Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. Catalysis by Supported Gold Nanoclusters

Catalysis by Supported Gold Nanoclusters

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D. Wayne Goodman Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, U.S.A.

INTRODUCTION The physical and chemical properties of supported Au clusters are markedly sensitive to cluster size and morphology. To investigate the origin of the unique properties of nanosized Au clusters, model catalysts consisting of Au clusters of varying sizes have been prepared on single crystal TiO2(110) and ultrathin films of single crystalline TiO2, SiO2, and Al2O3. The morphology, electronic structure, and catalytic properties of these supported Au clusters have been investigated using an array of surface analytical techniques with particular emphasis to the unique properties of clusters <5.0 nm in size. These studies illustrate the novel and unique physical and chemical properties of nanosized supported metal clusters.

BACKGROUND Unique electronic and chemical properties are known to develop in solids when the dimensions of the solid reach the nanoscale.[1–3] These changes, which include discrete electronic structures, modified physical structures, and altered chemical reactivities, manifest themselves as new physical and chemical properties not observed in the ‘‘bulk’’ form of the material. Developing an understanding and ability to control the key features of nanoscale catalysts are daunting scientific challenges, yet could lead to the long-sought goals of optimum catalytic activities combined with highly specific selectivities. It is well established that ultrasmall metal clusters on supports have catalytic properties distinct from those properties of large bulk-like particles, as illustrated by the selective oxidation of propylene to propylene oxide by gold,[4] alkene and arene hydrogenation catalysis,[5] and CO oxidation.[6–8] In these examples, the catalytic properties improve as the clusters become smaller. On the other hand, a reduction in size of the metal cluster can lead to less desirable catalytic properties as seen for ammonia synthesis on iron.[9] Various explanations have been offered to account for the unique properties of nanoscaled metal catalysts,[6–8] however, much remains to be understood. Clearly, experimental and theoretical studies will be required to develop an in-depth underDekker Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology DOI: 10.1081/E-ENN 120009438 Copyright D 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All rights reserved.

standing of the unique catalytic properties of limited dimensional solids. The complexity of high surface area technical catalysts makes developing an atomic-level understanding an extremely challenging problem. Surface science studies offer atomic-level information regarding the details of catalytically relevant surfaces, but have traditionally focused on well-defined, single-crystal metal surfaces to address the relationship between reactivity and surface morphology. Single crystal studies, however, obviously do not address the size-dependent structural and electronic properties that are unique to metal nanoparticles. Toward the goal of understanding the properties of supported metal clusters, several groups have begun investigations of metal clusters supported on planar oxide surfaces.[10–14] Our group, in particular, has focused extensively on the unique properties of supported gold clusters for selective oxidation reactions.[15] Our approach to studying supported metal clusters has been to combine ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) surface analytical methods with an elevated pressure reactor system shown schematically in Fig. 1. The design has been described in detail.[14,16] This arrangement allows pressures to 1 bar in the high-pressure cell without significantly altering the vacuum integrity of the UHV chamber. This arrangement facilitates the acquisition of kinetic data at elevated pressures using a conventional gas chromatograph. Polarization modulation infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (PM-IRAS) is available as a probe of surface species present under reaction conditions.[13] The oxide surfaces used as supports in these studies were either a TiO2(110) single crystal (Commercial Crystal Laboratories) or single crystalline TiO2, Al2O3, or SiO2 thin films synthesized on a refractory metal substrate. Thin film TiO2 was deposited onto a Mo(110) single crystal.[17] Similarly, the SiO2 and Al2O3 supports were epitaxially grown as thin films deposited onto Mo(110)[18–20] and Re(0001)[21–23] substrates, respectively. Details of the sample mounting, cleaning, etc. can be found elsewhere.[14] The Au doser was constructed by wrapping high-purity Au wire (99.99%) around 0.010-diameter tungsten filaments (H&R Cross), which were then resistively heated in vacuum by passing current through the filament wires. The Au wire wrapping was melted and thoroughly outgassed to 611

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Fig. 1 Schematic of the combined surface analytical chamber with an elevated pressure reactor. (View this art in color at www.dekker.com.)

remove impurities prior to use. The Au flux was calibrated via integrating the Au temperature-programmed desorption peak area from a Re(0001) substrate[15] and also using the metal-to-substrate Auger intensity ‘‘break’’ to denote the first monolayer equivalent (ML).[24] This article focuses on our recent studies on these model catalysts to understand the special properties that nanosized clusters exhibit with respect to a variety of catalytic reactions.

MODEL CATALYSTS: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Synthesis The synthesis of a typical model catalyst used in these studies is shown schematically in Fig. 2. The procedure begins with a refractory metal substrate, such as Mo, Ta, or Re, that has been cleaned by standard procedures and verified clean with surface analytical techniques. The structure of the substrate is chosen specifically to match the particular oxide film to be grown since crystal orientation and the nature of the interface or critical parameters in obtaining a high-quality film. A thin metal oxide film, typically 1–10 nm thick, is then deposited onto the metal substrate by vapor deposition of the parent metal in an O2 environment. Thin films of SiO2,[18–20] Al2O3,[21–23] TixOy,[17,25]MgO,[26–29]NiO,[30–33]and FexOy[34] have been prepared using this methodology. Finally, metal clusters are formed on the oxide thin film by vapor depositing the metal of choice. By the judicious control of the metal deposition parameters, metal clusters of varying size can be routinely achieved.[14] A variety of oxide/metal

systems have been synthesized in our laboratories including Cu/SiO2,[35,36] Pd/SiO2,[37] Ni/SiO2,[38] Pd/ Al2O3,[39–41] Cu/Al2O3,[23,39] Au/Al2O3,[39] Ni/Al2O3,[42] Au/TiO2,[43] and Pd/MgO.[43] Characterization Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) is an indispensable technique for characterizing planar surfaces with sufficient conductivity. Fig. 3a shows a CCT-STM micrograph of 0.25 ML Au deposited onto a single crystal TiO2(110).[8,15] The deposition was performed at 300 K followed by an anneal of the TiO2 surface to 850 K. Three-dimensional (3-D) Au clusters have average diameters of
2.6 and
0.7 nm height (corresponding to 2–3 atoms thick) and preferentially nucleate on step edges. Quasi-two-dimensional (2-D) clusters are characterized by heights of 1–2 atomic layers.[44] An enlarged STM micrograph (150  150 nm2) of a Au-covered (1.0 ML) TiO2(110) surface is shown in Fig. 3b. Hemispherical clusters with a narrow size distribution grow preferentially along the step edges with clusters on the flat terraces evident as well. At a Au coverage of 1.0 ML, more than 60% of the substrate is still metal-free and separated by mono-atomic steps, consistent with 3-D clustering or a Volmer–Weber (VW) growth mode. Cluster size and density were studied as a function of metal coverage. With increasing Au coverage, the average cluster size (diameter) increases from 2.0 nm for 0.10 ML Au to 5.4 nm for 4.0 ML Au. However, the cluster density rapidly increases upon deposition of 0.10 ML Au, while the cluster density remains essentially constant at higher Au coverages (>1.0 ML). With an increase in the Au coverage from 0.10 to 0.25 ML, the cluster density

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Fig. 2 Schematic of the preparation method for the synthesis of supported metal clusters on thin film oxide surfaces. (View this art in color at www.dekker.com.)

increases by
30%, with a further increase of
50% from 0.25 to 1.0 ML Au. The cluster density reaches a maximum at
2.0 ML where
70% of the substrate surface is covered by Au clusters. At higher Au coverages, the cluster density declines because of cluster coalescence and agglomeration. Approximately 60% of the nucleating sites are populated at a coverage of 0.25 ML.[45] The cluster size, in contrast to cluster density, increases continuously with Au coverage. Increasing the Au deposition from 0.10 to 2.0 ML increases the cluster size from 2.0 to 4.5 nm. A rapid increase in Au cluster size occurs for very low Au coverages (below 0.10 ML). Higher Au coverages correlate with a limited cluster growth. It is noteworthy that the increase in cluster

volume is not proportional to the increase in cluster size. For example, a 22% increase in the average cluster diameter, from 3.7 (1.0) to 4.5 nm (2.0 ML), corresponds to an 80% increase in the average cluster volume. This correlation between Au coverage and Au cluster diameter demonstrates that vacuum deposition can produce a specific size range and shape of Au clusters for model catalyst studies.[45] Catalytic Properties A correlation has been observed between the Au cluster size and the catalytic activity for the partial oxidation of CO on Au/TiO2(110)-(1 1). Fig. 4a shows a plot of the

Fig. 3 (a) A CCT-STM image of a 0.25 ML Au deposited onto TiO2(110)-(1  1) prepared just prior to a CO:O2 reaction. The sample had been annealed to 850 K for 2 min. (b) General morphology of Au clusters on the TiO2(110) surface (2.0 V, 2.0 nA). The evaporation rate was 0.083 ML min 1 and the Au coverage was 1.0 ML. (View this art in color at www.dekker.com.)

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Au/TiO2 catalysts exhibits a maximum TOF at an average Au cluster diameter of
3.5 nm and decreases with an increase in diameter. Fig. 4(b) is a histogram that shows the distribution of Au clusters with sizes ranging from 2.0 to 4.0 nm that are specifically two atoms thick (with diameters between 2.5 and 3.0 nm). The close correspondence between the maximum in the histogram and the maximum in the reactivity data is strongly suggestive that 2-atom-thick Au structures are optimally active for CO oxidation.[8] Fig. 5 shows a plot of the scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) band gaps measured over the cluster size regime used for the CO:O2 reactions of Fig. 4a. There is a clear correlation between the onset of catalytic activity and the observed metal-to-nonmetal transition in the supported Au clusters. The average Au cluster size where nonmetallic properties become apparent is 3.5 nm in diameter and 1.0 nm in height, corresponding to approximately 300 atoms per cluster. The square data in Fig. 5 are for those clusters two layers thick ranging in size from 2.0 to 4.0 nm in diameter and are those clusters which exhibit optimum catalytic activity for the CO oxidation reaction. The STS-measured band gaps of this group of clusters range from 0.2 to 0.6 V. These results demonstrate that electronic properties as a function of cluster size play a crucial role in defining the catalytic reactivity of small clusters.[8,46] Fig. 4 (a) The activity for CO oxidation at 350 K as a function of Au cluster size supported on TiO2(110)-(1  1). A 1:5 CO:O2 mixture was used at a total pressure of 40 Torr. Activity is expressed as (product molecules)  (total Au atoms) 1 sec 1. (b) Histogram of the distribution of cluster sizes and morphologies. (View this art in color at www.dekker.com.)

activity for CO oxidation [expressed as (product molecules)  (total Au atoms on surface sites) 1 sec 1 or turnover frequency (TOF)] at 350 K as a function of the size of Au clusters supported on a TiO2(110)-(1  1) substrate.[8,46] The CO and O2 (1:5 mixture of CO:O2) reaction was carried out over Au/TiO2 catalysts at 40-Torr total pressure.[8,46,47] A thin film of TiO2 epitaxially grown on a Mo(100) substrate[17] onto which Au clusters were deposited was used for the reaction kinetics measurements carried out in the reactor portion of Fig. 1. Scanning tunneling microscopy measurements of Au deposited onto a TiO2(110)-(1  1) single crystal were carried out in parallel with the kinetic measurements. The product (CO2) was extracted from the reactor with a vacuum syringe, compressed and analyzed with a GC. For each point in Fig. 4a, a particular Au cluster size was prepared then subjected to the CO2:O2 reaction. The cluster sizes of the Au particles and coverage of the surface sites obtained from parallel STM imaging experiments were used to calculate the TOF. The activity of the

Adsorbate Binding Energies Thermodynamic data regarding the adsorption of CO on Au/TiO2 catalysts with varying Au cluster sizes have been acquired with TPD using the well-known Redhead method[48] and with IRAS using the Clausius–Clapeyron relationship.[49,50] Results for these measurements are displayed in Fig. 6. CO adsorption on Au clusters larger

Fig. 5 Cluster band gaps measured by STS as a function of Au cluster size supported on TiO2(110)-(1  1). The band gaps were obtained while the corresponding topographic scan was acquired on various Au coverages ranging from 0.2 to 4.0 ML. .: Twodimensional (2-D) clusters; }: 3-D clusters, 2-atom layers in height; 4: 3-D clusters, 3-atom layers or greater in height. (View this art in color at www.dekker.com.)

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Fig. 6 CO heats of adsorption as a function of Au cluster size on a TiO2(110) support. (View this art in color at www.dekker.com.)

than
4.0 nm behaves as bulk Au. However, as the clusters become smaller, the heat of CO adsorption increases from 12 kcal mol 1 to a maximum of 19 kcal mol 1 for clusters
3.0 nm in diameter.[51] Both sets of data in Fig. 6 suggest a marked increase in the adsorption energy with a decrease in cluster size; however, the results derived using the Clausius–Clapeyron relationship show a maximum that correlates remarkably close to the maximum observed in the reactivity measurements of Fig. 4a. A similar increase in the binding energy of O2 with a decrease in the Au cluster size on TiO2 has been observed

recently.[52] In any case, clearly, the effects of cluster size on the adsorption properties of Au clusters are significant and likely a key to the altered catalytic properties displayed by ultrasmall Au clusters. Electronic Properties Fig. 7a shows the core level binding energies (BE) for the Au 4f7/2 core level as a function of Au cluster coverage on a TiO2(110) surface.[15] A +0.8-eV BE shift is evident for small clusters (0.02 ML,
2-nm diameter) with a gradual

Fig. 7 (a) XPS binding energies of the Au 4f7/2 core level as a function of Au cluster coverage (ranging from 0.02 ML—bulk) on TiO2(110). (b) XPS binding energies for Au clusters on TiO2 compared with Au clusters on SiO2. The histogram takes into account the initial and final contributions to the observed overall BE shifts for Au on the two supports. (View this art in color at www.dekker.com.)

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Fig. 8 The total density of states (TDOS) of Au/TiO2(110) in the top panel and the local density of states for Au on TiO2(110) compared with Au in bulk Au(001). (View this art in color at www.dekker.com.)

shift to the bulk value of Au 4f7/2 = 84.0 eV[53] with increasing cluster size (6 ML Au coverage,
5-nm diameter). This increase in the BE with a decrease in cluster size is consistent with an earlier XPS study by Mason[54] where the relative BE shifts of Au clusters (of varying sizes) supported on SiO2 and Al2O3 were shown to depend upon the relative abilities of the substrate to screen the outgoing photoelectrons (final state effects). However, a comparison of the relative core level BE shifts of the Au/TiO2 with the Au/SiO2 shows that the BE shift for Au/SiO2 is significantly larger (+ 1.6 eV) than that for Au/TiO2 ( +0.8 eV) in the transition from large to small

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cluster sizes. Differences in the magnitudes of these Au cluster core level BE shifts are believed to result from the relative strengths of the interaction of Au with the two metal oxide supports. Recent theoretical calculations[55] predict an initial state reduction in the BE of 1.1–1.5 eV for the 4 f7/2 core levels of Au on TiO2. As shown in Fig. 7b, this relatively large initial state contribution to the core level shift of Au/TiO2 relative to Au/SiO2 is sufficient to account for the 0.8-eV difference observed for the total BE shifts measured for these two oxide supports. Fig. 8 shows the total density of states (TDOS) calculated for bulk Au compared with Au adsorbed on TiO2.[55] For adsorbed Au, the Au d bands are much closer to Ef because of the charge polarization in the interfacial region and a subsequent increase of the potential in the adlayer. Such a large energy shift of the Au 5d band toward the Ef, as discussed by Hammer and Norskov,[56] should strongly alter the surface chemical properties of Au/TiO2 from those of a clean bulk Au surface.

Cluster Sublimation Energies Temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) is a useful tool for obtaining detailed information on adsorbatesurface bonding and on adsorbate–adsorbate interactions, desorption kinetics, and determining binding energies of metals adsorbed onto surfaces. Temperature-programmed desorption binding energy determinations also allow for

Fig. 9 A set of TPD spectra of Au (m/e = 197) on a 2.5-nm-thick SiO2 thin film on Mo(110) at Au cluster coverages ranging from 0.2 to 5.0 ML. The inset shows a plot of Esub determined from leading edge analysis. (View this art in color at www.dekker.com.)

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Fig. 10 The activity for CO conversion as a function of reaction time at 300 K on a model Au/TiO2(001) catalyst. The initial average Au cluster size was 2.4 nm.

comparative estimations of admetal cluster size on different oxide supports. In a series of TPD spectra acquired for Au on SiO2, a marked decrease in the Au cluster binding energies, denoted by the peak temperature maximum (Tm) in the TPD of the clusters, is observed.[15]

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Fig. 9a shows a family of TPD spectra taken of the Au clusters deposited onto a SiO2 thin film. The leading edge of the TPD peak maxima shifts to higher temperatures as the Au coverage increases. The inset shows a plot of the sublimation energy (Esub) as a function of Au coverage, determined using the leading edge analysis.[57] At 0.2 ML, the Esub at
50 kcal mol 1 increases rapidly (with increasing Au coverage) to the bulk value at
90 kcal mol 1 at 5.0 ML. The decrease in Esub can be explained by the fact that an atom at the edge of a small cluster has fewer nearest neighbors than larger ones and hence desorbs more easily because of decreased surface tension. The interaction of Au with TiO2(001) has also been determined using the same approach. The results are shown in Fig. 9b. In this case, however, only a single desorption feature is observed with a common leading edge for all Au coverages. Using the leading edge analysis, the Au binding energy on TiO2(001) is found to be 50 kcal mol 1, considerably smaller than the Au bulk sublimation energy of 90 kcal mol 1. This dramatic decrease of the sublimation energies at all cluster sizes, from the smallest to the largest, is clearly related to the strong interaction between the Au clusters and the TiO2 support. This strong interaction leads to a greater degree of wetting of the TiO2 by Au compared with Au/SiO2, and thus the lower sublimation energies found for the clusters may arise because of the preferential evaporation of Au at the periphery of the clusters. In any case, this contrast of

Fig. 11 A 50  50 nm2 image of the same area taken at 450 K: (a) under ultrahigh vacuum conditions; (b) during exposure to a reaction mixture consisting of a 665 Pa CO:O2 mixture. (View this art in color at www.dekker.com.)

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behavior regarding the sublimation of Au from SiO2 and TiO2 highlights the role of the support in altering the properties of ultrasmall clusters of Au.

Catalyst Deactivation and Cluster Sintering The presence of reactant gases at realistic conditions can affect the admetal’s ability to wet the surface and thereby alter particle size and distribution. For example, although the TiO2-supported Au catalysts exhibit a high activity for the low-temperature CO oxidation, the catalysts are often rapidly deactivated.[46] This is illustrated by Fig. 10, where the CO conversion is plotted as a function of reaction time for CO oxidation at 300 K on a catalyst prepared by depositing 0.25 ML Au on TiO2. The model Au/TiO2 catalyst, which exhibits a high initial activity, deactivates after a CO:O2 (1:5) reaction of
120 min at 40 Torr. The deactivation is a result of the agglomeration of the Au clusters induced by interaction of O2 with the Au clusters.[58,59] In Fig. 11, a selected area is shown in (a) for UHV conditions and in (b) for 665 Pa of a CO:O2 (1:5) reaction mixture.[59] There are noteworthy parallels between the instability of the small Au clusters, their catalytic activity, and the change in their catalytic activity with time. Au clusters of approximately 3 nm are optimum as CO oxidation catalysts. Clearly, reaction-induced sintering of these small clusters is a mechanism for the loss of activity with time.

Catalysis by Supported Gold Nanoclusters

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Support by the Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Division of Chemical Sciences; the Robert A. Welch Foundation and the Texas Advanced Technology Program under Grant No. 010366-0022-2001 are gratefully acknowledged.

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7. CONCLUSION Model catalyst systems combined with surface-sensitive methods constitute a valuable methodology for probing the electronic and morphological structure of supported metal clusters. From detailed STM/STS studies combined with other surface analytical techniques, a physical basis for understanding the enhanced catalytic activities of nanosized, dispersed metal clusters is developing. The results summarized in this article show a close correlation among cluster size, morphology, electronic properties, and catalytic activity. The use of model catalysts prepared with metal clusters supported on thin oxide films has been essential for the development of these new insights into the special electronic and chemical properties that govern the unique catalytic chemistry of nanosized metal clusters. Future studies toward a more in-depth understanding of nanostructured supported clusters will undoubtedly lead to the design and the development of practical catalysts.

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to imaging a working surface. J. Catal. 2002, 216, 213. 14. Rainer, D.R.; Goodman, D.W. Metal clusters on ultrathin oxide films: Model catalysts for surface science studies. J. Mol. Catal., A Chem. 1998, 131, 259. 15. Chusuei, C.C.; Lai, X.; Luo, K.; Goodman, D.W. Modeling heterogeneous catalysts: Metal clusters on planar oxide supports. Top. Catal. 2001, 14, 71. 16. Goodman, D.W. Model studies in catalysis using surface science probes. Chem. Rev. 1995, 95, 523. 17. Oh, W.S.; Xu, C.; Kim, D.Y.; Goodman, D.W. Preparation and characterization of epitaxial titanium oxide films on a Mo(100). J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A 1997, 15, 1710. 18. He, J.W.; Xu, X.; Corneille, J.S.; Goodman, D.W. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic characterization of ultra-thin silicon oxide films on a Mo(100) surface. Surf. Sci. 1992, 279, 119. 19. Xu, X.P.; Goodman, D.W. New approach to the preparation of ultrathin silicon dioxide films at low temperatures. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1992, 61, 774. 20. Xu, X.P.; Goodman, D.W. The preparation and characterization of ultra-thin silicon dioxide films on a Mo(110) surface. Surf. Sci. 1993, 282, 323. 21. Chen, P.J.; Goodman, D.W. Epitaxial growth of ultrathin Al2O3 films on Ta(110). Surf. Sci. 1994, 312, L767. 22. Goodman, D.W. Chemical and spectroscopic studies of metal oxide surfaces. J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A 1996, 14, 1526. 23. Wu, M.C.; Goodman, D.W. Particulate Cu on ordered Al2O3: Reactions with nitric oxide and carbon monoxide. J. Phys. Chem. 1994, 98, 9874. 24. Feldman, L.C.; Mayer, J.W. Fundamentals of Surface and Thin Film Analysis; North-Holland: New York, 2002. 25. Guo, Q.; Oh, W.S.; Goodman, D.W. Titanium oxide films grown on Mo(110). Surf. Sci. 1999, 437, 49. 26. Corneille, J.S.; He, J.W.; Goodman, D.W. XPS characterization of ultra-thin Mgo films on a Mo(100) surface. Surf. Sci. 1994, 306, 269. 27. Wu, M.C.; Corneille, J.S.; Estrada, C.A.; He, J.W.; Goodman, D.W. Synthesis and characterization of ultra-thin Mgo films on Mo(100). Chem. Phys. Lett. 1991, 182, 472. 28. Wu, M.C.; Corneille, J.S.; He, J.W.; Estrada, C.A.; Goodman, D.W. Preparation, characterization and chemical properties of ultrathin MgO films on Mo(100). J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A 1992, 10, 1467. 29. Wu, M.C.; Estrada, C.A.; Corneille, J.S.; Goodman, D.W. Model surface studies of metal oxides:

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Adsorption of water and methanol on ultrathin Mgo films on Mo(100). J. Chem. Phys. 1992, 96, 3892. Truong, C.M.; Wu, M.C.; Goodman, D.W. Adsorption and reaction of formic acid on Nio(100) films on Mo(100): TPD and HREELS studies. J. Chem. Phys. 1992, 97, 9447. Truong, C.M.; Wu, M.C.; Goodman, D.W. Adsorption of formaldehyde on nickel oxide studied by thermal programmed desorption and high-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1993, 115, 3647. Wu, M.C.; Truong, C.M.; Goodman, D.W. Interactions of ammonia with a Nio(100) surface studied by high resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy and temperature programmed desorption spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. 1993, 97, 4182. Wu, M.C.; Truong, C.M.; Goodman, D.W. Interactions of alcohols with a Nio(100) surface studied by high-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy and temperature- programmed desorption spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. 1993, 97, 9425. Corneille, J.S.; He, J.W.; Goodman, D.W. Preparation and characterization of ultra-thin iron oxide films on a Mo(100) surface. Surf. Sci. 1995, 338, 211. Xu, X.P.; Vesecky, S.M.; Goodman, D.W. Infrared reflection-adsorption spectroscopy and STM studies of model silica-supported copper catalysts. Science 1992, 258, 788. Xu, X.P.; Goodman, D.W. Structural and chemisorptive properties of model catalysts: Copper supported on Sio2 thin films. J. Phys. Chem. 1993, 97, 683. Berlowitz, P.J.; Goodman, D.W. Chemisorption on ultra-thin Pd layers on W(110) and W(100): Adsorption of H2 and CO. Langmuir 1988, 4, 1091. Coulter, K.; Xu, X.P.; Goodman, D.W. Structural and catalytic properties of model supported nickel catalysts. J. Phys. Chem. 1994, 98, 1245. Rainer, D.R.; Xu, C.; Holmblad, P.M.; Goodman, D.W. Pd, Cu, and Au particles on Al2O3 thin films: An IRAS study of monometallic and bimetallic planar model supported catalysts. J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A 1997, 15, 1653. Rainer, D.R.; Koranne, M.; Vesecky, S.M.; Goodman, D.W. The CO + O2 and CO + NO reactions over Pd/Al2O3 catalysts. J. Phys. Chem., B 1997, 101, 10769. Rainer, D.R.; Vesecky, S.M.; Koranne, M.; Oh, W.S.; Goodman, D.W. The CO + NO reaction over Pd: A combined study using single crystal, planar model supported, and high surface area Pd/Al2O3 catalysts. J. Catal. 1997, 167, 234.

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