priests, at the second time, to perform the act over them and they receive certain teachings and prayers from them, to which they must conform [i.e., they must organize their life accordingly]. At the time of the third act, deeper mysteries are revealed to them. At the fourth act, they become eligible to make the offerings themselves. It costs them ten, twenty, thirty, fifty and [even] one hundred Royal dollar,10 because, on this day, they have to feed many and Paradesins or strangers. Those who have now obtained permission [lit. freedom] to make the offerings do not allow a single day to pass by without making an offering. They [L 33 r] keep the in its miniature form along with other utensils for offering in their houses and offer it not only flowers, but also make the drink, food and burnt offerings. They make the offerings with the required ceremonies and prayers. Before they eat, they make offerings once a day, just for themselves, either in the house or at the river. At least once daily, they must perform this offering. At this time, they also read a passage from the book of praise [written in honor of] Civam. If they are sick, they hire such people who have received the privilege to make the offering beside their bed. There are also women who make these offerings daily. However, they must have, likewise, received the and the privilege of performing the offerings. Only those who do not eat anything that is alive, but live by the produce of the fields and the gardens, are admitted to it. For example, the Brāhmins, who make the offerings in the temples and do other things belonging to religion [lit. law], are not allowed to eat any meat from living creatures. [L 33 v] The days of fasting and festivals that are observed in honor of Civam fall in with the history of Īśvara, who is also worshipped in the form of a with the above-mentioned offerings. This is because the South Indians say the same things about Īśvara and Pārvatī that are said about Civam and Śakti; namely, that both of them are similar to each other in the same way as it has been mentioned in the previous chapter. It should be repeated once again [emphatically] that Civam, Īśvara, Maheśvara, Rudra and Sadāśiva are considered to be the same person. Thus there remain only three persons who are to be considered in the Genealogy for the sake of their association with each other, namely Īśvara, page_62 Page 63 and Brahmā. The following passage, taken from a letter written to us by a South Indian, himself a Śivabhaktikāra, clarifies everything that has been said in this chapter about Civam. Here are his words: “Civam is included in the or the five great lords who [L 34 r] originated in the Supreme Being. He is considered to be the Supreme Being. It is in his honor that almost all the festivals are celebrated, most of the temples are built and most of the offerings are made. One can say that Parāparavastu and Civam are identical. God, the Supreme Being, has revealed himself in the [forms of the] five lords so that the five great works11 occur [properly] and the people in the world have their proper course of life. He caused a particular form of religion to be established among us, the people [lit. Malabarians], so that we can know god, the Supreme Being. If one would ask why Civam came into being, it can be answered in the following way: Civam originated for this purpose, that all the people in the world could come to know god, the Supreme Being, could conceive of god as much as it is possible for their human understanding, so that they could establish a particular form of religion in this world, and that the good and evil of each person could be rewarded or punished. Each of the five lords has his specific function. Brahman came into being for the reason that he would create everything and cause everything to be born and die again. [L 34 v] originated for the reason that he would allow the people and all living creatures their food and enable them to live. Civam, Rudra, Maheśvara, Sadāśiva and Īśvara are the same; they live in the hearts of the people; they enable them to feel and know everything. They deliver the people from all evil; they are the chief [beings] to whom divine honor, worship, offerings and manifold services are due. Moreover, not only these [probably the Mummūrttis], but also all the five lords are the same person; yes, they represent the five faces of the one divine Being. At the end [of the world], these five faces will again become one so that the Supreme Being can be all in all. Regarding the place where Civam lives, one has to know that there are different worlds such as the Śivaloka, the Brahmaloka, the

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the Devaloka and the Yamaloka, and the gods have their private worlds. Civam lives in the world known as the Śivaloka but, at the same time, Civam also lives with me and in me. The reason why Civam is worshipped in the temples in the form of the is that Civam and Śakti are the same [i.e., constitute the one Supreme Being]. As the Supreme Being has revealed itself visibly and materially in the form of the five lords, the is worshipped [L 35 r] in the temples accordingly. Otherwise, Civam has a spiritual and sacred form. Yes, one could say that he is immaterial. In this form, we human beings cannot understand him. Even our law [i.e., religious books] cannot compare him with anything and reveal him in such a way that he can be this or that. One makes many offerings to Civam [with the desire] to be delivered from sins, to obtain good understanding, wisdom and bliss, not to suffer any evil or to commit [further] sin. As long as a person lives in this world, that person desires to lead a good life and, finally, at the time of death, to have a good [i.e., peaceful] death,” etc. page_63 Page 64 4th Chapter: Śakti, who is supposed to have originated from the divine Being as the female power The South Indians have, in their genealogy of deities, not only a male line to derive all the gods, but also a female line to derive all of their goddesses. [L 35 v] Just as all the gods have their origin in Civam, the South Indians make Śakti to be the cause of all goddesses. Śakti is also the general name of all the goddesses. A South Indian writes the following about the origin of Śakti in a letter to us: “Śakti originated from god, the Supreme Being. As the only god wished to reveal himself in many creatures, he found it good that there should be a mother of all the worlds. Śakti originated at once and received the names Parāśakti and Ādiparāśakti, because she had originated from the eternal, highest Being,” etc. Śakti is represented in the natural form of a woman, with two hands, one of which is hanging down [at her side]. In the other she holds the flower as she also stands on the flower Tāmaraippū. She has inserted two of the same flowers behind her ears. The South Indians make [L 36 r] much of this kind of flower. Śakti is painted green [lit. her body color is green]. She wears a crown on her head. On her forehead she has three white stripes along with a round spot. This is the [external] sign of the Śivabhaktikāras known as the Her ears are split open [i.e., her ears have large holes], from which all kinds of jewels hang. Around her neck, she wears a rosary and a long thread with other decorations hanging down on her breast. On her arms she has bracelets and armrings, just as the are accustomed to adoring themselves with. Her upper cloth and lower cloth [i.e., her dress] is red. Around her body she wears a golden girdle along with other jewels. On her feet she wears silver jewels. A big flower garland hangs down from her shoulders. This image stands in this position in the temples; but there she loses her name Śakti and gets the name Pārvatī, who is the consort of Īśvara. Just as the South Indians make Civam Īśvara, they also [L 36 v] make of Śakti Pārvatī. In this way, she also has the same names as Pārvatī, which will appear below in the history of Pārvatī in the second par[of the Genealogy]. Otherwise, she has a few common names such as Sarvalokanāyakī, ‘lady/mistress of all the worlds;’ Carvalōkamātā, ‘the mother of all the worlds;’ Sarvadayābharī, ‘lover of all the creatures’ [correctly: ‘the one who is gracious to all creatures’] and Devī, ‘goddess,’ etc. The South Indians derive from this Śakti nine other Śaktis which they mention in their list of deities and name them Navaśaktis. Some say that these are the consorts of Īśvara, and Brahmā, but others use the following names, such as: 1. 2. 2. 4. Bhadrakālī, 5. 6. 7. Durgā, 8. and 9. The last two are the consorts of These Navaśaktis are said to have misused their glory and to have page_64 Page 65 become too proud about it. For this reason, they were cursed and [L 37 r] expelled from their glory [and were cast down] into this world. However, at the same time they have received the responsibility of protecting the people in this world from the demons. For this reason, people build them temples and celebrate their festivals. In this way, they have become Grāmadevatās. They are explained in the third part of this Genealogy. Yet others say that Parāśakti multiplied itself into many thousand Śaktis. All of them enjoy divine power, honor and glory. Their poets have been very skillful in multiplying their gods and goddesses. They have employed many poetical methods [i.e., genres]. This makes it very difficult for those who wish to explain their writings to others and show them the origin of so many gods and goddesses. This Śakti is worshipped in the temples in the [form of the] oft-mentioned image All kinds of

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offerings, [L 37 v] which the South Indians make to this image daily inside as well as outside of the temples, happen in honor of Civam and Śakti. Both of them are the same as Īśvara and Pārvatī. Apart from these kinds of offerings, the South Indians have certain prayers that are addressed to each of them. Just as they have some [specific] books on Civam, they also have some books that deal particularly with Śakti. The best one is the Tēvikavacam that contains a lot of sayings of praise and guidelines for worshipping the goddess Śakti. Besides, there is also a kind of offering, known among them as the Śaktipūjā. It is performed in the name of Śakti; it looks more like witchcraft than an offering. In this [the flesh of] pigs and other living animals are used along with strong drinks. A naked man and a woman perform it in a closed room. Neither he nor she should harbor [L 38 r] the least impure thought. Otherwise, the whole offering becomes useless and ineffective. It is only useful if they do not miss even the smallest aspect of the many ceremonies or the recitation of prayers. Such an offering costs much and is performed only by wealthy people. They say that through this they can attain great things, both for benefit or destruction. Since it is a kind of witchcraft they perform it in utter secrecy and do not inform or tell their neighbors. If one found out that such a person has performed this offering, one would be afraid of him and consider him to be nothing better than a master of witchcraft. This black magic which is achieved through various offerings is widespread among the South Indians. Many of them consider it to be a service to god; this is the reason that the people are [generally] afraid of it, but do not punish it. All the rest that can be written about Śakti in this context falls under the history of Pārvatī. Among the letters that have reached us [the missionaries in Tranquebar] from the South Indians, one letter mentions [L 38 v] the following about this Śakti: “Śakti is the mother who has given birth to all things. She is page_65 Page 66 called the consort of Śiva, who is the father of all things that are born. She originated from the Supreme Being and, for this reason, she could be the mother of all worlds and grant to those who stand in front of her and worship her bliss and all gifts. On their behalf she intercedes with god and secures his help and deliverance. The reason why Civam and Śakti constituted one body first and then manifested themselves [lit. went out] as husband and wife is this: the Supreme Being should be understood and readily recognized by the people. In the world, men and women should originate and propagate [humanity] through child-bearing. Yes, things should happen in this world as they take place in that world. This is only a sport of the great god that we cannot fathom because it is too much [lit. high] for our [limited] understanding. We do not know anything more than what is written in our law [religious books]. When the last time comes, everything will be absorbed into the bright light and become light,” etc. [L 39 r] The correspondent writes further: “The Navaśaktis originated like the Śakti. They are the nine goddesses who are represented as sixteen-year-old virgins. It is also told that they multiplied themselves into 10,000,000,000 Śaktis, among whom they are all in all. All the goddesses originated from Śakti and, finally, will return to her. Regarding the honor that one gives her: some people, who love her, are accustomed to fasting on Fridays and call on her. Some call on her and ask that she might give them children and others that she might give them all the needed things for the sustenance of their families. Śakti brings these prayers to god and achieves that which the people request of her,” etc. From what has been said in this and the previous chapters, one can form a sufficient idea of the belief of the South Indians in the Supreme Being and of the several ways in which they are accustomed to consider the Supreme Being [L 39 v]. It is also evident how they describe the origin of their gods and goddesses and how they have derived everything from them. All these things are summarized as briefly as possible so that one could easily form a general idea about all of this heathenism. With this, the first part of the Genealogy of the [South Indian] Deities is concluded. [L 40 r] page_66 Page 67 The Second Part of the Genealogy of the South Indian Deities describes the three supreme deities Īśvara, and Brahmā, known as the Mummūrttis, and their families [L 41 r]: Introduction to the Second Part The first part shows how the South Indians believe in the highest divine Being and how they consider it to be the very origin of their deities. Now, this second part will deal with those deities whom the South Indians derive from the divine Being and to whom they give divine honor. In particular, we have to consider the Mummūrttis named Īśvara, and Brahmā. The word Mummūrttis means the above-mentioned ‘three persons’ who are superior to all others in their might and majesty, and who are considered by all the South Indians unanimously to be the greatest among their gods. Their origin has already been spoken of in the first part: namely that they originated as soon as the highest Being appeared in a visible form as the male and female energy. 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whom the South Indians have reduced to three. [L 41 v] On account of the number three, they name them Mummūrttis [‘three forms, shape’]. Some consider them to be triune. With them, Satan desires to imitate the mystery of the [Christian] Trinity. In honor of the Mummūrttis, the Śivabhaktikāras are accustomed to make with their three fingers three lines on their forehead and also on other parts of their body with the or the ash of burned cow dung. In the middle of these lines they draw a small point with the same ash to demonstrate the unity of such gods. In this understanding they consider them to be the highest Being, which, in their opinion, seems to have revealed itself in these Mummūrttis. Among them there are still many people who consider only Īśvara to be the highest among the Mummūrttis. On the other hand, others, namely the consider that alone is the highest Being or the highest god. There are still others who make Brahmā to be highest god and call him Parabrahman. In any case all these three gods have such names that are fitting only to the divine Being. Since families are ascribed to them, those who belong to their families have divine names too and are venerated as gods and goddesses. [L 42 r] If one understands the meaning of the persons of the Mummūrttis correctly and gets to know them according to their manifold names and families, he can easily make an exact picture of the whole heathendom [of the South Indians]. If a person is not carefully instructed he will never be able to understand the complexity of this vast heathendom. Hence, a short but adequate instruction on such Mummūrttis needs to be given. One should consider the three persons of the Mummūrttis in three groups. The first group consists of Īśvara and his family, the second group of and his family, and the third group of Brahmā and his consort. In this second part these three groups are divided into nine chapters that follow one after the other: page_67 Page 68 1st Chapter: Regarding Īśvara 2nd Chapter: Regarding Īśvara’s two consorts Pārvatī and [L 42 v] 3rd Chapter: Regarding Vighneśvara, Īśvara’s older son 4th Chapter: Regarding Īśvara’s second son, and his two consorts and 5th Chapter: Regarding 6th Chapter: Regarding and Bhūmidevī, two consorts 7th Chapter: Regarding sons and their families such as Manmatha, Rati, Aniruddha, Kuśa and Lava 8th Chapter: Regarding Brahmā 9th Chapter: Regarding Sarasvatī, Brahmā’s consort [L 43 r] 1st Chapter: Regarding Īśvara Īśvara is the highest among the Mummūrttis and is worshipped by most South Indians since his religion is the largest religion and is widespread over most parts of East India [i.e., eastern India]. His form is represented in many different ways, so much so that he appears in one temple in one way and yet in a different way in another temple, just because of the manifold appearances that the South Indians ascribe to him and [also because of the fact] that each time he has a different name. Should one consider him apart from Mummūrttis, he is portrayed as standing with four hands, two uplifted and holding a deer and a weapon He holds his other two hands open, just as they [i.e., South Indians] represent all the figures of their divinities in order to show that their deities are always ready to comfort and give [blessings] if one would take refuge in them. [L 43 v] He is portrayed as white. He wears a crown on his head. On his forehead he has three white stripes made with or ash of cow dung along with two dots: one represents his third eye. The South Indians draw the other dot on their forehead, as they smear themselves with the ash. Īśvara wears all kinds of jewels on his ear, neck, breast, arms and feet. Flowers that are joined together [i.e., flower garlands] are hung over his shoulders. His upper part is uncovered; around his waist he wears a belt and jewels on a colorful [piece of] cloth. He stands on a flower known as In this form he stands in the temples and is carried around during the festival days. Otherwise, he is presented sitting on an ox, exactly in such way as described thus far. At the same time, his consort Pārvatī is sitting in a chair [mounted] on the ox; the next chapter will deal with her. The ox on which he is sitting is the or the Nandikeśvara of whom much is written in their history books. One can see this ox in all the temples that are built [L page_68 Page 69 44 r] in honor of Śiva. When he is presented sitting on this ox, he is known as Candraśekharasvāmin. Most of the South Indians consider Īśvara to be a great god. As was mentioned in the first part [of the Genealogy] they identify him with Civam. Because of this, he has all the names of the Supreme Being with which it is named according to its attributes and receives all the service that is due only to the one [true] god. If one would consider him apart from his appearances, the South Indians speak and write of him just as file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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one would speak and write of the one [true] god. Should he be considered according to his appearances, then the descriptions about him in their or history books are almost always absurd. The South Indians tell of his 1,008 appearances that are supposed to have occurred in these kingdoms; they have specified the cities and areas in which such appearances and wonders are supposed to have happened. Such places are considered among them [the South Indians] to be holy, [L 44 v] and they have large temples and beautiful tanks for water purification. That is why they [i.e., the ponds] are frequented very much [by pilgrims] from other places, especially when festivals are held in these sites. When an annual festival takes place in any of these places, the South Indians reenact the history that is supposed to have happened with Īśvara in that place. In each temple of these 1,008 places he has a special name that is generally given in accordance with his appearance. Yes, every such appearance that is supposed to have occurred in that particular place is written in a history book; that is, each of the 1,008 places has its own written story that is read or sung in the temple of that place. One has to take note of his names that are—because of his various appearances—several and manifold. If a person is not aware of this, one will think that in each local, village and city temple of the South Indians a separate deity is being worshipped. [L 45 r] Among such names the following are the chief ones: 1. Civam, 2. Mahāśiva, 3. Svarganāyaka, 4. Sadāśiva, 5. Maheśvara, 6. Īśāna, 7. Rudra, 8. Candraśekhara, 9. Nandikeśvara, 10. Mādhava, 11. Hara, 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Nārībhāga, 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Valmīkanātha, 26. Kumbheśvaramūrti, 27. Viśvanātha, 28. 29. Cidambaramūrti, 30. 31. Devakānta, 32. 33. Vī-ravasanta, 34. 35. 36. 37. Ambikābhāga, 38. Cārntāraik kāttavar, 39. 40. Śāmbhu, 41. 42. 43. Purāntaka, 44. Bhūtanātha, 45. 46. Cuntravilli, 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. Nirmala, 54. 55. Paśupati, 56. Cualaiyāi, 57. Kālā 58. Kapālin, 59. [L 45 v] 60. 61. Nitya, 62. Aimuka, 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. Ānanda, 68. 69 a. Ananda, 69 b. Ādi, 70. 71. Nātha, 72. 73. Nagna, 74. 75. Vara, 76. 77. Yogin, 78. 79. Joti, 80. Brahman, 81. Bhinnaka, 82. 83. page_69 Page 70

84. 85. Mācillātavar, 86. 87. 88. 89. etc. One who does not know these and similar names will not understand their poetical books. Each and every name has its particular meaning and contains a special history. Some contain different histories; for example, the name which means ‘the lord of bliss’ and of whom 64 stories are told. The thirty-fifth name, means a person around whose neck hangs a thread with human bones, and is one of whom the South Indians narrate great stories. The 36th name, means a person who has mounted a horse. An extensive story is written about him: A person entrusted him money to buy horses for the king. [L 46 r] But he gave away the money to the temples and as alms. Finally, he turned 1,000 foxes to 1,000 horses. The thirty-eighth name, Cārntāraik kāttavar, means a person who protects those who go to him for refuge. The South Indians relate a story about him. The forty-first name, means a person who had danced with the devil. A story of the Bhadrakālī is narrated that seems to imply that danced with the Bhadrakālī. The sixty-second name, means a person with five faces with which the story of Śiva is connected. The sixty-fifth name, means a person with three eyes. With this name he seems to have accomplished several things. The stories that have been written about this Īśvara are so many that one should write many volumes if one would summarize all the books. This is not the goal of the Genealogy. With reference to his many-sided names and stories one should know that [the names of] the lines of many kings who had ruled these countries have gotten jumbled with the stories of the deities. Many kings have their [court] poets with them. Through their poetic skill they explained the deeds of their patrons as wonders. In that way [L 46 v] many of the kings came into the list of the deities. They [poets or people] believed of them [i.e., the kings] that they were the Īśvara who is said to have reigned at different times in different places and performed many good deeds. The three dynasties and ruled among these South Indians for a long time and contributed much to the very beautiful temples and tanks, and [rendered] other valuable services to the worship of gods. Hence, very many kings of such families are listed among the gods and they retain their [own] names. They are understood to be Īśvara on grounds that it is generally written that such kings did not die a natural death, but went into the figure alive, in the presence of all people. Hence, the South Indians arrive at the conclusion that they must have been Īśvara. In this understanding they built for their kings temples and consider them as Īśvara-temples. Thus one could easily estimate how many temples Īśvara would have among the South Indians. First of all

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there are 1,008 major temples in those places where he is said to [L 46 a r] have appeared. Besides, one would find [his temples] also elsewhere, especially a temple in every city or in [every] respectable village that has been built in his honor. The images found in these temples are as follows: 1) The which stands in the innermost part of the temple and is worshipped thrice daily with offerings. This adoration is for Īśvara and Pārvatī, who are to page_70 Page 71 seen here as Civam and Śakti. 2. The image of Īśvara that is called Aiyar meaning the ‘lord’ stands in full human form and is worshipped not only during the days of fasting and festivals, but also on other days with offerings. 3. The image of Pārvatī is Ammai meaning the ‘lady.’ Along with Īśvara she gets the same worship. 4. The image of Vighneśvara. 5. The image of Subrahmaya and his two consorts and 6. The image of Nandikeśvara. Not only the ox is meant by this term, but also the human form in which Nandikeśvara is said to have revealed [L 46 a v] many secrets in this world. He is one of those who are closest to Īśvara. Hence, he receives some adoration. 7. Cidambareśvara, who is Śiva himself and is portrayed as dancing in a temple and has his consort standing beside him. 8. Candraśekhara is, similarly, Īśvara, and is carried around on an ox on festival days along with his consort. 9. Dvārapālakas are the doorkeepers of Śiva. 10. the consort of whose image is of stone, is worshipped in a separate chapel. 11. who obtained a great bliss through his holy life on this earth, is [now] always around Śiva and is therefore adored along with others. 12. Cuntaramūrtti is one of those persons who, because of his holy life, has obtained a place near Īśvara. 13. Bhairava is portrayed fully naked. He is said to be [placed] near Īśvara. Some say that Īśvara himself appeared in this form. Otherwise, he is believed to protect possessively all hidden treasures. Only through his favor and help would one be able to find and dig them out. [L 47 r] 14. Candra and Sūrya are the sun and moon. In some temples, certain images or pictures represent them, yet in other [temples] they are shown only as two burning lamps. The South Indians venerate the sun and moon not only through their prayers but also with their offerings. Especially, they have chosen Sunday to be a general festival day. Accordingly, some are accustomed to fast in honor of the sun. Also, there are some months in which they fast all the four Sundays in honor of the sun. This fasting is known as the viratam or simply as They are accustomed to venerate other planets only with words. 15. are the guardians of the eight cardinal points of the world and are worshipped in their images. 16. -mūvars are the sixty-three persons who were taken into bliss visibly by Īśvara. For this reasons they are adored in his temples. However, they are found only in big temples. In a temple there are more or fewer images according to its big or small size or its rich or poor income. [L 47 v] All these images are partly hewn of stone and partly cast of metal. The stone images remain always standing in one place. However, during the festival days the metal images are carried around in the streets. Besides, there are images made of wood that represent birds and animals and that are used to carry about the [divine] images. If the temples are big, they have huge temple cars used to carry about the images of deities once in a year. Such temple cars have six wheels, rise up as towers and have carved pictures on all sides that depict the stories of Īśvara. At the time, when the temple cars are drawn around, the South Indians decorate them attractively and hang bells. In each temple car there are Brāhmins, female servants of gods and musicians. Each temple car is bigger than the other is. Often 500 to 1,000 persons must pull the temple car and many page_71 Page 72 instruments are needed at its back to make it move forward. Usually there are five such cars in each temple. On the first car, Īśvara [L 48 r] is drawn about, on the second Ammai or Pārvatī, on the third Vighneśvara, on the fourth Subrahand on the fifth When they draw them [the temple cars] about, the following [ ] order is followed: First [the car with] Firs[the car with] Vighneśvara, second third Īśvara, fourth Ammai and fifth are pulled around. In a letter addressed to us [the missionaries in Tranquebar] a South Indian has written about the principal servants of Īśvara, whom we [the missionaries in Tranquebar] have just mentioned and who along with Īśvara also receive honor and offering, as follows: “ is the bearer of the sombrero and allows himself to be sent on an errand here and there. He has great power, but gets neither worship nor offering. Nandikeśvara is Īśvara himself, who came into this world with this name as a great saint and taught everyone the holy teachings. Among us, the people, he has his festivals, offerings and all other adoration. What is presented to Īśvara is also given to him. was a man who lived according to the will of the lord with singleness of heart and adored him for a very long time with praise and worship, on account of which he became one with god. [L 48 v] That is why we make him an image, place it in the temples and adore him because god with whom he had become one file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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said: ‘Every person who comes to worship me should also worship He who does not worship him simultaneously will not obtain the reward that he would expect for worshipping me.’ Dvārapālakas are the guardians who stand watch near the door that leads to god. They would first inquire about which deities wished to come to god. After receiving [god’s] permission they would allow the deities to proceed to god. Those who want to proceed against the guardians’ will receive severe punishment. Bhairava is Īśvara himself. Among his 1,008 appearances he once appeared with the name Bhairava. It is also said that Bhairava is the protector of the mountain Kailāsa. In addition, it stands also written that there are 80,000,000 Bhairavas. One would also bring offerings to them. The masters of witchcraft and those who practice all sorts of black magic [L 49 r] have chosen Bhairava and his adherents to be their patron[s]. They bring him offerings so that he will help them in their tricks. At the same time, this Bhairava is said to have been placed above all the hidden treasures, above all silver and gold in this world, so that he can guard and give [them] to him whom he desires. The are sixty-three persons of whom each one had a great faith in god, lived a holy life and obtained bliss in a special way. That is why their images are cast in important places so that they could be carried around on festival days. They are always around god, dedicate themselves for prayer and meditation, perform holy works and procure from god much good for the people,” etc. Regarding the festivals that are celebrated by the South Indians in honor of Īśvara one has to know that he has, according to his 1,008 appearances, 1,008 annual festivals. In each and every place where he appeared a festival is celebrated in [L 49 v] memory of that appearance. On this festival day that story is page_72 Page 73 dramatized as a comedy that took place in that location. Apart from them he has two great festivals: one festival is the or the [During this festival] the marriage of Pārvatī is demonstrated and lasts for nine days. The images are carried around daily in the street with ringing [music] and song. The ninth day is the time when the temple cars mentioned above are drawn around. In some famous places this festival is celebrated for thirty days. The second festival is the or It lasts for a whole month, during which offerings are made frequently, especially to the image of Īśvara which is presented as Cidambareśvara in his dancing position. During this festival the special dance of Īśvara is performed. The last day of the month is most glorious, when the South Indians, with much noise, carry around the images of the deities. [L 50 r] Apart from the many festivals, Īśvara also has other great celebrations. First, of the seven days of the week, Monday is fixed for a festival. Second, the fasting Piratōcam is observed twice a month. Through such fasting all the sins committed during the fifteen days are believed to be forgiven. Third, on the first day of the month there is always the festival which is observed by fasting in honor of Īśvara. Fourth, the first day of the year is always such a [day of] festival, which is known as the Fifth, they have a night of fasting known as the Śivarātri. They celebrate it with bathing and offerings. Similarly, they end the same day with fasting. This night of fasting falls once in a year in February. Sixth, they have an annual fasting, the Kedāragaurīvrata, which is celebrated in October. Seventh, they make all the Mondays of November special festival days. Eighth, they have an annual fasting in August that is known as the In addition, those who have lost their parents have their [L 50 v] monthly and annual fasting days. The monthly fasting day is called Amāvasyā and the yearly fasting is known as the Tithi. Both fasting festivals are held in honor of the deceased persons, in whose name the South Indians distribute much alms, especially on the day known as the Tithi, and call on Civam or Īśvara so that it may be well with the souls of the deceased persons. In general one should know about the eight fasting times mentioned above that in them Īśvara, along with his consort, is worshipped with many offerings. He is adored in his temples on such days or carried around during the festival days. One should also know that such fasting is left up to the free will of each and every person. He can either do it or leave it. During such fasting Īśvara, in the name of Civam, is praised, worshipped and adored in many ways. Regarding the books: among the South Indians are found very many books about Īśvara which they have written. As mentioned above, an orderly history is written about each appearance that took place in a particular site, [L 51 r] so that as many history books are written about him as there are great temples built in his honor. All these are summarized in the twenty-four books known as the Āgamas. There are also four law books [the Vedas], six Śāstras or schools of theology and eighteen mostly written only about Īśvara. Among the and other books the following are the most famous: 1) is an old page_73 Page 74 history book. It contains many stories that occurred in a particular place, Vātūr. It happened when Īśvara, in the form of a teacher, had a disciple with the name who had spent his large wealth to build

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temples, and tanks, and performed many miracles with the help of Īśvara. 2. [L 51 v] relates a story of a son of a Brahmin. According to the decree of Īśvara, he was to live only sixteen years. Actually, it meant that he should no die, but remain [always] only as a sixteen year old boy. Since the god of death did not know of this restriction, he wanted to take him away in his sixteenth year. Īśvara appeared from the image Liga and killed Yama, the god of death. Afterwards, at the request of other gods, he made him alive. 3. contains the story from which afterwards the annual fasting [festival] Śivarātri was derived. 4. is the biggest history book. It contains many stories of Īśvara. 5. contains those stories that happened in the place Viruttāccalam. [L 52 r] 6. contains different stories such as the marriage of Īśvara with Pārvatī, who was born to the monarch of all fourteen worlds, and was named as the Mahādevī. It also contains the story of the strict religious austerities of Śūrapadma, for which he obtained great powers from Īśvara. Later, he became so tyrannical that there began a great war of gods against him, in which the tyrant was killed, etc. 7. relates extensively the story that is said to have happened in the place 8. is a history book on the wonders of Īśvara that are believed to have happened in the place Maturai. 9. Ēkāmparanātarulā contains the story of wonders that Īśvara as Ekāmparanātha is said to have performed among the South Indians. [L 52 v] 10. Citamparamālai is a book of praise, in which the deeds of Īśvara are mentioned and praised that he had performed under his name [i.e., in his appearance] Cidambareśvara. 11. Tiruvārulā contains a story that is believed to have happened with Īśvara, under his name Tyāgarāja, in the place Tiruvārūr. 12. explains the deeds that Īśvara is said to have performed under his name at 13) Uttirapōtakam is a song of praise about Īśvara when he [had appeared] under his name Mayilāppūr at St. Thome and performed great deeds, and is worshipped there. 14. is a song of Īśvara during the time when he was known as 15. is a similar song of praise on Īśvara. 16. Paramarakaciyamālai is a book with 100 songs to call on Īśvara, to exalt him according to his wonders and to request him for some favor [L 53 r]. 17. Tērūrntavācakam is a history book that relates how Īśvara took up a king to himself. 18. contains 100 songs about Īśvara, composed by the author First, he was a poor drummer. Later, he became an excellent poet. 19. describes and praises Īśvara according to his excellence. 20. In 64 games are explained that Īśvara, under his name as in the area of Maturai had played. 21. is a booklet that is sung to the dying when they are agonizing [with a request] that Īśvara should deliver them from the pain of death and bring their souls into bliss. 22. is a history book in which those wonders are related [L 53 v] that Īśvara is believed to have performed in the city Kāśī. All the above-mentioned and many similar books are written in poetry. They are still read by many page_74 Page 75 South Indians and taught in schools, even though only a very few [of the pupils] in schools would understand them correctly. Regarding the place where Īśvara is supposed to live, the South Indians write that he is omnipresent. Nowhere can he be confined; but at the same time they believe his actual residence is on the mountain Kailāsa [for the following reason]. At one time Īśvara had given Śūra, on account of his two thousand years of severe religious austerities, the power over the fourteen worlds and all other glories, so he himself had no other place to live. Hence, he had to request Śūra for a place where he could stay. Śūra ceded Īśvara the mountain Kailāsa for his residence. From that time forward until now, he is said to have resided there. In their books the South Indians write about this residence very magnificently, but also in an absurd way. [L 54 r] In conclusion, it will be useful to quote the following passage from a letter that a South Indian has written about Īśvara [and sent] to us. He writes: “How Īśvara took up his beginning, and how he originated from eternity, cannot be investigated. His beginning is far superior to that which anyone could recognize. It is also not written in any law book [i.e., the scripture] how he originated, and how far his power and glory extend. Neither humans nor anyone else could investigate his beginning. Regarding the place in which he lives: one should know that he dwells in a place as bright as light, above the fourteen worlds, above the one hundred and eight regions of the heavens and above the two hundred and twenty-four spheres of life. [L 54 v] There is a mountain full of silver. Kailāsa is on [the top of] this mountain. There he sits on a throne made of precious stones. His activities are as follows: he always has a holy mind, gives all the living creatures what they need for their sustenance. According to his grace, he takes care of all created beings, and gives bliss to them who perform good deeds and live in virtues. He also protects all the rest of the creatures and sustains them. One can think of him as a holy person; he is given to spiritual meditation. He has a spiritual form but is presented by means of various images. He neither eats nor sleeps. He shows love and mercy to all people

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and creatures. All the deities and the creatures, that are born according to his will and die again, testify to his glory. [L 55 r] Everything that happens in this world gives testimony of Īśvara’s great glory. Without his power, nothing can stir or move in this world. He has five faces. They are known as Brahmā, Rudra, Maheśvara and Īśvara. Through them he functions to create everything, sustain everything, deliver everything, cause everything to die, and give everything bliss. He is the lord with five faces who accomplishes everything in everything, and is both visible and immaterial. He is presented in different ways. He is clothed with the sun and the moon. Whenever he opens and closes his eyes there is a new attribute to be observed. All the worlds cannot comprehend him. Of all the worlds, he is the only One and [also the] eternal One. Īśvara’s actual being and his attributes can neither be compared nor spoken of with words,” etc. The correspondent writes further: “The offerings page_75 Page 76 that are given to Īśvara [L 55 v] consist of drink, food and burnt offerings. For a drink offering all those things that belong to Pañcadravya, such as cow milk, molten butter, honey, sugar, lemons, figs and balsam, flowers, oil, etc., are mixed together. This mixture is poured on the head of Īśvara. Thus, he is anointed. For a food offering milk, cream, butter, raw rice, cooked rice and all other edibles are mixed together. They are [then] placed together in front of Īśvara. Similarly, a burnt offering consists of different elements that produce a good aroma and are burnt with charcoal on a censer, and thus, Īśvara’s image is incensed thrice a day. The person who serves Īśvara consistently and adores him in a proper way, will receive Īśvara’s bliss not to be born and not to die again. Regarding the question whether there is a difference among Śiva, Rudra and Īśvara, I answer: [L 56 r] there is no difference among them. Even though in a temple there are often twenty-five images to which offerings are made, there is only One [Supreme Being] in whom all these meet together. Also, there is no difference between the and Īśvara. All things amount to one Supreme Being in whose honor everything is performed. Such a Supreme Being is nothing but Īśvara, nothing but Rudra and nothing but Śiva, and nothing but all other gods. Finally, all of them converge [lit. all them have their end] in this Supreme Being. Such a concept is written in our theology. We [the South Indians] do not follow one single rule. There are many religions that have special rules and ways of worship. Moreover, it is also said that God, the Supreme Being, has six faces. Among them, the five are visible and material. According to them, everything that pertains to religious matters happens in the world. But the one face is invisible and immaterial. No one can [rightly] discern [L 56 v] its form, its origin and its end. Accordingly, god the Supreme Being is a spiritual and incomprehensible being. If we know him as a spiritual being, all plurality will be lost and nothing remains but the only One who is the flawless, eternal, holy and only God. [Now] we know him only according to his five faces. Accordingly, all our religious matters are arranged symbolically. If one would do all these things with understanding, one will rise above everything that is done symbolically and get to know god according to his only [i.e., true] face.” etc. 2nd Chapter: Regarding Īśvara’s two consorts Pārvatī and The South Indians ascribe to Īśvara two consorts. They name the one Pārvatī and the other or Regarding Pārvatī, [one should know that] she is the origin of Śakti, whom we have already mentioned in the fourth chapter of the first part. [L 57 r] Just as the South Indians consider Īśvara to be Civam and do not make any difference between them, they similarly regard Pārvatī to be Śakti and do not make any difference between them. They speak of Pārvatī as the mother of all the worlds and that she rules everything with Īśvara. She is depicted as the greatest goddess in whom all other goddesses are included. They also say that she is only symbolically considered the consort of Īśvara. In reality she is said to be an unblemished virgin who does not know anything of sexual intercourse and is portrayed in the full form of a woman with four hands. She page_76 Page 77 raises two hands high and holds in them two weapons called Tamarukam and Pāśa. She has folded her [other] two hands and they are empty. She has a crown on her head. On her forehead she has the mark of the ash that is prepared from burnt cow dung. The color of her body is green. [L 57 v] She is decorated with jewels on her ears, neck, breast, arms, hands and feet. Serially connected flowers [i.e., garlands] hang over her shoulders. She stands on a flower. In the temples, one could find her image cast in this position standing near Īśvara. In some temples, she is represented in other ways. This Pārvatī does not have her special [i.e., own] temples, but is always worshipped in the temples of Śiva. However, her cast-image does not stand near Īśvara in a single room, but she has her own special chapel within the temple of Īśvara in which she is venerated separately in her stone image. All those offerings that are made to her are also made to Īśvara, file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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because he never receives the offerings without his consort Pārvatī participating in it all the time. In the she is venerated along with Īśvara daily in a special way. [L 58 r] All the offerings that are made to her have the identical characteristics of the offerings made to Īśvara, but the method of worship differs between them. Moreover, just as Īśvara has many names and is called differently in different temples, Pārvatī too has different epithets. In every temple she is named differently. One has to observe this so that one would not think that many goddesses are worshipped with such epithets, but indeed only Pārvatī is meant. The wellknown names by which she is known are the following ones: 1. Ammai, 2. Śakti, 3. 4. Devī, 5. 6. Gaurī, 7. 8. 9. Kā 10. Ambikā, 11. 12. Śāmbhuvī, 13. 14 a. Parai, 14 b. Civai,12 15. Mukkapārvati, 16. 17. 18. [L 58 v] 19. 20. Abhirāmavallī, 21. 22. Sundarī, 23. 24. 25. 26. Cittampalatti, 27. Cempukanācci, 28. Ku 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. Ambujavallī, 35. 36. Kamalāttai, 37. Aghoraśakti, 38. Nampikkainācci, 39. 40. 41. Vicuvāttainācci, 42. 43. Uttarapatiyammai, 44. Citravalli, 45. Cittirainācci, 46. 47. Ekkālatēvi, 48. 49. Pēycci, 50. 51. Śivatārā, 52. Śivakāmasundarī, 53. 54. 55. 56. Īśvarī, 57. Parameśvarī, etc. All these names have their special meaning and their special histories that are written here and there in the books. [L 59 r]. Regarding her festivals: one must know that during the festivals that are celebrated in honor of Īśvara, she is also venerated and her image is carried around through the streets. Among her festivals, the most glorious one is the It is celebrated every year in July for nine days in which her image is carried around through the streets with great pomp. On the ninth [concluding] day she is [seated] on a temple car and the car is drawn through the streets. In addition she has annually in the month of December a special day of festival and page_77 Page 78 fasting that is known as the Tiruvātirai. On this day amidst ringing [bells] and [singing] songs [i.e., ceremonially], they carry her image about through the streets. The wives fast and request Pārvatī to help their husbands, to grant them health and all happiness. Moreover, every month all the women observe two days of fasting known as the which occurs fortnightly. During this time they fast, make sacrifices to Pārvatī, praise her and call on her that she might give them children and grant their husbands a long life. [L 59 v] One finds [at least] something about Pārvatī written in many books. The South Indians also have books that deal with her specifically. Among them the following are the famous ones: 1. Apirāmiyantāti, which is a book of praise, in which Pārvatī is praised and adored in such as way as she is known as the Abhirāmī. She is known as Abhirāmī in the place 2. Ampikaimālai is, similarly a book of praise, in which Pārvatī is called upon when she [under the name of] Ambikā has performed this and that [i.e., several things]. 3. Mātumaimālai which booklet consists of praise for Pārvatī as she was known as Matumai. 4. Cavuntaralakari in which the beauty and glory of Pārvatī are praised because her name Sundarī means the beautiful lady. 5. Civakāmicavuntarimālai which contains 102 songs. In this book Pārvatī has the name Śivakāmasundarī. According to her glory she is praised and exalted [in this book]. All these books are learnt by the youth in their schools. [L 60 r] Everything that has been said about Pārvatī until now is summarized by a South Indian in a letter addressed to us from which we quote the following. He writes: “Pārvatī originated in the Supreme Being as it wanted Śakti to become the mother of all the living creatures [lit. worlds] because [the word] Pār means the world and earth, and [the word] Pārvatī indicates that she is placed above the world as a mother and ruler. One could consider her a goddess and a consort of Īśvara. However, one should be aware that it is symbolic, because, after all, she is an unblemished virgin. One considers them husband and wife because of the belief that everything happens in heaven as it does on the earth. We on this earth do not have any other symbol with which we can think of Īśvara and Pārvatī. As far as Pārvatī’s form is concerned, she is portrayed in the form of a human [i.e., a woman]. Actually, one cannot say [L 60 v] that she is shaped in a particular form, because she has such power that she could assume any form that she wishes. Her radiance and brightness exceed 10,000,000,000 suns. She can in terms of her glory neither be fathomed nor compared with anything. Since you [the missionaries in Tranquebar] ask me what she is doing in the presence of Īśvara, I reply that she looks with graciousness upon all people and the rest of the creatures. She praises and adores Īśvara in such a way that he governs, sustains and delivers all things graciously. She has kind compassion, love and mercy toward all [beings]. All such things are the delightful sports of god, the Supreme Being. He has established everything in this way so that we can [get to] know him. This Pārvatī is [very] good towards all of humankind. She intercedes with god and procures bliss for the person who has love, faith and trust in her file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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and lives according to her will. Indeed, she intercedes [through prayers] for all hupage_78 Page 79 man beings whom she wishes to deliver graciously. She is a good mother who helps and redeems being also gracious [L 61 r], merciful and loving. Since you [the missionaries in Tranquebar] ask how many children Pārvatī has, I reply that Brahmā, Rudra, and Vināyaka are her children only; but these children are not born in a natural way as other [human] mothers do. When god thought that he needed such persons to accomplish some functions, they came into being at the same time and are considered Pārvatī children. Regarding the state of bliss in which Pārvatī finds herself: one should know that she enjoys a bliss that it is freed from all evil and is associated with everything that can be considered good. The offerings that we bring to her are identical with those made to other deities, but only the prayers are different. The way in which we bring offerings to Īśvara is the same as we offer to Īśvarī. Apart from the prayers that are used there is no other difference. [L 61 v] It is because Pārvatī, the almighty mother, has her specific books of praise [i.e., of hymns]. She gives her worshippers great happiness, a complete life of pleasure, riches and constant health. An annual festival, known as the is celebrated in honor of her and Īśvara. It presents both of them as if they were married. All sins will depart from one who visits them at the festival, honors them and distributes alms,” etc. The other [consort] is presented as a half woman and a half fish, just like a Siren swimming on the water. She is considered the goddess of water, especially the rivers with sweet water, which is why all the rivers, in which the South Indians bathe, are known commonly as She has two folded hands in the form as if she was praying. She wears a crown on her head. On her forehead she has the mark of the holy ash. She wears all kinds of jewels [L 62 r] on her ears, neck, breast, arms, hands, and around her body. Flowers [i.e., garlands] hang from her shoulders. The figure of the does not stand in any temple and is not worshipped with offerings as is Pārvatī or any other goddesses, but her worship consists of taking baths in rivers or reservoirs with solemnity according to fixed ceremonies in which one recites all kinds of prayers and praises and venerates her husband Īśvara. The South Indians serve her in this way. One can consider all those numerous books that deal with water rituals as hymns of praise for Otherwise, there is no particular book written for her. One can find some reference to her in the history books. This has several festivals that are celebrated [L 62 v] only through much bathing in rivers and reservoirs. Ritual bathing occurs weekly, especially Mondays, Wednesdays and Saturdays. Many days and even whole months are fixed for ritual baths. Since there are many rivers that the South Indians consider holy in this country, each river has its special days of [ritual] bathing to which people from distant places make their pilgrimages. For example, in the city of Māyūram, the whole month of October is spent in bathing in the river [Kāvēri]. This festival is the Aippacitulākkāvēri. People go there on a pilgrimage from other cities and villages. Similarly, there page_79 Page 80 are other places where there are rivers and special festivals for [ritual] bathing. The river is very famous. On account of its sanctity the South Indians have named it Moreover, besides the there are eight more rivers that the South Indians consider [L 63 r] the holiest. Bathing in them would remove all sins. Since they live far away, many pilgrims go there and collect that water in copper jars. The water bought from them is considered very sacred [lit. a sanctuary]. A common bathing festival, known as Māmakam, occurs on a special day once in twelve years at in the Kingdom of Tañcāvūr. It is celebrated in honor of There is a very big pool in which water rises at a specific time of a particular day. On that day, many thousands of people bathe in it. This bathing is believed to take away their sins. That is why many South Indians go there often on a pilgrimage. There are very many such wonders that the South Indians tell of the rivers. Moreover, they have two great annual festivals. During this period many of them go on a pilgrimage to the sea and bathe in the sea water. One such festival occurs once in twenty-five years [L 63 v] and is known as the The other festival falls in May every year and is known as the The ceremonies that the South Indians follow during their [ritual] bathing are described briefly in South Indian Society [lit. Malabarian Heathenism] written two years ago [in 1711 by B.Ziegenbalg]. An entire chapter deals with water purification ceremonies. Similarly, on account of this or that history has different names. Nine of them are as follows: 1. Varanati, 2. Jāhnavī, 3. Mandākinī [lit. Mantirakiri], 4. Tiripatakai, 5. Curanati, 6. 7. Bhāgīrathī, 8. and 9. Moreover, it is also said that she [i.e., the river ] lies [hidden] in the hairlocks of Īśvara. The poets write all kinds of fables about A South Indian has written to us [the file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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missionaries in Tranquebar] a letter about her origin, how she became the consort of Īśvara, her playmates and how she [L 64 r] is worshipped: He says: “ is one of the Śaktis. In this world she melts away [i.e., appears] in a thousand faces. She became Īśvara’s consort in the following way: Once upon a time when worshipped Brahmā with offerings and poured water at his feet, came down on the earth rushing as a great flood. Now the goddess of the earth was unable to bear it. For this reason she was very afraid. She went to Īśvara, informed him of it and worshipped him. Īśvara comforted her that she should neither fear nor be terrified. Then Īśvara tucked up Ga,gā on his head in the hair-lock. Hence, it is considered among us that Īśvara had married her as his wife. On that day she originated [L 64 v] in Bengal [in Northwest India] as a great river and spread itself in 1,000 veins that are her 1,000 faces. She is the goddess of all rivers and water purification. The worship that we offer her consists in this: one steps into the rivers with great respect, purifies himself according to fixed ceremonies, does not eat more than once a day, and always praises and exalts Īśvara, the sustainer of all living creatures near the rivers. It means that she herself is praised and worshipped. She has page_80 Page 81 eight virgins as her playmates. Their names are as follows: 1. Yamunā, 2. Godāvarī, 3. Sindhu, 4. Kāvēri, 5. Sarasvatī, 6. Narmadā, 7. [? and] 8. Kanyakā. Those who bathe in these and other rivers at an appointed time and according to fixed ceremonies, [they together with] their progeny will receive bliss. etc.” [L 65 r] 3rd Chapter: Regarding Vighneśvara, Īśvara’s older son After the two consorts of Īśvara are described in the previous chapter, a description of his sons follows. Actually, there are only two of them. One is known as Vighneśvara or Vighneśvara and the other is This chapter deals with Vighneśvara, and the next covers First of all, one has to know that the South Indians ascribe to their deities consorts and children, but not in the way as husband and wife together beget their children on earth. Even though the common people accept the stories written about the gods as true the educated people protest against them and state that all these things are narrated of the gods symbolically. [L 65 v] Regarding the origin of Vighneśvara’s existence: there are conflicting opinions. The Brāhmins state and write the following: At the time when Īśvara created the world, he planned for a quadrangular castle and spoke these words: vighneśvarāya It is believed that immediately Vighneśvara came into being and presented himself. Īśvara accepted him as his son. Others are of the following opinion: Īśvara and Pārvatī went into a forest and saw the world. When they had perceived that among the elephants a male and female were copulating, they too desired to have a son who would look like an elephant. No sooner they had thought such a thing, but Vighneśvara was born to them with an elephant’s trunk. Vighneśvara is represented in a sitting position with a fat belly. His head, trunk, eyes and ears are that of an elephant. [L 66 r] He wears a crown on his head, two flowers behind his ears and two hanging jewels on his ears. On his forehead he is smeared with the ash of cow dung. At his trunk he has two tusks. He raises two hands and holds in them the noose Pāśa and the weapon that are used to direct an elephant. He folds his other two hands. In one of them he holds a piece of a tusk; in the other he holds a pancake, because it is said of him that he is a glutton for pancakes. Around his neck he wears hanging jewels made from pearls and precious stones. On his four arms and feet he wears all kinds of jewelry. From his shoulders flower garlands are hanging down. One would find this image not only in all the temples, but also in the houses [situated just] in front of the temples [L 66 v] and along the streets. Normally, half of his image is carved of stone so that one can see the head, trunk, ears and upper body of an elephant. In some temples he is also found [in a] standing [position]. Vighneśvara has his special chapel in all the temples of Īśvara in which his image, which is either carved out of stone or cast of a metal, is worshipped with offerings. The South page_81 Page 82 Indians build for him special temples. Actually they build him numerous temples. In the area where the Śivabhaktikāras are living no place can be found where there is not a temple built for Vighneśvara. Such temples are rather small, have [only] one room, are seldom surrounded by a wall and stand usually along the way or a street so that everyone should pass [them] by. As he is considered the most favorite son of Īśvara, the South Indians offer him all the divine honors that they offer to Īśvara [L 67 r] himself. He also has similar names. In the temples of Īśvara he receives his fixed offerings daily. In his own temples he is adored twice daily, thrice or even four times with offerings that are similar to those to Īśvara and Pārvatī. His image is in almost every house and is adored by men and women, sometimes only with devout gestures and complimentary words, and sometimes with offerings and real worship. The latter happens especially if a person wants to begin something important, because the South Indians say that nothing will succeed if it is file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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not begun in the name of Vighneśvara. Hence, even if they want to bring a pleasing offering to other deities, they keep a figure of Vighneśvara standing beside them, call on him first so that he would make everything succeed and be acceptable to his father [L 67 v] and thank him at the end for the help and support that he has rendered. It is true that among the South Indians, one rarely finds any book on the first page of which a word of praise for Vighneśvara is not written. Just as Īśvara and Pārvatī and other gods have many names, Vighneśvara also has many names and is known with different names in different places. Among his names the following are the well-known ones: 1. 2. 3. Vināyaka, 4. 5. Kuñjara, 6. Vināyakamūrti, 7. 8. Pēr 9. Sandhyarha, 10. 11. 12. 13. Ambikātanaya, 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Heramba, 19. 20. 21. 22 and 23. [lit. 22. Vēkai, 23. 13], 24. Ākhuvāhana, etc. Regarding the days of feasting and fasting that are kept by the South Indians in honor of Vighneśvara, two days are special that are observed annually [L 68 r] at a specified time. The one is the On this day, they fast with the desire to learn well and to receive good understanding, wisdom and discernment. On this day, generally, the figure of Vighneśvara is carried around through the streets. At the same time it receives in almost every house honor and offerings. The other festival is the and is observed especially so that all households remain in good order and multiply. They bake a lot of pancakes on this day and offer them to Vighneśvara in the temples as well as in the houses. After they have completed their fasting, they eat them up. Apart from these two days of feasting and fasting, Vighneśvara is also venerated during all the days of feasting and fasting [that are observed in honor] of Īśvara and Īśvarī. His figure is also carried around through the streets. The South Indians think very highly of him and believe that no offering will be pleasing to Īśvara, if his son Vighneśvara is not worshipped simultaneously. [L 68 v] Many stories about Vighneśvara are written in several books. They are nothing but fictitious fables. All their page_82 Page 83 poetical histories are indeed fables. Their content is mostly fables that the South Indians accept and believe as truth, however, without discernment. Among the books that are written particularly about him there is a special book that they call or It is a prayer book in which Vighneśvara is praised and worshipped. Moreover, as it has been already shown, he has the honor that in the beginning of almost all the books a saying is written to praise him. The South Indians place him near his father in Kailāsa and say that he is simultaneously present everywhere. A South Indian writes to us about Vighneśvara in the following manner: “Vighneśvara is considered to be a son of god. The way in which he became the [L 69 r] son of Īśvara is as follows: Once Īśvara and Īśvarī stood in a forest and looked at the world. At that time two elephants, a male and a female, came into their sight and copulated. As Īśvara and Īśvarī watched such a thing, they thought that they would have a son who would have the face of an elephant. When they were thinking such a thing, a son with an elephant face was born to them. Some relate and believe it as a truth. On the other hand, in our theology [i.e., theological books] the following reason is mentioned as the cause of Vighneśvara: At the time when Īśvara created all the worlds he seems to have made a plan for a quadrangular castle and spoke vighnesvaraya Immediately, Vighneśvara came into being. Just for this reason we are accustomed not to begin anything without first praising and worshipping him. [L 69 v] First, Vighneśvara’s temple is built in all the cities and villages. It is still our custom that when we lay a foundation either for a temple or for a house, or when we begin to think about a marriage, or when we take the children to school or when we want to begin any worldly thing, we always first praise and worship Vighneśvara. Before building other temples his temples are built first. Generally they are situated in the lanes and on the streets. In some places there are often four temples built in the corners of a lane. This Vighneśvara keeps watch so that no devil can come near us. The person who fasts on Fridays in his name and offers him coconuts may ask what is required and will get it. Many kinds of books are written that praise him. Usually, we use them to praise him. [L 70 r] Many wonders are narrated of him. Hence, one can find people who were earlier blind, but can see now, just because they went to his temples and called on him in love and faith. In some places he appears in a human form, announces the disaster that is about to happen, and stops it from happening. That is why he is given the name Āpattukkuk kātta Towards evening [i.e., the way of indicating: in the West] there is the place There in the temple of Vighneśvara all kinds of wonders happen. If something is stolen from a house and a particular person is suspected as a thief, he is taken to that temple of Vighneśvara and is forced to put his hand into boiling butter. If he is innocent, no harm is done to him, and his hand remains as it was before; but if he is guilty, [L 70 v] his hand is burnt and becomes ash. The reason why we build temples for Vighneśvara is this that he is the first and beloved son of Īśvara. Hence, the first offering is given to him. It is the Vināyakapūjā. He who makes offerings to him, receives good understanding, is free from

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poverty, attains wisdom and a good nature, lives long on this world page_83 Page 84 and enjoys all good things. There is the book Tēvakōrvai in which many histories about Vighneśvara are narrated,” etc. 4th Chapter: Regarding Subrahmaya, Īśvara’s second son, and his two consorts and The name of Īśvara’s second son is He is venerated highly by the South Indians, and even much higher than Vighneśvara. In their books one does not read anything about his origin or how he was born to Īśvara as a son. [L 71 r] Even the Brāhmins do not know anything, but contend that his origin cannot be fathomed. But when and how he got his six faces and twelve hands is written in the book It relates that on account of his two thousand years of severe religious austerities a giant by the name of Śūra or Śūrapadma attained a great power from Īśvara to rule over all the worlds and not be killed either by gods or even by Īśvara himself. Afterwards, he exalted himself in his government and treated the gods as [mere] slaves. Finally, at the supplication of the gods, Īśvara was moved to wage a war against this giant. Since Śūra had obtained a boon not to be killed either by Īśvara or by some of the other deities, [L 71 v] assumed a form with six heads and twelve hands, went against him on the [battle] field, pushed him from all the other worlds to the earth and killed him [there]. Soon after that is believed to have returned to his former bliss. is represented [in an image] with six faces and twelve hands. Since it is very difficult either to carve a figure with so many heads and hands from a stone or a cast it with a metal, it is customary to represent his figure in a temple with one head and four hands. He lifts up his two hands and holds often the weapon Vēl, with which he had killed Śūra. He holds his other two hands and they are open. He wears a crown on his head. His ears, neck, breast, lower parts of the body, arms, hands and feet are decorated in the same way as the South Indians are accustomed to decorate other gods. [L 72 r] He stands on a flower. A peacock stands close to him. This is the vehicle with which he is accustomed to travel. image stands in all the temples of Īśvara, especially in a separate chapel that is built for him within [the temples of Īśvara]. His two consorts are always standing near him, one to his right side and the other to his left. He receives his fixed [special] offerings at the time when offerings are made to and Īśvara. The South Indians have built him special temples in the places where his wonders are believed to have taken place. There he is worshipped three times a day with offerings that are similar to the drink, food and incense [i.e., burnt] offerings made to Īśvara. The South Indians worship as a true god and believe that he can deliver them and give them bliss. Yes, they even say that he is of the same substance with Īśvara, and hence he who worships him worships Īśvara himself. As page_84 Page 85 a result, just as Īśvara he also has such divine names that can be rightly said only of god, the Supreme Being. [L 72 v] Regarding his special names that he obtained on account of certain deeds and wonders, the following are the most notable ones: 1. Kantacuvāmi, 2. Vēlāyutacuvāmi, 3. Kumārasvāmin, 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Vīravēlar, 11. 12. Kumāra, 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Cēva 18. Senāpati, 19. Bhava, 20. Kadamba, 21. Vēl, 22. Guha, 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Aja, 32. 33. Viśākha, 34. 35. 36. etc. In honor of the South Indians choose Tuesday for their common day of fasting. Those who have chosen him as their principal god and wish to obtain something from him are accustomed to fast on this day. [L 73 r] Apart from the weekly days of fasting they also have an annual day of fasting known as the that is observed in honor of in October. On this day they call on him [requesting him] that he might destroy all enemies and deliver them from all their troubles. Moreover, he has his distinctive festivals in those places where special temples are built for him. There those stories are enacted as comedies that are believed to have happened in those places. Finally, his image is carried around in the processions through the streets whenever festivals are celebrated for Īśvara and Īśvarī. Along with them he receives the same worship and offering. Only the prayers that are recited at the offerings are different. Subrahmaya is mentioned very often in the history books that are written about Īśvara. The book [entitled] Kantapurāam deals with him [L 73 v] extensively. Two principal stories are narrated in it. The first story tells that he was sent by his father to destroy the plan of who had already deposed Īśvara from his divine file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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throne and wanted to install another god as the great god. On his errand let himself be stopped by women, who, at the order of made compliments to him and satisfied him with vocal and instrumental music. It is written everywhere that he is supposed to be a great lover of women. This is the reason why those virgins who serve in the temples and are known as the Devadāsīs allow themselves to be married to and celebrate their marriage with him. After that they have no freedom to marry [anyone], but only to prostitute themselves. The other story about him, as it has been already mentioned above, is found in the book [ L 74 r] and deals with the fact that he waged a war against Śūra and killed him. Otherwise there are special books written about him. Among them the following are the principal ones: 1. means ‘divine praise.’ In it is praised and adored for the deeds that he performed mostly in the city The name of its author is He was a drummer in the temple of Before his conversion, he lived a very wicked life, but on account of his conversion, gave him great page_85 Page 86 boons to perform wonders and write several books in meaningful and sophisticated verses. Other poets express their opinion that he did not write them according to the [academic] art [of composing poems], which he had never studied, but according to the inspiration of 2. in which is similarly described, praised and adored according to his glory [L 74 v], in so far as he is called The above-mentioned author has also written this booklet. 3. is a song in which is praised and exalted as Kumarar. 4. is a long song that is sung according to a musical art [i.e., specific melody and note] and deals with All these books are taught in their schools and learned by the youth so that they can sing them according to their customary melodies. A South Indian who is committed to writes about him in a letter to us as follows: “No one can know how old is and how he originated. It is not written in our law book when he began to be and how long [L 75 r] he has been a son of god. He assumed his form with six heads and twelve hands in the following manner: There was a giant with the name Śūra. For a very long time he performed severe religious austerities in the presence of god. Finally, god appeared to him and asked: ‘My son, you are engaged in very severe religious austerities. What do you want me to give you?’ Śūra replied: ‘I wish that you would give me the power to rule over all the worlds and that in these worlds I cannot be overcome in any way either by the gods, or by the kings or no even by your own five faces.’ On account of his long, severe religious austerities god granted him all such authority and gifts. Then he ruled very severely over the worlds. He enslaved all the gods who were living in these worlds so that they had to perform the most menial and abhorrent services. Because of this all the gods gathered together and went to Brahmā to complain [L 75 v] about the tyranny of Śūra. Brahmā directed them to He advised them to approach Śiva with their complaints. When they came to Śiva and presented their complaints, he comforted them and said: ‘Don’t be afraid. I will find a way to kill him.’ Then he blessed them and sent them away. He consulted with himself saying: ‘Behold, I have given him the authority and gift that he cannot even be overcome by my five faces and be killed. I cannot revoke what I have spoken once.’ Immediately he ordered to assume a form with six faces and twelve hands and to kill the rebel with his weapon the Vēl. Having received the blessing Subrah went out riding on a peacock and waged a war against Śūra. He expelled him from the [L 76 r] world of the gods so that he had to retreat to the earth and hide himself. But also came to the earth, encountered him behind [the place] He killed and triumphed over him at After he had overcome and killed him, he came to Tranquebar and was a bit shaky. Because of his shakiness he got the name From this epithet the name of the place Tranquebar is derived. His father took away his instability. In Tranquebar the name of his father Īśvara is Mācillātacuvāmi and means ‘the flawless god.’ Among us has various famous places. The following places are noteworthy: 1. 2. 3. Katirkāmam, 4. page_86 Page 87

and 5. Among all the places in the world, he lives especially in these locations. However, his actual home [L 76 v] is in the bliss of his father. Many wonders are told of him at the abovementioned location Katirkāmam on [the island] of Ceylon [modern Sri Lanka]. The Muslims considered him to be Katirnapi and worship him as one of their prophets. On the other hand, we the South Indians call him Katirkāmavēlar. The king of that place, who is called Kandarāja has chosen him to be his special deity. If something good or bad is going to happen to the king, appears to him first in a dream and reveals to him the future. According to this revelation, everything, whether it is good or bad, happens. Should

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his ministers or some enemies conspire against the king cunningly and plan an evil deed, reveals it immediately to the king so that they are caught and punished. For a very long time, up until the present, this has been happening. Moreover, if anyone [L 77 r] is lost in a forest, appears to them as a small boy of an accompanies them and says: ‘I will show you the right way. Follow me.’ After they have reached the right way, he shows them his original form, flies into the air and disappears. Both the Muslims and the people (lit: Malabarians) have seen these and other similar wonders with their own eyes. To those who have love and faith in him he offers all kinds of help and good deeds. If anyone enters into his presence in the temple, call on him in love and faith with a desire to get something, he gets what he wishes. If someone would lead those who are possessed of the devil into his temple and calls on him, the devils depart from them. Thus the insane people become sane. How much his lovers are esteemed in his presence can be seen from the following example. [L 77 v] One of them was a drummer in the temple of He was always with loved him, believed in him and became a holy man. Once, when he was serving the king came to the city and went into the temple to worship god. Even though heard and saw that the king was coming he did not stand up and respect him, but remained undisturbed in his meditation and worshipped The king turned around, saw him and asked who he was. Because did not get up when he came in, the king ordered his arrest. The ministers of the king told him: ‘Oh, King, this man was a favorite follower of It is not right for us to arrest and punish him.’ The king replied: Whoever he may be, [I do not care], arrest and bring him at once [L 78 r] to me. Immediately they brought him to the king. The king observed him and spoke to him: ‘What kind of a saint are you that you do not even care to stand up in my presence?’ The man answered: ‘I am a poor beggar and I do not understand anything.’ The king replied: They say that you are such a follower of that even I, the king, should not touch you. Now, immediately you should bring your god to this place. If not, I shall let you be cut into pieces.’ accepted it [the challenge] gladly. They erected for him a tent and kept him captured there. In this tent he called on and he came down in his form as riding on a peacock. The king was informed of it. He came, saw it with his [own] eyes, was astonished, honored greatly, fell down at his feet and confessed: ‘Earlier I did not know of your nobility. Forgive me for what I have done to page_87 Page 88 you.’ [L 78 v] Afterwards, wrote down many books that are learned in our schools. The reason why we worship and exalt is this: he is the son of the greatest god and there is no difference between him and god. Hence, all the honors that we offer him are equally acceptable to god, the Supreme Being, as if we offered them to him. If one would think of him as if he were the Supreme Being and call on him with the single mind in love and faith, he would receive everything that he desires,” etc. Two consorts are ascribed to One is and the other is is painted [lit. her skin is] brown and wears a crown on her head. Just as other goddesses she is adorned with jewels on her ears, neck, breast, hands, feet and over her body. She is represented with two hands. In the left hand she holds the flower Tāmaraippū. [L 79 r] Her right hand hangs down. On her forehead she has the sign of the oft-mentioned ash. reveals herself with the same jewels and position, but with one difference. In her left hand she holds a different flower known as the She is painted [lit. her skin is] fully yellow. From her nose a jewel is hanging down. The assumption that the gods themselves generally have two or more consorts has led the South Indians to accept the fact that one is allowed to marry two or more wives. But the two consorts of who are mentioned just now do not have their separate temples, but stand in the temples of their Subrah one on his left and the other on his right. They receive as much offering as gets. On all his festival days they too receive the same honor along with him. Moreover, in their honor a fast is observed [L 79 v] on Tuesdays every week. Sometimes they are referred to in the history books. Two special books are written about 1. is a book with 295 songs in which is praised and worshipped. 2. describes the history and glory of A South Indian has written to us in a letter about the origin and works of them both as follows: “ was born to a deer in a forest. As soon the deer had given birth to her, some basket-makers came to know of it, took the child with them and raised it. As she was growing up in the forest, came there and took her as his wife. is considered to be a daughter of Devendra. He was the king of the gods. He performed great religious austerities at the time when the giant Śūra ruled over all the worlds very tyrannically. He influenced Īśvara so much that he ordered to kill Śūra. After had

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returned to the world of the gods triumphantly from the battle [L 80 r], his marriage with was arranged. This is considered to be his first marriage. Afterwards he took as his consort. Regarding the offerings and the festivals that are kept in honor of them both, one has to know the following: the same offerings that are brought to are given to them. The same festivals are celebrated in their honor are usually observed in page_88 Page 89 honor of The responsibility is to grant children, expel sickness and all kinds of troubles, protect the people from devils and drive the evil spirits from the [demon] possessed people. At the great annual festivals in which the temple cars are drawn about through the streets, they [ and ] are also drawn out on the temple car of Especially on all Tuesdays and at the annual festival known as the [L 80 v], they receive their adoration and offerings richly. Regarding the question whether the gods and goddesses [in heaven] live just as the married people on the earth, I do not know anything further than what is written in our law book: there is nothing on the earth and nothing happens on the earth that is not in the heaven and is not happening there, though in a different way,” etc. 5th Chapter: Regarding Among the Mummūrttis the second person is who with his family is now to be considered in a separate section. Among the South Indians, [devotion to] constitutes the second great religion, known as the Just as those who are committed to the religion of Śiva, consider Civam or Īśvara along with his family to be the Supreme Being [L 81 r] and organize their entire religious service according to the books written about them, the consider Viu and his family to be the Supreme Being and organize all their religious activities according to the books that are written abou and his family. A South Indian has written about this in a letter to us as follows: “According to his origin is a divine being. The believe that is the highest Being and the Śivamatakāras think that Civam is the highest Being, but both of them are one. The worship and the offerings that the Śivabhaktikāras make to Īśvara are the same that the bring to All of them take place in honor of the one divine Being, even though the names, prayers, external ceremonies and nomenclature are different. The principal difference between the two religions is this: For their daily prayers the Śivabhaktikāras have [L 81 v] a prayer with five syllables. On the other hand, the employ a prayer with eight syllables for their daily worship. For their external sign the Śivabhaktikāras smear themselves with the ash Vibhūti or as well as with the cream of sandalwood. On their forehead they make a sign with the yellow cream [perhaps: ]. They also wear a rosary made of and use it to recite their prayers. On the other hand, the make a different sign on their forehead, which is known as the Tirunāmam. They smear themselves with the red [cream] They mix the cream of sandal wood with a yellow cream and produce the Gopīcandana and smear themselves with it. They also wear a rosary made of different beads known as the ” etc. is represented with four hands. He opens two of his hands, in order to page_89 Page 90 comfort and give. He raises up the other two. In the right hand [L 82 r] he holds the weapon Cakra and in the left hand another weapon known as the He did great deeds with these weapons. Hence, many of the followers of his religion get these weapons burnt in their arms with the hope that no evil can come upon them if they are marked with the weapons of their His body is painted green. On his head he wears a crown, and on his forehead the red sign Kastūri[tilaka]. In his hair, ears, neck, breast, body, hands and feet he wears all kinds of jewels made of pearls, precious stones, gold and silver. His clothes are embroidered with gold. Flower garlands hang deep down from his shoulders. He stands with his feet on the oft-mentioned flower In this form he stands in his temples and there are always two lamps burning beside him. The figure that is carried around in the streets during the festivals is cast of metals. [L 82 v] The figure that stands in the inner most of the temple, to which the daily offerings are made, is carved of stone. Among the South Indians has his separate temples everywhere. In some places they are big and in other places small. The following images stand in the temples: 1. The stone image of stands in the inner most room. Daily offerings are made to it just as many times as to the Liga in the temple of Īśvara. 2. The metal image of that, after an offering, is decorated with all kinds of jewels, especially at the time when it is spectacularly carried around in the streets. 3. His has her separate chapel and is worshipped daily [along with ]. Her image is partly carved of stone and partly cast of a metal. 4. The Dvārapālakas are the two doorkeepers who stand at the entrance of the innermost room and are represented file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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[L 83 r] as ugly. 5. Cellar [probably: ‘ son, wealthy man’) is a herald of and has a separate chapel. He receives some worship. At festivals he has to lead the procession. 6. Vaśīkara was a holy man and was promoted by to great bliss. That is why the South Indians built him a separate chapel and worship him as their saint, because he is supposed to influence greatly and to be close to him. 7. are the twelve servants who enjoy great favor On this earth they seem to have been holy men and followers of who founded, spread and consolidated the religion of The South Indians tell of them that took them alive visibly, their body and soul, into bliss. As a result now they have a special chapel in the temples of [L 83 v] and are worshipped with offerings. Their names are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Kulacēkara 9. 10. 11. and 12. 14 Moreover, the figure of the bird also stands in all the temples. This bird is considered to be the vehicle of on which he is supposed to fly. For this reason the South Indians regard it as very holy and have written large books about it. Generally, these books deal with the practical tricks that are given for black art. If the temples are big and are situated in sacred places one finds in them many more images [e.g., Hanumat] than are mentioned here. On account of his appearances and incarnations they are placed inside [the temples] and worshipped. page_90 Page 91 Regarding his incarnations, [one has to note that] they are reckoned to be ten, of which nine have already taken place. [L 84 r] The tenth one is yet to happen. The names of such incarnations are as follows: 1. Matsyāvatāra, in which he became incarnated as a fish. 2. Kūrmāvatāra, in which he was incarnated as a tortoise. 3. Varāhāvatāra, in which he incarnated as a pig. 4. Rāmāvatāra, in which he was born with the name Rāma as a human in this world. 5. Paraśurāmāvatāra, in which he ruled over the world as a king and had the name Paraśurāma. 6. Buddhāvatāra, in which he had a human form, lived in this world for some time, eradicated false religion through his twelve followers and established his own religion. 7. in which he was incarnated as a half lion and half man. 8. Vāmanāvatāra, in which he was incarnated as a Brahmin. 9. in which he lived with the name as a shepherd for a long time on this earth and 10. Aśvāvatāra, in which he will be incarnated as a horse at a future time, [specifically, L 84 v] at the end of the world.15 Here, the incarnations are given in the same chronological order about which a South Indian has written to us in a letter: “The first, second and third incarnations of happened in the great age that is known as the The fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh incarnations took place in the second great age known as the Tretāyuga. The eighth and ninth incarnations occurred in the third great age known as the Dvāparayuga. The tenth incarnation is yet to happen in the great age that the South Indians call Kaliyuga.” Thus he continues to write about the reason why had to be incarnated in such a way: “There were giants, kings and gods who, on account of their severe religious austerities, had obtained great power and authority. After they had received these things, they revolted, became proud [L 85 r] and even forgot god. According to their own thinking they did all kinds of evil things for the destruction of the world. took upon himself certain forms so that the world should not be destroyed completely through their vices, and he eliminated such people. This is the reason for his nine incarnations,” etc. It would be very extensive if one would describe here in detail all such incarnations as they are found in their history books. However, every incarnation has to be mentioned briefly so that one may know why it happened. Since there are different opinions regarding them, the ones written by the South Indians themselves in their letters will be quoted. Regarding the first incarnation, Matsyāvatāra, a South Indian writes [in a letter] the following: “There was a sage [lit. an ascetic] with [L 85 v] the name Somaśūra. He stole the four law books and hid them in the sea. For this reason assumed the form of a fish, swam into the sea and brought back the four stolen law books because he knew very well that if the people should live without a law book they would commit more sins. That is why he became a fish and brought back the law books. It is also often told that a great part of one law book was already consumed in the belly of the fish [Matsyāvatāra].” The second incarnation took place in the form of a tortoise, of which a South Indian writes [in a letter]: “Once the world began to sink; in order to save it became a tortoise. He set up the world on the head of a snake that was page_91 Page 92 resting on the tortoise. Others narrate the following [story] as the cause for the second incarnation: The gods seem to have desired to prepare the valuable medicine in the sea of milk. In order to churn [L 86 r] it they wanted the mountain Mantragiri as the twirling-stick. As the mountain did not move, they went to and lodged a complaint. Immediately assumed the form of a tortoise, traveled down into hell, loosened file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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the roots of the mountain and enabled it to be lifted up. Then the gods churned the sea of milk with this mountain and prepared the medicine. As poison fell into it, it could not become the medicine for immortality,” etc. The third incarnation happened in the form of a boar and is known as the Varāhāvatāra. A South Indian writes about it [in a letter] the following: “Two causes are mentioned why seems to have assumed the form of a boar. The first is this: human beings and all the creatures of the world began to sink down into the earth. saw it, took the form of a boar [L 86 v] and enabled them to come up and live on the earth. The other cause is this: Brahmā and argued [lit. fought] with each other as to which of them would fathom the height and depth of Īśvara. At once Brahmā soared high and wanted to see the head of Īśvara, and descended down in the deep and wanted to see the feet of Īśvara. For this reason he took up the form of a boar so that he could dig into the earth,” etc. The fourth incarnation took place in the form of a man with the name Rāma. A South Indian wrote the following about it [in a letter]: “There was a giant with the name In the presence of god he performed very severe religious austerities. As he was engaged in religious austerities god appeared to him once and asked what he wanted to achieve through the religious austerities. replied: ‘Oh! God, I wish that you make me the lord and king of the island Ceylon.’ God granted him this desire and made him the king of [L 87 r] Ceylon. After he had obtained such a kingdom, he became proud and annoyed and troubled the gods. On account of this all the gods gathered together, went to god and lodged a complaint with him about the tyranny of God comforted them and spoke: “Do not be afraid. There is a king with the name Daśaratha. He does not have any children. For a long time he has been engaged in severe religious austerities so that he would have children. I will cause to be born of him and destroy Surely, I will also cause Rāma and to be born as brothers. Following this, was born of this king, did great wonders, received Sītā as his wife and waged a war till was destroyed along with his entire family,” etc. [L 87 v] Similarly, the fifth incarnation happened in a human form with the name Paraśurāma. A South Indian wrote this about it [in a letter]: “there were seven kings known as the Saptarājas. They ruled very tyrannically, blasphemed the gods, did much evil to men as well as to gods and annoyed them. could not allow this anymore. So he assumed a human form, proved himself a courageous hero and wiped out the kings with their families and their castes [lit. generations, races] from the earth. This is his fifth incarnation Paraśurāmāvatāra.” page_92 Page 93 Similarly, the sixth incarnation happened in a human form and is called Buddhāvatāra. A South Indian summarizes it [in a letter] as follows: “There were two peoples: the Buddhists and Jains. They had a dangerous religion and produced many evil sects. They blasphemed [L 88 r] and forced other South Indians to accept their religion. If one would not accept it, they persecuted him very much. They smeared themselves neither with the nor with the Tirunāmam. They did not take care of the [ritual] purity of their body. Even though they worshipped images, they did not appear to be a people of any religion. They did not differentiate among the castes, but considered everyone to be equal. Thus the dignity and the esteem between the high and the low, between the learned and the unlearned was removed. They slandered the books of [our] theology and demanded that all the people should follow them. They dealt violently with those who did not accept them. Their religion was not similar to that of the South Indians, the Muslims and the Christians; it was a corruption of all religions. That was the reason that wanting to eliminate them, assumed a human form, associated with them as if he himself was [L 88 v] one of their priests, lived with them for a long time, ate and drank with them. After he had familiarized himself with their teaching and their lifestyle, he revealed his original form, ordained his twelve followers and servants known as the eliminated such religion completely and caused his twelve followers to establish his religion,” etc. The seventh incarnation happened in the form of a half lion and half man, and is known as the A South Indian writes about it [in a letter] as follows: “There was a great giant and a king with the name On account of his severe religious austerities he had obtained a gift from god that he could not be killed by anyone. After receiving such a gift he became very proud and ordered that all the people should not call on the name of god, but on his name only. At that time this was customary: when the people began to do something, they thought of god and said: O namo [ ]. Contrary to this he ordered that all the people should say: Should anyone call on the name of [L 89 r] instead of his name, he had him punished, tortured and persecuted. He had a son with the name Prahlāda. He was a All the time he said continuously: namo namo [ ]. spoke to his son: ‘What does it mean? All the people say: but you only say: namo [ ].’ For this reason the father wanted to punish him and was about to beat him, but the strokes did not materialize. He tried to kick him,

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but his kicking did not materialize. Then he caused him to be bound and thrown into the sea. No sooner they had thrown him into the sea than many fish caught hold of him, carried him on their backs and brought him to the shore. Again he caused his hands to be bound at his back and ordered that an elephant should trample on him. The elephant jumped and trampled on him. But for him such a trampling was as if a foot was placed on a flower. After this freed him and spoke to him thus: ‘Will you say: ? If you don’t, you must know [L 89 v] that I myself will have to punish you!’ The son replied to his father: ‘How can I say ? Who page_93 Page 94 are you? A god? Oh, no. You are also a man. Why should I say to you ?’ The father said to him: ‘You say always namo [ ]. Where is this namo ]?’ The son replied: ‘He is also in the pillar and even in the straw.’ Then the father spoke: ‘If so, show him to me at once.’ The son replied: ‘Yes, I will show you.’ Then he smote the pillars on which the house was built. came out of the pillar at once as a child. Immediately he assumed the face of a lion, tore open chest and pulled out the intestines from his body. This is the reason why the seventh incarnation is known as the ” The eighth incarnation happened in the form of a Brahmin and is known as the Vāmanāvatāra. A South Indian writes this about it [in a letter]: “The reason why appeared as a [L 90 r] young Brahmin is as follows: There was a king Mahābali or Mahābali Cakravartin or even [known as] He had obtained great gifts from the god and brought all the lands under his control so that he had no equal. If someone came and requested him for favor, he never granted [lit. refused] it. He disregarded the many great gifts that the person had brought. With violence he acquired all the lands of other kings, expelled and chased them out of their kingdoms. All the banished kings got together, went to the god and complained against Mahābali. On this, assumed the form of a young Brahmin, went to Mahābali and said: ‘Oh, King! Give me a village in your country as my property.’ After he had refused [to grant] such a request, he asked him for only as much land that he could measure with his three steps. The king replied: ‘You are a small boy. In what way will a landed property help you? I will give [L 90 v] you something to eat, take and eat as much as you like.’ The boy answered: ‘I belong to the Brāhmin-caste. I request you to give me a three-feet-land as my property that I can measure with my feet. Then I can practice my religious austerities.’ Then the king promised it to him, called his wife, asked her to bring a jar of water and poured the water on the hands of the boy as sign of assurance. Thus he got the permission [lit. his freedom] to measure a three-feet-land. When he measured the first foot, it included the whole globe. The second foot included the entire universe. And, when he asked where he should place his third foot, the king answered: ‘Place it on my head and measure.’ Just as he put his feet on his head and measured, the king was trampled down into the deepest hell. Then only did the king begin to realize that it must have been He humbled himself and spoke: [L 91 r] ‘Oh, god, I have a request. Please grant it to me.’ replied: ‘What do you expect from me? Tell it, and I shall grant it to you.’ Mahābali answered: ‘Allow me to see the world once in a year and order that on the same day a festival is celebrated in my honor.’ replied: ‘It is good, I shall order that all the people should celebrate a festival for you every year.’ This is the festival that is celebrated by us everywhere in November. At this time we burn a palmyra tree in front of the temples and enact the history of Mahābali,” etc. The ninth incarnation of happened in the form of a shepherd with the name For this reason it is known as the A South Indian page_94 Page 95 writes about it [in a letter]: “There was a king with the name Duryodhana. He had 120 brothers. Besides them there were five royal brothers known as the [L 91 v] namely, Dharma, Bhīma, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva. These five brothers had one wife with the name Draupadī. Through gambling Duryodhana acquired the kingdoms and lands of the five brothers so that they went [from the city] into a country and, [finally], into the wilderness. One of them, namely Arjuna, practiced great religious austerities in order to obtain the shooting-bow Pacupatam from to overcome and to kill Duryodhana. At the same time was born as a small baby and was raised among the shepherds. Later, he served as an ambassador of the five brothers to Duryodhana. As Duryodhana did not want to accept any agreement and to return their kingdom, they waged a war against him and overcame him with the help of and of the bow received from assumed his ninth incarnation in order to kill Duryodhana and his entire family, and to help the five brothers to get back their kingdom. [L 92 r] This ninth incarnation and the fourth one are the famous ones. In them with the name performed the most wonders. It is said that in the ninth incarnation he had 16,000 women. Actually, he protected them as virgins and entertained them with all kinds of stories. Later, of the five brothers, Dharma became a king. He was meek [lit. patient] and pious. After a file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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while, the five brothers left their kingdom, went away with Draupadī and wandered about to attain bliss. On their way four brothers and Draupadī died and only Dharma remained. Even he was taken up, body and soul [i.e., alive], by into the bliss of This is especially described in the book [entitled] Makāvintam just as the religious austerities of Arjuna are described in the book [entitled] [L 92 r] Since Dharma was taken up into bliss visibly, we build temples for him in which the images of Draupadī and his four brothers are standing. Every year we celebrate a festival in their honor in which the priests of such temples walk bare-footed through fire,” etc. The tenth incarnation of will happen in the future. It is known as the Aśvāvatāra. A South Indian writes about it [in a letter]: “At the end of the world, when it is about to be destroyed, last incarnation will happen in the form of a horse. It is written [in the law books] that he will come in such a form in order to destroy everything and to make an end to all things. We do not know what will happen to us afterwards. It is said that then a new sport of god will begin in creating other creatures and worlds,” etc. Apart from these ten incarnations is believed to have appeared in many ways in the world [L 93 r] among the South Indians. A South Indian writes about it [in a letter] as follows: came into this world not merely in his nine incarnations. Apart from these nine incarnations he appeared in this world many times and brought about various wonders. Sometimes he appeared as a child, sometimes as an old man, an ascetic, a beggar, and sometimes as a Brahmin who explained the calendar to the people. Thus he appeared many times to the people who finally recognized him. In those places where he appeared and performed great wonders grand temples are built. Among them the following places are the most famous ones: 1. Tiruppati, 2. 3. 4. Kōtāpuri, 5. page_95 Page 96 and 6. Śrī Rakam. In these places did many wonders. Hence, they are considered to be sacred places in which he lives [L 93 v] in a special way, and gives many gifts to those who come there to worship him,” etc. On account of his many incarnations and appearances has several names of which each contains a special history. However, the most famous names are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Caparirā 10. 11. 12. Harigovinda, 13. 14. Rāma, 15. 16. Gopālaka, 17. Vasudeva, 18. Mādhava, 19. 20. Vāmana, 21. Śrīdhara, 22. [i.e., Nandagopa], 23. 24. 25. Padmanābha, 26. Keśava, 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Kākutstha, 32. Govinda, 33. Acyuta, 34. Māl, 35. Vindu, 36 a. Trivikrama, 36 b. 16 37. Ādivarāha, 38. 39. Kēlvan, [L 94 r] 40. Dāmodara, 41 a. Murāri, 41 b. Nēmi,17 42. 43. 44. Vanamālin, 45. 46. Kalaśalocana, 47. Anantaśayana, 48. Pītāmbara, 49. Pañcāyudha, 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. Mukunda, 56. 57 a. 57 b. Ari (=Skt. Hari),18 58. 59. 60. 61. [i.e., Bharata], 62. [i.e., ], 63. 19 65. 66. Tirumalai, 67. 68. etc. is worshipped by those people who follow his religion just as Śivabhaktikāras worship their Civam or Īśvara. His image is worshipped with offerings three times daily. The Śivabhaktikāras carry around an image Liga with them and make offerings to it. Similarly, some of the [L 94 v] have an image of and other things needed for their rituals [lit. instruments for offerings] in their homes and daily offerings. Such people are the Tirunāma tīrttam who have their characteristic life style in their eating and drinking, and should not become defiled. They are similar to those Śaivas among the Śivabhaktikāras. Moreover, there is a separate people of an Order who call themselves [probably: tācar=Skt. Dāsa, ‘servants’20]. They are similar to the [Order of] among the Śivabhaktikāras. Otherwise, the have all kinds of prayers and many kinds of ceremonies with which each of them is accustomed to worship Regarding his festivals, one has to know that among the South Indians he has as many festivals as times he has appeared in the world and performed wonders. Such festivals are usually celebrated only in those places where the appearances and wonders are said to have occurred, and they are enacted as a comedy. [L 95 r] Apart from these are especially two common festivals, Jayantī and that all the are accustomed to celebrate. The first festival, Jayantī, is celebrated in remembrance of the birth of and falls always in the month of August. On this day the birth of and all its circumstances are enacted in the temples. In some places the festival lasts only for the day on which the birth occurred. In other places it lasts for several days, page_96

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Page 97 depending on whether the temple is rich or poor, since such festivals are costly, given that in the temples the comedies are enacted and in the streets great processions with the images of the deities have to be organized. The other festival, is a general one, lasts for nine days, and is not celebrated in all places at the same time, but each place and its temple celebrate it a convenient time. It is also known as the [L 95 v] because it represents the marriage of with his They [the ] call this festival because on the last day and are drawn about in the streets on a big temple car. Every temple that is dedicated to has such a car. [The temples in] the sacred and famous places have five such temple cars or wagons of gods: on the first car with the name of Rāma, on the second with the name Sītā, on the third on the fourth Bharata and on the fifth Śatrugana are drawn around. The last three persons are the brothers of in his fourth incarnation. Regarding the fasting that is observed in honor of one finds three great occasions of fasting. The first fast is the Ekādaśīvrata and occurs once in two months. On account of some special events a king instituted it a long time ago. [L 96 r] They [the ] consider it very meritorious. However, everyone has the freedom either to observe it or let it go. They say that all good works should not be forced, but must be done willingly [lit. out of freedom]. The other festival is the and occurs every year in the month of December. During their fasting they worship the whole day. In the evening they eat a little bit of pancake or drink a little bit of juice pressed from the leaves of the Tulasī-plant. They stay up all night and spend it in meditation. Otherwise, this day of fasting is known as the Cuvarkkavācalēkātaci, which means that the fasting is the door to bliss. It is also known as the Bhīma ekādaśī, because Bhīma, one of the five brothers mentioned above, initiated it. Bhīma was never able to be a bit hungry, but always had to eat a lot. [L 96 v] He initiated a day of fasting so that he could fast at least once in a year. This fasting is said to have been very useful for him. The third fast, takes place every year on the four Saturday evenings of the month of September. Many of those who observe this fast go on a pilgrimage to the great and most famous temple at Tiruppati, where in September a grand festival is celebrated. It brings in a lot of wealth from those who come on pilgrimages from distant places. Many kinds of books are written Those who are committed to his religion accept them as canonical and organize their religious matters according to them. Every respected temple of in a famous place has its own history book about which contains the story that happened there. Apart from them the following books are considered to be famous: [L 97 r] 1. is a book of praise in which the glory of is described and praised. 2. Kōvilkalampakam contains 100 songs abouViu that are sung everywhere in his temples. It was first composed in the great temple at [lit. known as] Śrī It is built as a large castle and considered to be very holy. 3. is a book page_97 Page 98 of praise with 100 songs in which the deeds of are mentioned and praised in general. 4. is a booklet with songs that are sung to those [ ] who are about to die. The Śivabhaktikāras also have a similar book, however, with one difference: On behalf of the dying Śiva is called upon in one book, and in the other 5. Rāmaceyam is a history book in which the deeds of in his nine incarnations are described. 6. [L 97 v] is on with songs for melodious singing [lit. a musical song on ]. 7. kalampakam is a historical description of the events Viu performed with his beloved at the place 8. contains 100 songs that describe the birth and childhood play of 9. Camman is a book of 100 songs that highlight the deeds of Viu. one of the twelve followers of wrote this book. 10. narrates the history from which the origin of the abovementioned fasting Ekādaśī is derived. 11. Karuapañcāccaram has special prayers that are used to charm snakes and to remove all poison. The bird is supposed to be the vehicle of which he uses to travel. It is supposed to help in removing poison. [L 98 r] The South Indians consider this bird very holy and use it to perform all kinds of superstitions and black magic. 12. is an extensive history book in which is described according to his deeds and wonders. 13. Pāratam is a huge book that describes the war that and the above-mentioned five brothers fought against the king Duryodhana and how they got back their kingdom. At the same time many other stories of the five brothers are also mentioned in it. 14. Pārata is a book that contains the same material of the preceding book, except that it is written in another, easier [poetical] verse. 15. contains the history of how the five brothers used as their ambassador to the king Duryodhana. 16. is, similarly a book on that [L 98 v] that deals with the history and activities of his fourth incarnation. 17. contains the deeds and history of in his fourth incarnation. 18. deals with the deliverance of the elephant Gajendra that was attacked by a crocodile while bathing, but freed by and taken into file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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bliss. 19. is a book of praise with 100 songs in which with his name Nārāyaa is exalted. 20. Varukkakkōvai is, similarly, a book of praise on 21. Kuantaiyantāti is a book of prayer in which is sometimes praised and sometimes called on for help. 22. is a history of the war that was waged between Rāma and Indrajit, the son of in the fourth incarnation of 23. is a history of the monkey Hanumat that is said to have performed great deeds [L 99 r] during the fourth incarnation of Along with other monkeys, he waged an impressive war against Rāvaa by which he became so famous that his image is placed and worshipped in some temples of 24. is, similarly, a history of the war that took place between Rāma and the fierce giant Indrajit. 25. is a book of 12,000 stanzas, which contains the story that took place in the fourth incarnation of with the name Rāma. 26. has the same content as that of the previous book, but written by a different author, actually by the sage etc. page_98 Page 99 In a letter written by one of the South Indians the following is mentioned of He writes: “ is the lord [L 99 v] who looks at and sustains everything graciously so that nothing may be destroyed. He shows love to all people and redeems them. His attributes are divine attributes. He has holy thoughts and is totally unblemished. Such things that happened in his appearances and incarnations and seem to us as guilt and sin may be excused in several ways. He is present everywhere, but his actual residence is the place of bliss. There is a mountain full of precious stones. He sits on the throne made of precious stones that stands on the mountain. We know it from our law books,” etc. He writes further: “The reason why many unchaste, lewd and sinful things are written abou Īśvara and other gods is this: after they [probably: the ascetics] had obtained great gifts, power and authority [from god], they became slanderous, disobedient and insubordinate. At the same time they [the gods, L 100 r] could not kill and eradicate them in their own form against their own promise. Hence, it happened that the gods assumed other forms, and often appeared as women so that the [evil] people could be eradicated through unchastity and other sins. However, we consider himself to be holy and unblemished. He who worships him worships none but the Supreme Being itself. He grants bliss to those who love him and believe in him,” etc. 6th Chapter: Regarding and Bhūmidevī, two consorts Actually, two consorts are ascribed to is one and the other is Bhūmidevī. Regarding the say the same thing [L 100 v] that the Śivabhaktikāras say of Pārvatī, namely, that she was originally the female power of the Supreme Being and separated later from the male power. They consider this separation of powers to be the origin of They state also that just as Śakti multiplied into other Śaktis, multiplied into eight known as the Their names are: 1. 2. Dhana 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. [and] 8. The first, is the chief of all and the consort of She contains the seven other [ ]. She is the goddess of beauty and other fortunes. The second is the the goddess of wealth and all goods that she gives to the people. The third is the the goddess of corn that she causes to grow richly, the food of the people. [L 101 r] The fourth is the the goddess of comfort, who grants kindness, courage and a calm heart. The fifth is the the goddess of boldness who creates heroes and knights [i.e., warriors]. The sixth is the the goddess of rhetoric, who grants an able tongue [to speak effectively] and causes all things that one might think or attempt to succeed well. The seventh is the the goddess of marriage who grants children and causes all marital things to succeed well. The eighth is the the goddess of fortune from whom all prosperity [and welfare] comes. All these goddesses are worshipped with the name She is respected among the South Indians so much that even the Śivabhaktikāras place her image in the temple of Īśvara and worship her everywhere; however they do not worship in this page_99 Page 100 way. [L 101 v] Others, especially the Śivabhaktikāras ascribe to her a different origin and say that she came into being when the gods began to churn the sea of milk with a big mountain and to prepare the excellent medicine, the drink of immortality, known as the At that time became a tortoise in order to help them and to move the mountain; but when poison appeared in the medicine of immortality Civam or Īśvara drank it off. As a witness [of this act] in the medicine appeared the which now stands in the temple a and is known as the At this time is said to have originated from the along with her female playmates. Since she originated with the [L 102 r] she is considered to be the sister of

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Śiva. For this reason, the Śivabhaktikāras worship her in their temples as well as their houses. When came into the world in his fourth incarnation, with the name of Rāma, was born at the same time, with the name Sītā, in the world. Later, they got married with each other. A South Indian writes to us in a letter the following, [describing] how it happened: “There was the king Dinakaramahārāja. He himself had no children and performed hard religious austerities for a long time. When he was engaged in religious austerities, some of his servants, while ploughing on the field in order to sow seed, found a small box. In that box was found lying as a beautiful, pleasant child. They took the child and brought it [L 102 v] to the king. The king spoke: ‘This is the child that god has granted me on account of my religious austerities.’ With great joy he accepted it as his daughter, gave her the name Sītā and brought her up. When she became an adult, he set up a bow at the entrance of his residence and promised to give his daughter, Sītā, as a wife to the one who would draw the bow and shoot an arrow. The bow was made in such a way that four to ten thousand men could not draw it. At the same time, there was also another king Daśarathamahārāja. He, too, did not have any children and performed severe religious austerities. Then was born to him and was named Rāma. When he was three years old he began to learn the art of fencing or [got to know] the military exercises. From his third till his fifteenth year he learned these arts and all [L 103 r] other sciences. Then, in his sixteenth year he went out to see all the countries. When he was wandering about, he came to the city of the king Dinakaramahārāja and saw the bow at the entrance of his castle. He asked why the bow was put up there. They answered him [saying] that to him who would draw this bow and shoot the arrows the king would give his princess in marriage. Rāma and his brother spotted the bow and went near. Immediately, the king was informed that two persons were standing near the bow and inspecting it. The king went out, saw the two persons and spoke: ‘Which country are you from?’ Rāma answered: ‘We are pilgrims and wander around on our pilgrimage.’ The king spoke: That is not so. If one would look at you, you appear as if you were the Why do you stand here and inspect the bow?’ [L 103 v] Rāma answered: ‘This bow is exceedingly large. That is why we stand here in astonishment and look at it’ The king asked: ‘Can any one of you draw and shoot the bow?’ Rāma said: ‘We will try it’ He took the bow, drew and shot it. When the king witnessed such a thing, he was very happy and page_100 Page 101 spoke to Rāma: ‘I will give you my daughter Sītā to be your wife.’ Then he sent Betel leaves [in i.e., Piper betle] and arecanuts [in Pākku] to all the fifty-six kings in the world and invited them to the marriage of his daughter, and all of them came. Among them was the king Daśarathamahārāja. Immediately, it became known that Rāma was a son of a king. For the marriage [L 104 r] they erected a pillar made of coral in the court and pitched a Pantal [adorned] with all kinds of pearls in which the act of marriage was solemnized. After the marriage was completed, Sītā was taken to the city in a very splendid manner where the father of Rāma was residing. This is the marriage that had with in this world,” etc. is represented as sitting, with four hands. Two of her hands are open to comfort and to give. She raises up the [other] two hands and holds in each hand the flower Tāmaraippū. On each side of her a white elephant is standing. Each of them carries in its trunk a water jar to water the flowers that holds in her hands. is painted yellow [lit. the color of her body is yellow]. Her face is painted with the red color [cream] just as the South women paint themselves [red with ]. On her head she [L 104 v] has a crown. She is richly decorated with jewels in her hair locks, around the neck and waist, on the breast, arms, hands and at her feet. Flower garlands hang down from her shoulders. She sits on an elevated place and has a soft cushion lying behind her. One finds her in this position in the temples. Such an image is found in small sizes in the houses, just as all the figures that are standing in the temples can be found in the houses in small sizes [made of] metal, stone or wood. They are worshipped sometimes by the people either with offerings or merely with some ceremonies. does not have separate temples named after her, but has a special chapel in all the temples belonging to or Īśvara. The chapel in one temple may be big or small in the other. There she is worshipped three times daily. [L 105 r] Her worship in the temples of is much richer than that in the temples of Īśvara. As often as is worshipped with offerings either in the temples or houses or receives some veneration, participates in it always and receives the same praise with Indeed, she is worshipped much more than himself because all the Śivabhaktikāras, who do not respect either or his religion, worship her in their temples as well as in their houses. does not have her own festivals, but receives, with the same honor in all the festivals, being carried and pulled about in the streets. Otherwise, every Friday of the week is dedicated [i.e., fixed] as a day of fasting in her honor in which she is praised and called upon for some gifts. [L 105 v] Similarly, one cannot find separate books written on her, except some words of praise and prayers; in the history books on file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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one finds several stories about her. On account of the events that are said to have happened surrounding her, many names such as the following are given to her: 1. 2. 3. page_101 Page 102

4.

10. 16. Śrīdevī, 17.

5. 11. 18.

6. Samudradevī, 7. Malaiyāttai, 8. Alarmēlmakai, 9. vantakōtai, 12 a. Mā, 12 b. Arippiriyai, 13. 21 14. Ākkam, 15. 19 a. 19 b. 22 20. Catācelvam, 21.

etc. Every one of these names has its special meaning and generally contains a [special] history. is contrasted with Mūdevī. As the first one is the goddess of fortune the second one is the goddess of misfortune. A South Indian writes the following about this Mūdevī: “When Brahmā, and Rudra, the 330,000,000 gods, [L 106 r], the 48,000 sages, and many others prepared the drink of immortality in the sacred sea of milk, a poison arose in it. Simultaneously, Mūdevī was born. The work of this Mūdevī is to make all the living creatures sleepy and tired. Similarly, she makes the rich poor, the high [people] low, the learned people hated and the people afflicted. She lives in dark places and approaches the ones whom she wants to destroy. No special books are available about this Mūdevī. However, some poets have written about her in some books, and have given her all kinds of names such as: 1. 2. 23 3 a. 3 b. 24 4. 5. kalati, 6. Tavvai, 7. etc.” There is neither offering nor worship in the temples for Mūdevī. Regarding a South Indian writes to us in a letter the following: “ is full of divine [L 106 v] attributes. Her form itself is beauty. She is ordained to give people riches, the eight fortunes, all kinds of wealth [lit. things] and other gifts that some people request from her. If a person desires something and wishes to have it, that person will make offerings to and worship her. Some people expect children. For this reason, they are accustomed to bring offerings to her in love and faith in the morning as well as the afternoon. Some desire to be freed from poverty and suffering and to obtain riches. With this motive they honor her in all kinds of ways. To summarize: if a person desires something, that person thinks about it and makes offerings to her. On the other hand, learned and wise people consider it to be nothing, reject it and worship only the highest Being. Ordinary people alone worship many gods and goddesses,” etc. [L 107 r] second consort is Bhūmidevī, the goddess of the earth. She is represented as a woman with two hands. One hangs down empty, and in the other she holds the above-mentioned flower Tāmaraippū. She is painted yellow [lit. her skin is yellow] and wears a crown on her head. Her black locks of hair hang down to her feet, just as according to the custom of some women among the South Indians. She wears a jewel in her nose. Her face is tinted with a red color. She wears all kinds of jewels on her ears, neck, breast, waist, arms and hands as well as her feet. Flower garlands hang down from both shoulders. She stands on the abovementioned flower. One would find her figure only as a painting. It does not stand in the temples and does not receive either offerings or worship. [107 v] No festival or fasting is held in her honor. There are no special books written about her, except that she is mentioned sometimes in the history books. page_102 Page 103 She is as much the consort of as Gagā is the consort of Īśvara. About the origin of Bhūmidevī, a South Indian writes to us the following [in a letter]: “Bhūmidevī is a woman from the line of the Śaktis. When, once upon a time, the was prepared in the sea of milk, she came into being along with and other goddesses. She is the goddess of patience and everything that suffers. At the same time, she is the witness of everything that happens on the whole earth, in such a way, that nothing is hidden from her,” etc. Another [South Indian] writes about her in the following way [in a letter]: “Bhūmidevī is the mother who has given birth to the earth and all its creatures, [especially] the living creatures, all flowers and [L 108 r] all the produce of the earth. Hence, she is omnipresent. Just as a good mother she is present everywhere, loves, sustains and entertains everything. She is the consort of the great yet at the same time so humble and patient that she allows [people and animals] to walk with their feet on her. Once, after Īśvara had killed Yama, the god of death, and people were not carried away from the world through death, Bhūmidevī had to lodge a complaint [with Īśvara] that she was unable to bear the [weight of the] multitudes of people. Then Īśvara raised Yama from the dead so that he would carry away the people after their life span was over. This Bhū-midevī is [both] nature and the earth [at the same time]. We need to learn humility and patience from her. It is true that she does not have a special worship [in her honor]; but whenever we worship and

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it is [L 108 v] as if we worshipped her. It is because whatever is offered to and is also offered to her,” etc. 7th Chapter: Regarding sons and their families such as Manmatha, Rati, Aniruddha, Kuśa and Lava has three sons, namely Manmatha, Kuśa and Lava, among whom the last one is an adopted son. Manmatha is Cupid, the god of carnal love. He stirs up nothing but strong impure sensual passion among gods and people, especially among women. On the other hand, his consort Rati usually kindles impure fire of lust among men, and can be considered as Venus. Manmatha is represented in the following manner: He wears a crown on his head. [L 109 r]. He wears all kinds of pearls, precious stones, gold and silver jewels on his ears, neck, breast, arms and hands, around the body and at his feet. From his shoulders the girdle hangs down, and while he is seated, it is around his body and on one leg. He holds a shooting bow in one hand and an arrow in the other, ready to be shot. The bow is made of sugar cane and the string is made of many flying worms. The arrows are made of five kinds of pointed flowers.25 On his back he wears a hanging quiver with arrows. His flag is a fish. His vehicle is a lion on which he travels to and fro.26 While he stands on the lion, he shoots his arrows. His consort is represented, similarly, with a crown. Her braided black locks of hair hang down to her feet. On her ears, neck, breast, page_103 Page 104 [L 109 v], hands and arms, around the body and at her feet she is adorned with all kinds of bracelets and other jewels. The girdle hangs down from her shoulders. In her left hand she holds a bow and in the right some arrows. The bow is made, similarly, of sugar cane, the string with flying worms and the arrows with flowers. The vehicle is a parrot on which she travels while standing. The birds fly around with the flower arrows that were shot. On her back she carries a quiver with arrows. Both of them are painted yellow [lit. Both of their body colors are yellow]. Manmatha was born to in his ninth incarnation, in which he had the name A South Indian writes the following about him in a letter: “Manmatha is a son of He is so handsome that none is equal to him. Previously, he had a visible body, lived as king in this world for a long time and wandered repeatedly in all the worlds. [L 110 r]. Only later he became invisible for the following reason: Once, Īśvara was in the midst of deep meditation, and all the gods and the giants of the fourteen worlds wanted to bring an important matter to Īśvara. Since he did not allow himself to be disturbed or end his meditation, they sent Manmatha to him in order to disturb his contemplation and turn it into thoughts about sensual lust. He accomplished his job well. On account of this, Īśvara was enraged and opened his third eye on his forehead. Manmatha was instantaneously burnt to ashes by that eye. Hearing this his consort Rati went to Īśvara, worshipped and spoke to him: ‘Lord, such a thing happened because no one knew your might and glory. However, forgive this boldness and give life to my husband; on account of such a prayer Īśvara made Manmatha alive, but ordered that he should be visible only to his wife, but invisible to all others,” etc. [L 110 v] Another South Indian writes about him the following [in a letter]: “Manmatha is considered to be a son of He is so handsome that he has no one equal to him either in this world or in the world of god. His main work is to arouse in women thoughts of sensual lust, because there are many women at various places who are engaged in religious austerities in order to obtain some boons from god. Manmatha is sent in order to examine their hearts. As soon as some of the women engaged in religious austerities look at him, they become sexually aroused [lit. aroused in love] and begin to have impure thoughts. In this way their religious austerities and meditation are nullified. On the other hand, there are some women who look at him but do not allow themselves to be disturbed in their practice of religious austerities, and reject him, seeking nothing but obtaining bliss at the feet of god. They keep their mind and thoughts concentrated only on god [L 111 r] and do not give up their faith at all. These dear and trustworthy women obtain bliss. The religious austerities of those women who lust after Manmatha in an evil manner [lit. allow themselves be heated in evil lust] are ruined and do not bring any reward. There are also some women of the giants who do religious austerities in the name of god. In order to examine their hearts and to find out whether they are sincere or not, sends Manmatha to that place where they practice their religious austerities. The religious austerities of those women of the giants who look at him and fall in love are destroyed. page_104 Page 105 does this in order to reveal to Śiva that such people are not worthy of being granted boons on account of their false religious austerities. By these boons that they receive [for their false religious austerities], they become proud and use them afterwards to destroy the world. Our law books contain several examples [of file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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this pattern]. [L 111 v] In order to reveal the falsehood of deceitful religious austerities of such women, undertakes such acts [lit. plays] along with Manmatha. This Manmatha possesses such an arrow of love known as the Kā that, if he shoots it into the heart of a woman, her [sexual] love will be kindled in her, even if she were a person of pure heart [i.e., a chaste woman]. By this act she will lose her chastity and her religious austerities are lost. Among hundreds, if not among thousands of women there might be hardly anyone who is not wounded with such a love. The religious austerities of those women who do not allow their austerities to be distracted [lit. wounded] gain them great rewards, and they get all the needed boons. If poets wish to compose a song of praise about a king or a rich man, they take many parables from Manmatha and compare his handsome appearance and pleasant nature [with that of their benefactors]. If a person wants to praise and exalt the handsome appearance of a man, it is said: he looks like Manmatha. One has to know that [L 112 r] created Manmatha as a son so that he could examine women to see whether they are of pure and sincere heart, or whether they allow themselves be misled into unchastity,” etc. Manmatha does not have his own temples. His image is not worshipped anywhere—neither in the temples nor in the houses. The South Indians do not usually worship him. [lit. it is not usual to worship him]. Only the poets make much use of him in their love stories. Hence, like the following, all the books that deal with carnal love can be ascribed to Manmatha. 1. Nellaimālai is a book with forthrightly unchaste love songs. 2. is a book in which women are exalted unduly and all kinds of tricks for prostitution are given. 3. This book can be compared with the book in a conversation between a mother and her daughter all the love techniques [lit. love-touches] of female and male prostitutes are narrated in a harmful, sinful and punishable manner, etc. [L 112 v] Otherwise, one can read in the old all kinds of stories about Manmatha. For this reason poets have given him many names such as: 1. 2. Māra, 3. Cittaja, 4. Śambarāri, 5. Uruvili, 6 & 7. 27 8. 9. Vasanta, 10. 11. Karutiya Karumpuvilli,28 12. Kandarpa, 13. Madana, 14. 15. 29 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Manobhava, 24. 25. 26. 27. Kāma,30 etc. Similarly, Manmatha’s wife Rati is not worshipped either in the temples or in the homes. Only the poets write many words of praise about her. A [South Indian] poet writes the following about her in a letter. He says: “Rati is a wife of Manmatha. She is as beautiful as he is handsome. It is said that Brahmā created her before Manmatha in a state of beauty. When they got married [L 113 r] and performed the marriage ceremony page_105 Page 106 in all its glory, all the kings, gods and goddesses were invited. Manmatha married Rati for this reason: her function resembled that of his, and she would nullify the religious austerities of the giants [i.e., the ] through her stimuli for [sexual] lust. [One should note that] these are [accustomed to] performing severe religious austerities so that they can obtain unconquerable weapons and great power from Śiva. After they have received it, they do much evil and raise themselves above the people, kings and gods. Manmatha is ordained to uncover the falsehood and unchastity of the ascetic women through his craftiness so that they cannot attain anything through the practice of their religious austerities. Similarly, Rati is meant to reveal the falsehood and impurity of the ascetic men through her arrows of love so that through their religious austerities they cannot obtain anything that they search for and desire. Even if a man seems to be so disciplined [that nothing would distract him, L 113 v], he will be confused in his mind and will be [sensually] aroused if he looks at the beauty of Rati. If anyone of the ascetics will allow himself to be wounded by her arrows, his religious austerities will be ended and be of no use at all. In this way, as Manmatha thwarts the hypocritical religious austerities of the evil women, Rati spoils with her arrows of love the religious austerities of the evil giants and other men. This is nothing bu in disguise to prevent hose who are given to evil lusts from obtaining any power or gifts through their deceitful religious austerities,” etc. Manmatha and Rati have a son known as Aniruddha. Usually, the books of the people do not talk of him [lit. he is no considered anywhere], except that the poets write fables about him. One of our correspondents places him among the 110,000,000 Rudras who are supposed to be in the world of gods, considers him their leader and writes the following [in a letter]: “there are 110,000,000 Rudras. Among them Aniruddha is the principal one and king. [L 114 r] All others must obey his command. He is in the world of gods. His function is always to rule over all the Rudras, to meditate on the Supreme Being, to teach learned men, to sing songs about god, to serve him in a decent way and to concentrate his mind on him,” etc. This is the description of Manmatha, the first son of and of his family. Now the description of other two sons, Kuśa and Lava, follows. The first one was born by Sītā to in his fourth incarnation. The created the second one from a blade of grass. A South Indian

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writes in his letter about the circumstance of these two sons in the following manner: “Kuśa and Lava are brothers and sons of when he was in this world with the name Rāma. Kuśa is the one who was born by Sītā, the wife of Rāma. [L 114 v] Lava is a child whom the has created from a blade of the grass Taruppaipullu. The following is written about them in our history books: after Sītā had been taken away by and was recovered through difficult wars and accepted by Rāma, the following thing happened. The wife of a launderer went off in an evil way with another man. The launderer was very angry at his wife and spoke to her: ‘Do you think that I have to bring you back and accept page_106 Page 107 you again just as Rāma had brought back his abducted wife and accepted her afresh? I will not do it with you as Rāma did [with his wife].’ When Rāma came to know of these words [lit. speech] he perceived immediately that he was insulted and spoke to himself: ‘Should there not be in me more shame and disgrace than among launderers?’ Then he began to be angry over his rescued wife and sent her in his fury into a forest. [L 115 r] At that time she was in her sixth month of pregnancy with Kuśa. As she was driven away by her angry husband into the forest, she went into that forest where her priest, the sage was living. While she very sadly was going on the way to this forest, all the birds flocked together and overshadowed her like a sunshade [lit. parasol] to protect her from the heat. Moreover, all the wild animals—elephants, tigers, bears, lions, deer, leopards and many other animals—came together, fell before her prostrate, went before her and showed her the way until she came to the priest. When she came to him, she fell at his feet and adored him. The sage [lit. the prophet] spoke to her: ‘Oh mother! Why did you come such a long way to this place?’ She told him what had happened to the washerwoman and how her husband [Rāma] became angry with her over the words of the launderer because he [Rāma] had brought her back [L 115 v] in a very troublesome way from The launderer declared that he would not bring his wife back from another man. She told him that now, for this reason, Rāma had banished her away into the forest. When the sage heard of these things, he became sad. He gave her a separate house of her own, brought to her everything that was needed, comforted and spoke to her: ‘Mother, remain here; everything will be all right.’ Then she remained there in the same forest. After some time she gave birth to Kuśa. Five months after the birth she laid the child on a mat near the sage when he was meditating and doing other things for god and spoke to him: ‘My lord, my priest! Take care of this child; I will go and take a bath in the water and return soon.’ Then she went to the river [lit. water], took a bath according to proper ceremonies, returned and took away the child from behind the sage. The sage did not notice it, because he was still meditating [L 116 r] with this eyes closed. When he had finished his meditation [lit. when he came to himself], he looked around for the child and could not find it anywhere. He assumed that perhaps a tiger or another wild animal had taken the child and eaten it up. Since the mother would be very upset about it, he took a stalk of the grass Taruppaipullu, laid it in front of him, sprinkled water on it and beat it with his weapon Immediately it became a child and looked like Kuśa. After she had completed her meditation and prayers, the woman went again to the priest so that she could adore him. Immediately she saw a small child lying down and crying. She spoke: ‘Lord, what is the meaning of this child?’ He told her what he had thought when he did not see her child around him any more and how he had created that child. He requested her to adopt it as her [own] child, and she did. [L 116 v] This child was named Lava and the first child Kuśa. When the children were three years old, they could already read and write, unpage_107 Page 108 derstood the teaching of their law book and learned the practice of war. In their sixth year, they knew how to use the bow skillfully. Every day they spent time by going out to hunt with arrows all the wild animals that they saw in the forest, and they also killed robbers. In the meantime it became known everywhere in the country that in the forest where the sage was living, there were two small boys who were killing robbers, giants and all the wild animals. Then Rāma and his brother came riding on white horses to hunt in the forest. Similarly, the two boys also went out to hunt, plucked the fruits of the trees and ate them. When they saw Rāma and coming near them on their white horses, [L 117 r] they both though that these were brigands or people who tried to eliminate them. They began to shoot arrows at them and chased them out so that they abandoned their horses. The boys brought them and bound them to a tree. Then Rāma perceived through his spiritual eye that they were his own children. Otherwise, no one would have dared to fight against him. He consulted his brother as to what he should do next. In the meantime, the sage did not know why the boys stayed out hunting for such a long time and went out to see them. As he me them in war against Rāma and he became their referee. He spoke to the boys: ‘Don’ you file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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know that this is your father?’ Then he explained to them everything that had happened, called them [L 117 v] to his house, cooked a meal for them and gave Rāma Sītā with the two children. After they had received the blessings of the sage, they went to their own city Ayodhyāpuri, and Rāma lived there for 11,000 years. When the time for such an incarnation was over, Rāma went back to the world of gods,” etc. Kuśa and Lava, the two sons of are not worshipped by the South Indians. They are represented as small children. Their figure is not present in any temples except they are painted in some temples that belong to One can read something about them in the history books. There is also a separate book written in their honor [entitled] Kucalavarkatai. It contains the whole story of their origin, what they did and how they were recognized and accepted by Rāma. With this the description of the family of is ended. [L 118 r] 8th Chapter: Regarding Brahmā Brahmā is the third person among the Mummūrttis and originated with Īśvara and Those who consider the three persons to be the one Supreme Being say that Brahmā creates everything, rules everything and Īśvara lets everything pass away again. On the other hand, there are those who declare that there is another Supreme Being apart from these three persons and they say that this Supreme Being has created everything, even including the Mummūrttis. After creating everything this Supreme Being gave three functions to the Mummūrttis: it made Brahmā responsible to continue creation by causing everything to be born in this world, to fix a life span for everything, especially for the people to live in the world, to write down with certain characters [on the head, L 118 v] what they would encounter in this world and to judge them after their death according to the works that they have done. The Supreme Being made page_108 Page 109 responsible for sustaining all the living creatures and for ruling over them. It made Īśvara responsible to see that everything gets back to its origin through death or through wearing out. They also say than one among the Mummūrttis can organize their work according to their own will and plan, but should execute everything according to the will and order of the Supreme Being; but those who consider only one of the Mummūrttis to be the highest Being ascribe to him all the functions mentioned above. Five faces are ascribed to Brahmā of which he has lost one. A South Indian writes [the following] about it in a letter: “There was a king who performed severe religious austerities in the name of Brahmā, in order that Brahmā should create for him a wife according to his desire. [L 119 r] After Brahmā had created a beautiful woman on account of the severe religious austerities [of his devotee], he himself fell in love with her and wanted to commit a sin with her. The woman did not agree to it and went to for refuge. Since could not defend her against Brahmā, she went to Īśvara for refuge. He protected her, became angry with Brahmā and plucked off one of his heads. Consequently, Brahmā became mad. In order to get rid of his insanity, he came to the world and went around begging,” etc. Another South Indian writes [in a letter] about the following reason and he says: “In the beginning Brahmā had five faces. One of them became proud, arrogant and evil. Hence, he himself plucked it out so that he could expel the pride,” etc. Now Brahmā is represented with four faces or heads and on each head he has a crown. In his hair locks he has strings [L 119 v] of pearls. On his forehead he has the mark Kastūrī. He wears all kinds of jewels on his ears. Around his neck, breast, arms, and around the waist he is adorned with jewels. From his shoulders flowers [i.e., garlands] hang down. Like other gods he holds two hands open. He raises up two hands, and holds in the left a water jar and in the right a string of pearls [the rosary] known as the The Brāhmins, the the and the pilgrims [i.e., wandering ascetics] hang the [around their neck]. They consider it very sacred and use it to recite their prayers. Brahmā is painted yellowish-brown [lit. the color of his body is tawny]. He stands on a flower, has the bird beside him and uses it as his vehicle or riding-horse. In these and other manners Brahmā is represented [in paintings], but his figure in this manner is not found in the temples as the figures of [L 120 r] Īśvara and are found. Among the South Indians he has no temples of his own.31 Neither offering nor worship is presented to him, except that the Brāhmins are accustomed to sing to him some songs of praise. There is neither a feast nor a fast observed in his honor. The law books [i.e., the Vedas] are said to have come from him. A South Indian narrates in a letter the reason for its happening: “among us, Brahmā is neither worshipped nor honored in the temples. Instead of worshipping Brahmā we venerate the Brāhmins who are of the caste of Brahmā. He who honors the Brāhmins, honors Brahmā himself. Brahmā accepts everything that we offer to the Brāhmins as if it were offered to him. Hence, among us page_109 Page 110 file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Brahmā does not have any [special] offerings or festival days or temples. On his behalf the Brāhmins are adored by us [L 120v] daily in manifold ways because they are not only of the caste of Brahmā but do nothing but each that law that Brahmā himself has given,” etc. In the old law books known as the all kinds of stories and events about Brahmā are written. On account of them he has gotten various names such as 1. Brahman, 2. 3. Pitāmaha, 4. Vara, 5. Arya, 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. [i.e., ],32 15. 16. 17. 18. Vidhi, 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Kamalayoni, etc.33 It is especially important for those who wish to understand the old poets [i.e., old poetical books] to know these and other names. If a person does not understand the manifold names of the gods of the South Indians, [L 121 r] one cannot understand [lit. cannot be come intelligent from] the law books and history books that are written in poems. Moreover, the stories of Brahmā are also found in the history books about Īśvara and Yet, there are other books written especially in his honor and containing some words of praise for Brahmā. They are being used only by the Brāhmins and are written in their language known as the Grantha. Among them two are famous. The first is the and the other is the A South Indian writes in a letter the following that yet needs to be known about Brahmā. He writes: “Brahmā is the one who causes the people to be born into the world and writes down how old they should become, what good they have to enjoy during their life in this world and what evil they must endure. He causes all the [L 121v] 8,400,000 species of the living creatures to be born and to die again. Everything that he does, he does according to the will of the Supreme Being. What god, the Supreme Being, asks him to create, he creates. Even in fixing the age and time of a person [in this world] he adjusts his writing according to the order of the Supreme Being and causes some to die. In everything he adapts himself to the will of the supreme god. Those who have to do everything according to the will of Brahmā are the Yamadūtas. When he orders them to bring a soul from the world [through death] they must obey him. They are made to be at his disposal so that he can send them to certain people and bring their souls from the world. Regarding the manner in which Brahmā is said to have created the world, it is written that he has not created it at all. On the other hand, god, the Supreme Being created the world, the seven seas and everything that is in them [L 122r] along with all the wonders and the invisible spirits. After he created everything, lords and gods to manifest the Supreme Being were needed for the various worlds, so the Supreme Being also created them too. Among them, Brahmā, and Rudra are the principal ones. The Supreme Being entrusted them with the highest offices. Whatever happens in this world after the creation, he causes it to take place through Brahmā, page_110 Page 111 and Īśvara. He is all in all. The place where Brahmā actually resides is the world Brahmaloka, where he performs great wonders. The manner in which he introduced the law into the world is as follows: God, the Supreme Being, ordered the four laws [i.e., Vedas], handed them over to Brahmā [L 122 v] and commanded him to propagate it everywhere in the world so that all people could know and honor him in accordance with his laws. Then Brahmā took these law books, gave them to the sage Vedavyāsa and sent with him the books to the world. Thus the sage brought them to the world. And, as it was commanded of him he established the four law books [i.e., the four Vedas] and the six schools of theology [lit. six systematic theologies] among the peoples. To this day, these law books and theological schools are familiar [lit. being taught] among us, the people [lit. Malabarians]. Regarding the manner how the Brāhmins have come from Brahmā, it is written that the Brāhmins originated in the face of Brahmā and were born. On the other hand, the who belong to the caste of the kings, came from the breast of Brahmā. The Vaiśyas, who belong to the caste of the businessmen, came into being from the right hip [of Brahmā]. And the Śūdras were born from the feet of Brahmā. These are the four caste groups [L 123r] that Brahmā created. Since the Brāhmins originated from the face of Brahmā, it is said that they, first of all, belong to the caste of Brahmā. Brahmā does not have more than one consort, Sarasvatī. No one among us [the South Indians] is accustomed to worshipping him, but only the Brāhmins. We honor him by honoring the Brāhmins.” 9th Chapter: Regarding Sarasvatī, Brahmā’s consort Sarasvatī is a goddess of learning and is considered to be the consort of Brahmā. Her origin is one of the Śaktis. It is so because the South Indians derive all the principal goddesses from the line of the Śakti and it has been explained in the first part [of this Genealogy]. Just as the other gods and goddesses, she is originally [L 123 v] supposed to have come from the Supreme Being, for the most part by a creation. She is the only consort of Brahmā. However, it is narrated in the book [entitled] that

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Brahmā had two concubines. The sage Kapila writes that Brahmā kept even a Pariahwoman. The Pariah-caste is the most detested caste [among the South Indians]. Many other impure things are written about him, just as many unchaste stories are written about Īśvara and in the books. These stories kindle [sensual] fire in those who read them and cause several sins. For example, nothing is more common among the South Indians than unchastity, fornication and adultery. Sarasvatī is represented standing with four hands. In her right hand she holds a flower that she offers to her husband Brahmā, and she is always close to him. In the other [right] hand she holds a book [L 124r] made of palm leaves as a sign to show that she always studies books and grants [intellectual] scholarship to students. In her left hand, she holds the rosary Civamālai [perhaps: jepamālai, ‘garland of prayer,’ i.e., rosary] with which the prayers are recited and counted out. In the other left hand she holds the Tamarukam, a small instrument, a kind page_111 Page 112 of drum with a snake on it. She is painted brown [lit. her body color is brown]. She wears a crown on her head. In her black locks of hair she has pearls and other jewels. Her braided locks of hair extend down to her feet. Like other goddesses she is adorned with jewels on her ears, neck, breast, arms and hands, around her waist and at her feet. Flower garlands stream down from her shoulders and she stands on a flower. The image of Brahmā is not worshipped in the temples. Similarly, there is no worship [L 124v] at all for Sarasvatī in the temples, except that she is painted sometimes along with the image of Brahmā or carved on the [walls of] temples or on temple cars. Unlike other goddesses, she gets neither food, nor drink, nor burnt offerings; but she has her own separate books of praise. Among them, the most famous is the Caracuvatiyantāti. She also has an annual festival that lasts for nine days and falls during the month of September. Teachers, students, poets, writers and all those who are engaged in learning some discipline celebrate this festival. At this festival, they fast and request Sarasvatī to grant them good understanding and knowledge. For the image of Sarasvatī they construct a small temple-car [perhaps: a palanquin] with palm leaves and carry it on their shoulders around the city with music and song. The teachers and students offer her all their books and styli made of iron, and accompany the procession on the streets. Those who are working in the military offer [L 125r] her their daggers, guns, bows, arrows and other weapons. Thus they dedicate them for their future use. This annual festival is the Sarasvatīpūjā, also known as the Āyudhapūjā. At this festival, offerings are also made simultaneously to Pārvatī and One finds several things written about Sarasvatī in the history books. She has several names such as: 1. Caracuvatiyammai, 2. Devī, 3. 4. 5. Kāriyastrī, 6. Jñānamūrti, 7. Ulakamātā, 8. Brāhmī, 9. 10. 34 11. Bhāratī, 12. 13. 35 14. 15. 16. etc. She has many names because of the events that happened to her, her attributes, offices and gifts that she is supposed to give to those desirous of learning. A South Indian writes the following about this Sarasvatī in a letter: “just as [L 125v] Brahmā is the lord who creates everything, so is Sarasvatī the lady who is responsible for all kinds of arts, understanding, discernment, intelligence, knowledge and scholarship. God, the Supreme Being, has created both of them to be husband and wife. Sarasvatī is represented as a beautiful, young sixteen-year-old woman. Her attributes are divine. She is that goddess from whom come all the arts, the languages, the skill of reading and writing the languages, the speech and rhetoric of the people, poetical talent so that some people can compose and sing verses without any difficulty, brilliance and understanding for all kinds of discoveries, the art of medicine, of astronomy and of mathematics and of all the sciences. She is present everywhere among the people. Her actual place is near Brahmā in the world Brahmaloka. The gifts that she gives are wisdom, understanding, discernment, [L 126r], good intelligence, an able memory and an eloquent tongue. Her whole responsibility is to give people all the arts and sciences. In her honor the annual page_112 Page 113 festival Sarasvatīpūjā is celebrated. On this day all the school children fast, bring all kinds of fruits and offer them to Sarasvatī. They also offer her all of their books and accounts. At this festival, everyone requests of Sarasvatī that she might give every person good understanding and help each person learn useful arts. As an answer to the question, whether the Mummūrttis, their consorts and all the other deities possess material bodies like us humans, or whether they are of a spiritual and immaterial form, one has to know that one can say both [things] about them; they do have a material body, and they also possess [L 126 v] a completely spiritual and immaterial form. Because what they want to be, they become immediately; they can change their form daily,” etc. With [a description of] this Sarasvatī, the second part of the Genealogy of the [South Indian] Deities is

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concluded. All the necessary things of the Mummūrttis and their families are mentioned briefly. If anyone wishes to read more of some stories about the gods, he is referred to the comprehensive book on South Indian Society [lit. Malabarian Heathenism] written two years ago [in 1711. L 127r] page_113 Page 114 The Third Part of the Genealogy of the South Indian Deities deals with the Grāmadevatās, who are the male and female protective deities who keep away devils from the land, the cities, the villages and the houses [L 128r] Introduction to the Third Part Besides the Mummūrttis, who have been described along with their consorts, children and servants in the previous chapter, the South Indians have other kinds of gods and goddesses whom they call Grāmadevatās, to whom they give divine honor, build temples and [in whose honor] they celebrate festivals. The word Grāma means a small piece of land or an area or a village or a city. The word Devatās means deities, more specifically goddesses. They are called Grāmadevatās because they keep watch over the country, fields, villages, small areas and cities so that devils cannot harm the people. Moreover, they have to prevent the punishment of a country with all kinds of plagues, famines, pestilence, war, fire and water catastrophes. Hence, they are called protective deities who keep away evil. [L 128v] The South Indians worship and honor them just for this reason, so that nothing evil can happen to them. The names of those deities who are considered to be the Grāmadevatās are as follows: 1. is the only male among them and he has two consorts named and 2. 3. 4. 5. Bhadrakālī, 6. 7. Cā and 8. Durgā. All these [i.e., the last seven] of them are women. At the same time Vīrabhadra and also stand in the temples of and Aghora stands in the temples of Bhadrakālī. Actually, the last three cannot be considered to be Grāmadevatās. was born of Īśvara’s seed in the hand of The above-mentioned women come from the line of Śakti, are named Navaśaktis and have already been referred to in the fourth chapter of the first part. [L 129r] The South Indians say of them all that on account of their pride, they were cursed and banished from their bliss and former glory [in their divine abode] to the world. A South Indian writes the following in a letter to us [the missionaries in Tranquebar] about this matter: “Those whom we call the Grāmadevatās were originally the principal beings close to god and enjoyed great honor. Later they became proud and arrogant. God noticed this and for this reason expelled them from bliss and banished them to the world. The curse that god has laid upon them consists in wandering [lit. floating] all around the world and protecting people from devils till the [very] end of the world. They rule over and control the devils. Since they are ordained by god for such work and protect the people from evil [L 129v], at the order of god, the people celebrate an annual festival in their honor. Each of them has a special festival. At the end of the world, they will be freed from the curse and elevated to their former glory,” etc. By this, one can sufficiently understand who these Grāmadevatās are and why the South Indians worship them. They are not respected in the same way as the Mummūrttis and page_114 Page 115 also worshipped with entirely different offerings. As a sign that they [the Grāmadevatās] rule over and deal with devils the South Indians offer them animals which they consider impure, such as swine, goats and other animals. None from the Brāhmin-caste serves as a priest in the temples of these gods, because people from this caste does not even kill anything that has life and thus allow themselves to be [ritually] polluted. [On the other hand,] the offerings made to the Mummūrttis consist mostly of the produce of field and garden, and [L 130r] also the produce of domesticated animals, such as milk, butter, honey, etc. If we would consider along with the Grāmadevatās also those who protect the people, we can also include 1. Pēys, 2. Bhūtas, 3. and 4. Acuras, who are devils and extremely evil giants. We can divide the third part [of the Genealogy] into six chapters that follow one after the other: 1st Chapter: Regarding and his two consorts and 2nd Chapter: Regarding and 3rd Chapter: Regarding about Vīrabhadra as well as 4th Chapter: Regarding Bhadrakālī and Aghora 5th Chapter: Regarding and Durgā 6th Chapter: Regarding the devils and the harmful giants such as the Pēys, the Bhūtas, the and the Acuras from whom the Grāmadevatās have to protect people [L 130v] 1st Chapter: Regarding and his two consorts and Among those who are called Grāmadevatās, is the principal one. He is considered to be a son of file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Īśvara, but has an impure origin. A South Indian writes about it in the following letter to us [the missionaries in Tranquebar]: “Before many ages he was a giant who performed great religious austerities and requested Īśvara for the power [lit. gift] that everything he would touch with his hand should burn. On account of his religious austerities Īśvara granted him such a power. As soon as he had obtained that power, he wanted to test it on Īśvara himself and tried to touch him. Īśvara had to flee from him, hid himself in a flower in a pond [lit. hid himself in a pond and hid himself in a flower]. Then wanted to kill this giant and assumed the form of a beautiful virgin and approached the giant. [L 131 r] At the sight of this virgin the giant was aroused and urged him to get involved with him in an unchaste act. The virgin spoke: ‘I am a woman from the world of gods. But you belong to the caste of giants. Hence, it is not appropriate that we wed. However, if you would first bathe in water and apply oil with hands on your head, then I will consent’ When the giant, for the sake of love for this virgin, touched his head with his hand and applied the oil, he burned with fire, because anything he touched with his hand burned. After in this form had killed the giant, Īśvara came out of the page_115 Page 116 flower in the pond and asked how he had been able to kill him. explained that he had taken the form of a woman and killed him. Īśvara now desired that should present himself before him in that form. At this changed [L 131v] himself into a form of woman. Then Īśvara was aroused in his lust and let some of his seed fall down. got hold of it with his hands and from this seed was born, who is also called because he was born in the hand. He is also called Hariharaputra because Īśvara and accepted him as their son. As soon as he was born in this way he received the order [lit. office] to protect the people from the devils and to be the king, who reigns over all the evil spirits, and from who he shall protect the human beings in this world, so that they could neither come near the people nor harm them in any way,” etc. Others among the South Indians are ashamed to narrate these sinful activities of their principal gods and describe the origin of from an entirely different circumstance, which a South Indian writes to us [in a letter]. He says: “ has received [L 132r] his name because he is a son of god whom god has created for his service. As he was close to god, served him and saw all the wonders performed by god with his own eyes, he thought in his heart: ‘Should I not be able to create, like god, so many worlds and people? A few others who were close to Civam and Śakti thought in a similar way. God came to know of these thoughts and spoke to them angrily: ‘How could you have such proud thoughts in you?’ Then he cursed them and said: ‘Depart from me to the world and remain there.’ They answered: ‘Oh god! You curse us that we should go to the world and remain there. When will the time of our deliverance come?’ God replied: ‘At the time the world disappears your deliverance will come. Till then remain in the world as Grāmadevatās and kings over the devils that you have to subdue. [L 132v] You have to protect the people from harm by the devils. The people will bring you all kinds of offerings and celebrate an annual festival for you. You must be satisfied with that’ This is the way originated and became a protective god in the world,” etc. This is represented in a sitting posture [and] with bright red skin and wears a crown on his head. His locks of hair, which are in braided form, stand straight up. He wears pearls in them. On his forehead he has three white stripes with two round marks [made] with the above-mentioned ash of [burned] cow dung. He wears pearls on his ears and neck. On his breast he has a ribbon of knights along with other decorations. Around his body, his arms, his hands and his feet he is adorned, similarly, with all kinds of jewels. In his right hand he holds a royal scepter with which he rules over the devils as a king. Around his waist and left thigh [L 133 r] he has the girdle Among the South Indians, the sages and many others use such a girdle when they are sitting down. Flower garlands hang down from his shoulders. His upper body is uncovered. But around his waist he wears a colorful cloth. Two consorts are ascribed to One is and the other Both page_116 Page 117 of them are represented as yellow [lit. with yellow color of their body] in the normal form of women and wear crowns on their heads. In one hand they hold a flower and the other hand hangs down [empty]. Flower garlands hang down from their shoulders. In their hair locks, ears, neck, breast, around their body, their arms, hands and at their feet they are adorned with all kinds of jewels. wears the black mark Kastūrī on her forehead, [but] the forehead of is smeared with the or the ash of cow dung. Each of them has one of their legs bent and they sit close to their husband one on his right and the other on his left. [L 133v]

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A South Indian writes the following about these two consorts in a letter: “According to their origin and belong to the line of Śakti. There are some among us who say that since was born in the hand of and made to be a protective god in the world, Brahmā created and and gave them to him as his consorts. The roles of these two women are to protect the cities, villages, areas and lands [from evil spirits] so that they are not devastated or harmed in any way. As they have the same office of they are also worshipped with him,” etc. Among the South Indians, temples are built everywhere in honor of so that there is hardly any village without a temple for Such temples are not built on a large scale, but are usually situated towards the evening [i.e., the way of saying towards the west], away from the houses in a separate place that resembles a forest [L 134r] or that is surrounded by trees. At the temple entrance two watchmen known as the stand with crowns on their head. They hold a club in their hands. The South Indians portray them in a more ferocious form than the devils with teeth like lions. In the first room of the temple there are small stone figures known as the They are the seven women derived from the line of Śakti. Their names are: 1. Trikaraśūrī, 2. 3. 4. 5. Bhagavatī, 6. Bālaśakti and 7. Bhuvanaśakti. They stand around and are worshipped with offering. Inside the temple, on both sides of the entrance, two images of Vighneśvara stand and they are worshipped. In the other innermost room is seated in the above-mentioned posture along with his two consorts who are carved of stones. Surrounding him in a row, [L 134v] the seven virgins stand, but they are not worshipped. A stone altar stands in front of the door of the temple on which [blood] sacrifices are made. At the side of the temples, a big room is built in which large figures of horses, elephants, birds and Bhūtas are standing. During the festivals and his consorts are carried around on these figures. These figures are carved in wood and painted in all kinds of colors. On both sides of these temples one can see a large number of clay figures standing on an open place. The seventy the generals of are among them. The inhabitants of every place cause these figures to be made. If someone is sick, that person makes a vow to present a figure to to cure one’s sickness [lit. evil]. As soon as page_117 Page 118 one has recovered his health, in order to fulfill one’s promise one lets a potter make a clay figure. [L 135 r] That person brings it along with some offerings to which are then received by a priest to fulfill his promise. There are many kinds of these figures; some of them are in male form and the others are in female form. Among these figures there are also many animals such as horses, goats and others. The worship of consists of the following: Offerings are made to the figure of twice or thrice daily. They consist of drink, food and burnt offerings. They are performed with special prayers and ceremonies. All these take place in the innermost room of the temple and are performed generally by a Brahmin. Apart from these also receives other offerings consisting of strong [alcoholic] drinks, swine, goats, cocks and other animals. These are slaughtered on the above-mentioned altars outside the temples. The Brāhmins have nothing to do with these sacrifices, but a has to perform them all the time and receive the offerings afterwards. Moreover, the accepts all the other offerings; sometimes, [L 135 v] they are made together with the cooked [i.e., boiled] rice, other edible things and drinks. The inhabitants of a place celebrate an annual festival in honor of that is known as the Usually it is celebrated after the first and second harvest. Every place sets the most convenient time for it. No year should pass by without such a festival. In some places it lasts for seven days, and in others, nine days. On these days the image of and his two consorts are decorated, placed on different animals and carried around in the streets once in the morning and once in the evening. On the ninth day they are carried around on a temple car. Every inhabitant of a place is obligated to bring an offering—whether it is boiled rice, other edible things, drinks or also goats, swine and cocks. Each person brings his offering to the temple according to his means. [L 136 r] Then is praised and honored with his consorts so that he might keep watch over the designated location for the whole year and protect people from evil. He is also called upon to keep away all the devils and other evil things. If an epidemic rages or a place is in danger [lit. punishment], the inhabitants bring offerings more often so that he might chase the devils that cause all these things beyond their borders. Among the South Indians there is no special book about available, as there are usually no separate books written about the Grāmadevatās. However, one finds in the books on the deities mentioned in the second part [of this Genealogy] all kinds of histories, songs, sayings of praise and prayers about On account of some histories that happened with he has different names with which he is known in the poetical books [lit. in the poets] such as: [L 136 v] 1. 2. Nallacēvakar, 3. Kari, 4. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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6. 36 7. 8. Yogin, 9. 10. 12. Ārya, 13. 14. 15. Aner [perhaps: Aner or 17. Aiyar, 18. Hariharaputra, etc. In the letters of the South Indians that have reached us [the missionaries in Tranpage_118

[lit.

], 11. ],37 16. Kumāra,

Page 119 quebar] the following is mentioned about One correspondent writes [in his letter]: “The function of in this world is to rule as a king over the devils and to keep away all hovering devils so they do not harm or deceive the people. Should they harm the people against his will, he would punish and torment them. His residence is in the world. He is present in all places where one would find people and devils. We make offerings to him both inside and outside his temples so that [L 137 r] no devil can come near us and take hold of us. In his honor we bring him the sacrifices of goats, swine, cocks, wine, boiled rice and similar edible things and drinks so that he can keep away all kinds of devils from us, protect us from their control and turn away all evil [from us]. Those who worship him in this way have the benefit that no devil comes near them to harm them in any way. Apart from these, we do not get any benefit from him; he can neither do any good nor give us bliss. We worship him for no other reason than that he might protect us from evil and keep away all the devils from us.” 2 Chapter: 2nd Regarding and originated from the line of Śakti and is considered to be one of the nine Śaktis [lit. Śakti] who, because of [committing an] offence, were expelled by god to the earth. But, some of the South Indians derive her origin from a different source and say that she is a daughter of a Brahmin, as does the person who has written the following to us [the missionaries in Tranquebar] about her in a letter. He writes: “ is a daughter of a Brahmin who, from her childhood, lived a holy and prudent life. On account of her constant holy life [lit. holiness], a great holy sage married her. Paraśurāma and three of his brothers were born of her. She was a very chaste lady. With the help of her chastity she could roll the water of Kāvēri like balls to the place where the sage was making his offerings. The sage performed his offerings with this water. Once, when she was rolling the water as balls [L 138r], the Gandharvas were flying in the air and she could see their shadow in the water that she was bringing. She looked at the shadow in the water very carefully. She watched in astonishment, as the Gandharvas were flying so beautifully. Apart from this, she did not commit any other sin. On the following day, when the sage wanted to make the offering, she went to the river Kāvēri and wanted to bring up the water as she did before; but she could not do it [lit. the water did not allow itself to be moved]. Then the sage asked: ‘What is this that you could not bring water [lit. the water does not move forward]?’ She spoke: ‘I do not know of any sin. When I brought the water for the offering yesterday the Gandharvas were flying in the air. I saw their shadows in the water. To know how this happened I looked up [lit. in the air] and saw the Gandharvas. Apart from this, I do not know of any sin.’ The sage spoke to her: ‘Your chastity is [now] lost. [L 138v] If you were a really chaste woman, you would not look at the Gandharvas and wonder at their beauty.’ Then he called one of his sons and ordered him to behead his mother. The son replied: ‘She is the mother who has given birth to us. How should we do this and behead her?’ Since he did not wish to do it, the father called on his youngest son Paraśurāma and asked whether he would do it. He said: ‘Yes, I will kill her.’ No sooner had page_119 Page 120 he promised this than the father sent him to her. She went to the Pariahs; they took her into custody and did not want to surrender her. Paraśurāma killed all of them, including his mother; he took her head and brought it to his father. At this, the father was very satisfied that his son did not reject his words but fulfilled them. He spoke to him: ‘Son, what can I do for you?’ Paraśurāma answered: ‘Lord, I wish that you would give me my mother back.’ [L 139r] The father replied: ‘Well, take with you the separated head, place it again on her body and call her back to life.’ He went to the place where he had killed his mother, but was unable to find her body among the many slaughtered corpses. After that, he set the head of his mother on a body of a Pariah-woman. Then she became alive. After he had brought her to his father, the latter spoke: ‘Hey, she has become a Pariah-woman!’ He asked his son and mother to leave him. This Paraśurāma was himself; later he became a fearsome king and eradicated all the evil kings of the world. Then his mother was destined to become a protective deity among the people. This is the whom we worship in the world. This is the way her story is dramatized among us. Otherwise, she is considered to be also one of the Śaktis to whom [L 139 v] these and other things happened,” etc. is represented red [lit. with red skin] in a sitting posture with a very fiery face. She wears a crown on her head. There are many snakes on her crown because the South Indians say that in her temples many file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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snakes live. Whenever they see a snake they call on her to cause it to go away from them without doing any harm. On her forehead she has the three white stripes made of or the ash of burned cow dung. In her black locks of hair, on her ears, around her neck, on her breast, around her arms and body, and on her feet she wears all kinds of jewels and decorations. Flower garlands hang down from her shoulders. In her four hands she holds special things: in her raised hand she carries the instrument Tamarukam wound with a snake. In her other hand she holds the trident Śūla, which is a punishing instrument. In her raised hand she holds the knotted rope [L 140r] Pāśa. In the other hand she holds the skull [made] from the plucked head of Brahmā. The South Indians say of this skull that it absorbs all the blood that is shed in this world by human beings as well as by the animals, yet it never overflows. When blood is shed at the sacrifice for the Grāmadevatās the South Indians hold the skull of Brahmā in their hand. A metal figure of stands in her temples in the posture as mentioned and is carried around on festival days. However, the actual image of her to which offerings are made in the temple is carved in stone, and one can see only her head; her body is buried in the earth as a sign, as described above, that her head alone became alive and was set on the body of a different woman. has her temples everywhere. In some places they [L 140 v] are very small. Along with her image that is worshipped there are also the following images [in her temple] such as 1. her husband who was responsible for her death; 2. her herald Pōtturācā; 3. her herald whom she uses in fighting; 4. her son Paraśurāma, who was himself, as seen in his fifth incarnation; 5. are those died a violent death. appointed them as her messengers to pick up with a hook those who die a sudden and violent death, and page_120 Page 121 then bring them into her fellowship. 6. Vighneśvara, the son of Īśvara with an elephant trunk; 7. Bhadrakālī, of whom more will be mentioned below and 8. who is the Pariah-woman on whose body the head of was set. Apart from these images there are also usually large figures of snakes [L 141 r] in her temples; a Calām is also made to them [by the South Indians]. The priest of her temple is a Her worship consists of the following: The priest makes offerings to her once every Friday. This offering is performed with certain prayers. If anyone is in danger of poisonous snakes, this person calls on her for help. When the fisher people do not catch anything or get into danger at sea, they make various vows to her. When they catch a big fish, they offer her its big bones in front of her temple and thank her for her help. In addition, others who get into danger make vows to her. She has an annual festival that lasts for eight days; at this time she is carried around [lit. carried and pulled around]. At this festival swine, goats and cocks are sacrificed in her honor; in front of her temple the heads of animals are cut off [L 141v] and the blood flows out. Her devotees give the heads to the priests and eat up the rest. Some of them cook the meat and place it on a leaf in front of the figure of Pōtturācā and of They also bring in a large quantity of boiled rice; it belongs partly to the priests and partly to the workers who carry or pull the images around at these festivals. At this festival the people are accustomed to playing all kinds of tricks and games. Some of them allow a hook to be fastened to the flesh of their backs and pulled up on a pole lying on a tall mast [framed like the wooden structure] like in a draw-well. It must cause much pain and harm. They also undertake similar games [i.e., deeds] at the festivals held in front of the temples [and in honor of] and However, it does not happen every year, but especially when they think that they are in need of special help from such goddesses then they perform these acts. [L 142r] As far as is concerned, she is derived, similarly, from the line of the Parāśakti. Among the nine [female] playmates that Parāśakti has, Māriis one. On account of her pride she was expelled along with others from her bliss and banished into the world. She is one of the principal protective goddesses and is considered to be the goddess, as the poets say, from whom smallpox and measles come and by whom they are again removed. If anyone among the South Indians gets smallpox, of which there are three kinds, they immediately say that is angry with this person. In some places, those who suffer from smallpox are left alone [by friends and relatives] so that the anger of might not come over them also. Many people die of a kind of smallpox and measles which is indeed very dangerous. The South Indians say about them that since they would wander around restlessly in the world, Mārihas taken them up into her company. [L 142v] is represented as in a sitting posture. She wears a crown on her head and is smeared on her forehead with She has inserted two page_121 Page 122 flowers behind her ears. Above and below her split ears many jewels are hanging. She wears similar jewels

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on her hair, around her neck, on her breast, around her body, on her arms and hands and at her feet. Flower garlands hang down from her shoulders. In her four hands she carries the same four things that has. This is the image that is carried around at festivals with decorations and is cast in metal. The image to which offerings are made in the temple is carved in stone and remains in one place without getting moved. One finds her image as well as the images of other protective goddesses in small forms carved in stone or in wood in houses because the South Indians consider the Grāmadevatās almost as their household deities. Everywhere [L 143r] has her own temples; but they are generally situated away from the houses of the inhabitants and stand at a distance in a grove. Some temples are big and have an open room on their side; the South Indians place there those images that they carry around during the festivals. In some places the temples are surrounded with a wall. A chapel stands opposite to her temple and has the following images: 1. Vīrabhadra, of whom there will be more to read in [the section about] 2. who is already mentioned above in [the section about] 3. both of whom are two watchmen standing at the door of an inner room; and 4. Kātwho is one of the principal devils. A South Indian writes about him the following [in a letter]: “ was born to a Brāhmin-woman [L 143 v] in adultery. When she gave birth to this child, she threw it away. A Pariah found and raised it. When the boy grew up, he learned many evil arts. He knew the hour and [even] the method of his death, that he would be pierced with a stake. He was given to adultery and disgraced all the Pariah-women of the same place. The men gathered together, wanted to catch him and pierce him with a stake. However, they were unable to catch hold of him. Finally, he erected a stake, informed the people that they would never catch hold of him, and since the hour of his death had come, he would pierce himself on the stake in their presence [lit. in front of their eyes]. After he had pierced himself, took him into her service so that he would bring all those who hang themselves or commit suicide to her company,” etc. People are afraid of more than of Hence, he receives most of the sacrifices of goats and cocks. Behind him the following images are also standing in the chapel: [L 144 r] 5. a Pariah-woman who gave him buttermilk to quench his thirst when he had pierced himself on the stake; 6. Pāppātti, who was a daughter of a Brahmin, stolen away and enslaved for adultery by 7. who is a daughter of a moneychanger, who was likewise stolen away by and used for adultery. On the ring wall of the temples, in front of them, behind them and around the temples there are numerous clay figures as in the temple of because those who are suffering from smallpox make a vow to Mārithat they will make a specific figure if she will help them in their sickness [i.e., heal them]. Afterwards the potter must make these figures. These figures are not worshipped, but stand there only as decorations. Among them [who make these figures], the are famous. page_122 Page 123 In such temples [L 144v] Māriyamma is honored with offerings and worship. If the income of a temple is large, the priest honors her once daily; otherwise, she gets her offerings only once on each Friday. Now and then some women bring her offerings of edible things and drinks, place them in front of her temple, request help from her or thank her for help received from her. Either the priest or other servants of the temple receive these offerings. As in the case of or an annual festival is celebrated in her honor. It lasts for nine days: every morning and evening her image is carried around. The last day is the most glorious one. In the evening several thousand people, especially women, gather together near her temple. They kindle fires and boil rice and other edible things that they lay before in heaps. The men bring with them goats, swine and cocks to that place and behead them. [L 145r] At this time many kinds of dance games are held. All the people make an offering and request to protect them and their people from all evil in the coming year. There is no fixed time for this festival: it is celebrated in some places either in one month or another. There are no special books about available among the South Indians; however, one finds in their or old stories many things about her. Hence, she also has several names such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. Śūrī, 5. 6. Mārī, 7. 8. 9. 10. Māriyammai, 11. 12. 13. 14. Makamāyi, etc. A South Indian writes the following about her in a letter: “The Parāśakti consists of nine Śaktis. is one of them. Her origin is derived from the lines of the Parāśakti to whom she belongs [lit. whose caste she is]. She is the goddess of smallpox and all the things that are related to it. If someone gets smallpox, their their that person then worships and requests from her healing and, for this reason, brings her offerings, because it is believed that such a worship and offering ward off these ills. Since they come from her, she can also remove them without harming those who get them, provided that they worship her and honor her with offerings. Some among us who make her offerings file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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assume that she is nothing but the Parāśakti herself. If some of those who have become her male and female slaves [i.e., way of saying ‘followers’38] are possessed by devils, she will deliver them from the devils and restore their health, provided that they take their refuge in her and call on her, because the devils must flee from her, as she rules over them as a queen, along with Bhadrakālī and Durgā. Every year we celebrate a festival in her honor lasting for eight days. Goats, swine and cocks are sacrificed to her; in her honor people boil rice, [L 146r] milk and other edible things as offerings. She is the goddess who is worshipped and praised among us in all the lands. Her residence is in the world, and she has to perform her duties as long as people are born,” etc. 3rd Chapter: Regarding and Vīrabhadra as well as page_123 Page 124

is one of the country [actually: village] goddesses also known as a protective goddess. She is considered to be a Śakti who is supposed to have originated from the Parāśakti. She is represented in a sitting position with four hands. She raises two up and folds the other two together. In her raised right hand she holds an instrument made of wood and leather and wound with a snake. In her raised left hand she holds the rope Pāśa to pull the souls of the dead ones to herself. [L 146v] Of the other two hands, one is empty, and with the other she holds the skull of the head of Brahmā, which is mentioned in the previous chapter. She wears a crown on her head, two flowers behind her ears and large rings in her ears. Her locks of hair rise up. On her forehead she has three white stripes made with the ash of burnt cow dung. Around her shoulders, neck, breast, around her waist, on her hands and at her feet she is adorned with pearls, chains, girdles, rings and other decorations. Flower garlands hang down from her shoulders. Two lamps are close to her, but do not burn all the time. Similarly, has her own special temples in which she stands in the above-described posture. Her image is partly cast in metal and partly carved in stone. In some places her temples are very small, but in other places large. It depends on whether her great deeds are more or less well known in a particular place. The activities in the temples of and are similar to each other. Her image stands [L 147 r] in the innermost room of the temple. The following figures stand in the first room: 1. 2. his friend 3. a courageous hero in fights against the evil spirits; 4. Vīrabhadra; 5. a hero like 6. a man who catches [lit. fishes] the souls of those who die a violent death and brings them to the company of so that they can go neither to heaven nor to hell, but hover around under heaven among the restless spirits; 7. a woman who jumped into the fire, burned herself [to death], and performed many wonders after her death, for which reason the South Indians have counted her in the company of and placed her image in the temple of 8. a terrible [female] devil of whom the South Indians are very afraid and to whom they make many offerings so that she [L 147 v] might not harm them. All these figures are usually carved in wood. There are many large and small clay figures both inside and outside the ring wall of the temple in an open space. They are not worshipped. Among the persons whose images were mentioned previously there are two especially, and Vīrabhadra, whose appearance and form need to be described in detail. means the great god and is represented in the same manner as Īśvara. On the other hand, Vīrabhadra is represented in the following way: He wears a crown on his head and emits fire as a sign that he is furious. His black locks of hair also rise up. Behind his ears he has two white flowers. On his forehead he has the which shows that he belongs to the family of Īśvara. His face and his whole body are fiery. There are the teeth of lions in his mouth. He has fourteen arms [L 148r] and hands. He holds four of them empty. In his remaining hands he holds on his right hand a sword, a flower, page_124 Page 125 an arrow and the instrument and on his left a trident, a shield, a bell and an arrow. In two hands he holds a long spear. From top to bottom he wears a long [hanging] thread made of the skulls of those whom he killed at the order of Īśvara so that he could destroy the plan of This story will be narrated in the following [paragraph]. On his ears, neck, breast, around his waist, on his arms and at his feet he is adorned with all kinds of jewels. Flower garlands hang down from his shoulders. He stands in this posture in the temples of Depending upon the size of the temple and his figure, Vīrabhadra has in some temples only four heads, in others even sixteen or more. Actually, in the history books 1,000 heads and 2,000 hands are ascribed to him. Should all the heads and hands be carved in wood, no temple would have space

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for such a monster. [L 148v] The origin of Vīrabhadra and of is written in the book Kantapu A South Indian summarizes the history briefly and writes the following to us [the missionaries in Tranquebar] in a letter. He says: “There was a king named In the name of Īśvara he performed severe religious austerities. The reason he performed these religious austerities was that he did not have a child. He performed the religious austerities so that Īśvara might give him children. Then Īśvara appeared to him and asked him what he desired to have. The king answered: ‘I wish that you would give me children and make me the king over all the worlds.’ Īśvara said: ‘Very well, I have granted your wish.’ This took place in the world of gods. Then, returned to the world of human beings. Īśvara decided to cause his consort Pārvatī to be born as the daughter of As was ruling over the fourteen worlds as a monarch, [L 149r] Pārvatī was really born of his consort. When she was twelve years of age, Īśvara himself came into the world and married Pārvatī. When the wedding was over and Īśvara wanted to go to Kailāsa along with his Pārvatī, Daka spoke to him: ‘Oh god! I have a request to make of you.’ Īśvara answered: “Express it freely. I shall give you what you desire.’ replied: ‘I wish that you come to me daily early in the morning and evening and bring for me the holy ash to smear myself.’ Īśvara spoke: ‘I will come and do it; but I am afraid that because of this you will treat me contemptuously.’ replied: ‘This should never happen. I shall always respect you duly.’ Then Īśvara promised him this and went to his Kailāsa. According to his promise he came twice to and brought him from Kailāsa. This went on for a very long time. Once, when Īśvara brought him the did not respect him duly, but [L 149v] considered him contemptuously, and did not give his attention to Īśvara, but attended to his own works. Īśvara thought: ‘Behold, how he disrespects me, just because I serve him. He will also do it in the future. Hence, it is not useful that I come to him anymore and bring him ’ Then he did not come to any longer. At this became proud, called all the gods together and began to make a Yāga. All the gods, even Brahmā and joined him. After had consulted the gods and got their unanimous consent he continued his Yāga and tried to remove Īśvara and install another one as the great god. With this purpose in mind he set an image in the [fire of] Yāga. At the recital of proper prayers this page_125 Page 126 image was supposed to become the great god. Pārvatī spoke to Īśvara: ‘My father is making a Yāga. Give me permission to go to him and stop his plan.’ Īśvara answered: [L 150 r] ‘Even if you go to him, he will not concern himself with you, but despise you;’ but she insisted and spoke further: ‘He will not do such a thing. Just let me to go to him.’ Then he permitted her to go. She went to the great hall where the Yāga was being performed. her father, looked at her suspiciously, did not respect her and neglected her disdainfully. She took it to heart, thought of the words of her Īśvara, returned to him in Kailāsa, fell at his feet and requested him to destroy the Yāga of He spoke to her: ‘My wife, why did you not want to obey my words?’ At this, Īśvara first sent out Vighneśvara; but as he stopped on his way, Īśvara sent out with the order to hinder the plan and return quickly. Both of them got delayed and the Yāga was not destroyed. [L 150v] At this Īśvara was so enraged that sweat broke out on his forehead. He wiped off the sweat and sprayed it just in front of him. This sweat was the seed and the earth on which it fell was the mother from which Vīrabhadra came forth with a thousand heads and two thousand hands. He positioned himself in front of god, fell at his feet and asked for what reason he had created him. Īśvara replied: ‘ is now making a Yāga and rebelling against me. You must go there and destroy the Yāga and its effects [lit. undertaking].’ No sooner had Vīrabhadra heard such a thing, than he departed at the command of god, flew to that place faster than the wind and destroyed the Yāga of so that nothing remained except dirt and ash. Brahmā and also received their punishment. After everything had happened Īśvara himself went to the hall where the Yāga was performed and saw how Vīrabhadra had devastated them. [L 151 r] He cursed everyone who was involved in it. Īśvara sent the image had set in the Yāga and wished to make into a great god to the world and commanded that people should bring an offering to it. This is the that means ‘the great god,’ whom wished to make god instead of Īśvara. and Vīrabhadra stand in the temple of and are also worshipped with [ ],” etc. Another South Indian writes the following about the in a letter: “ is the privy counselor for the protective goddesses of the field, of homes and of villages. Hence, his image stands in some of their temples. In addition, it is even said is his wife. That is the reason that her temples are either named after her or after him. He is nothing but a great devil; all the devils must carry out his will. Those who have become his male and female slaves [i.e., way of saying ‘followers’39] sacrifice in his honor twice in a year [L 151 v] goats, cocks, rice-wine [i.e., Aricic cārāyam, ‘alcoholic beverage made of rice

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and palm-sugar’], black banners, thick painted rods to beat with, and similar offerings, and lay them in heaps in front of him. Peri does not stay anywhere except in the world. One could consider him to be either a god or a devil. Among us, the people [lit. Malabarians] there are some who have become his slaves. If they do not bring him the appropriate offerings every year, he will possess them and plague them harmfully so that they lose their health [lit. form] and wander around as mad people. He inflicts page_126 Page 127 such an evil thing; if someone serves and makes offerings to him, he does not harm that person and is very friendly. The very purpose of making offerings to him is that no harm comes to them,” etc. Returning to we must note that offerings are made to her statue that stands in the innermost room of the temple at least once a week on Fridays, and she is honored with drink, food and burnt offerings. [L 152r] Those who have chosen her as their protective goddess and have been delivered by her from any difficulty make her some offerings to show their gratitude. Every year she has a festival celebrated by the inhabitants of each place. The time of the festival can vary; however, it usually lasts for either nine or seven days. On these days her figure, cast in metal, is carried around, along with other figures every morning and evening with dancing, jumping and whistling. In the evening of the last day all the inhabitants of the place gather together in front of her temple, especially the women with their daughters. They kindle fires, boil rice which they divide into many portions, offer some of them to Vīrabhadra and others, and keep something for themselves to eat. Thus, one can see many hundreds of fireplaces [i.e., stoves for cooking] on the ground, around the temple. [L 152v] There they boil rice. The men sacrifice swine, goats, cocks and other animals. They cook some of their meat and lay it in heaps before the altar of sacrifice, just as the boiled rice also is thrown in clumps on a spread-out cloth. Later all the food is distributed to those who belong to the temple, especially to those who carry about the figures at festivals and do other services. A South Indian writes the following in a letter: “ is a Śakti who keeps away the devils of the forests, the fields and the houses so that they might not possess the people nor do any harm to them. If a person is possessed, that person is taken to the temple of That person brings offerings to her, worships her, is placed before her,40 sings some songs of praise to her and performs certain ceremonies. Then the devil will depart from the possessed person. [L 153r] Those who have witnessed the help of with their own eyes become her male and female slaves [i.e., way of saying ‘devotees, followers’41], saying that she should be the goddess of their whole generation whom they want to serve and worship. In this way many of them become male and female slaves of one or the other goddess in one or another temple. They serve this goddess till their death and call her their Kuladeva. They recommend her to their children and their offspring as a special goddess,” etc. 4th Chapter: Regarding Bhadrakālī and Aghora The origin of Bhadrakālī is traced to the line of Śakti. She is one of those who are known as the Grāmadevatās. Some of the South Indians say that earlier she was the consort of Īśvara. She became so exceedingly proud that Īśvara cursed her and said that she should become a female devil, and hence, she was expelled from her [L 153v] former bliss and banished to the company of devils on the earth. However, she became the queen of the devils, especially of the female page_127 Page 128 devils. At the same time she was obligated to protect people on the earth from devils. For this reason the consort of Īśvara is named by some poets Aghoraśakti. She is represented dancing because once she contested with Īśvara in dance and was defeated by him. For this reason Īśvara received the name which means the one who has danced with a devil. Bhadrakālī wears a fiery crown surrounded with snakes. In her locks of hair she wears all kinds of jewels. Her face and whole body are fiery. On her forehead she has three stripes made with the which is the sign that she belongs to the family of Īśvara. From her mouth two teeth poke out. She has ten hands; she keeps two folded, and two hang down empty. In the remaining six [L 154r] she has special things: in her right hands she carries a rope, a parrot and the weapon Vēl; in her left hands she carries the instrument Tamarukam wound with a snake, fire and a trident. On her ears, neck, breast, around the body, on her arms, hands and at her foot she is adorned fully with jewels. Flower garlands hang down from her shoulders. Bhadrakālī has her own temples in which her image stands either cast in metal or carved in stone. Beside her are images of Vighneśvara and Vīrabhadra. The figure of Aghora stands just opposite to the image of Bhadrakālī in the position as if he was dancing with her. Some of the South Indians consider this Aghora to be a form of Īśvara. Others think that it is none but Īśvara himself who, in his anger, assumed [L 154v] this form. This was the reason that one of the epithets of Īśvara is Aghoramūrti. On account of this story he was file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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named with this epithet. Aghora is represented with fourteen hands. He holds in them the oft-mentioned instruments: in his right hands he holds Tamarukam wound with a snake, a hand bell, a rope, a shield and a stick; in his left hands he holds a deer, fire, the instrument Akuśa that is used to direct the elephants and the instrument made of wood and leather. He holds a trident with two hands and he keeps two hands open on his chest. He has a crown on his head. Because he is angry, his locks of hair rise up. On the left side of his hair his consort is represented along with the sun; on the right the moon is represented. [L 155r] On his forehead is the sign of On his ears, neck, breast, waist, arms and foot he is adorned with all kinds of jewels. Below, at his feet, he has the wooden walking boot that he wore when he was dancing with Bhadrakālī [lit. on which he danced with Bhadrakālī]. As with other gods and goddesses flower garlands are hanging down from his shoulders. In this position he stands in the temples of Bhadrakālī; in some places he has more hands, and in other places, fewer. A South Indian writes the following about this Aghora in a letter: “Once upon a time there was the terrible giant Marutvat. In god’s presence he performed hard religious austerities for a very long time. As he was performing the religious austerities, god came to him and asked him what he wanted. The giant replied: ‘My reply is this: Whatever I think, should happen at once; no one should either kill me or overcome me. Oh god! give me this boon.’ God granted him this boon. Then the giant killed many kings and usurped their countries. [L 155v] Then all page_128 Page 129 the kings went to god, began to lodge a complaint and spoke: ‘Lord, god! There is the giant Marutvat who defeated and expelled all of us and took over our kingdoms. Please help us against him!’ God replied: ‘Well, please go now [in peace]. I shall kill him and get rid of him.’ Then he sent Bhadrakālī to kill the giant; but his was not possible for her. Then god sent all the kings to wage a war against Marutvat, but they could not overcome him. At this Īśvara came out of the in an angry form and killed him. This is the Aghora that is standing in the temple. He was granted this name because, in the heat of his anger, he came out of the and killed the giant,” etc. This history is said to have happened in the place where Aghora is worshiped in his temple with offerings as the main deity in a stone as well as in a brass image. In this temple the image of Bhadrakālī also is standing, but the dance that Īśvara had danced with Bhadrakālī is said to have taken place in the city Citamparam where there is a magnificent temple. On both sides [at the entrance] Īśvara and Bhadrakālī are portrayed in their dancing posture. Every year a festival is celebrated there and the history is enacted as a comedy, with all the things that belong to it. In those of her temples that have a good income, Bhadrakālī is worshipped at least once a day with offerings, but if the temples are poor, she gets offerings only on Fridays. The offerings that are offered to her stone image in the innermost chamber of the temple are drink, food and burnt offerings; they are similar to the offerings made in the temples of Īśvara and the temples of but with one difference, namely that they use different prayers. [L 156v] The drink, food and burnt offerings that are made inside the temple before her stone image can be performed by a Brahmin. However, the Brāhmins do not even touch the other offerings that consist of sacrifices of swine, goats, cocks, strong drinks and other things made on the sacrifice altar in front of the temple, because the blood of animals is shed, which is abhorrent to the Brāhmins. However, they say that the preventive goddesses [i.e., the village goddesses] and the queens of the devils, along with their companies, can be appeased or satisfied only by shedding blood. For the purpose of beheading the animals, the Pariahs or [even] soldiers are hired. It is not the custom of the South Indians to make human offerings to their gods. There could be only one exception: [human sacrifice might be possible] when a person is strongly motivated, of one’s own free will, to be sacrificed in honor of god. However, nowadays nothing of this is heard anywhere. On the other hand, [L 157r] if a hidden treasure is to be dug out of the earth, they are accustomed to sacrifice that person whom the evil spirit identifies. In any case, it must happen very secretly; should it become public, a very severe punishment will follow. There is an exception: the kings might do it obviously, because they often bury all their treasures with a human sacrifice so that they cannot be found and dug out by anyone. The black magicians use Bhadrakālī along with other village-deities [lit. fieldgods]42 for their evil deeds. If they want to accomplish something in their own way [lit. art], then they usually make a circle with certain figures and whisper into it all kinds of prayers to the devils. One person will always represent the page_129 Page 130 devil. This person begins to rotate his [or her] head and becomes mad. [L 157v] Then the devil speaks through this person to the one who recites the prayers. At the same time, the devil says what the person has file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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to give in return, if the desired goal is to be achieved. Thus, the exorcists have chosen the Grāmadevatās to be their patron deities, because among the devils, they are the principal ones and can help in such evil activities. Just as all the goddesses of the house, the forest and the fields have their annual festival among the South Indians, Bhadrakālī also has her annual festival that lasts seven, eight or nine days. On these days her image is carried around along with the figures of other deities. The last day is the most glorious one: on this day all the inhabitants of that place do the same thing that they do to and in the evening they often gather together in front of the temple, boil rice and offer it. Men bring animals and behead them. They leave the heap of heads lying in front of the temple. However, they keep the body corpse for themselves, either to be sold or, if they wish to eat that which has life, they consume it in the same evening and cook something for Bhadrakālī and for the company [of her devotees] in the temple. Apart from these, she receives some offerings from the inhabitants of every place, especially at the time when exorcisms take place in her temple. As no special books are written about those deities [lit. persons], who are known as the Grāmadevatās, one would find among the South Indians no specific books written about Bhadrakālī. However, [L 158v] one could read many stories about her in the books written in honor of Īśvara. On account of the many stories, in which she appears, the poets have given her all kinds of names, of which the principal ones are as follows: 1. Śūrī, 2. Mālinī, 3. 4. Śūlī, 5. 6. Devī, 7. Vīri, 8. Mātari, 9. 10. Gaurī, 11. 12. [lit. oru ] 13. 14. Bhairavī, 15. 16. 17. 18. Āryā, 19. Yamala, 20. 21 and 22. 23. Madhupati, 24. 25. Ulaviyamāyai,43 26. Yōginī, 27. Kālī, etc. All the devils that are sent by Bhadrakālī to various places also have their special names and histories in the books of the poets. A South Indian writes the following about Bhadrakālī in a letter: “Bhadrakālī is considered to be one of the great protective goddesses. Once she fought with Īśvara in a dance competition [L 159r] and was defeated. Hence, the name Bhadrakālī was given her. She is also known as the Aghorabhadrakālī because of the fury that resides in her. She is the protector of the country, the cities, the villages, the fields and the people so that the devils cannot do any harm. Among the devils she is the great one; she rules over them, especially over the female devils. She does not allow them to harm the inhabitants of the country in any way; at the same time, she has the work of taking the sins of all the inhabitants upon herself so that their sins are not counted against them. This responsibility will end for her when the last time comes. At that time, everything will disappear and return to their first origin,” etc. [L 159v] page_130 Page 131 5th Chapter: Regarding and Durgā The last three protective goddesses are or and Durgā. Like the previous ones, these three also originated from Śakti, from whom the South Indians are accustomed to derive all their goddesses, especially the nine persons known as the Navaśaktis who became the Grāmadevatās. Though they make for them very ugly images and these [ and Durgā] live among the devils, the South Indians worship them as goddesses, saying that they are now deprived of their former glory and lead an accursed life in the world [lit. under a curse they hover around in the world disgracefully]. At the same time, since they are appointed by an order of god to be the leaders of the devils and carry out their responsibility in this world by keeping the devils from [L 160r] harming people, it is fitting for them to have divine names. People are also obligated to show them some divine honor, not only on account of their present duty, but also of their future glory. In any case, at an appointed time, they will be promoted from their present wretched offices to their former glory. is represented in a sitting posture. From her head a terrible fire is burning with which the South Indians exhibit her awful fury; her face and her body are also painted fiery red. She wears a crown. On her forehead she has the mark of The locks of her hair, in which jewels are attached, rise upwards. She wears hanging jewels in her split ear lobes above and below. Behind her ears two flowers are stuck. In her four hands she holds the instrument Tamarukam, a snake, a trident, the skull of Brahmā and a goad. [L 160v] Around her neck, on her breast, around her waist, on her arms and at her feet she is adorned with all kinds of chains, girdles and bracelets. Flower garlands hang down from her shoulders. She sits on an altar as on a throne. This is her image, partly carved in stone and partly cast in metal. Everywhere she has her own special temples among the South Indians; in some places they are large, but in other places very small. Along with her image the figure of Vighneśvara also stands in the temple. At the entrance of the temple there are two very large horrible, disgusting figures that are called If the temple is big, eighteen generals stand around her. One cannot see them in small temples, because they remove all the remaining metal figures [from the small temples] and preserve them in the bigger ones file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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till they celebrate [L 161r] the next annual festival. They are afraid of thieves who might steal them from the smaller temples, which really happens sometimes. But the stone image of remains within the temple. Once a week they offer it drink, food and burnt offerings. As in the case of other temples there is an altar for [blood] sacrifices in front of her temple; they lay their offerings on it, make their vows to or ask her for something. In those places where her temples are situated, there is an annual festival for her that lasts seven, eight or nine days. Everything happens as has been narrated in the festivals of other protective goddesses. One of the South Indians reports the following on in a letter: “On account page_131 Page 132 of her pride and wickedness was banished by god to the earth. [L 161v] As she was banished, too came to the world. She spoke to him: ‘Lord, for the sake of my wickedness I am banished to the world. What should I do now?’ answered her: ‘Remain on this earth till the end of the world and be a queen over all the devils. Rule over all the devils so that they might not harm the people. For this reason the people in the earth will celebrate an annual festival in your honor and bring to you all necessary offerings. Afterwards, at the end of the world you should get back to your bliss.’ Thus, she has now become the queen over the devils and over all those who belong to the caste of the devils. Otherwise, her origin is related to Parāśakti. Since she had become proud and arrogant,44 she was banished to the company of the devils on the earth. For the sake of her work the people celebrate an annual festival in her honor that lasts for eight days. On the final day they [L 162r] bring her all kinds of offerings. The devils must obey her orders and submit to her. At the same time, she is one of the Grāmadevatās. Those who hang themselves, kill themselves with poison, are killed by snakes, pull their tongues from their throat on account of their evilness and die or drown in water and all those people who die a miserable, horrible death, in whatever manner it might be, all become devils and come to the company of Piāri. She rules over them and is their queen, but she hinders them from harming people,” etc. Cāmuā is represented in a standing position. The fire of fury burns on her head. Her face and whole body are painted fiery. Even her locks of hair stand up. On her head and in her hair she wears jewels made of pearls and gold. On her forehead she has the mark made with [L 162v] the ash of cow dung. Two lion’s teeth poke out of her mouth. She wears in her ears hanging jewels and earrings. Similarly, she is adorned with jewels around her neck, breast, waist, and arms and at her feet; two flower garlands hang down from her shoulders. Of her four hands she keeps two folded, and they are empty; she raises the other two hands and holds in them the two weapons of known as the and Cakra, with which she killed a giant. She keeps his buffalo head under her feet. One could overcome and do great things with all the weapons that Civam or Īśvara and hold in their hands. Hence one can read in their books numerous stories of such people who are said to have performed very severe religious austerities for a long time [L 163 r] in order to obtain the weapons or the instruments of Īśvara and and to effect those things that the power of the weapons can accomplish. Some of the South Indians consider to be Pārvatī, the consort of Īśvara who was expelled by a curse and given to Vīrabhadra as his wife. They also say there is nothing more than a single Śakti that has separated into ten parts. On account of a curse nine of them came to the world and are known as the Navaśaktis. These are the Grāmadevatās. The tenth and most important part remained with Civam or Īśvara. It is considered to be his wife. In the end of the world, all the ten parts will come together again and there will be only one Śakti. A South Indian writes in a letter how Pārvatī became He writes: “ [L page_132 Page 133 163v] is none but Pārvatī herself. Once she wanted to see the burnt offering Yāga of her father She departed from Īśvara, went and saw the Yāga. When she came to the place, did not honor her in a fitting way, but looked at her suspiciously and treated her badly. At this, she was greatly disappointed and returned to Īśvara quickly. In the meantime, the sage Agastya had a buffalo bull that he used as his vehicle. He cursed it to become the giant to go out in the night and prevent anyone from proceeding any further, even if it should be Pārvatī. When Pārvatī was returning on her way to Īśvara, he did not allow her to proceed. She spoke: ‘I must go to god. Do not stop me.’ The giant did not obey, but opposed her in such a way that both of them had to fight. Pārvatī beat the giant so much that much blood shot out of him [L 164r] and he fell down. However, wherever his blood fell down, there developed many other mighty giants. When Pārvatī saw that giants originated from all the places where the blood was sprinkled and that she was in need of help, she worshipped Immediately he caused his two weapons and Cakrāyudha to reach her. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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These weapons did not allow the blood to fall on the ground; because of their fiery nature, they dried the blood up by sucking it. She became victorious. After the fight was over, she came to Īśvara in her fiery form. He looked at his wife angrily and spoke: “Woman, how could you become so furious?’ After she had described what happened to her, with and on her journey, Īśvara created Vīrabhadra and sent him to to destroy the Yāga. After Vīrabhadra had accomplished the task, Īśvara commanded him to take the angry Pārvatī [L164 v] as his wife. Then he banished both of them to the world,” etc. Among the South Indians has her own temples in which she is worshipped; but there are only very few of them. The following images stand in her temple: 1. a figure of both carved in stone and cast in metal. Her figure is the one that stands in the innermost room and to which offerings are made, but on festival days her metal figure is carried around; 2. a figure of or Vighneśvara; 3. the figure of Vīrabhadra that is usually carved in wood; 4. a figure of a who is to catch the souls of those who die a violent death and bring them to the company of and 5. a figure of the devil Ēvalkārar pēy who is close to her and goes on errands for her. [L 165r] On festival days all these persons receive offerings and honors along with her, but Vighneśvara alone receives some offerings every week on Fridays. All the offerings that are performed in honor of Grāmadevatās have the same characteristics. Even the annual festival celebrated in honor of for seven, eight or nine days is also celebrated in the same manner. Another South Indian writes still more about in a letter: “ is one of the nine Śaktis known as the Navaśaktis. Her duty is to give courage to those who worship her. If the black magicians bring offerings to her, she is helpful to them in their black magic. They also have certain prayers and know how to use them along with the ceremonies to beckon [L 165v] for their help so that she can help them accomplish their task well. Those who wish to become page_133 Page 134 heroes of war choose as their patron and call on her earnestly so that she can give them courage and victory over all enemies,” etc. Durgā is represented in the posture she had when she killed the giant She has the face of a sheep; fiery anger burns on her head, which is adorned with some jewels made of gold, pearls and precious stones. On her forehead she has a mark in the form of a half moon made with the ash of cow dung. She is adorned with all kinds of jewels in the locks of her hair, on her ears, neck, breast, around her body, on her arm and at her feet. Flower garlands hang down from her shoulders. She has six hands in which she holds a ring, a sword, a spear or the trident,45 a goad and a human skull. [L 166r] She stands with her feet on the dead giant and on his lion head. The South Indians say that the giant received a new head whenever he was beheaded; however, Durgā cut it off. Durgā is considered to be one of the nine Śaktis. All kinds of stories are narrated of her. A South Indian refers in a letter to the story how she killed a giant who had the sheep face: “There was female giant Mahāmāyā which name means ‘a great illusion.’ She performed great religious austerities. The purpose of her religious austerities is this: According to her sex organ she was neither a man nor a woman. She performed the religious austerities so that Īśvara would make her a full woman and show her whom she had to marry. Īśvara appeared to her, granted her request and said also that a sage [L 166v] by the name of Kāśima was living in the north and he was to be her husband. At this time, she went to the sage in the north. As she noticed how deeply he became involved in his religious austerities, that he never opened his eyes, she thought of a trick to make him see her. During the time of his religious austerities he ate nothing but the dry leaves falling from the trees, which he gathered with his hands. She made him edible things from honey and all kinds of juice. He gathered and ate them. She also prepared all kinds of baked things and gave them to him as food. Through such food, his lust for unchaste acts was kindled so that he looked at her. As soon as he saw the female giant, he lay with her. Thus, the giant Śūrapadma was born. Then, when the sage was in deep meditation he realized the grave sin he had committed. He was very sad [L 167r] and thought to himself: ‘How could you commit such a sin? Behold, your severe religious austerities are nullified at once. Hence, they will not be of any use. If you stay there any longer the female giant will still lead you astray.’ Then he assumed the form of an elephant; but the female giant also assumed the form of a female elephant. Again they copulated, and the giant Tārakāsura was born with an elephant head. The sage wanted to escape from her lust and assumed the form of a lion. She, too, became a she-lion and went to him. Then the giant Sihamukhāsura was born with 1,000 heads and 2,000 hands. The sage assumed the form of a he-sheep, but she became a she-sheep; when they came together the woman Ajamukhī was born with a sheep-face. Now she is considered to be Durgā, who is worshipped by us as one of the Grāmadevatās and is represented with a sheep-face. [L 167v] The sage of whom she was born is the father of Devendra. Her oldest brother Śūra

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performed religious austerities for 2,000 years to achieve more than Devendra, the king page_134 Page 135 over all the gods. As Īśvara did not appear to him, he became impatient and fell into fire and was burned. His other brother with 1,000 heads and 2,000 arms continued the religious austerities for another 2,000 years. [During this time] Durgā went once to the garden of and devastated it. There had appointed the formidable giant as a watchman. He had a lion’s head. When he saw her, he fought with her, but she threw him down under her feet and killed him. At this, Īśvara ordered her to be a guardian of the people in the world, to move about at the order of so that people would bring her only those offerings that they used to bring to Thus, she is one of those whom [L 168r] we consider to be Grāmadevatās,” etc. Among the South Indians Durgā has her special temples that are built like the ones for In the temples her image stands along with the figures of Vighneśvara, Vīrabhadra and Bhadrakālī. Around the outside of her temples numerous clay figures are placed, which the inhabitants had made on various occasions to fulfill their vows to Durgā. Among them there are also the images of the generals whom Durgā uses in her fight against the devils. Pūcāri, the priest of her temples, is a and makes offerings to her usually every Friday. He accepts the goods for offerings that various inhabitants bring to fulfill their vows. An annual festival is celebrated for seven, eight or even nine days. On the last day the inhabitants often gather together around her temple to boil rice and bring swine, goats, cocks [L 168v] and strong drinks. In her honor they make sacrifices. On account of the many stories that the poets write about her she has acquired different names such as: 1. Bhagavatī, 2. Nīlī, 3 and 4. Kātyāyanī,46 5, 6 and 7. 47 8. Gaurī, 9. Āryā, 10. 11. 12. Śūlī, 13. 14. Kanyā, 15. Sundarī, etc. Each of these names contains a special story; it is very important that one take note of the first name, because many of her temples are called after it. Among the letters of the South Indians that have reached us [the missionaries in Tranquebar] there is a letter in which the following passage about Durgā is mentioned: “Durgā is a Śakti that has the responsibility of being a protective goddess. Many devils and evil spirits that wish to harm people hover around the world. Durgā is the one who rules over the devils and protects the people so that the devils cannot do any harm to them. [L 169r] With her there are nine Śaktis who hold the same office and whom we call Grāmadevatās. We do not offer them any other offering except an annual festival; here we bring her offerings for the sake of her services and call on her to keep away all the devils from our houses, cities, villages and land. Otherwise, there are also soldiers, generals, leaders of wars and black magicians who have very close fellowship with the protective goddesses and worship them in a special way. The leaders of war bring her such offerings by which they obtain great courage so that they can never be defeated, but are always victorious. These goddesses help the black magicians greatly as those who have a special fellowship with them; they can achieve a lot of things with their help. For them Durgā [L 169v] is a very angry Śakti. If one would examine everything, finally one would decide that there is page_135 Page 136 just one Śakti, and no more. Only the names and events are many. Just as Īśvara does not represent more than one person, yet has many names and is worshipped, on account of his appearances, in many forms, similarly, there is only one Śakti. On account of her manifold activities and events, she has many names and is worshipped in many forms,” etc. 6th Chapter: Regarding the devils and the harmful giants such as the Pēys, the Bhūtas, the and the Acuras from whom the Grāmadevatās have to protect people The origin and the activities of the Grāmadevatās as protectors of the people have been explained in the five previous chapters; now at the end of the third par[L 170r], mention must be made of those who protect the people from the devils and giants. The South Indians divide the devils into two groups and name one Pēys and Piśācas and the other Bhūtas. Again, the giants are divided into two subgroups: they name the one group Rākasa and the other Acura. According to their special order, each of these many groups should be explained briefly. The South Indians paint the devils very black with a horrible face and call them Pēys. The devils have lean bodies in such a posture that they look like they are floating in the air and have great hunger, thirst and pain. Regarding their origin, the South Indians do not have a unanimous opinion; most of them state that god created them in the beginning as devils so that good and evil could be discerned. [L 170v] The South Indians consistently ascribe the beginning of good and evil to god. Many of them say also that god created the devils to punish people. However, knowledgeable and learned people state that god did not originally file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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create the devils as devils, but that they had a good beginning; later, on account of their crimes and to endure a righteous punishment, they were cursed and expelled from one or the other world and became devils. In this way the number of the devils is still increasing. Among those who state that god originally created the devils as devils, one person writes in a letter the following: “The devils constitute a certain creation of god. A long time ago god created them as such. The reason why god created them as such is this: Among the people there are many who commit great and terrible sins. In order to punish them god has created the devils. These will torment them while they are alive and will kill them eventually. [L 171r] After their death they are given over to the devil for torture and then they remain in the form of devils. As restless spirits they hover around the world; sometimes they are thrown into hell where they are tortured and tormented by the devils; they have to be obedient to them and do all their services. Among them Durgā and the other Grāmadevatās are the kings and rulers; they rule over them whom god has created as devils and also over those people who, on account of their sin, become devils; no one can do anything against the will of the Grāmadevatās or kill innocent people,” etc. One of those South Indians who state that the devil was created, at first, a good being [lit. well] and later became a devil because of his sin writes the following page_136 Page 137 [in a letter]: “There were many persons with Īśvara, and Brahmā, with Devendra in the world of gods and [L 171v] in other worlds. They misused the power and the boons which they had obtained [from god], and later became proud. On account of their sin, god cursed all these persons; in his anger he banished some of them to hell and others to this world with the punishment that they were to be devils for a fixed time and should be tormented. Moreover, there are many people in the world who either commit suicide or die in a terribly sinful state. Similarly, they also come into the company [lit. number] of the devils and become devils. All these are those whom we call Pēys and Piśācas. There are many thousands of sins that make people become devils. One cannot count all of them [here],” etc. First of all the South Indians consider the Grāmadevatās [L 172 r] generally to be the leaders of the devils. Besides them they also specify many principal devils that are helpful to the Grāmadevatās and stand either inside or around their temples. They also name a large number of such devils that possess the people. They have prepared a very long register in which they specify the devils, who seek to harm people. Of them one can mention only the following here:48 1. Kalakap pēy, the devil, who always causes misfortune;49 Kāvālip pēy, the devil of the prostitutes;50 3. Talai pēy, the devil, who causes the head of the people to rotate uncontrollably; 4. pēy, the devil, who makes people unashamed; 5. Mājālap pēy, the devil, who deprives people of their senses so that they lie down for some time as if they were dead; 6. pakarum pēy, the devil, who makes people so mad that they speak many [negative] things about others; [L 172 v] 7. Ērikkaraiyil irāp pēy pakal pēy, the devil of the day and the night that appears near the water reservoir; 8. Nilai kulaitta pēy, the terrible devil, who makes people become [extremely] bad and turns them into tyrants; 9. Cūtup pēy, the gambling-devil; 10. the dancedevil; 11. Tātu pēy, the devil, who kindles evil lust and fosters fornication; 12. nalintu pēy, the devil, who always causes the body to shake and shiver; 13. pēy, the thunder-devil; 14. pēy, the devil of disregard;51 15. pēy, the devil of the [local] city; 16. pēy, the crafty devil; 17. pēy, the devil, who stays in the spurge-milk-trees [i.e., i.e., square spurge known as the Euphorbia tirucalli]; 18. pēy, the devil, who stays in the thorn bush; 19. pēy, the devil with wrong light [for misguiding the people]; 20. pēy, the dreadfully merciless devil; 21. pēy, the devil, who makes people do unintended [evil] things; 22. Cātikulap pēy, the caste-devil, who makes the people think [L 173r] that because of their caste they are better than the others; 23. varuttum pēy, the troubling devil, who makes people do everything in vain; 24. Cāstirap pēy, the devil of the learned people who wish to know of things in the future; 25. pēy, the devil of hindrance; 26. pēy, the devil of paralysis; 27. Kōttiratil pēy, the devil in every home [i.e., the buffoon-pēy, who has attached itself to one particular family]; 28. pēy, the evil devil; 29. pēy, the devil of witchcraft; 30. pēy, the devil of falsehood; 31. Kolaip pēy, the devil, page_137 Page 138 who kills; 32. Varmap pēy, the envious devil; 33. Vairākkiyap pēy, the devil of hatred; 34. Karmap pēy, the devil of sin; 35. Kāmakārap pēy, the devil of misfortune; 36. pēy, the devil of storms, 37. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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pēy, the devil, who always stays in the place where the dead are burnt; 38. vikārap pēy, the devil in the person that considers others to be fools; 39. Kātal pēy,52 the devil, who kindles (erotic) lust in a person; [L 173 v] 40. pēy, the devil, who dances on a rope; 41. Pūtalattācai poruntiya pēy, the devil, who loves worldly things; 42. Lōka pēy, the devil, who plants worldly vanities in the heart; 43. pēy, the devil in the house which brings all kinds of evil dreams;53 44. pēy, the forestdevil; 45. pēy, the devil of luxurious life, 46. pey, the devil of pride; 47. pēy, the devil in the kitchen; 48. kōpa pēy, the angry devil, who can never be satisfied; 49. Uccip pēy, the midday-devil; 50. Kālaip pēy, the morningdevil; 51. Cantip pēy, the afternoon-devil; 52. Irāp pēy, the night-devil; 53. pēy, the helping devil or the familiar spirit;54 54. pēy, the fuming devil; 55. Akantaip pēy, the devil of vain pride; 56. Acārap pēy, the devil, who makes (unnecessarily flattering) compliments; 57. Perumai pēy, the devil of ambition; 58. pēy,55 the devil of avarice; 59. pārttu pēy, the devil of hell which offers the model for people to decorate their body with all kinds of jewels; [L 174 r] 60. pēy, the devil of vices; 61. pēy, the devil with a mad face; 62. Tarmattai catikārap pēy, the misleading devil, who hinders all the good deeds; 63. Kaap pēy, the stealing devil; 64. pēy, the devil, who lives under the king-tree [i.e., the Aracamaram, Ficus religiosa]; 65. pēy,56 the devil in the field [where paddy seedlings are grown]; 66. Kuttirap pēy, the devil of lies; 67. Tukkap pēy, the devil of sorrows; 68. Cōmpal pēy, the devil of laziness; 69. Māyaip pēy, the devil of hypocrisy or cheating; 70. pēy, the devil, who lives in the snake holes [lit. an anthill, a termite-mound]; 71. Pūlōkap pēy, the devil of the world; 72. pēy, the hard drinking devil [lit. devil of palmwine]; 73. pēy, the devil of gluttony; 74. Tōtakap pēy, the devil, who hinders any progress [through its cheating and profligacy]; 75. Parikācap pēy, the devil, who makes vexing fun; 76. Nirmūlap pēy, the devil, who eradicates; 77. pēy, the devil of strife.57 To sum up, the South Indians specify as many devils as they can count the sins [i.e., vices] among them. In their books many stories are found about [L 174 v] the devils, what evil things they did among the people, how they disguised themselves and assumed another form, how in many ways they mislead the people, how they can disguise themselves and change their form, how terribly they tormented those whom they possessed and how they should be driven out from them. One also finds among the South Indians some books that narrate the special events of certain terrible devils and the way their activities [lit. sports] caused much decay. Among such books the principal ones are the and the In the first book the activities of the terrible devil Vetāla are described, and in the second a detailed story about the crafty female devil Nīlī is told. Since the South Indians know how much evil the devils perform among the people [L 175 r] and that they page_138 Page 139 cause almost all sickness and misfortune, they honor the leaders of the devils, namely the Grāmadevatās, with worship and offerings, hoping that these might protect them from the devils. If any of them is possessed by the devils, of whom there are many, they take this person to the temples of the Grāmadevatās and drive out the devils; it is an easy art for them [i.e., they exorcise the devils very easily]. They represent the other kind of devils as fully red, small and fat. They name them Bhūtas. Their pigtails hang around their head; they have fearsome faces and lion’s teeth in their mouths; but their heads, ears, necks, breasts, their waist, arms and their feet are adorned with jewels. [L 175 v] Gods make use of the Bhūtas in their services. One Bhūta, who is close to Īśvara is known as the Bhū wherever he wishes to go, he allows himself to be carried by others. Some of them must go in front of him and whistle—according to the custom in the East Indian states. The South Indians state that such Bhūtas were created for the service of gods and other persons. Even though they have to do the most tedious jobs, they do not consider them to be an affliction because they were not created for anything other than their jobs. Hence, one could not compare them to the wretched state of Pēys. A South Indian writes the following about the Bhūtas in a letter: “The Bhūtas are special creatures of god; he has created them for some service. Our poets write that Īśvara uses them as [L 176 r] his door keepers so that they can keep watch over those who come and go, or they can either bring in or send away someone. They were not born through the birth-organs just as we people are, but they were created all together. They are sent in this world to and fro; they are such beings as can change their forms and be present in disguise here and there. They are also used for punishment and have many other activities,” etc. Another South Indian writes the following [in a letter] about the origin of the Bhūtas as it is found in the book “In the beginning the Bhūtas were created by Brahmā in great numbers. When the giant Śūra

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ruled over the fourteen worlds and misused the power that he had obtained from Īśvara, all the gods solicited Īśvara that he might kill him. Īśvara also resolved [L 176 v] to send his to fight against the giant. He called on Brahmā and told him to create as many Bhūtas as could stand in the space of one thousand miles, namely ten full [i.e., in exceedingly great numbers]. No sooner had Īśvara spoken than Brahmā created ten proceeded with these to fight, and he also took with him 100,000 heroes and nine generals. All the 330,000,000 gods also went with them to fight against Śūra. Their strides not only dried up the seven seas, but made the dust cover the moon and the sun. The stars in the heaven seemed as if they were the pearls on their heads [i.e., on the heads of the marching army]. The king of the sea came to and complained that all the seas were dry and filled with sand and asked him for page_139 Page 140 advice. let his generals be called and ordered that the whole army should pass urine. When it had happened, [L 177 r] all the seven seas were again full of water. The Bhūtas went ahead and used the mountains as slinging stones, destroyed and burned everything on the way, and devastated everything in a terrible manner,” etc. The South Indians consider the creation of the Bhūtas to the first act of creation and believe this war to be its very cause. After the war was over and victory was secured, the Bhūtas were taken into the service of gods. and the other Grāmadevatās have their own Bhūtas; they use them to rule over the devils, to punish and bring them to obedience; otherwise, they use them to execute evil people, and to punish, persecute and to torment the souls of sinful people. Regarding the giants whom the South Indians call their principal one and their leader was He has ten heads [L 177 v] and is usually portrayed for the sake of proportion with only nine heads, of which the middle one is the biggest; he wears crowns on all his heads. On each forehead he has a white streak made with the In each of his mouths two lion’s teeth poke out. He has twenty arms and hands in which he holds all the weapons and the instruments that he has received from Īśvara. On his right he holds the weapon Vajrāyudha, the a snake, fire, an arrow and the ax On his left he carries from top to bottom a trident, a sword, the thick painted beating stick the weapon the small hand weapon a bow and a shield. In his last two hands he holds the two brass instruments known as Tāla. Around his waist he carries the instrument Tampuru [L 178 r] which looks like a lute [a musical instrument]. He sits on an elevated throne and is fully adorned with jewels. His two brothers are and 58 is said to have been a great sleeper who woke up only once a year and ate; at that time he always fought a war and killed an enemy. His great deeds, performed in his war against Rāma or are described in the book is also one of the most terrible giants. He is said to have 1,000 heads and 2,000 hands; but he is generally represented with one head and two hands. The are said to have obtained their greatest power and might through hard religious austerities. After Īśvara had given them unconquerable weapons, they misused them, along with their power. Then they [L 178 v] were destroyed by who had come over to the party of Apart from him, [the ] Hiraya is well known. In order to eliminate him assumed his seventh incarnation and destroyed him. Regarding the origin of the giants, the South Indians have two kinds of opinions. Some say that they are special creatures of god who cannot be considered human beings. On account of their nature and appearance they differ much from human beings and can do many non-human things. Others say that in the beginning, they were with god, and hence were greatly respected and had great responsibilities. Later, on account of some crime, god cursed them. They became formless giants. In this page_140 Page 141 condition they multiplied greatly. Those who believe that the were first created by god say that they were obedient to god, performed great religious austerities for a long time [L 179 r] and obtained through this great power, immortality and invincible weapons. Later, they misused them and raised themselves above the gods, so that they were finally eradicated by the incarnations of A South Indian writes the following in a letter: “The belong to the caste of First, they all performed hard religious austerities and obtained all kinds of boons from god. and his two brothers and Kumbha received especially great powers through their religious austerities. Then they forced the kings, gods and other people to serve Thus they ruled very harshly for 50,000 years. His residence was the island Ceylon that is surrounded by an ocean. Then the gods and kings on the earth

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complained to Īśvara against [L 179 v] pey,They could achieve this much: was born in the world, got the name Rāma and eradicated the entire caste [i.e., group] of giants, but spared only Later, when another giant, had obtained great powers through his hard religious austerities and wished to make himself god, killed him in his seventh incarnation. Now all the giants in the world have been totally eradicated by so that, at present, no giant can be seen,” etc. Another South Indian writes the following [in a letter]: “The principal ones among the giants whom we call are the three brothers and and Indrajit, the son of Many history books are written only about Indrajit. On account of his hard religious austerities obtained from Īśvara great powers [L 180 r] and the city as his residence. This city was 700 miles long, but is now sunk in the ocean. Later he became very proud, forced even the gods and the sages to serve him and insulted them greatly. They went to Īśvara and complained against At this, was born in this world as a man. He was born to the king Daśarathamahārāja. When he was grown up, he married Sītā and went into wilderness for some time where Sītā was stolen away by The monkey Hanumat went out to search for Sītā and met her with in the city When he pulled down all the trees in the beautiful garden of Indrajit came out, fought with him, captured him and brought him to He ordered [L 180 v] [his servants] to wind up Hanumat’s tail with cotton, to dip it in oil and set fire to it. When people did it, Hanumat burned down the entire city Then he came to his master Rāma and narrated to him everything that had happened. Immediately Rāma declared war against and resolved to eradicate the entire giant-caste of advised his brother to surrender Sītā many times, but he did not want to listen. Finally, went to the side of Rāma and helped him in the war until all the giants were slain and, at last, was killed. Rāma made king of the same city and installed him in the place of his brother,” etc. page_141 Page 142 The other group of giants, whom the South Indians call Acura, is also quite similar. They are represented as the but they are described in much worse detail than the Acuras are though[L 181 r] to have been created to punish the gods and the sages. A South Indian summarizes the story of their origin in a letter and writes as follows: “There was a king of the fourteen worlds. Pārvatī was born to him; later Īśvara married her and promoted very highly; but he became very proud and did not respect Īśvara any more highly. Finally, he was resolved to remove Īśvara from his divine throne and make someone else god. All the gods and sages, even including and Brahmā, consented to this agreement. They all came together to and performed a Yāga. Īśvara destroyed this undertaking through Vīrabhadra and cursed all the gods and the sages who had given their consent [to dethrone him]. The curse was this that a female giant known as the Mahāmāyā should appear and produce a caste [i.e., group] of giants [L 181 v] who would be called Acura. They must punish the gods and the sages for many thousand years, because, without the permission of Īśvara, they had consented to the plan of After this, a female giant, Mahāmāyā, appeared. She went to a sage in a forest where he was performing his religious austerities. He was the father of the king of the gods, namely of Devendra. In her craftiness she disturbed him in his religious austerities and he ended up committing fornication. As a result, the giant Śūrapadma was born, and later two more giants: with 1,000 heads and 2,000 hands, and Tārakāsura with the trunk of an elephant. When they were told of their caste [i.e., origin], that they were actually born to the father of Devendra, they desired to be more powerful than Devendra, the king of the gods and they performed a few thousand years’ hard religious austerities. On account of this, the oldest brother [L 182 r] was made the king of the fourteen worlds and allowed to rule over them for 108 ages. As a result he spread the caste of giants. They were troubling kings and sages, whom he enslaved. After the latter had suffered for a long time, they and their king performed very hard religious austerities to get a boon from Īśvara and that Īśvara might annihilate the giant Śūrapadma and his caste of giants;59 but Śūrapadma was such a fearsome monarch that he had 7,004 privy counselors. It is said that Rāvaa had a very large number of soldiers of war, but this Śūrapadma [lit. only Śūra] had a greater number of musicians than the soldiers of Just as was destroyed along with his caste of giants by this Śūra was annihilated along with his caste of giants by ” etc. [L 182 v] Another South Indian writes similar things about this group of giants [in a letter]: “Acuras are giants from the caste of Śūrapadma. 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completely. These Acuras were terrible, evil and dangerous people. They were persons without compassion, love, mercy and humility. Accordingly, their height reached to the airy heaven. They are a terror to those who look at the m. They are proud, arrogant and furious. At present no page_142 Page 143 one is left from this caste of giants. All of them have been eradicated,” etc. Even though the South Indians [L 183 r] say that such giants were wiped out from this world, yet they continue to believe that they are still hovering around the world as evil spirits and wanting to do harm. When they celebrate a festival in a temple, they place the eight guardians of the eight cardinal points of the world, who will be described in the last part [of the Genealogy], either around the offering or around the temple and request them to keep the devils and the giants away from them, so that these cannot do them any harm. They also call on the Grāmadevatās to keep away not only the devils, but also the evil spirits of the giants from their land, cities, villages, houses and the people. With this, the third part of the Genealogy of the Deities is concluded. Often it is mentioned that those people originally shared [lit. were in] the great glory, were cursed by god and expelled to their [present] wretched state. [L 183 v] It is also mentioned that those who had obtained great power, immortality and many divine gifts, became proud, arrogant and evil; thus they deserved the punishment from god. From this, one might conclude that the South Indians may have perceived the great [original] noble state that both the devils and the human beings had in the beginning [in god’s presence], and that they later misused them through their pride and they were cursed by god for their sin and expelled into misery. This knowledge has been kept from them and turned into lies in many ways by the inspiration of Satan through their poets. [L 184 r] page_143 Page 144 The Fourth Part of the Genealogy of the South Indian Deities deals with the Devas, who are 330,000,000 minor gods and located in the world Devaloka, to whom 48,000 sages, many servants of gods and the guardians of the eight cardinal corners of the world belong [L 185 r] Introduction to the Fourth Part In the previous three parts, all those deities are described to whom the South Indians pay divine honors. Apart from them, there are still others whom they really call ‘gods’ and even place in the company of the deities. However, among the South Indians these do not have either temples or formal worship; yet, in their many stories are written about them. One also venerates them to some extent through various ceremonies and respects them. Hence, it is necessary that they are presented and described in this fourth part. The first part deals with Parāparavastu, the second with the Mummūrttis and the third with the Grāmadevatās; this fourth part can be entitled Devas because one could bring under this title almost all other persons who are to be considered. The word Devas means ‘gods;’ the South Indians coun33 or 330,000,000 gods and place them in [L 185 v] their special world known as the Devaloka meaning ‘the world of gods.’ The inhabitants of this world are gods; they are worshipped not as real gods, but as those who enjoy great glory in Devaloka; however, they cannot give bliss to anyone. Hence, they are extremely different from the gods mentioned [lit. thought of] in the previous part. They have a king among them with the name Devendra whose consort is and their son Citraputra. In their company there are 48,000 prophets whom they call They have all kinds of servants and musicians who, at the same time, also serve Īśvara and in paradise. The eight protectors of the eight cardinal world-points also belong to the company of gods or are at least considered to be with them. All these are described in this part. Since the festivals and offerings were mentioned briefly in the previous parts, now, [L 186 r] at the close of this book, they need to be explained in detail according to their external characteristics and ceremonies. Thus, the last part can be easily divided into six chapters that follow one after the other: 1st Chapter: Regarding the 330,000,000 gods known as Devas, their king Devendra, also about his consort and his son Citraputra 2nd Chapter: Regarding the 48,000 prophets known as the 3rd Chapter: Regarding the servants and musicians, who are close to the deities and serve them in various ways 4th Chapter: Regarding the eight protectors of the eight cardinal points of the page_144 Page 145 world known as the 5th Chapter: Regarding the external characteristics of the principal festivals that the South Indians celebrate file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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in honor of their deities 6th Chapter: Regarding the offerings that the South Indians bring to the deities. 1st Chapter: Regarding the 330,000,000 gods known as Devas, their king Devendra, also about his consort and his son the Citraputra [L 186 v] The South Indians declare that there are fourteen worlds; in each of them they place special human beings and creatures of god. One of their worlds is the Devaloka and it means ‘the world of gods.’ Its inhabitants are not humans, but gods; they count a large number of them, i.e., 330,000,000 gods. Since, in their language [i.e., ], they are known as Devas, the world in which they live is also named after them as Devaloka. The poets write a lot of fables about this world; one of them would be their statement of the fourteen worlds. This is the main cause for all kinds of stories and legends; they cannot prove the existence of them with anything [reasonably], but write that it happened in some other world and has been revealed to them by various sages. The South Indians accept them as truth without examining them and continue to defend until today such poetic fables. Though they cannot offer any proof, they say that they should be believed because it [their faith] is very old and has been revealed to them by gods through the sages. [L 187 r] They say that the Devas are created gods and ascribe to them almost the same characteristics and activities that we Christians assign to the angels. For example, they say that the actual residence of Devas is the Devaloka; however, they can be in any place, if they only think and desire to be. Mostly, they are said to be around Īśvara, and Brahmā and to worship them with offerings and praise. They are at their disposal for [any] service and for all kinds of activities, in such a way that they enjoy a greater glory than the other [divine beings] and are preferred [by the ‘real’ gods] to others. Hence, they are worthy of consideration in the world; when one would make offerings to Īśvara and the Devas can also be honored in a devout way. They are not allowed to work or to do business, but they are said to have a tree in the world of the gods known as the This gives them any kind of edible things that they desire. They are also said to have a well, known as the Amirtak in which [L 187 v] the water of immortality springs often for them. Besides them [i.e., and ] they are also said to have a cow known as Kāmadhenu, which gives them everything that is needed. Regarding their creation and the cause of their creation a South Indian writes this in a letter: “The 330,000,000 gods whom we call Devas are creatures made by god. The reason why God created them is this: The eternal god was never without worship and honor. Before we human beings were created in this world to page_145 Page 146 worship and honor him, he created these 330,000,000 gods so that they could know, worship and honor him. He created them to be the inhabitants of the Devaloka, just as he has created for us human beings this world known as the Bhūloka. Their creation took place after god had already created all the worlds with the heavens, earth and seas. Then he created them in the world Devaloka as spiritual persons. Hence, [L 188 r] all these 330,000,000 Devas are spiritual creatures and have a far better state of being than we human beings; they can see god and always be with him. Since they are persons who are pleasing to god and dear to him, we human beings in this world are accustomed to respecting them very highly and to honoring them in various ways. They enjoy great bliss. However, finally, when everything returns to its origin, these gods and all the 8,400,000 species of living creatures will pass away and only the eternal, supreme, spiritual being alone will be left. The main function of these gods mentioned here is this: they should serve and honor god, discuss among themselves the holy teachings about god, praise and exalt him, and do deeds according to his will,” etc. Though the South Indians can count the gods to a certain large number, they do not know how to specify them according to their names. Hence, one would not find any image of these gods either in the temples or in the houses, except that [L 188 v] sculptors, artists and weavers carve some of them on the walls of the temples, draw them on paper or on cotton [cloth]. It is customary to portray on cotton [cloths] those histories that occurred among the deities in their world. These drawings hang either in temples or in houses of great men, as decorations as well as a remembrance of the earlier stories from the religious books [lit. remembrance of the law-histories that had occurred]. Not a single history book [i.e., ] is found among the South Indians which does not deal with some stories of these gods. The stories that are written about these gods are mostly unreliable; they reveal, who among them there must be sin and wretchedness. If one would judge them, according to what is written about them, [one would note the following:] they often fight among themselves, become sad and angry, get into various difficulties, are overcome and enslaved by their enemies, [L 189 r] arrange very sinful gatherings for dance and play, have consorts, commit sinful deeds with women, are expelled, cursed and killed, and get into some misery from which they do not know how to get out. 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unsound and filthy and are against all wisdom, holiness, righteousness and truth. Surely, they are even against all human reason. One might wonder how, having such a [high degree of] natural understanding, the South Indians could believe in such foolish fables. Once, these 330,000,000 gods came together in the sea of milk and wanted to churn the drink of immortality; during the time of this action Īśvara, and Brahmā came and helped them. As they were preparing this a drink with great effort, poison appeared in it [and contaminated it], which the poets attribute [L 189 v] to Mūdevī, the goddess of misfortune. Afterwards, Īśvara is said to have page_146 Page 147 drunk that poison. The different goddesses are said to have originated from the universal medicine that was prepared. This is narrated in the story about the second incarnation of etc. Once, when the gods were invited together to witness a game and a dance, the principal priest hid himself in the world of the gods because, when he had arrived at the company [of gods], he was not received with due compliments. On account of this, so much misfortune, misery and distress occurred in the world of gods that, at the end, it was devastated completely: the terrible evil giants overcame the gods and drove them into a corner. Neither Brahmā nor could deliver them from this misery, but Īśvara had to set them free, which he accomplished, but not without great difficulty. [L 190 r] Once, the king of the fourteen worlds, desired to dethrone the great god Īśvara and instead wished to install another one to be the great god; all the 330,000,000 gods came to him and tried to make it come about. For this reason, they received the curse of Īśvara to be tormented and enslaved by the terrible giants known as the Acuras for many thousands of years. Though they fought a long war against the Acuras, they were always defeated, until finally Īśvara’s son went to fight against the Acuras in the battlefield and freed the gods from their slavery by killing the Acuras. Their history books contain such numerous stories that are unacceptable. Similarly, it is also mentioned in some books that whenever Īśvara organized a solemn act in his paradise known as Kailāsa,60 or Brahmā in his special world known as Brahmaloka, [L 190 v], all the 330,000,000 gods were present in that function. Moreover, whenever a goddess had a marriage or Īśvara and appeared in this world and granted someone bliss in a visible form, it is also noted that these gods also appeared with them. Since they are referred to in their law books [i.e., sacred scriptures] in very diverse manners, the South Indians, after they have finished their offerings, usually say at least a few complimentary words about them. When they begin to make an offering, through certain ceremonies and prayers, they place around them Īśvara, Brahmā, these 330,000,000 gods, 48,000 sages and the eight guardians of the eight cardinal world points. When this is done, they make their offerings. After each offering they thank these gods and depart with some ceremonies [L 191 r] and prayers. Apart from this, the 330,000,000 gods are not given any other honor. These gods have their own king, Devendra. The South Indians represent him with four hands; he keeps two of them empty. In one of his raised hands he holds the weapon Vēl and in the other hand he carries his special weapon Vajrāyudha, which always assures them victory in war. If a person performs religious austerities in his name, that person will get such a weapon as a gift. Hence, one reads many stories61 [of such people] who are said to have obtained such a weapon and performed great wonders. Devendra wears a crown on his head and pearls and precious stone jewels in his hair. On his ears, neck, breast, waist, arms page_147 Page 148 and feet he is adorned with all kinds of flowers. Around his shoulders he is decorated with flowers. [L 191 v] He sits on an elevated throne. The whole body of Devendra is full of eyes that he obtained through a curse from a sage as a punishment for the adultery he committed. The South Indians write about him that he had slept with the wife of a sage in the following way: the sage, or prophet, usually went to the river very early in the morning, when the ravens began to crow, to take a bath. Once, when Devendra’s lust was kindled for the wife, he became a raven, appeared in front of the house of the sage at midnight and began to crow. The sage thought that it was the time to go to the river to take a bath; he got up and went to the river. In the meantime Devendra went to his wife and committed adultery. The sage saw that the or the river, was still asleep and was not moving as it usually did in the mornings. He realized that it must be late at night [L 192 r] and returned to his home. As he saw Devendra in such a sin, he spoke to him: ‘Is is right for such a man to have such evil lust and disgrace the wives of other men?’ Then he cursed him and spoke: ‘Since you have committed such a great foolish act and uncovered the sex organ of a woman, your whole body should be fully covered with such organs.’ Devendra fell at the feet of the sage and spoke: ‘You give me such a

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curse! How can I be Devendra anymore in this form?’ At this the sage made the punishment mild [i.e., he reduced it] and spoke: ‘All these marks should be visible only to you and in your eyes; but for other people they should look like the eyes of human beings.’ For this reason, he is depicted by the South Indians with many eyes on his body. He is also named 62 [sic, it should be: ] which means the one who has 1,000 eyes. The audience hall of Devendra was so huge that [L 192 v] all the 330,000,000 gods and the 48,000 sages could be placed there at the same time. Devendra often calls them together to see [public] entertainment. All kinds of musicians and dancers63 gather around him. [The nymph] Urvaśī is the principal dancer; no one can surpass her in the arts of dance and singing. The sages are accustomed always to stand behind Devendra and to offer him flowers. His son Citraputra stands close to him with a book in his hand; also, at the same time, some of the gods stand around him. When he goes out, he rides on the white elephant Airāvata about which stories are told. Apart from Devendra no one in the world of gods should ride on a white elephant. All things that happen among the gods and the sages are reported to him and decided by him. If difficult decisions have to be made, he refers them to Brahmā or and they settle the matter. [L 193 r] The present Devendra or Diva Indra64 is a son of a sage. His father’s name is of whom a sinful story was narrated in the previous part [of this Genealogy]. means ‘the royal rule’ over the gods in their world known as the Devaloka. Devendra is the name [i.e., title] with which the king of the gods is always called. A South Indian writes the following in a letter: “That man who sends ou 1,000 horses at the same time, performs so many Yāgas or fire-offerings in all the hoof marks left by the 1,000 horses let loose, and also gives on the same day what is demanded from him and does not refuse anything page_148 Page 149 to anybody will become the Devendra of the gods and the sages. He must complete everything on the same day and should have enough provisions for his works; otherwise, if there is a shortfall, he cannot be come a Devendra. Hence, no one among the gods or the sages dares to begin such a thing [an offering, L 193 v], except the man who through strenuous religious austerities has obtained great respect and high power from god. Without these [divine gifts] he cannot complete the offering with his mere riches. If a man completes it, he will be carried around in a palanquin by the principal sages and paid homage by them as the king of the world of gods. Then all the 330,000,000 gods, all the 48,000 sages, the the the the Gandharvas and all the others come and enthrone him. Devendra has the responsibility to rule over the kings and the sages as an absolute monarch; should some dispute happen among them, he should hear and judge it according to what is right and just. That is to say that if some things need to be punished, he should go by what is just and punish the evil. All judicial matters should come to him for judgment. If he is unable to decide them, he will refer them to Brahmā. [L 194 r] If Brahmā is unable to settle the matters, he will forward them to If finds it difficult to determine the matter, Īśvara is requested; he will end all things and render his decision,” etc. In the history books of the South Indians one finds many stories about Devendra which, like all the other stories of their gods, contain many unreliable things. [For example] they write about him that once he became crazy and suffered so much that he had to come to the world of human beings, where he performed religious austerities; at Vētanallūr he was rescued from his madness. On account of the different stories that the poets have written about him, he has different names such as: 1. Meghavāhana, 2. 3. 4. Pākaśā-sana, 5. 6. 7. Puruhūta, 8. 9. Purohita, 10. 11. 12. Śunāsīra, 13. 14. Kāri, 15. Valāri, [L 194 v] 16. Hari, 17. and 18. Indra, etc. It is mentioned in the book [entitled] Tirikālacakkaram how long Devendra would rule as the king of the gods and when his end will come. First, it is written that from the beginning of this world, eighteen ages have gone by, the total being 1,072,038,400 years. It is also mentioned that if these 1,072,038,400 years repeat [lit. rotates] again and again as the wheel of the potter eighty-eight times, the total years will amount to one snap of a finger of Devendra, or one minute. Three hundred and sixty such finger snaps make an hour. Sixty such hours make one day; thirty such days make one month; twelve such months make one year. Sixty such years make one one hundred thousand such make one Yuga; eighteen such Yugas make one Sukha or a comfortable and healthy age. When 20,700 such Sukhas pass by, Devendra will die,” etc. [L 195 r] The South Indians ascribe a consort to Devendra and call her A South Indian writes about her in a letter the following: “ is one of the seven virgins. She originated when the 330,000,000 gods churned the milk sea and pre-

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page_149 Page 150 pared Amta, the drink of immortality. In her body, she always has the vigor of a sixteen-year-old woman. She is the consort of all the Devendras who succeed each other. She has been granted the boon that as long as Brahmā looks after his responsibility, she will remain the queen and lady of all the Devendras; Brahmā still has twelve great ages of innumerable years to complete his responsibility. Then, there will be a change in store for him. At that time Indrāī will cease to be the queen of all the Devendras. However, in the meantime she will be the consort of all the Devendras who will rule until that time,” etc. [L 195 v] is portrayed in some temples just as Devendra and many other gods and sages are painted; like these others, she is neither worshipped nor honored with offerings. All kinds of stories about her are described in the history books. On account of her barrenness, she performed great religious austerities and prayed to Īśvara for a baby. As a result, a son was born to her from her cow. The principal names that the poets have given to her are these: 1. 2. 65 3. Pulomajā, 4. Śacī, 5 and 6. tarum 66 and 7. etc. The name of the son whom Īśvara caused to be born from the cow is Citraputra. He works as a secretary [lit. writer] of Śiva or Īśvara. He records all the good and evil deeds that are performed in all the fourteen worlds. Everyone will be judged accordingly at the right time. A South Indian writes in a letter about the way he was born to Devendra and [L 196 r] as a son: “The consort of Devendra, whose name was performed in honor of Īśvara hard religious austerities so that he would grant her a child, because all the people spoke ill of her and despised her as an infertile woman. Īśvara appeared to her in a dream and spoke to her: “From the beginning no child was planned for you; no reason could be found for a child to be born in your body.’ She replied: ‘Lord, not like this; I have a very great desire for a child. It may happen in whatever way you please. I must have a child.’ At this Īśvara spoke to Citraputra who was standing near him: ‘You must go there and be born to as her son.’ Citraputra replied: ‘God, one does not find in any book that a child was ever planned for her. How can I be born as a son to her? This would certainly be a great sin.’ At this Īśvara spoke: ‘You will not be born to her, but to her cow and from the body of her cow as her son.’ [L 196 v] Citraputra had to be content with this and say ‘yes’ to it. The black cow, that was raising as if it were her child, went to a river to drink water. There was a flower in the water and the cow swallowed it. This flower was the actual cause, and Citraputra was conceived in the body of a cow. When the time of his birth came, one side of the cow opened up and Citraputra came out holding a book in his hand; he also wore the thread When spotted this child, she accepted it as her own; at the same time, she experienced the same pain in her whole body that a mother would feel before and after childbirth. Her breasts were also full of milk in order to breast-feed the child. She raised him as her son. The actual reason why Īśvara caused Citraputra to be born from a cow of page_150 Page 151 [L 197 r] is this: As he was recording all the activities and works of the people, how each person commits something good or evil, and brought it to the notice of Īśvara, he became in his mind proud and thought to himself: ‘If I [lit. you] were not here, how would Īśvara know of those creatures that have a living soul and how would he discern that a person does either good or evil things? Immediately, Īśvara came to know of these proud thoughts and ordered that he should be born in this way to as her son so that he would repent of his proud mind and give it up. After he had suppressed his proud mind and renounced it, Īśvara accepted him again in his service. It does not really matter if it is occasionally written about him in our books, this Citraputra is the secretary [lit. writer] of Śiva—or Īśvara—or Brahmā, writing down the good and evil works of each person, because all these [perhaps: Īśvara and Brahmā] are the same,” etc. Another South Indian writes the following about him: “Citraputra works with god as a secretary [lit. writer, L 197 V], noting down the sins and good works of every person; he must submit an account of them to god. His responsibility is to record everything, without missing anything, about what is happening in the worlds in terms of good and evil, especially in this world among us human beings. He notes down all the thoughts, words and actions [of the people]. He must also make note of the number of people who are born and who die every day. If the lifetime of a person is ended [i.e., when a person dies], he gives to god an account of that person’s life thus far and that person will be judged accordingly. When people are born, he writes down how old they should become, how many days they should live in this world and what fortunes and misfortunes are planned for them. He is appointed as the secretary for these and other things and has to give god an account of them. On account of his service, we the people [lit. Malabarians] are accustomed to observe a fast in his honor. The month of April is named after him as Citrāmāsa. Among the twenty-seven

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constellations of stars mentioned in our calendar, one [i.e., first the twelfth, later fourteenth] is named after him [L 198 r] as When this constellation of stars occurs in the month of April, we are accustomed to fasting for a day, boiling rice with milk, giving it to poor people, thinking of our sins and calling on Citraputra,” etc. The poets write many fables about this Citraputra, give him all kinds of names and specify many books that he has kept in his work as a secretary, saying that he writes down in one book only the hour of birth, in another the hour of death, yet in another only the details about sins and in another only good works. When he submits an account, he compares all the books; accordingly, the verdict will be given. The South Indians are completely convinced of a judgment after death [which corresponds to the teaching of the Christian Bible]; but the poets [of the people] have darkened this and other truths through their many fables and changed them into lies. The poets have written a large book on Citraputra known as the It recounts his whole story extensively, especially how he [L 198 v] was born as Citraputra to Devendra. page_151 Page 152 2nd Chapter: Regarding the 48,000 prophets known as the is The South Indians believe that, apart from the 330,000,000 gods, there are 48,000 sages [lit. prophets] whom they name and place them in the world of gods. They describe them as great and holy people who have gone through all kinds of exercises of religious austerities, having thus obtained great boons and received great powers, so that those who bless them will remain blessed. They ascribe to them the ability [lit. might, authority] to be in any place where they wish to be and to go without food, drink, sleep or anything else. They assign them the power to create, so that they can make living children from a blade of grass and can perform great wonders. They are supposed to have revealed to this world great mysteries, holy teachings, religious austerities, the prayers, the law books and all other religious matters. [L 199 r] The South Indians believe that god created these sages as sages [lit. prophets as prophets] so that his glory could be recognized and made known to others. One of the South Indians writes about it [in a letter]: “The 48,000 are special divine creatures. They were created along with the 330,000,000 gods. The reason for their creation is this: in the presence of god they set an example of religious austerities and function like a mirror [i.e., to reflect his glory]. This is to say that they need to recognize the wisdom, holiness and the great power of god; they need to worship him in holiness. They need to make an effort to help the people on this earth know god in a similar way and to praise him according to his dignity. They do not need either sleep or rest, and are not in need of either food or drink. Their permanent job is to sing praises to god, to worship him, and to get involved in performing constant [religious] austerities and meditation,” etc. They have not specified the names of the 48,000 sages; however, one finds various names mentioned in their history books. One also reads [L 199 v] that many of the sages came to this world and performed their religious austerities. Many human beings are said to have become their disciples; finally they too became with them. One can also read that in the world of the gods as well as in the presence of Īśvara, and Brahmā many develop into or sages. However, the South Indians keep the number 48,000 that they have set earlier. They do not change it [even if the number of the sages does increase]. The stories of the sages that one reads in some books [lit. here and there] are, in many cases, very clumsy. They are nothing but mere fables of the poets. As far as the sages are known from the law books [i.e., sacred books], the South Indians represent them as performing their religious austerities. Among them the most important are the following: 1. Vedavyāsa, 2. Agastya, 3. Nārada, 4. Gautama, 5. 6. Vālmīki, 7. 8. 9. Viśvāmitra, 10. 11. Kapila, 12. 67 etc. Among the South Indians [L 200 r] all of them are greatly respected. The South Indians have written many stories about them. Especially those who perform austerities know these stories well and try to imitate them. page_152 Page 153 Agastya is represented with a big iron wheel around his neck that is known as the with which he is performing his religious austerities. On his forehead he has the mark made with the ash of cow dung. His braided hair hangs down. His present residence, where he performs his religious austerities, is said to be the mountain Potiyamalai. A South Indian writes about him in the following manner in a [letter]: “There are three prominent female dancers, Urvaśī, Tilottamā and Rambhā; whenever the gods get together, they are accustomed to dance and to sing. Once, when Brahmā watched the dance of Urvaśī his lust for her was so aroused that he let some of his seeds fall down; of these Agastya was born. As soon as he was born, he asked Brahmā why he had caused him to be born in this way. Brahmā spoke: ‘It is the will of Śiva that you file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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should be born in this way. Agastya asked: [L 200 v] Should I have to be born of such a woman in this way?’ Brahmā said:68 ‘Why do you worry about where and how you were born? When you were born, you were born wise [lit. you brought wisdom with you]. All things are contained in you. You have been given wisdom so that there is no one equal to you. You can obtain from god grace and a boon to create all things as you would desire, and you can present yourself as you desire. So, go into the world; choose the mountain Potiyamāmalai as a place for your religious austerities; there you can remain. At the same time, you must have the freedom to go anywhere you wish.’ Until today, this Agastya is in this world, lives on the abovementioned Potiyamāmalai and performs religious austerities. It is on the mainland, and it takes about eight days to get there [from Tranquebar]. Many people who are engaged in religious austerities live there. They can never see Agastya. Many of them who have indeed seen him do not return to the people, but stay on the mountain and continue their religious austerities,” etc. [L 201 r] The sage Nārada has folded his hands together above his head. He raises his legs up towards his head and has stretched his leg [lit. foot] through his left arm. Around his waist he wears the skin of a tiger and a girdle with which he has tied to his lower and upper body. In this posture he sits in a fire and performs his religious austerities. A South Indian writes the following about him [in a letter]: “Nārada is a sage who has been successful in strict performance of religious austerities. If something is considered regarding someone, he will know it at once and will reveal it to that person. If something is decided negatively, he cannot keep quiet until he tells it to others, even if they are trees. While he speaks with them, he will reveal [the secret decisions about them],” etc. The sage Gautama performs his religious austerities in the following posture: “He has placed a water jug made of bronze on the ground [lit. earth]. A lemon lies on it. A large sharp needle is fixed on it. Gautama keeps his head on the tip of the needle, raises his body and legs upwards and folds his hands [L 201 v] together. Vedavyāsa kneels down to perform his religious austerities. He has folded his hands together and calls on god. He has tied his pigtails together on his head, but their ends hang down. Around his neck he wears the rosary of page_153 Page 154 Similarly, he wears the girdle around his body. His clothes are made of tiger skin. A water jar stands beside him which always contains water. This water is said to be holy. The prophets [i.e., the sages] use it not so much for drinking, but either for blessing, for cursing someone or for achieving something by sprinkling it on a person or a thing and reciting a prayer. A South Indian writes the following about Vedavyāsa [in a letter]: “Vedavyāsa is a person who has obtained great boons through his religious austerities. He received the law [i.e., sacred scriptures] from Brahmā, brought into the world and disseminated it. Moreover, he has shown to human beings [L 202 r] various kinds of religious austerities and taught them the methods of performing religious austerities correctly. Quite a few books are written about him, and he is one of the greatest sages who are known to us in this world,” etc. is represented fully naked; he stands and performs religious austerities. He has folded his hands above his head [so long] that long nails grew on his fingers. Like most of the sages, he also wears the rosary of on his head. The braids of his hair hang down around his shoulders. He is the son of Vedavyāsa, mentioned previously. A South Indian writes about him the following [in a letter]: “When Vedavyāsa introduced and disseminated the law [i.e., sacred scriptures] in this world, he had a great desire to have a child. For this reason he performed great religious austerities in the name of Śiva and desired that Śiva should give him a child. At this request, he received a parrot and raised it. was born of this parrot. As soon as he was born, he went away [L 202 v] completely naked to perform austerities. When he was hurrying in this state to perform religious austerities, there were consorts of the gods at a pond on the way taking baths. Though they watched the young man arriving very fast, they did not put on their dresses; but when they saw Vedavyāsa chasing his son to bring him back, they dressed quickly. Vedavyāsa went close to them, spoke to them and said: ‘Oh, consorts of the gods! I am an old man. You see me and wear your clothes; but previously, when you saw my son—a very young man—running beside you, you did not put on your clothes. What does it mean?’ They answered the following: ‘Your son, though he is very young, had neither passion nor desire about such things, but has renounced these things and seeks to please god through religious austerities; on the other hand, even in your old age you have lust and desire in you. As soon as your son was born, he thought to himself: ‘Behold, if you stay here, it is not good.’ Immediately, he ran to a lonely place to perform his religious austerities. [L 203 r] However, you ran after your son and called him back. By this we know that you still have a great longing and desire for children and women.’ Vedavyāsa realized in himself that what the women were saying was true. At the same time, he went with his son to a place where he performed still greater religious austerities,” etc.

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Another South Indian writes the following about this [in a letter]: “ performed hard religious austerities for a long time in the city In an auspicious hour he went to the temple of Īśvara who is known there as and worshipped him. Since he was praising page_154 Page 155 god, many people were standing in the temple simultaneously. A voice came from the image of the that was in the temple. went closer to the This Liga opened at its base and the sage went visibly [lit. with his body] into it; afterwards the Liga closed. As he was performing great and hard religious austerities, he was full of love and faith [i.e., full of bhakti, ‘intense devotion’ L 203 v], and recorded the glorious deeds of god that had occurred in the same place, he was taken to the feet of god visibly [lit. with body and soul] and was transformed into god. Hence, the South Indians have built a holy pond in the place where he was performing the religious austerities to wash their sins away. This pond is still named after His image stands near the same pond in the temple; it is worshipped and honored. When he was performing his religious austerities, he wrote many that contain the stories about Śiva that occurred in various places in this world. He has also written many books of praise known as the Tēvārams. All these things happened in the age of Kaliyuga. About five hundred and thirty years are said to have gone by since such wonders took place with this sage,” etc. The sage Vālmīki is a person who belongs to the religion of and has the marks of the on his forehead and on his arms. He stands on one leg [L 204 r] and raises the other upward. He also raises both his hands up. He has wound up the braids of his hair on his head; however, their ends hang down. In this posture he performs religious austerities. Because of his permanent standing posture, snakes have built their house with excrements on him; he is covered with them. His fingernails have grown to be great claws. A South Indian writes the following about him [in a letter]: “In the beginning Vālmīki was a archer who lived in a forest. He killed all the wild animals, birds and other such living creatures and ate them with his wife. He did this for a very long time. Once, seven great sages came on the way. They happened to meet Vālmīki and asked him who he was. He spoke: ‘I am an archer; I live here in the forest with my wife and eat the wild animals [i.e., live by eating the meat of the wild animals]. As soon as he had seen the sages and they had spoken with him, he got understanding and became wise. After that, he came to his wife and spoke: ‘Every day I kill [L 204 v] so many wild animals. Who will suffer for such sins?’ The woman answered: ‘What should I do? What you bring here I must cook and serve to you. You yourself will suffer for these sins.’ Then Vālmīki went to the seven sages and spoke: ‘Until now I have been killing many wild animals alive and eating their meat. How would you advise me in this regard?’ The sages asked him: ‘What do you understand?’ He answered: ‘I understand nothing.’ Then the sages pointed toward a tree and asked him what kind of tree it was. He replied: ‘It is a Mākāy-tree [i.e., mango-tree].’They said: ‘It is a very great, holy tree.’ The archer strongly believed such a thing, bathed with water every day, came to the tree and venerated it. After some time the sages69 returned. When they saw that the archer believed their words and realized that he would be a true, patient disciple, they taught him the prayer known as instructed him to use it whenever he [L 205 r] took a bath and to have love and faith [i.e., bhakti]. As they taught him, he responded and proved page_155 Page 156 his love and faith [i.e., bhakti]. Thus, he became an agreeable disciple of god and obtained [such great] spiritual wisdom, understanding and discernment that he wrote the great book in Grantha [i.e., in Sanskrit]. It contains in 24,000 long difficult verses the [story of] fourth incarnation. Then it became known in this world and in the world of the gods that Vālmīki had indeed become a great, holy man. Hence, the gods and the sages called Vālmīki to their place so that he could sing them the [verses of] and explain to them all the verses. They were very happy about it and named that book Vālmīki after him. Also, when the 330,000,000 gods and the 48,000 sages were gathered together, they made Vālmīki a sage and gave him the name Vāl Later the book became famous in the world. The poet has sung it in [L 205 v] 12,000 verses in the genre Viruttam. When lived in this world with the name Rāma he took this Vālmīki as his priest. Now he has obtained great bliss, the gift of immortality and is one among the sages. He engaged in such religious austerities that they could not be fathomed. He always prays, meditates and sings praises to god,” etc. The prophet is portrayed fully white. His religious austerities consist of crying all the time and of raising up one of his feet and one arm. He tied the braids of his hair on his head in the shape of a cap, but their ends hang down. On his head and around his neck he wears the rosaries of He covers his private parts with the skin of a tiger. The water jar stands beside him. A South Indian writes the file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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following about him [in a letter]: “Among the sages is very great and famous. The pious king Hariścandra was his disciple. Once, when Devendra had called all the 330,000,000 gods and 48,000 prophets [L 206 r] together, he asked whether there is a person in the world Bhūloka who does not long after any other women except his own wife and does no utter a lie. answered: ‘Among the human beings I have a disciple, namely the king Hariścandra. He is so honest that he never speaks a lie.’ When the sage Viśvāmitra heard it, he contradicted and said: ‘Hariścandra is filled with falsehood and lies. How can you speak of him in such a gathering stating that he never lies?’ replied: ‘A flower does not lose its fragrance, even if it is crushed. Should Hariścandra be convicted of sin in any matter, I will cause my hair to be shaved off; I shall not be a sage again or come again to this gathering.’ Viśvāmitra replied: ‘Well, if he is found saying the smallest lie, I shall give him all the benefits of my pas religious austerities, but I am worried that you will go to him immediately and inform him of such a thing [i.e., of our discussion]. [L 206 v] swore that he would not even go near him or speak with him till the matter was decided. Then Viśvāmitra went to the world, lived in a forest and tested Hariścandra in several ways. He could no make him say a single lie or take back anything he had previously spoken. In the end, Viśvāmitra had to give him all the benefits of his past religious austerities. All these are written extensively in the book [entitled] ” etc. The sage is represented as sitting in fire and performing his religious austerities. Around his waist he wears the skin of a tiger and a girdle with page_156 Page 157 which he has tied his legs and his waist together. He always raises his hands up. His fingernails have grown very long. Similarly [i.e., like other sages], he has wound his long pigtails as a bandage on his head. Around his neck he wears the oft-mentioned rosary. Like other sages he wears hanging jewels on his ears. The flames of the fire engulf him, but [L 207 r] he does not get burned. The South Indians believe that the sages have a body like other human beings, but their body can never be burned by fire or killed by any torture. Hence, they describe the religious austerities of the sages as so agonizing that a human body would hardly be able to bear them. The sage Viśvāmitra was a king and later became a sage. His method of religious austerities is as follows: He dangles his legs in the air, supports himself with one hand on the ground and places his other hand below his face. In this posture he performs his prayer, meditation and religious austerities. A South Indian writes the following about him in a letter: “Viśvāmitra was once a human being, actually a king of the people. Later, he obtained sanctity and wisdom. Then he renounced his kingdom, left all his royal glories along with the whole royal family, went into a wilderness and performed religious austerities. After he had performed hard religious austerities for a long time, god appeared to him once [L 207 v] and spoke to him: ‘My son, what does it mean that you perform such religious austerities? What do you expect from me?’ Viśvāmitra replied: ‘I long to become a sage and request this gift, that whom I bless should be blessed, and whom I curse should really be cursed. I request the grace never to die, but to serve you at your feet; and all the things that I begin should succeed happily. Please grant me all these.’ God granted him all these gifts, declared him to be a sage and gave him the name which means ‘the royal sage.’ Thus he became the royal sage. However, he thought to himself: ‘In the presence of other sages it is not sufficiently dignified to be called the royal sage.’ So he went ahead and performed the religious austerities once again. At this all the 48,000 sages gathered together. said that he [Viśvāmitra] should be named All agreed to call him the sage of Brahmā. Now he has obtained great power and gifts. [L 208 r] He is always in deep meditation and praises god without ceasing. He lives among the stars in the sixth heavenly sphere,” etc. The sage is represented kneeling, praying and performing his religious austerities. Īśvara is said to have appeared to him from the clouds in the form of half man and half woman and taken him up to bliss. In the books of the South Indians many such stories are found saying that the people who were involved in religious austerities and leading a good life were taken by the gods, body and soul [i.e., alive], visibly into bliss. The sage Kapila is one of the most famous He stands on one leg and stretches the other up towards his head. His mouth has been pierced with a strange iron. He also holds the stringed instrument He holds his hands together as if praying. In this posture he stands indefatigably and performs his religious austerities. He is said to have been an excellent poet and author of several books. The booklet that is named after him [L 208 v], Kapilarakaval, has fine teachings on the foolishness of page_157 Page 158 human beings and the vanity of human life. The sage sits and performs religious austerities; he has stretched his legs up towards his breast and mouth; he raises an arm up above his head and holds a flower in file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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the hand. He is the father of Devendra. A female giant who misled him to perform an unchaste act destroyed his religious austerities. From their sinful copulation the great giants known as the Acuras originated, as mentioned in the previous part. is represented as half lion and half man. His religious austerities are to always hold a lamp in his hand and to keep it burning. A South Indian writes the following about him in a letter: “ is a Brahmin who was married and did not have children. He began to perform hard religious austerities so that he could obtain a child. After he had performed the religious austerities for a long time, god appeared to him and asked him why he was performing those religious austerities. replied: ‘I do not have a child. I perform this religious austerity to obtain a child.’ [L 209 r] God spoke: ‘I will give you a child, but tell me: do you want a child who will become 100 years old and will always be sick? Or, do you want a child who will become only sixteen years old, but always will be healthy?’ The Brahmin said: ‘I would rather have a son who will become only sixteen years old, but remain always healthy, than a son who will become 100 years old, but will always be sick.’ God granted him his request. Immediately his wife was pregnant and bore him a son. The father carried this son [in his hands], named him brought him to all the sages and holy people and laid him at their feet. They all blessed him and said that when he became sixteen years old, he would remain as such always. When he was fifteen years old, his mother, while giving him a bath, applied oil to his head and thought about him: ‘Ah, my son! Now you are fifteen years old. Behold, if one more year is gone, you must die.’ Then she became very sad and wept. asked his mother: ‘Why do you cry?’ She did not want to say such a thing to her son, but spoke: ‘I am pondering that you were born a son through religious austerities!’ The son replied: ‘Mother, I am a human who must die. I live as long as I live [i.e., I cannot live forever]. You need not be sad over it.’ [L 209 v] From that day onwards, when his mother began to be sad for him, he began to serve god all the time and worship in the temple. Thus he spent his time and became sixteen years of old. Since Yama knew that only sixteen years were fixed for his life, at that age he sent his messengers to take his life. As they were unable to get a hold of him, Yama himself came and wanted to drag him with a rope. was standing near a in the temple and worshipped god. God himself protected him from Yama so that he could not catch him, but killed Yama. All these events are written in the book [entitled] ” etc. As there are many stories available among the South Indians about the hard religious austerities performed by such sages, there are many opportunities for organizing many groups of people who wish to perform religious austerities; even now many people who perform religious austerities are found among the South Indians. For them religious austerities [lit. ‘penance’] means an austere page_158 Page 159 way of life to castigate the body in all possible ways and to renounce all comforts for the body and the worldly life. A South Indian writes the following about religious austerities in a letter to us [the missionaries in Tranquebar]: “There are many kinds of religious austerities among us. Some people renounce everything and move to [L 210 r] the wilderness or to the forest so that they can perform their religious austerities there. Through such religious austerities they either wish to obtain various boons from god or desire to see god himself. Some people, after they have lived a long married life and enjoyed their life in the world, begin to give up everything, going either to the mountains or to the places that are considered to be the holy and special places of residence of gods. Or they go to the wilderness, to the forests or to the holy rivers and choose special kinds of religious austerities for themselves. Some always sit and perform religious austerities; some do not rest at all, but perform religious austerities in a standing position. Some have raised one leg up and stand always on only one leg; some stretch their hands up, praise god always and remain in such religious austerities indefatigably. Some keep their hands and feet on their back, remain lying in one place and perform religious austerities. Some of those who perform religious austerities drink nothing but water for their sustenance; water is their food as well as drink. During the time of their religious austerities some eat only the fruits of trees. When some ascetics perform their religious austerities, they drink nothing but milk. Some eat only the leaves that fall from the trees. Some suck in air and use it as their food in their practice of religious austerities. Everyone [L 210 v] is satisfied with the kind of religious austerities and the place of performing such religious austerities that each has chosen. Every person chooses either a long or a short time for religious austerities. If a person has fixed a definite time for religious austerities, there should be no deviation, lest the religious austerities cannot bring in what the person desires. The principal purpose of such hard religious austerities is this: those who practice religious austerities want to see god in the world and wish to attain a great bliss. It is written in our law [i.e., sacred scriptures] that, according to the declaration of many holy men, those people can get to see god, the Supreme Being, who have concentrated their minds on these religious austerities and have purity, love and faith. God helps such people to experience him. When elephants, bears, lions, tigers and other wild animals see these people in the forest, they are afraid of them,

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show their reverence for them and go on their way. Such people of religious austerities are from all kinds of castes and communities [lit. people]. Irrespective of a person’s background, everyone can perform religious austerities, provided that the person has the desire for it. However, only those are engaged in religious austerities who have understood all the laws [i.e., sacred scriptures], have heard the teachings of the holy people and have realized the mystery and usefulness of such teaching. Such people can obtain wisdom and become fit to be engaged [L 211 r] in holy meditations,” etc. Similarly, a South Indian writes to us [the missionaries in Tranquebar] a letter to report on what the South Indians understand to be the holy meditations in which the ascetics, sages and all the people of [religious] orders should be engaged: page_159 Page 160 “The man who wishes to practice the meditation known as the Śivadhyāna should have a pure heart. He must not lust or long for worldly things. He must direct his mind to nothing but god, the Supreme Being, alone. If his disposition is like this, then he can engage in holy meditation. He must be able to control all the five elements [fire, water, air, earth and ether] and the breath that is attached to the five elements in such a way that his breath goes in and out quietly only through one nostril. He must also control all the five senses [of tasting, seeing, hearing, smelling and feeling] and bring his mind, that goes everywhere, to such a quietness that he does not feel anything of himself. If everything has become one in him and concentrates on nothing but god, the Supreme Being, then he begins to speak with god in stillness and says: ‘Lord, I desire a good bliss! Let me be [L 211 v] taken to your holy feet. Destroy the sins that I have committed! Grant me bliss! Behold, wife, children, friends and relatives, house, farm, [agricultural] field, cattle, money, honor and other things are nothing but disillusioning vanities; I renounce all of them and trust only in you. I trust that bliss alone is the true thing. Give me wisdom and let me come to you,” etc. The man’s meditation consists of these and other things: he holds his breath, closes his eyes and calms his heart [lit. makes his heart lonely]. In the state of limiting their thoughts, some can spend two hours continuously in meditation. Some can even hold their breath for three hours and be involved in deep meditation. Those people, who are meditating in this way, are not only those who are the sages, the ascetics, the Yogins, the Jñānins, the and the members of some religious orders, but also those who deal with offerings and those who have a wife, children and worldly business. When they have made their offerings and sung some songs of praise from a book, they go to a calm place, [L 212 r], close their eyes and spend some time in spiritual meditation,” etc. All the people of [religious] orders, who are found today in great numbers among the South Indians, imitate the sages mentioned above in various ways. They wear mostly cloth made of the skin of a tiger and carry with them the instruments that the sages possess. They think that through the performance of religious austerities in several ways they, too, will become sages and obtain great gifts. However, at present there are only a very few people who are considered to be sages. Though some have this title [lit. name] and, at the same time, tell of wonders, the South Indians confess that in the present age, no one could imitate those prophets who lived in this world in former times and became the They also say that simultaneously these sages have established the Dhyāna and the Jñāna in this world; these two things have always remained [L 212 v] among the people. The former means the spiritual meditation that has been mentioned previously; it is linked with prayer. The latter means wisdom. A South Indian writes the following about it in a letter: “He who obtains wisdom is the one who does not get misled either by good or by evil; he does not love either house or [agricultural] field or wife or child or any other thing in the world, but renounces everything and considers them to be unnecessary. To summarize: he does not make any difference between the castes of people, except among the sexes, male and female. He does not believe in any other god, but only in the one god. He page_160 Page 161 does not even love worldly things a little. He is not influenced by anything; he is [also] without pride and all other sins. Such a man is known as a wise person. This is also the meaning of the term Jñāna. Besides, there is also another wisdom that can be obtained by those who still live a married life, have some profession and make the offerings. This Jñāna is found in a person who is not obsessed with food and drink, does not show partiality in dealing with people, [L 213 r] is merciful and compassionate, is completely without pride and arrogance, does not tell untruths and is without falsehood, does not commit any sin deliberately, prays and meditates, knows himself well, lives according to the law [i.e., sacred scriptures] of god, keeps his office and does his work. Those who are married and live in the world but follow the above-mentioned principles in their doing and living can also be considered wise people. In general, he is a wise man who knows what god has commanded and does accordingly,” etc. 3rd Chapter: Regarding the servants and musicians that are close to the deities and serve them file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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in some ways The South Indians say that all the creatures are to serve the gods; yet, at the same time, the gods have their special servants who are always close to them and must allow themselves to be used for various services. [L 213 v] In the law books [i.e., sacred scriptures] these special servants of gods are named differently as Gandharvas, Tumburus, Nāradas, Siddhas, Vidyādharas, or Dūtas, Śivadūtas, and Yamadūtas. The South Indians place them mostly in the world of the gods; however, they write, at the same time, that these servants can be anywhere that they wish—now in this world, soon in another world, now in heaven, then in the world and then in hell, sometimes with Īśvara or with or with Brahmā, sometimes with Devendra or with any other deities and sages. are represented as women who play instruments and sing simultaneously, demonstrate their skill with a ball and act out various stories. They are said to be mostly around Īśvarī or Pārvatī and wait on them. The South Indians describe their playing on the lute and their singing as superb. They are adorned with all kinds of jewels and have on their heads a special covering of pearls. [L 214 r] As the South Indians believe that there are [female] singers and [female] dancers around the gods and the goddesses, they are accustomed to keeping such people in the temples and naming them Devadāsīs, which means ‘[female] servants of gods.’ They mussing and dance in front of the images three times a day whenever the three kinds of offerings are made. At the same time, musical instruments are played. When these figures are drawn about in the streets during the day or in the night, they mussing and dance in front of the images. They marry Pārvatī’s son during the time of their remaining life they should not be wedded with any man or accept any husband. From their childhood they are trained to read, sing and dance. The South Indians have written down the art of singing and dancing in the book entitled Paratacāstiram. The person known as teaches it in large temples. [L 214 v] Otherwise, the page_161 Page 162 South Indians represent the as men and say that they are with Īśvara and other deities and playing music in front of them. This music is supposed to be vocal as well as instrumental. are represented as angels. The South Indians say that there is a large number of them who can fly through all the fourteen worlds and can be there as quickly as in a twinkling of an eye. They are said to be with the gods and to allow themselves to be sent on this or that errand. They are always praising god, the Supreme Being and the Mummūrttis, namely Īśvara, and Brahmā, serving them in a pleasing manner and enjoying, in their presence, great bliss. If one would ask the South Indians how they know what either the or other servants of the deities look like, they reply that the people in this world once saw these beings. Whenever Īśvara appeared in this world visibly, to take [L 215 r] some people alive [lit. with body and soul] into bliss, the and other servants are said to have come into view and allowed themselves to be seen in their [actual] form. Immediately it was written down in the law books [i.e., religious scriptures] what these and other beings looked like. Painters depict them according to this description. Similarly, are represented with wings and crowns. They are always with they fly here and there and serve him. The say that the are the vehicle of in which he travels. In this image they are represented in all temples of Otherwise, the South Indians name a kind of bird that looks like a hawk [i.e., probably the crow-pheasant, commonly known as the Cempōttu, i.e., Centropus rufipennis] and consider it the vehicle of None of the South Indians would harm this bird; when Christians shoot them, much misfortune and evil is prophesied. Similarly, the Gandharvas [L 215 v] have wings and are identical to the in their form, job and activities. If both groups are considered together, they are known as the A South Indian writes the following about them [in a letter]: “ are special creatures of god. God created them nobly, beautifully and magnificently. They belong to the caste of Brahmā. Their bodies are spiritual bodies. Wherever they want to be, they will be there at once. In no time, they can fly through all the fourteen worlds. It is their work to praise and honor god all the time. They are without rest or sleep, or food and drink. Their activities deal with wisdom and holiness. They look at god’s face and praise him always; they also do what he commands them to do,” etc. Tumburu is portrayed with a horse-head. He is said to be a mighty singer and musician in the presence of god. In one hand he holds the instrument which he [L 216 r] plays when he sings. In the other hand he holds a particular type of wooden percussion instrument [probably: ‘cymbals’] which he claps together to beat time to his music. A South Indian writes the following about him [in a letter]: “Tumburu is the person who has performed hard religious austerities. When he was engaged in religious austerities, Īśvara appeared to him one page_162

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Page 163 day and asked him the purpose of his austerity. Then he spoke to god: ‘I wish to have a human body, but my face should be a horse-face. I also have the desire that I want to be with you, oh god! And see your face. Yes, I want that you to grant me the gift of immortality and the power to go wherever I think about going. I request that you make me fit to worship you with singing and music. I perform this religious austerity here in order to get these gifts from you.’ At this Īśvara granted him what he desired. From that time forward, he has served Īśvara and he can be where he wishes to be,” etc. Nārada is one of those sages who are described in the previous chapter. On account of his religious austerities, which he had performed sitting in fire, he is said to have been elevated very highly. [L 216 v] Besides his responsibility of being a sage, he is supposed to be a proficient musician. Hence, the gods have him always with them so that he can play music for them with the instrument that he holds in his hand. While he plays this instrument, he also sings. Indeed, he sings new poems and melodies that he composes spontaneously. He also knows how to set his verses to pleasant melodies. The South Indians also say of him that he can be where he wishes to be. However, he is always in the company of the great as well as the minor gods. The are the artists who perform all kinds of skills and games with snakes in the presence of the gods and in the assembly of Devendra. They are portrayed in such a way that their heads, throats, bodies, arms and feet are full of snakes. There is supposed to be one among them who is the most skillful among those who catch snakes and make magic. The poor people think that it happens with gods in the same way as with their kings and great lords on the earth. In order to pass their time, they keep [L 217 r] all kinds of musicians, singers and dancers, jugglers and entertainers. The Siddhas are those people who can fly with their invisible bodies in the air and can be where they wish to be. They are portrayed as sages with long hair and white skin. They are represented sitting on tigers, fish and other animals; they are said to use these as their vehicles. In the books of the South Indians, nine special Siddhas are mentioned. They are known as the Navasiddhas. A South Indian communicates the following about the Siddhas in a letter: “Siddhas are people of this world. They made their pilgrimages everywhere, went to the sages, ascetics, other holy and wise peoples, became their disciples, served them, and went with them to many places. Then they lived in the wilderness; their bodies were used to all kinds of exercises [i.e., severe religious austerities], and they obtained great boons [L 217 v] from god so that finally they became Siddhas. The word Siddha means those people who fly in the air, go from the earth to heaven and return to earth again. Indeed, it refers to those people who have obtained the gift and the power to fly back and forth and to be where they wish to be. They are also spiritual and invisible people. Their activities are these: they will look at the wonders of god everywhere, praise god and reveal themselves sometimes to the people and perform some wonders,” etc. page_163 Page 164 The Vidyādharas are the learned people in the world of gods; they are always busy with books, teaching some arts and other sciences. It is believed that in learning no one is equal to them in any of the worlds. When the gods and the sages gather together in the presence of Devendra, the Vidyādharas are also always present and talk about learned things. They understand and practice perfectly all the sixty-four arts and sciences that are learned only partially by some people in this world. They are also supposed [L 218 r] to discover new things in some disciplines and satisfy gods and sages by writing all kinds of books. are the servants of Śiva or Īśvara and They are also known as the Dūtas or the sent ones [messengers] because they are sent here and there to do various services. The messengers of Śiva are named as the Śivadūtas, and the messengers of are known as the Yama, the god of death and the king of all the [seven] hells, has his messengers, who are known as the Yamadūtas. As far as the Śivadūtas are concerned, they are portrayed red, dwarflike and fat like the Bhūtas. They have bound their pigtails on their head; however, their ends hang down. Two large lion’s teeth come out of their mouths. They have four hands. In one hand they hold a snake, in the other the rope known as [in the third] a trident and [in the fourth] a wine jar. They are adorned with jewels all over their body. These are those messengers whom Śiva [L 218 v] of or Īśvara send to bring the souls of his disciples and of his faithful people through death from this world.70 They seem to be a very large number and have almost nothing to do except to be with the dying and bring their souls to Śiva. The Śivabhaktikāras are those who believe this. They say that these messengers bring only the souls of the pious who have lived a proper life in this world according to the religion of Śiva and introduce them to bliss. They transport the souls on the vehicle known as the The poets have written all kinds of stories about them [i.e., the souls]. Those South Indians who believe in are committed to his religion and wish to get into the bliss granted by have other messengers to fetch their souls after death and name them Viudūtas. They portray them file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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as green as they represent The have their hair locks bound on their heads as [L 219 r] a cap and wear a flower on it. On their forehead and their breast, they have the marks of known as the Tirunāmam which means the ‘holy name.’ Two lion’s teeth poke out of their mouths. In their four hands they hold the weapons [i.e., emblems] of known as the Cakra. Just as the do, the wear around their neck a rosary known as the The believe that those have been committed to the religion of in this world will be carried after their death to the paradise by the The Yamadūtas are those messengers from hell who lead all the evil people who have lived a sinful life after their death to hell. These may have belonged to any religion [and it does not matter]. Just as the devils, the Yamadūtas are represented as totally black. They have terrifying faces and stick their tongues out. page_164 Page 165 They carry [L 219 v] a trident, a strong stick and many ropes in their hands to bind the souls of those who die and drag them to hell. They also carry a dagger in the girdle around their body. Their lord who sends them out is Yama. He rules the lowest world known as the Pātāla and also as the Yamaloka. The South Indians consider it to be hell and the place for condemned people. However, Yamadūtas are not allowed to bring in people before their appointed time is over. They are not permitted to touch the souls of pious people. If some, however, have lived a half-pious and half-evil life, then die, the messengers of Yama and Śiva will meet together and fight over the souls as to who will carry them away. They have many methods to carry people from the world and there seem to be a large number of Yamadūtas. In the books written by the poets one reads many stories of how the Yamadūtas have carried various people from the world. A South Indian writes the following in a letter [L 220 r] about the three kinds of messengers who carry away the souls of the dead from this world: “The Śivadūtas are the servants of Īśvara whom he sends out on errands and for his service. They recognize his glory, honor him in a divine manner and accomplish the work that he commands. When the people who are the true Śivabhaktikāras, have love and faith [i.e., bhakti, ‘intense devotion’] in Śiva, live according to the rules of his law [i.e., sacred scripture] and are close to death, the Śivadūtas come to them and carry their souls away on the vehicle known as the saying: ‘In this world you have done good works that are pleasing to Śiva. That is the reason why we have come to carry you away.’ Then, they carry them away to the paradise known as Kailāsa. This is the work and permanent function of the Śivadūtas. Those who are the slaves [i.e., way of saying servants and devotees] and disciples of are carried away in a similar manner by the to the paradise They will get [L 220 v] rewards as that correspond to their works in this world. The Yamadūtas are the servants of Yama. They get the souls of those who have sinned in this world and take them to Yama. Then the prescribed punishment will be meted out to them. They will be plagued and tormented in hell,” etc. 4th Chapter: Regarding the eight protectors of the eight cardinal points of the world known as the The South Indians believe that the world is like an egg, divided into eight corners and imagine it in the shape of the following diagram.

They locate the eight guardians in these eight points of the world. These guardians carry the whole world and keep watch over the entire world so that all the bodies of the universe and the [five] elements can function without any hinpage_165 Page 166 drance. They name them as follows: 1. Indra, 2. Agni, 3. Yama, 4. 5. Vāyu, 6. 7. Kubera and 8. Īśāna. [L 221 r], The South Indians think that these are present all over the world and keep everything in good order. Indra is the king of the 330,000,000 gods and 48,000 sages in the world of gods. As it has been shown in the first chapter of this fourth part,71 he is also known as Devendra. He rides on the white elephant named Airāvata. He wears a crown on his head and carries in his hands the above-mentioned weapons. Beside his royal office among the gods, he also has the responsibility to keep watch over a cardinal point of the world [i.e., compass] so that the dreadful giants or the evil spirits cannot harm the world. No one can challenge his power and authority except Īśvara, and Brahmā, according to whose orders he has to keep this file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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appointment until the end of the world. Agni is the element fire or, rather, the king over the element fire, whom the South Indians also name Agnibhagavān. He rides on a gray he-goat and is represented as very fiery. He has two faces, four hands and three feet with which the South Indians portray the triangle, [L 221 r] which is a symbol of fire. On each of his two heads he wears a crown surrounded by much fire. In his hands he holds many instruments that belong to the fire, such as the jug with butter, a container with twigs and wood, a scoop and flowers that are dipped in butter and thrown into the fire. These instruments are necessary to perform the fire offerings that the South Indians name Yāga. They make it in many ways to achieve different purposes. The fire-spitters tell of many kinds of arts that the king of fire is said to have taught them. As the element is all over the world and cannot be given up, the South Indians have made it to be a protector and the bearer of the world. They also say that such a protector of the world makes everything alive and fruitful. Yama is the king of the lowest world, which is named after him as Yamaloka. It is also known as the Pātālaloka. His subjects are the condemned people and the spirits in hell; his residence is considered to be hell. Nevertheless, the South Indians designate [L 222 r] him to be one of the eight guardians of the eight points of the world [i.e., compass], because he has a lot of work among the people of this world and daily has to bring in many souls of the dead through his messengers. He has a ghastly, black face. On his head he wears a crown. Fire surrounds the crown and burns from his head; it is a sign of his anger. He has lion’s teeth in his mouth. He holds a strong stick, ropes, a trident and a wine jar to give wine to the dying so that the bitterness of their death might be removed. Just like a king he is adorned with all kinds of jewels and rides on a black male buffalo. According to the opinion of the South Indians, Yama is not only the [symbol of] death, but also the king of death; he damages people all over the world and causes wicked people to be led to the lowest world or into hell so that they can be tormented there according to their sins. The poets have written [L 222 v] very many fables about Yama, which are accepted by the South Indians as true. For this reason, he has many names such as 1. Śamana, 2. 3. 4. Dharma, 5. Antaka, 6. 7. 9. Avaicpage_166 Page 167 9. 10. 11. Yama, 12. Hari, 13. 14. 72 etc. is actually the element earth. The South Indians make it to be one of the guardians of the eight points of the world [i.e., compass], because the element earth is found all over the world and is a support to all created bodies. They represent in the form of a human being and say that it is a giant who, on account of his religious austerities, was elevated to be one of the protectors of the eight points of the world. He is represented as green. He wears a crown on his head and the sign of the ash of burned cow dung on his forehead. On his hair, ears, neck, breast, waist, arms and feet he is adorned with all kinds of jewels. Just like the others [i.e., gods], a flower garland hangs from his shoulders. Of his four hands one is empty; with the other three hands he holds a flag [L 223 r] whose coat of arms is a fish, a ring and a wine jar. He rides on a crocodile. The duties of his guardianship include [watching over] all the vegetation of this world. Vāyu is the element air or73 wind. Similarly, this element fills the whole earth and leaves no vacuum. Hence, the South Indians consider Vāyu as one of the eight protectors of the eight points of the world [i.e., compass]. They represent him as colored dark-gray and with four hands. In one hand he holds a sword, in the other a shield, in the third a bow and in the fourth an arrow. He wears a crown and is adorned with all kinds of jewels. His vehicle, which he is supposed to drive like lightning, is a Bhūta. This Bhūta has to carry him. A South Indian writes the following about him in a letter: “Vāyu is the king of the wind. He causes the wind to blow from all the eight corners of the world. There are, altogether, thirty-two winds that come from the eight corners of the world. They blow in a strange way from the land to the sea and vice versa. However, they have their own order, how to go and are directed by their king,” etc. is the king of the rain. By this, the South Indians understand the fourth element water, which is to be found in a similar way all over the world. This is portrayed as green. [L 223 v] He does not have more than two hands [i.e., he has only two hands], one of which he keeps empty and with the other he holds a sword. He is adorned with a crown on his head. All over his body he is bejeweled, and a flower garland hangs around his shoulders. He rides on a yellow deer. A South Indian mentions the following about him in a letter: “ is the king of the rain; he causes the clouds and the rain so that the earth can have its moisture. He brings forth thunder and lightning which belong to rain. When it rains, they can be seen. It is said that from Arjuna comes thunder, which he uses to amuse himself in the form of a ball game. Similarly, the lightning is said to be the brightness of his dazzling teeth. However, it is only a matter of superstition [lit. a talk of women], but occurs in reality in a different way. causes the rain, thunder and lightning to come from all the eight corners. He does everything according to the command of god, just as the other protectors of the world cannot do anything on their own, but have to administer everything according to the

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command of god,” etc.

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Page 168 Kubera is the king of riches; he is said to have the power to control all the gold, silver [L 224 r], precious stones, pearls and all the treasures which go to those who are ordained by Īśvara. He is one of the eight guardians of the world so that the riches do not come into the hands of only one person. He has the ability to distribute the wealth all over the world proportionally so that it can be kept and used [by all people]. He is represented as white and travels in a temple car. He wears a crown on his head and holds a thick stick in one hand. He is adorned with all kinds of jewels and is seated on a pillow in a temple car. If the South Indians wish to praise people for their riches, then they compare them to Kubera, who has everything to the fullest and can give from it to others. Hence, in their writings [i.e., sacred books] he has all kinds of names such as 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Mantrin, 8. 9. Marakata, 10. Dhanada, [L 224 v] 11. etc. Īśāna is Īśvara himself, who is said to have appeared in this world 1008 times for a special purpose. In one of his appearances he became one of the eight protectors of the eight points of the world and took up the name Īśāna. He is represented in a standing position with four hands. One hand is empty; in one he holds the instrument Tamarukam, in the third a deer and in the fourth a sword. On his head he wears a crown. From top to bottom he is adorned with the usual jewels. An ox stands close to him. He uses it as his vehicle and it is known as the He is supposed to be the greatest of all the eight guardians of the world and to cause everything to move in its order. Usually, the South Indians keep the figures of the eight guardians of the world on the ring-wall [compoundwall] of large temples. They make these images of lime [i.e., quicklime]. In some temples these figures are cast in metal, if not all of them, [L 225 r] or at least the Agnibhagavān. When the South Indians wish to celebrate a festival for nine days in a temple, they place, in a particular spot, the eight guardians of the world in the eight directions of the world [i.e., a compass]. This happens with certain ceremonies and prayers. Then they make offerings and worship them, [requesting for their protection] so that their worship and offerings will not be made in vain. After they have honored these eight guardians of the world sufficiently, they begin, in the temple, with the Yāga or Homa. It is a fire offering and has to be kept burning, day and night continuously, throughout the festival. When everything is ended, they take away, with [certain] ceremonies and prayers, the eight guardians of the world that they first laid out at the beginning of the festival. Then they offer them their thanks for their good protection and for not allowing any evil to happen in their undertaking. In this way, whenever the principal Yāga or Homa takes place, the get the first and the last honor. [L 225 v] The masons have in their art of building many principles from these eight guardians of the eight cardinal points of the world which they must follow when erecting new buildings. 5th Chapter: Regarding the external characteristics of the principal festivals that the South Indians celebrate in honor of their deities page_168 Page 169 In each preceding chapter, describing the deities, their principal festivals are also mentioned; however, previously the festivals have been stated very briefly. It will be of help to many [interested] people, if the circumstances of these festivals are explained more extensively. Then they will know how the South Indians prepare the festivals, and how they are accustomed to celebrating them. At the end of the Genealogy this [theme] can be easily dealt with. The South Indians celebrate the festivals in the following manner: as long as the festival is celebrated in honor [L 226 r] of particular deities, the South Indians carry the images of these deities around the streets daily in the evenings, often till late at night, with much song and music. When they celebrate a festival in honor of Īśvara and carry around the images of deities in the streets, they observe the following method: first, they carry Vighneśvara or out. He is seated on a big rat known as fixed on the metal circlet of Tiruvācikai. Some people go in front of him holding the tip of a cloth in their hand and throwing it up in the air. Whenever the kings go out, they are accustomed to having such people around them. Large torches are carried behind Vighneśvara. Similarly, a sombrero or a parasol is also carried. Then they carry [the images of] Subrah and his consorts. They [the images] stand on a metal circle[fixed] on a peacock with a snake in its beak. Musicians and female servants of gods [i.e., Devadāsīs] go in front of him; they turn toward dance and sing. They also carry many torches [L 226 v] in front of him; similarly, [they also carry] a parasol and a censer which is filled with burning incense. A few torches are also carried behind him. Since he was a [military] general in the war against Śūrapadma, a large number of warriors follow him. Then comes Īśvara, as the third person, sitting on an ox and having his consort beside him. A Brahmin sits on

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the ox known as the he is doing nothing but reciting the prayers. He keeps one hand in a bag with a rosary that he uses to recite; utilizing it he recites prayers to Īśvara 1,008 times. A strange kind of umbrella, known as the is carried in front of Īśvara. Similarly, many musicians go in front of him and play all kinds of musical instruments; at the same time, the Devadāsīs or female servants of gods turn their faces towards Īśvara, sing and dance. They carry many torches in front of him, of which one is very special and is known as the it is as bright as the sun. [L 227 r] In the same manner, they also carry another torch with five burning lights [flames] that are supposed to represent the five faces of Śiva and hence is known as the They also carry a censer that is filled with burning incense. Īśvara’s consort Pārvatī or Ammai is carried separately as the fourth person. She stands on the bird Torches and an umbrella are carried in front of her and also behind her. Musicians, female singers and female dancers go in front of her [enacting some episodes from the life of Pārvatī]. The whole procession is concluded with who is carried in a standing position. Many Brāhmins follow the procession; they sing songs of praise accompanied by beats of bronze instruments that they hold in their hands. At the same time, they usually sing and page_169 Page 170 dance. A large number of who also sing songs of praise, dance and jump around, follow the Brāhmins. This kind of procession with the images of deities is held every evening as long as the festival is being celebrated. The images that are carried around are made of metal. They are always carried on a wagon [i.e., temple car]. The hustle and bustle of the crowds is very great and is heard throughout [lit. fills] the whole city; the singing of the Brāhmins and the music of several kinds of instruments contribute to the noise. Whenever the images of deities are carried around, either during the day or at night, all the houses, on both sides of the streets, are smeared [i.e., cleaned and decorated] with cow dung; on both sides of narrow streets, ropes are tied on tall poles; a lot of green shoots [i.e., festoons of leaves suspended across the streets] are tied to them. They call it Women, men, children and the whole crowd [lit. people] stand at the streets or in [front of] their houses and make their Calām to the images. Since these processions cost so much that the temples cannot afford it, many guilds have come forward to support them. One day, all the carpenters join together and bear the cost [L 228 r] incurred for the procession. On the second day, all the weavers come together and help the images to be carried around. On the third day all the merchants bear the cost; thus for each day, different guilds bear the cost. If a person is rich and wishes to be respected [lit. seen] by all, that person alone pays the cost so that the images can be carried around for a day or two. As much as a person or a guild wishes to be respected [lit. seen] by others, the processions of the gods are organized gloriously. Usually, on the great days of festivals many Brāhmins, and Paradesins come from other places. Each [group] has its profit from it. During the time of festivals the South Indians are accustomed to carrying the heavy images with great difficulty, not necessarily on their shoulders. In all places they have made large temple cars. They decorate them splendidly twice a year, place the images of deities on them and pull them around. Each temple car has six wheels—four large ones in the front [L 228 v] and in the back, and two small ones in the middle. All the wheels are very thick and are made of wood. The lowest platform of the temple car is full of wood-carvings that are bolted together [with wooden screws]. On its four sides one can see numerous carved images [lit. pictures] which represent all kinds of law-stories [i.e., stories from the sacred religious books]. Many pillars are fixed on this platform. On the top they are bound with cotton [cloth]. This platform is decorated on all sides with [branches of] fig trees carrying flowers and fruits. Similarly, leaves of coconut trees and bunches of coconuts, branches of lemon-bushes and arecanut trees are also used [for decorations]. Right in the middle Īśvara stands with his two consorts on an elevated throne that is carried by two animals known as These two consorts represent none but Pārvatī in two different names, Ammai and Gaurī, coming from two different stories. The two doorkeepers known as the Dvārapālakas stand on both sides. All around the platform of the temple car sit Devadāsīs, or female servants of gods [L 229 r] and musicians. Some people stand on all sides, throwing a cloth high in the air and pulling it back by holding its edge. Similarly, there are Brāhmins on the temple car who, when the temple page_170 Page 171 car is being pulled around, make offerings to the images of deities and recite prayers unceasingly. Just as a tower, each temple car narrows up to the top. The inside of the temple car is made of wood but externally it is decorated skillfully with colorful cotton [festoon]. In the middle of all four sides two strange strips are tied and decorated with brass mirrors. They are known as the Makura Many flags, each fastened with a small bell, are also tied all around the temple car. The tip of the temple car is narrowed down proportionally

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and decorated beautifully; right on the tip a parasol is fixed. With these decorations and beauty the temple car is pulled by the South Indians through the streets. Five [L 229 v] or six large ship-ropes are tied to the front of temple car so that about 500, 800 even 1,000 people can pull it. The Talaiyāris are among them; they beat the people if they do not pull the car properly [lit. seriously]. The temple car remains standing in one place, often, for two or more hours because the people are unable to pull it. Large wedges are placed under the wheels in the front; large wooden trunks, that are prepared for the purpose of pushing the car, are placed under the back wheels; ten or twenty people climb on them to increase the weight. Other people stand on the ground holding wooden poles; others step on them so that they can climb on the wedges. Unfortunately, these people [lit. these poor people] toil very hard to pull a temple car; always, they must get the help of the people from the neighboring villages. When the festivals are celebrated in honor of Īśvara five such temple cars are pulled one after the other [L 230 r] through the streets. They are much taller than the houses. When the festivals are celebrated in honor of only one car is pulled around. Brāhmins and the leaders of the place walk in front of or close to the car and worship the images. and other people are standing at a distance, raising their hands and making their Calāms. Many women stand either at a distance or in front of their houses, raise their hands and worship [the images], Some fall prostrate on the ground and pay their homage to the images of deities [lit. fall at the feet of the images of deities]. Some people roll around the temple cars. Musicians come up from behind. A drummer who is riding an ox brings up the rear of the procession. A long letter has reached us [the missionaries in Tranquebar] from one of these South Indians, which reports on the external circumstances of the principal festivals. The correspondent writes in the letter the following: “The principal festivals that are celebrated here and there among the people [lit. Malabarians] are the following: [L 230 v] 1. The marriage of Īśvara with Pārvatī known as the 2. or 3. which is celebrated in honor of Pārvatī; 4. or 5. Perumāltirunāl, which is celebrated in honor of 6. Jayantī or which is the birthday of 7. or Āyudhapūjā, which is mostly celebrated in honor of Sarasvatī; 8. Aippacitulām which is a monthly [ritual] bathing held every year in October;74 9. Taippūcam, which occurs every year in January; 10. during the time of this festival, the people bathe in the sea; 11. which happens only once in twelve years; 12. which occurs every year during the eclipse of the sun and moon, and at this time everyone bathes in the sea; 13. page_171 Page 172

and 14. the annual festivals celebrated in honor of the Grāmadevatās such as and [L 231 r] so on. These are the principal festivals that are celebrated among us people [lit. Malabarians]. The 1st festival: Tirukaliyāam When a festival begins in honor of Īśvara, the guardians of the eight points of the world are placed in the eight corners of the temple, accompanied with appropriate prayers. Then, the Brāhmins prepare a Homa in the temple as follows: A pit is dug; chips of five kinds of wood are placed in it and lighted. At this time, certain ceremonies and prayers must be observed. The Brāhmins, the priests and the experts of the law [i.e., specialists in religious literature] are around the fire-pit. They hold in their hands a bunch of Darbha-grass blades and dip them in butter; while reciting prayers they sprinkle the butter into fire. Such a fire should never be extinguished but should be kept alive, with the [above]-mentioned chips and the sprinkling [lit. pouring] of butter, day and night, till the festival is concluded. After that, the Homa is lighted; a flagpole is erected [L 231 v] in the same temple and is enfolded with the Darbha-grass. Next, they find out whether the day is auspicious for that [particular] place; subsequently, they will make preparations and tie a flag to the flagpole. As they perform this [act], many Brāhmins are there. They recite appropriate prayers and read some passages from the old Purāas or storybooks. Finally, the head priest of the temple arrives and raises the flag. From that day on, when the flag is raised, the festival begins. From the beginning till the end of the festival, the priests of those temples must fast daily. From the first day onwards, the figures of the deities are carried around through the streets. In some places they celebrate the festival for nine days, in other places for eighteen days and yet in other places for a whole month. It depends upon whether a temple is rich or poor and how much income it has. When such a festival is celebrated, the South Indians are accustomed to bringing more food, drink and burnt offerings than [L 232 r] on other normal days. During the first three days of the festival they carry [the image of] Īśvara around on a vehicle that looks like a four-poster [i.e., a shelter with a canopy] through the streets. On the fourth day, the South Indians carry him around, seated on a On the fifth day, he is carried around [seated] on an ox. On this day many people come from far away places and worship him, because it is written [in the religious books] that those who worship him on the day when he comes out riding an ox will obtain a great reward and will be freed from all their sins. On the sixth

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day, the South Indians carry him on an elephant. On the seventh day, he is seated on a lion and carried around through the streets. On the eighth day, he is placed on the mountain Kailāsa and is carried around. Actually, a throne is made which looks like a mountain and is borne by ten heads and twenty heads, and Īśvara sits on it. Those who worship him on this day will obtain a special reward. During these eight days, they carry about not only Īśvara, [L 232 v] but also Pārvatī, Subrah Vighneśvara and They carry them twice a day—once very early in the morning and then again in the evening with [lighted] torches. On the page_172 Page 173 ninth day, these five persons are [placed on] five temple cars and pulled around. On the tenth day, they adorn Īśvara and Pārvatī very beautifully and place them in an open rest house of the temple [i.e., large open hall] with an arched roof. Then they erect a tent near the place and decorate it with flowers, coconut tree leaves, branches of fig trees, bunches of coconuts and many other fruits. If there is a rich man in the place who owns a large open rest house and wishes to give out alms, they carry the images once again through the streets and place them in the rest house with an arched roof. A large crowd gathers there. The musicians play their instruments and the female servants of gods enact some histories [of the gods] through songs and dance. Whenever the images are carried around through the streets in the evenings and [L 233 r] music is played, the female servants of the gods also sing and dance. Indeed, when the images of the deities are about to be carried out, many rockets are shot up in the air. The devotees beat many [ordinary] drums and kettledrums, and guns are discharged. Often, the procession goes through wide and long streets. Many Brāhmins, priests, experts of law [i.e., specialists of religious scripture] and wise people follow the procession. They hold in their hands the brass instrument With this, they keep time with the music, sing songs of praise in honor of Īśvara, dance and jump around. A large number of and leaders follows them. They recite the sayings of praise or the stories. When the whole festival is completed, the eight guardians of the eight world corners are taken back to their original places with appropriate ceremonies and prayers. The flag is lowered from the post. When everything has been carried out, the Devadāsīs or female servants of gods have a game with turmeric [i.e., in ‘Curuma longa’]. [L 233 v] They mix it with water [lit. place them into water] and make a cream so that the water becomes yellow. Then, they go to the streets and pour the yellow water on themselves and others. This is how the festival known as the is celebrated in honor of Īśvara. [The word] means a ‘holy marriage.’ It comes from the following event: once Īśvara caused his consort Pārvatī to be born as a daughter to or Afterwards, when she was twelve years old, he married her again and took her to his [abode] Kailāsa. The 2 Festival: or This festival is as follows: during the whole month of December or history books are read around the holy ponds. Many people [lit. Malabarians] come together to hear the reading; they fast on these days, bathe in the holy ponds, smear themselves with and listen while a is read completely. Moreover, during all thirty days, early each morning, many food, drink and burnt offerings are made in the temple. At the same time, people sing [songs], [L 234 r] dance and play [musical] instruments. During these thirty days everything in the temple is done splendidly. On the thirty-first day processions are held in the streets. At this time, Ammai or Pārvatī comes to the pond of the temple; at this time are read and [ritual] water purification ceremonies are observed. Then they take the [ritual] bath The efficacy of the entire festival depends on this bath. Those who are present in the pond page_173 Page 174 obtain great rewards. All the sins that the people have committed in that entire year [lit. all the 365 days] will be forgiven. If a person dies the following year, it is believed that this person will surely obtain bliss. This festival is celebrated every year on the thirty-first day of December wherever people [lit. Malabarians] are living, and it gives much reward [i.e., is meritorious]. The 3rd Festival: This festival occurs every year in July and is celebrated in honor of Īśvarī or Pārvatī. When the flag pole [L 234 v] is erected for this festival, the same ceremonies are carried out that are done for the festivals of Īśvara. On that day, once the flagpole is erected, the festival begins, and lasts for nine days. During the first three days, Pārvatī’s image is carried around on an ordinary wagon known as the On the fourth day, she is carried around through the streets on a parrot-vehicle; on the fifth day, the bird on the sixth day, a peacock; on the seventh day, a chair, and on the eighth day, an ox; but on the ninth day she is carried around during the daytime on a temple car. When she is carried around through the streets in the file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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night, others [i.e., people or other images] accompany her from the temple. During these processions, musical instruments are played. Devadāsīs sing and dance in front of her. The streets are full of people; they worship her as the mother of all [people and creatures]. [L 235 r] Many priests and Brāhmins follow her to the end, sing songs of praise to Īśvarī, shout with joy and jump around. The come after them and sing the story of what happened concerning the deities of that place. When the nine-day festival has ended, on the tenth day, Pārvatī is placed in a beautifully decorated rest house with an arched roof; people bring to her all kinds of fruits of trees, butter, milk, raisins, raw rice, boiled rice and assorted sweets. With these ingredients, food and drink offerings are made. At the same time, on the last day of festival, some stories, which mention Īśvarī, are enacted through songs, plays and dance. A similar event takes place in all festivals that are celebrated in honor of deities. This festival goes on until late in the night; Īśvarī’ image is carried around in the temple and finally brought to its place. The seventh day after this festival is known as The pond in the temple is decorated all around with [L 235 v] all kinds of flowers and fruits. In the pond, there is a broad which is made of logs fastened together. Īśvarī and Īśvara are placed on it; Devadāsīs and musicians take their place on it; they play music, sing and dance. In this manner, they go around the pond three times with Īśvarī and Īśvara. It lasts till late in the night. Then both of them are carried around the temple and brought back to their original place. Afterwards the flag that has been raised and flies throughout the festival is lowered, accompanied by many ceremonies and prayers. Thus the festival is ended. This annual festival is celebrated in July in the same way, in all places, at the same time, when the star occurs. The reason why this festival is celebrated in honor of Īśvarī is that she might intercede for us human beings to Īśvara and procure everything for us [L 236 r] that we request of him. For this page_174 Page 175 reason, people fast during this festival. The other annual festivals that are celebrated in honor of Īśvara, and do not happen simultaneously in all places. The reason is that these gods have a particular name in one place, yet another name in the other place; the festivals are chosen in accordance with these names. In every place, the festival is celebrated in accordance with the Purāna or history book; it is planned for a particular day on which the deities brought about special things [in that place]. Hence, among us, as far as the timing of the festivals is concerned, there are big differences. The 4th Festival: or At the very beginning of this festival, as in other festivals, the eight guardians of the world are placed in eight corners; at this time the prayer [L 236 v] Digmantra is frequently recited. Then the fire offering Homa is prepared in the same way, as it has been described under the festivals of Īśvara. It must be kept burning throughout the festival. Similarly, the flagpole is erected and the flag is raised. The priests of the temple must fast throughout the festival time. Along with other images, is carried around through the streets in a splendid manner; it lasts for nine days. As is usual on other days, food, drink and burnt offerings are made to the principal images of the deities. is carried around for three days on an ordinary vehicle that looks like a four-poster. On the fourth day, is carried around on a peacock, on the fifth day on a red he-goat, on the sixth day on an elephant, on the seventh day on a horse and on the eight day on a When he is carried around through the streets for eight days, many Devadāsīs [L 237 r] sing and dance in front of him; similarly, many musicians [participate], gun salutes [are shot] and rockets [are fired]. A large number of Brāhmins and follow him; they sing songs of praise in time with beats of bronze instruments, and at the same time, leap and jump. On the following day he is carried around on a temple car. On the tenth day, he is placed in a rest house so that everyone can see and worship him. At this time, the story is enacted about how he overcame Śūrapadma. Afterwards, the eight guardians of the eight cardinal points of the world are taken back; the flag is lowered. It is written in our law [i.e., sacred books] that those who come to serve on this day will obtain a great reward. The reason why the deities are decorated and carried around [L 237 v] through the streets day and night is so that everyone can worship them. The origin of this festival is as follows: long ago [lit. before many ages], on account of his religious austerities, a great giant had obtained power to rule over the fourteen worlds. Later, he tyrannized and terrorized the gods and sages greatly. They lodged a complaint with Īśvara and performed religious austerities. Finally, Īśvara was moved to help them out of their slavery. Consequently, he sent his son to wage a war against the mighty giant. He was victorious and killed the monarch of the fourteen worlds. For this reason, an annual festival is celebrated in honor of In this festival, the same story is enacted symbolically. page_175

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Page 176 The 5th festival: This festival is celebrated in honor of [L 238 r] by the in their temples. When the festival begins in the temple, similarly, the eight guardians of the eight cardinal points of the world are placed in eight corners. The Brāhmins organize a Homa or a fire offering, prepare the flagpole and fasten [i.e., raise] a flag on it. From that day the festival is celebrated for nine days. During the first two days is carried around through the street in a palanquin, on the third day on the bird on the fourth day on the monkey Hanumat, on the fifth day on the wild animal on the sixth day on the small bronze circle tiruvācikai,75 on the seventh day on a large circlet, and on the eighth day on a horse, always splendidly. On the ninth day, he is pulled around on a big temple car. In some places, the festival lasts for eighteen days, and every day he is carried around [L 238 v] in a different way. Such processions are held with much pomp and glory. The Brāhmins of who are known as the 76 follow in the processions, sing songs of praise in time with the beat [of bronze instruments], and simultaneously dance. None of the Brāhmins who smear themselves with come to the festivals of [similarly,] none of Brāhmins who smear themselves with the Tirunāmam participate in the festivals of Īśvara. When the processions are ended on the ninth day, is carried out on the tenth day, early in the morning. This day is known as the and is considered to be very holy [i.e., auspicious]. It is told that those who come to serve him on this day will obtain great bliss. On the following day the festival is celebrated. On this day, in the pond of the temple a is decorated and and are seated on it, as well as female singers, [L 239 r] dancers and male musicians. Together they go around the pond three times. Around the pond many burning lights are placed, and the whole place is decorated with all kinds of flowers and fruits. Thus the festival is concluded. The 6th festival: Jayantī or Every year this festival occurs in the month of August and is celebrated in all places on the same day, the day when was born. In the evening of this festival, all the events are enacted that are associated with the birth of They [i.e., the devotees of ] place him at the temple in a cradle and move [it gently] back and forth. Since as a child, was raised in a house of a shepherd, he once stole butter and ate it up. For this reason he was tied to a ricemortar and was beaten by the shepherd. [L 239 v] This story is re-enacted at that time. All the 77 fast on this day. Just opposite the temple, and usually on a crossroad, four posts are fixed in the earth and a Pantal is made with the branches of coconut trees. Coconuts and figs are bound together around it. When is carried from the temple to the streets and comes in front of the Pantal, a shepherd runs to it and beats the fruits. After this, they [i.e., the devotees of ] pour on him from above, either buttermilk or water that is made page_176 Page 177 yellow with saffron. The 7th festival: or Āyudhapūjā Every year this festival is celebrated in September at the same time by the Śivabhaktikāras as well as by the In the temple of Śiva or Īśvara, or Pārvatī is seated in an open hall with arched roof and is decorated. There, she gives an audience [L 240 r] for ten days for every person. The kings of the people [lit. Malabarians] also sit in their audience-room and give audience. During these ten days, a lot of food, drink and burnt offerings are brought to Pārvatī in her audience-hall. Numerous musical instruments are played, and the Devadāsīs sing and dance accordingly. When the ten days are over, the festival is celebrated on the eleventh day. Fig trees are planted in front of the temple of Īśvara; is seated beneath it. comes to this place, and a Brahmin shoots three arrows from his bow. Next, all the war-soldiers bring their weapons and place them under [the fig tree]. Those who belong to the religion of fall prostrate before those who are committed to the religion of Śiva fall prostrate before Īśvara and The poets, writers, teachers and school children dedicate [L 240 v] their books to Sarasvatī, make an image for her and [construct] a vehicle for her. [Then they place her image on this vehicle]. With great rejoicing they lead her around through the streets. Hence, this festival is known as the Sarasvatīpūjā. The 8th festival: Aippacitulām Every year this festival occurs in October and lasts the whole month. Among the people [lit. Malabarians] it is celebrated in all places where there are rivers, especially at Māyūram where many

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thousands of people come from other places. This festival consists only of water-purification rituals. Every person, either man or woman, is accustomed to bathe in a river according to appropriate ceremonies. Brāhmins sit on the sides of the river and read from the old lawstories [i.e., from ancient scriptures]. Those who have taken a bath gather around [the Brāhmins] and listen to them. All those who have chosen these thirty days for purification rituals are accustomed to fasting from morning till evening. [L 241 r] Those of them who are rich distribute a lot of money, food and clothes as alms during the days of their purification. It is written in our law [i.e., religious scripture] that those who purify themselves [ritually] during this month, hear the law-stories [i.e., stories from the religious scriptures], fast and distribute alms can hope for a great reward and for such bliss that they will no longer need to be reborn or to die. Īśvara comes to the river on the thirty-first day and gives all the people the bath known as the Actually, when the image of Īśvara is immersed in the river, all the people who have remained there during the days of [ritual] purification immerse themselves also. They thus have page_177 Page 178 received the license [i.e., blessings] of Īśvara to go home in peace and with blessings. The 9th festival: Taippūcam When the constellation [zodiac star group] appears in January, many of us [South Indians] are accustomed to fasting and [L 241 v] bathing in the holy ponds of the temple. Subsequently, Īśvara comes to the pond and appears to everyone. This festival is known as Taippūcam, because the abovementioned star appears in January. According to the teaching of our law [i.e., religious books] those who fast on such a day and cleanse themselves in the pond of a temple can hope for a great gift [lit. efficacy] and a reward. The 10th festival: Every year on a certain day in February when the lunar constellation appears, this festival occurs. As it consists of taking a bath, it is known as the When such a day arrives, people [lit. Malabarians] from all places often go to the seashore that is near them and bathe in the seawater. The images of deities are taken from the temples to the closest seashore and placed in a hut [made with leaves]. Often, people come [L 242 r] from inland to the sea. Especially, many Brāhmins gather there; people give them a lot of alms. Some people give them edible things; some give them money; some give them clothes; some give them cows. Depending upon their wealth or poverty they give [the Brāhmins alms]. When [the images of the] gods are immersed in the water, simultaneously, all the people there immerse and take a bath. Such a thing [i.e., bathing ceremony] takes place along the shore. The principal place where such a bathing is most auspicious [lit. valid] is This festival is auspicious [lit. holy time]. Those who take a bath [at this time] will receive a pure heart and obtain virtues. Those who distribute alms at this auspicious [lit. holy] time will get a great reward. The 11th festival: Similarly, this [great luni-solar] festival consists of taking a bath in water and occurs once in twelve years. In the city there is the pond People bathe in it and [L 242 v] get their sins washed away. When such a festival is celebrated, people from distant lands make a pilgrimage to this pond; some people walk six months in one direction to take a bath in this holy water. On this particular day, water in this large pond increases remarkably. Īśvara is brought to the pond, and he appears to all the people. When they take a bath, all the sins that they have committed from their birth to that day will be washed away. Those who take this holy bath and also simultaneously give richly to the Brāhmins, to the Yogins and to the other people of [religious] orders will not only have their sins wiped away but will also receive virtues and the ability [lit. gift] to lead a good life and to obtain bliss. Of all the auspicious [lit. holy] page_178 Page 179 times, this is the most auspicious [lit. the holiest]. It occurs once in twelve years. [However,] all the people know its month and day. This festival was introduced a long time ago. In our mathematical books the twelfth year is named after this festival as Māmakam. [L 243 r] The 12th festival: There are two snakes known as the Rāhu and Ketu. Once a year, with their heads, they hide the sun and the moon; thus solar and lunar eclipses occur. When such a solar and lunar eclipse happens, the people among us people [lit. Malabarians] often go to the seashore and take a bath in the seawater. Those people who cannot go to the seashore due to distance or other reasons wash themselves in the ponds of the temples. This bath takes place at the same time [lit. hour] when the moon or the sun is darkened and lasts till the eclipse is over. During the time of this bathing many gifts are given to the Brāhmins. This bathing festival is always planned at the time of a solar or lunar eclipse so that at this time all sins are wiped out and file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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virtues can be obtained. The 13th festival: [L 243 v] Every year this festival occurs in the month of November and is celebrated in remembrance of the king Mahābalirāja. When in his eighth incarnation, had taken away the reign of this king over the world and thrust him into hell, he requested to that the people in the world might celebrate an annual festival in remembrance of his going to hell, so that his name would never be forgotten in the world. He also desired that he might get to see the people and to know of their welfare, especially whether they lived in a better way than during his period. granted him this [request]. Hence, every year this festival is celebrated by all the people [lit. Malabarians] in all places at the same time. At this festival, in all the temples, many lamps are lit. A palmyra tree is erected in front of all the temples and surrounded with a wooden balustrade and covered with dry palmyra leaves. It is lighted with a torch and burned [to ashes] to signify [L 244 r] that Mahābalirāja went down to hell. This festival is not meritorious [lit. has no use] except that it is a memory to the king. 14th: The annual festivals celebrated in honor of the Grāmadevatās Bhadrakālī, and Durgā have their own temples among us; they also have their own festivals that are celebrated in various places at different times. In every respect, they are identical with each other. [Usually] it is decided to celebrate a festival in honor of or of or of or of others in one place on a particular day. People bring many flowers fifteen days in advance; often they are thrown on the images [of the gods] in the temple, along with many food, drink and burnt offerings. On the fifteenth day the man of the place [i.e., village], who cremates the corpses, comes to the place where the temple is situated and the page_179 Page 180 festival is to be celebrated. People bind a thread made yellow with saffron around his [L 244 v] right hand, adorn him with flowers around his neck and smear his body with powder of sandalwood. Then they raise the flagpole high and fasten a bell to it. From that time onward, the festival lasts for eight days. During the period of eight days the person who cremates corpses should fast the whole day and should hold the thread in his hand. During such festivals processions are held on the streets in the morning and evening. On the eighth day a temple car is drawn around. On this day a dance is performed, which lasts throughout the night. It costs a certain amount of money; however, the inhabitants come to the place and watch it [i.e., the entertainment]. On the evening of the same day, they also play many games. Some people allow themselves to be drawn up in the air [i.e., hook-swinging]. The musicians for these festivals are Pariahs. The male and female dancers also belong to a special caste. On the eighth day, the inhabitants often come to the temple, [L 245 r] bring goats and cocks, and behead them. Often, the women sit with their daughters around the temple and boil rice. They eat some of the rice; some they throw as an offering. On this day there are also many people who bring new clay figures and place them all around the temple. When the last day of the festival is over, the thread is removed from the hand of the man who cremates and the flag is lowered. All the festivals in honor of the Grāmadevatās are celebrated in this way,” etc. The above-mentioned South Indian has written this much about the nature of their principal festivals; in reality it happens in the same way everywhere, except that in one place it is celebrated more magnificently than in another. From the above description, one can learn sufficiently how the South Indians celebrate their festivals. Hence, it is not necessary to add anything more to it. 6th Chapter: Regarding the offerings that the South Indians bring to the deities [L 245 v] Though the gods of these South Indians are mere stone, wood and metal, they offer them great honor. Such honor consists especially of many kinds of offerings that they bring [to their gods] in diverse ways: sometimes privately in their homes, and, at other times, publicly in the temple. Public offerings are made in the temples only by the Brāhmins, except in the temples of the Grāmadevatās by the and by the people of other castes. Private offerings are made by all kinds of people, who, through certain ceremonies, have obtained this privilege. They must be people who do not eat any meat of living animals. They usually keep the image of their deities with them and make offerings to them. There are six principal offerings that are interrelated with each other. They are as follows: 1. 2. Dīpārādhana, 3. Naivedya, 4. Homa, 5. Bali and 6. Śaivapūjā. The first offering, is both an anointing as well as a drink offering, [L 246 r] with which the stone and brass images of the gods are anointed. For this the following ingredients, such as lemon juice, sugar cane juice, water of tender coconuts, fig fruits, honey, sugar, oil and sandalwood 183 page_180 Page 181 file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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cream, etc. are used. The Brāhmins place them in front of the images to which they wish to make the offerings. The priest who performs the [ritual] offerings always has another Brāhmin-helper who gives to him what he stretches out his hands to receive. There are also water jars standing nearby, because they need a lot of water for the drink offerings. When they want to anoint the metal figures with the drink offering, they remove the dress from the figures. After the offering is performed, the figure is again dressed up gloriously and is adorned with jewels. The priest is accustomed not only to make a drink offering by mixing the ingredients together and pouring it over the images, but also to take the soft fruit [L 246 v] and rub it over the image. While performing this offering he recites the prayers and complies with the prescribed ceremonies. When the drink offering is over, the images are purified thoroughly, dressed up by the priest and decorated with flowers. Then, the second offering, known as the Dīpārādhana, begins. It is an offering of incense; hence, it is also known as Dhūpa. Chips of sandalwood and other fragrant woods along with the resinous incense known as the Cāmpi are placed on a censer and ignited. It produces a lot of smoke and a pleasing smell. The burning of incense to the figures in the temple always begins with the because it has the highest honor. The priest also carries, in his hands, lamps with many burning lights; he holds them in front of the images, moves them around and recites prayers. A Brahmin [L 247 r] always stands behind him and gives him whatever he needs. He takes an umbrella and, carrying it, goes around the figures. After that, he takes a fan and goes around the figures, then with lamps in his hands and so on. During the burnt offerings, he throws flowers at the figures. With every flower he recites a prayer.78 When he makes offerings to Īśvara, he recites the prayers often between 108 and 1008 times because Īśvara has so many names. If he makes the offering to then he recites the prayers according to the number of names. Some recite almost all of the names at one occasion. When the offering is being made, there are usually musicians playing and Devadāsīs singing and dancing in the front room. When this offering is completed, the third one, known as the Naivedya, begins. The following ingredients, such as butter, milk, milk cream, boiled rice, fried figs, all kinds of pancakes, pumpkins and other edible goods are used for it. These must be the produce of the earth, trees and domestic animals. [L 247 v] These edible things are spread on a low table covered with a cloth; then they are placed before the figures of gods and dedicated with prayers. During this time, the priests have their disciples and other helpers assisting them by giving them the required things and taking them back again. Others stand at a distance, raise their hands and worship. When all the ceremonies are over, the priests, along with the rest of the servants of the temple, eat the food that is offered to the images. All these three offerings—namely the drink offerings, burnt offerings and food offerings—are offered all the time [i.e., every day], at least once. They cannot be separated from each other, whether the offering is made outside or inside of the temples. In every temple of Īśvara these three offerings are made thrice a day: once in the morning, once at noon and once in the evening. Lamps are burning continuously; especially when the evening offering is made, many lamps page_181 Page 182 are lit. The fourth offering is known as the Homa; it is an offering of fire. For this, they have dug a small pit [L 248 r] in the earth within the temple. It is built with burned bricks and made suitable for the offering. They spread in it chips from five kinds of wood and kindle it. The Brāhmins either stand or sit around the pit, recite the prayers and throw the pieces of wood into it. They also throw in nine kinds of principal grains and hold either leaves or grass as a brush, which they dip in butter and thus spray sprinkle the butter in the fire. With many ceremonies these things are performed, not the least of which should be missed. If a festival begins in a temple, first of all, the fire offering Homa must be performed. The Brāhmins keep it burning day and night as long as the festival continues, even if it should last from eighteen to thirty-six days. Moreover, such a fire offering is performed outside the temple in houses when ceremonies are held, both for marriage, which is done by the Brāhmins, and for funerals, which are done by the [L 248 v] There are also great fire offerings that, in the opinion of the South Indians, can accomplish much. Such an offering, known as the Yāga, happens as black magic. made such a Yāga when he desired to depose Īśvara. In the books of the South Indians one can read many stories about the gods, the sages, the giants and the kings who performed such an offering and did great wonders. The kings and the great men who read such stories wish to imitate such things and often spend a lot of money for a Yāga; each time, the Brāhmins get most of the benefits. The fifth offering is known as the Bali. It is a slaughter offering in the temple of the Grāmadevatās. Near the flag pole there is the [sacrificial] altar on which they behead the goats, cocks and swine; usually the [L 249 r] Talaiyāris slay the animals because the Brāhmins do not kill anything that has life. In the temples of Īśvara and an altar with the same name stands near the flag pole. However, no [animal] sacrifice takes place; only edible things as mentioned above with regard to the food offering are kept on it. The Brāhmins of the temples perform this offering with the edible things laid on this altar.

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The sixth offering is known as the Śaivapūjā. Śaivas are those who do not eat the meat of living animals and have obtained the privilege of making offerings to deities in their houses, gardens, at the ponds and near the rivers. There are many forms of this offering; generally it includes all the offerings that they make to their deities outside of the temples. They keep with them almost all the figures of deities in the temples; they cast them in small forms in metal and preserve them in the offering box known as the The group of Śaivas [lit. such people] consists of men and [L 249 v] women. They get up very early in the morning, go to the toilet, wash their mouth, brush their teeth, wash their face, purify their whole body, smear themselves with the go to the garden and bring good flowers. Then they go to a pond and take a bath; afterwards, while reciting the prayers, they smear themselves once again with Subsequently, they perform the offering either in their houses or near a river or at a pond or on an open ground or in a garden. It happens in the following way: They bring the small figures of gods such as Īśvara, Devī or Pārvatī, Vighneśvara, page_182 Page 183 Bhairava and many others. They set them according to their [hierarchical] order on a throne made of planks. Besides them, they keep all the instruments needed for the offering and all the ingredients for an offering, such as milk, all kinds of fruits, all kinds of juice, oil, honey, sugar, the yellow stone from cows known as the Gorocanā, flowers, water of [tender] coconuts, lemons, scent of the musk, and all kinds of aromatic spices. With these they make a drink offering to the deities. [L 250 r] After this, they perform a burnt offering to the deities and then a food offering using all kinds of fruits and edible things. At this, they recite the prayers many times, sing songs of praise which are, at the same time, a thank offering. As often as they recite a prayer and throw a flower at the images, they ring a hand bell and give a sign. Finally, they stand in the water [of a river, a pond etc.] and perform the ceremony Jalasthāpana; they think about god, the Supreme Being, and say: ‘Let all the offerings and all the worship that we have performed to these deities, and the songs of praise that we have sung over them, be pleasing to you; and accept them as if we had done them for you.’ At that time, they recite their prayers once again. As a sign that god, the Supreme Being, accepted them as a pleasing offering, they sprinkle water over the images of the deities. Finally, while reciting the prayers, they take away the images according to their [hierarchical] order and keep them in the offering box. [L 250 v] Usually, those who make these offerings daily eat only once a day, especially that which they have offered to the deities. In the evening they take a bath once again, smear themselves with and perform the ceremony known as the It contains a meditation and a prayer, which are performed quietly. When evening is approaching, they set the images of deities in a certain place, light the lamps that should burn near them, lay out figs and other fruits and perform some ceremonies. Those who perform these offerings are the Śaivas among the Śivabhaktikāras and the Tirunāma tīrttam among the Among the South Indians these offerings have different names, partly because of the many gods to whom they are made, partly because of the people who perform these offerings and partly because of the different [L 251 r] methods by which the offerings are performed. We have [lit. one has] collected the various names of these offerings from their own books and sent them to a South Indian. He has answered them in the same order in which he was asked to do. These are mostly the offerings and honors that are made outside the temples. This answer helps us to get to know the divine service of the South Indians in a comprehensive way. Hence, we [the missionaries in Tranquebar] find it useful to quote all the twenty-one kinds of offerings just as they have been sent to us by the abovementioned South Indian: “1. The divine worship that we call is as follows: among us there are people who always carry with them the figure Liga, either on their head or around their arm or their neck. When they get up early in the morning, they go to the page_183 Page 184 toilet, clean their teeth and wash their whole body. When this is finished, they anoint [lit. wash] the with the drink offering made of milk, butter, sugar, oil and many other similar things. Then they make a burnt offering by [L 251 v] lighting many lamps, burning camphor in front of the smearing themselves with powdered sandalwood, wearing flower garlands, holding in their hands lamps with several lights and reciting many prayers. Subsequently, they perform a food offering and worship the by throwing flowers on it. With each flower they recite a prayer and ring a bell. When this part is completed, they either read or sing a passage from the book of praise known as the Tēvāram and recite the small prayer numerous

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times. Then they begin to meditate, speak with god in their mind and say: ‘It is not this figure, but you only whom I worship. Be pleased to wipe out all the sins that I have committed until now. When I die, grant me a good [lit. holy] death and take me into bliss near your feet.’ While making an offering everyone addresses god in such a way and requests from him what is needed. [L 252 r] When everything is over, the devotees take up the once again, wrap it up and bind it again around their neck, on their arm or head. Whenever those persons who perform these offerings daily wish to eat, they usually take one or two sojourners [i.e., guests] or poor persons to their home and give them food. Each one makes this offering according to one’s means. 2. Śivapūjā Not only the and the but also the Śaivas and all who have been recognized by the priests as [ritually] pure and fit to deal with the offerings, perform the offering known as the Śivapūjā. They [i.e., and Śaivas] get up very early in the morning, go to the toilet and wash all the parts of their body, smear themselves with go to the gardens [lit. flower-gardens] that are situated in some place and pluck the flowers with prescribed ceremonies. Then they go to a river or a pond and bathe in it, smear themselves [L 252 v] again with and place in front of themselves all the images that are found in Śiva-temples, such as Īśvara, or Pārvatī, Vināyaka or Vighneśvara, Cidambareśvara, Nandikeśvara, Sūrya, which is the sun, and many others. All of them are small and cast in metal. They prepare a throne for them and set them on it according to their [hierarchical] order. They also make an altar of a plank and place them on it. Then they bring first the drink offerings, then the burnt offerings and finally the food offerings. When they perform the offerings in the morning and during the time of their performance, they recite prayers that should be done with very great care. After the drink offering [i.e., the anointing] the figures of the deities are clothed marvelously, adorned with jewels and flowers and smeared with sandal paste. Subsequently they throw either the flower Vilvam or its petals at the feet of the gods and recite [L 253 r] many prayers. During this time they ring a hand bell and blow into a conch shell. After the food offering is completed, they circle around the figures three times, fall prostrate before each of them and then turn toward the sun to make, with great reverence, a certain compliment 108 times or page_184 Page 185 even 1,008 times. Then they get into the water, sprinkle the figures with water and speak: There is no more than only one god. Oh, eternal god! Accept everything that we have done, spoken or performed, to these figures, in a standing position, as if we had done it to you and let it be pleasing to you.’ Then they take back the figures with very great reverence while reciting prayers and keep them in the offering box. A tiny house [i.e., shrine] is built separately, within their houses, where they keep this box and protect it very carefully so that no impure things come near it. Among them there are people who eat twice a day and [L 253 v] also some who eat only once a day. Whoever among them that is well off always calls two or four strangers as guests to their house and eats with them the food which means ‘the food of witness.’ Those who are poor are accustomed to feeding the Brāhmins once or twice. If a person does not do an act of kindness towards a neighbor, that person’s daily offerings will be of no use. Everything that has been said so far is known among us as the Śivapūjā, because it is done in honor of Śiva. 3. Śaktipūjā This offering, Śaktipūjā, derives its name from Śakti in whose honor it is done. As there are many goddesses who have the name Śakti, there are many kinds of offerings that are named Śaktipūjā. The [image of a] goddess is placed in front of the worshippers; a big heap of flowers is made. Many things such as sandalwood, the scent of musk, the turmeric [i.e., in ‘Curuma longa’], a strange kind of leaves known as the Camuttirap paccai [L 254 r] and many other aromatic things, are brought together and spread over [the heap of the flowers]. Subsequently, mutton, pork, chicken, all kinds of vegetables, eggs, a kind of fish, boiled rice, wine and many other things are carried together and placed on the heap of the flowers. Next, prayers are recited that are written [specially] for the Śakti. All the people in the house take baths, purify themselves and wear their clothes again. They all stand in front of the figure and wave an incense stick before it [lit. make an incense stick, i.e., Ūtuvatti]. After the offerings and honors are made to the Śakti, they take the wine and drink it according to the [hierarchical] order. They take the boiled rice and all the meat and vegetables and eat them with those in the house and also with friends and acquaintances. If they ask the Śakti for anything during this offering, they will get it. It is said that this offering will bring them all kinds of fortunes for twelve years. Such a Śaktipūjā remains only within a particular caste. When someone begins to perform it, [L 254 v] that person should pass it on to the children, to the grandchildren and as long as the lineage remains intact. When some people make this offering, they usually do not cook any meat, but only the produce of fields and gardens; instead of wine, they use honey. In this offering not only one pattern is followed, but there are many patterns. 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has many temples among us in which his consort page_185

his twelve

Page 186 disciples known as the the monkey Hanumat and many other persons stand. Those who belong to his religion and have obtained the privilege [lit. worthiness] to make offerings [independently] cause these figures to be cast in very small forms either in gold, silver, bronze or [yellow] brass and carry them always [lit. keep them always with themselves]. If they want to make an offering, they place all the figures in front of them79 on a throne. These people get up early in the morning, go to the toilet, clean their mouth and teeth [L 255 r] and wash their face, hands and feet. They make the mark Tirunāmam on their forehead, go to the garden, bring all kinds of flowers and leaves, take a bath in water and make the mark on their forehead, once again reciting the prayers. Then they begin to make the offerings and place the figures according to their [hierarchical] order on the altar and on the throne. The throne stands above the altar. The person who makes the offerings stands in front of them, keeps all the ingredients ready for the drink, burnt and food offerings, and performs these offerings in an orderly way with the prescribed ceremonies and prayers. Everything happens with it in the same way as with offerings made in honor of Śiva, with the exception that the prayers are different; they are not addressed to Śiva, but to and those standing in his temple. Also, the books of praise that are either read or sung are different. Similarly, [as in offerings in honor of Śiva] they ring a small bell in the hand and blow into a conch shell; one can hear the sound in the distance. They also beat on a brass cymbal. After everything is completed, the one who makes the offerings, stands up, stands in the water, sprinkles water on all the images and on all the offering instruments saying: ‘Oh, great Everything is your [divine] sport. You are the only god; let everything be pleasing to you.’ [L 255 v] After this meditation the figures are placed again in the offering box. This is known as the 5. Brahmapūjā No offering is made in honor of Brahmā because one cannot find his figure either in the temples or in the houses. With the word Brahmapūjā one has to understand the honoring of the Brāhmins who belong to the Brahmā-caste. One honors them in many ways. If one sees them, one bows before them very respectfully and humbly. If people [wish to] purify themselves from sins or perform particular holy activities, they give Brāhmins the necessary clothes, feed them once or many times and share with them treasures and houses. One lives in such a way as not to dishearten but to delight them. One heeds their admonition and teaching respectfully, lives according to their instruction, deals with them in a loving way, lays gold and flowers in front of their feet sometimes and falls prostrate before them. All these things are known as the Brahmapūjā because Brahmā is worshipped in them. 6. Pillaiyārpūcai The way of making an offering to or Vighneśvara happens in the following manner: The ingredients known as the Pañcadravya [i.e., five products page_186 Page 187 from the mountains, the forest, the village, the city and the sea] and the oftenmentioned drink offering are brought to him. Before adoring him with flowers, one makes him [L 256 r] a food offering. Vināyaka has five special prayers that are recited during his offerings. One also breaks coconuts before him and pays him homage. Such an offering happens in every place where the figure of Vighneśvara is standing—either in temples, on paths, under trees or in houses. Every week they are accustomed to break the coconuts before him, especially on Fridays, and offer him the flesh of the coconut; later they take it away and eat it. Usually, some people erect a Pantal in front of the temple of once, twice or many times in the year and decorate it with flowers. They also bring with them cooked rice cakes, milk cream, milk, fruits of trees, cucumber, raw rice, cereals, water of the tender coconut and many more similar things, and place them before light many lamps and wave them before [along with lighted camphor]. Then many people come there and worship On this day the Devadāsīs play music, sing and dance near the temple of till late into the night. Pillaiyārpūcai is performed so that one might receive understanding and so that everything that one begins might succeed well. 7. Kumararpūcai Kumarar is the [second] son of Īśvara who is also known as Usually, those who [L 256 v] make offerings to him keep a very small figure of him. Very early in the morning they get up, perform all the prescribed purification ceremonies, smear themselves with and bring flowers from the garden without speaking to anyone. After they have bathed in a river or pond, they go to the place where they want to make

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the offering. They spread the [liquefied] cow dung over the place and purify it. Then they place in front of them on a throne, sit down before him, blow into a conch shell and beat on a cymbal so that everyone can hear it. While reciting the prayers they perform the drink, burnt and food offerings. When these things are completed, they sing him some songs of praise and read something from the old books [known as the] At last they request god to accept it as if it was offered to him and sprinkle it with water. Finally, they place the figure in the offering box and keep it in the tiny house [i.e., shrine] that they have built separately [in their house]. These people do not wish to eat more than once a day; they also invite strangers [to eat with them]. Usually they are accustomed to take a bath once again in the evening, and, after the bath, [L 257 r] devote themselves to meditation. Then they go to the temple and pay their homage to the gods. It is also their custom to set up the figures of the gods once again in their houses, to light lamps in front of them. At this time, they recite the prayers and sing songs of praise. 8. Devīpūjā Devīpūjā is an offering that is performed to the goddesses. Those who have chosen a particular goddess as the [beloved] deity of their caste and as their patron cause her image to be made in gold, silver, bronze, [yellow] brass or page_187 Page 188 wood. After they have purified themselves according to the prescribed ceremonies, they make drink, burnt and food offerings to this image; all these things take place in a splendid way. For this purpose they bring all the offering instruments that are found in every temple, with the one difference that these are small in size. Every goddess has her own prayers and songs of praise that are recited and sung. Whatever they offer [the goddess] they eat afterwards. 9. is an offering that the Brāhmins perform daily in their houses. They get up very early in the morning, go to the toilet, clean their teeth, rinse their mouth, wash their hands and feet, smear with bring flowers from the garden and bathe either in a river or in a pond. According to prescribed ceremonies and prayers, they perform all these things. [L 257 v] After they have smeared themselves with once again, they go to the place where they usually perform their daily prayers, spread [liquefied] cow dung over the place so that the place becomes [ritually] clean, position on the throne the figures of those [deities], to whom they wish to make the offerings, take oil, honey, sugar, lemon juice, sandal paste, a part of the small yellow stone from the cow [i.e., Gorocanā], milk, fruits of trees, water of coconut, all kinds of balms, scent of the musk, and many other similar ingredients, mix them together and pour them on the heads of the images. It is a drink offering. Then the Brahmins light several lamps on many sizes of lamp stands and wave them [lit. present them] before the images. They also have umbrellas, precious fans and other decorations with which they perform their ceremonies in front of the images. Moreover, they also honor them with all kinds of flowers. At that time they recite their Mantras or prayers, and sing songs of praise. When they have finished the worship with flowers, they carry to the figures of the gods milk-cream, boiled rice, fried tree-fruits [i.e., dried tree fruits such as dates], vegetables, cabbage [most probably: produce of a kitchen garden] and other produce from the soil, and prepare a food offering. They circle around it three times and sprinkle it with water. When all these are placed before the images, they sit down, recite prayers and sing some songs of praise from the book entitled Tēvārams. They blow the conch shell, beat on the brass cymbal [L 258 r], ring the small bells and make a lot of noise. At the end they stand with their feet in the water and perform the ceremony known as the Jalasthāpana: namely, they stand in the water, recite their prayer and say: ‘Oh god! Let everything be pleasing to you that we have now offered to these images; accept them as if they were just performed for you because you are all in all.’ Then they gather all the images of the deities, place them in the small house [i.e., shrine] where they keep them, light lamps and revere them once again. In the evening, when the sun goes down, they perform the ceremony known as the It consists of the following: in a place, wherever it might be, they recite their prayers several times and do some page_188 Page 189 meditation. Usually, they perform it at the rivers and at ponds. 10. This is the offering that the perform daily. They wear a small form of made of metal or of crystal around their neck, or arms or also on their head. 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bathe it. Then they throw flowers at it and saying: “Everything is the [divine] pastime of Śiva.’ They worship the wrap it up again, and bind it around their neck, their arm or on their head. When everything is completed, they go into a city or a village, ask for alms [i.e., food] in the houses, accept them and eat them. They lie down on the Piāl [i.e., raised mound in the veranda] in front of the houses or in the rest houses. They go around in front of the houses once again in the evening, beat on their brass cymbal, sing a peculiar song, and receive from various houses boiled rice and alms. They accept them, lay them before the Liga as a food offering, perform their prayers and ceremonies, and only then they will eat the alms [i.e., food]. This is known as the 11. A belongs to a kind of a begging order [i.e., a mendicant order] like that of an A performs his daily worship of the in a similar way. When that is completed, he goes begging, sings in front of the houses [standing] on the street. Besides, these obtained the privilege from the kings of the [in Tañcāvūr] that they could go once a year throughout their kingdom and get from each house of all the places two Kās [L 259 r] as their alms. Even today, with this permission they walk throughout all the nearby countries [i.e., kingdoms around the Kingdom of Tañcāvūr], sing in one place three or four days and get their prescribed amount from each house. They wear strange dress, wear a cap on their heads and carry small bells in their hand with which they introduce themselves. 12. Aratēcipūcai Aratēcis and Paradesins are pilgrims and strangers. They do not have a permanent dwelling in any place but wander around and live by alms. These people think in their mind that there is only one god and beside him there is no other. They also believe that all other things are only analogies [lit. parables] of the one god. When they get up early in the morning, they smear their whole body with the turn toward the sun and perform their worship. Then they eat what they get and lie down where they can. Apart from the rest houses that are at their disposal they do not have their own houses anywhere in the world. When they feel hungry, they go to three or four houses, beg for alms, eat and drink what page_189 Page 190 they receive, always going from one place to the other. They never settle down in one place permanently. All the countries [i.e., kingdoms] are open to them; they may go where they wish to go. Everywhere they receive what they need. If a person gives them something, that person has performed an offering that is known as the Aratēcipūcai. Those who, according to prescribed ceremonies, have made [L 259 v] an offering to their deities usually invite these pilgrims and strangers for a meal. They never make any offering to the images because they believe that there is only one [god] and everything else is nothing but shadows and analogies. Some of them are pilgrims who, from their youth, have had neither a married life nor a family. They have only wandered around. Some of them have had wives, children, friends and relatives, but later left them all and became pilgrims [i.e., wandering ascetics]. 13. This is an offering [of a gift] that a disciple has to bring to his teacher and priest. It consists of the following: a disciple brings to his priest a new set of clothing, a rosary and earrings, and the priest wears them. This offering can be summarized briefly: a disciple or a student serves his teacher [or priest] in every manner, gives him and those belonging to him [i.e., other followers of this priest or other priests] food, shows him, in accordance with his means, all kinds of goodness, washes his feet and drinks the water afterwards, throws gold and flowers at his feet, honors him and falls prostrate before him. Further, the student lives in every respect according to the admonitions of his priest so that the priest can rejoice and benefit from it. Every disciple has to perform this offering to his priest once or twice a year. 14. In the city of Cidambara, Īśvara is known as [L 260 r] the Cidambareśvara. There he competed with Bhadrakālī. All the 330,000,000 gods, 48,000 sages, all the all the goddesses, Rudra and Brahmā gathered together to see his dance. Brahmā played the instrument Mattaam and Viu a brass instrument Tāla and kept time in music. Īśvara danced in a great gathering. Then Bhadrakālī stood up and declared proudly: ‘I will also dance.’ Then both of them danced. Bhadrakālī could not keep pace with him and was overcome. In his temple Īśvara is represented as raising a leg high. Thus he received his name Such a story is enacted once a year in the same temple. If a person has an image of Īśvara made in gold, silver, metal or stone and performs his offerings in front of it, that offering is known as the This offering is made like any other offering, but on account of the image it has gotten its own name. 15. Maheśvarapūjā

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This offering consists of lavish alms to be distributed in the name of the god page_190 Page 191 Maheśvara. On account of their vows, or out of gratitude to god [L 260 v], some people are accustomed to inviting 50, 100, 1,000 or even 2,000 and and giving food to them either on a Friday, Monday or Tuesday. These go to a charitable institution and perform their prayers and offerings on behalf of their benefactor. Then they eat. At this time the one who gives them food washes their feet, smears them well with sandal paste and distributes to them betel leaves [in ] and arecanuts [in pākku]. He also gives them some money. It is known as the Maheśvarapūjā; such alms are a pleasing offering to Maheśvara and are performed in his name. The perform their worship during this time and bless the one who gives them food. They wish this man all the best and pray to god to bless him and grant long life to him and to his family members. After he has given them food and bids them farewell, they all bless him once again. 16. Aśvamedha In former times the holy kings bound the eyes of horses and let them go where they wished. Wherever they could see the hoof marks of the horses, there they caused much Yāga, Yajana or Homa to be performed. In our law [i.e., sacred scriptures] it is known as the Aśvamedha. No hoof mark should be left out. [L 261 r] Hence, many thousands of Brāhmins follow horses. They read a passage from the law [i.e., sacred scriptures] recite prayers, prepare an offering and perform it completely. At one time twenty or thirty thousand [horses] are used. At the same time, many gifts such as costly pearls, coral [perhaps: coral necklaces], precious stones and gold are given to the Brāhmins. A horse can go as far as it can. Until it stands still, a Yāga must be performed in each of its hoof marks. Treasures worth many thousands of thousands [of Royal Dollars?] would follow them in wagons because not only many thousands of Brāhmins must be fed at this time and the cost for materials for the numerous offerings of fire must be paid, but also the one who organizes such an offering must feed all the pilgrims and strangers; he may not deny anything to the people even if they might ask from that person whatever they wish. He who performs the Aśvamedha in a perfect manner without missing anything will become the king in the world of gods and obtain the rule of the Devendra. In the present age of the world known as the Kaliyuga, no one is found in this world who can perform it; but in the former ages of the world known as the Tretāyuga and Dvāparayuga there were holy kings who performed and completed it [perfectly to the end]. 17. Bhairavapūjā Bhairava is Īśvara’s doorkeeper. The black magicians choose him to be god [i.e., patron deity] of their clan and caste; they have a small form of his figure and make offerings before it. All of them get up very early in the morning, purify themselves, perform their ceremonies, make drink, food and burnt offerings, during which time they call on Bhairava to help [L 261 v] them in their black magic. When performing these various offerings, they make vows that they have page_191 Page 192 to fulfill later. 18. Sūryapūjā This is an offering that is performed in the following way in honor of the sun: One makes a heap of the red flowers Cemparattai puspams,80 washes and takes a bath. While reciting the prayers this person smears [himself] with believes firmly that the red flowers are the sun, and goes around the heap 108, 308 or 1,008 times. According to one’s ability either to offer more or less, this person makes 1,008 compliments which consist of bowing down with raised hands or falling prostrate. This person turns his face toward the morning [i.e., the East] and recites the prayers using his rosary of When everything is completed, he takes the flowers, dedicates them to the sun and throws them into the water. He gets into the water, takes the water with his hand and performs his prayers and requests god to accept this offering as a pleasing one. Then he eats his food and does his work. When the sun rises in the morning, these people are accustomed to perform this offering without fail. 19. Agnipūjā Agni means fire, and it does not get any offering. However, Agnibhagavān the king of fire, enjoys reverence among us. With the word Agnipūjā the offerings of fire such as Homa, Yajana or Yāga are described. Whenever there is a [solemn] act of joy or sorrow such as during weddings, funerals, fastings and many other events, offerings are made with fire. The [fire] offerings made at the time of joyful events should be lighted and kept alive with the five kinds of wood-chips. The five ingredients, known as the Pañcadravya, which belong to the drink offering, are placed in the fire. At this time the Brāhmins read from their law [i.e.,

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sacred scriptures], perform many ceremonies and recite prayers, all in Grantha, the language of the Brāhmins. [L 262 r] 20. is a terrible devil who stands in the temples of the Grāmadevatās. Those who are his slaves [i.e., way of saying: followers, adherents] and are suffering from some sickness from which they cannot be cured, bring goats, swine, cocks, boiled rice and all kinds of cooked edible things. They then place them in baskets and ask ten to fifteen persons to carry them on their heads to the temple where is standing. They spread them in front of him and perform all kinds of ceremonies. Then they come together again, join in groups of twenty or thirty people, pour [liquefied] butter in a bowl, place a wick in it and light it. They carry this fire-bowl in front of them, go around the food that is cooked and offered [i.e., dedicated] and keep watch with drawn swords so the devils might not steal the food away. After they have done this for one and a half hours, they take everything away from there, carry it and put it in the place where dead bodies are burned. Then the devils [are supposed to] gather together in groups and devour it. It is known as the because it is a pleasing offering to page_192 Page 193 the devils. On account of this, sicknesses that are caused by the devils and could not be cured81 by any doctor are cured. 21. is the king of the rain. If there is no rain for a long time, the kings call the learned of the law [i.e., religious experts] and ask them to perform a Yāga. At this they feed a large number of Brāhmins and give food to the very large numbers [lit. crowd] of and About one or two thousand people learned in the law are invited to help in performing the Yāga, to sing songs of praise and recite the prayers. In this way they perform their worship for forty days. During all these days, they keep the fire offering alive. When the kings organize such a Yāga, all the sins that are committed in their kingdom are supposed to be forgiven. Then it will begin to rain. This is known as the Varunayāga, which the kings perform in such a way as is described in the law [i.e., sacred scriptures],” etc. [L 262 v] The above-mentioned South Indian answers in his letter this much to our questions on the common kinds of offerings; but one would find still many more offerings named in their books. They need not be quoted here because what has already been mentioned is sufficient to show how the South Indians perform some of their offerings and how much effort and cost such offerings require. One can see from this and [especially] throughout this entire book how the South Indians are accustomed to make far more effort and spend much more money due to an ill-conceived idea of obtaining bliss than the Christians do with the truth of their religion. Hence, it is hoped that those who read this book would get to know the wearisome worship of images of the South Indians, be convinced of their lethargy [lit. sleepiness] in their own faith and begin to serve the living God more earnestly than the South Indians serve their dead images. May the God who wishes that no one should be lost, but everyone should repent, show mercy to the [spiritual] blindness of these South Indians and open their [spiritual] eyes so that they be converted from darkness to light and from the power of Satan to God, and receive the forgiveness of sins and the heritage [of eternal life] with those who are made holy through their faith in JESUS CHRIST. May this God be adored [lit. he be thought of] by all the people in all the ends of the world so that they are converted to the Lord and all the generations of the nonChristians [lit. heathens] worship before him; for the Lord has his kingdom and he rules among all the people [lit. heathens]. Amen. page_193 Page 194 End Notes 1 The Leipzig Version does not contain the word “ships,” but writings. Most probably it is a scribal error of copying the word “Schiffen” (‘ships’) and writing it as “Schrifften” (‘writings’). 2 The Leipzig Version inserts the following phrase: “that has never before seen the light of the day.” 3 The numbering of the table of contents is that of Ziegenbalg. 4 The Leipzig Version corrects Ziegenbalg’s unidentifiable word “Duludalalógum” rightly as “Magádala-Logam.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 28. 5 The Leipzig Version corrects Ziegenbalg’s word “Takkan” rightly as “Tettchen.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 30. 6 Germann, 1867, 36: Germann observes in the footnote correctly that Ziegenbalg’s translation of the epithet incorrect. This epithet does not mean ‘the lord who is without time,’ but ‘the lord who is beyond time.’ 7 The Leipzig Version inserts the following sentence: “One must note that Civam an Īśvara are considered to

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be same [god].” 8 The word Tiruvācakam means ‘holy saying.’ However, the importance given to it makes it a holy scripture. 9 The Leipzig Version adds the following: “All kinds of offerings that are brought to him [are generally known as Śivapūjā].” 10 Metzger, 1869, 34: Metzger mentions the cost “from 15 to 150 Rupees.” 11 Germann, 1867, 34. Cf. Metzger, 1869, 30: Metzger’s translation of Germann’s text reads: “The 5 lords stand in relation to the 5 stages, through which the world at large, and human souls in particular, have to pass, viz., creation, preservation, obturation, illumination, and return to the original state, or reunion with the divine Being.” 12 Ziegenbalg’s transliteration “Baraschiwei” contains two epithets that are mentioned under 14 a and 14 b. 13 The Leipzig Version combines both the epithets and reads as “Wenkei Mugen,” i.e., ‘tiger-faced man.’ But the word reads as i.e., ‘man with a white-colored face of an elephant’ This epithet should simply read as =Skt. Gajamukha, ‘elephant-faced man.’ 14 Normally (another name for Śrī Rāmānuja 1017–1137) and (1370–1443) are not considered to belong to the Instead the following two need to be added to the list: and For other information, see the entry in the glossary. 15 Normally the chronological order of the incarnations is as follows: 1. Matpage_194 Page 195 syāvatāra, 2. Kūrmāvatāra, 3. Varāhāvatāra, 4. 5. Vāmanāvatāra, 6. Paraśurāmāvatāra, 7. Rāmāvatāra, 8. 9. Buddhāvatāra and 10. Aśvāvatāra. 16 The epithet “Wiraginálundiputtón” cannot be identified satisfactorily. Cf. 1968, 30: suggests the two epithets mentioned above under 36 a and 36 b. 17 The Leipzig Version separates this term “Murárinemi” correctly as: “Murari” and “Nemi” as mentioned above under 41 a and 41 b. 18 Ziegenbalg’s transliteration “Nerionari” contains two epithets mentioned above under 57 a and 57 b. Cf. Cēntan, 1990, 6. 19 Ziegenbalg’s transliteration reads as “Alileimelballi.” The Leipzig Version expands it as “Allei mel palli kondón.” 20 Germann, 1867, 111 and Metzger, 1869, 84. 21 Ziegenbalg’s transliteration of the epithets “12) Mawari [and] 13) Biriatscheal” should be read as mentioned under 12 a, 12 b and 13. 22 Ziegenbalg’s transliteration “Takkananguileiól” contains two epithets mentioned above under 19 a and 19 b. 23 The Leipzig Version combines the two epithets “2) Indirei, 3) Muttal” correctly together as mentioned above. Cf. 1996, 15. 24 1996, 15: The word “Nerunkáduwasamuttal” needs to be deciphered as two epithets mentioned above. 25 Metzger, 1869, 93: The five kinds of the flowers are the lotus, the mango flower, the ashoka flower, the jasmine and the blue water lily. 26 Manmatha’s vehicle is not a lion, but a parrot. 27 1996, 13: combines the two epithets “6) Mínurukóriuértón, 7) Tondel” as (‘man with a raised fish-flag’). 28 1996, 13: has it only as “Karumpuvilli” (‘the man with a sugar-cane bow’). 29 1968, 33: has it as “ ” (‘the man with the moon as his umbrella’). 30 The Leipzig Version adds another epithet: “28. Mōkan”=Skt. Moha, ‘bewilderment, perplexity, infatuation, distraction.’ 31 Ziegenbalg did not know anything about the famous Brahmā-temple at Pushkar near the city of Ajmir in the State of Rajasthan. Brahmā is worshipped in a rock-cut temple at Makāpalipuram in country and also in temples at Ochira in Kerala and Khed Brahmā in Gujarath. In the Cucīntram-temple near Śiva, and Brahmā are venerated together in the image of (‘the unborn man’) is an epithet for Brahmā. page_195 Page 196 file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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32 The Leipzig Version corrects this epithet rightly as “Odimmujadakoriínen.” 33 The Leipzig Version contains two more epithets: “22) Gnani” and “29) Nalumugen;” i.e., (‘the wise man’) and (‘four-faced man’). 34 1996, 15: records this epithet as “ ” (‘woman seated on the white lotus’). 35 1996, 15: records this epithet as (‘the wife of the ’). 36 The Leipzig Version changes this epithet as “Satten,” i.e., Cf. Germann, 1867, 152. 37 The Leipzig Version changes this epithet as “Arja.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 152: Germann’s rendering as HariHara seems to be correct. 38 It is possible that Ziegenbalg is translating the word (‘a slave, servant, follower, devotee).’ 39 It is possible that Ziegenbalg is translating the word (‘a slave, servant, follower, devotee).’ 40 The Leipzig Version adds the following: “plays the instrument Pampai [‘a kind of drum, drum of jungles’].” 41 It is possible that Ziegenbalg is translating the word (‘a slave, servant, follower, devotee).’ 42 The Leipzig Version changes it into “field-goddesses.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 172. 43 1996, 15: shortens this epithet as “Māyai.” 44 The Leipzig Version changes the order of the words as “arrogant and proud.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 176. 45 The Leipzig Version changes it into “a long trident.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 178. 46 1996, 17: Ziegenbalg’s two transliterated epithets “Neriakareddi, 4) Aaini” are combined together as 47 1996, 17: Ziegenbalg’s three transliterated epithets “5) Meditschenni, 6) Meliraróramiddal, 7) Mélliel” are combined together as “Mē ” 48 As it was the custom of his day Ziegenbalg did not separate the various words in the names of the Pēys. However, for the sake of easy reading and clarity the words are separated in this translation. 49 The Leipzig Version changes it into “unrest.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 183. 50 Germann, 1867, 183: Germann changes it into Kapālippēy and explains it as “the devil that causes headache.” However, the correct meaning of Kāvālip pēy is the ‘vagabond-pēy. page_196 Page 197 51 The Leipzig Version has it as “Pēy of disobedience.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 184: Germann has it as the “Pēy of disrespect.” 52 The Leipzig Version changes this word into “Kama-pe,” i.e., Kāmap pēy, ‘the pēy of (sexual) lust’ Cf. Germann, 1867, 185. 53 pēy means only ‘the pēy at home.’ Ziegenbalg’s interpretation is incorrect; hence the Leipzig Version inserts the following and corrects Ziegenbalg’s text: “Kanawiltoppia-pe, der Nachtteufel,” i.e., pēy, ‘the night-pēy that appeared in a dream and got attached (to the dreamer).’ Cf. Germann, 1867, 185. 54 Germann, 1867, 185: Germann has it as “cuyap pēy,” i.e., ‘independent/lonely devil.’ 55 Germann, 1867, 185: Germann thinks that this word might be identified correctly as “ pēy,” i.e., the devil that lusts after money. 56 Germann, 1867, 185: Germann identified this word as “nattangkarai,” i.e., ‘land used as a seedbed, nursary’ usually situated at the edge of a village close to the paddy fields. 57 The Leipzig Version addes the abbreviation “etc.” to indicate that the list of the devils was taken from a dictionary or a similar source. 58 The Leipzig Version adds the following statement: “who along with were the most famous ones.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 191. 59 The Leipzig Version inserts here a full sentence to show the logical development of the narrative: “And when the time of their curse was ended, Īśvara granted their request and allowed his son to destroy the whole caste of the giants.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 194. 60 The Leipzig Version inserts the following phrase: “or in his paradise ” Cf. Germann, 1867, 205. 61 Germann, 1867, 206: Since the Leipzig Version also ends with ‘histories’ Germann adds (without explicitly showing it) the word ‘such’ meaning ‘such people.’ 62 The word means ‘the man with 1,000 ears.’ The Leipzig Version corrects this mistake and writes it as “Airamkannen,” i.e., meaning ‘the man with 1,000 eyes.’ 63 The Leipzig Version changes this word into ‘female dancers.’ Cf. Germann, 1867, 207.

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64 Ziegenbalg uses the name “Dewãindiren” that is difficult to identify. Cf. Germann, 1867, 207: Germann identifies the same word as “Dēva-Indra.” 65 The Leipzig Version does not have this name. Hence, it is also missing in Germann’s list. Cf. Germann, 1867, 209. 66 The Leipzig Version combines the two names correctly as “Perinmam-tarumpage_197 Page 198 tarum Cf. Germann, 1867, 209. airáni,” i.e., 67 Germann, 1867, 220: Germann named him “Kācipar .” 68 The Leipzig Version inserts the following line to make the transition from the earlier sentence to the following one easy: “You are a great sage and your name should be Agastya.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 220. 69 The Leipzig Version inserts the number ‘seven’ and has it: ‘the seven sages.’ Cf. Germann, 1867, 223. 70 The Leipzig Version inserts the following phrase: “to his paradise known as Kailāsa.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 238. 71 The Leipzig Version deletes this sentence. Cf. Germann, 1867, 242: Germann edits the text on Indra very much. 72 The Leipzig Version omits this name. Cf. Germann, 1867, 243: Germann’s text does not contain this epithet of Yama. 73 The Leipzig Version omits this phrase. Hence, Germann’s text does not contain it. Cf. Germann, 1867, 243. 74 The Leipzig Version informs that this festival “occurs” in October. Cf. Germann, 1867, 258: Germann changes it as follows: this festival “lasts throughout October.” 75 The Leipzig Version shortens this word to “Tiru-wási,” i.e., tiruvācikai; cf. Germann, 1867, 263. 76 The Leipzig Version changes this word into “Waistanawal,” i.e., i.e., colloquial form of referring to the Cf. Germann, 1867, 263. 77 The Leipzig Version changes this word into “Kischtna-pattikkarer,” i.e., (‘the devotees of ’). Cf. Germann, 1867, 264: Germann changes this word into “Krishnabhaktas.” 78 The Leipzig Version inserts the following sentence: “[He recites] a prayer every time, then the Brahmin who stands behind him must ring the bell and give a sign. In this way recites.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 271. 79 The Leipzig Version inserts the following word: “on an altar or.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 277. 80 The Leipzig Version changes the name of this flower into “Sigappu pattirá putbangöl,” i.e., cikappu pattira puspams. This flower is unidentifiable. Cf. Germann, 1867, 284: Germann omits this name. 81 The Leipzig Version changes this word into “driven out.” Cf. Germann, 1867, 285. page_198 Page 199 CHAPTER 4: ZIEGENBALG’S SOURCES 4.1 German sources on the religions of South India Walter Leifer, Franz Übleis and Gita Dharampal have already examined the longstanding relationship between Germany and India.1 Ziegenbalg’s contributions intensify this relationship. Before his travel to Tranquebar Ziegenbalg acquired one Latin and four German books about India that were published in Europe,2 snf used tham as an important source of information. He particularly read the book entitled A true and exact description of the most celebrated East-India coast of Malabar and Coromandel (1672) by Philip Baldaeus. Baldaeus derived his information on India from two sources: he used the manuscripts written by the Portuguese missionaries serving in Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), whom the Dutch had expelled.3 He also relied heavily on the oral information from some Brahmins. Once Ziegenbalg gained access to the language and literature, he concluded that Baldaeus work contained not only orthographical errors,4 but also unreliable contents.5 However, he seems to have adapted certain things from Baldaues. For example, both Baldaeus and Ziegenbalg were absolutely convinced that no European Christian needed to prove the existence of God to the people. Baldaeus believed that all the people were aware of a Supreme Being, which was the source of all life. (Baldaeus, 1672, 429; cf. the beginning words of Ziegenbalg on L 11 r). Both Baldaeus and Ziegenbalg end their texts with a prayer that God might “help the Indians to come to the knowledge of truth, and get rid of the tricks of Satan, who has enslaved their will” (Baldaeus, 1672, 610; cf. Ziegenbalg’s prayer on L 262 v). Ziegenbalg also read the Wonderful temple of the Jews and Heathens (1701) by David Nerreter (1649–1726), which in turn was a translation of the book Pansebeia by Alexander Ross (1590–1654). Nerreter maintained that the Indians had their original deities and worshipped them in the form of trees, rivers and animals.

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However, after Alexander the Great invaded India and subdued the Indian king Porus at the River Hydaspus (in July 326 BCE, now in Pakistan), he introduced the Greek deities Zeus, Hera, and Poseidon under their Roman names Jupiter, Juno and Neptune (Nerreter, 1701, 379 f). Nerreter thought that non-Christian religions originated from the fables of poets, and the devil, who was the imitator of God, changed the truth and love of God into lies and dreadful things (Nerreter, 1701, 1139–1195). Though Ziegenbalg did not follow all the arguments of Nerreter, he used his resources with care and discernment. Ziegenbalg’s own works differed greatly from those of his predecessors, who did not know the South Indian languages, did not live among the South Indians and depended on the works of other ill-informed Europeans or Indian interpreters whose limited language skills hindered adequate explanation of the subject matter. By contrast, Ziegenbalg was determined to use written documents in and to quote them elaborately in his works so that they could speak for page_199 Page 200 themselves (Ziegenbalg, 1926, 15: Points 22 and 23). He attempted to find out how the people interpreted the written sources of their religious beliefs. He based his Genealogy on the letters that his correspondents had sent to him, and translated several passages of these letters into German. It is unique within all the European literature on India, and so, according to Esther Fhil, a Danish ethnographer, Ziegenbalg was the first European scholar to record the selfreflections of the Indians and thus allowed them to speak for themselves (Fihl, 1988,228). 4.2 European interpretation on mythology Ziegenbalg may have observed a marked difference between the religions of the Greeks and the South Indians. Unlike the Greek deities like Zeus, who were no longer worshipped, stories about Indian deities formed an indispensable living legacy of Indian cultures. Yet, Ziegenbalg continued to think about the Genealogy in terms of certain European categories. He did not describe the Genealogy neither as a (‘family-lineage’) nor and (‘family tree). This is mainly because his target audience was not Indian, but European in general, and German in particular. Though Ziegenbalg did not say which method of myth interpretation he followed,6 the following can be suggested. It is possible that Ziegenbalg knew the famous work entitled Genealogia Deorum Gentilium (1472) of the Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375). An overview of the Genealogia Deorum Gentilium and Ziegenbalg’s Genealogia Deorum Damulorum 7 shows further conceptual and structural similarities in portraying the genealogies of the deities for an European audience. Ziegenbalg’s another source of reference may have been the writings of the ancient Greek and Roman poets.8 Herodotus (a Greek historian of fifth century BCE) opined that Homer and Hesiod taught the Greeks about the origin, nature, form, appellations and functions of their deities (Kerenyi, 1962, 179). Ziegenbalg’s elaborate title for the Genealogy incorporates similar things (L 1 r). Moreover, Homer, Hesiod and Ovid did not idealize the deities, but presented them as beings who were not free from disguise, envy, power struggle, anger, revenge, brutality, murder, erotic love, incest and adultery. Hence, Xenophanes (570–475 BCE) commented that “Homer and Hesiod have ascribed to the gods all things that among men are a shame and reproach among mortals, stealing and adulteries and deceiving of another” (Shenk, 1995, 169). It is possible that Ziegenbalg used this or another similar European paradigm to evaluate the genealogy of the South Indian deities, especially as it is presented in the (L 188 v-189 r). He rejected the validity of the teachings on salvation, mainly because it did not agree with the biblical teaching. He believed that the poets created numerous myths about their deities (L 37 r, 63 v, 106 r, 112 r, 113 v, 142 r, 168 v, 176 r, 194 r, 198 r and 222 r), called them by divine page_200 Page 201 names (L 112 v, 120 v, 136 r, 153 v, 158 v and 195 v), fabricated several narratives concerning the fourteen worlds and the seven seas (L 23 r and 186 v), about the 48,000 sages (L 199 v), the (L 218 v), the messengers of the god of death (L 219 v), and the origin of sin (L 189 r-v). Ziegenbalg did not like the extramarital relationships of the gods and goddesses because these had a negative influence on the people (L 123 v).9 Ziegenbalg may also have been familiar with the teachings of the Greek philosopher Euhemerus (ca. 340—ca. 260 300 BCE) that the deities were mere human rulers, and were later deified either by their subjects or other beneficiaries. Ziegenbalg also knew about the Imperial Cults of the Egyptians, the Romans and the Greeks.10 He considered that the poets had deified some of the kings (L 46v) and other benefactors (L 111 v) by creating fabulous traditions around them. He was aware that the ancient kings were great patrons of temples and poets. Many temples had the images of their patrons installed on various walls.11 file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Ziegenbalg may also have been aware that the sixty-three and the twelve were venerated.12 For example, the poet worshiped his contemporary saint-poet The poetess, was considered to be the embodiment of Bhūmidevī (‘the earth goddess,’ Cutler, 1987, 13). Ziegenbalg was aware that the Bible prohibited such veneration of human beings, saints and heroes. It is also possible that Ziegenbalg was acquainted with contemporary German works on mythology. For example, in 1709 Benjamin Hederich published a book on Graeco-Roman mythology in Berlin. When Gründler left Germany, he might have taken it to Tranquebar with him. Hederich gives the etymological meaning of the Greek word “genealogy” as the study of origins and family lineages. He also mentions that genealogy represents an academic discipline of historical study, which analyses anything that is historical true or “invented or mythological, sacred or profane, ancient or modern, universal or particular.” Thus, the study of geneologies becomes “one of the sure foundations of history” (Hederich, 1709, 122). Hederich goes on to defining another important concept: According to him, mythology is a study of a “myth or fable.” He points out that generally mythology is known as the “history of myths and fables, history of poetry, and the theology of the non-Christians [lit. Gentiles].” Actually, in his view, mythology should be understood as “an explanation on history, ethics, physical world or astronomy,” and as such, it is “indispensable for proper understanding” of the ancient non-Christian authors (e.g., Greeks and Romans). Hederich mentions that Hesiod’s Theogony and Ovid’s Metamorphosis are some of the best known examples of Roman and Greek mythologies (Hederich, 1709, 392). Hederich expanded his work in 1724 and included several genealogical tables. Johann Joachim Schwaben revised and published it once again in 1770. Hederich was of the opinion that the narratives about the deities of the ancient Romans, Greeks and Egyptians, were mere fables; yet they were generally considered to page_201 Page 202 be true and real (Hederich, 1770, xiii f). He encouraged Christian theologians to become familiar with the mythologies of the ancient Romans, Greeks and Egyptians so that they could comprehend the teachings of the ancient philosophers and refute them appropriately (Hederich, 1770, xi f.). Hederich suggested a way to study each deity. Firstly, the etymological meaning of the principal name of the deity should be mentioned. Then, the parents of the deity had to be specified. Thirdly, the nature and various activities of the deity should be listed. Fourthly, the worship of this deity had to be explained. Fifthly, the iconographic representation of each deity should be illustrated. Sixthly, if possible, the real history surrounding the deity should be elucidated because the deities are usually creations of the poets. Seventhly, all other miscellaneous information about the deity had to be given (Hederich, 1770, 806–814). Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy contains many of these characteristics. 4.3 South Indian sources on religions As mentioned earlier Ziegenbalg’s first and foremost source for compiling the Genealogy was the Letters, from which Ziegenbalg has quoted about sixty passages. This amounts to almost half the text of the Genealogy. The other half consists of Ziegenbalg’s introductory and concluding remarks, of his reflection on the nature and activities of the deities, and also of their bewildering number of appellations. Ziegenbalg’s second source consists of works. His Genealogy refers to eighty-seven works, of which fifty-one have so far been identified in their printed versions, and the remaining thirty-six are yet to be recovered. For example, in the first section of the Genealogy, Ziegenbalg draws our attention to four books about Parāparavastu (L 15 r), four books about Civam, the Supreme Being (L 30 r), twenty-one books about Śiva, (L 51 r-53 r), five books about Pārvatī (L 59 v), one book about Vighneśvara (L 68 v), four books about (74 r-v), twenty-six books about (L 97 r-99 r), three books about Manmatha (L 112 r) and one book about Sarasvatī (124 r). After naming these books, Ziegenbalg gives a brief review of them. Ziegenbalg’s third source had to do with the epithets of the deities and other spirit beings that are classified and named in dictionaries such as the Tivākaram (cf. Canmukam Pillai, 1990) and the (cf. 1996). For example, the first section of the contains ninetythree four-line verses mentioning the appellations of various deities, devils and other spirit beings. First of all, it begins with the epithets for who is traditionally considered to be the symbol of spirituality (Zvelebil, 1973 and 1992). By contrast, however, Ziegenbalg gave emphasis to the Supreme Being, most probably because he followed the pattern of the systematic theology of Freylinghausen that begins with an elaborate treatment page_202 Page 203 about God. Moreover, Ziegenbalg omitted the epithets for the nine planets, the twelve zodiacal symbols, the

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seven days of a week, the different phases of a day, and the powers of nature such as storm, thunder and lightening. But in some cases, he followed word to word. Two examples are sufficient to illustrate this: The epithets of Brahmā are as follows: “       pitā vitāta          vētā          ōtimam uyartta    ” (Maala Puruar, 1996, 9). The order of the first fifteen appellations of Brahmā in the Genealogy (L 120 v) agrees with this verse. They are as follows:       [i.e., Pitāmaha],                            ” It seems that Ziegenbalg collected the remaining twelve epithets of Brahmā from some other source. The contains only sixty-six appellations for Śiva, whereas Ziegenbalg mentions eighty-eight of them. The epithets from forty through eighty-eight (L 45 r–45 v) follow the order of the appellations found in verses six to nine in the ( 1996, 7–9). This means that Ziegenbalg had other source material for collecting the appellations of various deities. It is not possible to discern Ziegenbalg’s criteria for choosing a few appellations and leaving the rest out. Considering the situation of their day, the achievement of Ziegenbalg and his colleague should be appreciated. However, they were confronted with certain difficulties. Apparently, they did not verify the information. Ziegenbalg states that the river goddess has eight playmates (L 9 a r). By contrast, refers to only six.13 Sometimes, Ziegenbalg and his colleagues were unable to identify the individual epithets correctly. For example, the forty-eighth and forty-ninth appellations of Śiva (L 45 r) are not two separate epithets “ and ” but only one ( 1996, 7). Ziegenbalg’s fourth source was the sociological and anthropological examination of South Indian religions, which are culturally specific and were culturally constructed. They express the mentality, feeling, belief and behavior of the South Indians. It is said that despite the degree of artistic perfection, even the superb images are not exact representations of the deities, but they are supposed to illustrate the deity’s relationships with human beings in general, and with the devotees in particular. Regular and ceremonial worship offered to these sacred images is expected to satisfy the deity, and fulfill the longings of the page_203 Page 204 devotees. It is remarkable that Ziegenbalg, as a Lutheran, Pietist and missionary, was keenly interested in observing the iconographic features of each deity that he was going to portray. He described their postures, the interesting position of their hands and legs, their headdress, the different kinds of jewelry worn in their hair, nose, ears, around the neck, and on their arms and legs. Ziegenbalg’s iconographic details included the color of the deities, the number of their heads, hands, and eyes, the names and significance of their emblems, and the names of their (animal or bird) vehicles. Ziegenbalg may not have fully understood the symbolic meaning of the iconographic elements of each deity, which seem to reflect the socio-cultural behavior patterns of the people (L 22 r). For example, the fully painted, life-like images of the goddesses, with their finely proportioned bodies in idealized human form, are dressed in sarees, and embellished with lots of jewels made of gold on the ears, neck, breasts and arms. Their hands and feet are adorned with garlands hanging down from their shoulders. These goddesses wear the mallikai (‘jasmine,’ i.e., Jasminum anestomosans) flowers in their long hair (L 36 r, 57 v, etc). They also put on silver Kolucu (‘anklet’, L 36 r), which is the characteristic ornament of the women in the country.14 Ziegenbalg draws on a sociological understanding of the cosmography of the people. He designates the abodes of Śiva, and Indra (Kailāsa, Vaikuha and Devaloka respectively, cf. L 9 a r, L 23 v, etc.) as paradise. The wish-fulfilling tree the wish-fulfilling cow Kāmadhenu, and the ambrosia-well that gives the elixir of immortality, 330 million Devas, 48,000 (L 187 v, 198 v), and the numerous musicians like the Kinaras are all located at Devaloka (L 213 v). It seems that Ziegenbalg was aware of the Persian loan word paradise (derived from the noun Pairidaezo, ‘garden, park, a walled enclosure’).15

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The abodes of Śiva, and Indra resemble the great garden parks of palaces rather than the heaven or paradise of the Christians. Often, the temples of the people are modeled after royal palaces. The word Kōyil for a temple literally means “house of a king.” A wall surrounds the temples, and each temple has large pools for ritual bathing. There are numerous chambers for worship and for housing images of various deities. Ramanujan, who has written much about literature, points out the following: Early poetry of love and war treat a god as a king. Only after the “Sanskritic myths and notions of god seem to have met and married the local ideas of Akam and Puram [‘love and war’, which amalgamation of ideas and practices was known to Ziegenbalg],” did the kings become “representatives and emblems of the gods.” The words like Kō and seem to have first meant ‘king’ and then ‘god’ (Ramanujan, 1985, 287). Thus, sacrifices are offered to the deities, as gifts are presented to a royal king. Musicians and the Devadāsīs perform a variety of religious activities. When the page_204 Page 205 festival images of the deities are carried about, their processions tend to follow the pattern of the kings, who —attended by torch-bearers, priests, musicians, dancers and soldiers—go out through the decorated streets not only to meet their subjects, but also to be seen by them (L 226 r, 227 v and 232 v). The hierarchy of the deities reflects the caste hierarchy of the people. Brahmins claim a high social status and are vegetarians. No animal sacrifice is made to their deities. Their deities are also given a high status. However, most of the village deities are non-vegetarian because animal sacrifices are made to them. They are considered to be inferior to the deities of the vegetarian Brahmins. Ziegenbalg observed that there were 1008 Śiva and 108 temples in country (Ziegenbalg, 1926, 124). Even during the time of Ziegenbalg there were many tensions between the followers of Śiva and the followers of “The two principal religions are very contemptuous of each other in such a way that the Śivabhaktikāras write in their books that the Kings should banish from the land all the people who do not mark their body with the ash of cow dung (i.e., ), but with another soil (i.e., Tirunāmam), and make on their arms a tattoo of the emblems [of i.e., and Cakra]. They condemn each other so much that they do not have any marital relationship among each other. Should a marriage take place, the wife must accept the religion of her husband. Usually, this intermarriage will cause constant contentions and conflicts among the people, especially among friends.” (Ziegenbalg, 1926, 24). Antagonisms between the devotees of Śiva and seem to have been severe for a very long time. Some devotees wanted to find a practical compromise, which probably led to the “creation” of deities16 such as Hariharaputra (‘son of ’ i.e., son of the union between Śiva and L 13 1v, 136 v), commonly known as 17 The quest for social harmony prevailed upon religious antagonisms. And so, slowly syncretistic nature of worship, rituals and religious knowledge emerged. The conflict between Śiva and are mentioned four times in the Genealogy (L 148 v-151 r, L 163 v-164 v, 181 r-182 r and 190 r),18 and might have symbolized the socio-religious conflicts between devotees of Śiva and The unimportance given to women in ritual matters might have been represented through the exclusion of Pārvatī from participating in any religious ritual. Śiva created two foremost warriors, Vīrabhadra and to destroy These two “monstrous” beings may have symbolized the people of South India. Thus, within the socio-religious hierarchical framework of the society, the deities of the great and little traditions are both separated from each other and, simultaneously, related to each other. In particular, the ritually defined purity and pollution rules and roles, principles of leadership and social organizations are page_205 Page 206 important not only to the four upper (i.e., the groups of people known as the Brahmins, Vaiśyas and Śūdras) and to the people (i.e., ‘colourless people,’ referring to the outcaste people groups), but also to their respective deities. For example, the houses of the four are usually constructed around the temples within the town. On the contrary, the houses of the are built away from the town, especially in the villages. The temples of the village deities are situated at the outskirts of these villages. Moreover, the and and Jāti-groups (i.e., those people whose socioreligious position is determined by their birth, lineage, caste and rank) have kept their social, hierarchical distance, which has influenced pereceiption of deities, religious symbols and practices. Thus the Genealogy contains not only religious, but also significant sociological insights. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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page_206 Page 207 End Notes 1 Leifer, 1969, 1971 and 1977: In 1969 and 1971, Walter Leifer discussed the relationship of Germans with Indians for the past 500 years. Cf. Übleis, 1980: Übleis worte about Germans in India during the seventeenth century. He points out that the German writers came to know the life of Indians in several harbor cities. Because of its unlimited riches, India was portrayed as a land of wonders. The authors focused their attention on the unrestrained power of the Indian monarchs, the luxury of their palaces and their friendliness towards Europeans. Dharampal, 1984, 25: Polo, Marco: Marcho Polo von Venedig der grost landfarer der vns beschreibt die groβen wvunder der welt, Norimberg: F.Creußner, 1477. Cf. Dharampal-Frick, 1994, 348–373: Dharampal-Frick evaluates Ziegenbalg’s South Indian Society . 2 Ziegenbalg, 1714; cf. Dharampal-Frick, 1996, 102: Dharampal Frick points out that Ziegenbalg knew the writings by “Roger, Baldaeus, Nerreter, Boemus und [and] Langhanß.” 3 Kratzsch, 1984, 1993, 1994: Siegfried Kratzsch, the Indologist and polyglot in Halle, identified four sources that Baldaeus used without acknowledgement to compile his work: Baldaeus used the writings of the Jesuit missionary Jacobo Fenicio (c. 1558–1632) about a South Indian version of ten incarnations, the pictures of these incarnations in the Dutch manuscript titled Beschrijvinge van de navolgende figuren getrocken uyt der Heydenen geloofboek, geheten Deex-autaars (written in Batavia 1658, now kept in the monastry Postel near Rétie in Belgium), Rogerius’ Open Door to Hidden Heathenism and the work of the Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680) titled China illustrata (published in Amsterdam in 1667). 4 Dharampal-Frick, 1994, 92–95: Dharampal-Frick has already evaluated Ziegenbalg’s opinions on the works by A.Rogerius and P.Baldaeus. 5 Dharampal-Frick, 1994, 92–95: Dharampal-Frick has already evaluated Ziegenbalg’s opinions on the works by A.Rogerius and P.Baldaeus. 6 Cf. Rose, 1950, 1–16: Herbert J.Rose outlines seven approaches to interpreting Greek myths: the Allegorical Theory, the Symbolic Theory, the Theory of Rationalism, the Theory of Euhemerism, the Theory of Naturemyths, the Psychological Theory, and the Comparative Theory; for further information on modern myth interpretation cf. Kirk, 1974, 38–91 and Segal, 2000. 7 Ziegenbalg, Brevis, 1717, 22: Ziegenbalg translates the title into Latin as follows: “Genealogia Deorum Damulorum, in qua simul viginti octo Damulorum idola, suis coloribus picta, exhibentur” (i.e., “Genealogy of the gods in which twenty-eight color portraits of the gods can be seen.” 8 It is possible that Ziegenbalg read Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey (ca. 900–700 BCE), Hesiod’s Theogony (eighth century BCE), Ovid’s Metamorphosis (43–17 BCE) and Virgil’s Aeneid (19 BCE). These poems Hesiod’s Theogony described the origin and succession of different kinds of Greek page_207 Page 208 deities that were personifications of natural elements such as the earth, sky, sea and the like. 9 It seems that Ziegenbalg’s poetry tutors— the son of Ziegenbalg’s teacher, Vāttiyār (Singh, 1999, 69) and Ziegenbalg’s assistant Peter —did not adequately acquaint him with the peculiarities of the poets, their poetic achievements, the intrinsic and extrinsic values of their poems, and the methods of poetic interpretations. 10 For an example, the Roman Emperor Gaius, also known as Caligula, (AD 12–41, emperor from 37–41), deified his predecessor Tiberius (42 BC-AD 37, emperor from 14–37), later himself. He caused his statues to be installed in several Roman temples, and tried (in vain) to get his bronze statue erected in the Jewish temple in Jerusalem. 11 Cf. Singh, 1999, 50 f.: Brijraj Singh observes how the Nāyak-King Vijayaragava tried to deify himself by enacting a ceremony “in which the king is ‘born from a cow through the mediation of Brahmins.” Singh asserts further that the Nāyak-Kings did not require “Brahmin sanction for their authority, but rather favored myths that elevated them to a divine level, and the consequence was that during their rule Brahmins were satirized and devalued.” 12 TamLet, 484: Ziegenbalg knew of the forced conversion of the Jains to Shaivism. He mentioned (born ca. AD 655, and died in his sixteenth year of age). is said to have gathered 16,000 disciples and subdued the Jains. Cf. Vijayavenugopal, 1990: Vijayavenugopal summarizes how the Jains were forced to become Shaivites. 13 1996, 15: The six playmates are the rivers Varanati, Mantākii, Tiripatakai, Curanati, and Pakīrati. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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14 The custom of wearing a silver anklet has many reasons; among them the following is well known. Meenakshisundaram, 1965, 41 f.: Meenakshisundaram mentions the importance of the goddess worship in the villages, which is probably associated with the heroine of the epic poem Cilapatikāram (‘Literary work on the Jeweled [Tinkling] Anklet,’ ca. 200–300 CE) by has influenced the concept of (‘chaste wife’) and embodied womanhood. Hence, women generally assume that the golden Cilampu (‘tinkling anklet’), worn by brought death for her husband and herself. As a result they wear only the Kolucu (‘chain for the ankle’) made of silver. For a fuller story of and the worship of goddess in country cf. Danielou, 1965; Beck, 1972; Pandian, 1982; Obeyesekere, 1984; Noble, 1990; Fines, 1993 and Parthasarathy, 1994. 15 Ashton, 2001, 32: Ashton and Whyte point out that the Greek historian Xenophon (ca. 430–355 BC) visited Persia and adopted the Persian word Pairidaezo to its Greek usage paradeisos. They state further that the first use of the Greek word described “the royal gardens of the Persian King Cyrus, with its wild animals, running water, and has no connotations of an afterlife. page_208 Page 209 It was only after Greek translators had applied ‘paradeisos’ to the Eden of the Book of Genesis that the word itself gained a spiritual dimension.” 16 The devotees of Śiva and in the city of Cidambara. Moreover, the (‘favorite, chosen tutelary deity’) and the Kuladevatā (‘clan/family deity’) are considered to be powerful and effective. These Devatās, with whom the devotees come into daily contact, are usually chosen not only to meet their immediate needs, but also to match the distinctive characteristics of their families and caste groups. Similarly, there are temples and pilgrimage centers that are mostly frequented by devotees of certain castes. 17 Dumont, 1959: Dumont compars with two other South Indian deities— (‘the black man,’ a non-vegetarian deity in and around the city of Maturai) and (meaning: ‘goddess of rain;’ Sanskrit meaning: ‘goddess of smallpox’). 18 Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy does not contain any information about other son-in-law, Soma. When Soma ill-treated daughters, cursed Soma to die a slow death. On the other hand, could not overcome Śiva, but was killed by him. page_209 Page 210 CHAPTER 5: COMPARING THE MANUSCRIPTS 5.1 Copenhagen Version (1713) 5.1.1 Introductory remarks The origin of the Genealogy has an interesting history. In January 1713, Ziegenbalg had completed the translation of the fifty-eight Letters into German. Then he employed (on February 7, 1713) an artist to paint images of the deities and agreed to pay him a fano for each painting.1 As this artist could not paint the images of the deities, Ziegenbalg hired another artist for this, and, two months later (on May 16, 1713), obtained from him twenty-eight paintings of the deities. By this time he also received many Letters from his correspondents, used them to compose the first three parts of the Genealogy. Only the fourth part remained to be finished (Reg. 107. Laeg. 6), and after sixty-five days of work, he finished writing the entire manuscript on May 31, 1713 (Reg. 107. Laeg. 6). He revised it for another two months and prepared a fair copy on August 26, 1713 (Reg. 107. Laeg. 6). About a week later, on September 9, he sent a copy of the manuscript along with the twenty-eight paintings of the deities to Francke requesting him to publish them in Halle.2 Two weeks later, on September 12, 1713, dedicated this manuscript to Prince Carl (1680–1729), the brother of King Friedrich IV and sent it along with a copy of the Genealogy manuscript to him in Copenhagen. On October 6, 1713, Ziegenbalg forwarded a copy of the table of contents of the Genealogy to Johann George von Holstein (1662–1730), Privy Councilor to King Friedrich IV in Copenhagen and remarked: “We have received many letters from the people. They encouraged us to write the Genealogy of the South Indian Deities. In it, we have quoted their letters extensively. We send you the table of the contents of this book. We have sent the book along with the paintings of the deities to Halle for publication.” (Ledr. 389 2˚). This table of contents is identical with that of the Genealogy. Four days later (on October 10, 1713), Ziegenbalg sent another copy of the table of contents of the Genealogy to his trusted friend Anton Wilhelm Böhme (1673–1722) in London (Reg. 107. Laeg. 6, cf. Sames, 1990, Brunner, 1993). Böhme was the court file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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chaplain for George, the Danish-born husband of Queen Ann, in London. Clearly, Ziegenbalg was so excited about the Genealogy that he informed his friends in Germany, Denmark and the United Kingdom about it. The manuscript of the Genealogy (Ledr. 424.4º) contains 267 sheets of paper written on both sides with black ink. Four leaves containing the table of contents have the same number (i.e., the number nine); and the leaf after number forty-six does not bear any number (now identified as L 46 a). The entire manuscript is twenty centimeters long, seventeen centimeters wide and six centimeters thick. page_210 Page 211 This letter, with which the Genealogy begins, explicitly mentions two purposes: the readers of the Genealogy should get to know the nature and complexities of South Indian religions in such a way that they would support the mission work willingly. Secondly, Ziegenbalg’s successors would find the Genealogy as an authentic source of information on the numerous deities of the South Indians (L 3 r). Thus, this letter sets the proper context of this manuscript. Then comes Ziegenbalg’s preface, which describes his method of writing this manuscript. First he prepared a table of contents and subsequently arranged the materials (L 5 r). He also emphasized the necessity of the transliterated words in the Genealogy, which would enable his successors to pronounce them correctly and thus enable people understand them easily. Ziegenbalg proceeded to tell how he had obtained the twenty-eight paintings of the South Indian deities. The Brahmins, who realized that one of their own artists had handed over the paintings of their deities to Ziegenbalg, wanted to punish the artist. But the artist defended his unconventional activity with an argument that sounds Christian: he obeyed “the voice of God” that directed him to approach Ziegenbalg for help (L 7 r). But in all probability, the artist would have referred to the provision of Āpad dharma (‘duties for the time of distress, trouble and misfortune’), and thus, could turn the wrath of his fellow Brahmins away from him. After that Ziegenbalg described the nature and meaning of the symbolic cover picture for the Genealogy, which vividly portrayed his ministry. A shadowy part illustrated a group of South Indians worshipping a deity under a tree and listening to the teachings of a Brahmin. By contrast, the bright part of the picture showed a Christian teacher discussing religious matters with a Brahmin and many people listening to their conversation. The rising sun symbolized the new beginning, while the descending dove portrayed the arrival of the Gospel message. This portrait also contained a picture of a European ship bringing missionaries from Europe (L 7 v). In the course of research, the author of this present work has found two versions of this picture. The first portrait has the following characteristics. Johann Jakob Kleinschmidt, a German artist, prepared a copper engraving of the title page of the Genealogy in 1735 in Augsburg.3 This rectangle picture is 85.2cm long and 57.7 cm wide. It is not known how Kleinschmidt got hold of the picture. There are some significant changes that are not found in Ziegenbalg’s description. Kleinschmidt’s picture does not contain the ship carrying missionaries to India. But it includes the diagram of the foundations of the New Jerusalem church that was dedicated in Tranquebar on October 11, 1718. It also has a German poem, which tells about the advance of Christian faith in India: “The gracious kingdom of the Most High extends its boundaries; The light of truth shines on the Poor [Indians]; One can see the pure [Lutheran] teaching glowing in the Orient; page_211 Page 212    Now, the black people come the Way of Life; The dumb statue must go from its old seat; People accept the true God in the church as well as in their hearts; May the Savior stretch forth his hands still further; So that the victory of Your teaching may be prepared.” Moreover, Kleinschmidt’s portrait incorporates two oval shaped inset pictures of Ziegenbalg (d. 1719) and Gründler (d. 1720). Yet there is another addition. Kleinschmidt may never have seen an Indian. Hence, he portrays them as if they were black Africans. The second version of Ziegenbalg’s cover picture contains additional changes.4 The diagram of the foundation of the New Jerusalem church and the above-mentioned poem are omitted. Instead of the pictures of Ziegenbalg and Gründler, the pictures of the Danish kings Frederick IV and his son Christian VI (1730–1746) are inserted. Thus, Ziegenbalg’s cover picture continued to fascinate the imagination of some European artists. The table of the contents is coherent and analytical. It mentions the exact nature and location of each major deity within the pantheon of the South Indians. Its overview creates interest and encourages an inquisitive spirit to examine the attributes, roles and functions of the deities that are grouped into four parts. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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5.1.2 Part One: Parāparavastu Either following the formula of the Apostle’s Creed “I believe in God Almighty, the Maker of heaven and earth,” or the Indian concept of emanation, Ziegenbalg begins his Genealogy with a description of the hidden and manifest aspects of the Supreme Being Parāparavastu, and points out the profound conviction of the people that God is one (L 9 a r and 11 r). Thus they agree squarely with the Judeo-Christian understanding that God is one, and should be worshipped as such.5 Ziegenbalg names this God as Parāparavastu because this epithet Parāparavastu stands for the Supreme Being that is simultaneously remote and near, cause and effect. It is likely that Ziegenbalg borrowed this epithet the vocabulary introduced by Roberto de Nobili. In Ziegenbalg’s view, this cosmogonical and primordial Parāparavastu is ens entium (‘the essence of essences’), summa summarum (‘all in all, the sum total’) and summum bonum (‘the highest good’). However, Parāparavastu is perceived not only as the male and female being, but also as the entity that unifies of the multiple hierarchies of divine figures, and of celestial and terrestrial spirit beings. Ziegenbalg accuses Satan of having caused the people to believe in the multiple, and to some extent, paradoxical, manifestations of the Parāparavastu (L 1 1v). In the first chapter, Ziegenbalg deals with Parāparavastu as the immaterial being. As a Lutheran he highlights certain attributes of God who is infinitely good, gracious, loving, compassionate, wise, powerful and holy, hence totally against all forms of evil and destruction (for Lutheran understanding of God cf. Pöhlmann, 1996, 58 f.). Hence, Ziegenbalg likes the idea of God being page_212 Page 213 Nityānanda, Sarvalokadayāpara, and (L 13 r—v). He appreciatively quotes the writings of certain Siddhas such as the poet Civavākkiyar (ca. tenth century), who rejects every form of image worship, outward religious ceremonies, beliefs in transmigration of souls, adherence to caste differences and dehumanization of life. By contrast, he upholds meditation on the attributes of God, which should result in right living. In the second chapter, Ziegenbalg deals with Parāparavastu as a material being, and believes that the people, who did not have the Christian Bible, observed the creatures and concluded that their creator must have a material body (L 20 v–21 r). Ziegenbalg describes the popular understanding of Parāparavastu as the one that encompasses the entire visible universe as well as the fourteen words of enormous magnitude (L 23 v). He concludes this chapter with a brief description of the the most sacred symbol of Shaivite spirituality, and writes how the is worshipped (cf. L 251 r-252 r, and Pereira, 1979, 177). The third chapter deals with the male energy of the Parāparavastu as Civam, which is similar to the Universal Soul, Saguna Brahman, with the qualities of knowledge, will and consciousness. Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy does not distinguish between the metaphysical concept of the neutral Civam and the masculine noun Śiva, who is also one member of the triads known as the Mummūrttis. Hence, Ziegenbalg explains the external appearance of Civam as having five faces representing the five manifestations of Śiva (L 34 v) or functions as creator, sustainer, destroyer, obstructer and dispenser of (‘grace’). Civam is smeared with (‘sacred ash’), worshipped with sacred mantras (‘prayer-formulae’) and adorned with various emblems. Ziegenbalg clarifies the diverse ways of worshipping Civam both in the temple and at homes. Further he points out that the Shaivites and Vaishnavites mutually entertain contradictory views about the identity and nature of Civam (L 28 v-9 r). The fourth chapter deals with Śakti,6 the female principle of Civam, and the mother of all beings (L 36 v). It is interesting that in Ziegenbalg’s observation Śakti is portrayed as an ideal woman (L 36 r).7 She functions as a mediator between Civam and the devotees, and fulfills their needs (L 39 r). Ziegenbalg feels that the secret worship of Śakti often resembles witchcraft.8 Ziegenbalg ends his description of Śakti by quoting a passage from a letter that reiterates the anthropological nature of certain religious beliefs. For example, the analogy of women and men getting married and begetting children supposedly illustrates a human perception of Parāparavastu who represents the male and female principles. The Supreme Being Civam is portrayed not only as (‘one male half of a woman’=Skt. Ardhanārīśvara), but also as Haryārdhamūrti (‘half form of Hara,’ i.e., Śiva as the destroyer, cf. Shukla, 1972, 243). The right side of Ardhanārīśvara consists of the male anatomy with the emblems of Śiva, who is understood as Sadāśiva (‘eternal Civam’) and also as (‘the primordial person, the first man’). The left side of Ardhanārīśvara is female and has the characteristics of Śakti in the form of page_213 Page 214 Pārvatī. It is possible that Ziegenbalg’s correspondent actually refers to the Shaivite doctrine of Navapētamūrttam (‘nine manifestations of Śiva’ as Civam, Śakti, Nātam, Vidu, Sadāśiva, file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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). Ziegenbalg’s description is meant to be a brief introduction to the complex theme of the male-female principle of Parāparavastu (L 39 v). 5.1.3 Part Two: Mummūrttis Ziegenbalg describes the three prominent male deities, known as the Mummūrttis. For his European readers he translates the Sanskrit word ‘Mūrti’ (‘form, shape’) as ‘person’ (Latin: persona, ‘actor’s mask in a play, character, individual). The Mummūrttis are expected to execute the will and purpose of Parāparavastu (L 118 v). Ziegenbalg begins his presentation with Śiva, the most prominent deity in the Kingdom of Tañcāvūr. Śiva is believed to have manifested himself 1,008 times (L 44 v). Ziegenbalg describes the various epithets and processional images of Śiva and his servants, specifies certain Shaivite festivals and refers to twenty-two Shaivite books, many of which are the He concludes his description about Śiva by quoting a long letter that contains further details about other Shaivite festivals, sacrifices and local traditions. In a similar fashion, Ziegenbalg explains in detail the nature and activity of Śiva’s principal consort Pārvatī, and briefly mentions his second consort the celebrated river-goddess. He then moves on to describe the two sons of Śiva and Pārvatī, namely Vighneśvara and Though has been the traditional deity of the people, Ziegenbalg begins with Vighneśvara (L 67 v and 68 v) and considers the stories connected with Vighneśvara as mere fables. He quotes a passage from a letter that records two varying local legends about the elephant head of Vighneśvara. Ziegenbalg captures the religious spirit of the people rightly. He observes that people worship a deity of mountain and war, more dearly and profoundly than Vighneśvara.9 is presented as the destroyer of the demon Śūrapadma, the embodiment of evil, fear and terror (L52 r, 71 r, 166 v, 181 v, 226 v and 237 r). Ziegenbalg observes further that women in general10 and the Devadāsīs in particular, worship Moreover, Ziegenbalg incorporates two major local legends that narrate how defeated Śūrapadma in a place that was not far from Tranquebar (L 76 r), and he honored the poet-saint (L 77 v-78 v). It is strange that Ziegenbalg does not attach much importance to and the two consorts of Ziegenbalg concludes this chapter by quoting a passage from a letter, which underlines Ziegenbalg’s opinion, that deities and their devotees do not differ essentially in their nature, page_214 Page 215 but only in the degree of their activities because “nothing happens on the earth that is not in the heaven […], though in a different way.” (L 80 v). Ziegenbalg moves on to present the second member of the Mummūrttis. The Vaishnavites consider the Supreme Being; they identify themselves with the characteristic marks that differentiate them from the Shaivites. Ziegenbalg describes the temples of and the twelve canonized However, his presentation wrongly identifies the commentator Rāmānuja and the theologian (1370–1443) as 11 Ziegenbalg does not directly refer to the philosophical teachings of the School, but alludes to it (L 89 r) by pointing out the sacred prayer “o namo ” Ziegenbalg may not have known most of the Vaishnavite treatises because they are written in the characteristic prose style of (‘string with alternate arrangement of ruby and coral’) using an intermixture of Sanskrit and words (Zvelebil, 1995, 413). It is probable that Ziegenbalg’s word Grantha (L121 r, 205 r, and 261 v) signifies the style of which only the initiated and trained Vaishnavites understand. Yet it is astonishing that Ziegenbalg, an outsider, could gain such a deep insight into the beliefs and practices of the Vaishnavites. Ziegenbalg gives much attention to the ten Avatārs (‘descents, mostly identified with the incarnation of ’ cf. Miranda, 1990 and Parrinder, 1997). However, his order of Avatārs seems to follow a local tradition, and lists them in the forms of a fish, tortoise, boar, Rāma, Paraśurāma, Buddha, a man-lion, Vāmana, and Kalki (L 84 r-93 r). The standard order of Avatārs portrays the fish, tortoise, boar, man-lion, Vāmana, Paraśurāma, Rāma, Buddha and Kalki. While nine Avatārs are believed to have taken place, the tenth one is awaited. Ziegenbalg was familiar with the splendid version of the (in 12,097 stanzas, or in Ziegenbalg’s account, 12,000 stanzas, L 99 r), by (ca. ninth to twelfth centuries, cf. Zvelebil, 1995, 317 ff.). He particularly mentions three large chapters of (‘section on war’) of the (namely: L 99 r; L 178 r and L 98 v). He also mentions twenty-six books on and his Avatārs (96 v-99 r). He concludes this section with a letter from his correspondent emphasizing the Vaishnavite belief that is none other than the Parāparavastu itself. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Ziegenbalg explains the significance of the principal consort of to his devotees. He repeatedly mentions that the Vaishnavites worship just as the Shaivites worship their Pārvatī. He narrates the stories about her birth from the froth of the milk-ocean, her manifestation as Sītā and her marriage to Rāma because they reflect certain aspects of life. For example, when the marriage guests were dispersed (L 103 v), Sītā’s father served them (‘betel leaf) and Pākku (‘arecanut’). According to custom, no marriage festival is complete without serving the betel leaf and the arecanut.12 Ziegenbalg continues to portray iconography because it resembles the physical page_215 Page 216 appearance of women (L 104 v). It seems that Ziegenbalg had great difficulty in deciphering the epithets pertaining to (L 105 v). Ziegenbalg contrasts her with her elder sister Mūdevī, the goddess of misfortune, and concludes this chapter with a brief discussion about Bhūmidevī, second consort. Ziegenbalg continues to name the three sons of namely Manmatha, Kuśa and Lava, and incorporates local legends about them. He explains the different episodes in the life of Manmatha, the god of erotic love and his wife Rati, who is the goddess of erotic love (L 109r-l14 r). Ziegenbalg’s correspondent felt that the main purpose of Manmatha was to verify the sincerity of female devotees engaged in religious austerities, while Rati examined the hearts of male devotees (L 110 v). The stories of Manmatha and Rati reflect the joy of people both in their marital relations at home and in their interpersonal relationships (L 111 v). Though erotic love is exposed as a hindrance to spiritual pursuit, the people tolerated the different erotic love episodes of their deities. They desired (‘pleasure’) and may have viewed the divine love episodes merely as the Līlā (‘divine amusement, pastime’) of their deities. Ziegenbalg’s correspondent explains (L 114 r-117 v) why the ideal husband Rāma expuled his perfect wife Sītā, how the great Vālmīki created Lava from a blade of the Darbha-grass, and how Lava and his brother Kuśa attacked their “father.” These stories illustrate the religious heroines and heroes of the people; these were not flawless, but were like human beings. They were engaged in domestic life, politics, war and worship. Their stories reflect the problems and challenges associated with the ideals of honor, fame, chastity and modesty, and their desire to avoid public blame and the gossip of their neighbors. Ziegenbalg continues to explain the importance of Brahmā, usually the first member of the Mummūrttis, and who is worshipped in the form of the Brahmins (L 120 r). This attitude shows the high social and religious status of the Brahmins. Ziegenbalg then narrates two local interpretations for the four heads of Brahmā (L 119 r). He quotes another letter, in which the correspondent reveals the common understanding of Brahmā, who supposedly revealed the four Vedas to the Vedavyāsa, who in turn communicated them to human beings. The correspondent names the four and quotes a supportive passage from X:90:12: When the (‘the primordial person’) was divided, the Brahmins came from the mouth, from the arms, Vaiśyas from the thighs and Śūdras from the feet. The correspondent correctly reproduces the traditional identification of Brahmā with (L 122 v-123 r). Ziegenbalg goes on to explain the external appearance, emblems and functions of Sarasvatī, the consort of Brahmā. In her hand she holds a palm leaf bundle as a sign that is the goddess of learning. The kettledrum in her hand symbolizes the vibration of life and the sound of prayers. Since she is considered to be the page_216 Page 217 patron of intellectual learning and vocational skills, teachers, students and all the manual workers dedicate their instruments to her (L 124 v–125 r). Ziegenbalg concludes this section with a passage from a letter, and leaves the question of interpretation to his readers, and proceeded to the next section. 5.1.4 Part Three: Grāmadevatās Ziegenbalg’s pastoral concern seems to have influenced him to seriously consider the influence of folk religions on ordinary people. Hence, he has recorded his phenomenological observations about the Grāmadevatās, who are the guardian deities of a village or settlement. They supposedly protect the inhabitants of a particular place against every danger (by fire and flood), calamity, disease, plague and war. Ziegenbalg lists one male and eight female deities. His correspondents informed him that these deities were once celestial beings. When they became proud, God cursed them to become Grāmadevatās and to protecting the local inhabitants from malevolent beings such as the Pēys (‘goblins, evil spirits that inflict harm and cause pain and destruction’), Bhūtas (‘spirits, the spirits of deceased persons, ghosts’), (‘giants, demons’) and Acuras (‘evil spirits at war with a deity, demons’). Ziegenbalg observes only non-Brahmin priests supervise the worship of village deities and offer blood sacrifices.

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Within the scope of this work, Ziegenbalg’s description of the worship of one male deity and one female deity can be considered briefly. The male deity is believed to care for the fertility and prosperity of the land, flora and fauna of the villages. One of the legends of origin associates him with the union between Śiva and 13 However, the union between Śiva and sounded indecent. Hence, one of Ziegenbalg’s correspondents gave another version of origin: was a god; he became proud and wished to usurp the creative power of God; God cursed him, banished him to the earth, and made him to rule over the harmful spirits (L 131 v-L 132 r). It is interesting to note that iconographical description greatly resembles that of Śiva. Like Śiva, has two consorts. and his consorts bear Shaivite marks (e.g., the sacred ash ). temples are found outside of almost every village. Like a king, has his own guards, the (‘chief servants, guards’) and seventy (‘chieftains, leaders of a war-camp, chieftains of villages,’ L 134 r—L 134 v). Like Śiva and is worshipped three times a day within his temple with vegetarian offerings, prayer formulas and ceremonies; but the blood sacrifices are made outside the temple. Clay terracotta figures of women, men and all kinds of animals, especially horses, are placed around his temple. It seems that Ziegenbalg, who was unaware of relationship to (Adiceam, 1967 and Srinivasan, 1993), mentions several appellations of page_217 Page 218 For example, is known as (‘the chief servant of a deity in a temple’), (‘the guardian of the religious, ceremonial and moral virtues and duties’), Ārya (‘the noble person’), and (‘the great lord’). At the same time, is also considered to be a (‘the one who lives outside the village’). This shows the tension of belonging and not completely belonging to the people. Where there is a calamity, lack of rain or crops, a plague, or other threat to the community, the inhabitants tend to appease and request him for protection. Otherwise, they direct their devotion to other deities of their choice. Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy contains interesting information about six goddesses,14 of whom an embodiment of Śakti similar to 15 is significant. She illustrates the religious assimilation and social relationships of the people, who enact her legend (L 137 v-139 r). The formal great traditions with vegetarian deities could not fully assimilate the ancient goddess but, at the same time, they could not completely ignore her also. is portrayed as being closer to the helpful Pariahs than to the ruthless ritualists of the great traditions. Even the accusation of losing conjugal fidelity does not hinder the Pariahs from giving her protection because she has come to them for refuge. They rather chose to die with her than to deliver her to the executioner. The legend of illustrates the relationship between conjugal fidelity, ritualism, hospitality and worship. While the legend of links her with Vaishnavism, Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy associates her with Shaivism, adorned with Tamarukam, Śūla, and Pāśa. During annual festival a large number of goats and chickens are sacrificed. Whenever the inhabitants desired a special favor from they celebrate a special festival in her honor involving the votive rite of hook swinging (cf. Oddie, 1995). Thus, she combines various elements of Shaivism, Vaishnavism and popular religions of the villagers (L 140 v). Spirit worship is an important aspect of village religiosity. Ziegenbalg explains four kinds of supernatural beings, namely the Pēys, Bhūtas, Rākasas and Acuras. The people entertain different ideas about the origin of the Pēys. Either God created the Pēys or they have become Pēys (L 170 r-L 171 v). However, Ziegenbalg quotes a list of seventy-seven Pēys that are the personification of vices (L 172 r-L 174 r). He cites an example of a male Pēy known as Vetāla and a female Pēy known as Nīlī. In his Letters, Ziegenbalg explains that the king (cf. Zvelebil, 1997) requested his ministers to rule his country and went into the wilderness to perform austerities. There he learnt many things from the devil Vetāla (TamLet, 500), who pretended to be wise and skillful. Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy does not describe the role of the female Pēy Nīlī, the heroine of the book titled (‘drama about Nīlī’). Zvelebil summarizes the very old legend of Nīlī, a murdered Dāsī (‘female slave, prostitute’), who became a Pēy, and is associated with her temple at near in country: Zvelebil continues: page_218

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Page 219 “One oral folk-version tells of a Brahmin who became infatuated with a dāsī, killed his wife and took her jewels. As a result he was born next as a One day, leaving his current wife at home, he passed through forest and the demoness Nīli (who was in fact his wife of previous [sic] incarnation whom he had killed) attached herself to him, he tried to escape but she stuck to him till they reached and there she insisted in the presence of witnesses that she was his wife and had the right to spend the night with him. In the night she devoured him. The Jaina author of Nīlakēci transformed Nīli into Jaina controversialist. The ballad of Nīli is sung during the months of Pakuni and Cittirai in temples to the accompaniment of vil(lu) ‘bow’. There is a Nīli temple at ” (Zvelebil, 1995, 507 f.; the italics of the nouns are not retained in this quote). Many people believe that the Pēys possess certain people and cause sickness. Only the village deities can keep the Pēys away and heal the sick. Hence, the temples of village deities are known for exorcism (L 175 r). Ziegenbalg concludes the third section by pointing out that the Pēys were once in pure state, but became proud and evil, and hence were cursed to be Pēys. Ziegenbalg interpretes these narratives from a Christian perspective, and alleges that Satan and the poets have misguided the people (L 183 v). 5.1.5 Part Four: Devas Ziegenbalg proceeds to describe the celestial beings in Devaloka. He narrates the popular myths regarding the churning of the ocean of milk to produce the drink of immortality, the hiding of an insulted priest, the efforts of to get rid of his father-in-law Śiva (L 189 r-L 190 r), and the activities of Devendra, his wife Indrāī and their son Citraputra. A large section (L 195 v-L 197 v) is set aside to describe the birth, identity and work of Citraputra. It is obvious that Indrānī’s ardent desire to have a child, especially a boy, indicates that for a woman barrenness is considered an abomination and a great social stigma. However, Ziegenbalg gives a theological interpretation of Citraputra, who records all the good and evil deeds of each person, so that on the last day God would mete out appropriate judgement. Ziegenbalg alleges that the people had known about the biblical teaching on the impending final judgement by God. However, the poets created several fables around this knowledge and eventually misguided the people (L 198 r). Ziegenbalg reproduces the popular understanding about the The people believe that the are created along with the 330 million Devas and are powerful creators in their own right. They can be present wherever they wanted to be, and they needed neither sleep nor food. The purpose of their creation is to provide human beings with an example of worshipping the Supreme Being. The names of the 48,000 are not specified. According to Ziegenbalg the stories of the are nothing but the fables of the poets. page_219 Page 220 The third chapter deals with musicians in the world of Devendra. It reflects the various kinds of instrumental and vocal music of the people. The Shaivite bhakti-poems are sung in the temples at a fixed time by Ōtuvārs (‘appointed professional singers of the sacred hymns’). They follow the specific and the music modes to express devotional sentiment. Moreover, there are (‘lyrics’), drama-songs, and several songs for entertainment (Villu ‘bow song,’ probably derived from Skt. Vilāsa, ‘entertainment’, Zvelebil, 1995, 245 f.). Actually, the musicians in Devaloga reflect the love of the people for music (L 213 v-214 v). Ziegenbalg proceeds to describe the Siddhas (‘supernatural, perfect beings’), indicating that they are invisible beings able to fly through the sky (L 216 r). But Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy does not tell anything about the various groups of Siddhas, who had contributed much to the enrichment of literature (cf. Zvelebil, 1995, 165). Ziegenbalg changes the topic of his presentation and concentrates on three kinds of messengers, who act like the soldiers of a king (L 218 r-L 220 v). Śiva and send their messengersoldiers to their respective devotees for the purpose of protecting them and bringing their “souls” to them. Often conflicts arise among the messengers of Yama, Śiva and The fourth chapter briefly deals with the the guardian-rulers of the eight quarters of the world compass. Ziegenbalg describes the obvious functions of the eight guardians. They supposedly look after the harmonious function of the five elements (water, fire, air, earth and ether, L 120 v). They play an important role in the right performance of ritual sacrifices. For example, without Agni no sacrifice would be complete. The images of are kept in temples and honored appropriately (L 225 r). Ziegenbalg does not think it necessary to go into details. Hence, he does not explain either the origin of the or the sphere of their influence (i.e., Indra was in charge for East, Agni for South-East, Yama for South, for South-West, Vāyu for North-West, Varuna for West, Kubera for North, Īśāna for North-West).16 The fifth chapter deals with thirteen major festivals of the Shaivites and the Vaishnavites (cf. Jagadisa Ayyar,

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1921 and Marchant, 2000). Two concerns seem to have motivated Ziegenbalg to include a detailed account of the important festivals. Firstly, many Europeans in Tranquebar were curious about the festivals of the people.17 Ziegenbalg may have wanted to help them understand the nature and meaning of religious festivals. Secondly, Ziegenbalg’s description shows that he wants to highlight some socio-religious aspects of the festivals: the festivals refresh the memories about collective history, beliefs and experiences. They also affirm and revitalize the sacred places; besides, they serve as powerful visual aids, enabling both the educated and the uneducated to become familiar with the local legends, socio-religious customs, doctrinal convictions and their socio-ethical implications. The dance, drama and singing associated with these help the people to appreciate the artistic skills of the performers and to remember the events for a long time. Thus, festivals kindle the spiritual fervor and devotion of the people. At the same time page_220 Page 221 they also offer an opportunity for social and economic co-operation between different castes groups; they strengthen social bonds with family members, relatives, friends and co-workers. The festivals offer a wonderful opportunity for business and introducing new products and techniques. They also bridge the gap between villages and towns. Thus, Ziegenbalg’s graphic account enables us to understand some important aspects of the festivals. Ziegenbalg’s informant explains the structure, content and meaning of each festival. The festivals that are organized by the Brahmin priests have a uniform timing. By contrast, non-Brahmin priests preside over the festivals that are celebrated in honor of the village deities; a (‘a village menial servant, one who cremates corpses’) begins and concludes these festivals; blood sacrifices are made and these festivals are celebrated in different places at different times. Ziegenbalg mentions that the festivals were more “glorious” in one place than in another place (L 245 r). It is surprising that the Genealogy does not mention the most renowned festival of the people—Pokal (‘boiling, bubbling’). It may not have been as famous as it is in modern days, or it may not have been celebrated enthusiastically in and around Tranquebar, or perhaps Ziegenbalg’s informant did not like it, and hence did not write about it. Usually, the Pokal-festival, which lasts for four days, is celebrated on the first day of the month Tai (mid-January), when the sun enters Capricorn and moves northward. It celebrates the joy of harvest and encourages the participants to thank the sun god, cattle, and earth for the harvest. On the first day houses are whitewashed; unwanted goods are removed from the house and burned. Special Kōlams (ornamental figures drawn on the floor with rice-flour, or white stone powder) decorate the entrance of the houses. The second day is the most important day of the festival and is the proper Pokal. Enthusiastic farmers boil the newly harvested rice in an earthen pot with milk. They make offerings to the sun god. Young and old chew on pieces of sugar cane. The third day is dedicated to honoring the cattle, especially the plough-bulls, while the fourth day is meant for games, recreational activities, and the visiting of kith and kin. All belonging to different religions and castes celebrate this festival. Ziegenbalg’s sixth chapter he summarizes twenty-one kinds of religious offerings and ceremonies, which are known as Pūjās (‘veneration of deities’), and are offered to the presiding deity of a temple at sunrise, noon and sunset, sometimes also at midnight. Ziegenbalg also mentions animal sacrifices, which are performed in front of a village deity by a village policeman, and clarifies the reasons for the different Pūjās; the Pūjās change according to the deities that are being worshipped, the sacrifices that are being offered, and the prayers that are beings said. Ziegenbalg says that he knows about other festivals which are not mentioned by his correspondent There are Pūjās related to household divinities, rites of passage, building and dedicating houses, making pilgrimages, and worshipping images outside the temples. However, Ziegenbalg is firmly convinced that what he has described in the Genealogy is sufficient to acquaint page_221 Page 222 his readers with the major religions and religious practices of the South Indians. He concludes the text with an earnest desire that Christians in Europe should seriously take their Christian faith and also become familiar with the basic tenets of the South Indian religions. He expresses his missionary concern that the South Indians might consider becoming the followers and worshippers of the Lord Jesus Christ. 5.2 Leipzig Version (ca. 1730) 5.2.1 Introductory remarks Originally, Ziegenbalg made three copies of his Genealogy, He sent one copy to Copenhagen (Copy A). He sent another copy to Francke for publication (Copy B) and he kept the third copy with himself in Tranquebar (Copy C).18 It is interesting to explore what Francke thought about Copy B, what he did with it, and why he did not have it printed. Wilhelm Germann stated that Francke believed that the missionaries were “sent to get rid of heathenism in India, and to not to spread heathen nonsense in Europe” (Germann, 1867, vii). However, file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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this quote cannot be found in any available records of Francke. Germann himself wrote in 1898 that Ziegenbalg’s views about India and the method of his work were far ahead of his time, that even Francke was unable to understand or appreciate, but downplayed the significance of Ziegenbalg’s contributions.19 Moreover, Francke’s theological convictions and his encounter with the philosophers of the Enlightenment in Halle seem to have been the main reasons for not printing the Genealogy. He also considered it irrelevant to the religious situation in Europe. European theologians had to address different problems such as Atheism, Deism, Naturalism, and the like, surely not the challenges posed by the South Indian religions. Moreover, Francke felt that the publication of the Genealogy would make European readers curious about things that they did not know, and the Genealogy would neither help them glorify the God of the Bible nor be of any use to the church in Europe. Hence, considered the Genealogy to be good only for missionary work in India. On the other hand, he encouraged Ziegenbalg to continue his study of South Indian religions (Germann, II, 1868, 152 f.). In the meantime, Ziegenbalg came to Europe to meet the Danish king Frederick IV. On his way back to India (1716), he wrote from London to Mathurin Veyssière de La Croze (1661–1739) in Berlin,20 and informed him of the unpublished manuscripts of the three booklets on ethics, the Library and the “genealogia deorum Malabaricorum” (i.e., Geneology of the South Indian Deities=Copy B) in Halle (AFSt/M II A 5:9, printed in Uhl, 1742, 381–384, cf. Zachariae, 1927, 321 f.). As a result, La Croze requested Francke to lend him the manuscripts including Copy B and had them sent to Berlin.21 The sixth section of La Croze’s book Histoire Du Christianisme aux Indes Orientales deals with the Idol worship in India (La Croze, 1724, 424–519) and contains several quotations from Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy (Copy B). La Croze concluded page_222 Page 223 that the religions of the South Indians were as old as those of the Greeks and Romans. Both scholars and interested people would find fascinating religious concepts of great antiquity (La Croze, 1724, 424 f.). Ziegenbalg’s description of Parāparavastu attracted La Croze’s attention (La Croze, 1724, 452 f.). And he had the pictures of the Mummūrttis reproduced in his book.22 Apart from these three pictures, the other twentyfive pictures drawn by the painter in Tranquebar have not yet been found.23 Wiegand was of the opinion that La Croze’s description of South Indian religions popularized Ziegenbalg’s views, and in 1727, Georg Christian Bohnstedt published a German version of La Croze’s French book, and stated that La Croze had sent all Ziegenbalg’s manuscripts including the Copy B of the Genealogy back to Francke.24 It is possible that before La Croze sent the Genealogy (Copy B) back to Halle, he had a copy made for himself (Copy B1) and kept it in Berlin.25 After Ziegenbalg’s death in February 1719, his successor Benjamin Schultze (1689–1760, 1719–1726 in Tranquebar, and 1726–1740 in Madras) took Ziegenbalg’s manuscript (Copy C) to Madras. However, his colleagues in Tranquebar, who did not know that Schultze had the Copy C, requested Francke to have a copy made from the manuscript of the Genealogy (i.e., Copy B) in Halle (AFSt/M I B 2:43, dated September 20, 1725). Later missionary Pressier also requested Francke to send a copy of the Genealogy because it was indispensable for missionary work among the South Indians (AFSt/M I B 2:41, dated January 10, 1726). Finally, Francke arranged for the Copy B2 of the Genealogy. He wrote to the missionaries in Tranquebar (on January 25, 1727) that he had sent this copy by a Danish ship, which sank near Norway. Hence, he had to have another copy (Copy B3) made at Halle and sent it to Tranquebar via England (Leipzig, Box 1). Three years later, this copy reached Tranquebar.26 It seems that missionary Chistoph Theodosius Walther (1699– 1741)27 revised Copy B3 by inserting before each transliterated word its equivalence in characters (e.g., “ Parabarawastu”), so that his colleagues in Tranquebar would correctly read the transliterated words. Thus, the Copy B4 of the Genealogy came into being. In the meantime, the Copy B of the Genealogy was lost in Halle. Gotthilf August Francke (1696–1769), who had succeeded his father in 1727 as the Director of the Francke Foundations, informed the missionaries in Tranquebar on September 18, 1731, that he had not seen the Copy B of the Genealogy and the twenty-eight pictures for a few years. He stated that no one knew where the manuscript and pictures were, and that they might not be found again (Leipzig, Box 2a). However, the Copy B4 of the Genealogy survived. It remained unnoticed for more than a century, until Karl Graul (1814–1864, from 1844–1861 Director of the Evangelical Lutheran Mission in Leipzig, cf. Krügel, 1965 and Bautz, 1990) traveled to India (1849–1853), recovered it in Tranquebar, and brought it to Leipzig for publication. But Graul’s premature death prevented its publication. However, his trusted student Wilhelm Germann28 wanted to fulfil the desire of his teacher (Germann, 1867, viii). When he went as a missionary to page_223 Page 224

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country, he took the Copy B4 of the Genealogy with him and prepared his own version for publication, and brought the original manuscript (i.e., Copy B4) back to Leipzig. Sheela Jeyaraj, wife of the author of this present work, recovered this manuscript in the Library of the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission (Leipzig, D 361). in Leipzig.29 Following synopsis summarizes what happened to Ziegenbalg’s manuscripts. Copy Ziegenbalg’s first manuscript of the Genealogy that was sent to Prince Carl in Copenhagen, i.e., Ledr. A 424.4º. It is the Copenhagen Version. Copy Ziegenbalg’s second manuscript of the Genealogy that was sent to A.H.Francke in Halle (1713) B Copy La Croze may have had a copy made from Copy B and kept it in Berlin. The editor of the Berlin Version B1 might have used this copy. Now it is lost. Copy Francke had a first copy made from the Copy B it and sent it by ship to Tranquebar. The ship sank and B2 the manuscript was lost. Copy Francke had a second copy made from the Copy B and sent it to Tranquebar. It reached Tranquebar in B3 1730. Copy C.T.Walter seems to have prepared this version from Copy B3 (ca. 1731). Karl Graul found it in B4 Tranquebar and brought it to the library of the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission (Call No. D 361). This is the current Leipzig Version of the Genealogy. Copy Ziegenbalg’s third manuscript of the Genealogy that was kept in Tranquebar. B.Schultze took it to Madras C in 1726. Then it was lost. The editor of the Copy B4 was seemingly not satisfied with Ziegenbalg’s system of transliterating alphabets: Ziegenbalg meant that the dental “ta” should be spoken as either “da or ta” (e.g., Damul, instead of ). For him, the retroflex “ta” should be spoken as either “ta or ra.” The retroflex approximant “la” (i.e., transliterated as “1” underlined) should be transliterated as “scha or ra or la.” The sibilant “ca,” which varies its pronunciation between the palatal affricate (stop), the palatal fricative, and the alveolar fricative should be pronounced as either “tscha or scha” (e.g., Tschwen, instead of i.e., Śiva, cf. Ziegenbalg, 1716, 1 f.). Ziegenbalg based his transcription on what he considered the closest German equivalent. In 1727, Walther and his senior colleague B.Schultze concluded that Ziegenbalg spoke with his German Saxony accent that was widespread in Ziegenbalg’s native place Pulsnitz near Dresden (HR, III, 25. Con., 159). In their view Ziegenbalg did not differentiate between the voiceless and voiced labial and the retroflex “p”-sounds, and the retroflex stop t-sounds (i.e., “ta” and “da” with dot below “t” and “d”). They also contended that Ziegenbalg did page_224 Page 225 differentiate between palatal affricate, palatal fricative and alveolar fricative ssounds. According to them, Ziegenbalg’s transliteration of “Tschidambaram” should have been correctly transliterated as “Sidambaram”30 A German reader would read “ Tschiwen or Siwen or Sidambaram ” as beginning with a “z”-sound. Hence, it is possible that the editor of the Leipzig Version of the Genealogy followed a slightly different system of transliterating alphabets, as the following examples illustrate: Copenhagen Version (1713) Leipzig Version (ca. 1731) Modern transliteration Barábarawástu Parāparavastu   Parabarawastu   Barátschaddi Parācatti=Skt. Parāśakti Saraschubádi Caracuvati=Skt. Sarasvatī Schámmanergöl Subbiramanien Tschaddi Catti=Skt. Śakti Tschiwamadàm Civamatam=Skt. Śivamata Tschiwen Wãirawen 5.2.2 Textual features The Leipzig Version follows the structural features of the Copenhagen Version with one major exception. It does not contain the letter of dedication addressed to Crown Prince Carl. However, the text of the Leipzig Version has several special features, which are significant not only for philological considerations, but also for accurate representations of words and names. All the changes, including additions, expansions and omissions, have been incorporated in this present English translation and documented in the footnote

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apparatus. However, a few of the changes can be discussed below. The editor of the Leipzig Version desired to emphasize the primary importance of the Genealogy because it was the first detailed presentation of South Indian deities, and the names of Ziegenbalg and Gründler as the original authors of the Genealogy.31 At the same time, the Leipzig Version has a few additional details that are not found in the Copenhagen Version. These additions give further meaning, as the following examples illustrate: page_225 Page 226 Copenhagen Version Leipzig Version Preface: in such a way that a complete Preface: in such a way that a complete genealogy of the deities is communicated to the genealogy of the deities is communicated to the dear Reader dear Reader. in such a way that it never saw the light of the day (i.e., it never happened before. End of Preface: missionaries united in prayer End of the Preface: United in prayer and love, Bartholomäus and love Ziegenbalg and Master Johann Ernst Gründler, Royal Danish missionaries Among the South Indians, this Civam gets most Page 23: Among the South Indians, this Civam gets most of of the offerings that they bring to him, both the offerings that they bring to him, both within the temples within the temples and outside of the temples and outside of the temples. All the kinds of offerings brought and they are named with one word Śivapūjā. to him are named with the one word Śivapūjā. L 48 r: was a man who lived Page 42: was a man who lived according to the according to the will of the lord with singleness will of the lord with singleness of heart and adored him for a of heart, on account of which he became one very long time with praise and worship, on account of which with god. he became one with god. L 152 v: One would bring the possessed person Page 143: One would bring the possessed person before before sing some songs of praise to play the instrument Pampai [a kind of drum, her and perform certain ceremonies. tabor, drum of jungles], sing some songs of praise to her and perform certain ceremonies. L 173 v: The Pēy that [appears] in a dream and Page 162: the night-pēy, that appeared in a dream introduces evil things. introducing all kinds of evil things and remained with the person. L 174 r: 77) pēy, the devil of strife.) Page 163: pēy, the devil of strife, etc. 32 Page 166: His two brothers are and L 178 r: His two brothers are and who along with are the most famous ones. L 182 r: that Īśvara might annihilate the giant Pages 170 f.: that Īśvara might annihilate the giant Śūrapadma and his caste of giants. Śūrapadma and his to destroy the whole ca page_226 Page 227   ste of the giants. L 190 r: that whenever Īśvara [is] his Page 178: that whenever Īśvara [is] his paradise, known as Kailāsa, paradise, known as, Kailāsa. or in his paradise, known as L 192 v: Just as he has all kinds of Page 180: Just as he has all kinds of musicians and [female] dancers, musicians and [male] dancers, L 204 v: the prophets Page 193: the seven prophets L 200 v: Brahmā said: ‘Why do you Page 189: Brahmā said: You are a great sage and your name should worry about where and how you were be Agastya. Why do you worry about where and how you were born? born? L 218 v: Īśvara lets the souls be Page 208: Īśvara lets the souls be brought to him into his paradise, brought to him from the world. known as Kailāsa. L 239 v: all the Page 229: all the The Leipzig Version has introduced other changes in grammar and syntax in some places. Whatever the copyist felt as insufficient expressions has been modified either with synonyms or phrases. The following examples taken from the first sixty-five pages of the Copenhagen Version illustrate these changes. Copenhagen Version Leipzig Version L 5 r Dear Reader, Preface: Dear Readers L 7 r two months ago Preface: twice before L 7 v in the presence of many persons Preface: in the presence of many listeners L 9 a r on whom the gods depend Table of Contents: on whom all the gods depend file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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L 9 c r Living animals such as pigs, goats and cocks Table of Contents: Four kinds of living animals such as are offered to them. buffalos, pigs, goats and cocks are offered to them. L 11 v an invisible being Page 2: a divine invisible being L 26 r there is no other image among the South Page 18: there is no other image among the South Indians to which more offerings are made than to this Indians to which more honor is shown than to this image image) It seems that the copyist compared the lists of the epithets of the deities with the texts of the poetical dictionaries, Tivākaram or and corrected the inaccurately transliterated words. The following examples, page_227 Page 228 taken from the first sixty-seven pages of the Copenhagen Version, demonstrate the careful revision of the copyist. Copenhagen Version Leipzig Version L 9 b r: Imadukkamá Rischi Table of Contents: Kumarischi (i.e., Kuma ) L 23 r: Duludalalógum Page 14: Magádala-Logam (i.e., Mahātalaloka) L 24 r: Tschukkiratibum Page 16: Suppiratibam (i.e., Cuppiratīkam= Skt. Supratīka) L 45 r: Tschareiéserwaner Page 37: Senscharei-íser (i.e., yīcar) L 45 r: Ponkurawintamúrti Page 37: Ponkarawanindón (i.e., tamūrtti) L 45 r: Kónneiwilli Page 37: Kunrawilli (i.e., ‘man with a mountain-bow’).33 L 45 r: Mangeiórpágen Page 37: Mangeipagen (i.e., ) L 45 v: Maraimudal Page 38: Mareimudálê (i.e., ) L 52 r: Tétschanen Page 46: Teschapirasábadi (i.e., Tēcapirajāpati =Skt. Desapirajāpati) L 58 v: Anciakkanni Page 52: Angajerkanni (i.e., ) L 63 v: Wánidi Page 57: Waranadi (i.e., Varanati) L 63 v: Kenkabáni Page 57: Kengapawáni (i.e., ) L 64 v: Renialen Page 58: Bengalen (i.e., modern State of Bengal) L 67 v: 22) Wenkaen, 23) Mugawen Page 61: Wenkei Mugen (i.e., ’tiger-faced man.’34 Apparently, whenever the dictionary of the copyist does not contain certain epithets of the deities, they are not included in the Leipzig Version: Copenhagen Version Leipzig Version Page 51 (not included) L 58 r: Bámarani (i.e., ) Page 52 (not included) L 58 v: Danschamawalli, (i.e., ) Page 52 (not included) L 58 v: Warukaddai (i.e., ) L 67 v: Tschandiarugen (i.e., Sandhyarha) Page 61 (not included) page_228 Page 229 Page 183 (not included) L 195 v: Tscheiu (i.e., ) L 222 v: Panumeinden (i.e., Pāumainta) Page 213 (not included) The copyist has also omitted a few words, phrases and statements that are considred to be irrelevant to the understanding of the Genealogy. Copenhagen Version Leipzig Version L 7 v: into which, at the same time, a dove comes flying and Page 9: into which, at the same time, a bringing the Gospel, through a ship that brings teachers from dove comes flying and brings the Gospel, Europe, It is interesting to note that the Leipzig Version does not contain the reference to the colonial ship bringing missionaries from Europe. This omission seems to reflect the popular attitude towards European colonialism in general and Danish colonialism in particular.35 The copyist of the Leipzig Version apparently did not want to associate the Christian mission with the colonial ship that brought mostly merchants and soldiers to Tranquebar, and carried away prime goods from India. Moreover, the goals of the Christian mission and colonial enterprise were diametrically opposed to each other. For example, while the colonial trade exploited the Indians, the missionaries wanted to educate and build them up. Moreover, whatever the copyist considered as redundant is not included in the Leipzig Version. This omission required a change of syntax. The following examples will illustrate the omissions: Copenhagen Version Leipzig Version and L 9 a r: 1. and 2. who are portrayed in Table of Contents: file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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are portrayed in full [natural] female form as full [natural] female form standing by his two sides. In all standing by his two sides. places they are worshipped with L 9 c r: which the king of the fourteen worlds had organized in Table of Contents: that person originated in order to [depose Civam as god], the burnt offering, known as the Yāga, so that he could depose Civam from his divinity [i.e., divine rule,] L 47 v: The stone images always remain standing in one place. Page 41: The stone images always remain However, during the festival days the metal images are carried standing in one place. Besides, there are about in the streets. Besides, there are images made of wood images made of wood that represent birds that represent birds and animals and that are used to carry and animals. These are used to carry about about the the [divine] images. page_229 Page 230 [divine] images. L 221 r: Indra is the king of the 330,000,000 gods and 48,000 sages in the world of gods. As it has been shown in the first chapter of this fourth part, he is also known as Devendra.

  Page 211: Indra is the king of the 330,000,000 gods and 48,000 sages in the world of gods. He is also known as Devendra. Page 235: again dressed up by the priest)

L 246 v: again dressed up by the priest and decorated with flowers A careful study of the two manuscripts of the Genealogy reveals certain minor changes, additions and omissions. Otherwise, both manuscripts are identical in their original organization, clarity and comprehensiveness. A comparative analysis of the two manuscripts of the Genealogy has enabled the author of this present work to gain a reliable English version of the text of the Genealogy. page_230 Page 231 End Notes 1 The European word fano is the corruption of the Tamil word meaning “money.” The actual value of each fano could not be ascertained because British, French, Dutch and Danish East India Companies had their own fanos . HR, I, 11. Con., 911: In 1714, ten Danish fanos were equal to twenty pennies in Germany. 2 AFSt/M I C 5:27 (Ziegenbalg’s letter to Francke); cf. AFSt/M I C 5:38: On 12.9.1713 Ziegenbalg informed his teacher J.Lange that he would send a copy of the Genealogy to Francke: Cf. Reg. 107. Laeg. 6: Ziegenbalg sent the Genealogy to Francke on 15.9. 1713. 3 AFSt/B S 152: Another copy of this picture is located in the Portrait Collection of the Royal Library in Copenhagen. It does not bear any call number. 4 AFSt/M II B 5: This picture is reproduced in Pietas Hallensis Universalis, 1995, 73. 5 Deuteronomy 6:4: “Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord” (NRSV, footnote n). 6 There are many meanings for the Sanskrit word śakti (‘energy’). For a general understanding of goddess worship in India see Preston, 1980; Gatwood, 1985; Pintchman, 1994 and Dehejia, 1999. 7 Pereira, 1976, 219: Pereira observes other bipolarities of the Indian religions expressed in the dichotomies such as “substance-modes, essence-attributes, undifferentiated-differentiated, immortal-mortal, [and the like].” 8 Ziegenbalg’s description points to Tantrism. Cf. Pereira, 1976, 41: Pereira identifies three types of Tantrism involving straightforward religious meditation, promiscuous sexual intercourse and violent orgies, which happen in a private and closed circle. 9 Worship of in country is very old. Cf. Sharma, 2000, 23: References to (‘the red one’ or ‘the distant one’) and Vēl (‘lance, spear’), which are epithets of are found in ancient writings such as the Tolkāpiyam (‘ancient poetry,’ ca. fourth century BCE-first century CE). Only in the Bhakti-traditions of the fifth and sixth centuries did become the son Śiva. Cf. Zvelebil, 1981 and 1992 for information on the worship of 10 Sharma, 2000, 22: The Akam-poetry (love poetry) is “centrally secular but at the periphery there already lurks a dark folk-god Muruka (Muruga). He is a lover of women, protector, and god-like. Almost resembling Krsna of Bhāgavatam, he is caught up in a cultural process of deification.” 11 was a disciple of Lōkāccārya (1264–1327/1369), the major exponent of the School. page_231

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Page 232 12 Cf. TamLet, 368: Ziegenbalg explains that the people—both kings and ordinary people—use them just as the Europeans are accustomed to wine and dessert. 13 This narrative might demonstrate the way in which the local deity was absorbed into a dominant tradition. The forged alliance made retain his original place among the South Indians, but gave him new aspects, value and identity. 14 Several studies are available on the goddesses and Durga. Cf. Meyer, 1986; Younger, 1980; Craddock, 1994; Berkson, 1995 and Rodrigues, 2002. 15 probably equated with the Sanskrit suffered for the sake of her (‘conjugal fidelity, chastity’). The Pariahs, who protected her, had to suffer with them. 16 It should be pointed out that the knowledge of the as codified in the book Vastusāstra (‘treatise on things’), is important for the (South) Indian way of planning and constructing temples, houses, wells, water tanks and cremation grounds. It influences even the way one should sit and sleep. For example, people tend to avoid to face south because they think that it is the abode of Yama, the god of death. 17 HR, 8. Con., 523–527: on 6.10.1707 Ziegenbalg spoke with a few people in a village near the Kingdom of Tañcāvūr. He stated that the Brahmin priests in the temples did not teach anything to the people. Immediately, a woman questioned Ziegenbalg: “Why do both Christian women and men come to our worship services in the temples, and eagerly watch what we do therein? Had they known that our religion is false, they would not have come to us.” 18 AFSt/M I B 34:4: This undated fragment of the Genealogy contains the passages Liga and mentioned in L 25 r-26 v and L 251 r-252 r. It seems that someone in Germany was interested in knowing about Liga and and requested the missionaries in Tranquebar for reliable information. As a result, the relevant text was copied from Copy C and sent to Halle. 19 Cf. Germann, 1898, 255 and 261: Gustav Warneck (1834–1910) felt that Germann had modified the assumptions of his younger days. 20 For more information about La Croze, who was a famous French philologist and polyglot in Berlin cf. Wiegand, 1902 and Mulsow, 2001. When Ziegenbalg visited Halle in 1716, La Croze wanted to translate the Halle Reports into French. Later he corresponded with Ziegenbalg. 21 AFSt/M I C 10:43, 3–4: On 1.12. 1717, Christian Benedict Michaelis (1680–1764), who was appointed (1712) by A.H.Francke to look after the correspondence with the missionaries in Tranquebar, informed Ziegenbalg that La Croze received his manuscripts from Halle. page_232 Page 233 22 La Croze 1724, 429, 447 and 449: August Voelckner copied the pictures of Brahmā, Śiva and Johann Jakob Kleinschmidt, who was in Augsburg, Germany, prepared the copper plates for these three pictures and sent them to La Croze in Berlin. 23 Germann, 1867, 2: Germann mentioned in a footnote that he knew of the existence of these color pictures in the archives of the Francke Foundations. He felt that he could not have them reproduced in India because it might have been impossible to print them accurately (for want of proper printing technology in India), and the printing would have cost him an enormous amount of money. 24 La Croze, 1727, 639 and cf. Wiegand, 1902, 100: Wiegand wrote that at the request of Francke, La Croze sent Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy back to Halle. 25 The editor of the Berlin Version of the Genealogy may have used this manuscript for his edition in 1791. 26 Ny Kg. Samling 589 C4 104 opt 1967: Section V, entry no. 9: “Genealogy of the South Indian Deities, four fingers thick, written by late Missionary [Ziegenbalg] in AD 1713. As this book was not available here [in Tranquebar], we requested for a copy of the original manuscript from Halle and it reached us here in 1730. It was a book written with much care and diligence. It is indispensable for the [Tranquebar] Mission. Later we came to know that Mr. Schultze in Madras had a copy of it.” 27 Ny Kg. Samling 589 C4 104 opt 1967: Walter prepared this catalogue of the mission library books in Tranquebar. Each entry begins with the title of each Tamil book and its transliteration. For further information on Walther see AFSt/M I K 5:25 printed in HR, V, 50. Con., 361–388; Germann, “Züge aus den Anfängen der evan. luth. Mission in Trankebar—Teil II,” 1865, Christoph Theodosius Walther, 1889 and Rosenthal, 1960. 28 Wilhelm Germann was a missionary of the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission to India (1865–1866). Graul,. Tiruvalluver, 1865, x: Germann reports that his teacher K.Graul charged him on his death bed to publish his translation of the and Germann fulfilled the desire of his “highly revered Teacher.” 29 This manuscript is twenty-five cm long, twenty cm wide and 3.5 cm thick. It consists of 139 leaves. The first twelve leaves contain the preface, and are not numbered. After page number 225, the next page is

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numbered as 222. The text ends on page 250; it should however be page number 254. 30 Cf. John, 1794, 727: Christoph Samuel John (1747–1813, from 1747 on missionary in Tranquebar) pointed out two characteristics of Ziegenbalg’s transliteration system: “The orthography of the first missionary Ziegenbalg differed much from that of the later missionaries. Ziegenbalg transliterated the ordinary S-sound with Tsch; for an example Tschîwén, instead of Siwen. He ended the Tamil nouns not with the suffix -am, but with -um just as in page_233 Page 234

yugum and yogum (era, offering) instead of yugam and yogam [i.e., yukam and yōkam=Skt. Yuga, ‘era’ and Yoga, ‘sacrifice’].” 31 Cf. Germann, 1867, x: Germann stated that for the sake of friendly collegiality the name of Gründler was mentioned 32 Here the abbreviation “etc” is added to indicate that the list of devils is taken from a dictionary or a similar source. 33 However, this epithet should correctly read as Cuntravilli, ‘a handsome archer.’ 34 This epiethet should read as =Skt. Gajamukha, ‘elephant-faced man.’ 35 The first Danish East India Company (1616–1650) was liquidated. Even the second Danish East India Company (1670–1729) did not fare well. When the manuscript of the Genealogy was copied in Tranquebar around 1730, discussions were going on about the third Company known as the Royal Danish Asiatic Company (1732–1840, for trade situation of this Company cf. Glamann, 1960 and Feldbæk, 1990). For further details cf. Cf. Feldbæk, 1969: Later towards the end of the eighteenth century, because of certain international political developments, Danish trade with India improved significantly. page_234 Page 235 CHAPTER 6: COMPARING THE PRINTED VERSIONS 6.1 Berlin Version (1791) 6.1.1 Introductory remarks By the middle of the eighteenth century the political situation of the European colonies in India, especially that of the English East India Company changed significantly.1 The translation of Sanskrit literature into European languages, the use of the word ‘Hindu’ and the romanticized view of the Brahmincal codes of conduct had far reaching effect on influential Europeans.2 Soon, some readers of the Halle Reports felt that the Tranquebar missionaries did not respect the contribution of the Brahmins. For example, in 1776, a reader of the new series of the Halle Reports, most probably the Romantic philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803), accused Gottlieb Anastasius Freylinghausen (1719–1785), the editor, of not having considered the “pure, noble and worthy” understanding of the Brahmins about the Supreme Being, but propagating the “low, childish and unworthy” views of the Indian deities. Since Ziegenbalg’s manuscript of the Genealogy was lost in Halle, Freylinghausen responded to the accusation by referring to La Croze’s passages about Parāparavastu and the contributions of the wise men known as the Jñānins (Freylinghausen, 1776, xvii–xviii referring to La Croze, 1724, 451 f.). Another person who rejected any of cross-cultural Christian missionary activity was Herder, who studied under Franz Albert Schultz (1692–1763), a student of A.H.Francke (Wallmann, 1990, 96). Herder believed that every group of people had its own identity that should be protected, and Christian missionaries should not change the culture of other peoples.3 In his essay entitled “Conversation about the Conversion of the Indians through our European Christians” Herder criticized the missionary work in India, carried out by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK), as a colonial enterprise to exploit Indians and plunder their wealth (Herder, 1802, 179 and 189). On the other hand he felt that the missionaries of the Tranquebar Mission had neither colonial nor commercial interest, because they were Germans, but worked in a Danish colony. However, he could not accept the reports printed in the new series of Halle Reports, and considered that the missionaries disturbed the cultural and social harmony of the people. 6.1.2 Textual features Within the context of this changed intellectual atmosphere, the a mutilated version of the Genealogy was printed in Berlin in 1791. Its new title Description of the Religion and sacred customs of the Malabarian Hindus, according to remarks/notes collected in Hindustan reflects the ethos and conventions of the page_235 Page 236 file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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German Romantic Period.4 However this version popularized the knowledge of South Indian religions in German speaking parts of Europe. However, two major difficulties remain still unsolved. The first major difficulty is identifying the editor, for which two inconclusive suggestions are available. Theodor Zachariae (1851–1934), the famous Indologist in Halle (Saale), suggested that Johann Christian Christoph Rüdiger (1751–1822), a well-known linguist in Halle (Saale), may have been the editor of the Berlin Version because Rüdiger was interested in the Tranquebar Mission, and the language, and used terms such as “Indier” and “Indianar” for Indians, and “Indostaner” and “Indostan” for Hindustan (Zachariae, 1920, 133 f. and 1927, 323 f.). Secondly, Johann Friedrich Unger (1753–1804), a well-known printer in Berlin, publisher of calendars for Prussia, and from 1790 a member of the Academy of Arts (i.e., Akademie der Künste), may have been the editor of the Berlin Version of the Genealogy, which was printed in the Royal Prussian Academy Publishing House of Arts and Books (i.e., Im Verlage der König[lichen] Preußischen Akademischen Kunst- und Buchhandlung.) The second difficulty has to do with identifying the manuscript on which this printed version is based. This edition does not contain the entire table of contents, letter of dedication to Prince Carl, and Ziegenbalg’s preface. This edition includes the words that resembles to that of the Copenhagen Version; for example, the names of the eight mythical world-elephants illustrate the similarity of transliterated names: Copenhagen Version Berlin Version L 24 r: 1) Airabadum, 2) Bundarigum, 3) Wamanum, Page 23:1) Airabadum. 2) Bundarigum. 3) Wamanun. 4) Kumurdum, 5) Anschanum, 6) Pudbakendum, 7) 4) Kumurdum. 5) Anschanum. 6) Pudbakendum. 7) Tscharuwabudbum [und 8)] Tschukkiratibum Tscharuwabudbum. [und] 8) Tschukkiratibum. This would indicate that the editor of the Berlin Version used a manuscript copy of the Genealogy, most probably, the above-mentioned Copy B1. This version mentions the name of Ziegenbalg only once, i.e., on the very last page of the book (page 328): “The editor of the present work entitled The Description [ of the Religion and sacred customs of the Malabarian Hindus, as mentioned on the title page] considered it worthy for a publication, because we do not have any comprehensive account about these materials. It [i.e., the manuscript] comes from the late Superintendent Ziegenbalg [literally: Probst Ziegenbalg], who was working as a missionary in East-India. In some places the style has been improved a little to the extent that the time and circumstance of the editor demanded.” page_236 Page 237 On the whole the Berlin Version reflects the intellectual and cultural ethos of German Romanticism.5 It has replaced the old unpleasant German words such as “Heiden” (‘heathen’), “Weiber” (‘women, wives’) and Poet (‘rhymester), with the “cultured” synonyms such as “Indier” (Indians), “Gemahlinnen” (‘married wives’) and “Dichter” (‘versifier’). It has also substituted the Latin words such as “deriviren” with pure German words such as “herleiten,” both meaning ‘deriving from.’ The editor did not accept Ziegenbalg’s opinion that Satan misused the Christian concept of Trinity and changed it into Mummūrtti, and remark the following in the footnote: “Since the religion of the Hindus is much older than the Christian teaching about the Trinity, we have to excuse the author [Ziegenbalg] for making this comment that honored more his passion for the religion that he was teaching than his knowledge about history or his discernment.” (Berlin Version, 1791, 47). Similarly, the editor did not recognize the salvific importance of Jesus Christ, and hence, omitted Ziegenbalg’s closing prayer on L 262 v, and concluded the book with the following statement: “The above-mentioned Indian answers in his letter this much to our questions on the common kinds of offerings; but one would find still many more offerings named in their books. They need not be quoted here because what has already been mentioned is sufficient to show how the South Indians perform some of their offerings and how much effort and cost such offerings require. One can see from this and [especially] throughout this entire book how the Indians are accustomed to make far more effort and spend much more money to attain their ill-conceived bliss [literally: wrong imagination/ thought to obtain bliss] than the Christians with the truth of their religion.” (Berlin Version: Pages 327 f.) Thus, the editor appreciated Ziegenbalg’s scholarship, but did not agree with his pietistic interpretations. Therefore, the Berlin Version does not reproduce Ziegenbalg’s complete text, and made it a mere source of information on South Indian spirituality.6 6.2 Germann’s Version (1867) 6.2.1 Introductory remarks Wilhelm Germann has the honor of having published a more comprehensive text of the Genealogy than the version printed in Berlin. 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reached South India in 1865, resented the mandatory obligation of the Indian Marriage Act (introduced in 1865). It required every Christian minister to get a license from page_237 Page 238 the local government official to solemnize the marriages, and the government official permitted only those ministers who were episcopally ordained to solemnize marriages.7 Germann disagreed with his Lutheran colleagues who apparently accepted this new law (Fleisch, 1939, 93, 100, 104, 113–114), and therefore he requested his superior to relieve him of his services as a missionary. As he waited for four months to receive a receive a reply from his superior, he edited the manuscript of the Genealogy, wrote his introductory remarks, and gave it to the J.Higginbotham Press in Madras for printing. He confessed that he was the sole editor and proofreader of the manuscript. However, before this book was released, he returned to Germany for the rest of his life (Germann, 1867, viii). Germann published this book for two reasons: this book reflected the results of the intense intellectual interaction between Ziegenbalg and his partners, who were not influenced by Western colonial powers in India (Germann, 1867, viii). Secondly, it was supposed to be a comprehensive “handbook on South Indian mythology,” which would help the European missionaries understand the distinctiveness of the religions of the South Indians. Therefore he added numerous “complementary” passages drawn from the recent works of certain European indologists. Some of these passages are many pages long. In the light growing Western interest in Sanskrit literature, he replaced Ziegenbalg’s transliterated words with transliterated Sanskrit words (Germann, 1867, x f.). Sometimes he tried to bring out the etymological meanings of and Sanskrit words.8 6.2.2 Textual features The structure and sections of Germann’s Version of the Genealogy is similar to that of the Leipzig Version. However, there are a few philological and thematic variations. He replaced all the Latin loan words of the Leipzig Version with German words. For example, Ziegenbalg’s preface contains the following Latin loan words: “communiciren” (‘to communicate’), “continuiren” (to continue) and “Relationibus” (‘news, information’). Germann replaced with appropriate German synonyms such as “mitteilen,” “fortfahren” and “Nachricht.” Though meaning remains unchanged, Ziegenbalg’s text was not philologically accurate. Sometimes Germann’s Version contains differences in grammar and syntax. He replaced the accusative case with the dative. Often he restructured the predicate sentences. He considered a few phrases old-fashioned, and changed them. These stylistic alterations have led to different shades of meaning that were not intended by Ziegenbalg. Leipzig Version Germann’s Version Page 6: The author of the book entitled Page 19: The author, who is named after the book Civavākkiyam.” Civavākkiyam.” page_238 Page 239 Page 13: In the two hands, which she stretches up, Page 27: In the two raised hands, Page 13: Page 27: The or Vaishnavas Page 28: The South Indians have, in their genealogy of Page 41: These South Indians have in the genealogy deities, not only a male line, from which they derive all of the deities not only a male, but also a female line. the gods, but also a female line, from which they derive all their goddesses. Page 30: This Śakti is worshipped in the temples in the Pages 42 f.: This Śakti is worshipped in the temples in [form of the] oftenmentioned image Śivaliga. All kinds the [form of the] often-mentioned image of offerings that they [i.e., South Indians] daily make Except the kinds of offerings [made] in front of this to this image inside as well as outside of the temples image, they [i.e., South Indians] have certain prayer happen in honor of Civam and Śakti. Both of them are formulae, which are addressed both to Civam and the same as Īśvara and Pārvatī. Śakti, that is, to Īshvara and Pārvatī. Germann omitted a few other things that he considered irrelevant repetitions, or offensive and lewd expressions. Generally, he shortened all the chapter titles. Moreover, several passages that are found both in the Copenhagen and Leipzig Versions are missing in Germann’s Version. The following are only a few examples of such omissions: Leipzig Version Germann’s Version Page 3: The first chapter: Parāparavastu or the Supreme Being considered as far as it is an Page 17: immaterial being that has no form and cannot be compared with anything. Parāparavastu

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as immaterial, formless and incomparable. Page 26: The days of fasting and festivals that are observed in honor of Civam fall in with the Page 39: Civa’s festivals history of Īśvara, who is also worshipped in the form of with the above-mentioned offerings. This is because the South Indians say the same things about Īśvara and Pārvatī that will be discussed are said about Civam and Śakti; namely, that both of them are similar in the same way as it under Īśvara. has been mentioned in the previous chapter. It should be stressed once again page_239 Page 240 that Civam, Īśvara Maheśvara, Rudra and Sadāśiva are considered to be the same   person. Thus there remain only three persons who are to be considered in the Genealogy for the sake of their association with each other, namely Isvara, and Brahmā.) Pages 41 f.: When they draw them [the temple cars] around, the following Page 54: and in a [hierarchical] order is followed: First [the car with] Vighneśvara, second Subrah- procession Vighneś-vara, maya, third Īśvara, fourth Ammai and fifth Tantēcuaran are pulled around. Subrahmaya, Īśvara, Ammai and follow each other.) Page 124: Then Īśvara was aroused in his lust and let some of his seed fall down. Page 149: Īśvara was roused in his lust and at got hold of it with his hands and from this seed was born, who is once was born. also called because he was born in the hand. Page 161: She is Pages 133 f.: She is represented as in a sitting posture. She wears a in crown on her head and is smeared on her forehead with She has inserted represented as El a sitting posture, is two flowers behind her ears. Above and below her split ears many jewels are decorated just like hanging. She wears similar jewels on her hair, around her neck, on her breast, around her body, on her arms and hands and at her feet. Flower garlands hang and holds in her down from her shoulders. In her four hands she carries the same four things as four hands the same things. Ellamma. This is the image that is carried about at festivals with decorations and Similarly, her image is cast in metal. The image to which offerings are made in the temple is carved in made of metal, but her stone and remains in one place without getting moved.) immovable image in the temples is made of stone.) Germann reproduced the text of the letters from Ziegenbalg’s correspondents, but does not say who wrote them. This omission has a serious consequence: it robs the unique contributions of the which helped Ziegenbalg write the Genealogy. Following examples clarify this point: page_240 Page 241 Leipzig Version Germann’s Version Page 31: Among the letters that have reached us [the missionaries in Page 43: In a letter that reached [us] Tranquebar] from the South Indians, one letter mentions the following the following is said about the Śakti. about this Śakti. Page 48: In conclusion, it will be useful to quote the following Page 60: In conclusion, it will be useful passage from a letter that a South Indian has written about Īśvara to quote the following about Īśvara [and sent] to us. from a letter. Germann has also inserted several minor details. For example, Ziegenbalg’s preface mentions the epithets of the river of which the final one is “Kannije” (i.e., Kanyakā, ‘virgin’). Germann added the following: “Kanya oder Kumari (Jungfrau, nahe bei Cap Comorin) [i.e., Kanya or Kumari, ‘virgin, near Cape Comerin’]” (Germann, 1867, 6). But Germann’s large additions are taken from the works of the nineteenth century scholars. His unsystematic bibliographical information9 makes the identification of his secondary source materials difficult. Often he quotes from the works by Horace Hayman Wilson (1786–1860),10 Christian Lassen (1800–1876),11 Karl Graul (1814–1864),12 Robert Caldwell (1814–1891),13 John Murdoch (1819– 1904)14 and William Taylor.15 He occasionally includes information from the works by scholars such as Edward Moor,16 George Pettitt,17 Mark Wilks (ca. 1760–1831),18 Karl Joseph Hieronymus Windischmann (1775–1839),19 Jean Antoine Dubois (1765–1848),20 William Ward (1769–1823),21 Simon Casie Chitty (1807–1860),22 James Robert Ballantyne (1813–1864),23 Miron Winslow (1789–1864),24 Maximillian Wolfgang Duncker (1811–1886),25 Krishna Mohan Banerjea (1813–1885),26 Joseph Bertrand (1822–1900)27

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and Max Friedrich Müller (1823–1900).28 Germann tried hard to make use of the newest scholarship of his day; but this very effort led him to the publication of a text that does not fully correspond to Ziegenbalg’s text. However, German’s Version had limited influence. For example, The German Indologist, Ernst Windisch (1844–1918), opined that Germann’s Version contributed to the knowledge of the popular deities and primal religions of South India, and that its content was very valuable (Windisch, 1917, 202). Windisch did not go into detail. However, Theodor Zachariae compared Germann’s Version with the Berlin Version, and pointed out that Germann’s Version did not contain several passages that were printed in the Berlin Version. For example, German has not cited the source for the following maxim: “as the plane removes the uneven nodules of wood, god will take away the sins of the person, in whose heart god is alive.” This quote comes from the book entitled Kīrtticcarukkam (L 18 r, Germann, 1867, 21, and Zachariae, 1927, 322). Zachariae also pointed out Germann deliberately changed many passages. For example, Germann tells that the consorts of are not and page_241 Page 242 as in Ziegenbalg’s original text (L 130 v), but “Pūranai and Pudkalai” (Germann, 1867, 148 and Zachariae, 1927, 325).29 These and other changes led Zachariae, who did not know anything about the existence of the Leipzig Version, to the conclusion that the Berlin Version represented a truer form of Ziegenbalg’s text (literally: “den alten echten Ziegenbalg,” Zachariae, 1927, 325) than Germann’s Version. Germann’s Version helped some European missionaries in India. For example, the Lutheran missionary Hugo Schanz, who worked in the village of Poraiyār near Tranquebar, prepared a nine-parts manuscript (1870– 1871) entitled Indian Studies (unpublished manuscript, D 558, the Mission Library of the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission). Like Germann, Schanz also wrote every word in characters and its transliteration in brackets. Schanz’s third part (written in August 1870) deals with the theology of the South Indian religions. Schanz referred several references to Germann’s Version of the Genealogy, but refrained from quoting Germann’s Genealogy.30 It is not known whether Germann’s Version had any great impact on any missionary in South India who did not read both German and When Bishop Henry Whitehead (1853–1947) wrote his famous Village Deities of Southern India (1907), he did not even know of the existence of Germann’s work. Bishop Robert Caldwell, perhaps representing the opinions of several missionary scholars, stated that Germann did not adequately consider the usefulness of the Genealogy for the study of South Indian religions, because he did not translate the German text into English. Hence, Germann’s Version remained a “sealed book.”31 6.3 Metzger’s Version (1869) G.J.Metzger wished to “open” the sealed book for others, and thus earned the honor of making the Genealogy known to a larger circle of readers, especially in the English-reading community. Metzger’s Version was reprinted in 1984. On the inside cover page, the publisher of the reprint quotes Caldwell’s opinion about Germann’s Version: “The present work is one of the ear [sic,=year] books written on the mythology and religious usages of the Hindus of South India. It presents in a clear and connected form not only the ‘Genealogy of the Gods,” but also information respecting their names, and titles, the attributes and offices of each divinity, the manner in which they are represented by images and pictures, the legends current respecting them, the temple built to their honour, the worship offered to them, the days sacred to them as fast or festival days, and the poems and other books written about them; in short, the whole gamut of popular Hinduism. Free from fantastic conjectures and unnecessary comparisons, the book reports the opinions of leading natives regarding their page_242 Page 243 own religion. It shows a remarkable grasp of facts regarding the religious life and practices of South Indian Hindus.” (Metzger, 1869, ix) Despite intense search, Metzger’s identity cannot be established satisfactorily.32 On September 26, 1869 he completed the preface of his edition, and submitted his manuscript to the printing press of Higginbotham and Company in Madras for publication. Metzger expressed the three-fold purpose: First, he wanted to help the European missionaries, working among the South Indians, to understand the major teachings of the bhakti religions so that they could effectively preach the message of Jesus Christ. Secondly, Metzger believed that his version would enable all interested readers to gain a comprehensive view of South Indian religions. Thirdly, he intended to encourage the “educated Hindus” to recognize the uniqueness of Jesus Christ, who was the “one Mediator between God and men” (Metzger, 1869, xiv).

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Metzger described his method of translating Germann’s Version as follows: “I [Metzger] have not simply translated it into English (though I thought at first of nothing else), but endavoured to improve the English version of the work to be best of my ability, by translating the original the longer the more freely, and omitting, on the one hand, all unnecessary repetitions and whatever seemed to me not very interesting, and adding, on the other hand, much new and, in my opinion, very valuable matter, chiefly in the shape of appendices.” (Metzger, 1869, xi). Each section contains lengthy passages taken from various nineteenth century authors. Metzger himself outlines the method of his translation, which is quoted below: “In Part i. I [Metzger] have omitted Dr. Germann’s addition to chapter 1, consisting of quotations from Dr. Graul’s ‘Indische Sinnpflanzen,’ the contents of which are very similar to those of chapter 1; and for Ziegenbalg’s short Introduction, which contains hardly any thing which is not also, in other words, said in the sequel, I have substituted a lengthy Introduction of my own, showing that the religious philosophy of the Hindus, though seemingly theistic, is actually pantheistic, and infinitely inferior to the practical theology of the Bible. In Part ii. I have effected various improvements, more especially in chapter v. in the account of Avataras or incarnations, where I have inserted various particulars, chiefly from Prof. H.H.Wilson’s Translation of the Purana. […] In Part iii. I have made many improvements, chiefly by omitting unnecessary repetitions and by inserting an interesting account of Vīrabhdra and the sacrifices of Daksha which he destroyed, translated from Vāyu Purāna. For page_243 Page 244 Dr.Germann’s additions to the several chapters of this part, consisting chiefly of fragmental extracts from Dr. Graul’s ‘Reise nach Ostindien’ and Dr. Caldwell’s Tinnevelly Shānārs,” I have substituted an Appendix, which contains a connected account of the religion of the Shānārs, from the last named instructive little work by Dr. Caldwell, and which forms a very fitting complement to Ziegenbalg’s account of the Tutelar Deities and Demons. […] Also in Part iv. I have effected various improvements, and as a specimen of the stories related in the Purānas, I have added to Chapter iii. a story concerning Urvasi, the most celebrated of the courtesans of Svarga, the Indian Elysium, from the Purāna, and, […Metzger omitted Germann’s quotes from Lassan’s Indische Alterthumskunde and Max Müller’s History of Ancient Sanscrit Literature, and] substituted an Appendix, containing, in a connected form, various interesting particular concerning the religion of the ancient Hindus.” (Metzger, 1869, xi f.). Metzger found Ziegenbalg’s style of writing German “old-fashioned.” In his opinion “the work of translating the original into good English was far from being easy” (Metzger, 1869, xiv). In the course of his translation, however, he has introduced a different textual structure, syntax, and content, which are not found in Germann’s Version. The omissions, additions and distortions of the passages are too numerous to be documented within the scope of this present work. The following few examples are sufficient to explain the nature, extent and gravity of the changes that Metzger has introduced. For example, Ziegenbalg quotes seventy-seven Pēys (L 172 r-174 r); Germann’s Version has added two more Pēys and increased their number to seventy-nine (Germann, 1867, 183–185), but Metzger reproduces only fourteen Pēys, and concludes the list of Pēys with the following sentence: “Many more might be mentioned” (Metzger, 1869, 153). Of the 208 pages of Mertzger’s Version, about one hundred pages of text are not found in Germann’s Version, but are taken from different sources. This would mean that only about half of Metzger’s text has come from Germann’s Version; the other half of the text has come from other sources. Metzger explicitly indicates that he has added the following lengthy passages: Pages 9–16, Introduction33 Pages 101–130, appendix to the second part 34 Pages 146–151, about Vīrabhadra35 Pages 156–176, appendix to the third part. 36 Pages 195–208, appendix to the fourth part. 37 Apart from these large passages, Metzger has included numerous smaller passages in the footnote apparatus. These and other changes have a far-reaching consequence: Metzger has not retained the complete text of the letters that were written by Ziegenbalg’s correspondents. By contrast his version includes page_244

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Page 245 many texts written by the nineteenth century European scholars and Indians such as Nehemiah Goreh (1825– 1895).38 By including various English translations of the Sanskrit religious texts, mainly translated or interpreted by Western scholars, his version loses the distinctiveness of Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy. Metzger’s assumption that South Indian religions form a single tradition, is questionable because Ziegenbalg has not written anything about “popular Hinduism,” as Metzger claims, but only about certain aspects Shaivism, Vaishnavism and primal religions of the people. Thus, Metzger’s Version of the Genealogy differs much from Ziegenbalg’s actual text. Metzger’s very attempt to “improve” Ziegenbalg’s text, led him to produce a distorted and unreliable text. All three printed versions of the Genealogy of the South Indian Deities have doubtlessly kept, though in an imperfect manner, Ziegenbalg’s contribution to South Indian religions alive. However, for the first time since 1713, an authentic English translation of the Genealogy is now available for further research. page_245 Page 246 End Notes 1 The English East India Company (EIC) defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, in the Battle of Plassey (1757), and gradually began to rule the Indian Subcontinent. The officials of the EIC wanted to become familiar with the socio-cultural and religious mindset of Indians so that they could efficiently implement their colonial powers. Warren Hastings (1732–1818), the first Governor General of India (1773– 1784), patronized Sanskrit and Persian learning and translation. He supported the Asiatick Society (1784) and also encouraged the philological and literary works of Nathaniel Brassey Halhed (1751–1830), Sir Charles Wilkins (1750–1 833) and Sir William Jones (1746–1794). 2 For example, cf. Halhed’s Code of Gentoo laws (1776). Charles Wilkins’ translation of the celebrated Bhagavadgīta (‘song of the Lord’) in 1785 and William Jones’ English translation of the Sanskrit drama Shakuntala by Kalidasa (ca. 400–600 CE) in 1789 captured the attention of leading European intellectuals. In 1791, Georg Forster (1754–1794) published a German version of Shakuntala, and entitled it Sakontala oder Der entscheidende Ring . This German version fascinated the imagination of several German intellectuals such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832). 3 Cf. Halbfass, 1988, 69: Wilhelm Halbfass (1940–2000) summarized Herder’s view about the identity of nonEuropean people: “Herder did not just pioneer the Romantic Movement in general, but also broke ground precisely in terms of its awareness of India. In his eyes nations and their traditions were living wholes existing in organic cohesion and yet, simultaneously, individuals whose uniqueness should be recognised.” Von Glasenapp, 1960, 24: Von Glasenapp observes the following: In the course of time “no German gained so many friends for the writings on India as did the Christian Brahmin Herder.” 4 The two words—Hindus and Hindustan—need brief explanation. Ziegenbalg did not use these terms. Cf. von Glasenapp, 1960, 14–16 and Von Stietencron, 1986: Von Glasenapp and Von Stietencron agree in the following: Originally, the Persian word hindu referred to geographical region beyond the River Sindhu. Gradually, towards the end of eighteenth century the terms “Hindu” and “Hindusthan” were used (mostly by non-Indians) to specify the people of India, their land and their religious traditions. Only during the 1770s the term “Hindostan” became an accepted West European epithet to designate most parts of India. 5 The Romanticists tended to view non-European cultures as equal to any European culture; they also believed that every culture had its own right and identity. Moreover, by that time, the term “heathen” ceased to mean a person, who was not a Jew, Christian or Muslim, but had acquired the derogatory meaning of a godless and uncivilized person. 6 Cf. Zachariae, 1902: In spite of these limitations the Berlin Version influenced its readers. For example, Theodor Zachariae states that Ziegenbalg’s descrippage_246 Page 247 tion of the village goddess as printed in the Berlin Version, might have been a possible source for the German poet J.W.Goethe to conceive his view on the Pariah Legend . Cf. Goethe, W.: “The Pariah,” “The Legend” and “The Pariah’s Thanks” in: Poems of Goethe, transl. A.E.Brawning; Available Online: (accessed on Dec. 26, 2003). 7 For a detailed description of The Indian Christian Marriage Act of July 18, 1872 cf. Modak, 1900, 68 f.: “Part I [Point 5 (1)] Marriages may be solemnized in India by any person who has received episcopal ordination, provided that the marriage be solemnized according to the rules, rites, ceremonies, and customs of the Church of which he is a Minister. […] Episcopal ordination means an ordination by a bishop.”

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8 Cf. Germann, 1867, 7: Germann tried to explain the meaning of the epithet but his explanation is limited, at times, faulty. 9 At the end of each quotation, Germann has mentioned either the author or the title, or the abbreviated titles of the books that he had consulted. For example, the references to the book Caiva Vinā Vitai (‘Question and Answer about Shaivism’), translated by Thomas Faulkes, are cited variously; cf. Germann, 1867, 33, 37, 40, 47, 53, 54, 156, 204: “Faulkes Uebersetzung von Saiva Samaya Vināvidei,” “Saiva Samaya Vinā Vidai,” “Siva Samaya V.V. by Faulkes p. 63,” “Saiva Samaya Vinā Vidai p. 67,” “Siva Sam. V.V. p. 21.22,” “Saiva Sam. V.V. Fr[age] 126,” “Saiva Sam. V.V. III Fr[age]. 18 ff.,” “Saiv. Sam. V.V. Frage 148,” and so on. Germann may have consulted the following book: Sabahpati Mudaliyar, Kanchipuram and Sadāśiva Mudaliyar, Chaturangapattanam: A Catechism of the Shaiva Religion (being a part of the Saivavinavidai), translated from the Tamil by the Rev . Thomas Foulkes, London/Madras: Williams and Norgate, 1863. 10 Wilson, Horace Hayman: The Vishnu Purana—A system of Hindu Mythology and Tradition, translated from the original Sanscrit and illustrated by notes derived chiefly from other Puranas, London: Murray, 1840; a recent version with an introduction by Michael Franklin, London: Ganesha Publishing, 2001; Sketch of the religious sects of the Hindus, Calcutta: Bishop’s College Press, 1846; Rig-veda-Sanhita […] translated from the original Sanskrit, London: Allen, 1854: 11 Lassen, Christian: Indische Alterthumskunde, Four Volumes, Leipzig: L.A. Kittler, 1858–1862. 12 Graul, Karl: Reise nach Ostindien über Palästina und Egypten von Juli 1849 bis April 1853, Leipzig: Dörffling und Franke, 1854–1856, especially volume four entitled: Der Süden Ostindiens und Ceylon; Indische Sinnpflanzen und Blumen—Zur Kennzeichnung des indischen, vornehmlich tamulischen Geistes, Erlangen: Deichert, 1865. 13 Caldwell, Robert: The Tinnevelly Shanars, Madras: The Christian Knowledge Society’s Press, 1849; Caldwell, R.: A comparative grammar of the page_247 Page 248

Dravidian or South-Indian family of languages, London: Harrison, 1856; 3rd ed., rev. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprinting Co., 1987. 14 Murdoch, John (Compiler): Classified catalogue of Tamil printed books with introductory notices, Madras: C. Foster, 1865. 15 Taylor, William: A catalogue raisonné of oriental manuscripts in the Government Library, Madras: H.Smith at the Fort Saint George Gazette Press, 1860; and A Hand-book of Hindu Mythology and Philosophy with some biographical notices, Madras, 1865. 16 Moor, Edward: The Hindu Pantheon, London: J.Johnson, 1810; cf. the New edition with additional plates condensed and annotated, Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1968; reprint of the 1810 edition with an Introduction by Burton Feldman, London/New York: Garland, 1984. 17 Pettitt, George: Narrative of affairs in the Tinnevelly Mission connected with the return of the Rev. C. Rhenius, Madras: Church Mission Press, 1836; and The Tinnevelly Mission of the Church Missionary Society, London: Seeleys, 1851. 18 Wilks, Mark: Historical sketches of the South of India in an attempt to trace the history of Mysoor from the origin of the Hindoo government of that state to the extinction of the Mohammedan dynasty in 1799, Three Volumes, London, 1810–17. 19 Windischmann, Karl Joseph Hieronymus: Die Philosophie im Fortgang der Weltgeschichte, Bonn: Adolph Marcus, 1827–1834. 20 Dubois, Jean Antoine: A description of the character, manners and customs of the people of India; 2ndedition with notes, corrections and additions by the Rev. G.U.Pope, Madras: Higginbotham, 1862. 21 Ward, William: A View of the History, Literature, and Religion of the Hindoos including a minute description of their manners and customs and translations from their principal works in two volumes, 2nded., carefully abridged and greatly improved, Serampore: The Mission Press, 1815. Germann, 1867, 66: Germann referred to a book by Ward entitled “View of Hindu-Religion,” published in Madras. This book cannot yet be identied. 22 Chitty, Simon Casie: The Tamil Plutarch containing a summary account of the lives of the poets and poetesses of Southern India and Ceylon from the earliest to the present times with select specimens of their compositions, Jaffna: Ripley and Strong, 1859; 2nd rev. ed.: New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1982. 23 Ballantyne, James Robert 1813–1864: Christianity contrasted with Hindu philosophy—an essay, in five books, Sanskrit and English, with practical suggestions tendered to the missionary among the Hindus, London: James Madden, 1859. 24 Winslow, Miron: Tamil and English Dictionary, Madras: American Mission House, 1862. page_248

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Page 249 25 Duncker, Max Wolfgang: Geschichte des Alterthums, Berlin: Duncker und Humblot, 1852–1853; 2nd ed. with the same title, place and publisher: 1855–1860; 3rd ed. with the same title, place and publisher: 1863– 1867. 26 Banerjea, Krishna Mohan: Dialogues on the Hindu philosophy, compromising the Nyaya, the Sankhya, the Vedanta, to which is added a discussion of the authority of the Vedas, London: Williams and Norgate, 1861. 27 Bertrand, Joseph: La mission du Maduré d’après des documents inédits, Paris: Poussielgue-Rusand, 1854. 28 Müller, Friedrich Max: Lectures on the science of language—Delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain in April, May, and June 1861, London: Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts, 1861. 29 Germann, 1867, 11: Germann informs that he has taken the name “Pudkalai”, i.e., (‘dressed in gold’), from the fourth volume (page 326) of Karl Graul’s Travel to East India: Graul saw near the village of Poraiyār, not far from Tranquebar, an image of with his two consorts: face was painted yellow. The green-colored consort was (‘goldcreeper’). 30 Leipzig, D 558, i.e., Schanz, 1870, 2 f.: For example, Schanz’s explanation of the Navapētam (‘nine differences,’ i.e., manifestations of god) shows his deep understanding of the bhakti religions: “Civam or Brahman is the unsearchable and unknowable god. 2) Śakti or Māyā is the female energy resting in god: Corresponding to the three aspects of the unknowable god, namely (‘man of heavenly bliss’), (‘the omniscient’) and (‘the highest and truest existence’), the Śakti is known as the Ānantarūpacatti (‘Śakti in the form of bliss’), Citrūpacatti (‘Śakti in the form of thought’) and Catrūpacatti (‘Śakti in the form of truth, existence’). 3) Nātam (‘sound’) and 4) Vindu (‘semen’) represent the female and male principles of the Liga. 5) Sadāśiva (‘eternal Civam’) or Civatattuvam (‘the principle of Civam’) or (five agents, makers) or Aimukam (‘five faces of Īśvara’) and Kiruttiyam (‘action’) are the fivefold functions of god), 6) Maheśvara, 7) Rudra, 8) and 9) Brahmā.” 31 Metzger, 1869, x: Metzger quotes Caldwell’s statement published in the Madras Times, but did not mention either date or place of its publication. Caldwell wrote: “Dr. Germann would have better consulted the sale of his book and its usefulness also, if he had followed the example of his learned country man Dr. Haug, late of Poona, who published in English his valuable works on Sanskrit and Zend literature. His work would then have been read with pleasure by many persons interested in South India to whom it is now a sealed book.” 32 Metzger, 1869, 138: Metzger was a Christian preacher and lived in the town of not very far from Madras. In 1863, he witnessed in the village of a festival in honor of involving the practice of hook swinging (cf. Oddie, 1995). page_249 Page 250 33 Metzger, 1869, 9: “THE SUPREME [OR RATHER THE UNIVERSAL] BEING. INTRODUCTION (by the Translator [i.e., Metzger].” Metzger adds the following reason why he has inserted his own introduction: “In the Original there is a short introduction by Ziegenbalg, but as it contains nothing that is not also said in the sequel, the Translator has substituted for it an introduction of his own, which is more especially intended for educated natives.” 34 Metzger, 1869, 101: The text on sacrifices and festivals that belongs to Ziegenbalg’s main text has been turned into an appendix. Metzger says this: “(Condensed from the German Original).” Then he has quoted several long passages from A.Dubois’ Manners and Customs of the People of India. Metzger has also added a chapter on “The Purōhitas and Gurus,” another chapter on “Hindu Philosophers and Philosophy,” and yet another chapter on “The Doctrine of the Transmigration of the Soul.” 35 Metzger, 1869, 148: Metzger explains why he includes this additional material: “The translator [i.e., Metzger] has given the whole of the description of Vīrabhadra, as a specimen of the profuse and extravagant style of the Purānas, and the writings of the Hindus in general.” 36 Metzger, 1869, 156: “THE RELIGION OF THE SHĀNARS (Extracted from the Rev. Dr. Caldwell’s Tinnevelly Shanars.” 37 This appendix consists of two chapters and a note: the first chapter deals with “The Gods of the Vēdas,” the second chapter with “The Legend of Sunahsēpha,” and the Note is written “On the languages of Southern India.” 38 Metzger, 1869, 125–130: Metzger quotes the “Doctrine of the Transmigration of the Soul” from “A Rational Refutation of the Hindu Philosophical Systems by Nehemiah Nīlakantha Sāstri Gore. Translated into English by Fitz. Edward Hall, D.C.L., Oxon.” Goreh’s book was published in 1862. page_250 Page 251

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CHAPTER 7: CONTINUING RELEVANCE OF THE GENEALOGY 7.1 For studying Ziegenbalg’s missionary writings Ziegenbalg’s efforts to discern the residual image of God in the South Indians and his desire to use his knowledge in his missionary service led him to produce suitable Christian literature (i.e., version of the New Testament, Freylinghausen’s theology, catechism, sermons, tracts and hymns). All these writings show Ziegenbalg’s deep religious insight. For example, he uses two interchangeable words, namely Piśāca and Pēy, to explain his idea of the devil. Neither of these words explains his intention adequately. The Sanskrit word Piśāca refers to a malevolent demon that lusts after (human) flesh and hovers around cremation grounds, large water reservoirs, certain trees and deep valleys. The number of Piśācas continues to increase steadily, as the souls of all people who commit suicide or die a terrible death in wars, conflicts, accidents, and in natural catastrophes, become Piśācas (TamLet, 479). Ziegenbalg’s other term for the devil is Pēy, which stands for an evil spirit that inflicts harm, and causes pain and destruction. The people use the term Pēy to personify social evils such as theft, slander and murder (L 172 r-174 r) and also to refer to the titular deities such as and who are also considered to be the leaders of the Pēys; hence, Ziegenbalg wonders how a Pēy can be exorcised through another Pēy. He has probably remembered the statement of Jesus Christ in the Gospel of Matthew 12:24–32 saying that a Pēy could not work against its colleagues.1 It is evident that Ziegenbalg and the people had conflicting opinion about the nature and work of the devil. However, both knew that the devil was an enemy of God as well as of human beings, and therefore had to be resisted and defeated (e.g., L 3 r).2 Ziegenbalg’s hymns (HR, II, 18. Con., Preface, 2–4) are also full of religious insight. In 1709, he composed twenty-six hymns that are now recovered (AFSt/P TAM 37, leaves 151 v-169 v). The first ten stanzas from the first song can be transliterated and translated as follows: “1. pitāvākiyacaruvēcurā perile 1. Lord, God the Father in the heavens! Be merciful unto us. 2. Lord, God the Son, who redeems the world! 2. lōkattai lescikkira caruvēcurā Show us mercy. tayavu 3. Lord, God the Holy Spirit! Give us peace. 3. yicippirīntu cāntuvākiya caruvēcurā 4. arciya cīshtta tirīttuvamākira

4. Holy Trinity, the One God! Give us page_251

Page 252 spiritual light. caruvēcurā 5. Lord, who is without beginning and end, and 5. ātiyantamāy tōttamillāmal omnipresent! Be merciful unto us. perilē tayāpararāyirum 6. mattillātavarumāyirukkira caruvēcurā 6. Lord, who is self-existent and infinite! Enlighten our mind to know God adequately. tēvarīrai 7.

caruvēcurā tayavu

8. cakala 9.

caruvēcurā

cakala

lesciyum

7. Lord, who is the First Cause! Redeem us graciously so that we can hear your Holy Word clearly. 8. God, who is the immeasurably righteous Lord! Be gracious unto us so that we can learn all your commandments. 9. Lord, who is Almighty and All-powerful! Grant us spiritual gifts so that we can keep the commands of God flawlessly.

10. Lord, who is merciful towards all earthly 10. naracīvatyāparanāyirukkira caruvēcurā pērilē beings! Be gracious unto us.” tayavāyirum” (AFSt/P 37, leaf 151 v). The fourth verse seeks to convey the Christian concept of Trinity. He does not use either the word Mummūrtti or its Sanskrit equivalent Tirimūrti (‘three forms’), but (‘three-substance’). The sixth verse views God as (‘self-existent person’), which is actually a synonym for an epithet of Śiva (L 45 v). It is clear in the context that the song does not deal with Śiva, but God the Father, the first person of the Trinity. Similarly, the seventh stanza has a composite noun (‘the one who is the primal cause’). The first part of this appellation Āti (=Skt. Ādi, ‘the beginning’) is also an epithet of Śiva (L 45 v). The first line of

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the eighth stanza contains the epithet Karttar (=Skt. ‘doer, maker, author, agent’). It is an appellation of Parāparavastu (L 13 v). Similarly, the tenth stanza starts with the epithet (=Skt. Narajīvadayāpara, ‘one who is merciful to all earthly beings’) that is an epithet of Parāparavastu (L 29 v). Thus, Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy helps the readers understand the religious significance of Ziegenbalg’s missionary writings in page_252 Page 253 7.2 For studying South Indian literary culture Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy throws light on the state of literary culture of the early eighteenth century. In 1709 he wrote that the people had ancient books about various disciplines of art, science, witchcraft and so forth (HR, I, 3. Con., 128).3 None of Ziegenbalg’s writings refer to the existence of the classical Literature, because it was inaccessible to the public and was recovered only towards the end of the nineteenth century.4 Ramanujan states the actual reason for their unavailability: “These classics [of the Cakam Literature] were not always known to the Tamil people themselves. They were dramatically rediscovered in the later decades of the nineteenth century, a period of transition, when both paper and palm leaf were used as writing materials. […] Eighteenth-century Hindu scholars, devout worshipers of Śiva and Vis[h]nu had tabooed as irreligious all secular and non-Hindu texts, which included the classical Tami anthologies. They also disallowed the study of Jain and Buddhist texts, which included the Twin Epics [i.e., Cilappatikāram and ].” (Ramanujan, 1985, xi f.). However, Ziegenbalg read the palm leaf manuscript versions of the” and Mahābharata.6 He also knew that was attributed to (L 99 r, 114 r, 205 r). However, he considered the four chapters of the (‘Section on War,’ i.e., the sixth and the largest section of )— (L 99 r), (L 178 r), (L 98 v) and (L121 r)—as different works. Most probably, his partners also considered them as separate works. Ziegenbalg might have wanted his readers to know that just like the Greek epics, The Iliad and The Odyssey, played an important role in shaping the identity of the Europeans, the epic story of was central to the selfunderstanding of the South Indians. Ziegenbalg examined the major and several (‘local legends’ about deities, temples, holy places and saintly persons),7 because determine the religious identity of worshippers and pilgrims, the periodic festivals and other social gatherings.8 Ziegenbalg’s study of literature enabled him to identify at least two books that could be used in his missionary work. The first book is Kapilarakaval written by the sage Kapila (L 123 v, 208 v).9 This book mounts a vehement criticism against the orthodoxy of the Brahmins, caste hierarchy and ritualism. It teaches that every person, irrespective of caste identity, can develop and attain goodness and virtue because, in the words of Kapila, birth does not determine the destiny of human beings: “Just as the flower grows out of mud, so was the great saint born of a [Pariah-] prostitute impregnated by Brahmā” (Ziegenbalg, 1926, 35). Subramania Aiyar has translated this same passage as follows: page_253 Page 254 “Like the bright coloured red lily, Of the pond sprouting from the mire, Vasiha Was born to Brahmā in the womb of a danseuse And to him a Ch[a]ndala woman bore Satya; This Satya embraced a Pulaya woman And begot Paracara, who in his turn Impregnated a fish-selling belle And begot Vyasa. These Four! Have they not chanted the Vedas and risen to Holiness and lustre and become sages?” (Subramania Aiyar, 1975, 102 and Mutaliār, 1847, 8). Moreover, Ziegenbalg seems to have liked Kapila’s criticism about the futility of speculative discussions about beginning of creation, human beings, good and evil, but encouraged a virtuous life here and now.10 Kapila teaches that the grave reality of death does not show any caste difference.11 The second book that Ziegenbalg has used in his missionary work is entitled Civavākkiyam by the well-known fourteenth-century poet Civavākkiyar (L 15 r-v, 17 v, 18 r).12 In this regard, he seems to have followed file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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the example of the Jesuit missionary Roberto de Nobili13 and quotes at least twenty-five passages from Civavākkiyam .14 Most of these quotations deal with the worship of the Supreme Being without any physical representations. Ziegenbalg quotes the thirty-fourth verse from the second volume of the palm leaf manuscript of Civavākkiyam, which he had in his library: “The tortoise that floats around the sea lays its eggs on the beach, covers them with sand and goes [back] into the open sea. But, since it always thinks of the eggs, as if a rope tied them to it, the young ones, as soon as they crawl out of the eggs, follow the traces [of their mother tortoise] until they come to her. Similarly, god has placed us in this world, but he is up in heaven. However, he thinks of us always [as if he is bound to us] as a rope. Should we follow his traces, we shall find him.” This quote agrees with the ninety-third verse of Civavākkiyam, which can be translated as follows: “After the tortoises have come to the shore, laid their eggs, covered them [with sand] and returned to the sea, their newly hatched young ones go after them into the sea. Similarly, every person has to seek after light [i.e., God] that is present in every person. This alone is truth” (Civavākkiyar, 1995, 255). The quotes taken from Kapilarakaval and Civavākkiyam illustrate the fact that Ziegenbalg has not accurately translated the poetical verses, but interpreted and summarized them. Ziegenbalg also knew several books belonging to the literary genre (‘minor literature’), also known as (‘interconnected narrative’ or ‘epic poem’) or Prabandhas (‘uninterrupted page_254 Page 255 connection, literary poetic composition’), of which ninety-six are traditionally enumerated.15 Many of these Prabandhas seem to have been written during the time of the Nāyak-rulers in Tañcāvūr (1350–1750), who were great patrons of bhakti literature (Pūvannan, 1999, 270). Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy includes information drawn from the following Prabandhas: Literary Title of the books in Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy genre Akaval Kapilarakaval Antāti

Apirāmiyantāti,

Caracuvatiyantāti,

Cintu Kalampakam kalampakam, Kōvilkalampakam Lakari Cavuntaralakari Mālai Ampikaimālai, Citamparamālai, Civakāmicavuntarimālai, Civamālai, Mātumaimālai, Nellaimālai, Paramarakaciyamālai,

Tūtu Ulā

Ēkāmparanātarulā,

Tiruvārulā

The books mentioned in Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy form a unique source for our modern knowledge about the existence and usefulness of literature among the common people. The Genealogy refers to eighty-seven books, of which fifty-one are now available in print forms; the existence of the remaining thirty-six books is yet to be verified. One of the missing texts is the Tirikālacakkaram by a certain Tirumūla Tēvar (not to be confused with the Tirumūlar, who wrote the page_255 Page 256 tenth Saivite entitled Tirumantiram, ‘holy prayer’). Ziegenbalg writes that Tirikālacakkaram contains a summary of South Indian cosmology and mythology, and thus formed the basis for all other books on South Indian religions. In 1708, he wanted to translate it into German to familarize European scholars with its content. A.Gaur has translated Ziegenbalg’s review as follows: “Dirigála Sákkaram [Tirikālaccakkaram]: a mathematical description of the seven under-worlds, the seven

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upper worlds, and the fourteen seas. Also a description of their paradise, the Kailascum [Kailāsa], the seat of Ispiren [Īśvara] and of the many hundred thousand gods; of Magumeru [Mahāmeru], a golden mountain penetrating all the fourteen worlds, where all the holy prophets [i.e., each of the fourteen cycles of a yuga has a presiding Manufigure] are supposed to live. This book shows the genealogy of their great gods, how all gods are derived from the Being of all Beings, the Highest God, what offices they hold, where their places of residence are, how long they will live, how many incarnations (Erscheinungen) they have, etc. It also describes the past and the future eras, what is the purpose of this and other worlds, how long one world will exist, and what is the reason for all transformations, etc. This book is the basis of all other Malabari books since it lays down the principles on which they are based. If the scholars in Europe got a chance to read it they would hear strange and unprecedented things. Once I had it in mind to translate this work into German but I could not help wondering whether this was really advisable. It would cause a lot of unnecessary speculation and only distract people from more important things. But I am still keeping my mind open whether or not I should do this translation; so far I am not sure about it myself. The secrets this book contains were disclosed by Ispiren [Īśvara] to his wife Parbadi [Pārvatī], she in turn disclosed them to Nandigéschuren [Nandikeśvara], the door-guardian of Ispiren [Īśvara]. He disclosed them to a great prophet by the name of Dirumúladewer [Tirumūla Tēvar], who disclosed them to the whole world. This happened in the first world-era; since then the world has been destroyed three times, but it is said that every time fourteen prophets [i.e., Manus] survived who passed this book, together with many others, to posterity.” (Gaur, 1967, 87 f.; cf. Ziegenbalg, 1880, 90). Ziegenbalg did not translate this work into German, however pursed his religious research in other ways, and eventually produced the Genealogy. 7.3 For studying South Indian religions Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy contains old religious stories, which are astonishingly modern and indispensable in the context of ever-changing socio-cultural and religious practices.16 Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy predates, by more than half a century, the discovery of the Indian cultural heritage by British scholars such as page_256 Page 257 the aforementioned C.Wilkins and W.Jones, who studied the religions of North India. But Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy describes the infinitely rich heritage of the South Indian religions, and without claiming normative status, it covers a large religious landscape. Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy contains new details on religious traditions. For example, the information given by one of Ziegenbalg’s correspondents reproduces a local legend of Buddha (L 87 v—88 v). Its account about the reason why why became Buddha differs from traditional views. Richard Young, the Indologist and historian of religions at the Princeton Theological Seminary, has analyzed the traditional legends that are associated with Buddhāvatāra. A prominent legend in (3.17.9–45 and 3.18.1–34) tells that created Māyāmoha (‘Māyā-delusion’) to dwell among the Jains living on the banks of the river Narmada and destroyed them. Later, Māyāmoha went to the Buddhists, lived among them, and weakened them so much that they were killed by their enemies (Young, 1981, 156 f.). Ziegenbalg’s correspondent agrees that became Buddha to eradicate both the Jains and Buddhists, but gives many new details: the Jains and Buddhists did not belong either to Shaivism or Vaishnavism; hence, they were considered to be outcasts in country. It is surprising that the correspondent accuses them of corrupting Islam and Christianity and practicing violence! It is obvious that the correspondent knew little or nothing about the non-bhakti religions in country such as the nonviolent Jainism and Buddhism. The correspondent blames the Jains and Buddhists for discarding caste differences. Thus, a religious legend that was originally associated with Narmada in North West India got localized in country and became indigenous. A closer study of the other religious episodes that are mentioned in the Genealogy will enrich our understanding of religious adaptations and amalgamations in South India. The wide-ranging character of the Genealogy surpasses the scope of later works on similar subject matter, mostly written in the beginning of the twentieth century.17 Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy was written 194 years before the publications of The Village Deities of Southern India (i.e., in this case the Telugu country) by Bishop Henry Whitehead (1853–1947). The works of Elmore (1915, 1925 and 1984) Whitehead (1907, 1916, 1921, 1976, 1980, 1983, 1987 and 1988) are popular reflect the opinions and cultural categories of Europeans. By contrast, Ziegenbalg has listened to the opinions of his correspondents, requested them to disclose the important aspects of their religious faith and life, let them reconstruct their culture and recorded their own witness. Hans-Werner Gensichen, who has studied the contributions of Ziegenbalg, points out the Ziegenbalg’s attitude toward South Indian religions: Ziegenbalg does not present the South Indian religions as a matter of strange “exotic curiosity” to European page_257

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Page 258 readers. He also does not demonize South Indian religions (Gensichen, 1988, 82). 7.4 For intercultural learning Ziegenbalg, who had personally experienced the power of intercultural encounter and positive transformation, became a committed culture translator, and shared his experience with his European readers. To some extent he succeeded in dispelling the feeling of strangeness from Indians and Europeans. He also believed that Europeans who had adopted the ethos of Greek, Roman and Jewish cultures could also benefit from South Indian culture, and attempted to teach the following. Firstly, Ziegenbalg expanded the horizon of his readers by answering their questions about the South Indians and their culture. He provided facts and allowed his readers to come to their own conclusions (cf. Ziegenbalg’s answers to questions dated August 27, 1709, HR, I, 3. Con., 111–146). He stated further why he sent reports and manuscript treatises about South India to European readers: “Many Europeans write us every year in their letter and wish to have information about the religious practices [literally: idolatry] of the South Indians, their sciences, rituals and about their life in general. In order to satisfy their desire we have collected the main aspects of the South Indian society [literally: heathenism], and sent them in our writings and treatises to Europe for print, so that Europeans can begin to learn about the theological principles of the people, their philosophy, medicine, poetry and other things. Our aim is not to fill our Christian Europe with a great number of books about the South Indians, but we desire the following: 1) Europeans should know how much innate and acquired light of nature and the natural knowledge of God are present in the souls of the South Indians [literally: heathen], how great their urgent passion is to know God, and how much of this acquired knowledge agrees with the knowledge derived from hearing and watching the works of creation and their sustenance, from the purpose of their consciousness, with which the South Indians discern the right and judgement of God. All these are sure pedagogical help for the divine light and the revealed knowledge, which is the mercy of God, and we have explained it in our writings to the South Indians. 2) Through our writings we encourage the hearts of the Europeans to pray for the South Indians, to love them, to help them generously, to show them mercy, and to place at our disposal Christian means so that we, the true page_258 Page 259 servants of God, might serve the image-worshippers through the sacred scriptures [i.e., the Bible] so that they, by faith, come to their salvation, namely Jesus Christ.” (Ziegenbalg, Brevis, 1717, 20). Ziegenbalg listed twenty-one manuscripts that he and his colleague Gründler had sent to Halle; during his life time only nine manuscripts were printed. The Genealogy of the South Indian Deities was among the unpublished manuscripts (Ziegenbalg, Brevis, 1717, 21 f.). Secondly, Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy gives his readers some insight into comparative religious studies. It compares the river goddess with the Greek Siren (L 61 v). and Siren are not identical as Siren is a sea nymph, portrayed as half woman and half fish or bird. It is believed that Sirens attracted careless sailors and killed them. By contrast, is considered to be a consort of Śiva. Since Siren and are related to water and represented as half woman and half fish, Ziegenbalg’s European readers would get a rough idea about Ziegenbalg has also compared Manmatha and Rati with Cupid (‘desire’), the Greek god of love, and Venus, the Roman goddess of love and beauty respectively (L 9 b r). This would have helped Ziegenbalg’s European readers to gain a better understanding of Manmatha and Rati. It is also possible that Ziegenbalg thought that his readers would eventually engage in comparative religious studies themselves. Thirdly, Ziegenbalg seems to have sent small images of some South Indian deities to his native town Pulsnitz near Dresden, which are now displayed in a small cabinet in a side room of the city church St. Nicolai. Kurt Löschner stated that this cabinet contained images of Śiva, his family members, and with his family members. These images represent the “spirit of the people, which Ziegenbalg boldly encountered, without fear, but with trust in God. The specialty and genius of Ziegenbalg have to be seen in his encounter with the [understanding and interpretation of these] culture-specific deities” (Löschner, 1939, 39). Ziegenbalg has observed that the South Indians had different religious expressions and experiences, and worshipped images of different deities. They resemble the Europeans who, before their conversion to Christianity, had also worshipped several images. The Gospel of Jesus Christ brought about the difference and many Europeans became Christians. Likewise, Ziegenbalg seems to have hoped that in the course of time, South Indians might become familiar with the Gospel of Jesus Christ and become Christians.18 It was important for Ziegenbalg to keep up the two-way cultural traffic between Europe and South India by file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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translating not only Christian literature and letters of A.H.Francke and other mission friends into also, as mentioned page_259

19 but

Page 260 earlier, several passages from books and letters from correspondents into German. Ziegenbalg felt the need to enlighten his European readers to recognize the South Indians and at the same time to help the South Indians understand the Europeans. In September 1713, he expressed his desire as follows: “We consider sending all kinds of written information from the East Indian world to our beloved Europe every year not as an insignificant fruit of our mission. Not only several letters come from us thither, especially to different European nations that give reports about our work. We also send treatises about the South Indian society [literally: heathenism of this place], about the inner and external nature of the South Indians [literally: South Indian peoples] which are surely useful. […] This year we have sent such monographs [i.e., the Genealogy of the South Indian Deities, and the copy of the South Indian Society, originally written in 1711], from which one could learn most of the secrets of the South Indians. In the same way, we will not fail to write similar books in the future, so that gradually, through our humble service, our beloved Europe with its Holy Scriptures and laws becomes known to the East Indian world. Likewise, the internal and external characteristics of the East Indian [parts of the] world should become better known and revealed to the European [parts of the] world [than it has been so far known].” (AFSt/M II C 5, page, 59). Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy makes a valuable contribution to break down the daunting barriers of ethnocentrism, Eurocentrism, prejudices, fear and ignorance of his European readers. In this regard, Ziegenbalg was far ahead of his time. His manifold contribution to promote intercultural learning and transfer of knowledge between India and Europe remains exemplary. page_260 Page 261 End Notes 1 TamLet, 480: Matthew 12:25 f.: Jesus addressed the Pharisees: “Every kingdom divided against itself is laid waste, and no city or house divided against itself will stand. If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand?” (NRSV) 2 Ziegenbalg believes that the devil distorted the existing marks of God’s imagein the South Indians (L 6 r, 21 r). It is possible that Ziegenbalg shared the views of the historian Johann Wilhelm Zierold (1669–1731), a friend of Joachim Lange. Zierold taught that all people came from the original parents Adam and Eve, and learned many things from the Jews. For example, Indians were the descendants of the children of Abraham with his second wife Keturah, whom he had sent towards the East (Genesis 25:1–6). (Zierold, 1700, 65–69 and 83–83). Similarly, Ziegenbalg also argued that the South Indians knew the teachings of God partly from the Jewish Scriptures. But the devil influenced the South Indians so much that they did not accept the teachings of the Word of God, but changed them into “terrible lies and fables” (Ziegenbalg, 1926, 10). 3 Zvelebil, 1995, xvii: “Tamil is an ancient language with a vast and archaic vocabulary with complex rules of syntax and morphophonemics, with a classical, uninterrupted literary tradition more than 2000 years old.” For more information on Tamil literature cf. Zvelebil, 1974; Civatampi, 1986, Cutler, 1992 and Pūvannan, 1999. 4 Zvelebil, 1995, 102 f.: The most erudite Tami scholar, U.V. Cāmināta Aiyyar (1855–1942) recovered most of them, had them printed, and thus contributed to the renaissance in studies. 5 Ziegenbalg read the version of that was composed by the great Kaviccakravarti (‘the emperor of poems’), who lived sometime between the ninth and twelfth centuries (Zvelebil, 1995, 317 ff.). 6 Ziegenbalg was also familiar with the Pāratam (L 98 r), another version of the composed by (ca. 1400). 7 Zvelebil, 1995, 638: The Sthalapurānas are “sacred or traditional history of a particular holy place, usually temple or pilgrimage site, a ‘unique Tamil expression of Hinduism’ (Jan Gonda). […] There may be as many as 2000 Tamil talapurānams, most of them unpublished in print. They may be classified as follows: historical legends; legends based on purely legendary matter; myths; local tales, local historical accounts; extraneous stories unconnected with the talam [i.e., local place]. A full-fledged talapurānam may contain all these components.” 8 Ziegenbalg knew the and the legend of that are attached to the great Śiva-temple in the city of Maturai. The praises the deity at The sings praises of Śiva worshipped at Vātūr.

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page_261 Page 262 9Zvelebil, 1995, 332: Kapila may have lived in the fifteenth century. 10 Ziegenbalg, 1926, 63 f.: “The great sage Kapilar writes this: What is first, day or night? Where did the life begin that is found everywhere? Who came first, man or woman? or did the question that asks these things come first? What originated first, good or evil? What began first, wealth or beauty? Who created the things, somebody or nobody? Were the creatures first created good or evil? Does a person die at a particular time or at any time? Will the evil leave him or cling to him always? Should it leave, where will the five senses remain? What will happen to them? Where will they go? If a person repents and performs religious austerities, will that become good or evil [what is the guarantee]? When we eat, does our body eat or our life? If a person commits a terrible sin, will the consequences follow him or not?” 11 Ziegenbalg, 1926, 160: “When Yama [the god of death] comes into a house, he does not take away [by chance] either the mother or father, brother or sister, or anyone else, whose life span has not yet been completed, but only those, who must die.” 12 Zvelebil, 1995, 179: Civavākkiyar was “the greatest early Siddha poet, rebel against Hindu establishment and Brahminic supremacy, condemning idol worship, authority of Vedas and Āgamas, all forms of orthodoxy, and caste system.” Graul, 1865, 181: Karl Graul has compared Civavākkiyar with the Greek legendary figure Orpheus, who was a musician and could instantaneously travel from one world to the other. Graul asserts that just as the ancient Christian leaders used the legends of Orpheus to mount a criticism against the image worship of the non-Christians, Christian preachers in India used Civavākkiyam to disapprove of image worship in South India. 13 De Nobili, 1970, 7: Roberto de Nobili quotes in his second sermon a verse of Civavākkiyam that teaches that “Since every thing, including human beings, is born only once and then disappears, there must be some one [i.e., God], who regulates all things.” 14 Ziegenbalg, 1926, 27, 37, 38, 42, 43, 44, 48, 49, 63, 64, 66, 67, 84, 101, 106, 110, 115, 133, 160, 171, 172, 199, 201 and 235. For more information refer to Caland’s comments on Civavākkiyam on page 256. Metzger, 1869, 29: Metzger explains the religious use of Civavākkiyam among the South Indians: “Because Sivavākyer makes use very strong expressions, and will not even suffer the names of Siva and Vishnu, the Saiva Pandarams seek after his book, and destroy all copies they can lay hold of. But as they cannot get all, the Dharmasabha in Madras has printed an interpolated, and very much falsified edition, in which the meaning of the original is perverted into the contrary. Genuine copies are very rare.” 15 Zvelebil, 1995, 563 f.: “Traditionally, 96 pirapantams are enumerated but the actual number is definitely (much?) higher, since with time more ‘minor’ genres were being added […] All pirapantams share the following features: unity of content, dealing with one hero/heroine, one subject or one story (no page_262 Page 263 episodes); consisting of more than one stanza, the stanzas somehow connected, composed in metrical forms.” 16 By contrast to the European scholars of sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Ziegenbalg was the first European to give a comprehensive description of the deities of both the so-called great and little traditions. 17 Cf. Whitehead, 1907; Thurston, 1912; Srinivasa Aiyangar, 1914; Elmore, 1915, Krishna Sastri, 1916 and Jagadisa Ayyar, 1925). Wilber Theodore Elmore (born 1871) studied how the Brahminical religions assimilated some of the South Indian deities (1915). 18HR, I, 8. Con., 555 f.: In a conversation with an old Tamil man on March 5, 1708 in the place of Tirukkaaiyūr Ziegenbalg accepted that 1700 years ago the Europeans were heathens, who worshipped false deities. When they became Christians they forsook their former religious traditions. 19 For example, in 1709 Ziegenbalg translated the letters from A.H.Francke (AFSt/P TAM 37, leaves 196r200v), Pastor Johann Lysisus of Berlin (AFSt/P TAM 37, leaves 200v-202r) and Rector J.Lange (AFSt/P TAM 37, leaves 202r-207r) into Tamil. These three leaders expressed their joy over the Christians in Tranquebar. page_263 Page 264 8: CONCLUSION The Genealogy of the South Indian Deities is Ziegenbalg’s seminal work on South Indian religions, and it remains unequalled in its comprehensiveness and coherent presentation of firsthand information about the

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South Indian religions during the pre-colonial times (and, to some extent, even today). It is a remarkable outcome of Ziegenbalg’s empirical religious research. First of all, he learned the language and was thus able to ascertain what the people thought about themselves and how they experienced the world around them. He proceeded to explore the genealogical relationships, characteristics and activities of the goddesses and gods of the people. Secondly, Ziegenbalg met the people where they were and became comfortable with them. He respected them and so they trusted him. Because they trusted him, they led him to firsthand knowledge about their religion and society. In return, Ziegenbalg acknowledged in the Genealogy the manifold contributions of his South Indian partners to his understanding of the genealogies and the traditions of their deities. In this regard, the Genealogy is a unique record of fruitful interaction between a European and his South Indian partners. Ziegenbalg was a child of his day and reflected the christocentric theological principles that Halle Pietists (e.g., A.H.Francke, J.A.Freylinghausen and J. Lange) taught. When King Frederick IV commissioned him to be a missionary for Tranquebar, Ziegenbalg took his instructions very seriously, and accordingly, endeavored to discern the residual image of God in the South Indians to use it in his missionary work. He derived his intercultural insights from important German and sources, and also incorporated them in his writings. In collaboration with Christians he produced Christian literature, established churches and schools for boys and girls, and trained fellow Indian workers to carry on missionary work. He insisted that the Christians should learn to live as Christians and people within their own society by following biblical values and priorities. In order to engage in informed dialogues Ziegenbalg began letter correspondence with scholars and religious adherents in the Kingdom of Tañcāvūr. He received written replies with valuable information. In 1712, he selected ninetynine letters from the scholars and translated them into German because they described the vitality of society and religions. As he continued to receive letters that disclosed deeper meanings of the South Indian religions, he desired to preserve them for posterity, and as a result, wrote the Genealogy of the South Indian Deities in 1713. Now, for the first time, a reliable English translation of Ziegenbalg’s original manuscript of the Genealogy is available. This present study consists of seven chapters. The first two chapters explain the various influences and spiritual forces that shaped Ziegenbalg’s worldviews before his arrival in India. The second chapter reviews the works that he did in Tranquebar until 1713. The third chapter is the heart of the present study. It page_264 Page 265 presents an English version of Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy, which is based on Ziegenbalg’s oldest manuscript in Copenhagen, and compared with another manuscript copy in Leipzig. The fourth chapter briefly reviews the German, European and South Indian source materials that provided Ziegenbalg with adequate information. The fifth chapter reviews the history and philological characteristics of the manuscript texts of the Genealogy in Copenhagen and Leipzig. The sixth chapter analyzes the ideological context and textual properties of the printed versions the Genealogy by an unkown editor in Berlin (1791), W. Germann (1867) and G.J.Metzger (1869). These printed versions have distorted Ziegenbalg’s text so much that Ziegenbalg’s original text could no longer be recognized, and this has necessitated a fresh English translation of the Genealogy. The seventh chapter describes the continuing relevance of the Genealogy to examine Ziegenbalg’s numerous writings —both in print and as palm leaf manuscripts that have recently been recovered by the author of this current work in the archives and libraries in Halle, Leipzig, Copenhagen and London. Secondly, Genealogy throws fresh light on the study of the literary culture during the early decades of the eighteenth century. Thirdly, it encourages an in-depth analysis of the South Indian religions that are based on written scriptures and other sacred traditions. Lastly, Ziegenbalg’s contributions to intercultural learning are briefly discussed. This present study concludes with a detailed glossary and a select bibliography. While Ziegenbalg relentlessly preached the message of Jesus Christ to South Indians, he also disseminated the knowledge about South Indians to his contemporaries in Europe. As a missionary he functioned as a bridge-builder between Indians and Europeans of his time and upheld the belief that the South Indian culture, which is neither Greek nor Roman nor Jewish nor Christian, is similar to many European cultures and yet simultaneously different. Hence he has not idealized cultural similarities particularities or demonized cultural differences, but tried to understand them in their socio-religious and historical context; he wished that the people in Europe and India would continue to engage in an ongoing dialectic interaction so that they can understand each other better and learn to cooperate in areas of mutual interest. Now the Genealogy of the South Indian Deities witnesses to Ziegenbalg’s legacy and invites us for a fruitful intercultural learning and cooperation. page_265

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Page 266 9: GLOSSARY In the Genealogy Ziegenbalg transliterated the words as he heard and read them. These words can be divided into four groups. The first group contains Sanskrit loan words that are tamilized. Each Sanskrit word is followed by the page numbers of the manuscript of the Genealogy. Then comes Ziegenbalg’s transliterated word with appropriate diacritical marks. The meaning of each Sanskrit word is explained in such a way that it enhances the understanding of the text of the Genealogy. The second group consists of South Indian names of persons, places and things that are either purely Dravidian (i.e., South Indian) or mixed with other Sanskrit words. The meaning of each word is explained briefly. The third group lists all the words whose roots are neither Sanskrit nor Dravidian. The fourth group includes all the titles of the works that are mentioned in the Genealogy. Because of their importance they are listed separately. Ziegenbalg knew the texts of these works in their manuscript form. Fifty-one texts are now available in their print form. Bibliographical details about their earliest prints are mentioned in the footnote apparatus. However, thirty-six works are yet to be identified. Ziegenbalg’s reviews of these works that he has given in his Library are useful to determine whether these works still exist or are lost. Hence, A.Gaur’s translation of Ziegenbalg’s reviews (1967) is quoted. Her work does not include the reviews of the books entitled Makāvintam and Rāmaceyam. The author of the present work has translated their reviews from the Library. Generally, this glossary follows the transliteration system found in the Tamil Lexicon (1924–1936; 2nd ed., 1982). All the commonly recognized diacritical marks are used for the transliterations of the Sanskrit terms. For the sake of convenience words are arranged in the order of English alphabets. 9.1 Sanskrit loan words Abhirāmavallī, 58 v: apirāma-valli, ‘dear, beloved creeper-like young woman Abhirāmī;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Abhirāmī, 59 v: apirāmi, ‘dear (admirable) woman;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Pārvatī is known as Abhirāmī in the Śiva-Temple at 31 r, 245 v: ‘(ritual) anointing, consecrating, washing’ of an image of a deity. Acura, 9 a r, 9 c r, 130 r, 169 v, 182 r, 208 v: evil spirit at war with a deity, chief of the evil spirits, opponent of gods, demon, ghost. Acyuta, 93 v: =Skt, ‘not fallen, firm, imperishable, permanent;’ usually an epithet of Śiva or of Skanda; in text: an epithet of page_266 Page 267

25 v: ‘ of support;’ name of a Ādi, 45 v: āti, ‘beginning;’ it is a synonym for the Supreme Being, Brahmā, Śiva,’ in text: an epithet of Śiva. 93 v: ‘first (son of the primordial man, human being);’ an epithet of especially of Ādināyaka, 13 r: ‘first, primal lord;’ an epithet of Parāparavastu. Ādiparāśakti, 35 r: āti-parā-catti, ‘first divine power’ to create something; name of a goddess, the female energy of Civam. Ādivarāha, 93 v: ‘first Varāha (‘swine’);’ an epithet of in his swine incarnation. 93 v: ‘first ’ an epithet of as the Supreme Being. Āgama, 51 r: ākamam, ‘traditional doctrine, precept, anything handed down,’ canonized scriptures of Saivism, Vaishnavism, Saktism, especially of the Agastya, 9 d r, 163 v, 199 v, 200 r–v: akasttiyar; name of a sage who is supposed to have composed the first grammar and other Vedic hymns. Aghora, 9 c r, 128 v, 130 r, 154 r, 155 v: a-kōram, ‘not terrific;’ however, it refers to the fierce face of Śiva that is turned towards South. Aghorabhadrakālī, 159 r: ‘not terrific Bhadrakālī.’ But it means just the opposite: the ‘terrible Bhadrakālī;’ an epithet of Kālī. Aghoramūrti, 154 v: a-kōra-mūrtti, ‘lord, form, embodiment of Akōram;’ an epithet of Śiva. Aghoraśakti, 58 v, 153 v: a-kōra-catti, ‘not terrific Śakti (power, ability, strength);’ name of a goddess who is considered to be fierce and frightening. Agni, 9 d r, 220 v, 221 r, etc: ‘fire, god of fire.’ file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Agnibhagavān, 9 d r, 221 r, 225 r, 261: ‘god of fire.’ Agnipūjā, 261 v: ‘adoration of (the god of) fire;’ name of a ritual ceremony. 58 v: ‘selfish, proud Śakti (i.e., power, energy);’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Airāvata, 24 r, 192 v, 221 r: ayirāvatam, i.e., airāvatam, the elephant of Devendra. Aja, 72 v: ‘being without birth,’ also as: ‘mover, leader, instigator;’ usually: an epithet of Indra, Rudra, Śiva, Brahmā, Kāma, etc.; in text: an epithet of page_267 Page 268 Ajamukhī, 167 r: acā-muki, ‘goat-faced woman;’ name of a female giant. 194 r: ‘one who breaks the mountains;’ an epithet of Indra; in text: of Devendra. Ākhuvāhana, 67 v: ‘person with bandicoot-vehicle;’ an epithet of Gaeśa. Amāvasyā, 50 v: amāvācai, ‘full moon night;’ a festival celebrated in the full moon night. Ambikā, 58, 59 v: ampikai, ‘(beloved) mother;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Ambikābhāga, 45 r: ‘the man who is a half of Ambikā;’Z an epithet of Śiva as Half-Pārvatī. Ambikātanaya, 67 v: ‘son of Ambikā;’ an epithet of Ambujavallī, 58 v: ampuca-valli, ‘water-born creeper, young woman;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 85 v, 101 v, 189 v, 195 r: amirtam, ‘nectar, ambrosia’ that confers immortality. 101 v: ‘ ’ that confers immortality. Ānanda, 45 v, 120 v: ‘man of supreme felicity, rapturous joy, bliss;’ usually: an epithet of Śiva; in the text: also an epithet of Brahmā. 112 v: ‘man without body;’ an epithet of Manmatha. Ananta, 24 v, 45 v: ‘god, the endless one,’ one of the eight snakes responsible for the South East of the world, the snake as a couch of Anantaśayana, 94 r: ‘man who reclines on (the primordial snake) Anantan (= Skt. );’ an epithet of 94 r, 112 v: ‘man born within the mind/body;’ an epithet of Manmatha. Aniruddha, 9 b r, 42 v, 108 v, 113 v: ‘ungovernable, uncontrolled person;’ name of a son of Rati. Añjana, 24 r: ‘blackness, darkness;’ name of the male elephant of the West. 154 v, 177 v: ‘an elephant goad,’ an emblem of 67 v: i.e., ‘man carrying [i.e., armed with] a noose and a goad;’ an epithet of Antaka, 222 r: ‘destroyer, the one who causes death;’ an epithet of Yama. page_268 Page 269

250 v, 258 r: a name for performing daily rituals and religious austerities. Arjuna, 9 b r, 91 v, 92 r, 223 v: ‘white, clear, the color of the day;’ name of a brother of the see Arya, 120 v: ‘true, devoted, excellent, master, lord;’ an epithet of Brahmā. Ārya, 136 v: ‘lord, noble person;’ an epithet of Āryā, 158 v, 168 v: aiyai, ‘respectable, honorable, faithful woman, mistress, female ascetic;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī 9 d r, 47 r, 220 v: pālakar, ‘guardians of the eight points of the compass, i.e., the world;’ common name for the guardians of the eight world regions. 29 r: ‘containing eight syllables,’ a prayer consisting of eight syllables; see: namo 9 b r, 100 v: ‘eight (forms) of ’ Ziegenbalg’s record does not agree with the standard narratives1 and he seems to have used a local tradition. 63 v: ashta-utaiyam, ‘eighth appearance’ of sun, stars; aame of a festival that is celebrated once in twenty-five years in the city of in country. Aśvamedha, 260 v: acuva-mēta-yākam, i.e., acuva-mētam, ‘horse sacrifice.’ Aśvāvatāra, 9 b r, 92 r, 84 r: acuvāvatāram, ‘descent of horse;’ an incarnation of in the form of a horse. Atalaloka, 23 r: a-tala-lōkam, ‘bottomless world;’ name of a lower region/a hell.

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Ayodhyāpuri, 117 v: ayōttiyā-puri, ‘the place which should not be warred against’ Āyudhapūjā, 125 r, 230 v, 239 v: āyuta-pūcai, ‘adoration of weapons,’ instruments, books, etc.;’ name of a festival. Bālaśakti, 134 v: pāla-catti, ‘young energy, woman;’ name of one of the Sapta Bali, 245 v: pali, ‘tribute, offering, gift, oblation, sacrifice.’ 248 v: ‘a stool or bench for an offering, sacrifice;’ usually: an altar for offering (blood) sacrifices. 83 v: pāsiyakkārar, ‘commentator;’ honorific name for Śrī Rāmānuja (1017–1137), the founder of the philosophical system (‘qualified non-dualism’). Ziegenbalg considered him (wrongly) as on of the see Bhadrakālī, 9 c r, 36 v, 128 v, 130 r, 140 v, etc.: ‘blessed, fortunate, auspicious Kālī (‘the black woman’);’ an epithet of a goddess, and in later times: of Durgā. page_269 Page 270 Bhagavatī, 134 v, 168 v: pakavati, ‘prosperous, happy, fortunate woman;’ an epithet of and of Durgā, and also name of one of the Bhāgīrathī, 63 v: pakīrati, ‘consort of Bhāgīratha;’ an epithet of 9 b r, 100 v, 101 r: ‘fortunate ’ an epithet of Bhairava, 9 a r, 46 a v, 48 v, 249 v: vayirava, ‘frightful, terrible, horrible, formidable;’ name of a (demonic) servant of Śiva. Bhairavapūjā, 261 r: ‘adoration to Bhairava;’ name of a ceremony; see: Bhairava. Bhairavī, 158 v: payiravi, ‘consort of Bhairava (‘frightful, terrible, horrible man’);’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. Bharata, 9 b r, 94 r, 95 v: ‘being maintained;’ name of a son of and his wife Śakuntalā, halfbrother of Rāma. Bhāratī, 125 r: pārati, ‘female descendant of Bharata, female patron, goddess of speech, eloquence, literary composition,’ i.e., vāgdevī, ‘goddess of speech, science, learning and eloquence;’ an epithet of Sarasvatī. Bhava, 72 v: ‘coming into existence, state of being, existence, life;’ usually: epithet of Śiva; however, in text: an epithet of Bhīma ekādaśī, 96 r: name of a fasting festival celebrated in honor of Bhīma on the eleventh lunar day of the bright half of the month of (December–January). Bhīma, 9 b r, 91 v, 96 r: ‘fearful, alarmed, frightened;’ name of one of the see: Bhinnaka, 45 v: ‘broken;’ an epithet of Śiva, the destroyer. Bhūloka, 23 r, 187 v, 206 r: pū-lokam, ‘the terrestrial world.’ Bhūmidevī, 9 b r, 22 r, 100 r, 107 r, 108 r: pūmātevi, ‘goddess of the earth,’ in pū-mātu, ‘woman of earth;’ name of the second consort of Bhūta, 9 c r, 130 r, 134 v, 169 v, 174 v: pūtam, ‘a (good or evil) spirit, the spirit of a deceased person, ghost, demon.’ 175 v: ‘the host of living beings, spirits, ghosts.’ Bhūtanātha, 45 r: ‘lord of beings, spirits;’ an epithet of Śiva. Bhuvaloka, 23 r: puva-lōkam, ‘atmosphere-world;’ name of an upper region. Bhuvanaśakti, 134 v: ‘energy of a being, creature, mankind, the world, earth;’ name of one of the (‘having seven mothers,’ collective name of the seven mothers). Brahmā, 9 a r, 9 b r, 14 r, 118 r, 122 v, 125 v, 133 v, etc.: pirumā, ‘creator, primordial matter, one of Mummūrtti.’ page_270 Page 271 Brahmaloka, 34 v, 122 r, 125 v, 190 r: pirama-lōkam, ‘world of Brahmā;’ name of an upper world. Brahman, 23 v, 34 r, 45 v, 120 v: piramam, ‘self-existent impersonal Spirit, the one universal Soul, primordial matter, the divine Essence, the Absolute, the Eternal;’ in text: also an epithet of Śiva. Brahmapūjā, 255 v: pirama-pūcai, ‘adoration of Brahmā;’ name of a ceremonial rite. 207 v: piramarisi; name of a sage. Brāhmī, 125 r: pirāmi, ‘holy, devout;’ an epithet of Sarasvatī. Brahmin, 7 r, 9 b r, 208 v, 227 r, 208 v, 231 r, etc.: ‘belonging to Brahmā;’ man belonging to the first Buddhāvatāra, 84 r, 87 v: vekuttavatāram: perhaps: pavuttāvatāram, i.e., puttavatāram, ‘descent of Buddha;’

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name of an incarnation of Buddhāvatāra, 9 b r, 84 r, 87 v: puttavatāram, ‘descent of Buddha (awakened, enlightened);’ in text: an incarnation of Buddhist, 9 b r: puttar, ‘a follower of Buddha, the Enlighted.’ Buddha’s original name was Siddhartha (c. 563– 483 BCE). Cakra, 21 v, 29 r, 82 r, 162 v: cakkaram, ‘wheel, circle, discus,’ an emblem of Cakrāyudha, 164 r: cakkarāyutam, ‘discus-weapon;’ an emblem of 9 c r, 36 v, 128 v, 130 r, 159 v, 162 r–v, 165 r, etc.: an epithet of Bhadrakālī; name of one of the (‘having seven mothers’); name of a village goddess. 222 r: ‘an angry warrior;’ an epithet of the war god Skanda (i.e., ); in text: an epithet of Yama. 158 v, 168 v: ‘wild, violent, cruel woman;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. Candra, 47 r: ‘moon.’ Candraśekhara, 45 r, 46 a v: ‘he who wears the moon-crown;’ an epithet of Śiva. Candraśekharasvāmin, 44 r: cantira-cēkara cuvāmi, ‘god Candraśekhara;’ an epithet of Śiva. Cidambaramūrti, 45 r: citampara-mūrtti, ‘form, lord of (the city of) Citamparam’ in South Arcot District in country. Cidambareśvara, 46 a v, 49 v, 52 v, 252 v, 260 r: ‘commander god of Citamparam,’ in South Arcot District in country. page_271 Page 272 Citrāmāsa, 197 v: cittirai mātam, ‘month (under the asterism) Citrā (bright, clear, conspicuous, excellent);’ the first month of calendar. 198 r: cittirai ‘asterism Citrā (bright, clear, conspicuous, excellent);’ the star (fourteenth asterism) that appears in the month of Cittirai, the first month of calendar. Citraputra, 9 d r, 185 v, 195 v: ‘son who writes,’ i.e., citragupta, a recorder of one’s good and evil deeds, an attendant of Yama. Citravalli, 58 v: ‘creeper/young woman Citrā (bright, clear, conspicuous, excellent); an epithet of Pārvatī. Cittaja, 112 v: ‘heart-born;’ an epithet of Manmatha, the god of love. Civam, 9 a r, 12 v, 23 v, 26 v, etc. civam, ‘goodness, highest state of god in which goodness exists,’ the Supreme Being of Śivabhaktikāras. In Sansktit it will be the Brahman. 73 v, 148 r, etc.: i.e., ‘able, fit, industrious, intelligent;’ name of the father of Pārvatī. Dāmodara, 94 r: ‘having a rope around one’s waist;’ an epithet of 116 r: ‘the weapon stick, staff, rod’ of wandering monks, mendicants. 9 a r, 48 r, 227 r, 232 v, 252 v: ‘lord with a stick, staff (i.e., scepter);’ This epithet can also refer to i.e., perhaps: ‘violent lord,’ who is considered to be a form of Śiva and as one of the Darbha, 231 r: taruppai; (a tuft or bunch of) the grass Saccharum cylindricum used for sacrificial purposes. Daśaratha, 87 r: ‘having ten chariots;’ name of the king at Ayodhyā and father of Rāma. Daśarathamahārāja, 9 b r, 102 v, 180 r: taca-rata-makā-rācā, ‘the great king Daśaratha;’ name of the king at Ayodhyā and father of Rāma. Deva, 9 c r, 9 d r, 185 r: tēvar, ‘heavenly, divine, deity, god.’ Devadāsī, 32 r, 73 r, etc.: tēva-tāci, ‘female servant of god,’ i.e., dancing girl, woman in the service of a deity, god. Devakānta, 45 r: ‘god-loved;’ an epithet of Śiva. Devaloka, 22 r, 23 r, 185 r, 186 v, etc.: tēva-lōkam, ‘world of divinity,’ also heaven, paradise. Devatā, 128 r: tēvatai, ‘goddess.’ Devendra, 9 d r, 22 r, etc.: ‘chief of gods;’ name of a deity. page_272 Page 273

193 r: ‘frontlet, stripe of cloth of Devendra,’ a strip/fillet of cloth, turban of honor, a title, title of office, an appellation of dignity. Devī, 36 v, 58 v, 124 v, 158 v, 249 v: tēvi, ‘female deity, goddess.’

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Devīpūjā, 257 r: tēvi-pūcai, ‘adoration of a goddess.’ 9 b r, 100 v: ‘firm, calm, courageous, intelligent name of a manifestation of Dhanada, 224 r: ‘wealth-giving;’ an epithet of Kubera. 9 b r, 100 v: ‘rich, wealthy ’ a manifestation of 9 b r, 100 v: ‘corn ’ i.e., who grants grains; name of a manifestation of Dharma, 9 b r, 91 b, 92 r, 222 r: ‘knowing, obeying the law, faithful to duty, virtuous, pious just man;’ name of one of the see: Dhūpa, 31 r, 246 v: tūpam, ‘incense, perfume, aromatic smoke proceeding from resin, an act of adoration;’ name of a burned-offering. Dhyāna, 212 r: ‘(profound) meditation, reflection’ on a deity or its attributes. Digmantra, 236 v: tikku-mantiram; a sacred, sacrificial formula regarding the cardinal points of the world, addressed to their respective guardians. 32 v, 33 r: ‘vow, solemn resolution, preparation of a disciple for a religious ceremony, initiation of a devotee into the mysteries of the Shaivite religion.’ Dinakaramahārāja, 102 r: ‘the great king Dinakara (making day or light, the sun);’ name of a king. Dīpārādhana, 25 r, 245 v, 246 v: ‘(temple) service (homage, propitiation, worship) by offering light’ to the image of a deity; name of a ceremony. Draupadī, 91 v, 92 r: turaupati, ‘belonging to, i.e., daughter of Drupada;’ name of the consort of the ’ see: Durgā, 9 c r, 36 v, etc.: turkkai, ‘the inaccessible, terrible goddess;’ name of a village deity. 9 d r, 199 v: turuvāca-makā-risi, ‘the great (badly clad, naked) seer;’ name of a (seer). Duryodhana, 9 b r, 91 r-v, 98 r: ‘difficult to be conquered;’ name of the eldest son of see: page_273 Page 274 Dūta, 9 d r, 213 v, 218 r: tūtar, ‘a messenger, ambassador, envoy, attendant’ Dvāparayuga, 9 b r, 84 v, 261 r: tuvāpara-yugam, ‘the Dvāpara-age (i.e., second world-age, the side of a die with two spots);’ name of a world age. Dvārapālaka, 9 a r, 22 v, 82 v, 46 a v, 48 v: tuvāra-pālakar, ‘doorkeeper.’ Ekādaśī, 97 v: ēkātaci, ‘consisting of eleven,’ i.e., (fasting in honor of on) the eleventh day of the bright fortnight of the lunar month (December-January). Ekādaśīvrata, 95 v: ēkātaci-viratam, ‘fasting on Ekādaśī,’ i.e., fasting on the eleventh day of a fortnight’ Ekāmparanātha, 52 r: ēkāmpara-nātar, ‘matchless lord of the mango;’ name of Śiva in the city of Kāñcipuram in country. 106 r: ‘woman with a single braid of hair’ indicating that she is morning the long absence of her husband; an epithet of Mūdevī. Gajendra, 98 v: (=Skt. Gajarāja), ‘king of elephants;’ name of a noble elephant. 218 r: ‘lord of (various classes of subordinate) deities,’ i.e., ‘chief of the attendants of Śiva;’ an epithet of 9 a r, 67 v: ‘leader of a troop’ of Śiva; an epithet of Gandharva, 9 d r, 138 r, 193 v, 213 v, 214 v: kāntaruvar, i.e., kantaruvar; name of a class of heavenly beings that live in the sky, in air or in heavenly waters, guarding the Soma-juice; in text: a class of celestial beings with horse-faces. 62 v: name of a river, the river-goddess considered to be the daughter of Himālaya, sister of Pārvatī and a consort of Śiva. 56 v, 63 v: ‘woman who brings forth ’ name of a consort of Śiva. 63 v: ‘goddess ’ name of a consort of Śiva. 9 a r, 42 r, 61 v, 63 v, 191 v, 154 v: ‘(the river) Ganges,’ considered to be the sister of Pārvatī and consort of Śiva. 45 r: ‘man who carries Gagā as his (long braided) hair;’ an epithet of Śiva. 31 v: karpa-k-kirukam, ‘womb-room, inner room,’ i.e., an inner apartment, sleeping room, adytum of a sanctuary, where the image of a deity is placed and worshipped. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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83 v, 97 v, 214 v: vehicle of

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9 d r, 213 v, 215 r-v: a mythical bird, enemy of snake (race) and page_274

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193 v, 215 v, 260 r: a class of winged, mythical beings living in heavenly realms. Gaurī, 168 v: kauri ‘an eight year old girl prior to menstruation;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī and Pārvatī. Gautama, 9 d r, 199 v, 201 r: perhaps: ‘relating to (the ) Gotama,’ the founder of Nyāyaphilosophy. Godāvarī, 9 a r, 64 v: kōtāvari, ‘granting water;’ name of a river in Deccan, India. Gopālaka, 93 v: ‘(protector) Of a cowherd;’ an epithet of Gopīcandana, 81 v: a kind of white clay used by the devotees of to make their characteristic mark on their forehead. Gorocanā, 249 v, 257 v: a bright yellow ointment prepared from the bile of cattle that the devotees of use to make their characteristic mark on their forehead. Govinda, 93 v: ‘(a chief) herdsman;’ an epithet of Grāma, 128 r: kirāmam, ‘village, hamlet, community.’ Grāmadevatā, 9 c r, 37 r, 128 r, 132 r, 140 r, 153 r, 157 v, etc.: kirāma-tēvatai, ‘village-goddess,’ i.e., in ūr-ammā, ‘mother of the city, town, village, agricultural tract.’ Ziegenbalg considered them as ‘protective deities.’ Grantha, 121 r, 205 r, 261 v: kirantam, ‘tying, binding, stringing together, artificial arrangement of words, composition, verse, treatise, sacred scripture.’ However, Ziegenbalg meant the sacred Sanskrit scripture written in characaters. Guha, 72, v: ‘reared in the secret place/an epithet of Hanumat, 9 b r, 98 v, 180 r, 238 r, 254 v: the monkey god, who helped Rāma to fight against He was the son of Pavana and Añjanā. Hara, 45 r: ‘destroyer (of ignorance);’ an epithet of Śiva. Hari, 94 r, 194 v, 222 r: ari, ‘yellowish,’ a horse of Indra; from the times of epics: an epithet of Yama. Harigovinda, 93 v: ‘Hari, the cow-shepherd;’ an epithet of Hariharaputra, 131 v, 136 v: ‘son of Hari-Hara (i.e., Śiva);’ an epithet of 200 r: ‘having a charming throat (i.e., voice), having a string of pearls round the neck, having an iron grate around the neck of a devotee’ of Hariścandra, 205 v, 206 r: ‘shining like gold;’ name of a king. page_275 Page 276 Heramba, 67 v: ‘a buffalo, boastful hero;’ an epithet of 88 v, 89 r: namō, i.e., namaha, ‘adoration to (probably: coined-gold, money);’ name of a prayer. 9 b r, 88 v, 89 r, 178 r: ‘uncoined gold, (also) coined-gold, money,’ i.e., ‘ the son of Kaśipu (mat, pillow, cushion, mattress);’ name of an impious giant, killed by described in the Chapter on ‘Chapter on the persecution of ’ in (‘relating to Rāma’) by 120 v: ‘golden fetus,’ referring to Brahmā being born from the primal golden egg; an epithet of Brahmā. Homa, 9 d r, 225 r, 231 r, 236 v, 245 v, 260 v, 261 v: ōmam, an act of making a fire-offering; an oblation is offered to deities by pouring clarified butter into consecrated fire. Indra, 9 d r, 194 v, 220 v, 221 r: ‘to subdue, conquer, drop,’ the god of the atmosphere and sky, lord of rain, etc.; name of a god. Indrajit, 98 v, 99 r, 179 v: intira-cittu, ‘conqueror of Indra;’ name of the oldest son of 9 d r, 185 v, 195 r: ‘woman/wife of Indra;’ name of a goddess. Īśāna, 9 d r, 45 r, 220 v, 224 v: īcāiya, ‘owning, ruling;’ name of Śiva as the regent of the Northeast quarter of the world. Īśvara, 9 a r, 9 b r, 118 r, 130 v, 176 r, 195 v, etc.: i.e., ‘capable man, lord, master, Supreme Being;’ an epithet of Śiva. Īśvarī, 58 v, 61 r, etc.: īcuvari, ‘wife, consort of Īśvara;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Jāhnavī, 63 v: ‘(adopted) daughter of (the prince) Jahnu;’ name of a tributary of

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Jain, 9 b r, 15 r, 87 v: in Jains, i.e., the followers of Mahāvīra (599–527 B.C.), are known as the (derived from the word ‘nudity’). Jalasthāpana, 250 r, 258 r: name of ceremonies performed standing firmly in water. Janaloka, 23 r: ‘world of people;’ name of an aerial world. 45 v: ‘braided hair-crown;’ an epithet of Śiva. Jayantī, 95 r, 230 v, 239 r: jayanti, ‘birthday’ celebration of great people or an incarnation of a deity. In text: birthday celebration of celebrated in the eight night of the dark fortnight in August; see: Jñāna, 212 r: ‘knowing, acquaintance, (higher) knowledge’ derived from meditation on the Supreme Being. page_276 Page 277 Jñānamūrti, 125 r: ‘form, embodiment of wisdom;’ usually: an epithet of either Śiva or Brahmā; in text: of Sarasvatī. Jñānin, 211 v: ‘person endowed with knowledge, intelligence and wisdom.’ Joti, 45 v: cōti, ‘light (of the sun), dawn, fire, lightening, brightness;’ an epithet of Śiva. Kadamba, 72 v: ‘man with (a garland, flowers of (the tree) (Anthocephalus cadamba, Bavingtonia acutangula);’ an epithet of Kailāsa, 9 a r, 9 b r, 22 r, 149 r, 190 r, etc.: kailācam; name of a mountain in Himālaya, the fabulous residence of Kubera, and above all: the paradise of Śiva. Kākutstha, 93 v: ‘standing on a hump;’ an epithet of Rāma. Kalaśalocana, 94 r: ‘pitcher-eyed man;’ an epithet of Kālī, 158 v: ‘black woman;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. Kaliyuga, 9 b r, 84 v, 203 v, 261 r: kali-yukam, ‘age of Kali;’ name of the last of the four ages, the present, wicked age. 93 r: ‘beautiful, auspicious, agreeable, prosperous, beneficial town, abode;’ name of a town, where people went on pilgrimage to worship Kāma, 112 v: ‘wish, desire, longing for pleasure, sexual love, sensuality;’ name of the god of (sexual) love, i.e., Manmatha. 9 b r, 111 v: ‘an arrow of Kāma (i.e., Manmatha).’ Kāmadhenu, 187 v: ‘(the mythical) cow fulfilling all desires, cow of plenty;’ name of a cow in paradise. 27 v, 43 r, 82 r: kamala-puspam, ‘lotus flower (Nelumbium speciosum).’ Kamalayoni, 120 v: ‘lotus-born;’ an epithet of Brahmā. 205 v: ‘water-jar,’ i.e., vessel for carrying water, mostly used by ascetics and religious students. Kandarāja, 76 v: kanta-rācā, ‘King (=Skt. Skanda),’ name of a king. Kandarpa, 112 v: ‘inflamer (even) of god, man of great wantonness;’ an epithet of Manmatha. 45 r: ‘man (carrying, adorned with a garland of bones) of skeleton;’ an epithet of Śiva. 158 v: ‘consort of ’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. Kanyā, 168 v: ‘girl, virgin, daughter (of marriageable age);’ an epithet of Durgā. page_277 Page 278 Kanyakā, 9 a r, 64 v: ‘(small) girl, virgin, daughter;’ usually an epithet for Durgā, but in text, perhaps used as a synonym for the river Tiripatakai = Skt. tripatha, ‘flowing through heaven, earth and the lower regions;’ an epithet for Kapālin, 45 r: kapāli, ‘bearing skulls,’ i.e., a pot to receive alms; an epithet of Śiva. Kapila, 9 d r, 123 v, 199 v, 208 r: kapilar, ‘monkey-colored, brown, tawny, reddish;’ name of an author who composed a book entitled Kapilarakaval. Kāriyastrī, 125 r: kāriyastri, ‘woman of duty, work, religious performance;’ an epithet of Sarasvatī. 24 v: name of a snake-demon. 13 v: karttar, ‘doer, maker, author, agent;’ an epithet of Parāparavastu. Kāśī, 53 v: kāci, ‘shining;’ name of the city also known as Benares. 9 d r, 166 v, 193 r, 199 v, 208 v: kāci-makā-risi, ‘the great seer in Kāśī,’ i.e., =Skt. Kaśyapa, ‘having black teeth, tortoise;’ name of an ancient sage who composed some hymns in Kastūrī, 119 v, 133 r: kastūri, perfume gained from the navel of musk deer (Moschus moschifeus). Kastūritilaka, 82 r: kastūri-tilakam, ‘a (small circular) kastūri-mark,’ i.e., a mark on the forehead of a devotee file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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or of an image of a deity, made in the form of a dot or a vertical line, using musk. Kātyāyanī, 168 v: ‘daughter of (the ) Kātyāyana (‘descendant of Kati,’ author of books on ritual ceremonies);’ an epithet of Durgā. 45 v, 52 v, 202 r: ‘lord, patron, god of ’ commonly known as (‘snake-city’); an epithet of Śiva. Kedāragaurīvrata, 50 r: kētāra-kauri-viratam: Skt. kedāra, ‘field, meadow under water,’ gaurī, ‘white, yellowish, reddish,’ name of a consort of Śiva and Skt. vrata, religious vow, holy practice such as fasting); name of an annual festival celebrated in October-November by women in honor of Pārvatī. Keśava, 93 v: ‘having long hair;’ an epithet of Ketu, 243 r: kētu, ‘bright appearance, clearness, brightness, rays of light;’ in text: descending node of moon, tail of a dragon separated from its head Rāhu. Kīlvēlūr, 97 v: name of a place near 224 r: ‘lord, leader of the Kinnarars;’ an epithet of Kubera. page_278 Page 279 94 r: and 9 d r, 193 v, 213 v, 214, 260 r: ‘what sort of man?;’ a mythical being with human body and horse face, playing the musical instrument 9 d r, 193 v, 213 v, 214 v, 260 r: kimpurusar, ‘what sort of man?,’ a class of evil beings. 9 b r, 84 r, 91 r–v, 230 v, etc.: ‘dark, blue, dark-blue;’ name of in his 9 b r, 84 r, 91 r: ‘descent of ’ an incarnation of 9 b r, 84 v: kirētā-yukam; the golden age and the first of the four ages. 122 v: cattiriyar, member of the second are in rank next to Brahmins. Kubera, 9 d r, 220 v, 223 v, 224 r: originally: chief of the evil beings and darkness; and later: god of riches and treasures;’ name of the protector of treasures and guardian of the North. Kuladeva, 153 r: kula-teyvam, ‘family deity, principal goddess.’ Kulika, 24 v: ‘man of good family, kinsman;’ name of one of the eight snakes. Kumāra, 72 v, 136 v: ‘young man’ of sixteen years old; an epithet of as well as of Kumārasvāmin, 72 v: kumāra-cuvāmi, ‘young god, lord, deity;’ an epithet of (as a sixteen year old young man). 178 r, 179 r: ‘pot-eared man;’ name of the younger brother of Kumbheśvaramūrti, 45 r: kumpēcuramūrtti, ‘lord with a pitcher, water-pot;’ name of Śiva in the city of Kumuda, 24 r: kumutam, ‘white water-lily (Nymphaea esculenta);’ name of the elephant guarding the Southwest. Kuñjara, 67 v: ‘man with an elephant;’ an epithet of 9 a r, 48 r: ‘having a belly like a pitcher;’ name of an attendant of Śiva. Kūrmāvatāra, 9 a r, 84 r: kūrmavatāram, ‘descent of a tortoise,’ an incarnation of in the form of a tortoise. Kuśa, 9 b r, 42 v, 72 v, 108 v, 114 r: name of a prince created from the grass Darbha (perhaps: Saccharum cylindricum); name of a son of Rāma. 9 b r, 87 r, 95 v, 116 v: i.e., ‘having auspicious marks;’ name of a younger brother of Rāma. page_279 Page 280 Lakmī, 9 b r, 22 r, 29 r, 124 v, etc.: lecumi, i.e., ilakkumi, ‘good sign, prosperity, wealth, success, happiness, beauty, grace, charm;’ name of the principal consort of Lava, 9 b r, 42 v, 108 v, 114 r: ‘the act of cutting, anything that is cut, fragment, piece;’ name of an (adopted) son of Rāma. 24 r: lavaa camuttiram, ‘salt-ocean;’ name of an aerial water. 9 a r, 25 r–v, 31 r–v, 155 v, etc.: i.e., ‘sign mark, symbol (of all existing things), emblem;’ emblem of Śiva in the form of a phallus, made of stone, metal or crystal, set up in a temple and worshipped by devotees as the most sacred image. 26 v, 251 r: ‘adoration of ’ name of religious ritual. Lokanāyaka, 29 v: ‘guide, leader, chief, lord, of the world;’ an epithet of Civam. Madana, 112 v: ‘sexual passion, god of love, kind of embrace;’ an epithet of Manmatha. Mādhava, 45 r, 93 v: ‘son of Madhu;’ name of in his (‘descent, incarnation as ). file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Madhupati, 158 v: matu-pati, ‘chief of the race of Madhu (sweet, delicious, charming, Spring season);’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī Mahābali Cakravartin, 90 r: māpēli cakkaravartti, ‘the ruler, emperor Mahābali, the wheels of whose chariots roll everywhere without a hindrance;’ an epithet for Mahābali. Mahābali, 90 r: māpēli, ‘the giant Bali (tribute, offering, gift);’ name of the son of Virocana. 90 r: ‘arrow of Mahābali;’ name of a son of Mahābali, the opponent of but a friend of Śiva. Mahābalirāja, 9 b r, 243 v: māpēli-rācā, ‘King Mahābali;’ name of a giant. Mahādevī, 52 r: makātēvi, ‘the great goddess;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 9 b r, 46 a v, 82 v, 100 v: ‘great ’ an epithet of Mahāloka, 23 r: makā-lōkam, i.e., mā-lōkam, ‘great world,’ i.e., makaralōkam = Skt. maharloka, ‘Makarworld,’ i.e., the fourth of the seven worlds, the abode of the saints who have survived the destruction of the world. Mahāmāyā, 166 r, 181 r: makā-māyai(?), ‘great art, wisdom, extraordinary power,’ also: ‘illusion, deceit, witchcraft;’ name of a female demon. page_280 Page 281 Mahāmeru, 22 v, 23 v, 24 r: makāmēru, ‘great mountain;’ name of a mythical mountain. Mahāpadma, 24 v: name of a kind of (mythical) snake guarding the Northwest. Mahāśiva, 45 r: ‘great Śiva;’ an epithet of Śiva. Mahātalaloka, 23 r: makā-tala-lōkam, ‘the great lower world;’ name of a hell. 28 v, 93 v, 103 r: ‘great, eminent ’ an epithet of Maheśvara, 9 a r, 27 v, 33 v, 34 v, 55 r, 260 v: ‘relating, or belong to the great lord Śiva;’ an epithet of Śiva. Maheśvarapūjā, 260 v: mayēcura-pūcai, ‘adoration to Maheśvara,’ a religious ceremony. 163 v: ‘asura (buffalo);’ name of the buffalodemon (as a symbol of death) crushed by Bhadrakālī. Mālinī, 158 v: ‘wife of a garland-maker, female florist;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. Mandākinī, 63 v: ‘flowing slowly;’ name of a tributary to the text, however, has it: Mantirakiri. Manmatha, 9 b r, 42 v, 108 v, 112 r–v: ‘agitating, love, sexual passion,’ god of love, husband of Rati, ‘pleasure, enjoyment’ and Prīti, ‘pleasure, joy, satisfaction.’ Manobhava, 112 v: ‘mind-born, arising or being in the mind;’ an epithet of Manmatha. Mantra, 257 v: mantiram, ‘speech, sacred text, a prayer, song of praise, vedic hymn, sacrificial formula addressed to any deity, a mystical/magical formula, incantation, spell.’ Mantragiri, 86 r: mantirakiri; name of a mythical mountain used by gods as a twirling-stick to churn the milksea Mantrin, 224 r: mantiri, ‘wise, eloquent, conjurer, a king’s counselor;’ an epithet of Kubera. Māra, 112 v: ‘passion of love, god of love;’ an epithet of Manmatha. Marakata, 224 r: ‘emerald;’ an epithet of Kubera. Mārī, 145 r: māri, ‘woman who destroys, kills, causes pestilence, infections and death;’ an epithet of Durgā; in text: an epithet of as a goddess of smallpox and other kinds of pestilence. 209 v: name of a sage and author of see: page_281 Page 282 Marutvat, 155 r: ‘attended by Marut (wind);’ an epithet of Indra as well as of Hanumat. Matsyāvatāra, 9 a r, 84 r, 85 r: maccāvatāram, ‘descent of fish;’ an incarnation of in the form of a fish. 58 r mātā, ‘mother;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Meghavāhana, 194 r: ‘having clouds for a vehicle;’ an epithet of Devendra. 58 v: ‘fish-eyed woman, lady;’ name of Pārvatī in the city of Maturai in country. Mūdevī, 9 b r, 105 v, 189 v: mūtēvi, ‘older goddess,’ i.e., the elder sister of name of the goddess of misfortune. Mukunda, 94 r: an epithet of 25 v: ‘ as root, source, basis.’ Nagna, 45 v: ‘naked mendicant, especially: Buddha;’ in text: an epithet of Śiva. Naivedya, 31 r, 245 v, 247 r: ney-vēttiyam, i.e., name of an offering of eatables presented to a deity. Nakula, 9 b r, 91 v: ‘(Bengal) mongoose (Viverra ichneumon);’ name of the twin brother of Sahadeva,

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one of the see: Pañca Nandagopa, 93 v: Ānantakōpan, 93 v: i.e., ‘son of (shepherd) (stepfather of );’ an epithet of Nandikeśvara, 9 a r, 22 r, 43 r, 45 r, 46 a r, 48 r, 252 r: ‘happy lord;’ name of an attendant of Śiva. Nārada, 9 d r, 199 v, 201 r, 213 v, 216 r: nāratar; name of and a messenger between gods and human beings. 93 v: ‘form, embodiment of man-lion;’ an epithet of 9 b r, 84 r, 88 v, 89 v: ‘descent of manlion;’ name of an incarnation of 29 r, 93 v, 98 v: ‘son of the (original, primordial) man;’ an epithet of 105 v: ‘consort of ’ an epithet of Nārībhāga, 45 r: ‘man as half (body, part) of a woman, wife;’ an epithet of Śiva. Narmadā, 9 a r, 64 v: narumatai, ‘causing pleasure;’ name of a river that runs South of Vidhya-hills in the States of Mahārāstra and Gujarat, India. page_282 Page 283 Nātha, 45 v: ‘protector, patron, owner, lord;’ an epithet of Śiva. Navaśakti, 9 a r, 9 c r, 36 v, 159 v, etc.: nava-catti, ‘nine energies, having nine faculties,’ embodiment of nine (minor) goddesses. Navasiddha, 217 r: navacittar, ‘nine persons who have accomplished, gained, fulfilled, been made perfect;’ names of nine wise men. 29 v: ‘stainless, sinless lord;’ an epithet of Śiva. 45 r: ‘blue-necked’ from swallowing poison; an epithet of Śiva. Nīlī, 168 v, 174 v: nīli, ‘(fierce) dark-blue woman;’ an epithet of Durgā. Nirmala, 45 r: ‘spotless, virtuous;’ an epithet of Śiva. Nitalaloka, 23 r: nitalalōkam, ‘lower world;’ name of a lower world. Nitya, 45 v: ‘constant, perpetual, eternal;’ an epithet of Śiva. Nityānanda, 13 r: ‘eternally-infinite one;’ an epithet of Parāparavastu. Nityapūjā, 31 r: nittiya-pūcai, ‘perpetual adoration;’ name of a ritual ceremony. 9 d r, 220 v, 222 r: niruti; name of the regent of the Southwest. namo 29 r, 89 r: ōm namō ‘praise to ’ also known as ‘(a form of prayer) containing eight syllables.’ vighneśvarāya 65 v, 69 r: ōmvikkinēcurāya namō, ‘praise to Vighneśvara (i.e., ).’ Padmanābha, 93 v: ‘lotus-naveled;’ an epithet of Pākaśāsana, 194 r: ‘instructor of the ignorant;’ an epithet of Devendra. Pākku, 103 v, 260 v: pākku, ‘arecanut, arecapalm’ (Areca catechu). Pañcadravya, 55 v, 255 v, 261 v: pañca-tiraviyam, ‘five substances’ made from the produce of mountain, forest, plain, city and ocean. 28 v, 204 v, 251 v: pañcāccaram, ‘consisting of five syllables;’ it means ‘adoration to Śiva.’ 9 a r, 27 v, 28 r, 33 v: pañca-karttar, ‘five agents, makers, doers, actors;’ in text: collective name for Brahmā, Maheśvara, Rudra und Sadāśiva. 9 b r, 91 r: ‘five sons of ’ collective name for (i.e., Dharma, Bhīma, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva). Pañcāyudha, 94 r: ‘man with five weapons,’ i.e., = Skt. ‘bearer of five weapons;’ an epithet of page_283 Page 284

45 v: ‘man who dances the dance (known as) ’ an epithet of Śiva. Parabrahman, 41 v: para-piramam, ‘the supreme Brahman;’ an epithet of Brahman. Paradesin, 32 v, 228 r, 259 r: paratēci, ‘a person of other country, foreigner, sojourner, beggar, religious mendicant, pilgrim.’ Parameśvarī, 58 v: paramēcuvari, ‘consort of Parameśvara (the supreme lord, Being, god;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Parāparavastu, 9 a r, 10 r, etc.: parāparavastu, ‘divine substance/reality, which is simultaneously remote and near, prior and posterior (i.e., cause and effect), earlier and later, higher and lower, better and worse;’ name

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of the Supreme Being. Parāśakti, 9 a r, 9 c r, 12 v, 35 r, 37 r, 142 r, etc.: parā-catti, ‘the supreme energy of Śiva (i.e., Civam);’ i.e., name of a goddess. 45 v: ‘holding an ax in the hand;’ an epithet of Śiva. Paraśurāma, 9 c r, 84 r, 87 r, 137 r, 140 v: ‘Rāma with an ax;’ name of in his Paraśurāmāvatāra. Paraśurāmāvatāra, 9 b r, 84 r, 87 v: paracu-rāmavatāram, ‘descent of Paraśurāma;’ name of an incarnation of Pārvatī, 9 a r, 22 v, 33 v, 124 v, 148 v, 163 r, 181 r, etc.: pārvati, ‘woman, lady, goddess of earth;’ cf. Skt. pārvatī, ‘woman, lady, goddess of Parvata (rugged mountain, height, hill, rock); name of the principal consort of Śiva. Pāśa, 57 r, 66 r, 140 r, 146 r: pācam, ‘tie, noose, snare, bond, cord, fetter;’ an attribute either of Śiva or Yama. Paśupati, 45 r: pacupati, ‘lord of animals;’ an epithet of Śiva. Pātāla, 219 v: ‘deep, hell.’ 105 v: ‘ of Pātāla (‘a measure of music’);’ an epithet of 25 v, 26 r: ‘deep (in the earth)’ that cannot be excavated. Pātālaloka, 9 d r, 23 r, 31 r, 221 v: pātāla-lōkam, ‘world of the deep;’ name of one of the seven regions under the world. 45 v: ‘(bearing) staff, bow (i.e., Śiva’s trident) in hand;’ an epithet of Rudra-Śiva. Piśāca, 170 r, 171 v: picācu; a class of malevolent demons lusting after piśa (‘flesh’), evil spirit that hovers around, especially around the cremation ground. page_284 Page 285 Pitāmaha, 120 v: ‘father of the fathers;’ an epithet of Brahmā. Pītāmbara, 94 r: ‘dressed in yellow clothes;’ an epithet of 232 r, 236 v: ‘stool, bench, altar.’ Prahlāda, 89 r: ‘delight, joy, happiness;’ name of a devotee of 26 r: ‘ for/of the breath of life,’ i.e., the most important 26 r: ‘adoration of made of earth;’ name of a ritual ceremony performed on a bank of a river or water tank. Pulomajā, 195 v: pulōmacai, ‘daughter of Puloman’ (a demon prince killed by his son-in-law Indra); an epithet of 24 r: ‘white lotus flower (expressing beauty);’ name of an elephant guarding the Southeast. 9 d r, 199 v, 202 r: ‘the great (i.e., the sage who looked like a white lotus flower);’ name of a sage. Purāntaka, 45 r: ‘destroyer of a city, fort, body, matter;’ an epithet of Śiva. 9 c r, 51 r, 120 v, 145 r, 185 r, 231 v, etc.: ‘belonging to ancient times, an ancient tale, a traditional story;’ name of a class of sacred works. Purohita, 194 r: ‘placed foremost, commissioned, family priest;’ an epithet of Devendra. 224 r: ‘vehicle-man, the man who uses (another) man (servant) as his vehicle;’ an epithet of Kubera. Puruhūta, 194 r: ‘much invoked, invoked by many (during a fire-sacrifice);’ an epithet of Devendra. 218 v, 220 r: ‘(a mythical self-moving) flower-car, chariot (carrying its occupant through the air);’ an aerial flowercar serving as a seat, throne. 9 c r, 36 v, 128 v, 130 r, 133 r: probably: ‘well-fed, rich, full, perfect’; name of a consort of 24 r: ‘flower-toothed;’ name of an elephant guarding the Northwest quarter. Rāhu, 243 r: rāku, i.e., irāku, ‘the seizer’ (of sun and moon causing eclipses); the ascending node of the moon, also believed to be a monstrous serpent. 207 v: rācarisi, i.e., irācarisi, ‘royal sage;’ name of a page_285 Page 286 9 c r, 113 r, 130 r, 169 v, 177 r, 178 r: giant, demon, goblin,’ a class of malignant spirits.

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158 v: iratta ‘bloody (?);’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. is the furious manifestation of Bhadrakālī. 134 v: i.e., ‘bloody, red ’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī who is said to have killed the demons Canda and Munda; in text: a name of one of the (‘having seven mothers,’ collective name of the seven mothers). Rāma, 9 b r, 83 v, 93 v, 117 v, 178 r, 179 v, 180 v: i.e., ‘darkcolored, pleasant, charming, lovely, causing rest;’ name of a deity. Rāmāvatāra, 9 b r, 84 r, 99 r, 205 r: rāmavatāram, i.e., irāmavatāram, ‘descent of Rāma,’ an incarnation of Rambhā, 200 r: rampai, i.e., irampai, also: arampai, ‘the plantain (Musa sapientum);’ name of a celebrated and the most beautiful Apsaras, a courtesan in the assembly hall of Indra. Raganātha, 93 v: raka-nāyakar, i.e., ‘lord of the assembly hall, stage’ of the temple at Śrī Rakam in country; an epithet of Rati, 9 b r, 42 v, 108 v, 112 v: rati, i.e., irati, ‘pleasure, enjoyment, the pleasure of love, sexual union;’ name of a consort of Manmatha. 9 b r, 9 c r, 86 v, 114 v, 177 r, 179 r, etc.: i.e., ‘causing to cry,’ leader of ruler of and chief opponent of Rāma. 43 r, 224 v, 226 v: risapam, ‘a bull (as impregnating the flock);’ any male animal; name of an attendant of Śiva. 9 d r, 185 v, 198 v, 208 r: risi: perhaps: a singer, i.e., seer of sacred (vedic) hymns, an inspired sage. Rudra, 14 r, 27 v, etc.: probably: ‘crying, roaring, terrible, horrible;’ name of a male deity. 25 r–v, 119 v, 201 v, 205 v, etc.: i.e., uruttirākkam, rutti‘ (rosary made of) seeds of (Elaeocarpus ganitrus).’ f. Skt. ‘a string of rosary seeds.’ Śacī, 195 v: caci, ‘(demonstrating) power, energy;’ an epithet of Sadāśiva, 9 a r, 27 v, 33 v, 34 v, 45 r: catā-civam, ‘one who is eternally gracious;’ an epithet of Śiva. Sahadeva, 9 b r, 91 v: ‘near, with god;’ name of one of the Pañca Śaiva, 32 r, 94 v, 249 r, 250 v, 252 r: caivar, ‘(an honorable) devotee of Śiva.’ This kind of person is a vegetarian and makes ritual sacrifices. page_286 Page 287 Śaivapūjā, 245 v, 249 r, 254 r: caivar-pūcai, ‘adoration of/by the Śaivas,’ usually: ‘adoration of Śiva by his devotees;’ name of a ritual ceremony. Śakti, 9 a r, 9 c r, 12 v, 26 v, 33 v, 64 r, 132 r, 168 v, etc.: catti, ‘power, energy,’ i.e., female power of the Supreme Being; name of a goddess. Śaktipūjā, 37 v: catti-pūcai, ‘adoration of Śakti;’ name of a ritual ceremony; see: Śakti. Sāloka, 30 v: cā-lōkam, ‘world to live together,’ a blissful condition of departed souls living with god. Śamana, 222 r: ‘calming;’ an epithet of Yama. Śambarāri, 112 v: campurāri, ‘enemy of (the Acuran) Śambara;’ an epithet of Manmatha. Śāmbhu, 45 r: campu, ‘bestower of happiness, benevolence, help;’ an epithet of Śiva. Śāmbhuvī, 58 r: cāmpavi, ‘a (female) devotee, wife of Śāmbhu (Śiva as existing for happiness, benevolence, help);’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Samīpa, 30 v: cāmīpam, ‘nearness,’ a blissful condition of departed soul (living) close to god. 9 b r, 100 v: ‘ who enables continued succession, lineage, family, race, offspring;’ name of as a goddess of offspring. Samudradevī, 105 v: camuttira-tēvi, ‘ocean-goddess,’ i.e., ‘woman born in an ocean;’ an epithet of 211 v: ‘one who subdues one’s passion, self-control, ascetic, saint.’ Sandhyarha, 67 v: ‘worthy man at cross roads;’ an epithet of 21 v, 29 r, 82 r, 162 v, 164 r: ‘(the weapon, war-trumpet) conch shell,’ an emblem of 24 v: ‘conch shell;’ name of the one of the eight snakes. 134 r: catta-mātars, ‘having seven mothers,’ collective name of the seven mothers. Saptarājas, 9 b r, 87 v: captarācās, ‘seven kings.’ 45 r, 93 v: ‘(one who holds) bow in the hand,’ usually: an epithet of in text: also an epithet of Śiva. Sarasvatī, 9 a r, 9 b r, 22 r, 42 v, 64 v, 122 v, 230 v, etc.: caracuvati, (probably: that which flows, watery, elegant); goddess of learning, arts, sciences and beauty, consort of Brahmā, and also a name of river. page_287 file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Page 288 Sarasvatīpūjā, 9 b r, 125 r, 126 r, 240 v: caracuvati-pūcai, adoration of Sarasvatī;’ name of a ritual ceremony. 72 v: ‘reed forest;’ an epithet of born as Śaravaa. Sārūpya, 30 v: cā-rūpam, i.e., cārūppiyam, the blissful condition of a devotee who obtains a form that is similar to that of god’s. Sārvabhauma, 24 r: cārva-paumam, ‘ruling over the whole world;’ name of the world-elephant that also serves as a vehicle of Kubera. Sarvadayābharī, 36 v: carva-tayā-pari, ‘woman who is gracious to all things;’ an epithet of Śakti as the female principle of Civam. Sarvajīvadayāpara, 29 v: ‘one who is gracious to all living creatures;’ an epithet of Parāparavastu. Sarvalokadayāpara, 13 r: ‘one who is gracious to the whole world;’ an epithet of Parāparavastu. Sarvalokanāyakī, 36 v: carva-lōka-nāyaki, ‘mistress of the whole world;’ an epithet of Śakti as the female principle of Civam. 13 r: ‘keeper/protector of all things (i.e., the universe);’ an epithet of Parāparavastu. Sarveśvara, 13 r: ‘(the supreme) commander of all things;’ an epithet of Parāparavastu. 59 r, 80 v: a fasting festival that is celebrated in honor of Śāstra, 51 r: cāstiram, ‘precept, rule, teaching, direction, a compendium of rules, a sacred book of divine authority;’ however, the text refers to the six darśanas (‘view points,’ schools of theology): 1. nyāya (logic), 2. (natural philosophy), 3. (teachings on true substance), 4. yoga (meditation, yoked with Reality), 5. (ritual guidelines) and 6. Vedanta (summary of vedic teachings). Śatrugana, 9 b r, 95 v: ‘destroyer of enemies;’ name of a brother of Rāma. 25 v: ‘true ’ name of a Satyaloka, 23 r–v, 30 v: cattiya-lōkam, ‘true world;’ name of an aerial world. Sāyujya, 30 v: cāyucciyam, ‘becoming one with god, deification, reception among gods,’ the highest state of bliss. Senāpati, 72 v: ‘commander of an army’ or/and ‘the lord of Senā,’ the second consort of an epiethet of 24 v: ‘remaining;’ name of a snake. page_288 Page 289 Siddha, 9 d r, 213 v, 217 r: cittar ‘one who has accomplished, perfected, obtained (the final object).’ 165 r, 167 v, 181 v: ‘acura (‘non-god,’ i.e., demon who fights against god) with the lion-face.’ Sindhu, 9 a r, 64 v: cintu, ‘to go, stream,’ a common name of the river Indus. Sītā, 9 b r, 102 v, 114 r, 180 r: cītai, ‘furrow, line of a ploughshare,’ adopted daughter of Janaka and consort of Rāma. 105 v: ‘ (found, from, of) a furrow, line of a ploughshare,’ consort of Rāma. Śiva, 9 c r, 9 d r, 26 v, 30 r, 113 r, 197 r, 227 r, etc.: ‘the gracious, auspicious One;’ name of a god. Śivabhaktikāra, 21 v, 23 v, 25 v, 28 v, 33 v, 36 r, 218 v, etc.: civa-patti-kārer, ‘one who shows devotion Śiva, serves and worships him,’ i.e., a devotee of Śiva. Śivadhyāna, 211 r: more appropriately: śivadhyāna, ‘meditation on Civam/Śiva. Śivadūta, 9 d r, 30 v, 213 v, 218 r: ‘messenger, envoy, agent, servant of Śiva.’ Śivakāmasundarī, 58 v, 59 v: civakāmi-cavuntari, ‘the beautiful Śivakāmī (‘lover of Śiva’ in his temple at Citambaram);’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 25 v, 37 r: civa-likam, ‘sign, mark of Śiva’. Śivaloka, 23 v, 30 v, 34 v: civa-lōkam, ‘world of Śiva,’ name of an upper world. Śivamata, 9 a r, 28 v: civa-matam, ‘teaching, belief, opinion, religion of Śiva;’ a name for the religion of Śiva. Śivamatakāra, 81 r: civa-mata-k-kārar, ‘follower of Śiva-religion.’ Śivapūjā, 31 r, 253 v: civa-pūcai, ‘adoration of Śiva;’ name of a ritual ceremony. Śivarātri, 50 r, 51 v: civa-rāttiri, ‘night of Śiva,’ a special night festival in honor of Śiva, celebrated by his devotees on the fourteenth Tithi (‘lunar day’) of the dark fortnight of the month of Māci (FebruaryMarch). Śivatārā, 58 v: ‘wife of Śiva;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 73 r, 230 v, 236 r: name of a festival, celebrated in honor of on the sixth day of the bright fortnight of the month of Kārtikai (October-November). file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Somaśūra, 85 v: ‘hero of Soma (-sacrifice);’ name of an ascetic. Śrīdevī, 105 v: cītēvi, ‘goddess Śrī (beauty, glory, wealth, happiness, );’ an epithet of page_289 Page 290 Śrīdhara, 93 v: ‘husband of Śrī (‘beauty, wealth, joy, );’ an epithet of Suayambhū, 120 v: cuyampu, ‘self-existence;’ an epithet of Brahman; in text: of Brahmā. 9 a r, 22 v, 76 r, 150 r, 176 v, etc.: ‘very dear to the Brahmins;’ an epithet of Śūdra, 122 v: cūttirar, a member of the fourth, i.e., lowest (i.e., caste). Sukha, 194 v: cukam, ‘happiness, prosperity, wealth;’ in text: a wholesome era. Śūla, 26 v, 139 v: cūlam, ‘trident, the three-peonged dart,’ an emblem of Śiva. 45 r: ‘man holding a Cūlam in hand;’ an epithet of Śiva. Śūlī, 158 v, 168 v: cūli, ‘woman holding a Cūlam;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. Śunāsīra, 194 r: 2 an epithet of Indra; in text: of Devendra. Sundarī, 58 v, 168 v: cuntari, ‘beautiful woman;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Sundarī, 59 v: cavuntari, ‘beautiful woman;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Supratīka, 24 r: cuppira-tīkam, ‘having a beautiful form, shape, lovely;’ name of a (mythical) elephant in the North East of the world. Śūra, 9 c r, 53 v, 71 r, 167 v, 176 r, etc: ‘warrior, hero.’ He was an enemy, whom slew. Śūrapadma, 52 r, 71 r, 166 v, 181 v, 226 v, 237 r: ‘warrior, hero Padma (i.e., in the form of a lotus).’ 72 v: ‘form, embodiment, of ( ) as the destroyer of (the demon) Śūrapadma.’ Śūrī, 145 r, 158 v: cūri, ‘female warrior, heroine;’ an epithet of as well as of Kālī. Sūrya, 47 r, 252 v: ‘sun, sun god.’ Sūryapūjā, 261 v: cūriya-pūcai, ‘adoration of Cūriyan (sun god).’ Sutalaloka, 23 r: cutala-lōkam, ‘world of great depth.’ Of the seven underworld regions it is the second region/world.’ 9 d r, 199 v, 208 r: cūtamakārisi, ‘great quicksilver-like seer;’ name of a seer. Svarganāyaka, 45 r: ‘lord of Svarga (‘heaven of Indra’);’ in text: an epithet of Śiva. Svarloka, 23 r: cuvarlōkam, ‘world/region (called) Svar (the Sun, sunshine, bright, luster, bright space, sky);’ name of an aerial region. page_290 Page 291 Swāmin, 29 v: cuvāmi, ‘master, lord, Supreme Being, god, spiritual teacher, elder.’ 24 v, 52 r, 148 v, etc.: ‘a cutter;’ name of a snake prince. Tāla, 177 v, 260 r: ‘musical time, time-measure, a small cymbal for keeping time in music;’ name of a musical instrument. Talātalaloka, 23 r: tarātalalōkam, ‘bottomless world;’ usually written as talātala; name of a underworld, lower region, a hell. 45 r, 260 r: ‘lord, embodiment of (frantic) dance (with violent gesticulation);’ an epithet of Śiva. 259 v, 260 r: ‘adoration of ’ a name of a ritual ceremony; see: Tārakāsura, 167 r, 181 v: ‘causing to pass over, carrying over;’ name of a demon opponent of 24 v: perhaps the word is repeated here referring to one of the eight mythical serpents of the nether world, supporting the earth. Tilottamā, 200 r: tilōttamai; name of a celestial nymph. Tithi, 50 v: titi, ‘a lunar day;’ during the increase of moon there will be fifteen Tithis constituting the light half of a month and during the decrease of moon fifteen Tithis constituting the dark half a month. 227 r: ‘an arch, an arched doorway, festooned decorations (over doorways, above streets with leaves, flowers, fruits or boughs of trees).’ Tretāyuga, 9 b r, 84 v, 261 r: tiretā-yugam, ‘the tretā-age,’ i.e., the age of a die with three spots, silver age, age of triads. Trikaraśūrī, 134 v: tiri-karā-c-cūri, ‘three-handed heroine;’ name of one of the (‘having seven mothers,’ collective name of the seven mothers). file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Trivikrama, 93 v: ‘the three steps, the man who strided over the three worlds with three steps;’ an epithet of Tulasī, 96 r: ‘(holy) basil (shrub, i.e., Ocimum sanctum).’ Tumburu, 9 d r, 213 v, 215 v: tumpuru, a class of celestial horse-faced musicians belonging to the Kantaruvars; 216 v: ‘ (a kind of Indian lute) of Tumburu;’ name of a musical instrument. Tyāgarāja, 52 v: tiyākarācar, ‘king of gifts and donations/i.e., generous king; name of Śiva in his temple at Tiruvārūr in country. Urvaśī, 192 v, 200 r: ūrvaci, ‘desire, widely extending, dawn;’ name of a heavenly nymph. page_291 Page 292 Vaishnavism.

238 v:

‘

’ i.e., a Brahmin who adores

and belongs to

96 r: name of a fasting festival observed in honor of on the eleventh day of the bright half of the month (December–January). 9 d r, 22 r, 23 v, 219 r: name of the paradise, (celestial) abode of 93 v: ‘lord, patron, god of ’ te 224 v: ‘split-eared man;’ an epithet of Kubera. Vaiśya, 122 v: vaiciyar, man who settles on the soil, a peasant, agriculturist, a working man, man of the third (i.e., caste). 194 r: ‘thunderbolt-handed, wielding thunderbolt;’ an epithet of Devendra who possesses the weapon vacciram, i.e., a sharp twoedged weapon held in the middle. Vajrāyudha, 177 v, 191 r: vaccirāyutam, ‘weapon vacciram (‘thunderbolt, a sharp two-edged weapon held in the middle’).’ Valāri, 194 r: valāri, ‘enemy of (the demon) ’ an epithet of Devendra. Valmīkanātha, 45 r: ‘lord of anthill,’ i.e., in ’man who lives in, near an anthill;’ name of Śiva in his temple at Tiruvārūr in country. Vālmīki, 199 v, 204 r, 205 r: vālmīkar, ‘man who (during his meditation) allowed himself to be overrun with ants like an anthill;’ name of the author of the epic poem see: Vālmīki 99 r, 114 r, 205 r: vālmīkar-risi, ‘the sage, seer Vālmīkar.’ Vāmana, 24 r, 93 v: probably: ‘dwarfish;’ name of a male elephant guarding the South. Vāmanāvatāra, 9 b r, 84 r, 89 v: ‘descent of Vāmana;’ an incarnation of Vanamālin, 94 r: ‘man wearing a garland of forest-flowers;’ an epithet of 124 v: ‘(goddess, patron of) voice, sound, music, eloquent speech, diction, language;’ an epithet of Sarasvatī. Vara, 45 v, 120 v: ‘one who solicits a girl in marriage, lover, bridegroom, husband, choicest, most excellent;’ in text: an epithet of Brahmā as well as of Śiva. Varāhāvatāra, 9 a r, 84 r, 86 r: varākāvatāram, ‘descent of a boar,’ an incarnation of page_292 Page 293 9 d r, 220 v, 223 r, 262 r: perhaps: ‘all-enveloping sky,’ also: supreme deity, king of gods and people, and of the universe; in is considered as god of maritime tracts, rain and regent of the West. 262 r: ‘an offering, sacrifice (made) to ’ Vasanta, 112 v: ‘(brilliant) Spring (season)’ from the middle of March to the middle of May; usually: a friend of Manmatha; in text: an epithet of Manmatha. 9 d r, 199 v, 205 v: ‘most excellent, best, richest;’ name of a sage. Vaśīkara, 83 r: ‘bringing into subjection, overcoming by charms, subjugating;’ name of a devotee of Vasudeva, 93 v: ‘excellent, good, beneficent god;’ name of the father of Vāsuki, 24 v: vācuki; name of a serpent-king used by gods as a rope for twisting round the mountain Mandragiri to churn a milk-ocean. Vāyu, 9 d r, 220 v, 223 r: vāyvu, ‘air,’ one of the five elements. Veda, 15 v, 51 r, 120 r: vētam, ‘knowledge, sacred or true knowledge, ritual knowledge,’ an important class of

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sacred scriptures. Vedavyāsa, 9 b r, 9 d r, 122 v, 199 v, 201 v: vēta-viyācar, ‘arranger of Veda;’ name of the editor of Vedas and the celebrated author of the Sanskrit epic Mahābhārata. Vetāla, 174 v: ‘demon, ghost, goblin, vampire,’ a kind of demon that lives in the corpses, assumes several forms and harms the living people. 178 r–v, 179 r–v, 180 v: ‘terrifying, fearful;’ name of a giant and brother of Vibhūti, 81 v: vipūti, ‘penetrating, pervading, abundant, plentiful, fortune;’ a Sanskrit word for the sacred ash Vicuvāttainācci, 58 v: vicuvāttai-nācci, ‘mistress, consort of Viśvanātha;’ an epithet of Pārvatī; see: Viśvanātha. Vidhi, 120 v: viti, ‘rule, ordinance, statue, mode of conduct, life, fate;’ an epithet of Brahmā. Vidyādhara, 9 d r, 213 v, 217 r: vittiyātarar, ‘possessed of science, spells,’ a class of supernatural beings. Vighneśvara, 9 a r, 22 v, etc. ‘lord over obstacles,’ i.e., destroyer of hindrance, opposition and difficulty;’ an epithet of 9 b r, 100 v: ‘ ’ name of a manifestation of page_293 Page 294 Vināyaka, 9 a r, 61 r, 67 v, 252 v.: ‘lord who takes (troubles, difficulties) away;’ an epithet of Vināyakamūrti, 67 v: ‘form, embodiment of Vināyaka;’ an epithet of see: Vināyaka. Vināyakapūjā, 70 v: ‘adoration to Vināyaka.’ Vindu, 93 v: ‘finding, getting, acquiring;’ an epithet of 215 v: name of an Indian lute. Vīrabhadra, 9 c r, 128 v, 130 r, 143 r, 146 r, etc.: ‘friendly, good to the heroes, courageous men;’ name of a servant of Śiva. 9 b r, 100 v: ‘heroic, brave ’ name of a manifestation of Vīravasanta, 45 r: ‘hero of the (brilliant) Spring (season);’ an epithet of Manmatha. Viśākha, 72 v: ‘branched, forked;’ an epithet of 21 v, 23 v, etc.: ‘ ’ 9 d r, 213 v, 218 r, 219 r: ‘messenger, agent of ’ who brings in the souls of departed devotees of 34 v: ‘world, abode of ’ 81 r: ‘follower of ’ 9 a r, 28 v, 80 v: ‘thought, regard, honor, intention, opinion, knowledge of ’ usually: ‘religion of ’ 255 v: ‘adoration to ’ name of a religious ceremony. 9 a r, 9 b r, 22 r–v, 27 v, 178 r, etc.: probably: ‘all-pervader,’ the second person of the Mummūrttis, but considered by his devotees as the Supreme Deity. Viśvāmitra, 9 d r, 199 v, 206 r–v: ‘enemy of all people;’ name of a sage. Viśvanātha, 45 r: ‘lord of all people, the entire universe;’ an epithet of Śiva in the city of Benares. Vitalaloka, 23 r: vitala-lōkam, ‘world of which the ground is apart, asunder;’ name of a lower region, hell. 45 r: viruttāccala-mūrtti, ‘embodiment, lord in (the city of) Viruttāccalam’ in country; an epithet of Śiva. page_294 Page 295 Yāga, 149 v, 163 v, etc.: yākam, ‘an offering, oblation, sacrifice, presentation, grant, any ceremony in which an offering is made;’ usually: name of a fire offering. Yajana, 9 d r, 260 v, 261 v: yakkiyam, ‘sacrifice, sacrificial worship, the act of sacrificing and worshipping, offering an oblation,’ a ceremony. Yama, 9 d r, 23 r, 30 v, 108 r, 209 v, 218 r, etc.: ‘rein, curb, bridle,’ ‘gatherer of people,’ ‘ruler of the spirits of the departed people,’ god of death and dead. 177 v: ‘club of Yama.’ Yamadūta, 9 d r, 30 v, 121 v, 213 v, 218 r, 219 r: ema-tūtar, ‘messenger of Yama,’ appointed to bring the spirits of the dead to the judgment seat of Yama. Yamala, 158 v: ‘twin, paired, doubled;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. Yamaloka, 9 d r, 23 r, 31 r, 34 v: ema-lōkam, ‘world of Yama;’ world of the dead, hell. Yamunā, 9 a r, 64 v: ‘sister of Yama (‘rein, bridle, charioteer, selfcontrol, twin-born’);’ the river file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Jumunā that joins at Allahabad; in text: a river goddess. Yogin, 45 v, 136 v, 211 v, 242 v: yōki, ‘joined with, related to, follower of Yoga-system, contemplative devotee, ascetic;’ an epithet of Śiva as well as of Yōginī, 158 v: ‘consort of Yōki (Śiva);’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. Yuga, 194 v: yukam, ‘an age of the world, long mundane period of years.’ 9.2 South Indian words Acarap pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy that desires compliments.’ 45 v, 46 r: =Skt. pañcamukha, ‘five-faced/headed man;’ an epithet of Śiva. 112 v: ‘lord, master, god of (sexual) love who uses (‘arrows hipped with five kinds of flowers’);’ an epithet of Manmatha. 67 v: =Skt. pañcakara, ‘five-handed man;’ an epithet of 227 r: ‘fire/flame with five faces;’ name of a torch representing the five faces of Śiva. Aippacitulākkāvēri, 62 v: name of a ceremonial bath that devotees (especially: widows) take on the first day of the month of Aippaci (i.e., November) in the river Kāvēri at Māyāvaram. page_295 Page 296 Aippacitulām 230 v, 240 v: ‘immersion during the Aippacitulām;’ name of a bathing ceremony. 9 c r, 120 v, etc.: ‘lord, master;’ name of a guardian (male) deity of a village. 135 v: ‘holy day (i.e., festival) of ’ name of a festival. 94 r: ‘eminent (lord);’ in the text: an epithet of otherwise the name of a canonized devotee of Akantaip pēy, 173 v: ‘proud pēy.’ 58 v: = ‘female ruler of the universe;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Ākkam, 105 v: ‘grain;’ an epithet of 224 r: ‘ruler of the city of Alakā;’ an epithet of Kubera. 158 v: ‘woman who has raised her banner with a figure of a devil,’ i.e., ‘woman with a figure of a devil on her flag;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. 93 v: ‘ the handsome bridegroom;’ an epithet of in his temple at Uraiyūr in countryand also the name of a poet-devotee of (ca. late thirteenth or early fourteenth century of the Common Era). 45 v: ‘god (sitting) under the bunyan tree (Ficus bengalensis);’ an epithet of Śiva. 105 v: ‘daughter seated on a (full-blown) lotus (Nelumbium speciosum);’ an epithet of 105 v: ‘woman (seated) on a (full-blown) lotus (Nelumbium speciosum);’ an epithet of 226 v: ‘round (fragrant) umbrella (made of palm leaves/clothes)’ carried in procession before images of deities or people of respect, a parasol. 94 r: ‘man who sleeps on a leaf of a banyan tree;’ an epithet of (in sleeping posture). 58 v: ‘consort of a (stray) elephant’ that was rescued and brought back to its herd by Śiva; an epithet of Pārvatī. 187 r: ‘ambrosia-well’ that gives forth a drink of immortality. 252 v: ‘mother;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Ammai, 58 r, 46 a r, etc.: ‘mother;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 45 r: ‘lord of (the temple in the city of) Ampalam’ (i.e., Cidamparam) in the South Arcot District in country; an epithet of Śiva. page_296 Page 297 Aner, 136 v: perhaps: anēr, ‘bull’ or =Skt. harihara, ‘ ’ in text: an epithet of 173 v: ‘violent-pēy.’ 58 v: =Skt. ‘fish-eyed woman;’ an epithet of Pārvatī as she is worshipped in the city of Maturai. 9 c r, 128 v, etc.: ‘violent, terrible mother;’ name of a village goddess. 94 r: i.e., ‘man with an elephant goad,’ usually: of in text: an epithet of 119 v, 227 r, 234 v: =Skt. hamsa, ‘swan, goose (Anser indicus);’ the vehicle of Brahmā. 120 v: ‘person with the swan-vehicle;’ an epithet of Brahmā.

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58 v: ‘mistress of (the holy mountain) ’ in country; an epithet of Pārvatī. 45 r, 52 v: ‘lord of (the holy mountain) ’ in country; an epithet of Śiva. 29 v: ‘ruler, god’. 257 r: ‘adoration of (i.e., Brahmins);’ name of a ritual ceremony. 26 v, 32 v, etc.: ‘(a wandering, non-saivite) monk,’ a class of mendicants. 258 r: ‘adoration of Āntis;’ name of a ritual ceremony; see: Ānti. 45 v: =Skt. ‘man with the (rosy) color of sunset;’ an epithet of Śiva. 194 v: ‘year.’ 241 r: ‘a bath for departure;’ after taking a ritual bath during a festival, the people will go home. Āpattukkuk kātta 70 r: ‘honorable child that has protected (the people) from danger;’ an epithet of 58 v: ‘creeper/young woman who is consecrated, anointed,’ or ‘young woman who consecrates and anoints;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. pēy, 174 r: ‘pēy under the tree Aracamaram (Ficus religiosa).’ 58 v: ‘mother who protects the (delivery) room;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 58 r: ‘woman on the left side of Aran (=Skt. Hara);’ an epithet of Pārvatī; see: Hara. page_297 Page 298

72 v: ‘son of Aran (=Skt. Hara);’ an epithet of see: Hara. 224 r: ‘friend of Aran (=Skt. Hara);’ an epithet of Kubera. 158 v: ‘forest-woman;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. Aratēci, 259 r: ‘mendicant monk,’ who goes around begging in his native place.3 It might also mean aratēciparaēci, ‘foreigner and mendicant.’ Aratēcipūcai, 259 r: ‘adoration of the Aratēcis;’ name of a ritual ceremony; see: Aratēci. 136 v: ‘guardian of (=Skt. dharma, religious or moral duty of a sect, caste and community);’ an epithet of 94 r: ‘dear person reclining on the snake-couch;’ an epithet of as reclining on the snake Anantan (i.e., Skt. ). Aricic cārāyam, 151 v: ‘spirituous liquor distilled from (boiled) rice (water).’ Arippiriyai, 105 v: ari-p pririyai, ‘beloved (woman) of Hari;’ an epithet of see: Hari. 72 v: Skt. ‘six-faced man;’ an epithet of 45 r: ‘god of (i.e., )’ in South Arcot District in country; an epithet of Śiva. 53 r, 74 r, 77 v: name of a devotee of (c. 1370–1450) and the author of the devotional books Tiru-p (‘holy fame’) and ‘ receiving ’ and 9 a r, 47 r, 49 r: ‘sixty-three men,’ i.e., sixty-three ‘sixty-three lords, masters,’ canonized devotees of Śiva mentioned in Periy also known as ‘slaves, servants of Śiva.’ 235 v: name of a bathing festival. The devotees take a ritual bath in the river Kāvērī on the day of Pūrvaphalguni in the month of (JuliAugust). 59 r, 230 v, 234 r: ‘holy day (i.e., festival) of Ātippūram.’ 112 v: ‘he who beats the drum vehemently;’ an epithet of Manmatha. pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy that sleeps (i.e., dwells) in the kitchen.’ 222 r: ‘son of the (royal, divine) assembly’ of learned people, ‘assembly hall;’ an epithet of Yama. 50 r: = name of an annual celebration on a fullmoon day in the month of (August-September), in which the men of three (twice-born) upper castes renew their sacred thread. page_298 Page 299

58 v: ‘mother/mistress of (the Śiva-temple) (‘palace/temple of the one who possesses the cow’) at near the city of Tañcāvūr in country; an epithet of Pārvatī. 25 v: name of the Liga in the Śiva-temple at near the city of Tañcāvūr in country. 194 v: ‘man with a thousand eyes;’ an epithet of Devendra.

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192 r: ‘man with a thousand ears,’ in text: it should read ’man with one thousand eyes;’ an epithet of Devendra. 194 r: ‘husband of Śacī;’ an epithet of Devendra; see: Śacī. Cakkaraic camuttiram, 24 r: Cakkaraic camuttiram, ‘sea of sugar.’ 125 r: = ‘woman sitting on a white lotus flower;’ an epithet of Sarasvatī. 31 v, 246 v: This is the powdered dry gum from the benzoin tree (i.e., Styrax benzoin) used as frankincense. Camuttirappaccai, 253 v: =camuttirap pālai, ‘elephant creeper (Argyreia speciosa). 58 v: ‘mistress of offspring, lineage;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. pēy, 174 r: ‘pēy of fight, conflict, quarrel, war.’ 46 a v, 48 r: ‘violent lord;’ name of a devotee of Śiva, who belongs to the see: Arupattumūvar Cantip pēy, 173 v: ‘evening pēy.’ 93 v: ‘Lord, King of (the wild woman) Śabarī;’ an epithet of as he is known in his temple (‘home of the handsome man’) near Maturai in country. Caracuvatiyammai, 125 r: ‘mother Sarasvatī;’ an epithet of Sarasvatī. 93 v: ‘ holding the bow ’ an epithet of Cārntāraik kāttavar, 45 r, 46 r: ‘protector of those who come to him seeking refuge;’ an epithet of Śiva. Carvalōkamātā, 36 v: carva-lōka-mātā =Skt. ‘mother of the whole world;’ an epithet of Śakti as the female principle of Civam. Cāstirap pēy, 173 r: ‘pēy of the learned people.’ Catācelvam, 105 v: ‘eternal riches;’ an epithet of pārttu pēy, 173 v: ‘attractive pēy of hell that is as dazzling as the (=Skt. ‘sparrow,’ i.e., Dicrurus macrocercus).’ page_299 Page 300 9 c r, 36 v, 128 v, 130 r, 133 r: ‘Woman with the braided hair living in a forest;’ name of a consort of 253 v: ‘eating with a guest,’ a name of a ritual meal. A host invites one or more guests for a meal to witness his religiosity and hospitality. Cātikulap pēy, 172 v: ‘(fanatic, proud) pēy of a caste or a (large) family.’ 238 v: =cattiram, ‘a sacrifice lasting many days’ and ‘arrow, fireworks, rocket.’4 Cellar, 83 r: probably: ‘wealthy man, son,’ in text: name of a herald. Cemparattai puspam, 261 v: =cemparattaip pū, shoe-flower (i.e., Hibiscus rosasinensis) Cempōttu, 214 v: name of the crow-pheasant bird (i.e., Centropus rufipennis). Cempukanācci, 58 v: ‘mistress of Cempukam (=Skt. jambuka, ‘fox’); an epithet of Pārvatī. 45 r: ‘lord with a red braided hair’ or ‘lord of the (plant) (Indian linden with yellow flowers, Grewia pilosa);’ an epithet of Śiva. 58 v: ‘woman with a red lotus flower (Nelumbium speciosum);’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 112 v: ‘son of the red-eyed Māl (i.e., );’ an epithet of Manmatha. 35 r, 79 r: name of a red water lily (Nymphaea odorata). 222 r: ‘god with a (royal, righteous) scepter,’ i.e., the god who dispenses impartial justice; an epithet of Yama. 72 v: =Skt. skanda, ‘spurting, effusing, spilling;’ an epithet of Skanda-Muruka. 136 v: ‘man with the weapon (‘horse-whip’);’ an epithet of 46 v: king of a Cēra-dynasty; one of the three dynasties of ancient country. 45 v: ‘husband/master of the army of tried soldiers;’ an epithet of Śiva. 72 v: a member of the mercantile caste; name of a trading community, also an epithet of 144 r: ‘woman of a mercantile caste.’ 72 v: ‘(the eminent) servant-lord;’ an epithet of 72 v: probably: ‘one who is at a distance;’ an epithet of page_300 Page 301 105 v, 195 v: ‘red woman,’ usually an epithet of file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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72 v: ‘lord of the hilly tract;’ an epithet of tiruvācikai, 238 r: ‘small, holy wreath, circlet, ornamental arch over the image of a deity;’ see: Tiruvācikai. Citamparam, 155 v: name of a temple city in the South Arcot District of country. Cittampalatti, 58 v: i.e., ‘consort of (‘the lord of the city of ’ i.e., Cidambara, i.e., Śiva);’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Cittirainācci, 58 v: ‘mistress of (the month) Cittirai (=Skt. citrā, bright, clear, conspicuous, excellent);’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Civai, 58 r: the feminine form of Śiva; an epithet of Pārvatī. 45 v, 53 r: = ‘the lord of bliss Svarga (‘heaven, abode of Indra’); name of Śiva in the city of Maturai in country. Cōmpal pēy, 174 r: ‘pēy (causing) drowsiness, smallpox, stupor.’ 46 v, 258 v: king of the whose later capital was in Tañcāvūr (‘city of ’); now the capital city of Tañcāvur District, country. 177 v: ‘big hewed, dry cane.’ 143 r: ‘man with Cukkumāttati,’ in text: name of the doorkeepers in the temples of village deities. 93 v: ‘man holding an ornamental conch, large convoluted shell (i.e., Turbinella pyrum);’ an epithet of pēy, 174 r: ‘pungent, mean, furious pēy.’ pēy, 173 r: ‘pēy of witchcraft causing evil.’ Cuntaramūrtti, 46a v: i.e., Cuntaramūrtti ‘form, embodiment of the handsome lord;’ one of the authors who composed the devotional book entitled Tēvāram. Cuntravilli, 45 r: ‘handsome, good, excellent bow-man, hunter;’ an epithet of Śiva. Cuppiramaniyatirunāl, 230 v, 236 r: ‘the holy day (i.e., festival) in honor of ’ 76 r: name of a holy place in honor of 173 r: ‘pēy of whirlwind.’ Curanati, 63 v: ‘river of gods;’ an epithet for the river in text: a tributary of 45 r: ‘man who is dancing on cremation-ground;’ an epithet of Śiva. page_301 Page 302

pēy, 173 r: ‘pēy living on cremation-ground.’ pēy, 174 r: ‘pēy with a burning (i.e., furious) face.’ Cūtup pēy, 172 v: ‘gambling-pēy.’ Cuvarkkavācalēkātaci, 96 r: name of the fasting festival celebrated in honor of on the eleventh Tithi (‘lunar day of a bright/dark fortnight’) of the bright half of the month of (December–January). Cuvarkkavācal is a gate in the temples of that is believed to representhe entrance to heaven, the world of celestial beings. Ekkālatēvi, 58 v: ‘eternal goddess;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 112 v: ‘beautiful Spring (season);’ an epithet of Manmatha. 9 b r, 9 c r, 128 v, etc.: ‘mother on the boundary;’ name of a village goddess. 58 r: ‘lady, mistress, goddess who appears, comes forth;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 45 v: ‘man with eight shoulders;’ an epithet of Śiva. 158 v: ‘woman with eight shoulders;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī Ērikkaraiyil irāp pēy pakal pēy, 172 v: ‘pēy that lives day and night near large water reservoirs.’ Ēvalkārar pēy, 164 v: ‘pēy (instigated) against an enemy by witchcraft’ 112 v: ‘man with flowers for shooting arrows;’ an epithet of Manmatha. 125 r: ‘lady, woman (between the ages of fourteen and nineteen) musician;’ an epithet of Sarasvatī. 67 v: ‘son of the lord (Śiva);’ an epithet of 105 v: ‘the younger woman ’, the younger sister of Mūdevī. 180 r: ‘town, city of ‘name of the capital city in ancient Ceylon, (Sri) Lanka. 180 r: ‘large town Ilangkāpuri;’ name of the capital city in ancient Ceylon, (Sri) Lanka. 9 b r, 140 v: perhaps: Skt. ‘seer going to fire,’ in text: name of the husband of and the father of Paraśurāma; and otherwise mentioned along with Viśvāmitra as an opponent of the file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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195 v: ‘wife of Indra;’ an epithet of 106 r: ‘woman older than Intirai

’ an epithet of Mūdevī, the elder sister of page_302

Page 303 120 v: ‘Supreme God;’ in text: an epithet of Brahmā. 45 r: ‘Supreme God, lord, master, chief, husband;’ an epithet of Śiva. Irāp pēy, 173 v: ‘night-pēy.’ 262 r: ‘adoration to ’ name of a ritual ceremony. 147 r, 262 r: ‘man in dark complexion;’ name of an attendant in the temple of pēy, 172 v: pēy, ‘pēy of arrogance.’ Irunitik 224 r: ‘owner of two (kinds of) treasures,’ i.e., =Skt. ‘ conch-treasure’ and patumaniti =Skt. padmanidhi, ‘treasure of lotus;’ an epithet of Kubera. 144 r: ‘shepherdess,’ in text: name of a Pariah-woman. pēy, 172 v: ‘pēy that causes thunders.’ 45 r: ‘father (i.e., master, lord, guardian, patron) of Kālahasti (i.e., Śrī Kālahasti, ‘holy, prosperous Kālahasti;’ name of a city about 120 km North of Kāñcipuram; an epithet of Śiva. 45 r: ‘ruler of Kailai (=Skt. kailāsa, abode/paradise of Śiva);’ an epithet of Śiva. 216 r, 233 r: ‘(wooden) cymbal with (adorned with small) bells, held in hand’ for keeping time in music. 131 v: ‘born on hand;’ an epithet of 106 r: = ‘woman under the power/influence of a crow,’ i.e., =Skt. kākadhvaja, ‘woman with a crow-banner;’ an epithet of Mūdevī. 125 r: ‘daughter (i.e., lady, patron) of arts and sciences;’ an epithet of Sarasvatī. Kālaip pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy of the morning.’ 45 r: ‘the eternal man, who is simultaneously within and beyond time;’ an epithet of Śiva. Kalakap pēy, 172 r: ‘pēy of strife, contention, quarrel, fight.’ Kalati, 106 r: ‘ruin, disaster, destruction;’ an epithet of Mūdevī. 45 r: ‘emperor of (the kingdom of)” the region approximately near the modern Orissa and Gangam States in India; an epithet of Śiva. 58 v: ‘ the ruler of the forest;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. 45 r: ‘one who danced with Kālī;’ an epithet of Śiva. page_303 Page 304 pēy, 172 v: ‘pēy that lives under Kallic ceti (spurge, milk hedge, i.e., Euphorbia tirucalli).’ 174 r: ‘stealing, fraudulent pēy.’ 172 v: ‘spurge, milk hedge (i.e., Euphorbia tirucalli);’ name of a plant. pēy, 174 r: ‘pēy of ’ i.e., pēy that causes a person to drink arrack (derived from Arabic: araq, ‘sweet drink, distilled liquor’) made from the sap of an East Indian palmyra palm. Kāmakārap pēy, 173 r: =Kāymakārap pēy, ‘envious, jealous, selfish pēy’ that follows its own inclination.’ 58 r: ‘lady, goddess at ’ (i.e., in the city of Kāñcipuram in country); an epithet of Pārvatī. Kamalāttai, 58 v: ‘lotus-mother;’ an epithet of Pārvatī as seated on a lotus flower. 58 v: ‘mother (=Skt. ‘mother with loving eyes’); an epithet of Pārvatī in the city of Maturai in country. 205 r: name of the poet of twelfth century of the Common Era who composed a version of the Sanskrit epic (‘relating to Rāma’). pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy of forest’ 105 v: ‘mother (i.e., gold-mother’); an epithet of In this name, the parts ‘āttai’ and ‘ammai’ mean ‘mother.’ 94 r: ‘husband;’ an epithet of 72 v: ‘son of ‘an epithet of 67 v: a colloquial term for ‘the son of ’ an epithet of 9 d r, 213 v: in text: a synonym for messenger, envoy, agent; see: Dūta. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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145 r: ‘goddess, ruler, lady, patron of the town ’ an epithet of The place of cannot be identified. 58 v: ‘(young unmarried) woman, virgin, virtuous woman;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Kantacuvāmi, 72 v: ‘God (=Skt. skanda, spurting, effusing, spilling, shedding); an epithet of 177 v: ‘battle axe;’ name of an axe carried on shoulders by a group of ascetics. Kari, 136 v: ‘charcoal, elephant, testimony;’ an epithet of page_304 Page 305 Kāri, 194 r: Probably: ‘enemy of (restrainer of) rain,’ i.e., Skt. ‘enemy of ‘malignant influence, a demon of darkness and drought;’ an epithet of Devendra. 194 r: ‘man with an elephant-vehicle;’ an epithet of Devendra. 94 r, 194 r: ‘dark man;’ an epithet of and Devendra. Karmap pēy, 173 r: ‘pēy of Karma, ‘fruit of deed, fate, undesired and wrteched obligation.’ 187 r: ‘a (fabulous) able, competent tree (of abundance in Svarga);’ name of the tree in paradise that meets all needs. 58 r: ‘virgin, young woman with (big) black eyes;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Karutiya Karumpuvilli, 112 v: karumpuvilli, ‘the (most) desired man with the sugar-cane-bow;’ an epithet of Manmatha. Kās, 258 v: =kācu, a word for sundry coins. 105 v: ‘woman who came forth from the ocean (of milk, i.e., ), i.e., ‘woman born in the ocean (of milk, i.e., ); an epithet of 45 r: lord, patron, god of (the town) ’ in country; an epithet of Śiva. Kātal pēy, 173 r: Kātal pēy, ‘pēy of lust’ The manuscript in Leipzig changes it into kāma-p pēy, ‘pēy of (sexual) lust’ Katirkāmam, 76 r–v: =Skt. Kataragama; name of a place in southeastern Sri Lanka. is worshipped there as Katirkāmavēlar, 76 v: ‘man with spear in Katirkāmam;’ an epithet of 9 c r, 143 r, 144 r: perhaps: ‘protector;’ name of an image of a demon in the temples of Katti, 26 v: ‘sword, a long sacrificial knife.’ 134 v, 147 r: ‘forest-woman;’ name of an evil spirit, one of the Sapta (‘having seven mothers,’ collective name of the seven mothers). 235 v, 238 v: raft made of logs of wood joined together, used for fishing in deep sea. 145 r: = ‘lady, goddess of forest;’ an epithet of Durga; in text: of 145 r: ‘mother ’ an epithet of 45 r: ‘man wearing a wreath, made of gall-nut flowers, on his head;’ an epithet of Śiva. is also known as Terminalia chebula. page_305 Page 306

45 r: ‘man wearing flowers of gall-nut-tree (Terminalia chebula);’ an epithet of Śiva. Kāvālip pēy, 172 r: ‘vagabond-pēy.’ Kāvēri, 9 a r, 62 v, 137 r: ‘daughter of (the royal sage) ‘name of the most famous river in country. 242 r: = ‘ancient, famous city on (the banks of) Kāveri;’ name of the harbor city on the place where Kāveri runs into the sea. pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy dancing on a rope.’5 Kēlvan, 93 v: ‘husband, master, lord, friend;’ an epithet of 93 v: ‘man with a banner,’ man/master of the abode of souls; an epithet of The Sanskrit word ‘ketana’ refers to a flag. 234 v:, a slender parrot; a light, but strong rectangular frame to carry images of deities. 106 r: ‘goddess of misfortune;’ an epithet of Mūdevī; perhaps this word is similar to Skt. ‘eldest woman,’ i.e., older than the goddess of fortune. 208 r: name of a two-stringed musical instrument smaller than an Indian lute. 230 v, 243 r: ‘a (ceremonial) bath during a (‘seizing, eclipse.’ file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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93 r: ‘abode, temple of ‘an abode of 230 v, 239 r: ‘birth of ’ name of a festival to commemorate the birth of see Jayanti. Kolaip pēy, 173 r: Kolaippēy, ‘pēy that kills.’ pēy, 172 v: ‘pēy that lives under jack-o’-lantern (Ignis fatuus); it can also mean: ‘pēy with fiery mouth’ or “pēy that lights the funeral pyre.’ 145 r: ‘tender, beautiful creeper; beautiful, young woman;’ name of a consort of in his Sarangapāni-Temple at in country; in text: an epithet of 94 r: ‘father of (the water reservoir) ’ on the Tiruppatimountain; an epithet of 93 v: ‘dark cloud-colored man;’ an epithet of pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy of (extravagant) celebrations’ or ‘(malicious) pēy that enjoys another’s misfortune.’ 145 r: ‘victorious woman;’ an epithet of page_306 Page 307 66 r: i.e., ‘battle axe.’ Kōtāpuri, 93 r: ‘city of Godā (‘presenting with cows).’6 185 r: ‘ten million.’ Kotiyinan, 120 v: = ‘man with a swan-flag,’ i.e., Ōti ‘man whose banner has a swan-figure;’ an epithet of Brahmā. pēy, 172 v: ‘pēy that causes suffering, affliction, brings forth grotesque gestures, foolish behaviors.’ Kōttiratil pēy, 173 r: ‘youthful pēy that is addicted to a (particular) generation, family tradition.’ pēy, 172 v: ‘cruel pēy.’ Kulacēkara 83 v: ‘ (hailing) from (the town) Kulacēkaram in in country; name of one of the twelve canonized who played an important in establishing the worship of Rāma in country. 58 v: ‘esteemed woman of noble birth;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 72 v: ‘helper of the (inhabitants of the hilly tract); an epithet of Kumarar, 74 v: ‘honorific Kumāra;’ an epithet of 63 r, 242 r: =Skt. name of a sacred place of pilgrimage with a famous Śiva-Temple and a water tank situated in Tañjāvur District in country. 67 v: ‘owner of an elephant;’ an epithet of ’ pakarum pēy, 172 r: ‘jokingly slanderous pēy. 120 v: ‘elderly person’ qualified by his age, knowledge, authority and family connection to give advice; an epithet of Brahmā. 222 r: ‘utterance, declaration;’ an epithet of Yama. 259 v: ‘adoration of a teacher by presenting him with pleasing gifts;’ name of a ritual ceremony. 172 v: ‘self-willed, unprincipled pēy.’ 67 v: ‘honorific son who dances, plays, acts;’ an epithet of Kuttirap pēy, 174 r: ‘deceitful, crafty, base pēy.’ 144 r: = an inhabitant of (in Deccan?); a Hindi speaking mendicant. pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy that seeks after worldly life.’ page_307 Page 308 Mā, ‘treasure;’ an epithet of Mā, 105 v: ‘treasure;’ an epithet of 136 v: perhaps: ‘the great

(‘authoritative lord’) =Skt. Mahāśāsta, ‘the great lord;’ an epithet of

Mācillātacuvāmi, 76 r: Mācillātacuvāmi, ‘faultless god, lord;’ an epithet of Śiva. Mācillātavar, 45 v: ‘man without a spot/flaw;’ an epithet of Śiva. Mājālap pēy, 172 r: ‘pēy that deceives, disillusions the people.’ Makamāyi, 145 r: ‘woman of smallpox;’ an epithet of 241 v: =makamakam =Skt. mahāmaghā, ‘of great reward, bounty;’ name of a ritual bath. 230 v, 241 v:, ‘festival of ’= ‘bathing as a ritual offering’ especially once in twenty-five years at the appearance of the in the city of

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Makanatcattiram, 241 v: ‘star, lunar constellation (that appears during the time) of ‘an epiethet for the lunar constellation 63 v:, ‘festival of Makam (i.e., ritual bathing as an sacrificial offering); it is a synonym for 145 r: ‘the great goddess who bestows joy’ (perhaps: through healing smallpox); an epithet of 134 v: ‘heroine who killed ‘name of a woman of the (‘having seven mothers,’ collective name of the seven mothers). 229 r: ‘mirror-festoons,’ i.e., cloth-festoons adorned with pieces of mirror and suspended from the high beams of a temple car. Māl, 93 v: ‘great, glorious man;’ an epithet of 58 r: ‘woman of hilly tracts,’ i.e., ‘daughter of hills;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Malaiyāttai, 105 v: ‘mother of hilly tracts;’ an epithet of Pārvatī; in text, however, this name should refer to who is known as ‘lady of the (sacred) vedas, the (sacred) Āgamas.’ 125 r: i.e., ‘wife of him who is seated on a lotus;’ an epithet of Sarasvatī. 120 v: ‘man seated on a lotus;’ an epithet of Brahmā. 168 v: ‘younger sister of Māl ’ an epithet of Durgā. 140 v: = ‘professional wrestlers, gymnasts.’ 120 v: ‘son of Māl ;’ an epithet of Brahmā. page_308 Page 309 26 v, 43 r: ‘battle axe.’ 120 v: ‘man as born of the navel of Māl ’ an epithet of Brahmā. 230 v, 242 r: ‘festival of Makāmakam;’ another name for Māmakam, 63 r, 242 v: Māmakam; name of the great luni-solar festival Maka 242 r: ‘the reservoir Māmakam.’ pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy in a house, household, domestic life.’ 58 v: ‘mistress, patron of the garland for bride and bridegroom at a wedding;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 83 v: ‘the great sage (1370–1443);’ name of leader of ‘the southern (way of) learning,’ a branch of Vaishnavism with its center in Sri Rangkam, near Tiruccirappalli in country. Ziegenbalg considered him (wrongly) as one of the twelve canonized 30 r: ‘whose words, sayings are like rubies,’ author of the great devotional poem Tiruvācakam, ‘holy saying’ and an influential Samayaguru, ‘(normative, regulating) religious teacher,’ probably of ninth century of the Common Era. 45 v: ‘one who carries the (‘antilope’) on his left side;’ an epithet of Śiva. 258 v: perhaps: ‘respected mendicants of a i.e., a subordinate who holds superintendence over a certain geographical area, a temple, palace or a monastery.7 258 v: ‘adoration of Maniyāris;’ name of a religious ritual. 45 r: = ‘one half of the (‘a girl between twelve and thirteen years, woman’),’ a version of the Skt. ardhanārīśvara, ‘the lord who is half female (and half male);’ an epithet of Śiva. 45 v: ‘form, embodimenof auspiciousness, virtue, blessing, marriage;’ an epithet of Śiva. 204 v: ‘unripe mango fruit.’ 26 v: ‘deer, antelope,’ an emblem of Śiva as the principle of intellect, the primordial cause of the material world. 9 a r, 64 v: name of a river that cannot yet be identified; in text: a tributary to it might refer to =Skt. mandākinī, ‘flowing slowly.’ page_309 Page 310 230 v, 239 v, 240 r: ‘great ceremonial fasting, austerity;’ it is a synonym for the festival Navarātri, ‘nine nights;’ it text, however, it is a synonym for Āyudhapūjā. 120 v: ‘the common father of the world;’ an epithet of Brahmā. 230 v, 243 r: ‘holy day (i.e., festival in honor) of Mahābali.’

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45 v: ‘the lord of Vedas;’ an epithet of Śiva. 120 v: ‘god who knows the Vedas;’ an epithet of Brahmā. 120 v: ‘man of Vedas;’ an epithet of Brahmā. 222 r: ‘jealous, envious;’ cf. Skt. māra, ‘killing, destroying, death, pestilence;’ an epithet of Yama. 9 c r, 36 v, 128 v, 130 r, 141 v, 142 r, 143 v: ‘mother Mārī;’ see: Mārī and Māriyammai. Māriyammai, 145 r: ‘mother Mārī;’ name of a female village deity; see: Mārī. 49 v, 230 v, 233 v: ‘holy sinking under water (i.e., ceremonial bathing) in the month of (December-January);’ name of a ritual bathing ceremony; see: 72 v: ‘agricultural tract;’ usually: an epithet of Indra; in text: an epithet of 140 v, 143 r, 145 r: an epithet of Bhadrakālī; in text: name of a Pariahwoman. 50 r: ‘beginning of a month.’ Mātari, 158 v: ‘mother;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. Mātari, 158 v: an epithet of Kālī. 112 v: ‘accompanied by, companion of moon;’ an epithet of Manmatha. 260 r: a kind of double drum, beaten at the end. Matumai, 59 v: name of a heroine of the book Matumaimālai; the word ‘Matumai’ is perhaps related to Mātu, ‘woman, mother;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Maturai, 52 r, 53 r: name of the capital city of the Pandhya-kings, also known as the temple-city with a famous temple in honor of the goddess ‘fisheyed woman.’ 83 v: ‘an (composing) delightful songs.’ This poet composed songs not about but about Nammālvār, another devotee of 94 r: ‘man of dark complexion, deception;’ an epithet of page_310 Page 311 Māyaip pēy, 174 r: Māyaip pēy, ‘pēy of supernatural power, illusion, deception, trick, sorcery, witchcraft, magic.’ Mayilāppūrpurucan, 52 v: ‘man, lord, guardian of Mayilāppūr (city of peacocks);’ an epithet of Śiva in Mayilāppūr in country. 72 v: ‘lance-bearer riding on a peacock;’ an epithet of 93 v: ‘man of dark complexion, color;’ an epithet of 72 v: (i.e., ) sister’s son, descendant of ‘an epithet of Māyūram, 62 v, 240 v: =Skt. mayūra, ‘peacock,’ i.e., māyāvaram; name of a city in Tañcāvūr District in country. 120 v: ‘man who created the world;’ an epithet of Brahmā. 168 v: ‘gentle lady who crushed the head of a buffalo (giant );’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī; it is a translation of the Skt. ‘woman who crushed’ 112 v: ‘man with a raised fish-flag;’ an epithet of Manmatha. 9 d r, 208 v: ‘the great sage ‘name of the father of and the author of 145 r: ‘arrogance, fraud, grandeur;’ an epithet of 106 r: ‘(woman of the) region of chaos;’ an epithet of Mūdevī. 45 v, 46 r, 67 v: ‘three-eyed man;’ an epithet of Śiva as well as of 158 v: ‘three-eyed woman;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī as well as of Pārvatī; it is perhaps a translation of Skt. ‘three-eyed mistress, wife’ and trilocanī, ‘three-eyed woman.’ 58 r: ‘Pārvatī with three eyes;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. pēy, 172 v: ‘pēy that lives in a thorn bush.’ Mummūrtti, 9 a r, 28 r, etc.: =Skt. trimūrti, ‘having three forms’ (i.e., Śiva, and Brahmā). 134 r, 160 v: ‘chief servant,’ minor deities in front of a shrine; in the text: two door-keepers at the temples of 45 r, 67 v: as ‘god, predecessor, ancestor’ an epithet of Śiva; as an ‘elder brother;’ an epithet of tēvar, 9 c r: ‘330 million gods.’ Murāri, 94 r: Murāri: perhaps: ‘slayer of (the demon) page_311

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Page 312 72 v: ‘youth, chief of the desert tract;’ name of the second son of Śiva; see: Kumāra pēy, 173 r: ‘pēy that cripples leg or arm.’ 72 v: ‘pearl-man;’ an epithet of 67 v: ‘elder brother;’ an epithet of the older brother of see: Muō. 72 v: ‘pearl-youth;’ synonym of Muttaiyan; an epithet of in his temple at near Tarumapuram, not far away from Māyāvaram in country. 52 v, 202 r: =Skt. ‘snake-city;’ name of a harbor city on the East Cost of country. Nalla camuttiram, 24 r: ‘sweet-water sea, ocean;’ name of an aerial water. Nallacēvakar, 136 v: ‘good servant;’ an epithet of 45 r: ‘god as destroyer of the enemies;’ an epithet of Śiva. 222 r: an epithet of Yama. Namacivāya, 28 v: =Skt. śivāya, the mystic incantation of five letters ‘na-ma-ci-vā-ya’ meaning ‘adoration, worship to Śiva.’ Nāmakal, 125 r: ‘daughter (i.e., goddess) of tongue (i.e., learning, speech, rhetoric)’ as residing in the tongue of Brahmā; an epithet of Sarasvatī. 83 v: ‘our ’ originally known as later known as Nam (end of eighth century); name of one of the twelve 45 v: ‘god,’ i.e., nampi, ‘the elite among people, perfect soul, Supreme Being;’ an epithet of Śiva. Nampikkainācci, 58 v: ‘mistress of trust, reliable woman;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 45 r: ‘man in whose throat (the mineral) poison got stuck,’ i.e., ‘man who has eaten up poison;’ an epithet of Śiva; see Nīla pēy, 174 r: ‘pēy that lives in the place where seedlings are raised for transplantation.’ 21 r: ‘man who instructs dancing girls the art of dancing.’ nalintu pēy, 172 v: ‘pēy that causes to a (person) to shake, have pain and dance in a standing position.’ 222 v: ‘the (impartial) judge, umpire; an epithet of Yama. viratam, 47 r: ‘act of religious austerity (such as fasting, continence) performed on a Sunday;’ name of a religious rite. page_312 Page 313 47 r: ‘sun.’ Nēmi, 94 r: ‘circle, discus, wheel of chariot/sovereignty,’ an emblem of 136 v: ‘god of religion/virtue;’ an epithet of 94 r: ‘tall man;’ an epithet of in his incarnation as Trivikrama (‘three steps, strides’). Ney camuttiram, 24 r: ‘ocean of clarified butter;’ name of an aerial water. Nilai kulaitta pēy, 172 v: ‘cruel pēy thadestroys character, stability and good condition.’ kōpa pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy that is constantly furious and causes evil deeds.’ Nirmūlap pēy, 174 r: ‘pēy that uproots, eradicates, annihilates.’ 120 v: ‘man with eight long eyes;’ an epithet of Brahmā. 67 v: ‘man adorned with a single elephant tusk,’ i.e., ’one-tusked man,’ i.e., ‘one-horned man;’ an epithet of 120 v: ‘man with a swan-flag;’ an epithet of Brahmā. 120 v: ‘man with a swan,’ i.e., ‘man whose banner has a figure of a swan;’ an epithet of Brahmā. 218 r: ‘snare, noose (made) of rope’ held by the messengers of Yama; see Pāśa. Pacupatam, 91 v: =Skt. pāśupatāstra, ‘relating to, coming from Śiva;’ in text: Arjuna gets this arrow from not from its owner Śiva. 226 v: ‘torch (carried during) daytime’ in honor of renowned persons or deities. Pāl camuttiram, 24 r: ‘ocean of milk;’ name of an aerial water. 134 v: ‘poligars, leaders of a war-camp, chieftain of a village surrounded by a hillock.’ 76 r: = this word can be explained as follows: nī, i.e., ‘you are the fruit’ It is a saying uttered by Śiva to his second son. (‘mount ’) is a famous place of pilgrimage in country.

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72 v: ‘lance-bearer in ’ an epithet of 93 v: ‘messenger to the five persons (i.e., );’ an epithet of 9 b r, 83 r, 88 v, 254 r: ‘twelve (‘meditators, proponents, canonized saints of

’).’8

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Page 314 9 d r, 213 v, 216 v: an order of beings inhabiting the world of snakes; in text: an order of celestial beings.9 Pantal, 104 r, 239 v: a cloth canopy (with rich embroidery, decoration of coconut leaves, tender coconuts, etc.) fixed (in front of a house, a temple, over a street) or carried over a important person or a deity. 26 r, 32 v, etc.: name of a wandering mendicant belonging to Śivareligion who often serves as a priest in a Śiva-temple or make garlands. 46 v: =Skt. name of a dynasty of an ancient kingdom with its capital in the city of Maturai. 222 r: ‘son of light, brightness, luster, a ray of light;’ an epithet of Yama. 125 r: ‘woman, goddess, patron of sciences;’ an epithet of Sarasvatī. Pāppātti, 144 r: = =Skt. ‘a Brahmin woman.’ Pār, 60 r: ‘earth, expanse.’ Parai, 58 r: i.e., paraicci, ‘consort of (‘god, Śiva’);’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 45 v: ‘the supreme Being;’ an epithet of Śiva. 58 v: ‘mother (i.e., consort) of (=Skt. ‘standing at the top, the supreme lord, god, Being);’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Paricai, 26 v: ‘shield, buckler.’ Parikācap pēy, 174 r: ‘pēy thalaughs at, derides, jokes, jests and ridicules.’ 45 r–v: ‘one who mounted on a horse;’ an epithet of Śiva. Pātan, 94 r: ‘man with a foot;’ an epithet of 94 r: ‘man who measured the universe’ with three steps; an epithet of 105 v: ‘virtuous mother.’ The word means: ‘chaste wife;’ the Sanskrit word patnī means: ‘female possessor, mistress;’ in text: an epithet of 147 r: ‘hero with a (i.e., a cloth used for waving before an eiminent person or a deity);’ name of a soldier in the temple of 67 v: ‘most gracious man;’ an epithet of in his temple at in country; in text: an epithet of tarum 195 v: ‘ (= i.e., consort of the owner of the elephant ) who gives great happiness;’ an epithet of 83 v: ‘great ’ name of one of the see: page_314 Page 315

9 c r, 128 v, 130 r, 146 r, 147 r, etc.: ‘great self-existing god;’ name of a village god. 226 r: ‘big rat (Bandicola malabarica);’ name of the vehicle of 93 v: ‘eminent person;’ an epithet of 95 r, 230 v, 237 v: ‘the holy day (i.e., festival) of (‘the eminent person’);’ name of a

festival. Perumai pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy that has sought after pride.’ Pēy, 9 c r, 130 r, 173 r, 175 v, etc.: ‘devil, goblin;’ an evil spirit that inflicts harm and causes pain and destruction. 83 v: ‘the who was (possessive) like a Pēy;’ one of the who had excessive fondness toward see: Pēycci, 58 v: ‘demoness, woman possessed by a pēy (i.e., woman with excessive fondness);’ in text: an epithet of Pārvatī. 45 r, 46 r, 153 v: man dancing with a pēy (i.e., with Bhadrakālī);’ an epithet of Śiva. 224 r: ‘gold color, yellow, tawny;’ an epithet of Kubera. 45 r: ‘man who grants children liberally;’ also known as Tiyākarācar (=Skt. Tyāgarāja) ‘king who donates, gives, distributes children liberally;’ name of Śiva in his temple at Tiruvārūr in country. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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68 r: =Vināyaka-caturtti=Skt. vināyakacaturthī; name of a festival celebrated on the fourth day of the half month (i.e., August-September) in honor of (i.e., Vināyaka). 97 v: songs describing various stages of children. The is a poetic genre.10 Ziegenbalg refers to a book that cannot yet be identified. 9 a r, 67 v, 164 v, 226 r, 255 v: ‘honorable child’ an epithet of 68 v: songs about composed in the poetical form of Cintu11 by the poetess Auvaiyār in fifteenth century. This book is identical with her work entitled (‘an elephant-face’). 68 r: ‘(ceremonial) fasting (also: religious austerity) in honor of ’ name of a fasting festival. 45 r–v: ‘man wearing a garland of (bones of) corpses;’ an epithet of Śiva. 94 r: ‘husband of (the shepherdess) ’ i.e., the favorite wife of page_315 Page 316

94 r: ‘father who bore Brahmā,’ i.e., tantai, ‘father of Brahmā;’ an epithet of 58 r: ‘consort of Brahmā, a wife of a Brahmin;’ however, in text: an epithet of Pārvatī. Piratōcam, 50 r: =Skt. name of a fasting held in honor of Śiva in the evening of the thirteenth Tithi of dark fortnight. 9 c r, 36 v, 159 v: ‘(honorable) ’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. 9 c r, 128 v, 130 r, 159 v, 160 v: ‘consort of (snake-catcher);’ name of a female village deity. 45 r: bearer of crescent moon;’ an epithet of Śiva. 45 r: ‘embodiment (of a man) with shining snakes, i.e., ‘ form, embodiment (of a man) clothed with snakes;’ an epithet of Śiva. pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy of (terrible) worries.’ 105 v: ‘gold;’ an epithet of 105 v ‘wealthy woman (with lots of things);’ an epithet of 195 v: perhaps: =Skt. ‘consort of Indra.’ 120 v: ‘one who has knowledge, wise man;’ an epithet of Brahmā. Potiyamalai, 200 r: ‘mount Potiyam’ in the western mountain range of country famed as the abode of the sage Agastya. Potiyamāmalai, 200 v: ‘the great mount Potiyam;’ see: Potiyamalai. Pōtturācā, 140 v, 141 v: ‘king of male animals;’ name of a servant of 70 r: ‘one who is common, available to all (people);’ in text: a place dedicated to 83 v: name of the (born and found) in the water tank of the temple at Tirukkōyilūr in country (second half of seven century of the Common Era); see: 67 v: ‘owner of impartial truth who never lies;’ an epithet of 249 r: ‘case for adoration, sacrifices’ with small images of deities (often) used for private worship. 241 r: ‘the eighth star, lunar constellation’ that occurs during the festival of Taippūcam in the month of Tai (January–February). Pūcāri, 168 r: ‘priest of a deity;’ usually a priest of a village or minor deity. 76 r: name of a place with a famous Śiva-temple near Darumapuram, not far away from Māyāvaram in country. page_316 Page 317 Pūlōkap pēy, 174 r: ‘pēy of the terrestrial world.’ 136 v: ‘man whose color is that of a sea of flower;’ an epithet of 25 v, 196 r: ‘(sacred) thread (of three strands) worn (by tuvicar=Skt. dvija, men born twice).’ 136 v: ‘husband of (=Skt. ‘the accomplished, complete woman’);’ an epithet of 136 v: ‘the foreigner, stranger, one who lives outside (the city, village);’ an epithet of 96 v: name of a special fasting observed on a Saturday in the month of (September-October). pēy, 174 r: ‘pēy that lives near, around or in an ant-hill.’ Pūtalattācai poruntiya pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy with love for the (material) world (i.e., wealth).’ 83 v: name of an (550–750 CE) who lived at Mahabalipuram in country. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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136 v: ‘husband of (=Skt. );’ an epithet of see: 224 r: ‘the owner of ‘an epithet of Kubera; see: 112 v: ‘man with arrows of flowers;’ an epithet of Manmatha. 45 v: ‘self-existing lord;’ an epithet of Śiva. 45 r: ‘the man living in/near an ant-hill,’ i.e., = Skt. valmīkanātha, ‘lord of the anthill, mole-hill;’ name of Śiva in his temple at Tiruvārūr in country. 147 r: = ‘brave hero (inflicting) bloody wounds;’ name of a male attendant in the temple of 112 v: = ‘lover, intimate friend, husband of Rati;’ an epithet of Manmatha. Śrī 93 r, 97 r: ‘blessed, auspicious, dancing hall, assembly of learned men;’ name of a city near country with a famous and the main center of the southern school of Taippūcam, 230 v, 241 r–v: ‘full moon in the month of Tai (JanuaryFebruary),’ i.e., the occurrence of Capricorn in the zodiac. 105 v: ‘woman who smites (men with love);’ an epithet of Talai pēy, 172 r: ‘the accursed pēy that rotates its head and dances.’ page_317 Page 318 Talaiyāri, 229 v, 249 r: ‘(chief) village-watchman;’ in text: soldiers who supervise the processions of devotees. Tāmaraippū, 27 v, 35 r, 78 v, 104 r, 107 r: ‘lotus flower (Nelumbium speciosum).’ Tamarukam, 57 r, 124 r, 139 v, 154 r, 160 r, 224 v: ‘kettle-drum.’ 36 r, 133 v, 145 v: probably: ‘sweetness, melodiousness.’ Tampuru, 177 v: a kind of stringed instrument, similar to a modern guitar, producing key musical notes. 58 v: ‘young woman granting refuge;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Tañcāvūr, 63 r, 258 v, 259 r: Tañcāvūr: three possible meanings: ‘low-city,’ ‘city of refuge,’ and ‘city of (‘man who grants refuge and help’).’ Ziegenbalg follows the Portuguese way of writing Tañcāvūr as ‘Tanjore.’ 158 v: ‘woman who destroyed the demon Tārakāsura;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī; see: Tārakāsura. Tarmattai catikārap pēy, 174 r: ‘treacherous, deceitful pēy that has removed the Dharma (‘that which is established, duty, morality, religion’).’ 45 v: ‘supreme being, self-existing man;’ an epithet of Śiva. 72 v: =Skt. tārakajit, ‘conqueror, destroyer of the (demon) Tārakāsura;’ an epithet of see: Tārakāsura. 58 r: ‘young woman of Dharma (‘that which is established, duty, morality, religion’);’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Taruppaipullu, 114 v: ‘the Darbha-grass,’ see: Darbha. pēy, 173 r: ‘pēy of hindrance, impediment.’ 94 v: perhaps: tācar =Skt. dāsa, ‘slave, servant.’ The Halle Reports interprets this word as a ‘mendicant.’12 Tātu pēy, 172 v: ‘the treacherous pēy that causes slavery and servitude.’ Tavvai, 106 r: ‘elder sister;’ an epithet of Mūdevī. 76 r: ‘the man who hesitated;’ an epithet of Tayir camuttiram, 24 r: ‘ocean of curd;’ name of an aerial water. 51 r: ‘royal Brahmin of the South;’ honorific title for the poet 112 v: i.e., ‘man with the balmy breeze-vehicle;’ an epithet of Manmatha. 222 r: ‘king of the southern region;’ an epithet of Yama. page_318 Page 319 camuttiram, 24 r: ‘ocean of honey;’ name of an aerial water. 235 r, 238 v: ‘the holy day (i.e., festival) on a Teppam (raft, float)’ in a pond of a temple; name of a festival. 49 v, 95 v: ‘festival of (temple) cars;’ name of a festival. 94 r: ‘son of Devakī;’ an epithet of 9 a r, 42 v, etc.: = ‘divine elephant;’ name of Devendra’s elephant, daughter/niece as well as a consort of

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Tī, 26 v: the elemen‘fire,’ sacrificial fire. 112 v: ‘man with the white moon for his umbrella,’ i.e., ‘ man having the moonumbrella;’ an epithet of Manmatha. 147 r, ‘mother, woman who plunged into fire (for self-immolation). 76 r: ‘ruler of Tillai,’ i.e., the city of Citamparam (=Skt. Cidambara) in South Arcot District in country. Tiripatakai, 63 v: Tiripatakai; name of river, usually a synonym of the river 81 v, 104 r: ‘holy (=Skt. pounded, aromatic sandal powder);’ name of the saffron paste used to paint a mark on the forehead of a devotee. 49 v, 61 v, etc.: ‘the holy wedding’ of Śiva with Pārvatī. 74 r, 93 r: =Skt. śrikālahasti, ‘holy Kālahasti;’ name of a Śiva-temple in North Arcot District of country and another Śiva-temple with at Chitoor in Andhra Pradesh, about 120 km North of Kāñcipuram. 59 v: ‘holy ’ name of a place, lying between Māyāvaram and Tranquebar, with a famous Śiva-temple. 83 v, 97 v: ‘ from (the place) (holy i.e., of the Pallava-kings);’ he lived c. 800–870 CE; see: 93 v: ‘holy son;’ an epithet of 105 v: ‘holy daughter, woman;’ an epithet of 112 v: ‘son of ’ an epithet of Manmatha; see: Tirumalai, 94 r: ‘holy mountain,’ usually: a synonym for the mountain Tiruppati in modern State of Andhra Pradesh. page_319 Page 320 forehead of a tank.

81 v: ‘holy diving, bathing, ablution;’ in text: a name of a cream to make a mark on the Ziegenbalg may have meant see 234 r: name of a holy bath taken standing on the stairs descending into sacred stream,

83 v: name of an (in the second half of ninth century) belonging to the place i.e., the modern city of Pūntamalli near Chennai (formerly: Madras); see: 136 v: ‘servanof (‘head of the chief idol in a temple’);’ an epithet of Tirunāma tīrttam 94 v, 250 v: ‘those who prepare the water used in worshipping an image, and then distribute the water to the devotees.’ Tirunāmam, 21 v, 29 r, etc.: ‘holy name,’ i.e., the tridental mark on the forehead of a 26 v, 41 v, etc.: ‘sacred ashes’ used to make marks on the body in honor of Śiva. Tiruppati, 93 r, 96 v: Tiruppati, ‘holy abode,’ any sacred temple, especially the famous in the temple city of the same name in the State of Andhra Pradesh. 49 v, 230 v, 233 v: ‘holy praising,’ a synonym for the festival refers perhaps to the songs of praise sung during this festival; see: Tiruvācikai, 226 r: ‘holy wreath, circlet, ornamental arch over the image of a deity;’ see: tiruvācikai. Tiruvārūr, 52 v: name of a city between Tañjāvur and Tranquebar where Śiva is worshipped as Tyāgarāja; see: Tyāgarāja. Tiruvātirai, 59 r: name of an annual festival celebrated (mostly by women) in honor of Śiva and Pārvatī in the month of (December), when a part of the zodiac constellation Orion appears. 105 v: ‘female owner, patron of (holy i.e., Tiruppati, the northern boundary of the country);’ an epithet of 52 r, 155 v: name of a city with a famous Śiva-temple near in country. 58 v, 105 v: ‘mother with a holy lamb;’ i.e., name of a lamp in a house regarded as a deity; in text: an epithet of Pārvatī as well as of page_320 Page 321

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the ninth century; see: Tōtakap pēy, 174 r: ‘quarrelsome, vexing, deceitful, lewd pēy.’ Tukkap pēy, 174 r: ‘pēy that causes uneasiness, discomfort, pain, sorrow, trouble, difficulty.’ 219 r: ‘beads (made) of Tulaci (‘sacred basil’),’ a rosary used by devotees of 81 v: ‘necklace (made) of ‘and worn round the neck like a garland; see pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy that is a (molesting, undesired, unnecessary) companion, partner, guide, mate.’ pēy, 174 r: ‘pēy that causes an evil life, a vicious course of conduct.’ pēy, 173 r: ‘wicked, wild, malignanpēy.’ Uccip pēy, 173 v: ‘pēy of midday, of peak (of a mountain),’ in the form of a dog. Ulakamātā, 124 v: =Skt. ‘mother of the world;’ an epithet of Sarasvatī. 94 r: ‘the eminent lord who swallowed the world’ and thus protected it from deluge and destruction; an epithet of 58 v: ‘mistress, owner, patron, goddess of the world;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Ulaviyamāyai, 158 v: ‘moving, wandering unreality, illusion, power;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. pēy, 172 v: ‘pēy in the heart of a town, interior of a village, an indigenous pēy.’ 58 r: three possibilities: ‘brilliant woman,’ ‘crab-eyed woman’ and ‘the woman Uma;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 93 v: ‘man with a lotus flower sprouting from his navel;’ an epithet of pēy, 172 v: ‘the pēy that conceals upāyam (‘the means’)’ to achieve something or ‘the pēy that conceals the (‘religious Scripture’). 58 r: ‘able woman, who listens to or requests or explains the (sacred) scripture;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. Uruvili, 112 v: ‘man without a corporeal body;’ an epithet of Manmatha. page_321 Page 322 Uttarapatiyammai, 58 v: ‘lady, wife of the northern lord;’ an epithet of Pārvatī. 26 v, 148 r, 154 v: =Skt. name of a small (hand-held rattle) drum tapering in the middle. Ūtuvatti, 254 r: ‘incense stick.’ 140 v, 141 v: plural form of 147 r, 164 v: ‘angler of life, souls,’ i.e., messenger, attendant, servant of a female village deity to bring in the souls of those who die (a terrible, violent death) to his master. Vairākkiyap pēy, 173 r: Vairākkiyap pēy, ‘pēy that causes stubbornness, fanaticism, disgust, aversion, indifference.’ 124 v: ‘woman, patron, goddess of speech;’ an epithet of Sarasvatī. 109 r-v, 133 r, 201 v: ‘shoulder ribbon’ as a sign of an office, privilege and responsibility. 94 r: ‘person of the righside;’ an epithet of 168 v: ‘woman holding a sword in her hand;’ an epithet of Durgā. 158 v: ‘powerful woman;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. 9 a r, 42 v, 70 v, 80 r: i.e., ‘mother (creeper, young woman of hilly tract);’ name of a consort of pēy, 173 v: ?); an unidentifiable word.13 pēy, 173 r: ‘artful, cunning, deceitful, fraudulent pēy.’ 120 v: ‘husband of ’ an epithet of Brahmā; see 194 r: ‘king of the celestial beings;’ an epithet of Devendra. 120 v: i.e., ‘the (very) first man among the celestial beings;’ an epithet of Brahmā. pēy, 172 r: ‘(stubbornly) unashamed, wicked pēy.’ 72 v: ‘victor over Varaipkai (‘Indra’);’ an epithet of Varanati, 63 v: Varanati, ‘most excellent river;’ a synonym for the river in text: a tributary of 93 v: ‘(eminent) lord Varatarācar (=Skt. varadarāja, ‘king who grants wishes, boons, fulfils all needs’);’ name of in his temple at Kāñcipuram. Varmap pēy, 173 r: Varmap pēy, ‘malevolent, malicious pēy.’ 50 r: ‘the birth, beginning of a year,’ i.e., New Year’s day. page_322 Page 323 file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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country.

94 r: ‘northern mount;’ this name can either refer to the Himalayas or to Tiruppati as North of

145 r: ‘mother of (i.e., Bhairava);’ an epithet of Mārisee: Bhairava. 72 v: ‘lord ’ It is also an epithet of 14 In text: an epithet of see: Bhairava. 58 v: ‘mother, sister of (i.e., Bhairava);’ an epithet of Mārisee: Bhairava. 145 r: ‘woman, consort of (i.e., Bhairava);’ an epithet of Mārisee: Bhairava. Vātūr, 51 r: =tiru-vātavūr, ‘holy Vātavūr;’ name of a city near Maturai in country. It is the native place of poet Vēl, 26 v, 71 v, etc.: ‘spear, lance,’ an emblem as well as an epithet of Vēlāyutacuvāmi, 72 v: Vēlāyutacuvāmi, ‘god with the weapon Vēl (‘spear, lance’);’ an epithet of 124 v: ‘woman with a white body;’ an epithet of Sarasvatī. 136 v: ‘white-elephant-vehicle,’ i.e., man who has an white elephant as his vehicle; an epithet of as well as of Indra. 176 v:, ‘abundance, a large number.’ 93 v: ‘embodiment in, lord of (‘Tiruppati, holy abode’ of in the State Andhra Pradesh);’ an epithet of 194 r: ‘king of sacrifice, sacrificial pit, spiritual discipline,’ i.e., ‘ lord of sacrifice, sacrificial pit, spiritual discipline;’ an epithet of Devendra. 67 v: ‘tiger-faced man.’ Actually this name should be read as =Skt. gajamukha, ‘elephant-faced man;’ an epithet of 93 v: ‘eminent lord in (i.e., Tiruppati);’ an epithet of 45 v: an epithet for the wandering mendicant Poet ‘eminent man in (i.e., the city of );’ name of a devotee of Śiva, whom Ziegenbalg considers wrongly to be Śiva himself. 72 v: ‘king;’ an epithet of 103 v, 260 v: ‘betel leaf (i.e., Piper betle).’ 120 v: ‘author, owner of Vedas’ an epithet of Brahmā. 158 v: ‘consort of Vetāla;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī; see: Vetāla. page_323 Page 324 Vētanallūr, 194 r: ‘the good place for Vedas (i.e., Vedic study);’ name of a place in country. varuttum pēy, 173 r: ‘the able pēy thabrings in pain and suffering.’ 112 v: ‘infatuated bow-man;’ an epithet of Manmatha. Vilvam, 252 v: beal tree (Aegle marmelos). vikārap pēy, 173 r: perhaps: ‘the distorting pēy that cannot be questioned.’ 194 r: ‘ruler of the entire heaven (i.e., universe);’ an epithet of Devendra. Vīravēlar, 72 v: ‘hero with a spear, lance;’ an epithet of Vīri, 158 v: ‘heroin;’ an epithet of Bhadrakālī. 120 v: ‘man who blossomed (like a flower);’ an epithet of Brahmā. Viruttāccalam, 51 v: =Skt. name of a sacred city in country. Viruttam, 205 v: Viruttam =Skt. ‘round, rounded, circular;’ name of a poetical form used greatly during the Middle Ages: each stanza has four lines; all lines begin with the same rhymes. 238 r-v: =kan. =Skt. vyāla: probably: a beast of prey; a mythological lion-faced animal with the trunk and tusks of an elephant. 158 v: as vehicle;’ an epithet of Indra; see: Yāi. 67 v: ‘elephant-faced man;’ an epithet of Gaeśa. 9.3 Other words Aiyar, 46 a r, 136 v: aiyar =Pāli, ayya, ‘master, sir;’ an epithet of Bengal, 64 v: in i.e., vakam, geographical area around the river in North East India. Betel, 103 v, 260 v: perhaps a Latin term for the word: ‘betel leaf (Piper betle). Calām, 141 r, 227 r, 230 r: =Hebrew: shālō(w)m, ‘peace, wholeness.’ It is derived more immediately from the Arabic word “salaam,” which is a form of greeting mostly practiced by the Muslims living in South India, especially in the country. 177 v: =Urdu: jamdhar, ‘dagger.’ Ceylon, 76 v, 86 v, 179 r: probably derived from Arabic or Latin or Greek or other Asian languages such

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as Javanese; in

It refers to the modern country of Sri Lanka. page_324

Page 325 Coconut, 31 r, 69 v: probably: a Spanish word. It stands for two words: ‘ tender coconut, tender coconut milk’ and ‘ripe coconut.’ Coromandel, 8 v: It is the European corruption of the word (‘Kingdom of the ); in Ziegenbalg’s writings the word Coromandel refers to the geographical area known as the (‘Coast of ’). Cupid, 9 a r, 108 v: Lat.: Cupido, Roman god of erotic love, in text: compared with Manmatha. Jerusalem, 4 r: Hebrew: yeruwshalaim, ‘teaching of peace,’ chief city of Palestine, the capital of the Kingdom of Jews. In text: name of the Church that Ziegenbalg founded in Tranquebar in 1707. Jesus Christ, 262 v: Greek: Iesous Christos: Iesous, ‘God is salvation’ and Christos, ‘annointed;’ name of the founder of Christian faith, considered as the second person of Trinity. 94 r: =Prākrit, ‘man with eyes,’ a version of the Sanskrit name an epithet of 72 v, 74 v: =Prākrit: kanda =Skt. skanda, ‘spurting, effusing, spilling, shedding;’ see: Katirnapi, 76 v: katir-napi, ‘prophet in Katirkāmam;’ the Muslims in South Sri Lanka considered as a Napi (=Arabic/Urdu: nabī, ‘prophet’). Malabarian, 2 v, 15 v, 63 v, 122 v, 126 v, 231 r, 234 r, etc.: possibly: European corruption of the word ‘malaiyar,’ ‘inhabitant of mountain.’15 Palanquin, 124 v, 193 v, 238 r: pallakku =Pāli: pālankī; Hindī: Pālkī; Portuguese . palanquim; name of an enclosed conveyance litter for renowned persons, born on shoulders of (at least four) men by means of poles. Palmyra, 91 r, 243 v: in the text: =Portuguese: palmeira, a tall fanleafed palm (Borassus flabellifer/flabelliformis) with hard resistant wood, fiber and sugar-rich sap. Pariah, 123 v, 138 v, 156 v, 244 r-v: European ways of writing the word ’drum-beaters;’ usually: a collective name for the people who are considered to be outside of the classical and hence, outcastes and untouchables. Piāl, 258 v: an European way of translating the word ‘raised platform, veranda in front of a house.’ Siren, 9 a r, 61 v: Lat.: siren, sirena: half-female beings in Greek mythology who destroyed the mariners luring and bewitching them through their sweet songs; a symbol for a temptress; in text: compared with the river goddess page_325 Page 326 Sombrero, 48 r, 226 r: Portuguese. ‘sumbreiro’ derived from Spanish: sombra, ‘shade;’ in text: a large, round, high-brimmed umbrella (parasol) used for kings and deities. Sri Lanka, 76 v: Sinhalese: sre längke, ‘resplendent land;’ name of the island country (formerly: Ceylon) Southeast of India. St. Thome, 52 v: name of a suburb near Mailāppūr in Chennai (formerly: Madras), where, in a cathedral of the same name (built in 1522 by Dom Duarte de Menezes, the governor of Goa), the body of the Apostle St. Thomas is believed to be buried. However, the nearby St. Thomas Mount is known in as Paraki Malai, ‘Mountain of the (abominable) Foreigners.)’ Tranquebar, 1 r, 4 r, 8 v, etc.: an European way of writing the word ’ hamlet on the (sea) waves,’ i.e., hamlet on seashore; name of a town about 250 km Southeast of Chennai (formerly: Madras). It was a Danish colony (1619–1845), which was forty square kilometers in extent. Venus, 9 a r, 108 v: Lat.: Vener-, Venus, goddess of (erotic) love and beauty; in text: compared with the female deity Rati. 9.4 Titles of the books in the Genealogy Ampikaimālai, 59 v: Ampikaimālai, ‘garland for Ambikā.’ Poems in praise on Ambikā, which are composed in the genre of Mālai.16 52 v: poems in praise on composed in the (poetical) form of 17 98 v: poems on Anumān (=Skt. Hanumat) that are composed in the form of 18 This book is yet to be identified.19 Apirāmiyantāti, 59 v: poems in honor of Abhirāmī, which are composed in the poetical form of Antāti.20 92 r: = tapa nilai, ‘the situation of Arjuna’s (religious) austerities (in Mahābhārata 3, 39 ff.);’21 see: Arjuna.

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206 v: ‘story of Hariścandra;’ see: Hariścandra.22 53 r: poems of praise composed in the literary form of Antāti by 23 123 v: ‘ about the sixty-four holy pastimes’ of Śiva in the city of Maturai in country.24 97 v: ‘holy name of ’ this book (supposedly) written by Tirumakaiyāvār is yet to be identified.25 The name comes from the miraculous gem Camantakam worn by on his neck. page_326 Page 327 Caracuvatiyantāti, 124 v: poems in praise of Sarasvatī, composed in the form of Antāti;26 see: Sarasvatī. Cavuntaralakari, 59 v: =Cavuntara-lahari, ‘beautiful, blissful experience.’27 Citamparamālai, 52 v: Citamparamālai, ‘garland of (Śiva in) Citamparam;’ poems in praise of Śiva in his temple at Citamparam; these poems are composed in the genre of Mālai. This book is yet to be identified.28 198 r: ‘story of Citraputra;’ This book is yet to be identified.29 Civakāmicavuntarimālai, 59 v: ‘garland (of praise) about Śivakāmasundarī;’ poems composed in the form of Mālai. This book is yet to be identified.30 Civakavacam, 30 r: ‘an amulet of Civam (the Highest Being)’ worn to ward off any evil.31 Civamālai, 124 r: ‘garland (of praise) for/about Civam;’ poems composed in the genre of Mālai. This book is yet to be identified. Civapōtakam, 30 r: ‘teachings of/on Śiva;’ this book is yet to be identified. 51 v: ‘ on Śivarātri.’32 Civavākkiyam, 15 r-v, 17 v, 18 r: ‘speech, sayings, aphorism of Civam (the Highest Being).’33 52 v: ‘(poems of praise composed in) about Cuvāmi (God);’ this book is yet to be identified.34 Ēkānparanātarulā, 52 r: ‘procession (in honor) of Ekāmparanātha;’ poems composed in the form of Ulā.35 97 v: ‘ about Ekādaśī.’36 99 r: =Intiracittuvataip ‘chapter on the persecution of Indrajit,’ title of the twentyseventh chapter of (‘Section on War’) of (‘relating to Rāma’). 53 r: ‘a chapter on Kāśī.’37 98 v: ‘liberation of (the elephant) Gajendra’ from the grips of a crocodile by 38 see: Gajendra. 98 r: ‘ by (maternal uncle of ), or ‘ about (dwarf);’ poems in praise of composed in form of 39 52 r, 71 r, 73 r-v, 148 v: ‘ about (about )‘by Kacciyappa Civācāriyar (c. 1350–1400 CE).40 74 r: ‘perception, realization of ’ poems in praise of composed in the form of Anupūti.41 page_327 Page 328 Kapilarakaval, 208 v: ‘screech of a peacock’ with poems composed in the form of Akaval.42 97 v: ‘(a prayer) consisting of five syllables, recited to ’ this book is yet to be identified. 52 v: ‘procession (in honor) of ’ poems composed in the poetic genre of Ulā. This book is yet to be identified.43 kalampakam, 97 v: ‘poems on composed in different kinds of stanzas;’ poems composed in the form of Kalampakam.44 Kīrtticcarukkam, 18 r: ‘a (poetical) section on the glory (of God as the Supreme Being);’ this book is yet to be identified. 98 r: ‘embassy of ’ poems composed in the form of Tūtu.45 Kōvilkalampakam, 97 r: ‘a collection of different kinds of poems on Kōvil (‘house of a king,’ i.e., temple of in Śrī Rakam’).’46 Kucalavarkatai, 117 v: ‘story of Kuśa and Lava;’ this book is yet to be identified.47 74 v: ‘(poems composed in the form of) in honor of Kumāra;’ this book is yet to be identified. 74 v: ‘the holy name of the child Kumāra;’ this book is yet to be identified.48 file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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178 r: = ‘a chapter on the persecution of ‘actually: the title of the fifteenth chapter of (‘Section on War’) of (‘relating to Rāma’). 98 v: ‘(poems composed in the form of) Antāti about (the place) Kuantai,’ i.e., (‘holy ’ a synonym of the city of ).49 Makāvintam, 92 r: ‘greatly acquiring, procuring, knowing;’ this book is yet to be identified.50 51 r, 209 v: ‘ about ’ one of the eighteen principal 51 112 r: ‘book on (=Skt. madana, ‘sexual passion, god of love, kind of embrace.’52 Mātumaimālai, 59 v: ‘wreath, garland for (the goddess) Mātumai (womanliness, ignorance);’ poems in the form of Mālai composed by (died c. 1700).53 52 r: ‘ about Maturai.’ page_328 Page 329

98 v: ‘chapter about the snake-noose;’ title of the eighteenth chapter of (‘Section on War’) of (‘relating to Rāma’). 15 r, 16 r, 17 v: ‘(maxims) on wisdom (composed) in metre;’54 this book is yet to be identified.55 98 v: ‘one hundred verses about ’ poems composed in the form of Catakam.56 This book is yet to be identified.57 Nellaimālai, 112 r: perhaps: ‘garland for/of (the prostitute) Nellai;’ this book is yet to be identified.58 53 r: ‘message that the heart sends out,’ title of a book composed in the form of Tūtu, in the first half of thirteenth century by Umāpaticivācāriyar.59 Nīlinātakam, 174 v: ‘drama of (the demonic woman) Nīlī’ at near in country; title of a book.60 Nīticcāram, 15 r: ‘essence of ethical maxims;’ title of a book.61 99 r: ‘childhood-section of ’ title of the first section of the Paramarakaciyamālai, 16 r, 52 v: ‘(poetical) garland about the mysteries of Brahman.’62 Pārata 98 r: ‘Mahābhārata (composed) in (literary form of) ’ this book is yet to be identified.63 Paratacāstiram, 213 v: ‘manual on drama and dance.’64 Pāratam, 98 r: =Villipāratam composed by (c. 1400 CE) who based his ideas on the Mahābhārata in Sanskrit.65 51 v: ‘great ’ composed by (second half of twelfth century).66 98 v: poems in honor of composed in the form of this book is yet to be identified. 97 v: poems describing various stages of children, especially deities. is a poetic genre; but Ziegenbalg refers to a book with this title. This book is yet to be identified.67 68 v: poems about composed in the form of Cintu. It is identical with the below-mentioned by Auvaiyār.68 121 r: ‘section on Brahmā;’ perhaps: a book about Brahmā.69 page_329 Page 330

121 r: = Skt. brahmāstrapadala, ‘chapter on the arrows of Brahmā,’ the title of the twenty-first chapter of the (‘Section on War’) of (‘relating to Rāma’). Rāmaceyam, 97 r: =Irāma-ceyam, ‘victory of Rāma;’ this book is yet to be identified.70 Śrī ammāai, 98 r: poems in honor of Śrī Rakarāyar (‘King of Śrī ’) composed in the form of This book is yet to be identified.71 Tērūrntavācakam, 53 r: ‘saying about a chariot (driven by the King over his own son who had earler killed a calf by riding his chariot over it);’ this book is yet to be identified.72 Tēvakōrvai, 70 v: perhaps: tēvakōvai; a collection of poems in the form of Kōvai.73 This book is yet to be identified. Tēvāram, 30 r, 251 v, 257 v: ‘relating to Deva Hara (i.e., God Śiva) or ‘divine garland’ or ‘necklace of pearl’ (i.e., devotional songs in honor of god);’ a collection of devotional songs in honor of Śiva.74 Tēvikavacam, 37 v: Tēvikavacam, ‘an amulet of a goddess;’ this book that is yet to be identified. Tirikālacakkaram, 24 r, 194 v: ‘revolving wheel of three times (past, present and future time);’ title of a book

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supposedly written by Tirumūlattēvar. This book is yet to be identified.75 74 r, 97 r: ‘holy praise;’ poems in praise of 76 however in text: in praise of It is also possible that these two books are different ones, but have the same title. 15 r: ‘holy (‘a Paraih-priest, a royal drummer’) = ‘ holy shorline;’ an ethical book with 1330 two-line songs composed by the first line consists of four feet and the second only three feet.77 Tiruvācakam, 30 r: Tiruvācakam, ‘holy saying’ about Śiva written by 78 Tiruvārulā, 52 v: ‘procession (of the lord, god) in Tiruvār;’ poems composed in the form of Ulā.79 52 r: ‘ about (the lord, temple in)’ written by Ellappa Nāvalar.80 Uttirapōtakam, 52 v: ‘northern teaching’ as opposed to the (‘southern teaching’). This book is yet to be identified.81 Valippāttu, 16 v, 53 r, 97 r: ‘song for the way;’ this book is yet to be identified.82 page_330 Page 331 identified.83

79 v: poems in praise of

composed in the form of

This book is yet to be

79 v: perhaps: poems composed in the form of in honor of This book is yet to be identified.84 Vālmīki 205 r: ‘Vālmīki’s epic relating to Rāma;’ title of a book in Sanskrit with 24,000 stanzas, divided into seven sections. Ziegenbalg must have known this work only in its version.85 Varukkakkōvai, 98 v: Varukkakkōvai. It is a poetic genre;86 in text, however, a title of a book which is yet to be identified.87 51 r: ‘ about Vātūr’ = ‘ about the holy Vātavūrār (i.e., Śiva of Vātavūr).’88 68 v: = ‘elephant-faced person;’ poems in praise of composed by the poetess Auvaiyār (tenth or twelfth century of the Common Era).89 97 r: ‘(poetical) garland about (i.e., Tiruppati);’ poems in honor of 90 174 v: ‘story about (the demon) Vetāla.’91 112 r: ‘message senby/through a (‘a sixteen year old prostitute’);’ poems composed in the form of Viralivitutūtu. this book is yet to be identified.92 51 v: ‘ about (Śiva in) Viruttāccalam.’ 97 r: ‘poems about in the form of ’ page_331 Page 332 End Notes 1 The eight standard forms of are as follows: ‘wealthy ’ ‘corn ’ ‘daring’ ‘ courageous ’ ‘victorious’ ‘ as goddess of learning,’ ‘famous ’ and ‘reigning’ 2 Cf. Germann, 1867, 208: Germann interprets this name as “Leiter der himmlischen Schaaren [sic, i.e., Scharen]”, i.e., ‘leader of heavenly troops, bands.’ 3 Cf. Germann, 1867, 281: Germann interprets this word as follows: the Tamil word Aratēci consists of akam (‘inside’) combined with tēci (short form of tēcikan, meaning a ‘stranger, beggar’). 4 This word should not be confused with a great Soma-festival lasting for numerous Sutyā-days. 5 The Tamil word can also mean ‘the thread of the marriage badge’; then the name ‘Kayirātal pēy’ would refer to the pēy that plays with the thread of the marriage badge, i.e., the stability of marriage is threatened. 6 Godā is also a synonym for the female devotee of at Śrī Villipputtūr in Tirunelvēli District, country. 7 Germann, 1867, 281: Germann considered the as respected mendicants who carried bells with themselves and were recognized by the kings. 8 Zvelebil, 1974, 93, 101–106: the twelve are as follows: 1) ‘the great ‘also known as (=Skt. ‘the perfect, ideal person )’. He lived in ninth century in the city of Śrī Villipputtūr in Tirunelvēli District. 2) Kulacēkarap Perumal or Kulacēkara ‘ of the city Kulacēkaram’ in District in Tamilnadu, (c. 800 AD); 3) ‘ of the city of ’ near (former) Madras in Tamilnadu, (850 AD; 4) ‘ who is like a dust at the feet of a devotee,’ first half file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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of ninth century AD; 5) ‘ with holy song’; 6) Maturakavi, ‘the beloved poet’; 7) Tirumakai 8) Poykai ‘the of near a pond’; 9) Pūtam 10) Pēy 11) ‘our 12) ‘(female ruler’); For more information see Rajakopālan, 1970 and Sundaram, 1996. 9 It is possible that Ziegenbalg referred to the Cf. Zvelebil, 1995, 515: The are the “professional occupational group of minstrels who sang their poetry to the accompaniment of string instrument yāl (lute?, harp?). In medieval period, regarded as a low caste.” 10 Zvelebil, 1974, 213: “ Pillaittamil ‘The Tamil of Childhood’ […] is defined as a genre in praise of childhood, singing of the male or female child between its third and twenty-first month of life. According to (d. page_332 Page 333 1785), even while singing of the omnipoetent deity it is more charming to sing of it as of a child.” 11 Zvelebil, 1974, 223: “ Cintu [dwarf] is a form very closely related to kīttanai. It usually contains four stanzas, the first of which is preceded by the theme (pallavi) repeated before each of the following stanzas as a refrain. Out of the four stanzas, the first is shorter than the rest, and is termed anupallavi. It also makes frequent use of the final rhyme besides etukai and mōnai ” 12 Cf. HR, V, the Second Index: “Tader, oder Bettelordensmann,” i.e., a member of a mendicant Order. Cf. HR, IV, 56. Cont., 1145: On January 17, 1742 the missionaries in Tranquebar (e.g., Ncolaus Dal) reported that they had met in the colony of Tranquebar a “Tadar” from Colombo, Ceylon (i.e., Sri Lanka). 13 Germann, 1867, 185: Germann’s interpretation of this word as (‘pēy of money,’ i.e., ‘ pēy,’ ‘pēy of avarice, greed of money’) is perhaps correct. 14 The were the inhabitants of Telugu country, who settled down in sixteenth century AD in Tamil country, but continued to speak Telugu. 15 Cf. Gaur, 1966, 99: The word “Malabari” was “the name by which was generally known among the Portuguese and the other Europeans who reached India soon afterwards.” The word ‘Malabarian’ can also mean the ‘people of Malabar Coast’ 16 Zvelebil, 1974, 216: “Mālai ‘garland, wr[e]ath of flower,’ a supergenre defined formally as a number of stanzas connected by some structural principle. It has a great number of subtypes.” Cf. Kulacēkara et. al.: Maturāpuri Ampikai Mālai, ed. n. P. 1928; (Köln MW 1277a). 17 Zvelebil, 1974, 217: “is a complex, late, and rather formalistic genre, consisting of eight equal stanzas each of which is termed kalai (the first kalai, the second kalai, etc.) The first contains [an] invocation of [the] deity, the second [a] description of the kingdom of the hero, the third and fourth contain his name and praises, the four remaining stanzas deal in a sophisticated way with his women and contain usually erotic descriptions of great realism. […] The best all belong to the 16th-18th centuries.” Cf. Zvelebil, 1995, 737. 18 Zvelebil, 1974, 195 f.: is a “minor but interesting genre which may enter larger genres as their component. The origin of the form may be sought in a game played by girls who threw up toy-like pieces (usually five to seven cowries or pebbles, or a number of balls) in the air, and caught them usually on the back on the hand; the game was accompanied by simple songs the rhythm of which was suited to the tempo of the game. Subsequently, it became the name of the rhythm and metre of the songs., and finally the term was applied to poems which had in each verse as refrain. The name was much later adopted for a ballad-like narrative genre. […] The diction tends to be simple and straightforward.” Cf. Zvelebil, 1995, 33. page_333 Page 334 19 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 43; Gaur, 1967, 76: “Anumár ámmanár [Anumār ammanār] a very large book of simple and pleasant verses. it tells the story of a monkey called Anumar [Anumār] who, in the war between Wischtnum and Rawenen, performed many great deeds and miracles with his monkey army. Thus he earned a place amongst the noble gods and became famous all over the world. The book consists of four thousand two hundred and eighty-four verses, all arranged in a very polished way. The author was called Bugeléndi [Pukarēnti], he wrote many books in the same verse form. The book is about three hundred years old but the story related in it happened many thousand years ago on the island of Ceylon where Rawenen has his castle and his kingdom.” 20 Cf. Zvelebil, 1974, 195: Antāti is “a purely formally defined genre: it may design any powen in the antāti arrangement, i.e. a poem in which the last syllable or foot of the last line of a stanza (the ‘end’ portion) is identical with the first syllable or foot of the following stanza (the ‘beginning’ portion. It has always been one of the most productive forms since it first appeared in bhakti poetry.” Cf. Zvelebil, 1995, 47; Cf. Apirāmi file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Apirāmi Antāti, 1852 (RMRL 2393); Apirāmi Apirāmi Antāti, Kōvai: Mēkalai Accakam, 1991; (RMRL 6450); Jaganatha Iyer, K.V. (ed.): Apirāmiyantāti, Dharmapuri: Dharmapuri Adhinam, 1969. 21 Cāsttiri, A.: Tapa Nilai, ed. Capāpati Accuk 1894; Irāmaccantirak Kavirāyar, Irāyanallūr: Tapacu. Patmanāpa Vilāca 1910; (RMRL 14031). 22 Cf. Mutaliyār, Ariccantiramakārājā-katai, Cuntaravilāca 1905; (RMRL 12046). 23 Cf. Kukai Namacivāya Tēvar: Kalvippiravāka 1865; (RMRL 3469); Kukai Namacivāya Tēvar: yantāti, ed. Cupparāya Mutaliyār, n.P.Ātivitva 1874. 24 Cf. Parañjōti Accuk 1866; (RMRL 23842); the same author: Vittiyāratanākara 1928; (RMRL 15111). 25 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 66; Gaur, 1967, 79: “Tschamánda búllei dirunámam the nature of human beings according to their carious ages; all told in a hundred songs. The Malabaris recite all their poems in the manner of songs. Dirunabkeialwàr [Tirumakai Ārvār], the author, was at first a reigning king but later he renounced his kingdom and devoted himself to a life of wisdom, preaching, and writing. All this happened in the first world era.” 26 Cf. Kampar: Carasvatiyantāti, Intutiyālājikalyantiracācalai, 1891; (RMRL 2644); the same author: Carasvati Antāti, Kāvēri Accakam, 1969; (RMRL 10245). page_334 Page 335 27 Cf. Vīrai: Cauntariyalakari, 1876; (RMRL 9852). A Sanskrit book entitled Saundaryalaharī is ascribed to the reformer (788–820 AD). 28 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 33; Gaur, 1967, 74: Tschidambarumálei [Citampāra mālai]: a hundred and two songs about Ispiren consisting, for the most part, of similies and metaphorical phrases. The author was Kóganáma Tscheiweiér [Kukanāma Jīvijar]. He was very holy man and lived approximately a hundred years ago.” 29 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 109; Gaur, 1967, 87: “Tschiddira búddi-rakadeì [Cittiraputtka katai]: a historical book written in fluent and neat verses about Tschiddirabuddiren Ispiren’s Kannakabbel or scribe, who has to write down all that happens in this world. The deeds of the good people are entered n the right side, those of evil people on the left. The book consists of two thousand and four hundred verses; the Malabari women learn them by heart and sing them very beautifully. I have copied many fine phrases from this book but at times been greatly surprised by the odd fancies (seltsamen Einfällen) of the author. The whole story is only a fragment but arranged so analogically that one can draw the right conclusions from the presuppositions and that too in their right connexions. But since the principles which form the basis are at times extremely absurd one arrives at all sorts of illogical conclusions. Still, I am always surprised to see how well they are able to recite, amplify, and demonstrate according to the ante-predicaments and postpredicaments, specially since there is no real logic amongst them. This proves that even without logic one can present ideas correctly by the natural power of the intellect and by continuously exercising one’s judgment. Not only Malabari scholars but common people and women too are well versed in the art of oratory; this is rather surprising since they never receive any formal instruction in it.” 30 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 92; Gaur, 1967, 83: “Tschiwakáma Schawúndirimálei [..? .. Cāvittri mālai]: a hundred songs about the goddess Ischiwa Kama Schawandiri [sic].” 31 Cf. Varatunkarāma Civa Kavacam, ed. V.Cuntara Mutaliyār, 2nd ed., n. p.: Victōriyā Jūpili 1889. 32 Cf. Nā: 2nd. ed. [Jaffna]: Nāvalar 1910; (RMRL 17969); Varata Carasvatiyantiracālai, 1933; (RMRL 17980). 33 Cf. Civavākkiyar: Civavākkiyam, 1867; (RMRL 14750); Periya Civavākkiyar Uraiyum—Mā. Mutaliyārāl B. Nāyakkar, 1933; (Köln, H 2). Civavākkiyar: Civavakkiyani Ār. Ji. Pati 1974; (RMRL 33246). page_335 Page 336 34 Ziegenbalg,

Library, book no. 58; Gaur, 1967, 78: “Schwámiperil wánnam [Cuvamipēril

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songs about God.” (The italics of the words in []-brackets are not kept.) 35 Zvelebil, 1974, 197: “Ulā ‘procession.’ A very interesting and productive genre: A poem in which describes the patron (or god) going in procession around the streets of a city, while women of varying ages ( paruvam) fall in love with him; their love is not returned.” Cf. Ēkāmparanātar Teyvīkavulā, 1841; (RMRL 41090). 36 Cf. Varatarāca Kāci. A.: Mittira Acciyantiracālai, 1898; (RMRL 40075). 37 Cf. 1865; (RMRL 17958); the same author: ed. Cupparāya Nāyakkar, 1884. 38 Cf. Kajēntira 3rd ed., Kalāratnākaram 1890; (RMRL 22126). 39 Cf. Tañcai: Caracuvati Makāl Nūlnilaiyam, 1976; (RMRL 17958). 40 Cf. Kacciyappa Civācāriyar: 4th ed., Vitti 1846; (RMRL 11706); Kacciyappa Civācāriya Cuvā Aruicceyta Uraiyum, Acciyantiracālai, 1908. 41 Cf. Acciyantiracālai, 1903; (RMRL 11900); the same author: 1967; (RMRL 12231). 42 Zvelebil, 1974, 194: Akaval is originally “one of the four basic types of classical Tamil metres; developed in devotional and subsequent poetry into a purely formally defined genre as ‘poem composed in akaval metre.’” Cf. Kapilarakaval, ed. Vētakiri Mutaliār, n. p.: Paccaiyappa Nāyakkar 1847 ( Library of the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission in Leipzig, Call No.: E.B. 193); Kapilar: Kapilarakaval, 2nd ed., Ango-Vernacular 1890; (RMRL 10453); Kapilarakaval, Puracai Śrī Cuntaravilāca 1905 (Köln M 5315); Subramaniya Aiyar, A.V.: Kapilarakaval—A Medieval Tamil Poem on Caste—A Free English Rendering with the text and an introduction on the evolution of caste and notes and appendices, Madras: 1975; (Köln MW 466). 43 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 45; Gaur, 1967, 77: “Kaiarónerulà a description of the god who is worshipped by the Malabaris in the Dutch town of Nagapatnam, praising the great deeds and miracles he performed. In this country it is the custom that every town and every village has its own deity who has manifested himself in that particular place and given special help to the local inhabitants. The page_336 Page 337 author, Kalamóganáinàr, was a Brahmin and he lived eight hundred years ago.” (The italics of the words within the []-brackets are not kept.) 44 Zvelebil, 1974, 200: “ Kalampakam, lit[erally] ‘mixture, combination’ was an immensely productive genre since it admitted great variety both in metre and in theme. […] A kalampakam should have fourteen to eighteen sections or components […]. It is a rather untidy and bizarre genre.” Zvelebil, 1995, 305: The genre of Kalampakam (mixture, combination) refers to poems that have used a number of other genres. It sings the great acts of a hero/heroine. Cf. ed. Memorial 1887; (RMRL 29606). 45 Zvelebil, 1974, 205: The tūtu (‘message’) is meant to send a message of love through a companion (or even through a swan, parrot, breeze, and the like) “to effect reconciliation between lovers.” Cf. Śrī Ki Tūtu, 1851; (RMRL 27031). 46 kam, 2nd ed., Carasvati 1835; (RMRL 41631). 47 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 65; Gaur, 1967, 79: Kúschalawèn kadei [Kucalavā-katai]: the story of Wischtnum’s son Kuschalawen [Kucalavā], who, born from the goddess Tschídadéwi [Citā Tēvi], fought a war against his own father Wischtnum. Since he had been brought up in the wilderness by a prophet, he was ignorant of their relationship. This story consists of four hundred verses and is said to have been composed by Kamben.” 48 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 39; Gaur, 1967, 75 f.: “Komarer bulleidirunámum [Kumarar ]: a hundred songs about Ispiren’s son Komúrer [Kumarar] who rules over all devils, keeping them under firm control so that they cannot harm human beings against his wish. The author of this book is the very learned Komara Kurubara Pantárum [Kumara Kurupara he is still alive. It is said that he wrote these verses when he was only sixteen years old. Later he left this cost Cormandel and went to Bengal, where he composed many other books.” (The italics of the words within the []-brackets are not kept.) 49 Cf. Tañcai: Caracuvati Makāl Nūlakam, 1968 (RMRL 3446). 50 Gaur, 1967, 89: Gaur tried to translate a badly damaged manuscript copy kept in section of the Royal

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Library in Copenhagen (call no. Ny Kg. Samling 589 C4 104 opt) and came to the following conclusion: “Magâ wintam; obviously an extract from the Mahābhārata giving the names of that as Tanner, Wimer, Atschuner, Nawalen, and Sagadewer and that of their common wife as Trobadei.” Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 117; Germann, 1880, 92 f.: “Makāvintam, a detailed historical description of the five brothers who left their kingdom and went into wilderness to serve the gods. Their names are as follows: 1. Dharma, 2. Bhīma, 3. Arjuna, 4. Nakula and 5. Sahadeva. These five brothers are said to have had only one wife Draupadī. After they were tested by gods in manifold ways, their eldest page_337 Page 338 brother was taken into heaven; and the other have a long list of complaints because they were not taken into heaven meaning that the gods were not gracious unto them. This history is presented in a very trustworthy manner. I [Ziegenbalg] have found out that the authors, though they tell of false, very deceitful stories, were very serious in their writing so that their writings were accepted as divine stories. They are also very serious in their arguments. They will become very uneasy if one would speak with them in an amusing manner; they put the Christians very much to shame because these are accustomed to discuss [spiritual things] with laughing and amusements.” (Translation by the author of this present work). 51 Cf. Vēlāyuta Mutaliār, 2nd, ed., Āyurvēta 1909; (RMRL 40118). 52 Most probably the following work is meant: cf.: Tēcikar (ed.): […] Irāmauraiyum, Kāraikkāl Mu. Kammatu Sama Acciyantiracālai, 1885; (RMRL 25264); the same editor: mum […] uraiyum, ed. (once again) yār, Cintātarippēai, Vivōtaya 1909; (RMRL 17081). 53 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 79; Gaur, 1967, 81: “Mádumeimálei [Mātumai mālai]: a small book of songs about Madumei [Mātumai], one of the greatest Malabari goddesses. The author Kannabbúr patárum [sic, i.e., ], died a short while ago.” 54 Zvelebil, 1995, 757: The venpa is the “commonest, most difficult and most esteemed st[anza] structure of Tam[il] class[ical] poetry. Only feet of 2 metric, syllables and of three metr[ic] syllables ending in nēr may be employed; the st[anza] must always end with a foot of the structure of one metric. syllables (or acai); the rules of veötalai must be strictly observed; the number of lines forming one v[erse] st[anza] and the feet within lines vary. There are five basic kinds of (The italics of the non-English terms are not kept in this quote.) 55 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 48; Gaur, 1967, 77: “Jánawénba is a booklet explaining how to lead a pious life (gottseliges Leben) and some special prayers. The author is called Kúru Namatschiweier [Kuru Namaccivāyar], he wrote many similar books.” 56 Zvelebil, 1974, 204: “ Catakam <Skt. śataka is purely formally defined genre of any poem of 100 stanzas.” 57 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 85; Gaur, 1967, 82: “Naraiana tschadagòm a hundred songs about the god Wischtnum which can be sung in a beautiful way. The author was called Kárimára pira[p]ù; when he was sixteen years of age he left father and mother and went to live in a temple where he led a very austere life and composed many books. He died only a short while ago not far from here.” page_338 Page 339 58 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 71; Gaur, 1967, 80: “Néllemálei [Nellaimālai]: a book of love poems and love songs, very similar to the unchaste verses of Ovid.” Cf. Ovidius Naso, Publius: The love books of Ovid, transl. Jean de Bosschère, New York: Rarity Press, 1930. 59 Kumaratēvar: a mutilated copy that was printed in Madras during the beginning of nineteenth century is available in RMRL, Call no.: 036143; Umāpaticivācāriyar: 1st ed., Tiruppanantal, Ku. Cuntaramūrtti, 1981. 60 A mutilated copy (i.e., pages 5–110) that seems to have been printed in Madras during the early years of nineteenth century is available in RMRL, Call no.: 24759. 61 Cf. Nīticāram, 1876; (RMRL 9573). 62 Kurunamaccivāya Tēvar (from Citamparam): Paramarāciyamālai, Carasvatiyaccukkūam, 1836; (RMRL 41635); Kurunamac-civāya Tēvar: Paramarāciyamālai, n. p. 1876. 63 It is not clear whether that Ziegenbalg knew the manuscript form of the following work: Pārata Uraiyum, n. p (printed about) 1880 (Köln I 39); the same author: Pārata Madras: Author’s Press, 1925.

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64 Cf. Arapatta Nāvalar (ed.): Paratacāsttiram, Vilāca 1876. 65 Cf. Makāpāratam, 2nd ed., Vittiyānu 1874 (RMRL 27303). 66 1845–1848; (RMRL 35510); the same author: Periyapurāam, 7th ed. 1928; (RMRL 18643); Mākkatai, Tirunelvēli: Caivacit-tānta Patippakam, 1970. 67 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 38; Gaur, 1967, 75: “Bullei dámul[ tamir]: some songs portraying the ways of small children for the purpose of praising God who plays so wonderfully with human beings (Menschenkindern).” 68 Cf. Auvaiyār aruicceyta Vinayakār akaval, [and] Ulakanīti, Śrī Patmanāpavilāca 1889; (RMRL 27241). 69 Cf. Rāma Sri Patmanāpa Vilāca Acciyantiracālai, 1907. 70 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 115; Germann, 1880, 92: “Ramascheam [Rāmaceyam], a very large book in verses about praising the great God With great appreciation, it describes his nine incarnations and the deeds that he had performed. The verses are very artistic and, however, every difficult to understand.” (translated by the author of this present work). page_339 Page 340 71 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 69; Gaur, 1967, 80: “Tschirankareier ámmanei [ sic! =Śrī ]: a very large book of pleasant verses narrating the whole story of Wischtnum. The author is supposed to have been a noble emperor (Kaiser), an overlord over all kings and dukes; his name was [ sic! =Śrī ]. There is still a descendant of this family living here on the cost of Coromandel, he was the title of an emperor but no longer the power to rule; the great Mogul allows him land of only two tons of gold to finance his state.” 72 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 77; Gaur, 1967, 81: “Torúndawáschanam [Cōrarāja actually it should be: Torundawaschagum, i.e., tērūrntavācakam]: the story of a king by the name of Tschóraróscha [Cōrarāja], who at all times acted strictly within the rules of justice. Once his own son committed a petty crime and the father had him executed. The author of thisbook is called Gnána boragáscha pantárum [ ].” 73 Zvelebil, 1974, 202 f.: “Kōvai, lit[erelly] ‘string; arrangement; scheme.’ This is an extremely productive genre, with its roots well deep in the past, which has survived many centuries, and was employed by some of the greatest poets in Tamil literature.” 74 Tēvāram was composed by Tirunāvukkaracu (also known as Appar, born c. AD 570/591, and died in his eighty-first year of age at Tiruppakalūr), Tiruñānacampantar (born c. AD 655, and died in his sixteenth year of age) and (eigth century AD). Many editions of Tēvāram are available in prints (right from the middle of nineteenth century). However, the following is one of the major editions: Tēvārat Seven volumes. Tarumapuram: 1953–1964, (Köln: E 113). 75 Cf. another book that was similar to Tirikālacakkaram: Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 111; Gaur, 1967, 88: “A related book was: Búwana Sákkaram a description of the globe. Many strange things are mentioned in this book which are unknown in Europe. The earth was first very accurately measured by Kandigéschuren [sic, in German: Nandigéschuren], when Wisctnum disclosed to Múladéwer how wide, long, broad, and thick the earth is with her spheres, landscapes, and seas. He in turn wrote it all down so that it became known to everybody. This too happened in the first world-era; since then many hundred thousand years have passed according to their calculations.” 76 Cf. 1864; (RMRL 1871); the same author: Tiruppuka, 4th ed., Tiruppu Kāriyālayam, 1968; (RMRL 12303). 77 Numerous prints are available. For English readers the following will be of help: Pope, George Uglow: The ‘Sacred’ of Nayanār, London: 1886; Ramachandra Dikshitar, V.R.: Tirukkural in Roman Transliterapage_340 Page 341 tion with English Translation (The Adyar Library Series 67), Madras: Theosophical Society, 1949. 78 Cf. Tiruvācakam, 1852; (RMRL 15233); Pope, George Uglow: The Tiruvā-cakam or ‘Sacred Utterances’ of —The text of the fifty one poems with English Translation, introduction and notes, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1900; rpt. Madras: Madras University, 1970. 79 Cf. Vīrarākava Mutaliyār: Tiruvārulā, Maturai: 1905; (RMRL 1375). file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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80 Cf. Ellappa Nāvalar: ed. Śrī Citamparam yantira cālai,’ 1905; (RMRL 14508). 81 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 50; Gaur, 1967, 77: “Úddirapodagam [Uttarapōtakam]: a song about the god in St. Thomas, who is called Moiláppūrpurusan.” 82 Perhaps this title might refer to (‘ten songs about not to live’), i.e., the twenty-eighth section of Tiruvācakam with stanzas 446–455. 83 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 32; Gaur, 1967, 75: “Walliámmei wenpà two hundred and ninety-five songs about the goddess Walliámmai the wife of Sabbiramanii. The author was called Bugelédi [Pukarēnti], he was an accomplished poet who lived more than five hundred years ago and he wrote many books.” 84 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 36; Gaur, 1967, 75: “Valliámmanár: a book of pleasant verses about the goddess Wálliammei giving her whole history.” 85 Cf. Kambar: Yantiracālai, 1902; (RMRL 4451); Doctor U. Ve. Cāminātaiyar Nūl Nilaiyam, 1957–1972. 86 Zvelebil, 1974, 217: In varukkakkōvai-genre “the stanzas begin with the let ters of the alphabet in successive order.” Cf. Ny Kg. Samling 589 C4 104 opt 1967, page 39, Book No. 91: The father of the (‘headman of a village’) in Tranquebar composed this book in honor of at (in country). helped Ziegenbalg and his colleagues. 87 Ziegenbalg, Library, book no. 91; Gaur, 1967, 83: “Warúkka kówei [Varukkai kōvai]: some songs about the district of Nagapatina and its inhabitants. They are in honour of Wischtnum who rules over this province. The author is the father of our Mánniakàran here who is also called Customs Officer (Zöllner) Kaliábúllei He is a kind of headman amongst the Malabaris who are in the service of the [Danish East India, inserted by the author of this current work] Company and he has helped me to get many fine books. He would have been of even greater service to me had he not been persecuted for it.” page_341 Page 342 88 Cf. 1887; (RMRL 40949). 89 Cf. Auvaiyār: 1887; (RMRL 1887). 90 Cf. 1863; (RMRL 19421). 91 Cf. Teyvattamai poruntiya periya Katai, 48 Maturai: I. Mā. 1937; (RMRL 16475). 92 There are several books with the identical title. Cf. Zvelebil, 1974, 218: “ is a subtype of the ‘messenger’ poems” (e.g., tūtu). Ziegenbag, Library, book no. 94; Gaur, 1967, 84: “Wirali wúrutúdu an unchaste love-story composed by a highly learned but very lewd poet called Wiraráguwamodeli [Virarākava Mutaliyār] who also wrote a book of verses about king Kándi of Ceylon, who gave him a beautiful elephant and one thousand Perdoús. His son is still alive, he lives not very far from here and imitates his father a good deal.” Cf. Gaur, 1967, 84: Gaur explains this term as follows: “Pardao or Pardau, a silver coin issued under Joan V (1706–1750) for the Portuguese Indies and struck principally at Goa. It was valued at half a rupia.” page_342 Page 343 10: BIBLIOGRAPHY 10.1 Primary sources 10.1.1 Paper manuscripts AFSt/B S 152: Title page picture meant for Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy. AFSt/H B 75–76: AFSt/H B 75–76: Ziegenbalg, B.: Der gottgefällige LehrStandt, darinnen allen Lehrern und Predigern auch allen Studiosis Theologiae aus dem heiligen Wort Gottes und eigener Erfahrung einfältig, deutlich und gründlich gezeiget wird, wie sie den heiligen Lehrstand anzusehen haben, auf was weise sie sich darzu bereiten laβen sollen, welche Eigenschafft sie an sich haben müβen, was bey ihnen in ihrem Amte erfordert werde und wie sie auf erbauliche Weise ihre Amts-Verrichtungen anstellen sollen, auch was sie in ihrem Amte zu meiden haben, welche Fata ihnen zu begegnen pflegen, wie reichlich sie von Gott getröstet werden und wie keine gottlose, sondern allein fromme und von Gott gelehrte Persohnen in solchem Stande der christlichen Kirche mit Nutzen dienen können. Geschrieben aus sonderbahrer Direktion Gottes im Gefängniβ von Bartholomaeo Ziegenbalgen, seiner königl Majestaet zu Dennemarck Frederici Quarti verordneten Missionario zu Ostindien unter den Heyden an der Gemeine zu Jerusalem, (August 14, 1709). AFSt/M I B 2:41: Pressier’s letter to A.H.Francke dated January 10, 1726. file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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AFSt/M I B 2:43: N.Dal’s letter to A.H.Francke dated September 20, 1725. AFSt/M I B 34:4: Fragment of Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy containing the texts about the and the identitical with L 25 r–26 v and L 251 r– 252 r. AFSt/M I B 69:72: Letter from Missionary G.H.Conrad Hüttemann (1728–1781) to the SPCK January 15, 1778. AFSt/M I C 1: Ziegenbalg’s letter to J.Lange dated December 21, 1701. AFSt/M I C 1:3: Ziegenbalg’s letter to A.H.Francke dated May 28, 1702. AFSt/M I C 1:33: Ziegenbalg’s Letter dated September 22, 1707. AFSt/M I C 13a 4: ‘Descriptions of the principal festivals of the Malabarians—sent by missionary John’ (cf. L 226 r–L 245 r) and printed in Neuere Geschichte der evangelischen Missionsanstalten zur Bekehrung der Heiden in Ostindien [in Halle], Vol. IV, No. 45, 1796, 794–807. AFSt/M I C 5:27: Ziegenbalg’s letter to A.H.Francke dated September 9, 1713. AFSt/M I C 5:38: Ziegenbalg’s letter to J.Lange dated September 12, 1713. page_343 Page 344 AFSt/M I C 5:44: Ziegenbalg’s letter to A.H.Francke dated September 14, 1713. AFSt/M I C 7:11: Ziegenbalg’s letter from Copenhagen dated January 10, 1715. AFSt/M I K 5:25: C.T.Walther’s biography; cf. HR, V, 50. Con., 361–388. AFSt/M II A 5:4: Brief overview of the history of the South Indian Deities: The whole Genealogy of the South Indian Deities is divided into four main parts, which should be noted; printed in: Neuere Geschichte der evangelischen Missionsanstalten zur Bekehrung der Heiden in Ostindien [in Halle], Vol. IV, No., 42, 1793, 560–568. AFSt/M II A 5:9: Ziegenbalg’s letter to La Croze dated February 10, 1716, written from London (printed in Uhl, 1742, 381–384). AFSt/M II A 6: This paper manuscript contains the following three texts: a) Ziegenbalg’s letter of 22.8.1708 sent F.J.Lütkens along with Bibliotheca malabarica (i.e., Library). Only this letter (pages 1–34) was printed in Ziegenbalg, Ausführlicher Bericht, 1710, 6–22). For a printed version of the Library cf. Germann, 1880, 1–20 and 61–94). b) Ziegenbalg’s German translation of three on morals (1708) entitled Ulakanīti and (printed in Ziegenbalg, 1930), and c) A list of 102 church members from May 12, 1707 to September 27, 1708 (printed in Germann, 1883, 529– 533). AFSt/M II A 6:1: Ziegenbalg’s shorter German version of the three books on Morals (1713). AFSt/M II B 5: Modified version of the title picture meant for Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy. AFSt/M II C 5: Der Königlich Dänischen Missionariorum unter den Ost-Indischen Heiden abgenötigte Apologia Episolis Bovingianis Opposita darinnen die ihnen mit Unrecht aufgebürdete und von dem Bekehrungswerk übel ausgesprengte Beschuldigungen angeführet und beantwortet, hingegen aber die wahren Umstände der enstandenen Streitigkeiten und Beschaffenheit des ganzen Werkes kürzlich dargestellt werden, nebst einem vorangesetzten Schreiben an einen Professorem Theologiae, darin die Ursache solcher Abfassung referier werden, Ziegenbalg’s manuscript bears the date of September 8, 1713. K1.Kgl.Saml.852, 2 Fol: Royal Library, Copenhagen, Ziegenbalg’s manuscript Varia ad Historiam ecclesiasticam Danica. It contains Ziegenbalg’s curriculum the school children in Tranquebar. Ledr. 389 20: The Royal Library, Copenhagen: This bundle of manuscripts contains many letters, of which the following have been consulted: page_344 Page 345 a) Ziegenbalg’s letter of 4.12.1711 addressed to Henry Hoar, the Secretary of the SPCK. b) Ziegenbalg’s letter dated 6.10.1713 and an identical table of contents of the Genealogy that he had sent to Johann Georg von Holstein, and c) Crown Prince Karl’s letter of 1.26. 1714 accepting the Letters. Ledr. 424.40: GENEALOGIA der Malabarischen Götter darinnen umständlich berichtet wird wie manche Götter diese Heiden glauben, woher sie ihren Ursprung deriviren, wie sie aufeinander folgen, wie sie heißen, was vor mancherleÿ Nahmen sie in den poetischen Büchern führen, wie sie gestaltet und beschaffen seÿn, was vor Ämter und Verrichtungen sie haben, in welche Familien sie sich ausgebreitet, welche Erscheinungen von ihnen geglaubet werden, was vor Pagoden sie ihnen bauen, was vor Fast- und Fest-Tage sie ihnen zu Ehren halten welche Opfer sie ihnen aufthun, und was vor Bücher sie von ihnen geschrieben haben. Nebst ihren eigentlichen Figuren und einer ausführlichen Tabella, woraus die gantze Ordnung, Begriff und Inhalt dieses Buches ersehen werden kan. Verfaßet aus dieser Heiden eigenen Schrifften und Briefen von den Königl. Dänischen Miβionariis in Ost-Indien zu Tranquebar (Copenhagen Version of the Genealogy, kept in the Royal file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Library at Copenhagen). Leipzig, Box 1: Letter of A.H.Francke dated January 25, 1727 addressed to the missionaries in Tranquebar. Leipzig, Box 2a: Letter of G.A.Francke dated September 18, 1731 informing the missionaries in Tranquebar that he had seen the Genealogy in Halle. Leipzig, Box 9: Henry Hoar’s letter of January 22, 1713 addressed to Ziegenbalg. Leipzig, D 359: Manuscript copy of Ziegenbalg’s Society dated 1883 (prepared for Wilhelm Germann). Leipzig, D 361: GENEALOGIA der MALABARISCHEN GÖTTER, darinnen umständlich berichtet wird, wie manche Götter diese Heiden glauben, woher sie ihren Ursprung deriviren wie sie auf einander folgen, wie sie heissen und was vor mancherley Nahmen sie auf einander folgen, wie sie in den Poetischen Büchern führen, wie sie gestaltet und beschaffen seyn, was vor Æmmter und Verrichtungen sie haben, in welche Familien sie sich ausgebreitet haben, welche Erscheinungen von ihnen geglaubet werden, was vor Pagoden sie ihnen bauen, was vor Fast- und Fest-Tage sie ihnen zu Ehren halten, welche Opffer sie ihnen anthun, und was vor Bücher sie von ihnen geschrieben haben; Nebst ihren eigentlichen Figuren und einer ausführlichen Tabella, woraus die gantze Ordnung, Begriff und Inhalt dieser Buchs ersehen werden kan. Verfasset aus dieser Heiden eigenen Schrifften und Brieffen von den Königlichen Dänischen MISSIONARIIS IN OST-INDIEN ZU TRANQUEBAR (Leipzig Version of the Genealogy, which W.Germann used. This page_345 Page 346 Library of the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission, Leipzig, Germany). manuscript is now kept in the Leipzig, D 558: Schanz, Hugo: Indische Wissenschaft—3 . Heft—Theologie, Poraiyār, dated August 13, 1870, Pages 1–16. Ny Kg. Samling 589 C4 104 opt 1967: Royal Library, Copenhagen: Unpublished manuscript entitled: Bibliotheca Tamulica, 1731. Reg. 107. Laeg. 6: National Archives, Copenhagen: Ziegenbalg, B. and Gründler, J.E.: Diarium und Konferenzbuch (July 9, 1706 until December 31, 1719) . Registratur 14, pages 504–507, No. 5: National Archives, Copenhagen: Treaty Collections: Supplement: The East Indies Inventory. SPCK, ME Cr 1: Microfilm of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge . It contains Ziegenbalg’s letter of June 12, 1712, and Ziegenbalg’s Latin letter dated January 9, 1713. The SPCK had it translated into English. SPCK, ME Cr 2: Microfilm of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge . It contains Gründler’s letter to SPCK dated August 28, 1715. SPCK, ME Cr 3: Microfilm of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge . It contains Ziegenbalg’s report on the church in Tranquebar dated October 3, 1710. 10.1.2 Palm leaf manuscripts AFSt/P TAM 35: palm leaves 1r-138v: kōvililē (‘Sermon spoken [i.e., preached] in the temple [i.e., church] Jerusalem [in Tranquebar]’), 1707. This palm leaf manuscript consists of sermons fifteen to twenty-six. Cf. AFSt/P TAM 37, palm leaves 1r–79r. AFSt/P TAM 36: pam leaves 1r–109v: upatecattaip pō mutalām vakuppāvatu (‘First Part of the Theological Treatise dealing with God’), translated by Ziegenbalg in 1709, and printed by him with the title Vētacāstiram in 1717 in Tranquebar. AFSt/P TAM 37: this palm leaf bundle contains several manuscripts, of which the following have been consulted: a) Palm leaves 1r–79r: kōvililē (‘The twenty-six sermon spoken [i.e., preached] in the temple [i.e., church] Jerusalem [in Tranquebar]’), 1707. Cf. Ziegenbalg’s summary of these twenty-six sermons in Ziegenbalg, Ausführlicher Bericht, 1710, 23–32. b) Palm leaves 151v–169v: (‘Prayer,’ i.e., song). This part of this manuscript contains twenty-six hymns sung in the church Jerusalem in Tranquebar in 1707. page_346 Page 347 c) Palm leaves, 170r–184r: i.e., (‘Way of Dharma,’ i.e., right conduct) written by Ziegenbalg in 1709. d) Palm leaves, 184v–187v: Intap pūlōkattilē nālu takka cāsttiram (‘The Treatise on Argument about the main religions in this world’). e) Palm leaves, 196r–200v: cīrmaiyil alla navamāy tiruccapaikku nirupam (‘The letter written from the city of Halle in the country of Europe to the newly erected holy church in Tranquebar’). This is Ziegenbalg’s translation (1709) of the letter

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written by August Hermann Francke in 1708. The palm leaf 200v bears the date: “ 8, 1708.” f) Palm leaves 200v–202r: yiruntu tiruccapaikku nirupam (‘The letter written from the city of Berlin in the middle of Europe to the holy church in the city of Tranquebar’). This is Ziegenbalg’s translation of a German letter from Pastor Johann Lysisus in Berlin. The palm leaf 202r bears date: “ 15, 1708.” g) Palm leaves 202r–207r: cīrmaiyil attilē yiruntu tiruccapaikku nirupamāvatu (‘The letter written and sent from the city of Berlin in the land Europa to the holy church in the city of Tranquebar’). This is Ziegenbalg’s translation of a German letter from his teacher Joachim Lange in Berlin. This letter does not bear any date. AFSt/P TAM 85: palm leaves 71r–317v: upatēcattaip pō vakuppu (‘Second Part of the Theological Treatise dealing with humankind’), translated by Ziegenbalg in 1709 and printed by him with the title Vētacāstiram in 1717 in Tranquebar. AFSt/P TAM 92: palm leaves 1r–58 r: navamāyk kōvilukku posttakam (‘Forty-eight hymns, which are being sung by the Christians belonging to the newly erected church Jerusalem Church in Tranquebar’), 1714. AFSt/P TAM 93, palm leaves 1r–93r. The title leaf is missing. This manuscript contains a brief summary of the Vētacāsttiram in thirty-two chapters. OIOC, SL 3027: Oriental India Office Collection, British Library in London; palm leaf manuscript entitled Evangelia auff alle Sonn- und Fest-Tage durchs gantze Jahr (‘Gospel readings for all Sundays and festivals throughout the year’). It is probable that H.Henriques wrote this manuscript. page_347 Page 348 10.1.3 Printed primary sources A Brief Account of the Measures taken in Denmark, for the Conversion of the Heathen in the East-Indies and of the College or Incorporated Society Errected by the King of Denmark for the Propagation of the Gospel. Published for the Information of those who earnestly with the Salvation of the Heathen—Translated from the High Dutch, London: J.Downings, 1715. Arndt, Johann: Fünff Geistreiche Bücher vom Wahren Christenthum, Leipzig: Joh. Herbord Kloß und Joh. Heinrichens Wittb. 1696. Baldaeus, Philipp: Wahrhaftige ausführliche Beschreibung der berühmten OstIndischen Küsten Malabar und Coromandel, als auch der Insel Zeylon samt dero angräntzenden und untergehörigen Reichen, Fürstenthumen, Ländern, Städten, vornehmsten Hafen, Gebäuden, Pagoden, Gewächsen, Thieren, der Einwohner Gestalt, Sitten, Kleidertracht, Haushaltung, Ceremonien: so wol auch der merkwürdigsten Kriegshandel, Belagerungen, Feld- und Seeschlachten, sonderlich zwischen den Portugiesen und Holländern, Handel- und Kaufmannschaften: durchgehends verziehret mit neuen Landkarten und Abbildungen der vornehmsten Städte, Festungen, Trachten, Thiere, Früchte, &c. so in Indien selbst nach dem Leben gezeichnet und folgendes mit Fleiβ in Kupfer gebracht; nebst einer umständlichen und gründlichen Entdeckung der Abgötterey der Ost-Indischen Heyden, Malabaren, Benjanen, Gentiven, Bramines &c. so wohl aus ihren eigenen mit anhero gebrachten Vedam oder Gesetzbuch und urkundlichen Handgeschriften, als Gespräch und Beywohnung ihrer vornehmsten Priester und Schriftgelehrten, nach gespüret, erforschet und widerleget: Zusamt den Abbildungen ihrer Götzen nach dero eigenen Bildern gezeichnet und fürgestellet. Alles getreulich verfasset und ans Liecht gebracht durch Philippum Baldaeum, Weiland Diener des Göttlichen Wortes auf Zeylon. Anitzo aber aus dem Niederländischen ins Hochteutsche mit Fleiβ übergesetzet und mit einem vollständigen Register versehen, Amsterdam: Bey Johannes Janssonius von Waesberge und Jan. J.von Someren, 1672. (An English translation of this work was printed in London in 1703: A true and exact description of the most celebrated East-India Coast of Malabar and Coromandel and also of the Isle of Ceylon, translated from the High-Dutch printed at Amsterdam 1672. It was reprinted several times, e.g., in 1745 and 1752. In 1996 the Asian Educational Services in New Delhi reprinted the 1703 edition.) Beschi, Costante Giuseppe: Grammatica Latino-Tamulica Ubi de Vulgari Tamulicae Linguae Idiomate dicto, ad Usum Missionarum Soc. IESU, Auctore P. Constantio Iosepho Beschio, Ejusdem societ. in regno Madurensi Missionario A.D. MDCCXXXVIII [1738], Trangambariae: Typis Missionis Danicae, CIC IC CCXXXIX [1739]. Beschreibung der Religion und heiligen Gebräuche der Malabarischen Hindous, nach Bemerkungen in Hindostan gesammelt—Erster und Zweiter Theil, page_348 Page 349

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Berlin: Verlage der Königlichen Preußischen akademischen Kunst- und Buchhandlung, 1791. Boccaccio, Giovanni: Ioannis Bocatii Gepi Genealogiae Deorum, Libri Quivdecim, cum annotationibus Iacobi Micylli eiusdem Montium, Sylvarum, Fontium, lacuum, fluuiorum, stagnorum, & marium no/minibus Liber I. Hu accessist rerum, & fabularum fcitu dignarum copiosus index, Basileae Apud Io. Hervagium Mense Steptembri Anno M.D.XXXII. (The Rare Book Collection of Princeton University Firestone Library has an original copy of this book with the call no. (EX) 3123.329.26q). Buno, Johannes: Idea Historiœ Universalis, oder kurtze Summarische Abbildung der fürnehmsten Geist- und Weltlichen Geschichte von Anfang der Welt/ durch die Patriarchen/Richter und Könige in Israel und Juda/die IV. Monarchien samt andern Königen/Item der berühmten Scribenten Geist- und Weltlichen/der KirchenLehrer und Ketzer/samt den merckwürdigsten Geschichten in Millenarios, Secula und Decennia, in tausend/hundert und zehen Jahr abgetheilet/und bis an das 1700. Jahr ausgeführet/also/daβ so wohl alte als junge Leute/auch die jenigen/so eben keine Profession von den Studien machen/eine richtige Ordnung der geist- und weltlichen Historien leichtlich begreiffen/und im Gedächtniβ behalten/auch andere Geschichte hiernach in ihre Zeiten bringen und setzen können. Schleusingen, Leipzig, In Verlegung des Autoris, 1702. Christoph Theodosius Walther—Evangelischer Missionar in Trankebar in Ostindien und seine Zeit mit zwei Bildern, (Sammlung von Missionsschriften Nr. 4), Leipzig: Evangelisch Lutherische Mission, 1889. Conferences between the Danish Christian Missionaries, Resident at Tranquebar, and the Heathen Natives of Hindoostan, Now First Rendered into English from the Original [Danish] Manuscript, by an Officer in the Honourable East India Company, London: Printed for J.Johnson and Co. St. Paul’s Church Yard, 1812. (This book contains three dialogues: Pages 11–54: Dialogue with the Tamils of Tranquebar; Pages 55–116: Dialogue with the temple priests of Tranquebar and pages 117–183: Dialogue with the Muslims of Tranquebar. The Oriental India Office Collection of the British Library in London has a copy of this book: Call No. T 8808). Fenger, Johannes Ferdinand: Geschichte der Trankebarschen Mission nach den Quellen dargestellt—Aus dem Dänischen übersetzt von Emil Francke, Grimma: Gebhardt, 1845. -----: History of the Tranquebar Mission—Worked out from the original Papers—Published in Danish and translated into English from the German of Emil Francke—Compared with the Danish Original, Tranquebar: Evangelical Lutheran Mission Press, 1863; 2nd ed., Madras, M.E. Press, 1906. Fenicio, Facobo: The Livro da Seita dos Indios Orientais/of Father Facobo Fenicio S.J. edited with an introduction and notes by Jarl Charpentier; page_349 Page 350

edited with the support of the Wilhelm Ekman University Fund, Uppsala: Almqvist Wiksells Broktryckeri, 1933. (This edition is based on Fenicio’s original manuscript in the British Library, call no.: MS Sloane 1820.) Francke, A.H.: Projekt zu einem Seminario universali oder Anlegung eines Pflanzgartens, in welchem man eine reale Verbesserung in allen Ständen inund auβerhalb Deutschlands, ja in Europa und allen übrigen Theilen der Welt zu gewarten, Halle, Verlag des Waysenhauses, 1701; for a reprint of this text cf. Francke, August Hermann: “Projekt zu einem Seminario Universali oder Anlegung eines Pflanz-Gartens, in: August Hermann Francke—Werke in Auswahl, ed. Erhard Peschke, Berlin, Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1969, 108–115. -----: Ordnung und Lehr-Art/wie selbige im Paedagogio zu Glaucha an Halle eingeführet ist: Worinnen vornehmlich zu finden/wie die Jugend/nebst der Anweisung zum Christenthum/in Sprachen und Wissenschaften/als in der Lateinischen/Griechischen/Ebräischen und Französischen Sprache/wie auch in Calligraphia, Geographia, Historia, Arithmetica, Geometria, Oratoria, Theologia und in denen Fundamentis Astronomicis, Botanicis, Anatomicis &c auf eine kurtze und leichte Methode zu unterrichten/und zu denen studiis Academicis zu praepariren sey, Halle: im Verlag des Waysenhauses, 1702. Freylinghausen, Gottlieb Anastasius: “Preface,” Neuere Geschichte der evangelischen Missionsanstalten zur Bekehrung der Heiden in Ostindien [in] Halle, Vol. I, 1776, i–xxx. Freylinghausen, Johann Anastasius: Grundlegung der Theologie—Darin die Glaubens-Lehren aus Göttlichem Wort deutlich fürgetragen und zum thäthigen Christenthum wie auch Evangelischen Trost angewendet werden —zum Gebrauch des Paedagogii, Halle: Verlegt im Wäysenhause, 1703. -----: Compendium oder kurtzer Begriff der gantzen christlichen Lehre in XXXIV Articuln/nebst einer Summarischen Vorstellung der Göttlichen Ordnung des Heyls in Frage und Antwort einfältig und Schrifftmäβig entworffen, Halle: Verlegt im Wäysenhause, 1705. -----: Geist-reiches Gesang-Buch—Der Kern Alter und Neuer Lieder, Wie auch die Noten der unbekannten Melodeyen und dazu gehörige nützliche Register in sich haltend; zum andern mahl herausgegeben, Halle: Waysenhaus, 1705. Germann, Wilhelm: “Züge aus den Anfängen der evan. luth. Mission in Trankebar—Teil II [about C.T.Walther],” Evangelisch-Lutherisches Missionsblatt, No. 18, September 1865, 283–286.

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-----: Genealogie der Malabarischen Götter aus eigenen Schriften und Briefen der Heiden zusammengetragen und verfasst von Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg—1., ungeänd[erter], nothdürftig erw[eiterter] Abdruck besorgt durch Wilhelm Germann, Madras: J.Higginbotham and Erlangen: Andreas Deichert, 1867 (Germann’s Version of the Genealogy). page_350 Page 351 -----: Ziegenbalg und Plütschau—Die Gründungsjahre der Trankebarschen Mission—Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Pietismus nach handschriftlichen Quellen und ältesten Drucken, Two Volumes, Erlangen: Verlag von Andreas Deichert, 1868. -----: “Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg als Bahnbrecher der lutherischen Mission,” Allgemeine Missionszeitschrift, 1883, 481–497 and 529–539. -----: “Die Bedeutung A.H.Franckes und des halleschen Waisenhauses für die evangelische Heidenmission,” Allgemeine Missionszeitschrift, 1898, 241–261. Graul, Karl: Reise nach Ostindien über Palästina und Egypten von Juli 1849 bis April 1853, Four Volumes, Leipzig: Dörffling & Francke, 1854–1856. -----: Kural of Tiruvalluver—High-Tamil Text with translation into common Tamil and Latin, notes and glossary —Published after the author ‘s death by William Germann, Leipzig, 1865; rpt. Osnabrück: Zeller, 1969. -----: Indische Sinnpflanzen und Blumen zur Kennzeichnung des indischen, vornehmlich tamulischen Geistes, Erlangen: Verlag von Andreas Deichert, 1865. Gründler, Johann Ernst: Leich-Predigt von dem Herrn Missionario und deβen Gedenckfeier gehalten aus Joh. 3, 29.30—Bei der Beerdigung des Weyland Hoch-Ehrwürdigen Herrn Bartholomœi Ziegenbalgs, Königl Dänischen Missionarii und Probsts bey der aus den Heyden zu Tranquebar gesammleten Christlichen Gemeinde in Ost-Indien, als dessen Cörper den 24ten Februarii 1719 in Vocksreicher Versammlung in der Neuen Jerusalems-Kirche beygesetzet wurde, Tranquebar in Ost-Indien, Gedruckt in der Königl. Dänischen Buchdruckerey. Anno 1720. Halhed, Nathaniel Brassey (Trans.): A Code of Gentoo laws, or, Ordinations of the Pundits from a Persian translation made from the original written in the Shanscrit language, London: n. p., 1776. (For a recent reprint cf. A code of Gentoo laws, or, Ordinations of the pundits—Nathaniel Brassey Halhed [1751–1830]—An historical and political view of the Decan, south of the Kistnah—Jonathan Scott [1754–1829]—With new introductions by Michael John Franklin (Series: Representing India. Indian culture and imperial control in eighteenth-century British Orientalist Discourse, Vol. IV, London: Routledge, 2000.) Halle Reports: Der Königl Missionarien aus Ost-Indien eingesandter Ausführlichen Berichten—Erster Theil, von dem Wercke ihres Amtes unter den Heyden, angerichteten Schulen und Gemeinen, ereigneten Hindernissen und schweren Umständen; Beschaffenheit des Malabarischen Heydenthums, geflogenen briefflicher Correspondentz und mündlichen Unterredungen mit selbigen Heyden; des einen Missionarius-Reise nach Europa, auch glückli-cher Zurückkunft in Ost-Indien; und übrigen Merckwürdigkeiten, so von ihnen, seit ihrer Abreise nach Indien bis zum August des 1716sten Jahres herausgeschrieben und hiervon von Zeit zu Zeit in verschiedenen Fortsetzunpage_351 Page 352

gen ediret sind—Vom Ersten ausführlichen Bericht an bis zu dessen zwölfter Continuation mitgetheilet—Nebst einem vollständigen Register, Halle: In Verlegung des Waysen-Hauses, 1735. Until 1766, nine volumes of the Halle Reports were published. Each volume contains twelve continuations. Hederich, M.Benjamin: Anleitung zu den Historischen Wissenschaften/ bekanntlich der Geographie, Chronologie, Genealogie und der Heraldica, der Historia Universali, Notitia Auctorum, den Römischen Antiquitäten und der Mythologie, so fern solche einem politen Menschen/insonderheit aber denen/so die Studia zu prosequiren gedencken/nützlich und nöthig, Berlin: Joh. Wilhelm Meyern/und Gottfried Zimmermann, 1709. -----: Gründliches mythologisches Lexicon, worinnen so wohl die fabelhafte, als wahrscheinliche und eigentliche Geschichte der alten römischen, griechischen und ägyptischen Götter und Göttinnen, und was daihin gehört, nebst ihren eigentlichen Bildungen bey den Alten, physikalischen und moralischen Deutungen zusammen getragen, und mit einem Anhange dazu dienlicher genealogischer Tabellen versehen worden—Zu besserem Verstänisse der schönen Künste uind Wissenschaften nicht nur für Studierende, sondern auch viele Künstler und Liebhaber der alten Kunstwerke, sorgfältig durchgesehen, ansehnlich vermehret und verbessert von Johann Joachim Schwaben, Leipzig: Gleditschens Handlung, 1770; rpt. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1996. Herder, Johann Gottfried: “Gespräche über die Bekehrung der Indier durch unsre europäischen Christen,” in: file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Adrastea, Vol. III, Leipzig: 1802, 179–192. John, Christoph Samuel: “Einige Anmerkungen zur Berichtigung der Orthographie und Aussprache der in den Missions-Berichten und andern historischen und geographischen Schriften vorkommenden Tamulischen Wörter nebst einigen unter den Tamulern gewöhnlichen Namen,” Neuere Geschichte der evangelischen Missionsanstalten zur Bekehrung der Heiden in Ostindien [in Halle], Vol. IV, No. 44, 1794, 725–735. Jones, William [Trans.]: Sacontalá or the fatal ring, Calcutta: Cooper, 1789; London Edition: London: Printed for Edwards, Pall Mall by J.Cooper, 1790. La Croze, Mathurin Veyssière: Histoire Du Christianisme aux Indes Orientales, A La Haye: Chez les Freres Vaillant & N. Prevost, 1724. -----: Abbildung des Indianischen Christen-Staats—Aus dem Französischen in das Teutsche übersetzt, mit vielen Anmerkungen und Erläuterungen vermehrt von M.Georg Christian Bohnstedt, Halle im Magdeburgischen, Verlegts Johann Adam Spröl, 1727. Lange, Joachim: Medicina Mentis, Qua Praepostera philosophandi methodo ostensa ac rejecta, secundum Sanioris Philosophiae Principia Aegrae mentis Sanatio, ac fanatae Usus in veri rectique investigatione ac communicatione, in Gratiam traditur Eorum, qui per solidam Eruditionem ad veram Sapientiam Contendunt, Accedit Appendix de Necessariis & Supervacuis, Berlin: Wessel, 1704. page_352 Page 353 ----- (Ed.): Merckwürdige Nachricht aus Ost-Indien welche zwey Evangelisch-Luterische Prediger, namentlich Herr Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg gebürtig von Pulsniz in Meissen und Herr Heinrich Plütschau von Wesenberg in Mecklenburg so von seiner Königl. Majestät in Dennemark und Norwegen den 29. November 1705 aus Copenhagen nach Dero Ost-Indischen Colonie in Trangebar gesandt zum löblichen Versuch, ob nicht dasige angrenzende blinde Heyden einigermassen zum Christentum können angeführt werden, Berlin/Leipzig/Franckfurt am Mayn, 1708. ----- (Ed.): Merkwürdige Nachricht aus Ost-Indien/Welche zwey Evangelisch-Luterische Prediger/Nahmentlich/Herr Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg/Gebürtig von Pulsnitz in Meissen/und Herr Heinrich Plütscho/Von Wesenberg in Mecklenburg/So von Seiner Königl. Majestät in Dennemarck und Norwegen Den 29. Novemb. 1705 aus Copenhagen nach Dero Ost-Indischen Colonie in Trangebar gesandt/zum loblichen Versuch/Ob nicht dasige angrentzende blinde Heyden einigermassen zum Christenthum möchten können angeführet werden: Erstlich unterwegens den 30. April 1706 aus Africa von dem Vorgebirge der guten Hoffnung, bey den so genanten Hottentotten, und bald darauf/aus Trangebar von der Küste Coromandel, an einige Prediger und gute Freunde in Berlin überschrieben/und von diesen zum Druck befördert, Die dritte Auflage. Leipzig und Franckfurt am Mayn/Verlgts Joh. Christioph Papen/ Privil . Buchhändler in Berlin/Anno 1709 und daselbst in seinem Buch-Laden am Molcken-Marckt/unter Herrn Koppens Hause zu finden. -----: Aufsatz des Herrn Joachimi Lang, welcher Fünf Grund-Irrthümer, die er der Philosophie des Herrn HofRath Wolffs Professoris zu Marburg zuschreibet, enthält, Leipzig: Verlag Ernst Christian Schröter, 1736. Metzger, G.J. (Translator/Compiler): Genealogy of the South-Indian Gods—A Manual of the Mythology and Religion of the People of Southern India, including a description of popular Hinduism by Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg—Freely translated into English and enriched with various new additions and an index, Madras: Higginbotham, 1869; rpt. New Delhi: Unity Book Service, 1984. Nerreter, David: Der Wunderwürdige Juden- und Heiden-Tempel/darinnen derselben Gottes- und GötzenDinst eröffnet und gezeiget wird—Anfangs vom Alexander Roβen in Englischer Sprach beschrieben/Nunmehro aber verbessert/und/mit vielem Zusatz vermehret/ausgeführt von David Nerreter. Samt dessen Bericht vom Ursprung der Abgötterey/wie auch von denen Poetischen Fabeln/und deren Bedeutung, wodurch der Daifel [i.e., Teufel]/ als Gottes Aff/mit seiner List und Verführung vorgestellt/und alles gründlich untersucht wird, Nürnberg: In Verlegung bey Johann Ernst Adelbulner, 1701. Podczeck, Otto (Ed.): August Hermann Franckes Schrift über eine Reform des Erziehungs- und Bildungswesens als Ausgangspunkt einer geistlichen und sozialen Neuordnung der evangelischen Kirche des 18. Jahrhunderts—“Der page_353 Page 354

Groβe Aufsatz” mit einer quellenkundlichen Einführung, Berlin, Akademie Verlag, 1962. Rogerius, Abraham: De/Open-Deure Tot het/Verborgen Heydendom/Ofte/ Waerachigh vertoogh van het Leven/ende Zeden; mitsgaders de Religie, / ende Godsdienst der Bramines,/op de Cust Choramandel, ende/de Landen daar ontrent: /Door/D.Abrahamus Rogerius, /in sijn Leven Bedienaer des H. /Evangelii op de selve Cust. /Met korte Aenteyckeningen./ Leyden: Françoys Hackes, In t’Iaer 1651. -----: Abraham Rogers/Offne Thür/zu den verborgnen/Heydenthum: /Oder/ Wahrhafftige Vorweisung file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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desz/Lebens/und der Sitten/samt der Religion/ und dem Gottesdienst der Bramines, auf der Cust Chormandel, und denen herumliegenden Ländern: /Mit kurtzen Anmerkungen/Aus dem Niederländischen übersetzt, /Samt/Christoph Arnonds/Auserlesenen Zugaben/ Von den Asiatischen/Africanischen und Americanischen Religionssachen/ so in XL. /Capitel verfasst. /Alles/Mit einem nothwendigen/Register. II Nürnberg: In Verlegung/Johann Andreas Endters/und/Wolffgang desz Iüng. Seel. Erben, 1663. Ross, Alexander: Pansebeia or A view of all religions in the world with the several church-governments, from the Creation, to these times—Together with a discovery of all known heresies, in all ages and places, throughout Asia, Africa, America, and Europe, London: 1653. Uhl, Johann Ludwig (Ed.): Thesaurus epistolicus Lacrozianus, Vol. I, Leipzig: 1742. Walther, Christoph Theodosius: Historia Sacra [in ]— Rerum in Ecclesia inde ab orbe condito ad nostram vsque actatem gestarum notitiam exhibens Historia Sacra, quae per septem periodus & veteris & Novi Testamenti, regni lucis ac tenebrarum originem, progressus, certamina & vicissitudines, nec non Ecclesiae regimen & disciplinam, atque primas origines particular dostrinarum & rituum in compendio tradit—Illustrantur subinde vaticinia prophetarum exoticae, praefertim Indicae—In gratiam exereitatiorum in Ecclesia Tamulicae, Tranquebar, Mission Press, 1735. -----: Observationes Grammaticae Quives Linguae Tamulicae Idioma Vulgare in usum Operariorum in Messe Domini inter Gentes vulgo Malabares Dictas, illustratur a Christophoro Theodosio Walthero, Missionario Danico, Trangambariae: Typis Missionis Regiae, MDCCXXXIX [1739]. Walther added his Observationes as an appendix to Beschi, Grammatica Latino-Tamulica, 1739. -----: Ellipses Hebraicae […] Sive De Vocibvs, Qvae In Codice Hebraico Per Ellipsin Svpprimvntvr, ed. Christian Schöttgen, Halae: Impensis Io. Iac. Gebaveri, 1782 Wilkins, Charles (Trans.): The Bhagvat-geeta or Dialogues of Kreeshna and Arjoon—In eighteen lectures with notes translated from the original in the page_354 Page 355

Sanskreet, or ancient language of the Brahmans, London: Nourse, 1785 (Facsimile reproduction with an introduction by George Hendrick, published in Gainesville at the Scholars’ Facsimiles & Reprints, 1959). William, Monier: A Sanskrit-English Dictionary—New Edition—Greatly Enlarged and Improved , Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1899. Ziegenbalg, B. and Gründler, J.E.: A letra a Sentior George Lewis, nagval so da aviso da ordem e instrusao que se trate nas eccolas da charidade da ig reja Chamada Jerusalem em Tranquebar, Tranquebar, Mission Press, 1713. -----: A Letter to the Reverend Mr. George Lewis, Chaplain to the Honourable East India Company at Fort St. George giving an Account of the Method of Instruction Used in the Charity-Schools of the Church Called Jerusalem in Tranquebar By the Protestant Missionaries there. Translated from the Portuguese-Copy printed at Tranquebar, London: J.Downing, 1715. -----: Brevis delineatio missionis operis, quod ad propagandam vivam Christi cognitionem & promovendam verae pietatis praxin inter paganos Orientales, & praecipue inter Damulos virtute divina Tranquebariae geritur a Missionariis Danicis, Bartholomœo Ziegenbalgo & Joh. Ernsto Gründler, Tranquebariæ: Typis Missionis Danicæ, Anno 1717. Prof. Niels-Peter Moritzen translated the Latin text into German in 1996 and entitled it as: Kurze Beschreibung der Tätigkeit der Mission, die zur Verbreitung der lebendigen Christus-Erkenntnis & zur Beförderung der Übung wahrer Frömmigkeit unter den orientalischen Heiden, besonders unter den Tamulen durch göttliche Kraft in Tranquebar geschieht durch die dänischen Missionare Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg & Joh. Ernst Gründler, Tranquebar: Dänische Missionsdurckerei, 1717 (Unpublished manuscript available at the Mission Department of the University in Erlangen with the call no: 10963). In this present work I have used Prof. Moritzen’s German translation. The pages in Ziegenbalg’s Latin text and Moritzen’s German translation are identical. -----: Thirty Four Conferences between the Danish missionaries and the Malabarian Bramans (or heathen priests) in the East Indies, concerning the Truth of Christian Religion Together with some letters written by the heathens to the said missionaries—Translated out of High Dutch [sic, i.e., Deutsch, ‘German’] by Mr. [Jenkins Thomas] Philipps, London: Printed for H. Clements in St. Paul’s Church-Yard, 1719. Ziegenbalg, Bartholomäus: An Account of the Religion and Government, Learning and Oeconomy, &c of the Malabarians—Sent by the Danish Missionaries to their Correspondents in Europe, London: Printed and Sold by Joseph Downing in Bartholomew-Close, near West Smithfield, 1717. This is a translation of Ziegenbalg’s answers (August 27, 1709) to questions sent his friends in Germany printed in HR, I, 3. Con., 111–146. -----: Allgemeine Schule der wahren Weisheit, darinnen einem ieden Menschen aus Gottes Wort und eigener Erfahrung gezeiget wird, wie und was Weise page_355 file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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man diejenige Weisheit in dieser Welt suchen, finden und erlangen soll, welche uns Menschen so wol zeitlich als auch ewig beseligen kan—Geschrieben auf dem grossen Welt-Meer in einem Schiffe Sophia genannt, von Bartholomäo Ziegenbalg, Sr. Königlichen Majestät in Dänemarck und Norwegen &c. Friderici IV. verordneten Missionario und Diener Göttl[ichen] Worts unter den Malabarischen Heyden in Ost-Indien, Franckfurt/Leipzig: n. p. 1710. -----: Ausführlicher Bericht/wie Er [Ziegenbalg]/ nebst seinem Collegen Herrn Heinrich Plütscho/das Amt des Evangelii daselbst unter den Heyden und Christen führe: in einem Sendschreiben an einen Vornehmen Theologum [Franz Julius Lütkens, seit 1704 Hofprediger in Kopenhagen] unserer Evangelischen Kirchen ertheilet/den 22ten Augusti 1708, welchem eine NachErinnerung zur Warnung an den Christlichen Leser/wider die ungleichen Urtheile/dadurch sich einige an diesem Werck versündigen/beygefüget, Halle: In Verlegung des Wäysenhauses, 1710. -----: yinta nirupam (‘The letter that the priests in Tranquebar have written to the people, the inhabitants of this country’], Tranquebar, Mission Press, 1712. -----: atilē (‘Religious Treatise that reveals how Religious Ignorance should be detested and how those who stand in it can be saved’), Tranquebar, Mission Press, 1713. -----: Catalogo Dos Livros Que Se Achaõ Na Bibliotheca Da Igreja Chamada Jerusalem em Tranquebar, Tranquebar: Na Estampa dos Missionarios Reaes de Dennemarck, 1714. -----: “ nirupam [‘Letter, written and sent by the man known as Paul, to the inhabitants of the city of Rome’],” Second Part of the New Testament, Tranquebar: Mission Press, 1715, 4–25. -----: Grammatica Damulica, quœ per varia paradigmata, regulas & necessarium vocabulorum apparatum, viam brevissimam monstrat, qua Lingua Damulica seu Malabarica, quœ inter Indos Orientales in usu est, & hucusque in Europa incognita fuit, facile disci possit: in Usum eorum qui hoc tempore gentes illas ab idolatria ad cultum veri Dei, salutemque œternam Evangelio Christi perducere cupiunt: In itinere Europao, seu in nave Danica, concinnate a Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg, Halae Saxonum: Litteris & impensis Orphanotrophei, 1716. -----: Vētacāsttiram—itilē karaiyērukirattukku caru upatēcamum cattiya tilē page_356 Page 357 kutu (‘Systematic Theology explaining clearly all the important teachings of the Bible on God and humankind that are necessary for salvation’), Tranquebar, Mission Press, 1717. For a second edition of this book cf. Graul, Karl (Ed.): Theologia Thetica in qua omina dogmata ad salutem cognoscendi necessaria perspicua methodo tractantur ac Dictis classicis probantur, Ad Propagationem Evangelii Christi inter Gentes Orientales in Lingua Damulica scripta a Missionariis Danicis Bartholomœo Ziegenbalgio & Johanne Ernesto Grundlero, Tranquebar, 1717; Editio Secunda. Halis: Prostat in Libraria Orphanothophei, 1856. -----: Propagation of the Gospel in the East—Being an account of Two Danish Missionaries Lately sent to the East-Indies for the conversion of the Heathens in Malabar in several letters to their correspondents in Europe, containing a narrative of their voyage—Rendered into English from the High Dutch & dedicated to Corporation for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, Part I. London: J.Downing, 1709; Part II. London: J.Downing, 1710; and 3rd ed.: London: J.Downing, 1718. -----: “Ziegenbalgs Bibliotheca Malabarica,” ed. Wilhelm Germann, Missionsnachrichten der ostindischen Missionsanstalt zu Halle, 32, Heft 1, 1880, 1–20 and 61–94 (i.e., Library). -----: Ziegenbalgs Malabarisches Heidenthum—Herausgegeben und mit Indices versehen von W[illem] Caland, Amsterdam: Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, 1926 (i.e., South Indian Society ). -----: Malabarische Correspondenz: First collection of fifty-five letters: HR, I, 7. Con., 337–504 and Second collection of forty-four letters: HR, I, 11. Con., 871–959 (i.e., Letters). -----: B.Ziegenbalgs Kleinere Schriften [i.e., Ziegenbalg’s German translations of Nītivenpā, Ulakanīti and Konraivēntan completed in 1708], ed. Willem Caland, Amsterdam: Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, 1930. -----: Alte Briefe aus Indien—Unveröffentlichte Briefe von Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg 1706–1719, ed. Arno Lehmann, Berlin: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1957. Zierold, Johann Wilhelm: Einleitung zur Gründlichen Kirchen-Historie/mit der Historia Philosophica verknüpfft/Darinnen die Krafft des Creuzes Christi/ als der einige Grund des wahren Christenthumbs/wider die file:///C|/009/files/__joined.html[22.03.2011 22:49:28]

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Feinde des Creuzes/von Anfang der Welt/biβ auff unsere Zeit vorgestellet wird, Leipzig und Stargardt: Bey Johann Nicolaus und Gottfried Ernsten Gebrüder, 1700. 10.2 Secondary sources Adiceam, Marguerite E.: Contribution a l’étude d’Aiyanãr-Sãstã, Pondichéry: Institut Français d’Indologie, 1967. page_357 Page 358 Ashton, John and Whyte, Tom: The Quest of Paradise, San Francisco: Harper, 2001. Bautz, Friedrich Wilhelm: “Karl Graul,” Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon, Vol. II., Herzberg: Verlag Traugott Bautz, 1990, Columns, 292 f. Beck, Brenda: “The study of a Tamil epic—Several versions of Silappadikaram compared,” Journal of Tamil Studies, September 1972, 23–38. Berkson, Carmel: The divine and demoniac—Mahisa’s heroic struggle with Durga, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995. Bhatt, N.R. (Ed.): Rauravāgama—Édition critique par N.R.Bhatt, Pondichery: Institut Français d’indologie, Volume I, 1961 and Volume II, 1972. Bianco, Bruno: “Freiheit gegen Fatalismus—Zu Joachim Langes Kritik an Wolff,” Zentren der Aufklärung I— Halle—Aufklärung und Pietismus, ed. Norbert Hinske, Heidelberg: Verlag Lambert Schneider, 1989, 111–155. Brecht, Martin (Ed.): Der Pietismus im achtzehnten Jahrhundert in Zusammenarbeit mit Friedhelm Ackva, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1995. -----: “Pietismus,” Theologische Realenzyklopädie, Vol. XXVI, Berlin, Walter de Gruyter, 1996, 606–631. Britto, Francis: Diglossia—A Study of the theory with application to Tamil , Washington D. C, Georgetown University Press, 1986. Brunner, Daniel L.: Halle Pietists in England—Anthony William Boehm and the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, Göttingen Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1993. Busch, Gudrun and Miersemann, Wolfgang (Eds.): “Geist=reicher” Gesang—Halle und das pietistische Lied, Halle: Franckeschen Stiftungen and Tübingen: M.Niemeyer Verlag, 1997. Canmukam Pillai, Mu. and Cuntaramūrtti, I. (Eds.): Tivākaram, Two Volumes, 1990. Civatampi, Karttikecu: Literary History In Tamil—A Historiographical Analysis , Tanjore: Tamil University, 1986. Civavākkiyar: “Civavākkiyam,” Cittar Pātalkal, compiled by Ñā. Mānikkavācakan, ed. Irāmaletcumanan, Madras: Umā Pattippakam, 1995, 243–310. This edition contains 531 verses attributed to Civavākkiyar. Craddock, Norma Elaine: Anthills, split mothers, and sacrifice—conceptions of female power in the Mariyamman tradition, Berkeley: Dissertation, University of California, 1994. Cutler, Norman: Songs of Experience—The Poetics of Tamil Devotion, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987. page_358 Page 359 ----- and Richman, Paula (Eds.): A Gift of Tamil—Translations of Tamil literature in honor of K.Paramasivam , New Delhi: Manohar, 1992. Danielou, Alain (Trans.): Shilappadikaram (The Ankle Bracelet) By Prince Ilango Adigal, New York: New Directions, 1965. De Nobili, Roberto: Nittiya Cīvana Callāpam [ Treatise on Eternal Life], ed. S.Rajamanickam, Tūttukkui: Ilakkiya 1964. -----: Ñānōpatēca kurippitamum 28 Piracangkangkalum [ ‘Catechism and twenty-eight Sermons’], ed. S.Rajamanickam, Tūttukkui: Ilakkiya 1965. -----: Upatēcam [ ‘Teaching’], ed. S.Rajamanickam, Tūttukkui: Ilakkiya 1965. -----: Ñāna upatēcam—Irantām Kāntam [ ‘Spiritual Teaching, Second Part’], ed. S.Rajamanickam, Tūttukkui: Ilakkiya Kaakam, 1966. -----: Ñānaupadēcam of Tattuva Pōtakar [ ‘Spiritual Teaching,’ i.e., Twenty-Six Sermons of the Teacher of Philosophy, i.e., Roberto de Nobili], ed. S.Rajanamickam, Tattuva Pōtakar Ārāycci Nilaiyam, 1970. Dehejia, Vidya: Devi—The great goddess—Female divinity in South Asian Art, Washington, D.C.: Sackler Gallery, 1999. Dharampal [-Frick], Gita: “Wissenschaftliche Nachrichten—Frühe deutsche Indien-Berichte (1477–1750)— Bibliographie,” Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 134, No. 2, 1984, 23–67. -----: Indien im Spiegel deutscher Quellen der Frühen Neuzeit (1500–1750)—Studien zur interkulturellen Konstellation, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1994.

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