Effective Blended Learning Practices:
Evidence-Based Perspectives in ICT-Facilitated Education Elizabeth Stacey Deakin University, Australia Philippa Gerbic Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
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Table of Contents
Foreword.............................................................................................................................................. xiv Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xvi Chapter I Introduction to Blended Learning Practices............................................................................................ 1 Elizabeth Stacey, Deakin University, Australia Philippa Gerbic, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Section I Strategies for Blended Teaching and Learning Chapter II Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments.................... 21 Philippa Gerbic, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Chapter III Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education..................................................................... 39 Ruth Geer, University of South Australia, Australia Chapter IV Redesigning Initial Teacher Education.................................................................................................. 62 Mary Simpson, University of Otago, New Zealand Bill Anderson, University of Otago, New Zealand Chapter V Integrating New Technologies into Blended Learning Environments................................................... 79 Ana A. Carvalho, University of Minho, Portugal Zdena Lustigova, Charles University, Czech Republic Frantisek Lustig, Charles University, Czech Republic
Chapter VI Teacher and Student Responses to Blended Environments................................................................. 105 Guglielmo Trentin, Institute for Educational Technology, Italian National Research Council, Genoa, Italy Steve Wheeler, University of Plymouth, UK Section II Establishing Communities Chapter VII Blending Collaborative Online Learning with Workplace and Community Contexts........................ 125 Peter J. Smith, Deakin University, Australia Elizabeth Stacey, Deakin University, Australia Tak Shing Ha, University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Chapter VIII Establishing Communities of Practice for Effective and Sustainable Professional Development for Blended Learning..................................................................................................... 144 Terrie Lynn Thompson, University of Alberta, Canada Heather Kanuka, University of Alberta, Canada Chapter IX Virtual Learning and Real Communities: Online Professional Development for Teachers................ 163 Julie Mackey, University of Canterbury, New Zealand Chapter X Blended Learning and Professional Development in the K-12 Sector................................................ 182 Suzanne Riverin, Regional e-Learning Contact - Barrie Region, Ontario, Canada Section III Teacher Transitions and Professional Learning Chapter XI Blended Learning and Teaching Philosophies: Implications for Practice........................................... 204 Faye Wiesenberg, University of Calgary, Canada Elizabeth Stacey, Deakin University, Australia Chapter XII Blended Learning and the New Pressures on the Academy: Individual, Political, and Policy Driven Motivators for Adoption........................................................................................ 222 Gayani Samarawickrema, Deakin University, Australia
Chapter XIII Case Studies of ICT-Enhanced Blended Learning and Implications for Professional Development.............................................................................................................. 239 Gail Wilson, Bond University, Australia Chapter XIV Blending Technology into an Academic Practice Qualification for University Teachers.................... 259 Cathy Gunn, University of Auckland, New Zealand Adam Blake, University of Auckland, New Zealand Chapter XV Reciprocal Mentoring “In The Wild”: A Retrospective, Comparative Case Study of ICT Teacher Professional Development.......................................................................................... 280 M. Brooke Robertshaw, Utah State University, USA Heather Leary, Utah State University, USA Andrew Walker, Utah State University, USA Kristy Bloxham, Utah State University, USA Mimi Recker, Utah State University, USA Chapter XVI Conclusion........................................................................................................................................... 298 Philippa Gerbic, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Elizabeth Stacey, Deakin University, Australia Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 312 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 347 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 353
Detailed Table of Contents
Foreword.............................................................................................................................................. xiv Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xvi Chapter I Introduction to Blended Learning Practices............................................................................................ 1 Elizabeth Stacey, Deakin University, Australia Philippa Gerbic, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand This chapter introduces blended learning practices in ICT-facilitated education for supporting adult learners in different contexts. The concept of blended learning is introduced with a thorough discussion of the way the term is defined in the literature about the field and also reviews the conceptual underpinnings and frameworks reported in a wide review of the international literature about blended learning, and begins a comprehensive discussion of the field to date. It reviews literature about blended learning in relation to the three sections of the book and discusses the development of ICT-based blended learning in its different contexts and its role in supporting adult learners providing a rationale for the researchbased chapters that follow. Section I Strategies for Blended Teaching and Learning Chapter II Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments.................... 21 Philippa Gerbic, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand This chapter presents case study research which investigates online discussions as they occur within the broader framework of the learning design or curriculum within a blended environment in a campusbased degree programme. It describes how the online environment can be used in a complementary way to exploit the reflective nature of online learning while the face-to–face environment should be the place where the teacher prepares students to interact online with carefully designed discursive activities that use the potential of the online medium. The pedagogical aspects of such blended learning practices
are analysed and its advantages for students in the study for whom English is a second language are discussed. The chapter provides insights into influential factors for undergraduate student learning and makes recommendations for teachers who wish to advance the educational potential of the new communication medium. Chapter III Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education..................................................................... 39 Ruth Geer, University of South Australia, Australia This chapter draws on a study of Australian undergraduate teacher education students whose on-campus interaction is complemented by both individual and collaborative group activities in an online environment and describes strategies for fostering higher order cognition in a blended learning environment. It highlights the critical nature of effective instructional design and extends the educator’s understanding of the complexities of online and blended learning environments through an analysis of the discourse of computer-mediated communication in a first year teacher education course. The investigation results in the development of a pedagogical framework which outlines the relationship between pedagogies, technologies and their related learning outcomes. Critical indicators which are potentially important for strategies and early warning signs become evident in the analysis. The research leads to notions of imprinting and cognitive tracks which are used to inform strategies for teaching and learning using a blended approach. Chapter IV Redesigning Initial Teacher Education.................................................................................................. 62 Mary Simpson, University of Otago, New Zealand Bill Anderson, University of Otago, New Zealand This chapter outlines the redesign of a university programme that was based on two areas of literature – research into adult learners/learning, and the theory and research that proposes and discusses the value, development and nature of learning communities. Using survey data as their evidence of student perspectives, the chapter describes the design of a course and online learning environment that acknowledged learner independence and learner centredness as well providing as a non-course online gathering place for social student interaction and a staff development site of online resources. Their redesign blends a range of technological possibilities with audiovisual digital files contributed by students as well as teaching staff. The blending of student groups, the distance students more dependent on online interaction than the on campus, also meant there was the basis for a collaborative community also designed into the program with aspects of seminar participation and e-portfolio development as assessable items in the courses. The model is recommended as a pedagogical basis for redesign rather than being driven by the potential of available technologies despite the importance of their role in the blend. Chapter V Integrating New Technologies into Blended Learning Environments................................................... 79 Ana A. Carvalho, University of Minho, Portugal Zdena Lustigova, Charles University, Czech Republic Frantisek Lustig, Charles University, Czech Republic
The first section of the chapter describes a Portuguese study about the use of podcasts in blended learning courses delivered through the learning management system, Blackboard, through which the teacher provided education students with instruction about online discussions and feedback on their online postings and presentations. The students preferred the teacher’s voice in the podcasts to written text and this section provides strategies for teachers to effectively integrate podcasts into their blended learning practice. The chapter then describes a study from the Czech Republic that describes how the scientifically exact and problem-solving-oriented remote and virtual science experimental environment might help to build a new strategy for online science education through a project of electronic labs (E-Labs) that enables the handling of real objects in science experiments by students at remote locations. This blended learning environment, developed at Charles University in Prague, has been offered to science students in both, formal and informal learning, and also to science teachers within their professional development studies. Chapter VI Teacher and Student Responses to Blended Environments................................................................. 105 Guglielmo Trentin, Institute for Educational Technology, Italian National Research Council, Genoa, Italy Steve Wheeler, University of Plymouth, UK The first section is an overview about how the concept of blended solutions is interpreted in the Italian network-based education context. This section describes blended solutions based on formal and informal learning processes from the integration of online and onsite interactions. This section includes a detailed set of recommendations about how blended solutions should be structured, how the teachers should be trained for the design of onsite/online integration activities, and how to formally recognize both the eteacher status and the activities carried out by teachers online. In the second section of the chapter, an overview of some of the best practices of blended and personalised learning in the United Kingdom is presented, and there is a critical review of some of the recent British research into the efficacy of learning management system (LMS) based blended learning approaches. Section II Establishing Communities Chapter VII Blending Collaborative Online Learning with Workplace and Community Contexts........................ 125 Peter J. Smith, Deakin University, Australia Elizabeth Stacey, Deakin University, Australia Tak Shing Ha, University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong This chapter draws on research conducted by the authors from several research projects located in both Australia and Hong Kong with adult learners who participate in communities of practice and communities of learning in their own work or life contexts, and provides insights into how these outside-institution learning environments can be used in a more deliberate blending to enhance student learning experience. Their focus is on how formal learning communities can be blended with more informal and often
naturally occurring workplace communities, and the interaction that can occur as they make a case for including this phenomenon in the definition of blended learning. Chapter VIII Establishing Communities of Practice for Effective and Sustainable Professional Development for Blended Learning..................................................................................................... 144 Terrie Lynn Thompson, University of Alberta, Canada Heather Kanuka, University of Alberta, Canada This chapter investigates how blended learning practices can be used for the sustained professional learning of teachers in higher education through the establishing of communities of practice and raises the problematic issue of whether such communities only form naturally or can indeed be constructed and managed. Directors in several North American professional development centres were interviewed in order to explore how their programs supported the integration of technology into teaching and it was found that the use of such blended learning practices were less common than anticipated and there were tensions between what was occurring in such centres and what was hoped to be achieved. The chapter concludes with policy implications and recommendations for future development of effective and sustainable professional development practices. Chapter IX Virtual Learning and Real Communities: Online Professional Development for Teachers................ 163 Julie Mackey, University of Canterbury, New Zealand This chapter explores the notion of multi-membership of communities through the interaction and intersection of online communities and workplace-based communities of practice. Blended learning is examined via the experiences of teachers participating in qualification-bearing online professional development courses while simultaneously engaging in everyday professional practice in the classroom. A “communities of practice” framework guides the interpretation of teachers’ perspectives of their membership, identity, activities and experiences in the online and school communities. The evidence from this study suggests that online courses can promote the contextual learning opportunities which exist in the everyday experiences of teachers in their local communities of practice and identifies the central role of learners using technology as a tool for blending the social contexts of their learning. Chapter X Blended Learning and Professional Development in the K-12 Sector................................................ 182 Suzanne Riverin, Regional e-Learning Contact - Barrie Region, Ontario, Canada This chapter examines the use of blended learning in an online community which supported teacher professional development in the province of Ontario, Canada for ten years. The online network which was called The Education Network of Ontario/ Le Réseau éducatif de l’Ontario (ENO/REO) used a blend of tools and some face-to-face opportunities to support teacher professional development across the province. Teachers were encouraged to use the ENO/REO environment to join in discussions, create and maintain online projects and share research and curriculum resources. The chapter focuses on a study which examined the effect of long term participation in such a community in order to provide insight into the use of blended learning in online communities for professional development.
Section III Teacher Transitions and Professional Learning Chapter XI Blended Learning and Teaching Philosophies: Implications for Practice........................................... 204 Faye Wiesenberg, University of Calgary, Canada Elizabeth Stacey, Deakin University, Australia This study explores the similarities and differences between Canadian and Australian university teachers’ face-to-face and online teaching approaches and perspectives in two comparable Canadian and Australian universities, both of which offer instruction in these two modes. The chapter explores whether moving from face-to-face to online teaching results in new teaching approaches or in the creative blending of those developed within the different teaching modalities. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected to report teachers’ face-to-face and online teaching experiences and teaching approaches and philosophies in terms of their beliefs, intentions and actions in both modalities. The authors discuss the findings in terms of how to assist teachers to successfully transition from traditional teacher-centred to newly emerging learner-centred teaching approaches in blended learning classrooms. Chapter XII Blended Learning and the New Pressures on the Academy: Individual, Political, and Policy Driven Motivators for Adoption........................................................................................ 222 Gayani Samarawickrema, Deakin University, Australia This chapter focuses on the factors relating to adopting blended learning by teaching academics and the associated social world around technology adoption in a large Australian university. Set up as an institutional case study, the findings are interpreted through two theoretical frameworks: diffusion of innovation theory and actor-network theory to reveal the complexities of innovation adoption. The chapter examines teaching academics’ individual motivations including the institution’s political and policy drivers, and shows how technology is shaped to fit a context, and how the context in turn shapes the use of technology. The closing discussion considers new work systems and processes that facilitate and accommodate change precipitated by technology adoption, and suggests how the transformation process might be supported. Chapter XIII Case Studies of ICT-Enhanced Blended Learning and Implications for Professional Development.............................................................................................................. 239 Gail Wilson, Bond University, Australia This chapter reports a collective study of research–based evidence of experiences of academic staff adopting ICT-facilitated education and transitioning to blended learning practices in a regional Australian university. It analyses seven dimensions of blended learning environments that these teachers create and provides a valuable framework for practitioners, researchers and policy makers seeking to understand the transition to blended learning. This chapter examines ways of analysing and defining blended learning environments (BLEs) by focusing on the scope, nature, and purpose of the blend adopted by individual
faculty across their courses. The chapter provides case examples of BLE dimensions and their basis for a professional development model to support staff in their transition to blended learning environments and can be used in successful institutional adoption of blended learning practices. Chapter XIV Blending Technology into an Academic Practice Qualification for University Teachers.................... 259 Cathy Gunn, University of Auckland, New Zealand Adam Blake, University of Auckland, New Zealand This chapter reports design–based research that is used to integrate a blended learning process into the reconceptualisation of a course in academic practice for New Zealand university teachers. The PostGraduate Certificate in Academic Practice is a qualification designed for academic staff and focuses on teaching and learning theories, and promotes creative uses of technology to reflect current trends in the local and international environment. They describe their continuous cycle of design, implementation, analysis and refinement and intertwining the development of these courses’ learning environment with learning theory, they devised a blended learning approach through situated learning. The detail they provide of their iterative cycles and refinement of solutions after gathering feedback from stakeholders will be particularly valuable for other designers of blended learning courses. Chapter XV Reciprocal Mentoring “In The Wild”: A Retrospective, Comparative Case Study of ICT Teacher Professional Development.......................................................................................... 280 M. Brooke Robertshaw, Utah State University, USA Heather Leary, Utah State University, USA Andrew Walker, Utah State University, USA Kristy Bloxham, Utah State University, USA Mimi Recker, Utah State University, USA This chapter reports research into a process of reciprocal mentoring between student teachers and experienced schoolteachers that enables technologically skilled student teachers to provide the basis for professional learning as the experienced schoolteachers reflect on their technological expertise and provide direction for its effective blended learning practice in their classrooms. Such a model could also be adapted to universities as skilled educational development and technical staff work with teachers with more pedagogical experience who apply a reciprocal mentoring process to their professional learning about blended learning practices. Findings about the nature of reciprocal mentoring partnerships, the factors that contribute to or detract from them and the ancillary benefits of these meaningful collaborations are discussed. Chapter XVI Conclusion........................................................................................................................................... 298 Philippa Gerbic, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Elizabeth Stacey, Deakin University, Australia
The conclusion draws together the main themes identified under the sections of the book with a synthesis of the recommendations presented by the chapter authors which connect the outcomes of these research studies with practical suggestions in all aspects of blended learning practice. It identifies and discusses future trends and implications for learning as well as areas of further research. Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 312 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 347 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 353
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Foreword
Blended learning is a convergence between face-to-face and distance learning largely enabled by technological and telecommunications developments and fuelled by the need for greater flexibility in the learning environment. Many studies show that blended learning is both an effective learning model and a popular choice amongst students. Most learners want some form of face-to-face or at least real time interaction with their teacher, though they also want the flexibility which online access to materials and other students provides. This book gives ample evidence of the appropriateness of blended learning in different countries, institutions and settings. Despite its popularity, blended learning requires more careful design and support than traditional face-to-face teaching. Many institutions have insisted that all provision is blended and this has led to lecture notes or Powerpoint slides stuck on the Web with discussion boards made available for question and answer. This is NOT what should be called blended learning. The emphasis in this book on teacher training and staff development is a reflection of the importance of course design. In fact a move to blended learning should mean that all aspects of delivery are rethought. How should the face-to-face element best be used? How is the course content best provided? What other learning resources can be made available? What interactive technologies could be used? However, the fundamental question should be, “what is the underlying pedagogy of this course”? A purely lecture-based course usually implies a teacher-centric model, whereby the teacher is the subject expert who delivers this expertise to the students. A totally online course usually encourages a student-centric pedagogy in which the learner constructs knowledge of the content through interaction with resources, other students and the teacher. Blended learning, or the mix of face-to-face and online technologies, can go in either direction. Many teachers are unwilling to give up the power and control that a teacher-centric model gives them. Others are excited by the possibilities that technology provides to create an environment in which students can really engage with course ideas through discussion and debate, through self exploration of resources and through team work and collaborative projects. Arguably a student-centric approach helps learners develop appropriate skills for the workplace and sets the stage for a lifetime of learning. In Section II of this book, various chapters on the educational value of online community present research on informal learning environments. A good deal has already been written on this topic – whether these are “real”communities, how to develop and sustain informal communities and what benefits and disbenefits these communities have in the workplace and for society at large. Nevertheless, it is a useful extension of the practice of blended learning to have these four chapters in this volume.
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The growth of blended learning as a model of post-secondary learning seems to be assured for the foreseeable future. Hence the value of this book, based on research and representing practice in many countries and fields of learning. Robin Mason Professor of Educational Technology The Open University Robin Mason is Professor of Educational Technology at The Open University, UK. Her work spans teaching, research and scholarship in the area of e-learning, including online and distance education. She is co-author of ‘Elearning: The Key Concepts’ (Routledge, 2006), ‘The Educational Potential of e-Portfolios: Supporting Personal Development and Re.ective Learning’ (Routledge, 2007) and ‘The e-Learning Handbook: Social Networking for Education’ (Routledge, forthcoming). She is the leader of several European Union funded projects with universities in developing countries using open content to produce locally appropriate course material.
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Preface
Writing and editing this book has been in many ways an application of the practice of blending face-toface interaction with the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) that blended learning involves. With two editors living in Australia and New Zealand respectively, face-to-face planning and discussion took place only twice with several days spent in the beginning developing the proposal for the book and again after chapters were approved by reviewers. In between these meetings, constant emails and phone calls, there was time allowed for periods of independent writing and reflection followed by electronic discussion, often about quite involved levels of cognitive thought and sharing of writing, much as we hope that students experience with blended learning. Face-to-face discussions inspired some good ideas, and visual and diagrammatic sharing, but the independent reading and writing that supported collaborative discussion was done alone at our desks though with online communication and resources always at hand. This blend of interaction through face-to-face and ICT was also the means of several collaborative chapters being written for the book and for the three-reviewer process that was established for submitted chapters. Such blended learning practice is becoming the basis for much of today’s academic research, collaborative writing, and course design, as well as for professional learning through online communities interspersed with opportunities for synchronous communication and/or face-to-face meetings. Though the term blended learning has achieved widespread acceptance, its application to academic and professional practice has led to this book’s title terminology of blended learning practices which brings a much wider scope of focus to this new field of ICT-facilitated education. Over the last two decades with the development of new technologies with great potential for learning, ICT-facilitated education has been widely adopted while online learning has also transformed many adult learning contexts. The resulting integration of online technologies and practices into physical settings has transported online learning from predominantly distance contexts to that of campus, work- and community-based settings. Blended learning is now a widely-accepted term to describe the range of teaching and learning strategies which have arisen from the mixing of different physical or virtual environments in universities, communities and the corporate sector. As the capability of online learning technologies have expanded and new learning environments have become possible, new issues about pedagogic values and the role and shape of online communities and the professional learning for teachers have also arisen. The relative newness of online learning within blended environments means that there has been a need for research on which to base good teaching practice and this book addresses this issue. The integration of online and ICT-facilitated practice within campus-based and face-to-face settings has resulted in a concept of blended learning which is now also used within distance contexts and workplace setting. This contemporary mix of physical and virtual learning environments is the foundational concept of this text and is explored from three different perspectives: blended university teaching and learning, communities of learning and practice, and teacher transitions and professional learning. The chapters of this book provide research perspectives on a range of blended learning issues and contexts
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and discuss implications for teaching and learning. The book also links its research to practice through its discussion of pedagogy and recommendations for blended learning practices. Many current texts about online learning have either presented an overview of the field or are anthologies of ICT-based pedagogic initiatives with a strong practitioner perspective. This text complements these approaches by adding substantive research-based commentaries about ICT-facilitated education in blended environments. The predominant use of qualitative approaches in the book means that the discussion is situated in educational and community settings and enables a grounded consideration of issues and outcomes which is also connected to theoretical and conceptual thinking in the area. The focus on ICT-facilitated communication provides new knowledge about the ways in which these environments support learning and development for a wide range of blended learning settings. The grounded nature of the research provides detailed information to enable readers to consider its applicability to their own research or teaching contexts. The emergence of blended learning signals a new conceptual way of considering E-Learning or online learning which spans the historically separated settings of learners who are distant from each other in place or time and learners who meet in face-to-face settings. Now, there are many other combinations of the use of virtual and physical spaces in learning and the blended concept has the potential to operate as a unifying force and provide new knowledge to both researchers and practitioners across these diverse settings. There are three main sections to the book with an introductory chapter and a conclusion chapter. The sections focus on: • • •
Strategies for teaching and learning Establishing communities Teacher transitions and professional learning
The introductory chapter provides an overview of the complexity of blended learning both in the way it has been defined in the research literature so far and in the way this book extends this discussion. The first section of the book explores theoretical frameworks for blended learning while focusing on case studies of blended learning practice in universities around the world. The importance of curriculum design and assessment practices for effective blended learning is detailed and the integration of technological innovation into teaching and learning are examined critically with many ideas and recommendations for practice included. The second section explores both online communities and communities of practice and the blending of these virtual and physical aspects of community in a range of contexts internationally. Describing the explicit use of blended learning practices to establish more effective communities in workplaces and their intersection with online communities of learning both formal and informal is an important contribution of this book and provides a perspective that has not been clearly defined in the research literature so far. The final section provides a number of reports of research of teachers transitioning to blended learning practices with discussion of the pedagogical and institutional implications of this process. The final chapter draws together and synthesizes these issues and implications and provides detailed recommendations to provide an overall coherent approach for practitioners, course designers and institutional policy makers. Elizabeth Stacey and Philippa Gerbic begin the book with an introduction to blended learning practices in ICT-facilitated education for supporting adult learners in different contexts. The concept of blended learning is introduced with a thorough discussion of the way the term is defined in the literature about the field. Generally blended learning has been considered as a requiring a combination of face-to-face interaction and online communication but their exploration of the literature finds a term ranging from being loosely defined as meaning any combination of learning modes to very specific categorized
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combinations of technology use and traditional modes of learning even to a percentage based balance of online and face-to-face learning. This section also reviews the conceptual underpinnings and frameworks reported in a wide review of the international literature about blended learning and begins a comprehensive discussion of the field to date. The literature about blended learning is then reviewed in relation to the three sections of the book with chapters about issues in teaching in learning the most commonly published aspect for discussion so far. As online learning has become pervasive throughout the higher education and training sector, the blending of modes has become more explicitly considered and the discussion in the distance education field about technology use and flexibility is included among the pedagogical issues reviewed in this section. Less explicit in the literature is the acknowledgement of blended learning practices for professional learning and for establishing communities of learning and practice but this is becoming important to institutions realizing their value and need and is analysed and discussed in the following two sections of the chapter. Through the literature review the introductory chapter provides a rationale for the research-based chapters that follow. Section I: Strategies for Blended Teaching and Learning, provides research-based strategies for preparing to teach effectively through the mediation of ICT, contributing to the discussion on evidence-based pedagogy. It provides international perspectives on the blending of traditional face-to-face teaching with technological innovations with sound reflection on the pedagogical issues these practices raise. The authors provide researched cases of the application of blended learning with a greater range of examples of blended learning in undergraduate education which has been traditionally taught in a face-to-face mode in the international contexts described and which is the focus of research identifying the most effective blending of technologies into this learning environment. Philippa Gerbic describes case study research through which she investigated online discussions within blended environments in an undergraduate campus-based business degree program in New Zealand. Theorising online learning from a constructivist perspective she researched important aspects of the online environment including its text-based nature, time flexibility and interaction opportunities. She gathered student perspectives of the blended learning processes they experienced and she provides insights into influential factors for undergraduate student learning, particularly through the design of the learning context, its learning activities and assessment and the role of the teachers in how effectively online learning is integrated into their blended learning approach. She describes how the online environment can be used in a complementary way to exploit the reflective nature of online learning while the face-to–face environment should be the place where the teacher prepares students to interact online with carefully designed discursive activities that use the potential of the online medium. The pedagogical aspects of such blended learning practices are analysed and its advantages for students in the study for whom English is a second language are discussed. Gerbic discusses the wider implications of her findings and provides evidence based practical recommendations for blended learning practices that will be of great use to teachers in many educational contexts. Ruth Geer draws on a study of Australian undergraduate teacher education students whose on-campus interaction is complemented by both individual and collaborative group activities in an online environment. Geer, too, describes the strengths of text-based reflective learning through on interactive online community and reports the advantages of students’ ability to establish social presence through face-to-face interaction though this too needs online design assistance. Through analysis of students’ online postings, she interprets their learning from both cognitive and social constructivist perspectives and develops a pedagogical framework that helps to inform blended learning practices and outlines the relationship between pedagogies, technologies and their related learning outcomes. Geer aimed to explain students’ learning processes in this learning environment and her findings enable her to recommend instructional
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design attributes to assist teachers in achieving effective blended learning processes. Her framework for technology-mediated interactions (TMI) will help teachers designing blended learning environments through aligning learning outcomes they want to achieve with the interactive pedagogies enabled by a listing of interactive technologies available in universities today including learning management systems, social software tools and more innovative audiovisual technologies. Geer’s detailed explanation of her research analysis tools will provide researchers with suggestions for ways of researching blended learning environments. The process and pedagogical principles involved in redesigning traditional on campus and distance courses into a blended learning mode is described in a study from New Zealand by Mary Simpson and Bill Anderson. Rather than develop separate courses delivered by different modes to differing groups of students (usually younger on campus students and mature age students studying at a distance) the implementation of blended learning practices meant that these groups and modes could be integrated. Using survey data as their evidence of student perspectives, Simpson and Anderson draw on principles of adult learning and of online learning communities and designed a course and online learning environment that acknowledged learner independence and learner centredness as well providing as a non-course online gathering place for social student interaction and a staff development site of online resources. Their redesign blends a range of technological possibilities with audiovisual digital files contributed by students as well as teaching staff. The blending of student groups, the distance students more dependent on online interaction than the on campus, also meant there was the basis for a collaborative community also designed into the program with aspects of seminar participation and E-Portfolio development as assessable items in the courses. Simpson and Anderson recommend their model of a pedagogical basis for redesign rather than being driven by the potential of available technologies despite the importance of their role in the blend. The international perspectives of this book are particularly captured in two chapters in this section that describe European responses to blended learning. In a chapter about the integration of innovative technologies into blended learning environments, Ana Carvalho reports on Portuguese research into the use of podcasts and Zdena Lustigova and Frantisek Lustig describe a project that enables the handling of real objects in science experiments by students at remote locations, a blending of real and virtual objects. Students in Carvalho’s research study found the use of podcasts, delivered through the learning management system, Blackboard, were effective pedagogically and motivationally for students. The teacher recorded short podcasts to provide instruction about online discussions and feedback on their online postings and presentations. The personalized response of the teacher’s voice provided a stronger teaching presence online than written text and provides an example of blending with simple available technologies. Carvalho’s research contributes recommendations for teachers to effectively integrate podcasts into their blended learning practice. Lustigova and Lustig’s electronic labs (E-Labs) may not be as accessible a technology for all practitioners but provide an example of how blended learning has already integrated a blend of the real and the virtual into education, similarly to the potential that newer technologies, such as Second Life, will be implemented in the future. Continuing in another chapter on European perspectives on the responses of teachers and learners to blended learning, Guglielmo Trentin draws on a range of Italian research in reporting on blended learning solutions in university teaching. Trentin describes how corporate training in Italy has begun to commonly use a blending of media and interaction modes for professional development and how these practices are being researched as they are used in the professional learning of higher education teachers and in the design and delivery of their courses. In analyzing teachers’ choices of technology enhanced learning a categorization of approaches show a gradual move to blended learning as an integration of technology into course delivery with 48% of teachers using these approaches in the current year. Tren-
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tin gives a detailed analysis of reasons teachers give for introducing blended learning practices from the pedagogical and technological dimensions to economical, socio-cultural, organizational and other dimensions. He provides many practical recommendations for the introduction of blended learning into higher education particularly in advising about the institutional support and training needed as teaching and pedagogical issues are considered. Steve Wheeler highlights the student perspective in his critical commentary on the nature of blended learning uptake in higher education in the United Kingdom. He provides a detailed analysis of the students of today (and potentially tomorrow) who are becoming lifelong learners and for whom blended learning is the only option in what he calls their portfolio careers that are often changing and needing new skills and nomadic professional learning. As universities respond to student needs, he maintains they rarely consult them but impose institutional learning management systems on students as the technological solution for blended learning whereas students often prefer personal and mobile technologies and communicate via social networking. Wheeler analyses current research in the United Kingdom to develop his argument for more student-centred technological choices in blended learning and raises issues that are applicable to universities worldwide. Section II: Establishing Communities, involves a topic that has been well researched particularly since the seminal work of Lave and Wenger (1991) identified the importance of communities of practice in situated learning contexts, extended through the writing of Wenger (1999), and since the research of Garrison and Anderson (2003) and others began to explore online communities and identify their attributes and advantages in higher education and professional learning. As Robin Mason, a researcher, practitioner and international expert in the field of online learning since its inception, has pointed out in this book’s Foreword, the value of online communities as authentic communities has been considerably critiqued and this critique is further discussed in the introductory chapter. In compiling this section of the book, we found the research on the impact of blended learning practices in establishing these communities was rarely made explicit and consider this one of the particularly important contributions the book makes. This section includes a range of perspectives on research into establishing communities through blended learning practices and is perhaps the place where the definitional discussion of blended learning is most complex. Whereas many of the chapter authors have defined blended learning as a combination of face-to-face instruction and online learning, these chapters investigate the complexities of this blend. Advantages of multiple community memberships are explored, particularly whether potential tensions between face-to-face communities and online communities exist and how best to use the blending of face-to-face interaction and ICT-facilitated communities for professional learning. Peter Smith, Elizabeth Stacey, and Tak Ha have supported their discussion about issues in establishing communities from several research projects located in both Australia and Hong Kong that they describe in the first chapter of this section. Their focus is on how formal learning communities can be blended with more informal and often naturally occurring workplace communities, and the interaction that can occur as they make a case for including this phenomenon in the definition of blended learning. They first report research that investigates the use of blended learning practices in organizations as a tool for human resource development for a range of organizational roles. A research study of the use of blended learning practices for information technology professionals who learn within their workplace, either independently, with colleagues or in teams, as well as by using ICT-facilitated resources and through both formal and informal online communities, provides evidence for the importance of such practices in environments where knowledge is changing rapidly and the new members of the workplace community are often the experts in new knowledge. A third focus of the research explored the establishment of formal online learning communities and their interaction with workplace-based communities. Evidence of the importance of teacher presence in establishing meaningful online communities was found though there was little evidence of tension between online and workplace communities and recommendations of ways of using this blending of communities as an advantage is included in the chapter. In discussing factors
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that “spoil the blend” of online and face-to-face communities they discuss another study of a community based organization, analyzing the reasons their research outcomes and its implications for practice. Terrie Lyn Thompson and Heather Kanuka investigate how blended learning practices can be used for the sustained professional learning of teachers in higher education through the establishing of communities of practice. They report an extensive review the literature about communities of practice and, as in Robin Mason’s comments, they raise the problematic issue of whether such communities only form naturally or can indeed be constructed and managed. They report extended advice available in the literature about forming online communities and question whether professional development centres are able to develop such communities. Through interview and analysis of current practice in such centres in North America they investigate how blended learning practices are being used to establish face-to-face professional learning with ongoing online communities. The use of such blended learning practices were less common than they had anticipated and they found tensions between what was occurring in such centres and what they would like to achieve. Difficulties encouraging academic staff to use blended learning and the role of professional development centres as the appropriate one for establishing ongoing online communities are discussed. They suggest implications of their study for institutional policy and recommend possible applications of blended learning practices to establish effective communities. Julie Mackey explores the notion of multi-membership of communities through the interaction and intersection of online communities and workplace-based communities of practice that extends the definition of blended learning practices as suggested by Smith, Ha, and Stacey above. She researched a group of New Zealand teachers who were learning in a formal online postgraduate course while also interacting with their school based communities of practice. Through interviews with the participating teachers as well as members of their communities of practice and analysis of their learning communities’ online interaction records, she provides evidence of the importance of the application of contextual learning through the local communities of practice. She suggests a reconceptualisation in designing blended learning to include this blending of communities so that formal learning is more authentic and meaningful and reflects a blending of formal and informal learning. Mackey’s theoretical interpretation of her findings adds a valuable dimension to blended learning and identifies the central role of learners using technology as a tool for blending the social contexts of their learning. In a research study of a long-term professional learning community of Canadian teachers, Suzanne Riverin describes the blended learning processes of an online community established by the provincial education authorities of Ontario for the professional learning of teachers. There were some face-to-face meetings before teachers began communicating online to discuss classroom ICT applications and reflect on their local community of practice. The blending of both online communication and face-to face meeting established a social presence and cohesion in this community and this continued with a blending of asynchronous and synchronous communication to establish a community for collaboration with ICT projects, curriculum resources and professional development through online courses. Riverin analyses the components of the blended learning practices that were effective in establishing the community and describes factors of difficulty experienced by some participants joining the online community. Describing the community’s successful achievement of its objectives for professional learning and support, Riverin discusses the implications of this model of blended learning and recommends aspects of these practices for future online collaborative environments. Section III: Teacher Transitions and Professional Learning, reports research that has been undertaken as universities realize the potential of integrating online learning and ICT-facilitated education into all courses and particularly into traditional campus-based institutions. Though online learning has been increasingly introduced into distance education programs over the last two decades, the flexibility of study that this way of learning provides is becoming more and more attractive to the new generation of technologically literate students as well as more mature students needing new professional learning even
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if they are studying on campus. In the design for both on and off campus courses the blend of online with face-to face modes or at least with ICT-facilitated forms of audiovisual or synchronous communication is being found to be a most effective and flexible way of learning. However, as Mason reinforces in the Foreword of the book, teachers are not always ready to teach to these new modes of learning and they need effective support and professional development based on sound evidence of outcomes of as they transition to blended learning practices. The chapters in this section include research into cases studies of teachers and institutions undergoing this transition. It also includes frameworks and innovative models for designing blended learning courses and for providing professional learning for teachers. In a study comparing the experiences and philosophies of two groups of university teachers in Canada and Australia who had made the transition to teaching in both face-to-face and online modes, Faye Wiesenberg and Elizabeth Stacey found that the teachers had begun to blend their teaching approaches through using the best aspects of both these modes as they became more confident with ICT-facilitated education and reflected on the differences that their new professional learning was making to their teaching philosophies and practice. In this chapter, Wiesenberg and Stacey compare university and course contexts as well as the teachers’ perspectives and practices using methods and validated tools to identify similarity and differences between modes and then relate findings to a model of blended learning to interpret teacher transition to blended learning practices. From their findings they recommend support and professional development for teachers undergoing this transition from traditional university teaching to a blended learning mode to ensure that they have the opportunity to reflect on their teaching philosophies and pedagogical design to achieve the best aspects of both modes in their blended learning practice. Gayani Samarickrema researched the institutional perspective of the transitional process of teachers adopting ICT-facilitated education and developing blended learning practices. Through an insider case study she interviewed academic staff at an Australian university about their reasons for adopting blended learning approaches and identified the supporting and constraining factors in their experiences as well as their motivations for adopting these practices. Though academic staff essentially wanted to teach students in the most effective and engaging way, they were driven by a range of reasons from voluntary adoption to policy driven directives to increase student numbers and course marketability as well as by student demand for ICT use. Samarawickrema identifies important factors for institutions to consider in a move to blended learning such as time and workload allowances supported by funding, rewards and acknowledgement schemes and particularly effective models of professional development and ongoing learning support. The vision and leadership of the institution with supportive infrastructure and policy need to be adjusted for the new blended learning practices to be most effectively adopted. Gail Wilson reports a collective study of research–based evidence of experiences of academic staff adopting ICT-facilitated education and transitioning to blended learning practices in a regional Australian university. She analyses seven dimensions of blended learning environments that these teachers create and provides a valuable framework for practitioners, researchers and policy makers seeking to understand the transition to blended learning. Her framework centres on the teacher and their reasons for the transition, the nature of their blend and pedagogical approach, their perspectives on their role and challenges they encounter. The online dimension includes the media and activities used, online assessment and teacher support and the self-study dimension describes the independent student learning within the blended learning environment. She details the face-to-face dimension, the resource-based learning dimension and the institutional support and organizational context dimensions which all factor in teachers transitions to blended learning practices. The chapter provides case examples of all these dimensions and their basis for a professional development model to support staff in their transition to blended learning environments and can be used in successful institutional adoption of blended learning practices.
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Many of these chapters have reiterated the importance of careful design and professional learning for blended learning practices to be successfully integrated into programs. The next chapter by Cathy Gunn and Adam Blake addresses both of these aspects by describing their design–based research that is used to integrate a blended learning process into the reconceptualisation of a course in academic practice for New Zealand university teachers. Using a continuous cycle of design, implementation, analysis and refinement and intertwining the development of these course learning environment with learning theory, they devised a blended learning approach through situated learning and describe the application of this approach to the Learning, Teaching and Assessment course. They provide detail of their iterative cycles and refinement of solutions after gathering feedback from stakeholders which will be particularly valuable for other designers of blended learning courses. Within our introductory chapter we made a distinction in our understanding between professional development for skills training and professional learning that involves theoretically-based professional development that includes reflection on teaching practice and philosophies. Though such a distinction is not generally made, the next chapter in the book provides a research-based model that is an example of such a distinction in terms and could be the basis of such reflective professional learning as blended learning is introduced into programs. Brooke Robertshaw, Heather Leary, Andrew Walker, Kristy Bloxham, and Mimi Recker report their research into a process of reciprocal mentoring between student teachers and experienced schoolteachers that enables technologically skilled student teachers to provide the basis for professional learning as the experienced schoolteachers reflect on their technological expertise and provide direction for its effective blended learning practice in their classrooms. Such a model could also be adapted to universities as skilled educational development and technical staff work with teachers with more pedagogical experience who apply a reciprocal mentoring process to their professional learning about blended learning practices. “In the wild” in this case is a naturally occurring phenomenon which is investigated through a retrospective case study method, again a potentially useful model for researchbased professional learning in many educational sectors. The final chapter by Philippa Gerbic and Elizabeth Stacey draws together the main themes identified under the sections of the book and synthesizes the important concepts that have been discussed throughout the chapters of research. Recommendations for practice connect the outcomes of these research studies with practical suggestions in all aspects of blended learning practice. Finally, implications for the future field of blended learning are provided for all its stakeholders and suggestions for further research directions made which will be additionally useful to researchers and strategic planners. This book will be of interest to anyone who is teaching or researching in the tertiary/postsecondary sector wanting to know more about ICT-facilitated blended learning. It is relevant for formal learning settings, for example, universities, polytechnics and private colleges and institutions and for informal settings, for example, workplaces and communities which want to support learning and professional development. The book will be useful for teachers and researchers who are working with a wide range for learners, including undergraduate and postgraduate students, adult learners and people working with those in a variety of occupational and professional roles. These are contemporary research perspectives from substantive research studies, a specialised focus on the use of ICT-facilitated education across a variety of blended settings, a learner-centred focus which covers learning in a wide range of settings and a discussion of implications for teaching and learning so as to support the development of evidence based pedagogies. Elizabeth Stacey and Philippa Gerbic Editors
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References Garrison, D. R., & Anderson, T. (2003). E-Learning in the 21st century. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Wenger, E. (1999). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Chapter I
Introduction to Blended Learning Practices Elizabeth Stacey Deakin University, Australia Philippa Gerbic Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
ABSTRACT Blended learning is now part of the learning landscape in higher education, not just for campus-based courses but for courses designed for students studying at a distance as well as for communities of professional learning and practice. The impact of this concept in university teaching and learning can be seen in the appearance of practice focused texts for example, Littlejohn and Pegler (2007) and, more recently, Garrison and Vaughan (2008). Blended learning is now constantly positioned as one of the emerging trends in higher education (e. g. Allen, Seaman and Garrett, 2007; Graham, 2006; Garrison and Kanuka, 2004) and therefore is of particular strategic importance in the future of universities, their students and teachers as well as in the widening community of professional education and training. As an introduction to this book, this chapter will review the growing literature about blended learning and will discuss some of its key issues. The authors begin by introducing the concept of blended learning and its many meanings and attempt to clarify the definitional discussion. Issues in teaching and learning in both campus based and distance settings are then described followed by a discussion of the way blended learning provides a process for establishing communities of learning and practice, particularly for professional learning. Much of the literature about professional learning and learning communities has only just begun to identify aspects of blended learning practices as significant in their field, a gap this book is helping to fill. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Conceptuaanderpinnings, Definitions and Frameworks When writers attempt to define blending learning in a substantive way, the literature is marked by enormous variety in approaches. One of the simplest representations is that of the combination of physical and virtual environments, for example, Bleed’s (2001) idea of the innovative and interactive combinations of “technology, architecture and people” through the right mix of “clicks and bricks” (2001, p.18). Many definitions refer to combining face-to-face and online learning, for example, Graham (2006) who adds a historical perspective to his working definition when he discusses the convergence of two quite separate learning environments. These are traditional face-to-face environments that are essentially synchronous and based on high fidelity human interaction, and distance environments that are asynchronous and have been traditionally reliant on text driven and independent learning. The advent of information communications technology (ICT) has created the potential for integration of these two systems and hence his preferred and working definition of “combining online and faceto-face instruction” (2006, p.4). This integration enabled blends across four key dimensions that Graham (2006) identifies as space, time, fidelity and humanness. The training sector has claimed the term blended learning for over a decade (Maisie, 2006) and though Cross (2006), also from the corporate training sector, writes that in this context blended learning is only a transitory term, it is a term which has gained ongoing currency and aroused great interest in the higher education sector and appears to be surviving its “buzz word” status and taking “its rightful place as signifying a particular idea or practice” (Mason & Rennie, 2006, p. xvii). Where blended learning was traditionally defined as consisting of a face-to-face component followed by an online component, this has changed even in the training sector where Cross (2006) describes
a local model and a distance model which blend either more or less online interaction with faceto-face meetings with the term denoting flexibility and a range of technology mixes. Littlejohn and Pegler (2006) explicitly acknowledge the role of ICT with their concept of ‘blended e-Learning’ and while they acknowledge historical antecedents similar to those of Graham, they present their concept as one with two different components, being e-Learning and blending. This approach enables them to consider each of these concepts separately, thus avoiding the implicit approaches in much of the literature i.e. the introduction of an e-Learning activity into a face-to-face setting which is considered as a single phenomenon with little effort being made to distinguish between the issue of e-Learning and that of blending. Littlejohn and Pegler’s (2006) identification of these two elements adds clarity to the discussion about blended learning and enables better consideration of the complexities of technologies, different settings and learning. Blended learning can be placed somewhere between fully online and fully face-to-face courses and one of the definitional issues is where this might be on such a continuum. In their report on blended learning in the USA, Allen, Seaman and Garrett (2007) define blended or what is also termed hybrid learning as courses where 30 to 79% of the content is delivered online. While a numeric description seems to offer clarity, this is somewhat dependent on the meaning of “content”. Vaughan (2007) and others argue that where an online element simply supplements a face-to-face course, then this is not blended learning and there must be a reduction in face-to-face time. Littlejohn and Pegler (2007) talk about ‘strong” and ‘weak” blends (p. 29) where courses are, respectively, almost exclusively e-Learning or contain very little e-Learning, but they do not attempt to quantify this in any way. Garrison and Kanuka (2004) argue that the real indicator of blended learning is not the amount of face-to-face or online learning but their effective integration within a course.
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Twigg (2003) writing relatively early in the application of blended learning practices to universities, raised the pedagogical issue of the effectiveness of blended learning for all students when she reviewed projects across the United States where institutions were granted large amounts of funding to integrate ICT into their courses. These project outcomes described a range of blended learning practices which varied on a continuum from fully face-to-face to fully online. These projects were categorised as supplemental with traditional class meetings providing additional engagement through online resources and activities, replacement replacing face-to-face classes with online activities and emporium with online resources and activities available on student demand with an expansion of individual instructional assistance particularly through software providing online tutorials, video streamed lectures and other multimedia resources (either mandatory or with open attendance). In the fully online model, instead of a labour intensive approach of individual faculty members creating and supporting all their own small courses, teachers used designed courses and taught with the support of a non academic course assistant so that larger student numbers benefited from the academic teacher (or team of teachers) who was spared the large number of administrative interactions. Assessment was handled by software with immediate feedback provided. Though positive about the changes the projects found such as improved learning outcomes and cost reductions, Twigg acknowledged that despite their redesigning courses, institutions assumed a homogeneity in student needs in these projects apart from the final category the buffet model which offered a range of possible pedagogical choices eg lectures, laboratories, small group sessions, multimedia tutorials, online resources and interaction with students entering an online contract to ensure accountability. Student choices can be supported by online needs assessment and learning style assessment and progress monitored
by the software system. Twigg predicted the value of these blended models but anticipated that if no choice was available, some students would fail. Definitions like Graham’s above are valuable because their genericism gives them broad appeal, however they do not adequately address the intricacies and convolutions of blended learning. One approach that does attempt this is that of Garrison and Kanuka (2004) when they describe blended learning as a simple and complex concept. At the simple level, they describe blended learning as “the thoughtful integration of classroom face-to-face learning experiences with online learning experiences” (2004, p.96). Complexity arises when this idea is put into action and the need to respond to very different settings results in enormous variation in learning design possibilities as Gerbic describes in her cross-case analysis in Chapter II. Successful integration requires an understanding of the special characteristics of the Internet, the most desirable aspects of face-toface teaching and an appropriate mixing of these elements. Garrison and Kanuka (2004) identify particular aspects of the Internet which they regard as valuable for blended learning. These are the asynchronous and text based character of the Internet and the synchronous and human presence of face-to-face conversation which together, through their different characters, can support a community of learners. To achieve meaningful learning experiences, courses therefore need to be reconceptualised or reorganised to produce a meaningful learning experience such as through the study described by Simpson and Anderson (Chapter IV), so blended learning is not therefore an enhancement, an addition or a layering of technology, but a potentially transformative process. Other later definitional discussions of blended learning include the notion of the flexibility offered by blended learning through the use of ICT replacing face-to-face hours on campus. Bleed (2006) reflecting on the research and practice that has occurred since his 2001 article cited above,
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comments on the growth of interest in blended learning and adds to his definition the replacement of “seat-time” by technology use, as blended learning is more often being provided for students who are demanding more flexibility from fixed class times and on campus attendance. This too is the definition used by Hartman, Dzuiban and BrophyEllison (2007) and where Garrison and Vaughan (2008) defined blended learning as “thoughtfully” integrating online and face-to face interaction they also included the concept of redesigning courses to reduce on campus classroom hours with replacement online activities (p. 5). The discussion in the literature indicates that it is very difficult to define blended learning and Mason (2005) makes the very commonsense point that teachers have always engaged in various kinds of blending – adding new information to what students already know, combining theory and practice, listening, reading and writing, and more recently, face-to-face or print and web based experiences. In their review of blended e-learning, Sharpe, Benfield, Roberts and Francis (2006), reflect times of transition and change, and also acknowledge that blended learning is difficult to define. They however suggest that this is an advantage because it means that academic staff may develop their own meanings which may include both preserving face-to-face teaching and designing for active learning. They also found that students were developing their own concepts of blended learning which included holistic views of learning and technology, including the use of their own technologies for learning. This now includes the use of Web2 tools. Oliver and Trigwell (2005) go further and critique the blended learning concept which they regarded as “ill defined” (2005, p.17) where “almost anything can be seen as blended learning and consequently, use of the term does not help us understand what is being discussed” (2005, p.18). They identified seven different forms of blending, three of which were likely to involve some form of ICT, however, the authors consid-
ered that they involved concepts that were treated stereotypically and abstractly and did not reflect what occurred in practice. Hence, there were no underlying principles from which to determine what might or might not be blended learning. They also observed that the concept was really focused on what teachers might do pedagogically rather than what students might learn and it was therefore an incomplete account of learning. Oliver and Trigwell (2005) did not consider that the term should be ignored but that it should be reconstructed through the variation theory of learning. This was: …based on the idea that for learning to occur, variation must be experienced by the learner. Without variation, there is no discernment, and without discernment, there is no learning…learning occurs when critical aspects of variation in the object of learning are discerned. Discernment is about the experience of difference (2005, p.21). Oliver and Trigwell (2005) emphasize that what was important for learning was the contrast and comparison that arose from the variation, and not the variation itself. They argued that different teaching media could be used to help students experience variation and that there was a role for blended approaches in creating this learning situation. Garrison and Kanuka’s (2004) concept of blended learning, with its emphasis on the contrasting characters of synchronicity and asynchronicity and communication through text and human presence may be regarded as an example of variation theory. Further support for the role of variation in learning comes from Wallace (2003) who suggested in his review of computer-mediated conferencing (CMC), that the differences between face-to-face and virtual settings might be more influential for learning than any CMC itself. Geer’s framework for Technology-Mediated Interactions (described in Chapter III) can help educators align and design their variation taking into consideration either
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the learning processes, interactive pedagogies or the interactive technologies that can be integrated into the blended learning process. As well as definitions, the literature now provides a number of conceptual frameworks for blended learning. Some of these models draw on existing frameworks, for example, Donelly’s (2006) use of Laurillard’s (2002) Conversational model and Motteram’s (2006) use of Salmon’s (2000) five-level model. The application, adaptation and extension of existing frameworks is quite characteristic of an emergent field such as this one, and such works, and those of others like Collis and Moonen (2001) can provide strong foundational support for new thinking about blended learning, particularly within institutional contexts. Kerres and Witt (2003) present their ‘3C-didactic model’ of blended learning which comprises three elements being content (information and its distribution), communication (local or remote and between students, the teacher, individuals or the whole class) and construction (individual or collaborative). In their view, blended learning is about more than combining face-to-face and online learning and they stress the different degrees of synchronicity and its impact on students and their learning and advocate that learning designs be created through consideration of the three Cs in conjunction with the costs and benefits of different synchronous and asynchronous media. This model is valuable because it not only works with the variation inherent in synchronous and asynchronous communication but also takes into account their costs and benefits, especially for students. Shea (2005) provides a more holistic model which is strongly grounded in a discussion of learning, adult learning and learning in technology-mediated environments. The framework has an epistemological foundation (2005, p.31) which directs course designers to begin by considering their values, assumptions and beliefs about learning. This is followed by considering theories of learning and instruction, then peda-
gogical approaches, instructional strategies and finally, acts. The strength of this approach is that it acknowledges the role of teacher epistemologies and their influences on course design and the student experience – and this is an aspect of learning frameworks which is often implicit or ignored in the literature. A different approach has been taken by Littlejohn and Pegler (2006) with their LD_lite framework, which has been developed from a number of empirical studies and aims to enable teachers to work time effectively, reuse their existing resources and share their work with colleagues. The framework operates at three levels; (1) a lesson plan template enables teachers to redesign their lessons by considering the activities, who will carry them out (roles) and the resources needed; (2) a “pattern” (2006, p.87), or high level course descriptor enables a quick overview of the course; and (3) a learning design sequence map enables teachers to plan parallel or iterative cycles of learning, including the integration different media and spaces and timeframes. This framework is very grounded and will be attractive to teachers because of its recognition of the realities of practice. It appears to be highly scalable, but is still sufficiently flexible to enable teachers to share their practice, which will be especially valuable in developing an understanding of good practice in media integration and blending. More recently, Garrison and Vaughan (2008) have presented a comprehensive framework for blended learning which is an application of the Community of Inquiry (CoI) concept in a blended setting. Their educational ideal is of an “engaged community of inquiry” (2008, p.10) based on reflection and discourse which is created through social, cognitive and teaching presences (2008, p.18). They usefully discuss how their framework might be used in three redesign scenarios and it will be reassuring for many to see the way in which they use the face-to-face class to anchor various blending strategies. This framework is valuable because it is derived from a body of substantive
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research and has had some empirical evaluation. Its very detailed implementation guidelines and professional development model, discussed later in this chapter, mean that it will be of considerable assistance to practitioners. Macdonald (2006) in writing a practical guide to blended learning for online teachers surveyed other practitioners online and draws from a self -selected international group of blended learning case studies. She categorised the main components of blended learning as either (1) campus based with a blend of asynchronous interaction providing more flexibility, (2) distance education with a blend of networking technologies to provide collaborative and synchronous communication (with occasional possibilities for face-to-face interaction), or (3) blended learning courses that offered interaction between a combined cohort of campus based and distance students. Overwhelmingly the cases she surveyed used learning management systems combined with face-to-face interaction though there were a range of other synchronous and asynchronous technologies included in the blended learning practices. She observed that, from her survey few teachers could clearly articulate what the role face-to-face sessions played in blended learning while she identified the main value of these sessions as targeting advice, focusing content, brainstorming, pacing of studies and enhancing community. Carvalho, Lustigova and Lustig (Chapter V) have reported examples of how new technologies have been integrated into this variety of blended learning contexts though in some cases teachers are using the technologies to provide these valuable aspects of teaching with eg podcasts of advice and feedback and technologies that have more innovative capabilities than learning management systems. Wheeler (Chapter VI), in particular, critiques the imposition of learning management systems (LMS) on the new generation of students who are embracing personalized mobile technologies and social networking for learning and communication and Trentin, also
writing in Chapter VI, suggests ways institutions should support teachers in their introduction of blended learning practices.
Issues in Teaching and La Many of the published studies about blended learning have occurred in campus based courses and have been dominated by student perspectives. Bliuc, Goodyear, and Ellis (2007) characterise this body of research as exploratory, mostly insider research with a predominant use of case study methods, which have provided rich descriptions of the processes, complexities and issues arising in particular settings. When we looked at a sample of 18 accounts from the literature from 2003- 2008, all of them involved the introduction of some kind of virtual learning environment, which provided resources and content, and in fifteen of the accounts, online discussions were part of the course (for example, Molesworth, 2004; Donelly, 2005; Nel and Wilkinson, 2006 and Tabor, 2007). In campus based courses, blended learning was often introduced to improve the quality of learning and student engagement and a typical example is that of Ramsey’s (2003) work. She was concerned about the dominance of teachers in much face-to-face learning and the ensuing passivity of undergraduate students, and argued that the addition of virtual learning environments could reshape learning relations between teachers and students. By reducing lectures, emphasizing web supported materials and activities, and using more social and collaborative activities and assessment she sought to make her students more active and less passive. In her view, learning which worked with the zones of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978) provided a far more useful learning framework than andragogy, because development was regarded as a series of performances through different levels rather than
Introduction to Blended Learning Practices
being purely based on a concept of adult maturity, which many undergraduates lacked. Ramsey (2003) illustrates a teacher perspective that is focused on innovation and the scholarly improvement of learning. Like her, Garrison and Kanuka (2004) question the ‘dominance of the lecture’ (p.100), especially if blended learning is to have any transformative impact in universities. However, the literature also indicates other teacher views which are associated with the changes in role and possible identity that arise with blended learning. In a phenomenological study of early adopter teachers of ICT by McShane (2004), the teachers were generally very positive about the inclusion of online learning, however, one of the main findings endorsed the “centrality of lecturing” (p.12). By lecturing, the teachers “kept themselves central to their students’ learning, but they also appeared to be retaining an event which symbolizes and defines the role and authority of the traditional university lecturer” (McShane, 2004, p.12 ). Commeaux and McKenna (2005) document other concerns of staff about the addition of online learning, particularly the impact of the reduction of the richness of the face-to-face learning and deprivation of meaningful interaction with peers. This research identifies significant issues for blended learning which must be addressed by universities in the future. Several studies comparing online and face-toface teaching experiences examined the merits of both (Curtis, 2002; Cragg, Dunning & Ellis, 2008) and some concluded that a blended environment using the advantages of both modes was the best outcome for ongoing practice (Stacey & Wiesenberg, 2007; Heaton-Shrestha, Edirisingha, Burke & Linsey, 2005). These latter studies identified teachers’ reports of the positive influence of online use on their face-to-face teaching but also of the workload increase often involved in using the online medium. Vignare’s (2006) survey of the literature indicates that teacher satisfaction is tied to being able to choose to introduce blended learning as opposed
to being required to do so. The other important factor she identified is teachers’ preparedness to add online learning to their face-to-face course, which was particularly dependent on adequate pedagogical and technological support and sufficient time to develop an understanding of the new environment. Other influential factors were recognition of blended learning developments in promotion and recognition of research in institutional research cultures that valued discipline more than teaching research. Vaughan (2007) supports these points of view in his discussion of faculty perspectives on the benefits and challenges of blended learning. Staff considered that the main benefits were enhanced teacher and student interaction (with reduced face-to-face contact), increased student engagement, more flexibility and an environment of continuous improvement. The challenges were similar to those identified by Vignare (2006) that is, time, professional development and concerns about losing control over the course and the place of blended learning within a university culture. Samarawickrema describes a detailed case study that discusses these aspects in Chapter XII. Many of the teaching and learning accounts have provided insights into the ways in which variation might be used to improve blended learning, especially by documenting how researchers have worked with the differences between the two environments. Osguthorpe and Graham (2003) discuss the ways in which the strengths and weaknesses of the face-to- face paradigm can complement the strengths and weaknesses of the distance paradigm and see the goal of blended learning as a “harmonious balance” (2003, p.228) of the two environments, which is dependent on the course goals, needs of the student, teacher’s focus and the online resources available. A good source of information about the strengths and weakness of the two environments can be found in the online discussion literature. Substantive works in this area are those of Tienne (2000), Arbaugh (2000) and Meyer (2004), all of
Introduction to Blended Learning Practices
which have used survey methods to investigate postgraduate students’ views in the USA. Research by Gerbic (2006) into the differences between online and face-to-face discussions indicates three major areas of difference, which result in strengths and weakness which may appeal to different learning needs and course goals: 1.
2.
3.
The presence or absence of phatic (visual/aural) cues which provides (a) a rich nonverbal communication environment, with high levels of monitoring and feedback, where conversation is competitive and requires confidence, especially to disagree and it is easier to build rapport and trust or (b) a more impersonal medium with reduced phatic, and social cues, where messages are more difficult to understand, where there is less social cohesion eg less responsibility for the conversation, but also freer communication for some participants. Synchronous and asynchronous timing which provide either (a) rapid spontaneous and free flowing dialogue, generally on one subject, at a particular time and place or (b) space to reflect and think at one’s own pace, on multiple subjects, but often taking more time. Speech and text-based communication where (a) the emphasis is on listening and talking, communication is quick and easy for confident speakers of the language and ephemeral and (b) the emphasis is on reading and writing, so there is a record, so messages are often carefully thought out and written, although participation takes time and can result in information overload.
The benefits of working with the special characteristics of both environments was demonstrated in Rovai and Jordan’s (2004) comparative analysis of fully online, blended and fully face-to-face courses. Students in the blended course created the strongest sense of community, as evidenced
by higher connectedness and mean learning scores and the researchers ascribed this to the convenience of fully online courses and the role of face-to- face contact in nurturing community. A further example of this complementarity is found in the work of Lynch and Dembo (2004) who were investigating self-regulation in blended contexts. They found that face-to-face classes improved motivation, and ameliorated the need for high levels of individual autonomy, time management and Internet self-efficacy. Lynch and Denbo therefore recommend face-to-face settings for at risk students. This would suggest that where students may have low self-regulation, for example, first year students, then careful positioning of face-to-face contact within a course could be advantageous. Nel and Wilkinson (2006) provide a six-point action plan which particularly considers the role of face-to-face sessions for undergraduates with little or no online, Internet or collaborative experience. In their evaluation of the introduction of a virtual learning environment (VLE) into a campus based university, Aspden and Helm (2004) argue that the different characteristics of such an environment can change relations between students and their teachers, peers and the university by increasing connectedness, both physically and virtually. It is commonly assumed that campusbased programmes enable high levels of interaction, but for students who work or have family responsibilities or who are shy, this is not always the case and virtual environments offer other opportunities for this. Molesworth’s (2004) study of third year undergraduates offers a critique of this view when he found that while the students liked the flexibility of a VLE, their low participation indicated to him that what they actually liked was the flexibility to do nothing and neglect this mode of learning. One theme that is evident in the blended learning literature is the importance of paying attention to the learning design. In a comparison of four communication settings and four tasks,
Introduction to Blended Learning Practices
Schweizer, Paechter and Weidenmann (2003) found that achievement does not depend solely on the setting and the nature and demands of the learning activity was highly significant. In his description of a blended course, Boyle (2005) advocates for a pedagogically driven model where every element of the blend is justified according to the course outcomes and needs of the learners. Donelly (2005) provides a good example of this with her use of Laurillard’s Conversational model as a basis for blending the face-to-face and online phases of a constructivist and problem-based learning approach. Entwistle and Ramsden (1983) have found that students’ approaches to learning are relational, that is they are dependent on their perceptions of the learning activity and its general context, for example, assessment, workload, the role and actions of the teacher and the course or discipline practices. The challenge for teachers is to ensure that the messages that students receive about a blended course coincide with teachers’ intentions. To enable this, a blended environment needs to be embedded within the learning design and coherent with all aspects of that design in a way that students understand. Gunn and Blake extend this focus on design for blended learning in Chapter XIV describing their design based research. There is less explicit consideration of blended learning in distance settings in the literature. This occurs because it has established history in distance education (Moore, 2005) where it has long been the practice to include periods of residence at a campus for face-to-face interaction, or to provide face –to-face interaction regionally through the use of various local universities or centres. Moore (2005) positions face-to-face as a communication technique and does not endow it with any special mystique. He argues that its relative expense means that it should be carefully used and substituted when there are other effective but less costly approaches. However in introducing Bonk and Graham’s (2006) “Handbook of Blended Learning,” Moore explains how teachers “letting
go” responsibilities in their traditional face-toface role and integrating the pedagogical choices of distance learning can actually provide better learning because through blending text, recorded or interactive audio or visual media with face-to face interaction we are providing a response to the diversity of learning styles of students. The flexibility, access and potential for reduced costs that have been the rationale for distance education for decades are found to motivate the use of blended learning in many cases (Graham, Allen & Ure, 2005). Dziuban, Hartman and Moskal (2004) also noted that in blending online interaction with face-to-face classes, there was a reduction in time spent in the classroom thus describing blended learning as a form of flexible learning –providing students with a means of learning flexibly in the way distance education has provided flexibility in the past. The introduction to university campuses of learning management systems (LMS) or virtual learning systems (VLE) as they are also termed, has meant classes can use this system as a way of extending and replacing their face-to-face interaction with online interaction. Aspden & Helm (2004) are among teachers who have used and researched the use of blended learning to provide such flexibility. They describe such a project at Sheffield Hallam University in the United Kingdom which introduced blended learning and found that it maintained students’ engagement with their courses despite their having part-time employment or being off-campus to participate in a practical placement related to their course. In the literature, there are some accounts of distance education that have specifically focused on blended learning. Denis (2003) provides a description of a postgraduate distance programme which applied Carre and Pearns (1992) self-directed model in fully online, blended and fully face-to-face contexts. Macdonald and McAteer (2003) discuss different learner support models in distance and campus-based courses and then compare approaches with different media blends
Introduction to Blended Learning Practices
for learner support. Dron, Seidel and Litten (2004) discuss the development and implementation of a blended learning course and analyse this process using Moore’s theory of transactional distance. Jelfs Nathan and Barrett’s (2004) paper discusses the introduction of a web based study skills tool kit with the intention of blending (electronic) learning into students busy lives. Ausburn (2004) investigated design elements that adult learners found most useful in blended online environments. What is notable about these reports is the breadth and diversity of their focus, especially their concepts of blending which appear to be much wider than those of campus based courses. This would suggest that the practice of blending is well embedded within distance education and Moore (2006) endorses this when he draws attention to the importance of understanding research and practice in the distance field for application to new forms of practice such as blended learning. The literature to date indicates that attention in the teaching and learning area of blended environments has focused on understanding the aspects of the virtual and physical environments which are valuable for learning and how to integrate them so that they work in a complementary fashion. Recently, Bluic et al (2007) have acknowledged that there is a tension between understanding the different parts of blended learning and viewing it as a whole system. They argue that the focus now should be on coherence and alignment, on creating a more holistic experience for students and understanding the complexity of blended learning from a broader and more systematic. This will require a wider range of research methods, particularly those that are complementary.
Blended Leaaa for Professional Leaa As evidenced above, the literature on blended learning and teaching is growing and being identified more explicitly as its value is recognized.
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However there appears to be an assumption that teachers will just know how to blend online and face-to-face learning and teaching processes and the emphasis in the professional learning literature has been on ways of teaching the skills of online teaching and reflecting on the changes to learning that this may introduce. Though more studies are describing blended learning practices in more detail with diagrams and formulae of online and face-to-face combinations suggested, models for professional learning are less widely reported in the literature. The concept of community has become popular in researching student collaborative learning online, but is also less specifically reported as a means of introducing blended learning or of using blended learning practices to developing online communities for teachers. The literature about such professional learning that is reviewed below has been more difficult to locate and at times we identified a blended process in reports designated as online learning but which were in fact describing blended learning practices. We view professional learning as having two dimensions, one that we define as theoretically based professional learning that encourages reflection on teaching and learning within philosophical frameworks and particularly through communities of peers, and professional development for skills training which we perceive as more teacher directed, short-term and specific in purpose. The chapters in the second and third sections of this book provide detailed data concerning both dimensions of professional learning that is for blended learning and through the use of blended learning. Though Bonk and Graham (2006) gathered a wide range of examples of the implementation of blended learning practices in corporate training, particularly in the Information Technology industry and relying strongly on web-based learning resources (e.g., Lewis & Orton, 2006; Chute, Williams & Hancock, 2006), Hofman (2006) also writing in their “Handbook of Blended Learning” claimed that the training sector, which
Introduction to Blended Learning Practices
has discussed using blended learning practices over a long period, has not fulfilled its promise. She explains that programs are not necessarily designed specifically for the blended environment and they overemphasised the face-to-face component. This follows from the fact that fewer teachers were trained in facilitating interaction through ICT and there was also little preparation for online learners. Studies of the blended learning model established at the Open University of Shell International Exploration and Production (Margaryan, Collis and Cook, 2004; Collis, Bianco, Margaryan, & Waring, 2005) straddle the training and higher education fields in providing corporate professional learning and accredited academic qualifications through a blended learning process. In discussing their research into the model they acknowledge that a sound blended learning process should include more than use of webbased resources or training modules and should involve an application of learning to the learner’s workplace and a collaborative sharing of this application through social interaction. Their model draws on experienced facilitators and reusable digital objects but stresses the importance of the interpersonal contact between all actors in the blended learning process. As the higher education sector takes up blended learning, there has been an assumption that blended learning practices will involve a blend of the best of face-to-face and online learning but is that necessarily so? To ensure that such competent design and instruction will deliver the best aspects of both, the blended learning process is being used in many institutions as a means of providing professional learning for academic staff involved in teaching in this mode. Fitzigibbon & Jones (2004) at the University of Glamorgan in Wales, described their university’s training of e-moderators which they adjusted, on participants’ advice, from a fully online model to a blended model which they found introduced an important social dimension as a local community
was formed face-to-face. Dziuban, Hartman, Juge, Moskal and Sorg (2006) describe the professional development of faculty members at the University of Central Florida as an “authentic blended learning experience” (p. 199) combining online modules, on campus classes, labs and invidividual consultations. They find this model is transformative as academic staff with instructional designers as their teachers form supportive teams as they develop their technological and pedagogical skills, support which continues as they implement their new blended learning practices. (The reciprocal mentoring process reported by Robertshaw et al. in Chapter XVI could also provide an effective model through a blended learning environment for professional learning in such teams of designers and teachers). Lindquist (2006) describes a process of professional development of teachers at the University of Phoenix who are being prepared to manage blended learning environments through training in a 4-week course in a similar environment. They are encouraged to develop presentation skills in a face-to-face classroom and more reflective skills in their asynchronous online discussions that Lindquist says “capitalizes on the strengths of each” (p. 231), a conclusion which more institutions are drawing from this mode. Vaughan and Garrison (2005) researched the use of blended learning in training the teachers at the University of Calgary through a combination of face-to-face and online learning. They applied the analysis tools developed through the Community of Inquiry model through research into online learning analysing online discussions and the components that made up such online communities (Garrison & Anderson, 2003). Their objective was to “create and sustain cognitive presence in a blended learning context for the development of an effective and meaningful faculty learning community” (Vaughan & Garrison, 2005, p. 3). Through comparing the indicators of cognitive presence in the face-to-face and online experiences, they were able to analyse what was achieved in each aspect of the blended learning
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Introduction to Blended Learning Practices
process and to develop a successful community of inquiry. Garrison and Vaughan’s (2008) discussion of the transformation of education through blended learning relies on a better model of professional learning by teachers. In acknowledging the importance of professional development for teachers adopting blended learning practices, they have devised their design principles for establishing social and cognitive presence in a blended learning community with sufficient teaching presence to facilitate cognitive inquiry as best learned in a community of inquiry for faculty members. Instead of traditional workshops for learning any new technological or pedagogical skills, they found that establishing a sustained community for ongoing critical reflection and discussion about one’s own practice is a more effective and transformative model. In an interesting change from the usual model of support for curriculum redesign, they describe the University of Calgary’s process of combining successful applicants for course redesign into a community of inquiry that includes a number of other university representatives from library, ICT and learning centres with academic staff as mentors as well as students who can provided a range of perspectives. This mode of blended learning practice involves an initial face-to-face meeting followed by online discussions about project plans and implementation with carefully designed processes, facilitation and resource support. They advise that this community should progress for a minimum of six months with participants experiencing blended learning practices from a student perspective. They describe the face-to-face meetings as helping to “establish the rhythm for the community” (p. 58) with the online discussion for reflective commentary and they suggest that the flexibility of the blended learning process be used to provide ICT facilitated education whether face-to-face attendance is possible or not by recording faceto-face meetings with tools such as Elluminate Live for later streaming and podcasting.
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In describing their community of inquiry model, their belief that education is most effective through such a community strengthens the value of blended learning which they claim has the capacity to develop an even stronger community through face-to face meetings. In Chapter XIII Wilson supports the notion of a blended learning approach to professional learning as she acknowledges the limited success when online conferencing and web based resources alone are used. The limited purpose and timespan of an educational community means that faster community establishment through face-to-face meeting is a distinct advantage of blended learning. However, as with Wiesenberg and Stacey’s (Chapter XI) findings, teachers are aware of a tendency to dominate in face-to-face interaction whereas in online discussion, this is more learner centred and individually reflective, the cognitive presence that Garrison and Vaughan seek. A faceto-face meeting in the blended learning process allows for social presence and collaboration to be established, online interaction allows for reflection and cognitive critique.
Establishing Communities for Professional Leaa Communities are traditionally groups of people drawn together through face-to-face interaction to meet a common purpose or shared need, particularly in a professional context. Since the advent of information and communication technologies that link people, especially via the internet, the capability of communities forming through virtual networking has been enthusiastically predicted and pursued (Palloff & Pratt, 2005). Research into online communities for education and for professional learning has produced studies advocating the power of online communities (Lewis & Allen, 2005; McConnell, 2006). A subtext to these studies has been the suggestion that such communities form more quickly and set up trust and social presence if participants meet face-to-face at some
Introduction to Blended Learning Practices
stage or at least through a technologically aided meeting, particularly at initial community formation and are able to communicate synchronously as well as asynchronously (Garrison & Anderson, 2003; Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). Such blended communities are being advocated more and more as the most effective model for professional learning. Few communities in current times would not draw on electronic communication and resources as a component of their practice and though the literature has begun to provide accounts of the blended learning practices of these communities, the value of the blended learning processes has not readily been identified or specifically investigated for its impact on professional learning. Though much of the discussion of communities has focused on the workplace, with communities of practice (Wenger, 1998) analysed as powerful informal and formal learning communities that exist amongst workers engaged in common workplaces and enterprises, the more pervasive use of ICT in workplaces has meant these communities have embraced blended learning practices combining face-to-face interaction with technologically mediated communication (Robey, Khoo & Powers, 2000). While transferring the notion of communities to an online environment has been extensively investigated by adult educators (Kimble, Hidreth and Wright, 2000; Rogers, 2000; Bird, 2001), their sustainability for learning has raised some doubts which may well apply to their use for professional learning as when Connery and Hasen (2005) claim that “the continued viable existence of the online community is the most realistic measure of its success” (p.249). Wilson, Ludwig-Hardman, Thornam, and Dunlap (2004) published an investigation into the constraints of forming online learning communities within university courses which could only develop “bounded communities” of a typical semester length course wherein communities are bounded by time constraints of a semester as well as being bounded by the requirements of the course and are therefore unlikely to remain
ongoing. Though there can be a more natural development of communities of practice in the workplaces that Lave and Wenger (1991) observed, in higher education academic teachers are often teaching independently with little opportunity for such communities to spontaneously develop. Time constraints and lack of ongoing purpose after specific learning needs are fulfilled also affect learning communities that are established for professional development and in their chapter describing the attempts of professional development centres to establish communities of practice, Thompson and Kanuka (Chapter VIII) identify the difficulty of sustaining community engagement as one for which a blended learning process may provide a solution. Though in their well designed and recognized study of blended learning compared to face-toface and online learning, Rovai and Jordan (2004) were able to claim that those learning in blended mode possessed a higher sense of community connectedness and, more importantly, learned more effectively than through the other modes of learning, they concluded that “within each type of course, sense of community among students is likely to co-vary based on the values and abilities of the professor” (p. 7). They found that establishing an effective sense of community worked well face-to-face and if teachers were skilled both with supporting students technologically and in communicating and facilitating well online, blended learning practices provided the best process for a sustained environment. Smith, Stacey and Ha (Chapter VII) and Riverin (Chapter X) describe use of communities for professional learning in several different blended settings, both formal and informal, and similarly identified aspects such as quality of facilitation and relevance of community purpose as factors in sustainability and effectiveness. The type and purpose of the learning community, whether forming spontaneously and informally, or through courses bounded by semester timing, would appear to be most important yet
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Introduction to Blended Learning Practices
discussion of online communities are sometimes grouped together as if they all function similarly. Lewis & Allen (2005) provide what they term a “loose” definition of a learning community that includes formal learning courses and more informal learning communities as well as communities of practice to which they ascribe attributes of a professional context as defined by Lave and Wenger (1991). They define a learning community very widely as “a supportive group of people who come together to collaborate and learn together, they are usually facilitated or guided to achieve a specific outcome or agreed learning objectives” (Lewis & Allen, 2005, p. 9). They describe the growth in use of virtual learning communities that are centred on online communication but they acknowledge that many such communities meet face-to-face in a blended learning approach and claim that participants rate such blended communities more highly than fully online communities and that most of their cited examples of virtual learning communities use blended learning approaches. In describing the explosion in growth and changes in knowledge and knowledge management in the corporate sector, they predict that virtual learning communities are a yet to be fully exploited as a means of continuous professional development. Their book provides a manual for developing and facilitating such communities but though providing advice about online structure and activities it gives little practical advice for the use of the face-to-face component in the blended learning process which seems to be left to the community to devise. Similarly, Preece, Abras and Maloney-Krichmar (2004) “use the term ‘online community’ broadly to refer to all communities that have some kind of online presence” (p. 3) and include blended communities with fully online communities in their broad categorization but Carlen and Jobring (2005) have developed a typology of online communities which carefully differentiates online and blended communities as well as differentiating these communities as either educational, profes-
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sional or with a common interest as purpose. Most of the communities discussed in the section on Establishing communities (Chapters VII-X) of this book fit the blended professional communities of the typology which Carlen and Jobring claim are “a prevalent form of community using the internet and ICT for their work-integrated learning in connection with educational purposes” (p. 289). Goodfellow (2005), critiques “the ideological dimension” of the marketing of online learning communities which institutions are claiming democratise the learning process and bring an equality to the online community that may not exist in the real community. He, too, places importance on carefully distinguishing between the purposes and structure of communities from the decentralised communities (such as those that arise between computer technologists sharing new information or resources), course related communities and professional development communities within organizations or for civic learning and highlights the inter-relationship between the online community and the localised community of practice of participants that appears to be a positive outcome of its use. Smith, Stacey and Ha (Chapter VII) researched this inter-relationship in several different settings and found that if well facilitated and purposeful it could provide a model for professional learning. Mackey’s research, reported in Chapter IX, suggests ways that the application of professional learning through the online community can be effectively applied to local communities of practice and may provide the blended approach needed. The use of blended learning practices in establishing communities for professional learning and practice are gradually becoming recognized as effective strategies. The possibilities of a blended learning community for departmental interaction and professional learning are described in detail by Chu and Hernandez-Carrion (2005) who diagram a community that can blend ICT with a “physical mode” (p. 78) to develop a more vibrant and cost-effective culture for all aspects
Introduction to Blended Learning Practices
of academic work including research, teaching and service embedded in a web-based resource and communication base. Applebee, Ellis and Sheely (2004) applied a similar approach in their development of a blended community of faculty representatives who acted as leaders in ICT use and met on-campus and online, also drawing on a range of online resources. As Thompson and Kanuka (Chapter VIII) advise, institutional support of blended learning practices in such communities of practice can facilitate their emergence and sustainability.
Conclusion This chapter has reviewed the literature about blended learning and analysed the evidence base through the research conducted and published at the time of writing. In the area of teaching and learning, the literature indicates that there is now a substantial and growing knowledge about pedagogical and associated issues. In the areas of professional learning and establishing communities to support such learning, the blending of face-to-face and online environments has different dimensions. In this introductory chapter we have attempted to review these and to draw out the key issues as they currently stand. The following chapters extend this discussion through their authors’ research and application to practice.
References Allen, K., Seaman, J., & Garrett, R. (2007). Blending in. The extent and promise of blended education in the United states: The Sloan Consortium. Retrieved 4 Jan 2008 from http://www.blendedteaching.org/special_report_blending_in. Applebee, A. C., Ellis, R. C., & Sheely, S. D. (2004). Developing a blended learning community at the University of Sydney: Broadening the
comfort zone. In R. Atkinson, C. McBeath, D. Jonas-Dwyer, & R. Phillips (Eds.), Proceedings of the 21st ASCILITE Conference 5-8 December, Perth. Retrieved 5 April 2007 from http://www. ascilite.org.au/conferences/perth04/procs/applebee.html Arbaugh, J. (2000). Virtual classroom versus physical classroom: An exploratory study of class discussion patterns and student learning in an asynchronous Internet-based MBA course. Journal of Management Education, 24(2), 213-233. Aspden, L., & Helm, P. (2004). Making the connection in a blended learning environment. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(3), 245-252. Ausburn, L. (2004). Course design elements most valued by adult learners in blended online education environments: An American perspective. Educational Media International, 41(4), 327-337. Bird, L. (2001). Virtual learning in the workplace: the power of ‘communities of practice’. Paper presented at the Meeting at the Crossroads. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education, December 9-12, Melbourne. Bliuc, A., Goodyear, P., & Ellis, R. (2007). Research focus and methodological choices in studies into student’s experiences of blended learning. Internet and Higher Education, 10(4), 231-244. Bleed, R. (2001). A hybrid campus for the new millennium. Educause, Jan/Feb, 17-24. Bleed, R. (2006). The IT leader as alchemist: Finding the true gold. EDUCAUSE review, January/February, 33-42. Bonk, C. J., & Graham, C. R. (Eds.). (2006). The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Boyle, T. (2005). A dynamic systematic method for developing blended learning. Education Communication and Information, 5(3), 221-232. Carlen, U., & Jobring, O. (2005). The rationale of online learning communities. International Journal of Web Based Communities, 1(3), 272-295. Chu, C. M., & Hernandez-Carrion, J. R. (2006). Harnessing ICT to develop community and identity: a model for academic departments. International Journal of Web Based Communities, 2(1), 70-80. Chute, A.G., Williams, J.O.D. & Hancock, B.W. (2006). Transformation of sales skills through knowledge management and blended learning. In C. Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 105-119). San Francisco: John Wiley and Sons. Collis, B., Bianco, M., Margaryan, A., & Waring, B. (2005). Putting Blended Learning to Work: a case study from a multinational oil company. Education, Communication & Information, 5(3), 233-250. Collis, B., & Moonen, J. (2001). Flexible learning in a digital world. London, UK: Kogan Page. Comeaux, P., & McKenna-Byington, E. (2003). Computer-mediated communication in online and conventional classrooms: Some implications for instructional design and professional development. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 40(4), 348-355. Connery, A., & Hasan, H. (2005). Social and commercial sustainability of regional web-based communities. International Journal of Web Based Communities, 1(3), 246-261. Cragg, C. E., Dunning, J., & Ellis, J. (2008). Teacher and student behaviours in face-to-face and on-line courses: dealing with complex concepts. Journal of Distance Education, 23(3), 1-13.
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Cross, J. (2006). Foreword In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. xvii -xxiii). San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Curtis, R. (2002). Teaching research methods online: course development and comparison to traditional delivery. In Proceedings of Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education International Conference 2002 pp.141-145). Norfolk VA: AACE. Denis, B. (2003). A conceptual framework to design and support self-directed learning in a blended learning programme. A case study: the DES-TEF Journal of Educational Media, 28(23), 115-127. Donelly, R. (2006). Blended problem-based learning for teacher education: Lessons learned. Learning. media and technology, 31(2), 93-116. Dron, J., Seidel, C., & Litten, G. (2004). Transactional distance in a blended learning environment. ALT-J, Research in Learning Technology, 12(2), 163-174. Dzuiban, C., Hartman, J., Juge, F., Moskal, P. & Sorg, S. (2006). Blended learning enters the mainstream. In C. Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 195-208). San Francisco: John Wiley and Sons. Dziuban, C. D., Hartman, J.L. & Moskal, P. D. Blended learning. EDUCAUSE Research Bulletin 7, 1-12. Entwistle, N., & Ramsden, P. (1983). Understanding student learning. Croom Helm Ltd, Kent. Fitzgibbon, K.M. & Jones, N. (2004). Jumping hurdles: challenges of staff development delivered in a blended learning environment. Journal of Educational Media, 29(1), 25-35. Garrison, D. R. & Anderson T. (2003). E-learning in the 21 century: A framework for research and practice. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
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Garrison, R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95-105. Garrison, R., & Vaughan, H. (2008). Blended learning in higher education: Framework, principles and guidelines. San Francisco: JosseyBass. Gerbic, P. (2006). On-campus students’ learning in asynchronous environments. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Deakin University, Australia. Goodfellow, R. (2005). Virtuality and the shaping of educational communities. Education, Communication & Information, 5(2), 113-129. Graham, C. (2006). Blended learning systems. Definitions, current trends and future directions. In C. Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 3-21). San Francisco: John Wiley and Sons. Graham, C. R., Allen, S. & Ure, D. (2005). Benefits and challenges of blended learning environments. In M. Khosrow-Pour (Ed.), Encyclopedia of information science and technology (pp. 253-259). Hershey, PA: Idea Group. Heaton-Shrestha, C., Edirisingha, P., Burke, L. & Linsey, T. (2005). Introducing a VLE into campusbased undergraduate teaching: Staff perspectives on its impact on teaching. International Journal of Educational Research, 43(6), 370-386. Hofmann, J. (2006). Why blended learning hasn’t (yet) fulfilled its promises: Answers to those questions that keep you up at night. In C. Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 27-40). San Francisco: John Wiley and Sons. Jelfs, A., Nathan, R., & Barrett, C. (2004). Scaffolding students: Suggestions on how to equip students with the necessary study skills for
studying in a blended environment. Journal of Educational Media, 29(2), 85-96. Kerres, M., & De witt, C. (2003). A didactic framework for the design of blended learning arrangements. Journal of Educational Media, 28(2-3), 101-112. Kimble, C., Hidreth, P., & Wright, P. (2000). Communities of practice: going virtual. In Y. Malhotra (Ed.), Knowledge management and business model innovation (pp. 216-230). Hershey: Idea Group Publishing. Laurillard, D. (2002). Rethinking university teaching: A framework for the effective use of learning technologies (2nd ed.). London and New York: Routledge. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lindquist, B. (2006). Blended learning at the University of Phoenix. In C. Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 223-234). San Francisco: John Wiley and Sons. Littlejohn, A., & Pegler, C. (2007). Preparing for Blended e-Learning. London: Routledge. Ludwig-Hartman, S., & Dunlap, J. (2003). Learner support services for online students: scaffolding for success. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 4(1). Retrieved on 10 February 2008 from http://www.irrodl.org/index. php/irrodl/article/view/131/211 Lynch, R., & Dembo, M. (2004). The relationship between self-regulation and online learning in a blended learning context. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(2). Retrieved on 1 February, 2008 from http://www. irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/189/271 Lewis, D., & Allen, B. (2005). Virtual leaning communities: A guide for practitioners. Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press. 17
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Lewis, N. J., & Orton, P. Z. (2006). Blended learning in business impact: IBM’s case for learning success. In C. Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 61-75). San Francisco: John Wiley and Sons. Mason, R. (2005). Guest editorial. Education, Communication and Information, 5(3), 217-220. Mason, R. & Rennie, F. (2006). Elearning: The key concepts. London: Routledge. Macdonald, J., & McAteer, E. (2003). New approaches to supporting students: Strategies for blended learning in distance and campus-based environments. Journal of Educational Media, 28(2-3), 129-146.
students’ experiences of using a virtual learning environment. Innovations in Education and Training International, 41(1), 79-92. Moore, M. (2005). Editorial. The American Journal of Distance Education, 19(3), 129-132. Moore, M. (2006). Foreword. In C. Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs. San Fransisco: John Wiley and Sons. Motteram, G. (2006). ‘Blended’ education and the transformation of teachers: A long-term case study in postgraduate UK Higher Education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 37(1), 17-30.
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Osguthorpe, R., & Graham, C. (2003). Blended Learning Environments. Definitions and Directions. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 4(3), 227-233.
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Maisie, E. (2006). The blended learning imperative. In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 22-26). San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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teams. IEEE Transaction on Professional Communication, 51-66. Rogers, J. (2000). Communities of practice: a framework for fostering coherence in virtual learning communities. Educational Technology and Society, 3(3), 384-392. Rovai, A., & Jordan, H. (2004). Blended learning and sense of community: a comparative analysis with traditional and fully online graduate courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(2) Retrieved on 2 February, 2008 from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/192/274 Salmon, G. (2000). E-Moderating: The key to teaching and learning online. London: Kogan Page. Schweizer, K., Paechter, M., & Weidenmann, B. (2003). Blended Learning as a strategy to improve collaborative task performance. Journal of Educational Media, 28(2-3), 211-224. Sharpe, R., Benfield, G., Roberts, G., & Francis, R. (2006). The undergraduate experience of blended learning: A review of UK literature and practice. Retrieved on 1 February, 2008 from http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/projects/detail/ lr_2006_sharpe Shea, P. (2006). Towards a conceptual framework for learning in blended environments. In A. Picciano & C. Dziuban (Eds.), Blended Learning. Research Perspectives. United States of America: The Sloan Consortium. Stacey, E. & Wiesenberg, F. (2007). A Study of Face-to-Face and Online Teaching Philosophies in Canada and Australia. Journal of Distance Education, 22(1), 19-40.
Tabor, S. (2007). Narrowing the distance: Implementing a hybrid learning model for information security education. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 8(1), 47-57. Tiene, D. (2000). Online discussions : A survey of advantages and disadvantages compared to face-to-face discussions. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 9(4), 371-384. Twigg, C. (2003). Improving learning and reducing costs: models for online learning. EDUCAUSE review (September/October), 29-38. Vaughan, N. (2007). Perspectives on blended learning in higher education. International Journal on E-Learning, 6(1), 81-94. Vaughan, N., & Garrison, D. R. (2005). Creating cognitive presence in a blended faculty development community. Internet and Higher Education, 8(1), 1-12. Vignare, K. (2006). Review of literature. Blended learning: Using ALN to change the classroom - will it work for you? In M. Pittinsky & C. Dziuban (Eds.), Blended learning: Research perspectives. United Sates of America: The Sloan Consortium. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. New York: Cambridge University Press. Wilson, B., Ludwig-Hardman, S., Thornam, C. & Dunlap, J. (2004). Bounded community: Designing and facilitating learning communities in formal courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(3), 1-22.
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Section I
Strategies for Blended Teaching and Learning
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Chapter II
Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments Philippa Gerbic Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
ABSTRACT Online discussions are now available as a pedagogical option in blended learning environments in universities. Much of the research to date has focused on the characteristics of this computer-mediated environment and its potential for learning and there has been less examination of wider contextual factors. This chapter presents case study research which investigates online discussions as they occur within the broader framework of the learning design or curriculum within a blended environment in a campus-based degree programme. The chapter provides insights into influential factors for undergraduate student learning and makes recommendations for teachers who wish to advance the educational potential of the new communication medium.
INTRODUCTION When students arrive at universities to attend campus based programmes, they have expectations about their learning experiences. While they may have looked at the university website for information about their courses and enrolled online, they often do not seem to be ready for a learning environment where various kinds of ICT
are blended with traditional face-to-face activities such as lectures, tutorials, and small group learning. This may be for various reasons. Mature students may lack confidence to go into the new virtual spaces which demand technical skills and the ability to create an online presence or identity. Younger students, particularly those that have grown up in technology rich environments, may consider that virtual environments are for social
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Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments
networking and not for learning and, paradoxically, expect that all forms of learning with others will occur on the physical campus. Many campus-based universities have introduced asynchronous online discussions in their learning environments. This technology, as a new learning domain, offers a different interaction medium from that of face-to-face discussions; for example, text-based rather than spoken exchanges, time to read and think about messages, and compose a response, and space for everyone to make a contribution, at the same or different times and from different places (Harasim, 2000). These characteristics indicate the potential that online discussions have to complement, enhance and extend the traditional types of learning that have occurred in campus-based environments . However, the use of online discussions in undergraduate settings has met with varying success and their pedagogical benefits are yet to be clearly established (Laurillard, 2002). While a body of research is now available about online discussions, less is known about their role in campus-based environments and their interaction with other aspects of that environment, especially the learning design or curriculum. In order to develop good practice, more knowledge is needed about online discussions, and the way in which they may support learning in blended environments. If universities wish to create student-centred learning environments, then more insight is also needed about student perspectives of online discussions when they are part of campus-based study and the ways in which they help or hinder their learning. Online discussions present a new learning space for students and the characteristics of this space (for example, text based, interactive) suggest that learning in this setting is different from face-to-face learning. The study discussed in this chapter was designed to investigate what this new reality entailed for students, to develop descriptions of their learning from their perspective and examine the interdependencies between the
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online and face-to-face environments. The study was interpretive and described student perspectives of the influence of the computer-mediated conferencing (CMC) environment and broader environmental factors, such as the curriculum design on their learning. The research project comprised four case studies and a cross-case analysis. This chapter presents the results of a comparative analysis of the four case studies and discusses the overall findings with particular reference to one of the cases (named throughout the chapter as the Debate case).
B Blended learning practice in campus-based education is marked by enormous diversity, and this is also reflected in the literature. The introductory chapter to this book acknowledges the wide variety of definitions and frameworks, however most writers have referred to a mixture of face-toface and ICT based environments. Littlejohn and Pegler (2007) emphasized the role of ICT in their concept of ‘blended e-learning’ which prompts readers to consider the ideas of e-learning and also its introduction into campus settings as two separate concepts. The increase in the use of the term blended learning has been accompanied by a commensurate decrease in references to the term ‘flexible learning.’ Graham (2006) identified access and flexibility as one of the major reasons for blended learning but did not explore the connection to flexible learning in any depth. The dominance now of the new idea of ‘blends’ rather than flexibility within universities, raising questions concerning the philosophical and pedagogical differences between them and their impact on learning.
The Learning Context The literature indicates that blended learning essentially offers a contextual approach to learn-
Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments
ing. The importance of the learning context was identified by Entwistle and Ramsden (1983) who found that students used either deep or surface approaches to learning depending on their interpretation of what was required by the learning activities and their context. Their work has provided a framework for this research by placing blended learning within a broader context, and for investigating student perceptions of online discussions when they were added to face-toface courses. Entwistle and Ramsden (1983) identified three influential contextual features for students which were the learning activity and the student’s previous experience and interest in it, assessment, and the teacher and teaching. Ramsden (2003) acknowledged ICT as part of the modern learning context, however ICT has not been directly investigated as such, and that was part of the aim of this study. Garrison and Anderson (2003) did not accept that CMC should be regarded simply as a communication carrier. Their view was that “what is learned is inseparable from how it is learned” (2003, p.19) and therefore, CMC was an important contextual influence. The four contextual features are discussed next in the context of CMC.
The Learning Activity Discussion has been a longstanding feature of educational settings and has been recognised for its ability to develop intellectual skills such as analysis and synthesis, dealing with ambiguity and complexity, and other skills such as empathy, respectful listening, communication and collaboration (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999). There is also strong theoretical support for the role of discussion in learning. From a Vygotskian (1978) perspective, dialogue with more knowledgeable people was a mechanism through which learning occurred. Laurillard (2002) extended this idea into educational media and developed a teaching strategy of ‘iterative dialogue’ (2002, p.77) comprising discursive, adaptive, interactive and
reflective processes in what she has named a ‘Conversational Framework’. In her research on online discussions, Dysthe (2002) attributed high levels of dialogue to the curriculum design, including the activity. The key characteristics of the activity which encouraged interaction were a provocative text, the absence of right and wrong answers, a complexity that required students to think first, a connection to the real world and “an interesting and challenging assignment, so there is a certain curiosity about the input from different voices” (2002, p.346). If discussion activities are to be part of the learning context, then students need to understand how they are related to the learning outcomes. Ellis, Goodyear, O’Hara and Prosser (2007) identified this as a critical insight arising from their research and observed that if online discussions are to be added to a course then teachers must ensure that students know how to discuss things face-to-face.
Assessment Ramsden (2003) identified assessment as one of the most central influences on students’ learning, and expressed the view that students’ behaviour was often not concerned with understanding a subject, but working out what the teacher wanted from them in the assessment. He endorsed Snyder’s (1971, in Ramsden, 2003) concept of the hidden curriculum, where, through assessment, especially the activity and the marking criteria, teachers demonstrated to students what they really valued. The other factor that influenced students’ approaches to assessment was workload and where students felt pressure due to too much work then they tended to adopt surface approaches. Laurillard (2002) expressed similar views on the role of assessment and argued that new technologies must be embedded within the learning design e.g. through assessment, otherwise students regarded them as unimportant. Garrison and Anderson (2003) regarded assessment as an
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Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments
integrating mechanism where external measures of performance could be matched by students with their own internal perceptions of self-development. They advocated incorporating CMC into the assessment program because what was rewarded was valued, and in the face of competing demands on their time, any activity that was marginal or supplemental was unlikely to be prioritised.
The Role of the Teacher The dominant view of teacher involvement in online discussions is that of close and active teacher moderation. For example, Laurillard (2002) argued that the success of CMC was “totally dependent on a good moderator” (2002, p.151). Garrison and Anderson (2003) similarly thought that teacher presence was needed to ensure that the online discussions developed new understandings and knowledge. Despite the predominance of the constructivist philosophy in universities, there are few studies which have considered CMC where there is little teacher involvement. Dysthe (2002) attributed a high level of interaction, not only to the activity but also to the teacher’s role which was limited to monitoring the discussion, and not intervening. She argued that this created a symmetrical discussion where all of the participants were of equal status and power. This fostered dialogue because it gave each student’s contribution an equal authority, and students had to develop their own ideas and take responsibility for the discussion rather than wait for the teacher to intervene. Rourke and Anderson (2002) reported a study of postgraduate distance students where peers led the online discussions instead of the teacher. They noted that “one consistently cited issue is the authoritarian presence that the instructor brings to the discussion” (2002, p.4). They identified the cognitive and affective benefits of freer discussion, which produced increased student satisfaction as well as depth of understanding. The researchers found that the students preferred the discussions
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which they led themselves and criticised the other teacher-led discussions for not being sufficiently critical or challenging, although the latter discussions concerned subjects that were technical rather than discursive.
Te CMC Environment Laurillard (2002) described CMC as a conferencing system which “supports an online discussion environment in which remote users send and receive text messages, usually reading and creating messages offline, and then connecting to the system to upload their messages and download new ones” (2002, p.147). Her description suggested an asynchronous mode, being one where participants can send and receive messages at different times. Harasim (2000) called CMC a ‘new learning domain’ (2000, p.49) with five distinguishing characteristics being time independence, place independence, many-to-many communication ability, computer-mediated interaction and its textbased nature, and these have provided a conceptual framework for practitioners and researchers in the design and evaluation of CMC. One of the things that has attracted teachers and researchers to the CMC environment is its potential to support constructivist learning. A comprehensive explanation of the way in which the CMC environment might support constructivist approaches was described by Jonassen, Davidson, Collins, Campbell and Haag (1995). They identified four interrelated elements; as much real world context as possible, an active process of articulation and reflection to assist learners can make their own meanings, collaborative opportunities, so that learners can articulate their tacit knowledge, develop and test their different beliefs and build new understandings and conversations because the meaning-making process is mediated by language. In their view, these facets have the potential to develop new collaborative ‘mental models’. There was also a potential to reduce the presence of the teacher and to increase interaction
Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments
between students. This section of the chapter discusses three characteristics of the CMC medium that may promote a constructivist philosophy in learning being its text-based nature, the ability to support interaction and time independence.
Text-Based Nature This aspect of the CMC environment has received less attention than other features. Reading and writing in this text-based medium creates qualitatively different discussions from those in speech. Reading messages can support learning. Parry and Dunn (2000) found that students benefited from reading CMC messages because they could compare their postings with those of other students. This form of benchmarking enabled students to make knowledge comparisons and to observe successful learning strategies, for example, to observe other students applying theory and providing reasons and evidence. The role of writing in online discussions and its connection to learning is an important factor that deserves to receive greater attention in the CMC literature. Mason (1993) differentiated writing from speech as a visual, rather than aural, phenomenon, where meaning was taken from the language itself, rather than from its immediate context and where its main functions were logical rather than interpersonal. CMC had fused together these differences and had moved writing from an individual and private activity to one which was interactive and public. Mason regarded this as one of the strengths of CMC, because it could support active and socially-based learning in a written format which imposed greater cognitive demands. Warschauer (1999) has drawn on the work of Wells and Chang-Well’s (1992, in Warschauer, 1999) and their concept of cognitive amplification where learners developed their thinking by using written texts as learning devices. “By making a record of text of thought available for reflection, and if necessary, revision, a written text serves
as a cognitive amplifier, allowing the reader or writer to bootstrap his or her own thinking in a more powerful manner than is normally possible in speech” (p.122). In Warschauer’s (1999) view, the CMC environment was able to draw on the strengths of social constructivist concepts of both text mediated learning through reading and writing, and the development and refinement of understanding by iterative layers of reflection and interaction. Lea (2001) also acknowledged the role of CMC in supporting the development of knowledge through written argument. Her research highlighted the value of the permanent texts, new opportunities for reflexivity, the depth of thought that came from writing and access to other students’ ideas and the ways in which such activities could build disciplinary knowledge. Undergraduate students have also raised concerns about the text-based nature of CMC; the absence of body and facial expressions made communication more difficult, and increased the likelihood of misunderstanding, Harasim (2000); postings might be regarded as deficient in their content, grammar or structure, and this suppressed argument and debate (Light & Light, 1999); the discussion metaphor was confusing because of the text-based interaction and this confusion inhibited students’ interaction (Thomas, 2002).
Interaction There is a large CMC literature on the potential for interaction and dialogue in CMC, however this study focused on one issue, being the different levels of interaction, because of their association with the learning potential of the text-based nature of the CMC environment. While interaction has been endorsed as a fundamental requirement for university learning by many researchers, for example, Harasim (2000), Laurillard (2002), the literature indicates overall that there are difficulties in developing high quality CMC interaction in practice.
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Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments
Henri (1995) found low levels of interaction and she reconceptualised the CMC learning process as two distinct interactive processes: “(1) a learning process using CMC, characterised by individual endeavour supported by the groups’ exchanges and (2) a group work process using CMC, characterised by collective endeavour, directed towards the accomplishment of a task and reaching a shared objective” (1995, p. 160). Similarly, in a study of a predominantly undergraduate campus-based students, Pena-Shaff and Nicolls (2004) found that students developed their ideas in a social context, but the discussion was characterised overall as “a reflective soliloquygenerating process” (2004, p.260) because of its monologic, rather than dialogic, character, despite an explicitly constructivist course design. Thomas (2002) has critiqued the interactive potential of CMC. He regarded interaction as significantly impeded because CMC dialogue lacked the features of ‘normal discussion’ which were necessary for collaborative learning to take place. Its highly technology-mediated nature meant that its threaded structure obstructed coherency, so no real accretion of knowledge was possible and the asynchronous nature of the environment.
Time Flexibility This CMC characteristic has two dimensions – that of time flexibility and time for reflection and writing. The benefits of time flexibility for learning have been widely acclaimed in the academic and popular literature, but this flexibility is somewhat contradictory because it creates significant time management demands for students. Palloff and Pratt (2003) recognised the importance of time and commitment in devoting an entire chapter to this in their text on virtual students. Arguably, this is equally applicable to campus-based students. They drew attention to the need to accommodate online learning with other commitments to family, work and a social life and recommended that students set goals for their study, for example,
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their final grade, and then plan and prioritise demands on their time. Time flexibility offers other benefits for students. In Fabro and Garrison’s (1998) study of higher order thinking in postgraduates, students recognised that a benefit of asynchronicity was the better quality of their discussion. In her research, Dysthe (2002) supported this concept and considered that when the time factor was eliminated, all students could express their ideas in relation to other entries and, then, multivoiced perspectives appeared which were important for individual and collective meaning-making (2002, p.349). There is also some research which has identified the benefits of asynchronous communication for ESL students. Yildez and Bichelmeyer (2003) found that ESL students participated more in Web-based discussions because they did not have to worry about facets of face-to-face discussions like listening, understanding, making a comment on the spot, pronunciation and turn taking. One critic of this view is Thomas (2002) who argued that the time and place separation created a level of abstraction where students were not interacting with each other, but with pieces of text. Messages were not contributions to a collaborative effort but bits of data which might be selected by students for attention. In his view, online discussions lacked the flow of an ongoing face-to-face dialogue, because of their time and place independence.
Areas for Further Research Given the widespread application of constructivist principles in universities, it is somewhat surprising that Vygotsky’s (1978) concept of language as a mediating tool has not been more widely investigated within the CMC medium. More work is needed to find out how students might be convinced to interact rather than using CMC as a noticeboard, and how time flexibility can improve the quality of discussions and widen participation, especially for ESL students. While
Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments
researchers are now recognising the importance of the learning context, there is little substantial research which examines the way in which such factors influence students’ actions in online discussions. Given the potential of CMC to support dialogic learning, and the difficulty of achieving this, there is a need to understand better what kinds of online discussion activities will support dialogue and interaction, what the role of the teacher might be in campus-based discussions, how assessment might influence student behaviour and how to integrate online discussions with the face-to-face elements of a blended environment. This study aimed to do so from an undergraduate student perspective
THERESEPRO Aims The aim of this research project was to investigate how undergraduate students learned in online discussions. The main questions were: •
•
•
What was the influence of the online discussion environment, particularly its text based nature, time flexibility and independence and interaction opportunities? What was the influence of the learning context, including the learning activity, and assessment? What was the relationship for student learning between the online discussions and face-to-face classes?
Context This research was situated within a large urban New Zealand university which offered a wide range of professional degree programmes. Its courses were mostly campus-based and from 2000, the university had engaged in extensive technology driven development which included
embedding online learning within its strategic direction and developing the associated capacity and infrastructure, including a learning management system. One of the first programmes to introduce online learning was the Bachelor of Business. The goal of this programme was to prepare graduates for business practice in a variety of disciplines. The degree had a student-centered philosophy and focused on addressing authentic business problems and the development of professional capabilities. Students learned in small classes of 25 to 30 students where there was an emphasis on active learning, discussions and teamwork. Classes were multicultural and a significant number of students spoke English as a second language (ESL). Online learning was introduced to the programme in 1999 as an enhancement to face-toface teaching, however, by 2004, courses were offered in ‘flexible mode’ where face-to-face classes were reduced from three to two hours a week and substantial online activities were added, especially those that were discussion based. The four case studies in this research were drawn from these courses.
Methodology A qualitative case study design was chosen because of its ability to investigate the research questions from a grounded and situated perspective. This design was able to tackle situational complexity, and to support in depth examination of issues that were based on “complex, situated problematic relationships” (Stake, 2003, p.440). Data came from the students (their thoughts and perspectives) and also from sources external to the students (on their actions). This provided multiple viewpoints which triangulated the evidence to support the trustworthiness of the findings. Data was therefore collected from paper and online course documentation, transcripts of the online discussions, the learning management system,
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student interviews, and the academic records of the students. Data was managed and analysed using NUD*IST(NVivo). Analysis of the course documentation and the online environment provided a description of the course setting. Content analysis of the online discussions, using a framework derived from Entwistle’s and Ramsden’s (1983) deep and surface approaches to learning (Gerbic & Stacey, 2005) provided further description of the students’ online postings. After participant checks, a thematic analysis of the interviews was carried out, with constant refinement of the nodes to conceptualise the data and identify patterns. Several layers of matrix-based analysis across the different data sources were then effected to develop integrated interpretations of what was occurring in the cases. Peer debriefing, and detailed process notes and reflections within NVivo were also used to support the trustworthiness of the findings. While the individual cases could provide detailed pictures of the students’ perceptions and actions in various learning environments, the identification of broad principles and general themes in such an emergent area was also valuable and a cross case analysis was included within the research design to achieve this. Miles and Huberman (1994) identified the benefit of cross case analysis for improving the strength and relevance of findings to other situations and did not regard this as inappropriate for qualitative studies. They identified a second benefit which was to deepen understanding and explanation by looking at similarities and differences across cases. This second benefit was very persuasive, because it enabled an investigation and comparison of different curriculum models and contexts within this study. The comparative analysis was carried our using a meta-matrix approach (Miles & Huberman, 1994) where the cases were ‘stacked’ to allow comparison of similarities and differences. The findings were then analysed in the meta-matrix row by row, on a case by case basis
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(see Gerbic, 2006b). An unexpected advantage of this approach was the opportunity to refine and sharpen the individual case analyses, as issues arose in the meta-analysis which required further clarification from the individual cases. Four cases were chosen on a convenience sampling basis from the business degree, which was also the researcher’s workplace. The cases were situated in four different business disciplines which were offered in flexible mode. Three of them were second year subjects and one was a final year subject. The teachers were predominantly experienced with online discussions and the numbers of participants varied from seven to twenty-five in each case and totalled fifty-five. One of the courses, the debate case, was a second year compulsory general business course where students were required to apply a variety of theoretical concepts to business issues. The course was highly discursive and regarded as challenging by the students. The online discussion activity was based on a moral dilemma, where students had to take up a position and justify it with theory and research. It was a debate of the whole class, which lasted for five weeks and was very structured, with every student being required to make a minimum of three postings and respond at least once to another student. Fifteen Kiwi1 and nine Chinese ESL students participated in this case study. The Kiwi students (nine females and six males) were mostly in their early twenties, liked learning by discussions and were experienced with online discussions. The Chinese students (six females and three males) were older and they emphasized the importance of direct instruction from the teacher.
RESULTSOFTHEse ANSIS The cross case analysis indicated that in three of the cases (including the Debate case), which included fifty of the study’s participants, students
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acknowledged that the online discussions helped them to learn. The fourth case was situated within a subject that was regarded as technical, difficult and not easily discursive. Here, the students had a preference for teacher led classes. There was low participation in the online discussion activities and consequently only seven students participated in the research. The case was however valuable because it often confirmed findings from a converse position. Evidence of learning was found in the content analysis of the online transcripts which indicated predominantly deep approaches to learning. In three of the cases, there was a close alignment between the main characteristics of the deep approaches and the requirements of the online discussion activity and its marking criteria. In the debate case, 94% of the units were coded to deep approaches which were characterised by maximising understanding and meaning, evaluation and critique, asking questions to understand, relating theory to the real world, relating the discussion to the course, relating to other students’ comments and justifying statements. Many of these characteristics of deep approaches were reflected in the marking criteria, for example, reflection, making an argument and justifying it, incorporating research and reading, and were therefore required as part of the activity. Apart from the nature of the activity and its assessment, analysis indicated other influential design features in three of the cases. These were the absence of the teacher in the online discussions, and connection between the face-to-face classes and the online discussions. The three courses were compulsory and they were all applied (rather than theoretical) courses and discursive in nature. Sixty percent of the participants positively affirmed the value of learning by discussion and interaction, but also liked learning in more structured and directed ways with a teacher in class.
The Influence of the Online Dscussion Environment, Particularly its Text Based Nature, Time Flexibility and Independence and Interaction Opportunities Text-Based Nature One of the strongest findings across the case studies was the value of the text-based environment for the student’s learning. Students identified several benefits of reading others’ messages and these included accessing a pool of information and new perspectives, using the messages to start their own thinking and to check their understanding. I tried to open my mind, and like, accept new opinions and read them and seeing where they were coming from and why they were saying what they were saying… and when I read someone, and you’re like, ohhhh that’s a bunch of rubbish, but then, I kind of forced myself to read on a bit more and try and work out why. (Nicola) It was the act of writing which mainly developed students’ understanding and this occurred at two levels. Initially there was an internal focus where students engaged in making their own meaning, with some students recognising the way in which their tacit knowledge became more explicit: It [writing] makes you kind of get all your thoughts and condense them and actually realise what you think…cause I think very much, up in your brain it is all a big mess of thoughts and things…so actually condensing it and going ‘this is what I really think’ …helps you to learn. (Mavis) Next, the focus became external, and this often involved students clarifying, reasoning and structuring their ideas in order to best communicate with their peers:
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Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments
So you might rephrase it just so people understand what you’re talking about a bit more, so obviously you want to create an argument, you want yours to be the strongest, so you’ve got to get it, you know, as clear as possible. (Jorg) The permanent record and public nature of the CMC environment resulted in communication anxiety for some students, although this was less so for ESL students, who regarded classroom discussions as far more difficult because of their lack of language competence and confidence. By contrast, many students enjoyed the freedom of the text-based online environment to say what they thought and surprisingly, this included Kiwi students who were too shy to talk in class.
Interaction The case studies illuminated the difficulties of moving students through different levels of interaction, that is from observing by reading others’ messages, to participation though making a posting of their views, through to interacting in a dialogic fashion, where texts were used as thinking devices. The highest levels of interaction occurred when it was structured into the activity, for example, in the Debate case, when students were directed to respond to another posting.
Time Flexibility Most students regarded time flexibility positively, but where participation was voluntary, prioritizing by time pressured students resulted in minimal participation. The time management issues raised by online discussions had resulted in a new perception of the value of the time and place boundedness of face-to-face classes by some students and these are presented below in Table 1. This study indicated that online discussions provided a new comparative lens for students when they evaluated face-to-face classroom learning, and the cases indicated that there was
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a new recognition by participants of the value of absolute time and place of the classroom in determining priorities. Many students recognised that time independence resulted in a better quality of discussion, and this was especially valued by the Chinese ESL students who were able to participate more substantially in the online discussions.
The Influence of the Learning Context, Including the Learning Activity, and Assessment There was a close alignment of the main characteristics of deep approaches to learning in the online discussions to the activity descriptor and assessment criteria, and the influence of both of these factors was consequently confirmed by the students.
Assessment All of the case studies confirmed the influence of assessment on student perceptions and their consequent actions in the CMC environment. In the debate case, assessment of the online discussion was motivational. Everyone was required to make three postings, and this created a substantial body of messages (80-100 over five weeks) to fuel the debate. As a result, the whole class was involved through expressions of their opinions and this seemed to create a sense of ownership of the debate: I found this [debate] positive because everyone had to have an opinion. You couldn’t hide in the corner. A lot of students are, like, ‘I don’t want to have my say, cause its hard, or cause I’m scared I’ll get it wrong or something’… Because it was assessed, students were actually forced to examine the way they thought of things….To have their say, they were forced to make a rational argument… so they had to do some learning to get to this point…The interactive classroom environment is
Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments
Table 1. Time and place perceptions of the classroom and online discussions Classroom
Time and place bounded
Easy to get there, but easy to go off task and stop listening or focusing (not your own time)
Online discussions
Time and place flexible
Time management needed to get there, but once there, always on task (your own time)
optional. It’s not assessable, it’s not compulsory, whereas this was assessable and compulsory. They had to do it. (Joel)
The requirement to respond was also identified by students as motivational:
Because the debate was assessed, students thought more deeply, clarified their positions, made their arguments carefully and spent time preparing their postings. All of this attention by the students resulted in an online discussion that was superior to that of their classroom discussions.
it gets you out of your kind of, like, comfort zone, because… you can sit there and talk all you want, and it doesn’t matter…but you know people are going to respond to you, and if you have to respond to someone else…you’re a bit more conscious of what you’re writing rather than just waffling on. (Nicola)
The Learning Activity
The Role of the Teacher
The cross case analysis confirmed that the discussion activity itself was an influential factor, and all of the case studies identified the importance of the dialogic power or potential of the activity that is, an activity that was genuinely discursive and capable of multiple view points and interpretations. The debate activity was an example of this, especially the topic, which the students liked, because it was controversial and, therefore, truly discursive:
In three of the case studies, including the Debate case, the teachers rarely entered the online discussions although they actively discussed them in the face-to-face sessions. This may have resulted in more interaction and dialogue due to the symmetry of the discussion where students had freedom to comment and had complete responsibility for the discussion. This is an alternative view of the role of the teacher as much of the literature advocates for strong online teacher moderation. However, in a blended environment, teacher support may be provided in the face-to-face classroom.
It [the debate] really sparked everybody’s interest… how selfish some people can be and how unrealistic some suggestions were and it started up this big sort of argument thing. (Molly) Students also liked the debate because the activity was essentially an argument where everyone had to take up a position and justify and/or defend it: It wasn’t just a wishy washy point of view you were coming up with. You had to say why, as a utilitarian or a cultural relativist, that it was relevant. (Ronald)
The Relationship for Student Learning Between the Online Dscussions and Face-to-Face Classes The Pedagogic Connection All of the case studies endorsed the need for a strong integrative relationship and good pedagogic connections between online discussions
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and face-to-face classes. Analysis indicated that this occurred in three ways: 1. The weekly topics or course content connected directly to the online discussions. 2. The role of the teacher was very important. The activity that was regarded as most significant by the students was providing feedback on the discussion progress, especially the quality, content and general standards of the messages. Students identified other activities like the teacher’s clarifying requirements and expectations, explaining benefits and encouraging participation, but these were not that influential. 3. The class activities could develop knowledge and skills which were needed for the online discussion, for example, in the Debate case, students practised applying theoretical concepts in the face-to-face class.
A Complementary Connection Students identified major differences between the face-to-face and online environments which related to the verbal and text-based communication modes, their physical and virtual character, and their synchronous and asynchronous character. What emerged from the students’ discussions was an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of each discussion mode. For many students, it was not a contest between one or the other, rather each mode was regarded as complementary in relation to their learning.
Chinese (ESL) Students The Debate case provided insights into how Chinese students learned in online discussions. They generally liked the CMC environment because it helped them to interact with their peers. They could join in the online conversations, whereas they often felt excluded from face-to-face discussions because their rapid speed made it difficult
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for them to think immediately about the topic and to compose a response. Also, many of the Chinese students were shy because they lacked confidence in their language skills. In the CMC environment, reading and writing were easier for them than listening and speaking and the permanent record meant that they could revisit comments. The virtual environment meant that it was a person’s ideas and not their identity that was important, and other people’s reactions, especially negative ones, were not visible to the receiver. The slower speed meant that the students had plenty of time to think, construct their arguments, make use of a dictionary if needed and then write their posting.
DISCUSSION This research has identified some of the ways in which the CMC environment can create a qualitatively different learning space, so that students can learn in ways that are not available in face-to face classrooms. In particular, the text-based nature was highlighted - where the acts of reading and writing engaged undergraduate students and assisted them to learn as they formulated and communicated their ideas to their peers in a public forum. This modern illustration of Vygotsky’s (1978) theory of the role of language and sociocultural processes in learning demonstrates how CMC messages may be used as thinking devices (Dysthe, 2002), and how text may act as a cognitive amplifier in the learning process. However, it is not the features of the CMC environment alone that support deep approaches to learning and this research has identified other influential factors which relate to the context. These include assessment, the activity, and the role of the teacher, were all highly influential in providing messages to students about course expectations. This research indicates that in blended environments, Entwistle and Ramsden’s (1983) concept that students’ approaches to learning are
Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments
relational, that is, they carry out learning activities according to their perceptions of what is required, continues to apply. One further contextual element can now be added, and that is the importance of connection or integration of CMC with the course, especially its face-to-face classes.
Emerging and Future Trends The future will see a steady increase in the variety of discussion-focused technologies that appear on campus, for example, voice-based technologies and those activated through mobile technologies. These will continue to change the nature of the blended environment, but changes in the character of the student population and teachers’ familiarity with technology are likely to be more significant for the future. The student population is becoming more divergent in character. Undergraduate students will come from wider socio-economic backgrounds and comprise a greater age range. Multicultural classrooms will include students with a range of English language abilities and learning culture perspectives. Increasingly, young people study and work at the same time and are constantly balancing between their personal, occupational and educational commitments (Wyn & Dwyer, 2000). Increasingly, these students will be ICT literate and will demand more flexibility in their study and learning support. Teachers will become more comfortable with and more knowledgeable about online technologies. Currently, in campus-based universities, there is still a sense of contest (amongst teachers) between online discussions and face-to-face learning. This research indicated that this is not a student view. They appeared to be more experienced with online discussions and viewed them as complementary to their campus-based studies. University teachers will soon include NetGen students, who may be more attuned to the ways in which blended environments can support constructivist learning. In the meantime,
other teachers will continue to build knowledge through research, reflective practice and professional development.
Social Implications and Potential to Change Educational Policy and Practice This research identified the enormous time pressures that many students continue to face, as described above. The time and place flexibility of the online discussions was contradicted by the time cost of study and the need for connection through face-to-face classes. Many students were clearly studying to get a well paid job, however they were highly assessment-driven and their attitudes were highly instrumental and often expressed as surface approaches to learning. Students are often criticised for these kinds of views – however, deep and surface approaches to learning originated in a time when fewer people went to university and those that did were more affluent and had the time to value learning for its own sake, rather than for vocational reasons (Harris, 1993). Students’ focus on relevant skills and a qualification are a strategy to develop economic security in volatile employment markets. These are all rational and competent responses from students to the world as they see it. Biggs (2003) comments that rather than criticize such a view, a better approach is to redesign the learning context and his response is that of ‘constructive alignment’, which was reflected in the learning design of the Debate case. This study has provided new information about the way in which Chinese students learn in online discussions (see Gerbic, 2006a) and found that Chinese students, like Kiwi students, are responsive to their learning context and act according to their perceptions of what is required. The value of the CMC environment for the Chinese students arose from its ability to ameliorate their language issues, to provide a benchmark for them for their contributions, and to participate in discussions
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Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments
with their peers in a far more enjoyable manner than in the classroom. The modern global environment of universities means that many students today are ESL speakers and are often unfamiliar with more active and student-centred learning activities. The insights from this research about Chinese students might be applied more broadly to other contexts where language or adaptation to a learning culture is an issue for students. The expansion of online discussions and learning in campus-based environments has the potential to create different blends, with different proportions of face-to-face teaching. Much of the current practice involves models of teaching and learning which is based on assumptions about the supremacy of face-to-face learning where it is the dominant part or anchor of the teaching and learning model. This study indicated that, from a student perspective, campus-based classrooms have a legitimacy that is not currently accorded to online discussions and on line learning generally. This has been supported by a tradition of a strong teacher presence in campus-based settings which is yet to manifest itself in online discussions. We are currently in a period of technology change and transition and in future, as students and teachers become more comfortable with virtual environments, the proportion and position of face-to-face teaching within courses may reduce. One factor which is likely to influence this decision is that of changing funding policies. Moore (2005) points out that face-to-face is an expensive technology for many learning outcomes and may not suit the increasing number of adult learners who are coming to universities. Less face-to-face teaching may increase cost-effectiveness and better meet the ends of some learners, however, such an approach needs commitment from academics, professional development, changes in university infrastructures and responsive pedagogies. One of the major issues that now faces universities is how best to integrate virtual technologies, like online discussions, into campus-based programmes. Much of the research to date in blended learning has focused on the differences 34
between the physical and virtual environments. Oliver and Trigwell (2005) have discussed the role of variation in learning and argue that it is not the variation per se that is important but the impact of the contrast and comparison that arose from the variation. Different teaching media can be used to help students experience and learn from this variation and frameworks which articulate this (for example, Gerbic, 2006b) will assist with this development in blended settings. Garrison and Vaughan (2008) provide a framework for online discussions and Littlejohn and Pegler (2007) do likewise in relation to online environments. However, there is a further issue beyond working with variation, which is that of integrating the two environments. Bliuc, Goodyear and Ellis (2007) have argued that the focus of research in blended learning should be on the student experience as a holistic concept, that is, understanding how well the components fit together and what that means for learning. The student perspectives in this research confirm the importance of integrative relationships and pedagogic connections and emphasize the role of the teacher in creating these, for example, through assessment and also through classroom activities and feedback on the online discussions. Littlejohn and Pegler (2007) provide another example with ‘wraparound activity blending’ (p.30) which includes considering how the resources relate to and complement each other. Another strategy might be that of using an approach like problem based learning where the overarching concept acts as an integrative framework for both aspects of the blend, for example, Donelly (2006).
RECOMMEND This chapter closes with a number of recommendations which arise from this study, which emphasize integrative mechanisms for online discussions in blended settings. In considering these suggestions, some features of the research context need to be considered. Three of the subjects were
Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments
discursive, so online discussions were a natural match for the course. None of the courses were for first year students and most of the students were experienced with online discussions. There were no large lectures and the small classes of 25 – 30 students facilitated various student-centred approaches including discussions.
Assess the Oline Discussions This integrates the online discussions into the course and, from a student perspective, indicates their value within the course and creates some motivation for students’ attention and participation. Duffy and Cunningham (1996) have observed that, in a constructivist context, the distinction between learning and assessment may become blurred or nonexistent and this approach may be a way of aligning student motivation via assessment with the benefits of learning by online discussions.
Ceate an Online Discussion Activity which Draws on the Strengths of the Medium and is Genuinely Discursive Activities which draw on the strengths of reading, writing and reflecting will complement class discussions and provide opportunities for analysis, synthesis ands critique which are more difficult to achieve in class. The presence of dissonance and controversy can motivate online engagement. If the activity requires responses or feedback to peers, then this may increase interaction, and develop deeper understanding and professional skills.
Introduce Students to the Role of Oline Discussions within the Curse Use early classes to discuss the value of dialogic learning (Dysthe, 2002), how this will occur in the online discussions and the importance of
independent learning and time management. Where students have not had previous discussion experience, then the role of interaction and dialogue in learning should be discussed and opportunities to practice in class should be created. This is important, because where students are only familiar with didactic approaches, then they will not believe that they can learn from other students and need to build their experience with this. One of the case studies within this project found that small groups were an ideal way to introduce students to online discussions in a way that was manageable and secure for them.
Ue the Strengths of the Face-to-Face Discussion Evironment Class discussions can take advantage of the aural and visual cues and synchronous timeframe to rapidly build familiarity and trust within the class and mental pictures of its members. The face-to-face sessions can also be used to build dialogic skills in a low risk setting, for example, opportunities to practice giving and receiving feedback, especially that related to critique. The synchronous communication mode also facilitates instantaneous and fast flowing discussions which are valuable for brainstorming and building a corpus of ideas for the ensuing online discussion. This might include developing the skills needed for interacting online, for example, problem solving, conceptual understanding.
Monitor (only) the Online Dscussions and Consistently Include them within the Face-to-Face Sessions This research indicates that the absence of the teacher may be influential in creating more democratic online discussions where all opinions are equal and all participants have responsibility for maintaining the discussions. Monitoring the
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Including Online Discussions Within Campus-Based Students’ Learning Environments
online discussions then enables the teacher to connect them in face-to-face sessions by providing feedback on them, and synthesizing them in class or asking the class to do so. The use of Internet connections within the classroom enables the teacher to work with the postings in class as discussion devices and to model good practice. The attention given to online discussions in the face-to-face class by the teacher provided an important message for students of its significance and such actions will in time build the legitimacy of the CMC medium.
CONCLUSION The potential of online discussions, especially to support constructivist and dialogic learning at universities has long been noted. This chapter has discussed a case study investigation into their role in undergraduate learning where they were a significant part of campus-based programme. The study described the ways in which deep approaches to learning may occur in CMC in a blended learning setting. It identified the value of features of the CMC environment for supporting learning in a constructivist sense, particularly the text-based nature of the environment and the way in which it provides a place for undergraduates to read, write and think in a fashion that is not available in face-to-face campus-based activities. The study also provided a new perspective of the CMC environment by examining the influence of its broader learning context, and found that assessment, the online discussion activity, and the role of the teacher, were all highly influential in influencing the students’ perceptions of what was required of them, this providing a new dimension to Entwistle and Ramsden’s (1983) relational concept of learning. A further aspect of the blended learning context was identified and that was the need for pedagogic connections between the online and face-to-face environments.
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Blended learning in campus-based settings is still in its infancy and the research into online discussions indicates that there are difficulties in introducing this more socially-based form of learning. Perhaps this is to do with the complexity that the addition of the CMC environment has created for campus-based students and teachers as they both adapt and adjust to its different character. More research is now needed into mechanisms which can better integrate online discussions into blended settings. Teacher perspectives are also needed on the development of new blended curricula, and in future, the increasing presence of Net Genner teachers will add new and productive insights to this emerging learning ecology.
REFERENCES Biggs, J. (2003). Teaching for quality learning at university (2nd ed.). Berkshire: Open University Press. Bliuc, A., Goodyear, P., & Ellis, R. (2007). Research focus and methodological choices in studies into student’s experiences of blended learning. Internet and Higher Education, 10, 231-244. Brookfield, S., & Preskill, S. (1999). Discussion as a Way of Teaching. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass. Donelly, R. (2006). Blended problem-based learning for teacher education: Lessons learned. Learning. media and technology, 31(2), 93-116. Dysthe, O. (2002). The learning potential of a web-mediated discussion in a university course. Studies in Higher Education, 27(3), 339- 352. Duffy, T., & Cunningham, D. (1996). Constructivism : Implications for the Design and Delivery of Instruction. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology (pp. 170-198). New York: Simon &Schuster.
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Ellis, R., Goodyear, P., O’Hara, A., & Prosser, M. (2007). The university student experience of face-to-face and online discussions: coherence, reflection and meaning. ALT-J, 15(1), 83-97. Entwistle, N., & Ramsden, P. (1983). Understanding student learning. Croom Helm Ltd, Kent, United Kingdom. Fabro, K., & Garrison, D. (1998). Computer conferencing and higher-order learning. Indian Journal of Open Learning, 7(1), 41-53. Garrison, D., & Anderson , T. (2003). E-Learning in the 21st century. A framework for research and practice. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Garrison, R., & Vaughan, H. (2008). Blended learning in higher education: Framework, principles and guidelines. San Francisco: JosseyBass. Gerbic, P. (2006a). Chinese learners and online discussions: New opportunities for multicultural classrooms. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 1(3), 221-237. Gerbic, P. (2006b). On-campus students’ learning in asynchronous environments. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Deakin University, Melbourne. Gerbic, P., & Stacey, E. (2005). A purposive approach to content analysis: Designing analytical frameworks. Internet and Higher Education, 8, 45-59. Graham, C. (2006). Blended learning systems. Definitions, current trends and future directions. In C. Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs. San Francisco: John Wiley and Harasim, L. (2000). Shift happens: Online education as a new paradigm in learning. The Internet and Higher Education, 3, 41-61. Harris, D. (1993). Effective ‘teaching’ and ‘study skills’: the return of the technical fix. In Evans, T and Murphy, D (Eds) Research in Distance Education (RIDE) 3, 1993, Geelong, Australia.
Henri, F. (1995). Distance learning and computermediated communication : Interactive, quasiinteractive or monologue? In C. O.Malley (Ed.), Computer Supported Collaborative learning (pp. 145-161). Berlin: Springer Verlag. Jonassen, D., Davidson, M., Collins, M., Campbell, J., & Haag, B. (1995). Constructivism and computer-mediated communication in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 9(2), 7- 26. Laurillard, D. (2002). Rethinking university teaching : a framework for the effective use of learning technologies (2nd ed.). London and New York: Routledge. Lea, M. (2001). Computer conferencing and assessment: New ways of writing in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 26(2), 163-181. Light, P., & Light, V. (1999). Analysing asynchronous learning interactions. In V. Littlejohn & P. Light (Eds.), Learning with Computers : Analysing Productive Information (pp. 162-178). London: Routledge. Littlejohn, A., & Pegler, C. (2007). Preparing for Blended e-Learning. London: Routledge. Mason, R. (1993). The textuality of computer networking. In R. Mason (Ed.), Computer conferencing: The last word. Beach Holme Publishing Ltd, Victoria, British Columbia. Miles, M., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. An Expanded Sourcebook. (Second Edition ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Moore, M. (2005). Editorial. The American Journal of Distance Education, 19(3), 129-132. Oliver, M., & Trigwell, K. (2005). Can ‘blended learning’ be redeemed? E-Learning, 2(1), 1726.
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Pallof, R., & Pratt, K. (2003). The virtual student: A profile and guide to working with on line learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Parry, S., & Dunn, L. (2000). Benchmarking as a meaning approach to learning in online settings. Studies in Continuing Education, 22(2), 219-234. Pena-Shaff, J., & Nicholls, C. (2004). Analysing computer interactions and meaning construction in computer bulletin board discussions. Computers and Education, 42(3), 243-265. Ramsden, P. (2003). Learning to Teach in Higher Education (2nd ed.). London: RoutledgeFalmer. Rourke, L., & Anderson, T. (2002). Using Peer Teams to Lead Online Discussions. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 1, 1 - 21. Stake, R. (2003). Case Studies. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), The Landscape of Qualitative Research (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications. Thomas, M. (2002). Learning within incoherent structures : the space of online discussion forums.
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Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 18(3), 351 - 366. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Proceeses. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Warshauer, M. (1999). Electronic Literacies. Language, Culture and Power in Online Literacies. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Wyn, J., & Dwyer, P. (2000). New patterns of youth transition. International Socal Science Journal, 52(164), 147-159. Yildez, S., & Bichelmeyer, B. (2003). Exploring electronic forum participation and interaction by EFL speakers in two web-based graduate-level courses. Distance Education, 24(2), 175-193.
E
1
An informal term for New Zealanders.
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Chapter III
Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education Ruth Geer University of South Australia, Australia
ABSTRACT This chapter describes an investigation of strategies for fostering higher order cognition in a blended learning environment. The exploration, which utilised a qualitative case study approach, highlights the critical nature of effective instructional design. The study extends the educator’s understanding of the complexities of online and blended learning environments through an analysis of the discourse of computer-mediated communication in a first year teacher education course. The investigation resulted in the development of a pedagogical framework which outlines the relationship between pedagogies, technologies and their related learning outcomes. Critical indicators, which are potentially important as strategies and early warning signs of “students at risk”, become evident in the analysis. This research had led to notions of imprinting and cognitive tracks which can be used to inform strategies for teaching and learning using a blended approach.
INTRODUCTION Education has undergone a dramatic transformation in recent years. This is evident in both the beliefs about how students learn and the type of technologies that are evolving and are available to support and enhance student learning. Higher education has undergone many modifications
with the foundations of universities shaken by new and emerging Internet technologies and by increased numbers and diversity in the student population and demands for new learning approaches that will provide learners with flexible and personalised learning. There is a need to rethink and restructure learning experiences and explore the transformational potential of a blended learning approach.
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Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
Blended learning is a popular term which is used in the literature to describe a wide variety of teaching and learning strategies, but as Garrison and Kanuka (2004) suggest, understanding blended learning involves both the simple and the complex. They explain that in its simplest form, it is a combination of face to face learning with online experiences, integrating synchronous (classroom) and asynchronous (text-based) activities. On the other hand, there is complexity in the integration of deliberate, effective and innovative design implementations that can support deep and meaningful learning. Information and communication technologies (ICT) have provided tools which offer limitless design possibilities and applications (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). The effectiveness of blended learning approaches will be in the merging of the design components which are essentially synchronous and asynchronous, face to face and online. There is now the opportunity to enhance learning through a focus on two main forms of communication – oral and written, while improving the effectiveness of each form. One of the strengths of blended learning is its capacity to develop learning communities outside of the classroom through its potential to support and enhance the development of higher order cognition by providing the opportunity for reflection. The online environment through the use of tried and emerging technologies can provide such an opportunity. Garrison and Kanuka (2004) acknowledged that “a blended learning context can provide the independence and increased control essential to develop critical thinking” (p 98). The focus of this study was to consider the following research question. How might educators build effective learning communities that: •
•
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Take into account the type of interactive activity, the use of appropriate technologies and their potential to achieve desired learning outcomes? Support the development of critical thinking in blended learning environments?
Based on the research study and the literature, a pedagogical framework was developed to help inform effective blended learning practices. In addition to this, the study aimed to identify factors that drove students’ approaches to learning and the development of new concepts for explaining the learning processes and their resultant impact on the instructional design. It investigated the research potential of digital archives for assessing the quality of the learning in a blended learning environment.
T Constructivism provides a theoretical basis for explaining how students learn and the consequential principles that guide the instructional design in the development of higher order cognition in blended learning environments. The focus shifts to the acquisition of knowledge rather than its transmission. The popularity of constructivism in the teaching and research literature has resulted in disparities among educators who often have their own interpretation of terms leading to individual variations in meaning. Despite numerous constructivist perspectives, a common thread is the belief that learning is an active process, unique to the individual, where knowledge is constructed from information and prior experiences (Cooper, 2004). This chapter briefly discusses constructivist learning perspectives based on two particular views of constructivism which have relevance to this study: cognitive and social. Cognitive constructivism has been strongly influenced by Piagetian cognitive development approach which suggests that the construction of knowledge focuses on the individual and the thought processes of their mind. Piaget recognised the existence of sociocognitive conflict which created disequilibrium among participants and resulted in the co-construction of new conceptual structures and understanding (Lipponen, 2002). Learners pose
Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
contradictions and address misconceptions in order to come to an understanding. On the other hand, the social constructivist approach, which was influenced by the Soviet school of thought of Vygotsky, Leont’ev and Bakhtin, stresses that co-construction takes place through an increased ability to take into account other people’s perspectives (Salomon, 1998). Of all the theorists, Vygotsky (1978) is most frequently associated with social constructivism where his emphasis is on the impact of social and cultural contexts in learning. The social nature of cognition emphasises social interaction. A debatable issue is whether the processes of the individual are superior to sociocultural processes or vice versa (Bereiter, 1994; Cobb, 1994; Salomon, 1998). Cobb (1994) argues that ‘the sociocultural perspective informs theories about the conditions for the possibility of learning, whereas theories developed from the cognitive perspective focus on what students learn and the processes by which they do so’ (p.13). In cognitive constructivism the learning focus is on active cognitive reorganisation, while in social constructivism, the social interaction setting leading to an established community of practice is important. The adoption of both perspectives has strengthened this study where cognitive processes are analysed as well as the social behaviour of the learners engaged in interactive learning environments. These perspectives can readily be entwined while their differences are accommodated through different goal outcomes and the adoption of differing pedagogies. For the cognitive constructivist a learning environment is created that supports the learner, while for the social constructivist a learning community emerges which envelops the learner. These two theoretical views provide a foundation not only for the face to face situations but also for online collaborative learning environments. The use of technology provides additional opportunity for learners to revise and reconstruct their views and make substantial changes to the
way they interpret their world through frequent conversations (Laurillard, 1995). Communicative technologies have the ability to collaboratively facilitate the construction of new and meaningful knowledge. However, collaboration is not an assumed quality in online constructivist environments, but is dependent on clearly designed activities that incorporate the appropriate use of the technologies. Hence constructivism is not just about students constructing their own knowledge as individuals but about meaningful interactions where social interactions can offer different perspectives, which enable advances on their own level of understanding. Blended learning opportunities have increased the possible ways that students can learn, with learning occurring across different mediums and at various times. Face to face classes offer assistance in the development of social presence or ‘social comfort’ which is more difficult and often takes longer in the online environment. In virtual learning environments the intrinsic motivation of learners is particularly important in sustaining the collaborative interactivity within the community, while the blended approach brings groups together physically, reminding them of their obligations. The design of the environment becomes critical as individual characteristics and learning styles must be catered for within a supportive social context. The instructional design must take into account the benefits of both learning modes and the suitability and capacities of the technologies to improve benefits for learners. A number of themes from the literature, such as interaction, collaboration and cognitive development, help to inform the dynamics and complexities associated with student learning and assist with the instructional design, particularly of online communities. The amount and quality of interaction in a student-centred environment plays a key role in the learning process while also having a significant impact on the learning outcomes (Gilbert & Moore, 1998; Sims, 1997; Susman, 1998).
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Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
When reflecting on the design of blended learning environments, consideration should be given to what makes interactions successful and what can be learned from such interactions. Interactivity, which must be an intentional part of the design, is critical in determining the structure and depth of the interaction, and in promoting active learning through frequent exchanges and reflectivity. Online communication therefore has the potential to offer more in terms of reflective interaction than does a classroom situation. A strength of the online medium is its ability to allow distance learners to interact both synchronously and asynchronously while providing them with both flexibility and convenience. Pelz (2004) suggests that while face to face interactivity which requires listening and talking is ‘good’, asynchronous interactivity, which necessitates reading and writing is even ‘better’. He suggests that reading and writing are superior to listening and talking in terms of learning. Learners have time to reflect and think about what they want to say. Despite the considerable advantages of asynchronous communication, some hindrances include a lack of verbal cues that can assist the ‘bouncing off’ of ideas that occur with face to face interaction, and the lack of an immediate response to queries, or corrections to misunderstandings. Face to face interactions may help to alleviate some misunderstandings and assist participants to feel comfortable with each other in the online environment. The online community caters well for diversities, such as gender, age and disability. Certain diversities, such as cultural variables require particular attention in a learning design to accommodate cultural differences in learning needs, preferences and styles of the learners (McLoughlin & Oliver, 2000). Blended learning environments also help to accommodate the varying needs of students, offering increased interaction through the integration of other types of activities which can contribute to the overall achievement of learning objectives. It is important to also realise that
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technology itself is also permeated with particular cultural values. However technology provides a medium that may help to reveal underlying practices and cultural values at play. In this study, archives provided a useful tool for analysing the interactions that had taken place and the constructs used to arrive at meaning. Hence different types of interaction lead to different learning outcomes. This has particular implications in designing a pedagogical framework which must accommodate various types of interaction and perceived learning outcomes influenced by the activity and the chosen interactive technology. Collaboration, identified as a desirable type of interaction in blended learning environments, encourage learners to move to higher levels of cognition which are made possible by the intensity of the exchanges in arriving at consensus around meaning. Collaboration is an ingredient that helps to form a community of learners whereby the learner becomes enveloped in the learning process. Students can benefit from collaborative learning whether they are low, average or high achievers (Susman, 1998), while designed student support and interdependence help to shift students in their understanding. Collaboration attempts to draw learners, who may be at different stages in their understanding, up to the same level for the particular task. In collaborative situations, higher achievers benefit through having to articulate and rationalise their own arguments. Information from individuals is shared with the group while supporting the development of higher order thinking skills resulting in consensus through negotiation. Graham and Scarborough (1999) understood collaborative learning as differing from other types of group work; while requiring interdependence within the group, it still maintained individual accountability. Cooperation, rather than collaboration, is evident where there is no synthesis. Collaboration makes stronger interactive demands on the learning processes than does cooperation (Hartley, 1999). Collaborative learn-
Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
ing becomes an important instructional goal in supporting the development of higher order thinking skills leading to quality learning outcomes. This is indicated by students who demonstrate the ability to articulate, critically analyse, reflect, hypothesise, synthesise and construct newly acquired knowledge whether in face to face or online environments. Researchers recognise social interaction as another critical element in the creation of online learning communities. While it is a common feature of traditional classroom environments, social interaction presents a challenge in online environments where students may feel disconnected from other learners. Researchers have considered whether physical presence is important, or whether other factors can bring about trust, comfort and familiarity between learners leading to effective interactive learning communities. In blended learning communities, students may have an opportunity to familiarise themselves with other learners in the face to face classes, although in higher education settings this cannot be assumed. Students often do not have time to socialise within and outside the classroom while juggling many other commitments. Social interaction, however, appears to underpin many types of interaction that occur in learning environments, and is particularly critical in collaborative activities. Learning communities are based around relationships; yet anonymity and distance are two of the barriers online learners face. Using a blended learning approach, some of these barriers may be overcome. Social dimensions are critical in blended learning communities and thus must be accommodated in the design of such communities. When analysing how learners construct meaning, social presence, as defined by Short, Williams and Christie (1976, cited in Rourke, Anderson, Garrison & Archer, 2001), was postulated as a critical factor of computer-mediated communication. They described social presence as ‘the degree of salience of the other person in
the mediated interaction and the consequent salience of the interpersonal relationships’ (p.65). They suggested that social presence varies with the media and affects the nature of the interaction. Gunawardena and Zittle’s research (1997) demonstrated that social presence is both a factor of the medium and of the participants. This suggests the need to understand students’ perception of the media and how it impacts on their behaviour. Rourke, Anderson, Garrison and Archer (2001) further recognised its importance and expanded on its value as a critical element in a model of teaching and learning transactions which they referred to as the Community of Inquiry. The model highlights the importance of learning through interaction, with social presence being one of the core components. Social presence has, therefore, become a popular theme as researchers strive to understand the complexities of online learning communities. In any learning community, a foundation of trust and respect, where learners can feel comfortable about sharing their ideas is critical (Stacey & Rice, 2002), whether in face to face settings or online. Social presence forms the basis for supporting cognition and metacognition, while increasing the feeling of belonging and enhancing enjoyment with increased motivation and interaction. Social interdependence provides a theoretical foundation when discussing the types of interactions occurring in effective online learning communities. Social presence increases the potential for collaborative interactivity and successful attainment of quality learning outcomes. Interpersonal relationships are core to a collaborative learning community, where higher self-efficacy and confidence are promoted. Social exchanges also give students a sense of belonging and friendship that help motivate them in their studies (Stacey, 2002a). Social presence must be established to sustain cognitive presence (Stacey, 2002b). Closely associated with the promotion of social presence is the role played by the educator
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Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
in the overall instructional design. The challenge lies not only in evaluating the appropriateness of instructional trends and the learning needs of the students, but also in the judgment of suitable and emerging technologies. The teaching role then becomes one of instructional design and organisation, facilitating discourse and direct instruction (Anderson, Rourke, Garrison & Archer, 2001). Instructional design and organisation implies identifying suitable pedagogies, establishing expectations, implementing discussion strategies and selecting authentic and meaningful topics. Teaching presence is ‘the design, facilitation and direction of cognitive and social processes for the purpose of realising personally meaningful and educationally worthwhile learning outcomes’ (Anderson et al., 2001, p.7). In face to face settings much of the teaching may be carried out by an individual; however particularly in the online environment, there is opportunity for instructional designers, facilitators and the learners themselves to be part of the teaching process. Students have the opportunity to support and teach each other. The educator too should have a presence in guiding and supporting, while modelling ways that learners can support each other. Just as social presence supports other types of interaction, so teaching presence also influences the type of interaction. Students are likely to adopt the style and interactions of the educator where good modelling is provided. The teaching presence of the educator within the online learning community determines the interactive technologies used in supporting the development of quality learning outcomes. An aim in higher education is to develop in students the ability to think critically. Although individuals can think critically about something on their own, much more can be learned from interactions with others. Where the interaction is dynamic, learners are able to contemplate differing perspectives and reflect on their own views, thus building new meanings. Learning collaboratively provides a suitable educational context
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for critical thinking processes and deep learning styles (Newman, Johnson, Webb & Cochrane, 1997). McLoughlin and Luca (2000) propose that according to socio-cultural theory, dialogue is instrumental in helping learners to internalise their ideas and knowledge. Based on the belief that learning occurred in a social context, the notion of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) has emerged. Vygotsky (1978) defined the ‘zone of proximal development’ as the distance between the actual developmental level of a person and the level of potential development as determined by guidance from an expert or collaboration with more capable peers. It is the area that lies beyond the learner’s independent problem solving and critical skills but still within reach depending on the right support (Bonk & Kim, 1998). Learning is then advanced ‘as tasks are pitched just beyond the learners’ ZPD’ (McLoughlin & Luca, 2000), while interactions with other learners provide the scaffolding that supports their cognitive development. Higher order cognition is the ability to think critically and creatively, and to be able to investigate, problem solve and synthesise the information. The development of higher order cognition enables learners to undertake complex, challenging and demanding tasks. Cognitive development is dependent on the educator promoting inquiry and exploratory strategies of learning through a diverse range of resources that support the higher levels of learning, rather than directing the learners to prescribed resources (Oliver & McLoughlin, 1999). An analysis of cognitive development provides insight into the quality of learning outcomes. When `contemplating the cognitive development of learners, consideration should be given to strengthening metacognitive and reflective skills which can assist in adopting strategies and reflective processes (Hollingworth & McLoughlin, 2001). Active interaction is an essential component in the development of critical thinking, as
Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
interaction encourages thinking that leads to reasoning and the revision of ideas (McLoughlin, 1997). Cognitive presence is the participants’ ability to construct meaning through sustained communication. It is a vital element of critical thinking (Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2000), and therefore becomes an essential element of any learning community. Sustained interaction triggers the processes of argumentation, negotiation and joint construction of knowledge (Garrison & Archer, 2000; Laurillard, 1995), while collaboration fosters social interdependence leading to reflection on progress and process (McLoughlin & Luca, 2000). The online environment provides a medium for students to continue their reflections and discussions on issues raised in the face to face classroom. In this environment learners have time and are encouraged to explain their ideas to each other with explicit understanding bringing about changes in cognition as learners co-construct their new understanding. Critical elements in effective, dynamic and sustainable online learning communities have been identified in the research. These elements have informed the development of the author’s own pedagogical model. Different types of interaction result in varying learning outcomes. Hence the type of interaction that will meet the required learning outcomes should be considered. Learning environments do not become communities without the influence of social presence which is crucial for many types of interaction. Teaching presence, which may manifest itself in various ways, should be evident if interaction, collaboration, social interaction and cognitive development are to occur. Ultimately online learning communities strive to develop students’ higher order cognition in a collaborative environment supported by social and teaching presence. The integration of the above elements highlights the complexity of designing blended learning communities where quality learning outcomes are required.
A Fraaor Tchnology-Mediated Interactions (TMI) in Eucation The following framework has evolved in conjunction with this research study to assist educators working in both blended and online environments and to provide practical guidance on possible learning processes arising from the implementation of certain learning strategies, and the use of various technologies. This framework, based on the literature, has also been influenced through a reconceptualising of key elements in the development of higher order cognition. The Technology-Mediated Interaction framework addresses the learning processes expected from particular types of interactive activities and their associated technologies. The framework shows that online learning is not necessarily synonymous with higher levels of learning but that differing learning processes are evident from particular activities and certain technologies. Therefore educators require knowledge of educational methods, learning strategies and an understanding of how to utilise the technologies for learning (Kanuka & Garrison, 2004). The framework integrates the development of higher order cognition as a primary goal in higher education (Garrison et al., 2000) with interaction, reflection and collaboration being key ingredients (Archer, Garrison, Anderson & Rourke, 2001; Bonk & Cunningham, 1998; Fahy, 2002; Garrison, 2003). Higher order thinking skills are more likely to be evident in quality interactions. The quantity and quality of the interactions with particular activities and through the use of certain technologies determine the achievement of particular learning processes. The development of higher levels of cognition is evident in the accomplishment of various learning outcomes. In resynthesising the issues outlined above, a framework has been devised in the shape of a pyramid, depicting various levels, with the
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Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
Figure 1. Framework of technology-mediated interactions (TMI)
highest level of interactivity being collaboration, placed at the apex. Each level represents a targeted interactive pedagogy for the online community that leads to particular learning processes through the mediation of corresponding communication technologies. The framework helps to align three critical components ‑ learning processes, interactive pedagogies and interactive technologies ‑ and provides guidance on their use. Any component from the various levels can be used as a starting point. Once educators determine one of the components, they can move horizontally across the level to determine possibilities for the other two
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components. For example, educators may have particular learning processes in mind. In this case they would identify the desired outcomes in the framework and from there move horizontally to select an appropriate interactive pedagogy and technology. On the other hand, if the educator has a desired activity in mind, such as general discussion, then it is unrealistic for the educator to expect learners to develop critical thinking skills unless other factors are built into the design to ensure the development of higher cognition. Learning processes are not discrete, as the lower levels may be used as building blocks that allow learners to effectively achieve at higher lev-
Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
els. However not all learning processes need to be achieved before moving to higher level outcomes. In some courses, such as postgraduate courses, students may automatically enter the framework at one of the higher levels. Technologies that have been recommended at lower levels may also be appropriate at some of the higher levels. The progression upwards recognises the benefits of more integrated or specialised software to support higher levels of collaborative interactivity. As new communicative tools are constantly emerging, it will be necessary to determine the level at which they support the learning processes. This framework is designed to be context-free. That is, it does not include the educational context of a particular course or learning experience, the institutional and physical environment, the fine detail of pedagogical activities, the detailed characteristics, traits and differential performance of students, nor the capacities and talents of the educators. While the framework connects pedagogies, interactive technologies and learning processes, many other factors influence the nature of the activities and student performance. Some of the variables that affect the way learners behave and interact are more than just factors that influence the learning; they actually determine and drive the interactivity that mediates the learning process. Within this framework some variables are structural, such as type of task and the type of technology, while others become drivers of the learning processes. Such drivers which may affect the attainment of learning outcomes by either increasing or impeding interactivity include learner characteristics, cultural differences, prior knowledge and assessment. These factors or drivers impact on the frequency and quality of interactions leading to learning outcomes and are more likely to be evident within particular contexts. The development of a pedagogical framework helps to inform educators of critical elements that are present in successful online learning communities. These frameworks provide guidance
on expected learning processes and indicators of higher order cognition.
The Study A core, semester length, first year teacher education course which adopted a blended learning approach was used in this study to investigate evidence of cognitive development and quality learning outcomes from participation in the course. The archives from email discussion forums over four consecutive years were investigated to explore the learning processes of the course participants. Discussion forums as an integral part of the course provided students with the opportunity for a richer and more active engagement with the course content beyond the normal workshop times. Students were organised into tutorial groups of approximately twenty students and allocated to an e-mail discussion forum. Every three weeks students were required to contribute a 300-400 word response to a topic that addressed issues associated with the use of information technologies in the school classroom. This resulted in each student contributing at least four responses to the four topics posted over the semester. An example of the topics was “In relation to the research literature what are the major issues surrounding the use of the word processor in the junior primary classroom?” Students were provided with initial readings on the topic but were also expected to locate their own readings. Although the responses were not assessed as such, they were a requirement of the course. Students felt an obligation to provide a meaningful response as it was posted to all discussion members in their forum and the lecturer in a permanent form. An underlying intent of the discussion forums was not only to encourage greater individual engagement with the topic and related course content but also to encourage students to support each other in enhancing their own knowledge
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Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
construction of the topic. Students in the course were expected to interpret, analyse and explore the topics by articulating their research in the responses. They were encouraged to reflect on the responses of others while bringing into consideration their own experiences. Such outcomes reflected the learning processes identified in the framework of Technology-Mediated Interaction at the topic-focused discussion level. In an effort to encourage further interaction, students were also assigned to a small group (3-5 students) which had responsibility for encouraging electronic interaction, identifying and summarising the main arguments arising from the online discussion, as well as presenting these in a face to face workshop session. Student learning was enhanced through the required clarification of their own understanding and that of their peers, and through further resource recommendations. Lecturers had very little input into the actual discussion forum, as support and guidance by the lecturer occurred in the weekly face to face workshops. This feature further suited the design, as the focus was on student-led discussion forums which were a constant element over the four years. Approximately 200 on-campus students enrol in the course each year with roughly 54% being school leavers (school leavers are students who come directly from secondary into tertiary edu-
cation). There are approximately 12 discussion forums each year. Table 1 outlines basic statistical data on the participants over the four years of data collection: The teaching teams chose email discussion lists rather than conferencing software for a number of reasons. Firstly, the teams wanted students to learn how to subscribe to discussion groups, as many professional discussion lists exist that can support students in their learning and later in their teaching, but students must subscribe to them. Secondly, discussion lists are a ‘push’ technology which means the messages from the discussion forum arrive in their email accounts. This acts as a reminder and hopefully encourages students to read the contributions regularly. Students would also develop skills in managing and organising their email; this is an important skill as email is used extensively for communication. Contributions were archived to the web which allowed students to view the full discussion forum in one place. They could also use the forum for revision purposes for their examinations. Hence, email discussion lists provided flexibility that could benefit the students in many ways. In this study, the discourse analysis of 15 discussion forums (275 students) out of 47 discussion forums, selected randomly over the four years in this first year teacher education course, was examined for insight into student learning processes and evidence of higher order cognition.
Table 1. Participants of the study Year
Student Total
Female
Male
Mature-age
Average Age
Message Total
2003
212
156
56
85
22.7
1221
2002
218
169
49
51
20.9
1125
2001
219
173
46
68
21.8
1188
2000
192
163
29
40
20.1
904
Note. (a) Mature age will be regarded as students 21 years and over. (b) Message total is the total number of messages sent in any one year
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Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
Table 2. An evaluative tool for supporting interactive analysis with ICTS exploring Social behaviour, Cognitive development and Interactive Analysis (SCIA) at the group level was developed in the context of email discussion forums S. Participation and social behaviour S1 Individual disclosure
S1-a Basic introduction.
S1-b Extended revelation
S1-c Self evaluation
S2 Social behaviour
S2-a Courtesy
S2-b Level of dominance/authority
S2-c Seeking help
S2-d Willingness to initiate
S3 Mutual Consideration
S3-a Identifying mutual interest
S3-b Willingness to exchange
S3-c Valuing others’ views
I. Cognitive behaviour analysis at individual level: I1 Elementary clarification
I1-a Observing/studying a problem
I1-b Identifying its elements
I1-c Observing/studying their linkages
I2 In-depth clarification
I2-a Analysing a problem
I2-b Identifying assumptions
I2-c Establishing referential criteria
I2-d Seeking out specialized information
I3 Synthesis and application
I3-a Drawing primary conclusions
I3-b Proposing an idea based on links and relevant information
I3-c Value judgment on relevant solutions
I3-d Making final decisions and deciding on the action(s) to be taken
G. Interactive behaviour analysis at group level: G1 Planning
G1-a Organizing work/planning group work/setting shared tasks
G1-b Initiating activities/setting up activities for group work
Note: Learner orientation: S-Social; I- Individual; G- Group
continued on the following page
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Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
Table 2. continued G2 Sharing/comparing/contributing of information
G2-a Defining and identifying a problem
G2-b Stating opinions regarding the problem
G2-c Asking and answering questions to clarify details of statements
G2-d Sharing and exchanging knowledge, resources and information
G2-e Corroborating examples provided by one or more participants
G2-f Challenging others to engage in group discussion
G2-g Help and feedback giving
G3 Inconsistency of ideas, concepts or statements
G3-a Identifying and stating areas of disagreement G3-b Asking and answering questions to clarify the source and extent of
disagreement
G3-c Restating the participants’ position and advancing arguments or considerations supported by references G4 Negotiation of meaning/co-construction of knowledge G4-a Negotiating or clarifying the meaning of terms, areas of agreement and disagreement
G4-b Proposing new statements embodying compromise and co-construction
G4-c Integrating or accommodating metaphors or analogies
G5 Testing and modification of proposed synthesis or co-construction of knowledge
G5-a Testing against existing knowledge and information
G5-b Testing against personal experience
G5-c Testing against formal data collected
G6 Agreement statement(s) and application of newly constructed knowledge
G6-a Summarization of agreement(s) G6-b Application of new knowledge
An Evaative Tool for Discourse Analysis An adaptation of Gunawardena, Lowe and Anderson’s, Interaction Analysis Model (1997) for examining social construction of knowledge in computer conferencing, provided a basis for developing an effective evaluative tool for analysing archived discourse. Adaptations to this tool also drew on Garrison, Anderson and Archer’s Community of Inquiry model (Garrison et al., 2000) and Henri’s five dimensions of learning (Henri, 1992). The model used for this study achieved a measure of validity as the coding scheme of
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Henri’s critical reasoning skills (Henri, 1992) had provided the foundations of a number of well known researchers in the area (Gunawardena, Lowe & Anderson, 1997; Hara, Bonk & Angeli, 2000; Henri, 1992; Kanuka & Anderson, 1998; Newman, Webb & Cochrane, 1995). This evaluative tool (Table 2) which was developed out of the research supported an investigation of the discourse at three levels. These levels are referred to as learner orientations (social, individual and group) which identified the interactive behaviour of the participants. Within each orientation there were phases that characterised the cognitive activity, while the indicators within
Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
Figure. 2. A group oriented forum
Figure. 3. An individually oriented forum
the phases showed the approaches to learning that were being adopted. As the course used a blended learning approach and students had face to face classes, there was less need for them to focus on establishing a social presence, as they already knew one another to a certain degree from their workshops. Providing time for students to familiarise themselves would have been more critical in a purely online course and additional time would have to be given for this to occur. Thus the students were encouraged to engage immediately, rather than spend time communicating socially, and provide their response to the topics posted based on readings that were recommended or that they had located themselves. Students were given the opportunity to construct and co-construct their own knowledge based on their research, prior knowledge and contributions from their peers. However, they tended to adopt one of two approaches, where they saw themselves either as making an individual contribution to the topic (individual orientation) or they thought of themselves as members of a group and tried to draw others into their response (group orientation). It was found that the approach adopted by the first students to post to the topic determined the ongoing orientation, whether individual or group, for that topic as well as subsequent topics.
Over 1500 responses were analysed with the paragraph or more specifically the development of an idea used as the unit of analysis for coding against the cognitive indicators of SCIA. Analysing the discourse can be a very arduous task and interrater reliability was used to compare the indicator ratings of the primary researcher and a trained research assistant to ensure reliability of the researcher. Correlations were compiled using Pearson and Spearman procedures with a high level of agreement being achieved (Pearson product moment – 0.98 and Spearman rank correlation – 0.86). Using the evaluative model, all responses were coded and using quantitative methods the items were firstly aggregated for each of the phases against social (S), individual (I) and group (G) orientations at both the individual and forum level.. Cognitive indicators were also recorded for each topic as well as their aggregates for each student. The data as illustrated in the figures below (Figures 2 and 3) show two examples of forum aggregates with a strong level of consistency across the four topics in the individual (I) and group (G) indicator aggregates and a weaker but still positive level of continuity in the case of social aggregates across topics using the indicators from the evaluative tool (SCIA).
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Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS I An analysis of the discourse showed that certain indicators were more populated than others. Minimal variation occurred in the indicators across topics. A patterning of indicators emerged, suggesting that influences during the initial interactions may be critical. Further examination of the cognitive indicators from the discourse analysis showed that students appeared to exhibit particular interactive and cognitive behaviours over time. The cognitive levels achieved in the first response were predictors of cognitive levels achieved in later responses. Thus the first response becomes critical in determining communicative patterns in subsequent exchanges and the learning outcomes likely to be achieved. Canonical correlation analysis was used to explore the powerful influence of Topic 1 on subsequent topics by examining the relationship between cognitive indicator aggregates. A canonical correlation analysis was performed, between the aggregated indicators on Topic 1 (latent variable 1), and aggregated scores on the other three topics (latent variable 2). Based on the individually oriented cognitive aggregates, the canonical coefficient was 0.51, accounting for 26% variance. Wilks lambda = 0.74 and was significant at p<.001. For the group oriented cognitive aggregates, the canonical coefficient was 0.34, accounting for 11.4%. Wilks lambda = 0.89 and was significant at p<.001. Topic 1 can therefore be said to be predicting between 11 and 26% of the cognitive behaviour in future topics. An examination of students’ interactive behaviours provides insight into students’ communication patterns. The first interactions became strong determinants of subsequent interaction patterns. The impact of these initial communications has led to the notion of “imprinting” as a means of characterising the serially consistent cognitive behaviour of the students within the forums. The
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term ‘imprinting’ was first used by Konrad Lorenz in the 1930s in relation to social behaviours in a study of precocial birds. In this study, the evolving interactive behaviour of the forum suggests dependency on the first set of responses which then influences subsequent interactive behaviours. It was noted that the interactive behaviour that was established in the first responses impacted on future exchanges. For educators, the notion of imprinting should inform the preparation and support required for initial student interactions to ensure the presence of desired indicators of cognition. The treatment and learning strategies employed for these interactions become critical in achieving desired learning outcomes. Therefore greater energies must focus on the first interactions whether in an online or blended learning setting. The phases and indicators used in SCIA further helped to identify cognitive processes. Progress through the phases, whether individual or group, suggested a shift in students’ thinking and learning approaches, such as movement from elementary clarification to synthesis and application. Indicators within these phases provide insight into thinking strategies. From an analysis of the discourse it was possible to identify students’ learning processes and their cognitive development. Accepting that repetition and reinforcement of cognitive development may be important to sustain, imprinting becomes a positive outcome of discussion forums. This may be an important learning strategy in certain disciplines such as science and mathematics where understanding and application of concepts requires repetition and practice. The effects of imprinting provide educators with a strong predictor of student performance dependent on the first response. Based on the notion of imprinting, poor performance in the first topic may be an indicator of a poor final mark. In the context of the study the first topic response is a useful predictor that provides early signs of required educator intervention where responses
Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
do not meet expectations. This may mean additional guidance, support and modelling by the educator to ensure that the expectations of the discussion forum are evident. Students can then consolidate these expectations over the following topics. Educators have the advantage in a blended learning environment to utilise the classroom setting to model the type of interactive behaviour required and to ensure that students have a clear understanding of desired learning outcomes. To ensure learning advantages from the results of imprinting, educators must allow time in the classroom for students to familiarise themselves with their peers through purposely designed interaction. Students also have opportunity to explore the learning environment under the guidance of the educator. Learning goals must be explicit with clear guidelines on the required interactivity. Educators should focus their energies and effort in supporting students with the first topic. If imprinting is a desired effect educators must ensure the presence of cognitive indicators
relevant to desired learning outcomes in their initial communications. Although initial communication patterns may be influenced by student characteristics and their approaches to learning, the overall behavioural orientation of the forum may be sufficiently powerful to override more subtle attitudes to learning. The notion of imprinting highlights the importance of instructional design particularly for online learning communities.
Recommendations for Practice Imprinting is an important notion as it provides opportunity for repetition and reinforcement of learning approaches. Where imprinting is evident, the educator must ensure appropriate modeling and evidence of the required learning outcomes in the initial interactions. Strong support and guidance from educators are needed initially to ensure learning outcomes are manifest. The study suggests that educators cannot rely on students
Figure 4. Imprinting design across time Static cognitive tracks
S1 S2 S3 I1
Type A
I2
Type B
I3 G1
Type A
G2 G3
Type B
G4 Topic 1
Topic 2
Topic 3
Topic4
Note: I- Individual; G-Group
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acquiring the desired outcomes over time and has implications for the instructional design where careful consideration must be given to learning processes and interactive behaviours.
Media Stickiness The technologies that are utilised may also affect the potential for imprinting. This ‘notion’ of imprinting is more general than just cognitive and interactive behaviours; it implies forming habits around the technologies being used. Indeed, in a study offering a range of contemporary technologies, Huysman, Steinfield, Jang, David et. al. (2003) found that the type of technology used for initial collaborative tasks continued to be used throughout their interactions. This style of media use, which is strengthened and becomes entrenched in the group interactions, was referred to as ‘media stickiness’. Not only is there the potential for imprinting of cognitive and interactive behaviours, but there is also the issue of the media stickiness of the technology. Instructional design therefore is paramount in determining the most appropriate technology, the interactive behaviour of discussion forums and the likely occurrence of imprinting. This needs to be considered in the context of a framework such as the framework of Technology-Mediated Interaction. The research on ‘media stickiness’ (Huysman et al., 2003) shows that initial choices of media persist throughout a course. ‘Media stickiness’ confirms the importance of media choice and style of communication (Huysman et al., 2003) when establishing virtual teams in the online learning environment. The notion of ‘media stickiness’ and the potential of technology to support learning means decisions about the type of technology used must be made carefully as the initial choice will possibly influence future use. A primary determinant of the technology should be its accessibility and its effectiveness in supporting desired learning outcomes. The research findings support the importance of establishing
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sound communication skills from the outset and the timeliness of intervention if needed. Similarly the quality of the initial learning experience is critical to subsequent interactive behaviours in the discussion forums.
Recommendations for Practice With the constant emergence of new communication tools and a variety in the preferences by students, educators must give careful consideration to the communicative tools to be used in blended learning communities to ensure that required learning outcomes will be supported by the use of such technologies. Students are more likely to consider their preference than the goals to be achieved. The pedagogical framework supports the notion that certain communicative technologies are more appropriate for the attainment of particular learning processes. With the potential for ‘media stickiness’ it is important that the most suitable technologies are implemented into the instructional design, although accessibility and ease of use must also be considered.
Cognitive Tracks Such analysis provided insight into the cognitive activity of the participants and identified two types of imprinting that were occurring over time. In some instances, one particular indicator may have dominated the discussion (such as elementary clarification, I1 or sharing/comparing information, G2) and prevailed across the discussion topics (Type A). In these cases, the cognitive development remained static across the topics. ‘Static’ describes the process where there is little or no change in indicators over a period of time. Furthermore, students may have demonstrated a broader set of cognitive indicators for each topic that were repeated for subsequent topics (Type B). Here students showed an appreciation of differing cognitive strategies and knowledge acquisition for each topic. Their responses for
Strategies for Blended Approaches in Teacher Education
Figure 5. Progressive cognitive movement across time S1
S2
S3
Type C I1
Type D
I2
Type C Topic 1
Topic 2
Topic 3
Topic4
Note: I-Individual; G-Group
each topic may have demonstrated a cognitive movement through the indicators; such as starting with problem identification which progresses to analysis and the drawing of some conclusions. However, rather than furthering the development of learning approaches, students used the same set of indicators for each topic indicating a broader but still static track. In most contexts where imprinting is desirable, Type B would be the optimum static cognitive track along which students should travel. Imprinting supports learning and teaching, where consolidation in cognitive development is needed over time. The course design required consistency with similar learning outcomes required for each small group. The study provided strong evidence that imprinting in discussion forums is a likely effect across time where task expectations and learning outcomes are consistent. On the other hand, if educators wish to avoid imprinting because they want to see students move progressively rather than statically along various cognitive tracks, then factors that lead to imprinting must be counterbalanced with changes to the
instructional design and teaching presence. The term ‘dynamic cognitive track’ suggests a change in learning focus where students move through various cognitive indicators that indicate students are utilising differing strategies and developing further cognitive skills over time. Dynamic, characterised by constant change suggests a progressive shift towards higher cognition. Type C in Figure 5 represents narrow cognitive tracks along which educators may wish students to travel through a course. Initially the first topic may require identification and observation of the problem, but with each topic, students are required to move cognitively along the tracks, which move them through differing learning outcomes. Type D ( in Table 5) suggests a more scaffolded approach on a broader track where students ideally build on their understanding and knowledge from the previous topic as they move towards the construction of new knowledge. There is an overlap of indicators, consolidating the various strategies which students use as the basis for further cognitive investigation.
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Such findings have led to various propositions which highlight and identify implications for instructional designs in online learning communities where scaffolding and modelling are critical to ensure adoption of suitable cognitive tracks by the students. The study of students’ interactive behaviour and cognitive engagement highlight the complexities associated with the development of effective instructional design for online learning communities while acknowledging the presence of other drivers that impact on interaction and cognition.
Recommendations The identification of a number of cognitive tracks may provide guidance for educators in determining appropriate teaching and learning design. The notion of cognitive tracks assists educators in understanding students’ cognitive development. Thus where the tracks are static, educators may gain an early indication of the learning outcomes that will be achieved. Educators must give careful consideration to the design of blended learning environments to ensure the optimum cognitive tracks are followed, whether static or dynamic.
Messaging Behaviour Email transcripts were also examined for messaging behaviour patterns such as length, frequency and timing of messages. One of the purposes of this analysis was to investigate whether there was a relationship between student messaging behaviour and learning outcomes. Results from the messaging behaviour of students provided some insight into the study and work habits of students. A benefit of asynchronous communication is its reflective space and its flexibility in allowing students to make contributions when it is convenient (Garrison, 2003; Hiltz, 1998; Lea, 2001). Many students are forced to work part-time in order to meet
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their university financial commitments, and are responding virtually around the clock. Messaging behaviours are indicators of engagement with the activity, where engagement and collaborative interactivity can lead to enhanced learning outcomes. Investigations of messaging behaviours and indicators of learning have highlighted the prominence of instructional design in the creation of an online learning community. In this study, messaging behaviour has had some impact on indicators of learning. Student characteristics and experiences may be influential in impacting on both messaging behaviour and cognitive development. Messaging behaviour is a strong indicator of learning where the achievement of learning outcomes can be evidenced by the presence of cognitive indicators within the discussion.
E-Writing Effort A detailed analysis of not only the message content but of the information that can be gained from the email structure provided further insight into student characteristics. The frequency and size of messages provided an indication of ‘time on writing effort’ (‘e-writing effort’). ‘E-writing effort’ may become a critical indicator as it can reflect the energy that students are putting into their work. There was a moderate correlation with the message length and final mark which may provide early warnings of “students at risk”, thus presupposing a possible predictor of success or failure. This apparent outcome of length predicting the final mark is perhaps not surprising if we pursue the idea of length of message as representing ‘e-writing effort’ and connect this with a strong tradition that sees effort and time spent writing as a primary influence on learning outcomes. The ‘time on task’ notion is a precondition of this context. The implicit supposition is that the quality of the response has been taken into account. Assumptions have been made that the
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instructional design reflects the consideration of principles for fostering high quality learning (Agostinho, Oliver, Harper, Hedberg & Wills, 2002). It would be a dangerous assumption to merely calculate the length of messages without actually assuring the quality of the content. This is the sense of the on-task component in ‘time on task’ notion. The ‘e-writing effort’ proposition is worthy of consideration by educators if the instructional design can guarantee quality in the responses. Newman (1997) suggests that it is not the quantity of the response that contributes to learning but rather the quality. A dichotomy exists where, on one hand, there is a moderate relationship between the length of message and the final mark, and on the other hand, the literature argues that it is not the quantity but the quality that is important. By associating ‘e-writing effort’ with length there is an inference that students are spending time and effort researching to provide detailed and hence longer responses. ‘E-writing effort’ can be equated with quality where there is dependence on the appropriateness of the task and its ability to challenge and motivate students. A conclusion can therefore be drawn, that where quality of the responses can be assured, then the length of the message may be used as a predictor of students’ final marks. Discourse analysis is not a viable method that can be used regularly to determine students’ engaged cognition as the analysis is intensive and very time consuming. Most educators do not have the resources available for such detailed analysis. Hence ‘e-writing effort’ might provide a quick and useful tool allowing for early intervention.
Recommendations for Practice The strong relationship between message length and frequency (‘e-writing effort’) and final mark may provide educators with early predictions of students ‘at risk’. However, for ‘e-writing effort’ to
have any credibility as an indicator, educators must assure the ‘educational quality of the responses’. ‘e-writing effort’ may be a critical indicator as it can reflect the energy that students are putting into their work and allow educators to intervene early and prevent possible student failure.
The Value of the Framework The cognitive indicators derived from SCIA were mapped against the learning outcomes of the TMI framework. Cognitive indicators were shown to be predictors of certain learning outcomes. The evaluative model (SCIA) verified the significance of the levels in the pyramid and thus established its value as a pedagogical model for online learning communities where the suitability of various interactive activities can be mapped against possible learning outcomes, depending on the use of various technologies. Students utilized the learning strategies from the lower levels to underpin their attainment at the topic focused level. The TMI framework thus provides guidance on activities that support the development of cognitive outcomes leading to sound blended learning design. A limitation of the study has been that learning outcomes associated with other interactive activities such as general discussion or scripted activities were not tested and further research on these activities are needed to endorse the relevance of the levels for the pyramid. The study was also restricted to the use of text-based discussion forums which have become a relatively old technology although still used extensively in many educational institutions. Currently the relevance of the TMI framework to the use of other technologies can only be extrapolated. Other limitations included its focus on first year students and the lack of cultural mix within the groups. With the formation of an increasing number of global learning communities further guidance is needed on effective instructional design where communities of mixed cultural backgrounds are established and maintained. 57
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Implications of the Research The study has extended educators’ understanding of the complexities of blended and online learning communities. It highlights the importance of developing instructional strategies that merge the strengths of face to face and online pedagogies while applying measures that can ensure that effective learning is occurring. Cognitive development will not be evident unless it is accommodated within the design of courses utilising a blended learning approach. The investigation reaffirms the importance of designing appropriate pedagogies where technologies can support collaborative interactivity and have a powerful but positive influence on student learning. It has resulted in some pragmatic suggestions regarding the use of technologies as well as identifying strategies that ensure desired learning outcomes are being achieved. However, with new and emerging technologies, continual adjustments will be required to the framework to accommodate suitable and available technologies. With the popularity of social web tools, how might such technologies impact on the framework? With such technologies in mind, there is also a need to test the TMI framework against technologies other than text. Is the framework viable where graphical, visual or audible technologies are the medium of exchange? What variations might be needed to the interactive pedagogies that will support these technologies? By increasing the use of the senses are students likely to journey more quickly along the dynamic cognitive tracks? While the potential for the use of other mediums exist, continuous research and developmental changes will be needed. The SCIA model has identified students’ interactive behaviours and the cognitive indicators associated with their discourse and this has proven to be an effective tool for evaluating textual discourse. This has lead to insight into the type of cognitive track that students follow. Can this model be used to evaluate visual, graphical
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or audible forms of communication? How might social behaviours be shown in visual form? There is a strong likelihood that it would need to go through a total transformation and further research is required to design evaluative models for different forms of communication. This study has particularly focused on the cognitive development in the online components of a blended learning approach. Further research is needed on how the flexibility offered by different media, whether face-to-face or online affects various student characteristics, cultural backgrounds and confidence and competence with the technologies. However, emerging educational trends strongly support blended learning approaches where students are given increased opportunities to reflect, critically analyse, problem solve and gain multiple perspectives facilitating the construction of new and meaningful knowledge. A blended learning environment supports the shift in educational change and policy that highlight the cognitive skills demanded of citizens in a constantly evolving global community.
CONCLUSION This study has presented a series of results based on an analysis of student discourse and messaging behaviour in a blended teaching and learning context. The results have led to the development of various propositions which have implications for strategic teaching and learning design. Students’ interactive behaviour and cognitive engagement is closely dictated by the instructional design. The study has acknowledged the presence of other drivers that can impact on interactivity and cognition, which may be accommodated in the instructional design to ensure optimum benefits from blended learning approaches. Strategically speaking, it is the appropriate blend of various elements, such as social and teaching presence, the technology, the type of task and assessment that will lead to an effective course design suitable for any group of students.
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REFERENCES Agostinho, S., Oliver, R., Harper, B., Hedberg, J., & Wills, S. (2002). A tool to evaluate the potential for an ICT-based learning design to foster high quality learning. Paper presented at the 19th Annual Conference of ASCILITE, Auckland, NZ. Anderson, T., Rourke, L., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching presence in a computer conferencing context. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks (JALN), 5(2), 1-17. Archer, W., Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Rourke, L. (2001). A framework for analysing critical thinking in computer conferences. Paper presented at the European Conference on Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, Maastricht. Bereiter, C. (1994). Constructivism, Socioculturalism and Popper’s World 3. Educational Researcher, 23(7), 21-23. Bonk, C. J., & Cunningham, D. J. (1998). Searching for learner-centered, constructivist and sociocultural components of collaborative educational learning tools. In C. J. Bonk & K. S. King (Eds.), Electronic Collaborators: Learnercentred technologies for literacy, apprenticeship and discourse (pp. 25-50). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bonk, C. J., & Kim, K. A. (1998). Extending sociocultural theory to adult learning. In M. C. Smith & T. Pourchot (Eds.), Adult learning and development: Perspectives from educational psychology (pp. 67-88). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Cobb, P. (1994). Where is the mind? Constructivist and sociocultural perspectives on mathematical development. Educational Researcher, 23(7), 13-20.
Cooper, S. (2004). This is the Learning Theories Web. Retrieved 22 June, 2004, from http//:www. konnections.net/lifecircles/constructivism.htm. Fahy, P. (2002). Assessing critical thinking processes in a computer conference.From http://cde. athabascau.ca/softeval/reports/mag4.pdf. Garrison, D. R. (2003). Cognitive presence for effective asynchronous online learning: The role of reflective inquiry, self direction and metacognition. In J. Bourne & J. C. Moore (Eds.), Elements of quality online education: Practice and direction (Vol. Volume 4 in The Sloan C Series). Needham, MA: The Sloan Consortium. Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical Inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet & Higher Education, 2(2-3), 1-19. Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2000). A transactional perspective on teaching and learning: A framework for adult and higher education. Oxford, UK: Pergamon. Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning:Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. The Internet & Higher Education, 7, 95-105. Gilbert, L., & Moore, D. R. (1998). Building interactivity into web courses:Tools for social and instructional interaction. Educational Technology, 38(3), 29-35. Graham, M., & Scarborough, H. (1999). Computer mediated communication and collaborative learning in an undrgraduate distance education environment. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 15(1), 20-46. Gunawardena, C. N., Lowe, C., & Anderson, T. (1997). Analysis of a global online debate and the development of an interaction analysis model for examining social construction of knowledge in computer conferencing. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 17(4), 397-431.
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Gunawardena, C. N., & Zittle, F. J. (1997). Social presence as a predictor of satisfaction within a computer-mediated conferencing environment. The American Journal of Distance Education, 11(3), 8-26. Hara, N., Bonk, C. J., & Angeli, C. (2000). Content analyses of online discussion in an applied educational psychology course. Instructional Science, 28(2), 115-152. Hartley, J. R. (1999). Effective Pedagogies for Managing Collaborative Learning in On-line Learning Environments. Educational Technology & Society, 2(2). Henri, F. (1992). Computer conferencing and content analysis. In A. Kaye (Ed.), Collaborative learning through computer conferencing: The Najaden Papers (pp. 117-136). Berlin: SpringerVerlag. Hiltz, S. R. (1998). Collaborative learning in Asynchronous Learning Networks: Building learning communities. Retrieved August 24, 1999, from http://eies.njit.edu/~hiltz/collaborative_learning_in_asynch.htm. Hollingworth, R. W., & McLoughlin, C. (2001). Developing science students’ metacognitive problem solving skills online, 1, 50-63. Huysman, M., Steinfield, C., Jang, C.-Y., David, K., Huis in ‘T Veld, M., Poot, J., et al. (2003). Virtual teams and the appropriation of communication technology: Exploring the concept of media stickiness. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 12, 411-436. Kanuka, H., & Anderson, T. (1998). Online social interchange, discord, and knowledge construction. Journal of Distance Education, 13(1), 57-74. Kanuka, H., & Garrison, D. R. (2004). Cognitive Presence in Online Learning. Journal of Computing in higher Education, 15(2), 30-48.
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Laurillard, D. (1995). Multimedia and the changing experience of the learner. British Journal of Educational Technology, 26(3), 179-189. Lea, M. (2001). Computer Conferencing and Assessment: New Ways of Writing in Higher Education. Studies in Higher Education, 26(2), 163 - 183. Lipponen, L. (2002). Exploring foundations for computer-supported collaborative learning. Retrieved 4 July, 2002, from http://newmedia. colorado.edu/cscl/31.html. McLoughlin, C., & Luca, J. (2000). Cognitive engagement and higher order thinking through computer conferencing: We know why but do we know how? Paper presented at the 9th Annual teaching learning Forum, Perth. McLoughlin, C., & Oliver, R. (2000). Designing learning environments for cultural inclusivity: A case study of indigenous online learning at tertiary level. Australian Journal of Educational technology, 16(1), 58-72. McLoughlin, C. E. (1997). Investigating conditions for higher order thinking in telematics environments. Unpublished Doctor of Philosophy, Edith Cowan University, Perth, WA. Newman, D. R., Johnson, C., Webb, B., & Cochrane, C. (1997). Evaluating the quality of learning in computer supported co-operative learning. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 48(6), 484-495. Newman, D. R., Webb, B., & Cochrane, C. (1995). A content analysis method to measure critical thinking in face-to-face and computer supported group learning. Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century, 3(2), 56-77. Oliver, R., & McLoughlin, C. (1999). Curriculum and learning resources issues arising form the use of web-based course support systems.
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International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 5(4), 419-435. Pelz, B. (2004). (My) Three principles of effective online pedagogy. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks (JALN), 8(3), 33 - 46. Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing Social Presence in Asynchronous Text-based Computer Conferencing. Journal of Distance Education, 14(2), 51-70. Salomon, G. (1998). Novel constructivist learning environments and novel technologies: Some issues to be concerned with. Research Dialogue in Learning and Instruction, 1, 3-12. Sims, R. (1997). Interactivity: A forgotten art? Retrieved September 8, 1999, from http://intro. base.org/docs/interact/
Stacey, E. (2002a). Quality online participation: establishing social presence. Paper presented at the Research in Distance Education 5: Revised papers from the 5th Research in Distance Education Conference, Geelong. Stacey, E. (2002b). Social presence online: networking learners at a distance. Education and Information Technology, 7(4), 287-294. Stacey, E., & Rice, M. (2002). Evaluating an online learning environment. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 18(3), 323-340. Susman, E. B. (1998). Cooperative Learning: A review of factors that increase the effectiveness of cooperative computer-based instruction. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 18(4), 303-322. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: the development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.
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Chapter IV
Redesigning Initial Teacher Education Mary Simpson University of Otago, New Zealand Bill Anderson University of Otago, New Zealand
ABSTRACT A teacher education programme previously taught in distinct on-campus and distance forms was redesigned to take advantage of the affordances offered by a blended learning approach. The redesign process described here drew on three areas – the research and practice base of adult learning, knowledge of and experience with the design of learning communities, and the findings of research activities focused on the original distance form of the programme. The use of information and communication technologies (ICT) enabled blending of technologies, media, modes of delivery, and learning activities and was central to the redesign process. However that process was driven overall by a commitment to educational principles not the potential of technologies. Other considerations in the redesign process include the demands placed on staff, the value of programme-level redesign, and the need for ongoing monitoring of the redesign process and evaluation of the programme during implementation. The implications for blended learning in teacher education programmes are discussed.
INTRODUCTION Blended learning is not new. What is new is the widespread recognition that new ways of blending technologies, media, modes of delivery, and activities provide opportunities to enhance and possibly even transform teaching and learning in
the higher education sector. Those new ways are particularly focused on changing traditional patterns of on-campus teaching and almost inevitably involve the use of information and communications technologies (ICTs). They represent attempts to meet the challenges of student engagement and connectivity, the requirements of lifelong learning
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Redesigning Initial Teacher Education
for a diverse student body, and demands for high quality learning experiences. The challenges to which blended learning is a response are difficult and multi-faceted. The distinction between the ‘traditional’ young, fulltime on-campus student cohort and the ‘non-traditional’ older, part-time distance student group is blurring as these modes of delivery converge and both groups are becoming increasingly diverse. Agencies funding higher education are demanding higher quality courses with higher qualification completion rates. The uptake of ICTs in social and work lives is considerable and means students bring ICT experience and expectations of use with them to their higher education experience. Blended learning offers considerable potential to meet the challenges outlined, but also confounds many attempts because of its own multi-faceted nature. Stacey and Gerbic (2007) describe blended learning as “the combination of modes of learning and teaching made possible through the mediation of ICT” (p.166). The simplicity of the phrase ‘combination of modes’ belies the complexities of finding ‘combinations of modes’ that are manageable by staff and students, effectively support student learning, and are cost-effective for both students and institutions. Many aspects of teaching and learning can be combined to create blended learning environments. Four areas that each contain many possibilities were noted above – technologies, media, modes of delivery and activities. The generic term ‘ICT’ signals blended learning’s engagement with a range of digital technologies and these are complemented by the older, ‘softer’ technologies associated with on-campus teaching represented by such areas as knowledge of face-to-face group processes or mastery learning. Use of a range of media in on-campus teaching is not uncommon, but the possibilities that ICT use affords for combining media is considerable and relatively new. Our use of the term ‘modes of delivery’ represents the space-time dimension of study. Are learners and teachers present in the
same or different physical spaces? Are learners and teachers present at the same or different times? Combinations of responses to these two questions create a range of spaces for learners and learning. Finally, activity and interactivity is the basis of learning. Structuring activities and interaction with the resources, and within the frameworks implied by the previous areas to ensure consistent, sustainable and effective blended learning opportunities, requires considerable knowledge, careful planning, and thoughtful integration. Garrison and Kanuka (2004) assert that institutions taking advantage of consistent, sustainable and effective blended learning opportunities will transform the higher education learning environment they provide to students. The emphasis on transformation reinforces the notion that blended learning is about integration rather than addition. Blended learning is undertaken effectively when courses and programmes are re-designed to integrate components and activities rather than adding more or replacing those past their use-by date. Effective integration ensures that courses will be media-rich, collaborative, interactive and personalised, assisting in the movement from teacher-focused learning environments to those that are learning-centred. In this chapter, we report on the redesign of a university-based initial teacher education programme to take advantage of the potential of blended learning, and the research that underpinned that redesign. At the time of redesign the programme had been delivered for the past ten years with both a traditional face-to-face option and a distance option that integrated online communication with a more traditional print-based resource-driven approach. These options had been delivered, quite separately, at a dual-mode university with a long and successful history of provision of distance education. The redesign presented an opportunity to reconceptualise the delivery options, blending modes, activities and media, and to integrate, from the outset, affordances offered by new ICTs.
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Research undertaken to inform ongoing development of the existing distance option provided part of the evidence base to support the redesign approach. The research played a significant role in addressing staff questions about development of a more learner-centred approach within the programme and about the efficacy of ICTs in providing support for such an approach. Later we discuss that research, and the theoretical and research literature evidence base that was drawn on to underpin the development process. First we turn to a description of the context in which the development occurred.
THETFORREDESIGN Commitment to undertake a redesign process sprang initially from a review of the programme. A panel of national and international experts in initial teacher education conducted the review as part of the University’s quality assurance processes. The review process involved extensive consultation with, and submissions from, staff, students and stakeholders; examination of the existing programme, policy documents and course materials; and analysis of longitudinal student level data. The confidential internal report produced by the review panel provided a framework for the programme redesign and an opportunity to reconceptualize the delivery options and to integrate, from the start, affordances offered by ICTs. The programme redesign was considered timely given the changing demographics of New Zealand, shifting employment opportunities for graduates of initial teacher education programmes, and changes to the school curriculum. Like many other developed countries New Zealand has a growing immigrant population particularly from the Pacific. Immigration coupled with growth in the indigenous population is altering classroom demographics. New Zealand has one major (and growing) city. Inevitably employment opportu-
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nities for beginning teachers are likely to be in that centre. A new national curriculum that must be implemented in all schools by 2010 was introduced in 2007. That curriculum is supported by ICT strategy documents, the first introduced in 1998 and subsequently followed by e-learning action plans that have been supported by teacher professional development and investment in ICT (Ministry of Education, 2006, 2007). It was timely to redesign the programme and ensure that all graduates experienced a programme that prepared them for digitally enriched, culturally and educationally diverse classrooms. The distance delivery of initial teacher education is both challenged and challenging and there has been resistance to change in the delivery of initial teacher education, with face-to-face delivery being the accepted dominant mode. Where distance delivery has been used in initial teacher education there have often been questions asked about quality, provision and supervision of fieldbased experiences and the development of practical curriculum engagement (Simpson, 2003). In the last twenty years the advent of mainstream distance delivery of initial teacher education in New Zealand, Australia and England in particular has shown that the criticisms can be answered and the challenges met (Simpson, 2003). The blending of resources, activities and media typical in distance education brings opportunities for mediarich, collaborative, interactive and personalized learning environments. These opportunities, seen within the distance option of the programme we are discussing, provided an impetus to reconsider the content and the delivery of the initial teacher education programme. Simultaneous consideration of delivery and content opened up possibilities for true integration of those two key aspects of a programme. While the external factors outlined above provided, on their own, a powerful incentive for change there were internal factors that, allied with the review, provided motivation for change as
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well. The model of distance delivery being used was over ten years old and although it had been modified over the years it had been developed before a comprehensive learning management system for the university had been put in place. Staff were interested in, and individually developing, ways to enrich their teaching. A number of students transferred from one delivery option to the other and there was some duplication of key communication channels such as newsletters to students. As well as there being drivers for change there was also much to maintain and build on. As a dual mode institution the university had a wide range of resources supporting both face-to-face and distance teaching. There had always been a commitment to see that distance students were well supported. Both groups of students have access to a large range of support resources: the library, learning support, student associations, counselling services, academic guidance, career fairs, workshops, disability support, target group support people and a range of printed resources. Ninety–six percent of distance students have access to computers and for face-to-face students there are computer laboratories and wireless network facilities. All students can have access to the university learning management system. Staff are supported to work with both faceto-face and distance students. Professional development courses on face-to-face and distance teaching are available, as is support for staff developing distance and on-line courses. The recent appointment of an e-learning support person tasked specifically with helping staff manage the interface between pedagogy and technology demonstrated the commitment to the integration of online learning within the programme. The two student groups (face-to-face and distance) although different have a number of commonalities. The students in the face-to-face delivery tend to be younger students many of whom are school leavers. However, there has been an increasing number of mature students
in the face-to-face group in recent years. While the majority of this mature age group are women there are always some career change males. Approximately twenty percent of the face-to-face group will be males. The distance students are, almost exclusively, women who are married and have children. The age range of this group is usually early thirties to late forties. All the students, regardless of age or gender, have been through a selection process and all have articulated a strong interest in teaching. Initial teacher education programmes need to develop content, context and practice knowledge. However, the need, particularly at the primary school level, is not for compartmentalized courses. Rather, interdisciplinary content knowledge needs to be integrated with interwoven knowledge of children, society, learning and classroom contexts. Making and keeping connections between all the interwoven strands of a programme is a complex task. Most initial teacher education initiatives that aim for integration and the use of blended learning have done so only at a course or groupof-courses level. For blended learning to be successfully incorporated into the delivery of the redesigned programme described, all the complexities discussed so far had to be recognized. The subsequent implementation process unfolded over two years. That implementation process encouraged intensive debate and consultation. The process was challenging but ultimately resulted in a programme that is innovative in content and delivery.
FOUNDTIONSFOR THE REDESIGN An Evidence Base FOR BBLENDED Three areas were identified as particularly relevant to the redesign work. Knowledge of learners and a commitment to adult education principles provided the first foundational plank, on the basis that undergraduate students are, or at least are
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becoming, adult learners. The second arose from recognition of the value of learning communities within the programme – a recognition that was underpinned by an understanding of developments in ICTs. Finally, data gathered over many years from surveys of students in the distance delivered option provided rich information. Those survey data had consistently confirmed the value of learning communities and the support they provided for student learning and engagement. In all three areas the university had staff teaching and researching in the field. Because of their foundational nature, each of these areas is discussed independently in the following three sections.
Adult Learning In redesigning the initial teacher education programme a decision was made to more explicitly acknowledge the students as adults and commit to treating them as adult learners. That decision then set up a flow on effect that was a force in shaping decisions about delivery. While it is agreed that adult learners cannot be regarded as an homogenous group (Imel, 1998; Thompson, 1998) the literature on adult learners does provide some guidance on principles that have been found to be effective when working with adults. A number of broad principles drawn from adult education literature were used as a guide in the redesign process. It is generally accepted that adult students will bring to their study a rich diversity of prior experience (Mezirow, 1997). As a programme purporting to promote adult learning principles it was thus important to regard all members of the students group as knowledgeable and having something to contribute (Jerram, 2002). Brookfield (1995) has noted that there are risks in this. Experience is culturally and historically framed and must not be uncritically affirmed. These points suggested a reconsideration of assessment tasks – something that became an ongoing consideration during the design stage of the programme.
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Acceptance of student knowledge brings with it recognition that the teacher is not the only source of knowledge (Jerram, 2002). This sat reasonably comfortably with the constructivist approach to learning that was already promoted within existing programmes. However, enacting that commitment in university-based classrooms is an on-going challenge and particularly a challenge for teaching approaches. As well as bringing rich life experience adult students often bring experience of learning and a preference for one style of learning over another (Mezirow, 1997). Recognizing the students’ experience of learning and possible learning style preferences meant developing variety – in teaching approaches, in activities and in assessment. The high level of motivation and the range of motivations adult learners frequently bring to their study has long been seen as a hallmark of adult study (Houle, 1961). Adult learners are regularly referred to as being self-directed (Garrison, 1997), ready to learn, and choosing to learn (Knowles, 1984). Cahoon (1998) notes that these last three characteristics have proved important in supporting adults into internet based learning. That motivation means students need to see clear links from their study to their goal of becoming a teacher. Adult learners are commonly said to be task or problem oriented to learning (Knowles, 1990). Again we see the need to carefully plan activities and assessment tasks to draw on this orientation. Reflective journals and real life projects and assessment that involve the students (Jerram, 2002) are examples of activities that adult learners find worthwhile. The journals and real-life activities are a comfortable match with approaches to initial teacher education where reflective practice is promoted (Rodgers & Scott, 2008) and field experience is a requirement (New Zealand Teachers’ Council, 2005) and a valued aspect of programmes. Assessment has already been noted as a development area in the redesigned programme. The
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encouragement of student participation and use of group work is often considered valuable and to be encouraged when working with adults (Jerram, 2002). Group work has long been a feature of initial teacher education programmes. Large group teaching approaches such as lectures have not been favoured. Use of seminars, tutorials and student presentations for face-to-face students has promoted group-work and the value of small groups in the distance programme had been well researched. Finally, adult learners are said to be more disposed to the concept of lifelong learning (Brookfield, 2000). An espoused aim of the redesigned programme is to promote on-going professional development. There is formal commitment to such continuing professional education at the highest level, most visible in the New Zealand Ministry of Education’s ongoing funding of professional development programmes for teachers.
Larning Communities Historically, adult education developed a view of the adult learner that sprang from roots in the work of Knowles and Tough with an emphasis on the individuality, even self containment of the adult learner. Aspects of that historical view have since been extensively critiqued. For example, Merriam (2001) wrote: Based on humanistic psychology, Knowles’s version of andragogy presents the individual learner as one who is autonomous, free, and growth oriented. Critics have pointed out that there is little or no acknowledgement that every person has been shaped by his or her culture and society, that every person has a history and that social institutions and structures define, to a large extent, the learning transaction irrespective of the individual learner (p. 7). Recognition of the social foundations and nature of much learning is most vividly and recently seen in the in the concept of learning communities.
Arising from work in the area of situated learning, Lave and Wenger (1991) developed the notion of communities of practice and this work was extended extensively by Wenger (1998). Wenger sets out a perspective of communities in which they represent “shared histories of learning” (p. 86) that arise from three dimensions of practice within the community: mutual engagement, a shared repertoire, and joint enterprise. A community of practice then is “a group of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing basis” (Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder, 2004, p. 4.). Understandings of communities and their relationship with formal learning have been developed most fully in the area of online education. For example, the work of Garrison, of Rovai, and of Swan (see later this section) has extensively examined the nature and value of online learning communities. When students are engaged in online study a stratum of social interaction with other students is overlaid on the foundation of personal autonomy and independent study. Students will seek to integrate and structure the range of encounters that occur online. In doing so they will create their own discursive space – in the language of online education, their online community. Applying the notion of communities of practice to formal learning places constraints on some aspects of that notion. The open definition of an online learning community as “a group of people connected via technology-mediated communication, who actively engage one another in collaborative learner-centred activities to intentionally foster the creation of knowledge, while sharing a number of values and practices” (Ludwig-Hardman, 2003), ignores the boundaries that formal learning situations typically place on those engaged in such learning. Wilson, LudwigHardman, Thorman and Dunlap (2004) argue
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more generally that the following four parameters constrain community formation within any formal course-based learning environments and yet set up the conditions for particular learning activities to transpire. The four parameters are that: • • • •
participation is usually required to obtain a desired end; students do not choose their classmates or instructor; students must commit to engagement over a fixed length of time; participants must make an explicit effort to connect with others.
Despite, or perhaps because of these constraints, learning communities do develop in formal learning environments and provide valuable support for student learning. In current higher educational contexts such communities are usually based around the use of Internet-based technologies to enable mutual engagement in shared tasks within a collaborative learning environment. Early work in online environments showed that the development of a supportive network brings with it commitment to group goals, motivation to learn, and encouragement in the construction of shared knowledge (Dede, 1996) and that community members have a greater sense of well-being and happiness and a larger set of colleagues to call on for support in times of need (Wellman & Guila, 1999). More recently, Rovai (2002) argues that communities can develop amongst groups of online learners and that they are characterized by “feelings of connectedness among community members and commonality of learning expectations and goals” (p. 322), and that “students with stronger sense of community tend to possess greater perceived levels of cognitive learning” (p.330). In terms of knowledge building and support for learning, Meyer (2003) reports that students working together in online environments will spend more time on class objectives and use that time to
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reflect on class material and ask questions about it. Additional research is found in work related to a prominent model of online communities in formal learning environments - the Community of Inquiry model (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000). This work demonstrates the importance of three types of ‘presence’ – social, cognitive and teaching - in the development of online communities and the impact that each has on learning and affective support (T. Anderson, Rourke, Garrison, & Archer, 2001; Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2001; Shea, Swan, Li, & Pickett, 2005). Although the importance of learning communities – particularly online learning communities –has been amply demonstrated in the literature, specific attempts to create such communities bring their own unique challenges and results. Challenges may include the volume of posts, the issue of lurking or vicarious participation, social maintenance of groups, even the mundane problem of unreliable technologies. With the particular programme we consider in this chapter, there was a ten year history of a largely successful attempt to create a sense of learning community online for the programme participants in the distance option. Although that sense of successful history was important in the redesign of the programme, the findings of research into the interactive aspect of the existing distance programme were a major driver of the new design and a significant part of the evidence base drawn on during planning. Those findings are reported next.
What We Knew: Looking Back to Lok Forward There was significant knowledge of the distance option of the ‘old’ programme that arose from a series of evaluations and other studies. The distance option was first offered in 1997 at a time when initial teacher education by distance was very new and Internet based delivery of courses was only just being adopted on any scale. Specific requirements for evaluations, particularly
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of the web-based component of the course, were built into the plans for the ongoing review of the distance option. The evaluations of the ways in which web-based course components affected the learning of and support for distance students were conducted in each of the first three years of the programme (1997-9) and again in 2003 and 2006, effectively capturing the responses of three different cohorts of students. On each occasion the evaluation involved the entire body of students in the programme, inviting them to respond to a Likert scale survey with some open-text response questions. Response rates ranged from a low of 40% in 2006 (n=277) to a high of 75% in 1999 (n=128). In addition an intensive qualitative study of the nature and extent of interaction in text-based online environments was undertaken using the distance programme as the site of the study. Twenty five students participated in hour long interviews, with 15 participating in follow-up interviews. Those studies are reported in full in (B. Anderson, 2004, 2005, 2006; B. Anderson & Simpson, 2004) and are the basis of this section. The authors of this chapter were joint academic co-ordinators of the programme until 1999. The context for distance study was very much aligned with the nature of the bounded learning communities (Wilson et al., 2004) in what became known as a paced asynchronous mode of delivery. Distance students were sent print material (course readings and study guides) at the start of each semester and WebCT was used for web-delivered components and online interaction. Activities written to provide the basis for online discussion were set out in study guides. The general approach across courses in the programme was that small group discussion (five to seven people) would occur first normally with timeframes of 7 to 10 days. Subsequently, groups would report to a whole class forum and additional discussion would occur there. Students were required to engage in discussion. Students in the programme considered themselves to be a part of a community of learners.
The expression of this sense of community was evident in the frequent depiction of themselves as “all being in the same boat”. The mere fact of togetherness does not imply community. Students also spoke of three factors that bound them together: “the realization of a common goal; acknowledgement that students need to be supported through the same arduous process of study and change; and recognition that they have a common background” (B. Anderson, 2004). The sense of shared enterprise and mutual engagement is clear. Evaluations showed that students perceived the web-based course components as contributing markedly to their learning during the course. The origin of the contribution to learning was the careful construction of learning activities that were engaging and seen to be of value. Students reported that those activities afforded opportunities to engage in collaboration. Affordances are one thing; their realisation is another. Students reported high levels of agreement about the existence of collaboration in the course and a large majority reported that online collaborations with others provided them with points of view about course material that they might not have otherwise considered. The paced asynchronous nature of the online communication raises questions about the extent to which it can support reflective discussion. Tension can arise because each discussion has to move at a reasonable pace to enable adequate exchange, synthesis and integration of ideas in the time allotted. While students reported taking time to reflect, they also noted the importance of quick responses to messages along with the difficulty of staying on top of the flow of discussion. In addition, students developed strategies to cope with the large flow of messages within the timeframes allotted for discussions. Selective reading and careful time management were prominent strategies. Affective support for students, by each other, was a major outcome of the online interaction.
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Nearly all students reported that the interaction that occurred online was the basis of the development of strong interpersonal links and a source of support in times of stress. However they differentiated clearly between working in small groups and working within the whole class framework. In particular, students felt that they knew, and received support from, members of their small groups to a much greater extent than was the case with the class as a whole. The lessons learnt from the ten year history of the distance option provide a base from which to move forward. Staff strengths in the design of activities and the moderation of discussions have both contributed to the ongoing success of the distance option. These strengths have been underpinned by provision of ongoing opportunities for professional development. Areas of concern reported by students – especially regarding occasional non-participation – have been noted and strategies developed to enable staff and the groups involved to engage with the issue. Aligned with this background is the knowledge that even face-to-face students are distant from lecturers and each other for much of their learning time. The lessons learnt with the distance students can and should be applied to consideration of ways face-to-face students can be engaged with and supported through their learning. The next section of this chapter describes the blended learning environment that was developed in response to the consideration of the foundational evidence base and the national and institutional contextual challenges.
DESIGNING Blended PROGR The first step in developing a blended approach to the delivery of the redesigned programme was to ask staff to consider three core components of their courses: those that had to be delivered in the face-to-face or virtual presence of the
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teacher; those that could be directed and guided by the teacher but not have the teacher present; and, those that the students would work on independently. This task served two major purposes. First, it helped to identify those times and spaces when teachers and students needed to be ‘present’ together and those when they did not. Second, it created a design environment in which there was considerable freedom to explore a wider range of activities for learning. The work of the first purpose – identifying times and spaces of teacher and student presence - diminished the disjunction between distance and face-to-face delivery. There was greater awareness and more gradual acceptance of the idea that for all students learning time beyond the (virtual or face-to-face) course contact time is conducted under the same conditions of distance. In essence, students are more often distance students than they are face-to-face students. Recognition of this fact was tempered with knowledge of the greater constraints facing those remote from a campus site, but the leap to this new acceptance broadened the range of possibilities for learning and teaching. Then staff were asked to identify the activities they would like to use (as opposed to those they had always used) in each of the delivery aspects. In considering this they were encouraged to ‘dream’ and not limit the possibilities. They were able to do this as they were experienced dual mode teachers and many of them, as indicated earlier, had developed individual media-rich activities to enhance their teaching. These had often been shared at in-house e-learning seminars. In addition, e-learning facilitators had been working with staff for a few years and presenting options, and they were available to respond to the ‘is this possible or what are the options’ questions. The outcome of this work was fruitful for the design process in several ways. It led to the development of teaching outlines for each course that recognized that the teacher did not have to be present for all the teaching time. Acknowl-
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edgement of learner independence and choice became embedded in the programme alongside recognition of times and activities where group work could be valuable. Finally, identification of a variety of media-rich activities that could be employed in delivery of the redesigned programme served to create greater opportunities for more authentic learning activities. The next step in developing a blended approach was to develop an online learning environment. A case was made to allow the redesigned programme to move from the university learning management system and adopt an open source system that more readily supported a constructivist approach to teaching and learning and was easily customisable. The case was accepted and the new learning management system adopted. The programme environment developed houses (a) an online learning environment for each individual course (b) a shared community site for all the students (distance and face-to-face) and (c) a development site for programme staff which supports their professional development needs and activities. The online learning environment for each individual course contains a combination of electronic resources which form the static content and a set of core communications tools that enable and accommodate the dynamic content of the course in the form of a variety of communicative interactions. The core tools include threaded asynchronous discussion forums, a synchronous text chat facility, a voice chat facility and an email facility. This combination of static and dynamic content allows teaching staff within the programme to create tasks that emphasise learning as an active, participative process in which ownership of the learning programme is shared amongst the community of participants. The community site for the programme provides a ‘gathering place’ for non-course-specific activity within the programme. Students engage in conversations ranging from the social (e.g. swapping recipes) to the strategic (e.g. advice from
more advanced students on pathways through the qualification). Being hosted online with the flexibility of time and place, the community accommodates both on campus and distance students and also provides important opportunities for various groups of stakeholders within the programme to share ideas and information, engage in meaningful dialogue, and create a culture of productive collegiality. The staff development site allows staff across campuses and sites to have convenient access to a variety of resources, including: key programme documents, background literature which supports key design principles, design templates and other supportive documentation. The core communications tools within the site also support the collaborative work of design teams operating across multiple sites.
Resources and Activities Valuing experience, building experience and learning from experience are central in the redesigned programme. There is a strong emphasis on experiential learning grounded in teaching performance (virtual and field based). Students are encouraged to capture (preferably digitally) examples of challenges teachers or children have posed for them during teaching experience. These can then be used in either the teacher supported or the self directed time in courses. These studentcaptured resources sit alongside video material (delivered by DVD to ensure access for all) capturing classroom-based aspects of teaching that illustrate key concepts, pose problems or act as starters for discussion. Teaching is a profession that requires collaboration between practitioners so a focus on social learning through discussions and group work is promoted. This aspect of the redesign was approached with some confidence given the knowledge and experience of the previous distance option. A focus on purposeful engagement through group work that promotes collaboration, negotiation of meaning, questioning and reflecting is the
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focus in the use of online discussion forums. The control that is given to students in online forums rather than being a concern will be encouraged as a way of recognizing independence and students’ responsibility for their own learning. The communicative activities in the online forums, such as debates or discussions in response to questions posed about reading material, are complemented by a range of other activities that support and encourage student learning. In Laurillard’s (2001) terms, activities designed included those that were: experiential, such as role-plays; assimilative, such as viewing video clips on DVDs; and productive, as in the creation of artworks, drama productions and written assignments. This blending of activities for all students is made possible by recognition of the commonalities of the learning contexts of the distance and face-to-face students.
Assessment Purposeful engagement with meaningful tasks was the key principle in developing assessment for the redesigned programme. Alongside this principle sat the requirements of the university assessment policy. That policy stated that assessment should reflect the material that is most important for students to learn, enhance learning and support instructional practice, and, support every student’s opportunity to learn, understand and use the course material. Together these aspects provided a powerful mandate for change. Setting out to change assessment practice meant looking for new ways for students to demonstrate competence and new ways of displaying that competence. Assessment across the programme was designed to allow students to demonstrate growth as a teacher. In the assessment process, students are asked to take a central role in capturing illustrations of their growth and documenting and reflecting on their progress. Student portfolios were accepted as the major
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means of collecting and subsequently choosing and displaying those illustrations, and so a key feature of the supportive digital infrastructure of the redesigned programme became the electronic portfolio (e-portfolio). The blend of activities, media and technologies that is required to give rise to the eventual portfolio can only be satisfactorily envisaged and operationalised within a digital environment. The e-portfolio serves two purposes within the programme. First, during the programme each student will use the e-portfolio to portray their development as a teacher. Second, drawing on the range of artefacts and understandings captured throughout the course of their study, each student is able to create a showcase portfolio that will help to present himself or herself as a beginning teacher. Despite the links to formal assessment, the goal of portfolio development is strongly student centred. While a framework for the portfolio will be provided and there will be some formal checkpoints to ensure that progress is being recorded, students will be encouraged to develop their portfolio as a personal record. Recognising that students bring multiple strengths to their work as beginning teachers, and develop many more, they will be encouraged to create multiple views of their teacher identity and craft their portfolio in ways that allow them to best present themselves. In particular, student produced multi-media resources are encouraged as ways of demonstrating understandings of teaching and learning concepts. Decisions were made about the assessment genres that will be used across the programme. These decisions were aligned with the principles of adult learning that underpinned the redesign process. Assessment points were reduced and an emphasis on developing rich authentic tasks promoted. In addition to the e-portfolio, modelling teacher performance (e.g. resource production, cooperative work, simulated pedagogy) and seminar contribution (e.g. oral presentation, background
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paper) were identified as appropriate ways of assessing student performance. More traditional summative assessment forms such as tests, exams, and quizzes were not favoured.
Te Enabler of Redesign The use and availability of ICTs was the enabler for much of the change in the programme. While the distance students had previously had to meet requirements for access to and availability of several technologies, that requirement was ultimately extended to include the face-to-face students. Equity aspects of this decision were discussed extensively. The requirement for student ownership of computers and digital cameras, with access to video cameras and the Internet (wirelessly preferred, to enable ongoing on-campus access beyond the confines of cabled buildings) opened the opportunities to have students engage effortlessly with each other across a greater range of times and spaces. Digital resources abound in the virtual environment of the modern campus. The requirement for all students to have access to those resources has enriched the learning possibilities for students. The wireless campus environment in which the new programme takes place allows, for example, face-to-face students to access journal databases and class resources from within their seminar room, lecture theatre, or student cafe. This freedom has been available to distance students for a number of years – within their virtual classroom they have had access to all resources as they are working, independently and together. In addition, the ability to network and collaborate on group work in directed and independent learning times is enhanced through use of ICTs – the discontinuities of learning disappear and learning in a course, with others, becomes a continuous activity for all students. The previously under-privileged face-toface students are finally making up ground.
RECOMMENDTIONSFOR BLENDEDrning RREDESIGN This section pulls together key ideas and presents them as recommendations for the practice of redesign. Seven recommendations are broken into four groups, reflecting, respectively, the importance of educational principles, a programmatic approach, the approach to staff engagement and finally quality assurance. To date, the principles and structures for programme redesign that we describe above have been enacted during the design of the first year of the programme. Inevitably challenges to the principles and structures will be made and changes to the process of design will occur. Some of those changes will come from enhancements as staff become more at ease with new ways of teaching. Other changes will reflect student feedback. Given that the model was developed over time and is the product of research and understanding of the key educational fields that informed the design, change is likely to be incremental rather than revolutionary. The judgement that change will be incremental arises from the pedagogical basis of redesign. Although the new blended programme is heavily reliant on the use of ICTs, its foundation is on the bedrock of educational principles, and history shows that these change only slowly. Revolutions in technology are likely to create additional affordances for learning opportunities but these opportunities will be gauged against the programme’s educational underpinnings rather than the promises that technology brings with it. Our first three recommendations reflect the importance of acknowledging and articulating educational principles for redesign. • •
Recommendation One: Redesign must proceed from educational principles, not the potential of technologies. Recommendation Two: The foundational educational principles for a blended ap-
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•
proach must be clearly articulated as the basis for programme redesign. Recommendation Three: Allow for incremental development during implementation, using the foundational principles as a point of reference for consideration of emerging technologies and new pedagogies.
Redesign is about change and that change should be programme-wide. Blended learning is also about change – and change is threatening and often slowly brought about in institutions. Programme wide changes are particularly threatening yet offer greatest potential for change through the greater range of possibilities they present. For students there should exist a programme that is richer, and recognises and values them as learners. The blurring of the lines between distance and face-to-face students offers greater flexibility for both staff and students to explore the range of perspectives students bring to the programme. In doing so they should gain greater awareness of the diversity of New Zealand classrooms and an increased knowledge of approaches to teaching in that diverse environment. Our fourth recommendation urges programme-level redesign. •
Recommendation Four: Where possible redesign at a programme level to ensure a richer more holistic environment for student learning.
To bring about programme redesign requires additional support at all levels from a range of groups within an institution and work to gain and maintain that support is essential. Academic managers must see the benefits arising from the new programme, IT managers must understand how essential their support is, academic staff must recognise the potential for supporting their scholarly work and students must see how a new programme will be of improved quality and allow them to meet their study goals more
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easily. External stakeholders must be consulted and engaged with programme redesign from an early stage. Embedding blended learning within a teacher education programme requires that academic staff have adequate support. This support is needed throughout the redesign process – design and subject matter expertise, skills in and knowledge of distance and face-to-face delivery, knowledge of e-learning developments and a commitment to keep-up-date in that field are all essential components of the process. For academic and support staff, a key aspect of the redesign was the decision to work in teams - both in the course development process and subsequently in the teaching of that course. This collaborative approach, allied with the use of ICTs means there are opportunities to expand the range of teaching possibilities, and, although challenging at times, encourages the reconsideration and review of what is taught. Both content and method of teaching become relatively open areas for exploration. Two recommendations relate to staff and their work in redesign. •
•
Recommendation Five: Pay particular attention to staff support and staff development especially in the early stages of the redesign process Recommendation Six: Encourage redesign by teams of people rather than individuals. A team approach, mixing lecturers and support staff provides support for individuals and brings a range of perspectives to bear on redesign problems.
Ongoing evaluation is an essential part that assures the quality of the programme and the redesign process. With the programme described here there are established practices to draw on at an institutional level. Three processes help to assure quality: programme reviews are mandated to occur every five years; a review is necessary
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once the first cohort of students has graduated; and, student evaluations are conducted. In addition there are plans to continue the regular survey of students that provided the research base mentioned previously. Recommendation Seven: Quality assurance processes must be enacted to monitor the quality of the programme and ensure that it meets the goals of the redesign process.
IMPLICTIONSFORBLENDED LE TTE EDUCTION Central to consideration of blended learning in teacher education is the contribution that blended learning makes to the goals of teacher education programmes. Our concern is not for the future of blended learning, but rather for the future of teacher education. Engagement with blended learning undoubtedly provides a set of tools and practices that expand the opportunities available to teacher educators to meet the challenges they have faced for a number of years. Those challenges start with students who, as FeimanNemser (2001, p.1027) puts it “must demonstrate skills and abilities that they do not yet have and can only gain by beginning to do what they do not yet understand”. Blended learning expands the opportunities for students to undertake those demonstrations. It expands them in terms of time and space, enabling the creation of artefacts that can be distributed across space and explored across time. This expansion necessarily brings the social and learning worlds of students into closer proximity. It highlights the centrality of technology as a facilitating mechanism in this intermingling of learning and (social) life and leads to a blurring of boundaries that are often rigidly drawn between these dimensions. The caution to be observed is that a new divide, based on ability to use ICTs, is not embedded in programmes of learning.
Teacher education needs to reflect the integrated and holistic requirements and demands of teaching. Meeting this need requires that redesign must occur at the level of the programme of study, working to achieve integration across individual courses. Saying that we need a programmatic approach is not the same as requiring integration, yet both are important. The first says that all aspects of a programme must be involved in the creation of evidence that demonstrates students are developing or have developed an holistic understanding. The second says that the programme must be seen as a coherent whole; that the conceptual framework on which the programme is based emerges within the displays of evidence to demonstrate that students have indeed been able to weave together the threads of their programme of teacher education. Achieving a programmatic approach that is simultaneously integrative would be extremely difficult without engagement with ICTs and the possibilities that such engagement brings. A programmatic approach also brings with it the clear implication that the current typical model of teaching is considerably weakened. No longer can (university) teachers operate in isolation and regard courses as their own. Working in teams becomes essential. The end of an initial teacher education programme does not represent the end of teacher education for those involved. The connectedness of students that is developed through their programme environment transplants easily to the world of teaching. Many networks, virtual and real, already exist for teachers. Throughout their professional lives teachers are increasingly connected. Teacher professional development is seen as ongoing. The concept of a lifelong (electronic) portfolio is gaining currency. The necessity to engage in lifelong learning, to collaborate and to work in learning communities needs to start with initial teacher education. Clearly the outcome will be greater integration of personal technologies with institutional ones, and greater diversity of the ways in which interpersonal communica-
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Redesigning Initial Teacher Education
tion occurs in support of ongoing professional development.
CONCLUSION Blended learning appears to offer a great deal when used with the goal of enhancing teacher education programmes. It can bring together students from all locations and a range of backgrounds and can provide a media-rich, collaborative, personalised and interactive learning environment. Its affordances remain possibilities until given substance within the confines of a particular programme. The considerable barriers to implementation of blended learning are met in organisational, personal and technical domains. Responses to these barriers can be found to enable redesign to proceed, but the best response will ultimately be effective evaluation of the “transformations resulting from the use of blended learning approaches” (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004, p.104). While traditional indicators such as retention and pass rates may prove to be useful, the more difficult but perhaps more rewarding work will ask about how students are learning and, in our case, whether they are more prepared for their role as teachers and the continued learning that role implies. This is a lot to require of a single innovation, but it must happen, to ensure the students of today are effective teachers of tomorrow.
REFERENCES Anderson, B. (2004). Dimensions of learning and support in an online community. Open Learning, 19(2), 183-190. Anderson, B. (2005). Interaction and control in online communities. In K. W. Lai (Ed.), eLearning communities. Dunedin, New Zealand: University of Otago Press.
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Anderson, B. (2006). Writing power into online discussion. Computers and Composition, 23, 108-124. Anderson, B., & Simpson, M. (2004). Learning and affective support in small group and class contexts. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(3). Retrieved February 7, 2005 from http://www.irrodl.org/content/v5.3/ander-simp.html Anderson, T., Rourke, L., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching presence in a computer conferencing environment. Retrieved July 12, 2004, from http://www.aln.org/alnweb/ journal/jaln-vol5issue2v2.htm Brookfield, S. (1995). Adult learning: an overview. In A. Tuinjman (Ed.), International encyclopedia of education. Retrieved June 28, 2008, from http://www.fsu.edu/~elps/ae/download/ade5385/ Brookfield.pdf Brookfield, S. (2000). Adult cognition as a dimension of lifelong learning. In J. Field & M. Leicester (Eds.), Lifelong learning: Education across the lifespan (pp. 89-101). London: Routledge Falmer. Cahoon, B. (1998). Adult learning and the Internet: Themes and things to come. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 78, 71-76. Dede, C. (1996). The evolution of distance education: emerging technologies and distributed learning. The American Journal of Distance Education, 10(2), 4-36. Feiman Nemser, S. (2001). From preparation to practice: Designing a continuum to strengthen and sustain teaching. Teachers College Record, 103, 1013 -1055. Garrison, D. R. (1997). Self-directed learning: Toward a comprehensive model. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(1), 18-33.
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Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2-3), 87-105.
Ludwig-Hardman, S. (2003). Case study: Instructional design strategies that contribute to the development of online learning community. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado, Denver, CO.
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2001). Critical thinking, cognitive presence and computer conferencing in distance education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 1-17.
Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: Pillars of adult learning theory. In S. B. Merriam (Ed.), The new update on adult learning theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. No. 89 (pp. 3-14). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95-105. Houle, C. O. (1961). The inquiring mind. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. Imel, S. (1998). Using adult learning principles in adult basic and literacy education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED425336). Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University, Center on Education and Training for Employment. Jerram, C. (2002). Âpplying adult education principles to university teaching. Paper presented at the Annual conference of the Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia, Perth, Australia. Knowles, M. S. (1984). Introduction: The art and science of helping adults learn. In M. S. Knowles & Associates (Ed.), Andragogy in action. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Knowles, M. S. (1990). The adult learner. A neglected species (4th ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing. Laurillard, D. (2001). Rethinking university teaching (2nd ed.). London: RoutledgeFalmer. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Meyer, K. A. (2003). Face-to-face versus threaded discussions: The role of time and higher-order thinking. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 7(3), 55-65. Retrieved January 23, 2008 from http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/ jaln/v7n3/v7n3_meyer.asp Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformative learning: Theory to practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 74, 5-8. Ministry of Education (2006). Enabling the 21st Century Learner: An e-Learning Action Plan for schools, 2006-2010.: Wellington, New Zealand: Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand Curriculum. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education. New Zealand Teachers’ Council. (2005). Guidelines for the approval of teacher education programmes. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Teachers’ Council. Rodgers, C. R., & Scott, K. H. (2008). The development of the personal self and professional identity in learning to teach. In M. CochranSmith, S. Feiman-Nemser, D. J. McIntyre & K. E. Demers (Eds.), Handbook of research on teacher education (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge and the Association of Teacher Educators. Rovai, A. P. (2002). Sense of community, perceived cognitive learning, and persistence in asynchro-
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nous learning networks. The Internet and Higher Education, 5(4), 319-332.
responses for quality outcomes. Madison, WI: Atwood.
Shea, P., Swan, K., Li, C. S., & Pickett, A. (2005). Developing learning community in online asynchronous college courses: The role of teaching presence. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 9(4). Retrieved January 27, 2008 from http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/jaln/v9n4/ v9n4_shea.asp
Wellman, B., & Guila, M. (1999). The network basis of social support: a network is more than the sum of its ties. In B. Wellman (Ed.), Networks in the global village (pp. 83-118). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Simpson, M. (2003). Distance delivery of preservice teacher education: Lessons for good practice from twenty-one international programs. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA. Stacey, E., & Gerbic, P. (2007). Teaching for blended learning - Research perspectives from on-campus and distance students [Online version]. Educational and Information Technologies, 12(3), 165-174. Thompson, M. M. (1998). Distance learners in higher education. In C. C. Gibson (Ed.), Distance learners in higher education: Institutional
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Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. M. (2004). Cultivating communities of practice: A guide to managing knowledge. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Wilson, B. G., Ludwig-Hardman, S., Thorman, C. L., & Dunlap, J. C. (2004). Bounded community: Designing and facilitating learning communities in formal courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(3). Retrieved 17 November, 2004 from http://www. irrodl.org/content/v5.3/wilson.html
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Chapter V
Integrating New Technologies into Blended Learning Environments Ana A. Carvalho University of Minho, Portugal Zdena Lustigova Charles University, Czech Republic Frantisek Lustig Charles University, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT This chapter describes two European projects that respond to blended learning by integrating innovative technologies into blended learning environments. The first sections describes Portuguese research into the use of podcasts, delivered through the learning management system, Blackboard through which the teacher provided education students with instruction about online discussions and feedback on their online postings and presentations. The students preferred the teacher’s voice in the podcasts to written text and this section provides strategies for teachers to effectively integrate podcasts into their blended learning practice. The chapter then describes research from the Czech Republic on electronic labs (ELabs) through a project that enables the handling of real objects in science experiments by students at remote locations. This section provides an example of how blended learning can involve a blend of real and virtual objects.
Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Integrating New Technologies into Blended Learning Environments
INTRODUCTION Blended learning has been defined in complex ways but generally assumes a combination of real time and online interaction, often through the medium of integrated learning management systems. In investigating blended learning, Macdonald (2006) surveyed practitioners internationally and found that most blended the use of face-to-face interaction with the use of a learning management system though she did find some teachers were beginning to experiment with the possibilities that broadband Internet access made possible and using audio and video with such systems. Such use of innovative blending of audio and visual resources can help to motivate learners and improve their learning possibilities and the following chapter provides European research that investigates and explains how such innovations can be integrated into the blended learning process. This chapter first discusses research into the pedagogical implications of podcasts integrated into university courses in Portugal and provides detailed research results identifying the importance and potential of podcasts blended within the use of learning management systems. A project using an innovative blending of scientific experimentation through real observations and presentations with virtual/electronic laboratories (e-labs) in the Czech Republic is then described and the implications of these types of media in blended learning is then discussed.
Pedagogical Implications of Pdcasts in Blended Lrning In higher education a blended learning mode is more and more often used, combining online with face-to-face sessions. More studies are devoted to interaction in classes and in online learning, proving the importance of this mode as a way of engaging students and involving them
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in knowledge building. This part of the chapter describes a study about the use of podcasts in blended learning courses which were used for different purposes. Students’ reactions to the acceptance, type and length of podcasts were researched and analysed The concept of blended learning and studies about the use of podcasts in learning are reviewed, followed by a description of the study conducted in two courses, one with undergraduate students (n=14) and another one with graduate students (n=25). The students’ acceptance of podcasts led to further research to study the impact of the teacher’s voice effect in motivating and guiding students during their learning online instead of through use of a written text as well as the relation between podcasts’ type, length and students’ engagement in learning.
Ba Blended Learning The concept of blended learning is defined in a variety of ways with different dimensions of the blend identified by Singh and Reed (2001), Driscoll (2002), Osguthorpe and Graham (2003), and Oliver and Trigwell (2005), among others. Singh and Reed (2001) recognized that a blended learning program may combine one or more of six dimensions: offline and online learning; selfpaced, live and collaborative learning; structured and unstructured learning; custom content with off-the-shelf content; work and learning; and ingredients of the blend: synchronous physical formats, synchronous online formats, and selfpaced, asynchronous formats. Driscoll (2002) pointed out four different ways in which blended learning can occur: a combination or mix of modes of web-based technology to accomplish an educational goal, a mix of various pedagogical approaches (e.g., constructivism, behaviourism, cognitivism) to produce an optimal learning out-
Integrating New Technologies into Blended Learning Environments
come with or without instructional technology, a combination of any form of instructional technology with face-to face instructor led training, and a combination of instructional technology with actual job-related tasks in order to create an effective mix of learning and working. Osguthorpe and Graham (2003) considered three types of mixing in a blended course: learning activities, students and instructors. They suggested that blended learning environments vary according to the following goals: pedagogical richness, access to knowledge, social interaction, personal agency, cost effectiveness, and ease of revision. Oliver and Trigwell (2005) identified seven different blends, ranging from e-learning with traditional learning; online learning with face-to-face; mixing media; mixing contexts, for example, instruction and work; mixing theories of learning; mixing learning objectives; to mixing pedagogic approaches. The authors stressed the importance of specifying the context. In conclusion, we use Stacey and Gerbic’s (2007) perspective: “[t]he term “blended learning” is being used to describe the combination of modes of learning and teaching made possible through the mediation of ICT” (p. 166). Most commonly the term is used to characterize the mixing of online with face-to-face learning (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004; Bliuc, Goodyear & Ellis, 2007; Ginns & Ellis, 2007; Stacey & Gerbic, 2007; Garrison & Vaughan, 2008; So & Brush, 2008) and is the concept used in this chapter. Moreover the blend of teaching and learning methodologies and strategies should be inherent in the learning and teaching processes, as diversity may stimulate the students to learn. Masie (2006) also states that “[a]ll learning is blended learning” (p. 22). He suggests that the recollections most people have about a good class in college refer to a situation where the teacher used a combination of: formal lectures, classroom discussion, homework, development of papers, group projects, assessment or exams, and one to one coaching during office hours. Bliuc et al.
(2007) stressed the importance of both the quality of communication and human interaction, stating that blended learning describes learning activities that involve a systematic combination of face-to-face interactions and technologicallymediated interactions between students, teachers and learning resources. The use of online environments has become accepted as a medium for learning in higher education, initially in distance education but now, more often, also integrated in on campus education. The rapid emergence of digital technologies has had a huge impact on the possibilities for learning in the distributed environment (Graham, 2006). The author mentions a rapid growth of distributed learning environments and its convergence with face-to face learning environments. ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) provides flexibility of time and place and facilitates interactive social learning online. Online learning facilitates the creation of a community of inquiry beyond the classroom (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). Learners can be independent of space and time but yet be together. Blended learning is an opportunity for rethinking and redesigning the teaching and learning relationship (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). To Garrison and Vaughan (2008) the key assumptions of a blended learning design are: thoughtfully integrating face-to-face and online learning, fundamentally rethinking the course design to optimize student engagement, and restructuring and replacing traditional class contact hours. In a blended learning mode learners may be connected online anytime and anywhere, without being time, place, or situation bound. It allows asynchronous communication and synchronous sessions online which may reduce the impact of transactional distance, as Moore (1997) characterized it. However, the time spent in face-to-face classes and online may be organized in different ways, e.g.,( i) the face-to-face period may be at the beginning, middle and at the end of the course, (ii) it may be only at the beginning and at the end
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of the course or (iii) it may be one session face-to face per week followed by activities online. Even the duration of the face-to-face sessions may take two to three hours, to a full day, weekend or other residential period. For the purpose of the study reported in this section of the chapter the term blended learning means the combination of online support through a LMS (Learning Management Systems) Blackboard and face-to-face classes.
Podcasts in Learning Podcasts are a recent Web tool that have acquired great popularity very quickly. They are digital audio programs that can be subscribed to and downloaded by listeners via RSS (Really Simple Syndication) (Kaplan-Leiserson, 2005). The word podcasting combines iPod with broadcasting. Podcasting, as Campbell (2005) pointed out, is easy in terms of publication, subscription, and use across multiple environments, “typically over computer speakers, over a car stereo, and over headphones—all while the listener is walking or exercising or driving or traveling or otherwise moving about” (p. 34). Kaplan-Leiserson (2005) draws attention to the implications of podcasts for learning, such as to assist auditory learners, to provide another channel for material review, to assist non-native speakers allowing them to review recordings of events as many times as necessary for understanding, to provide feedback to learners, to replace full classroom or online sessions when content simply requires delivery. Seitzinger (2006) highlights the relevance of podcasts “[f]or the student who is not a strong writer, podcasts enable him to choose another medium for reflection.” Moreover, she also stresses that podcasts help in establishing social presence, which is a very important aspect in online learning, as So and Brush (2008) reported. Audio has long been used in distance education. Durbridge (1984), based on studies at the United Kingdom Open University, identified the
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following educational advantages: students like audio learning because they like responding to sound (understanding spoken language, analyzing music, hearing the professor’s voice); listening in on conversations; being “talked through” tasks in the lab, workshop or on the computer; hearing facts, discussions and opinions from experts in their field; and being encouraged by the voice of somebody they know and respect. The human voice modulates the frequencies and adjusts intonation, inflexion, phrasing, pacing, volume, loudness and timbre which distinguish speech from text (Power, 1990; Lee & Chan, 2007). Woods and Keeler (2001) reported that the use of audio messages delivered by email have contributed to increasing student participation in group discussions and in more favorable student perceptions of student/faculty relationships. Lee and Chan (2007) explored the potential of using podcasts to maximize interest and appeal to undergraduate and posgraduate students, both oncampus as well as distance education students in Australia. They used 3 to 5 minutes audio clips, structured as talkback radio-style segments. The podcast episodes include: a broad overview of each topic to prepare students for the core learning activities; a summary to provide revision and reinforcement; assignments tips, hints and post assignments feedback from the lecturer; and an interview with the author of the textbook. A new episode was released every week, over nine weeks. Eighteen out of 38 students answered the questionnaire. They found the length, format, style, and the topics of the podcast suited to their needs and preferences. The authors concluded that the approach implemented “appeared to successfully address the distance learners’ anxiety and concerns about the subject” (Lee & Chan, 2007, p. 93). Guertin, Bodek, Zappe and Kim (2007) reported that a professor of a geoscience course for nonscience majors recorded the audio from classroom lectures and made these audio files available through the university’s online course
Integrating New Technologies into Blended Learning Environments
management system. All of the students (n=68) reported a perceived value to having lecture podcasts available, although “percentages were not high in terms of student accesses to individual lectures” (idem). In the 19 podcasts available, the number of students’ downloads of MP3 files ranged from 1% to 9% students in 12 podcasts, from 12% to 20% in 5, 40% in the first podcast and 78% in the last podcast. Edirisingha, Rizzi and Rothwell (2007) described a study of the English Language and Communication course at Kingston University. The podcasts were integrated as part of the blended learning delivery, to help undergraduate students’ to develop skills required for two kinds of assignments: portfolio development and presentation skills. Six podcasts were developed, one every two weeks. They were ten minutes long. Thirty five out of 65 students answered the questionnaire. Only 50% of the students listened to one podcast at least. They did not see the relevance of podcasts for learning as podcasts were not compulsory or necessary. This study is part of a larger project in UK that included 10 case studies carried out in five institutions (Salmon et al., 2007). Evidence from this project suggests that is not easy for students to use their own MP3 players for listening to educational podcasts (idem, p. 3). Students would listen to or watch podcasts if the lecturer made them an essential part of the module or if they were compulsory or necessary. Students considered podcasts as a mix between formal and informal learning. The authors concluded that different pedagogical purposes can be embedded within podcasts and support, for example, skills development, and promote independent learning, collaborative learning, and active learning, to deliver extensions to lectures (e.g. summary lectures), to provide instructions on practical work for student learning in the computer lab, to provide instructions and guidance on student field work. Students’ learning supported by podcasting is highlighted in “learner choice and flexibility, informal way of learning, raise motivation in
learning, enrich learning resources, and improve teacher-student relationship” (Salmon, Nie & Edirisingha, 2007, p. 30). The studies reported applied podcasts to courses at higher education and most of them were used in blended learning courses, allowing students to listening to them when they could or want. It was also noticed that the students listened to them if they were compulsory to their course. Students’ didn´t want to mix pleasure with study in their MP3 player. The length of podcasts ranged from 3 minutes to 10 minutes, which is not especially long. However, some teachers record their lectures which are around 60 minutes long. This kind of podcast might be useful to some students who missed the face-to-face class but are too long to keep listeners’ attention.
THE RESEARCH The study reported in this chapter belongs to a broad project about the pedagogical implications of podcasts in blended-learning, running from October 2007 to September 2009. The research questions are: 1. 2.
What are the pedagogical implications of podcasts in blended learning? What are the reactions of students and their teacher to podcasts?
The study focuses on how podcasts enhance learning and its implications to online learning. It analyses the reactions of students (undergraduate and graduate) and teachers to the integration of podcasts in blended-learning courses. It also intends to identify if students use mobile technology to listen to podcasts and when they listen to them.
METHODOLOGY Two case studies are reported, one with undergraduate students and another one with graduate 83
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students, both in the Faculty of Education, University of Minho, in Portugal. Two questionnaires were developed to collect data about students’ computer literacy and about students’ reactions to the podcasts. The first one was filled in at the beginning of the course and the second questionnaire about students’ reactions to the podcasts at the end of the course. Students with differing opinions (either positive or negative) were also interviewed.
The Setting Both courses belonged to the ICT field and each one had a three hour face-to-face class per week, followed by independent work, debate in a forum (discussion board) or group work. All students had materials to read, assignments, comments to their assignments, and podcasts were available in the LMS, Blackboard.
The undergraduate students (n=14) were enrolled in 2nd year Science Education and the course was multimedia educational materials (MEM). The students had to choose one course between three options, MEM, Health Education and Pedagogy. However, only one preferred MEM, with all the others wanting to do Health Education. The graduate students (n=25) were Masters students, enrolled in Educational Technology, in Multimedia Systems course. Two students could not attend the face-to face classes and only had access to the information available on the LMS, Blackboard.
Participants’ Characterization Undergraduate Students The undergraduate students were 14 females, young adults (19 years old), and full time students. With regard to electronic devices, 86% had their
Table 1. Electronic devices and ICT tools used by undergraduate and graduate students Electronic Devices and ICT tools
84
Undergraduate Students (n=14)
Graduate Students (n=25)
f
%
f
%
Computer
12
86
25
100
Laptop
8
57
21
84
MP3 player
9
64
14
56
Access to the Internet (daily)
8
57
24
96
Access to the internet 2 to 3 times per week
6
43
1
4
Downloads from the Internet
9
64
24
96
Hi5
11
79
8
32
Blog
6
43
7
28
Podcast (know what it is)
1
7
15
60
Listen to podcasts
1
7
7
28
Second Life resident
0
0
3
12
Personal Website
0
0
3
12
Forum
0
0
12
48
Chat
5
36
9
36
Integrating New Technologies into Blended Learning Environments
own personal computer, 57% had a laptop, and 64% of the students had an MP3 player (Table 1). Half of them accessed the Internet daily (57%), and 36% never did any kind of download. In relation to Web 2.0 tools, the majority of them had a Hi5 social networking site (79%), 43% a blog, and only one student was already familiar with podcasts and was used to listening to them. None of them was a Second Life resident nor had a website. They had never participated in a forum and only 36% used a chat room, which provided evidence of poor Web communication tools practice. Graduate Students The graduate students (n=25) included 16 females and 9 males, ranging from 23 to 48 years old. The majority of them (80%) were part-time students, and most of them were teachers. All of them had a computer but only 84% had a laptop, 56% owned a MP3 player (Table 1). They accessed the Internet at home (92%) or at their jobs. All of them accessed the Internet daily except one student. More than half of the students (60%) knew what a podcast was, but only 28% listened to them. No one had their own podcast, but 32% had a Hi5 site, 28% a blog, 12% are residents of Second Life and the same percentage had a personal Website. With regard to Web communication tools, 36% were used to participating in chats and 48% in forums. These students used several ICT tools, particularly Web 2.0 tools. Based on Table 1 we conclude that graduate students own more PCs, have more access to the Internet, do more downloads and know more about podcasts than undergraduates. However undergraduates are more conversant with Web 2.0 tools, namely Hi5 social networking and blogs. Only some graduates had a personal webpage or are Second Life residents. Synchronous and asynchronous communication use is rather weak in chats, both groups showing 36% use. Use of the forum does not occur for undergraduates and is used by half of the graduates.
Podcasts Type and Length The podcasts were produced by the teacher according to course needs. Their length ranged from 1 minute and 17 seconds to 5 minutes and 15 seconds. All of them were short podcasts and were listened to online at a time students were able to and wanted to listen. Undergraduate Students: MEM Course When ideas needed to be discussed in a forum, a podcast was created by the teacher to give students instructions about how to reply to a thread in a forum (discussion board), as none of the students in the literacy questionnaire knew how to do this. The podcast length was 1 minute and 17 seconds. Graduate Students: MS Course With the Masters students, the podcasts were used throughout the semester with three main purposes: i) to give students feedback about their contributions to the forum discussions (besides a personalized comment on each post to the forum) focusing on the main strengths and weaknesses of their posted ideas; ii) comments for group presentations, and iii) guidance for the next faceto-face session. The length of the four podcasts ranged from 1 minute and 8 seconds to 5 minutes and 15 seconds.
Da Undergraduate Students When asked about the experience of listening to instructions about how to reply to a thread in the forum (discussion board), most of the undergraduate students (79%) mentioned that it was useful for them (Table 2). The others (21%) did not consider it useful because they already knew how to use it. More than half of the students (58%) listened twice to the podcast, while on campus. Some students
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Integrating New Technologies into Blended Learning Environments
listened at home (28%), and 2 subjects did not respond. All of those responding considered the sound quality of the podcasts good. They were asked if they would like to have a written version of the podcast. Half of them agreed. This answer took us a little bit by surprise and we intend to research this aspect: would they prefer a written text because they are used to reading or because of their learning style? Some students mentioned that they are used to underlining the text and they prefer to read than to listen. Nevertheless when asked about their interest in having podcasts in other courses all but one expressed interest (93%). Their preferences for podcasts are represented in Table 3. The least preferred is the type of podcast used in this course which may indicate their lack of interest in technology and in the course. The most selected were the feedback (58%) and instructions for assignments (58%), followed by class content summary
(42%), study guidelines (36%), and comments to the assignments (28%).
Graduate Students During the semester, after doing some activities such as group presentations and debates in the forum, the students had access to the podcasts on the Blackboard platform. They listened to four podcasts throughout the semester. The podcasts were related to their activities in face-to-face sessions or feedback to their contributions in the discussion board (forum). At the end of the semester they were asked to fill in a questionnaire on their views about the podcasts. All except two students listened to the podcasts. More than half of the students (52%) listened to them straight away from the e-learning platform, Blackboard and all others (48%) preferred to do the download to their computer (Table 4). None
Table 2. Podcast usefulness, frequency, place and students’ preferences for a text version (n=14) Podcast
f
%
Usefulness of the podcast
11
79
Listen once to the podcast
14
100
Listen twice to the podcast
8
58
Listen on campus
8
58
Listen at home
4
28
Prefer to have a written version of the podcast
7
50
Table 3. Types of podcasts students (n=14) are interested in listening to in other courses
86
Types of Podcasts
f
%
Feedback
8
58
Instructions for assignments
8
58
Class content summary
6
42
Study guidelines
5
36
Comments to their assignments
4
28
Instructions for tools usage
2
14
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downloaded to their MP3. Twelve students (48%) kept the podcasts on their computer and the others didn’t because “they were always available”, “It wasn´t necessary to listen to several times”, and “Due to computer memory overload”. These justifications were also found in Salmon et al. (2007) study. The majority of the students (80%) listened more than once to the podcasts to review the information (60%), to get some details that they did not get during the first audition (60%), to get a better understanding of the information available (28%), to clarify some knowledge learned (12%), to confirm some knowledge (8%), and to get the information about a class that they could not attend (8%). When they were listening to the podcasts they preferred to do nothing else (80%) but a few students (12%) preferred to transcribe the content of the podcasts and others (8%) preferred to write some notes (Table 6). However, in accordance with their justification we realized that they did not transcribe the full podcast but only some notes:
“I transcribed some parts that I considered more important, because it would be easier to remember later on, if I needed it” (Student 1), “To keep relevant information” (Student 5), “When information was important to the course or to do the assignments, I transcribed some notes” (Student 6). We may conclude that 20% took some notes while listening to podcasts. We asked students if they would like to get podcasts in other courses, and all of them agreed. In Table 7 are presented the types of podcasts they would like to get in this course. In the Multimedia Systems course, students would like to get comments to assignments (92%), feedback (72%), guidance to readings (24%), guidance to field work (12%), and tutorial (4%). No one indicated a need for summaries of the lectures. With regard to the quality of podcasts, all except one considered that the podcasts were audibly perceptible, they had a friendly tone of voice, and the content was clear. All students agreed that the podcasts were not very long and their preferences
Table 4. Listening and saving the podcasts to electronic devices (n=25) Podcasts
f
%
Listening only
13
52
Download and kept the podcast in the computer
12
48
Download to the MP3 player
0
0
Table 5. Motives for listening to the podcasts more than once (n=25) Motives to listening to the podcasts more than once
f
%
Review the information
15
60
Get some details
15
60
Get a better understanding
7
28
Clarify some knowledge learned
3
12
Confirm some knowledge
2
8
Get the information of the class that I couldn´t attend
2
8
Other
0
0
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Table 6. Listening only or writing also (n=25) While listening to podcasts
f
%
Do nothing
20
80
Transcribe the podcast
3
12
Other (Write some notes)
2
8
Table 7. Types of podcasts useful for Multimedia Systems (n=25) Types of podcasts
f
%
Guidance to field work
3
12
Lectures summary
0
0
Comments to assignments
23
92
Tutorial
1
4
Feedback
18
72
Guidance to readings
6
24
Table 8. Podcasts acceptable length (n=25) Podcasts length (minutes)
f
%
1 to 5
6
24
6 to 10
12
48
11 to 15
2
8
16 to 20
3
12
21 to 25
0
0
26 to 30
1
4
>30
1
4
for length are in Table 8. The most accepted length of podcasts is 6 to 10 minutes (48%), followed by 1 to 5 minutes (24%). In their final comments about this experience they concluded: “a podcast has always some kind of suspense which causes some apprehension and curiosity. It has a much more intense effect than a written comment in regard to evaluation” (Student 2), “I enjoyed it very much. It is a very useful tool to be used in education, due to the sensation of proximity it establishes between teacher and students” (Student 10). “It is an important tool to be used in distance learning, and as soon as
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more people know about it, I think that its use will grow exponentially” (Student 20). “It was the first time that I listened to podcasts. It has potentialities that I intend to use in my teaching activity” (Student 21).
Fndings and Conclusions Students’ reaction to podcasts was globally positive. They recognized their potential and utility in learning. They acknowledged that it is more pleasant to listen to the teacher’s comments or feedback than to read it. Most of the students
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listened to the podcasts, and this is something that did not happen in other studies (Guertin et al., 2007; Edirisingha et al., 2007). The podcasts were not compulsory but the content was relevant to the students’ learning and development. The students considered that it was not only the novelty effect of the podcasts but it was also the advantage of listening to the teacher’s voice. During an interview one student said that she preferred to listen to her own teacher’s voice than to a media communication professional. The teacher is someone they know, someone they are familiar with. This idea is also related to the social presence online, referred to by Seitzinger (2006). They reported that listening to the teacher gave them a sensation of proximity which relates to the finding of Salmon et al. (2007) “the most unexpected aspect of podcasting was that it helped to improve teacher-student relationships. Many students felt that their lecturer cared about whether they learned and they appreciated the time and energy of their lecturers” (p. 20). The podcasts may contribute to diminishing the isolation that affects students in distance learning which is one of the causes for their giving up, in the sense of creating proximity between the teacher and the students. However further research of this aspect is needed. More than half of the students listened to the podcasts straight away from the e-learning platform Blackboard, instead of downloading it to their computer or to a mobile device. Students explained that the podcasts were accessible on the e-learning platform all the time. The same explanation was given in the research conducted by Salmon et al. (2007). In a study reported by Moura and Carvalho (2006), students downloaded the podcasts to their MP3 to listen to them several times, as they included content necessary to the assignments. In these two studies reported with undergraduate and graduate students, none of the students saved the podcasts to their MP3 as they preferred to listen to podcasts in the computer. This might be due to the type of podcasts used in
the study: comments on their assignments, feedback, instructions to use a tool, and guidance to the class. Further research is needed about types of podcast and the use of mobile devices to listen to podcasts anytime and anywhere.
Implications of Podcasts in Blended Learning Students like responding to sound, as reported by Durbridge (1984), particularly when they are encouraged by the voice of somebody they know and respect. This aspect was also mentioned by these students, particularly the graduate students. Listening to the teacher’s voice creates, according to students, “suspense, apprehension and curiosity” and it has a more intense effect than a written comment. It is an opportunity to use podcasts to support students and to improve online sessions. It may help to diminish the students’ feeling of being socially isolated, as this is a motive for students to drop out of courses, though further research is needed. Podcasts benefit auditory learners (KaplanLeiserson, 2005). Moreover, nowadays most students have mobile devices such as MP3 players, PDAs or cellular phones and they may benefit from listening to the podcasts’ content in such circumstances as running in a park, walking on the beach or driving in the countryside. Podcasts give students the opportunity to use another medium for learning. They stimulate hearing and enable the student to simultaneously listen to the teacher’s voice when looking at a picture or a schema related to the content, combining two media. According to Mayer (2001), the combination of different media enables students “to construct verbal and pictorial mental models and to build connections between them” (p. 63), helping them to improve retention. Variation theory of learning (Marton & Trigwell, 2000) emphasizes the importance of discernment and variation in learning: “There is
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no learning without discernment. And there is no discernment without variation” (p. 381). Variation must be experienced by the learner (Oliver & Trigwell, 2005). “Learning occurs when critical aspects of variation in the object of learning are discerned” (Oliver & Trigwell, 2005, p. 22). The authors considered that “[i]t is also possible that the use of several teaching media may help students experience the patterns [of variation]” (idem, p. 23), in order to develop certain ways of seeing. Stacey and Gerbic (2007) pointed out that “what is important is not the variation per se but the impact of the contrast and comparison that occurs because of the variation” (p. 167). It is important to experience a certain pattern of variation to attain a better understanding of the subject. Through podcasts a new opportunity is added to introduce students to other perspectives and to guide them in discerning other aspects. There is a diverse range of podcasts that can be created such as lectures, feedback to assignments or group presentations, guidance to assignments and field work, tutorial, among others. The types of podcasts are only limited by the teacher’s imagination.
Recommendations for Improving Praa Podcasts The length of a podcast is a relevant aspect in its acceptance. Length should be determined by the podcasts’ purpose and content, however, general recommendations suggest short podcasts. Authors’ opinions vary about what should be the maximum length of a podcast: not longer than 15 minutes (Cebeci & Tekdal, 2006); 15 -20 minutes (Irelan, 2008), and 30 minutes (Geoghegan and Klass, 2005). While authors propose a diversity of acceptable podcasts’ length, they all agree that long podcasts generally result in loss of attention in listening and a subsequent decrease in comprehension.
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“There’s a reason most songs are less than four minutes. If you haven’t gotten to the hook by then, you’re not going to make it in the next nine. People go to the bar during the drum solo. They do the same in their minds when you don’t tell it quick and tell it straight in your learning delivery, whatever the mechanism” (Walsh, 2004 cited in Lee & Chang, 2007, p. 90). Based on this statement Lee and Chang (2007) suggested 3 to 5 minutes for a podcast’s duration to keep students’ attention and interest. Abt and Barry (2007) used radio style podcasts that ranged in length from 5 to 14 minutes. Salmon et al. (2007) reported that in five universities in the United Kingdom, the podcasts used were about 10 minutes long. Geoghegan and Klass (2005) stated “if you have to err, err on the side of brevity” (p. 37). To conclude the recommendation of Chan et al. (2006) is wise: “Keep podcasts short, lively and entertaining” (p. 118). Although the format of the podcast may vary, it should have a beginning, a middle and an end. These three parts are important in keeping students’ attention. Audiences like structure, as Geoghegan and Klass (2005) mention, applied in a new and surprising way. The authors suggest to start “strong” to keep listeners attention, and to finish “big”. Hendron (2008) says that it is better keep content short and simple, clear and concise. The author also recommend the importance of ongoing pratice to better understand the benefits of the new technology. It is necessary to plan, write, and then read clearly and with intonation. It takes time but, if created with a clear purpose, it has the potential to motivate students’ interest and engagement, as was the case in the study described. Students may also be invited to do their own podcasts. For example, instead of writing a report or writing a comment about colleagues’ assignment they can record it. There is research underway about Masters students reactions to peer review (Carvalho, 2008) where the comments should be
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made available through podcasts instead of the traditional writen text. This reseach intends to promote critical peer review and to prepare Masters students (most of them teachers) for creating their own podcasts and to feel comfortable when using them with their own students. Podcasts demand planning, writing and organization, which is also a valuable learning experience for them (Hendron, 2008).
Podcast Research Cnclusion The students involved in the study described in this paper accepted the introduction of online podcasts for different purposes well. They were also receptive to listen to podcasts in other courses. As to the type of podcasts, students would like to have comments to assignments, feedback, instructions for assignments and for tools usage, summaries of lectures, study guidelines, guidance to readings and to field work, and tutorials. Questioned about podcast length, students preferred short podcasts, around ten minutes being a maximum length. Similar to results reported by Salmon et al. (2007), Masters students’ indicated that listening to their teacher’s voice creates a sense of proximity. This idea of proximity may contribute to avoidance of students’ dropping out of online courses, giving them a sense of support from the teacher, a sense of his/her social presence (Seitzinger, 2006, Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). These findings are quite interesting and deserve further research. Also needed is a study of the impact of the teacher’s voice on students’ motivation and commitment. The sense of proximity and support referred to above is also important in coaching, mentoring, and counseling in blended learning, as stressed by Bonk et al. (2006): “[coaching, mentoring, and counseling] skills are increasingly vital as learners seek someone to turn to for support and guidance in their various learning quests” (p.
564). Further research is also needed to study the impact of podcasts in coaching, mentoring, and counseling. Another research issue to be explored is related to the use of mobile devices. It is possible that if the podcast addresses course content and it is of long duration, students may use their mobile devices to listen to it several times, anytime and anywhere. Podcasts are a new learning medium that can make an important contribution to blended learning courses, as reported by students. However, further research is needed to fully understand its pedagogical impact in learning and determine the best ways it can be incorporated in blended learning practices.
A New Blended Leaa Strategy for Cognition of the Real World in the Teaaaf Sience Computer-supported inquiry-based learning environments are developing around the principles of integrated learning and combining multiple approaches but, until now, they have rarely included virtual and remote experimental environments to form a unified body of information and knowledge in both a collaborative and constructivist way. Along with the development of information technologies, the chance to handle real objects by application of remote and virtual experiments across the Internet has emerged. This paper will describe how a scientifically exact and problem-solving oriented remote and virtual science experimental environment might help to build a new blended learning strategy for science education. The main features of the new strategy are (1) the observations and control of real world phenomena, possibly materialized in data, and their processing and evaluation, (2) verification of hypotheses combined with the development of
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critical thinking, supported by (3) sophisticated relevant information search, classification and storing tools and (4) a collaborative environment, supporting argumentative writing and teamwork, public presentations and defence of achieved results, all either in real presence, in telepresence or in a combination of both. Then real understanding of generalized science laws and their consequences can be developed. This science learning and teaching environment (called ROL - Remote and Open Laboratory), has been developed and used by Charles University in Prague since 1996, and offered to science students in both formal and informal learning, and also to science teachers within their professional development studies since 2003.
B Cntemporary Problems in Science Eucation: The Needs Contemporary problems in science education are closely connected to a general teaching and learning paradigm shift, which has become necessary in the few last years as a result of the reality of the globalized world together with the information revolution and ongoing knowledge society needs. According to Derrick (2002), some general features can be recognised in this movement, and all of them should be reflected in teaching and learning science and also in any new science elearning strategy. These are: •
A focus on uncertain (not precisely defined) situations
Much of the academic environment today, presents students with ready-made problems, but reality is rarely that clearly defined. Today’s learners and teachers have to be more familiar and comfortable with uncertain situations.
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•
A focus on conceptual understanding
Conceptual understanding is the ability to apply knowledge across a variety of instances or circumstances. Several strategies can be used to teach and assess concepts, e.g., inquiry, exposition, analogies, mnemonics, imagery, concept maps, and concept questions. •
Use of a holistic, as opposed to discrete, approach
Much of the education and learning environment today is still divided into rigid academic disciplines, focused on discrete units of research. However, holistic understanding of systems thinking and inter-disciplinary research approaches are seen as critical in achieving a more comprehensive understanding of the complex reality currently facing the world systems. •
Team work and virtual teams around the world
There are many arguments that collaborative learning (also computer-supported or mediated) enhances team performance through tools for communicating each person’s ideas, structuring group dialogue and decision making, recording the rationales for choices, and facilitating collective activities.1 Closely related to this point is the need for enhanced virtual and networked activity. •
Blurring of the difference between mental and physical labour
The global system of production and distribution is based upon the blurring of the distinctions between mental and physical labour and the increase in the application of knowledge to the production process itself (Derrick, 2002). This change is so significant that it represents fundamental shift for much of the world, and it
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is necessary to respect it in underlying teaching and learning strategies.
Contemporary Problems in Science Taching: The Reality The general teaching and learning paradigm shift mentioned above is not yet reflected in contemporary teaching methods at many traditional teaching and learning environments. Over the past couple of decades, science education researchers have studied the effectiveness of existing teaching and learning practices: conceptual understanding, transfer of information and ideas, beliefs about science and problem solving in science. The definitive conclusion is that no matter what the quality of the teacher, typical students in a traditionally taught course are learning mechanically, memorizing facts and recipes for problem solving, but not gaining a true understanding. In spite of the best efforts of teachers, students often consider science boring and irrelevant to the world around them.
The Role of Cognition of Real World Phenomena in Science There is no doubt that lab-based courses, in particular, play an important role in scientific education and mainly in the cognition of the real world. Nersessian (1991) goes so far as to claim that “hands-on experience is at the heart of science learning” and Clough (2002) declares that laboratory experiences “make science come alive.” Laboratory courses have a strong impact on students’ learning outcomes, according to Magin et al. (2000). The role of labs in sciences is well described in the very instructive and still valid document of the American Association of Physics Teachers (1977), formulating five goals that the physics laboratory should achieve. These are: •
The art of experimentation: The introductory laboratory should engage each student
•
•
•
•
in significant experiences with experimental processes, including some experience designing investigation. Experimental and analytical skills: The laboratory should help the student develop a broad array of basic skills and tools of experimental physics and data analysis. Conceptual learning: The laboratory should help students’ master basic physics concepts. The use of computers with laboratory interfaces allows real-time recording and graphing of quantities. The qualitative use of real-time graphing in microcomputerbased laboratories (MBL) has increased interest in using the laboratory to enhance conceptual understanding. The combination of two factors — laboratory course design based on an understanding of the preconceptions that students bring to the study of physics from their past experience, and the continuing development of MBL and other laboratory technology — has the potential to significantly improve the effectiveness of laboratory instruction. Understanding the basis of knowledge in physics: The laboratory should help students understand the role of direct observation in physics and to distinguish between inferences based on theory and the outcomes of experiments. Developing collaborative learning skills: The laboratory should help students develop collaborative learning skills that are vital to success in many lifelong endeavors.
Eaeneral Issues At the present time, information and communication technologies have invaded science education in all directions and have undoubtedly changed the laboratory “landscape”. The nature and practices of laboratories have been changed dramatically by the new technology-intensive automations:
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• • •
simulated labs (also called virtual labs), remote labs, and computer mediated hands-on labs as an alternative for conventional hands-on labs, generally called e-labs.
The present state of the art is characterised as reaching a sufficient quantitative level of impact so as to bring about very deep qualitative changes. In a recent issue of “European Journal of Physics”, devoted to Student undergraduate laboratory and project work, Schumacher (2007) discusses examples of this invasion of computers in contemporary laboratory work reaching from project labs, modelling tools, interactive screen experiments to remotely controlled labs. It is now possible to say that these kinds of e-labs will be the typical learning environment for physics students in the future.
Educational Issues of E-Labs Although researchers still discuss each type of e-lab from different perspectives, the relative effectiveness of the new laboratories compared to traditional hands-on (“recipe based”) labs seems to be undoubted. The following aspects are often discussed: • • • •
Design skills Conceptual understanding Social skills (including team work and networking) Professional skills
Although there is a lack of criteria for judging and evaluating the effectiveness of these three new types of labs: computer mediated hands-on, virtual and remote labs, the results of a comparative lit-
Figure 1. Educational goals of hands-on labs (Adapted from Ma & Nickerson, 2006)
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erature study (Ma & Nickerson, 2006), including more then 60 research studies, are very instructive (Figures 1 and 2) and show the spread of goals of the different kinds of e-labs across the four key areas of science education stated above.
Economic Issues As a backdrop for these phenomenological issues (Ma & Nickerson, 2006), there are further issues which are economic. . Traditional hands-on labs put a high demand on space, instructor time, expensive apparatus and experimental infrastructure, often in a number of identical lab stations, which cannot be used for other purposes. All of these aspects are subject to rising costs. Remote and virtual laboratories may provide a way to share specialized skills and resources (also with research institutions) and thus to reduce overall costs and enrich the learning experience.
Psychological Issues and the Problem of “Presence” Sheridan (1992) identified three types of presence: physical presence, telepresence, and virtual pres-
ence. Physical presence is associated with real labs and understood as “physically being there.” Telepresence is “feeling like you are actually there at the remote site of operation,” and virtual presence is “feeling like you are present in the environment generated by the computer”. The author argued that by suspending disbelief, we can experience presence in a virtual environment. Noel and Hunter (2000) claimed that the critical issue in designing virtual environments was to create a psychologically real setting rather than to recreate the entire physical reality. In our strategy we offer students the combination of all three kinds of presence identified by Sheridan.
New E-Leaategy in Science Education The motivation and inspiration for this new elearning strategy in science education came from our own research work on remote and open laboratories (ROL project) (Lustigova, Zelenda, 1996), introducing the very early stage of virtual presence through a remote labs potential for blended learn-
Figure 2. Educational goals of e-labs – a/virtual labs (left), b/ remote labs (right), (Adapted from Ma & Nickerson, 2006)
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ing in Science2. Also important has been the work of Wieman (2006) and Wieman, Perkins (2005), supporting and calling for change in educational technology and identifying a pathway or remedy of simulations, and the work of Thomsen and his co-workers (2005), who present a new approach called e-LTR (eLearning, eTeaching, eResearch) using remote experiments (RLC). They also discuss their eResearch concept which is based on existing e-laboratories, composed of remote internet-mediated experiments, which enable linkage (missing till recently) to e-Learning. This new e-learning strategy in science education is actually copied from the method that sciences use in cognitive work. It is based on
observations of phenomena in the real world, together with the processing and interpretation of ensuing data and their presentation, and the effective search for relevant information and effective ways of classification and storing. Teachers are not bound by strict rules of the teaching unit and ill-framed problems are proposed to students for their own independent and project work. The blended learning process itself is based on the active participation of students, whose involvement is strengthened by dynamic simulations of the real phenomena, co-operative teamwork (both real and virtual), public presentations and the defense of achieved results, all either in real presence or in telepresence.
Figure 3. Remote observation – students’ meteorological station
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ROLomponents and First Experience Remote Observation and Data Cllection This set of modules teaches basic concepts in remote sensing. Learners are shown how characteristics of the system and sensors are used, and how they affect the amount and quality of data collected. A sampling of ways to use the data for activities such as weather forecasting and scientific research are demonstrated. At the completion of each module, learners are given opportunities to apply what they have learned to actual data collected by researchers. Learners start from the simplest observations (weather observations - temperature, air pressure, wind speed and
direction, sunshine, etc., see Fig.3) and continue to more and more sophisticated data acquisition and research design.
Hands-On Remote Labs and Process Cntrol The oldest, most popular and the most enjoyable part of this blended learning environment is the “hands on” remote laboratory, which allows learners to operate equipment such as simple robots, mechatronic systems, programmable logic controllers and wet process control systems over the Internet. It includes detailed expert instruction, video and audio feedback and evaluation. Each component takes students through a complete, progressive learning system that first teaches through simulation, and then allows interaction through real-time remote lab operation.
Figure 4. Remote process controlling
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Emulations (Virtual Labs) Virtual lab tools offer a large variety of e-simulations and models, including Java applets, Flash visualization and/or different kinds of computer mediated mathematical models. Applets were primarily developed to visualize the phenomena and help develop understanding in a graphic way. They are not primarily focused on data providing, although some of the applet creators enable the drawing out of a full data set. That is why the vast majority of virtual laboratories, spread all over the “web world”, do not provide the data output or input we need in science for the comparison of real experiments and models. The new and the most far-sighted branch of applets or models, offered by the Remote and Open Lab, is connected
to the real experimental setup (even physically) and thus enables the import of real measured data as well as their simulation.
E -Simulation in Connection to Real Dta Acquisition and Process Cntrolling This sophisticated and complex approach enables students to observe specific and rare phenomena (earthquakes for example) without losing the sense of being in a place, to manipulate remotely dangerous objects and chemicals in a very safe way, and to accomplish complicated measurement and data acquisition on a high level without being lost in technical problems and setups. Students are therefore able s to focus on conceptual understanding
Figure 5. Real remote data collection and process controlling in connection with e-simulation and modelling
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through different methodological approaches (e.g., social constructivism - virtual team discussion and co-operation tools, consultancy services, or individual inquiry– e.g. real data and mathematical simulation results comparison). As an example of what is mentioned above, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle experiment is carried out, where an experimental setup enables telepresence through computer mediated mechanical manipulation with real objects (e.g. laser, aperture), computer-mediated set up of the experiment (frequency of the light, parameters of the aperture ) and through visual observation of the observed phenomena (web camera). It also enables computer aided data acquisition (pure data and visualized data – graph), together with the possibility for immediate comparison of the real data and simulated results.
E-Worksheets for the Teamwork This new e-learning strategy is part of blended interactive teaching and learning, based on the observation of the real world phenomena by real E-experiments and E-simulations. It includes e-teaching and learning tools and interactive Eworksheets for team work, and E-manuals and instructions providing information and theoretical background for the understanding and quantification of observed phenomena. The E-worksheets present the theory, offering exercises and presolved problems, glossaries for quick orientation in the theory covered, and multiple-choice tests with immediate evaluation of the acquired knowledge, etc.
Findings Our selected findings below come from results obtained from different schools of physics and faculties preparing physics teachers (Schauer, Kuritka, Lustig, (2006); Schauer, Lustig, Ozvoldova
(2007). Most of the research was carried out in papers that adopted e-labs within a two-semester course of an introductory physics laboratory, oriented mainly toward mechanical and thermal properties, electric and non-electric properties, oscillations, waves and optics, and microphysical phenomena. The data collection was computerized mainly by the Intelligent School Experimental System (ISES, 2008) showing some experiments (approximately one half) which were designed to use the different tools and methods of the proposed ROL environment, including virtual consultancy services and e-sheets for the virtual team work. Some summary data are presented in Table 1.
Students’ Views As part of the development, we are constantly evaluating and including student feedback into improvements. We discuss student reactions to this new way of gaining practical experience and understanding. Generally, student responses are positive and more so over the years as the technology becomes more available and the students become more experienced in using it. Although students are quite often aware of the limitations of the remote and open laboratories, they also value their advantages which they see as : 1. 2. 3.
Availability at any time from any place, Remote access, and Simple and comfortable operating and control (mentioned mainly by female students) and safety.
From social and psychological points of view they especially appreciate virtual consultancy support and the potential for building virtual teams (to lose the feeling of isolation in the lab). From an educational point of view it is the immediate comparison of real (measured) and simulated data, which is appreciated the most.
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Table 1. Completed experiments Total Number of completed experiments data downloads – selected examples (February 2004 - February 2008) Water level control
Meteorology station
Electromagnetic induction
Natural x driven oscillations
Solar energy conversion
Diffraction on microobjects
Σ
3573
2401
2748
1282
1515
862
12 381
Fculty Views Although remote and open laboratory use is frequently put forward as a new way of working, the management of complexity, uncertainty, and communication in science education and research, and integrating selected parts of ROL - the remote data acquisition, data processing and process control theme across the curriculum- is not a completely seamless process. That is why the Remote and Open laboratory is offered to students as a parallel option with traditional labs. Mostly students with part or full time jobs, distance students, in-service teachers and both faculty members and students involved in professional training and life long learning choose to use these facilities.
Eaesearch Conclusion The whole problem of the cognition of the real world via remote tools has many philosophical and methodological aspects, and the effective use of blended learning environments in this area needs further research. This short overview of our innovation has attempted to show the capability and potential of the Internet in such physical disciplines as science education. With progress in information technologies, the chance to grasp real objects by the application of remote and virtual experiments across the Internet has emerged. Possibilities are now open for other disciplines to use such blended approaches in developing
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new-elearning strategies for their professions and communities.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT Ana Carvalho’s research funded by FCT, reference PTDC/CED/70751/2006, and CIEd. She is grateful to Filomena Louro from the University Editing Project for the revision of the English text.
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Derrick, L. C. (2002). Globalisation, knowledge, education and training in the information age.
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with Telematics. IFIP WG 3.6 Working Conference Vienna. Austria. Lustigová, Z., & Zelenda, S. (2001). Remote and Open Web Based Laboratory for Science Education (ROL). In Proceedings of International Conference on Emerging Telecommunications Technologies and Applications. ICETA. (pp. 235-241). Kosice. Slovak Republic. ISBN 8089066-06-2.
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Kaplan-Leiserson, E. (2005). Trend: Podcasting in Academic and Corporate Learning. Retrieved May 20, 2006, from http://www.learningcircuits. org/2005/jun2005/0506_trends.htm Lee, M. J., & Chan, A. (2007). Reducing the Effects of Isolation and Promoting Inclusivity for Distance learners Through Podcasting. The Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 8(1), 85-104. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://tojde.anadolu. edu.tr/tojde25/articles/Article_7htm Lustigova, Z., & Zelenda, S. (1996). Remote laboratory for science education. In New ways of teaching physics-proceedings of GIREP - ICPE international conference (pp. 260-262). Ljublana. Slovenia. Lustigova, Z., & Zelenda, S. (1996). Remote Laboratory for Distance Education of Science Teachers. In: Collaborative Learning and Working
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Noel, R. W., & Hunter, C. M. (2000). Mapping the physical world to psychological reality: Creating synthetic environments. In Proceedings of the Conference on Designing Interactive Systems: Processes, Practices, Methods, and Techniques, New York. (pp. 203–207). Oliver, M., & Trigwell, K. (2005). Can ‘Blended Learning’ Be Redeemed? E–Learning, 2(1), 17-26. Osguthorpe, R. T., & Graham, C. R. (2003). Blended learning environments: definitions and directions. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 4(3), 227-233. Qin, D., Johnson, W., & Johnson, R. T. (1995). Cooperative versus competititive efforts and problem solving. Review of Educational Research, 65(2), 129-143. doi:10.2307/1170710 Salmon, G., Nie, M., & Edirisingha, P. (2007). Informal Mobile Podcasting and Learning Adaptation (IMPALA) (e-Learning research Project Report 06/07). Leicester: University of Leicester, Beyond Distance Research Alliance. Schauer, F., Kuritka, I., & Lustig, F. (2006). Creative Laboratory Experiments for Basic Physics Using Computer Data Collection and Evaluation Exemplified on the Intelligent School Experimen-
Sheridan, T. B. (1992). Musings on telepresence and virtual presence. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ.1, (pp. 120–125). Singh, H., & Reed, C. (2001). A White Paper: Achieving Success with Blended Learning. ASTD State of the Industry Report. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training & Development. Retrieved March 12, 2008, from http://www. centra.com/download/whitepapers/blendedlearning.pdf So, H., & Brush, T. A. (2008). Student perceptions of collaborative learning, social presence and satisfaction in a blended learning environment: relationships and critical factors. Computers & Education, 51, 318-336. Seitzinger, J. (2006). Be Constructive: Blogs, Podcasts and Wikis as Constructive Learning Tools. The eLearning Guild’s – Learning Solutions - Practical Applications of Technology for Learning e-Magazine, July 31, 1-16. Retrieved March 28, 2008, from http://www.elearningguild. com/pdf/2/073106DES.pdf Stacey, E., & Gerbic, P. (2007). Teaching for blended learning – Research perspectives from on-campus and distance students. Educational and Information Technologies, 12(3), 165-174. Thomsen C., Jeschke, S., Pfeiffer, O., & Seiler, R. (2005). e-Volution: eLTR - Technologies and Their Impact on Traditional Universities. In 103
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Proceedings of the Conference: EDUCA online, ISWE GmBH, Berlin. Wieman, C. (2006). New instrument for measuring student beliefs about physics and learning physics: The Colorado Learning Attitudes about Science Survey. Phys. Rev. Spec. Topics- Phys. Educ. Res., 2(010101). Wieman, C., & Perkins, K. (2006). A powerful tool for teaching science. Nature physics, 2(2006), 290. Woods, R., & Keeler, J. (2001). The Effect of Instructor’s Use of Audio E-Mail Messages on Student Participation in and Perceptions of Online Learning: A Preliminary Case Study. Open Learning, 16(3), 263-278.
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Qin, Johnson, Johnson (1995) studied the impacts of cooperative and competitive ef-
forts on problem solving. They compared 46 studies, published between 1929 and 1993 and examined them according to the type of problem solving measured: linguistic (solved through written and oral language), nonlinguistic (solved through symbols, math, motor activities, actions), well-defined (having clearly defined operations and solutions), and ill-defined (lacking clear definitions, operations, and solutions). Members of cooperative teams outperformed individuals competing with each other on all 4 types of problem solving (effect sizes = 0.37, 0.72, 0.52, 0.60, respectively). These results held for individuals of all ages. The superiority of co-operation, however, was greater on nonlinguistic than on linguistic problems. Awarded Best Science Software Project by Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education during 12 th conference in Orlando, Florida, USA.2001.
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Chapter VI
Teacher and Student Responses to Blended Environments Guglielmo Trentin Institute for Educational Technology, Italian National Research Council, Genoa, Italy Steve Wheeler University of Plymouth, UK
ABSTRACT This chapter provides a further two European perspectives on blended learning. The first section is an overview of the ways in which the concept of blended solutions is interpreted in the Italian networkbased education context. Results of research carried out at some Italian Universities about various approaches to technology enhanced learning (TEL) are described which account for an increasing tendency of teachers to choose blended solutions. On the basis of interviews with 250 teachers some important blended solutions sustainability factors are analyzed pertaining to the pedagogical, professional, socio-cultural, informal dimensions as well as the content, organizational, economic and technological. In the second section of the chapter, an overview of blended and personalised learning in the United Kingdom is presented, with a critical review of some of the recent British research into the efficacy of learning management system (LMS) based blended learning approaches. Central to the chapter section is a discussion regarding the future of the LMS and how the network generation is migrating toward social networking sites and mobile technology to connect with their peers. The chapter finishes with the suggestion that personalised learning environments (PLEs) will be their preferred blended learning and communication approach. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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INTRODUCTION In institutional settings, it is teachers and students who lie at the heart of blended learning. One characteristic of the relationship between these two parties is their different exposure to and comfort with ICT which is reflected in Prensky’s (2001) often quoted reference to digital natives and digital immigrants. This chapter provides two European perspectives which examine blended learning issues for teachers and learners. Initially, this chapter presents research from Italy which discusses teachers’ reasons for choosing blended approaches and significant factors in the sustainability of blended solutions. A critical commentary on the role of learning management systems in blended environments in the United Kingdom is then provided which discusses future trends, especially the use of personal learning environments for the Net Generation.
Blended Solutions and Network-Based Education: an IIerspective Research on the educational use of ICT in Italy, has shown how organizational, logistic and economic aspects are often considered as one of the key elements in promoting the sustainability of network-based education (NBE) (Trentin, 2008). However, it is known that to guarantee appreciable quality in NBE, these elements should not precede those more specifically related to the pedagogical dimension of NBE (Seufert and Euler, 2003). Whenever this happens, the choice of pedagogical approach is generally conditioned and channeled towards a NBE based primarily on the individual (and passive) study of educational materials (e-content) (Collins & Van der Wende, 2002; Howell et al., 2004). Despite being usually considered cheaper, content-driven approaches almost always curb the quality of the learning process, since they deprive
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it of its other important key dimension, namely social interaction (Varis, 2004). If the social dimension of learning is to be fostered in NBE, then the network should not merely be seen as a means of distributing educational materials but also as a resource that is able to facilitate distance interaction with both teachers and other students (Zemsky and Massy, 2004; Attwell, 2005). This result can be obtained by adopting networked collaborative learning (NCL) strategies. The term NCL gives a clear idea of how extensively the computer network is used in the learning process; participants interact in a fully-fledged learning community (formal or informal), which helps them to overcome their isolation and enhances their contribution to the group (Stahl, 2006). In NCL, phases of individual study alternate with remote interaction between one or more virtual classes. This is an approach that combines aspects of traditional distance learning (individual study and possible remote connection with tutors) with substantial interaction between participants (teachers, students and experts), a characteristic typical of face-to-face teaching (Harasim et al., 1995). However, “pure” NCL strategies are not always easy to apply. There are several reasons for this. One is that some subjects are not particularly well suited to network communication. Another is that course participants might not be used to and/or willing to join the particular communication dynamics of courses that are almost entirely based on written interaction. Furthermore, attaining high quality standards of learning often requires time for direct face-to-face social interaction between students and teachers. In Italy this is a very popular stance taken towards company training (Ecipa, 2005) where there is also the need to combine different media and social interaction modes in order to diversify the strategies aimed at providing solutions, in real time, to everyday professional needs. In this sense company training has a certain preference for training activities which (Ecipa, 2005):
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• • • •
Are not run totally at a distance; Include group activities; Feature strong tutor and expert presence; Integrate formal and informal learning.
This would suggest heading towards mixed courses that provide onsite learning alternated with highly interactive distance activities in which the learner receives online support from tutors, experts/specialists and their peers (Fill, 2006a). In other words there is the need for blended solutions based on formal and informal learning processes provided through the integration of online and onsite interactions. Clearly, at this point, the term “networked collaborative learning” tends to take on a wider meaning. It is not intended to indicate merely that the education process is supported by a computer network, but also (and more importantly) that the process is underpinned by a network of inter-relationships that link up the participants in the process itself. These inter-relationships help a community of learners to collaborate together in pursuit of a specific learning goal. So the “network” is primarily referring to a network of individuals rather than a computer network for distance communication between those same individuals.
Blended Solutions and University Teaa An area which is increasingly interested in adopting blended solutions is the university, although its reasons for doing so are different from those of companies (Davies and Fill, 2007). But how are blended solutions placed in the wider context of ICT educational uses in university teaching? An indication emerges from the results of research conducted between 2004 and 2007 at some Italian universities in Genoa, Milan and Turin. The research aimed to study the main approaches towards technology enhanced learning
(TEL) adopted by teachers in developing entire courses online and in integrating distance activities with classroom lessons. The study used 4 specific projects as a reference context whose aim was to diffuse TEL within university education: the Xanadu project (Trentin, 2006) by the Institute for Educational Technology of the National Research Council (ITD-CNR); the ODL project (Open and Distance Learning) of the University of Turin; the BEL project (Bocconi E-Learning) by “Bocconi” University in Milan; the WEL project (Web Enhanced Learning), a collaboration between ITD-CNR and the University of Genoa. The general aims of the projects were similar: •
•
• •
To foster cultural growth on TEL issues, seeking to break down the most common misunderstandings and prejudices and underlining the central and irreplaceable role of the teacher in ICT-based education; To define a shared methodological framework concerning the use of the different TEL approaches in university teaching; To train teachers in the fundamentals of TEL-related instructional design; To support the design, development, implementation and delivery of TEL courses or structured online learning material and activities to integrate face-to-face teaching.
For training teachers in higher education, in particular, a project-based approach was used. Teachers were given a specific instructional design model and were expected to transform their face-to-face course into one which was totally or partially based on TEL approaches. To facilitate this stage, the teachers were called upon to complete grids (so-called “project-grids”) which were intended not only to guide them through the various design steps according to the given model, but also to record their project steps, giving reasons which gradually lead them to decide on which TEL approaches to adopt in their courses.
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This material was analysed step by step and used to undertake an initial survey on the trends of teachers adopting TEL approaches. This analysis was then integrated with direct interviews with the teachers in order to pin down further details regarding the motives behind their didactic choices, these not always being able to be deduced from just reading the project report itself. In all, about 250 teachers were involved in the project from almost all of the Faculties, being equitably distributed among the arts and science and technology faculties. Figure 1 summarizes the results emerging from the research (Trentin, 2008). For simplicity, the different types of TEL uses have been grouped into 6 macro-categories and are shown briefly in Table 1 below. Although the graph shows that only 21% of faculties who teach with the aid of ICT adopt blended solutions, this actual percentage is now rising noticeably. For example, with reference to the WEL project alone, the 2007/2008 cycle showed 48% of teachers opting to adopt a blended solution.
The idea that is emerging is that blended solutions are the most sustainable; precisely because they offer the advantages of the various approaches contributing towards shaping them. This aspect affects university education where, besides individual study, there is a strong need for direct teacher/learner interaction and where there is a wide range of possible teaching strategies (especially based on inter-personal interaction) which teachers can adopt to enhance their students’ learning processes.
Why Choose a Blended Solution? The direct interviews with teachers clearly showed their reasons for choosing to adopt blended approaches. The two main reasons were the following2:
Figure 1. Distribution of approaches of ICT educational use in university teaching
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Table 1. The different types of TEL uses Type of approach
Description
Informative use
This is the most elementary use of the Web; to send information to students (course information, exam dates, teacher office hours, etc.).
Distributive use
Here the Web is seen mainly as a one-way channel to distribute to students any learning material regarded as useful by the teacher and that can be transmitted in an electronic format: slides used in lessons, lecture notes, articles and extracts from books, exercises, previous exam texts, selfassessment tests, etc.
Interactive use
In this case the Web is used to foster various types of interpersonal communication1: • [71%] “one-to-one” teacher-student communications, used for requests for information, questions and answers on specific course topics, individual correction of exercises, etc. • [6%] “one-to-many” communications, typical of tele-lessons given synchronously, with the possibility of interacting with the teacher by synchronous and/or asynchronous response channels; • [43%] “many-to-many” communications almost always based on asynchronous interaction using forums, computer conferencing systems, e-groups, etc. to run collaborative activities, onetwo week workshops, etc.
Blended solutions
Although the concept of blended solutions refers to the integration of methods and educational tools more than to the time-space dimension, in most cases these approaches are interpreted as the alternation of onsite and online teaching/learning activities, where the latter are not optional but are an integral part of the course.
Content-driven learning
This approach envisages the creation of e-content that will foster and support self-study processes.
Networked collaborative learning
Refers to educational processes run directly by the teacher, based on the integration of self-study and collaborative learning
•
•
[83%] to recover classroom time in favour of greater interaction with students. Thus, whenever possible, the teacher’s classroom role of illustrating content is delegated to the teaching material. In other words, the teacher limits the classroom presentation of what the student can study independently (the explicit knowledge conveyed by textbooks and other media) and reinvests the time gained in direct interaction with the pupils to provide further explanation and clarification and to transmit their own professional know-how (non-explicit knowledge, or in any case elements that cannot be communicated through textbooks and other media); [18%] to reduce the number of face-to-face lessons, to meet the needs of those students who work or perhaps live far from the university and to find a solution to the problem
of physical space availability for the faceto-face lessons. As can be seen, the first reason was pedagogical, aimed at optimising classroom time without necessarily reducing the number of face-to-face lessons. The second reason, on the other hand, was mainly intended to provide a solution to logistical problems. It is interesting to note how the reason for teachers adopting a blended solution is primarily pedagogical.
I The previous sections have identified blended approaches as highly sustainable in the wider framework of ICT educational uses. It is therefore now worthwhile to examine more closely some
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important factors emerging from the teachers’ interviews regarding the sustainability of blended solutions (Trentin, 2007).
The Economical Dimension This dimension refers to all aspects related to the optimization of resources at stake, ranging from development to practice costs, to those for subsequent reinvestments. A blended solution requires matching the typical resources of face-to-face teaching and TEL. With regard to university education, for example, face-to-face teaching is already in place as part of traditional methodology and therefore, in principle, implies no new costs. However much as they require ad hoc investment, the resources needed for the network-based phases of the blended solution will never amount to as much as that generally required by teaching which is based exclusively on e-learning that is entire re-planning of courses, ad hoc materials development, specialized technologies, technicians, and purposely-trained professional figures who are totally dedicated to this work (Bersin, 2003).
The Pedagogical Dimension This dimension concerns the added value and the pedagogical potentialities introduced by media use in order to promote blended learning sustainability with regard to the quality of the teaching/learning processes (Elliot, 2008). In this sense, a blended solution can enhance the pedagogical effectiveness of the educational process by taking advantage of the distinctive characteristics of the different approaches which contribute towards shaping it. For example: •
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Adopting e-learning approaches only when they prove to be more effective didactically, not so much because they resolve problems
•
•
regarding distance, but rather because they make it possible to break up and play separately on the two elements of “space” (I’ll do as much as possible at home, locally, maybe relying on an online tutor or participating to an online learning group) and “time” (when the conditions around me allow it); Planning face-to-face activities which foster the socialization of all the actors of the learning process, as well as involving teaching activities which can only be carried out effectively in the classroom or in the laboratory; Making the learning process more effective by mitigating the potential disadvantages of the technology due to a possible absence of daily use of network technologies or to the poor availability of mediated interaction, or even to the difficulty of managing the study of particular contents only online.
The Professional Dimension This involves identifying the key figures needed for the design, development, delivery and management of blended solutions (Kearsley and Blomeyer, 2004), as well as methods for their training. The professional dimension also includes issues concerned with formal recognition and appreciation of these roles, as well as strategies for a generalized cultural development towards the educational use of ICT. A teacher wishing to adopt blended solutions does not necessarily have to be a skilled e-teacher. Moreover, considering that a blended solution may not regard the use of materials developed according to the norms of Open and Distance Learning (ODL), not even the presence of an e-content designer is needed. However, what is required of the teacher is the acquisition of the key elements of instructional design with specific reference to the planning of blended teaching.
Teacher and Student Responses to Blended Environments
Te Informal Dimension
The Technological Dimension
This dimension concerns those processes that see individuals meeting their cognitive demands through the autonomous use of e-content and, above all, their participation in networked communities aimed at sharing information, knowledge and good practices (Cross, 2005). Hence, a blended solution, particularly in activities outside the classroom, can become a very good training ground for practising one’s skills in the autonomous use of ICT: today, to approach those resources considered useful for study, tomorrow, to meet one’s need for continuous education.
This is concerned with aspects related to the functionality and stability of an adequate technological infrastructure which is capable of adapting to the requirements of both the context and the individual user. To implement a blended solution does not necessarily imply imposing aprioristic choices with regard to platforms and communication systems. To carry out the parts at a distance, a readily structurable repository can suffice together with a flexible environment for group interaction. Although this is conjecture at this stage, especially in relation to an institutional context, Web 2.0 currently makes a large amount of useful resources accessible for this purpose.
The Organizational Dimension This refers to creating the organizational conditions (development of structures and processes) to actually be able to integrate blended solutions in the standard practices of the organization in order to “institutionalize” them (White, 2006). Blended solutions do not imply any radical reconfiguration of the delivery process of education. Many activities used in a blended solution may already be carried out in an organizational setting, such as those conducted in the classroom or laboratory.
Te Content Dimension This involves both the quality of the transmitted content and the way of keeping them constantly updated. As mentioned, a blended solution does not necessarily imply development of ad hoc materials, which instead occurs when adopting content-driven e-learning. There is the tendency to use what is at one’s disposal and/or what can be found online (but not only). The aim is to focus more on the process than on the self-study teaching materials. This, among other things, contributes towards cutting down an item which often weighs heavily on the costs of e-learning and at the same time enables greater flexibility in keeping study material for students up to date.
The Socio-Cultural Dimension This dimension refers to the socio-cultural changes required for a wide diffusion of blended learning approaches (Davies and Fill, 2007). By alternating time for individual study, network activities and classroom activities, a blended solution does not leave the entire running of the learning process in the hands of the learner as happens in content-driven approaches. This mitigates the impact that a systematic use of technology could provide for those who do not have the appropriate habit and culture to participate effectively in an educational event based exclusively on NBE (MacDonald, 2004). The alternation between self-study of e-content and face-to-face social interaction not only strengthens cohesion among all of the actors in the process but also helps to eliminate (at least partially) those harmful anxiety-provoking effects for those participating in an NBE course for the first time. In other words, as well as reassuring learners attending a course on networked technologies, a blended solution can help them gradually acquire a correct method in the autonomous and formal and/or informal educational use of the technologies themselves.
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Another interesting social implication concerns the possibility of differentiating interactions among the participants involved in the teaching/learning process. In a traditional classroom the teacher takes up most of the time dedicated to communication. If and when any discussion takes place, it is often dominated by one or just a handful of students while the rest are quiet (the most reflective, the shy ones, those unable to maintain concentration, etc.). During an online asynchronous interaction many more students have the opportunity to participate in the discussion, and the number of contributions within the group is more equally distributed.
Recommendations for Improving Blended Leaa Practice Blended solutions imply combining a number of teaching approaches that can be formal and informal, directive and discovery-oriented, based on technology and social interaction, and online and face-to-face collaboration. A blended approach therefore requires finding the right mix among all its possible components. It is therefore best to start out with a clear definition of the educational objectives and then, for each of them, identify the most effective teaching activities and strategies to achieve them. A foremost recommendation is therefore to follow instructional design criteria which at the same time integrate approaches for designing classroom activities with those for designing NBE, also taking into account the specificities, potentiality and criticality of the technological media intended to be used (McCracken and Dobson, 2004). For example, during course planning a good balance should be provided between classroom activities (face-to-face lesson, laboratory, discussion regarding occurrences online, etc.) and distance activities (individual study, group activity, etc.),
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in such a way that each one is functional to the other and vice versa. In other words, classroom activities should help lay the foundations for following distance activity, and the expected objectives, assignments, times and results should be clarified. Similarly, distance activities should be structured so that they are functional, if not essential, to the subsequent face-to-face meeting. Among these, the following should be mentioned: • • • • •
Individual study of learning material available both online and offline; Interaction with teachers/tutors as process facilitators; Interaction with other experts/specialists; Free interaction with other participants in the same learning path; Interaction arranged with other users in the same learning path aimed to enhance collaborative learning strategies.
If, however, on the one hand it is important to adopt instructional design criteria oriented towards blended solutions, on the other hand it is very often noticeable how teachers are unfamiliar with instructional design in general (Fill, 2006b). Indeed, in university education, teachers by nature are primarily experts in their subject with no, or hardly any notions of instructional design. Their pedagogy is generally “spontaneous” and relates to their direct experience, firstly as a student and then as a teacher, and year after year they refine their own style of managing the learning/teaching process. An exception to this are teachers from specific Faculties, such as the Faculty of Educational Sciences, or those teachers interested in deepening their understanding of the pedagogical aspects to improve ways of teaching their subject3. Although this “spontaneity” may even be acceptable in classroom teaching, the adoption of blended approaches automatically entails teachers
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acquiring the fundamental notions of instructional design. In this way they can plan the most effective blend of approaches to reach the stated learning objective using both technology mediation and face-to-face interaction. This does not imply that adopting a blended approach requires teachers to become professional instructional designers because they will still be required to be experts and teachers in their field. Nevertheless, if teachers are prepared to undertake the design, development and running of blended-type teaching activities, there will be greater improvement in the quality standard of the corresponding learning/teaching process. A second recommendation to enhance the use of blended approaches therefore involves arranging training (less theoretical and very practical) for faculty members on the principles of instructional design (Kearsley and Blomeyer, 2004). In our experience, excellent results have been obtained using project-based learning strategies centred on the study and application of instructional design criteria in re-designing, in a blended learning context, courses previously delivered via traditional methods or just partially supported by ICT (Trentin, 2006). In this regard, a further recommendation is to create whenever possible an inter-faculty team as a support for teachers, especially during their first experiences of designing and running blended solutions. Assistance in running the course is important above all when the blended solution envisages collaborative online learning activities and the teacher still has little experience in facilitating an online group (Salmon, 2004). In the Italian context, this support sometimes comes from officially recognised university centres which serve as a reference point for ICT-based educational innovation. At other times though, support in training and during the initial deliveries of TEL courses stems from actions taken by the university according to project-specific financing (see projects referred to in our research). In the first case the university aims to establish a stable
process for spreading TEL practices by implementing ad hoc centres with specialized staff (instructional designers, e-content developers, information technologists). In the second case, the idea is to invest directly in teachers in terms of knowledge and competence in instructional design and in running technology-supported teaching activities. Both of these choices have advantages and disadvantages, although the policy of setting up specialized centres provides a clearer vision for institutionalising TEL practices within the university. Furthermore, this sends a very strong signal to faculty members with consequent repercussions on their motivation for investing time and effort in acquiring ever greater knowledge in TEL and in redesigning their own courses in a blended learning context. A key factor towards institutionalising technology-supported teaching regards the status of the teacher who adopts blended approaches in their teaching and in particular the development of their abilities in teaching with the support of technologies. It is well-known that qualified teachers are given a formal certification regarding both their expertise in their given subject and the education level of the qualification. However, certifications referring to the acquisition or not of TEL competences are rarely taken into the same consideration. Despite the value-added experience and continuous education on methods and technologies, its lack of recognition justifies considering the use of TEL approaches as something ancillary to classroom teaching. Thus a strong imperative arises to renegotiate the teachers’ status at both a normative and educational level incorporating, amongst their competences, the ability to apply blended approaches to their teaching. But how does the teachers status vary according to their adoption of new teaching methods with and through the use of ICT? The role of the teacher obviously continues to be central although, compared to classroom teaching, their function shifts from being a face-to-face teacher to a learning process facilitator of content in which they are
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experts, contributing towards preparing e-content and supervising interactive networked activities. Their role alters depending on the type of TEL approach intended to be adopted. However this is often associated with work overload, particularly when the activities carried out online are not formally recognised in calculating the teaching load. This is a widespread situation and in Italy there is no “official” regulation in this respect to meet the requirements. Recognition of the hours spent undertaking online teaching has to date been negotiated between individual teachers and their respective institutions (Kearsley and Blomeyer, 2004). It is, therefore, highly recommended that to help diffuse and stabilize the adoption of blended approaches, the rules and criteria that guarantee teachers being properly recognized for all those tasks not falling within the norms of face-to-face teaching be defined. The lack of such a guarantee leads to well-known effects: after some initial curiosity in the new teaching strategies, stimulated also by ad hoc initiatives promoted by the universities, only a small number of teachers involved in training continue to use them. This is often due more to personal and research interest than to any real conviction in the method’s sustainability from an institutional/organisational perspective. The others, at most, end up using just a minimal amount of their training and ensuring that no more time is invested in applying the new methods than that formally recognized by the university in terms of teaching load. Thus, in view of a sometimes substantial commitment in economic resources in faculties training and technologies, the outcome sees a modest return in investment on terms of teaching innovation and impact at a systemic level on the institution.
IT RRESE From the thoughts presented here, one can conclude that future research on blended learning will
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have to be suitably divided between the deep study of theoretical models, and the definition of organizational issues related to the context in which those models will be managed and used. The models will certainly evolve thanks to the availability of increasingly sophisticated technologies or simply those that today, for economic reasons, are less accessible. From the institutional point of view, however, it is increasingly clear that the diffusion of blended methods will have to be based on a fine play of balances between teaching/pedagogical questions, the organizational/management issues involved in the different blended approaches and the specific needs linked to their integration within a given context of application.
A Critical Review of Blended La the UK: What Future for the LMS? The need for teachers to connect with their geographically dislocated students has led to some important pedagogical innovations in the United Kingdom, including the first correspondence course, developed by Sir Isaac Pittman in the Victorian era, and the inception of one of the world’s first distance universities, the United Kingdom Open University (UKOU) in the 1960s (Wheeler, 2005). The UKOU has developed and refined a blended learning approach which draws on a mix of distance learning with less frequent but strategic face to face study, including local tutorials and summer schools which are held on the campuses of traditional universities. This combination of local and remote learning, supported by specialised tutors through face-to-face meetings and mediated through technology, has proven to be so successful that many other so called ‘mega-universities’ (Daniel, 1996) around the world have emulated its formula. In parallel with the rest of the industrialised world, United Kingdom (UK) universities have been pressed into developing their own culture
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of electronic (e) learning. The use of e-learning presupposes that a blend of the best techniques and experiences are combined with traditional face to face study methods. Universities and colleges are keen to offer students ‘any time, any place’ learning opportunities that meet diverse needs and changing work based practices. When first implemented, many e-learning initiatives were built around learning management systems that had been purchased because money had been made available. Few e-learning initiatives were institution wide, and most were operated on an ad hoc basis, led by one or two enthusiasts (Hill, 2008). Most recently, many UK institutions have concertedly embedded e-learning strategies into their business models, in the hope of reaching a wider market of students through flexible and open delivery of learning opportunities. This is referred to as the ‘blended’ learning model because it exploits the best features of the real and virtual environments (Concannon, Flynn & Campbell, 2005).
BLENDED For some time now, the term ‘blended learning’ has been synonymous with flexibility and accessibility. In simple terms, blended learning should encourage students to study when and where they are able to, creating learning opportunities that fit into and around their busy lifestyles. It is a principle that has been successfully applied across all sectors of education provision, from the early years (Ligorio & van der Meijden, 2008), through secondary education (Chandra & Lloyd, 2008), to third age learning (Trentin, 2004). However, in UK higher education, studies have revealed that success has not been consistent, with some universities achieving rapid gains, whilst others lag far behind (Nichols, 2007). Some universities have been resentful of initiatives that employ large scale electronic delivery as they perceive they are being denied students who would otherwise have
enrolled on campus based programmes (Selwyn, Gorard & Furlong, 2006). Change is often rapid and is usually implemented simultaneously at a number of levels, including environmental, organisational and personal. It is this cultural shift, Bell and Bell (2005) suggest, that can provoke a number of tensions and anxieties for students and staff. They recommend that all stakeholders should be involved in driving the change at all stages of the process (Bell & Bell, 2005). Often, however, it is common for institutional strategies, such as the introduction of a new LMS, to be implemented with little or no consultation with the most important stakeholder – the student.
NOM PORTFOLIOreers The success of lifelong learning is due in part to the fact that by its nature it is inclusive through its span across age ranges, yet in doing so it creates a new set of issues for universities and colleges to consider. Issues include responding to the requirements to manage and incorporate diversity, widening participation, maintenance of complex communication technology networks and the provision of secure access to learning resources. Still another demand has recently emerged from lifelong learners that has been instrumental in driving the impetus of widespread LMS deployment. Many students now enrolled in UK higher education programmes are mature students. They study on a part-time basis whilst fully or substantially employed in demanding, time-intensive careers. Professionals such as teachers, nurses, college lecturers and engineers are under continuous pressure to update and upgrade their skills and knowledge. The result is that a large number of part-time, mature students are currently flocking to enroll in courses at universities across the UK, to participate in day release, evening and weekend professional development. Often, distance learning methods are used to supplement their study
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programme, and of course, technology plays a key role in these endeavours. Increasingly, the portfolio career is becoming the norm, with workers regularly changing jobs or even retraining for new skills several times during their working lives. The ‘just in time’ training model that was popular and effective in the last decade is rapidly becoming outmoded. To meet the demands of the present fast moving knowledge economy, many providers are now offering ‘just for me’ training, to deliver bespoke skills and knowledge, often delivered to the students’ homes or places of work. Moreover, there is a growing trend for students to study while on the move, therefore the advent of personal and mobile technologies has prompted a shift toward nomadic learning (Bouvin, Christensen, Hansen & Nielsen, 2005). Nomadic learners are adept at managing change and are able to study within the workplace, at home, and especially whilst travelling, as well as in a more traditional mode on campus. It is a movement that typifies the information society, and has evolved in response to the ideal that students should suffer no loss of quality or access to their learning materials regardless of their location and that their learning environment should remain consistent regardless of context (Wheeler, 2007). Therefore many universities feel that they are now obliged to offer support and networked resources to nomadic learners to facilitate any time, any place learning. This may require the provision of mobile devices such as the cellular phone, pervasive digital services, laptop and palmtop computers and wider access to social software tools. The distinct lack of studies in the academic literature indicates that such initiatives are slow to be implemented within universities. In nomadic learning personalised study becomes a key objective, and this can be achieved regardless of spatial or temporal constraints, but only if institutions implement it for all who require it. Naturally many institutions aspire to providing
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such services for their student populations, but in reality, cost and security issues militate against this idea, and a cultural dissonance often constrains full provision (Bell & Bell, 2005). The most intractable problem appears to be the latter. A tension often exists between the culture of the institutional learning management system (LMS) promulgated by the institution, and the culture of the student led personalised learning environment (PLE). The former is often imposed upon all learners whilst the latter becomes a peripheral, self-electing and informalised learning tool. The university favours a centralised and secure system for obvious reasons, not least because it must protect its technical infrastructure and ensure that only bona fide students and staff have access to its resources and systems. Universities opt for the LMS for the convenience of operation, security and control. Culley (2006) identifies a number of features that are made available for all users including the management of access through authentication (login, password), support through help pages and FAQ areas, authoring and information tools (news and course announcements), and a number of communication tools (synchronous and asynchronous, including e-mail, discussion boards and chat areas). In addition the LMS offers tutors a number of beneficial features such as user access management, system management tools, the ability to track student progress, a range of assessment tools, and other administrative applications. The LMS offers several useful features to the student including a number of self-assessment tools such as online quizzes, online support including access to specialised input from tutors and communication with peer group, learning management tools and personalised access to learning resources. Nevertheless, as we have already seen, students are spending a great deal of their time, and in large numbers, using free, unstructured and informalised extra-institutional web spaces.
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LMS VS . Social NNETWORKING The Learning Management System is not always popular with students, for a number of reasons. Students report that they experience difficulties with technical issues (Weller, et al 2005), lack of familiarity with the system (McGill & Hobbs, 2007), and discussion overload (Kear & Heap, 2007), and this is not an exhaustive list. Furthermore, the LMS is facing competition for student ‘online time’ from a more attractive and rapidly growing rival, social networking. Where the LMS invariably has the appearance of an institutional system through its branded logo, controlled log-in and passwords, uninspiring topography and bland presentation, the more popular social networking tools such as MySpace and Flickr are more colourful and attractive, can be more or less tailored to personal preferences, and are beyond the control and surveillance of the university. There is a view by some academics that social networking sites cannot and should not be used to deliver formalised delivery of learning, because students are not there to learn. They are there to connect, gossip and share with others who have a similar outlook and interests in life. However, some intrepid teachers are already using these tools to create fertile spaces within which learning can be conducted. It remains to be seen whether such initiatives will be successful, but it is important to understand the underlying principles which cause the divide between the LMS and the social networking site. Significantly, the network generation has embedded itself into social sites where they are at liberty to create, publish, appropriate and redistribute content unchecked. Craig (2007) believes that younger students will find the structures of the LMS too traditional and inflexible when compared to the libertarian user-generated features of social networking tools. This he suggests, represents a fundamental shift in the experience of using digital environments which will necessitate a radical rethinking of the underlying architecture of the LMS approach
(Craig, 2007). Others concur that today’s generation of students expect and seek out highly interactive experiences, involving muti-tasking, self-selection of learning material and fast-moving engagement with their enviroment which centres upon play, user-generation of content and collaboration (Prensky, 2001; Veen & Vrakking, 2006). We might conclude that the insitutional LMS is simply failing to keep pace with the new demands from the network generation, so students are migrating to social networking sites to supplement their on-line experiences. Social networking tools such as Bebo and MySpace are popular with students because they are free, attractive in appearance, are personalisable, and are easy to use. Because students perceive them to be beyond the control of the institution, they will often use them in an anarchical manner, with little thought for the consequences of pictures or comments they post. However, many prospective admission tutors and employers are now checking out social networking sites to discover details about applicants, so the dangers of wanton posting are becoming ever more manifest.
HOWVE Mnagement SySTEMSBEEN USED The Learning Management System, (sometimes referred to as the MLE - managed learning environment, or erroneously as the VLE – virtual learning environment) is an important component in the institutional e-learning strategy. Several proprietary LMS platforms have been marketed over the last few years, including BlackBoard, WebCT, Boddingtons and more recently, Fronter. Several open source options are also available, the most popular of which is Moodle. Evaluations of a variety of applications of the LMS can be found, and the literature is extensive. Learning management systems have been used successfully in a number of contexts in higher education. One
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study showed that in an LMS, tasks are divided, with tutors principally involved in organisational tasks, whilst students communicate mostly at content-related and interpersonal levels (Gerber et al, 2008). The same study revealed that students’ own content-related and interpersonal messages had a positive impact on their learning performances (Gerber et al, 2008). A study at the University of Birmingham found that the LMS was effective in enabling medical students to bridge the gap between theory and clinical practice through the use of blended delivery of learning (Davies et al, 2005). Research at the University of Manchester showed the importance of blended delivery for the student teachers, with the LMS delivering a balanced programme that effectively supported skills and knowledge acquisition. This enabled students to reflect on past practice and plan for future professional engagement (Motteram, 2006). Most universities employ a mix of synchronous and asynchronous communication to facilitate discussion, collaboration and the giving of feedback, considering these approaches to facilitate more inclusive education (Cox et al, 2004). It is evident that the vast majority of UK education institutions have implemented campuswide learning management systems, but in the long term, this may prove to be problematic. The current economic stringency has caused many universities to be circumspect. Many see a widening of the traditional catchment area as a route to increased productivity through higher student numbers. There is a widespread belief that distance education, and in its blended form, e-learning, are an apposite means of achieving this objective. In their quest to secure strong market positions, there is evidence to suggest that many UK universities are buying into proprietary delivery platforms that are difficult to use (Bridge & Appleyard, 2005; Weller et al, 2005), expensive to maintain (Forsyth, 2003) and unattractive to a generation of students who have grown up in the social web era (McPherson & Nunes, 2004). The most prevalent problem reported by most studies however, was
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slow (or no) access to the learning materials that had been placed on the LMS (Clarke et al, 2005; Bell & Bell, 2005; Baird et al, 2006). Yet as we have seen, in many ways the use of institutional platforms to support electronic delivery tends to work counter to the ideals of student centredness and learner autonomy.
PERSON SOCI Software It is abundantly clear that we are witnessing a rapid proliferation of social software tools on the Web. Almost every day somewhere in the press and media we are able to read accounts of triumphs and disasters about FaceBook, MySpace or YouTube and hear stories about blogging or podcasting. These are some of the more popular ‘Web 2.0’ tools, yet they are merely the tip of the social software iceberg. Many of the younger students in UK universities are regular users of social networking, and there is an obvious reason for its popularity. They use FaceBook and similar tools to keep in regular contact with their circle of friends, and they use YouTube to broadcast their amateur videos. Blogs are personalised online diaries in which authors can tell a potential worldwide audience about their lives, personal hobbies and share their views. Photo sharing facilities such as Flickr and Picasa enable users to create online photo albums. One common feature of all of these tools is the ability to send and receive feedback through comment boxes. Social sites offer a richness of social contact through easy to use web features, enabling people to personalise their chosen space, and herein lies a clue to the rapid growth in their popularity. iGoogle is another popular tool that enables users to personalise their desktop computer, and creates a seamless interface with the I nternet, in what has become known by some as the ‘webtop’. Users can generate a series of tabs which open up into extra spaces to store useful bookmarks
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and hyperlinks, utilities that report local weather, currency conversion tools, translation tools, in fact almost anything the student might need to succeed in study.
PERSON VS . THEnaged Learning ENVIRONMENT In Carl Rogers seminal work ‘Freedom to Learn’, several key student centred principles were espoused. Not least of these was the student’s right to choose what, where and when s/he was studying (Rogers, 1994). The concept of personalised learning begins to fulfil this humanistic ideal. PLEs locate the student at the heart of the process, taking into account their individual styles, preferences and interests. Personalised learning also accommodates the student’s individual learning trajectory, including choice of topics, preferred pace and place of study. By their very nature however, individual learning trajectories tend to run counter to the regimented approaches adopted by most institutes. Learning management systems are the antithesis of PLEs. They are designed to formally manage the learning process throughout an entire programme of study. The LMS commonly houses a number of functions including content management, student tracking, assessment management and secure access. Notwithstanding, several criticisms have been levelled at the learning management system e-learning approach. de Freitas (2007) suggests that although extensive and sustained effort has been invested into the development of the LMS, less attention has been paid to content development and the models employed to embed content into practice. Subsequently, she laments the significant lack of e-learning models and the dearth of pedagogical designs that align content delivery to learning outcomes (Mayes & de Freitas, 2004).
Universities deem it important to maintain governance over the learning process by closely managing the delivery of content, the tracking of students, and control over access. The implementation of a secure digital learning environment is therefore considered expedient. Universities need to control access, delivery and management of student activities, monitoring progress and generating reports of achievement, so that education is delivered in a cost effective and efficient way. In past eras, this has been achieved through the standard lecture and/or demonstration, and subsequent seminars and tutorials, which synchronise place and time, but do not take account of individual differences. The contemporary analogy to the lecture/seminar is the Learning Management System in which activities and content are synchronised and centralised, and where little acknowledgement is made of individual needs and preferences. It would appear then , that the two approaches are incompatible. We should be aware however, that the two approaches actually fulfil different learning needs.
RECOMMENDTIONS FOR PRersonalised Learning Environments Flexible and user friendly tools of the social networking and iGoogle kind attract students into creating their own PLEs, and repel them away from the rather inconvenient and unattractive institutional LMS. Yet, ultimately, the PLE cannot replace the LMS in its functionality any more than the LMS can be personalised to the extent students would desire. It is the contention of this author that a mix of the best features of both PLE and LMS will need to be present in a blended online learning environment. Students will need to gather and maintain a cache of useful tools, links and resources that are relevant and necessary for their programme of study. They
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will also need easy, but secure access to a number of institutional services such as tutor support, mentoring and guidance, online accreditation of work, formalised assessment, and of course connections with other students that are not possible within social networking realms. Outside of the LMS, they can continue to informally learn and communicate, and in effect maintain two digital identities – those of the formal LMS learner and the informal web explorer.
UKesearch CCONCLUSION There is clearly much effort being made to develop learning management systems that can provide learning opportunities to difficult to reach students. Many UK institutions are now moving beyond the initially piece-meal applications of e-learning toward more coherent campus-wide systems implementation. Mobile and nomadic students are a growing client population, and will need to be considered by senior managers in any future implementation. It is evident that there is a clash of cultures between the structured, managed online learning environments deployed by universities, and the freeform, unstructured social spaces preferred by many students. Cultural change is exerted at all levels when new technologies are introduced, but change will only be successful where it is managed and supported at all levels and for all stakeholders. Notwithstanding, many students seem to reject or at least tacitly adopt institutional systems, and there is growing evidence that they prefer to use social networking tools that are beyond the reach of the university. It is highly likely that a compromise will be required if blended technology supported learning is to improve its track record. Future deployments of online learning environments are likely to have elements of both systems within the architecture of the LMS.
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British Journal of Educational Technology, 35(3), 305-321. Motteram, G. (2006). ‘Blended’ education and the transformation of teachers: a long-term case study in postgraduate UK Higher Education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 37(1), 17–30. Nichols, M. (2008). Institutional perspectives: The challenges of e-learning diffusion. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(4), 598-609. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game based learning. New York: McGraw Hill. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1-6. Rogers, C. (1994). Freedom to Learning (3rd Edition). New York: Merrill. Salmon, G. (2004). E-moderating: the key to teaching and learning online. London: Kogan Page. Selwyn, N., Gorard, S., & Furlong, J. (2006). Adult learning in the digital age: Information technology and the learning society. London: Routledge. Seufert, S., & Euler, D. (2003). Sustainability of eLearning innovations: findings of expert interviews. Retrieved December 3, 2004 from: http://www.scil.ch/publications/docs/2003-06seufert-euler-sustainability-elearning.pdf. Stahl, G. (2006). Group cognition: computer support for building collaborative knowledge. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Trentin, G. (2004). E-learning and the third age. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20(1), 21–30 Trentin, G. (2006). The Xanadu Project: training faculty in the use of ICT for university teaching. International Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 22, 182-196.
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Trentin, G. (2007). A multidimensional approach to e-learning sustainability. Educational Technology, 47(5), 36-40. Trentin, G. (2008). TEL and university teaching: different approaches for different purposes. International Journal on E-Learning, 7(1), 117-132. Varis, T (2004). Social perspective of e-learning in the national education system. Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento (RUSC), 1(1). Retrieved January 13, 2008 from http://www. uoc.edu/rusc/dt/eng/varis0704.pdf. Veen, W., & Vrakking, B. (2006). Homo Zappiens: Growing up in a digital age. London: Continuum. Weller, M., Pegler, C., & Mason, R. (2005). Students’ experience of component versus integrated virtual learning environments. British Journal of Educational Technology, 21(4), 253-259. Wheeler, S. (2005). British distance education: A proud tradition. In Y. Visser, L. Visser and M. Simonson (Eds) Trends and Issues in Distance Education: An International Perspective. Greenwich, Connecticut, USA: Information Age Publishers. Wheeler, S. (2007). Something wiki this way cometh: Evaluating open architecture software as support for nomadic learning. Paper presented at the EDEN 2007 Annual Conference, Citta della Scienza, Naples, Italy. 13-16 June.
White, S. (2006). Critical success factors for institutional change: some organisational perspectives. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(5), 840-850. Zemsky, R., & Massy, W. F. (2004). Thwarted innovation: what happened to e-learning and why. Final Report for The Weatherstation Project of the Learning Alliance at University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved February 27, 2005 from http://www. csudh.edu/dearhabermas/WeatherStation_Report.pdf.
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The percentages that follow refer only to the teachers who declared that they used interpersonal communication services in their teaching activities, i.e. 81% of the whole sample. The percentages that follow refer only to the teachers who declared that they used blended solutions in their teaching activities, i.e. 21% of the whole sample. In our research, before starting the teachers’ training stage, only 12% of them had declared (and shown) that they had enough knowledge of instructional design and most of them came from the Faculty of Educational Sciences and Teacher Education.
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Section II
Establishing Communities
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Chapter VII
Blending Collaborative Online Learning with Workplace and Community Contexts Peter J. Smith Deakin University, Australia Elizabeth Stacey Deakin University, Australia Tak Shing Ha University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong
ABSTRACT The majority of research and literature in collaborative learning online has been focussed on groups of students organised into units of study by an educational institution. There are, however, large numbers of adult students for whom participation in institutionally controlled online collaborative learning occurs side by side with participation in situated learning contexts such as their work or their community. This chapter draws on research conducted by the authors with adult learners who participate in communities of practice and communities of learning in their own work or life contexts, and provides insights into how these outside-institution learning environments can be used in a more deliberate blending to enhance student learning experience.
I Although there has been considerable focus on blended learning in reasonably formal institutional settings, our interest here is in blended learning
as an effective tool outside just the confines of institutional learning. Blended learning, usually defined as a mix of face-to-face instruction and learning experiences provided online (Graham, 2006) has, in the formal institutional setting, fo-
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cussed largely on learning within the community established by the institution. Most commonly, that community comprises fellow students of that same institution and probably even of the same unit of study, and the relevant instructors. Our contention here is that this is a crucially important form of blended learning that is likely to become even more effective as social software sophistication increases, and the ways in which that software is used by students and their instructors similarly increases. However, our contention is also that, for adult learners out in the busy workplace, there are other communities that they use for learning that are as rich as those to be found in institutional settings. As Baldwin-Evans (2006, p.156) has observed, for adult learners in the workplace most learning ‘takes place informally outside the boxes on the organization chart’. It is the potential for drawing on the power of these informal learning communities that has interested us before (eg Stacey, Smith & Barty, 2004, Stacey, Barty & Smith, 2005). In this chapter we will explore this blending of the learning communities with workplace communities, and discuss the interaction that can occur as we extend our definition of blended learning to include this phenomenon. The field of online learning has begun to be described increasingly by a range of commentators and researchers in terms of community as a way of explaining the cognitive and affective inter-relationships that students develop online. Researchers have explored the nature of online communities from Rheingold’s (1992) virtual community of people linked by the internet, computer mediation and shared interests to the more purposeful educational community of inquiry defined by Garrison and Anderson (2003) and re-purposed for blended learning by Garrison and Vaughan (2008). Within institutional settings, particularly in higher education, there has been a great deal of discussion focussing on learning communities (McLoughin 2001; Tu Corry 2001; Chapman, Ramondt, & Smiley 2005). In a context of distance education, computer mediated com-
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munication (CMC) has provided the capacity to develop a community of learning among groups of learners who are geographically or temporally distributed, and who would not otherwise have opportunity for the collaborative experience that is afforded online. These new types of online learning communities have begun to be researched extensively but discussions of virtual communities, communities of learners and communities of practice appear in the literature without always a common understanding of the parameters of these communities (Tiwana & Bush 2001; Brook & Oliver 2003). The similarities of variables for study in such communities of learning to the factors studied in the body of research into computer supported collaborative learning include cognitive negotiation of meaning, social support and establishing of social presence, engagement in CMC support systems (Stacey, 1999, 2002). This research has provided those researching the higher education sector with a basis for framing a study of the intersection of communities of practice and communities of learning. Most postgraduate students are workplace-based students and those studying at a distance who engage in learning online do so because it provides them with flexibility of access to a community of learning without their having to physically travel from their workplaces or homes. They can develop online communities of learning which may be short term for one part of a semester or longer term over a course. Research is beginning to be developed that follows the establishment of their communities (Preece, Abras & MaloneyKrichmar, 2004; Wilson, Ludwig-Hardman, Thornam & Dunlap, 2004; Goodfellow 2005) and their negotiated meaning and processes for integrating newcomers and old-timers in such a virtual community (Lave & Wenger, 1991). The development of such communities has mainly been explored through researching teaching strategies in online environments and the notion of the online community of learning within communities of
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practice is not well researched particularly from the learner perspective. Recognition of the potential effectiveness of learning through a blending of an individual’s communities of practice for organisational or personal development has become strong amongst managers of businesses, educational institutions and community organizations (Wenger & Snyder, 2000; Young & Mitchell, 2000; Fetterman, 2002). This has led more recently to an interest in these communities for particular strategic purposes related to development or change (Wenger, McDermott & Snyder, 2002). Additionally, the belief that online communication supports communities of practice has gained credibility (Robey, Khoo, & Powers, 2000; Rogers, 2000; Goodfellow, 2005) such that the two can be viewed as capable of working effectively together with involvement in the one, potentially benefiting involvement in the other (Stacey, Smith & Barty, 2004; Stacey, Barty & Smith, 2005). At the same time as there has been promising comment and some evidence for the possible value of transferring the community of practice concept to the online environment, however there is little research that directly focuses on that transfer, how it may be effected, and how beneficial it may be (Schwen & Hara, 2003, p. 231). A number of writers (eg. Preece, 2000; Smith & Stacey, 2003; Goodfellow, 2005) have noted that existing communities can be disrupted or disturbed by their transfer to an online environment so strategies for successfully learning through a blending of these communities are welcomed. Accordingly, in this chapter we intend to explore blended learning in three different settings and where there are different intents, and to reflect on the aspect of blended learning in these contexts. First, we will explore blended learning as a tool of human resource development within organizations, where the intention is the development of workplace knowledge and skills either for operators or for supervisors and managers. Second, we will explore blended learning for IT
professionals, which we deal with as a particular case differentiated by the need for fast moving knowledge and skills development in a quickly changing environment, and where the information technology (IT) skills and attitudes needed for blended learning participation are generally well developed. Third, we deal with blended learning within the more formal learning environments of higher education. Finally, we spend some time exploring some of the ways in which blended learning can be inhibited by existing communities of learning and communities of practice.
Bended Learning in the Workplaa Higher education institutions and corporate training bodies have embraced online education through computer mediated communication (CMC) as a solution to providing flexibly delivered ongoing learning for workers who often spend increasingly longer hours at work but have less time to join conventional face to face classes. The convenience and benefits of CMC for studying, even when students are geographically or temporally distributed, means that more and more education and training is being provided this way throughout all manner of enterprises. At the same time the notion of learning occurring in the workplace through communities of practice has become widely accepted as an effective model that emulates the informal team based learning and networking process which can also be harnessed as a means of professional development and training (Brown & Duguid, 2000; Wenger, 1999). The impact and interaction of structured communities of learners developed by institutions through CMC can also potentially have an ongoing and influential role in knowledge management in enterprises. Workers studying online within a community of learners and also involved in workplace communities of practice may be influenced in either disruptive or facilitative ways in the way
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they are learning and applying their study to their work, as well as in the way they are working and learning in the workplace. Communities of practice, a term derived from the work of Lave and Wenger (1991), and described by Wenger, McDermott and Snyder (2002) as “groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing basis” provide a conceptual framework for understanding and investigating such communities. Wenger (1999) describes these communities as having life cycles in which they negotiate meaning and which are constantly undergoing change and, though developed in studies of situated learning in workplaces, they help to provide an understanding of the shared concerns and similarities of context that form effective online communities and explain their growing prevalence in workplace practice and training (Schlager, Fusco & Schank, 2002). Communities of learners are conceived as groups of learners, already members of workplace based communities of practice who are linked online and who are learning together in institutionally structured collaborative groups. As online learning has become widely used in the field of higher and vocational education for small group collaborative learning, so the social constructivist theory of Vygotsky (1978) has been reassessed as a theoretical framework for understanding the effectiveness of this communicative medium in small group learning (Stacey, 1999; Bell, 2003). Vygotsky’s research explains the social nature of learning, particularly when learners are confronted with problems which they cannot solve on their own without the resources of a more able peer or a group. This can be done through the process of discussion, where group members can articulate new thoughts, listen to other group members and receive feedback on ideas, thus providing the cognitive scaffolding to enable effective learning. Constructivist and social constructivist theories have been more recently developed to
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include the notion of situated learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Billett, 1996) where the learning is situated within workplace practice and is more powerfully facilitated through communities that evolve through such practice (Barab & Duffy, 2000; Hung & Chen, 2001). Online learning and the changes to information and communications technologies (ICT) have meant that both communities of practice and communities of learning in the same locations or distributed geographically or temporally are a new and different study that has not been thoroughly investigated. A review of the research literature has indicated a clear place for online learning technologies to support workplace training (eg. Newton, Hase & Ellis, 2002; Smith, 2001; Mitchell & Honore, 2007; Kim & Choi, 2004; Sloman, 2007), and though studies of online training communities within workplaces have investigated tension through ‘interference’ from management which seemed to cause low online interaction (Cothrel & Williams, 1999 cited in Goodfellow, 2005) there has been little attention paid to how the use of these technologies to establish institutionally structured communities of learning external to the workplace can impact upon, either negatively or positively, the communities of learning and practice that are already established in workplaces. We perceive a tension between the use of online learning technologies and the communities of practice that exist in workplace settings. People in workplaces operate in communities of practice, and construct knowledge through interactions with their colleagues in situated learning environments. There is potential for using online learning with communities of learning to disturb those communities of practice, and to reduce the engagement of individuals in them, most particularly where the group is linked online across a number of enterprises, and organised through a formal program of higher education study. A further issue here is that changes to this informal learning in communities of practice that may result from more
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structured approaches to learning that may be taken in the design of online learning. Recognising and exploring the ways in which externally derived knowledge can contribute to an organization is a strongly emerging research interest in human resource development and organisational capacity building, as well as a strong area of applied interest among contemporary organizations (Smith & Sadler-Smith, 2006). Success in the transfer of externally derived knowledge into an organization is likely to be much more social and relational than propositional and procedural. To share knowledge in a meaningful way, and to have it accepted by and influence others requires the development and maintenance of learning relationships and relationships of workplace practice, and it is the adept use of these relationships that will enable a learner/worker to contribute to a workplace community of practice, and to organisational capacity building in a broader sense. As Jurie (2000, p. 265) puts it, “Organisations which hamper or stunt the free development of their members or constituents…limit their own effectiveness.” Stebbins and Shani (1995) suggest that the mode of involvement of such workers is far more likely to be participative, where there is recognition that these workers identify, select, share, and deploy knowledge that is derived from the knowledge sets of others. Recognising this, organisational capacity building is enhanced where knowledgeable workers and others are provided with the culture and the opportunity for non-hierarchical organisational structures and relationships, and for forums which provide opportunity for knowledge sharing (Stebbins & Shani, 1995). Finally, there is an interesting connection to be explored between an organisational culture that encourages the development and sharing of knowledge contributions to enterprise capacity building, and the learning and labour network theory developed by Poell, Chivers, Van der Krogt and Wildersmeersch (2000) in the Netherlands.
Although the research into online learning in the higher education sector is more extensive, Newton, Hase and Ellis (2002) observed that the literature regarding online learning in workplaces has been long on rhetoric and promise, but short on research into how to implement it, or how it is used. Newton et al. (2002) acknowledge a number of industry surveys, but suggest that the majority of these have been marketing surveys rather than research on implementation requirements (eg Keogh, 1998). However, since 2002, there has been an increase in interest and the appearance of several papers focusing on research and critical analysis. For example, Smith (2001) and Smith and Sadler-Smith (2006) have developed a number of theory and research-based strategies for the implementation of online learning to support the development and achievement of learning contracts and learning communities within organizations, whereby learners in enterprises can be mentored by other experts in their achievement of identified learning goals. The role of online learning in assisting and guiding work was identified by Smith (2001) and Smith and Sadler-Smith (2006) and is also central to the observations resulting from recent work by McKavanagh et al (2002) on vocational education providers of online learning in both institutional and workplace settings, who concluded that “conversations”, including those afforded electronically, are central to effective online learning, and can form a basis for evaluation of effectiveness. More specifically, there has been a growth in the literature focusing particularly on the development and deployment of blended learning in organizational settings (Baldwin-Evans 2006; Trasier, 2002; Mitchell & Honore, 2007). An example of blended learning in action within the corporate learning environment is provided by Hyundai, through the work of Kim and Choi (2004). In the Hyundai program junior managers were provided with a ‘business foundation’ program that involved some participation online, both with learning materials and with
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collaborative discussion; and some experiences offline. Learners were grouped into cells of 25 or so, with an instructor, and the community of learning and community of practice developed hand in hand. Apart from the building of focused communities, the program also resulted in each individual being able to develop a network of contacts within Hyundai. Baldwin-Evans (2006) has provided survey evidence that around 20 percent of employees in firms throughout the UK express a preference to learn informally from colleagues and online resources used ad hoc and as required. A further 13 percent have stated that they prefer instructor led training; but 67 percent have expressed a preference for a blend – instructor led, resources usage, and learning from colleagues. This sort of evidence provides strong support for our contention here that workplace based learners have access to rich communities of practice and of learning, and that leveraging these communities into a blended instructional sequence is a prize worth pursuing. To effectively achieve these outcomes, Baldwin-Evans goes on to argue a case for learner readiness with online resources usage, and team building that will strengthen relevant communities – both those within the learning program perimeter, but also those outside that perimeter who will be accessed more informally, and as part of the learner’s ‘natural’ work group or community of practice. Baldwin-Evans also argues the case for well developed demonstration and practice sequences that enable instruction online to be practiced offline. These observations are congruent with the outcomes of research with operator level learners in Australia. Work by Smith (2000a, 2000b) and Warner, Christie and Choy (1998) which showed that vocational learners preferred to learn with instructor guidance, resource materials provided along with access to demonstration and hands-on practice , and in collaborative settings with their instructor and fellow learners.
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Baldwin-Evans’ work in the UK also has considerable resonance with work conducted in Australia by Smith, Robertson and Wakefield (2002). In that study twelve different enterprises were studied for their readiness to provide for flexible and blended learning as part of the suite of training and human resource development strategies employed. What became clear from that investigation is that a training model favoured by, and perceived as effective by the enterprises, consisted of a blended learning approach where learners develop contracted sequences of learning together with their supervisor and/or trainer. The implementation of those learning contracts then was best served by the identification of online and offline learning resources, practice and demonstration sequences provided both formally and informally, and the development of a community of learning that would enable the learner to access informal instruction as required.
Bended Learning of IT Professionals in the Workplace As the IT industry is well known for its phenomenal rate of technology obsolescence, there is a constant need for IT workers to engage in professional development to keep up with the new technologies. Given IT workers’ proficiency in the use of and easy access to IT, their ability to combine their online learning with workplace learning means they can take advantage of blended learning in their professional development which makes the IT workplace an ideal setting to study blended learning. A survey of the research literature of workplace learning unearthed several studies which examine how IT professionals learned at work, namely Pentland (1997), Zabusky (1996) and Tikkanen (2002). Their findings showed that IT workers made intensive use of a variety of workplace resources to help them learn and given that
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this combined online and workplace based ICT access meant such workers are learning through a blended mode as such learning has come to be defined (Bliuc, Goodyear & Ellis, 2007; Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). Both Zabusky’s (1996) and Tikkanen’s (2002) studies found that IT workers learned mainly through work. Tikkanen asked her subjects, who worked in a bank or in an engineering firm, to rate the contribution of formal training, job experience, and personal characteristics to their job competence. Job experience was rated highest. Formal training, though useful in providing them with the necessary groundwork to develop their competence at work, was considered the least important for work competence. Zabusky found that the microcomputer technicians in her study often kept themselves up-to-date with new technologies through informal learning, such as following the changes in the market concerning hardware and software, testing new products and keeping the infrastructure up-to-date. This was done by accessing online bulletin boards, searching the Internet, reading a variety of materials, attending trade shows, and conversing with sales representatives and other technicians, often in their own time. A study by Ha (2007) examined how IT workers learned at work at three IT workplaces in Hong Kong. Using questionnaires, in-depth interviews and work record forms, data were collected about the workplace learning experience of 65 IT workers who were all staff of IT departments serving their respective parent organizations. Most of the participants were experienced IT professionals. The participants were usually asked to recall details of their workplace learning experiences and the settings in which such learning took place. In particular, they were asked to recall learning stories that are detailed accounts of how they acquired a specific technical expertise at work. The data showed that IT workers used a variety of resources and methods to help them learn at work, including both online
and face-to-face resources and methods. As expected, IT workers made intensive use of the Internet, which has replaced printed materials to become the most frequently used source of latest technology information. They on average spent 6.98 hours per week searching information in the Internet, which far exceeded the time they spent on printed materials, which was only 3.89 hours per week. The importance of the Internet results is not only from the fact that the Internet is a huge freely accessible source of updated information, but also from its searchability and interactivity. With powerful search engines like Google, the Internet becomes a massive searchable database, from which IT workers can search for answers to problems they encounter at work. Online forums and discussion groups hosted by professional bodies, vendors, and user groups have become virtual venues for online communities. IT workers in this study reported online forums in China having thousands of members, but they themselves were generally not active in them. Only 5 of the 65 research participants surveyed said they were active members of an online forum and 16 of them even said they had never participated in such online community. Such low level of participation in online forums is not unexpected given the literature (Nonnecke, Preece & Andrews, 2004) on lurkers in online communities, which reported close to 98% of the participants in large online forums never posted any messages. Most of the participants in this study felt that they did not have the expertise to answer questions posted in those forums and the few who were active in forums seemed to be more confident about their technical expertise. This illustrates the concept of legitimacy in participation in the virtual community, which is central to Lave and Wenger’s (1991) notion of community of practice, where apprentices began their participation in the community as peripheral members and gradually grew into full participation. An interesting research question is whether there is a parallel process in the virtual community. While
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online forums often draw their membership from across a country, region or even globally, smaller online communities can be institution-based. In this study about half of the participants reported experience with knowledge sharing systems, which in most cases are company intranets where they could post system and application documentation and shared experience. However most of them said they were too busy at work to make use of them. Ha (2007) identified two successful examples of knowledge sharing through electronic means. One was a knowledge base that a team in one company spent two years building up, especially for supporting a proprietary technology that was their core business. Another successful case used MSN, an instant messaging system of Microsoft, within a team to provide mutual support to its members. When a team member came across a problem he or she could not solve, they would broadcast it within the team and team members would then help each other to solve the problem. The text-based online discussion was archived and this could be searched using text matching creating a system that was quite helpful and had been working for over two years. As with the first case, this team was also specialized in a single technology. While online resources are very important to IT workers, most of them found face-to-face learning indispensable. Face-to-face learning included instructor-led courses, coaching and learning through work and from the learning stories told by the participants, it could be seen that each kind of learning resource had its particular value. Very often it was through the use of a blend of resources and methods that they developed their expertise in a particular area. Instructor-led training was often useful as a way to introduce them to a new technology, but to truly master the technology, most found that they needed to have ample opportunity to use it at work. Below are some of the approaches used
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by participants in Ha’s (2007) research to help them master a new technology. •
•
•
•
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Self-learning and experimentation: This is the most common method used by the research participants in this study. The learners first acquired an introduction about the technology through studying online and printed sources on their own. They then experimented with the technology in a testing environment before applying it to a real work setting. Asking for help and practice: Some participants would rely mainly on colleagues’ help to get them started with a new technology. They then master the technology through practicing it at work. Learning from others’ codes: This method is often used by participants learning to programme in a new language and has been well documented (Berlin, 1993). They used codes written by others, often their colleagues, as a model to help them understand and learn the new computing language. Training and practice: Some participants learned a new technology by first going through a training program, to be followed by plenty of work practice. This is especially the case when learning some proprietary technologies. Team learning: In this method, one member of the team will try to master the technology first. He or she then helps others to learn the technology.
A comparison of the learning approaches used by apprentices in the communities of practice reported by Lave and Wenger (1991) showed clearly that learning stories of IT workers are much more varied in content and structure. This can be attributed to the fact that the IT workers were much more in control of the learning process than those in the apprenticeship schemes. It is also because compared to traditional industries
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like tailoring, IT is a much more complex and diverse field. What a worker learns at work is dependent on many factors, some of which relate to what the workplace affords to the worker and some related to the worker’s own motivation and disposition. This latter factor which relates to the worker’s own willingness to engage with the workplace experience that brings about learning has been strongly emphasized by Billett (2001) in his discussion of workplace learning. One of the hallmarks of the IT industry is its fast moving knowledge and skill development. An outstanding example of such technology shift was found at one of the research sites of this study. A team of programmers was asked to adopt a new method to build computer applications, namely the Java 2 Platform - Enterprise Edition (J2EE). What they found was that J2EE was not only complex, but rapidly changing. It brought to the team a rather chaotic situation where they were in a constant struggle to learn multiple technologies and to keep abreast of their changes. They found more often than not they had to use tools about which they had only partial or limited knowledge. For a lot of the problems they encountered at work, there were no sources of authoritative knowledge to which they were able to resort. With technologies constantly shifting, the question of whether there is a stable core of knowledge on which professional practice rests is raised. The complexity of J2EE technology demanded a fine division of labour within the team since none of them could afford the time to attain mastery of all its constituent components. Such fine division of labour hampered peer learning among the team members since they were quite likely to be using different technologies. Though such a chaotic situation was not present in other research sites, the impact of rapid change in technology was commonly present. In fact, most of the team managers in this study admitted that they had given up keeping abreast with the changes in the technologies that their subordinates used at work. This brings into question the applica-
bility in this instance of the notion in Lave and Wenger’s (1991) research that apprentices grew into practice under the guidance of their masters in a community of practice.
Blended Learning in Formal Educational Settings Addressing the issue of leveraging informal communities of practice in workplaces to assist in learning among postgraduate students enrolled in a formal university course, Stacey, Smith & Barty (2004), set up a study to pilot research investigating the effects of intersecting online and workplace communities and to explore the impact and interplay of one on the other, the blending of online and face-to-face communities. The study was devised to answer the research questions about whether participation in a community of learning enhanced or interfered with participation in a workplace community of practice and whether participation in a workplace community of practice enhanced or interfered with participation in a community of learning. It was designed within an interpretive methodology using semi-structured interviews that were analysed qualitatively with a simple quantitative analysis as supplement. The research was conducted around a unit of study in a Masters’ program in Education at Deakin University, a multi-campus university in Victoria with a history of online distance education at the postgraduate level (Stacey, 1999). The online unit, about the theory and practice of Elearning, was taught with WebCT as its learning management system and interaction technology using the online environment as the main source of course information, of resources (web links and content files of readings as well as links to online journals and databases) and of computer conference discussions with teacher and fellow students. Central to the pedagogy and assessment of the unit was the use of small online groups, firstly to report researched resources and discuss
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student selected issues moderated by the students and secondly to complete a final assessment task through collaboration in a small group discussion and assignment. The participants in the study were students of the course who worked in various professions mainly holding training and educational roles in their organizations. Although the size and scope of the research was small it yielded clear findings about the interplay between the two types of communities investigated. It showed that, overall, the enhancements resulting from the simultaneous involvement with both workplace and learning communities of the study’s participants outweighed the disturbances or disruptions experienced. Even though some participants reported a significant level of disruption it was because their intensive involvement in a workplace community interfered with full participation in the online learning community. There was no sign that the reverse situation existed – that is, that participation in an online community of learning had a negative impact on participation in a workplace community: the idea that online studies could distract an individual from interaction with their work colleagues or possibly alienate them from their work colleagues was not supported by the data generated through the fieldwork. The study found that learners in an online community of learning responded to a carefully structured collaborative grouping and provision of assessment tasks related to their workplace context. This gave a relevance to the online community’s discussion about the shared experiences from their workplace communities of practice and in Wenger’s (1999) terms gave them a shared repertoire with which to engage in their joint enterprise with the result of engagement in relevant and authentic discussion, research and writing tasks. Such online community experiences gave these postgraduate workplace-based learners an enhanced learning experience through clarifying their ideas and enabling them to articulate their growth in understanding. That, in turn, influenced their role in their communities
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of practice by enabling them to show professional leadership and initiate and develop programs. The first small study was designed to pilot a way of testing the assumptions about how the blending of communities worked most effectively and found that teacher presence was an important factor. Wilson, Ludwig-Hardman, Thornam & Dunlap (2004) showed that in a typical formal institutionally based course, unlike the natural development of communities of practice that Lave and Wenger (1991) observed, communities are bounded by time constraints of a semester as well as being bounded by the requirements of the course. They found these constraints magnified the importance of the teacher in facilitating, supporting and leading such a community, particularly focused on the design of a course and ways in which the teacher can include community-building strategies, modelling community building behaviour, continually monitoring student learning, and being aware of and helping to resolve any problems. Garrison and Vaughan (2008) also write of the importance of teaching presence in establishing a community of inquiry particularly through blended learning which they define as “a complex weaving of the face-to-face and online communities so that participants move between them in a seamless manner –each with its complementary strengths” (p27). The teacher presence through course design was again important in a larger follow-up study (Stacey, Barty & Smith, 2005). That study was designed to identify impediments to the development of online communities of learning and to suggest how these may be overcome so that students could benefit from the enhancements that online learning communities bring to communities of practice in students’ workplaces. To explore the notion of teacher presence in the blending of these communities the study included three teachers among the twelve study participants from a postgraduate business course. Each of the students was mature age, professionally engaged, and taking a higher degree of study: the
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lecturers were experienced and could draw on years of practice in online communication. All of the participants had a good understanding of the concept “community of practice”, which was an advantage when conducting the interviews. The substantial proportion of the fieldwork was conducted in a face-to-face situation but telephone interviews were conducted with those who could not be contacted in person. The interviews were recorded and the recordings were used for extensive note-taking. The notes, approximately 800 words for each of the student interviews and over 1500 words for each of the lecturers, took the form of lists of key points. These key points were compared to ascertain which types of responses recurred and patterns were identified from the recurring responses. Though the technology provided in the blended mode was again the university’s course learning management system, WebCT, students were reluctant to use it from their workplaces as the lecturers had designed its use to involve little teacher presence but as a source of resources and student discussion only. This meant that some students were hesitant about saying they felt they were part of an online learning community, even though they were predisposed to (or practised at) working online. Only two students felt they had such a sense of belonging. A feeling of community was sometimes more effectively developed through telephone contact and/or personal email, or by face-to-face contact. The process of online learning community development was inhibited in this study and it resulted in small groups, semi-autonomous in nature, adopting their own choice of blended learning: they used phone and email communication and face-to-face meetings at residential and workplace sites. Interaction between learning communities and workplace communities of practice was rarely established and links between course learning and workplace application was achieved individually rather than through a community process. The findings of this study indicate
that both students and lecturers are comfortable with the move towards a blended learning model combining face-to-face and online interaction as an effective model of integrated online use. Garrison and Vaughan (2008) have provided design principles for the teacher presence necessary to blend the face-to-face community, ideal for establishing social presence, and the online community where the sense of community can be sustained and with careful design, academic tasks can be used to develop the cognitive presence of the community of inquiry. As shown in the studies of higher education described above, teacher presence in design, moderation and facilitation of these communities is a major factor in the effectiveness of such a blend. Neither study showed that such blending of communities resulted in interference in learning in either community but reported enhancement between communities of learning and communities of practice.
Spoiling the Blend: What Inhibits Effective Blended Learning We set out in this chapter to also explore some of the inhibitors to blended learning and, more specifically, in the workplace learning section of the chapter we alluded to the possibility that participation in online learning may disturb communities of learning and communities of practice that are already in place within a work setting. This issue was focussed upon in the research into higher education communities research by Stacey, Smith & Barty (2004) and Stacey, Barty and Smith (2005) as well as in a community based study by Smith, Barty and Stacey (2007). We will spend a little time in this chapter relating those projects and indicating why we think they are important. Smith, Barty and Stacey (2007) investigated the transition towards the development of blended learning in a small rurally based training or-
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ganization, where the education and training delivery has to date been largely characterised by classroom instruction. The focus in this early development phase was placed upon using an existing workplace community of practice to build capacity among training staff and support staff prior to rollout of blended learning opportunities to a broad range of learner clientele. Apart from this being an interesting case in that the focus of the community of practice is on the development of effective instruction, it is also interesting and topical since it is now commonplace for education and training organizations to have, as part of their strategic vision and strategic planning, a stated expectation to shift at least a part of their education and training delivery away from face-to-face classroom settings towards online delivery that is available to learners more accessibly in both time and place. In supporting that transition, the literature commonly observes the need to develop staff capacity and organisational capacity to work effectively in an online environment (Bates, 2000; Alexander, Polyakova-Norwood, Johnston, Christensen & Loquist, 2003; Taylor, 2003, Lewis & Orton, 2006). In the research described above (Stacey, Smith & Barty, 2004) we investigated the experiences of people who were participating in a common online community of learning at the same time as they were each participating in a separate workplace-based community of practice. Each of these communities had relevance to each other in terms of the potential content of discussion. That research indicated that whether the concurrent involvement in these two forms of community enhanced the experience in each, or disrupted that experience, was largely dependent on whether or not the community of learning enabled task negotiation and collaboration with other community members who had similar workplace issues. Through that negotiation and collaboration common issues from the respective communities of practice could be meaningfully shared and dis-
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cussed within the online community of learning. In the later research (Smith, Barty & Stacey, 2007) we investigated the experience of people who are participating in a common online community of practice concurrently with their participation in a common community of practice. The main purpose of the later research (Smith, Barty and Stacey, 2007) was to explore the effectiveness of an already established community of practice as a vehicle for the development among members of innovatory practice in providing a blended of online learning to support learning within a small employment and training organisation. An online community of learning could be expected to be one outcome of successful development here. However, we had some reasons for believing that the development of successful blended learning based around an online community of learning may be difficult where an established community of practice was already in operation. These kinds of learning transactions may be challenged when innovation is at the centre of the learning. First, there may be insufficient knowledge within the community for anyone to be able to take on the experienced role (Billett, 2001). There may also be collective uncertainty or confusion about the knowledge that is to be shared. These limitations may be felt more strongly in small organizations where the knowledge and experience base is smaller or narrower (Sadler-Smith, Gardiner, Badger, Chaston & Stubberfield, 2000). Second, in reviewing applications of online technology to existing communities of practice in workplaces, Schwen and Hara (2003) noted that the most successful communities were the most likely to avoid collaborative technology. Other researchers (Moore & Barab 2000; McLaughlin 2003) have also observed difficulties in migrating an existing community of practice to becoming a successful online learning community. Stacey, Smith and Barty (2004) reported that participants in their research expressed:
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..a stronger sense of belonging to their workplace community of practice than to the online learning community because the former offered a “real” experience while the latter …. “was a construct of the mind” (Stacey, Smith & Barty, 2004, p.114). Thirdly, there was evidence from that research that the culture, language and discourse of the online learning community were so different from those of the workplace communities of practice that a barrier existed for some participants to become involved in both. What became evident from the Smith, Barty and Stacey (2007) research is that an already existing strongly established community of practice among people who are physically colocated substantially inhibits the movement of that community towards an online environment that will facilitate blended learning. Additionally, it appears evident that the participants in our research were characterised by a strategic and very purposeful approach to the use of online technologies, selectively using the technology where they perceived it to be of use in meeting their operational needs, but choosing not to use the technology when it did not suit those purposes. These findings provide support for other studies (Schwen & Hara, 2003, p.260) showing professionals in different fields (eg law, engineering) using communication technology selectively no matter how familiar they are with IT, and that communities of practice which were strongest tended to use online collaboration the least. As Stacey, Smith and Barty (2004) have shown, the strength of the sense of belonging in a workplace community of practice was stronger than the sense of belonging to an online community which, in the case of that earlier research, was not comprised of workplace colleagues. In the current research, where the online community was comprised of the same workplace colleagues as comprised the community of practice, as might be expected, the strength of the community of practice still
prevailed. That differential in strength appears to have been a considerable barrier to the development of a parallel online community that would be an integral part of effective blended learning. Additionally, as Preece (2000) has observed, the established forms of interaction between people are disturbed when a different technology is used to carry the communication. Our research also indicated that where the existing community of practice is being challenged to develop skills and knowledge in pursuit of an innovation, a low number of members who already possess those skills is a substantial inhibitor to orderly progression of the community towards the achievement of procedural knowledge required to support the innovation (Billet, 2001). As Lave and Wenger (1991) have suggested, a successful community of practice is partially characterised by the capacity within it for more experienced participants to assist in the development of knowledge among less experienced participants. In the community of practice we investigated in the 2007 research, the ratio of experienced to novice participants was too low to be a critical mass of knowledge to be passed on or shared with others. Working within very small businesses in the United Kingdom, Sadler-Smith et al. (2000) have also noted the difficulties experienced by small communities of practice where the necessary knowledge for change and innovation is not available. Similarly to the Smith, Barty and Stacey (2007) research, though, they were able to show an enthusiasm among participants, and a clear value in terms of learning outcomes, where the community that was co-located within the organization could be expanded to include participants from outside. In their research, Sadler-Smith et al. (2000) developed a model that quite strategically selected from outside the organization the other participants to be drawn in to expand the community in a useful way. In a small rural town environment such as the one focused on in the Smith, Barty and Stacey (2007)
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research the use of online technologies to develop and maintain the broader community of practice have considerable possibilities. In summary, the low ratio of participants experienced in online discussion, and the propensity for members of an established community of practice to default to its ‘usual’ ways of interacting combined to reduce the effectiveness of learning being undertaken to support innovatory practice. It is suggested that in a small organization that has already a well established community of practice that includes most staff, if not all, and where the skills and knowledge required for innovation are limited, there may be greater value in more strategically developed communities of practice (Wenger et al, 2002). Such communities of practice may be best developed from subsets of the existing larger community, and include, quite deliberately, participants from outside the organization who have capacity to contribute to the ongoing core business of the community, and that also have among them some participants with the skills required to develop and maintain rich online discussions. In that way the procedural skill development can be enhanced, the power of existing behaviours can be reduced, and the online community develop a richness in the business that it transacts in the discussion space, again enhancing the dispositional knowledge. The disparity of skills developed among staff who participated in our 2007 research is also worthy of some discussion. Every worker in the study seemed to have an individual orientation to change and the use of IT; every worker had a different level of experience. Some were comfortable with working on a computer, while some had never been on the Internet without guidance. Some used the Internet at home but had not made use of it at work. A couple of people said they were ‘trying to get organised’ to make a start, possibly indicating an initial lack of confidence, and a concern that they may be rather publicly displaying their lack of knowledge (Tu, 2001). In other words, progression towards the achievement
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of procedural and dispositional knowledge had been highly variable and quite disorderly.
Implications for Research and Practice Our suggestion is that there are several quite important implications and conclusions that can be drawn from this chapter. First, we have provided evidence that there is considerable activity in the blended learning combination of online learning and face-to-face instruction, or combined with more informal learning in the workplace. However, although there is some research focussed on the issue of blended learning in informal environments, we would suggest that much more needs to be done since that form of blended learning for professional development can be expected to follow as electronic communication methods become superimposed on earlier ideas of communities of practice. The changes in the nature of these forms of collaborative learning are important ones as a consequence of the different communication media and, we suggest as a result, that collaborative learning can become far more powerful in reach, scope of application, and responsiveness.
Rcommendations for Improving Practice Adding to our contention that the more informal use of collaborative online learning, as a part of blended learning, is a fruitful area for research is our observation throughout this chapter that it is very complex, and perhaps more complex than in the more controlled formal institutional environment. The contextual variables seem to be worthy of particular study, where the nature of the group, its tasks, the relationship of individual learners to the informal collaborative group, and the surrounding organisational culture would seem to have a profound effect on the way that
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online collaborative learning works in informal settings. Indeed, even on whether it works at all. Additionally, the intentions of the blended learning and the collaboration, and whose intentions they are, we suggest are other variables that exercise a profound effect, especially where involvement is not mandated either as a process or as a requirement of assessment. We have been able to show evidence in this chapter that research is needed to advance online collaborative learning in less formal settings, but we have also shown how that usage can be disturbed quite easily such that ineffective (or little) use is actually made. A further recommendation relates to the value in pedagogies and in teachers who can identify and accept the value of communities of practice that students in formal learning environments may have with others outside that environment. Here we suggest there is value in accepting that, particularly students who are employed in professional capacities as well as studying, can draw on a rich collaborative experience outside the institutionally developed and controlled space, and these collaborative experiences can be brought to the more formal environment. The literature tends to not have strongly differentiated between collaborative learning online that is focused towards young full-time students who are not engaged in professional work, and those who work each day in a rich professional environment. A teacher’s integration of these differing communities into the design and teaching of their courses will serve to increase the effectiveness in their use of blended learning.
CONCLUSION Finally, we return to a statement early in our chapter, that the use of online collaborative learning is crucially important in current and emerging formal education environments, but we believe there are wonderful research and practice oppor-
tunities in the wider application of the blending of those technologies and pedagogies to informal learning environments in community education and workplace education and training.
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Chapter VIII
Establishing Communities of Practice for Effective and Sustainable Professional Development for Blended Learning Terrie Lynn Thompson University of Alberta, Canada Heather Kanuka University of Alberta, Canada
ABSTRACT The growing need for professional development to help university instructors with the adoption of online teaching is being propelled from several directions. But innovative professional development initiatives, intended to help university instructors better leverage technology, particularly through blended approaches, are not without tensions. The objective of this research study was to delve into these tensions. Directors in several North American professional development centres were interviewed in order to explore how their programs supported the integration of technology into teaching. Findings suggest that there is a tension between what professional development centres are doing and what they would like to do regarding: (1) deeper integration of technology into their own teaching practices as a centre, including blended approaches; and (2) how to nurture communities of practice, comprised of university instructors focused on teaching-related issues in higher education, such as adoption of blended learning strategies. Four themes emerged: uncertainty about how best to leverage technology and blended learning, questions regarding a professional development centre’s role in cultivating communities, the importance of being strategic, and desire for scalability. The chapter concludes with policy implications and recommendations for future development of effective and sustainable professional development practices. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Establishing Communities of Practice
INTRODUCTION The growing need for professional development to help university instructors with the adoption of online teaching is being propelled from several directions: efforts to enhance the student learning experience and therefore the quality of teaching, the constant churn of new technologies, and the evolution of higher education institutions driven by, and driving, changing expectations. The need for effective and sustaining professional development is also linked to a desire for innovations in teaching and learning methods, including blended learning. Professional development programs do feel some pressure to integrate technology and move beyond traditional classroom approaches. Innovative professional development strategies can include not only a mix of face-to-face (F2F) and online approaches, but also nurturing communities of practice (CoP) throughout higher education institutions. But innovative professional development initiatives are not without tensions. The overarching objective of this study was to gain a broader understanding of these tensions. We therefore interviewed directors in professional development centres in higher education institutions (most often referred to as teaching and learning centres in North America) located in the United States and Canada. We were interested in the direction professional development centres were taking to support university instructors. One objective of this research was to better understand effective and sustainable professional development programs intended to support the integration of technology into teaching through blended learning strategies and CoP. We begin this chapter with a review of the literature on blended learning and CoP within professional development contexts, followed by a description of our data collection, analysis, and a discussion of our findings. We close this chapter with recommendations for creating CoP in blended learning environments and conclude
with implications and considerations for future developments.
Bckground oOFTHE Blended Learning: Defining it There is a growing body of literature advocating blended learning as a core activity to professional development within institutions of higher education. At present, however, there is little agreement on the definition of blended learning. A quick search on the Internet reveals the diversity and widely interpreted views of what blended learning is. For example, Wikipedia defines blended learning as the following: the combination of multiple approaches to learning. Blended learning can be accomplished through the use of ‘blended’virtual and physical resources. A typical example of this would be a combination of technology-based materials and face-to-face sessions used together to deliver instruction. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blended_learning) Others, such as Heinze and Procter (2004), define blended learning as “learning that is facilitated by the effective combination of different modes of delivery, models of teaching and styles of learning, and founded on transparent communication amongst all parties involved with a course.” Garrison and Vaughan’s (n.d.) definition, while not entirely dissimilar to Wikipedia’s definition, provides a more bounded view: At its core, blended learning is the thoughtful fusion of face-to-face and online learning experiences. The basic principle is that face-to-face oral communication and online written communication are optimally integrated such that the strengths of each are blended into a unique learning experience congruent with the context
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and intended educational purpose. … Blended learning is not an addition that just builds another expensive layer. … Most importantly, blended learning is viewed here as a fundamental redesign that transforms the structure of, and approach to, teaching and learning. The key assumptions of a blended learning design are: • • •
Thoughtful integration of face-to-face and online learning Fundamentally rethinking the course design to optimize student engagement Restructuring and replacing traditional class contact hours (¶ 16).
Absent from these definitions, and a frequent criticism of blended learning in general, is: How much or how little technology is required for blended learning? In response to this query, a Sloan-C report (Allen, Seaman & Garrett, 2007) defined blended learning to be learning experiences that have 30-70% of the content online, and where online is defined as a “course that blends online and face-to-face delivery….substantial proportion[s] of the content is delivered online, typically uses online discussions, and typically has some faceto-face meetings” (p. 5). For the purpose of this study, we have defined blended learning as any blend of on-campus and off-campus, whereby the off-campus component is supported through the use of text-based, asynchronous communication technologies (or ‘online’ learning). Such a broad definition of blended learning results in learning transactions that are both simple and complex (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). At its simplest, blended learning is the integration of classroom face-to-face learning experiences with online learning experiences. It has been widely argued that there is considerable intuitive appeal to the integration of the strengths of synchronous (face-to-face) and asynchronous (text-based Internet) learning activities (Garrison & Anderson, 2003). At the same time, there is considerable complexity in its implementation. The complex-
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ity revolves around the challenges of design, or more specifically, the limitless design possibilities within the seemingly endless unique educational contexts and content.
Blended Learning: An Overview of the Literature in North America The primary draw to the use of blended learning within institutions of higher education is the ability for learners to be both together and apart, to be connected to other learners without being time, place or situation bound (Garrison, Kanuka & Hawes, n.d.). The core issue and argument for the use of blended learning begins with the need for a solid understanding of the properties of text-based, asynchronous communication technologies, as well as knowledge of how to effectively integrate these technologies with the most desirable and valued characteristics of F2F learning experiences—the result being an enhanced learning experience. At the heart of this argument is an assumption that there is an increase in the quality and quantity of the interaction and the sense of engagement in a community of learners achieved through the effective integration and careful selection of text-based asynchronous communication technology. Some prior research has revealed there is potential for enhanced learning experiences with online learning. These enhanced learning experiences are often attributed to the interactive capabilities of communication technologies (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2003; Swan, 2003). Other research has shown that asynchronous Internet communication technology has the ability to facilitate a simultaneous independent and collaborative learning experience (e.g., Lapadat, 2002). The rationale for these findings has been cited as the concomitant property of learning with textual and asynchronous communication technologies, which have a positive effect on deep and meaningful learning resulting from the emphasis on written communication. Indeed, under certain
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circumstances, it has also been shown that writing can be a highly effective form of communication that encourages reflection and precision of expression. Garrison and Anderson (2003) have argued further that when thoughtfully integrated with the rich dynamic of fast-paced, spontaneous verbal communication in a F2F learning environment, the educational possibilities are multiplied. It has also been argued that what makes blended learning particularly effective is its ability to facilitate a community of inquiry (Garrison & Vaughan, 2007). The value of facilitating a community of inquiry is that, once formed, the student-to-student bonding supports an open and trusting communication and, with online communication tools, limitless access. Moreover, such environments provide the conditions for free and open dialogue, critical debate, negotiation and agreement—all characteristics of higher levels of learning (Kanuka, 2002a; 2002b). Garrison and Vaughan note further that blended learning has the capabilities to facilitate these conditions and adds an important reflective element with multiple forms of communication to meet specific learning requirements. By way of example: at the onset of a course it may be advantageous to have a F2F class to meet and build community. In contrast, discussing a complex issue that requires reflection may be better accomplished through an asynchronous Internet discussion forum. Hence, there is a longstanding belief that the range and quality of interactive dialogue can be facilitated through blended learning. This belief is consistent with a widely accepted means for facilitating critical thinking and higher-order learning: “that the very basis of thinking is rooted in dialogue, drawing on a socially constructed context to endow ideas with meaning” (Hudson, 2002, p. 53). Perhaps the most compelling reason for the attraction of blended learning is that most of us naturally work in learning and knowledge-building communities, where building knowledge is a socio-linguistic process. The online component
of blended learning provides opportunities for ongoing interactions with each other, creating opportunities for a social presence in our learning environments. This is important. Eib and Miller (2006) point out that most universities “have faculty who care deeply about teaching, yet feel isolated and disconnected from like-minded colleagues. Simply working in the proximity of others does not ensure a motivating environment that enhances professional collegiality” (p. 1). Clearly, something more is needed – blended CoP offer interesting possibilities.
CoP within Professional Development Contexts Lock (2006) states that tapping into the potential of online communities to facilitate faculty development entails changing perceptions of professional development. As Eib and Miller (2006) observe, when “faculty development is viewed as an ongoing need” and approached as a “long-term continuous effort, community building becomes part of the process” (p. 1). Keller, Bonk, and Hew (2005) attribute the success of their professional development initiative, focused on technology integration, to a design that “placed teachers firmly in charge of their own learning” and “took place squarely in the midst of their colleagues” (p. 339). In their review of the literature, Lawless and Pellegrino (2007) note the importance of community building: high-quality professional development activities are longer in duration … provide access to new technologies for teaching and learning, actively engage teachers in meaningful and relevant activities for their individual context, promote peer collaboration and community building, and have a clearly articulated and a common vision for student achievement (p. 579). Emerging from this literature are assertions that professional development centres need to con-
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sider how they nurture and support communities, and, in particular, CoP, as a deliberate strategy to support blended learning, as well as other teaching and learning initiatives. Such CoP come in all shapes and sizes. They may call themselves something other than a CoP, function formally or informally, be cohort or issue focused, and be self-generated or jump-started through a faculty development centre (Sherer, Shea & Kristensen, 2003). A CoP strategy must be contextualized. Viskovic’s (2006) framework of workplace learning is a useful model for envisaging professional development activities within a higher education institution. She outlines three key networks of interaction nested within each other—individuals, local CoP, and the institution. In so doing, expertise is shared (by individuals), tacit knowing made more explicit (in the community), and an overall culture that values technology integration into teaching and learning and recognizes excellence can be fostered (institutionally). This demands, as Viskovic point outs, a change in focus from supporting the individual to supporting the group. Within this model, the professional development centre still plays an important role as a broker between communities. However, the notion of community is not unproblematic. Hodgson and Reynolds (2005) state that the idea of community is “used normatively in higher educational discourse, so that while it might often be difficult to be sure of its precise meaning-in-use, it is strongly suggestive of values and practices which are unquestionably and morally desirable” (p. 14). They add that idealized interpretations of this concept ignore its more problematic aspects: “limitations in relation to difference, the oppressive aspects of conformity, and the obstacles to participation given inevitable inequalities and conflicts of interest” (p. 17). In contrast to more formal learning communities within courses or the informal communities strewn over the Internet, workplace established communities bring unique challenges. Although
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the organization provides the web real estate and a varying degree of community-building services, participation is usually ad hoc. These kinds of communities may be tempered by competing goals within the community; tentative moderation; questions about whether it is indeed voluntary as it is tied to a job, career or a workplace; concerns over who is monitoring what is happening; and how participation will impact job or status (Thompson, 2006).
Enter Technology Just as technology has the capability to change and extend teaching and learning possibilities throughout a higher education institution, it can also be used to extend and facilitate community activities. Riverin and Stacey (2008) observe that technology offers alternatives for professional development, and, in particular, the “creation of rich online environments where participants can share professional strategies, examples of best practice, and professional development opportunities” (p. 43). Based on their case study research of educators engaged in an online network for 10 years, Riverin and Stacey conclude that online networks seem to offer the potential to create professional CoP, although there are challenges. Klamma et al. (2007) comment that such collaborative learning platforms provide the means to connect people to people as well as to the right knowledge. The reach of these kinds of online connections is important. Sherer et al. (2003) assert that relying on F2F contacts to stay in touch with one’s profession and community is not sufficient for today’s faculty. New Web2.0 tools are re-shaping possibilities for collaboration and are increasingly linked to supporting lifelong learning initiatives (Klamma et al., 2007). One appeal of these tools is the ability for users to self-create and maintain public and private CoP that are driven by the bottomup interests of community members rather than top-down mandates of organizations (Klamma
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et al.; Wiberg, 2007). By learning through such networks, Wiberg asserts that as users invent channels for their own social learning processes, they can contribute to and use the knowledge being constructed through the interactions of all users and their extended networks. In addition to transforming insular work environments (Lock, 2006), integrating online technologies into the mix of options for professional development offerings contributes to more blended and flexible approaches, thus improving accessibility and availability by ostensibly enabling anywhere-anytime participation (Forsyth, 2002). Forsyth adds that there is also a sense that faculty developers should “practice what we preach” regarding blended and flexible learning (p. 251). Other research supports her assertion. In discussing the impact of an online staff development course, Mainka (2007) concludes that by exposing participants to a range of educational technologies and engaging them in online activities, participants were empowered to identify, for themselves, the potential for technology in teaching and learning. Providing hands-on blended learning experiences for faculty, role modeling best practices, and acknowledging the ups and downs of integrating technology into teaching practices through first-hand experience, would seem to give professional development centres a heightened opportunity to speak from experience.
The Role of Professional Development Centres The role of professional development centres in nurturing such CoP to support faculty movement towards more blended learning practices is ambiguous. One question is whether a community can truly be constructed for a group of people or whether it must emerge on its own. Thompson (2008a) writes that some argue that a community forms as people become “bound by the value they find in learning together” (Wenger,
McDermott & Snyder, 2002, p. 4). Martin’s (2006) blog reads: “You can’t create community! To say you’ve created community is like saying you’ve created a tree.” Johnson (2001) counters that design is necessary; without a task-oriented reason to work together a community will not automatically form. Debate aside, there is a plethora of advice on how to design online communities, suggesting that online community has become a desired pedagogical strategy in itself and practitioners need to learn how to do it (Thompson, 2008a). Wenger et al. (2002) assert that the goal of community design is to bring out the community’s own “aliveness”. They add that because CoP are organic, designing in this sense is “more a matter of shepherding their evolution than creating them from scratch” (p. 51). The degree of “shepherding” is, however, open to debate. Allan and Lewis (2006) refer to managed CoP in which “facilitators enable the virtual communities to work towards goals that match organizational aims” (p. 844). The increased interest in managed communities reflects a strong trend in online learning and professional development literatures. Yet, based on the data in their study, Riverin and Stacey (2008) conclude that despite the benefits of online networks, “the complexities of forming and supporting online communities need to be addressed if they are to be sustained” (p. 55).
Need for the Study Based on the observed growth of blended learning in North America (Allen, Seaman & Garrett, 2007) and its connections to CoP, there is a need to gain better understandings of how professional development programs intend to support university instructors as they adopt new approaches in their own teaching practices, such as blended learning. We posed two questions as part of a larger research project to study the practices of professional development centres:
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• •
Are professional development centres actively cultivating CoP? Are professional development centres using blended learning strategies themselves?
METHODOLOG Marshall and Rossman (2006) suggest that qualitative methods are suited for exploratory or descriptive research that emphasizes the importance of context and setting as well as a deeper understanding of the participants’ experiences with the phenomena. Accordingly, qualitative inquiry methods were used for this interpretivist research project. Participants were in leadership positions in university professional development centres and selected by first employing purposive sampling to “select unique cases that are especially informative” (Neuman, 2000, p. 198) and then snowball sampling as the initial participants suggested others that might be willing to talk with us. Semi-structured 60-minute telephone interviews were conducted with eight participants at seven research-intensive universities in Canada and the US. Seven participants worked within the centralized university professional development centre. Two of these were in program directorship positions, four were directors of a centre (of these, one also held an Associate Vice Provost appointment and another an Associate Dean appointment), and one was a former centre director and now Associate Provost. One participant worked closely with the centralized university professional development centre but was positioned within an engineering faculty and was leading engineering education initiatives. The interviewer reviewed each centre’s website prior to the interview, reading: descriptions and objectives of programs and initiatives, mission statements and philosophies, outlines of the work and services provided, strategy documents and plans, annual reports (if available), teaching
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resources provided for their faculty, research and project initiatives undertaken, the calendar of events, and listings of staff and working committees. Gaining this familiarity ensured that valuable interview time was not spent in high level explanations of each program, but rather enabled the participants to engage in more in-depth and focused discussion. Interview questions focused on four main topics: their professional development program and key initiatives, how the centre is positioned strategically within the university and how it does its work, challenges they have encountered in their work, and success stories and key learnings. Notes were taken during the interview and immediately typed. Following each interview, the researchers engaged in a reflective dialogue about what was discussed in the interview. After a few interviews we became interested in how integration of technology into professional development offerings and CoP were being taken up by centres. True to the emergent nature of qualitative research, subsequent interviews, although still broad in scope, focused more purposefully on these two notions. Consequently, the interview data reported here does not reflect equal probing of these practices at each institution. This article presents preliminary findings of these first interviews. One potential limitation of the data presented here is that it is not extensive. More interviews are planned in the second stage of the research project: follow up interviews with the institutions already interviewed as well as interviews with directors of centres at several other universities. In this kind of research, data collection and analysis typically go hand in hand (Merriam, 2001). The exploratory work we have done thus far is useful in helping us identify future directions for this research project and has been illuminative. The tensions we identified between what professional development centres are doing, particularly with respect to technology and cultivating CoP, leads us to believe this could be a viable area for more data collection
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and analysis. It is in this spirit that we present these initial findings.
Da ANALYSIS Merriam (2001) describes data analysis as the process of meaning making; “consolidating, reducing, and interpreting what people have said and what the researcher has seen and read” (p. 178). With a goal of constructing categories or themes that capture recurring patterns in the data, Merriam’s recommendations guided analysis. Using the constant comparative method of data analysis, categories were created that reflect the purpose of the research, were exhaustive, mutually exclusive, sensitizing, and conceptually congruent. Category construction began with the first set of notes (Merriam, 2001). Notations were made by potentially relevant bits of data related to either CoP or blended learning. After working through the notes, “like” comments and notes were grouped together and a running list of these groups created. The next set of data was treated in a similar way, and the list of notes and groupings was compared to the first set. The result was a set of categories derived from the data. We conducted separate thematic analyses, followed by debriefing meetings to avoid researcher privileging, maintain trustworthiness of the data, and detect potential biases or inconsistent conclusions.
FINDINGS The overarching theme throughout the data is the tension between what professional development centres are doing and what they would like to do regarding: (1) deeper integration of technology into their own teaching practices as a centre, including blended approaches; and (2) how to nurture CoP comprised of university instructors focused on teaching-related issues in higher education, such as adoption of blended learning strategies.
Four themes emerged: uncertainty about how best to leverage technology and blended learning, questions regarding a professional development centre’s role in cultivating communities, the importance of being strategic, and desire for scalability.
Uncertainty About How Best to Leverage Technology and Blended Larning Technologies, particularly web-based technologies, were used by all the professional development centres in this study. Each institution had an extensive website and relied on various web services to communicate with faculty. Although only two participants shared examples of blended course offerings, there was a sense that some institutions were moving more quickly and intensely to integrate technology into how they implemented and delivered their own professional development activities. One participant commented that she believed technology could be a pivotal lever for faculty development. One appeal seems to be the anytime-anyplace possibilities. Another participant observed that using technology in this way could meet a need as it is much more convenient to be sitting at your desk rather than trudging over to the centre. Several participants shared examples of things they had tried without much success. For example, one participant commented that they had tried seminars with follow-up e-mail lists but those quickly died off. Another talked about an informal online discussion forum, which after a few months had not yet achieved a critical mass. One issue raised by most participants was a lack of resources, particularly staff, to design, develop, and implement more technology-supported professional development activities. At all the institutions interviewed, the majority of professional activities were currently offered F2F. As one participant commented, although professional development centres help faculty
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use technology to enhance their student learning, they do not yet use it extensively themselves in delivery of their own programs. For most educational development leaders interviewed, it was the F2F contact and meetings that led to developing a stronger sense of community between faculty on their campuses and being able to actually sustain that sense of community. Online discussions, if brought up at all, were regarded as something that might be good once in awhile to make get-togethers more convenient and feasible given everyone’s busy schedules. If, and how, to leverage technology to extend and build communities was a question participants wrestled with. Although most participants admitted they are not currently taking advantage of the technologies available, they are thinking about how they would go about it. One institution we interviewed was more actively experimenting with different online technologies in an attempt to see how these kinds of initiatives would be taken up. Participants did mention a few ideas: the one week wiki, one-hour lunch time seminars that could be done online, 15-minute professional development sessions convenient for a coffee break, or mediated chat rooms. One participant wondered what variation of Facebook might come along to work as a networking tool for faculty. Part of this uncertainty experienced by professional development centres seemed to be related to questions about how receptive faculty would be to more extensive use of technology in teaching practices. One participant observed that students are more receptive to online resources than faculty. Another participant commented he does not know that technology will necessarily improve teaching and just because a tool is available does not mean that this is the reason to use it. He also commented that he does not see faculty engaging in online communities, although he also admitted that perhaps he has not really looked for the possibilities. At the same time, another participant pointed out that new faculty are arriving with
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much more tech savviness, technology support on the campus has increased significantly over the past 10 years, and now applications in their “teaching with technology” program have actually dropped. Perhaps the uncertainty reflected in this data around integration of technology into professional development efforts, particularly community building, reflects a turning point and higher education institutions are finally reaching a critical mass of technology fluency. This confluence of factors may make deeper integration of technology into the work of professional development centres more possible in the future.
Questions Regarding a Professional Dvelopment Centre’s Role in Cltivating Communities Participants had different ideas about their roles, and how directive they needed to be, in helping CoP, focused on teaching practices (such as blended learning), form and sustain themselves. One participant spoke of the role of the centre as “nurturing”: creating the venues that proactively and responsively allow faculty to come together, intervening to make existing communities more functional and effective, and hooking into existing communities. Another participant described their role as “building”: identifying individuals who may be leaders, advertising the opportunities the community affords, providing structured activities that the community can call its own, supplying some of the supports so they do not just wither away and die; all part of a comprehensive approach. A third participant talked about three strategies used at their institution to work at community: helping participants build personal relationships, making it intellectual by providing structure, and stretching the group by introducing them into the bigger community. One participant mentioned that because there was no forum within her institution to sit and talk about teaching, the centre served this purpose. At events they host,
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people found others wanting to talk about teaching. While acknowledging that many of the short events do not really facilitate change in practice per se, they do give faculty an opportunity to start to feel part of a larger community. For all participants, existing F2F events (workshops, programs, courses) were seen as key mechanisms for jumpstarting community building. Almost all the events offered at the institutions interviewed were provided F2F, with limited fully online or blended offerings. By providing these spaces and events the data suggests that professional development centres in this study were fostering a sense of community. The feeling of belonging within a CoP was being incubated by these formal F2F programs. This was especially evident in certificate programs of longer duration characterized by repeated meetings and activities; the cohort developed into a more tightly knit group. Several participants reported that faculty attending these kinds of F2F programs valued the network of support and information into which they were introduced, felt less isolated, obtained things they would not get in their own faculty, and learned more than they would sitting alone in their department. How functional each cohort group remained as a CoP after the formal learning experience ended is not easily determined from the data collected thus far. One participant commented that several cohort groups have asked the centre to set up “lunch and learn” sessions so they can continue to get together. While acknowledging that some of these groups kept in touch after the program, and others did not, the data does not suggest that professional development centres necessarily saw it as their role to continue to nurture these groups as stand-alone CoP after a program had ended. Upon reflection, one participant wondered if having more staff resources would have enabled them to keep the groups more connected after the formal sessions ended.
The data shared by participants seems to point primarily to communities that emerge within a structured learning experience; for example, within a one-year teaching certificate program. The data is less forthcoming about more emergent and organic communities that might arise throughout an institution and how a professional development centre may support these kinds of CoP, especially through the use of web technologies, suggesting an area of inquiry to probe in future data collection. Moreover, it is unclear from the data collected thus far how professional development centres see as their role vis à vis these types of emergent CoP.
Te Importance of Being Strategic Despite the ambivalence that leaders of professional development centres expressed about their role in cultivating and sustaining ongoing CoP, for most participants in this study, building community was one purposeful strategy of the centre. For example, it was a theme that they were using to expand their program. For another participant, cultivating community tied into their overall goal of building a strong teaching culture within their institution. He added that they try to bring faculty together so they can talk to their colleagues across disciplines in a setting in which there is little reason for, and some suspicion of, being involved in teaching efforts. Another participant acknowledged that while building community had been a hallmark of the centre and a cornerstone of their success over the past few decades, for her it had recently become more of an emphasis. A fourth participant envisioned her centre as a hub of community building and information, but also stated that CoP are not universal and will work in some places with certain faculty. There was a sense in the data that although the concept of CoP held appeal, leaders in these professional development centres were trying to figure out how to strategically leverage this
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notion. Even as they were determining how to better leverage CoPs to generate learning and change in teaching practice, communities were nevertheless emerging as a result of the professional development activities they were doing. As noted earlier, the CoP fostered through intensive formal programs seemed to be looser, less welldefined and less integrated into campus-wide CoPs once their formal time together ended. Two participants commented on the importance of a community being focused around a purpose or sharing a common need in order to provide the impetus for ongoing dialogue and action, especially in an online space. An element of being strategic is having an impact. Several factors come into consideration. One participant commented that for communities to be effective there needs to be an “opening up of the classroom door”—a willingness to share, investigate and spend time. Another highlighted that you cannot force faculty to participate. Consequently, they regard their role as helping faculty develop themselves. For some, their strategy was to focus on those already engaging with the centre; those who desired teaching to be a rich part of their career. On another note, one participant wondered how much impact she could have in the absence of structural changes throughout the institution. As one participant observed, to achieve change to classroom practice, ongoing conversations need to be occurring. However, she added that the form these ongoing conversations take after a F2F event is dependent on what is worthwhile and relevant for the faculty. Another participant commented that one of the lessons he learned is that its not just about what the research points to as a good idea or even what he thinks is necessary, it is about what faculty think they need and what people in power think is important. He explained that it was important to know your core values and then be thoughtful and strategic in how you implement them. He also emphasized that is was
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important to meet the needs of those in power; merely pushing what you think needs to happen will not take you very far.
Dsire for Scalability Participants in this study were keenly aware of the level of effort required to cultivate effective CoPs. Initiating and sustaining CoPs was seen to be labour intensive and not something that just happens by itself, particularly when online components were added to the mix. One participant commented that it takes legwork to make it work and is something that must be engineered. He commented that at this point he puts most of his effort in other places, suggesting a fine-tuned balancing act of priorities. There were also questions of how to scale the notion of community to an entire institution. For example, one participant stated that in a large university, one community will not work; you need micro-communities so that you can try to create exchanges and enable people to talk and to learn. Community building, therefore, needs to happen on a number of levels. Another participant commented on how she wrestled with devoting many resources to small communities rather than using these resources to create a larger campuswide impact. Perhaps this desire for scalability creates opportunities for more extensive use of web technologies and blended approaches. Moreover, cultivating communities focused on teaching practice is not necessarily entirely within the purview of a central professional development centre. As one participant commented, these kinds of communities require champions and strong commitment throughout the institution to make them grow and succeed. It would seem that even if a centre were to devote considerable resources to cultivating CoP, without some support and interest from the rest of the university, there is no guarantee of success.
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Dscussion: Establishing CoP for Effective and Sustainable Professional Dvelopment The findings suggest that perhaps both individual faculty and professional development centres are struggling to figure out how to nurture and sustain rich dialogue and sharing around teaching practice in a higher education institution, especially on key issues such as blended learning. Individual faculty are coming to F2F sessions hosted by professional development centres. And they may form their own ongoing CoP (or find existing groups to join) and engage in dialogue. However, the literature suggests this process is not as easy as it may sound. Finding and joining a community can be a daunting task. Stacey, Smith, and Barty (2004) found that their participants had several concerns about participating in a workplace CoP, largely associated with joining: “uncertainty about entering a new community, finding the ‘right’ connection to people, and developing a sense of belonging” (p. 112). From the perspective of professional development centres there is a sense of what they would like to see happen but there is a gap between that vision and how to get there. Helping to nurture self-sustaining CoP is one possible strategy and how to use technology, especially web-technologies, to facilitate this connection is a timely question. The findings suggest that professional development leaders perceive that different types and levels of effort are needed to cultivate community. One approach, used by all participants in this study, is offering F2F events to bring people together initially and thus provide a place to go to connect with like-minded others. A next level of effort is to create online spaces and provide tools for new or existing groups to use for ongoing discussion and networking; consistent with what is happening with some of the new social software tools. Our participants all seemed to be thinking about this possibility, but not yet actually
taking this step. Finally, the most labour intensive approach is to actually devote resources, such as a community coordinator, to moderate and keep the dialogue going. The role of such a coordinator is discussed in the research literature. Although their one-year faculty development initiative, modeled on a community of inquiry approach, successfully nurtured a sense of community, Eib and Miller (2006) observe that once it ended the feeling of community was not as tangible, although small clusters did continue to share resources and insights. They conclude that a necessary next step is to have a community coordinator focused on supporting and maintaining a rhythm for several CoP. Gray’s (2004) study illustrates how an online group can become a CoP and site of informal learning. She attributes this to the moderation strategies and the mutual engagement of the group around stories linked to practice. It seems that the role of the moderator is important. Gray found that summarizing, weaving, and nudging the discussion to deeper levels helped participants to construct meaning and identity in the CoP. Is “community” a uniform entity? Although this term is increasingly applied to all sorts of groups, Baym (1998) states it is “fundamentally reductionist to conceptualize all ‘virtual communities’ as a single phenomenon” (p. 63). Thompson (2008b) examined research that studied community building in several different pedagogical settings (formal university courses, the workplace, and emergent online spaces) and found several dimensions of difference as well as issues common across these three settings as sites of pedagogy. She then differentiated communities as formal, non-formal, and informal. Although this typology focuses on online communities, it may provide insights about the type of community talked about by participants in this study. In the current findings, the most prevalent communities were formal communities: learning communities structured within the context of a formal program. However, participants in this study seemed to be
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wrestling with scalability of CoP and were curious about how best to cultivate these kinds of spaces throughout an institution: an example of nonformal communities. Participants did not seem to be pre-occupied with informal communities – emergent organic groups that come together on their own, without institutional sanctioning or development. Returning to the question of whether CoP can be constructed for people, Roberts (2006) argues that although management cannot establish a CoP, it can facilitate the spontaneous emergence of such groups and support the ones that do develop. In order to do this effectively, attention needs to be paid to what kind of community is being discussed. As the typology above illustrates, different kinds of community require different development, implementation, and support strategies. Different kinds of communities also bring diverse expectations in terms of support, life cycle, learning goals, degree of structured activities, and freedom to participate as one wishes (Thompson, 2008b).
ing technology “cannot be made in isolation of theories and research on learning, instruction, and assessment” (p. 581). Second, our participants noted that making time and having focused efforts devoted to teaching practice can be a challenge in higher education institutions. There seems to be a central role for professional development initiatives in the implementation of technology for teaching (Price & Oliver, 2007b). Taylor (2003) asserts that people require time as well as developmental and learning opportunities to make a shift to more blended forms of teaching so that they can “be a part of that change and be able to succeed in that new environment” (p. 75). Finally, there are questions about what we really know about professional development programs intended to support the integration of technology into teaching and learning practices (Lawless & Pellegrino; Price & Oliver, 2007a).
The Uptake of Blended Learning
Policy IItions and Rcommendations for Efective Praa
Numerous challenges, highlighted throughout the research literature, impact the uptake of blended learning in higher education institutions, and shed further light on our findings. As Lawless and Pellegrino (2007) observe, “the integration of technology into teaching and learning is not a simple matter because there are many ways in which that integration can occur, some more productive and theoretically meaningful than others” (pp. 577-8). We consider that there are three important challenges that have direct relevance for professional development initiatives. First, concerns are voiced about ensuring that increased integration of technology in teaching practices is driven and framed by deep understanding of pedagogy and learning theory; that it is “pedagogically, rather than technically, led” (Davis & Fill, 2007, p. 818). Lawless and Pellegrino (2007) assert that decisions about us-
The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of effective and sustainable professional development programs intended to support the integration of technology into teaching through blended learning strategies and CoP. An integrated and multi-layered approach to such professional development efforts is believed to offer the best possibility of success (Eib & Miller, 2006; Taylor, 2003). Administrators and leaders of professional development units are searching for ways to weave together multiple programs in a way that will result in richer and more accessible programs that tightly integrate work and learning efforts. It has become apparent that onesize-fits all approaches are not effective. Mainka (2007) points to the importance of “overhauling traditional one-stop-shop developmental events to becoming continuous staff-centered developmental programs” (p. 160).
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These shortcomings in conventional professional development models are contributing to the move toward community-based models (Lock, 2006). Moreover, she adds, properly designed online environments can nurture the development of online learning communities to facilitate such professional development. Consistent with the literature, some of our participants noted that there is a need to move away from merely hosting events to finding innovative ways to support more informal learning opportunities for faculty striving to adopt different approaches to their teaching practice (Keller et al., 2005; Knight, 2006; Viskovic, 2006). The prevalence of informal learning practices is prompting centres to explore ways to blend learning-in-practice (informal learning) with learning events (formal learning). Based on our data, following are policy implications and recommendations for creating CoP in blended environments. We are not advising these recommendations should be applied carte blanche. Each institution has its own culture and professional development activities need to be implemented with sensitivity to this culture, as well as the institution’s academic plan. Moreover, through the very nature of CoP, purposefully cultivating these collectives has many social implications which must also be taken into account.
•
•
Te Bigger Picture Issues •
•
Perhaps the most important policy implication arising from the results of this study is to avoid the trap of ‘best practices’. While looking at what other institutions have done is valuable, implementing effective and sustainable professional development programs for creating CoPs in blended environments must be embedded within the values, priorities, traditions, culture, and academic plan of the institution, and informed by a critical look at the research literature. In keeping with the above point, how flexible or structured the CoP needs to be depends
on the context. In assessing the institutional environment for policy creation, leaders and/or administrators responsible for professional development initiatives will need to consider how directive they need or want to be. Such insights will help determine the degree of structure required and how best to help individuals connect and build personal and collective relationships. Recognize that different kinds of CoP can be nurtured and each will have different social implications. There are those that develop through more intensive F2F programs, those that emerge through careful cultivation (in some cases, primarily online), and those that are more emergent and organic, self-created by the users. Each of these possibilities will demand something different from a centre and offer different possibilities for connection and potential changes to teaching practices. As with most things in life, one size does not usually fit all, so cultivating multiple micro-communities through the use of a blended approach offer possibilities. A high level of effort and commitment is needed in order to cultivate and sustain effective CoPs; moreover, the uptake of blended learning and CoPs do not form without a champion and a purpose. Leaders of professional development centres need to ensure that both blended learning and CoP are strategic objectives embedded in institutional policies and within scope.
The Nitty Gritty Strategies •
When considering policy for community building using blended learning strategies, consider these approaches: create the venues that enable faculty to come together, facilitate relationship building, identify potential community leaders, advertise the opportunities the community affords, provide some structured activities that the community can
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•
•
•
•
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call its own, be prepared to step in and help existing communities be more functional and effective, and facilitate the integration of micro-communities into the bigger community. In addition, when forming CoPs, it is highly recommended that opportunities for ongoing critical dialogue on teaching are provided so that it is an intellectual endeavor. Enabling such ongoing dialogue is facilitated by the use of web-technologies and blended approaches. Longer programs (such as certificate programs with cohorts) tend to develop into tightly knit groups and are more likely to stay intact even after the formal learning activity has ended. By leveraging something that is already working, investing resources to help these kinds of communities sustain themselves might be a do-able first step. Strategies could include providing the community with appropriate communication tools, blended learning spaces, and further opportunities for F2F social events. However, there are also many opportunities to extend the impact of professional development activities, particularly around blended learning, by paying attention to other kinds of community building strategies. In some cases, providing tools, especially those that support social networking, may enable faculty-driven communities to emerge on their own. Perhaps helping people with common needs connect or helping groups come together for an important purpose are entry points for a centre interested in cultivating CoP. When considering the use of blended learning, opportunities to connect F2F seem to enhance community building. Institutional policies should reflect the need for this balance. If leaders of professional development centres are considering policies for blended learning, they should also be proficient us-
ers of web-technologies. We recommend that leaders need to ‘practice what they are preaching’ in regard to the uptake of web technologies as well as designing and implementing blended programs. Moreover, the centre can position itself as a CoP in this regard.
Emerging Trends and Cnclusions The findings in this study suggests that vibrant communities of teaching practice may form as a result of faculty coming together in existing F2F sessions, especially cohort-based longer term engagements. The professional development leaders we interviewed were looking for more reach throughout an institution. One viable approach is to cultivate communities on many levels. Yet to do so entails finding strategies that would enable professional development centres to foster CoPs in ways that would be scalable and less labour intensive. These goals and trends suggest a proactive role for centres: helping existing groups, as well as groups nurtured in F2F events, to stay connected and integrate within a larger CoP of teaching practice within the institution. If this does not happen, the risk is that individual faculty become isolated. Perhaps ensuring people feel they are part of a larger vibrant culture and community of teaching is especially important in research-intensive universities. As a counter-balance, the active presence of a teaching community may be very important. To achieve the reach and scalability seemingly sought by the participants in this study, better use of web-based technologies in blended approaches to community building should be considered. We close this chapter with the following reflections on future developments and trends arising from our data:
Establishing Communities of Practice
•
•
•
One trend from our data reveals that there is interest in supporting the longevity of CoPs formed through professional development centres. As such, future research on the effects of cohort-based communities, longterm engagement activities, and the role of web-based communication technologies is needed. Another trend revealed in our study is the need for “managed” communities. Our participants noted that CoPs require a champion and committed leadership to form and sustain CoPs. Further research is required on the strategic use of champions and experts within a managed community context and strategies to sustain such communities. Finally, there is a trend that revolves around emergent and organic communities that might arise throughout an institution and how a professional development centre may support these kinds of CoP. This trend is in part fuelled by the possibilities ostensibly created by newer forms of social networking software. Further research is needed to generate better understandings on how to support more “informal” communities and how these communities themselves use multiple media (blended approaches) to communicate, collaborate, and connect.
The gap between available technology tools and the way faculty are using them is a catalyst for (re)newed professional development efforts. However, more substantive and strategic approaches are needed if an institution wants to move beyond pockets of innovation to more wide-spread organizational adoption (e.g., Davis & Fill, 2007; Taylor, 2003). In response to our overarching research objective—how can professional development centres be effective and sustainable—we conclude that professional development initiatives should consider offering a mix of approaches: formal and non-formal programs; individual and col-
laborative activities; blended media (online and F2F)—underpinned by the institutional culture and core values of educational leaders.
REFERENCES Allan, B., & Lewis, D. (2006). The impact of membership of a virtual learning community on individual learning careers and professional identity. British Journal of Educational Technology, 37(6), 841-852. Allen, I. E., Seaman, J., & Garrett, R. (2007). Blending in. The extent and promise of blended learning in the United States. Sloan-C Report. Retrieved on April 9, from http://www.blendedteaching.org/system/files/Blending_In.pdf Baym, N. K. (1998). The emergence of on-line community. In S.G. Jones (Ed.), CyberSociety 2.0: Revisiting computer-mediated communication and community (pp. 35-68). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Davis, H. C., & Fill, K. (2007). Embedding blended learning in a university’s teaching culture: Experiences and reflections. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(5), 817-828. Eib, B. J., & Miller, P. (2006). Faculty development as community building. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 7(2), 1-15. Forsyth, R. (2002). Making professional development flexible: A case study. Open Learning, 17(3), 251-258. Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended Learning: Uncovering its Transformative Potential in Higher Education. The Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95-105. Garrison, D. R., & Anderson, T. (2003). E-Learning in the 21st century: A framework for research and practice. London: Routledge/Falmer.
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Garrison, D. R., & Cleveland-Innes, M. (2003). Critical factors in student satisfaction and success: Facilitating student role adjustment in online communities of inquiry. Invited paper presented to the Sloan Consortium Asynchronous Learning Network Invitational Workshop, Boston, MA, September Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N. (2007). Blended learning in higher education: Framework, principles, and guidelines. San Francisco: JosseyBass. Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N. (n.d.). Learning technologies: Changing the dynamics of university education. Retrieved on April 9, 2007 from http://tlc.ucalgary.ca/community/stories/ learning_technologies_changing_the_dynamics_of_university_education Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2001). Critical thinking, cognitive presence and computer conferencing in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 7-23. Garrison, D. R., Kanuka, H., & Hawes, D. (n.d.). Blended learning in a research university. Calgary, AB: The University of Calgary. Gray, B. (2004). Informal learning in a community of practice. Journal of Distance Education, 19(1), 20-35. Hartman, J. L., & Truman-Davis, B. (2001). Institutionalizing support for faculty use of technology at the University of Central Florida. In R. M. Epper, and Bates, A. W. (Eds.), Teaching faculty how to use technology: Best practices from leading institutions. Westport CT: Oryx Press. Heinze, A., & Procter, C. (2004). Reflections on the Use of Blended Learning. Education in a Changing Environment conference proceedings, University of Salford, Salford, Education Development Unit. Retrieved April 9, 2008 from http://www.ece. salford.ac.uk/proceedings/papers/ah_04.rtf
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Hicks, M., Reid, I., & George R. (2001). Enhancing on-line teaching: Designing responsive learning environments. The International Journal for Academic Development, 6(2), 143-151. Hodgson, V., & Reynolds, M. (2005). Consensus, difference and ‘multiple communities’ in networked learning. Studies in Higher Education, 30(1), 11-24. Hudson, B. (2002). Critical dialogue online: Personas, covenants, and candlepower. In K. E. Rudestam & J. Schoenholtz-Read (Eds.), Handbook of online Learning: Innovations in higher education and corporate training. Sage, London. Johnson, C. M. (2001). A survey of current research on online communities of practice. The Internet and Higher Education, 4(1), 45-60. Kanuka, H. (2002a). Guiding principles for facilitating higher levels of Web-based distance learning in post-secondary settings. Distance Education, 23(1), 163-182. Kanuka, H. (2002b). A principled approach to facilitating diverse strategies for web-based distance education. Journal of Distance Education, 17(2), 71-87. Keller, J. B., Bonk, C. J., & Hew, K. (2005). The TICKIT to teacher learning: Designing professional development according to situative principles. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 32(4), 329-340. Kirschner P. A., Sweller,J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, Discovery, Problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86. Klamma, R., Chatti, M. A., Duval, E., Hummel, H., Hvannberg, E. T., Kravcik, et al. (2007). Social software for lifelong learning. Educational Technology & Society, 10(3), 72-83.
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Knight, P. (2006). Quality enhancement and educational professional development. Quality in Higher Education, 12(1), 29-40. Lapadat. J. C. (2002). Written interaction: A key component in online learning. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 7(4). Retrieved April 8, 2004, from http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/ vol7/issue4/lapadat.html. Lawless, K. A., & Pellegrino, J. W. (2007). Professional development in integrating technology into teaching and learning: Knowns, unknowns, and ways to pursue better questions and answers. Review of Educational Research, 77(4), 575-614. Lock, J. V. (2006). A new image: Online communities to facilitate teacher professional development. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 14(4), 663-678. Mainka, C. (2007). Putting staff first in staff development for the effective use of technology in teaching. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(1), 158-160. Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2006). Designing qualitative research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Martin, B. (2006, February 17). You can’t create community! Blog posting to http://caeexam. blogspot.com/2006/02/you-cant-create-community.html Merriam, S. B. (2001). Qualitative research and case study applications in education (Rev. ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Neuman, W. L. (2000). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Price, S., & Oliver, M. (2007a). Technology and change in educational practice (Guest editorial). Educational Technology & Society, 10(1), 1415.
Price, S., & Oliver, M. (2007b). A framework for conceptualising the impact of technology on teaching and learning. Educational Technology & Society, 10(1), 16-27. Riverin, S., & Stacey, E. (2008). Sustaining an online community of practice: A case study. Journal of Distance Education, 22(2), 43-58. Roberts, J. (2006). Limits to communities of practice. Journal of Management Studies, 43(3), 623-639. Sherer, P. D., Shea, T. P., & Kristensen, E. (2003). Online communities of practice: A catalyst for faculty development. Innovative Higher Education, 27(3), 183-194. Stacey, E., Smith, P. J., & Barty, K. (2004). Adult learners in the workplace: Online learning and communities of practice. Distance Education, 25(1), 107-123. Swan, K. (2001). Virtual interaction: Design factors affecting student satisfaction and perceived learning in asynchronous online courses. Distance Education, 22(2), 306-331. Taylor, J. A. (2003). Managing staff development for online education: A situated learning model. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 25(1), 75-87. Thompson, T. L. (2006, May). Innovating (e)learning as it innovates you: Intersections and questions from the global field. Paper presented at Canadian Association of Distance Educators (CADE) Conference, Montreal, Canada. Thompson, T. L. (2008a). The virtual classroom @ work. In P. Zemliansky & K. St. Amant (Eds.), Handbook of research on virtual workplaces and the new nature of business practices (pp. 272-288). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. Thompson, T. L. (2008b, March). Learning in online communities. An array of spaces and places. Paper and poster presented at American
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Educational Research Association (AERA) Conference, New York. Viskovic, A. (2006). Becoming a tertiary teacher: learning in communities of practice. Higher Education Research & Development, 25(4), 323-339.
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Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. M. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice: A guide to managing knowledge. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Wiberg, M. (2007). Netlearning and learning through networks. Educational Technology & Society, 10(4), 49-61.
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Chapter IX
Virtual Learning and Real Communities: Online Professional Development for Teachers Julie Mackey University of Canterbury, New Zealand
ABSTRACT Blended learning is examined via the experiences of teachers participating in qualification-bearing online professional development courses while simultaneously engaging in everyday professional practice in the classroom. A “communities of practice” framework guides the interpretation of teachers’ perspectives of their membership, identity, activities and experiences in the online and school communities. While online courses tend to emphasise participation as a vital component of socially constructed learning in the virtual environment, the evidence from this study suggests that online courses can also promote the contextual learning opportunities which exist in the everyday experiences of teachers in their local communities of practice.
INTRODUCTION Blended learning is a term which is open to multiple interpretations and permutations, so much so, that has been questioned as a meaningless concept which encompasses all learning (Masie, 2006; Oliver & Trigwell, 2005). Conversely, it might also be argued that blended learning is a multi-faceted, complex concept offering insights
into ways that technologies, pedagogies, learning theories, and contexts might be combined to achieve optimal learning in different situations (Cross, 2006; Singh, 2006). This chapter examines blended learning from the perspective of practising teachers who combine online study with their everyday work as classroom teachers. The inclusion of school-based practical assignments as requirements of taught online courses
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fosters a blended opportunity requiring teachers to engage, interact and participate in both virtual and real contexts. This integration of online ICT elements and situated learning in communities of practice can be exploited to provide an effective professional development model connecting theory and practice. The research examined teachers’ perceptions of their dual membership of online course-bound learning communities and school-based communities. The main research question embodied blended learning concepts by asking “how can qualification-bearing online professional development best support teachers’ learning and practice within their professional communities of practice?” This research further develops an understanding of situated e-learning as knowledge in action, or “knowing in practice” (Gilbert, 2005; Schwen & Hara, 2003; Lave & Wenger, 1991) contributing to models and strategies for effective online professional development and an emerging understanding of blended learning. In essence, it is proposed that the boundaries and intersections between online learning communities and localised communities of practice provide an important context in which to examine blended learning and to gain insights into how multi-membership of different communities impacts on participation, identity and professional learning. This work assumes that learning needs to be situated in real contexts, and that knowledge is not something which is transmitted and static, but rather something which is dynamic and evident as knowing in practice. The literature espousing communities of practice (Wenger, 1998) provides a lens through which to understand such learning and yet it also offers a critical stance from which to examine the locus and role of online learning. Professional development, by nature, should contribute to the professional learning of the participants, but the question is to what extent do current approaches in online, qualification-based professional development meet the real and diverse needs of teachers in schools? And furthermore,
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how can an investigation of the complexities of teacher professional learning contribute to future strategies for online professional development? Wenger (1998) frames learning in four dimensions as practice (doing), community (belonging), meaning (experience), and identity (becoming), suggesting that these dimensions are inter-related and over-lapping and that learning occurs as part of the natural processes of participating in communities of practice. Learning within communities of practice involves engagement in authentic tasks, and the communication and collaboration which relate to daily work and problem solving (Johnson, 2001). Participation in these practices is about ‘learning to be’ or identity formation (Wenger, 1998). Pertinent to this study is the concept that all forms of participation contribute to the formation of identity, and that multi-membership in different communities requires a process of reconciliation and negotiation between different practices and experiences. Wenger (1998, p. 218) holds that “multi-membership is a critical source of learning because it forces an alignment of perspectives in the negotiation of an engaged identity.” Multi-membership of communities impacts the individual’s identity, but also has the potential to influence communities as individuals act as brokers transferring the practices and artefacts of one context to another. The role and potential of multi-membership of communities has also been acknowledged within the teacher professional development literature. Fullan (1999) makes a case for creating porous boundaries, fostering interactions beyond the organisation, and encouraging the boundary spanners who can make connections with external parties. Fullan holds that interactions beyond the boundaries of an organisation can prompt innovative thinking and create opportunities for converting tacit knowledge into more accessible forms. While his work identifies a range of interactions with parents, neighbourhoods, regional bodies and other agencies, he specifically mentions the role of professional development, and the inter-rela-
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tionships between teachers and individual faculty at colleges and universities. Fullan suggests that innovative ideas often come through teachers’ personal connections with external educational providers (Fullan, 1999). Conner (2004) also argues that teachers must be fully involved in the process of creating knowledge which is useful, and describes how this was achieved with teachers from five primary schools working in partnership with a local university in an accredited researchbased professional development programme. Stein, Isaacs and Andrews (2004) support this viewpoint arguing that tertiary institutions can be instrumental in refreshing communities of practice, and that reinvention and reconstruction of communities and individuals occurs through the participation and interaction of their members. Grossman, Wineburg and Woolworth (2000) identified the boundary spanning role played by undergraduate student teachers through their multi-membership in both the university and school professional learning communities and identified how they were able to act as brokers introducing new ideas to an established group. Stacey, Smith and Barty (2004) also examined the inter-relationships between online learning and local communities of practice in their study of adult learners in the workplace. Their study investigated whether participation in both communities was enhanced or disrupted by participation in the other community. While this was also a small-scale study the results indicated that overall participants believed that their participation in one community was enhanced (rather than disrupted) by their participation in the other community. There was particular support for the notion that participation in the online learning community enhanced participation in the workplace community of practice and this enhanced participation included: • • •
Growth in understanding Clarification of thinking Ability to present ideas to others
• •
Capacity to initiate or develop programs Leadership in professional practice (Stacey et al., 2004, p. 115)
The dilemma facing institutionalised formal professional development is how can engagement in contrived and time-bound online learning communities, shaped by institutional requirements and formal qualifications, align with, and enhance the generative learning associated with daily work in professional communities of practice? This discussion will describe teachers’ experiences of blended learning between and across communities, and in so doing, will describe strategies and approaches which contribute to teachers’ learning and professional practice. The discussion will interpret blended learning via the community of practice social theory of learning, and frame blended learning in terms of multi-membership of communities and the activities associated with crossing boundaries and negotiating the intersections between different communities.
Ba As Stacey and Gerbic (2007) explore, blended learning encompasses various combinations of teaching and learning enabled by information and communication technology (ICT). This chapter develops an understanding of blended learning which focuses on the centrality of the learner as participant in virtual and real environments, and the role that technology plays in enabling the learner to blend theory and practice, and formal and informal learning experiences within social contexts. Wenger (2007, in Dyke, Conole, Ravenscroft & de Freitas, 2007, p. 93) invites such a perspective stating that “social learning theory has profound design implications for the design of pedagogical e-learning”. Wenger suggests an exploration of the ways in which social learning theory might inform current thinking on blended learning, and in particular how technology might
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enable (or inhibit) learning in real world contexts. Wenger makes this connection between social learning theory, blended learning, technologies and authentic learning in real world contexts stating that “Rather than focusing solely on the design of self-contained learning environments, …e-learning also explores the learning potential of emerging technologies, that is, the ways in which these technologies amplify (or curtail) the learning opportunities inherent in the world.” (p. 93). Oliver and Trigwell (2005) critique the concept of blended learning arguing that it is a term which is used indiscriminately and that “all definitions lack…an analysis from the perspective of the learner” (p. 24). They hold that if blended learning has any place at all then it needs to be understood from the learners’ perspective and that variation theory provides a suitable framework. Variation theory is based on the principle that learners must experience variation and that learning occurs through the critical discernment of the experience of difference. Bruce, Edwards and Lupton (2006, p. 6) suggest “learning occurs when variation in ways of understanding or experiencing are discerned” and that the underlying principle of variation theory is “Bringing about learning through widening experience, and thus revealing variation”. If these principles are applied to teachers’ learning then, by its very nature, continuing professional development should be a catalyst to provoke and promote learning as teachers negotiate the demands of work and study and reconcile the sometimes contradictory language, artefacts, and experiences of one context with the other. Variation should be a characteristic of teachers’ experiences as they span the boundaries and experience the tensions and difficulties, as well as benefits and affordances, relating to dual membership of school and online communities. Both Wenger (in Dyke, et al, 2007), and Oliver and Trigwell (2005) invite fresh perspectives on blended learning which move beyond the conventional definitions of blended learning with their emphasis on the combination of face-to-face
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instruction with computer-mediated instruction (Graham, 2006). The focus shifts to the learning experiences of the student, and the potential ways in which technology might enable new variations and opportunities. Rather than emphasising the blending of face-to-face classroom experiences with technology-enabled online learning experiences, this study shifts the face-to-face or ‘real life’ interaction from the context of formal institutionalised learning to the context of socially-situated, workplace learning. The emphasis shifts from the classroom to the lived experiences of the teachers in the study, and the online course community becomes the catalyst for highlighting differences between current and potential practices based on research, discussion and shared experiences between course participants. Hanson and Clem (2006) highlight the central role of reflection and experience in the learning process, arguing that “Reflection deepens a learner’s understanding of a domain, allowing him or her to become more facile with the subject matter, and it is central for knowledge transfer to the workplace. A major opportunity occurs for it in the reinforcement activities afforded by blended learning” (p. 137). Reflection, then, might be regarded as one of the components or vital strategies involved in the process of discernment, and the appreciation of difference inherent in Oliver and Trigwell’s (2005) variation theory. Both reflection and discernment envisage a deeply thoughtful deliberation of ideas, concepts or difference in some form or other, and at the heart of each, the learner must engage, grapple, justify, or otherwise rationalise their widening experience in some way. This reflective and discerning engagement in widening experiences also aligns with Dewey’s pioneering social constructivist pedagogy which advocated that knowledge is constructed through progressive experiences in the context of real problems. As learning experiences become increasingly sophisticated in their intellectual demands then teaching and learning can be viewed as a
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continuous process of reconstruction of experience (Dewey, 1938). Dewey asserted that useful learning occurred within social contexts where participants worked cooperatively on tasks that were meaningful for them (Dewey, 1916; Robyler, 2003). Vygotsky (1978) also recognised that social interaction was crucial for the development of personal knowledge, and argued that learning occurred as the result of the collaborative construction of understanding. Vygotsky (1978) emphasised the importance of meaningful learning activities that combined cognitive, emotional, and external interactions. Interaction is important because “to learn concepts, the learner must experience them and socially negotiate their meaning in the authentic context of a complex learning environment” (Jaramillo, 1996, p. 3). Teachers’ online professional development facilitates a complex learning environment as the participants engage not only in the online course with other teachers from different contexts, but they also engage, simultaneously in their own differing real-life contexts. Teachers’ negotiation of meaning and construction of understanding is multi-directional, linking course content, readings, and virtual activities and interactions with face-to-face, everyday experiences in their schools. Such a view of learning provides challenges for thinking about and addressing the issue of transfer of learning between contexts and specifically for transfer between the online learning community and the community of practice. The literature on professional development acknowledges that teachers do not readily transfer the new skills, strategies or ideas from professional development into their everyday practice, and transfer is further impacted by workplace factors such as expediency, relative importance of activities, and collegial expectations (Soden & Halliday, 2000). Putnam and Borko (2000) acknowledge the difficulties of transfer associated with integrating changes into classroom practice. They suggest that there has been little consideration given to
how teachers learn new strategies, and “how to create learning experiences powerful enough to transform teachers’ classroom practice” (Putnam & Borko, 2000, p. 6). The central tenet of their discussion is not whether teachers’ learning is situated, but where it should be situated in order to effect change in classrooms. In addressing this issue they argue that multiple approaches can provide the impetus needed for change. While teachers’ professional development can be situated in their classroom or school environment, there are sound arguments for also providing learning opportunities in unfamiliar settings away from the routines of the classroom. These experiences promote variation, by situating teachers’ learning in new contexts and allowing insights beyond the constraints of routine classroom practice. In essence, Putnam and Borko provide a justification for the type of blended learning explored in this chapter. The preliminary analysis of data from this project suggests that the blending of online professional development with authentic schoolbased activities creates experiences of variation prompting teachers to reflect and transform their own practice.
THE SETTING While there are no mandatory requirements for New Zealand teachers to participate in continuing professional development many teachers do so while working full-time as classroom teachers. The qualifications forming the basis of this study have been designed for teachers to upgrade or extend their credentials and they would typically study one course per semester. The Graduate Diploma in ICT in Education (GradDipICTEd) is offered by the University of Canterbury and is open to educators with a formal teaching qualification (early childhood, primary, secondary and tertiary). The online nature of the qualification attracts participants from across New Zealand and overseas. Teach-
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ers usually enrol in the qualification to broaden their expertise, for career advancement, or as a pathway to postgraduate study. All courses are built on a framework which includes the development of teachers’ awareness and understanding of technologies and current trends, the development of practical skills and competency in the use of ICT, an understanding of current research and theory related to the use of ICT in education, and strategies for the practical implementation of ICT within the school setting. There are no face-to-face components but participants are expected to engage regularly in the online class environment throughout the 15 week semester. Lecturers encourage reflective practice, promote substantive dialogue through interaction, and build research capability through practitioner action research and case study projects. The formal requirements vary between courses, however typically include: (1) participation in the online course community via discussions, small group work, presentations, sharing of resources and ideas, and peer review; (2) individual reading and reflection; and (3) formal assignments related to teachers’ classroom practice (for example, planning, implementation and evaluation of a specific ICT-related strategy). Course delivery occurs within a purpose-built learning management system (LMS) which accommodates flexible learning environments with an emphasis on interactive tools to facilitate constructivist learning approaches via synchronous and asynchronous discussion, resource sharing and review, knowledge management, and flexible group organisation.
Case study methodology provided an appropriate framework to investigate the nature, inter-relationships, and complexities of teachers’ professional learning in the blended contexts of online study and practical work. As Stake (2003, p. 142) expressed so well “qualitative case researchers orient to complexities connecting ordinary practices in natural habitats to the abstractions and concerns of diverse academic disciplines”. This intent is reflected in this study connecting the ordinary practice of teachers engaging in online professional development to the social theory of communities of practice and situated learning, in order to better understand the complex affordances, restraints and processes which affect teachers’ learning. Collective case study was adopted to facilitate the in-depth exploration of the experiences of a number of teachers engaged in online professional development. Collective case study describes a collection of individual cases with each case contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of an issue or condition (Stake, 2003). Each teacher’s case will contribute to an overall understanding of how teachers learn in a blended environment, and where they situate their learning as they engage in online professional development. The purpose of the collective cases is not to condense teachers’ experiences into a homogenous explanation of what it means to engage in online professional development, but rather to identify and illustrate the various experiences, issues, dilemmas and impacts that contribute in some way to teachers’ professional learning in, and between communities.
Tudy and Methodology
Research Design
This chapter reports on a component of a larger study and this section will briefly describe the methodology and research design encompassing this preliminary discussion.
The larger project was conceived as a multi-phase study beginning with an anonymous online questionnaire open to all teachers enrolled in the online qualification. The purpose of the questionnaire was to collect initial responses describing
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Figure 1. Research design P h ase 1 O n lin e Q u e stion n aire
P h ase 2 C ase S t ud y T e a che rs (1 4)
P h ase 3 C olle ag u es o f 4 C ase S tu d y Te ach e rs
In te rview s
C ou rse wo rk a nd a ssig n m e nt s
O n lin e p art icip at io n
In te rview s with co lle a gu e s
teachers’ online learning habits and experiences, and their thoughts about the inter-relationships between work and study. The questionnaire data informed the interview process but will not be considered in this discussion. The online questionnaire was accompanied by an invitation to participate in Phase 2 involving interviews over the course of a semester focusing on teachers’ perceptions of their participation in both the online learning community and their local community of practice, and analysis of online participation and course work. Fourteen teachers volunteered to participate in Phase 2, and four of these teachers also agreed to nominate a group of their colleagues to participate in Phase 3 of the project. Phase 3 involved visiting the case study teacher’s school and interviewing either two or three teaching colleagues to collect data about their perceptions of the case study teacher’s professional learning and engagement in the school community. These teaching colleagues were people who the case study teacher identified as being part of their community of practice, and
they were usually (but not exclusively) members of the same primary school teaching syndicate (ie teaching the same or similar year level) or members of the same secondary school department. This chapter will discuss and present a case for blended learning from the perspectives of the four teachers and their eleven colleagues. While these were ‘self-selecting’ cases, nevertheless the cases provide a valuable insight into continuing professional development.
The Case Study Participants The four teachers who participated in this phase of the project were completing the major research project which was their final course in the qualification and they had all participated in a number of other online classes taught by different lecturers. Each of the completed courses had different assessment requirements although commonly at least one assignment required teachers to plan, implement, evaluate and report on some school-
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based activity. The final research project followed either action research or case study methodology and related to some aspect of ICT in education. Topics were selected by the teachers and were not confined to their own school contexts, although all four teachers in the study had elected to research topics related to needs in their own school.
similar pattern to identify contradictions, confirmations, and new illustrations or understandings. The emergent themes were then considered in relation to Wenger’s four dimensions of learning (learning as practice, community, meaning and identity) and the resulting inter-related themes identified for discussion: •
Main Findings and Discussion The preliminary data analysis is primarily drawn from two interviews with each of the four case study teachers, and one interview with each of 11 teaching colleagues (a total of 19 interviews), and supported by examples from teachers’ online conversations and work. The identification of initial themes followed a grounded theory approach (Strauss, 1987) as themes emerged from multiple readings and notations of the interview data for each teacher and their associated colleagues. Rather than imposing a framework for analysis, the emphasis was on understanding teachers’ perspectives of their learning experiences and their sense of connections and relationships within both online and school communities. The analysis of the interviews with associated colleagues followed a
• • •
Shifts in thinking: encountering variation and negotiating meaning Context and conversations: locating experience in school communities Belonging and participation: virtual and real Identity and participation: changing perceptions and confidence
Shifts in Thinking: Encountering Vriation and Negotiating Meaning It was evident from the interviews with teachers that the online courses had widened their experiences and provided opportunities for them to engage in reflection and critical discernment of their own understanding and practice in relation to new concepts, theories and strategies. The course content (presented through articles,
Table 1. Case study participants Phase 3 Case Study Teachers Susan
Beth
Linda
Kate
School context
Secondary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Number of years teaching
30
9
15
18
Class level taught
Yr 9-13
Yr 5-6
Yr 3-4
Yr 1-2
Study load
Full-time study (on leave)
Part-time study, fulltime work
Part-time study, fulltime work
Part-time study, full-time work
Teaching colleagues interviewed in Phase 3
Jane Dave Tess
Theresa Sally Leigh
Tanya Rose Lucy
Judith Lisa
Case study teacher’s research topic
Implementation of a LMS
The use of ICT to support literacy (spelling)
The use of ICT to extend gifted and talented students
Fostering creativity in a junior class through ICT
Descriptor
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online seminars and discussions) provided the difference, disturbance or dissonance necessary to prompt reflection, construct new meanings and initiate change. Susan avidly described how her first online course introduced her to constructivist pedagogy and how this prompted her to reflect on her own teaching strategies and to evaluate how teacherdirected they were. Constructivist pedagogies presented a significant shift for Susan who had taught computer applications and technology courses which traditionally relied on skills-based teacher-directed approaches. However, these new concepts challenged her thinking and created sufficient dissonance to foster a genuine desire to experiment and try new approaches. At least six months after the conclusion of the first course which introduced constructivist theories, Susan said: And I think too I have changed since starting this course. Isn’t that funny? Last year, doing ICTXX and that constructivism – up until then I was always “show and tell” … and I would show them on the data show how to do it. And then I would start … ‘OK, this is how we do it, these are the formulas, this is if you want to go and get an average’ and it was all show. Whereas after doing that ICXXX paper, isn’t it funny? – after all these years, I had to do a unit with constructivism, and I did it on web pages. It was a real test because I really didn’t know how to do a web page – so they had to construct their own knowledge ‘cos I was constructing my own knowledge with them. And, I think it has made me more aware that ‘hey, I don’t have to teach them’ – they actually enjoy learning themselves and perhaps I was too teacher directed, and perhaps spoon feeding them too much. In her reflection on the activity (posted online) where she deliberately used constructivist pedagogies, Susan included the following statement:
Then the atmosphere changed as the students enjoyed the freedom to explore and use their own initiatives to produce a solution. I could not believe it, students stayed on task and were continually challenged and the classroom felt so positive and vibrant – I’m not sure who was getting the biggest buzz – the students or me. Susan also described how online discussions with primary colleagues challenged her to consider the capabilities of her own secondary students, and to think about how they could learn using inquiry based models. She was challenged by the types of activities and learning experiences that young children were engaging in and realised that her own adolescent students were capable of learning more independently. For Susan, variation was created via course content and readings about constructivist pedagogy, as well as through the perspectives of fellow students who shared their experiences from the primary teaching sector. Susan negotiated these new concepts and ideas, and made a deliberate attempt to implement changes through some of the course assignments. Kate, likewise, identified constructivist learning theory as one of the most significant aspects of her learning in the online courses. While she had a vague understanding of constructivist theories from her initial teacher training, she had not connected theory to practice or understood how this could impact on her own classroom until introduced to this in one of her online courses. Both Susan and Kate were confronted with new theoretical concepts in such a way that they were encouraged to discern how these might relate to their prior understanding. Both teachers described how they engaged with this new thinking and how it impacted on their teaching practices. Teachers spoke of the challenges and relevance of the professional development, for example Beth noted that every course had challenged her in some way, and she described how online study facilitated her thinking process and provided time for reflection:
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I like having that challenge and having to think about things and question myself about why I am doing something not just doing it because I have always done it or someone else suggested it – but question myself really – and I think any study would do that but online it has been really good, cos you have that time to read something and sit back and relax and think about it before you make your…[posting] – it makes that questioning process really happen rather than working it straight out. Teachers’ experiences in negotiating new meanings and translating those understandings into action were noted by colleagues too. When asked about their observations of the case study teacher’s professional learning or practice which might be related to their online study colleagues commented positively. For example, one of Beth’s colleagues, Sally, stated: I would certainly say she takes it on board, you know she gets into what she is learning 100% and then uses what she has learnt in every aspect of what she is doing I think. She doesn’t sort of read it and then think “Oh yeah, I’ve done that now I can forget about it”. I think she genuinely takes it on and actually tries to implement it in her classroom but also in other areas. The case study teachers also identified their research projects as key activities in developing new meanings and understandings. The research projects were mentioned by all four teachers as being a significant part of their study, and were clearly the vehicle for them to engage in independent learning around a topic of their own choice. Teachers chose topics relevant to their school situation, and in which they had a personal interest. The impact of the research projects will be discussed in the next section.
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Context and Conversations: Lcating Experience in School Cmmunities The situated nature of teachers’ learning was evident in the way they talked about the relevance of their course work and assignments, and the way their colleagues identified specific projects as being related to teachers’ online professional development. The case study teachers situated their learninbg in their own practice and often continued to affirm their learning by sharing new understandings with colleagues. The value of online course work was strengthened through practical implementation and also through dialogue and conversations with peers in their school contexts. All four teachers spoke of sharing ideas with colleagues suggesting that their learning was not formal and course-bound, but linked to their participation in communities of practice where learning was a shared endeavour. These conversations were often informal and ongoing, sometimes in social or ‘after-work’ contexts, while in other examples they were more formal perhaps embedded in school changes, or formal meeting presentations, or the subject of professional development sessions. For example, Linda talked enthusiastically about how one course prompted her to link literacy and maths using fairy tales and graphs, and how she shared that with her syndicate of teachers at school, while Beth similarly talked about her experiences with an e-Pals project. Beth’s colleague Leigh talked of the conversations they shared around ICT, of how Beth modelled the use of ICT in her own classroom and wider school events such as assemblies, and how she learnt from observing Beth. Leigh mentioned the spelling research Beth had completed as well as several practical applications of ICT and how Beth shared resources through a school intranet. When another colleague was asked if she was aware of Beth’s online study she replied:
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Absolutely! … as part of her study she did a spelling programme with a few children from each of our syndicate classes …, and that was fabulous. The kids just loved it and it was good for me because I … worked alongside them. … So, she [Beth] sent us a little email saying what we were doing and you know, why she was doing that and at the end she came back and let us know the results and what she discovered which was really good. And, other than the spelling programme I knew she was studying because she spoke and talked to us about some of the things she has been doing. Susan had tailored much of her study around the use of a LMS in the secondary school and was able to make connections to her own classroom practice, the courses taught by her department, and the wider school. Prior to beginning the online professional development Susan had not used an LMS and she had deliberately chosen a programme of study which included several courses in online teaching and learning. She was pro-active in sharing her new understandings which in turn helped her understand more deeply the issues and opportunities. Susan had focused on the use of the LMS in at least three of her courses using different content and approaches: in one she had developed an online module for students to use and trialled this in a colleague’s class; in another she used a peer coaching model to provide professional development in the use of LMS environments; and for the major research project she researched the adoption of the LMS environment in her school. Jane, Susan’s colleague, contrasted the way Susan was using the LMS environment with the way others in the department were using it, saying: I think that what Susan has done with it is a very useful way of using it – and I was quite inspired – I liked the way that the kids could extend themselves and I think it encouraged them to do that, you know, because anything else apart from what she had said, was like ‘you put this in and parents
can look that up and you put that there and they can see their assignment sheets’ – which is not quite the same. Not interactive at all. Exposure to the research of others, and personal engagement in research provided significant learning experiences for the teachers in this study which they shared with others in their schools. It was this, more than any other activity, which teachers referred to with passion and appreciation. For the four teachers in this phase of the study the full-year research project seemed to provide a vehicle for them to engage in personalised learning related to their own interests. They did not confine their learning to meeting course requirements but without exception these four teachers spoke of the impact this study had on their identity as teachers and leaders in their school settings, and the relevance of their study to their school community. For example, Beth said: I was so interested in the research that I had found during the lit review process, when I was doing the action research and when I was interviewing the different teachers I asked them if they would be interested in looking at the research that I had found and they all were – and I gave them all a copy of my lit review because I could see that they would find it interesting to read because it was so practical the stuff that I had found. When asked if those experiences reinforced her learning Beth said “absolutely – because they challenge you as well” and went on to describe how her colleagues asked questions and wanted to know more. For Beth learning was not confined to the online environment, but clearly spilled over into her everyday practice as she blended the opportunities for engagement between study and work. Linda’s research project looked at ways to use ICT with gifted and talented students in her school and it was clear that this had impacted beyond her own classroom. Linda spoke of the way she had
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shared readings at a full staff meeting, and how her ICT research project had prompted her to look beyond what she needed for her project and to see the relevance of other articles for colleagues. She spoke of discriminating between research articles and practitioner style articles, and of sharing these findings with colleagues: I actually hadn’t used them but they were articles that were interesting, but they weren’t actually good enough to use in [the course] – they didn’t have abstracts and methodologies and they were more ideas for classrooms, but I had found them in my search for other articles…stuff that probably wasn’t suitable [the research project] but was suitable for other things, I would not normally have gone and found. This sharing of resources and ideas was endorsed by a colleague. Rose spoke about Linda’s research project related to the use of ICT with gifted and talented students and the direct impact this had on Rose’s classroom practice: …just the way that she has used her knowledge of ICT ‘cos that is where she has been focusing her study…sharing ideas with us and showing us ways we can do things in our classroom…she gave me some suggestions on how I could cater for them [gifted and talented students] better through the use of ICT… like webquests or individual projects actually incorporating ICTs … she is really good about giving ideas in terms of that, and ideas of how I can extend them a little bit more.
Belonging and Participation: Vrtual and Real The teachers’ comments suggested strong connections to their school community but they seemed to be less sure of their connections to the online community. When asked about the role of others in their online study, the four case study teachers all mentioned a sense of rapport with various course
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lecturers and the significant role this played in their study but they had mixed responses about other online relationships. The teachers recognised others as they described tenuous bonds with course participants; however there was little evidence to indicate a sense of belonging to the online course community. Susan was the only one of the four teachers who had developed any deep sense of collegiality with another course member, and this was fostered through similar work contexts and common professional interests even though the two teachers had never met in person. (Both were secondary ICT specialists, and both were on full-time study leave for the year working in the same online classes.) These two women kept in regular contact during their study via email, text messages and occasional phone calls. While the case study teachers did not forge strong online relationships they nevertheless valued aspects of the online participation. Discussions about course content were an important element in helping teachers engage with different material and ideas. These teachers valued the different perspectives offered in the online activities and appeared open to experiences of variation which challenged their own thinking. For example, Linda stated: I haven’t built up any relationships as such – I see the name and think “oh yeah – I like to read that person’s thing – they always have something pertinent to say” or that person comes from a completely different outlook – I would like to see what they think about this… or they are teaching the same level as me – are they doing similar things? Kate identified the role of online discussion in challenging her own thinking saying: Sometimes I think “but I said that last week and I can’t think of anything new to write” but then by the end of it you suddenly realise that you have actually read a lot of peoples’ views and you
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have thought probably more deeply about what you are doing. She explained that she valued the online interaction more as she progressed through the qualification and actually missed it in courses where it was emphasised less. Kate discerned variation between her own and others’ understandings evident in the online discussions and this clearly contributed to her learning experiences: I think the comments I have had from people online have helped me have a better understanding of the issues or understand bits of theory behind things and because of that it means I have been able to talk to colleagues who haven’t had that experience of doing recent study. I think that has assisted me because in my role as lead teacher I have to do some PD on thinking tools and that range of things, graphic organisers, and all that sort of stuff and because of what I have learnt online and comments other people have made or interactions, not just this year, but probably over the whole three years I have been doing the papers have all helped me to be able to lead the professional development and if I don’t know the answers I know where to go to get the answers which has helped. Linda also described how she initially preferred face-to-face learning but that she had grown to appreciate aspects of online learning saying: I do like the online now and I like being able to get in my own little space and do my work – which I didn’t like at first, I couldn’t bear it – I had to do a course someone else was doing so I could discuss it because I am a talker. … [Now] I like the sharing and the discussion forums – I like reading what everyone else has written… and seeing what they are thinking because you have one idea and they have a completely different idea and no-one else is influencing what they are writing.
Susan commented that she enjoyed reading different interpretations of articles and ideas online saying “I have enjoyed other people’s perspectives…of how they have interpreted things which are different to me.” While Kate spoke of seeking out the thoughts of others in the online course, and also about being selective, preferring those who were “thoughtful”. She was not alone in the way she engaged selectively in online interactions. The other teachers in this study were also discriminating in their evaluation of online discussion and tended to seek out others who they respected in some way, or with whom they felt some affinity perhaps through similar circumstances or teaching experiences. They built up rapport with others over time, and knew which teachers they gravitated towards in the online discussions, usually with a sense of reciprocity. This tendency to respond to those who share similar viewpoints may be an aspect of the online discussion which detracts from creating learning opportunities. Learning is more likely to be fostered where difference exists.
Identity and Participation: Changing Perceptions and Confidence There was a sense that teachers’ identities evolved as they progressed through the courses in the qualification. Again, the single most significant catalyst for this would seem to be teachers’ engagement in individual research projects and the case study teachers associated their engagement in research with a growing sense of confidence, greater authority to answer questions or provide information to others, and a willingness to take on leadership roles. The research projects allowed teachers to develop expertise in a specific area of interest related to ICT and education and the case study teachers chose projects which centred on their own school contexts. The four teachers were engaged in the research project at the time of data collection so this was more likely to be
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at the forefront of their thinking. However, colleagues also commented most noticeably on the teachers’ engagement in these projects. Linda indicated that she drew on her readings and knowledge and used this to substantiate conversations and interactions with colleagues. There was a sense of confidence as she explained one situation where she referred to her research: I read something in my research…and they said this and this and this – you might want to give that a try.” So it is actually quite good to refer back to research to let people know it is true and correct. Linda also referred to another project where she created an online environment for parents to help them understand how maths and numeracy were taught in the school. It was clear she had confidence in her own understanding based on the action research she had conducted: Lots of parents couldn’t get to our evenings or the evening wasn’t enough for them, and so to talk to them about their perceptions and find out where they were at and then to relate that back to other teachers who were saying ‘oh the parents don’t understand’ – and I could say ‘well actually they do. You just have got to show them this and this and this’, you know, from what I have done here [in my action research project]. Judith, speaking of Kate, referred to her increase in confidence, and the way she drew on research to respond to questions: I think she has grown personally – she has grown in her teaching. She has always been a great teacher, but she is more sure of herself and I think that the study that she has done has given her the skills to be able to implement things as lead teacher and given her the confidence to be able to say “well research says…” and that has actually been re-
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ally good because sometimes you feel a little bit of a lone voice. Kate also reflected on the way her research project had provided opportunities for conversation and the sense of authority that her project had given her: My research was on creativity…a lot of people haven’t really considered that creativity can be fostered through ICT because of the clip art and all the ready-made things. And, I have had some interesting discussions with people about that which has been the direct result of what I was studying and the research and the literature reviews I have done…and it was quite nice being able to say that actually this is what happens, and quote the research that is out there. I felt quite good about that. Susan’s head of department, Dave, recognised the impact of her study and noted both her enthusiasm and her ability to lead further developments as a result of her study and research: Susan is right into how to use Interact so she is really enthusiastic so it has definitely had a big impact on how she is going to teach next year and she will lead a lot of the use of the system. Similar comments were made by colleagues of the other teachers too. For example, Rose spoke of the general impact of Linda’s online study: I just think her online learning has really kept her up-to-date with the latest teaching practices and ideas and theories and she is so motivated by it. She is really enthusiastic about it and it enthuses – and gets the enthusiasm out to all of the rest of us too. And Judith, speaking of Kate’s online learning experiences, noted her willingness to consider alternatives prompted by her engagement
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with reading research articles and engaging in research: Kate’s always been good about being reflective on her teaching practice and being open at changing or trying different things to try improve children’s learning – so she has been open to that but I think she has been more open, not necessarily to everything, but being able to say, ‘well this is backed up by research’ and it gives you a bit of authority. In summary, the experiences of teachers in this study would suggest that online professional development promotes learning which blends the boundaries of online learning communities and real communities of practice. Teachers recognised the value of online interactions with fellow-participants, as well as the value of faceto-face discussions with colleagues in their school environments. The course design encouraged the translation of concepts, strategies and new ideas between the two contexts through the practical course requirements. Teachers’ engagement in both contexts widened their experiences, impacted their practice, increased their confidence, and influenced colleagues and interested others in their workplaces.
Discussion and Implications The findings of this project to date provide encouragement to pursue a reconceptualisation of blended learning which embraces the potential of formal online professional development courses to foster meaningful workplace learning. Wenger’s bidding to consider the ways in which “technologies might amplify (or curtail) the learning opportunities inherent in the world” aligns with the experiences of the teachers in this study. For these teachers, the online learning environment, enabled by a flexible LMS, provided the means to encounter variation and experience sufficient
dissonance to promote shifts in thinking and practice. The experiences of variation and catalysts for change were presented via the online environment, whether in the form of readings, online seminars, online activities, or online discussions. It was there, in the virtual space of the online course community, that participants were introduced to new ideas, given opportunities to engage in reflection and discussion, and where they were challenged to expand their understanding. A key characteristic of this blended learning experience was the requirement for participants to shift their focus from the course community to their community of practice and to experience knowing in practice or knowledge in action while at the same time continuing their online engagement. The course requirements meant that participants had to design, develop, implement, evaluate and report on practical activities in the context of their own work settings. These contextual activities fostered the boundary-spanning between communities, and provided opportunities for participants to situate their learning in their real practice while simultaneously reflecting on, and discussing these activities in the online environment. What was not mandated, but which contributed to the learning experience for participants, was the social interactions around their learning which occurred via dialogue with workplace colleagues. Participants became the boundary spanners and brokers as their formal learning moved beyond the course requirements and not only impacted their own practice, but contributed to the community of practice in which they were a part. Wenger’s (1998) dimensions of learning as doing, belonging, experience and becoming were played out in the workplace community as participants shared experiences and understandings with those around them. These socially-negotiated experiences with colleagues in the school setting were incidental to the course design, and their impact unpredicted and unknown to the course lecturers. They seem to hold potential for further amplifi-
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cation of learning experiences if the expectation for social discourse in the workplace community can be acknowledged and fostered. This may also provide one way to address the concern raised by Stacey and Gerbic (2007) who noted that students studying wholly online have fewer opportunities to experience the variation in learning afforded by face-to-face components. Oliver and Trigwell (2005) critique a definition of blended learning based on a combination of different contexts, a typical example being the contexts of instruction and work. They argue that all learning is likely to involve multiple contexts, whether real or facilities of imagination, ie participants are likely to imagine application of learning in other situations, therefore rendering the term blended learning meaningless and redundant. In their reconceptualisation of blended learning they call on variation theory and state “it is also possible that some students may be experiencing variation that is a direct result of their experience of a ‘blend’. If this is variation that they would not experience without the blend, it could be argued that the blend is supporting learning” (p. 22). They discuss the possibilities of designing for varied experiences which may lead to learning (p.24) shifting “the emphasis dramatically, from teacher to learner, from content to experience and from naively conceptualised technologies to pedagogy” (p.24). One way to achieve this shift in emphasis may be through adopting a communities of practice perspective, and acknowledging the centrality of the participants as learners in both the online learning community and the workplace community of practice. The experiences of variation are revealed and magnified through multi-membership of communities as participants discern variation in the artefacts, concepts, language or ideas which cross over between communities, and in the activities or processes which connect elements of practice from one community into another (Wenger, 1998).
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This small-scale study would suggest that the experience of variation can be amplified as teachers not only discern variation for themselves, but also as they become brokers introducing their learning experiences to others. Brokering describes the human element of connecting practices between communities and is a complex activity “involving processes of translation, coordination, and alignment between perspectives” (Wenger 1998, p.109). Furthermore, brokering can “cause learning by introducing into a practice elements of another” (p. 109). It is the experience of multi-membership of communities which enables brokers to make connections, introduce new elements, and “open new possibilities for meaning” (p. 109). This was illustrated in that teachers not only implemented ideas in their own classrooms, but they also discussed these strategies with colleagues, involved other teachers in their research projects, shared articles they had found for their literature reviews, and found other ways of embedding their learning in their school communities. In conceptualising blended learning in the context of professional development, it would seem that the diffusion of knowledge and practices emerging from the online learning community into the work-based community or practice, and the reverse flow into the online learning community are reciprocally beneficial. This brokering of new ideas, strategies and meanings is reliant on participants acting as conduits to connect the practices of both communities thus experiencing variation in learning modes and contexts.
Recommendations for Improving Practice This chapter outlines a reconceptualisation of online professional development as a complex blending of socially constructed experiences in which participants concurrently engage in online courses and communities of practice. Rather than grappling with issues of learning transfer
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(eg Soden & Halliday, 2000; Putnam & Borko, 2000) and the difficulties associated with relocating knowledge or understanding from one context to another, the central discussion of this chapter suggests that online professional development might be regarded as a merging, or bringing together of two learning contexts in which the participant plays a vital role in translating, coordinating and aligning their experiences in both contexts (Wenger, 1998). The teachers in this small study were, to varying degrees, advocates of online professional development. While this is a limitation of the study, and future research would benefit from widening the study to those less positive about online professional development, these teachers’ experiences suggest practical strategies for effective blended learning. Future online professional development may benefit through intentional course design which promotes and encourages the following in a blended context: • •
•
•
Variation in participants’ experiences through exposure to different ideas, concepts, strategies and theories; Reflection through directed activities which highlight aspects of both virtual and real contexts; Interaction in both virtual and real contexts to provide experiences of variation and opportunities for socio-constructivist learning; Negotiation of relevant learning and assessment activities so that participants can align course work with workplace needs and opportunities.
CONCLUSION This chapter has focused on the centrality of the learner as participant in virtual and real environments, and the almost invisible, but enabling role that technology plays in supporting socially-con-
structed learning opportunities. Blended learning can be described from the perspective of the case study teachers who encountered variation in the form of new theories, and different understandings and contextual interpretations through their online study, and the way that these experiences were translated into the real contexts of their communities of practice. The blending occurred in the porous boundaries between formal and informal, theory and practice, virtual and real, in teachers’ membership of both communities, and in the way learning was amplified through the brokering of new knowledge and ideas as they were shared with colleagues. Blending is not defined here in terms of technological applications but rather in the way that transparent technologies can be used to enable situated learning in social contexts. The blending is in the hands, minds and interactions of the learner as they negotiate their own experiences and social contexts of learning.
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Dyke, M., Conole, G., Ravenscroft, A., & de Freitas, S. (2007). Learning theory and its application to e-learning. In G. Conole & M. Oliver (Eds.), Contemporary perspectives in e-learning research: Themes, methods and impact on practice (pp. 82-97). London: Routledge. Fullan, M. (1999). Change forces: The sequel. London: The Falmer Press. Gilbert, J. (2005). Catching the knowledge wave? The knowledge society and the future of education. Wellington: NZCER Press. Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended learning systems: Definitions, current trends, and future directions. In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local design (pp. 3-21). San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Grossman, P., Wineburg, S., & Woolworth, S. (2000). What makes teacher community different from a gathering of teachers?, An occasional paper co-sponsored by Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy and Center on English Learning and Achievement (CELA) (pp. 61). Washington: University of Washington. Hanson, K. S., & Clem, F. A. (2006). To blend or not to blend: A look at community development via blended learning strategies. In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 136-149). San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Jaramillo, J. A. (1996). Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and contributions to the development of the constructivist curricula. Education, 117(1). Johnson, C. M. (2001). A survey of current research on online communities of practice. Internet and Higher Education, 4, 45-60. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Masie, E. (2006). The blended learning imperative. In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 22-26). San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Oliver, M., & Trigwell, K. (2005). Can blended learning be redeemed? E-learning, 2(1), 17-26. Putnam, R. T., & Borko, H. (2000). What do new views of knowledge and thinking have to say about research and teacher learning? Educational Researcher, 29(1), 4-15. Roblyer, M. D. (2003). Integrating educational technology into teaching (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc. Schwen, T. M., & Hara, N. (2003). Community of practice: A metaphor for online design? Information Society, 19(3), 257-270. Singh, H. (2006). Blending learning and work. In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 474-490). San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Soden, R., & Halliday, J. (2000). Rethinking vocational education: a case study in case. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 19(2), 172-182. Stacey, E., & Gerbic, P. (2007). Teaching for blended learning - Research perspectives from on-campus and distance students. Educational and Information Technologies, 12(3), 165-174. Stacey, E., Smith, P., & Barty, K. (2004). Adult learners in the workplace: Online learning and communities of practice. Distance Education, 25(1), 107-123. Stake, R. (2003). Case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Strategies of qualitative inquiry (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, C.A.: Sage Publications Inc. Stein, S. J., Isaacs, G., & Andrews, T. (2004). Incorporating authentic learning experiences
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within a university course. Studies in Higher Education, 29(2), 239-258. Strauss, A. L. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes (Rev. ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Chapter X
Blended Learning and Professional Development in the K-12 Sector Suzanne Riverin Regional e-Learing Contact - Barrie Region, Ontario, Canada
ABSTRACT This chapter examines the use of blended learning in an online community which supported teacher professional development in the province of Ontario, Canada for ten years. The online network which was called The Education Network of Ontario/ Le Réseau éducatif de l’Ontario (ENO/REO) used a blend of tools and some face-to-face opportunities to support teacher professional development across the province. Teachers were encouraged to use the ENO/REO environment to join in discussions, create and maintain online projects and share research and curriculum resources. The chapter will focus on a study which examined the effect of long term participation in such a community in order to provide insight into the use of blended learning in online communities for professional development.
INTRODUCTION The need for professional development has never been more acute for teachers in the Kindergarten to grade twelve (K-12) sectors than it is today. Students are growing up in an age where there is a schism between what are referred to as digital natives (our students) and digital immigrants (our teachers) and where traditional concepts of teaching and learning are being challenged
(Prensky, 2001; Richardson, 2006; Pink, 2006). The gap between the two groups will continue to grow unless new and innovative means are found to support teacher learning. Presently, there are many technological innovations in place that have the potential to support teacher learning at a distance but there are difficulties in leveraging those technologies when teachers are already busy trying to stay abreast of change in today’s classrooms.
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This chapter is framed around a study of twelve teachers who were members of an online community of practice which used a blended learning approach for professional learning for over a decade. The twelve teachers involved joined an online community called The Education Network of Ontario/ Le Réseau éducatif de l’Ontario (ENO/REO) and spent many years participating in online activities through the community’s website. Eight of the teachers were involved in the community between 1993 and 2003, while four of them were involved for less than four years between 1999 and 2003. In the initial years of the formation of the community several of the participants met face-to-face before committing to taking part online. All of the teachers in the study connected with each other using technological tools while shaping, forming and becoming immersed in an online community over time. While the study researched a small sample of the members of the community, their experiences provide a snapshot of the way in which a group of K-12 teachers used blended learning to further their professional learning. The chapter begins with a discussion of the concept of blended learning within online communities of practice while the next section contextualizes the research and describes the methodology, theoretical framework, findings and conclusions of the study in question. Finally, the culminating section makes some recommendations regarding the use of blended learning in online communities for professional development.
within communities of practice in order to improve student achievement (Schlager & Fusco, 2004; Speck & Knipe, 2001). However, creating opportunities for teachers to develop ongoing faceto-face communities of practice is difficult given the busy schedules of K-12 teachers so it is not surprising that emergent technological tools are being examined to provide blended learning situations where face-to-face and online opportunities for professional development are combined. The definition of what constitutes blended learning is challenging (Stacey & Gerbic, 2007) with terms such as “hybrid, blended or sandwich learning” used interchangeably (Ausburn, 2004, p.328). In addition to the confusion over the terminology, blended approaches to learning and teaching have met with mixed reviews from both instructors and adult learners with concerns about workload and student engagement on the one hand (Welker & Berardino, 2005) and enthusiasm for the potential of blended learning on the other “the blend itself makes effective engagement in a range of situations possible” (Aspden & Helm, 2004, p.251). The term blended learning will be used in this chapter in two ways. Firstly, it will refer to a mix of face-to-face and technology enhanced engagement where participants meet face-to-face at some point and secondly, it will be used in relation to the combination of synchronous and asynchronous tools to communicate over time (Bonk, Olson, Wisher, & Orvis, 2002; Khine & Lourdusamy, 2003; Motteram, 2006; Vaughan & Garrison, 2006) and referred to in the paper as blended online learning.
BACKGROUND
Online Communities of Practice and Bended Learning
There is general agreement that the term community of practice refers to groups who empower each other through their ongoing interactions regarding shared passions (or concerns) in order to potentially improve the workplace (Wenger, McDermott & Snyder, 2002; Wenger & Snyder, 2001) and that teachers need to work together
The use of the term community of practice as it relates to an online network is challenged by some as overused and ill-defined where loose networks of online participants with very weak connections are referred to as online ‘communities’ (Preece & Maloney-Krichmar, 2003;de Souza and Preece,
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2004; Kling and Courtright, 2004; Zhao & Rop, 2001). In attempting to clarify the definition it has been suggested that online communities must be purposeful, policy driven, underpinned by technology, share a history, have developed leadership potential, have the capacity to mentor new members and have built relationships online over time (Preece, Abras and Maloney-Krichmar, 2004; Gray, 2004; Rheingold, 2000; Kling, 2002; Hildreth, Kimble and Wright in Lueg, 2002). These parameters are being used to address online communities of practice both in higher education and K-12 contexts particularly in the area of support for professional development (Barab, Kling & Gray, 2004; Nonnecke & Preece, 2001; Maloney-Krichmar, Abras, & Preece, 2002; Coupal, 2004; Brook & Oliver, 2003; Stacey, Smith and Barty, 2004). Despite enthusiastic response to the potential of these communities to leverage blended or blended online learning for professional growth, there are nevertheless many tensions within an online environment which provide obstacles to sustainability and take a heavy toll on their survival. Most obvious are the barriers encountered when blended online learning opportunities are created through top down initiatives with little consultation with stakeholders. The imposition of forced ‘community’ involvement through online tools, despite well intentioned designers armed with a blend of rich tools, is doomed to failure as there will be no group ownership and no relevance to the needs of the participants involved (Cuthell, 2004; Pipek, 2005). The technical aspect of the environment is equally important. What blend of tools is available to participants and how intuitive are they to use and access? Because an online environment depends on a robust and consistent technological infrastructure it should appear seamless to the users otherwise they will resent the technological problems and stop participating unless there are compelling reasons to stay on. Often there is a lack of attention paid by the designers to the needs of
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the community resulting in an infrastructure that frustrates the user (Maloney-Krichmar, Abras and Preece, 2002; Pipek, 2005). Nevertheless, even when there is exemplary technological support some communities do not survive (Preece, 2004). Research suggests that the following challenges may have a pivotal effect on whether an online community survives or not: a. b.
c. d. e.
f.
Active participation versus peripheral participation (Hur & Hara, 2007), Lack of trust and/or empathy coupled with a lack of social capital (Huysman &Wulf, 2005), Design problems affecting usability and coherence, Identity formation within the community, Outreach (global or local?) (Barab, MaKinster & Scheckler 2004; Maloney-Krichmar, Abras & Preece, 2002; Preece, 2004) and The need for bonding (the shared values of online communities) and bridging (artifacts that can be shared between community members) (Preece, 2004).
Given the list above, it is active participation in a blended online environment that is the most crucial element in community formation and considered essential to its survival. Nevertheless, the reality is that many members of such communities prefer peripheral participation to active participation where they can glean knowledge quickly from others (Preece, Nonnecke & Andrews, 2004; Sutton, 2001). Despite initial commitments to participation, busy professionals maintain that they are deluged with information through a blend of other technological tools and keeping up with a community becomes difficult (Burge, Laroque & Boak, 2000; Wellman, 2005; Cavanaugh, 2004). Unfortunately, when active participation drops possibly due to what has been referred to by Kirsh, (2000) as professional ‘cognitive overload’ (an overwhelming deluge of information stunting professional practice) the
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cohesiveness of the community suffers and learning is stunted (Nonnecke & Preece, 2001). Additionally, it has been suggested that successful blended models include some kind of face-to-face interaction which bonds the learning community together more quickly and more deeply (Vavasseur & MacGregor, 2008; Martyn, 2003; Goodfellow, 2005). Fitzgibbon & Jones (2004) “recommend a face-to-face induction and further face-to-face contact as considered necessary” for blended learning p.33 as do Barnum & Paarman (2002). The growing acknowledgement that face-to-face interaction helps blended learners build community and capacity more quickly encourages the use of tools which simulate faceto-face situations in geographically challenging areas where distances are problematic.
Context of the Study: The Education Ntwork of Ontario/L éseau éducatif de l’O ntario (ENO/REO) In 1993 the Ministry of Education of Ontario and the Ontario Teachers’ Federation funded an online network called The Education Network of Ontario/Le Réseau éducatif de l’Ontario (ENO/ REO) to guarantee teachers in Ontario access to the Internet. This was intended to encourage the development of skills in the area of information and communication technology in order to scaffold the transfer of those skills into the classroom. ENO/REO resembled an early version of an online social network where members were provided with a blend of online tools to enable collaboration with curriculum, projects, and professional development opportunities. There was no cost for membership and it was open to anyone who worked, or who was involved, in a formal role in publicly funded elementary or secondary education in English and French language schools in Ontario. By 2004 over 123,000 teachers, support staff, administrators, Ontario Ministry of Education staff, and Faculty of Education staff were listed as members which constituted over
half of the professional elementary and secondary population of Ontario. A brief discussion of the way in which these services co-existed may clarify the tools ENO/REO members had at their disposal. ENO/REO served two roles for Ontario teachers. It provided all of the normal advantages of an Internet service provider while also providing a website where teachers collaborated on curriculum resources, joined in discussion groups and created online projects for students. Thus teachers and students from across the province and in some cases across the country and internationally, used the blended online environment as a learning and sharing tool. The Ministry of Education provided the Internet dial up service for ENO/REO members at no cost for ten years. In this way the Ministry hoped to encourage teachers to become familiar with the capacity of the Internet. Many members were encouraged to join ENO/REO simply to have the opportunity to experience this new mode of communication before these types of services became as readily available as they are today. Part of the introduction to new members in the early years of ENO/REO’s inception included face-toface sessions which were designed to introduce teachers to the online tools available through the network. Other face-to-face sessions included training workshops for network moderators who would also have opportunities to meet face-to-face once a year at a specific face-to-face conference dealing with technology and innovation. Members used the online discussion forums to share and learn from each other on a variety of educational topics as well as personal issues. The discussion forums were only open to ENO/ REO members and therefore password protected. Discussions were asynchronous (not in real time) to give members an opportunity to participate throughout the day at any time. There was also a lounge discussion where topics of interest were discussed. Experienced moderators facilitated the discussions and also encouraged online guests to
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join the discussions with resources and ongoing research overviews. Moderators were encouraged to read the forums often and to respond quickly to posts in order to create a climate of participation and a feeling of community. ENO/REO also provided students and teachers with the opportunity to be involved in online projects where the website was used as a collaborative tool to create join projects between schools across the province with several projects reaching out across Canada and internationally. For example there were school newspapers created, online simulations of scientific experiments (life on Mars, sustainable communities), graphic design and robotic design projects etc…: the projects were only limited by the imagination of the teachers and students involved. Much of the communication between project coordinators and project participants was done through ENO/REO either through e-mail or through the discussion forums. Students participating in projects received a private user name and password and communicated through online forums as well. An example of a pan-Canadian teacher/student project that ENO/REO hosted is one called the Canadian National Marsville Program which has been taken over by the National Research Council of Canada. It connected teachers and students from across the country through ENO/ REO in an effort to create collaborative teams to simulate and prepare for the “first (simulated) human mission” to Mars. Teachers helped their students create web sites and mission patches, solve technical challenges, design life-support systems and help other teams through the web. In order to aid teachers with this process, online mentors were available. ENO/REO also developed content to support the Ontario curriculum which was hosted on the website. This usually took the form of links to resources on the Internet already deemed exemplary with the added feature that the breakdown of curriculum expectations was included in the description on the website. An educator could log
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on to the site, search for resources in the database, and know instantly what curriculum expectations would be covered. Additionally, ENO/REO offered content that would support teachers looking for educational headlines and media resources, for help with information technology, for help with facilitating online discussions and with links to curriculum associations and federations. ENO/REO provided a site where teachers could find out as much possible about current issues and relevant developments in the field. Finally, ENO/REO also created online courses for teachers on a variety of topics pertinent to teachers in Ontario. Generally, the courses were modular in nature and offered through a facilitator but much of the content from these courses was offered freely to teachers on the ENO/REO website.
METHODOLOGY In determining how to investigate the community, methodological choices were influenced by researchers involved in similar studies (Gray & Tatar, 2004; Barab, Schatz & Scheckler, 2004; Stacey, 1999; Thomsen, Straubhaar, & Bolyard, 1998; Jensen, 2002; Paccagnella, 1997). There was a socio-cultural aspect to the study which called for an examination of the historical context of ENO/REO: the past had to be examined to enlighten the present so that tensions within the system would be revealed. The study was particularly focused on examining how, despite an infusion of new tools and a blend of more sophisticated hardware and software into ENO/REO over the years, active participation began to lag after the first four years of its creation. This was reinforced by a study undertaken by The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto between 1995 and 1997, where it was discovered that of the 49,859 registered members in ENO/REO, only 2,071 of them had posted messages to one or more discussion forums. This
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lack of participation was considered potentially hazardous to the sustainability of the community (Garton, Wolfe & Wellman, 1998). By 2002 there was a definite drop in participation suggesting that integrating more technological tools into the community had little affect on participation. The study used an instrumental case study so that a longitudinal analysis of the participation of two groups of teachers could take place (Stake, 2000). Additionally, to facilitate the unpacking of the activity within the system a theoretical framework was created using a structure modeled on Engestrom’s Activity Theory (Engestrom, 2001). Activity Theory can be used as a means of understanding human activity because it is based on the premise that the “human mind comes to exist, develops and can only be understood within the context of meaningful goal-oriented, and socially determined interaction between human beings and their material environment” (Bannon, 1997, p.2). This framework, which has been used by other researchers to examine work-related activity, allowed the professional development of educators involved with ENO/REO to be viewed within the context of the complex interactions that take place in this kind of blended learning for professional online network (Engestrom, 2001; Yamagata-Lynch, 2003). The greater part of the study was devoted to the eight teachers in Group 1 who had been part of ENO/REO for a decade as their longevity implied a source of rich data which would potentially produce long term patterns of activity and interaction that would inform the study. The four participants in Group 2 complemented the study by providing a link to the ways in which newer participants used and reacted to the blended online environment. The two groups were examined through the overarching Activity Theory framework which created a lens through which the system of activity could be studied. How did activity within ENO/REO flow? How did the members mediate the tools within the system while responding to each other through the creation of rules and pro-
tocols? How did they function within the separate yet overlapping divisions of labour of face-to-face school environments and the cyber environment of ENO/REO- the new ‘click and mortar’ reality? At what point did the ongoing push and pull of this new online community with its emergent sense of purpose discourage or encourage participation? Finally, had the blended online learning activities presented opportunities for learning that were applicable to the classroom? The graphical representation below represents a pictorial of the blend of interrelated components of the ENO/REO system which had to be studied individually to present an overarching picture of the whole activity system. This framework allowed the researcher to determine: •
• •
•
•
•
The subjects/individuals (who were the participants and how did they interact within the community of ENO/REO and the outside environment of the larger school culture?) The community of ENO/REO (how did the community function/maintain itself?) The technological tools used by the participants (what tools were available to participants in this blended environment and how were they accessed?) The division of labour within the school community and within ENO/REO (how did participants negotiate involvement within and between ENO/REO and their classrooms?) The skills gained by the participants (what skills had the members acquired as a result of involvement with ENO/REO?) The integration of technology in the classroom (were members able to use the experience to create similar experiences within their classrooms?)
Dta Collection and Analysis As a member of the community the author had a firm grasp of the norms and values of the com-
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munity and did not experience any difficulty building trust with the participants. Data were collected through multiple perspectives in order to create a multidimensional vehicle through which the community could be ‘seen and heard’ (Thomsen, Straubhaar & Bolyard, 1998; Rourke, Anderson, Garrison & Archer, 2001; Stacey & Gerbic, 2003). The participants’ online discussions were analysed and supported by an initial questionnaire and two semi-structured interviews to ensure that stimulated recall was enhanced through archived messages (Niven, Harris & Williams, 2002). The discussion messages were examined using ‘units of meaning’ to allow for a more thorough appreciation of context (Thomsen et al., 1998; Blanchette, 2001; Smith & Kollock, 2001; Bullen, 1998; Rourke et al., 2001; McKenzie & Murphy, 2000). The choice of timing for discussion analysis took place over what Stacey and Gerbic have referred to as a “sequence of analysis points…” (2003, p.2) and were shared with participants to ensure
accuracy. In order to keep coding from becoming unwieldy, a streamlined approach was used where coding was framed around subquestions underpinning the Activity Theory framework lens (Schlager, Fusco, & Schank, 2002; Rourke et al., 2001). The next section of the chapter explores the participation of the members over the years of their engagement in the community to present the reader with an overview of the online community’s development over time and the learning experienced by the participants through the use of blended learning.
Building a Community through Blended Learning ENO/REO (1993-1996) Why had members joined ENO/REO in the first place? The eight members of Group 1 suggested that they joined because they were interested in a common resource area for all teachers, they
Figure 1. Graphical representation of interrelated study components using the activity theory model Tools
Subject:
Acquisition of skills
Members of ENO/REO
Rules, Protocols
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Outcome Classroom
Object:
Community ENO/REO
Division of Labour ENO/REO School
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wanted to share expertise, they enjoyed developing projects with other teachers, and they wanted to work collaboratively. And so, despite enormous challenges created by the technical system in the early years (when there were multiple crashes and members could not log on for days) they stayed involved in an effort to work together. One member summed up the collective attraction of ENO/REO with these comments, “I …value the online collaborations and resources that can be used to support improvements in professional practice, promote dialogue between educators both locally and internationally, and finally, allow for access to the myriad of resources that can be “mined” throughout the web…” (Mike Interview 1) and “… participation in ENO/REO has positively impacted my professional practice in providing opportunities for stimulating professional dialogue as well as access to valuable resource information” (Mike Interview 2). Despite the ability to connect online, it is of interest to note that members valued the early face-to-face training meetings that were held when ENO/REO was first launched. One member was convinced that the early training had bonded the original group in a way that would not have been possible online. She believed that relationships were forged very quickly in that kind of intense face-to-face situation. The importance of a faceto-face session was also expressed by this member who, after attending a training session, discovered that she could contact educators from all over the world. She remembered that she “… couldn’t wait to get out of there. I came home and she (her daughter) was standing on the porch and I said, “Get in the car we are going to get a modem!” and so that was it.” (Patricia Interview 1). Members of Group 1 viewed the online environment as attractive because it was compatible with their personalities. For instance, this member suggested, “typically, within a large group of people I would be …more shy …than maybe the average. Certainly quite a contrast to my online persona where I feel very comfortable within a
forum…” (Paul Interview 1). In a face-to-face discussion Paul would “sit back and listen to the discussion and add now and again but I certainly won’t drive the discussion” whereas online he felt comfortable and compared it to sitting around a lunch counter and having an informal discussion (Paul Interview 2). Also, others mentioned a compatibility with values. Patricia considered ENO/REO “compatible with my values; that one has to think and one has to question and one has to share –one has to be supportive because it’s the only way to survive” (Patricia Interview 1). She also considered openness a quality that is essential to learning and used the discussion forums to look for “other ways to see things” and found the atmosphere at ENO/REO conducive to this while feeling “comfortable and safe”. It was also noteworthy that there was some hesitation about joining discussion forums in the beginning on the part of some of the members. One member described how it felt to be a newcomer to the forums “like walking into…a room and there are people talking… you listen at first, and because you don’t know the people you are hesitant to contribute unless what you have to say is really going to further the discussion…” (Jane Interview 1). Bob had the same kind of analogy “…perhaps people felt as though they had walked into a staff room and felt like a supply teacher who “shouldn’t really be interrupting this conversation” (Bob Interview 2). However, once the initial intimidation was over, members all agreed that the support and warmth created by all members encouraged them to post and became almost “addictive” (Patricia Interview 1). ENO/REO was created at a time when rules and/or protocols were new and evolving. The metaphor of a staff room was used to encourage behaviour that was conducive to professional discussion and sharing. Nevertheless, because the environment was so new, participants found themselves in a constant state of change and tensions arose. Participants enjoyed the ‘lounge’
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discussion area because it was relaxed and you were encouraged to banter with your colleagues. Creating the position of moderator was seen as critical to the ongoing health of the community because “once there were moderators in place that was easier too because they tended to give some focus and at least invite participation” (Jane Interview 1). All of the participants suggested that the early years at ENO/REO had been typified by experimentation and technological innovation but had also been fraught with problems and challenges. At one point in 1994, the ENO/REO system became so overstretched that it failed completely, cutting people off and losing data. One member had initiated an online project at the time and she grew so concerned about the stability of the network that she took precautions “…there were a couple of little crashes before the big one and during that period I got my own server at my school so I could set up a newsgroup and give people ftp access to my server and when ENO/REO finally went down we finished the project from my school.” (Heather Interview 2) Another member became so frustrated that he started to use another service provider but he would “stick his head in there once in while to see what was going on” (Mike Interview 1). Others waited patiently while the glitches were worked out and were pleased when things were back on track, “Hello everyone - Good to be back. I’ve been peeking in for the last month: but no messages were to be had, till now” (Patricia - online message). The Internet connections were extremely slow in the early years and participants remembered the enormous amount of time it took to work online. Many members would compose all of their messages offline and then post them and then wait for ten to twelve hours before the messages could be seen. When they were asked why they continued to stay involved in the community despite the challenges they responded “that the purpose of it was worth the effort and also fundamentally I
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believe that you can fix things. That when you encounter a problem you don’t sit around and complain – you figure out how to get around it…” (Jane Interview 1). The division of labour within the ENO/REO community was straightforward. All contributions were of a voluntary nature and there was no real hierarchy. Moderators were in place to keep the discussions going and to ensure that new members felt welcomed. Notably all of the members of this study had been moderators in the community at some point in their tenure with ENO/REO and had remarked that this experience had built their confidence. One member explained that he had experienced professional growth through ENO/REO on a “number of levels”. His role as a leader was enhanced and it “was beneficial in terms of my own use of online communication and discussion –I guess those are the two primary levels” (Mike Interview 2). Schools were at various levels in their adoption of technology in these years. It frustrated many of the members that the skills they learned through the community could not be immediately used in the classroom. Some had trouble getting students involved in projects online as they had to be an “out of class” experiment for them and others ran into staff members who resented the time they were taking up with the technology and cut them off “…her kids were always at the computers and the printer was always breaking down because they were trying to print these newspapers and she was pretty much banned from using the computers…” (Heather Interview 1). There were also teachers who had no Internet access at school so “…they would take all of this work home and then type it up and…then take them in to school ” (Heather Interview 2). Others experienced critical computer failure. One teacher lost her work at home and at school because “…first her computer died and the computer at school died…”. When some schools did become fully wired with the Internet there were so many restrictions about its use that teachers continued to support their students from home computers.
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The Middle Years ENO/REO (1997-2000) The middle years of ENO/REO were highlighted by stability within the infrastructure of the system creating a more relaxed approach to the technology as it became almost seamless to use (especially to those who had been members since the early years). The period was also a time where government cutbacks and massive educational reforms were taking place putting a strain on the morale of the teaching profession. Between 1997 and 2000 there was less concern with the difficulties encountered with technology and more on the way in which technology could be used or blended with face-to-face classroom activities. Discussion forums could be accessed quickly through the web, mail could be accessed almost immediately and content was readily available and updated regularly. However, participants noted that this trend towards instant connectivity may have drawbacks in the future. If the infusion of technology-enhanced communication continued to grow at the rate it appeared to be growing it had the potential to become overwhelming. Despite the concerns noted above, the theme of leadership was clearly on the minds of participants as they entered different phases of their teaching careers in this middle period. There was a great deal of advice on administrative strategies and participants suggested that they had honed administrative skills through ENO/REO by finding a leadership ‘voice’. This is captured in this response “Just got back from OBEA, at the Holiday Inn Yorkdale. It was a wonderful two days, both as a participant and presenter!!!” (Jane-online message) This period witnessed increasing identity problems with new members who joined ENO/REO and lacked an understanding of the unwritten rules underpinning the use of the environment. The lack of overt rules and protocols confused new members who inadvertently used the environment in ways that seemed offensive to the older
members. Bob suggested that some new members “get into very heated- disproportionately insulting debates…” and “my sense is that nobody is joining any more” (Bob Interview 1). While the sense of community was being threatened by individuals who were disrespectful online and didn’t seem to have the same need to nurture the community, participants still posted messages reflecting an emotional attachment to the online community: “I am grateful for the support that I received as I have always considered ENO and its predecessor ‘The Electronic Village’ an extended staff room filled with friends.” (Bob-online message). All of the participants expressed concerns with declining participation. This comment typified the kind of message that many participants were posting as they attempted to reach out to the membership with the hope that more readers would post messages rather than lurk. “I don’t expect there will be regular attendance here over the summer months as we all go about getting some much needed R and R. However, if you would like to drop by on those rainy days or quiet moments, your participation is most welcome…” (Heather-online message). There was also growing disenchantment with the lack of funds available for professional learning and classroom resources in the province at the time. Despite access to some professional development opportunities outside of ENO/REO, there was a recurring theme about a general lack of professional development opportunities in the midst of rapid change in curriculum accompanied by massive government cutbacks to education. Lack of training and feelings of inadequacy were mentioned often: “So much is changing in Special Ed., that I used to know all of the answers, but not now…” . (Sarah interview 1)
The Later Years ENO/REO (2001-2003) Data gathered from the years between 2001-2003 reflect changes in the participants’ personal and
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professional lives as well as ongoing changes in the ‘tone’ of ENO/REO. Group 1 participants were in the later stages of their careers at this point and use of the environment reflected their various positions of leadership. Questions and messages dealing with leadership and school management continued to be in evidence, as well as messages dealing with the ongoing process of disseminating resources and information. Unfortunately these years witnessed the hijacking of the discussion forums by a few particularly dysfunctional contributors whose negative use of the blended online environment frustrated the original members. There were fewer posts and they tended to be the same members posting. All of the participants expressed a comfort level with online communication that they attributed to the years they had spent with ENO/REO. Several participants had written online courses for ENO/ REO and found the experience had been a fertile ground for modelling and learning additional online communication skills. They believed that they had a much clearer understanding of the demands of blended learning and attempted to extend this knowledge into other areas. Unfortunately, the infrastructure in the school system was not conducive to supporting a blended environment. It was still difficult to extend the learning that was taking place through ENO/REO and apply it in the classroom. Schools were either under equipped and under funded or lacked the human resources to support technological infrastructure. For example one participant became convinced of the potential of asynchronous discussion groups for learning and had been initially encouraged to set up discussion groups for her students but “there were no tools out there to do that.” (Jane Interview 1) so it was difficult to infuse some of the innovations she was learning through ENO/ REO in the classroom. There were exceptions however, as some Boards were in the enviable position of being able to make progressive decisions: “…our computer focus for this year is to increase access for teachers to make sure all of the
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workrooms have up-to-date accessible tools…” (Bob Interview 1). Most participants seemed to believe that support from administration was absent or misinformed which inhibited effective infusion of blended models of learning “… people of our generation are not comfortable with computersso I don’t think there was a universal embracing of the technology at that point- you really had to have more of an esoteric interest – my impression” (Mike Interview 1). Referring specifically to administrators, participants believed that it would take another generation to really bring technology into the schools when young and knowledgeable administrators joined the ranks. Unfortunately, as the speed of Internet connections increased and the technology stabilized, earlier concerns about the effect of information and communication technology overload was now having a perceived negative effect on contributions. There was an expectation that there should be immediate responses to e-mail and to posts and some members found this growing time investment overwhelming. They were concerned that young teachers with families would not have the time to use the network because of time restrictions.
Group 2 Participants (1999-2003) As noted previously, the study also included a second group of participants who had joined ENO/REO between 1999 and 2003 which was a challenging time in the educational context of the province. Morale was low due to an enormous amount of educational reform coupled with fiscal restraint and years of labour unrest. This had resulted in a somber mood for teachers across the province as professional development opportunities were unavailable to most teachers despite an infusion of new curriculum. Participants in Group 2 joined ENO/REO for the same reasons as those in Group 1. They wanted to collaborate and share with other teachers but
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they indicated in their interviews that they felt hesitant and unsure of their status in the ENO/REO forums and were a little concerned about posting. This hesitation over the existing community’s acceptance of new members echoed participants’ perceptions from Group 1 who believed that the social atmosphere in ENO/REO had changed over the years and had become less friendly and inviting due to the inability of the environment to restrain very negative contributors. Group 2 members were also concerned about the potentially damaging consequences of leaving messages permanently archived in an online database One member recalled that because her posts were “…in print…they could potentially be used against me…so maybe there is an intimidation factor, like who is reading this and will this be used against me in the future?” (Lisa Interview 1). The unwritten community norms became a problem for new members who were challenged by older ENO/REO members who would criticize them for apparent breaches of protocol. One participant referred to what he perceived as an ‘old boys club’ atmosphere in some of the forums and suggested that when he joined: I really felt that my views weren’t as important as some others who were there all of the time and somebody who wants to get in on the action. And if you keep being put off, or your views are being put off, or you are not being responded to, what is the point of contributing to these particular groups if no one acknowledges what you are saying? (Gary Interview 1). Like participants in Group 1, Group 2 participants reflected discouragement with the level of active participation. It was noted “that in the forums that there are really only the moderators from ENO/REO that are participating and there isn’t the broad participation that would help it flourish” (Lisa Interview 1).
Nevertheless, despite the barriers Group 2 participants encountered, they still reported great benefits from joining ENO/REO which were reflected in their classroom practice. For example one participant who already had a solid grasp of technology was inspired to teach his classes using a blended learning approach as reflected in this message, “I just wanted to share a really great class I had in the blended Math course that I am delivering to my grade 8 class. … An online game called “Fraction Four” and a few other games that I found, got the students converting fractions like wild fire.” (Gary –online message). Nevertheless, the lack of active participation was discouraging to the point where the enthusiasm of the remaining active participants was limited.
Discussion: What Did They Learn? The ultimate object of being part of ENO/REO was the acquisition of technological skills through the mediated activity and blended learning environment within ENO/REO. What skills had participants developed in the course of the ongoing work of self-reflection and investigation through the rules, artifacts, community and labour divisions inherent in ENO/REO? All of the participants were in agreement that they had become adept at using technology for communication through the collaborative activities they had been involved with. They valued the social contacts made through ENO/REO while developing and honing new skills. Specifically, they believed they had learned the following: how to use a blended online learning environment to hone online social and communication skills, technical skills, pedagogic skills which grew out of a need to learn new methods of classroom engagement using technology, and leadership skills both online and offline. One member suggested that she became more skilled because she had been able to experiment with different ideas in the classroom and compared this to mastering
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a musical piece “… you don’t get good at playing Beethoven by only playing Beethoven, you get good at playing Beethoven by playing a whole bunch of other stuff and then playing Beethoven” (Sarah Interview 2). Had the skills acquired through the blend of online tools and face-to-face opportunities offered through ENO/REO affected classroom teaching? All participants had found that participation in ENO/REO had benefited their students and cited the following themes as evidence of increased student engagement: •
• • •
Students developed enthusiasm for broadening horizons and making global connections, Students had increased commitment and motivation to classroom tasks, Students improved their technological literacy, and Students were motivated to expand classroom activities from the school into the home thus increasing parent satisfaction.
Participants noted that ENO/REO provided a safe ‘sandbox’ where experimentation went hand in hand with support from colleagues. One member noted that her experiment with technology “started tentatively to see if it would work, and by the end of the year that (technology) became the main tool that I was using for my English classes” (Patricia Interview 1). All of the participants had used ENO/REO to broaden their students’ work outside of the classroom in order to expand their knowledge about cultures other than their own. They had connected to others through videoconferencing, through projects and through discussions. They believed that by connecting with other students “there was…appreciation for other cultures…” so that they were more engaged in their writing as a result, and credited the online project with being “motivational in their writing” (Mike Interview 1).
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FINDINGSTIONS In examining the use of blended learning for professional development in this community, participants noted several important developments which will be outlined in this section. There was general agreement that involvement in ENO/REO had built confidence while also providing participants with a ‘voice’ in the educational arena. They became leaders and technology conduits in their school communities and supported colleagues in developing their own blended approaches integrating use of ICT into classroom teaching. The leadership trajectories followed by the participants throughout the course of their time with ENO/REO, indicate that involvement appears to have positively affected opportunities for face-to-face leadership roles. Notably, participants pointed out that colleagues preferred face-to-face support with technology rather than joining the blended online environment. This reliance on face-to-face help over involvement in online interaction points out the need to balance both approaches if possible. The role of moderator was another acknowledged motivator and played a significant part in the professional lives of all participants. This suggests that a position of authority in an online community is an important precursor to active participation and learning. Becoming a moderator had given them an opportunity to play a more focused role within the community that was sanctioned and accepted. This encouraged more participation and more ownership in the environment. Participants agreed that communicating with other teachers had been an overarching reason for taking part in the community but that, at least for this group, interest in outreach to other teachers was confined to boundaries established by curriculum relevancy. In other words, blended learning for professional learning are opportunities that are most beneficial when they are relevant to teachers’ classroom needs, suggesting that because education is mandated provincially in Canada,
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blended learning should be focused provincially if relevance is a priority. Significantly, participants emphasized the benefit of face-to-face meetings where they had bonded before joining the community. Members noted that early face-to-face meetings tended to create strong bonds which reinforced online relationships and created a feeling of community in a short period of time. It is worth noting that face-to-face collaboration is a powerful tool for creating community and is therefore an important factor in a truly blended learning environment. In lieu of face-to-face situations, designers of blended learning should ensure the use of collaborative tools which simulate face-to-face experiences at the beginning of the professional learning being undertaken. It is equally noteworthy that while all of the participants in this study claimed ‘lack of time’ as a barrier to participation in the blended online environment, they were nevertheless all heavily involved in many extra-curricular activities. This may point to an element of e-exhaustion and information overload which should be considered when designing blended learning situations as technology overload may have an adverse affect on participation in learning using a blended approach. Participants were motivated by a feeling of community as well as opportunities to innovate and develop new ideas and tools despite their busy schedules. The initial sense of excitement created by this new kind of environment generated a growing membership as well as a growing community. All participants in Group 1 had experienced technological barriers to participation and some left as a result of those frustrations, but all had eventually returned reporting a strong emotional commitment to ENO/REO. The participants in this case were able to reconsider the value of ENO/REO and return indicating the need for nurturing a feeling of connectedness for long term commitment to a blended environment.
Finally, by the time participants in Group 2 had joined ENO/REO a certain sense of rigidity and isolation had set in creating a less than welcoming atmosphere. This rigidity and confusion over how to support new participants eventually lead to a situation where participants were reluctant to post despite valuing the opportunities available in the community. The fact that this new group did not have the opportunity to bond in face to face interaction with the whole online community may also have been a factor in the difficulties faced in their mode of blended learning which was more of a combination of an online community blended with real classroom practice.
Recommendations for Improving Practice As the need for training and professional development grows unabated due to the ever increasing complexity of education in the K-12 sector, blended and blended online learning appears to provide teachers with the flexibility to connect anywhere, anytime. As this study demonstrates, the complexities involved in creating and sustaining blended learning are emergent and will continue to need further study. The study raises some issues which will consistently create challenges for professional development using blended learning through online communities. The pivotal challenges include: the need to attract teachers who consider themselves technologically ‘challenged’, the need for some kind of face-to-face connection whether it be through videoconference or other tools, the need to motivate busy professionals to spend time in discussions online, the need to support professionals with technological innovations, and the need to manage and disseminate the already overwhelming number of resources online. While the sample of participants in this study was small it is worth noting that they shared similar traits suggesting that there may be characteris-
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tics that can be used as predicators for the use of blended learning through an online community. Notably, while they were not all technologically savvy when they joined the community, participants were all interested in innovation and already had (or developed) constructivist teaching styles as a result of this online collaboration. They considered themselves ‘early adopters’ and enjoyed trying new tools and teaching methods. Personality traits were not generally a factor as some participants reported being very social, while others mentioned having a rather shy personality offline which differs from a study of undergraduates cited by Sutton (2001) where the outgoing students in a face-to-face class were also the same ones who participated more actively online. Online communities involved in blended learning will need to find a way to attract those who do not consider themselves technologically innovative in order to create a large enough teacher base for sharing. An initial sense of excitement generated by the learning environment motivated the participants in Group 1 to join an online community despite early technological barriers to participation. The need to communicate with others in the teaching field through emergent tools combined with an emotional attachment to the project was pivotal for engagement. It would appear that teachers are highly motivated to learn from each other given the opportunity and the right tools. However, because trust, safety and time constraints are problematic, the creation of private forums dedicated to particular groups of people brought together for a specific timeframe where the immediate and relevant benefit to classroom teaching is evident would be beneficial. Findings also indicate that participation and commitment to this kind of learning will also be improved when a sanctioned ‘voice’ for participants is provided. Invitations to join such environments as subject experts, panellists or moderators should be part of the process.
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The element of e-exhaustion and information overload must be taken into consideration when developing blended environments. Ease of use and intuitive access points must be built into the design or busy professionals will not take the time to participate. As mentioned previously, because time constraints can prohibit participation these kinds of learning opportunities should use some scaffolding so that participants are able to schedule online participation as well as having the opportunity to participate in unscheduled sessions when help is needed. The importance of face-to-face opportunities to meet other participants has been noted and reinforced by this study. While face-to-face sessions may not be possible due to geographical constraints, the value of emergent tools where teachers can at least ‘meet’ through videoconferencing equipment or web cameras should be examined to give participants that sense of meeting and greeting each other. A commitment to shared learning and collaboration will take place more readily when teachers see and hear each other. It is also worth suggesting that challenges within schools themselves may provide barriers to teachers eager to hone new skills through blended learning. Schools may have limited technological and human resources as many administrators struggle to provide equity across divisions. The issue of the scarcity of resources should be considered in light of the ability of this kind of blended learning to affect teacher practice. Explicit support around providing alternatives for teachers dealing with such scarcity would greatly enhance teacher success with blended learning as well as opportunities to champion new approaches in schools. Finally, there is a real need to keep the environment from becoming rigid and unresponsive to the needs of the teachers involved. Members need to be able to collaborate and contribute to the environment as new and additional tools become available. A model that is moving in that direc-
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tion is the Classroom 2.com site where teachers are openly sharing, creating and collaborating together. It is of interest to note that a new community (e-Community) using a blend of technological tools has recently been launched for the K-12 teachers of the province of Ontario. Here is its mandate: Teachers Participating in E-Community Ontario can... • • • • • • • • • •
Share their ideas, practices, and experiences on how to best integrate e-learning into their class content. Seek their colleagues’ input on how to complement their teaching with new and innovative online technologies. Discuss best practices on e-learning. Access a calendar of upcoming e-learning events. Participate in professional development seminars and initiatives. Access white papers, research, and professional development support materials through webcasts and other media. Store files and share them with other community participants. Access web links specific to e-learning initiatives in Ontario and other jurisdictions. Create their own blogs and web pages, with no HTML coding required. Benefit from a number of other useful tools such as e-mail, chats, journal, and more.” E-community Ontario, Ministry of Education. (e-Community, eLearning Ontario, 2008)
While it is too early to determine how successful the site will be at attracting teachers, it differs from other more generic teacher sites as it relates directly to the curriculum and teachers of the province of Ontario. This relevancy to the curriculum, as the study in this chapter pointed
out, is a major factor in motivating teachers to participate and should provide the needed incentive to engage teachers who are more and more in need of resources and support. Whether it succeeds as a wholly online learning community with no face to face blend with online communication would be an interesting comparison to make with the early successful ENO/REO model of blended professional learning.
CONCLUSIONFUTURE TRENDS This chapter has examined an online community that existed for over a decade and supported teachers in the province of Ontario using a blend of technological tools and some face-to-face opportunities. While the community itself is no longer in existence similar experiments using new and ever emergent tools for learning are taking place as a result of the growth and ubiquity of the Web as a place for collaboration and sharing. Many lessons have been learned about how and why teachers use these kinds of environments and in that way this chapter has added to the literature on blended learning by listing a number of important considerations in order for teachers to take part in such projects and also in order to ensure that there are optimum opportunities for learning. Teachers will have more and more opportunities to join, create and expand online groups who want to share and work together to improve practice through a blended approach. However, in order to avoid information overload teachers need to be supported as they explore these venues and efforts need to be made to help them aggregate and find resources in the most efficient and simple ways to maximize their already crowded timeframes. Finally, a new generation of young teachers will be entering the profession who have grown up in an environment where this kind of collaboration
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and these kinds of tools are part of their social landscape outside the classroom walls and rely little on face to face interaction. There will be a need for additional research into how educators can best support a generation of teachers who will be bringing the social networking tools they have grown up with into their classrooms.
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in Education, 12, 8-22. Retrieved February 15, 2008, from: http://aied.inf.ed.ac.uk/members01/ archive/vol_12/rourke/full.html Richardson, W. (2006). Blogs, Wikis, Podcasts, and Other Powerful Web Tools for Classrooms. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press. Schlager, M., Fusco, J., & Schank, P. (2002). Evolution of an On-line Educational Community of Practice (draft). In K. A. Renninger & W. Shumar (Eds.), Building Virtual Communities: Learning and Change in Cyberspace (pp. 129-158). NY: Cambridge University Press. Schlager, M., & Fusco, J. (2004). Teacher Professional Development, Technology, and Communities of Practice: Are We Putting the Cart before the Horse? In S. Barab, & R. Kling, & J. Gray (Eds.), Designing for Virtual Communities in the Service of Learning (pp. 120-153). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Smith, M., & Kollock, P. (2001). Invisible Crowds in Cyberspace: mapping the social structure of the Usenet. In M. Smith & P. Kollock (Eds.), Communities in Cyberspace (pp. 195-219), New York: Routledge.Smith. Speck, M., & Knipe, C. (2001). Why Can’t We Get It Right? Professional Development in Our Schools. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press. Stacey, E. (1999). Collaborative learning in an online environment. Journal of Distance Education/Revue de l’enseignement à distance. 14(2), 14-33. Stacey, E., & Gerbic, P. (2003, December). Investigating the impact of computer conferencing: content analysis as a manageable research tool. Paper presented at the G. Crisp, D. Thiele, I. Scholten, S. Barker & J. Baron (Eds.), Interact, Integrate, Impact: proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education, (pp. 495-503), ASCILITE, Adelaide.
Stacey, E., & P. Gerbic (2007). Teaching for blended learning: Research perspectives from on-campus and distance students. Educational and Information Technologies, 12(3), 165-174. Stacey, E., Smith, P., & Barty, K. (2004). Adult learners in the workplace: online learning and communities of practice. Distance Education, 25(1), 107-123. Stake, R. (2000). Case Studies. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research (pp. 435-454). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Sutton, L. (2001). The Principal of vicarious interaction in computer-mediated communications. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 7(3), 223-242. Thomsen, S., Straubhaar, J., & Bolyard, D. (1998, March). Ethnomethodology and the Study of Online Communities: Exploring the Cyber Streets. Information Research, 4(1), Retrieved June 20, 2008 from: http://informationr.net/ir/4-1/paper50. html. Vaughan, N., & Garrison. D. R. (2006). How blended learning can support a faculty development community of inquiry. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 10(4), Retrieved January 23, 2008 from: http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/jaln/v10n4/v10n4_vaughan.asp. Vavasseur, C., & MacGregor, K. (2008). Extending content-focused professional development through online communities of practice. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40(4), 517-536. Welker, J., & Berardino, L. (2005). Blended learning: Understanding the middle ground between traditional classroom and fully online instruction. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 34(1), 33–55. Wellman, B. (2005). Connecting Community: On- and Offline. [Personal web page-Wellman].
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Retrieved September, 2007, from: http://www. chass.utoronto.ca/~wellman/netlab/PUBLICATIONS/_frames.html. Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. M. (2002). Cultivating Communities of Practice. Boston: Harvard University Press. Wenger, E., & Snyder, W. (2001). Communities of Practice: The Organizational Frontier, Harvard Business Review on Organizational Learning (pp. 1-20). Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.
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Yamagata-Lynch, L. (2003). Using activity theory as an analytic lens for examining technology professional development in schools. Mind, Culture and Activity, 10(2), 100-119. Zhao, Y., & Rop, S. (2001). A critical review of the literature on electronic networks as reflective discourse communities for inservice teachers. Education and Information Technologies, 6(2), 81–94.
Section III
Teacher Transitions and Professional Learning
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Chapter XI
Blended Learning and Teaching Philosophies: Implications for Practice Faye Wiesenberg University of Calgary, Canada Elizabeth Stacey Deakin University, Australia
ABSTRACT This study explores the similarities and differences between Canadian and Australian university teachers’ face-to-face and online teaching approaches and perspectives in two comparable Canadian and Australian universities, both of which offer instruction in these two modes. The chapter explores whether moving from face-to-face to online teaching results in new teaching approaches or in the creative blending of those developed within the different teaching modalities. Qualitative data were collected with an open-ended survey which asked participants for their thoughts on their face-to-face and online teaching experiences. Quantitative data were collected with the “Teaching Perspectives Inventory” which assessed participants’teaching approaches and philosophies in terms of their beliefs, intentions and actions in both modalities. The authors discuss the findings in terms of how to assist teachers to successfully transition from traditional teacher-centred to newly emerging learner-centred teaching approaches in blended learning classrooms.
I Today’s rapidly changing communication technologies are enabling teachers in all levels of education to move from traditional face-to-face
classrooms into online or blended classrooms, while opening up new learning options and teaching possibilities. In order to make a successful transition from a traditional face-to-face classroom to the new virtually enhanced classroom,
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Blended Learning and Teaching Philosophies
teachers may need to re-view their underlying assumptions about the learning process, and most fundamentally, their role in the teaching and learning process (Comeaux & McKenna-Byington, 2003; Garrison & Vaughan, 2008; Garrison, 2006; McShane, 2006; Palloff & Pratt, 2000; Torrisi & Davis, 2000; Wiesenberg, 1999, 2002). The importance of having a clearly articulated philosophy or approach to teaching in traditional face-to-face classrooms has been a focus in the educational literature for over two decades (Elias & Merriam, 1980, 2005; Jarvis, 1999; Mott, 1996; Zinn, 1998), but there is a paucity of research on whether or not assumptions developed within a traditional face-to-face classroom apply equally well in a technologically more complex classroom (Collis, 1998; Gallini & Barron, 2001; Heaton-Shrestha, Ediringha, Burke & Linsey, 2005; Ruth, 2006; Shovein, Huston, Fox & Damazo, 2005). Blended learning as a topic in the literature of higher education has been discussed in many ways without agreement about the best definition of the term (Oliver &Trigwell, 2005, Graham, 2006, Stacey & Gerbic, 2007, Bliuc, Goodyear & Ellis, 2007). Garrison and Kanuka (2004) wrote that blended learning should be more than an adding on of technology but should be transformative, while Garrison and Vaughan (2008) defined blended learning as “ the thoughtful fusion of face-to-face and online learning experiences” (p5) involving a pedagogical redesign that should improve teaching and learning. Bliuc at al (2007) reviewed a wide range of research into blended learning in higher education and, agreeing in principle with this definition as the most common, refined it to “learning activities that involve a systematic combination of co-present (face-to-face) interactions and technologicallymediated interactions between students, teachers and learning resources” (p 234). In reviewing methodologies in the empirical research into blended learning they categorized research into case studies, survey-type studies, comparative studies (e.g. ‘online versus blended learning, face-
to-face versus online versus blended learning), and holistic studies. Although they were seeking the student perspective on blended learning, their categorization helps to situate this study as a comparative study which, in seeking to clarify the teacher perspective, asked participants to reflectively compare their face-to-face and online teaching contexts. This process revealed that these were no longer truly separate modalities but involved a blending of approaches to use the best aspects of both providing the potential for a transformative process. The growing use in higher education of advanced communication technologies to enhance the learning process is seen in the current large international body of research about its effectiveness as a teaching tool (Fisher, Phelps & Ellis, 2000; van Schaik, Barker & Beckstrand, 2003; Stephenson, 2001; Zhao, Lei, Yan, Lai & Tan, 2005). A theme that emerges from this research is that teachers who are comfortable and competent in traditional face-to-face classrooms are often ill-equipped to teach with advanced technologies, often assuming that teaching approaches that work in face-to-face classrooms will automatically transfer to the new online one. Though they see the role of these technologies in course administration and content delivery, their lack of online experience means they may see little value in specific online interaction strategies that differ from face-to-face ones (Woods, Baker & Hopper, 2004). While some studies are beginning to compare the experiences of teachers transferring to the new modality (Comeaux & McKenna-Byington, 2003, Curtis 2002, Samarawickrema & Stacey, 2007), very few studies have explored how/if they teach differently in it (McShane, 2006). Ellis, Steed & Appleby (2006) have addressed this gap by investigating teachers on two campus-based Australian universities, interviewing them about their approaches to technology introduction (mainly through use of learning management systems) and their conceptions of blended teaching and learning. They have developed a categorization for
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evaluating the quality of blended learning, teaching and design and have found that the teacher’s perspectives strongly influence the effectiveness of their blended approach, particularly their ability to reflect on and change their teaching to suit the introduction of new technologies into their blended learning approach. As they conclude: “Without an awareness that new design involving new technologies for student learning will require adaptations of teaching methodologies, neither the affordances of technologies, nor the benefits stemming from these for the quality of learning, are likely to be experienced by students.” ( p335). In an influential text about the implementation of blended learning in higher education, Garrison and Vaughan’s (2008) application of the ‘community of inquiry’ (CoI) framework to blended learning provides an empirically validated conceptual model that considers the enormous potential of advanced learning technologies to enhance the teaching-learning process by recognizing the social nature of education (community) and the role that interactive discourse (inquiry) plays in higher education. It is a pedagogical framework that provides teachers with a theory-based guide for engaging learners in higher order learning that consists of three core elements: social presence (open communication), cognitive presence (triggering event, exploration, integration, resolution), and teaching presence (design and organization, facilitation, instruction). The key assumptions of blended learning design are: integrating face-toface and online technologies; optimizing student engagement; and redefining the concept of traditional class contact hours. Related to the Community of Inquiry teaching presence element, Pratt’s (1989) concept of increasing teaching competence describes how an effective face-to-face teaching presence evolves. Pratt describes an evolving meta-theory of practice over time that occurs in three developmental stages: initial mastery of skills and procedures
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(in one’s initial professional education or training); clinical problem-solving (in the novice professional’s application of academic theory to actual professional practice; and critical reflection on knowledge and values (in the experienced professional’s ongoing professional growth over the course of a professional career). According to Pratt, the most important requirement for reaching this third developmental stage is the conscious and intentional interaction between critical thought, professional practice, and professional philosophy or ideology. Pratt and Associates (1998) conceptualizes teachers’ theory of practice as a teaching perspective which consists of an inter-related set of beliefs and intentions that directs a teacher’s actual classroom behaviours. He describes five contrasting teaching perspectives, validated cross-culturally, as representing the different ways that teachers frame the teaching/learning process and subsequently guide their classroom practices. The underlying developmental process described in this model should apply to any teaching environment. Pratt and Associates’ (1998) model of five teaching perspectives is the theoretically grounded framework that this study uses to describe the teaching philosophies of academics from two different countries (Canada and Australia) who are making the transition from teaching in a traditional face-to-face classroom, to a ‘virtual’ one in which advanced communication technologies present new teaching challenges and opportunities. The five perspectives range from a traditional lecture and teacher-centered (Transmission), to a contrasting facilitation and learning-centered (Developmental) set of assumptions about the teaching-learning process and consequent roles of teacher and learner in the classroom. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the teaching perspectives and practices of university teachers found in this comparative study of modes of teaching. The teachers were from two comparable universities from different countries who teach in both face-to-face and online
Blended Learning and Teaching Philosophies
or blended classrooms. These two universities were the researchers’ respective workplaces, chosen because of the increased probability of obtaining an adequate number of completed data sets from teaching colleagues. Similarities and differences in perspectives by modality, as well as significant correlations between variables within each modality are examined. The findings are then related to Garrison and Vaughan’s (2008) ‘community of inquiry’ (Community of Inquiry) model of blended learning in higher education as one relevant way of discussing how teachers from these two cultures are making the transition from one modality to another and developing a model of blended learning in the process. The paper concludes with a discussion of the importance of offering opportunities to all teachers to reflect on their teaching philosophy when shifting to a blended mode of teaching and learning. This is increasingly important, as more and more institutions of higher education begin to offer their programs cross-globally, demanding that their teachers adopt a blended mode of teaching which requires new learning strategies than those proven effective in their traditional face-to-face classrooms.
METHODOLOGY Data Collection and Analysis The comparative study used an instrumental case study approach (Stake, 2000) where one university in western Canada and one in southern Australia were treated as two separate cases of inquiry and results were compared between cases. Qualitative data were gathered with a short open-ended survey developed by the researchers which asked participants to describe their teaching philosophies/approaches within both face-to-face and online teaching contexts. The survey also gathered data about participants’ online and face-to-face teaching history and experiences, current teach-
ing workloads and class sizes in both modalities. These specific contextual factors were described in the literature as possible influencers regarding one’s teaching approach. Quantitative data were gathered with an online tool called the Teaching Perspectives Inventory (TPI) developed and validated by Pratt and Collins (Pratt & Associates,1998; Pratt & Collins, 2006) for research purposes. The researchers also drew from there own extensive teaching and collaborative research on teaching and learning in face-to-face and virtual classrooms as the third source of data. The TPI (Pratt & Collins, 2006) yields five different points of view (perspectives) on teaching by asking 45 structured questions about teachers’ actions in the teaching setting, how they organize the learning situation, and their beliefs about fundamental principles of teaching and learning. These five perspectives are: Transmission (lecture and teacher-centered); Apprenticeship (experiential and coaching-oriented); Developmental (facilitation and learning-centered); Nurturing (focused on building learners’ self-esteem); and Social Reform (change the status quo oriented). The TPI yields numerical main scores on each of the five perspectives, as well as three sub-scores within each of these five perspectives that describe respondents’ Beliefs, Intentions, and Actions. This conceptual model of teaching adults, and subsequent TPI tool, was developed within face-to-face teaching contexts over two decades of research in Canada, China, Hong Kong, Singapore, and the United States. While an extensive set of face-to-face norms exist, no norms have been developed for teachers who have moved to either fully online or blended teaching contexts. Participants responded to the survey before responding to the TPI in order to capture their spontaneous reflections before being exposed to the language and concepts presented in the TPI. All participants in the study were asked to take the TPI twice, with half of the sample asked to take it first from their perspective on face-to-face teaching, and the other half asked to take it first from their
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perspective on online teaching. This was done to control for a response bias that may have occurred by completing the TPI a second time. The survey responses were then examined for themes within each question, as well as across all seven questions. Each researcher did a preliminary analysis of their participant group data, before analyzing the other researcher’s data until both arrived at a consensus on the individual and overall themes present in all of the qualitative data. The TPI data were analysed with SPSS software using a small sample parametric approach (student’s t distribution) to calculate statistically significant differences between the two sample groups’ main and sub-scores for the TPI, as well as the TPI profile of each group individually. Pearson Product Moment correlations were calculated between all TPI scores and sub-scores and the demographic data to calculate statistically significant correlations between these two sets of variables.
PARTICIPANTS The two groups of participants came from one university in Western Canada that has been of-
fering distributed courses for over 15 years and one university in Southeastern Australia with a 30 year history of both face-to-face and distance education. While these two groups were similar in many aspects of their teaching roles at these universities, they also differed in aspects that the literature indicates may significantly influence their approaches to teaching in face-to-face and online classrooms (see Table 1). The Canadian participants were all tenured or tenure-track full-time academics teaching in masters and doctoral level programs in the areas of educational research and applied psychology. In response to email invitations to 30 teaching colleagues by the Canadian researcher, twelve faculty members who taught in both face-to-face and online classrooms returned complete data sets, consisting of the survey and two sets of TPI scores, one for face-to-face and one for online teaching contexts. Nine of the Canadian participants were female and three were male, teaching an average of 4.73 thirteen week long courses per academic year, with 47% of these courses face-to-face and 52% online. Their average face-to-face class size was 20 students, while the average online class size was 18.5 students. Most of these participants
Table 1. Profiles of participants Canadian University
Australian University
Number of participants
12
10
Gender Distribution
9 female 3 male
5 female 5 male
4.73
7.8
Time spent teaching f2f
47.91%
52.1%
Time spent teaching online
52.09%
37.8%
Average f2f class size
20 students
26.7 students
Average online class size
18.5 students
21.8 students
Experience teaching f2f
19.33 years
24.8 years
Experience teaching online
6.25 years
4.9 years
Teaching load per year (half courses =13 weeks or one semester in length)
f2f =face-to-face
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(75%) taught primarily online courses, which are generally smaller than face-to-face classes. As a group, they had taught an average of 19.3 years face-to-face, and 6.3 years online, and could be described as ‘early adopters’ (Rogers, 2003) of online teaching, as they chose to teach online out of a professional interest in moving to this modality (Jacobsen, 2000). They held an overall positive attitude towards the use of advanced communication technologies and supplied many stories of how it had enhanced many aspects of their teaching role in the qualitative data collected from the surveys. The Australian participants were all tenured academics teaching discipline-specific and general education topics both online and face-to-face. Invitations were emailed to 15 academic staff who taught both online and face-to-face and the ten academic staff who returned complete sets of data taught in both the mainly on-campus undergraduate teacher education program while six of these reflected on their graduate level online teaching. Five of the Australian participants were female and five were male, teaching an average of 7.8 thirteen week long courses per academic year, with 53% of these courses mainly face-to-face and 38% mainly online. The average face-to-face class size for this participant group was 26.7 students, while the average online class size was 21.8 students. They had taught an average of 24.8 years face-to-face and 4.9 years online, and could be described as ‘new adopters’ to online teaching with a stronger orientation to face-to-face than online teaching. Five of the participants had just begun teaching online and held ambivalent attitudes about the institution’s new policy of blending online communication technologies with face-to-face teaching, though most agreed that a traditional face-to-face mode was already a thing of the past and had already become a blended learning mode with the uses of new technologies. This attitude is reflected in some of their stories of difficulties adapting to
this new teaching context in the qualitative data collected from the surveys. While comparable in many aspects of their teaching situations, there were notable differences in the amount of time that these two groups had been teaching online, with the Canadian group having a slightly longer history. The Australian group was slightly more experienced in faceto-face teaching as well as in the organizational context within which they moved into online teaching. The Canadian group had voluntarily adopted the use of advanced communication technologies in their teaching and used a blend of synchronous and asynchronous technologies, often with some face-to-face contact, even with courses that were categorized as online courses. Fifty percent of the Australian group had been compelled by a recent new institutional policy of integrating these technologies in the traditionally face-to-face classroom, as well as requiring all undergraduate students to take a wholly online course. On average the Australians taught fewer courses online but taught larger class sizes in both modes. The Canadian group were teaching exclusively graduate level courses, which tend to focus on critical analysis of the course content, while the Australian group were teaching mainly undergraduate courses which focus more on the application of accepted theory to practice.
Discussion of Results The results are discussed here in terms of the four themes that emerged from the survey data, the main and sub-scores of the TPI, and the Pearson Product Moment correlations between these TPI scores and the participant demographic data.
S Four major themes emerged from the analysis of the seven survey questions, described here in
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terms of the individual participant groups and then in terms of the differences and similarities between these two groups. The three elements of Garrison and Vaughan’s Community of Inquiry framework are noted where they are apparent in themes #3 and #4.
Theme #1. Beliefs about Teaching Face-to-Face Versus Online Differed by Country While both participant groups believe that online and face-to-face classrooms offer distinct advantages and disadvantages, the Canadian group saw the movement from face-to-face to online teaching as representing an important and exciting “paradigm shift” in the practice of teaching; requiring different pedagogies and teaching approaches and democratizing the teaching process by enabling more collaborative learner to learner interaction. In contrast, the Australian group perceived that face-to-face classrooms were superior to a wholly online mode, offering many more creative teaching options and a greater ease of social interaction. This latter group was also quite ambivalent, also seeing the online learning environment as more conducive to independent and in-depth conceptual learning, as well as encouraging more facilitative, resource efficient and innovative teaching. Both groups, however, were open to a blended learning model that could draw on the strengths of both modalities.
Theme #2. Learning Goals in Face-to-Face and Online Classrooms Were the Same While both groups stated that the same learning goals could be met in both modalities, the Australian group perceived that different goals could be met in face-to-face mode more easily than online, particularly in practical situations like modeling teaching processes to education students. The
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Canadian group did not distinguish learning goals by modality but agreed that face-to-face teaching was the more appropriate mode for field trips and modeling teaching practice. Both agreed that a blended learning approach can draw on the best of both modes, although advanced online visually-enhanced technologies are proving increasingly effective for modeling and practical interaction. Garrison and Vaughan (2008) describe blended learning as “an approach and design that merges the best of traditional and Web-based learning experiences” (p 8). This was supported in the responses of both data groups whose teaching goals emphasized drawing on the best aspects of both modalities.
Theme #3.Teaching Strategies in Face-to-Face Versus Online Classrooms were Both Similar and Different Both groups admitted to using more teachercentered activities (e.g., lectures) in face-to-face classrooms than they wished. They felt that they could be more experiential and flexible in their online classrooms, as well as able to question and respond more quickly and individually to students online. They also acknowledged that they needed to put more effort into responding to and engaging students online by using more learner-centered activities online (this corresponds to the Community of Inquiry’s focus on the social presence element in which allowing time online for students to establish social relationships is important for group cohesion and trust for collaboration, effective communication and ultimately for learning). The Canadian group limited their depth of course coverage for breadth of course content in face-to-face courses, but limited breadth of coverage for depth of content in online courses. The Canadians also found that while it was easier to control face-to-face discussions with their teacher-centered approaches, they found
Blended Learning and Teaching Philosophies
less controlled online discussions more creative and exciting. They also structured online courses more carefully than face-to-face courses (this corresponds to the Community of Inquiry’s teaching presence element requiring careful emphasis on design). They used multimedia more frequently and responded to students more individually online than in a face-to-face class. The Australian group perceived their face-toface classrooms to have more peer interaction than their online classrooms (this corresponds to the collaborative aspect of the Community of Inquiry framework), perceiving that online classrooms had limited teaching possibilities due to the text-based nature of discussions. However, they became more facilitative and learner-centered online, developing polished resources that could be re-used. These, along with pre-developed texts that could be the basis of discussion online, have become distinct advantages of blended learning.
Theme #4. Teaching Modality does In.uence Teaching Philosophy in Different Ways Overall, both groups thought that while modality does influence their teaching philosophy, the different modalities complemented each other. They felt that some teaching strategies first developed for one modality did successfully transfer to the other. This was an important theme emerging from this research, as it demonstrated the evolution of blended teaching and learning practices. The most important transfer of learning was a more carefully structured and thoughtful face-to-face classroom as a result of having to be this way online (i.e., Community of Inquiry’s cognitive and teaching presence elements). They perceived that both modalities required the building of a learning community in order to be successful (i.e., Community of Inquiry’s collaborative aspect). The Canadian group felt that their online teaching raised their awareness of need to “equalize” voices of all students in face-to-face teaching, while the
Australian group felt that they had learned to communicate better in written form through teaching online (i.e., Community of Inquiry’s social and teaching presence elements). Also notable in the survey data analysis was how much more positive the Canadian group was about the potential of advanced communication technologies in the teaching/learning process than the Australian group, perhaps due to their voluntary early adopter status and longer history of teaching online. The Australian group’s perception that face-to-face classrooms have more advantages than online classrooms in the teaching/learning process, perhaps reflected their longer overall experience teaching face-to face. Their ambivalence about text-based teaching, which they saw as both limited but also more conducive to in-depth conceptual learning, may also be a reflection of their later adopter status. Overall, both the Canadian and Australian groups appeared to believe that teaching and learning in both modalities is reciprocal and enhancing to both, in effect supporting the use of a blend of learning modes. Both groups observed that the challenges of learning to teach online caused them to re-think how they taught face-to-face, most notably in being more aware of the importance of actively facilitating discussion (an important aspect of Community of Inquiry’s teacher presence), comfortable with silence, more disciplined, and more reflective face-to-face. Interestingly, the two groups used advanced communication technologies differently in their teaching roles. The Australian group was already blending face-to-face and online approaches (e.g., posting materials online for face-to-face classes), while the Canadian group was tending to teach either completely face-to-face or completely online although a blend of technologies was frequently in use. These differences in the use of technologies may at least partially be a function of the different institutional contexts within which they teach; while the Australian university offered more blended programs and the Canadian uni-
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versity categorized programs into more distinctly distance or residential face-to-face programs. It appears that both groups were naturally moving towards a blended model of teaching, as they discovered how the different technologies could most effectively be integrated. The Australian participants in particular found that teaching online resulted in their revisiting and reflecting on lesson material in order to re-use them, in structuring discussions so that students better organize themselves to become more self directed (especially if they didn’t offer immediate help). They creatively translated effective face-toface activities into written and more permanent resources for future classroom use. The overall effect was a more blended style of learning and teaching that effectively and efficiently used online resources.
In terms of the Community of Inquiry framework, the survey data analysis related well to all three elements, as well as the underlying “collaborative” philosophy of this model. The integration of the social presence element is clearly evident in respondents’ beliefs in the importance of providing opportunities for engaging learners in the learning process with the use of learner-centered teaching strategies that subsequently became more a part of their teaching in face-to-face classrooms. The cognitive and teaching presence elements are clearly evident in the increased importance both groups attributed to being better organized in course planning, and more structured in their facilitation of critically reflective discussions, both of which are essential in the online learning environment.
Table 2. Independent-samples T-test results for TPI scores by modality and university TPI
University
N
Mean
Standard Deviation
t
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
Online Transmission
Canadian Australian
12 10
31.75 31.10
4.77 4.68
.32
20
.75
Face-to-face Transmission
Canadian Australian
12 10
31.50 30.20
4.34 4.26
.71
20
.49
Online Apprenticeship
Canadian Australian
12 10
36.00 34.90
3.54 5.17
.57
20
.58
Face-to-face Apprenticeship
Canadian Australian
12 10
35.75 36.90
4.07 4.43
-.63
20
.54
Online Developmental
Canadian Australian
12 10
37.75 38.20
3.28 3.65
-.30
20
.77
Face-to-face Developmental
Canadian Australian
12 10
38.00 37.80
3.74 4.05
.12
20
.91
Online Nurturing
Canadian Australian
12 10
36.67 34.60
4.23 4.55
1.10
20
.29
Face-to-face Nurturing
Canadian Australian
12 10
35.75 35.80
3.28 5.55
-.03
20
.98
Online Social Reform
Canadian Australian
12 10
30.00 25.30
6.28 3.27
2.25
20
.04*
Face-to-face Social Reform
Canadian Australian
12 10
30.33 25.70
6.71 5.12
1.84
20
.08
Note: alpha levels were corrected to account for number of t-tests performed
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The Teaching Perspectives Inventory TPI Main Scores and Sub-Scores Paired t-tests on main TPI scores revealed that participants’ teaching preferences were remarkably similar across both modalities, as well as for both universities. There were no significant differences between four of the five teaching preferences, while the much lower Social Reform TPI scores were significantly higher for the Canadian group than for the Australian group (2.25; p>.04). See Table 2. The Canadian participants’ strongest teaching preference for both modalities was Developmental, followed by Nurturance and Apprenticeship, then Transmission, with Social Reform a significantly lower fifth preference. The Australian participants’ strongest teaching preference for both modalities was Developmental, followed by Apprenticeship, Nurturance, Transmission, with Social Reform also a significantly lower fifth preference. The finding that teaching preferences did not differ significantly between these two modalities (for both groups) is inconsistent with research literature that describes considerable differences in teaching approaches between face-to-face and online classrooms for those teachers who have successfully made this transition (Comeaux & McKenna-Byinton, 2003; Palloff & Pratt, 2000; McShane, 2004). This literature describes teaching beliefs and actions that contain aspects of Pratt’s Developmental/Apprenticeship/Nurturance perspectives as more effective in online classes than the traditional teaching beliefs and actions that contain aspects of Pratt’s Transmission perspective. This latter teacher-centered perspective is more typical in institutions of higher education that offer primarily traditional face-to-face programs (Garrison, 2006; McShane, 2004; Palloff & Pratt, 2000).
On the other hand, this study’s participant profile of Developmental/Apprenticeship/Nurturing teaching perspective preferences for both modalities does appear to describe the three key elements of the Community of Inquiry framework in the active encouragement of open communication, collaboration and camaraderie within a carefully designed curricula that is structured to facilitate focused critically-reflective and knowledge-building discourse. The finding that Social Reform is the least preferred teaching preference for Canadian teachers is consistent with others’ observations that this perspective stands “outside the mainstream of educational philosophy” in North America (Elias & Merriam, 2005, p. 147). Rather, the literature describes strong underlying nurturing and socially supportive teaching beliefs and actions in North American institutions of higher education. The finding in this study that the Canadian Social Reform scores were significantly higher than the Australian Social Reform scores may be explained by the fact that this Canadian group of teacher teach graduate level classes only, which tend to emphasize a more critical analysis of the literature and its application than do undergraduate classes, which were more typical of the Australian participant groups’ teaching load. The fact that the TPI main scores for both participant groups were not significantly different by modality may be explained by the possibility that the TPI tool, developed for face-to-face teaching contexts, does not translate into online teaching contexts. The analysis of the survey data did reveal that there was a great deal of conscious application by both groups of their newer online teaching approaches to their face-to-face teaching contexts. This may have resulted in a growing similarity in approaches to both modalities (Stacey & Wiesenberg, 2006) that, in effect, is an evolving new blended learning and teaching approach. This, combined with the possible inability of the TPI items to take differences in these two modalities into account, may have reduced any
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real differences between their face-to-face and online Beliefs, Intentions and Actions scores. The initial paired t-tests of TPI sub-scores revealed a significant difference within the Action sub-score indicating that what the two participant groups actually did within their classrooms differed. Further analysis revealed three distinct sub-scores differences between the two participant groups. The Canadian participants appeared to be significantly more nurturing in their actions online than were the Australian participants (2.17; p>.043), as well as significantly more social reform oriented in their actions in both face-to-face (2.10; p>.048) and online (2.02; p>.058) classrooms. See Table 3. This finding is consistent with the previous discussion of the TPI main scores, perhaps pointing to real cultural differences in teaching beliefs and intentions between the two participant groups. The authors’ experiences within both cultures indicates that North American teachers tend to believe that building students’ self-esteem is the key to successful classroom learning, while Australian teachers may tend to place more emphasis on developing students’ cognitive skills. Australian teachers’ communication style also tends to be more direct than Canadians’, which can be interpreted as less nurturing or supportive. Though this social aspect of teaching is considered important to student learning in both cultures, it
may be communicated differently in each culture, as well as differently in face-to-face versus online classrooms. Another possible factor that may help explain these differences is the different institutional cultures within which these two groups of academics teach. The Canadian group’s university, while encouraging teachers to adopt the use of advanced communication technologies in their classrooms, had not mandated it. Teachers in this university who move voluntarily into online or blended classrooms have a great deal of professional development support available to them. The Australian group’s university had recently mandated that teachers provide a blended learning model by integrating advanced communication technologies into their face-to-face classrooms, as well as requiring them to teach some online programs that rely only on learning technologies. This has resulted in teachers who might not otherwise volunteer to move into blended classrooms being compelled to do so, perhaps resulting in the professional development support not being as readily accessed. These two distinct institutional cultures may result in different cognitive (type and level of conceptual discourse) and teaching (design, organization and facilitation of discourse) presences evident in these different universities’ virtual classrooms.
Table 3. Independent-samples T-test results for TPI sub-scores by university TPI
University
N
Mean
Standard Deviation
t
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
Nurturing OnlineAction
Canadian Australian
12 10
11.83 9.90
1.95 2.18
2.17
20
.043
Social Reform- Faceto-face -Action
Canadian Australian
12 10
9.92 7.80
2.57 2.15
2.10
20
.048
12 10
9.42 7.80
2.31 1.40
2.02
20
.058
Social ReformOnline-Action
Canadian Australian
Note: alpha levels were corrected to account for number of t-tests performed
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Correlations Between TPI and Dmographic Data When both participant groups were combined a number of TPI main scores and demographic variables were moderately to strongly correlated. Overall teaching load and online Social Reform were negatively correlated (r = -.48; p>.05), perhaps reflecting the enormous administrative and managerial demands of a larger class size on the part of teachers, which would leave them with less time to take on an energy intensive advocate role. Number of years taught face-to-face and online Developmental (r = .47; p>.05) was identified as correlated for Australians only when participant groups were separated, perhaps reflecting a carryover of this group’s history of a Developmental perspective in face-to-face classrooms to their new online classrooms. Percentage of time teaching online and online Nurturance (r = .43; p>.05), identified as significant for Canadians only when participant groups were separated, may reflect this group’s longer opportunity to more thoroughly adapt their Nurturance preference from their face-to-face to their online classrooms. When participant groups were separated by university to detect additional within group correlations, these moderate to strong negative correlations were found between the percentage of time that Canadian participants taught faceto-face and a number of main and sub-scores: online (r = -.66; p>.05) and face-to-face (r = -.69; p>.05) Developmental; online Nurturance (r = -.64; p>.05); online Beliefs (r = -.69; p>.05); face-to-face Beliefs (r = -.63; p>.05); online Intentions (r = -.62; p>.05); face-to-face Intentions (r = -.72; p>.01); and online Actions (r = -.58; p>.05). Together these correlations may imply the more time that this group taught face-to-face, the less time they have to express their Developmental and Nurturing perspectives. It may also imply that higher face-to-face teaching loads may result in less internally consistent teaching perspectives in either modality, perhaps due to less time available
to reflect on one’s philosophy. The two strong negative correlations found between the average class size that Canadian participants taught faceto-face Transmission (r = -.65;p>.05) and online Apprenticeship (r = -.59;p>.05) tend to support this interpretation. Two strong positive correlations were found between the percentage of time that Canadian participants taught online: online Nurturance (r = .75; p>.01), and online Beliefs (r = .60; p>.05). This may indicate that a longer history of online teaching, and resulting growth in competence in this modality, enables the more consistent expression of beliefs within this teaching perspective. A number of strong negative correlations were found between the average class size that Canadian participants taught online: online (r = -.83; p>.01) and face-to-face Apprenticeship (r = -.68; p>.05); face-to-face Developmental (r = -.59; p>.05); face-to-face Intention (r = -.66; p>.05); and online Intention (r = -.73; p>.01). Together these findings, along with the previously discussed set of correlations regarding face-to-face class size, point to a reverse relationship between class size and the opportunity to express teaching perspectives that demand more time and expertise, and between one’s ability to consistently act on one’s teaching intentions. Two strong positive correlations were found between the percentage of time that Australian participants taught face-to-face, with face-to-face Nurturance (r = .66; p>.05), and with face-to-face Action (r = .76; p>.05). These are expected, as more experience teaching in a modality tends to result in more expertise in it. A strong positive correlation was found between the number of years that Australian participants have taught face-to-face and online Developmental (.70; p>.05), perhaps indicating a transfer of this favored teaching perspective from face-to-face to online classrooms may be at least partially a function of one’s level of face-to-face teaching competence.
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In summary, the data analysis offers a complex picture of teachers transitioning from the traditional face-to-face classroom to an online one within two different cultures, as they move towards the development of a new blended mode of teaching and learning. These two small samples of teachers appear to have adopted theoretically sound teaching philosophies and practices that act as guides in this professional journey, while juggling a number of workplace contextual variables that sometimes work against them. This confirms the observations of these two researchers who have been studying this phenomenon for several years (Wiesenberg & Stacey, 2005; Wiesenberg, 1999, 2002; Stacey, 2002, 2005). The overall findings that both participant groups were unified in their teaching perspectives was a surprise, suggesting that the TPI needs to be revised in order to effectively assess online blended teaching perspectives.
Conclusions and Implications for Teaavelopment There is no longer a debate about whether or not online learning is a legitimate and effective approach to delivering higher education. The new key issues challenging educators and institutions of higher education are pedagogical (how to design) and technological (how to deliver) with regards to such programs. While Garrison and Vaughan’s Community of Inquiry framework offers a pedagogical guide for teachers, an empirically validated technological framework has not yet appeared in the research literature. More and more experts in the field (Brown, Murphy & Wade, 2006; Chickering & Ehrmann, 2004; Garrison & Vaughan, 2008; Lin et al, 2005; Litosseliti, Marttunen, Laurinen & Salminen, 2005; Schweizer, Paechter & Weidenmann, 2003; Zhao et al, 2005) are pointing to the superiority of blending elements of face-to-face and online technologies to create pedagogically sound online learning environments. 216
Overall, the results of this small exploratory study, explained in terms of the small existing body of the literature on this issue, both support and challenge what we know already about this exciting new paradigm in higher education. In terms of current challenges, it points to the importance of a closer examination of key workplace variables (such as length of time teaching face-to-face and online, overall teaching load, class size, and institutional context) and how they may effect teachers’ motivation to move from traditional face-to-face to newer online or blended classrooms. As more and more institutions of higher learning commit to distance delivery of their programs, it is important to make sure that those who decide to make this transition are encouraged to do so by an accompanying reduction in their teaching load and classroom sizes, at least as they gain expertise in this new modality. Ultimately, teachers who are positively challenged and stimulated by this teaching transition will encourage others to take up this challenge. It remains for a future study to create and validate a tool that will reliably assess online or blended teaching philosophies. In the meantime, this study suggests that while a significant shift in teaching philosophy does not appear to be necessary in order to transition from traditional to blended classrooms, at a certain point in their experiences teaching in the newer modalities, most teachers begin to successfully adapt effective face-to-face teaching strategies to their online classrooms to create a blend of the “best of both worlds” teaching approach in both. As well as presenting an opportunity to gain new teaching skills, moving from face-to-face to online teaching contexts for these two participant groups thus resulted in benefits to classes taught in both modalities; causing them to reflect on how to apply what works well in one (i.e., more formal structure required in online classrooms such as explicit assignments, deadlines, grading criteria as well as innovative learning design) to the other. This supports Pratt’s (1989) developmental model
Blended Learning and Teaching Philosophies
of increasing competence that moves from initial mastery to ongoing critical reflection on one’s application of theory to practice. Ruth (2006), for example, in describing his experiences as a struggling new academic required to learn to teach online, also reviewed and reflected on his face-to-face teaching. He found that “online teaching has revolutionized all my teaching” (p. 237) forcing him to discard all his previous pedagogical assumptions and taking a more learner-centered approach. Ellis, Steed & Applebee (2006) wrote of university teachers taking a cohesive and holistic approach to blended learning and teaching based on the best aspects of online and face-to-face teaching for enhancing their students’ learning outcomes.
Recommendations for Improving Practice The results of this study also suggest that institutions that require teachers to teach in either fully online or blended classrooms are obligated to offer professional development support to teachers making this transition. Garrison and Vaughan (2008) suggest that the most effective way to do so is within a faculty community of inquiry (i.e., based on the Community of Inquiry framework) that offers opportunities for them to reflect and discuss course re-design with peers (social presence), experience a blended learning environment from the student perspective (cognitive presence), with ready access to instructional design and evaluation support (teaching presence). The results of this study also point to the need for institutions of higher education to reexamine their policies about how teaching, learning and scholarship are conducted (Collis, 1998; Cox, 2005; Wallace, 2007). Collis states that there are at least three compelling sets of reasons for institutions to re-think their instructional approaches: an emerging clarity about what constitutes quality teaching and learning; increasing diversity in student populations and their needs; and the need
for a more flexible education system generally. Putting traditional face-to-face courses online however, is not a simple exercise and requires a different approach to the professional development of academic staff, to academic role definitions, and to course conceptualization and development (Cox, 2005; Wallace, 2007), if advances in the way communication technologies are used to optimize student learning.
REFERENCES Bliuc, A., Goodyear, P., & Ellis, R. (2007). Research focus and methodological choices in studies into students’ experiences of blended learning in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 10(4), 231-244. Brown, L., Murphy, E., & Wade, V. (2006). Corporate e-learning: Human resource development implications for large and small organizations. Human Resource Development International, 9(3), 415-427. Chickering, A. W., & Ehrmann, S. (2004). Implementing the seven principles: Technology as lever. Assessed May 5th, 2004 at http://www.tltgroup. org/programs/seven.html Collis, B. (1998). New didactics for university instruction: why and how? Computers & Education, 31, 373-393. Comeaux, P., & McKenna-Byington, E. (2003). Computer-mediated communication in online and conventional classrooms: Some implications for instructional design and professional development programs. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 40(4), 348-355. Cox, R. (2005). Online education as institutional myth: Rituals and realities at community colleges. Accessed January 25th, 2008 at http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentID=12095
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Curtis, R. (2002). Teaching Research Methods Online: Course Development and Comparison to Traditional Delivery. Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education International Conference 2002. Norfolk, VA, AACE: (pp. 141145). Elias, J. L., & Merriam, S. B. (1980). Philosophical Foundations of Adult Education. First Edition. Malabar, Florida: Krieger. Elias, J. L., & Merriam, S. B. (2005). Philosophical Foundations of Adult Education. Third Edition. Malabar, Florida: Krieger. Ellis, R. A., Steed, A. F., & Applebee, A. C. (2006). Teacher conceptions of blended learning, blended teaching and associations with approaches to design. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(3), 312-335. Fisher, K., Phelps, R., & Ellis, A. (2000). Group processes online: Teaching collaboration through collaborative processes. Educational Technology & Society, 3(3). Retrieved April 30, 2006, from http://ifets.massey.ac.nz/periodical/vol_3_2000/ f06.html
Graham, C. (2006). Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends and future directions. In C. Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: global perspectives, local designs (pp. 3-21). San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Heaton-Shrestha, C., Edirisingha, P., Burke, L., & Linsey, T. (2005). Introducing a VLE into campusbased undergraduate teaching: Staff perspectives on its impact on teaching. International Journal of Educational Research, 43, 370-386. Hubbal, H., Collins, J., & Pratt, D. (2005). Enhancing reflective teaching practices: Implications for faculty development programs. The Canadian Journal of Higher Education, XXXV 30, 57-81. Jacobsen, M. (2000). Excellent teaching and early adopters of instructional technology. Presented at ED-MEDIA: World Conference on Educational Multimedia/Hypermedia & Educational Telecommunication, June, 2000. Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Jarvis, P. (1999). The practitioner-researcher: Developing theory from practice. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gallini, J. K., & Barron, D. (2001). Participants’ perceptions of web-infused environments: A survey of teaching beliefs, learning approaches, and communication. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 34(2), 139-156.
Lin, L., Cranton, P., & Bridglall, B. L. (2005). Psychological type and asynchronous written dialogue in adult learning. Retrieved January 25th, 2008 from http://www.tcrecord.org/Content. asp?ContentID=12096
Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95-105.
Litosseliti, L. Marttunen, M., Laurinen, L., & Salminen, T. (2005). Computer-based and faceto-face collaborative argumentation in secondary schools in England and Finland. Education, Communication & Information, 5(2), 131-146.
Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N. (2008). Blended learning in higher education: Framework, principles, and guidelines. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Garrison, D. R. (2006). Online collaboration principles. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 10(1), 25-34.
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McShane, K. (2006). Integrating face-to-face and online teaching: Academics’ role concept and teaching choices. Teaching in Higher Education, 9(1),1-10. Mott, V. (1996). Knowledge comes from practice: Reflective theory building in practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, #72, 57-63.
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Oliver, M., & Trigwell, K. (2005). Can ‘blended learning’ be redeemed? E-Learning, 2(1), 1726. Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (2000). Making the transition: Helping teachers to teach online. Proceedings from EDUCAUSE 2000, Nashville, TN, October 10-13. Retrieved 30 April, 2006, from http://www.educause.edu/conference/e2000/ proceedings.html
Stacey, E. (2005) A constructivist framework for online collaborative learning: adult learning and collaborative learning theory. In T. Roberts (Ed.), Computer-supported collaborative learning in higher education, (pp. 140-161), London: Idea Group Publishing. Stacey, E. (2002). Social presence online: networking learners at a distance. Education and Information Technologies, 7(4), 287-294.
Pratt, D. (1989). Three stages of teacher competence: A developmental perspective. In E.R. Hays (Ed.). Effective Teaching Styles. New Directions in Continuing Education, #43, 77-87.
Stacey, E., & Gerbic, P. (2007). Teaching for blended learning –research perspectives from on-campus and distance students. Educational and Information Technologies, 12(3), 165-174.
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Stacey, E., & Wiesenberg, F. P. (2006). A crosscultural study of face-to-face and distributed teaching philosophies in Canada and Australia. Paper presented at the Conference of the Canadian Association of Distance Education, Montreal, Canada. 23-26 May.
Pratt, D., & Collins, J. (2006). Teaching Perspectives Inventory Website. Retrieved 30 August, 2006, from http://www.teachingperspectives. com/ Rogers, E. (2003). Rogers, E. Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York: The Free Press. Ruth, L. (2006). Converting my course converted me: How reinventing an on-campus course for online environment reinvigorated my teaching. Teaching Theology and Religion, 9(4), 236-242. Samarawickrema, G., & Stacey, E. (2007). Adopting web-based learning and teaching: A case study in higher education. Distance Education, 28(3), 313–333. Shovein, J., Huston, C., Fox, S., & Damazo, B. (2005). Challenging traditional teaching and learning paradigms: Online learning and emancipatory teaching. Nursing Education Perspectives, 26(6), 340-343. Schweizer, K., Paechter, M., & Weidenmann, B. (2003). Blended learning as a strategy to improve collaborative task performance. Journal of Educational Media, 28(2-3), 212-224.
Stake, R. (2000). Case studies. In N. L. Denzin (Ed.), Handbook of Qualitative Research (pp. 435-454). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Stephenson, J. (Ed.) (2001). Teaching and learning online: Pedagogies for new technologies. London: Kogan Page. Torrisi, G., & Davis, G. (2000). Online learning as a catalyst for reshaping practice – the experiences of some academics developing online learning materials. The International Journal for Academic Development, 5(2), 166-176. Van Schaik, P., Barker, P., & Beckstrand, S. (2003). A comparison of on-campus and online course delivery methods in southern Nevada. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 40(1), 5-15. Wallace, L. (2007). Online teaching and university policy: Investigating the disconnect. Journal of Distance Education, 22(1), 87-100.
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Wiesenberg, F. P. (1999). Teaching online: one instructor’s evolving ‘theory of practice’. Adult Basic Edcation, 9( 3),149-161.
based courseware as a supplement to face-to-face instruction. Internet and Higher Education, 7, 281-297.
Wiesenberg, F. P. (2002). Quality online participation: Conceptualizing my practice. Chapter 12 in Research in Distance Education, 5. Deakin University, Melbourne, Au.
Zhao, Y., Yan, J. L., Lai, C., & Tan, S. (2005). What makes the difference? A practical analysis of research on the effectiveness of distance education. Retrieved February 1, 2008 from http://www. tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentID=12098
Wiesenberg, F., & Stacey, E. (2005). Reflections on teaching and learning online: quality program design, delivery and support issues from a cross-global perspective. Distance Education 26(3), 385-404. Woods, R., Baker, J., & Hopper, D. (2004). Hybrid structures: Faculty use and persception of web-
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Zinn, L. (1998). Identifying your philosophical orientation. In M.W. Galbraith (Ed.). Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction, (pp. 37-72 ). 2nd Edition. Malabar, Florida: Krieger.
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Appendix: University of Calgary-D eakin University Teaching Perspectives Study Survey Instructions: Please complete the questions below within this WORD document, then save your responses and return this completed survey to me using the
function. These questions ask for information about what you: believe, try to accomplish, and do in your teaching role in both face-to-face and online courses. When responding to each question, please answer with one speci. c course in mind (i.e., a specific f2f and/or online course) and provide the name of this course in the space provided. It should take no more than 30 minutes of your time. 1. Describe any significant differences between what you believe about teaching face-to-face and what you believe about teaching online? This f2f/online course(s)’s name & calendar code: 2. Describe any significant differences between what you try to accomplish in your teaching faceto-face and what you try to accomplish in your teaching online? 3. Describe any significant differences between what you do when teaching face-to-face and what you do when teaching online? 4. Describe how your face-to-face teaching influences or relates to (if you think that it does) your online teaching? 5. Describe how your online teaching influences or relates to (if you think that it does) your faceto-face teaching? 6. Describe how your face-to-face teaching affects your online teaching (and vice versa) in any manner that you think significant to your overall philosophy and effectiveness regarding teaching in general. Information about your teaching role: What is your average overall teaching load per academic year? What would that translate into in terms of average hours spent teaching per week? What percentage of your time and/or teaching load is spent teaching online? What percentage of your time and/or teaching load is spent teaching face to face? What is the average number of students you teach in your online classes? What is the average number of students you teach in your face to face classes? Is there any difference in the way that your online courses are counted as teaching load compared with your face to face courses? (ie, do online courses count for 1, 1.5, or 2 face to face courses?). h. How many years have you been teaching face to face? i. How many years have you been teaching online? a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
NOTE: Please remember the specific online and face to face courses that you kept in mind when answering these questions, as you will be asked to keep these same one(s) in mind when completing the Teaching Perspectives Inventory. 221
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Chapter XII
Blended Learning and the New Pressures on the Academy: Individual, Political and Policy Driven Motivators for Adoption Gayani Samarawickrema Deakin University, Australia
ABSTRACT This chapter focuses on the factors relating to adopting blended learning by teaching academics and the associated social world around technology adoption in a large Australian university. Set up as an institutional case study, the findings are interpreted through two theoretical frameworks: diffusion of innovation theory and actor-network theory to reveal the complexities of innovation adoption. The chapter examines teaching academics’ individual motivations including the institution’s political and policy drivers, and shows how technology is shaped to fit a context, and how the context in turn shapes the use of technology. The closing discussion considers new work systems and processes that facilitate and accommodate change precipitated by technology adoption, and suggests how the transformation process might be supported.
INTRODUCTION The adoption of blended learning approaches has increased dramatically over the past two decades as universities, especially in the developed world, have adopted learning management systems. Staff have ‘recognised the opportunities for using e-learning and teaching on its own are far
fewer than where e-learning is integrated into other approaches as a form of blended learning’ (Littlejohn & Pegler, 2007, p.1). Using case study research data as evidence, this chapter explores the multifaceted complexities that teaching academics encountered in a large multi campus university as they adopted blended learning that was supported by a learning management system. It discusses
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Blended Learning and the New Pressures on the Academy
the challenges and opportunities teaching staff experienced as they navigated through the adoption process. It also exposes the readiness of the institution to embrace and accommodate change and describes the social world that surrounds that adoption. The chapter closes with a discussion on how higher education institutions could remain current and responsive to innovative approaches to learning and teaching. The ‘innovation adoption’ described in the rest of this chapter includes the adoption of the learning management system as a technology as well as adoption of the blended learning and teaching approach it enabled.
technological environment of a modern university ‘must be recognised as a process with political implications’ where tensions are high, time for evaluation and reflection is limited and financial investment in technology is huge’. The adoption and integration of blended learning at Monash University was no different. The institution has its own unique culture, politics, values, goals and its own perspective on innovation, change and technology adoption. The political landscape of any organisation is unique to that organization and its influence on innovation adoption, promotion or failure is therefore equally unique.
Ba
Theoretical Fraa
This case study was conducted at Monash University which is considered to be Australia’s largest university. It has nearly 3500 teaching staff and more than 58000 students (Monash University, 2008) taking courses from ten faculties across six Australia-based and two overseas campuses. As information technology adoption and use are integrated in the University’s strategic plan, the University has made significant investments at institutional level in technology infrastructure, staff and student support services and institutional development to facilitate e-learning. Adopting WebCT Vista™ (now known as Blackboard Vista™), a commercially developed learning management system (LMS) allowed the University’s strategic plan to integrate its educational and technological opportunities into its courses. This was a specific initiative of the University’s technology policy. Prior to this, Monash University employed multimedia, print resources, face-to-face workshops and residential sessions in its blended learning and teaching approaches. In recent years with the adoption of the LMS, the blended learning opportunities have extended to e-learning environments. Whitworth (2005, p. 685) aptly pointed out that integrating blended learning in the cultural and
This study draws on two theoretical frameworks, Rogers’ classical diffusion of innovation theory (Rogers, 2003) and actor-network theory to interpret the findings. Rogers listed five characteristics that influence the uptake of an innovation and listed them as: •
•
•
•
•
Relative advantage: Which is viewed in terms of time, costs, effectiveness, convenience, quality, results or social prestige, over what the innovation replaces. Compatibility: Which refers to alignment with existing values, practices, needs, past experiences and social norms. Complexity: Which refers to perceptions regarding the innovation which is seen as being difficult to understand, learn and use. Trialability: Which relates to the possibility to trial, experiment and reduce uncertainty and to learn by doing prior to adopting. Observability: Which refers to the visibility of the results of adoption which stimulate discussion, interest and uptake.
These influencing factors in Rogers’ theory of diffusion of innovation are used in the current
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study to describe staff motivations for innovation adoption as has been done in previous studies related to the adoption of learning technologies (Jacobsen, 1998; Li & Lindner, 2007; Shea, Pickett, & Sau Li, 2005; Sherry, 1998; Wilson, Sherry, Dobrovolny, Batty, & Ryder, 2000). Critiques of this theory have pointed to its limited technology focus and its exclusion of external environmental conditions (Ely, 1990, 1999; Sadler-Smith & Tsang, 1998; Stockdill & Morehouse, 1992; Surry, 1997; Wilson, Sherry, Dobrovolny, Batty, & Ryder, 2002). Hence the theory of diffusion of innovation is regarded as inadequate as it is only capable of describing innovation diffusion from the perspective of technology attributes of the innovation. Since its key deficiency is that it does not take into consideration social, political and contextual factors, actor network theory is used to satisfy these very factors. Scholars who developed actor-network theory (Callon, 1986; Latour, 1987; Law, 1992) assume that the production of scientific knowledge is influenced by social factors and therefore accommodates social, political and contextual factors of the study environment. It provides a way of understanding the ‘co-evolution of society’ with technological artifacts and knowledge of nature (Callon, Law, & Rip, 1986a) and has been used to describe technical innovations (Callon, Law, & Rip, 1986b), including the introduction of multimedia products in Australian primary schools (Bigum, Green, Fitzclarence, & Kenway, 1993). Others have used it as a theoretical framework to examine innovation in education (Bigum, 2001; Gilding, 1996; Rowan & Knight, 2001; Simpson, 2000, 2001) and to study adoption of e-learning technologies and e-commerce by older people (Tatnall & Burgess, 2004; Tatnall & Lepa, 2003). Actor-network theory assumes that the world is materially heterogeneous (Law, 1992) consisting of complex networks of humans and non-humans who interact and negotiate among themselves and impose roles on each other (Tatnall & Lepa, 2003) through their shifting alliances and interactions.
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Actor-network theory treats all actors whether they are human or non-human as equal (Latour, 1992). All outcomes are also treated in the same way and so they are studied in the same way (Klecuń, 2004). In this study at Monash University, some of the human actors were teaching academics, IT support persons, policy makers and students and the non-human actors included the faculties in which the teaching academics were based, faculty policies, individual workloads, discipline based research, funding grants, technology, work practices, rewards, training programs, time and the learning management system. The study involved understanding the dynamics of change and its relationships among these different actors as the social world around the innovation is important. The interaction between these actors is the process the technology goes through to shape and fit the context and in turn, the process the context goes through to shape the technology use. The study findings discuss this process.
METHOD This study was conducted as an insider case study investigation using in-depth interviews. The workplace-based institutional case study approach was selected because it provided for the exploration of individual teaching academic’s reasons for adopting blended approaches including constraints and factors that contributed to innovation adoption at a particular time. The method accommodated the examination of real life situations together with social and contextual conditions including teaching academics’ motivations. It also accommodated a focus on the individual academic and consequently, an appreciation of the multifaceted influences on adoption. The cumulative data gathered from all the participants composed the larger case which was the institution. Case study data is a snapshot of a situation at a given time and therefore fails to capture the developments and dynamism of an evolving situa-
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tion. It must be noted that the teaching academics in this study were particularly innovative, and have progressed and developed their work since participating in the interviews, and consequently, the data represents their position at the time of the study.
S Twenty-two participants who taught in on- and off-campus settings and used blended learning approaches were selected for the study. Table 1 maps out the details of the study sample. Though participant ‘selection’ is not typical of actor-network studies, it was essential that participants had some experience to discuss in their interviews. Therefore, criteria for participant selection were that each participant was using a website in their teaching and was able to comment, was an early adopter of blended learning in their faculty, and represented all ten faculties and the six Australia based campuses. Participants were purposively selected from a mailing list of all those who had undergone learning management system training provided by the university’s e-learning training team and were invited by email to contribute to the study. This purposive selection was to ensure that innovative teachers were included and that the study had maximum variation and multiple perspectives. Individual case studies told how the participants individually perceived the organisation in which they worked as they had everyday knowledge of the situation and had a first-hand experience of the challenges. Their conversations therefore prioritised issues that were relevant to them. Since the study was on the adoption of blended learning approaches by teaching academics, the study sample had no students.
DATA Three types of data were collected from participants.
Interviews Face-to-face interviews were held with all participants using standard, semi-structured, openended questionnaires. While similar information was gathered from all participants, the open-ended questions permitted the flexibility to follow up additional information unique to each participant as it surfaced in the conversation. The questions specifically explored methods and processes of adoption; the way in which adoption changed their teaching; their view of those changes; the impact of adoption on their work; opinions on teaching online in comparison to face-to-face teaching; and frustrations and successes. All interviews were audio taped, transcribed and transcriptions were verified and accepted by participants before analysis.
Examination of Artefacts All related artefacts such as printed learning materials, handouts, supporting websites and CD ROMs were examined and reviewed after each interview. This data were used only to support interview statements and comparisons were not made between different participants’ artefacts as the artefacts themselves were not part of the enquiry.
Field Notes These consisted of demographic data, descriptive portraits of participants and reflective notes recorded during the course of the interview. Using NVivo™ software, the data were organised and analysed into categories and tree structures to generate patterns. Though category generation is not a part of actor-network studies, as explained previously, this study was not conceived as an actor-network study and only used actor-network theory to interpret the findings. Consequently this study draws on the advantages of category generation and actor-network theory to deduce the findings. 225
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FINDINGS
A Diffusion of Innovations Perspective
Broadly, the study findings showed that the teaching academics faced considerable challenges in their effort to provide effective, efficient blended learning. These are analysed and discussed in relation to the two theoretical frameworks: theory of diffusion of innovation and actor-network theory.
The findings of this study show that characteristics identified by Rogers (2003) as relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability and observability have played a significant role in adoption. Each participant experienced a range of influences in varying combinations and with varying degrees of pressure, resulting in a highly individualistic
Table 1. Study sample Faculty
Participant
Subject taught
Technology used
Level taught
Student group
*Years as a university teacher
**Years teaching online
Arts (n = 2)
Senior Lecturer (F)
Media communications
WebCT
U/G
On+off campus
18
4
Lecturer, (M)
Indonesian language
WebCT
U/G & P/G
On+off campus
12
8
Art and Design (n = 1)
Lecturer/course manager (M)
Multimedia design
Faculty server
P/G
Oncampus
7
-
Business and Law (n = 2)
Lecturer (F)
Business law
WebCT
U/G
On+off campus
14
6
Lecturer (F)
Industrial law
WebCT
U/G
On+off campus
13
4
Web manager (M)
None
WebCT
-
On+off campus
3
8
Lecturer (F)
History methods
WebCT
U/G
Oncampus
9
5
Lecturer (F)
Early childhood education
WebCT
U/G
Oncampus
2
2
Senior Lecturer (M)
Counselling
WebCT
U/G
Oncampus
8
1
Engineering (n = 1)
Lecturer (M)
Reliability engineering
WebCT
P/G
Offcampus
18
2
Information Technology (n = 2)
Lecturer (F)
Information systems
WebCT
U/G
Oncampus
11
7
Research Fellow (M)
Quality and reliability
WebCT
P/G
Oncampus
46
2
Associate professor (F)
Administrative justice
InterLearn
P/G
Offcampus
12
2
Lecturer (F)
Property law
Portal
U/G
Oncampus
6
2
Education (n = 4)
Law (n = 2)
continued on following page 226
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Table 1. continued Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences (n = 4)
Lecturer (F)
Healthcare systems
WebCT
U/G
Oncampus
3
2
Senior Lecturer (F)
Food science and nutrition
WebCT
U/G & P/G
Oncampus
34
2
Senior lecturer (M)
Mental health nursing
WebCT
U/G & P/G
Offcampus
15
10
Lecturer (F)
Psychiatric nursing
WebCT
P/G
Offcampus
11
6
Pharmacy (n = 1)
Assistant lecturer (F)
Pharmaceutical chemistry
WebCT
U/G
Oncampus
4
2
Science = 3)
Senior lecturer (M)
Introductory biology
InterLearn
U/G
Oncampus
18
4
Lecturer (F)
Astronomy
WebCT
U/G
Oncampus
20
2
Research fellow (M)
Physics in radiography
WebCT
P/G
Offcampus
38
4
(n
U/G = Undergraduate P/G = Postgraduate M = Male (9) F = Female (13) * Years as university teacher – at the time of the interviews (2004) ** Years teaching online – at the time of the interviews (2004) (Samarawickrema & Stacey, 2007; Samarawickrema, (In Press))
blended/hybrid approach combining web-based approaches with CD ROMs, video, audio, lectures, textbooks and tutorials as appropriate to each individual teaching academic’s student cohort. The investigation also showed that adoption by some teaching academics was voluntarily while for others (nearly half the participants), adoption was a top-down directive, though all were keen to provide effective, efficient, relevant, interesting learner-centred blended learning experiences. In addition, ‘authority innovation-directives’ made by people in positions of power were strong adoption stimuli, with which teaching academics as employees had to comply. One teaching academic commented: ‘there was a big push to go online and we were all madly scrambling’. Funding grants awarded to four teaching academics encouraged them to explore potentials of and create blended learning resources that were complex hybrids consisting of streaming
video, audio, and custom made tools embedded on their learning management sites. This was in stark contrast to sites of several other teaching academics which were developed in response to top-down authority innovation directives, and only included unit outlines, calendar, email and links to additional resources. Some teaching academics in this study were faced with threats of school closures and offering blended learning options was seen by them as a necessary way to boost student numbers and extend the life span of the school and their tenure at the university. A few teaching academics adopted blended learning for political reasons such as giving their units and courses a ‘web presence’, as administrators viewed this ‘web visibility’ as being innovative and improving the Faculty profile. Student demand was also a strong reason to adopt blended learning indicated by comments
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such as ‘I think there are expectations from students, they start asking you: is that on the web, are the lectures going to be taped etc etc’. Since student satisfaction is an important driver in an era when universities compete for students, requests for blended learning approaches were an important force driving adoption. Blended learning was attractive to teaching academics for its communication possibilities and greatly influenced some adoption decisions because it provided practical methods of keeping in touch with off-campus learners, and other learners who moved around Australia (and worldwide) on their professional placements. This increased reach offered the additional benefit of increased flexibility which was valuable to a university that had a large off-campus student enrolment. Universities want students who graduate to be job-ready, able to use virtual systems and operate in a globalised world. The need to prepare students for future professional needs motivated some study participants to adopt the learning management system. As one participant observed, ‘[Y]ou can’t be a translator if you don’t use the web. You just have to deal with it because people are moving . . . monitoring news, giving news briefs’. A few participants adopted blended approaches because the learning management system offered convenient administrative advantages such as marks management, group assignment management, tutor management and an avenue to provide resources to students who had timetable clashes. The possibility of streamlining and facilitating administrative activities encouraged adoption by some because it helped them with the organisation and management of large classes. In addition, the economic advantage of delivering resources free (allowing students to download at their own cost), also influenced adoption decisions. Teaching academics saw opportunities and pedagogical advantages in adopting blended approaches. They were pressured and challenged to think and act in new ways in response to technology and its implications for pedagogy. ‘I
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want to make learning experiences much richer. There is no satisfaction for me in just preparing the print materials, no matter how good they were . . .’. Pedagogical reasons such as the ability to address specific learning needs, make learning experiences richer and more dynamic, provide hyperlinking possibilities, and provide students with their own sites and their own web pages, were some of their cited reasons for adoption. Some teaching academics were influenced and encouraged by colleagues’ work and were supported by peer networks in their faculties. Supportive and nurturing environments encouraged adoption while a minority had previous experience with other learning management systems and therefore their confidence in blended learning influenced their adoption decisions. While a minority of participants were influenced by the research literature, pedagogy related to the web was one person’s area of research and this contributed to a strong theoretical understanding in the area. A few teaching academics admitted to the uptake of blended learning approaches for their personal satisfaction, and one did it for personal strategic reasons admitting that: ‘I got offered an extra loading for it and on top of that, I know that getting involved with flexible learning practices is something that will be useful for me in terms of strengthening my CV’.
An Actor-Network Perspective Understanding the adoption of blended learning in a higher education setting is not possible without understanding the power and politics related to that background and the actor-network analysis was used in this study to bring these factors to the fore. As stated previously, actors are not only people but include physical objects such as machines and funding and intangibles such as time, policies, workloads, training opportunities, reward structures, discipline-based research and professional development. There was unanimous agreement from all study participants that actors
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such as time constraints, heavy workloads, the demand for research outputs, training and policy issues (and, at times, the lack of policy) impacted on teaching academics’ uptake of blended learning. There were other actors such as acknowledgement and reward schemes, unstable technology, threats of school closure and lack of exposure which impacted on some participants only. These were all contextual factors that heavily influenced the participants. Time was a powerful actor that regulated and made commanding impositions on all study participants. As one participant described, ‘[T]eaching [online] I have to say, takes a lot of my time. Not only does it take a lot of my time, it’s a bit like gas where it expands, whatever room you put it in, it will expand, whatever time I give it, it’ll just take . . . . Almost every aspect of blended teaching from developing learning resources for web environments to maintaining communication through email and discussion boards to maintaining resources, and learning the new technology, significantly impacted on teaching academics’ time and constrained adoption. Workloads associated with adopting blended learning were a pressing issue with all study participants as they found that course maintenance, keeping up with constant technology upgrades, student emails, learning new skills, including developing sustainable strategies to address these, escalated an individual’s workload. Adopting all forms of blended learning required extensive preparation and extended working hours and consequently powerfully impacted on adopting such learning environments. Resources development for blended learning environments required upfront investment in time for planning, organising and designing, including setting up websites, uploading files (eg. past examination papers, lecture notes) and maintaining their currency. Two participants mentioned that writing for the medium was time consuming, and one participant pointed out that designing a well integrated blended learning environment
and project managing resources development was time consuming. All teaching academics in the university were acutely aware that discipline-based research and related scholarly publications held the key to their individual career advancement. Two participants declared that because they undertook materials development for teaching in blended environments, their doctoral studies were delayed. Seventeen participants were convinced that discipline-based research was ‘more highly rewarding’. For the participants, it was therefore a continuous and conflicting negotiation between time spent on discipline-based research or developing blended learning resources and this conflict continued to impact on their adoption decisions. All participants admitted to undertaking new work practices as a result of adopting blended approaches. These new roles were described as follows: ‘You become an administrator and a teacher and a multimedia developer and you are a researcher and whatever else that I’ve left out’. Developing multimedia resources and websites required participants to work with and obtain assistance from professionals outside academic circles. It was obligatory therefore that teaching academics articulate their requests accurately to those professionals helping them and project manage resource development, which were all new work practices that imposed an additional burden on them. Several participants indicated their lack of theoretical understanding in the area and were therefore not convinced of the value of blended learning prior to adoption. In addition, the inability to estimate the time needed to develop blended resources (unlike preparing for a lecture), the absence of the required skills, and the many unknown factors deterred adoption. Since innovation adoption is often risky, participants sought support from trusted peers and colleagues. Learning with colleagues provided support and encouraged adoption of blended learning approaches as confirmed by the following
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statement: ‘I go to research seminars and I talk a lot to Jenny. Actually that taught me a lot. Through my colleagues, you know because some colleagues are concerned about the things I’m concerned with’. In this study, participants who had strong connections with faculty networks and learning groups demonstrated higher levels of adoption. Two faculties in particular had established hierarchical formal support structures which had a powerful adoption enabling impact. All participants had apprehensions related to copyright and ownership of the materials they created. Resolving these issues to the satisfaction of both teaching academics and the University would be an adoption enabler, but while matters remained inconclusive as in this study, it deterred developing blended learning approaches. Another strong actor was unstable technology resulting in breakdowns, anxious students and frustrating situations which make an unforgettable negative impact on future adoption decisions. Robust technology is necessary to win confidence of both teachers and students, particularly in adoption situations. Political climate in some schools and faculties was a powerful actor that forced three of the participants to adopt blended learning approaches. They were required to boost student numbers in order to address dwindling class size or face the threat of school closure followed by redundancy. Though negative in tone, these actors were a powerful influence and forced adoption. A funding injection powered and promoted innovation. The general belief was that developing blended learning resources were prohibitively costly. Four fortunate study participants received funding grants which enabled them to buy out their time from regular teaching to work on developing resources and to pay for professional services of graphic artists, educational designers and multimedia developers. One participant had received the Vice Chancellor’s award for her innovative teaching efforts. Actors such as institutional rewards and
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acknowledgement schemes that recognise good teaching, cultivate a strong enabling environment for teaching academics to adopt blended learning. Policy is part of the organisational support structure that contributes to adopting blended learning. Policy conveys management’s vision and interests including objectives to achieve it. The study found that at an institutional level, strong supporting policies for the uptake of blended learning were included in the university’s Learning and Teaching plan and the educational technology policy. In addition, supporting policy enablers such as training workshops to assist teaching academics to use the learning management system, induction programs, mentoring schemes, and the appointment of associated deans responsible for teaching and learning to take responsibility for the technology supported learning in their faculties were in place. Despite the presence of these policy structures at the institutional level, the study found that they were less well articulated at the faculty level and left room for a great deal of interpretive flexibility because of the distance between policy formulating administrators and the policy executing teaching academics. Study participants pointed out that there was no clear policy directive from their faculties in areas such as off-shore delivery, anonymity in discussion forums, individual teaching academics’ quota of online teaching, time release and funding for online developments, copyright and intellectual property. As one participant explained, ‘[P]olicy tends to be catching up to where we are at. So sometimes you’re left in the dark and we’re kind of making it on the run’. The lack of clearly resolved policies (at the time of the study) worried participants and made them hesitate before further adopting blended learning approaches. There was also policy variance between faculties and according to the participants, none of the faculties demonstrated a strong, strategic plan for adopting blended learning. Participants were unable to identify key policies within their faculties
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that supported career paths, work guidelines and workloads which had a direct impact on them as individual teaching academics. Complementary training and professional development promotes and facilitates the adoption of blended learning making it meaningful and relevant. The study participants received technical learning management system training (Weaver, 2006) but its timeliness, appropriateness, applicability and relevance increased its value. The study participants had limited time, limited help and limited space to think about changes to teaching and implications for pedagogy related to technology use, few models of good practice to follow, inadequate technical support and unclear policy to direct their work. Once staff mastered the technology, they were more ready to focus on its curriculum integration. As participants gained confidence, they were ready to explore and customise their blended approach to suit their students and the specific teaching need. Their professional development was a continuum and training that responded to this continuum was a significant adoption enabling actor. Many teaching academics in this study had gone through stages of learning the technology, adopting it and working with it, and some of them had gone on to assist and build capacity among fellow colleagues, giving presentations, sharing experiences, serving on technology planning committees and becoming peer trainers. While these teaching academics evolved and grew in competency and confidence, the University evolved and grew with them. The teaching academics’ networks expanded and other colleagues followed, and some progressed to being leaders. Though on a small scale, this demonstrates acceptance of blended learning as it happens from within, through individuals in faculties. Each of them developed an individualistic model of adoption which included aspects of the web via the learning management system, as well as using textbooks, readings, CD ROMs and classroom sessions.
These constraints and difficulties exerted varying degrees of pressure on the participants. Consequently, the issues they prioritised and marginalised were also reflective of the power relations between these pressures and the participants’ individual agendas, the politics of their faculties and the particular stage of their careers they had reached. (For instance the one participant nearing retirement was less interested in his personal research output and was keen to use his time on innovations while the participants who were younger early career academics were conscious of obtaining that PhD and building up their research profile in their discipline indicating that participants had different priorities at different stages in their career.)
Discussion and Recommendations The study found that adopting blended learning approaches introduced a fresh order that imposed a range of new pressures on the institution and its teaching academics. As discussed in the previous section, each imperative was complex and interacted with other imperatives, and imposed varying degrees of power. The study found that Monash University had both vision statements as well as institution level strategic plans in relation to learning and teaching. Its vision statements, like most vision statements were broad, limited in their specificity, and consequently limited in their meaning and relevance to the individual teaching academic. Similarly, its information technology strategic plan set out the framework for the application and use of information technology and spelled out the strategy for an e-Monash (Monash University, 2005). This ensured significant investments at institutional level in technology infrastructure, staff and student support, institutional development and adoption and use of the learning technologies.
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Overall, the study revealed that new approaches to learning and teaching in universities are unlikely to be successful unless a strong and enabling organisational infrastructure and supporting frameworks are in place and are managed by those with vision and leadership. According to Morrison (2003 p. 112) ‘The vision needs to be compelling. Doing the same thing better isn’t enough. The vision should present a picture of doing what you’ve never been able to do before.’ Therefore, for successful implementation of blended learning, there is a need for systems within the University to adjust, with a vision to do things that were not done previously. It is evident from the findings in this investigation that the existing organisational structure required review (with such a vision in focus) at individual, group, faculty and institutional level. These are discussed next.
Workload and Time The workload and time pressures, as a consequence of adopting blended learning, were a pressing problem in all faculties. These needed to be considered in relation to the multi-campus international nature of Monash University’s operations, if a supporting institutional infrastructure and policy framework was to be constructed. This suggested that the full nature and the impact of workload involved using blended learning approaches across multiple campuses and multiple time zones, common to many Australian institutions of higher education, needs to be explored further. Some of the responsibilities of teaching in a global classroom were identified as workloads associated with developing blended learning resources of different levels of complexity, moderating virtual discussion groups, managing online assessments, course maintenance, managing and supporting globally distributed students, in addition to managing tutors and administering the teaching. Workload and teacher engagement must also be reviewed in relation to student levels such
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as first-year undergraduates versus postgraduates, student numbers and diversity. This is an indication that strong and supportive organisational structures are necessary for blended learning to be embraced and to be practical, so that all these contemporary approaches will not be additional work, which is how it is currently perceived. A starting point would be to ask some basic questions and identify necessary changes. Questions such as: What are the new roles and responsibilities and what are the expectations of those new roles? What is the current understanding of and expectations from the teaching academic, the tutor, the faculty administrator, the senior managers, the deans responsible for teaching and learning and the support staff? How are the institutions dividing up the different tasks and responsibilities? How ready are all groups to take on new responsibilities and have they been trained to do so? Responses to these questions are not easy but nevertheless necessary if the new pressures on the academy are to be understood and accommodated through a common policy understanding. The lack of a policy framework in this area can lead to a nightmare of overwork and a lack of support for teaching academics, and consequent reduction in morale.
Intellectual Property The study suggested that policies related to intellectual property need to be clarified. Some teaching academics in this study were not enthusiastic about creating blended learning resources because they believed they did not receive adequate credit for this and would not be able to use them in another institution if they were to leave Monash University. Results suggested that ownership and policy related to teaching academics’ materials on a university website needs to be clear so that protection of learning materials is not the only goal, and sharing and reuse of them is accommodated and valued. Therefore, structures that will encourage the use of materials prepared elsewhere,
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if they suit objectives, and reciprocal arrangements for sharing, need to be considered. Answers to questions related to intellectual property on the web and the ethical considerations concerned with open access and free exchange of information are critical or teaching academics will be easily disillusioned, feel uncertain, unprotected and insecure. Without an explicit policy framework which provides relative security within which teaching academics can work, and guidelines to operate and make decisions, they will do the basic minimum and will not be innovative. Copyright, intellectual property, confidentiality, plagiarism, data protection and other e-legal risks have proved to be problems for teaching academics and different institutions choose to address these issues in different ways. A starting point would be a consideration of national legal frameworks and their application to the requirements of the institution, individual teaching academics and eventual use by students, and the mapping out the rights management at each level. Digital content management is an emerging area, and providing teaching academics with assistance in understanding and managing intellectual property related to digital content, and putting in place relevant staff development in the area, will pre-empt problems and misunderstandings. Making available such information in simple and easy-to-understand formats will provide staff the quick, precise answers on what is legally possible or not. Bell and Bell (2005) confirm that institutional level policies that address issues, present best practice and audit risks are important and support teaching academics.
Rewards and Incentives The study findings showed that the teaching academics valued rewards and incentives related to blended learning. The rewards stimulated adoption and contributed to job satisfaction and similar to findings by Collis and van der Wende (2002),
teaching academics in this study felt they were doing more, but with no reward. Although the institution offered an annual Vice Chancellor’s award for excellence in teaching (won by a study participant) which recognised and rewarded exemplary teaching, there was no organised structure to relate reward to tenure, time release, research time or even conference participation, all of which were valuable rewards for teaching academics. It is a complex process for an institution to evaluate and measure teaching academics’ initiatives in adopting blended learning. Staff efforts may be rewarded through promotions, bonuses, payment of conference registrations, travel and research stipends, laboratory and office space, laboratory equipment, and reduced teaching load in return for time to develop resources. Yet, to make rewards meaningful, it is necessary to evaluate work in digital scholarship and develop processes and standards for open access to such scholarship. For example, websites with peer reviewed learning technology efforts such as MERLOT (Multimedia Educational Resource for Learning and Online Teaching, www.merlot.org, an open resource designed for teaching academics in higher education consisting of annotated peer reviews and links to resources), credit teaching effort in a way similar to crediting discipline related research and would be useful to support promotions and tenure. Such showcasing of scholarship would also contribute to elevating the status of teaching to the level of discipline-based research, giving it the institutional recognition and visibility, which in turn will be a motivating factor to staff.
FUNDING The study revealed that adoption was greatest when funding was made available to buy out teaching time to develop blended learning resources or to pay for professional services such as web, graphic, and educational designers. Consequently, recipients of funding grants integrated
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blended approaches into their teaching earlier than others, were more convinced of the value of the resources they developed and their adoption decisions. They integrated blended learning more confidently in their teaching, and rated them as compatible with the curriculum they taught. The innovation adoption process when supported by funding allocations, occurred with greater ease and satisfaction. An award of a funding grant (of whatever size) was confirmation of the extra effort required to develop resources. Unfortunately funding has always been limited, often encouraging experimentation and an initial iteration, and resulting in short term effort, with no opportunity for long term sustainability or further iterations and developments or further integration and embedding of the learning designs. Current funding formulae to allocate resources based on the number of on-campus students, classroom space from 9am-5pm does not provide for telecommunication facilities for e-learning, 24X7 learner support and resourcing for e-learning facilitation. Rethinking new funding formulae no doubt will be a challenge, but new funding approaches will need to be explored.
P Following the first step of understanding the way in which the technology worked, staff development on pedagogical aspects of blended learning approaches strongly encouraged adoption. Ongoing just-in-time training is the next important stage. Continuously updating skills and reflecting on the potential and affordances of learning technologies, application of pedagogy to suit the technology type, and selecting appropriate blends for learners, are critical areas for consideration by teaching academics. Participation in professional development in the area is a necessary ongoing activity for all teaching academics. Crediting those who participate in those programs and allocating resources for training endorses the value that the institution places in professional development.
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SUPPORT Technology uptake is also associated with a sharp learning curve and the provision of prompt, reliable technical support has a direct impact on teaching academics’ confidence and willingness to experiment with blended learning. Participants who came from those faculties that had prominent and easy access to technical support were more comfortable with technology use. The institution needs to support the use of the technology at different levels and take on the roles of providing support and problem solving. The institution has to provide similar support for learners as it is not a role teaching academics can shoulder. Necessary support structures including helpdesks must be in place for staff to feel confident. More broadly, support should accommodate staged incremental change giving teaching academics the opportunity to learn as well as refine and realign strategies. Teachers generally adopt new technology incrementally and slowly and it is good to understand this slow process. They adopt, use it in their teaching, often in an experimental or supplementary way before making it more mainstream. Innovative use of technology generally depends on a few enthusiastic persons who have worked through the technology barriers and incrementally experimented with different pedagogical approaches surrounding the technology. Ideally, support should take into consideration all this.
POLICY Supportive policy provides a safe environment for teaching academics to function, experiment and be innovative. While these regulatory structures in a broad sense were present in the study context, the study exposed the absence of policy in key areas such as workload and time, intellectual property, funding, rewards and other areas related to organisational infrastructures.
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A university policy that is then articulated at a faculty level can provide direction and support for learning and teaching approaches of teaching academics related to developing blended learning resources and teaching online, time related to teaching and research, ownership, intellectual property of learning resources developed by teaching academics and professional development. Policy guidance in these areas appears to be currently absent. Such a faculty policy that is guided by a strong institutional vision and is aligned with teaching needs, facilitates the take up of blended learning approaches. For institutional policies to be of value, they must cascaded down from the top organisational level and articulate into faculty goals, and rules, to then further assist faculty-based teaching academics. This is a necessary second level (a faculty level) set of goals and policies which act as a framework to provide teaching academics with direction in their teaching activity. These would need to be formally established as policy. Such a structure was not obvious in the context that was studied. It is also clear from the study that once the institution has decided to adopt blended learning, implementation does not happen smoothly across the entire organisation and involves many groups of people, including teaching academics, who both champion as well as oppose this new approach. Drawing all these groups into a policy-related conversation moderated by a central institute, would be useful to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the thinking of teaching academics across the institution. A formal policy change or the introduction of a new policy can come only from the institution’s managerial leadership. Policy should not be viewed only as managerial leadership providing guidance and pathways but also addressing direction, setting boundaries to protect individuals and setting the general intended outcomes and acceptable solutions. Teaching academics in turn need to take responsibility for and participate in developing those policies, become critics and analysts of those
policies, implement them in their practice, and contribute to refining them. Unless they become active in these roles, policy will be top-down and one-way which often makes teaching academics resentful and frustrated. Some study participants in this investigation were members of user groups and active users of technology and were involved in discussions related to policies for their faculties that they believed would be useful to guide their own practice. Therefore, the collegial and participatory experience of involvement in the guiding and steering function of policy, and sharing the responsibility for those policy structures and their outcomes, increases the confidence to adopt blended learning. It is also important to listen to comments about all possible problems and reservations and therefore low-users and non-users, in addition to innovators, must also be involved in the dialogue and policy making procedures. Policy formulation must also be informed by an evidence base leading to a supportive framework that operates at both micro and macro levels. Since policy makers do not operate at the level of grass-roots teaching academics, the requirements of such teachers need to be explained and communicated to those with institutional roles. This is an important role of senior faculty staff such as deans and professors that is to understand and communicate the needs and concerns of their teaching staff to senior university administrators at relevant forums. Involving all stakeholders in the policy dialogue and drawing on their experiences and rich tacit knowledge to shape policy and reach consensus is difficult but important. It requires a high level of institutional focus and the need to frame issues in a way that will promote learning, appeal to good decision making, common sense and the urge to do the best and to be the best. Policy which is appropriate for the new electronic age must be dynamic. There is no ‘right’ policy and therefore there will be variances between institutions and even within one institution. One clear policy within one institution is easy to
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follow but it may not necessarily suit all faculties, schools and departments. What is important is that everything the institution does and the image it projects is dictated by its policy. It is also important to constantly renew and refresh policy in order that it stays in step with the demands and changes made by the higher education environment and everything else that impacts on it. Attempting to fit new blended learning systems into existing structures that were constructed to facilitate the traditional on-campus delivery will not work. The issue now is to identify and consider those aspects of the structures, concepts and processes that will continue to be useful and helpful and bravely develop others that accommodate and endorse the new. Change will be slow and there will be failure, frustration and a return to some of the old familiar practices. This will occur because there will be many previously unrecognised factors that will come into play and will be visible only when they obstruct the task. Creating a policy framework will be slow, ongoing and the change will be subtle. It is about an iterative process that draws on tacit knowledge and experience, and provides for an environment that accommodates new approaches to teaching and learning.
C Technology changes rapidly and individuals embrace technology and adapt faster than institutions. Teaching academics in this study moved ahead but the institutional policy lagged behind, not unusual in new groundbreaking areas. In this study, existing policies have mostly supported print based distance education or on-campus students and have largely tended to recognise teaching as an individual act that happens in a physical classroom. Introduction of blended learning is disruptive, imposing change at all levels across the institution. The imbalances and variances related to technol-
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ogy adoption within and between faculties are not encouraging but are often the reality and will be outside the control of many staff in universities. What would be assuring for staff would be to have an accepted and recognised institutional leadership to drive innovations in blended learning together with an established operating model to facilitate it, and people with a defined role to execute the jobs. For teaching academics, learning the art of blended teaching is ongoing. This study investigated teaching academics adoption of blended learning using the ‘read only’ web and the instructor managed courses in the learning management system, which most teaching academics are familiar with. However, e-learning and teaching is now evolving to accommodate the read-writepublish-edit-publish environments of social software which is changing the way students engage, collaborate, explore topics of common interest and publish information (Dron, 2007) and is having a significant impact. The next wave of innovative teaching academics has already embraced these software, extending their blended learning approaches. It is a complex environment where change is multi faceted and does not occur in a linear path. Change will be constant precipitating new pressures on the academy.
R Bell, M., & Bell, W. (2005). It’s installed . . . now get on with it! Looking beyond the software to the cultural change. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(4), 643-656. Bigum, C. (2001). Actor-network theory and online university teaching: Translation vs diffusion. In L. Rowan & B. A. Knight (Eds.), Researching futures oriented pedagogies (pp. 7-22). Flaxton, Qld: Post Press. Bigum, C., Green, B., Fitzclarence, L., & Kenway, J. (1993). Multimedia and monstrosities: Rein-
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venting computing in schools again? Australian Educational Computing, 8, 43-49. Callon, M. (1986). Some elements of a sociology of translation: Domestication of the scallops and the fishermen of St Brieuc Bay. In J. Law (Ed.), Power, action and belief: A new sociology of knowledge. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Callon, M., Law, J., & Rip, A. (1986a). How to study the force of science. In M. Callon, J. Law & A. Rip (Eds.), Mapping the dynamics of science and technology: Sociology of science in the real world (pp. 3-18). London: Macmillan Press. Callon, M., Law, J., & Rip, A. (Eds.). (1986b). Mapping the dynamics of science and technology: Sociology of science in the real world. London Macmillan Press. Collis, B., & van der Wende, M. (2002). Models of technology and change in higher education: An international comparative survey on the current and future use of ICT in higher education Netherlands: Centre for Higher Education Policy Studies, Universiteit Twente http://www.utwente. nl/cheps/documenten/ictrapport.pdf. [accessed 15 August 2008] Dron, J. (2007). Control and constraint in elearning: Choosing when to choose. Hershey: Idea Group Publishing. Ely, D. P. (1990). Conditions that facilitate the implementation of educational technology innovations. Journal of Research in Computing in Education, 23(2), 298 - 305. Ely, D. P. (1999). Conditions that facilitate the implementation of educational technology innovations. Educational Technology, 39(6 November/December), 23-27. Gilding, A. (1996). Student construction of a knowledge-based system as an actor network. Unpublished PhD thesis, Deakin University, Melbourne.
Jacobsen, D. M. (1998). Adoption patterns and characteristics of faculty who integrate computer technology for teaching and learning in higher education. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Alberta, Calgary, Alberta. Klecuń, E. (2004). Conducting critical research in information systems: Can actor-network theory help?. In B. Kaplan, D. P. Truex III, D. Wastell, T. A. Wood-Harper & J. I. DeGross (Eds.), Information systems research (pp. 259-274). Manchester: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Latour, B. (1987) Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Latour, B. (1992). Where are the missing masses? The sociology of a few mundane artefacts. In W. E. Bijker & J. Law (Eds.), Shaping technology/Building society: Studies in sociotechnical change. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Law, J. (1992). Notes on the theory of actor-networks: Ordering, strategy, and heterogeneity. Systems Practice, 5(4), 379-393. Li, Y., & Lindner, J. R. (2007). Faculty adoption behaviour about web-based distance education: A case study from China Agricultural University. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(1), 83-94. Littlejohn, A., & Pegler, C. (2007). Preparing for blended e-learning. London: Routledge. Monash University. (2005). Technology and services to manage information: Information technology strategic plan - 2005 update. http://www. monash.edu.au/about/itsp/2005/update/2005_ ITSP_Update-Final.pdf Monash University. (2008, 2 January 2008). Monash statistics. http://www.monash.edu.au/ about/stats.html [accessed 10 March 2008] Morrison, D. (2003). E-learning strategies: How to get implementation right first time. West Sussex: Wiley. 237
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Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5 ed.). New York: The Free Press.
A checklist based on TDC findings. Educational Technology, January, 57-58.
Rowan, L., & Knight, B. A. (2001). Researching futures oriented pedagogy. In L. Rowan & B. A. Knight (Eds.), Researching futures oriented pedagogies (pp. 1-6). Flaxton, Qld: Post Press.
Surry, D. W. (1997). Diffusion theory and instructional technology. http://www. .gsu.edu/~wwwitr/ docs/diffusion/ [accessed 15 August 2008]
Sadler-Smith, E., & Tsang, F. (1998). A comparative study of approaches to studying in Hong Kong and the United Kingdom. British Journal of Psychology, 68, 81-93. Samarawickrema, G., & Stacey, E. (2007). Adopting web-based learning and teaching: A case study in higher education. Distance Education 28(3), 313-333. Samarawickrema, R. G. (2008). Technology adoption: Voices of teaching academics, educational designers and students. Verlag: Germany. Shea, P., Pickett, A., & Sau Li, C. (2005). Increasing access to higher education: A study of the diffusion of online teaching among 913 college faculty. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 6(2), http://www.irrodl. org/content/v6.2/shea.html Sherry, L. (1998). An integrate technology adoption and diffusion model. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 4(2/3), 113-145. Simpson, N. (2000). Studying innovation in education: The case of the ConnectEd project. http://www.aare.edu.au/00pap/sim00027.htm [accessed 15 August 2008] Simpson, N. (2001). Diffusion theory and actornetwork theory. In L. Rowan & B. A. Knight (Eds.), Researching futures oriented pedagogies (pp. 23-40). Flaxton, Qld: Post Press. Stockdill, H. S. & Morehouse, D. L. (1992). Critical factors in the successful adoption of technology:
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Tatnall, A., & Burgess, S. (2004). Using actornetwork theory to identify factors affecting the adoption of e-commerce in SMEs. In M. Singh & D. Waddell (Eds.), E-business innovation and change management (pp. 152-169). London: IRM Press. Tatnall, A., & Lepa, J. (2003). The internet, ecommerce and older people: An actor-network approach to researching reasons for adoption and use. Logistics Information Management, 16(1), 56-63. Weaver, D. (2006). The challenge facing staff development in promoting quality online teaching. International Journal on E-Learning 5(2), 275-286. Whitworth, A. (2005). The politics of virtual learning environments: Environmental change, conflict, and e-learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(4), 685-691. Wilson, B., Sherry, L., Dobrovolny, J., Batty, M., & Ryder, M. (2000). Adoption of learning technologies in schools and universities. In H. H. Adelsberger, B. Collis & J. M. Pawlowski (Eds.), Handbook on information technologies for education and training. New York: SpringerVerlag. http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~lsherry/pubs/ newadopt.htm. [accessed 15 August 2008] Wilson, B., Sherry, L., Dobrovolny, J., Batty, M., & Ryder, M. (2002). Adoption factors and processes. In H. H. Adelsberger, B. Collis & J. M. Pawlowski (Eds.), Handbook on information technologies for education and training (pp. 293307). New York: Springer.
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Chapter XIII
Case Studies of ICT-Enhanced Blended Learning and Implications for Professional Development Gail Wilson Bond University, Australia
ABSTRACT This chapter draws on a collective case study of six faculty members working in ICT-enhanced blended learning environments at a large regional university in Australia. The chapter identifies seven dimensions of the blended learning environments created by each teacher, with a particular focus on four of these dimensions – the teacher, the online, the resource-based learning and the institutional support dimension. The research showed how individual faculty members worked to blend their courses through their overall approaches to course planning, their focus on combining the strengths of both the face-toface and the online learning environments, and their eagerness to shift their pedagogical approaches to accommodate the best features of both the face-to-face and the online environments. The chapter makes recommendations for professional development for teachers that is effective in preparing them for creating and working in blended learning environments and suggests areas for future research in the area of blended learning.
INTRODUCTION This chapter focuses on a recent study (Wilson, 2007) of six faculty members working in blended learning environments in campus-based contexts
in a large regional university in Australia. The case-based study examined how information and communications technology (ICT) was used by each of these faculty members, all early adopters (Rogers, 2003), to enhance their face-to-face
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Case Studies of ICT-Enhanced Blended Learning and Implications for Professional Development
teaching, and how this use contributed to an understanding of blended learning within higher education in Australia. This chapter begins by defining key terms used in the study and throughout the chapter. It examines ways of analysing and defining blended learning environments (BLEs) by focusing on the scope, nature, and purpose of the blend adopted by individual teachers across their courses. The study is located within a qualitative field of inquiry, and the rationale is given for the choice of case study as both the product of the research and the research strategy for the study. The case study design is discussed and the individual teachers who participated in the study are introduced. The chapter presents the findings from the study within a framework of the distinctive dimensions of the BLEs created by the faculty members. It focuses on four of these dimensions —the teacher, the online, the resource-based learning (RBL), and the institutional support dimensions. A portion of the chapter makes recommendations regarding the professional development required for faculty members to support their use of blended learning. The chapter discusses some implications arising from the study and makes recommendations for areas for future research in the area of blended learning.
B In this chapter blended learning is defined as a mix of face-to-face and ICT components, united through a carefully considered learning design, combining a mix of formats, media and activities. Implied in this definition is a need to blend the strengths of both the face-to-face and the online learning environments, including the pedagogical approaches best suited to both, or, as Garrison and Vaughan (2008, p. 6) stress, combining “the properties and possibilities of both to go beyond the capabilities of each separately.” Overall, the
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dominant arguments for blended learning in higher education resonate with the rationale for the move towards flexible learning and flexible delivery in the 1990s: improved pedagogy, enabling courses to become more student-centred and less teacher-directed; increased access for students and flexibility in terms of time that students needed to be on-campus; responding to the diversity of students needs; enhancement of the campus experience; the demands of a global education marketplace; and increased cost effectiveness (Graham, Allen & Ure, 2003). Institutional research on blended learning conducted by Canada’s Collaboration for Online Higher Education and Research (COHERE) group concluded that faculty members blended their courses to achieve “a more flexible, efficient, accessible, and varied learning experience for their students” (Cook, Owston & Garrison, 2004, p. 348). This Canadian research found that institutional success in the implementation of blended learning required broad organisational support and incentives for staff, such as workload allocation and recognition and reward schemes. In one US research study (Christensen, 2003), while it was found that blended learning was an effective strategy when seeking to implement constructivist pedagogy, it still presented significant challenges in terms of time demands placed on individual faculty members. A study published a year later (Dziuban, Hartman & Moskai, 2004) affirmed that faculty members adopting blending learning also experienced more demands on their time, while at the same time they became more facilitative in terms of their teaching approach, and more focused on course design. The definition of ICT adopted throughout the study is attributed to Mason and Rennie (2006, p. 60) who used the term broadly to mean “any hardware or software, or even any activity that is related to the use of computers for the generation, storage, transmission and retrieval of information in an electronic format.” A key focus of this chap-
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ter is on the blended learning pedagogy adopted across the cases in the study. Pedagogy is defined as “the manner in which the teaching and learning processes and settings in a course are organised and implemented by an instructor” (Collis & Moonen, 2001, p. 19). References are also made in the study to learning resources, defined here as “those resources that represent knowledge for the purpose of learning” (Littlejohn & McGill, 2004, Section 2). Resources for learning come in a wide range of representations: textbooks, lecture presentations, reading lists, learning designs, tips and tricks for teaching, glossaries, study guides, examinations and tests, and case studies and toolkits (Littlejohn & McGill, 2004). Resources are used in different formats and delivered using different media. The context in which they are used is important. A typology of resources (Collis & Strijker, 2004) emphasises three types of resources in relation to faculty a member’s role in adapting resources to particular contexts. Pure resources (articles, book chapters, animations, course notes, PowerPoint™ slides) are unedited by the teacher. Pure, combined resources are unedited resources combined with other resources, as in a course reading combined with a learning activity. Adapted resources are those which have been edited or repurposed by the teacher for a different context from the one for which it was originally designed. In this study, learning resources used across the six cases were categorised as informational or interactive (Oliver, 2002). Informational resources support learners accessing information, while interactive resources support learners’ engagement, reflection and decision making processes as well as providing feedback to learners. Resource use in blended learning environments can further by analysed using Mayes’s (2002) conceptualisation framework which shows some similarities to Laurillard’s (2002) conversational framework in its emphasis on the importance of dialogue in the development of learner understanding, but is based
on three broad stages of learning development linked to the concept of courseware or learning resources. In Mayes’s representation of a learning environment, courseware supports three essential stages in student learning—conceptualisation, construction and contextualisation—which the learner moves through until a state of understanding and knowing has been reached. Courseware should orient learners to the content and support them through each of these stages. The added value of technology for learning is enhanced as faculty member and student move from the conceptualisation, to the construction, and then to the contextualisation stages of learning (Mayes & Fowler, 1999, p. 495). The individual teacher’s role is to provide support and coaching to learners as they progress through these stages of development. Reference is made in this chapter to ICT tools used by faculty members, defined as “software applications that can be used to undertake specific activities or sets of tasks” (Conole & Dyke, 2004, p. 5). The ICT tools commonly in use by faculty members and students in this study were online chat, discussion forum, email, listservs, and the web. A recently-published media typology (Beetham & Sharpe, 2007) was used to classify the ICT tools used by staff in this study, based on an earlier classification by Laurillard (2002) of five media types—narrative, communicative, adaptive, interactive and productive, to which has been added a sixth type, integrative.
AnalySING DeDEFINING BLENDEDRNING ENVIRONMENTS Frameworks found in the literature on blended learning (Graham, 2006; Graham & Robison, 2007; Osguthorpe & Graham, 2003) have suggested ways of analysing teachers’ design and use of BLEs: determining the scope of the blend,
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or the impact of the blend on the context of the course, the primary purpose or goal of the blend, and the nature of the blend, or how the blend is being used in particular circumstances. The scope of the blend is determined by looking at how blended learning has impacted on some, or all, of the components of a course. A single activity or a fixed number of activities within a course can be blended. In one course, students may be required to complete one online assessment task in a course, while in another course all tutorial presentations must be posted online and critiqued by peers. Sometimes blended learning activities may occur only once or twice during a semester, for example, where a synchronous tutorial is designed to precede a face-to-face discussion of a specific topic. In other cases, they may be regularly scheduled as asynchronous events across a semester. The purpose of the blend relates to an individual faculty member’s reasons for introducing blended learning into a course. A range of studies have directed attention to the motivation behind teachers’ adoption of blended learning. For some staff it enriched the learning experience of students and enhanced learning and teaching effectiveness overall (Hodgson, 2005; Lang, 2000, Roberts, 2004), broadened access to essential course information, enhanced the amount and quality of student interaction, and increased student autonomy in using resources and finding resources for themselves (Bates & Poole, 2003; Bunker & Vardi, 2001). Faculty members also used blended learning approaches to achieve improvements in pedagogy, productivity, and access and convenience; to keep pace with a changing educational environment; and prepare students for future work roles and lifelong learning (Graham & Robinson, 2007; Hodgson, 2005). Research has also indicated that faculty members adopted blended learning as a result of student pressure to do so (Elgort, 2005). A US research study reported on the outcomes of a large course redesign project involving 30
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institutions which produced five distinct course redesign models, whose features were used to establish categories that defined the nature of blended courses (Twigg, 2003, p. 30)—supplemental, replacement, emporium, fully online, and buffet. Two of these categories—supplemental and replacement—were used in this study to define the nature of the blend evidenced in the courses taught by individual faculty members. The supplemental model retains the traditional course structure, but adds ICT-based activities to enhance face-to-face and/or outside class activities. The replacement model significantly changes the original course profile, for example, by reducing face-to-face meetings and replacing them with online activities aimed at encouraging interactivity amongst students. UK researchers Littlejohn and Pegler (2007) have suggested that the nature of blended learning environments across courses could be determined by examining the blend across the four components of space (virtual, face-to-face), time (the length of a course), media (tools and resources), and activity (learning activities). These authors defined activity blends as blends of online and face-to-face learning activities, where one activity is “wrapped around” another. An online activity may be directly linked to a face-to-face activity, such as an online discussion being linked to or supported by a lecture which immediately follows. Or, a class tutorial or practical class can be followed by student exploration of a set of web resources, or a group task conducted in the online environment.
Case Study as RRESE STRTEG The research study that is the focus of this chapter was located within a qualitative field of inquiry. Several interpretive paradigms serve to guide the qualitative researcher. These paradigms are “interpretive” because they channel the actions of
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the researcher and how they should be understood and studied (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998, p. 26). Four major interpretive paradigms for qualitative research as defined by Denzin and Lincoln (2000, pp. 19-20) are positivist and postpositivist, constructivist-interpretive, critical (Marxist, emancipatory), and feminist-poststructural. Case study lies within the constructivist-interpretive paradigm (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). This study drew on the definition of a case study determined by Creswell (1998, p. 61) as: an exploration of a bounded system or a case over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information, rich in context. This bounded system is bounded by time and place, and it is the case being studied – a program, an event, an activity, or individuals. The study also used case study as a research strategy, an approach favoured by Yin (2003), who argues that “how” and “why” questions in research are more likely to be answered by case studies, histories, and experiments. This study was designed as an instrumental case study (Stake, 1995), focused on ICT-enhanced blended learning in on-campus contexts in one university. It is also an example of both a collective case study, with its focus on the use of blended learning by six academic teachers, and a holistic case study, given its focus on the use of blended learning within a single institution. Case studies were used extensively in the literature to explore the “how” and “why” of faculty members’ early use of ICT in universities: (Bain, McNaught, Mills & Lueckenhausen, 1998; Fox & Hermann, 2000; Housego & Freeman, 2000; Tearle, Davis & Birbeck, 1998; Thomson & Holt, 1996). Case study has also been used to explore the scholarly dimensions of academics’ educational beliefs in relation to their discipline (Quinlan, 1997), and, within a scholarship of teaching framework (Boyer, 1999), to document and reflect upon four university faculty members’
early experiences with web-based instruction (Daugherty, Grubb, Hirsch & Gillis, 2000). In both studies, case study enabled the researchers to explore a wide range of themes and dimensions of teachers’ pedagogical practices.
RESE The setting for this study was a large regional university in Australia, one of several major higher education providers of off-campus education, geographically spread across several campuses, with total undergraduate and postgraduate course enrolments of close to 35,000 students. Many of the university’s courses were offered in both off-campus and on-campus mode. Most faculty members at the university taught courses within degree programs offered in both modes across a thirteen-week semester punctuated by assessment due dates and a final examination period. Current assessment practice at the university favoured final examinations as a summative assessment process, with some exceptions to this practice across faculties and within courses. Institutions around the globe in the late 1990s had responded to the “technological imperative” (Holt & Thompson, 1995) of ICT by introducing plans and policies to guide the introduction and use of the new technologies. This university’s early response to the challenges of the new technologies had resulted in a blueprint being developed for fully online off-campus and blended on-campus courses which specified a default online presence for all courses known as “online supported.” This descriptor equated to the “supplementary” level of web use that had been found to be the dominant level in an early survey of Australian universities (Bell, Bush, Nicholson, O’Brien & Tran, 2002). Each online supported course provided students access to an online course outline, web links and resources relevant to the course, direct links to the Library, and for students enrolled in off-campus mode, access to the university’s electronic as-
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signment submission system. Faculty members in this study had extended this online supported model to what the university called an “online facilitated” one, where teachers actively used the tools provided in the online course websites to enrich and add variety to the face-to-face classroom environment and provide opportunities for communication and collaboration amongst students. Professional development support for faculty members working in blended learning environments across the university was provided by a centralised teaching and learning unit, which had within it educational designers who were located within specific schools on its major campuses. The university had earlier introduced a peer support program for embedding ICT usage across the institution, and the Library had pioneered support for students’ use of its catalogues, databases and search engines through an online interactive tutorial accessible from the online course websites. As the university’s adoption of ICT grew, the role of the educational designer staff was increasingly focused on offering pedagogical advice and support to individual faculty members to prepare their online-supported courses for off-campus students, and, increasingly, using ICT to enhance on-campus teaching and learning.
Case Study DDESIGN The case study design for this study consisted of four major stages, adapted from Stake (1995) and Creswell (1998)—focusing the study, collecting the data, analysing and interpreting the data, and constructing and presenting the case. Within each stage were smaller, iterative steps and processes. A purposeful sampling approach was used (also referred to in the literature as purposive sampling), where the researcher selects participants for inclusion in a study “on the basis of knowledge of the population and the purpose of the research” (Kayrooz & Trevitt, 2005, p. 157).
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Purposeful sampling is aimed at choosing participants to study who illuminate the issues raised in the research questions (Creswell, 1998; Patton, 2002). The study sample consisted of six faculty members, five of whom were female, from four of the five faculties of the university, and located across four of its campuses. The sixth participant in the study was located at the university’s technology-enhanced campus, part of an educational precinct which included a senior high school and a vocational education institution. All faculty members in the sample were early adopters (Rogers, 2003) of ICT, that is, they had incorporated the online environment into their face-to-face teaching at an early stage in the university’s adoption of ICT-based blended learning. The choice of sample was determined by the need to provide a spread of representative teachers across multiple campuses and disciplines who used ICT with on-campus students, rather than a design to achieve a gender balance. There was no intent to sample all disciplines represented at the university, or to have an even number of teachers from each faculty. Two of the faculty members in the study were Science teachers teaching the same courses. They taught on different campuses and were recognised within the university as being innovative in their approaches to blended learning within their respective campuses. There were sufficient differences in the types of ICT tools and the ways in which they used these tools to include both in the sample. In accordance with the ethical agreement made with each teacher prior to starting the study, individuals were given a pseudonym to protect their identity and maintain anonymity. Data collection for the study spanned a oneyear period. The data collected included transcripts of interviews, analysis of course documentation, multi-media resources and websites, and extensive field notes compiled for each teacher. An individual case record described by Stenhouse (1978, p. 37) as “a parsimonious condensation of the case data” was constructed for each case.
Case Studies of ICT-Enhanced Blended Learning and Implications for Professional Development
TEPROFILES
FINDINGS
A brief synopsis of each of the participants in the study is provided below:
Dimensions of Blended Learning Environments
Joanne was an award-winning health sciences academic who used ICT in her teaching on a daily basis, and found in the use of the online chat tool a way of fostering peer support amongst her students while on clinical placements.
The study’s findings were framed as seven dimensions of blended learning environments (Figure 1) found across the six cases: the teacher, online, face-to-face and self study dimensions, the resource-based learning dimension, the institutional support dimension, and the organisational context dimension. The teacher dimension occupied a central position in the findings in relation to the other dimensions. The five elements in this dimension included the faculty member’s reasons for moving to blended learning, the blended learning pedagogies they adopted, the nature of the blend across their courses, how the faculty members saw their role, and the challenges they encountered as they embraced blended learning. The online dimension featured four elements: the types of media used, the range of activity blends across the courses, the use of online assessment, and the scaffolding support each faculty member provided to support students’ use of the online environment. The self-study dimension is defined as the time students spent working independently outside of scheduled class times, supported by both informational and interactive resources which were found in use by all the cases. The face-to-face dimension included three elements: teaching spaces, face-to-face classes and work placements. Faculty members used a range of lecture, tutorial, computer laboratory and practical laboratory face-to-face teaching spaces. Scheduled face-to-face classes were a mix of lectures, tutorials, seminars, workshops, meetings, practical classes and computer labs. Four of the teachers taught in courses with scheduled work placements, with locations in schools, hospitals and health services clinics in Australia and overseas.
Gillian was an enthusiastic science teacher with a wealth of experience in teaching hospitals and a strong computer background, who made extensive use of CD-ROMs to enhance the learning experiences of mature-age nursing students. Stephanie was a young career academic, recently acknowledged for her teaching excellence at the university, who had been exposed early in her teaching to the use of technologies in science teaching at one of Australia’s largest research universities. She used ICT to support nursing students learning about science. Helen was an experienced teacher with a strong drive to explore new territory in her teaching who saw it as her role to ensure that her young pre-service teachers were well prepared to use technologies in 21st century classrooms. James was an experienced academic with a strong research interest in the area of computer-supported collaborative work (CSCW) who used the new technologies to bring on- and off-campus students studying the same course closer together. Elizabeth was a practising textile artist and an experienced teacher in secondary, adult education, and higher education contexts for whom the use of ICT had breathed new life into the teaching of her discipline, art history.
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Figure 1. Dimensions of blended learning environments
The resource-based learning (RBL) dimension is a dominant feature of all the blended learning environments found across the cases. RBL supported teaching and learning in the online, face-to-face and self-study dimensions. The institutional support dimension refers to the information technology (IT), professional development, and library support available to teachers at the university. Professional development of faculty members for blended learning is explored in more detail later in this chapter. The organisational context dimension is the university where the study was located, described earlier in this chapter. This chapter focuses on the findings from the study that relate specifically to the teacher, online, RBL, and institutional support dimensions. The teacher and online dimensions are combined in a discussion of the nature of the blended learning pedagogy adopted across the six cases.
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Blended Learning Pedagogy The features of the blended learning pedagogy evidenced across the cases in the study included the use of different types of media, a range of activity blends, a continuum of use of online assessment, types of scaffolding support provided by faculty, the nature of the blend found across the teachers’ courses, and the motivation of faculty members to embrace blended learning.
Media Blends Based on a typology of media types (Beetham & Sharpe, 2007), five media types were found in use across the cases—narrative, interactive, communicative, adaptive, and integrative. Three of these—narrative, interactive, and communicative—were used by all teachers in the study. Narrative media were evidenced through the use
Case Studies of ICT-Enhanced Blended Learning and Implications for Professional Development
of digital images, the digital camera, PowerPoint™ slides, CD-ROMs, video files, and web pages. Interactive media used included search engines, online databases, portal websites, and an online quiz tool. Communicative media included the use of online chat, course forums, listservs, groupware, and the synchronous chat capability of the LC_MOO. Use of adaptive media was limited to the science-related simulations, games and models contained in CD-ROMs used by two teachers, and phonetic transcription and electropalatograph tools used by another. Three teachers had made use of integrative media—two combined traditional print and ICT based tools in two of their respective assessment tasks, and a third teacher made extensive use of community-building open source, web-based learning environments and the MOO (Multi-user Object Oriented), a text-based virtual space that allows users to create characters, objects, and rooms and where learners can interact synchronously (Haughey & Anderson, 1998) in addition to the university’s in-house system to manage the student learning environment.
Activity Blends As found by Littlejohn & Pegler (2007), activity blends designed by teachers combined online and face-to-face classroom activities. In this study these blends included: •
•
Synchronous debates in the course forum, followed by face-to-face discussion in the lecture; using the web and course forums to facilitate completion of a paper-based assessment task; Working in face-to-face classes on collaborative group tasks and posting related information and reports on the course forums; presenting in tutorials and posting summaries on the course forum; exploring resources contained in web-based study guides linked to weekly campus-based tutorials;
•
•
Using online interactive quizzes to self-test understanding prior to practical classes; using quizzes, games and interactive models from CD-ROMs in face-to-face science classes; Accessing resources on a teacher-developed website to facilitate understanding of concepts discussed in lectures or practical classes; researching websites for a face-toface debate; listening to and identifying chest sounds on a website, then answering questions and discussing answers questions in a practical lab class.
Online Assessment Two participants in the study who taught science subjects made no use of online assessment in their courses and continued to maintain the midsemester tests and formal examinations traditional to teaching in their discipline. One restricted her use of online assessment to a first-year course she taught, and another required that students use the course forum and undertake other computer-based tasks to satisfy the assessment requirements in both her courses. Moderate use of online assessments was evidenced in one of the cases where the faculty member required use of the course forums to post tutorial summaries and to participate in discussions, provided an option of submitting an essay online, and required the inclusion in a portfolio assessment of evidence of forum participation and web-based research. A fully online assessment approach was evident in the case of another teacher, where all the assessment tasks were developed by all students within the online environment and submitted electronically, and there was no formal examination.
Scaffolding Support for Learners All teachers in the study supported student learning by using the type of scaffolds, or support and assistance, which McLoughlin (2004) had found
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in her research and termed orientation, task support, and procedural scaffolds to support student learning. Coaching support was provided by one teacher (McLoughlin, 2002, 2004). Table 1 shows details of the range of scaffolding support across the cases.
The Nature of the Blend Across the Cases The study also showed evidence of enrichment (Twigg, 2003) and transforming (Graham & Robison, 2007) blends involving changes to what
Collis (1997) called the “pedagogical profile” of the teachers’ courses. Enrichment blends used ICT to enhance student learning, widen access to resources and increase opportunities for communication, but did not involve significant changes to the original course structure. Examples from the cases included providing a single course website for on-and off-campus students studying the same course; teacher-developed websites to provide resources for students; the use of ICT tools to promote interaction between students, explain difficult language within a course, enhance engagement with processes and content,
Table 1. Types and examples of scaffolding support across cases Scaffold types and explanation
Examples
Orientation and communication of expectations—Informing students about the requirements of the course
All teachers provided online course outlines describing learning outcomes, content, assessment tasks.
Coaching—A teacher, peer or learning resource that helps perform a task
Peer coaching provided for mature age students in computer skills.
Task support—Providing a series of questions or headings guiding students in performance of a task
A faculty member is present when students are working in computer labs; structured set of questions provided weekly in online course outlines for (a)learning journal development and (b)tasks to perform to prepare for clinical practice; Key questions in online website to guide students to explore web materials; Weekly topics in online course outlines guided students to move from reading, to exploring web links, to answering questions relevant to assessment tasks; Practical lab handbook questions using websites guided students’ weekly lab preparation; Moving from structured lecture notes on course forums in first year to less structure in second year to promote student note-taking skills.
Procedural scaffolds—(a)Supporting learners in using tools and resources and providing support for learning and resource sharing; and (b)Providing support for learning and resource sharing
Mandatory online library database tutorial; Demonstration of use of course forums, chat, listserv, email and of forums; Computer training for first year students; Assisting students to use digital camera and make digital images. Organising availability of CD-ROMs for after-class access; Organising collaborative learning activities using discussion forum and online chat; Requiring students to post tutorial work on discussion forum; Collaborative group work and assessments provided as examples for future cohorts.
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appeal to different student learning styles, and to facilitate communication between students, and with the teacher. Transforming blends involved changes made to the original course structure, resulting in a reduction of face-to-face time on campus and making significant use of the online environment as part of the learning design of the course. In this study, one faculty member made significant structural changes to the course which reduced face-to-face meetings and enhanced interaction between students and between students with the course content. Another case highlighted how one teacher provided a virtual learning environment in addition to the online supported website provided by the university, where most of the learning for on-campus students occurred.
Motivation to Adopt Blended Learning The study revealed that the affordances of ICT as described by Conole & Dyke (2004) were strong motivators for teachers in this study to adopt blended learning across their courses. These staff appreciated the new technologies: •
• •
•
•
For dissemination of information about course aims, outcomes, assessment, and resources for learning; For enhancing understanding of complex concepts associated with their discipline; For bringing authenticity to the learning environment through modelling processes associated with professional practice in the discipline or through using tools commonly in use in the work environment; For extending the classroom beyond the walls of the university or a textbook that would not have been possible earlier; and For communication and collaboration purposes, which involved storing of student work and student discussions as archival material for current and future students, and for research and self-study purposes.
Moving to blended learning had enabled teachers to provide access for students to virtual spaces to acquire information and resources, perform tasks, and collaborate with each other. They created blended learning environments to prepare students for future work roles and to equip them with the technological literacy skills they would need as lifelong learners, promote social interaction among their students, either between on-campus and off-campus students, or to enhance interaction amongst on-campus students as they engaged in learning tasks or were isolated from each other while on work placements. In three instances in this study, there was evidence that ICT use facilitated the convergence, or bringing together of on-campus and off-campus students, supporting an example of another type of blended learning described by Osguthorpe and Graham (2003) when students working in different modes of study come together in the online environment. Faculty members also favoured a move to blended learning because it expanded choice of content for students and facilitated the integration of computer-based activities with traditional classroom tasks. There was also a high degree of motivation amongst the teachers in this study to use technology to enhance learner independence, by promoting student research of particular topics and providing students with different tools to access information for developing their own content as they progressed through the semester. Several teachers modelled their use of ICT in class to show students how to find information for themselves and promote student use of these media in self-study time. These findings are consistent with the individual and institutional studies in the literature focused on reasons for adoption of blended learning (Bates & Poole, 2003; Bunker & Vardi, 2001; Cook, Owston & Garrison, 2004; Elgort, 2005; Hodgson, 2005, Lang, 2000, Roberts, 2004). Only two teachers in the study spoke of any pressure within their school or faculty to embrace
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ICT, an issue on which the literature reviewed for this research is silent. One individual spoke of student pressure to create a single learning environment for his on-campus and off-campus students, an issue mentioned earlier in this chapter. Unlike the US research into blended learning of Osguthorpe and Graham (2003), in this study cost-effectiveness and ease of revision did not feature as motivators for teachers to adopt blended learning.
Teacher Role The study provided insights into how each of the faculty members perceived their role as a teacher. Their perceptions of their roles underlined the importance of their commitment to their learners. Some saw themselves as facilitators or guides of student learning, helping to make students more knowledgeable, more able to find information, and more self sufficient as learners. Others saw themselves in a nurturing role, supporting their students’ journey through a course and supporting the professional socialisation process. Several teachers were moving away from what Oliver and Herrington (2001) called content-based learning to task-based learning, experiencing a shift from their discipline’s traditional approach to teaching which had favoured a transmission style of delivery, to an approach that used ICT to encourage and facilitate understanding. While this study did not try to explain individual attributes that made these teachers early adopters of ICT in their university, it identified in each individual an enthusiasm and a willingness to push the boundaries of their ICT use further. Such attitudes are consistent with Rogers’s (2003) descriptions of early adopters of an innovation. This study showed how teachers actively worked to blend their courses through their overall approaches to course planning, their focus on combining the strengths of both the face-to-face and the online learning environments, and their eagerness to shift their pedagogical approaches
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to accommodate the best features of both environments. The findings of the study showed faculty members adopting both acquisition and contribution approaches to learning (Sfard, 1998). The acquisition metaphor equates learning with individual enrichment through the acquisition of facts, representations and content. The role of the teacher is to deliver, convey, facilitate and mediate. The contribution metaphor is conceived of as the idea of knowing or learning as participation, particularly within a community of learners. The teacher’s dominant role is one of expert participant, facilitator and mentor. Sfard (1998) argued that both acquisition and contribution are necessary for learning to occur – students have to acquire knowledge before they can apply and adapt it (Meredith & Newton, 2004, p. 46).
Resource-Based Learning Resource-based learning (RBL) approaches underpinned the teaching and learning processes in evidence across all the cases in this study. Resources provided opportunities for students to engage in what Laurillard (2002) described as “mediated learning”. Student use of resources was encouraged by faculty members demonstrating their use in class, designing learning activities which focused on their use, and providing supplemental lists of resources in course outlines and study guides. Collis and Strijker’s (2004) analysis of the role played by teachers in adapting resources to a particular learning context was supported by this study’s findings; that most resources used by staff were pure (unchanged), while some were integrated with a learning activity (pure, combined), and some were adapted by individual teachers for use in class and in learning activities. Table 2 shows a list of informational and interactive resources (Oliver, 2002) used across the cases. Informational resources were a mix of pre-digital (print) and digital resources (Hill & Hannafin, 2001), used in class and as self-study
Case Studies of ICT-Enhanced Blended Learning and Implications for Professional Development
Table 2. Resources used across cases Informational resources Online course outlines, textbooks, journals, reading (print and electronic); study guides, teacher developed websites, external websites, students’ assignments and group work; learning journals, handouts, tutorial summaries, student presentation summaries, publishers’ online learning centres, guest lecturers, lecture notes, CD-ROMs for self study. Interactive resources Computerised phonetic transcription programs, websites, electro-palatograph, CD-ROMS (animations, images, games, video clips, quizzes), publishers online learning centres, online quizzes, specimens, LC_MOO, community building software, library databases, coursespecific websites with questions, activities, interactive websites.
Table 3. Use of courseware to support learning stages Learning stage/ Courseware type
Examples
Conceptualisation stage/ Primary courseware
Online outlines (all teachers); Specially designed websites and web-based topic notes; PowerPoint™ summaries of lectures; Summaries of tutorial notes placed on course forums; CD-ROMs
Construction stage/ Secondary courseware
Online tutorial on use of library databases; Research of websites; Links to websites providing instructions on using software for CSCW work; Phonetics transcription CD-ROM; Online quiz to reinforce concepts and prepare for practical classes
Contextualisation stage/ Tertiary courseware
Group work discussions and summaries posted to course forums; Community education websites made by students available to all; Previous student work and student discussion logs archived in virtual learning environment; Course forums discussions and online chat available to on- and off-campus students; Questions from students and teacher responses available to all students on course forums; Online chat facilitates discussion between students
resources by the students. Interactive resources were used primarily in class time, but those available on CD-ROM and through websites could be accessed outside of class by the students. The context of individual’s resource use varied across the cases. Teachers encouraged student use of these resources through their demonstrated use of them in face-to-face classes, in designing learning activities which focused on their use, and in recommended lists of resources they provided in online course outlines and study guides. Resources used by staff in this study were further examined using Mayes’s (2002) conceptualisation framework explained earlier in this chapter. Table 3 illustrates that all teachers in
this study used all three types of courseware to support the three stages of learning as promoted by Mayes. Teachers in this study created resource-based learning environments (RBLEs) to widen information access, enhance student understanding, enrich the mix of resources available to students, enable flexibility in access in terms of location and time, provide opportunities for students for practice and revision, appeal to different learning styles of students, and to promote self-study and independent learning skills. For some faculty members the use of RBLEs offered a way of shifting their teaching approach from a focus on content, to a focus on enrichment of the learning
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processes. For three teachers, RBLEs achieved economies of scale when their students studying in on- and off-campus contexts made use of them.
Institutional Support Challenges The study showed that all participants had experienced challenges as early adopters of ICT-enhanced blended learning. One of these challenges was a lack of consistency in the level of support for teachers for blended learning at the faculty and school levels. Some staff drew attention to the IT and computer infrastructure support at their particular campus. For some individuals in this study workload pressures were recognised as a by-product of their adoption of blended learning. Course websites which were additional to the university’s online facilitated sites were maintained by three teachers and required regular updating. One faculty member spoke of the many hours spent setting up the structures for her courses and organising the resources and library support that framed them both. By building in computer-based learning activities and reducing the face-to-face time spent with her students, she found herself spending a lot of time answering student emails and little time to monitor student work on the course forums. What was clear across all the cases in this study, as teachers faced challenges such as these, they were motivated to seek new ways to adapt to them and to look for solutions as to how they could improve their practice in using ICT.
RECOMMENDTIONSFOR PROFESSIONl DeDEVELOPMENT Institutional responses to the challenges of blended learning are frequently addressed by re-examining the nature and scope of professional development provided for teachers. If this professional development is to be effective, a range of approaches must be canvassed and ad-
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opted, and the professional development function within institutions must be capable of providing sustainable, ongoing, and targeted support to its staff. In planning professional development for blended learning, there is a need to consider the local context in which faculty members work, their beliefs about teaching and learning, their current teaching approaches, and institutional workload policies and reward systems in place to support them as they engage with blended learning. There is a greater likelihood of successful adoption of blended learning in an institution if an environment is created that supports opportunities for these teachers to trial new teaching and learning methods, and encourages them to support each other and share knowledge and skills. Institutional support for campus-wide and even inter-institutional projects that allow for cross-fertilisation of ideas and for staff to learn from each other in supportive environments is essential. Teachers need opportunities to share ideas, experiences, and reflections with others as they engage with the principles and practices of blended learning. As they practice their newly learned skills, and seek expert or experienced pedagogical advice when they require it, there is a greater likelihood of them successfully adopting blended learning into their everyday teaching and learning practices. A framework for professional development can be devised that emphasises the advantages of blended learning for teachers, students, and the institution. Part of this framework would include a program for faculty members that is structured and developmental and scaffolds a set of skills in a range of ICT plus an understanding of pedagogy in blended learning environments. Included in this program would be a focus on the shift in the role of the individual teacher from a teacher-centred perspective to a more facilitative and collaborative role; skills in working in course teams to design whole programs of study for blended learning environments; working with digital resources and repurposing them for blended environments; and the ability to adapt to changes to work practices
Case Studies of ICT-Enhanced Blended Learning and Implications for Professional Development
associated with the use of ICT-enhanced blended learning. As teachers themselves become more expert in blended learning and the use of ICT as affordances for blended learning, they can provide support and mentoring to others seeking these same skills. The web is a major source of professional development for teachers for blended learning. Institutions use websites in several ways: imparting information and providing resource-based support; providing pre and post activities that wrap around a face-to-face event on campus about blended learning; and providing a space where faculty members’s innovative use of blended learning approaches can be shared with other teachers in the institution and communication between them about these practices is enabled (Kandlebinder, 2001, 2003). A note of caution about providing web-based workshops for academic staff is given in a recent review of research related to professional online development for the professions (Maor & Volet, 2007) which challenged the extent to which online workshops provided interactivity and other forms of social learning that promote sharing of knowledge and creation of learning communities amongst the teachers it was targeting. New Canadian research (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008, p. 52) recommends a blended community of inquiry (CoI) approach to professional development combining face-to-face, web-based, and independent activities, which collectively provide “the necessary flexibility, structure, and organization to support and sustain the [blended learning] course redesign process.” When planning a website to support academics’ adoption of blended learning, these “good practice” approaches (O’Reilly, Ellis & Newton, 2000) can help to enhance faculty use of the site: •
Showcase through the use of exemplars or case studies evidence of effective blended and online teaching and learning from a range of disciplines;
• •
Make information available about ICT and its affordances for blended learning; and publish staff and student evaluations of the effectiveness of blended learning innovations in the institution.
Recent research (Sharpe & Oliver 2007, p. 120) about the relationship of resource-based learning approaches such as the use of exemplars or case studies located on a website to the professional learning experiences of teaching staff stressed the importance of concentrating on the design of resources that can best facilitate the mediating of teachers’ practices, or “moving from representations to interventions.” A small Australian study (Wilson, Thomson & Malfroy, 2006; Thomson & Wilson, 2007) based on the use and evaluation of web-based resources for professional development of teachers in the area of assessment indicated that the biggest challenge was how to integrate and contextualise these digital resources with individual faculty member’s everyday teaching practices.
IMPLICTIONS This chapter has identified seven dimensions of blended learning environments arising from the cases in this study and has focused on several of these in detail. Attention has been placed on the pedagogical approaches of individual faculty members through detailed analyses of the media and activity blends they achieved using ICT tools in use at the time, and the changes to their role that they experienced as a result of their adoption of ICT-enhanced blended learning. The significance of RBL to blended learning approaches has also been shown in this research. The study provided evidence that teachers actively sought to maximise the affordances of ICT to improve the quality of education, widen student access, and enhance interaction between students and staff and students with their peers.
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The research showed how individual faculty members worked to blend their courses through their overall approaches to course planning, their focus on combining the strengths of both the faceto-face and the online learning environments, and their eagerness to shift their pedagogical approaches to accommodate the best features of both the face-to-face and the online environments. While this study was not a focus on an wholeof-institution response to the adoption of blended learning across the university, it did show how some teachers in one institution had responded to the “technological imperative” of the new technologies and were adapting currently available ICT tools to their individual circumstances. Each individual case showed evidence of early use of blended learning practices which was characterised by the use of ICT tools and resources whose affordances enhanced student access to information and broadened their opportunities for learning. Evidence of converged learning environments in this study is an inevitable result of the decline of historical boundaries between on-campus and off-campus students that use of ICT has facilitated in higher education institutions generally. The university in this study was at the stage of what Mitchell, Dipetta and Kerr (2001) labelled the “Wagon Train” when a whole institution begins to move towards the adoption of ICT. The professional development function for teaching and learning at the university, along with IT and the library, supported this move. The university faced a challenge not unfamiliar to any other university that had a centralised structure to support teaching and learning – to provide a consistent level of support for blended learning across all faculties, schools, and in this university’s case, its distributed campuses. Since this study was conducted, the university has developed more sophisticated teaching and learning policies which emphasise continued enhancement of online learning environments. The ICT tools used by teachers in this study have been further enhanced by a suite of
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communication tools and resources available to students through a new virtual learning environment, more sophisticated than its predecessor, and designed to strengthen learning communities to link on-campus and off-campus students.
CONCLUSION Teachers in this study were introducing blended learning approaches within traditional learning spaces such as lecture theatres, tutorial rooms, and laboratories. Only one of them was working within a more technology-enhanced campus whose design was intended to promote the use of ICT. For several of these teachers these spaces were less than adequate in terms of basic equipment such as data projection and internet access. For blended learning practices to become more mainstreamed within the instutution, strong and robust technological infrastructure is required and learning spaces designed that actively support the use of the new technologies. In this study, there was a clear disciplinary focus to individual faculty member’s explorations of blended learning approaches with their on-campus students, supported by their backgrounds and previous experiences at other universities. Further studies of blended learning could investigate specific changes to course profiles as a result of teachers redesigning their courses for blended learning; advance current understanding of the relationship between learning stages and the uses of different type of courseware in blended learning environments; and focus specifically on teacher planning for blended learning either within a single faculty or across faculties working with single or multiple courses.
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Mitchell, C., Dipetta, T., & Kerr, J. (2001). The frontier of Web-based instruction. Education and Information Technologies, 6(2), 105-121. Oliver, R. (2002). Learning settings and activities. In H. Adelsberger, B. Collis & J. Pawlowski (Eds.), Handbook on information technologies for education and training. (pp. 119-231). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Oliver, R., & Herrington, J. (2001). Teaching and learning online. A beginner’s guide to e-learning and e-teaching in higher education. Perth, WA: Centre for Research in Information Technology and Communications, Edith Cowan University. O’Reilly, M., Ellis, A., & Newton, D. (2000). The role of university web pages in staff development: Supporting teaching and learning online. Paper presented at AusWeb2K, the Sixth Australian World Wide Web Conference, 12-17 June, Cairns, Australia. Retrieved March 2, 2008, from http:// ausweb.scu.edu.au/aw2k/papers/o_reilly/paper. html Osguthorpe, R., & Graham, C. (2003). Blended learning environments: Definitions and issues. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 4(3), 227-233. Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). London: Sage Publications. Quinlan, K. (1997). Case studies of academics’ educational beliefs about their discipline: Towards a discourse on scholarly dimensions of teaching. Paper presented at the Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia Annual Conference, 8-11 July, Adelaide, South Australia. Roberts, G. (2004). Teaching using the Web: Conceptions and approaches from a phenomenographic perspective. In P. Goodyear, S. Banks, V. Hodgson & D. McConnell (Eds.), Advances in research on networked learning. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer. 257
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Rogers, E. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York: The Free Press. Sfard, A. (1998). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 27(2), 4-13. Sharpe, R., & Oliver, M. (2007). Supporting practitioners’ design for learning: Principles of effective resources and interventions. In Beetham, H., & Sharpe, R. (Eds), Rethinking pedagogy for a digital age. Designing and delivering e-learning. (pp. 117-128). London: Routledge. Stake, R. (1995). The art of case study research. London: Sage Publications. Stenhouse, L. (1978). Case study and case records: Towards a contemporary history of education. British Educational Research Journal, 4(2), 21-39. Tearle, P., Davis, N., & Birbeck, N. (1998). Six case studies of information technology-assisted teaching and learning in higher education in England. Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 7(1), 51-70. Thomson, R. & Wilson, G. (2008). Promoting staff learning about assessment through digital representations of practice. Evaluating a pilot
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project. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 24(2), 143-149. Retrieved March 11, 2008, from http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet24/ thomson.html Thompson, D., & Holt, D. (1996). Tertiary pedagogy encounters the technological imperative. Distance Education, 17(2), 335-354. Twigg, C. (2003). Improving learning and reducing costs: New models for online learning. Educause Review, September/October 2003, 29-38. Wilson, G. (2007) Using information and communications technology in higher education. Unpublished doctoral folio, Deakin University, Australia. Wilson, G., Thomson, R., & Malfroy, J. (2006). Gathering online representations of practice about assessment for use as a professional development tool: A case in progress. In L. Markauskaite, P. Goodyear, & P. Reimann (Eds.), Whose learning? Whose technology? Proceedings of 23rd Annual ASCILITE Conference (Vol 2, pp. 893-897). Sydney: Sydney University Press. Retrieved August 24, 2008 from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/sydney06/proceeding/pdf_papers/p47.pdf Yin, R. (2003). Case study research design and methods (3rd ed.). London: Sage Publications.
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Chapter XIV
Blending Technology into an Academic Practice Qualification for University Teachers Cathy Gunn University of Auckland, New Zealand Adam Blake University of Auckland, New Zealand
ABSTRACT An accredited course in Academic Practice aligns with university and national strategic goals related to teaching and learning enhancement within a research-intensive institution. The course was originally designed to be taught in face to face mode with an elearning dimension to provide the flexibility required by students in full time employment. Participation in a national implementation initiative for E-Learning Guidelines created an opportunity to reconceptualize the course for blended learning. A range of contextual factors influenced both the pace and the scale of technology enhancement. The design-based research process adopted for review and redevelopment of one of the core subjects for a Post Graduate Certificate course is described in this chapter.
INTRODUCTION The Post-Graduate Certificate in Academic Practice is a relatively new qualification designed to promote an institutional strategic objective to enhance the quality of teaching within a researchintensive university. Academic staff at the university are typically appointed for discipline-based
research experience rather than for their credentials as teachers. Development of an accredited tertiary qualification reflects an international trend towards professionalization of teaching across the university sector. In a context where demand for accreditation of tertiary teachers is increasing, the University aims to maintain its position amongst the leaders in the field by offering a qualification
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Blending Technology into an Academic Practice Quali.cation for University T eachers
designed to meet the academic career development needs of its own staff. The course is offered by the University’s Centre for Academic Development, because senior management identified the broadly based experience of the staff in this unit as the appropriate base for the initiative. Staff in this centre come from various disciplinary backgrounds and typically have teaching or educational design qualifications as well as discipline based higher degrees. Senior members of the department have many years of relevant experience, and have contributed to the evolution of theory and practice in the field of academic development. For an initial two-year trial period, the Certificate was offered as an internally approved course prior to application for formal accreditation through the national body. During this time, the overall approach to curriculum design and delivery was reviewed and further developed. The review process included an independent evaluation conducted by a senior member of staff from another university faculty, various forms of feedback solicited by the teaching team and reference to evolving literature in the field. Together, these sources provided the basis for ongoing refinement of course content, activities and assessments. One of two core courses for the accredited version of the Post-Graduate Certificate in Academic Practice (abbreviated to PGCert for the remainder of the chapter) explores a raft of generic learning, teaching and assessment theories and perspectives. It also aims to advance the creative use of technology in teaching and learning to reflect the current institutional environment and international trends in this direction. Prior to accreditation, the course was designed around face-to-face teaching sessions presented as a fortnightly series of community of practice meetings where participants met to discuss readings, engage in reflection on practice and share experience. This structure was revised and supplemented by online activities following accreditation. The
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online element was added partly to accommodate the schedules of participants, for whom current employment in a teaching position is an enrolment requirement. Another key objective was to model good educational practice through the introduction and integration of elearning tools and strategies into the curriculum. The aim was to equip students with sufficient knowledge and experience of elearning strategies to consider applying these within the context of their own teaching. It was anticipated that this knowledge would be gained through a combination of teacher led activities, shared experience and collaboration with peers. Given the campus-based nature of the majority of courses offered by the institution, there was no intention to replace face-to-face teaching with online learning in any substantial way. However, it is realistic to expect that an appropriate blend of technology-supported teaching and learning strategies will be used in an increasing number of courses to enhance the learning experience of campus-based students. An institutional trend in this direction supports student engagement in increasingly large classes by offering flexible opportunities for communication, interactive learning, formative assessment and feedback through the use of various elearning tools and strategies. Development of the PGCert as a blended learning experience is a move to actively promote the knowledge and skills behind creative elearning solutions rather than leaving their acquisition to chance. In an institution with class sizes varying from ten to over a thousand, applying the principles of good educational practice can present considerable challenges to teachers. In many instances, elearning strategies blended with core classroom-based activities, such as lectures, labs and tutorials play a key role in the development of successful learning designs for the current environment. It is therefore critical for teachers to acquire both the conceptual knowledge and the practical skills involved in design and implementation of blended learning.
Blending Technology into an Academic Practice Qualification for University Teachers
In the current context, this requires a significant conceptual shift as well as the acquisition of an entirely new skill set for many early career and experienced university teachers alike. A transformative and immersive learning experience was considered the most appropriate way to articulate these objectives. With the PGCert, it was planned from the outset to include elearning strategies as an integral part. This acknowledges the value of sustained and situated learning as a professional development strategy for teaching academics. The need for further development of the use of elearning tools and strategies among staff is acknowledged at most levels of the institution. Various objectives can thus be served, i.e. to enhance student learning, streamline administrative processes and facilitate communication. It is also important, at an institutional level, to generate a more experienced user base to support informed decision making around technology investment and implementation. At a course specific level, the aim was to model the degrees of flexibility of access to study materials as well as the range of elearning activity types and communication channels that participants can use, and from which their own students might benefit. Although the PGCert was specifically designed for in-house students, the unique ‘academic citizenship’ focus of one of the courses has already generated interest from beyond the host institution, and the possibility of enrolment for off-campus study might be considered once the qualification is fully established. On reflection, it may be fair to say that in the first iteration of the PGCert, the use of elearning tools and strategies was more of a practically driven addition than a purposeful and fully integrated or blended element. This fairly typical scenario reflected a combination of the experience base of the teaching team and the underlying collaborative approach to the course. An incentive to focus and reflect on instructional design of the elearning dimension came in the form of a call for contributions to a national New Zealand
Tertiary Education Commission funded project: Implementing the eLearning Guidelines. Support for this and a number of other elearning initiatives reflected government commitment to implementation of a national Tertiary eLearning Strategy. The eLearning Guidelines were developed by a project led by another New Zealand university with support from an earlier national funding round and are presented in wiki format at http:// elg.massey.ac.nz. They relate to learning design, teaching relationships and support provision from teacher, learner and institutional perspectives. The project objectives were to produce generic guidelines to assist the design and evaluation of effective elearning strategies, with ongoing collaborative development by the elearning community as a long-term goal. The aim of the subsequent implementation project was to foster the degree of activity and community engagement around the guidelines deemed necessary to achieve these objectives. The case described in this chapter outlines the actions taken to achieve the aim of a more purposeful integration in the blend of face to face and technology supported teaching and learning within a core course for the PGCert. The student focused sections of the national elearning guidelines are used as both the catalyst and the benchmark. The chapter features the first three stages of a design-based research study. In particular, this includes a detailed description of the theoretical grounding, conceptual development and context specific implementation plan for a blended learning course. These critical aspects of the design based research methodology distinguish it from other approaches that do not require inclusion of explicit theoretical elements. The methodology, which is outlined below in the literature review section, adds this critical element to offer an iterative, evidence-based approach to educational development. The chapter does not include data gathered from post-implementation evaluation activity because this stage had not been reached at the time of writing.
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Lture Review The basis of redesign for integration of elearning elements into the course draws on three areas of the current literature; (1) design based research, (2) models of effective professional development for tertiary teachers, and (3) blended learning. The study is framed within the design based research methodology with the overall aim of defining the best possible blend of online and classroom-based activities for the target group. Achievement of the optimum blend requires grounding in theory-informed articulation of the course objectives and teaching model, as well as a collaborative basis for an iterative cycle of development, implementation, evaluation and refinement. The aim of this chapter is to describe both the conceptual basis and the process of implementation, review and redesign in sufficient detail for readers to understand the design principles and implementation phases involved. The intention is to encourage informed debate, and application of similar processes of course design and teaching practice should others deem the methodology and method suitable to their own area of professional focus. The theoretical basis for the development is described in detail in the following sections.
A Design-Based Research Methodology Design-based research has evolved in recent years in response to challenges that faced educational research in general, and technology supported learning in particular, during the last decades of the 20th century. A summary review of that period reveals that research methods originally developed for use within scientific disciplines were also applied to educational studies (Reeves, Herrington & Oliver, 2005). While these predominantly quantitative and experimental methods were already well established within the academic community, experience revealed that they did not address the myriad of variable and contextual
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factors encountered in a way that produced useful data from studies of causal factors associated with educational innovations. The large and/or uniform sample sizes required to make experimental methods meaningful were often not available in educational settings, and the data produced by quantitative studies was not fine-grained enough to identify significant contextual factors or cause and effect relationships. Furthermore, a prevailing tendency to separate theory from practice resulted in poor guidance for those engaged in practical tasks such as educational resource design or activity planning. While there will always be a place within the discipline for the kind of basic research which “seeks to widen the understanding of the phenomena of a scientific field” (Stokes, 1997, p. 7), the greater need in the field of elearning and blended learning is for applied research which is “directed towards some individual or group or societal need or use” (Stokes, 1997, p. 8). A general shift towards qualitative and case based research methods occurred towards the end of the 20th century, as researchers continued to analyze the methodological problem in the quest for workable solutions. While the shift provoked questions about validity, reliability and potential to generalize, many educational researchers found the wider range of methods more suited to their purpose. The critics’ point about limited ability to generalize findings was acknowledged, as a large number of context specific variables and study designs are characteristic of case based research. Current consensus seems to have settled on a range of qualitative research methods as suitable for different purposes with acknowledgement of the scope and limitations associated with each. The general approach is to present rich and detailed descriptions of each case to allow readers to consider the range of case specific factors, and to draw their own conclusions about the possibility of similar outcomes resulting from application of principles or methods to a different set of circumstances.
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One systematic approach that has evolved to address concerns raised by the qualitative versus quantitative debate is design-based research. According to the Design-Based Research Collective (2003), this method “blends empirical educational research with the theory-driven design of learning environments.” (p. 5) The authors go on to note that the methodology is important “for understanding how, when and why educational innovations work in practice.” (p. 5) Five main characteristics of good design-based research are identified as follows: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The two central goals of designing [effective] learning environments and developing theories of learning are intertwined. Research and development activities are conducted in continuous cycles of design, implementation, analysis and refinement. One output from design focused research is shareable theory that communicates relevant factors and implications to other practitioners. Research focuses on how designs function and interact with other factors that are present in authentic contexts. Appropriate methods are available to document and connect processes of enactment to outcomes of interest (Design-Based Research Collective, 2003).
The method adopts a holistic approach to educational innovations that is similar in important respects to the “framework for effective use of educational technology” described in the seminal work “Rethinking University Teaching” by Diana Laurillard (1993). In this framework, learning is defined as the outcome of meaningful interaction between learner, teacher and medium or artefacts. While the design-based research approach has many characteristics in common with other qualitative research approaches, there are three major points of difference: a) acknowledgement of explicit educational theory as the basis for
learning design; b) focus on context as an integral part of any learning activity; and c) the objective of generating models of successful innovation rather than testing particular learning designs or programs. Thus the process moves from specific and detailed description of cases towards an evidence-based iterative design, implementation and evaluation model. The process of linking the specific case to the general model in a meaningful way is complex. Some key challenges faced by design-based researchers include: •
•
•
The ability to capture the complexity of learning environments where a large number of both tacit and overt decisions and actions are involved, even with relatively well-defined innovations; Ensuring, through collaborative endeavour, that interpretations of data are in fact valid; Meeting demand for the time and resources needed to refine locally valuable innovations without compromising the objective of generating and communicating shareable knowledge to a wider academic community.
Simply stated, design-based research aims to provide “a coherent methodology that bridges theoretical research and educational practice” (Design-Based Research Collective, 2003, p. 8). This is achieved through research activity that allows the process of innovation to be examined in detail, and the underlying principles to be defined and transferred for successful application in other contexts. The design-based research study described in this chapter is grounded in the theoretical principles of academic development and situated learning in a community of practice as key elements of a course enhancement initiative. The chapter follows the study through conceptualization, pilot testing, and the initial stage of implementation of a blended learning design produced for a specific
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target group and institutional context. In the style of design-based research studies, the intention is to continue a longitudinal study to test the application of these principles to practice through continuous review and refinement of the course of study. The principles derived from this phase of the study may be applied to the design and presentation of other courses and professional development activities. With local constraints accepted, it is assumed that similar principles and process could equally well be applied to other contexts and that similar outcomes would be achieved.
Situated Learning, Professional Development and E The concept of situated learning has been accepted as having broad significance to all aspects of education for some time now. In relation to knowledge and learning, Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989) noted that: “Knowledge is situated being in part a product of the activity, context and culture in which it is developed and used.” (p. 32) Situated learning is acknowledged as a cornerstone to professional development of teachers because of the complex and multi-layered nature of professional knowledge in this field. At a general level tertiary teachers’ knowledge is expected to include models of student learning and motivation and curriculum development as well as discipline relevant content. Sharpe (2004) proposes that professional knowledge cannot be characterized in a manner that is independent of how it is learned and used. Experienced practitioners have complex and highly personal knowledge bases that are constructed from experience and used in a fairly intuitive way. Much of this complex knowledge base is tacit rather than explicit, and so practitioners cannot always articulate what they do or how they do it. One aim of professional development is therefore to make the expert’s tacit knowledge explicit, i.e. to interrogate tacit knowledge in order for it to be used as the basis to construct explicit knowledge. One effective
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way to do this is to provide opportunities for teachers to share knowledge about teaching; to make it explicit, reflect on it, interpret it and use it as a step towards further learning. There is an underlying assumption in this process that knowledge is constructed within a social context, and so externalizing knowledge in professional development contexts benefits the entire community, not just individual teachers. Lave and Wenger (1991) analyze the social aspects of professional learning in their highly acclaimed work on communities of practice. The concept of situated learning that they describe is embedded within a context that includes elements of socialization within a professional community. Kolb’s cycle of experience, reflection, abstraction and experimentation also has implications for design of professional development activities (Kolb, 1984). A choice for situation of a professional development program can be either within disciplines – where academics tend to have their strongest allegiances and identification – or on neutral ground beyond the reach of power relationships and other tensions that exist within the culture of established academic tribes and territories (Becher & Trowler, 2001). Finally, Sharpe (2004) identifies the need to design professional development activities appropriate to the stage of career development of the participants. Research shows a shift from a teacher-focused perspective in early career to student-focus as an academic teacher’s experience in the profession grows. These concepts all align with the centrality of context, shareable theory, and progressive refinement of research questions and solutions in the design-based research methodology. The UK Staff and Educational Development Association (SEDA) professional development framework reflects theoretical concepts and a summary of the findings from various research studies such as those that underpin the work outlined above. The framework recommends teacher professional development curriculum design aligned with the following aims:
Blending Technology into an Academic Practice Qualification for University Teachers
• • • • • •
Understanding of how people learn; Promotion of scholarship, professionalism and ethical practice; Working in, and developing learning communities; Working effectively with diversity and promoting inclusivity; Continued reflection on professional practice and Development of people and of educational processes and systems (SEDA, 2005).
Research on professional development acknowledges that teachers construct knowledge in the same way that all learners do. Sharpe (2004) suggests that the interplay between its construction and use represents a unique characteristic of the professional knowledge of educators. Whether or not this is accepted as a point of difference from the knowledge of other professions, the implications for design of professional development activities are that they should: • • •
•
Allow for knowledge construction; Encourage application of knowledge in practice contexts; Encourage reflection and interrogation of knowledge so it can be externalized and shared, and Incorporate values of ethical practice to reaffirm how knowledge is applied to practice.
These overarching principles apply to professional development design regardless of whether elearning or some other aspect is the focus. Specific to elearning are additional requirements for skills development in technology use and innovative pedagogy encouraged by the emergence of socially constructed communities and supported by the increased range of options presented by elearning environments. At the time of writing, elearning is further promoted by recognition from governments and
tertiary institutions of the need for increased use of technologies to support student learning, and the related need for dedicated professional development programs (Shephard, 2004; Goolnik, 2006). The challenge of effective design for programs aiming to achieve this outcome is noted in more than a decade of publications analysing the reasons for lower than anticipated levels of engagement with technology in teaching and learning (e.g. Hammond, Gardner et al, 1992; Conole, 2003; Dempster & Deepwell 2003; Littlejohn, 2003). The search for models of effective professional development is one key aspect of that challenge. Although there is literature describing successful initiatives, many of these have been the product of externally funded programs that offer more than core business provision can support in most institutions. Initiatives such as the eScholars Program described by Salter (2006) have all the hallmarks of successful design, though no long-term impact evaluation has so far been published.
Forms of Eofessional Dvelopment One implication of the various principles outlined above is that professional development to support faculty in their use of elearning requires more than just learning how to use technology (Bates, 1997; Ellis & Phelps, 2000; Alexander, Wilson, & Hovell, 2001). In the current context, it is relatively rare for teachers to master elearning technology tools to the extent that complex development work can be undertaken without assistance. However, there is an expectation that the basic tools for online communication and collaboration that feature in online learning management systems will be mastered by all. The common mode of a multidisciplinary team approach to elearning resource and materials development demands yet another new skill set (Gunn & Cavallari, 2006), including flexible, cross-disciplinary collaboration on elearning design and development initiatives.
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Within the current trend towards provision of accredited professional development programmes (Blackmore & Blackwell, 2006), some institutions locate elearning development within specialist units, while others opt to combine this with generic educational development (Shephard, 2004). These approaches can be sited on a continuum (Shephard, 2004). At one extreme, faculty are provided with direct support that moves responsibility for creating educational resources to dedicated support units, while at the other end of the spectrum, professional development support helps staff to help themselves in creating and using technologies for teaching and learning. These two extremes would translate into philosophically different support strategies. Rather than being considered mutually exclusive, they may usefully be seen to represent a range of choices. Within this range, individually relevant professional development activity can integrate sound pedagogical theory with practical aspects of teaching with technology (Goolnik, 2006). An “enabling” strategy (Hannon, 2008) suggests that staff professional development is most effective within local settings and with a focus on empowering staff to adapt learning technologies for their own particular needs. In keeping with the principles of situated learning outlined above, the informed choice of approach will be that designed to meet the needs of a particular situation, target group or individual. For a research-led university offering a predominance of campus-based courses, yet with the need to provide its staff with the confidence to employ elearning effectively, a blended learning approach to professional development appears to offer a sound solution.
Blended Learning
about the underlying concepts and assumptions of proffered definitions as well as the educational impact of the overall approach (see e.g. Singh, 2003; Osguthorpe & Graham, 2003; Bersin, 2004; Khan, 2005; Oliver & Trigwell, 2005; Gray, 2006; Allan, 2007). This type of debate is productive, as it encourages practitioners and researchers to engage with the different perspectives that exist within their professional community, and to negotiate common understanding of emergent concepts and terminology. While debate on complex aspects of blended learning is valuable, a simple definition is useful as it offers flexibility for meaningful interpretation within a particular context. For the purposes of this chapter, the definition offered by Garrison & Kanuka (2004) is adopted: “At its simplest, blended learning is the thoughtful integration of classroom face-toface learning experiences with online learning experiences.” (p. 96) These authors acknowledge that blended learning as a concept is both simple and complex, and note the distinction between classroom based courses that are enhanced by online activities and those that are purposefully blended to exploit the benefits of face to face contact as well as those of technology supported activities and interactions. The paper further notes that: The real test of blended learning is the effective integration of the two main components (face-toface and Internet technology) such that we are not just adding on to the existing dominant approach or method. This holds true whether it be a face-toface or a fully Internet-based learning experience. A blended learning design represents a significant departure from either of these approaches. (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004, p. 97)
The term ‘blended learning’ has become a prominent feature of the higher education literature in recent years. Many attempts have been made to define it, with the predictable result of debate
There is a need then, to move beyond an approach in which face-to-face components and online components are simply combined and the result called “blended learning”. The outcome for
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the learner should be greater than the sum of the parts. Oliver & Trigwell (2005) propose variation theory as a means of better relating blended learning to learner needs: The variation theory of learning is based on the idea that for learning to occur, variation must be experienced by the learner. Without variation there is no discernment, and without discernment there is no learning. … Discerning means that a feature of the world appears to the subject, and is seen or sensed by him or her against the background of his or her previous experiences of something more or less different. (p. 22). This approach seeks to re-conceive blended learning, with the aim that instructional designs will take advantage of the varied experiences that the face-to-face and technology-supported environments can provide for learners. In terms of design for blended learning in a particular context, key decisions depend on the instructional design approach and objectives. Bersin (2004) offers a functional description of these decision points by first defining two overarching design approaches: a paced program flow approach, and a core and spoke approach which is focused around a central activity or activities and usually more flexible in terms of timing and sequence. He further proposes five blended course models including an instructor led one that is suitable for most conventionally taught tertiary courses. The decision points identified by this author include: • • • • • • • •
program type; cultural goals; audience; budget; resources; time; learning content and technology.
This summary is drawn from one of many books written on the subject, and was selected as a representative example of simple, accessible and relevant guidelines for blended learning design. It also points to the value of drawing on current literature and educational design approaches for design-based research development initiatives.
Blended Leaaor the PGCrt The importance of context specific factors in blended learning design is noted in all the literature cited, and aligns with the principles of design-based research and situated learning. In the case of the PGCert, key contextual factors for consideration during design included: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The existence of a wide range of learning design and educational technology skills and experience within the student group from novice to highly proficient, and the potential for peer support and learning offered by collaboration within such a group; A practical more than a pedagogically driven rationale for introduction of elearning strategies within the original implementation of the course; The opportunity to apply established learning theories to promote a range of outcomes within the scope of course objectives and the remit of the host department, i.e. theories and outcomes related to learning in higher education, to academic staff development and to learning design incorporating authentic contexts; The opportunity for research collaboration beyond the institution provided by the externally sponsored eLearning Guidelines Project; An enquiry, discussion and exploration based philosophy underlying the course and activity design;
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6.
Commonly perceived limitations of the institutionally-supported elearning technology environment and the reduced range of activities and tools that might reasonably be introduced as a result.
It is important to design blended learning solutions to fit prevailing circumstances, and to accept that strategies that may be considered ideal in educational design terms may not be feasible for other reasons. Striking what was considered to be the right balance between pragmatically motivated prudence on the one hand, and risk and innovation on the other, was the result of discussion and consideration of options by the teaching team.
Curse Review A course review and enhancement plan was initially developed in the form of a proposal for participation in the eLearning Guidelines Implementation Project (see next section). This proposal provided the basis for discussion with the PGCert teaching team and involved an audit of the course, followed by a collaborative review of proposed revisions to achieve a fully blended learning model. An element of professional development for the teaching team was envisaged, as well as new ways of learning for the students. Some of both groups typically have considerable experience in technology-supported learning while others have little or none. The predominantly literature, discussion and enquiry-based approach to the course topics was considered to lend itself well to collaboration and sharing of learning design experience with more and less experienced technology users across the staff and student group and within the teaching team. Variable levels of motivation to engage, and experience with elearning amongst staff and students were anticipated as likely to present some challenges. This is common to most academic development contexts whether or not accredited
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qualifications are an ultimate goal. Conceptions of, and constraints posed by the institutional technology environment were also identified as potential challenges. These variable factors are not unique to the situation, but are conditions currently encountered in most tertiary teaching environments. They did however, point to a staged approach to the introduction of elearning strategies being best suited to the circumstances. One reason for this is because improvements to the technology environment during staged implementation and evaluation phases are always a realistic expectation in the current environment. The risk of introducing immature technology was judged as one to be avoided, as previous experience had identified the negative impact and longevity of poor initial impressions. Some otherwise favoured elearning tools and strategies were shelved for later implementation as a result. Consideration of contextual factors and articulation of the theoretical underpinnings were consistently-used reference points throughout the phases of the study.
The National eLearning Guidelines Implementation Project The concept of design for blended learning rather than a face-to-face model enhanced by elearning activities entered the frame when the call for submissions to the national eLearning Guidelines Implementation Project came under consideration. These guidelines are the product of a nationally funded initiative designed to promote the New Zealand Tertiary Education Commission’s eLearning Strategy across the sector by helping institutions to improve their elearning practice (Suddaby & Milne, 2008). The guidelines are comprehensive and include sections focused on learning design, teaching relationships and other support from teacher, learner and institutional perspectives. Sections 3.1, “Students and Learning Design”, 3.2 “Students and Teaching Relationships” and 3.3 “Students and Other Support” were selected as the focus for review of the PGCert.
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This approach addressed a number of objectives simultaneously: •
•
•
to apply a set of benchmarks to focus on the effectiveness of the course design with particular focus on elearning aspects of a blended learning course; to create opportunities to extend the use of the guidelines to the professional practice of the participants; to invite feedback on the guidelines from a group of experienced academics.
Participation in a national project offered an opportunity to contribute local experience to two international trends: technology-supported, flexible access to education, and accredited professional development for university teachers. The opportunity to engage with colleagues with similar aims across a range of tertiary institutions was also viewed positively.
The Review and Redesign Process One of the authors conducted a partial audit of the course, including participation in a number of the face-to-face seminars. The authors then drafted a specification for enhancing the blend of elearning elements of the Learning, Teaching & Assessment course, based on the student-centred guidelines listed at the eLearning Guidelines website (http://elg.massey.ac.nz) and described above. They circulated this to the course co-ordinators. In order to model what was proposed, a demonstration course was set up in the University’s learning management system (LMS), along with a prototype installation of an academic social networking environment based on the Elgg software application (http://elgg.org/). It was noted during the initial review that many of the student-centred guidelines were already fulfilled within the course. This observation served two useful purposes: it acknowledged the quality of the original course design, as well
as the relevance of the elearning guidelines for application to educational practice. The proposals put forward in the draft specification were prefaced by the following broad strategies for enhancing the course and participants’ learning with the help of technology: 1. 2.
3.
4.
5.
Provide experience of a greater range of technology-facilitated teaching approaches. Increase use of technology to support participants as they explore theory and reflect on its application to their teaching (by using technology to facilitate access to and organisation of information and research, contribution and exchange of ideas and resources, collaboration and debate). Promote the eLearning Guidelines and technology-supported teaching as potentially beneficial frameworks for exploration/presentation of participants’ work during the course. Supplement existing readings with readings/case studies (e.g. those on the eLearning Guidelines website) that explore academic practice in the context of elearning. Use a design-based research approach for development and evaluation of this greater elearning dimension as illustrated in Figure 1.
Design-Based Research Principles Applied The following sections describe application of the principles of the design-based research process in practice in the context of the PGCert and the elearning guidelines project.
Practical Problem Determined by Researchers and Practitioners in Collaboration Researchers working within a design-based research framework should “focus on broad-based,
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Figure 1. Application of the design-based research approach (Reeves, 2006) to the project, “Promoting quality elearning practice in tertiary teaching”
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complex problems critical to higher education” (Reeves, Herrington & Oliver, 2005, p. 103). Further, such research should involve close collaboration between researchers and practitioners in determining problems and solutions, combined with “a commitment to theory construction and explanation while solving real-world problems” (Reeves et al, 2005, p. 103). Early discussions between the primary author and the co-ordinators of the PGCert indicated a need to solve two key problems: •
•
How to provide flexibility to accommodate the schedules of participants, for whom current employment in a teaching position is an enrolment requirement; How to model good educational practice through the introduction and integration of elearning tools and strategies into the curriculum, so that participants would consider applying these within the context of their own teaching.
The nature of these problems was considered to be of sufficient local importance to justify close attention. At the same time, these were issues commonly faced by others in higher education seeking to provide a flexible approach to developing staff elearning capability. Theory construction around sound learning design to meet these challenges should therefore also be of wider interest to other learning designers and academic developers.
Solutions Informed by Design Principles and Technological Innovations Design-based research promotes “integration of design principles with technological affordances” (Reeves et al, 2005, p. 105) to provide sound solutions to educational problems. Rather than taking a “green fields” approach to each elearning design
project, the aim is to build on a sound foundation of existing design principles. The National eLearning Guidelines, developed by experienced elearning practitioners from a range of tertiary education institutions around New Zealand, were considered suitable design principles for our project. Using the studentfocused eLearning Guidelines as a catalyst, the authors drew on experience with a range of elearning technologies to develop the specification for enhancing the blend of elearning elements in the Learning, Teaching & Assessment course.
Iterative Cycles of Testing and Refinement of Solutions in Practice Design-based research requires long-term commitment and engagement from stakeholders: Design research is not something that is normally undertaken in one month, one semester, or even one year. Two to five years are a more normal cycle, and in some cases, design research will be an ongoing enterprise for even longer periods. (Reeves et al., 2005, p. 106) We are in the early stages of our research. Discussions between the course teaching team and those involved in the initial application and the elearning guidelines project resulted in the proposals and activities outlined in Figure 2 being considered for full or pilot implementation during semesters 1 and 2, 2008. As is apparent from Figure 2, in many cases a single elearning guideline gave rise to multiple proposals for course enhancement. Equally, one proposal for course enhancement frequently satisfied multiple elearning guidelines. Data will be gathered at the end of this first iteration of the course to determine whether implementation of the proposals is helping us to solve the key problems noted above.
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Figure 2. Proposals for enhanced elearning for the PGCert course, mapped to relevant NZ eLearning Guidelines (SD = Students/Learning Design; ST = Students/Teaching Relationships. Note that guidelines relating to Students/Other Support have been omitted owing to space constraints)
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Reflection to Produce Design Principles and Enhance Solutions Implementation of the first set of proposals accepted for implementation is underway at the time of writing. Although we do not yet have any concrete data on the outcomes, we are able to offer reflections on the benefits and challenges of the process to date.
•
•
Benefits •
•
•
Measuring the PGCert course against the student-focused elearning Guidelines enabled us to both benchmark the pedagogical and organisational quality of the existing course, and to generate ideas for enhancing quality. The guidelines appeared to be very well suited to a blended learning context. As Dr Helen Sword, Co-ordinator for the PGCert said, “the elearning guidelines are not just a useful tool for elearning innovations - they are very helpful in affirming good pedagogical practice generally and as a framework for developing innovative, student-centred teaching and learning” (CAD contributes to National e-Learning Guidelines Project, 2008, p. 10). As well as gaining greater direct experience of use of technology for teaching and learning, it appears that staff and students are making use of threaded discussion to increase communication and collaboration between students and staff during the fortnight in between face-to-face seminars. Use of the guidelines has fostered collaboration between Academic Practice Group and eLearning Design & Development Group staff. Further, participation in presentations and events associated with the other National eLearning Guidelines projects has resulted in increased practice and research links with staff from other institutions.
Using the guidelines as the basis for student discussions and work in relation to elearning appears to provide a useful starting framework for staff new to elearning. A PGCert student noted, “it's helpful that the guidelines are expressed as questions, not directives”. The guidelines were found to provide a very good “framework for conversation” for enhancing the elearning dimension of the course, even though the staff members involved were fairly experienced in elearning. Although some of the guidelines appeared self-evident, or appropriate to teaching and learning generally, their broad coverage helped ensure creation and consideration of a wide range of elearning ideas.
Challenges •
•
•
There are a large number of guidelines and a degree of overlap between them. The authors found that the genesis of one course enhancement proposal might be traced to five or more separate guidelines. Nevertheless, in some cases the wording of a particular guideline was that which sparked a new idea for how things should or could be done. Time and a degree of experience with elearning are needed to get the most from the guidelines. The course co-ordinator considered that having the authors as project leaders and intermediaries who were able to take time to “interpret” the guidelines in benchmarking the course and generating new ideas was important in their success for the project. As anticipated, staff and student attitudes and experience, and features of the available technology, influenced decisions on which course redesign measures to proceed with. Some proposals were considered too ambitious, at least for implementation in the first iteration
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•
As fore-grounded earlier, gathering data to produce a set of blended learning design principles that might be applied in courses similar to the PGCert is a significant challenge. Sandoval (2004) notes that what he terms “design principles” (akin to the eLearning Guidelines) are too general to serve this purpose: “due to their generality… design principles are unassailable and empirically untestable” (Sandoval, 2004, p. 215). In order to develop sound learning theory, Sandoval proposes that design principles need to be reified in the form of “embodied conjectures”: theoretical conjectures about how learning takes place in a particular domain with corresponding design conjectures about how to support learning in a specific context. “Embodied conjectures… should be articulated at a level of specificity that allows them to be empirically refined or rejected” (Sandoval, 2004, p. 215). It is this path we have started down by using the eLearning Guidelines as the basis for “embodied conjectures” about how we can best support academic staff in developing deeper insights into learning, teaching and assessment using a blended learning approach.
D The proposals put forward for the PGCert sought to implement key strategies to enhance the course and participants’ learning with the help of technology. Discussions with the course co-ordinators as well as pragmatic considerations relating to the particular teaching and learning context led to implementation of only some of an initially broad range of ideas and strategies to pursue. This is consistent with the centrality of collaboration and context in the situated learning, professional development and design-based research approaches that were used to underpin the initiative.
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The proposed changes sought to foster collaboration and reflection within a crafted solution to elearning professional development needs (Goldman, 2001). Thus the conception of professional development through something akin to a virtual practicum was considered useful, as it combined the opportunity to learn from expert knowledge and behaviour with individual interpretation and application of newly acquired knowledge to individual work contexts. In terms of Shephard’s (2004) continuum of elearning support, this aspect of the redesigned course sits towards the “professional development” end of the continuum, by exposing staff to a range of elearning tools and approaches within a framework that encourages consideration of appropriate uses and blends of technologies in teaching and learning. The focus on local technologies that most staff taking the PGCert have the opportunity to use in their own teaching is considered to provide the best means of enabling them to adapt these to their own needs (Hannon, 2008). It may also foster mutual learning and support amongst colleagues within the discipline-based community of professional practice. The more purposeful blend of elearning strategies and tools is considered to enact the “variation theory” that Oliver & Trigwell (2005) bring to bear as a means of better relating blended learning to learner needs. Offering the experience of a range of elearning strategies and tools affords the opportunity to compare and contrast these with “traditional” teaching methods, and to reflect on what these might offer for participants’ own teaching and learning contexts. The process of aligning elearning guidelines with course related activities proved useful as a means of grounding the design features in educational theory as well as monitoring where the guidelines had been met. eLearning Guidelines specifically addressed by the design include: •
SD1: Agreeing to learning goals in negotiation with teaching staff;
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• • • • • • • •
SD2: Providing choice of learning resources and activities; SD3: Gaining knowledge relevant to employment and/or current thinking in the field; SD4: Transferable (generic) skills; SD6: Collaborating via online discussions; ST5 Learning through experience and practice; ST6: Developing problem-solving through inquiry-based learning; ST8: Aiding reflection and review of learning rather than just recalling facts; SO14: Involvement in the academic community (collaboration). [SD = Students/Learning Design; ST = Students/Teaching Relationships; SO = Students/Other Support] (eLearning Guidelines for New Zealand, n.d.).
Furthermore, we consider that the initial redesign fulfils the “thoughtful integration” Garrison & Kanuka (2004) proposed in their definition of blended learning. Whether the redesign will also serve as an effective integration remains to be evaluated. In accordance with the design-based research methodology, we will continue to monitor the effectiveness of our blended learning design for this and future iterations of the course, and to communicate our findings to the learning design community through further publications. While the process of reflection on, and refinement of the course is a continuous one, some basic, general principles and recommendations drawn from the experience to date include: 1.
The set of educational guidelines derived from the study address pedagogical practice in the context of elearning and provide a useful support framework for practitioners involved in blended learning design. Such guidelines can serve both as a benchmark for new course developments, and as a prompt for considering a wide range of possibilities for educational innovation.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Situated learning provides a sound theoretical framework for professional development of academic staff in elearning capability. An effective approach appears to combine face-to-face and online discussion and collaboration, consideration of pedagogical theory together with practical aspects of teaching with technologies, and a focus on empowering staff to use and adapt learning technologies for their own particular needs within local contexts. Trying to go too far too fast with new technology-supported teaching and learning tools and strategies is not recommended. Incremental changes are more likely to succeed. Engaging in a collaborative process of idea generation, discussion and reflection allows creative ideas to develop and consideration of their feasibility in context to be undertaken. The result is a sense of ownership that helps to shape ideas and carry them through to implementation. Acknowledging the limitations of current technology tools and environments is important as poor initial conceptions can be lasting and hard to overcome. Considering the concept of the contributing student (Collis & Moonen, 2007) is a useful in the context of this course and in the initiative to create an effective face-toface/technology blend. Adopting a process of continuous monitoring and feedback to assess learner (and teacher) response to design decisions is a useful way to conduct the collection of fine-grained evaluation data, through which causal relationships as well as influential contextual factors can be identified.
Itions for Practice The common aims of encouraging and increasing the use of technology-supported teaching and 275
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learning strategies across the higher education sector has many associated challenges as lower than forecast levels of faculty engagement in recent years demonstrate. Whether the cause of this shortfall lies in technology that is (or was) not so easy to use, limited knowledge of appropriate learning design approaches, limited professional development provision or unrealistic expectations is a subject for ongoing debate. An unreasonable level of speculation around the turn of the new millennium about the potential of technology to ‘reform’ education and its institutions did nothing to further the cause. Now the speculation has died down, a considered analysis of the potential and the means to exploit opportunities come into focus. While some institutions have moved successfully down the online distance education path, more traditional universities maintain campus-based teaching as a core activity. It is within this context that blended learning comes to the fore. The pressures of managing larger and more diverse classes along with competing demands for limited resources mean that long established teaching methods no longer address the needs of all teachers and learners. The potential for increased levels of learner engagement together with the nature of contemporary educational theory demands the design of more active, engaged and flexible learning opportunities. Within this context, the concept of blended learning has evolved and continues to move in a useful direction. The challenge to educational researchers of deriving principles of good blended learning practice from many context-specific case studies is a common feature of the current literature. Design-based research is a methodology that has evolved to support both longitudinal studies of initiatives designed for single contexts and concurrent development of generally applicable principles. Focus on context-specific factors as key informants features in both objectives. Many blended learning designs have developed as a result of practical as much as educational considerations. This reflects a further dimen-
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sion of the importance of context, and supports the case for situated learning in authentic course and professional practice environments. This is increasingly common as a means of providing sustained professional development for transformative learning by tertiary teachers. Such is the case with the Post-Graduate Certificate in Academic Practice. Initially involving technology for mainly practical reasons, the course has evolved to include the aims of long term and ‘in context’ exposure to a blend of technology-based learning and classroom-based strategies to serve the varying needs of both students and teachers. The trend towards accredited professional development for tertiary teachers provides an incentive for academic staff to engage in a blended learning environment. In the case described in this chapter, it also provides opportunities for them to experiment with new tools and teaching strategies within a supported, low risk environment. Support from outside the institution in the form of a national eLearning Strategy and funded elearning initiatives provide further incentives. However, there remain aspects of both the national and institutional contexts that do not yet fully support in practice the values around teaching and learning development that they espouse. An initially limiting institutional technology environment is now evolving to include the Web 2.0 and social networking tools commonly available in the external cultural environment. As these developments occur concurrently, teachers, professional development providers and institutions continue to strive to maintain the pace. This is not just in the technology and educational design arena, but also in the form of challenges to long established traditions in publishing, intellectual property ownership, generation of knowledge and authorship that these tools present. Such developments make faculty engagement an even more critical factor, and the typically slow rate of response from institutions a higher-risk strategy than engagement and experimentation. Institutions and individuals may be slow to respond to
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emerging trends but the environments they exist within and the learners they serve are proving not to be. A professional practice model that is grounded in situated learning and aligned with the design-based research approach provides an appropriate means to theorize and monitor educational design and development initiatives. A model such as the one described in this chapter contains all essential elements of a systematic approach to development and implementation of future blended learning solutions.
R Alexander, R., Wilson, J., & Hovell, S. (2001). Developing an ICT plan for professional development. In K. Lai (Ed.), elearning: Teaching and Professional Development with the Internet. Otago, NZ: University of Otago Press. Allan, B. (2007). Blended Learning: Tools for Teaching and Training. London: Facet Publishing. Bates, A. W. (1997). Restructuring the University for Technological Change. Paper delivered at Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching – What Kind of University? London, June, 1997. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http:// bates.cstudies.ubc.ca/carnegie/carnegie.html. Becher T., & Trowler, P. (2001). Academic tribes and territories: Intellectual enquiry and the culture of disciplines (2nd ed.). Buckingham, UK: The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press. Bersin, J. (2004). The Blended Learning Book. San Francisco: John Wiley Blackmore, P., & Blackwell, R. (2006). Strategic leadership in academic development. Studies in Higher Education, 31(3), 373-387. Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.
CAD contributes to National e-Learning Guidelines Project (2008, July). aCADemix, 4, 10. Collis, B., & Moonen, J. (2007). The Contributing Student: Philosophy, Technology and Strategy. In M. Spector (Ed.), Finding Your Online Voice: Stories Told by Experienced Online Educators (pp. 19-31). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Conole, G. (2003). Understanding Enthusiasm and Implementation: Elearning Research Questions and Methodological Issues. In J. Seale (Ed.), Learning Technology in Transition: From Individual Enthusiasm to Institutional Implementation (pp. 129-146). Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger. Dempster, J., & Deepwell, F. (2003). Experiences of National Projects in Embedding Learning Technology into Institutional Practices in Higher Education. In J. Seale (Ed.), Learning Technology in Transition: From Individual Enthusiasm to Institutional Implementation (pp. 45-62). Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger. Design-Based Research Collective. (2003). Design-based research: An emerging paradigm for educational inquiry. Educational Researcher, 32(1), 5-8. eLearning Guidelines for New Zealand (n.d.). Retrieved September 9, 2008, from http://elg. massey.ac.nz/index.php?title=Main_Page Ellis, A., & Phelps, R. (2000). Staff development for online delivery: A collaborative, team-based action learning model. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, l6(1), 26-44. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http://www.ascilite.org. au/ajet/ajet16/ellis.html. Goldman, S. (2001). Professional development in a digital age: Issues and challenges for standards-based reform. Interactive Educational Multimedia, 2, 19-46. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http://www.ub.edu/multimedia/iem/down/ c2/Professional_Development.pdf. 277
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Goolnik, G. (2006). Effective Change Management Strategies for Embedding Online Learning within Higher Education and Enabling the Effective Continuing Professional Development of Its Academic Staff. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 7(1), 9-21. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/tojde21/ pdf/Volume7Number1.pdf#page=9. Grabinger, S., & Dunlap, J. (2000). Rich Environments for Active Learning: A Definition. In D. Squires & G. Conole (Eds.), The Changing Face of Learning Technology, Cardiff: University of Wales Press, (8-38). Gray, C. (2006). Blended Learning: Why Everything Old Is New Again—But Better. Retrieved April 9, 2008, from http://www.learningcircuits. org/2006/March/gray.htm Gunn, C., & Cavallari, B. (2007). Instructional Design, Development and Context Expertise: A Model for “Cross Cultural” Collaboration. In M. Keppell (Ed.), Instructional Design: Case Studies in Communities of Practice (pp.127-151). Hershey, PA: Idea Group.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lefoe, G., Smigiel, H., & Parrish, D. (2007). Enhancing Higher Education Through Leadership Capacity Development: Progressing the Faculty Scholars Model. In Enhancing Higher Education, Theory and Scholarship, Proceedings of the 30th HERDSA Annual Conference, (CD-ROM) (pp. 228-234). Adelaide, South Australia. McNaught, C. (2003). Identifying the Complexity of Factors in the Sharing and Reuse of Resources. In A. Littlejohn (Ed.), Reusing Online Resources: A Sustainable Approach to Elearning (pp. 199-211) . London and Sterling VA, Kogan Page. Oliver, R., O’Donoghue, J. et al. (2003). Institutional Implementation of ICT in Higher Education: An Australian Perspective. In J. Seale (Ed), Learning Technology in Transition: From Individual Enthusiasm to Institutional Implementation (pp. 101-116). Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Hammond, N., Gardner, N., Heath, S., Kibby, M., Mayes, J., McAleese, R., Mullings, C., & Trapp, A. (1992). Blocks to the Effective Use of Information Technology in Higher Education. Computers and Education, 18(1-3), 155-162.
Oliver, M., & Trigwell, K. (2005). Can Blended Learning be Redeemed? Elearning, 2(1), 17-26. Accessed online at http://www.wwwords.co.uk/ pdf/validate.asp?j=elea&vol=2&issue=1&year =2005&article=3_Oliver_ELEA_2_1_web 24th March 2008.
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Markauskite, P. Goodyear, & P. Reimann (Eds.), Who’s learning? Whose technology? Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Conference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education (ASCILITE), (pp. 1023–1025)University of Sydney, Sydney. Sandoval, W. A. (2004). Developing Learning Theory by Refining Conjectures Embodied in Educational Designs. Educational Psychologist, 39(4), 213-223. Sharpe, R. (2004). How do professionals learn and develop? Implications for staff and educational developers. In D. Baume and P. Kahn (Eds.), Enhancing staff and educational development (pp. 132-153 ), Routledge Falmer, London. Shephard, K. (2004). The role of educational developers in the expansion of educational technology. International Journal for Academic Development, 9(1), 67-83. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http:// www.informaworld.com/index/714023653.pdf.
Sherry, L., Tavalin, F., & Billig, S. H. (2000). Good online conversation: Building on research to inform practice. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 11(1), 85-127. Staff and Educational Development Association (SEDA). (2005). What is SEDA-PDF? Professional Development Framework document accessed online June 22nd 2007 at http://www.seda.ac.uk/pdf/ PDF%20Publication%20may%202005%2024pp. pdf. Stokes, D. E. (1997). Pasteur’s Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press. Suddaby, G., & Milne, J. (2008). Coordinated, collaborative and coherent: developing and implementing elearning guidelines within a national tertiary education system. Campus Wide Information Systems, 25(2), 114-122.
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Chapter XV
Reciprocal Mentoring “In The Wild”:
A Retrospective, Comparative Case Study of ICT Teacher Professional Development M. Brooke Robertshaw Utah State University, USA
Kristy Bloxham Utah State University, USA
Heather Leary Utah State University, USA
Mimi Recker Utah State University, USA
Andrew Walker Utah State University, USA
ABSTRACT For teachers in the 21st Century it has become critical that they develop the skills to be able to teach in a world that is being transformed by technological innovations. These skills include effectively teaching in blended learning environments with high-quality online learning resources available on the internet. Chief among the challenges faced by these teachers is that mid- and late career teachers, unlike preservice teachers, do not have adequate technology knowledge. A challenge for pre-service teachers is that they do not have the pedagogical and content knowledge to be able to effectively implement their technology knowledge in the classroom. This retrospective comparative case study was undertaken to understand reciprocal mentoring (RM) relationships that can occur between in-service teachers and pre-service teachers during implementation of a technology based lesson. The transfer of knowledge between the members of the RM dyad is described through the lens of technological pedagogical content knowledge. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Reciprocal Mentoring “In The Wild”
INTRODUCTION In the United States of America (USA), as in many places in the world, there has been an increasing focus on integrating online information and communication technology (ICT) and the use of a blended learning environment into primary and secondary education. Rapid technological innovations offer a wealth of potential for transforming education, in particular with regard to helping to support the development of critical 21st century teaching and learning skills (Computing Research Association, 2005). For teachers, these skills include effectively finding, sharing, and teaching with the vast wealth of high-quality online learning resources increasingly available on the Internet, and the emerging cyber-infrastructure for education. Of necessity this often includes learning how to effectively teach within a blended learning environment (Bonk, et al, 2002; Clark & James, 2005; Osguthorpe & Graham, 2003). However, these tremendous opportunities also come with a significant number of challenges. Chief among them is that most mid- and latecareer teachers, unlike their students and new teachers, are not digital natives. While experienced teachers may possess a vast and effective repertoire of teaching strategies and lesson plans, these were typically designed around the notion of temporally and physically constrained resources (e.g., textbooks) within the confines of a single classroom. The distributed and limitless access provided by the Internet turns these assumptions on their head – and challenges these teachers to rethink their practices to support blended learning approaches. The study reported in this chapter sits at the nexus of these issues. In the context of a 5-year research project, largely funded by the US National Science Foundation, we have been developing simple tools to help teachers to better design and share classroom activities that use high-quality online learning resources. We have designed accompanying teacher professional development
experiences for both in-service (practicing) and pre-service (student) teachers. The purpose of these activities is to help develop teachers’ design capacity with online resources in order to improve classroom practices and student learning. Not surprisingly, we have observed large differences between the in- and pre-service teachers both in terms of their ability to acquire the necessary technological skills, and their ability to effectively apply these in the service of instruction. In general, young, pre-service teachers easily acquire the necessary ICT skills but are unsure how to use these in pedagogical contexts. Conversely, experienced teachers often struggle with learning new ICT skills, yet have the classroom skills and experience to be able to use them to promote student learning. Moreover, an interesting dynamic can emerge when a pre-service teacher, armed with a vast repertoire of ICT skills, begins student teaching and works with an experienced, mentoring teacher. Here, both members bring potentially complementary skills to the table, which can result in a mutually and reciprocally beneficial relationship. To begin to address these interrelationships, we undertook a retrospective comparative case study to examine reciprocal mentoring relationships that developed between three pairs of teachers, or dyads. All teachers participated in professional development workshops with blended learning components, in which they learned to use a software tool, called the Instructional Architect, to design activities using online learning resources. The pairs consisted of an experienced in-service teacher and a pre-service student teacher. The particular focus of the case study was on understanding and characterizing the mutual transfer of technological and pedagogical content knowledge between the two members of the dyad. The next section of this chapter describes the theoretical framework, which was informed by two strands of research: reciprocal mentoring (RM), and teacher knowledge. We then describe the ICT tool and professional development in our 281
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study, the study context and methods, then present case study findings from three teachers dyads.
THEORETICFR Rciprocal Mentoring A typical mentor relationship is a hierarchical, one-way relationship with guidance coming from someone with more experience (the mentor) to someone of less experience (the mentee). As such, the relationship is primarily of benefit to the mentee (Ballantyne, Green, Yarrow & Millwater, 1999; Clarke, 2004; Kochan & Trimble, 2000; Mullen, 2000). In contrast, reciprocal mentoring (RM) is more of a mutually beneficial exchange in which both members of the mentoring relationship contribute to the experience and learning of the other (Clarke, 2004; Kochan & Trimble, 2000; Mullen, 2000). Wildman, Magliaro, Niles and Niles (1992) identify seven activities that can occur within in-service and pre-service partnerships. One of those activities is collaboration, specifically where the beginner contributes to the mentor’s experience as a teacher. This kind of interaction within mentoring relationships is found throughout the literature and defined in many different ways. For example, it has been defined as co-mentoring (Jipson & Paley, 2000; Kochan & Trimble, 2000), collaborative mentoring (Mullen, 2000), mentorships (Gilles & Wilson, 2004; Grisham, Ferguson & Brink, 2004), and lastly, reciprocal mentoring (Dawson, Swain, Johnson, & Ring, 2004; Gonzales & Thompson, 1998; Swain & Dawson, 2006; Thompson, Shmidt &, Davis, 2003). While all of these authors have slightly different definitions, the common thread throughout is that both people in the mentor partnership bring something to the learning process of the other person. When considering the partnership itself, one factor that allows reciprocal mentoring to take place is
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supporting relationship building between the two individuals involved in the mentorship (Dawson & Nonis 2004; Jipson & Paley, 2000; Swain & Dawson, 2006). This relationship building enables the partners to develop trust (Jipson & Paley, 2000; Mullen, 2000), respect (Swain & Dawson, 2006), and a support system between the two (Gonzales & Thompson, 1998). There are many benefits that arise out of a reciprocal mentoring relationship. For example, when university faculty members and graduate students come together, faculty members are able to learn much needed technology integration skills, and graduate students are able to learn both about the subject area of the faculty and professional skills they will need when they become faculty members themselves (Dawson & Nonis, 2000; Dawson, Swain, Johnson & Ring, 2004; Gonzales & Thompson, 1998; Swain & Dawson, 2006; Thompson, Shmidt, & Davis, 2003). Other advantages to these partnerships within the faculty-graduate student context are that it is time saving for faculty members, there are increased confidence levels with using technology, and there is greater relevance regarding what is being learned (Dawson & Nonis 2000; Gonzales & Thompson, 1988). Within the in-service/pre-service teacher relationship, similar and additional advantages have been documented. Learning takes place at a deeper level, teachers outside the mentorship dyad feel energized by the work being done, and the school administration is able to see the preservice and in-service teacher partnership in new ways (Gilles & Wilson, 2004; Grisham, Ferguson & Brink, 2004). Pre-service teachers are able to move from a theoretical framework of teaching to understanding practical applications of that framework, and they are able to have authentic leadership experiences within the classroom (Bullough et al., 2002; Dawson & Nonis 2000, Thompson, Schmidt & Davis, 2003). In-service teachers are able to learn new ways of approaching
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curriculum from their pre-service teachers, have experiences of leadership, and through their reciprocal mentoring relationship, end up re-evaluating their own teaching practices (Bullough et. al 2002; Gilles & Wilson, 2004; Grisham, Ferguson & Brink, 2004; Thompson, Schmidt & Davis, 2003). Despite the rich level of research about RM partnerships, to our knowledge none of the existing work has examined naturally occurring (as opposed to engineered) cases of RM.
Technological Pedagogical Content Kowledge One dimension to consider in an investigation of RM is changes in the underlying teacher knowledge base and practice. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is a framework developed by Shulman (1986) for understanding the different kinds of knowledge encompassing the practice of teaching. In defining PCK, he first established the idea of content knowledge (CK), which he described as not just basic facts and concepts but also include the structure of the subject being taught and the explanatory frameworks that organize and connect ideas within that subject. Pedagogical knowledge (PK) is defined as an understanding of methods for teaching and learning and how those methods encompass educational purposes, values and aims. Included in PK are things such as knowledge of evaluation frameworks, the targeted learners, and basic classroom practice (Shulman, 1986; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Pedagogical content knowledge is where PK and CK intersect. PCK includes an understanding of the kinds of knowledge that the target learners already have about the content being taught, ideas and preconceptions about the content, and knowledge of strategies to help learners overcome these preconceptions and ways for incorporating newly gained knowledge into what they already know (Shulman, 1986). Technological pedagogical content knowledge (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) is an extension of
PCK. When Shulman first developed the notion of PCK, the use of technology did not have the focus in educational practice as it does today. Essentially, not only do educators have to learn new technological practices, but they also have to adjust their current information technology use (e.g. knowledge of how to use overheads and projectors, whiteboards, and text books) and to integrate these new practices into their existing content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge practices. This intersection has been termed technological pedagogical content knowledge (see Figure 1). Mishra and Koehler emphasize that these knowledge areas are not distinct, but overlap and are mutually constitutive in multiple and complex ways. The inclusion of technological knowledge is a particularly good fit given that this research occurred in the context of a technology professional development workshop; further it seems evident that TPCK is a critical dimension for effective teaching in a blended learning environment.
ICTrofessional Development Cntext: The Instructional Architect
The teachers in the present study all participated in professional development workshops (described next) in which they learned to use an ICT tool called the Instructional Architect (IA). ICT has been defined as an amalgamation of computing and communications (Ducatel, Webster, & Herrmann, 2000) and perhaps more broadly as any electronic means of sorting, showing, saving or modifying knowledge (Bruneau & Lacroix, 2001). The Instructional Architect (http://IA.usu.edu) is a simple, Internet-based tool designed to help teachers find and use learning resources available on the Internet. It is especially designed to support teachers in finding high quality resources in the U.S. National Science Digital Library (NSDL.org), and elsewhere in the Web. With the IA, teachers can discover, select, sequence, annotate, and reuse online learning resources on the Web in order to
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Figure 1. The TPCK Model, adapted from Mishra & Koehler, 2006
create instructional resources for their students, for example, lesson plans, study aids, homework – collectively called IA projects (Recker, 2006). Figure 2 shows an example of a simple, teachercreated IA project: the background shows teacher content and instructions, while the foreground shows an online learning resource (in this case, a simulation of weather). Design, development and evaluation of IA have been ongoing since 2002. From 2002 to January 2008, over 2,700 users have registered, 5,400 projects have been created, and 20,500 external online resources have been added to the database. Since August 2006, IA projects have been viewed over 258,000 times. Results from evaluation efforts indicate that teachers are positive about the NSDL, the quality of discovered learning resources, and the value of the IA (Recker, Dorward, & Nelson, 2004; Recker et al., 2005; Recker et al., 2007; Recker & Palmer, 2006; Recker et al., 2007). While the intention of the IA and the focus of the professional development workshop is on increasing the utility of online learning resources for classroom educators, there are ancillary benefits as well. For example, by creating student activities (or IA projects) teacher work becomes a form of communication. Each created project
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is an overt example of more tacit teacher epistemological beliefs and pedagogical practices. By examining the efforts of others, teachers are able to discover how their colleagues are approaching teaching with online resources. The IA search interface allows teachers to search projects by keyword, subject area, grade level, and educational standards. Teachers can use other created projects either as ideas for their own lessons, as a source of online resources, or even send their students to another teacher’s project. In this way, the IA serves as an infrastructure for teachers to share their practices.
ICTacher Professional Development Model The goals of our professional development program are to help teachers learn about the concepts of repositories (or digital libraries) of online resources, how to search them, how to design instructional activities using the Instructional Architect, and how to integrate these capabilities into their teaching practice (Recker et. al, 2005). Specifically, the teacher professional development workshop curriculum consists of the following core components, which are structured as two 4-hour workshops, separated by classroom implementation activities: 1. A motivating example. An interesting learning resource from the National Science Digital Library (NSDL) (e.g., an interactive simulation of a frog dissection) is demonstrated to the participants. The example also shows the use of a learning resource in an instructional setting. The specific example is modified to fit the target audience. 2. Instruction on how to find learning resources in the NSDL, including keyword and Boolean searching, advanced searching, and browsing by collections. Depending on the technical expertise of audience, the amount
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Figure 2. An example of an Instructional Architect project with an overlay of the online resource linked to from the project
of modeling is increased or reduced. 3. Participants identify an authentic instructional problem, need, or situation. They then practice search techniques to locate resources related to their selected objectives: 4. Participants then work either on their own or with their pre or in-service teacher partner to design IA projects that address the identified problem. Examples include labs, assignments, interactive group work, research, resource lists, and homework. 5. Participants then implement their project with their students on their own or with the support of their partner. Examples of implementation activities include working as a whole class group to move through the project and online resources, having the project be one learning center of many, and
having the students go through the project on their own while making notes on what is being learned. 6. Participants reconvene in a second workshop to reflect on their experiences designing activities using online learning resources and discuss various methods and strategies for integrating online resources into their classrooms.
PURPOSEOF Past research has investigated the nature of RM partnerships in the context of technology professional development (e.g., Dawson, Swain, Johnson, & Ring, 2004; Gonzales & Thompson, 1998; Swain & Dawson, 2006; Thompson, Shmidt, Davis, 2003). These studies intentionally designed reciprocal mentoring as part of the intervention.
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However, to our knowledge, there are no studies that have described RM as it occurs naturally, or ‘in the wild’, between pre-service and in-service teachers. Therefore the purpose of this retrospective case study was to describe the characteristics of reciprocal mentoring partnerships, and address the following research questions: •
•
What elements of reciprocal mentoring partnerships were present or absent within the teacher dyads? What knowledge characteristics were present within each member of a pre-service/inservice dyad when reciprocal mentoring did occur, and what characteristics were present when it did not occur?
METHOD This present study used a retrospective comparative case study. The comparison was undertaken because the researchers wanted to begin to understand not only the reasons for or barriers to reciprocal mentoring occurring, but also the transfer of knowledge that takes place when it does occur. To create the comparisons, all data sources were analyzed using the constant comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) to contrast each pre-service / in-service teacher dyad in the study (Huberman & Miles, 2002). Typically, a retrospective case study reports findings from a phenomenon over an extended period of time (DeVaus, 2001). Our usage of the term here is in reference to the fact that the methods and data collection occurred after the phenomenon of interest took place. As noted by Yin (2003), case studies can be retrospective in nature because they report on phenomena as past events. In this study, the focus was on a pronounced and clearly mutually beneficial exchange between a pre- and in-service teacher. From there, two additional cases were selected as they showed a range of RM alignment within the initially collected data
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(Yin, 2003). Lastly, while we are making cross case comparisons, through those comparisons we seek only to describe the participants and the phenomenon apparent within the dyad.
CONTEXT The setting for the study was Sarah Smith Lab School (SSLS). Part of the strategic master plan for the school includes an emphasis on educational technology integration. This includes a dedicated technology and professional development center, teacher technology workstations, and a basic computer literacy program for students and teachers at the school. The school is based on an experiential constructivist framework and the teachers are given the freedom to develop their own, standards based, curriculum, rather than relying on pre-fabricated curriculum. Research on K-5 schooling is an everyday occurrence at Sarah Smith, and the Sarah Smith community is very comfortable about having researchers in and around the school. The relationship between the lab school and a nearby university supports a simultaneous renewal partnership. Simultaneous renewal is a principle developed by John Goodlad where a partnership is created between a university and a local school or school district. The University benefits through having researchers and students practice what they are learning and conducting investigations in a school setting. The school benefits through having access to ongoing professional development and the constant introduction of new ideas from the university into the school and classroom (Goodlad, 1994). Under the guise of technology integration and the development of blended learning environments within the school, this simultaneous renewal relationship gives pre-service teachers an authentic context to learn their skills and allows the in-service teachers to take advantage of the advancement of technology use in the classroom that is being explored at the university and taught to
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the pre-service teacher (Dawson, Swain, Johnson & Ring, 2004; Gilles & Wilson, 2004; Thompson, Shmidt, Davis, 2003; Johnson-Gentile, 2000; Dawson & Nonis 2004; Swain & Dawson, 2006). As Sandholtz, Ringstaff and Dwyer (1997) put it, “technology is a catalyst for change in the classroom process because it provides a distinct departure, a change in context that suggests alternative ways of operating” (p.47). This is a particularly good fit for an investigation of RM because much of the existing research on RM took place within the context of a simultaneous renewal partnership between a college of education and a school or school district (Bullough et. al, 2002; Dawson & Nonis, 2004; Gilles & Wilson, 2004; Swain & Dawson, 2006; Thompson, Shmidt &, Davis, 2003).
PARTICIPANTS The participants in this study were three dyads of pre-service and in-service teachers. The three pre-service teachers were all pursing elementary education degrees and were completing the final block of their student teaching. All had previous exposure to the Instructional Architect during practicum classes in their final year of study, and also during a technology course during their second or third year. Carol, the in-service teacher in dyad A, taught second grade children and her participation in the professional development workshop had resulted in a first time online lesson. Bronwyn, the inservice teacher in dyad B, taught first grade and regarded herself as having experience in creating online lessons, and had designed her own curriculum around online resources. Anna, the in-service teacher in dyad C, taught first grade, and prior to participating in the professional development workshop, had some experience in creating online lessons, mainly through using specific websites that had been explicitly shared with her by others.
Data and Instruments At the start of the study, all teachers completed an online pre-survey about their use of online learning resources, level of comfort with technology, and beliefs about the use of technology in the classroom. They then participated in a 4-hour professional development workshop (described above) in which they learned how to use the Instructional Architect, learned effective searching techniques in the National Science Digital Library, and participated in discussions about how to design effectively using online resources. Classroom observations were conducted to assess the implementation of IA projects with students, with two researchers at each observation: one doing open coding of classroom activities, the teacher, the students, and other adults (including student teachers); the other doing interval coding. Reflection papers were then written by the inservice teachers describing their IA projects and their perspectives on implementing their projects in the classroom. Finally, teachers completed a post-survey. After the principal data collection ended, it was expanded to support the retrospective comparative case study by including a focus group interview of the pre-service teachers. Questions centered on their prior level of expertise with technology, their working relationships with their in-service teachers during planning and implementation of the IA lesson, and benefits in terms of new knowledge as a result of their work with their in-service teacher on the lesson. Table 1 provides a complete list of data sources, whether collected for the planned study or as additional data for the retrospective case study, target participants, and relationship to the research questions.
Analysis Data were analyzed overall by four researchers. The initial analysis was conducted by three researchers, who used the constant comparative
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methodology (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) to do a thematic analysis of the data into emergent themes that described the data. Note that while constant comparative analysis is typically an approach used in grounded theory, it is not our claim or contention that this work constitutes grounded theory. There is precedent for the use of constant comparative analyses in contexts outside of grounded theory, for example within Delphi studies (Brill, Bishop, & Walker, 2006; Kramer, Walker, & Brill, 2007). As a first step, all of the existing data were open coded into researcher labeled themes. On a second pass through the data, themes were then collapsed when data failed to differentiate between them. Once this initial analysis was completed, the three researchers gathered to compare and discuss their coding. After a consensus among the three researchers on the themes was achieved, a fourth researcher entered the analysis. This member had completed a literature review of the existing literature and did an analysis of the data based on constructs pulled from the literature about what factors lead to successful reciprocal mentoring partnerships. This purpose of this phase was to identify themes in the literature and map them to the data. Themes not represented in the data were added to the coding sheet. The next step taken was with the initial three coders who went back to the raw data and searched for any instances of the non-represented themes from the literature.
One instance was found by consensus from all three researchers and added to the coding sheet. Data were then grouped by dyad and mapped to one of the two research questions.
FINDINGS The findings focused on two major characteristics of the participants and these were the relationship between the dyad members and the knowledge transfer that occurred between them. The relationship characteristics were drawn from literature about reciprocal mentoring relationships, while knowledge transfer was viewed through the lens of TPCK. Specifically, knowledge was analyzed in terms of technology knowledge (TK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). As a point of clarification, we did not focus on the transfer of basic computer literacy, but rather on any experience where the knowledge transfer was directly related to the educational goals of the instructional content being taught by the dyad. The description of each dyad begins first with a discussion of the relationship characteristics within the dyad, then knowledge transfer, and ends with a summary of how the two sets of characteristics impacted the reciprocal mentoring relationship. Table 2 at the end of the section summarizes the findings.
Table 1. Research questions and data collection methods used to answer them Research Question
Data Collection Methods
What elements of reciprocal mentoring partnerships were present or absent within the teacher dyads?
Focus group (pre-service; additional data) Reflection paper (in-service; planned) Observation (in- and pre- service; planned) Pre-survey (in-service; planned) Post-survey (in-service; planned)
What knowledge characteristics are present within each member of a pre-service/in-service dyad when reciprocal mentoring occurs, and what characteristics are present when it does not occur?
Focus group (pre-service; additional data) Reflection Paper (in-service; planned) Observation (in- and pre- service; planned) Pre-interview (in-service; planned)
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DA This dyad was comprised of Dana, the pre-service teacher, and Carol, the in-service teacher. In terms of knowledge, Carol appeared to have high technological pedagogical content knowledge. She was seen during a classroom observation walking around the room helping the students with their technology problems. Carol also noted in her reflection paper, “I had no difficulties designing the activities and I found the frame to build projects was very user friendly and self-explanatory.” Further, in an interview with her, Carol stated about her use of online resources: I use all online resources and I have searched and weeded through lessons that are out there. They use multi media and are hands on with lots of activities. Lessonplan.com has almost a million lesson plans. I use Google and UEN [Utah Education Network]. I bookmark my favorite resources. Relative to Carol, the pre-service teacher, Dana, exhibited low technological knowledge. Dana reported not knowing as much technology as she thought she needed. She offered, “I’m getting better with technology, but I’m not where I’d like to be” (focus group interviews with pre-service teachers). Dana reported gaining classroom management skills “by watching her [Carol]” (focus group interviews with pre-service teachers), but here again it was not in terms of a teaching situation/problem where they had collaborated. Carol’s already held technological knowledge was significant within the reciprocal mentoring dynamic because, within a pre-service / in-service dyad, where the pre-service teacher is in the relationship to hone her teaching skills, there was nothing that Dana could offer to the technology based lesson. Between the members of Dyad A there appeared to be little communication during the planning and implementation of the lesson. Dana, the pre-service teacher, noted that Carol, the inservice teacher, knew how to use the technology
and “put it together the night before. I didn’t work closely with her” (focus group interviews with pre-service teachers). Further, in her reflection paper, Carol made no mention of her pre-service teacher even helping with the implementation part of her online lesson and observations of the implementation of the lesson back up this implication. Dyad A did not appear to display any reciprocal mentoring relationship characteristi; in fact, this dyad showed negative characteristics for reciprocal mentoring. The lack of communication and any hint of a working relationship during planning and implementation of the lesson is the most glaring indicator from the data that reciprocal mentoring did not occur. Also, when considering the knowledge of the two members, even if there had been communication between them during planning and implementation of the lesson, it is unlikely that any significant transfer of knowledge from pre-service to in-service teacher could happen, because the in-service teacher appeared to hold all the necessary elements of technological pedagogical content knowledge.
D This dyad was comprised of Maggie, the preservice teacher, and Bronwyn, the in-service teacher. There was evidence that Bronwyn trusted Maggie: With Word documents, looking up information. I guess I just felt like once we found a site we wanted all the kids to use, she would have me go through and set it up. She would have me write down the site… she was more hesitant and didn’t know quite where to go. When asked about her feelings about technology in a pre-interview, Bronwyn reported that she hated technology, but she was willing to leave her comfort zone in order to be able to better reach her students.
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Maggie, the pre-service teacher, reported that she would help Bronwyn, as they were using technology at various times, “with Word documents, looking up information (focus group interviews with pre-service teachers).” With regard to using an Internet browser Maggie said: She [Bronwyn] would click on “go’ like 5 times, and I would tell her just to wait. She wasn’t quite sure about if it was working, where I could look down and see if it was. (Focus group interviews with pre-service teachers). As far as transfer of knowledge was concerned, the pre-service teacher reported gaining classroom management skills throughout her time in the classroom, but did not report gaining pedagogical content knowledge. Maggie said, when asked about what she learned said: We learned about inquiry - seeing the teacher let them do it. One of us would go look up the answer to their question. I couldn’t see how it would work being a single teacher, how could you stop with every student. Sometimes she would stop and just look it up on her own and slip it to them and they would love that. She would grab on to any question. I’d heard about that but not seen it done. It was good to see how she was able to do that. Also, how to manage 25 kids with just being one teacher. She would have just one center that needed her. For that age it was a really good way, because she couldn’t always teach the full class. It was good to see things that she was trying that I’d never seen. (Focus group interviews with pre-service teachers). This dyad displayed more characteristics of a reciprocal mentoring relationship than Dyad A, but, as is described below, fewer reciprocal mentoring characteristics than Dyad C. Although there was transfer of knowledge between the pre-service and in-service teachers in the areas of pedagogy knowledge (PK) and technology
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knowledge (TK), these knowledge transfers did not appear to occur within an integrated discussion of a teaching scenario. Also, while the dyad exhibited some relationship characteristics pertaining to reciprocal mentoring relationships, those characteristics, again, took place outside of a teaching with technology integration plan. So, while there were some characteristics of reciprocal mentoring between Bronwyn and Maggie, the relationship did not appear to have the richness of interactions seen in the reciprocal mentoring literature to be considered a strong RM partnership.
DYAD C Two characteristics of a reciprocal mentoring relationship are a willingness to be open and an ability to trust. Reflecting on these two characteristics, Anna, the in-service teacher in the dyad, stated in her reflection paper: While at a community council meeting on Wednesday afternoon, our early-release work day, I asked my student teacher to go in and update each skill site with new games that were increasingly challenging. This became necessary after seeing some of my students easily figure out the more challenging games from last week. (Reflection paper of in-service teacher). In terms of suspending the difference between the expert, Anna (the in-service teacher), and the novice, Mary (the pre-service teacher) during the focus group, Mary stated: Once she [Anna] got the concepts down well, she wouldn’t forget them… just to add resources was harder. Adding resources, making folders [in the Instructional Architect], gets complex. Once she got reminded, once I cued her, she would remember.
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Regarding a supportive relationship, Mary talked about working with Anna during the focus group and said “I helped her through a lot of it.” Knowledge transfer of technological pedagogical content knowledge in the reciprocal mentoring partnerships happened in terms of their specific teaching situation/problem. Mary, the pre-service teacher in the dyad, said the following about what she learned from her in-service teacher, Anna: “I’ve just learned so much behavior wise, content wise, it just brings it all together” (focus group interview with pre-service teachers). Mary commented on working with Anna, her in-service teacher, about planning and putting together the lesson: She would look for resources, we would look for the resources, and if we found something cool we would copy and paste the URL. I would help her make it happen. She sometimes would forget where to go into to do something and I would have to remind her. (Focus group interview with pre-service teachers). Mary was clearly making a contribution with her technological knowledge. This was also noted by Anna who described Mary’s role in terms of finding resources to use in the online lesson (in notes from a classroom observation). Anna made contributions centered on her pedagogical content knowledge. As they collaborated with online lessons and considered possible resources which had been discovered by Mary, Anna was the one who discussed whether or not each would be appropriate for their second graders and why (in notes from a classroom observation). This observation is significant in that Anna was not only willing to rely on Mary’s technical knowledge, but on her emerging pedagogical knowledge to handle a task by herself on which they had previously collaborated.
The in-service teacher reported having the chance to use technology with the support of her pre-service teacher. This self reported experience demonstrated the positive outcome associated with a true reciprocal mentoring activity. Anna stated in the conclusion of her reflection paper: Honestly, I was rather reticent about getting started with this project but eventually found it to be worthwhile. My colleague is very good at finding online resources so I often rely upon her for ideas. This gave me a chance to try it myself with the help and support of my student teacher, Beth [the computer teacher] and the IA folks in our classroom. This dyad exhibited the greatest number of characteristics of reciprocal mentoring. The relationship exhibited the most characteristics for establishing a successful reciprocal mentoring partnership and the knowledge transfer between Mary and Anna consistently took place within discussions of a specific teaching and learning situation. The trust and openness within the relationship coupled with the consistent discussions within the technological pedagogical content knowledge framework appeared to enable a rich reciprocal mentoring relationship to occur within the dyad.
S In our strongest case of reciprocal mentoring ‘in the wild,’ we observed that the pre-service teacher had high technological knowledge and low pedagogical knowledge, whereas the in-service teacher had low technological knowledge and high pedagogical knowledge. As the in-service teacher in this dyad noted: “Honestly, I was rather reticent about getting started with this project” (reflection paper) and that she had “never used the wireless lab.” Whereas the pre-service teacher said, “I
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Table 2. Summary of findings Dyad
Pre-Service Teacher Characteristics
In-service Characteristics
Dyad A
Low TK, learned PK
High TPCK, no reported learning from pre-service teacher, little communication within the relationship
Dyad B
Had TK but shared it as a technological support person, learned PK
Had PCK, TK, learned basic technological knowledge, trust and suspension of distinction between expert and novice
Elements of RM relationship
Dyad C
Had TK, Learned PCK
Had PCK, some TK, learned TK. Was open and trusted reservice teacher
Strong elements of RM relationship
felt really comfy. I used it 3 or 4 times, it was easy to modify projects, add new things. (focus group interviews with pre-service teachers)” Further, the data indicated that both members in Dyad A were open to mentoring, had trust in the relationship, and both were given the opportunity for mentoring. Several themes emerged from the findings that appear to characterize the strength of the observed reciprocal mentoring relationship. Our findings suggest that the elements needed for the potential of a reciprocal mentoring partnership to occur included high technological knowledge in the pre-service teacher, low technological knowledge in the in-service teacher, high pedagogical knowledge in the in-service teacher, and low pedagogical knowledge in the pre-service teacher, an openness to mentoring, the opportunity for mentoring, as well as a sense of trust within the dyad, and encouragement from the in-service teacher. In short, reciprocal mentoring seemed to occur when the dyad exhibited relative complementary expertise. This complementary expertise may lead to a mutual need within the dyad. In contrast, when reciprocal mentoring partnerships did not occur, the in-service teacher displayed high TPCK.
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Reciprocal Mentoring Relationship No elements of RM relationship.
DISCUSSIONnd RECOMENDTIONSFOR PR It is likely that the complementary knowledge that both members brought to the partnership, and the personal interactions between the preservice and in-service teachers played a direct role in facilitating RM partnerships. However, drawing a direct causal connection given our data collection and methods is a tenuous proposition at best. Therefore, it is our intention to forward these findings as possibilities only. That said, a number of factors seemed to co-occur with our observed instance of RM. As previously noted the possibilities of knowledge transfer occurring between the members of the dyad is one potential factor for reciprocal mentoring. Each member must have knowledge that the other member does not have and seeks to gain. In the case of this study we have defined those types of knowledge as content knowledge (CK), pedagogical knowledge (PK), technological knowledge (TK) and the frameworks that bring those types of knowledge together - pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) (Shulman, 1986; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). There are other potential factors. The in-service teacher, the member of the dyad who has the
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most power in the relationship, must be willing to learn from the pre-service teacher (Grisham, Ferguson & Brink, 2004). In addition, both partners must be able to support the other (Dawson & Nonis, 2000; Gonzales & Thompson, 1998). Finally, there must be respect and trust between the two members of the partnership (Swain & Dawson, 2006; Bullough et. al, 2002; Jipson & Paley, 2000; Kochan & Trimble, 2000; Mullen, 2000). Reciprocal mentoring appeared strongest in dyad C. In this dyad, the pre-service teacher reported high technological knowledge and was able to apply it to the Instructional Architect lesson being taught in the classroom. While the in-service teacher did possess some technological knowledge, she reported and displayed greater strengths in pedagogical content knowledge within the lesson taught using the IA. She was also open to learning from her pre-service teacher, and she trusted her as well to work on later expansions to the lesson independently. While the members of dyad B did show some transfer of technical knowledge from the preservice teacher to the in-service teacher, that knowledge was not related to an instructional situation and the data did not indicate that any collaboration occurred between the members of the dyad on the IA lesson. Potential for a mutually beneficial exchange of knowledge and expertise existed, because the pre-service teacher had more technical knowledge than the pre-service teacher, however that potential did not emerge into a full RM partnership. The question remains as to why this is the case. In dyad A there was no transfer of knowledge from the pre-service teacher to the in-service teacher. This relationship was more typical of a one-way mentor relationship (Wildman, Magliaro, Niles & Niles, 1992), at least within the context of the design and implementation of the IA activity. One possible conclusion is that while mutually beneficial expertise may be a minimum component for RM, it seems consistently present
when RM occurs, but its presence alone does not guarantee that RM will happen. In conclusion, there is great potential in reciprocal mentoring relationships to facilitate the transfer of technological pedagogical content knowledge, if both members of the dyad possess complementary expertise, and are open to such transfer of knowledge from the other member of the dyad. Further investigation is warranted to better understand the dynamics of knowledge transfer in this relationship within the context of blended learning environments. Effective TPCK within such environments contains many elements that are less relevant within the typical classroom. These include, for example, strategies for effective online communication, strategies for moderating online discussions, etc. It is possible that reciprocal mentoring is an important means for the development of such knowledge.
LIMITTIONS Due to the retrospective nature and the context of the study, there are important limitations. First, the researchers were not able to collect data on the phenomenon of the intersection of reciprocal mentoring and technological pedagogical content knowledge as it was occurring because it was not a part of the intent of the original study. Data collected was based on recollections of participants after the fact, rather than during the occurrence of the phenomenon. The inability of the researchers to properly triangulate the data is another limitation (Merriam, 1988). While we were able to conduct follow up interviews with four of the six pre-service teachers that were in the classrooms at SSLS during the time of our original study, we did not have adequate data to properly triangulate the experiences of the pre-service teachers. This limitation of data collection impacts the findings of this study.
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We note that the teachers and students at SSLS have high access to ICT through a rich blended learning environment. Sarah Smith is a wellfunded school that has two full portable laptop carts, a full desktop lab and every classroom that the researchers visited had at least three computers in the back of the room for the students to use. Wireless Internet access is available in each classroom (although there were accessibility concerns for dyad A). Furthermore every classroom has the ability to project digital images and sound using a multimedia station that is controllable by the adults in the classroom. Many K-5 schools in the United States do not have access to the kind of resources that these teachers have. We recognize that this kind of access to technology will not be available in every school in the country, which will, obviously, inhibit teachers at those schools to bring online educational resources into their classrooms. The teachers at Sarah Smith have more control over their curriculum than teachers at other schools. There are no standard textbooks in the school and while the teachers must teach according to defined educational standards, they select materials at their own discretion. This makes them more amenable to teaching in different ways, and using different materials. Also they are encouraged by their administration to constantly seek out new and innovative ways to teach. One factor that must be present for reciprocal mentoring to occur is that in-service teachers must be open to learning new things (Grisham, Ferguson, & Brink 2004) and this is the standard environment at Sarah Smith. Limitations at other K – 5 schools due to curriculum and material constraints may reduce the in-service teachers’ willingness and or ability to be open to learning from the pre-service teachers with whom they are working. Lastly, we note the uniqueness of the context of the lab school. These schools are partnerships between a university and the school where the university provides funding for the school and the members of the school community allow research
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to occur within the school. Most students sign waivers at the beginning of each school year for the research that will occur at the school. The school benefits from this simultaneous renewal relationship (Goodlad, 1994) through access to the new ideas and methods being researched at the university and the university benefits by having easy access to a K – 5 population on its campus. Researchers are able to pilot materials and methods at the school and beginning school practitioners and researchers are able to build their knowledge within the friendly environment of a community that is used to their presence. The researchers knew from the start of the study that the setting of the study would be a limitation. Any study that occurs within the confines of a lab school, if generalizeable, will only be able to be generalized to other lab schools, which make up a very small portion of schools within the United States.
CONCLUSIONSFUTURE WORK This retrospective case study has led the researchers to consider the use of reciprocal mentoring as a means for carrying out technology-based, blended learning teacher professional development. The purpose of the professional development is to help teachers gain knowledge of how to use ICT to design online lessons and learning activities. Our study showed by working collaboratively, some teachers mutually benefit from collaboration, especially when one member of the dyad is lacking technology skills. Next, we will be conducting an examination of 4 teacher dyads. As opposed to RM partnerships ‘in the wild’ these can be characterized as RM partnerships ‘in the zoo.’ It is our intention to have the pre-service teachers expose their inservice teachers to ICT, rather than disseminating technology tools through a professional development workshop. Data on transfer of technological pedagogical content knowledge and the reciprocal
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mentoring relationship will be collected through the use of a structured journal that will be filled out at the beginning of the study, a pre-survey on technological skills, a reflection paper, and a post interview after all other data have been collected. This study will help the researchers bolster findings from this retrospective and give guidance for moving forward with a new look at a teacher professional development model. Recommendations for future research include replications of this study with greater numbers of participants, conducting research investigating why reciprocal mentoring ‘in the wild’ does not occur-- even when mutual benefits for both members of the dyad are apparent, and examining reciprocal mentoring through a multi-cultural lens.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
of an effective project manager: A web-based delphi study. Educational Technology Research & Development, 54(2), 115-140. Bruneau, E., & Lacroix, M. (2001, November). Information sector: towards a 2007 classification. Paper presented at the ACN conference, Paris, France. Brown, M., & Edelson, D. (2003) Teaching as design: Can we better understand the ways in which teachers use materials so we can better design materials to support their change in practice? (Design Brief). Evanston, IL: Center for Learning Technologies in Urban Schools. Bullough, R. V., Young, J., Erickson, L., Birrell, J., Clark, D. C., Egan, M. W., et. al. (2002). Rethinking field experience: Partnership teaching versus single-placement teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, (53) 68, 68-80.
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grants No. 0333818 & 0434892, and Utah State University. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. We thank the teachers and student teachers who participated in our studies.
Clark, I., & James, P. (2005). Blended learning: an approach to delivering science courses online. Proceedings of the Blended Learning in Science Teaching and Learning Symposium, 30 September 2005, The University of Sydney: UniServe Science, (pp. 19-24).
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Ballantyne, R., Green, A., Yarrow, A., Millwater, J. (1999). Reciprocal mentoring: Preparatory learning materials for teacher development. Teacher Development, 3(1), 79-94. Bonk, C. J., Olson, T. M., Wisher, R. J., & Orvis, K. L. (2002). Learning from focus groups: An examination of blended learning. Journal of Distance Education, 17(3), 97-118. Brill, J., Bishop, M., & Walker, A. (2006). An investigation into the competencies required
Computing Research Association. (2005). Cyberinfrastructure for education and learning for the future: A vision and research agenda. Washington, DC.
Dawson, K., Swain, C., Johnson, N., Ring, G. (2004). Partnership strategies for systemic integration of technology in teacher education. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 3(4), 482-495.
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DeVaus, D. (2001). Research design in social research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications Inc. Ducatel, K., Webster, J., & Herrmann, W. (2000). The information society in Europe: Work and life in an age of globalization. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
learning among international educators: A delphi study. Educational Technology Research and Development, 55(5), 527-543. Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago, Aldine Publishing Company.
Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. The Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054.
Goodlad, J. (1994). Educational renewal: better teachers, better schools. San Francisco, JosseyBass.
Mullen, C. (2000). Constructing co-mentoring partnerships: Walkways we must travel. Theory Into Practice, 39(1), 4-11.
Gonzales, C., & Thompson, V. (1998). Reciprocal mentoring in technology use: reflecting with a literacy educator. Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 7(2), 163-178.
Osguthorpe, R., & Graham, C. (2003). Blended learning environments definitions and directions. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 43(3), 227-233.
Grisham, D. L., Ferguson, J. L., & Brink, B. (2004). Mentoring the mentors: student teachers’ contributions to the middle school classroom. Mentoring and Tutoring, 12(3), 307-319.
Recker, M., Dorward, J., Dawson, D., Liu, Y., Mao, X., Palmer, B., et al. (2005). Teaching, creating, sharing: A context for learning objects. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects, 1, 197-216.
Huberman, A. M., & Miles, M.B. (2002). The qualitative researcher’s companion. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Jipson, J., & Paley, N. (2000). Because no one gets there alone: Collaboration as co-mentoring. Theory Into Practice, 39(1), 36-42. Johnson-Gentile, K., Lonberger, R., Parana, J., & West, A. (2000). Preparing preservice teachers for the technological classroom: A school-college partnership. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 8(2), 97-109. Kochan, F. K., & Trimble, S. B. (2000). From mentoring to co-mentoring: Establishing collaborative relationships. Theory Into Practice, 39(1), 20-28. Kramer, B., Walker, A., & Brill, J. M. (2007). The underutilization of internet and communication technology-assisted collaborative project-based
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Recker, M., Dorward, J., & Nelson, L. (2004). Discovery and use of online learning resources: Case Study Findings. Educational Technology & Society, 7(2), 93-104. Recker, M., Giersch, S., Walker, A., Halioris, S., Mao, X., & Palmer, B. (2007, June). A study of how online learning resources are used. Paper presented at the 2007 ACM IEEE Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, Vancouver, British Columbia. Recker, M., & Palmer, B. (2006, June). Using content across digital libraries. Paper presented at the ACM IEEE Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, Chapel Hill, NC. Recker, M., Walker, A., Giersch, S., Mao, X., Palmer, B., Johnson, D., et. al. (2007). A study of teachers’ use of online learning resources to design
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classroom activities. New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia, 13(2), 117 - 134. Recker, M. (2006). Perspectives on teachers as digital library users: Consumers, contributors, and designers. D-Lib Magazine, 12(9). Recker, M., & Palmer, B. (2006). Using content across digital libraries. Proceedings of the Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, (pp. 241-242). New York: ACM. Sandholtz, J. H., Ringstaff, C., & Dwyer, D. C. (1997) Teaching with technology: Creating student-centered classrooms. New York: Teachers College Press Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4-14. Swain, C., & Dawson, K. (2006). The teacher village: Growing partnerships to integrate educa-
tional technology into curricula and classrooms. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 5(2). Thompson, A. D., Schmidt, D. A., Davis, N. E. (2003). Technology collaboratives for simultaneous renewal in teacher education. Educational Technology Research & Development, 51(1), 73-89. Wildman, T. M., Magliaro, S. G., Niles, R. A., & Niles, J. A. (1992). Teacher mentoring: An analysis of roles, activities, and conditions. Journal of Teacher Education, 43(3), 205-213 Yin, R. (1989). Case study research: Design and methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications Inc. Yin, R. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (third edition). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications Inc.
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Chapter XVI
Conclusion Philippa Gerbic Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Elizabeth Stacey Deakin University, Australia
ABSTRACT The conclusion draws together the main themes identified under the sections of the book with a synthesis of the recommendations presented by the chapter authors which connect the outcomes of these research studies with practical suggestions in all aspects of blended learning practice. It identifies and discusses future trends and implications for learning as well as areas of further research.
INTRODUCTION The chapters of this book have provided a series of research-based perspectives which present, individually, cohesive accounts of blended learning and its practice. In this conclusion we have added an additional perspective in the nature of a synopsis or synthesis of the many themes which have been discussed and developed within this volume of research. We now provide a more holistic view of blended learning as a stimulus
for reflection and further research rather than as a generic view of blended learning. We begin by identifying some important concepts from the research presented in this text. A discussion of some of the key challenges which emerge from this research follow with a summation of suggestions for effective blending learning practice in each of the three contexts reflected as separate sections of the book. Implications for learners, teachers and universities will be discussed and the chapter concludes with some recommendations for further research.
Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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OVERVIEWf Research Concepts and Themes The practice of ICT-facilitated blended learning has been discussed in this book in multiple settings and from diverse evidence bases. The book provides further confirmation of the complexity (Garrison and Kanuka, 2004) of blended learning, which is now occurring in a wide range of sites, such as universities and workplaces and which involves not only traditional students as learners but also teachers and other workers as they engage in formal and informal forms of professional learning in various communities that are connected through some form ICT. As newer technologies like podcasts, e-labs and mobile personalised learning environments are introduced they create new affordances for learning beyond those of learning management systems. The research base in this text has been predominantly qualitative with an emphasis on case studies. Given the current emerging state of knowledge about blended learning, qualitative approaches can be very productive because of their descriptive and interpretive ability. Such approaches here are able to represent learners’, teachers’ and others’ experiences of blending learning practices and provide insights into the way the participants made sense of the new learning environment. While we don’t make generalisations from this research, we expect that readers of this text will be able to determine for themselves the relevance of the research and recommended practices. It is noteworthy that a variety of case study approaches were documented and these included both individual and collective cases, longitudinal and retrospective studies and a cross-case analysis. The strength of the case study methodology as it is used here is that it supports the investigation of the complexities of blended learning by providing a situated research methodology. We have attempted to build on this and create further relevance for readers by including recommendations for practice.
One other feature of many of the research investigations in this book, is that they were insider accounts. While we are aware of the problems which might arise due to the researcher’s familiarity with their context, the idea of the researcher being embedded within the research setting has a long tradition within qualitative inquiry and is also characteristic of much of the research on technological innovation and pedagogy. In our view, in the blended learning context, such a position is beneficial because it has the potential to deepen contextual understanding of the setting and its processes, values and relationships. The research in this book has drawn on a wide range of literatures and theoretical frameworks. As well as the literature on blended learning and associated areas of online and e-learning, discussion of variation theory and the differences between face-to-face and virtual environments and especially the role of social presence are particularly valuable discussions. One concept that has been widely and deeply considered within this text is that of communities of practice (Wenger, 1998) and the associated idea of learning communities and the Community of Inquiry (Garrison and Vaughan, 2008). This reflects the level of interest in this socio-cultural concept and its explanatory potential in both the fields of technology and learning. Other valuable literatures drawn on by the researchers include actor network theory, activity theory, adult learning principles, designbased research and the experience of learning literature, all of which provide a broad foundation for further knowledge building, reflection and practical application.
Section 1: Strategies for Teaching and Larning The first section of this book focused on ICT-based blended learning and teaching as a pedagogic practice within many university courses. Apart from the corporate sector, universities were amongst the first learning sites to introduce blended
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environments, and there is now an extensive literature on this topic which we have discussed in the introduction to this book. The first section of the book added further dimensions to blended leaning through its discussion of various issues associated with its pedagogy. Gerbic’s research presented students’ perspectives on online discussions, which have often been a feature of blended environments. Her research found that learners viewed online and face-to-face discussions as complementary for their learning and confirmed the importance of curriculum design and the need for strong pedagogic connections between the two environments. Geer’s work provided empirical support for the concept of imprinting, and her framework for technology mediated interactions provides a strategy for fine grained matching of interactive technologies, pedagogies and learning outcomes. Simpson and Anderson demonstrate a theoretically informed approach to blended learning design at a programme rather than individual course level. Here, blending of various technologies was central to enable on-campus and off-campus students to have the same digitally enhanced learning opportunities, without any reduction in pedagogical value. Carvahlo discusses the inclusion of podcasts within a contemporary blended environment . Her research identified two important contributions of podcasts to learning which include their use as pedagogical hooks or attention getters and their ability to improve social presence and the sense of proximity between learners and the teacher. Lustigova and Lustig discuss the advantages of elabs, and their abilities to add real life dimensions to face-to-face learning. While their work is in science education, there are significant possibilities for this form of blending in many disciplines through the use of ICT-based simulations. Trentin’s research provides a new and holistic dimension to blended learning with his discussion of sustainable blended solutions. Given the demands of blended learning on teachers,
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consideration of sustainability is important and this research identifies key dimensions from teachers’ perspectives, which should also benefit institutional planners. Wheeler argues from an entirely pragmatic perspective with his presentation of contemporary learners as nomadic learners and their preferences for personalised learning environments. Following his critique of learning managements systems, he proposed a new technology blend of these and personalised learning environments.
Section 2: Establishing Cmunities The second section of the book examined the role of communities of practice in learning, particularly the issue of workplace communities which were generally face-to-face and their relationships or connection with various formal and informal online communities as a blend to support learning. Smith Ha and Stacey have provided descriptions of different blends of workplace and online communities and identified issues which promote and impede their effectiveness in learning. Especially important is the anchor role of the “rich community of practice” which is predominantly real world, but may also intersect with other internal online communities (via intranets), and external online communities, which might be informal ( professional interest groups) or formal (credentialed courses). One of the key questions in blended learning is the relationship between these real world and virtual communities and this research provides foundational knowledge on this issue. Thompson and Kanuka addressed a significant issue in universities in their discussion of the difficulties of establishing blended communities of practice to support professional development. Their findings on the role of professional development centres in developing and modelling communities, the demand for scalability and the need to take strategic approaches are timely and valuable to the field.
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Mackey’s research explicitly extends the blended learning concept to a professional context and provides evidence of the way in which virtual environments can promote learning in workplace communities. Her discussion of variation theory illustrates the ways in which differences might assist learning and she emphasises the need for reflection if discernment is to occur. Riverin’s discussion of K-12 teachers learning through an online community in order to take ICT back to their classrooms provides further illustration of the reach of blended approaches, the difficulties of establishing communities and the imperative of professional learning and lifelong learning. Like other researchers, she noted the importance of face-to-face communication in establishing and sustaining communities and advocated the use of synchronous tools if face-toface communication was not possible to help the social presence of a face-to-face meeting.
Sction 3: Teacher Transitions and Professional Learning. The last section of the book focuses on teachers as they transition into blended teaching practices and the associated issues in professional learning and development. Weisenberg and Stacey began by examining the influence of the two modalities of traditional face-to-face teaching compared to teaching online on teachers’ philosophies of teaching. Of significance is their identification of the development of a complementary approach where insights about teaching formed in the online mode influenced teaching in the face-to-face mode. This provides evidence of the transformative potential of teaching in a different environment and is a good illustration of the role of variation in learning – for teachers. Samarawickrema provides further perspectives on transition in her identification of the main institutional policy, power and political actors for teachers as they developed their practice in blended
learning. Of particular value is her discussion of the infrastructure and policy vacuums which may arise and how these might be addressed in an effective and democratic fashion. Wilson’s work with teachers provides a research-based framework for working in blended environments. Its seven dimensions provide an accessible reference for individual teachers and her recommendations for professional development provide useful advice for institutions, and especially on the value of websites. Gunn and Bake present another approach to transition through their discussion of a formal professional development course for academics which was intended to provide “purposeful and thoughtful integration of face-to-face and online learning with a goal of achieving an optimum blend”. Also significant is their use of a designbased research approach to the development of this new course. Given the widely identified need in the blended learning literature for course redesign rather than simple additions, the approach here, which uses empirical educational research and theory-driven design, provides a good model for this. Robertshaw, Leary, Walker, Bloxham and Recker provide an intriguing example of professional learning with their discussion of reciprocal mentoring. The pairing of teachers with complementary strengths and development needs is a concept that could be adopted in other professional learning contexts and this research, while small in scale indentifies a process needed to create successful learning.
RECOMMENDTIONSFOR PR Blended learning is a practical matter, and even though the research discussed within this text is highly applied, we wanted to make stronger connections between the research and the wider demands of blended learning practice in contem-
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porary learning settings. Trigwell, Martin, Benjamin and Prosser (2000) advocate reading research as one of a number of a scholarly approaches to improving teaching practice. The practice focus here is therefore an attempt by us to extend the relevance and utility of the research for teachers who venture into this subject, as well as supporting individualised professional learning. We start this section by outlining some of the main challenges to emerge from this text and then present some recommendations for effective practice.
Challenges for Practice One theme that runs throughout all of the different contexts within this text is the absolute strength of face-to-face settings for all kinds of learning, whether it involves students, professionals and or communities of practice. This is not a new issue, and it has always been acknowledged in distance settings. However the introduction of online learning possibilities in conventional campus and workplace settings has highlighted the significance of this issue for learning. The face-to-face setting is foundational in all contexts, and has a historical and experiential legitimacy for everyone. The research indicates that there is a tradition of communication and interaction based on qualities of synchronicity and this has created not only competency but also confidence in the efficacy of face-to-face settings. There are also other more subtle values associated with face-to-face communication, for example, Feenberg talks about a ‘guarantee of authenticity’ (Feenberg, 1989, p.22). At the moment, it is far more difficult to create or develop the same kind of fidelity, comfort or social presence in online spaces and this is one of the most significant challenges for learning in blended environments, whether formal or informal. Another theme that runs through much of the research in this text is the issue of transition – for both learners and also teachers, academic
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developers and organisations. Major pedagogical aspects of transition relate to understanding the differences between the two environments and how to integrate these, both in terms of formal courses and the relationships between different communities of practice. In practice, the research indicates that this may also involve progressions, sequencing and sustaining interactions in online environments and communities. A consistent comment is that the move from face-to-face to blended teaching requires purposeful and thoughtful redesign and not just additive approaches. The research here indicates that teachers and learners must develop new practices to be effective within a blended learning context. Because learners study across a range of courses, they are more likely to experience a greater diversity of blended approaches (both good and otherwise) and this may give them greater depth of understanding of the two different environments (Gerbic, 2006). However the wider blended learning literature indicates significant issues, for example, with independent learning, time management and online interaction. There appear, now, to be fewer issues with technology and this may be due to the arrival of increasingly digitally literate learners (of all ages) whose capacity may have been developed through the introduction of mobile and Web 2.0 technologies. For teachers, going online and working with text based teaching has created significant challenges which include understanding the distinctive characteristics of the new online environments, adapting teaching styles and reconsidering teaching philosophies, redesigning courses and materials, and adapting their roles and identities in both environments. On a more pragmatic level, the research in this book identifies issues of workload, funding and resources for development, conflicting demands (especially for discipline based research), and uncertain reward systems. Overall, the research on teachers’ perspectives is beginning to show that there is less of a sense of competition between the two media and more
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understanding of their complementary nature and that value for learning. An ongoing challenge for teachers and organisations is that of professional learning that is viable for teachers. Modelling blended learning through formal courses is one option, as is reciprocal mentoring. One promising possibility is that of establishing blended communities of practice, however university professional development centres, in this time of transition, are uncertain about their role and methods in cultivating communities of practice, whether a blended model is desirable or achievable and whether the community notion would work across an entire university.
Efective Practice We now make some suggestions for creating effective blended learning practices. Each of the chapters contains detailed recommendations for their particular context. In order to create some coherency for the reader and to provide some broad observations as prompts for reflection, we have drawn these together, with a caveat that we do not make any claims of best practice. A common refrain in the recommendations within chapters was the importance of responsiveness to local contexts and conditions and we would suggest that these circumstances, whether they relate to the institution, its courses, teachers and learners or the wider community be used as an evaluative lens when considering any scholarly literature in the area. One other continuously mentioned factor which needs to be included within the idea of effective practice is that new practices must be sustainable – for learners, teachers, institutions and communities of practice. The research on innovation makes it clear that this is a requirement for long term impact and Littlejohn and Pegler (2007) also recognise this in their discussion of sustainable blended e-learning designs. We now consider effective blended learning and what might be regarded as effective practice
in each of the three contexts relating to the sections within this book.
In Teaching and Learning Effective blended learning must promote high quality learning outcomes, student engagement and positive student learning experiences. These are predominantly pedagogical matters, however if we put students at the centre of learning, then pragmatic matters like flexibility and accessability can quite legitimately be acknowledged as well. Effectiveness in this context must also include high teacher satisfaction, not only with regard to achieving learning outcomes, but also in the sense of a reasonable workload, which allows time for research and scholarship, and recognition of achievement. Some broad suggestions for achieving this come next. With Learners •
•
•
• •
Discuss the differences between the two environments and how they can both contribute to learning and go beyond pragmatic issues like accessibility and talk about their pedagogic value in relation to learning outcomes, for example, the value of online discussions, podcasts and e-labs, Where blended learning includes new student-centred interactive, experiential and reflective activities, introduce these explicitly and monitor learners for their understanding and acceptance of them, especially if they are more familiar with didactic approaches, Create increased relevance of online activities by linking them to professional, workplace and community expectations of graduates, Assess the online aspects of the course to communicate their importance, Consider short, structured podcasts to extend the teachers presence beyond the classroom and build student-teacher relationships,
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•
•
Think about learners making their own podcasts (or other technological artefacts) as a learning activity and Consider a mixture of learning management systems and personalised leaning environments to provide both institutional services and allow learners the ability to informally learn and communicate.
Teachers Could Consider: •
•
To Best Use the Strengths of the Face-to-Face Environment, in the Classroom
•
Provide rapid feedback on online work, Ensure learners understand course expectations and learning outcomes, Assist learners to develop good relations with peers through purposively guided interaction; Lay a foundation for the next online activity, Recognise spontaneous moments and consider how to best work with a spontaneous pedagogy and Role model processes and values, especially those associated with acculturation into the discipline.
•
• • •
• •
•
•
•
•
Taking a lesser role in online activities, for example, online discussions and including them regularly into classroom activity, Modelling and devising interactive strategies to influence students activities from the beginning to take advantage of the concept of imprinting, Careful selecting of interactive technologies and pedagogies to maximise learning outcomes, E-writing effort as an indicator of a student’s progress or otherwise in the course, Ways in which their online teaching experiences differ from their face-to-face teaching as a prompt for reflection on improving their teaching practice, Whether and how their roles might be changing as they work more as a learning process facilitator and how this impacts on their planning and time, for example, reading emails, moderating online discussions, preparing and repurposing course materials and The impact of blended learning on student workloads, as well as their own.
To Integrate the Face-to-Face and Virtual Environments
Learning Designers Could:
•
•
• •
• •
•
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Identify the strengths of each medium for their learning outcomes and translating these into the design of activities, Ensure that online activities are assessed, Reduce the amount of face-to-face contact time and providing substantial online activities; Connect the weekly face-to-face class topics to the online activities, Include activities in class which prepare students for online work, for example, giving and receiving feedback and critique and Provide regular and consistent feedback in class about online activities.
•
•
•
Consider redesign rather than additive treatments, Deliberate on frameworks for redesign, for example, the Technology –Mediated framework, and the Dimensions of Learning Environments framework, Consider design-based research as a process for blended learning design, and as a basis for continuous monitoring and feedback to evaluate learner and teacher progress with the new design, Focus, if possible, on program rather than individual course levels to ensure a richer
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•
•
•
•
•
and more holistic environment for student learning, Build new programs based on educational principles first, not the potential of technologies, Recognise that incremental development will occur during implementation, and use the educational principles of the program to balance emerging technologies and new pedagogies, Work in teams rather than as individuals to obtain the benefits of multiple perspectives on design issues and an increase in the sense of ownership and commitment to the new program or course, Pay particular attention to staff support and staff development especially in the early stages of the redesign process and Include regular evaluation and enhancement procesess.
Establishing and Building Communities •
•
•
•
For Communities of Practice Effective blended learning in communities of practice should revolve around the particular shared and situated practice and authentic activities, involve a sense of belonging to the community and the creation of meaning through experience. To be effective, learning needs to be reflective, collaborative, situated and capable of being integrated with the learners’ other communities of practice, especially their work. Pragmatically, members need time and easy access to the community, to be encouraged to engage in active rather than only peripheral participation, and to be able to create trust or empathy with the other members. Learning communities that are created around formal learning, for example, a qualification, if well designed and facilitated may be more cohesive than those that are created for more informal learning purposes, for example, some forms of professional development and this needs to be taken into account when effectiveness is considered. Some suggestions for effective practice follow.
•
Consider the effects of the wider context on the online community, for example, the nature of the group, its tasks, the relationship of individual learners to the informal collaborative group, and the surrounding organisational culture. Consider whether involvement in the online community is mandated or voluntary and the impact this might have on participation. Address exhaustion and information overload for busy professionals with intuitive access points and scaffolded participation through scheduled online activities as well as unscheduled sessions. Create face-to-face opportunities to meet other participants. Where this is not possible, consider tools (for example, videoconferencing and web cameras) so that community members can meet and get to know each other in more depth and feel more at ease with each other. For professional development communities in universities, keep in mind that such communities need a high level of effort and commitment, a champion and a clear purpose.
Integration of Communities •
•
•
Consider the learners’ other face-to-face communities or collaborations outside the institution ( for example, in their workplace or wider communities ) and integrate these into the design and teaching of the course. In university professional development settings, facilitate the integration of micro-communities into the bigger university community. Professional Development Centres should ideally model blended approaches.
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Learning Design and Communities Consider an intentional course design which promotes and encourages: • •
• •
Variation in participants’ experiences, Reflection through directed activities which highlight aspects of both virtual and real contexts, Interaction in both virtual and real contexts and Negotiation of relevant learning and assessment activities so that participants can align course work with workplace needs and opportunities.
For Teacher Transitions and Professional Learning Effective blended learning in professional development contexts should promote the construction of new knowledge about learning and educational processes, encourage reflection on teaching and learning within philosophical frameworks, particularly through communities of peers, and develop relevant skills for specific educational purposes and processes. Pragmatically, professional learning needs to be timely and relevant, accessable in terms of other commitments and able to provide sustained support beyond any course or event. Some Suggestions for Effective Practice •
•
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Recognise that putting traditional faceto-face courses online requires a different approach to the professional development of academic staff, and pay particular attention to academic role definitions, blended pedagogies, and course conceptualization and development . Include ICT skills (and an understanding of the strengths and limitations of ICT), working with digital resources and repurposing
•
•
•
•
•
them and associated skills, for example, working in teams. Evaluate the role of supporting websites and ensure that they provide opportunities for interactivity, social learning, and knowledge sharing and that they showcase effective practice and publish teacher and student evaluations of innovations in blended learning. Use situated learning as a framework for professional learning which includes faceto-face and online discussion and collaboration, and combining pedagogical theory with the practical aspects of teaching with technologies, for teachers’ own local contexts. Use a blended community of practice model and create opportunities for teachers to get together to facilitate relationship building, advertise what the community can offer and develop activities that clearly belong to the community. Use a community of inquiry model (Garrison and Vaughan, 2008) that offers opportunities for teachers to reflect and discuss course redesign with their peers, experience a blended learning environment from the student perspective, with ready access to instructional design and evaluation support. Consider reciprocal mentoring between an experienced teacher who is inexperienced in ICT and another teacher who is experienced in ICT but has less teaching experience. Both parties must be willing to learn from each other, be committed to supporting each other and respect and trust each other
THEFUTURETIONS OFBLENDEDrning Blended learning is a comparatively recent phenomenon in university settings, and its implications are now emerging at different levels. Many
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of them include factors such as transition and change, the impact or otherwise of technology and the rise of globalisation. Drawing from the researchers’ discussions in this book, we now reflect on some implications arising for three central participants in blended learning; learners, teachers and universities.
For Students, Learners and their Larning The research in this book has discussed learners with a wide range of needs or goals which include students enrolled in a first degree, teachers and other workers enrolled in advanced qualifications, university teachers wanting to improve their teaching and learning knowledge formally and informally and industry workers wanting to increase their knowledge informally. While this illustrates the widely acknowledged diversity of learners today, it also indicates that the nature of much work today is such that that life-long learning is inevitable and with it comes a greater convergence of work and/with learning and the merging of various and often overlapping on and off campus learning communities, and communities of practice. In this scenario, there is likely to be a wider range of interpersonal communications in learning, with technology having a foundational and central role in linking and connecting learning and working and the social aspects of life. In future, the trend of learner diversity is likely to continue with its variation in terms of age, study skills, academic literacy, culture, work and family responsibilities and aspirations. Today, learners, especially those who are younger, have far more complex and multidimensional life patterns which include working and studying and disjointed and deferred career development, often for economic reasons. For women, there are additional challenges as they balance private family arrangements with the public demands of work and study (Wyn and Dyer, 2000). The authors in this text also discuss the varying degrees of
ICT comfort which exist, ranging from nomadic learners and those for whom social networking tools are part of their life through to those who are ICT challenged and hesitant. Equally or more important is the nature of prior learning experiences which may have been highly didactic with little or no interaction or active learning. Blended learning will continue to extend and support a wider range of interpersonal connections, whether in conventional courses or via communities of practice through online, and particularly asynchronous interaction and communication environments. Now much of this emanates from learning management systems but other new technologies will be constantly integrated into face-to-face learning, such as the podcats, e-labs and Web 2.0 tools discussed herein. Issues around the technology comfort of learners are likely to reduce as there is an overall accretion of confidence of all learners with Internet, Web 2.0 and mobile technologies. For learners in blended environments, there are both pedagogical and pragmatic implications. The current value of blended learning is generally perceived to be related to its flexibility, rather than its value for learning. There is evidence that some learners understand the complementary nature of blended environments and its value for their learning, for example, the value of online discussions for supporting reflective thinking and more considered text-based communication, however, this is not widely understood. Despite the rapid rise of social networking sites and the development of a web presence through blogs and Internet sites such as You Tube, there is far lesser engagement with virtual environments in blended learning, and such lack of understanding will reduce the potential value of blended environments for learners. This may be connected with learners’ expectations of the university as a real world campus-based experience, and the legitimacy of online learning within a face-to-face tradition of university learning. Equally important for learners in blended environments is their ability to work indepen307
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dently, to manage their time and to understand the value of interaction, discussion and working in teams for learning. Blended environments may better support learners for whom the language of instruction is a second language by removing the cognitive load which is often present in face-toface classes and providing more time for reflection and communication through asynchronous modes. There is also potential for using both face-to-face and online discussion environments to ameliorate issues of language competence and cultural or gender confidence and enabling learners to participate in more enjoyable and constructive learning processes. This issue has been documented especially within undergraduate settings( for example, Gerbic, 2006), however a global employment market and migration mean that there are similar issues for professional learning and communities of practice. For all learners, whether they are undergraduate students, learners within a community of practice or university teachers enagaged in professional development, there are significant issues to be addressed involving changing life habits to make room for active participation within online learning and communities. It is rather ironic that this actuality is somewhat different from the espoused flexibility of online discussions and communities and it may be that in future, new value will be identified in the time and place boundedness of face-to-face learning. While the Digital Divide may be a contestable notion, it is now regularly used to refer to ICT competence rather than those who can and cannot afford technology (Underwood, 2007). The provision of blended learning, provided that it is accompanied by access to technology, is one way to embark on a strategy of digital inclusion, either directly through professional learning or indirectly through experiencing learning in a blended environment. While we tend to think of the digital divide as something which affects learners and their ability to learn, we should also consider the likelihood of the same occurring now
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between students and their teachers. Underwood (2007) argues that this manifests itself in teacher’s negative views on texting, which is often regarded as an impoverishment of the language, and on the lack of cognitive value in gaming. She points out that there is also a significantly larger divide since the introduction of technology between teachers’ views of academic honesty in assessment and some students’ views of the value of the Internet, cutting and pasting and mobile phones for passing courses.
For Teachers, Academic Developers, Fcilitators and Mentors The nature of learning and learners today means that there are a wide range of people involved with this process, with an enormous diversity in roles, including teachers, academic developers, facilitators, mentors, community leaders and moderators. This variation in roles within blended environments combined with broader factors such as curriculum and technology change means that teaching practice is and will be carried out in a climate of transition. We discuss two aspects of that transition and its implications for teachers, being those of developing a blended learning pedagogy and teachers’ practice and professional learning. A significant issue for blended pedagogies is that of learning design. At a simplistic level, two issues emerge, which are working to the strengths of face-to-face and virtual environments and what has been more recently identified in the research as effective integration of virtual technologies into face-to-face learning settings, whether they be classrooms, workplaces or other settings. Each new technology will have its own strengths and weaknesses, however, what may be more important is to build a new practice around how best to integrate and connect technologies to face-to-face settings, and especially, how to leverage learners’ and teachers’ face-to-face experiences to create social comfort and presence in virtual environ-
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ments. While learners are attracted to blended environments because of their time and place flexibility, they also want connection. Garrison and Vaughan (2008) have provided a conceptual framework with their Community of Inquiry which will provide a theoretically sound and empirically based framework for development, and Littlejohn and Pegler (2007) provide a comprehensive teachers’ guide to blended e-learning. Such frameworks need multiple implementations to address the complexities of different blended learning settings and there is room for other blended learning frameworks, especially those that might support the kinds of constructivist approaches that have been discussed in this text, especially for professional learning and learning communities. The discussions herein concerning variation theory provide some illustrations of how complementary pedagogic frameworks might be framed. One dimension of the complexity of blended learning is that of the different discipline or professional contexts, especially their different emphases on knowledge structures and techniques as opposed to the more interpretive or discursive subjects. These differences could simply imply the use of different technologies within the blend but, more significant is the issue of the learning design and more responsive blended learning frameworks. In the case of professional learning, which has a somewhat different purpose, blended learning may need to be reconceptualised to provide meaningful workplace learning and a more effective role for online communities. The role of the teacher, facilitator or moderator within any blended learning environment will need special consideration within any framework and will be based on that person’s philosophies of learning and teaching Teachers’ practice will become increasingly affected by their involvement with blended learning. For many teachers, this will initially be concerned with transporting and adapting their face-to-face expertise to online environments. However, research from within this text has shown that insights
may also be transferred from online classes that of face-to-face teaching and can improve such classes through the introduction of more learnercentred approaches. This would indicate that the addition of online to face-to-face teaching can be transformational and confirms teachers as critical thinkers and reflective practitioners. It may also be further evidence of variation theory at work. It is also important to note the influence of institutional factors on the development of a blended teaching practice, especially those related to workload, rewards and the amount of experience of the teacher. Quite apart from the addition of new roles such as course redesign, resources development and online teaching, teachers will also be learners as they construct their own blended learning practice. While professional learning is widely acknowledged within universities, and there are traditions of face-to-face seminars and conferences, the blended approaches described in this text favour different strategies which emphasize situated and experiential philosophies and the development of communities of learners, all of which will place very different demands on teachers. University and other teachers have not easily adopted blended learning within their courses and schools and the establishment of blended professional development communities within universities and their courses has been difficult to establish. While this could be attributed to the Digital Divide (discussed above), it is also important to recognise that teachers, as well learners, are constantly becoming digitally literate as technology become increasingly embedded within their natural worlds and this also has the potential to move to teaching practice where technology is simply a part of the learning environment and the emphasis is on pedagogy.
For Universities A number of institutional issues concerning the development of blended learning have been identi-
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fied within this text, including those relating to academics and teaching, professional development and learning communities and the introduction of new technologies. Other factors which are likely to influence the successful introduction of e-learning within an institution include funding, which is often for short term projects, the complexity of technology development and the associated demands on time, the importance of collaboration, addressing the risks involved and unintended outcomes and the importance of dissemination of the outcomes ( Conole, Smith and White, 2007). Consequently, there are a number of areas where institutions needs to recognise and support the value of blended learning expertise. One of the most important, and this is well recognised in the research, is that of addressing workload issues and recognise the extra demands beyond face-to-face teaching, particularly at the beginning of blended learning. Closely associated with this is the need to develop clear policy about rewards and incentives, funding for time buyout to develop courses, technical support and professional learning and certification. The development of e-learning appears to have been often accompanied by inadequate institutional infrastructure and policy frameworks, for example, in the areas of workloads and intellectual property. In order to build robust policies, institutions should consider cross-university policy conversations, seek active participation by academics and carry out widespread communication at the grass roots level. There also appears to be a gap between high level university policy and its translation into faculty or school contexts and also variability between faculties as to the application of unviersty policies. Addressing this will help to improve commitment by academics and other staff to blended learning if the implementation of policies relating to such matters as career, workload, pedagogy and intellectual property are more transparent and consistent across different contexts.
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One essential matter for institutions is the place of professional learning and the need to recognize blended learning and communities of practice as strategic objectives. There are important discussions to be held about effective ways to establish communities of practice through professional development centres, and the best ways to lead, manage and sustain such communities. While this is applicable to formal communities which may be established through cohort and courses, there is also the possibility of more informal or organic communities and how and whether a university might support them in their professional learning.
FURTHERRESEDIRECTIONS There are many suggestions for further research in this text and we would like to close with some broader suggestions relating more widely to blended learning. Bluic et al (2006), in their review of student learning experiences, indicate that for the field to mature, complementary methodologies are needed as well as an understanding of whole systems and their interrelationships and the tensions between the parts of the whole and its totality. We would agree with this and point out that there is a paucity of research which explicitly investigates blended pedagogies for professional learning and sustaining communities and identify this as a priority. Some other worthwhile areas are: • •
•
Mechanisms and approaches to improve integration of the two environments. Development and implementation of blended frameworks for different learning settings. The best pedagogic uses for face-to-face settings. Because we are highly familiar with this aspect of blended learning environments, knowledge about effective practice is
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•
•
• • • •
assumed, despite the widespread tradition and acceptance of the lecture. Creating greater learner and teacher/ moderator comfort in online communication settings and how this might be leveraged from face-to-face settings or other synchronous online technologies. The role of blended practices in sustaining professional learning and learning communities. Learner perspectives. The role of the teacher/moderator/facilitator in blended settings. The role and value of technologies other than LMS in blended learning. Research in settings which are not concerned with teacher education or ICT education or workers.
A Postscript… The focus of this book has been on ICT-facilitated blended learning. However, an interesting question is that of when we will stop referring to blended learning as being a separate form of learning from others, and instead is simply part of the usual variety of experiences for all learners and part of every teacher’s pedagogy. This is not to say that every course or learning experience should be a blended one, but that blended learning should be simply regarded as part and parcel of the teaching and learning palette. Given that ICT in a myriad of forms is steadily increasing its presence across the world, and that new generations of learners and teachers are becoming increasingly digitally literate, that time may not be far away.
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About the Contributors
Elizabeth Stacey is an associate professor in the School of Education at Deakin University. She has researched, supervised research students and taught about topics covering a range of interactive communication technologies including online learning via the Internet, computer conferencing and collaborative learning through blended, flexible open and distance education. She has published regularly in international journals of distance education and educational technology. Philippa Gerbic is an active practitioner and researcher in the e-learning field. She teaches undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in teacher education and adult learning at the Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand. She has recently completed a substantive investigation into undergraduate student approaches to learning when online discussions are included within a campus based programme. Other research interests include blended environments, the development of online and flexible learning, computer mediated communication, online learning design and student perspectives on learning. She is currently investigating the role of e-portfolios within a lifelong learning framework, and issues regarding their placement within blended environments. *** Bill Anderson is the director, Distance Learning at the University of Otago. Bill has taught in the areas of distance and online education, and teacher education for many years. He has published and presented many papers concerning distance and online learning, focusing his initial research work on the online learning of distance students. His current work is more strategy and policy focused. Current projects include study of system-wide course retention rates for distance students and the learning experiences of full-time distance students. Bill is currently president of the Distance Education Association of New Zealand. Adam Blake began working in educational design and professional development in the latter half of the 1990s. He has managed projects for staff orientation to elearning, learning management system development and implementation, creation of blended and fully-online courses, and implementation of elearning initiatives across a range of university programmes. He facilitates the online course, ‘ELearning & Clinical Education’, as part of the University of Auckland’s post-graduate programme in clinical education. Adam’s research interests span learning design, knowledge visualisation, and professional development and change management for elearning. He holds a conjoint BCom/LLB degree from the University of Auckland and a Master’s in educational technology from the University of British Columbia. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
About the Contributors
Kristy Bloxham is a PhD student in the Department of Instructional Technology at Utah State University, USA. Her current research interests include online learning communities, web enhanced learning, and gender issues involving science and math education. She is involved in Instructional Architect (IA) as a research assistant. Kristy received her BA in elementary education in 1986 at USU and her Master’s degree in 1988, also at USU. After finishing her Master’s degree she started her own educational software development and marketing company. Ana Amélia A. Carvalho is assistant professor and researcher at the School of Education, University of Minho, Portugal. She is a member of the Department of Curriculum and Educational Technology. She works with undergraduate and postgraduate teaching programs in face-to face and online courses, as well as online courses only. Her research is related to applying learning theories to structure content and to promote knowledge transfer to new situations. A model to structure learning objects has been developed based on cognitive flexibility theory, focusing on multiple perspectives to deconstruct case studies. This model is applied to advanced knowledge acquisition. More recently, she is studying ways of supporting students online, particularly with podcasts. Ruth Geer is a lecturer in the School of Education at the University of South Australia. Her expertise lies in the integration of information and communication technologies (ICT) to enhance student learning. She has responsibility for ensuring that the School stays abreast with the development of learning technologies in teacher education. In addition, Ruth is the program director of two teacher education programs, the Master of Teaching and the Graduate Diploma in Education. Ruth has been a consultant for a number of projects on the evaluation of ICT on student learning for the South Australian Department of Education and Children’s Services. She is currently a principal researcher for a 3 year longitudinal study on the “Delivery of ICT learning using contemporary learning environments”. She has published in this area for a number of years and her doctoral dissertation examined interactions and cognition in online learning communities. Cathy Gunn has worked in the field of Academic Development specializing in technology-facilitated learning since the early 1990s. She has contributed to teaching, learning and organizational development within a large research-intensive university in New Zealand for fourteen years. Research interests span a range of contemporary issues in elearning, including strategy implementation and impact evaluation. Cathy has produced a long list of sole and co-authored publications reflecting this breadth of experience. She is currently serving a second term as president of The Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education (ascilite). She has a PhD in computer based learning research and an MSc in human computer interaction from Heriot-Watt University in Scotland. Tak Ha, assistant director of the Center for Enhanced Learning and Teaching of the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology began his career in education as a teacher in a secondary school in Hong Kong. He later moved on to doing research work in the education department of the Hong Kong Government. In 1996, he joined the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. He has been involved in several major teaching development projects funded by Hong Kong University Grants Committee, most of which aimed to promote the use of technology in higher education. His research interests include theories of student learning, workplace learning, evaluation of institutional effectiveness, on-line teaching evaluation, education assessment, and use of technology in education. Tak obtained
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About the Contributors
his Bachelor of Science, Certificate in Education, and Master of Education (test and measurement) from the University of Hong Kong, and his PhD from Deakin University, Australia. Heather Kanuka is academic director and associate professor at the University of Alberta, Canada. Prior to her recent appointment to the University of Alberta, she was a Canada Research Chair in eLearning at Athabasca University. Her current research focus revolves around philosophies of educational technology. Heather Leary is a doctoral student at Utah State University in the Department of Instructional Technology and Learning Sciences. She is a research assistant for the Digital Libraries Connect research group where she focuses on determining the quality of online educational resources and updating the Instructional Architect’s online course. She is also the digital library assistant at Utah State University’s Merrill-Cazier Library in the Digital Initiatives Department where she is the digital imaging expert. There she advises on and works with hardware, software, and digital images as well as assisting in creating the department’s digital collections. Her research interests include problem-based learning, online educational resources, digital libraries, and distance education. František Lustig received his MS degree in didactics of physics from Charles University in Prague in 1976. He received his PhD degree in plasma physics from Charles University in Prague in 1986. In 2005 he was appointed associate professor in didactics of physics. He is one of the authors of ISES (Intelligent School Experimental System) and iSES (internet School Experimental Studio). His main activities are computer-aided experiments, remote laboratories, and videoconferencing in experimental laboratory. Zdena Lustigova, associate professor, head of the Lab. of Online Learning, Charles University gue, received her PhD from Charles University in fuzzy logic. Research interests include the design of virtual learning environments using advanced learning technologies. She is one of the developers of ISES system for computer aided laboratories and the leading developer of Telmae LOR. In order to help building virtual communities of science teachers she participated in the large governmental projects, where she supported alphabetization towards ICT concepts and helped to design educational software. The Lab is involved in several European projects and support for research comes also from Czech government and contracts with firms. She teaches computer aided experimenting, simulations and modeling. She is mainly involved in teacher education. Julie Mackey is a senior lecturer, and head of the School for Literacies and Arts in Education, in the College of Education, University of Canterbury, Christchurch. Her teaching, in initial teacher education and professional development programmes for teachers, is focused on e-learning and the use of information and communication technologies across the curriculum. Her research interests focus on the use of information and communication technologies for online and blended learning, communities of practice, and teacher professional development. Julie is an experienced online educator with a strong interest in the design of student-centred online learning, and the processes of interactivity and engagement which promote adult learning.
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About the Contributors
Mimi Recker earned a Bachelor’s degree in mathematics from the University of Pennsylvania. After a few years as software engineer in Silicon Valley she returned to graduate school at the University of California, Berkeley where she received her PhD in 1992. Mimi worked for two years at the Georgia Institute of Technology, and four years at Victoria University in New Zealand, then came to Utah State in 1998. Her research focuses on helping the education sector reap the benefits of cyber-learning. Her goals are to help provide teachers and learners with access to a network of high-quality, interactive and free online learning resources. Suzanne Riverin is an educator with more than 25 years experience in the K-12 sector. She has specialized in instruction in drama, media studies, and alternative education with an emphasis on integrating technology into her classrooms. She was previously seconded to The Education Network of Ontario/ Le Réseau éducatif de l’Ontario (ENO/REO) as its executive director and professional development coordinator where she became involved in elearning through an online community of practice. Suzanne is now serving as a regional e-learning contact for the Ministry of Education, Ontario, Canada and has a PhD from Deakin University, Australia, focusing on online communities of practice and professional development. M. Brooke Robershaw is currently a PhD student at Utah State University in Instructional Technology in Logan, Utah, USA. She holds a BA from Oglethorpe University in Atlanta, Georgia, USA in elementary education and a MEd from the University of Georgia, USA in intstructional technology. Before starting her PhD program at USU she was a peace and human justice activist in Eugene, Oregon, USA. Her interests include technological pedagogical content knowledge, localization of open educational resources, interfaith and intercultural communication, and uses of instructional technologies in the peace movement and as tools to empower oppressed populations both in the United States and around the world. Gayani Samarawickrema, PhD, has experience in areas of educational design and has developed a range of e-learning resources for a variety of learning contexts. She works as a lecturer in the Institute of Teaching and Learning at Deakin University, Australia and is involved in professional development and research in teaching with technology in higher education; technology adoption by higher education institutions and implications; policy related to technology use in higher education and its impact on teaching and learning; and issues related to Web 2.0, staff development, technology adoption, and learning design. Her contribution to this book is drawn from her doctoral work, which has been published by Verlag. Mary Simpson is currently a senior lecturer in the College of Education at the University of Otago teaching in the University’s teacher education programme. Mary has worked in leadership roles in New Zealand teacher education and has taught courses in policy, leadership and administration in distance and online education, research methods and professional inquiry and practice. Mary has worked extensively in distance education and teacher education (pre-service and in-service) for over twenty years as well as researching and publishing in the field of distance education/e-learning. Mary has been part of research teams working in the areas of initial teacher education, e-learning policy, evaluation of online environments and the student experience of distance and online learning. Her ongoing research interests are in distance and online education and teacher education.
350
About the Contributors
Peter Smith has spent his career in the mining industry, in higher education and in vocational education and training. Prior to joining Deakin University in 1999 he had been at the Gordon Institute of TAFE for 15 years, finishing there in 1998 as general manager – business development. Peter has a long experience in management and leadership roles in advanced education and in vocational education and training, prior to joining the university sector. Since joining that sector he has become a senior researcher, focusing on the flexible delivery of teaching and learning in higher education, vocational, and workplace environments. He has published some thirty papers in refereed journals in the fields of VET, flexible delivery and online learning, and has recently published the book: Smith, P.J. & SadlerSmith, E. (2006) Learning in Organisations: Complexities and Diversities, London: Routledge. Terrie Lynn Thompson is a PhD candidate in the Faculty of Education at the University of Alberta, Canada. Research preoccupations include work-related learning in online communities; fostering elearning teaching and learning excellence (faculty development); quality standards for e-learning; the ins and outs of blended learning in graduate programs; and exploring how web-based technologies, used for e-learning purposes, can be a tool of social development. Her background includes management, facilitation, curriculum design, and research in a range of settings: internationally in developing countries, higher education, not-for-profit sport, the corporate sector, and high tech. Guglielmo Trentin is with the Institute for Educational Technology (ITD) of the Italian National Research Council (CNR). His studies have largely focused on the use of ICT in formal and informal learning. In this field he has managed several projects and scientific activities, developing technological applications and methodological approaches to support networked collaborative learning. He is contributing editor of Educational Technology (USA) and member of the TP&E Editorial Board (International Journal of Technology, Pedagogy & Education - UK). Since 2002 he teaches Network Technology & Human Resources Development at the University of Turin - Faculty of Political Science. Andy Walker is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Instructional Technology at Utah State University. Andy holds a bachelor’s degree in English from Washington State University, and his Master’s and PhD degrees in instructional technology from USU. Between earning his PhD from USU and returning to start his current position he spent three years at Lehigh University in Pennsylvania, USA. His research interests are in problem-based learning, collaborative filtering (recommender systems) for educational purposes, and meta-analysis. Steve Wheeler is senior lecturer in education and information technology in the Faculty of Education at the University of Plymouth, UK. He has worked in educational media and learning technology since 1976, predominantly in nurse education and teacher training. His main research interests centre on e-learning, distance education, classroom technologies, student support and the psychological issues surrounding technology mediated education. He serves on the boards of 7 international peer reviewed journals and is regularly invited to speak at education and technology conferences worldwide. His current role in the university is to co-ordinate education development and technology mediated learning, and he is also the convenor of the university’s e-learning research network. Steve is a fellow of EDEN and chair elect of IFIP Working Group 3.6 (Distance Education). His most recent book, entitled ‘The Digital Classroom’ was published in 2008 by Routledge.
351
About the Contributors
Gail Wilson is associate professor and manager teaching and learning services at Bond University, Gold Coast, Australia. Her current research focuses on blended learning and course re-design and teachers’ use of purpose-built campus learning spaces that support blended learning. Gail has published in the area of professional development for faculty for e-learning, most recently in the area of digital resources as tools for professional learning. Other research interests include the use of electronic portfolios as a form of e-scholarship to document faculty achievements in teaching and course development. Gail serves on the Steering Committee of an Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC) national project Preparing Academic Teachers in Higher Education, and is a member of the Executive of the Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia (HERDSA). Her career spans across thirty years as an adult educator, human resource developer, and senior manager in the public and corporate sectors Faye P. Wiesenberg, PhD, is an associate professor in the Faculty of Education at the University of Calgary. She teaches primarily in distributed learning programs (counseling, workplace learning) in the Division of Applied Psychology. Her key research areas are: adult career /continuing professional development; program development and evaluation; workplace learning; and teaching/learning via distance technology.
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353
Index
A academic development 160, 219, 256, 260, 263, 268, 277, 279 academic practice 259, 260, 269, 273, 276 accreditation 120, 259, 260 actor-network theory 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 237, 238 administrative activities 228 adult learning 5, 59, 62, 66, 72, 77, 218, 219, 299 advanced communication technologies 205 asynchronous media 5
B behaviourism 80 Blackboard 79, 82, 84, 86, 89, 223 blended environment 7, 9, 11, 17, 21, 27, 31, 33, 168, 187, 192, 195, 300, 308 blended frameworks 310 blended learning 1–19, 21, 22, 23, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40–65, 70–97, 100, 101, 103, 105, 106, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 121, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 134, 135, 136, 137–199, 201, 204, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211, 213, 214, 217–299, 300–311 blended learning environment 40, 42, 103, 256, 257, 239, 296
blended learning in organizational settings 129 blended learning practice 301 blended learning practices 1, 3, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 40, 91, 149, 254, 303 blended solutions 107 blended teaching 207 brainstorming 6, 35 broader framework 21 buffet model 3
C campus-based environments 18, 22, 34 campus-based students 26, 36, 121, 260 case study 6, 7, 16, 18, 21, 27, 28, 36, 39, 60, 120, 122, 141, 143, 148, 159, 161, 168, 169, 170, 172, 174, 175, 179, 180, 187, 200, 207, 219, 222, 223, 224, 237, 238, 239, 240, 243, 244, 258, 280, 281, 282, 286, 287, 294, 299 cognitive development 40, 41, 44, 45, 47, 52, 54, 55, 56, 58 cognitive tracks 54 cognitivism 80 collaborative learner-centred activities 67 collaborative learning 10, 18, 26, 41, 42, 43, 59, 60, 68, 80, 83, 92, 93, 103, 107, 109, 112, 125, 126, 128, 138, 139, 141, 142, 146, 148, 219, 248
Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Index
communication technologies 204 communicative 47, 52, 54, 71, 72, 128, 241, 246 communities of practice 13, 126, 145, 164, 183, 302 communities of practice (CoP) 145 community members 68, 136, 148, 184, 305 community of inquiry (CoI) 5, 11, 43, 50, 68, 206, 207, 210, 211, 212, 213, 216, 217, 299, 309 community of inquiry framework 210, 211, 212, 213, 216, 217 community of inquiry model 11, 50, 68 community of learners 3, 42, 69, 107, 127, 146, 250 community of learning 126, 130, 133, 134, 136 comprised of university instructors 144, 151 computer-mediated conferencing (CMC) 4, 22 computer mediated communication (CMC) 126, 127 computer supported collaborative learning 37 conceptual frameworks 5 concomitant property of learning 146 constructivism 36, 37, 40, 41, 59, 80, 99, 171 content-driven 106, 111 CoP 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159 copyright 230 copyright and ownership 230 courses designed 1
D definitions 2, 5, 22, 103, 104, 146, 166, 217, 266, 282, 296, 306 design-based research 259, 261, 263, 264, 267, 269, 270, 274, 275, 277, 299, 301, 304 diffusion of innovations 226 diffusion of innovation theory 222, 223 digital audio programs 82 digital divide 308, 309, 311 digital immigrants 106, 122, 182, 200 digital natives 106, 182, 281 dimension of learning 106
354
discussion forums 38, 47, 48, 49, 52, 54, 55, 57, 71, 72, 175, 185, 186, 189, 192, 230 distance delivery 64, 65, 216 distance education 6, 9, 10, 37, 59, 63, 64, 76, 77, 81, 82, 118, 123, 126, 133, 160, 198, 208, 220, 236, 237, 256, 276 distance model 2 distance settings 1, 9, 302
E e-labs 93 e-learning 2, 17, 37, 76, 77, 96, 103, 273, 277, 311 e-simulations 98 early adopter 7, 211, 225 elearning guidelines 261, 267, 269, 271, 273, 274, 279 empirical evaluation 6 establishing communities 12, 14 establishing social presence 61, 82, 135 evaluative model (SCIA) 57
F F2F social events 158 face-to-face activities 21, 110, 212 face-to-face class 5, 32, 36, 83, 84, 196, 208, 209, 211, 215, 304 face-to-face classes 3, 8, 9, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 81, 82, 209, 211, 245, 247, 251, 308 face-to-face classroom 11, 30, 31, 136, 166, 191, 204, 205, 206, 209, 211, 216, 244, 247 face-to-face classroom learning 30 face-to-face component 2, 11, 14 face-to-face conversation 3 face-to-face delivery 64, 65, 70, 74, 146 face-to-face discussions 8, 19, 22, 26, 32, 177, 210, 300 face-to-face interaction 6, 9, 12, 13, 80, 113, 185 face-to- face paradigm 7 face-to-face period 81
Index
face-to-face sessions 6, 8, 31, 35, 36, 80, 82, 86, 145, 185, 196 face-to face instructor 81 face to face situations 41 flexible learning 22, 264, 276 formal and informal learning 107 forum 32, 38, 47, 48, 51, 52, 53, 69, 84, 85, 86, 131, 141, 147, 151, 152, 189, 241, 247, 248 framework 4, 5, 6, 16, 17, 19, 21, 23, 24, 28, 34, 37, 39, 40, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 54, 57, 58, 59, 64, 70, 72, 75, 101, 107, 109, 128, 140, 141, 148, 159, 161, 163, 166, 168, 170, 179, 183, 187, 188, 198, 199, 206, 210, 211, 212, 213, 216, 217, 219, 223, 224, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 240, 241, 243, 251, 252, 256, 257, 263, 264, 269, 273, 274, 275, 281, 282, 283, 286, 291, 296, 300, 301, 304, 306, 309 fully online model 3, 11 Funding grants 227 future development 144
information communications technology (ICT) 2, 165, 281 institutional support dimension 239, 245, 246 instructional design 16, 39, 40, 41, 44, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 107, 110, 112, 113, 123, 217, 261, 267, 306 instructional strategies 5, 58 integration 2, 3, 5, 33, 40, 42, 45, 63, 64, 65, 69, 75, 83, 107, 109, 114, 139, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151, 152, 156, 158, 164, 187, 206, 212, 223, 231, 234, 249, 260, 261, 262, 266, 271, 275, 282, 286, 290, 295, 301, 305, 308, 310 intellectual property 230, 232, 233, 234, 235, 276, 310 interactive pedagogies 5, 46, 58 interactive technologies 5, 44, 46, 47, 300, 304 Italian network-based education context 105 IT industry 130, 133 IT professionals 127, 130, 131
G
joint enterprise 67, 134
Geer’s framework 4 generic view 298 global learning communities 57
key role 41, 116, 260
H holistic model 5 hybrid learning 2, 19
I ICT-based education 107 ideology 206 immersive learning 261 impact of technology 161 impediments to the development 134 implementation 74 imprinting 52 informal communities 133, 148, 156 informal learning 14, 83, 92, 107, 126, 128, 131, 138, 139, 155, 157, 165, 305
J K L learning community 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 41, 43, 44, 45, 56, 67, 68, 77, 78, 106, 122, 134, 135, 136, 137, 159, 165, 167, 169, 178, 185, 197, 211 learning design 3, 5, 8, 9, 21, 22, 23, 33, 42, 56, 57, 58, 59, 81, 146, 206, 216, 240, 249, 261, 263, 266, 267, 268, 271, 274, 275, 276, 300, 304, 308, 309 learning management system 27, 65, 71, 79, 80, 115, 119, 133, 135, 168, 222, 223, 224, 225, 228, 230, 231, 236, 269 learning management system (LMS) 6, 9, 168, 223, 269
355
Index
learning process 5, 11, 12, 13, 14, 26, 32, 41, 42, 47, 80, 96, 106, 110, 111, 112, 113, 119, 132, 166, 205, 206, 211, 212, 282, 304
M managed CoP 149 micro-communities 154, 157, 158, 305 microcomputer-based laboratories (MBL) 93 mixing contexts 81 mixing learning objectives 81 mixing media 81 mixing of online with face-to-face learning 81 mixing theories of learning 81 mobile device 89 moderator 24, 155, 185, 190, 194, 309, 311 modes of delivery 62, 63, 145 Monash University 223, 224, 231, 232, 237 MP3 player 83, 84, 85, 87 multi-layered approach 156 multi-membership 164 multi-membership of communities 164, 165, 178 multimedia educational materials (MEM) 84 Multimedia Systems course 84, 87
N nature of CoP 157 network-based education (NBE) 106 network communication 106 networked collaborative learning (NCL) 106, 107 network generation 105, 117 new communication medium 21 nomadic learning 115 nurture communities of practice 144
O online communities 10, 11, 12, 14, 18, 41, 68, 76, 126, 128, 131, 132, 134, 141, 142, 147, 149, 152, 155, 160, 161, 166, 180, 182, 183, 184, 195, 199, 200, 201, 300, 309 online communities of learning 126
356
online community 13, 14, 42, 46, 67, 76, 126, 131, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 142, 149, 161, 174, 182, 183, 184, 187, 188, 191, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 301, 305 online community of learning 126, 134, 136 online community of practice 136, 161, 183, 199 online component 2, 147 online conversation 279 online dimension 245 online discussions 22 online forums 131 online interaction 2, 9, 12, 69, 80, 128, 135, 175, 194, 205, 302 online learning 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 26, 27, 43, 44, 45, 47, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65, 67, 68, 71, 77, 80, 81, 82, 83, 107, 110, 113, 119, 120, 126, 128, 129, 130, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 142, 145, 146, 149, 157, 161, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 175, 176, 177, 178, 183, 184, 187, 193, 195, 197, 198, 201, 205, 210, 212, 216, 219, 239, 240, 250, 251, 254, 257, 258, 260, 265, 266, 280, 281, 283, 284, 285, 287, 296, 301, 302, 307, 308 online learning community 67 online learning resources 280 online learning technologies to support workplace training 128 open and distance learning 17, 19, 76, 78, 107, 110, 143, 159, 238
P pedagogic 31, 34, 36, 81, 193, 299, 300, 303, 309, 310 pedagogical approaches 5, 80, 234, 239, 240, 250, 253, 254 pedagogical dimension 106 pedagogical framework 39, 40, 42, 47, 54, 206 pedagogical richness 81 peripheral participation 17, 77, 140, 180, 184, 305
Index
personal agency 81 personalised learning 39, 105, 116, 118, 119, 173, 299, 300 podcasts 6, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 102, 299, 300, 303, 304 policy 229 political climate 230 political reasons 227 professional development 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 33, 34, 64, 67, 70, 71, 75, 76, 92, 115, 127, 130, 138, 141, 144, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 175, 177, 178, 179, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187, 191, 192, 194, 195, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 214, 217, 228, 231, 234, 235, 239, 240, 244, 246, 252, 253, 254, 258, 261, 262, 264, 265, 266, 268, 269, 274, 275, 276, 277, 281, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 294, 295, 300, 301, 303, 305, 306, 308, 309, 310 professional development centres 13, 144, 145, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 157, 158, 159, 300, 303, 310 professional learning 1, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 164, 165, 168, 169, 172, 183, 191, 194, 195, 197, 253, 264, 299, 301, 302, 303, 306, 308, 309, 310, 311 programme redesign 64 project-based 107, 113, 296 purposeful sampling approach 244
R reciprocal mentoring (RM) 280, 281, 282 recommendations for practice 299 redesign 5, 12, 33, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 146, 205, 242, 253, 255, 262, 273, 275, 301, 302, 304, 305, 309
reflection 5, 10, 12, 18, 24, 25, 26, 29, 37, 40, 45, 82, 147, 153, 166, 168, 170, 171, 177, 193, 206, 211, 217, 223, 241, 260, 261, 264, 265, 274, 275, 289, 290, 291, 295, 298, 299, 301, 303, 304, 306, 308 resource-based learning (RBL) 240, 250 resource-based learning environments (RBLEs) 251 resources development 229 restructure learning 39 retrospective comparative case study 280 rewards and acknowledgement schemes 230
S SCIA model 58 shared repertoire 67, 134 simultaneous independent 146 situated e-learning 164 situated learning 67, 125, 128, 142, 161, 164, 168, 179, 261, 263, 264, 266, 267, 274, 276, 277, 306 social and teaching presence 45, 58, 211 social constructivist 25, 41, 128, 166 social interdependence 43, 45 social networking 117 social networking sites 105, 117, 307 social presence 41, 43, 60, 61, 219 social software 116, 118, 126, 155, 236 social web tools 58 socio-linguistic process 147 student-centred environment 41 student demand 227 student learning 15, 16, 21, 27, 37, 39, 41, 48, 58, 63, 66, 68, 72, 74, 83, 101, 125, 134, 145, 152, 206, 214, 217, 241, 247, 248, 249, 250, 256, 261, 264, 265, 281, 303, 305, 310 supplemental 3
T talkback radio-style segments 82 task-based learning 250
357
Index
teacher 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 16, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 39, 47, 48, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 85, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 133, 134, 135, 139, 160, 161, 162, 164, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 175, 176, 178, 180, 182, 186, 189, 190, 196, 197, 198, 199, 204, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211, 213, 219, 226, 227, 229, 232, 239, 240, 241, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 260, 261, 263, 264, 268, 275, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 300, 303, 304, 306, 308, 309, 311 teacher-student relationships 89 teacher education 16, 36, 39, 47, 48, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 199, 209, 295, 297, 311 teaching perspective 206, 213, 215 teaching philosophies 206 teaching presence 12, 44, 45, 55, 58, 59, 76, 78, 134, 206, 211, 212, 217 technological pedagogical content knowledge 280 technology-intensive automations 93 technology-mediated interaction framework 45 technology-mediated Interactions 4 technology-supported professional development activities 151 technology adoption 223 technology enhanced learning 107 technology obsolescence 130 technology shift 133 text-based 8, 22, 24, 25, 29, 30, 32, 36, 40, 57, 59, 69, 132, 146, 211, 247, 307 theoretical foundation 43 TMI framework 57, 58
358
tools
4, 11, 12, 40, 47, 54, 58, 59, 71, 75, 84, 85, 86, 91, 92, 93, 94, 98, 99, 100, 109, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 133, 147, 148, 155, 158, 159, 168, 175, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 192, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 227, 241, 242, 244, 247, 248, 249, 253, 254, 260, 261, 265, 268, 271, 274, 275, 276, 281, 294, 301, 305, 307
U uncertain situations 92 undergraduates 36 unstable technology 229, 230
V variation 3, 4, 5, 7, 34, 52, 89, 90, 152, 166, 167, 170, 171, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179, 225, 267, 274, 299, 301, 306, 307, 308, 309 variation theory of learning 4, 89, 267 virtual learning environment (VLE) 8
W web-based course components 69 web-based discussions 26 web-based learning 210 web-based technologies 151, 158 web-delivered components 69 WebCT 69, 117, 133, 135, 223, 226, 227 web enhanced learning 107 web explorer 120 web tools 58 workloads 229 workplace learning 130, 131, 133, 135, 142, 148, 166, 177, 309
Z zone of proximal development (ZPD) 44
